Dokkyo Saitama Junior & Senior High School is a private co-ed school. It consists of junior and senior high school students.  The high school is in Koshigaya City, Saitama, Japan.  Dokkyo Saitama High School was founded in 1982.  About half of the students enter at the beginning of junior high school and the other half enter at the beginning of senior high school. Their classes are separate at the freshmen and junior grades.  Then, students study in the same class during their senior year.  About 15% of students that graduate from Dokkyo Saitama High School enter Dokkyo University to complete their education.  Dokkyo has been a popular top private school in Saitama due to their small class sizes, more individual teaching and their international exchange program with other schools around the world.

History
In 1881, the Doitsu Gaku Kyokai (German Education Association) was established for people to study German culture and sciences to help with Japan's modernization into a developed country. In association, the Doitsu Gaku Kyokai Gakko (German Education Association School) was founded in 1883. It was the first junior high school in Japan to teach German.

In 1947, after World War II, the Doitsu Gaku Kyokai was renamed Dokkyo Gakuen(Dokkyo Educational Institution) and both Dokkyo junior and senior high schools were established in Mejiro in Tokyo.

In 1980, Dokkyo Saitama High School was established in Koshigaya City inSaitama, and in 2000 Dokkyo Saitama Junior High School was also established at the same campus. At that time, more than 4,200 students took the entrance exam.

In 2005, Dokkyo Saitama High School celebrated their 25th anniversary.

Mission Statement
Dokkyo Saitama High School mission statement is Reclamation, Creation, Love and Faith.

Curriculum
Dokkyo Saitama Junior & Senior High School has a long tradition of providing educating to students that helps develop character using physical, moral and intellectual training.  The school's curriculum is made up of three basic goals to teach and encourage students to:

Bring out each student's academic capabilities by being attentive and enthusiastic in class while utilizing both English and mathematics.  These lessons are taught in small classes according to the individual students' ability.

Allow each student to express, judge and think for themselves in the best way possible in all matters of school life and in class.  An example of this would be through field trips, experiments, group and individual projects.  The students are encouraged to work on their own with the individual projects and work together with group projects and experiments.

Encourage each student to take part and volunteer in extra-curricular activities for a feeling of self achievement.  For example, volunteering for the Ameisai mentioned below where the students have a chance to participate and share this tradition with the community.  Also, the upper class are encouraged to help out the under class when help is needed and can be given.

Because of the popular curriculum, high expectations and teaching styles of Dokkyo Saitama Junior & High School, getting into the High School can be difficult for the average student.  The negative side to this is that after graduating from Dokkyo Saitama Junior & Senior High School it is difficult to get accepted into the top Japan colleges.

The School Tradition
The traditional event that takes place every year is the Ameisai (school festival), the athletic meet, where the student of the executive committee plays a key role and administration is accomplished. In Ameisai, a bell is rung in the early morning festival to be carried out after opening it to the public of the second day (general secrecy) and is carried out grandly. The athletic meet is the large part of the event where each student's creativity and student participation come into play.  These events consist of band and team dance, relay races, group competition (such as making unique headgear to use while competing in these relay races and dances).   While the club activities opposition game is carried out, there is a tradition such as wearing a class T-shirt on the occasion of a competition.
In addition, Dokkyo Saitama Junior & Senior High School, Dokkyo Junior High School of Tokyo, and Dokkyo University all share a tradition in their historic background and founders, but have completely different traditions of their own.

Institution
Dokkyo Saitama High School is on a lot approximately . The grounds consists of a gym, baseball field, combined use, soccer and rugby field, track-and-field, 7 tennis courts, outdoor Olympic size swimming pool (25-metre, 9 course). In 2005 (the 25th anniversary commemorative project), the school added a second gym that is indoor and included two basketball courts two in conjunction with the first gym. There are fully equipped locker rooms in the classroom for the senior high school students, but the junior high school tower does not have locker rooms. There are 15 sport clubs and 8 artistic clubs.

Dokkyo Saitama High School mission statement is "Reclamation, Creation, Love and Faith".

International Exchange
School has 4 active international exchange programs.
 Dominican University, San Francisco (22 days)
 Penola Catholic College, Melbourne (2 weeks)
 Steinbart Gymnasium, Germany (2 weeks)
 Levin Intermediate School (2 weeks)

Access
Dokkyo Saitama High School is 20 minutes away from Sengendai Train Station (Tobu Isesaki Line) by walking. There is a school bus from the station to the school that takes only 5 minutes.

High schools in Japan
1982 establishments in Japan

Dokkyo Saitama High School


Scotland the Brave is a sang which is thocht tae be ane o Scotland's national anthem.

Hark when the night is falling,

Hear! Hear the pipes a calling.

Loudly and proudly calling,

Down thro' the glen.

There where the hills are sleeping,

now feel the blood a leaping,

High as the spirits of the old Highland men.

Owerwird:

Towering in gallant fame,

Scotland my mountain hame,

High may your proud

standards gloriously wave,

Land of my high endeavour,

Land of the shining river,

Land of my heart for ever,

Scotland the brave.

High in the misty Highlands,

Out by the purple islands,

Brave are the hearts that beat

Beneath Scottish skies.

Wild are the winds to meet you,

Staunch are the friends that greet you,

Kind as the love that shines

from fair maidens' eyes.

Owerwird

Far off in sunlit places,

Sad are the Scottish faces,

Yearning to feel the kiss

Of sweet Scottish rain.

Where tropic skies are beaming,

Love sets the heart a-dreaming,

Longing and dreaming for the homeland again.

Ither wards
Thare ir ither Inglis wards be John McDermott (also kent as Scotland Forever) takken frae "Let Italy Boast" be James Hyslop, 1821

Let Italy boast of her gay gilded waters,
Her vines and her bowers and her soft sunny skies,
Her sons drinking love from the eyes of her daughters,
Where freedom expires amid softness and sighs.

Scotland's blue mountains wild where hoary cliffs are piled,
Towering in grandeur are dearer tae me,
Land of the misty cloud land of the tempest loud,
Land of the brave and proud land of the free.

Enthroned on the peak of her own highland mountains,
The spirit of Scotia reigns fearless and free,
Her green tartan waving o'er blue rock and fountain,
And proudly she sings looking over the sea.

Here among my mountains wild I have serenely smiled,
When armies and empires against me were hurled,
Firm as my native rock I have withstood the shock,
Of England, of Denmark, of Rome and the world.

But see how proudly her war steeds are prancing,
Deep groves of steel trodden down in their path,
The eyes of my sons like their bright swords are glancing,
Triumphantly riding through ruin and death.

Bold hearts and nodding plumes wave o'er their bloody tombs,
Deepeyed in gore is the green tartan's wave,
Shivering are the ranks of steel dire is the horseman's wheel,
Victorious in battlefield Scotland the brave.

Bold hearts and nodding plumes wave o'er their bloody tombs,
Deepeyed in gore is the green tartan's wave,
Shivering are the ranks of steel dire is the horseman's wheel,
Victorious in battlefield Scotland the brave,
Victorious in battlefield Scotland the brave.

Scots sang

Scotland the Brave


Magna Graecia is a name for coastal areas of Southern Italy on the Gulf of Taranto.  This part of Italy had many Greek settlers.  Magna Graecia is Latin and means "Great Greece".

The settlers began arriving in the 8th century BC.  After the Pyrrhic War in the 3rd century BC the area was added into the Roman Republic.

History of Italy

Ancient Greek settlements

Magna Graecia


Homolovi State Park is a state park of Arizona, United States, preserving over 300 Ancestral Puebloan archaeological sites. Homolovi or Homol'ovi (the Hopi spelling of the word) is a Hopi word meaning "place of the little hills". The park is located just over a mile north of Winslow, Arizona, and features historical exhibits, interpretive programs, birdwatching, and hiking. There is a year-round campground, restrooms with showers  and an RV dump station. The park was closed to visitors from February 22, 2010 to March 18, 2011 due to state budget cuts.

From 1986 to its 2011 reopening, the name of the park was Homolovi Ruins State Park. The Hopi tribe lobbied the Arizona parks board to remove "Ruins" from the name, as the Hopi tribe considers them spiritually alive. During a meeting in Winslow on March 17, 2011, the board unanimously voted to change the name and to add the tagline "ancestral Hopi villages" to the park.

History
The Homol'ovi cluster of archaeological sites includes seven separate pueblo ruins built by various prehistoric people, including ancestors of the Hopi people, between approximately 1260–1400. This fertile area is on a floodplain of the Little Colorado River, and the inhabitants grew cotton, corn, beans, and squash.

The people of this period are called Hisat'sinom, which is the Hopi word for "long-ago people". They are often referred to as Anasazi, as the Navajo guides who helped nineteenth-century anthropologists and archaeologists called them. However, the word "Anasazi" is Navajo for "enemies of our ancestors", and the present-day Hopi population prefer to refer to them as the Hisat'sinom.

Four of the sites are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Exhibits and activities
The visitor center displayed pottery sherds, baskets, and other artifacts, as well as offering an introduction to the human history of the park area. Information could also be found about the flora and fauna of the park, and there were books and authentic Hopi art work for sale.

Out of the seven Homolovi ruins, two were open to visitors. Homolovi II, the largest and most thoroughly excavated site, has a sidewalk and interpretive signs. It was occupied between 1330 and 1400, and has about 1200 rooms. Archaeologists believe that the inhabitants were trading cotton for pottery with the inhabitants of the Hopi Mesas. This ruin also features three large rectangular plazas and about forty kivas (underground ceremonial chambers). There are also several clusters of pit-houses, occupied before 1260, which appear as mere depressions in the earth. Petroglyphs may be seen along certain sections of a nearby trail (Tsu'vo).

Sunset, Arizona—one of a series of farming communities along the Little Colorado River in the late 1870s—was established by Lot Smith and his Mormon followers. Frequent floods forced the settlers to abandon Sunset in the early 1880s, and the community was eventually washed away. The cemetery, located on a small hill overlooking the river, survived and can be visited. Three of Lot Smith's children are among the cemetery population.

Hikers, mountain bikers, and horseback riders could use the  of unshaded dirt roads in the park along with the trails leading to archaeological sites.

Wildlife
A bird checklist, available at the visitor center, listed of over 100 species that can be found in the area. These include notable species such as hawks, golden eagles, killdeer, Gambel's quail, great blue herons, and red-shafted flickers. Many mammals can also be seen in the park, such as gray foxes, bobcats, badgers, prairie dogs, desert cottontails, jackrabbits, and porcupines. Reptiles found in the area include the Hopi rattlesnake, western king rattlesnake, horned lizards, common collared lizards, bull snakes, and desert spiny lizards.

Location and visitor information
The entrance to the park is located on Arizona State Route 87,  north of Exit 257 off of Interstate 40.

References

External links

 Homolovi Chapter of the Arizona Archaeological Society

1986 establishments in Arizona
Archaeological museums in Arizona
Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Arizona
Museums in Navajo County, Arizona
Native American history of Arizona
Native American museums in Arizona
Parks in Navajo County, Arizona
Protected areas established in 1986
Ruins on the National Register of Historic Places
State parks of Arizona
National Register of Historic Places in Navajo County, Arizona
Winslow, Arizona
Ancient Puebloan archaeological sites in Arizona

Homolovi State Park


A displacement vector is a concept from mathematics. It is a vector. It shows the direction and distance traveled with a straight line. It is often used in physics to display the speed, acceleration and distance of an object traveled (relative to a reference point or an object's starting position).

Example
 Tom walks 6 kilometres north from his home.  His displacement from home is 6 km north. Next, Tom walks 10 km south. Now he has walked a distance of 16 km, but his displacement from home is 4 km south.

Geometry
Linear algebra
Vectors

Displacement vector


William III (Dutch: Willem Alexander Paul Frederik Lodewijk; English: William Alexander Paul Frederick Louis; 19 February 1817 – 23 November 1890) was King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg from 1849 until his death in 1890. He was also the Duke of Limburg from 1849 until the abolition of the duchy in 1866.

William was the son of King William II and Anna Pavlovna of Russia. On the abdication of his grandfather William I in 1840, he became the Prince of Orange. On the death of his father in 1849, he succeeded as king of the Netherlands.

William married his cousin Sophie of Württemberg in 1839 and they had three sons, William, Maurice, and Alexander, all of whom predeceased him. After Sophie's death in 1877 he married Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont in 1879 and they had one daughter Wilhelmina, who succeeded William to the Dutch throne. Meanwhile, being the last agnatic dynastic descendant of Otto I, Count of Nassau, the throne of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg passed to his patrilineal seventeenth cousin once removed (and matrilineal third cousin), Adolphe. , he is the last Dutch monarch to die whilst on the throne as all his successors have abdicated in favor of their children.

Early life

William was born on 19 February 1817 in the Palace of the Nation in Brussels, which was part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands at the time. He was the eldest son of the future king William II of the Netherlands and Anna Pavlovna of Russia. He had three brothers, one of whom died in infancy, and one sister.

In 1827, at the age of ten, he was made an honorary colonel in the Royal Netherlands Army. In the 1830s, he served as lieutenant in the Grenadiers Regiment. In 1834, he was made honorary commander of the Grenadiers Regiment of Kiev nr. 5 in the Imperial Russian Army.

He married his first cousin, Sophie, daughter of King William I of Württemberg and Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna of Russia, in Stuttgart on 18 June 1839. This marriage was unhappy and was characterized by struggles about their children. Sophie was a liberal intellectual, hating everything leaning toward dictatorship, such as the army.  William was simpler, more conservative, and loved the military.  He prohibited intellectual exercise at home, for which action Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, who corresponded with Princess Sophie, called him an uneducated farmer. His extramarital enthusiasms, however, led the New York Times to call him "the greatest debauchee of the age". Another cause of marital tension (and later political tension) was his capriciousness; he could rage against someone one day, and be extremely polite the next.

William loathed the 1848 constitutional changes initiated by his father (William II) and Johan Rudolf Thorbecke. His father saw them as key to the monarchy's survival in changing times. Sophie, who was a liberal, also shared this view. William himself saw them as useless limitations of royal power, and would have preferred to govern as an enlightened despot in the mold of his grandfather, William I.

He considered relinquishing his right to the throne to his younger brother Henry and later to his older son. His mother convinced him to cancel this action. The Dutch constitution provided no way to relinquish one's claim to the throne.

On 17 March 1849, his father died and William succeeded to the throne of the Netherlands. He was at that moment a guest of the Duchess of Cleveland in Raby Castle.  Representatives of the Dutch government traveled to London to meet their new king in London. William was reluctant to return, but he was convinced to do so. Upon arrival the new Queen welcomed her spouse with the question "did you accept?". The new king nodded, but he remained uncertain about the matter for some time.

Reign

William repeatedly contemplated abdicating as soon as his eldest son William, Prince of Orange, turned eighteen.  This occurred in 1858, but as William was uncomfortable making a decision he remained king. His first act was the inauguration of the parliamentary cabinet of Thorbecke, the liberal designer of the 1848 constitution, whom William loathed.

When the Roman Catholic hierarchy of bishops was restored in 1853, he found growing conservative support and a reason to dismiss Thorbecke. In the first two decades of his reign, he dismissed several cabinets and disbanded the States-General several times, installing royal cabinets which ruled as long as there was support in the elected second chamber of parliament.

In what became known as the "Luxembourg Coup of 1856", William unilaterally instituted a new, reactionary constitution for Luxembourg, which he ruled personally, separate from the Netherlands crown.

In 1867, France offered to buy Luxembourg, leading to the Luxembourg Crisis, which almost precipitated war between Prussia and France. However, the subsequent Second Treaty of London confirmed Luxembourg as a fully independent country.

During his reign, the king became more and more unpopular with his bourgeois-liberal subjects, his whims provoking their resistance and mockery, but remained quite popular with the common man.

The king was a man of immense stature and with a boisterous voice. He could be gentle and kind, then suddenly he could become intimidating and even violent. He kicked and hit his servants about. He was inclined to terrorize and humiliate his courtiers. The king was cruel to animals as well. His ministers were afraid of him. Most people around him agreed that he was, to some degree, insane.

The king could be erratic, he ordered the dismissal and even the arrest and execution of those that he found in lack of respect, including a Mayor of The Hague. Orders like these were disregarded. The king who thought of himself as a specialist on all matters military frequently tried to take command of manoeuvres, creating chaos wherever he went.

In 1877, Queen Sophie died and years of war in the palace came to an end. In the same year, King William announced his intention to marry Émilie Ambre, a French opera singer, whom he ennobled as countess d'Ambroise – without government consent. Under pressure from society and the government, he abandoned these marriage plans.

William remained eager to remarry. In 1878, he first proposed to his niece, Princess Elisabeth of Saxe-Weimar. He then considered marriage with Princess Pauline of Waldeck and Pyrmont, a small German principality, and Princess Thyra of Denmark, who had her own private scandalous history.

He finally decided to marry Pauline's younger sister Emma. Some politicians were quite angry, as she was 41 years the king's junior. Emma showed herself, however, as a cordial woman. William asked permission from parliament, this was easily granted. The couple were quickly married in Arolsen on 7 January 1879.

Emma had a relieving influence on William's capricious personality and the marriage was extremely happy. The last decade was without any doubt the best of his reign. The king had stopped interfering with most aspects of government. In 1880, Wilhelmina was born. She became heir presumptive in 1884 after the death of the last remaining son from William's first marriage.  Many potential male heirs had died between 1878 and 1884.

King William became seriously ill in 1887. He was suffering from a kidney-ailment. However, in 1888, he personally presented a gold medal of honor to the lifeboat hero Dorus Rijkers, for saving the lives of 20 people.

In 1888 and 1889, the ailing king became increasingly demented. The Council of State and then Queen Emma became regents. William III died in Het Loo in 1890. Because Wilhelmina had not yet reached adulthood, Emma became regent for her daughter. She would remain regent until Wilhelmina's eighteenth birthday in 1898.

Family and issue
Of William III's four legitimate children, three reached adulthood, two sons from his marriage to Queen Sophie and one daughter from his marriage to Queen Emma:
 Willem Nicolaas Alexander Frederik Karel Hendrik (1840–1879). Heir apparent to the Throne from 1849 till his death.
 Willem Frederik Maurits Alexander Hendrik Karel (1843–1850).
 Willem Alexander Karel Hendrik Frederik (1851–1884). Heir apparent to the Throne from 1879 till his death.
 Wilhelmina Helena Pauline Maria (1880–1962). Queen of the Netherlands from 1890 to 1948.

Standing at 6'5" (196 cm) he was an exceptionally large and strong man. William III was known to be a philanderer and had several dozen illegitimate children from various mistresses.

Honours and arms

National orders and decorations
 Founder and Joint Grand Master of the Order of the Gold Lion of Nassau, 16 March 1858

Foreign orders and decorations

Ancestry

References

External links

1817 births
1890 deaths
House of Orange-Nassau
Princes of Orange
Princes of Orange-Nassau
Dutch monarchs
Grand Dukes of Luxembourg
Dukes of Limburg
19th-century monarchs in Europe
Protestant monarchs
Dutch members of the Dutch Reformed Church
Members of the Council of State (Netherlands)
Burials in the Royal Crypt at Nieuwe Kerk, Delft
Recipients of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
Extra Knights Companion of the Garter
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint-Charles

William III of the Netherlands


In law, a legacy is something that someone gets by inheritance, or by a will.  In historical terms, a legacy is something that is handed down from one period of time to another period of time. Often it means something handed down from an ancestor or predecessor.

In loose terms, it is sometimes said that countries or civilization can leave a legacy, such as an idea that will be remembered for a long time. That is clearly an extension of its original meaning(s) which were about individual people.

Buddha  Confucius and other religious and philosophical teachers have left moral legacies.

More than 2,000 years ago the Greek Mathematician, Euclid of Alexandria, collected and wrote down ideas about geometry and measurement in a text called Elements. Students still use these ideas when they learn about mathematics. Other sciences also owe inherited much from Ancient Greece, and science, in general, is a system of legacies. Greek science developed from Ancient Egyptian and Babylonian science, as Islamic science used its legacy rather than those of other cultures. Renaissance science built on its predecessors, as did modern science.

In Athens, citizens voted on what the city would do. This early form of democracy is a cultural legacy. Ancient Rome elected some of their leaders and made Roman laws that became a legal legacy for later civilizations. Roman and Greek architecture are also often imitated, as another kind of legacy.

Some families pass objects and ideas down from generation to generation.  These heirlooms and ideas can also be called legacies.  It may have to do with a person or many people.  Individuals can leave a historical legacy.

Legacy is a similar concept as inheritance and heritage. It is something we inherit from past generations and pass to our future generations. Usually, heritage refers to material and economical inheritance, while legacy refers to immaterial and cultural inheritance.

When software source code is reused in new software development, the old code is often called legacy code.

References

Property law

Legacy


Thomas Quasthoff (born Hildesheim, Germany, 9 November 1959) is a German bass-baritone.  He is thought of as one of the best singers of today.  It was not easy for him to get a good musical education because of his physical disability.  However, he has became one of the world's finest singers of German song (Lieder) and he also sings a wide variety of styles including Baroque music, opera and jazz.

Life
Quasthoff was born in Hildesheim, Germany.  His mother had been taking the drug thalidomide during the pregnancy and this resulted in Thomas being born with physical handicaps.  He has flipper-like hands and no arms, and he has very short legs.

Quasthoff wanted to study music at the conservatory, but he was not allowed to do so because there was a rule that every music student had to play the piano.  It was impossible for Quasthoff to play an instrument because of his disability.

Quasthoff decided to study singing privately.  After he had graduated from school he went to university to study law.  He did not enjoy the subject, and after studying for three years he chose music as a career.   At first he worked as a radio announcer.  He got some experience in singing oratorio.   Then, in 1988, he won the ARD International Music Competition in Munich.  Many people, including Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, were very impressed with his singing.  He became known as a Lieder singer.  He first sang in America in 1995.  He won many awards, including the Grammy Award for Best Classical Vocal Performance in 2000. It was for his performance together with the mezzo-soprano Anne Sofie von Otter of Mahler's Des Knaben Wunderhorn. They were accompanied by the Berlin Philharmonic conducted by Claudio Abbado.  He won prizes for his singing of songs by  Schubert, Brahms and Liszt, and Bach Cantatas.

Quasthoff teaches singing at the Hanns Eisler School of Music in Berlin.  He is "artist in residence" at the Barbican Hall, London.  A series called "Die Stimme" (The Voice) was made to celebrate his 50th birthday.  It was also the title of his autobiography which was published in 2006.

In 2006 he married.  His wife is a  television journalist.   The couple have a daughter and they live in Berlin.

Other websites
Thomas Quasthoff's official homepage (in German)
Stephen Moss

Bass-baritones
Grammy Award winners

1959 births
Living people
German autobiographers
German singers
Entertainers from Lower Saxony

Thomas Quasthoff


The Russian Civil War was a civil war that was fought from 7 November 1917 to 16 June 1922 among several groups in Russia. The main fighting was between the Red Army and the White Army. The Red Army was a communist, Bolshevik group. The White Army was anti-communist and included many former Tsarist loyalists. Other forces fought both groups or sometimes helped one of them against the other. Foreign countries such as Japan, the United Kingdom, France, and the United States sent troops to help the divided White Army. The Red Army won the war because it was better organized, more united, and held the best territory. After the war, the communists established the Soviet Union in 1922.

Background
Tsar Nicholas II, the traditional autocratic ruler of the Russian Empire, had just lost his throne in the February Revolution of 1917. Many regions of the Russian Empire were not stable, and many groups had organized themselves to fight.

The workers and the farmers who supported the communists organized themselves into the Red Army. Those opposing the communists organized themselves into the White Army.

Outside Russia
In Ukraine, some groups fighting for a free Ukraine organized themselves as the Green Army. There were several other groups. The Green Army and the smaller groups fought one another, and they sometimes fought the Red Army and the White Army. Other nationalist armies fought for independence from any kind of Russian control. Finland, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia succeeded in getting their independence.

At the same time, some foreign countries were worried about the communists, who were ruling Russia and feared that communism would come to their countries if the Russian communists were successful and so they helped fight against the Red Army. The main allies of World War I started the Siberian Intervention and otherwise helped the White Army. Their former enemies, the former Central Powers, also fought to get back land that they had lost during World War I. Slowly, the war became very large, and it continued for a few more years.

Periods
The Red Army and the White Army fought this war on three main fronts. Those regions were located in the east, the south, and the northwest of what became the Soviet Union. The outbreak of the Russian Civil War and its large scale surprised Vladimir Lenin. There were also three main periods of the war.

Soon after the Russian Revolution of 1917, the first period of the Russian Civil War began. Most of the fighting was then small-scale, but it started in many places.

The second period of the Russian Civil War was very important and lasted from January to November 1919. At first, the White Army was winning on all three fronts and was helped by foreign countries. However, Leon Trotsky reorganized the Red Army and helped it fight back. The White Armies suffered heavy losses and lost most of their fighting power.

The third and final period of the war involved fighting in Crimea. Many soldiers of the White Army had gathered there and had made their position very secure and strong. The Red Army continued to fight against them. After the Polish-Soviet War ended with Polish independence, more soldiers of the Red Army could reinforce their comrades in Crimea. They defeated the White Army in November 1920. In October 1922, Vladivostok fell, the last important city held by the Whites. Fighting continued against nationalists in the Caucasus in the early 1920s.

Casualties
 About eight million people died during the Russian Civil War. About one million were soldiers of the Red Army.
 The anti-communists and the White Army killed at least 50,000 communists.
 Many millions of people also died from famine, starvation, and epidemics. Many Jews were killed by pogroms.

Aftermath
During and after the Russian Civil War, Soviet Russia suffered great damage. In 1920 and 1921, there was little rain, which caused serious famine in 1921. About one million Russians left Russia and went to other countries permanently. Many of them were very educated and experts.

The economic loss was also very large. The value of Russia's currency, the ruble, fell. In 1914, a US dollar could be bought for 2 rubles. In 1920, it cost 1,200 rubles. Estimates say that the war cost the Soviet Russia around 50 billion rubles, today worth US$35 billion.

The production of industrial goods fell greatly. For example, the Soviet Union produced only 5% of the cotton and only 2% of the iron ore of the production of 1913. Generally, production had fallen to 20% of that of 1913.

The Russian Civil War was very bad on agriculture as well. Farms produced only 37% of the normal production. The number of horses fell from 35 million (in 1916) to 24 million (in 1920). The number of cattle also decreased, from 58 million to 37 million.

During the war, the Soviet government somehow managed the country. In March 1921, four months after the defeat of the White Army in Crimea, the Lenin administration abandoned its policy of War Communism and instead formulated the New Economic Policy, which allowed denationalisation of agriculture and industry, but most financial institutions retained state ownership with a deregulation in such sectors. On 30 December 1922, the ]Soviet Union was formally created, and by 1928, production returned to pre-war levels. Lenin, however, did not live to see that day since he had died in 1924, when Joseph Stalin became the new leader.

People always remembered the results of the World War I and the Russian Civil War, which were very bad for the life and the society for the new Soviet Union.

Wars involving Russia
Civil wars
Russian Revolution
1910s in Russia
1910s conflicts
1920s conflicts

Russian Civil War


A Markov chain is a model of some random process that happens over time. Markov chains are called that because they follow a rule called the Markov property. The Markov property says that whatever happens next in a process only depends on how it is right now (the state). It doesn't have a "memory" of how it was before. It is helpful to think of a Markov chain as evolving through discrete steps in time, although the "step" doesn't need to have anything to do with time.

Markov chains can be discrete or continuous. Discrete Time Markov Chains are split up into discrete time steps, like t = 1, t = 2, t = 3, and so on. The probability that a chain will go from one state to another state depends only on the state that it's in right now. Continuous Time Markov Chains are chains where the time spent in each state is a real number. The amount of time the chain stays in a certain state is randomly picked from an exponential distribution, which basically means there's an average time a chain will stay in some state, plus or minus some random variation.

An example of a Markov chain are the dietary habits of a creature who only eats grapes, cheese or lettuce, and whose dietary habits conform to the following (artificial) rules:
 It eats exactly once a day.
 If it ate cheese yesterday, it will eat lettuce or grapes today with equal probability for each, and zero chance of eating cheese.
 If it ate grapes yesterday, it will eat grapes today with probability 1/10, cheese with probability 4/10 and lettuce with probability 5/10.
 Finally, if it ate lettuce yesterday, it won't eat it again today, but will eat grapes with probability 4/10 or cheese with probability 6/10.

This creature's eating habits can be modeled with a Markov chain since its choice depends on what it ate yesterday, not additionally on what it ate 2 or 3 (or 4, etc...) days ago. One statistical property one could calculate is the expected percentage of the time the creature will eat cheese over a long period.

Another classical example of a Markov chain is the 1995 model of cocaine use in Los Angeles designed by the RAND Corporation. The model is governed by a series of equations, which describe the probability of a person being a non-user, light user (L) or heavy user (H) of cocaine at time t+1, given their prior probabilities at time t:

L(t+1) = I(t)-aL(t) +fH(t)-bL(t)

H(t+1) = bL(t)-fH(t)-gH(t)

I(t)+L(t)+H(t)=1

References

Mathematics
Statistics

Markov chain


Red Bull can refer to:

 Red Bull, an energy drink
 Red Bull GmbH, the company that manufactures the energy drink
 Red Bull Records, independent record label owned by the energy drink company

Sports teams owned by Red Bull GmbH
In association football:
 FC Red Bull Salzburg, a club based in Salzburg, Austria
 Red Bull Arena (Salzburg), a stadium, home of the FC Red Bull Salzburg
 New York Red Bulls, a team based near New York that competes in Major League Soccer
 Red Bull Arena (Harrison), a stadium, home of the New York Red Bulls
 RB Leipzig, a club based in Leipzig, Germany
 Red Bull Brasil, a club based in São Paulo, Brazil

In auto racing:
 Red Bull Racing, a Formula One team based in Milton Keynes, England
 Scuderia Toro Rosso (Italian translation of Red Bull Stable), a Formula One team based in Faenza, Italy. Scuderia Toro Rosso is a separate team from Red Bull Racing
 Team Red Bull, a NASCAR team

In ice hockey:
 EC Red Bull Salzburg, a member of the Austrian Hockey League who play their games in Salzburg, Austria

Sponsored by Red Bull
 Red Bull Air Race World Series
 Red Bull Barako, a Philippine professional basketball team
 Red Bull Drifting World Championship, non-championship all-star drifting contest
 Red Bull Flugtag
 Red Bull Trolley Grand Prix
 Red Bull X-Fighters

Unrelated to the energy drink
 Red Bull, a Schlitz Malt Liquor from Pabst Brewing Company
 Red Bull Theatre, a seventeenth century playhouse in London
 Red Bull (Imaginary Creature), an imaginary creature from the fantasy novel The Last Unicorn by Peter S. Beagle
 The 34th Infantry Division (United States), the "Red Bull" division in the United States National Guard with members from Minnesota and Iowa
 Red Bull Highway (Minnesota), a commemorative designation for Interstate 35 in Minnesota in honor of the 34th Infantry (Red Bull) Division
 Red Bull Highway (Iowa), a commemorative designation for U.S. Route 34 in Iowa in honor of the 34th Infantry (Red Bull) Division

Red Bull (disambiguation)


Pygmalion is a play by George Bernard Shaw.

Plot
A street girl selling flowers, Eliza, meets Professor Higgins. Higgins was writing down her pronunciation for his study, but Eliza misunderstood him as a policeman and caused trouble. Higgins says he can make her a duchess. It was changing her pronunciation. Later she remembers what he said and goes to learn pronunciation with a desire to be an upper class woman.

Higgins decides to do an experiment with her. He deceives all the people at a party. It was making them believe that she is a duchess. After this success, Higgins suggests two options for Eliza. One is marrying based on her beauty. The other is running a flower shop with money from Colonel Pickering who is a rich man. Eliza refuses to do both of them and she leaves his home. Higgins and Colonel Pickering look for Eliza as soon as they know that she left. They find her in Mrs. Higgins' house but Eliza refuses to go back. She says she would marry Freddy.

Background
George Bernard Shaw is famous for giving audiences a twist by not doing what they expect. In comedy, people expect someone in a bad situation to be in a better one at the end. They expect a poor person to marry a rich man. They expect a villain to be punished. In Pygmalion, the flower girl in the bad situation gets better in the end. This girl selling flowers on the street rises to the upper class. It was through changing her language.

However, contrary to the audience's expectation, romance between flower girl and Professor Higgins doesn't happen. She doesn't marry a rich man. Also, George Bernard Shaw reflected his beliefs to reform the society in this play.

In the 20th century, there were many poor people on the street. Especially little girls worked all day for a tiny amount of money. The author had much interest in poor people and women's freedom. And he believed speech was one of the things that separated rich and poor people. That is the starting point of Pygmalion. He used the change of language as a means to rise to the upper class.

Interpretation
In mythology, Pygmalion was a sculptor who did not like women. He could not find a woman to love. And he decided to make a statue, Galatea. In the play, Pygmalion is compared to Professor Higgins. And Galatea is compared to Eliza. Pygmalion made Galatea to be his ideal woman. And Professor Higgins changed Eliza into a perfect upper class woman. He taught her everything from how to talk to how to behave in front of people. This process of making Eliza an upper class woman is criticized as playing with a live doll, as though she didn't have her own soul. Higgins treats her as an object.

Also, the common expectation of audiences that women's fate is determined by men is criticized. It is because of Eliza's reaction after the success of pretending to be a duchess. She thought the two options suggested by Higgins would be selling herself.

When she was selling flowers, at least she didn't have to sell herself. She doesn't want to rely on a rich man, but decides to marry a poor man, Freddy. She says she can make something of him. She values love more than anything else.
Plays by George Bernard Shaw
20th-century plays

Pygmalion


Cyanotype is a photographic printing process, which produces prints that are blue. John Herschel discovered the process in 1842. Engineers used the process well into the 20th century as a simple and low-cost process to produce copies of drawings, referred to as blueprints. The process uses two chemicals: ammonium iron(III) citrate and potassium ferricyanide.

Photography

Cyanotype


James Hildyard (11 April 1809 – 27 August 1887) was an English classical scholar.

Life and career

James Hildyard was born in Winestead on 11 April 1809, the eighth son of the Rev. William Hildyard and his wife Catherine Grant. He educated under Dr. Samuel Butler at Shrewsbury from 1820 to 1829. From 1826 he was the head of the school, and in April 1829 was the chief person in a rebellion known as the 'Beef Row.' In October of the same year he was entered as a pensioner of Christ's College, Cambridge, where, through the influence of Dr. John Kaye, he was at once elected to a Tancred divinity studentship, then worth about £113 a year. In January 1833 he graduated as a senior optime in mathematics, second in the first class of the classical tripos, and chancellor's medallist, and was immediately elected fellow of his college. In due course he became classical lecturer and tutor. He proceeded B.A. 1833, M.A. 1836, and B.D. 1846. In 1843 he was senior proctor. During fourteen years' residence at the university he greatly improved the method of college tuition, and wrote more than one pamphlet against the system of private tuition. He wrote and spoke in favour of the 'voluntary theological examinations.' He spent some time upon a laborious edition of some of the plays of Plautus, with Latin notes and glossary. For two years, 1843 and 1844, he was Cambridge preacher at the Chapel Royal, Whitehall, when large congregations were present, and a printed selection from the discourses had a rapid sale. About this period he fought the battle of the black gown versus the surplice, his opponent being the Rev. Frederick Oakeley, who afterwards went over to the church of Rome. His foreign travels included tours in Greece, Smyrna, and Turkey. At Athens he caught a fever, and narrowly escaped being bled to death by King Otho's German physician. In June 1846 he accepted the college living of Ingoldsby, Lincolnshire. He found the church and parsonage in a ruinous condition, but in the course of two or three years he restored the church and built a new rectory. He was always a consistent advocate of the revision of the Book of Common Prayer, and printed two octavo volumes on the subject.

On 19 August 1847 he married Elizabeth Kinderley, the only daughter of George Kinderley of Lincoln's Inn. They had a son and 2 daughters.

He died at Ingoldsby on 27 August 1887, at the age of 78.

Works
 'Epigrammata, Carmen Græcum, Carmen Latinum, Oratio Latina,' 1828.
 'M. A. Plauti Menæchmei cum notis,' 1836.
 'M. A. Plauti Aulularia, recensuit notisque instruxit,' 1839.
 'Five Sermons on the Parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus. To which is added a proposed Plan for a systematic Study of Theology in the University,' 1841.
 'The Obligation of the University to provide for the Education of Members designed for Holy Orders,' Cambridge, 1841.
 'The University System of Private Tuition examined,' 1844.
 'Further consideration on the University System of Education,' 1845.
 'Sermons chiefly Practical,' 1845.
 'Abridgment of the Sunday Morning Service, urged in a Letter to the Bishop of Ely,' Grantham, 1856.
 'Further Arguments in favour of the Abridgment of the Morning Service,' 4th ed., 1856.
 'The People's Call for a Revision of the Liturgy, in a Letter to Lord Palmerston,' Grantham, 1857.
 'Reply to the Bishops in Convocation, February 10, 1858, also in the House of Lords, May 6, 1858, on Lord Ebury's Motion for a Revision of the Liturgy, in a series of Letters to the "Church Chronicle" and "National Standard,"' signed Ingoldsby, 1858; 3rd ed. 1862–3, 2 vols.

References

Attribution

1809 births
1887 deaths
English classical scholars
Fellows of Christ's College, Cambridge
English male writers

James Hildyard


Sē Meotedisca Mere is æt Euxines norþēasterna ende. Betƿuh þǣm tƿǣm is nearuness 3 mila brād.

Sē Meotedisca Mere is Danais mūða. He is sealt ac rihte læssa þonne oþran sǣ, forþæm cymþ his ƿæter fram Danais. He is þǣre ƿorulde undēopsta sǣ; 43 fēt and nāhƿǣr dēoper þonne ān and fiftig fēt.

Euxinus
Russland

Meotedisca Mere


Loose Ends is a British radio programme originally broadcast on Saturday mornings, and then transmitted early Saturday evenings from 1998 by BBC Radio 4. It was hosted by Ned Sherrin until 2006 and has been hosted by Clive Anderson, Nikki Bedi and Peter Curran since 2007. The programme brings together guests, generally from the world of entertainment, in a mix of interviews, sets by comedians and musical sessions.

History
First broadcast in 1986, it developed out of The Colour Supplement, a Sunday morning programme which had featured early Loose Ends contributors such as Stephen Fry, Robert Elms and Victor Lewis-Smith. The latter's contributions to Loose Ends were recorded packages, being a mischievous and disruptive element of the programme.

Originally commissioned comedy had, by 2006, been phased out almost entirely, with comic performers tending to deliver existing material from their repertoires although, in June/July 2006, the Scots comedian and writer Janey Godley scripted a weekly series of satiric fictional extracts from Nancy Dell'Olio's Diary to coincide with the FIFA World Cup. Dell' Olio was the girlfriend of England national football team coach Sven-Göran Eriksson. Only four extracts were transmitted due to the England team's failure in the championships.

Typically the programme was topped and tailed by Sherrin reading a comic monologue which, over the years, was written by Alistair Beaton, D. A. Barham, Ian Brown & James Hendrie, Nev Fountain, Tom Jamieson, Tom Mitchelson, Ian Hawkins, Terence Dackombe, Andrew Nickolds, Steve Punt and Pete Sinclair.

When Sherrin became ill with a throat infection in late 2006, later diagnosed as throat cancer, Peter Curran stood in as presenter of Loose Ends with Patrick Kielty and Clive Anderson as guest presenters. Sherrin died of throat cancer on 1 October 2007. Clive Anderson became permanent replacement host in 2007.

References

External links

BBC Radio 4 programmes
1986 radio programme debuts

Loose Ends (radio programme)


Khenifiss National Park () is a national park in the southwest of Morocco, located near Akhfennir on the Atlantic coast in the region of Laâyoune-Sakia El Hamra. It was established in 2006. The area of the park is . The national park was created to protect desert, wetlands, and coastal dunes.

The park was first created as a natural reserve in 1960, and in 1980, it was classified as a wetland of international importance. In 1983, the natural reserve was transformed into a Permanent Biological Reserve, and on September 26, 2006, the national park was created.

The park is located at the coast of Atlantic Ocean, north of the border with Western Sahara, between the towns of Tan-Tan (north) and Tarfaya (south). The National Route 1, which runs along the Atlantic coast of Morocco, passes through the park.

The park includes a coastal portion, the Khenfiss lagoon, the biggest lagoon at the Moroccan coast, and the inland portion, located on desert plateaus. The lagoon is also an important bird nesting ground. Ruddy shelduck, marbled duck, and Audouin's gull inhabit the lagoon permanently, and a big number of species migrate here in winter. Every year, about 20,000 birds stay in the lagoon area in the winter season.

The inland part includes sabkhas and is typical for Sahara landscapes. It also includes sand dunes and limestone plateaus.

The government declared its intention to turn the park into a major tourist attraction specializing in ecotourism.

World Heritage Status
This site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List on 12/10/1998 in the natural category.

References

National parks in Africa
Geography of Morocco

Khenifiss National Park


Upland and lowland are terms used in ecology, physical geography and geology. They describe the relative height of land above sea level.

Uplands have rivers and streams which are fast-flowing, clear, and with plenty of oxygen. They drain high or mountainous country, and go down into broad plains (where they become lowland rivers. Lowlands usually have warmer, slow-flowing waters carrying lots of sediment and with poor oxygen content.

Upland rivers run fast and cut through rock (Colorado River). Lowland rivers meander slowly towards the coast (Mississippi River). They carry lots of soil and are a dark colour. Therefore the fish and other animals which live in the river are quite different according to the two stages or types of river.

The terms also apply to large areas of land. Because mountain-building (orogeny) lifts up huge sections of the Earth, there are large areas which are well above sea level: the highlands. But on the trailing edge of a continent, the land is low. So the Americas are (broadly speaking) high on the west (the American Cordillera) and low on the east (Amazon, St. Lawrence River / Great Lakes basin, Mississippi, and La Plata). This is a consequence of plate tectonics, as the Americas have moved slowly west for over 100 million years. The Appalachians are a far older chain of ground-down mountains carried along by the continent as it moved west.

The same pattern can be seen in other continents, especially with great rivers such as the Congo and the Indus. Australia is the exception: its mountain ranges are very ancient and worn down. Recent plate tectonics there has not been so significant as elsewhere.

References

Physical geography
Ecosystems

Upland and lowland


Annals (Latin Annales, from annus, a year) are a short form of historical writing which record events chronologically, year by year.

History

Ancient Rome
Cicero ( in De Oratore, ii. 12. 52) tells that from the earliest period down to the pontificate of Publius Mucius Scaevola (c. 131 BC), it was usual for the pontifex maximus to record on a white tablet (album), which was exhibited in an open place at his house, so that the people might read it. On this tablet were written down (according to Cicero) the name of the consuls and other magistrates, and then the important events of the year.

In Cicero's time these records were called Annales Maximi. The practice of writing annals was carried on by several unofficial writers. Cicero speaks of Cato, Pictor and Piso.

Medieval
In the Middle Ages in the Western Church there were written tables to show that date of Easter for a certain number of years or even centuries. These Paschal tables were thin books in which each annual date was separated from the next by a more or less considerable blank space. In these spaces some monks wrote down the important events of the year. The writing of these Annals was begun at the end of the 7th century and among the Irish – see the Annals of the Four Masters, the Annals of Ulster, the Annals of Innisfallen and the Annales Cambriae or Annals of Wales, one of the earliest sources for King Arthur. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is also in annalistic, year-by-year form.

In the 9th century, during the Carolingian Renaissance, these Annals became the usual form of contemporary history. There were the Annales Einhardi, the Annales Laureshamenses (or "of Lorsch"), and the Annales S. Bertini. They were written officially in order to preserve the memory of the more interesting acts of Charlemagne, his ancestors and his successors. At this stage, the Annals now began to lose their primitive character, and became more and more Chronicles. But the term was still used for many documents, such as the Annals of Waverley.

History books

Annals


The Bridge of Sighs (Italian: Ponte dei Sospiri) is a small bridge in Venice,  northern Italy. The bridge has walls and a roof. It is made of white limestone and has windows with stone bars. It passes over the Rio di Palazzo and connects the old prisons to the interrogation rooms in the Doge's Palace. It was designed by Antoni Contino (whose uncle Antonio da Ponte had designed the Rialto Bridge), and built in 1602.

The view from the windows of the Bridge of Sighs was the last view of Venice that convicts saw before their imprisonment. The bridge was named by Lord Byron in the 19th century. It was thought that prisoners would sigh at their final view of beautiful Venice through the windows before being taken down to their cells. In reality, the days of inquisitions and summary executions were over by the time the bridge was built and the cells under the palace roof were occupied mostly by small-time criminals. In addition, little could be seen from inside the Bridge due to the stone grills covering the windows.

A local legend says that lovers will be granted everlasting love and bliss if they kiss on a gondola at sunset under the bridge.

Related pages
The name "Bridge of Sighs" has since been applied by association to other similar covered bridges around the world, including:

 Puente de los Suspiros ("Bridge of Sighs" in Spanish), a bridge in the city of Barranco, Lima, Peru
 A bridge in Cambridge, England
 A bridge in Oxford, England
 A bridge in Stockholm, Sweden
 A bridge in Frankfurt am Main, Germany
 A bridge in the Santa Barbara County Courthouse, Santa Barbara, California
 The Virginia Street Bridge in Reno, Nevada, known for being the place where newly-divorced women coming from the Washoe County Courthouse would toss their wedding rings into the Truckee River.
 It was the inspiration for a bridge built in 1884 between the Allegheny County Courthouse and the old county jail in downtown Pittsburgh, USA. It has been deemed a National Historic Landmark.
 One of the few natural arches in the Grand Canyon that is visible from the Colorado River (at mile 35.6, approx 57.3 km on the right). It is located in Redwall limestone and has a span of 4 metres (15 feet) and a height of 9 metres (30 feet).

In fiction
A reproduction of the bridge is featured in Volume 1 of the science fiction manga Aria, by Kozue Amano.

References

Other websites

Sighs, Bridge of Sighs
Stone bridges
17th-century buildings and structures

Bridge of Sighs


is a Japanese American singer and songwriter whose music encompasses and fuses a wide variety of genres including jazz, dance, pop, and soul. She is arguably best known for being a pioneer of the acid jazz movement in Japan in the early 1990s yet she has created her own unique style of music that transcends traditional definitions of the aforementioned genres.

Monday was born in Tokyo, Japan, to jazz pianist Toshiko Akiyoshi and her then husband, jazz saxophonist Charlie Mariano. At an early age, she expressed an interest in music; she studied modern dance and ballet from age eight, and the classical flute for eight years. It was not until she went to the Interlochen Arts Academy that she discovered her true passion of singing.

In 1987, Monday appeared as a lead in the movie Hikaru Onna (Luminous Woman) in which she was credited as Michiru Akiyoshi. Monday's unintentional acting career took off as she won Best New Actress awards from Kinema Junpo, The Japan Academy, and the Yokohama Film Festival.  With all this success, Monday became somewhat of a celebrity and could be seen on commercial ads and as a "personality" on several major television networks.

In 1991, she re-focused her interests and released her debut solo album Mangetsu. Although she continued her solo work, she became a featured singer/songwriter for many other groups and artists including Basement Jaxx (Always Be There), Mondo Grosso, DJ Krush, M-Flo and numerous others.

Since her debut, she has released numerous albums on an annual basis, including many compilations and remix projects, and numerous singles.

Monday now lives in New York City.

She is known in the music industry for releasing You Make Me as it was also released in Konami's beatmania and Dance Dance Revolution. It gained moderate airplay and has been a favorite easy listening song with its smooth jazz house music.

Discography

References

External links

Monday Michiru interview at All About Jazz

1963 births
Living people
American women pop singers
American women singer-songwriters
American people of Italian descent
Interlochen Center for the Arts alumni
American women musicians of Japanese descent
Musicians from Tokyo
Japanese emigrants to the United States
21st-century American women
ArtistShare artists
Pony Canyon artists
Universal Music Group artists

Monday Michiru


Jason John Bonham (born 15 July 1966) is an English rock drummer who is noted for being the son of Led Zeppelin drummer John Bonham, as well for his own music. He has played with bands like Foreigner and UFO, and he has also played with the surviving members Led Zeppelin on several band reunions, such as the reunion in 2007 at the London 02 Arena. He has a close relationship with former Led Zeppelin guitarist Jimmy Page, and they have toured together in the 80's when Page released his solo album, Outrider. In 2010, Bonham will be working with his new band, Black Country.

Other websites
Official website

Sources
Bonham in Black Country

1966 births
Living people

Led Zeppelin
English drummers

Jason Bonham


Sergio Castillo (13 May 1925 – 19 August 2010 in Santiago, Chile) was a sculptor.

He began as an architect. In 1948 he travelled to Paris and took painting courses. After returning to Chile he attended the Faculty of Arts of the University of Chile, where he studied with two known teachers, Lily Garafulic and Marta Colvin. In 1956 he studied at the Art Student League of New York. From 1967 he taught at the University of Chile. He lived and worked for many years at San Lorenzo del Escorial, Spain. In 1985 he joined the faculty of Boston University, in the US. He built several large pieces on the campus of Boston University.

He won the National Award in Art (1997). "50 años creando mis animales en acero" (50 years making my steel animals) is his recent exposition, including things that look a little like animals.

Other websites
Some of his works

1925 births
2010 deaths
Chilean sculptors
Boston University faculty

Sergio Castillo


Geoffrey Burbidge  (born Chipping Norton, 24 September 1925; died La Jolla, California,   26 January 2010)  was an English astrophysicist.  For many years he was professor at the  University of California, San Diego.  In 1957 he published a famous paper, together with three other physicists, about the origin of elements.  Many scientists disagreed with ideas that he had later in his life, because he did not believe in the Big Bang theory.

Education and early career
He started to study history at the University of Bristol, but soon changed to physics because he could then get financial help from the government (World War II was on, so science was very important to the government). He went to London and got a doctorate  from University College London in 1951.  He met the astronomer Margaret Peachey.  He became very interested in astronomy and he married her in 1948.  From then on they always worked together in several places.  They worked at Harvard, the University of Chicago and Cambridge University.  Then Margaret got work at the California Institute of Technology, while Geoffrey worked at the Mount Wilson Observatory and Palomar Observatory.  They both got jobs at the University of California, San Diego, in 1962.

The B2FH paper
In 1957 he and his wife, together with William Fowler, the American physicist, and Fred Hoyle, the British astronomer, wrote a 104-page paper about  stellar nucleosynthesis.  The paper became known as the B2FH (because of their initials).  It talked about nuclear reactions inside stars, showing how these reactions tear apart blocks of matter and put it together again differently.  It was a similar idea to what Charles Darwin had written about 100 years earlier in the "Origin of Species", where he had described how creatures had evolved.  Scientists saw this paper as the most important paper ever written about astrophysics.

Later career

Later in his career Burbidge refused to accept the Big Bang theory which describes the start of the universe.  Quasars are very bright objects with a very high redshift.  The Big Bang theorists say that they come from places extremely far away in the universe.  But Burbidge thought that quasars come from nearby galaxies, travelling near the speed of light, which explains their redshift.  He thought they produced new matter as old matter was destroyed by reactions.

Although many scientists disagree with Burbidge's later ideas, he is still thought of as an extremely important scientist.  He was given many honours.  In 2005 he and his wife were awarded the British Royal Astronomical Society Gold Medal.

References
"Geoffrey Burbidge- Obituary" in The Independent 24 April 2010 p. 51

1925 births
2010 deaths

English astronomers
British astrophysicists
English physicists
English science writers
Alumni of University College London
Alumni of the University of Bristol

Geoffrey Burbidge


Anjum Chopra (born 20 May 1977) is an Indian cricket commentator and former cricketer. The first time she stepped onto the cricket ground was at the age of 9. She played her first friendly match with the college girls' team at the inter-college level, scoring 20 runs and taking 2 wickets. Later the same year she was selected to play for New Delhi in the under −15 tournament.

She played various sports at an early age, representing her school and college in athletics, basketball, and swimming. She was also a member of the Delhi State basketball team that competed at nationals.

Anjum made her debut in one-day internationals at the age of 17, on 12 February 1995 against New Zealand at Christchurch, New Zealand, and made her debut in Test cricket a few months later against England at Eden Gardens, Kolkata, on 17 November 1995. In only her second series for India the same year, she was awarded player of the series in the one-day internationals against the visiting England cricket team, scoring runs at an average of 67.5.

She played as a left-handed batter who bowled right-arm medium pace. She played in 12 Tests, 127 ODIs and 18 T20Is. She was coached by Sunita Sharma, Hardeep Dua and Tarak Sinha from Sonnet Club. She was also the first woman to score 1,000 runs in ODIs for India.

Carving out a niche in the male-dominated sport in the country, Anjum has begun to be recognized as the face of women's cricket in India as a player, captain, consultant, commentator, motivational speaker, author, and actor.

Personal life
She received her undergraduate degree from St. Stephen's College, Delhi

Anjum belongs to a family of sportspeople:
 Maternal grandfather Ved Prakash Sahni was an athlete and represented India. He was also a cricket commentator.
 Father Krishan Bal Chopra is a golfer.
 Mother Poonam Chopra, a devoted homemaker, has won a Goodyear car rally.
 Brother Nirvan Chopra has represented Delhi state in Under−17 and Under-19 cricket.
 Maternal uncle Rohit Sahni is a former cricketer. As a schoolboy, he was wicket-keeper and opening batsman for his alma mater, Mayo College. Later, he captained both Hindu college and Delhi University.

Anjum is also a pet lover who loves to spend time with her dogs, who live with her at home.

Career

Anjum Chopra is both a Test and One Day International cricketer who represented India's national women's cricket team. She is currently working as a cricket commentator. She made her One Day International debut in 1995 against New Zealand at Christchurch. In the first ODI she opened the bowling for India, giving 14 runs in her 4 overs. Going in to bat at No 10 for India, she had a crucial partnership of 11 runs to secure the victory for India.

She made her Test match debut in November 1995 against England in Calcutta. She was sent in as a nightwatchman against the English team in her very first Test match for India. Living up to her coach's confidence in her she successfully batted until the next morning until lunch scoring 27 runs for her team.

She was made Vice Captain of the Indian team in 2000 Cricinfo World Cup in New Zealand. With two player of the match awards and the highest scorer from India, Anjum led the batting charts at the World Cup until the Indian team lost in the semi-finals to eventual winners New Zealand.

Anjum was made the Captain of the Indian team in 2002. In her first series as skipper, she led India with 7 debutants to a whitewash win over visiting England side, a record victory. The Indian team's first tour of South Africa saw them record their first overseas Test win, with Anjum Chopra scoring a match-winning 80. Her astute captaincy and using the part-time bowlers got the team 20 South African wickets at Paarl.

In 2005 World Cup in South Africa, India reached the finals of the World Cup for the first time. She was the top scorer from India and was also the Player of the Match against England.

In 2009 World Cup in Australia, in a must-win game for India, Anjum scored 76 match-winning runs and bagged the player of the match award. India finished third at the World Cup behind England and New Zealand.

She has played 6 World Cups for India, including four 50-over World Cups and two T20 World Cups. She is the first player to play 100 ODIs for India. One of the strong fielders on the team and a safe pair of hands, she has held the highest number of slip catches for India. A right arm medium pace bowler, Anjum made her debut as an all-rounder, opening the bowling in her first ODI and batting at No 10. She is the eighth-highest run-getter in women's ODIs.

Anjum has batted at almost all positions for her team, including opening, when needed. She has scored against some of the best of bowling attacks in the world, and is known to occupy the crease and bat for long hours. For example, batting in the 2000 World Cup in New Zealand against Ireland, India was reeling at 3 wickets down with 1 run on the board. She played a patient knock of 70 runs and won the match.

She is known to bat well under pressure and has played numerous knocks to perfection to get the victory. A quick runner between the wickets, her ability to convert ones to twos had been an outstanding feature of Anjum's batting style.

After attending Delhi Public School R.K. Puram and St. Stephen's College, Delhi University, Anjum completed her Master's in Business Administration from FORE School of Management with a dual specialisation in Marketing and Human Resources.

In the corporate world, Anjum is a motivational and corporate speaker/consultant. Also an MBA, Anjum has conducted training programs for globally recognised brands such as General Electric, Standard Chartered, Goldman Sachs, Vodafone, and various schools and colleges.

Domestic career

Anjum Chopra is a Delhi native who has played for the state since her Under-15 days. She has also represented Air India (her employers) for domestic matches where she emerged as the most successful skipper for the women's team.

Under her captaincy:
 Delhi state won the National championship in 2012 season, the first time in history that the Delhi women's team has won the national cricket championship.
 Air India won the nationals and zonal championships in both 2002 and 2003.
 Air India was declared as "Best team of the year" in 2003.

The 2011–12 cricket season saw her achieving victories for Delhi State. Captaining the team, Delhi won the national championship for the first time in history of the women's game. She also went on to lead the North Zone team that won the Zonal championships the same year. In the T20 format, Delhi state finished as runner-up, ending the year as the "Best State Team".

Awards

Records
 First Indian player to score an ODI century for India.
 First captain to win a Test Series abroad. India won the test match in South Africa in 2002 under her captaincy.
 First captain to win a home series 5–0 whitewash against England in India in 2002
 First player to play 100 ODIs for India
 First to play 6 World Cups for India (four ODI World Cups and two T20s)
 Only player in modern-day cricket to have played 12 Test matches with ODI and T20s
 First player to get an international appointment when she worked with Cricket South Africa women's team as a technical consultant in 2012–2013
 First female sportscaster and player to commentate on men's cricket matches

Achievements

Anjum Chopra co-authored the coffee table book titled Women's Cricket World – A Journey from 1745- 2013. The book showcases the world history of the sport to its present-day under the International Cricket Council.

She has also acted in a docudrama, "Poor Cousins of Million Dollar Babies". The film received national acclaim at the Arnold Sports Film Festival in Ohio in 2011. It talks about that despite the disparities between men's and women's cricket, the girls are very happy playing the sport and enjoy the camaraderie.

To promote the game, Anjum has also participated in a reality show, Fear Factor 'Khatron ke Khiladi' season 4, aired on the Colors channel. She has also walked the ramp with leading names of the fashion industry promoting the women's game.

Anjum is a commentator/subject expert with Doordarshan and other leading news and sports channels. A sportscaster she represents women's cricket on television analysing the game from a player's perspective. She has also forayed into other sports, acting as a commentator for the World Kabaddi League in 2014 on Sony Six.

Anjum Chopra is the first woman cricketer from India to be awarded an honorary life membership of the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC).

Television
Anjum was a participant on the reality show Fear Factor - Khatron Ke Khiladi Season 4.

References

External links

1977 births
Air India women cricketers
Delhi women cricketers
India women One Day International cricketers
India women Test cricketers
India women Twenty20 International cricketers
Indian cricket commentators
Indian women cricket captains
Indian women cricketers
Living people
Recipients of the Arjuna Award
Recipients of the Padma Shri in sports
Delhi University alumni
Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi participants
Women cricket commentators

Anjum Chopra


The hawksbill sea turtle or hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) is an endangered species of turtle.

It is mostly seen in shallow lagoons and coral reefs where its food is. It is smaller than the Australian flatback turtle: it is usually a little more than two feet long. It usually weighs about 150 pounds. It has the most pointed beak among sea turtles, which is how it gets its name. The hawksbill gets food from inside coral reefs, eating sponges, shrimp, squid, and other invertebrates. The hawksbill pointy beak helps the turtle get food out of the tiny cracks and holes in which it searches.

Though they are sometimes seen in American waters, hawksbill turtles almost always nest in the warmer climates that run along the equator. Because people use the shell to make jewelry and other things, the hawksbill turtle is endangered.

Turtles
Marine reptiles
Critically endangered species
National symbols of Antigua and Barbuda

Hawksbill sea turtle


The Nizari are the third biggest group of Shiite Ismailites. They emphasize social justice, pluralism and human reason in the framework of Islam. They are the second-largest group of Shiites. There are about 15-20 million, spread over many countries; in Pakistan up to 05% of the people may follow this faith. Nizari still have an imam that is descended from Ali, the current imam is Karim Aga Khan IV.

Islamic denominations

Nizari


The Helvetic Republic (, , , ) was a sister republic of France that existed between 1798 and 1803, during the French Revolutionary Wars. It was created following the French invasion and the consequent dissolution of the Old Swiss Confederacy, marking the end of the ancien régime in Switzerland. Throughout its existence, the republic incorporated most of the territory of modern Switzerland, excluding the cantons of Geneva and Neuchâtel and the old Prince-Bishopric of Basel.

The Swiss Confederacy, which until then had consisted of self-governing cantons united by a loose military alliance (and ruling over subject territories such as Vaud), was invaded by the French Revolutionary Army and turned into an ally known as the "Helvetic Republic". The interference with localism and traditional liberties was deeply resented, although some modernizing reforms took place.  Resistance was strongest in the more traditional Catholic cantons, with armed uprisings breaking out in spring 1798 in the central part of Switzerland. The French and Helvetic armies suppressed the uprisings, but opposition to the new government gradually increased over the years, as the Swiss resented their loss of local democracy, the new taxes, the centralization and the hostility to religion. Nonetheless, there were long-term effects.

The Republic's name Helvetic, after the , the Gaulish inhabitants of the Swiss Plateau in antiquity, was not an innovation; rather, the Swiss Confederacy had occasionally been dubbed  in humanist Latin since the 17th century, and , the Swiss national personification, made her first appearance in 1672. In Swiss history, the Helvetic Republic represents an early attempt to establish a centralized government in the country.

History

During the French Revolutionary Wars of the 1790s, the French Republican armies expanded eastward. In 1793, the National Convention had imposed friendship with the United States and the Swiss Confederation as the sole limit while delegating its powers in foreign policy to the Committee of Public Safety, but the situation changed when the more conservative Directoire took power in 1795 and Napoleon conquered Northern Italy in 1796. The French Republican armies enveloped Switzerland on the grounds of "liberating" the Swiss people, whose own system of government was deemed feudal, especially for annexed territories such as Vaud.

Some Swiss nationals, including Frédéric-César de La Harpe, had called for French intervention on these grounds. The invasion proceeded largely peacefully since the Swiss people failed to respond to the calls of their politicians to take up arms.

On 5 March 1798, French troops completely overran Switzerland and the Old Swiss Confederation collapsed. On 12 April 1798, 121 cantonal deputies proclaimed the Helvetic Republic, "One and Indivisible". On 14 April 1798, a cantonal assembly was called in the canton of Zürich, but most of the politicians from the previous assembly were re-elected. The new régime abolished cantonal sovereignty and feudal rights. The occupying forces established a centralised state based on the ideas of the French Revolution.

Many Swiss citizens resisted these "progressive" ideas, particularly in the central areas of the country. Some of the more controversial aspects of the new regime limited freedom of worship, which outraged many of the more devout citizens.

In response, the Cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Nidwalden raised an army of about 10,000 men led by Alois von Reding to fight the French. This army was deployed along the defensive line from Napf to Rapperswil. Reding besieged French-controlled Lucerne and marched across the Brünig pass into the Berner Oberland to support the armies of Bern.  At the same time, the French General Balthasar Alexis Henri Antoine of Schauenburg marched out of occupied Zürich to attack Zug, Lucerne and the Sattel pass.  Even though Reding's army won victories at Rothenthurm and Morgarten, Schauenburg's victory near Sattel allowed him to threaten the town of Schwyz.  On 4 May 1798, the town council of Schwyz surrendered.

On 13 May, Reding and Schauenburg agreed to a cease-fire, the terms of which included the rebel cantons merging into a single one, thus limiting their effectiveness in the central government. However, the French failed to keep their promises in respecting religious matters and before the year was out there was another uprising in Nidwalden which the authorities crushed, with towns and villages burnt down by French troops.

No general agreement existed about the future of the Swiss. Leading groups split into the , who wanted a united republic, and the Federalists, who represented the old aristocracy and demanded a return to cantonal sovereignty. Coup attempts became frequent and the new régime had to rely on the French to survive. Furthermore, the occupying forces insisted that the accommodation and feeding of the soldiers be paid for by the local populace, which drained the economy. The treaty of alliance of 19 August with France, which also reaffirmed the French annexation of the Prince-Bishopric of Basel and imposed French rights over the Upper Rhine and the Simplon Pass for evident strategic reasons towards Germany and Italy, also broke the tradition of neutrality established by the Confederation. All this made it difficult to establish a new working state.

In 1799, Switzerland became a virtual battle-zone between the French, Austrian, and Imperial Russian armies, with the locals supporting mainly the latter two, rejecting calls to fight with the French armies in the name of the Helvetic Republic.

Instability in the Republic reached its peak in 1802–1803; it included the  uprising and the  civil war of 1802. By then, the Republic was 12 million francs in debt, having started with a treasury of 6 million francs. This, together with local resistance, caused the Helvetic Republic to collapse, and its government took refuge in Lausanne.

At that time, Napoleon Bonaparte, then First Consul of France, summoned representatives of both sides to Paris in order to negotiate a solution. Although the Federalist representatives formed a minority at the conciliation conference, known as the "Helvetic Consulta", Bonaparte characterised Switzerland as federal "by nature" and considered it unwise to force the country into any other constitutional framework.

On 19 February 1803, the Act of Mediation abolished the Helvetic Republic and restored the cantons. With the abolition of the centralized state, Switzerland became a confederation once again, called the Swiss Confederation.

Constitution
Before the advent of the Helvetic Republic, each individual canton had exercised complete sovereignty over its own territory or territories. Little central authority had existed, with matters concerning the country as a whole confined mainly to meetings of leading representatives from the cantons: the  Diets.

The constitution of the Helvetic Republic came mainly from the design of Peter Ochs, a magistrate from Basel. It established a central two-chamber legislature which included the Grand Council (with 8 members per canton) and the Senate (4 members per canton). The executive, known as the Directory, comprised 5 members. The Constitution also established actual Swiss citizenship, as opposed to just citizenship of one's canton of birth.  Under the Old Swiss Confederacy, citizenship was granted by each town and village only to residents. These citizens enjoyed access to community property and in some cases additional protection under the law.  Additionally, the urban towns and the rural villages had differing rights and laws.  The creation of a uniform Swiss citizenship, which applied equally for citizens of the old towns and their tenants and servants, led to conflict.  The wealthier villagers and urban citizens held rights to forests, common land and other municipal property which they did not want to share with the "new citizens", who were generally poor.  The compromise solution, which was written into the municipal laws of the Helvetic Republic, is still valid today. Two politically separate but often geographically similar organizations were created.  The first, the so-called municipality, was a political community formed by-election and its voting body consists of all resident citizens. However, the community land and property remained with the former local citizens who were gathered together into the .

After an uprising led by Alois von Reding in 1798, some cantons were merged, thus reducing their anti-centralist effectiveness in the legislature. Uri, Schwyz, Zug and Unterwalden together became the canton of Waldstätten; Glarus and the Sarganserland became the canton of Linth, and Appenzell and  St. Gallen combined as the canton of Säntis.

Due to the instability of the situation, the Helvetic Republic had over 6 constitutions in a period of 4 years.

Legacy

The Helvetic Republic did highlight the desirability of a central authority to handle matters for the country as a whole (as opposed to the individual cantons which handled matters at the local level). In the post-Napoleonic era, the differences between the cantons (varying currencies and systems of weights and measurements) and the perceived need for better co-ordination between them came to a head and culminated in the Swiss Federal Constitution of 1848. The Republic's 5-member Directory resembles the 7-member Swiss Federal Council, Switzerland's  executive.

The Helvetic Republic is still very controversial within Switzerland. Carl Hilty described the period as the first democratic experience in Swiss territory, while within conservatism it is seen as a time of national weakness and loss of independence. For cantons such as Vaud, Thurgau and Ticino, the three who in 1898 celebrated the centenary of their independence, the Republic was a time of political freedom and liberation from the rule of other cantons. However, the period was also marked by foreign domination and instability, and for the cantons of Bern, Schwyz and Nidwalden it signified military defeat.
In 1995, the Federal Assembly chose not to celebrate the 200 year anniversary of the Helvetic Republic but to allow individual cantons to celebrate if they wished. The Federal Councilors took part in official events in Aargau in January 1998.

The Helvetic period represents a key step toward the modern federal state. For the first time, the population was defined as Swiss, not as inhabitants of a specific canton.

Administrative divisions

The Helvetic Republic reduced the formerly sovereign cantons to mere administrative division, though keeping the denomination of cantons, while also raising to such status unrepresented territories previously ruled as subjects of the Confederation. In order to weaken the old power-structures, it defined new boundaries for some cantons. The Act of 1798 and subsequent developments resulted in the following cantons:

 Aargau (without Baden and Fricktal)
 Baden
 Basel
 Bellinzona
 Bern (without Oberland)
 Fribourg
 Fricktal, created in 1802
 Léman (corresponding to Vaud)
 Linth
 Lugano
 Lucerne
 Oberland
 Raetia (corresponding to Graubünden/Grisons)
 Säntis
 Schaffhausen
 Solothurn
 Thurgau
 Waldstätten
 Valais
 Zürich

Predecessor states
As well as the Old Swiss Confederacy, the following territories became part of the Helvetic Republic:

Associate states

There were four associated states:

  Republic of the Seven Tithings
  Imperial Abbey of St Gall
  Imperial City of St Gall
 Free state of the Three Leagues
  League of God's House
  Grey League
  League of the Ten Jurisdictions

Condominiums

There were 21 condominiums:

  County of Baden
  Vogtei of Bellinzona
  Vogtei of Blenio
  Freie Ämter
  Vogtei of Gams / Hohensax
  Lordship of Grandson
  Vogtei of Leventina
  Landvogtei of Locarno
  Landvogtei of Lugano
  Landvogtei of Mendrisio
  Vogtei of Murten
   Vogtei of Orbe-Échallens
  Imperial Abbey of Pfäfers
  Vogtei of Rheintal
  Vogtei of Rivera
  County of Sargans
  Schwarzenburg / Grasburg
  Landgraviate of Thurgau
  County of Uznach
  Landvogtei of Valmaggia
  Vogtei of Windegg

Protectorates
There were five protectorates:

  Engelberg Abbey
  Republic of Gersau
  City of Rapperswil
  Barony of Sax-Forstegg
  County of Werdenberg

Unassociated territories
The Helvetic Republic also annexed two territories not previously part of Switzerland:

  Fricktal, a part of the Breisgau, within the Habsburg Further Austria, retained by Aargau
  Konstanz, a part of the Bishopric of Constance, later restored to the Grand Duchy of Baden

See also
 Switzerland in the Napoleonic era
 List of officials of the Helvetic Republic
 Valais History

References

External links
 Marabello, Thomas Quinn (2023) "Challenges to Swiss Democracy: Neutrality, Napoleon, & Nationalism," Swiss American Historical Society Review, Vol. 59: No. 2. Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/sahs_review/vol59/iss2/5. Pg. 46-48.

 Divisions of Switzerland under Napoleon

Client states of the Napoleonic Wars
Former republics
1790s in Europe
1800s in Switzerland
States and territories established in 1798
States and territories disestablished in 1803
1798 establishments in France
1803 disestablishments in France
18th-century establishments in Switzerland
1803 disestablishments in Switzerland
Former countries

Helvetic Republic


Vishwanath Kashinath Rajwade (24 July 1863 – 31 December 1926), popularly known as Itihasacharya Rajwade, was a historian, scholar, writer, commentator and orator from Bombay Presidency, in British India. He is considered to be the first in real sense to undertake an immense research of Maratha history by visiting hundreds of villages and historical places all over India and gathering thousands of historical papers. He was also a commentator on various aspects of world history. He was the founder member of Itihas Sanshodhak Mandal, Pune. His students include historians like Datto Vaman Potdar, Vasudeo Sitaram Bendrey and G. H. Khare.

The historian, Ram Sharan Sharma says: "With his unadulterated passion for research, V.K.Rajwade went from village to village in Maharashtra in search of Sanskrit manuscripts and sources of Maratha history; which were published in twenty-two volumes."

Rajwade should not be confused with "Ahitagni" Shankar Ramchandra Rajwade, the Vedic scholar.

The Indian History Congress has constituted the Vishwanath Kashinath Rajwade Award for lifelong service and contribution to Indian history.

Early life
Rajwade was born in a Chitpavan Brahmin family on 24 June 1863. Rajwade's grandfather was the Killedar of fort Lohagad in the province of Pune. He was born in Varsai village, in Raigad district, Maharashtra. His father died while he was a child and from then he was brought up by his uncle at Vadgaon near Pune. He matriculated in January 1882 and graduated in 1890 from Deccan College, Pune. During his degree course he came into close contact with eminent historian Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar, who was then a professor at the college. He was also inspired by the works of Essayist Vishnushastri Krushnashastri Chiplunkar, lexicographer Parshuram Tatya Godbole and Kavyeitihas Sangrahakar Sane.

Later life

Rajwade married after graduating college but his wife died young. Thereafter he chose to remain single and dedicate his life to history and research. In 1895 he started a Marathi magazine called Bhashantar (meaning 'translation') through which he brought works of Western historians and scholars such as Plato, Aristotle, and Edward Gibbon, and also Indian scholars like Shankaracharya in Marathi. Simultaneously, by writing articles and delivering speeches he also started educating Marathi people on several subjects like history of Marathas, history of world, history of Marathi literature, grammar of Marathi and Sanskrit languages. In 1910, he founded Bharat Itihas Sanshodhak Mandal at Pune and kept all his works and historical papers gathered by him in the custody of the Mandal.

After his sudden death in 1926, 'Rajwade Sanshodhak Mandal' was founded at Dhule and his works and collection of his later life was kept there. Both  institutions have been contributing in the field of history and culture of India to this  date.

Works in Marathi as a researcher / historian / editor

Marathyanchya Itihasachi Sadhane (Sources of the History of Marathas) – 22 Volumes. He wrote the preface of each of 22 volume very scholarly.
Radha Madhav Vilas Champu (Biography of Shahaji)
Aitihasik Prastavana (Historical Prefaces)
Rajwade Lekhsangraha  (Collection of essays) – 3 Volumes
Bharatiya Vivah Sansthecha Itihas (History of Indian matrimony)
Dnyaneshwari  (Editor)
 Mahikavatichi Bakhar (chronicle of Mahikavati aka Mahim in present-day Mumbai)-detailed analysis & publication.

References

External links
 Historian V K Rajawade's works to hit the stands at www.indianexpress.com

 Dr. Jyotsna Kamat on V.K. Rajwade
 www.sahyadribooks.org Books of VK Rajwade are available on this web site

1863 births
1926 deaths
19th-century Indian historians
Marathi-language writers
20th-century Indian historians
People from Raigad district
People from Dhule district
People from Dhule

Historians from British India
People from Bombay Presidency

Vishwanath Kashinath Rajwade


An automated external defibrillator is a special type of defibrillator which can be used by people without medical education. A defibrillator is used to treat certain kinds of heart problems using controlled electric shocks. Almost all heart problems are medical emergencies. For each minute, that such a heart problem is left untreated, the chance of survival drops by about ten percent. Even if they are alerted immediately, emergency teams take some time to arrive. For this reason automated external defibrillator have been placed in locations where they are easily accessible, such as airports, and railway stations.

In many cases, using such a defibrillator will alert emergency services. Very often, the defibrillator will guide the person helping through its use. In some countries such as the United Kingdom, regional public ambulance services provide lists for people to show where all the publicly accessible defibrillators are located in their region (East of England Ambulance Services Trust for example).  In some open public locations, defibrillators are secured in special cases which need a code to open them (see the example on the right).  When you call for an ambulance, you tell the operator the location code on the case, and they give you the code to unlock it to get the defibrillator out.

Studies where conducted to see the survival rates of cardiac arrest. They showed that when  public access defibrillators were used, the patient had a median chance of survival of forty percent. When operated by non-dispatched lay first responders they have the highest likelihood of leading to survival.

References

Medical equipment
Emergency medicine

Automated external defibrillator


Matematik terapan mangrupa cabang matematik that concerns itself with the application of mathematical knowledge to other domains. Such applications include analisis numeris, mathematics of engineering, linear programming, optimization and operations research, continuous modelling, mathematical biology and bioinformatics, information theory, game theory, probability and statistics, financial mathematics, actuarial science, cryptography and hence combinatorics and even finite geometry to some extent, graph theory as applied to network analysis, and a gréat déal of what is called computer science.

The question of what is applied mathematics does not answer to logical classification so much as to the sociology of professionals who use math. The mathematical methods are usually applied to the specific problem field by méans of a mathematical model of the system.

Engineering math describes physical processes, and so is often indistinguishable from theoretical physics. Important subdivisions include:
 Fluid dynamics
 Acoustic theory
 Maxwell's equations that govern electromagnetism
 Mechanics
 Numerical relativity

External links
 The Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics is a professional society dedicated to promoting the interaction between mathematics and other scientific and technical communities.
 The Institute for Mathematics and its Applications (IMA) was founded by and receives major support from the National Science Foundation Division of Mathematical Sciences to carry out a crucial interdisciplinary mission. It also receives support and direction from its Participating Institutions and Participating Corporations.

Matematik terapan


In biology, a medusa (plural: medusae) is a form of cnidarian in which the body is shaped like an umbrella. The other main body-form is the polyp.

Medusae vary from bell-shaped to the shape of a thin disk, scarcely convex above and only slightly concave below. The upper or aboral surface is called the exumbrella and the lower surface is called the subumbrella; the mouth is on the lower surface, which may be partially closed by a membrane extending inward from the margin (called the velum). The digestive cavity consists of the gastrovascular cavity and radiating canals which extend toward the margin; these canals may be simple or branching, and vary in number from few to many. The margin of the disk bears sensory organs and tentacles.

In the class Hydrozoa, medusae are the sexual individuals of many species, alternating in the life cycle with asexual polyps. The medusa form of Hydrozoans are known as hydromedusae. A polyp is the form that attaches to a surface, while a medusa is the form that is free-floating; a species of cnidarian may take each form in a different phase of its life.

The medusa form predominates in the classes Scyphozoa (the common, colourful, large jellyfish) and Cubozoa. Except for freshwater hydrozoans like Craspedacusta sowerbyi, these are the only classes in which medusae appear.

Medusae may have many tentacles with which they catch their prey. Sometimes, people bathing in the ocean are touched by a medusa. Their tentacles are long and thin and covered in venomous stinging cells (known as nematocysts). They inject poison which immobilizes small fish. People who are stung should seek medical attention. There have been some deaths after severe medusa stings.

Related pages
Jellyfish

Cnidarians

en:Medusa (biology)

Medusa (biology)


Mary Wollstonecraft (; 27 Aprile 1759 – 10 September 1797) wis an aichteent-century Inglis writer, philosopher, an advocate o weemen's richts. In her brief career, she wrote novelles, treatises, a traivel narrative, a history o the French Revolution, a conduct beuk, and a childer's beuk. Wollstonecraft is best kent for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in that she argies that weemen are nae naiturally inferior tae men, but appear tae be anerly acause thay lack eddication. She suggests that baith men an weemen shoud be treatit as raitional beins an imagines a social order foondit on raison.

Till the late 20t century, Wollstonecraft's life, that encompassed several unconventional personal relationships, received mair attention than her writin. Efter twa ill-fatit affairs, wi Henry Fuseli an Gilbert Imlay (bi that she haed a dochter, Fanny Imlay), Wollstonecraft mairied the philosofer William Godwin, ane o the forefaithers o the anarchist muivement. Wollstonecraft dee'd at the age o 38, eleven days efter giein birth tae her seicont dochter, leavin behind several unfeenished manuscripts. This dochter, Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, becam an accomplished writer hersel, as Mary Shelley, that's best kent wark wis Frankenstein.

Efter Wollstonecraft's daith, her widaer published a Memoir (1798) o her life, revealin her unorthodox lifestyle, that inadvertently destroyed her reputation for awmaist a century. Houiver, wi the emergence o the feminist muivement at the turn o the twentiet century, Wollstonecraft's advocacy o weemen's equality an critiques o conventional femininity becam increasingly important. The day Wollstonecraft is regairdit as ane o the foondin feminist philosophers, an feminists eften cite baith her life an wark as important influences.

Eddication writers
Inglis historians
Inglis novelists
Inglis weemen novelists
Inglis non-feection writers
Inglis traivel writers
Weemen traivel writers
Inglis weemen writers
Inglis philosophers
Enlichtenment philosophers
Inglis weemen philosophers
18t-century Inglis writers
18t-century Breetish novelists
18t-century philosophers
18t-century weemen writers
Inglis essayists
Weemen essayists
Inglis feminists
Feminist philosophers
Feminist writers
Fowk frae Spitalfields
Daiths in bairnbirth
Daiths frae sepsis
Historians o the French Revolution
French–Inglis translators
German–Inglis translators
1759 births
1797 daiths
Buirials at St Pancras Auld Kirk

Mary Wollstonecraft


The lotus position (Sanskrit: Padmasanam) is a cross-legged sitting position which  is common in meditative practices of Hinduism. It is a part of the Hindu Yoga tradition. The position is said to resemble a lotus plant and to encourage proper breathing and to be helpful for physical stability.

References
Becoming the Lotus: How to Achieve the Full Lotus Posture by Anton Temple (Author), Franca Gallo (Editor), Pip Faulks (Illustrator) Paperback: 64 pages, Publisher: Merkur Publishing, Inc (1 Dec 2006) Language: English, , Dimensions: 5.8 x 8.3 inches
Yoga, Tantra and Meditation in Daily Life by Swami Janakananda Saraswati (Author), Paperback: 128 pages, Publisher: Red Wheel/Weiser (Sep 1992), Language: English, , Dimensions: 8.3 x 9.8 x 0.3 inches

Other websites
Animation - How to go into a Lotus Pose
Padmasana (Lotus Pose)
Crossing the legs
Crossing the legs 2
Crossing the legs 3
Crossing the legs 4
Crossing the legs 5

Yoga

Lotus position


The word supernatural (from ) is used for things that some people believe are real, but that are not part of nature or inexplicable by the scientific laws of nature. Because we cannot prove whether these things are real, people often disagree about these things.

Some say that we should talk about things without talking about the supernatural, because we cannot prove that supernatural things are real. Other people say that although we cannot prove supernatural things in a scientific way, they are real. Some examples of supernatural things or examples are:

 magic
 miracles
 precognition
 demonic possession
 souls, spirits or ghosts
 monsters
 yōkai
 grim reaper
 angels
 devils, asuras or demon
 kami
 UFOs
 legendary creatures
 God or gods
 parapsychology

Related pages
Religion
Belief
Superstition
Ritual
Near death experience
Naturalism (philosophy) - the idea that the supernatural does not exist

Religion

Supernatural