Ex parte Young, 209 U.S. 123 (1908), is a United States Supreme Court case that allows suits in federal courts for injunctions against officials acting on behalf of states of the union to proceed despite the State's sovereign immunity, when the State acted contrary to any federal law or contrary to the Constitution.

Facts
The state of Minnesota passed laws limiting what railroads could charge in that state and established severe penalties, including fines and jail for violators. Some shareholders of Northern Pacific Railway filed a lawsuit in the United States Circuit Court for the District of Minnesota asserting that the laws were unconstitutional as violating the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, as well as the Dormant Commerce Clause. The shareholders sued the railroads to prevent them from complying with the law. They also sued Edward T. Young, the Attorney General of Minnesota, to prevent him from enforcing the law.

Young argued that the Eleventh Amendment, which prohibits states from being sued in federal court by citizens of other states, meant that the court did not have jurisdiction to hear the case. The federal circuit court still issued an injunction against Young enforcing the law. The following day, Young filed a proceeding in Minnesota state court to force the railroads to comply with the statute, in violation of the federal injunction. The court ordered Young to explain his actions, and he reiterated his Eleventh Amendment claim. Finding that Young violated the injunction of the federal court by enforcing the Minnesota law in state court, the court held Young in contempt. Young was placed in the custody of the U.S. Marshals Service, and so he filed a petition with the United States Supreme Court for a writ of habeas corpus for his release.

Issue
The Supreme Court faced three issues here. The first involved three questions as to the constitutionality of the Minnesota statutes:
 Did the statutes violate Fourteenth Amendment due process by setting too low a cap on the rates that railroads could charge?
 Did the statutes violate Fourteenth Amendment due process by establishing punishments so harsh that no one would challenge the laws, for fear of the consequences of losing such a challenge?
 Did the statutes violate the Commerce Clause by interfering with commerce between the states?

The second issue exposed the tension between the Eleventh Amendment and the Fourteenth Amendment. The Eleventh Amendment had recently been held in Hans v. Louisiana, 134 U.S. 1 (1890), to prohibit the federal courts from hearing suits by citizens against their own states. Conversely, the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits the states from violating the due process rights of their citizens. Could a federal court entertain a lawsuit seeking to enjoin a state official from carrying out state laws that were purportedly in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment?

Result
The Court, in an opinion written by Justice Rufus Wheeler Peckham, found that the Minnesota laws with respect to the railroad rates were unconstitutional, and moved on to the issue of whether the state official could be enjoined from prosecuting violations of such laws.

Failure to enjoin the unconstitutional statute would require the person subject to a potential violation to either pay the increased rate or face the threat of prosecution. Therefore, the Court determined that it would be unfair to require challengers of a law to wait until they faced a harsh sanction before they could bring any kind of action questioning the validity of that law. The Court also noted that, although a number of cases had held that the state itself could not be sued, those cases did not prohibit enjoining a state official, as an individual, from carrying out some task on behalf of the state.

Young contended that he was merely acting for the state of Minnesota when he sought to enforce its laws. The Court disagreed, holding that when a state official does something that is unconstitutional, the official cannot possibly be doing it in the name of the state, because the Supremacy Clause of the Constitution means that the Constitution overrides all the laws of the states, invalidating any contrary laws. Therefore, when a state official attempts to enforce an unconstitutional law, that individual is stripped of his official character. He becomes merely another citizen who can constitutionally be brought before a court by a party seeking injunctive relief.

The Court, in laying out this doctrine, created two legal fictions:
 That such a suit is not against the state, but merely against the individual officer, who cannot be acting on behalf of the state when he enforces a law that is unconstitutional; and
 That an individual can be a state actor for Fourteenth Amendment purposes (which only prohibits unconstitutional acts by the state, and those who represent it) while remaining a private person for sovereign immunity purposes.

The Court also rejected the contention raised by Young that an injunction was inappropriate because the railroads could get an adequate remedy by testing the statute in the courts. The Court noted that the railroads could never recover the costs of obeying the law while waiting for it to be adjudicated unconstitutional.

Based on these findings, the Court held that suits may be brought to enjoin state officials from enforcing unconstitutional laws in the United States District Courts, which have the power to enjoin those officials from enforcing such laws.

Dissent
Justice John Marshall Harlan angrily dissented, writing that the only reason that the suit was brought against Young was because he represented the state, and that the result of the suit would be to "tie the hands of the state". This was therefore no different from a suit against the state itself, prohibited by the Eleventh Amendment.

Harlan observed that the state can never act except through its officers, and this decision would deprive the state of the representation of its officers in court. He therefore condemned the decision as a "radical change in our government system" that "would place the states of the Union in a condition of inferiority never dreamed of when the Constitution was adopted or when the Eleventh Amendment was made a part of the supreme law of the land."

Harlan also contended that Constitutional rights can be enforced by suits in the state courts, instead of the federal courts. If the state's trial courts did not enforce the Constitution, they could be appealed up to the state supreme court, which could then be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court.

Erwin Chemerinsky's opus Federal Jurisdiction also discusses the case.

See also
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 209

References

External links

United States Supreme Court cases
United States Eleventh Amendment case law
1908 in United States case law
Northern Pacific Railway
Legal history of Minnesota
United States Commerce Clause case law
United States Supreme Court cases of the Fuller Court

Ex parte Young


Mateur () is a toun in northren Tunisie. It is locatit at aroond , close tae the Lac Ichkeul National Park.

Owerview

Locatit in the soothwast o the govrenorate o Bizerte, Mateur is the coonty seat o a delegation o 47,562 inhabitants (2004) while its toun coonts 31,345 inhabitants dividit in 7319 families an occupy 6060 accommodation accordin tae the magazine editit bi the municipality o Mateur (edition 2006).

Concernin the etymological ruit o the name o the ceety, some fowk see a Laitin oreegin : Matarensis wad hae been the name o an oppidum locatit on the site o Mateur durin the auncient period. It is an aa kent in different epochs unner ither names as Materense, Matarus, Matari, Mataris, Matar an Mataritanae. On the ither hand, the Arabists see a rapprochement wi the term o Matra (in the plural Amtar) which means "precipitation", referrin tae the rainfaw level o the region.

This ceety, the first toun cooncil o which is instawed on 12 October 1898, wis considered tae be an important strategical point durin the Seicont Warld War. It is tae note that the municipality o Mateur celebratit the 110t birthday during year 2008.

The ceety is locatit in the middle o a first-rate agrarian region awin tae the fecundity o the lands o the ambient lawland. An important mercat is held there ivery Friday an Seturday in the course o which they notably sell there the stock an grain. It unites producers o the neighbourin localities (Jefna, Joumine, Bazina, Sedjenane, Ghezala, etc) an purchasers come frae juist aboot ivery ceety in Tunisie. Mateur coonts an aa 2 industrial zones whaur is instawed aboot twinty foreign firms wirkin in various auries: wirin, mechanics, telecommunications, textile industry, etc.

Naitional Pairks

Nearby is the naitional pairk o Ichkeul, which contains sites protectit bi mony internaitional institutions (UNESCO an WWF), awin tae the diversity o its fauna an its flora. It shelters the lake o the same name which is the biggest natural lake o North Africae.

Education

Nouadays, the ceety haes twa establishments o heicher education:

 The heich o heicher education o agricultur

 The Heich Institute o rapid sciences an electricity (ISET Mateur)

References

Populatit places in Tunisie
Communes o Tunisie

Mateur


African Sanctus is a musical composition for choir, soloists, orchestra and prerecorded tape by David Fanshawe.  It was composed in 1972.

African Sanctus is the best-known of Fanshawe's works.  It was composed after Fanshawe had made journeys to Africa up the river Nile between 1969 and 1973.  The shape of his journey forms the shape of a cross.  This had a religious meaning for Fanshawe.  He made recordings on tape of the people he met singing their traditional music.  A lot of this music had never been recorded before.  When he returned home to Britain he composed the African Sanctus.  Some of the recordings he had made in Africa are played as part of the performance.  The choir who sing live at the concert are singing some of the words of the traditional Christian Latin Mass.

The recordings are from Egypt, the Sudan, Uganda and Kenya.

At first it was called African Revelations, but then the title was changed to African Sanctus.  It was first performed in London by the Saltarello Choir in July 1972, and was later played on BBC Radio on United Nations Day.  A documentary film was made three years later showing how the work had been composed.

Description of the music

Movement I is based on music from North Uganda in which the Acholi people perform a royal welcome dance.  The live choir sing the words of the Sanctus.
Movement II uses a recording of the Azan: a call to prayer by the Imam, in the Muhammad Ali Mosque in Cairo.  The live choir sing Kyrie.  Fanshawe is joining the two faiths: Muslim and Christian.
Movement III starts with the music of an Egyptian wedding.  The live choir sing the Gloria, often shouting.
Movement IV consists of courtship dances.  It leads to four men in a trance singing words from the Koran in a mixture of dialects and Arabic.  The live choir sing a praise of thanks to God.
Movement V has the song of a cattle boy in the deserts by the Red Sea Hills.  Bells announce the birth of a baby boy.
Movement VI A Zande family who had fled into Uganda from South Sudan sing a song about Jesus who has saved them from the terrors of war.
Movement VII We hear frogs and a Uganda dance in which young girls are praising their boyfriends who are fighting.  A storm comes and this is combined with the live choir singing "Crucify!"
Movement VIII Many different sounds are mixed here, and we hear the Madinda, which is a kind of xylophone made out of canoe boards balanced across two banana trunks.  The live choir sing "Sanctus!" ("Holy!").
Movement IX The live choir sing a beautiful setting of the Lord's Prayer.  The words in this movement are in English,  not in Latin.   Fanshawe got the idea for this music from hearing a mother singing a lament for a dead fisherman on the shores of a lake in Uganda.
Movement X The live choir sing "For thine is the kingdom".  Four songs are heard on the tape: a milking song from Kenya, a song of a river in Uganda, a cattle song from Northern Kenya and a burial dance from Western Kenya.
Movement XI thinks about the refugees in countries such as Sudan and Rwanda.  We hear the sound of war drums in the distance.  The live choir sing the Agnus Dei ("Lamb of God").
Movement XII This is a repeat of the Kyrie, but the live choir and the tape are mixed in different ways.
Movement XIII This is a return of the Sanctus and Gloria with the energetic dance of the Bwala dancers from Uganda.

Performances

The work has been performed in many places in Britain and all round the world.  Fanshawe comes to many of these concerts personally.

In 1994 David Fanshawe composed an extra movement for a new recording of the work, the Dona Nobis Pacem - A Hymn for World Peace, which completed the Agnus Dei. Based on this new recording, the BBC commissioned the maker of the 1975 documentary, Herbert Chappell, to make a new programme, African Sanctus Revisited,

References
 David Fanshawe's programme notes (printed in Summer Celebration, Milton Keynes City Church programme 12 July 2009).

Other websites
African Sanctus official website

Choral compositions
World music

African Sanctus


जिंजी (तमिळ:செஞ்சி (सेंजी) हे तमिळनाडूच्या विल्लुपुरम जिल्ह्यातील गाव आहे.

The nearest town with a railway station is Tindivanam, 28 km away.

Gingee is located between three hills covering a perimeter of 3 km.

किल्ल्याविषयी माहिती साठी हे पहा
जिंजीचा किल्ला.

Gingee is famous for its Gingee Fort, a popular tourist attraction. The Fort in Gingee was built by the Chola dynasty in 13th century. In 1638, Gingee came under the control of Bijapur Sultanate from Vijayanagar. In 1677, it was under the control of Maratha king Shivaji. In 1690, it changed to be under Mughal, under whose rule it became the headquarters of Arcot. It changed hands to the French in 1750, and then to the British in 1762. In the 18th century, it was occupied again by the French for 11 years. During this time, many sculptural aspects of Gingee were shifted to Pondicherry by the French.

To visit Gingee fort, guides are available from archaeological office which is on the way to the fort. The office is open for visitors from 9:00 to 17:00.

History

The Gingee country then came under the rule of the Hoysalas in the later part of the 13th and in the first half of the 14th century. From the Hoysalas it passed on, by relatively easy efforts, into the hands of the first rulers of Vijayanagara empire. The Vijayanagar dominion gradually expanded over South India and divided the administration into three important provinces, which were under the control of Nayaks. These were the Nayaks of Madura, Nayaks of Tanjore and Gingee. Information about the Gingee Nayaks and their rule is very scanty. It is said that Tupakula Krishnappa Nayaka (1490 to 1521) of a Chandragiri Balija [1][2][3][4][5][6] family was the founder of the Nayaka line of Gingee kings. He seems to have ruled gloriously all over the coast from Nellore down to the Coleroon up to 1521 A.D. Under the Nayaks the Forts were strengthened and the town was greatly enlarged.

The last Nayak of Gingee was forced to surrender to the Bijapur army towards the end of December 1649 A.D. The booty acquired by the Mohammedan rulers of Bijapur was 20 crores of rupees in cash and jewels. Gingee assumed a new and enhanced strategic importance under the Bijapur governors. Bijapur was in possession of the fortress of Gingee till 1677 A.D., when the famous Sivaji, the son of Shaji fell upon it in his momentous Carnatic expedition. The Marathas greatly strengthened and fortified its defences.

The Mughals were then able to capture the fort of Gingee in the Carnatic from Ramaraja the King of the Marathas, early in 1698, after a protracted and weak siege of seven years. Zulfikar Khan, the son of Asad Khan, the Grand Vizir in the court of Aurangazeb, was in command of the siege operation of Gingee and of its governor till he left the Carnatic after about a year from its fall.

After that Aurangazeb, granted a mansab of 2,500 rank and jagir of 12 lakhs to Swarup Singh, a Bundela Chieftain, along with the killedari of Gingee in 1700 A.D. Raja Sawrup Singh died of old age in 1714 A.D. His arrears of payments due to the faujdari amounted to 70 lakhs, being a defaulter for ten years. The Nawab of Arcot reported this matter to the Badshah (Mughal Emperor) at Delhi. Hearing about the death of his father, Desingh, the son of Raja Sarup Singh, started for Gingee from Bundelkhand, his ancestral home.

On arriving at Gingee, Desingh assumed the government of Gingee after performing the last rites of his father. Aurangazeb had granted a firman to his father and Desingh took formal possession of his father's jaghir on ground of his hereditary right. Desingh did not receive a warm welcome from the Mughal officers. The Nawab of Arcot, Sadatullah Khan, who attempted to dispossess Desingh, pleaded that the firman was not valid. When Payya Ramakrishna, who was his secretary, informed him of the legal necessity of getting the firman renewed by the new Emperor before assuming the jaghir, Desingh replied that he had got the firman of Aurangazeb and that he need not apply to anybody else.

In fact after regaining the fort from Marathas, Aurangzeb had first appointed Nawab Daud Khan as the deputy subhadar of the Deccan. Nawab Daud Khan removed his headquarters from Gingee to the town of Arcot, as he believed that the place was not healthy. This diminished the importance of Gingee. While shifting his headquarters, Daud Khan appointed Sadatullah Khan as his Diwan and Faujdar in 1708. Sadatullah Khan later became the Nawab of the two Carnatics in 1713, under Nizam-Ul-Mulk. He was the regular and acknowledged Nawab of the Carnatic between the years 1710 and 1732 A.D. After the death of Raja Swarup Singh he renewed the demand for the arrears of revenue with his son Raja De Singh. This lead to a battle between the two, which unfortunately ended in the death of the young and valiant Rajput, Desingh on 3 October 1714.

The gallantry displayed by Desingh at the young age of 22, against the powerful Nawab Sadatulla Khan of Arcot in a struggle that was hopeless from the outset (Desingh's army consisted of only 350 horses and 500 troopers, while the Nawab's army had 8,000 horsemen and 10,000 sepoys) has made us remember him forever. The ballets are sung in and around Gingee till date about his bravery. However, the fortress of Gingee lost its pre-eminent position and political importance within a few years of the extinction of the Rajput rule.

Subsequently, the two European rival powers in India, the English and the French, got themselves involved in the internal quarrels and fights and the French won for themselves the Gingee fortress on the 11th Sept., 1750, under the initiative of Bussy. They took good care to secure the fort by a strong garrison, which was well supported with artillery and ammunition.

Gingee remained firmly in French possession until after the fall of Pondicherry to Sir Eyre Coote in January 1761. The English commander was Captain Stephen Smith. With the fall of Gingee the French lost their last possession in the Carnatic.

Gingee regained its political importance, for the last time in its fateful history, in 1780 A.D, when Haidar Ali, helped by some able French Officers, invaded Carnatic with a force of 90,000 men. Haidar's men appeared before the fortress and easily carried it by their assault in November 1780. The English re-conquered it at the close of the second Mysore war from Tippu Sultan in 1799. After that Gingee had been free from the ravages and anarchy of war, but subject to desolation and decay. During the frequent Indo-French Wars, the British resident wanted the Fort and The Fortification to be demolished. Luckily his suggestion was not accepted and the Fort remains for us to experience and relive the history.

भूगोल
जिंजीचे अक्षांश-रेखांश  आहेत. हे शहर समुद्रसपाटीपासून सरासरी ९२ मीटर (३०१ फूट) उंचीवर आहे.

वस्तीविभागणी
२००१ च्या जनगणनेनुसार  जिंजीची लोकसंख्या २०,८९६ होती. यांपैकी स्त्री-पुरुषांचे गुणोत्तर १:१ होते. जिंजी शहरातील ७३% साक्षर आहेत. त्यात ८१% पुरुष तर ६४% स्त्री साक्षरता आहे. एकूण लोकसंख्येच्या ११% व्यक्ती ६ वर्षांपेक्षा कमी वयाच्या होत्या

The Nayaka Rulers clan

Some of the Nayakas who ruled were: Tupakula Krishnappa Nayaka, Tupakula Chennappa Nayaka, Tupakula Gangama Nayaka, Tupakula Venkata Krishnappa Nayaka, Tupakula Venkata Rama Bhupaala Nayaka, Tupakula Thriyambamka Krishnappa Nayaka, Tupakula Varadappa Nayaka, Tupakula Ramalinga Nayani vaaru, Tupakula Venkata Perumal Naidu, Tupakula Periya Ramabhadra Naidu, Tupakula Ramakrishnappa Naidu

Politics
Gingee assembly constituency is part of [[Arni
(Lok Sabha constituency)]].

References
[1] Velcheru Narayana Rao, David Shulman. Classical Telugu poetry: an anthology, Page 63.
[2] Sanjay Subrahmanyam. Penumbral visions: making polities in early modern South India, page 198.
[3] BS Baliga. Tamil Nadu district gazetteers, page 427.
[4] Delhi School of Economics. The Indian economic and social history review, page 411 mentions:
"... this time run by Balija and other Naidu families, and involving such personages in the 1630s and 1640s as Tubaki Krishnappa Nayaka of the Senji family, ...".
[5] Sanjay Subrahmanyam. The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500-1650, page 304 mentions:
"Achyutappa, it is generally believed, belonged to the Balija Chetti mercantile community, originally of Telugu extraction, but settled in the Tamil region as a part of the extensive migratory movement from the Andhra to the Tamil regions that began c.1350 and continued into our period. The family tree of Achyutappa - to the extent we are aware of it - was as follows":
Siblings of Achyutappa:
Achyutappa--Chinnana--Kesava--Brother(unknown)--Sister(unknown)
Children of Kesava': LaksmanaChildren of Achyutappa's Unknown Brother: Koneri—father of Krishnappa (the founder of Senji Nayaka kingdom). - taken from Chief Merchants and European enclave, p. 324, by Brennig.
[6} Sanjay Subrahmanyam. Improvising empire: Portuguese trade and settlement in the Bay of Bengal, 1500-1700, page 206 mentions: "..perhaps as early as 1608, the VOC's factors had maintained close contact with a family of Balija Naidus: in particular Achyutappa and his brother Chinnanna, but also two nephews, Koneri and Sesadra.."''

 Questioning Ramayanas - by Paula Richman
 The Literary Cultures in History - by Sheldon I Pollock
 Further Sources of Vijayanagara History By K A Nilakanta Sastry
 Penumbral Visions - by Sanjay Subrahmanyam

बाह्य दुवे
 Gingee: History and Architecture
 Gingee Fort

See also

 செஞ்சி
 Gingee

जिंजी


A body double is a person who works in the movie or television production industry. Body doubles are models that act in scenes that actors or actresses do not want to do. For example, body doubles sometimes act in love scenes or scenes of nudity, where a person's body is shown.

Body doubles are usually models that have developed very good bodies by exercising and by eating well. Actors whose characters must appear nude or otherwise show more skin, often have flaws and imperfections such as may come with age or being overweight and it can be expensive to digitally edit these out. Often, movies or television shows that use body doubles do not admit that a body double model was used.

In the popular American movie Pretty Woman, a fashion and parts model named Donna Scoggins posed for the infamous movie poster in thigh-high boots, while another body double, Shelley Michelle, filmed nude scenes that actress Julia Roberts did not want to do.

Related concepts
Another job in the movie and television production industry where people do actions that the actors or actresses do not want to do is the job of stuntman. A stuntman is a person who does dangerous actions in movies, for example, jumping, falling, getting in a car accident, or pretending to fight with knives.

What distinguishes a "stunt person" from a "stunt double" is the particular character they portray. If the character in question is a main character and/or central to the plot and uniquely identifiable, the stuntman is then typically referred to as a "stunt double" in the credits.

References

Entertainment occupations
Performing arts

Body double


The rainbow body in Buddhism is a body that is made of light, not flesh. The term is mostly used in the part of Tibetan Buddhism called Dzogchen.

According to Dzogchen, the rainbow body is a sign of complete mastery of the Dzogchen view. Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche states: "The realized Dzogchen practitioner, no longer deluded by apparent substantiality or dualism such as mind and matter, releases the energy of the elements that compose the physical body at the time of death".

Padmasambhava, who was the founder of Buddhism in Tibet, is often shown with the rainbow body on paintings known as thangkas.

Notes

References
 Blackman, Sushila (Compiled and edited) (1997). Graceful Exits:  How Great Beings Die:  Death Stories Of Tibetan, Hindu & Zen Masters. New York, USA:  Weatherhill, Inc.
 Namkhai Norbu Rinpoche (Edited by John Shane) (1988).  The Crystal and the Way of Light.. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
 Namkhai Norbu Rinpoche (1999). The Crystal and The Way of Light: Sutra, Tantra and Dzogchen. Snow Lion Publications.
 Reynolds, John Myrdhin (1996). The Golden Letters. (1st ed edition). Snow Lion Publications.
 Sogyal Rinpoche; Harvey, Andrew (Editor) & Gaffney, Patrick (Editor)(1993). Tibetan Book of Living and Dying. (Rev and Updated ed.). HarperSanFrancisco.
 Tenzin Wangyal Rinpoche (2002). Healing with Form, Energy, and Light. Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications.

Other websites
 Images of Rainbow Body

Buddhism

Rainbow body


Writing is the act of recording language on a visual medium using a set of symbols. The symbols must be known to others, so that the text may be read.

A text may also use other visual systems, such as illustrations and decorations. These are not called writing, but may help the message work. Usually, all educated people in a country use the same writing system to record the same language. To be able to read and write is to be literate.

Writing differs from speech because the readers need not be present at the time.  We can read writing from long ago, and from different parts of the world.  Text stores and communicates knowledge. Writing is one of the greatest inventions of the human species. It was invented after people settled in towns, and after agriculture started. Writing dates from about 3,300BC, which is over 5000 years ago, in the Middle East.

Writing today is usually on paper, though there are ways to print on almost any surface.   Television and movie screens can also display writing, and so can computer screens.  Many writing materials were invented, long before paper. Clay, papyrus, wood, slate and parchment (prepared animal skins) have all been used. The Romans wrote on waxed tablets with a pointed stylus; this was popular for temporary notes and messages.  The later invention of paper by the Chinese was a big step forward.

Writing is traditionally done using a hand tool such as a pencil, a pen, or a brush. More and more, however, text is created by input on a computer keyboard.

Definition of writing
There are two schools of thought:

Partial writing: Writing is any system of graphic symbols which conveys some thought.
Full writing: Writing is any graphic system which can convey any and all thought.p5

Therefore, depending on an author's definition of writing, the term may be used in different ways. With many early systems we do not know what they do convey. The central idea is that a full writing system must be able to represent anything that might be said in spoken language.p7, 217 From this point of view the invention of the rebus is an essential step.

We can only be sure a sign system is full writing if we can translate the symbols into a modern language. In the case of some ancient scripts we cannot do this.

History of writing
Writing was invented independently a number of times. The Sumerian, the ancient Egyptian, the Chinese and the Mayan writings are separate in their invention.p85 All these writing systems started with pictographs, symbols that stood for things. Then they developed a mixture of methods. Our own alphabetic system  is different. It is based on the sounds of spoken language. All alphabets are modified versions of the first one, which originated with the Phoenicians and the Ancient Greeks.

Sumer

The Sumerians lived in Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. 5000 years ago this was a fertile region and is now mostly in Iraq. The Sumerians developed a form of writing called cuneiform. Triangular marks were pressed into soft clay tablets. After the clay had dried in the sun the tablets were baked. Then they were carried somewhere else for others to read. We know that its first uses were for trade, accounting and administration.

The earliest signs were mostly pictorial, but soon they stood as symbols for objects, ideas and sounds. This writing system was extremely successful, and outlasted the Sumerian empire. It was then used by other civilisations in the Middle East, such as the Old
Akkadian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Elamite, Hittite, Old Persian and Ugaritic empires. The last cuneiform inscription was dated as AD75. Thus the system had lasted for more than 3000 years.p71 Each version of cuneiform had to be deciphered separately, because all the languages were different. Documents (including stone objects) written in more than one language provided the clues.

Ancient Egypt

This is the most famous of the old forms of writing, or scripts. It was invented at roughly the same time as cuneiform, yet was quite different in style, and used different materials. Egyptians ended up with three writing systems for the same language. They were:
1. Hieroglyphic: the famous pictorial language on stone monuments.
2. Hieratic: a cursive  ('running') script used by the priests.
3. Demotic: a cursive script used by the people.

The writing tools used varied according to the material which was written on. The two cursive scripts were written with reed pens and carbon inks onto papyrus. If the material was cloth, then the writing was done by a brush. Many examples survive. The hieroglyphs were inscribed (carved) into stone (hammer & chisel) or painted onto stone surfaces. Many survive, some with the original colours intact. The key event in the decipherment of hieroglyphic writing was the discovery of the Rosetta Stone. This is a granite slab with the same message written in hieroglyphic, demotic and in Greek. Ancient Greek is well understood, and made possible the interpretation of the other two scripts.

Chinese
Chinese is the language with the largest number of native speakers. Its history dates back to about 1400BC.p183 The Chinese writing system is idio-syllabic, a mixed method using characters which may have one or more of these elements:
1. Pictographic: representing objects.
2. Visual logic: the number '3' is three horizontal strokes.
3. Complex logic: the sun is a box with a horizontal mid-stroke.
4. Rebus: "sounds like..." the character for wheat is also used for 'come' because the words are homophonous (sound alike).
5. Semantic-phonetic: combination of a character for meaning with another for sound (pronunciation).

Chinese has a huge number of characters: in the region of 50,000.p186 Because of this, printing methods were never really successful in China, despite their early invention. In the 14th century Wang Tzhen had sixty thousand wood block characters cut, a huge investment in time and money. He printed 100 copies of a local gazette, and was author of a treatise on agriculture and other technical works. Even with printing machines from Europe in the 19th century, the process was hampered by the huge number of characters, which slowed the composition to a snail's pace.

China has eight regional languages that are mutually unintelligible, and many true dialects. The system appears to work mainly because as many as 70% speak Mandarin. Fluency in Chinese reading and writing is undoubtedly difficult to achieve, and this must act as a brake on the drive for literacy. There have been a number of attempts to reform or simplify the system. The most radical in Pinyin, which is a program to replace Chinese characters with an alphabetic system. This was supported by Mao, but faltered after his death.

Alphabets

It seems that the idea of an alphabet–a script based entirely upon sound–arose only once, and has been copied and adapted to suit many different languages. Although no alphabet fits its language perfectly, it is flexible enough to fit any language approximately. It was a unique invention.p12

Our alphabet is called the Roman alphabet, as compared with the Cyrillic and other alphabets. All of these come from the ancient Greek alphabet, which dates back to about 1100 to 800BC.p167 The Greek alphabet was probably developed from the Phoenician script, which appeared somewhat earlier, and had some similar letter-shapes.

The Phoenician language was a Semitic language, often called Canaanite. The Semitic group of languages includes Arabic, Maltese, Hebrew and also Aramaic, the language spoken by Jesus. We do not know much about how the alphabetic idea arose, but the Phoenicians, a trading people, came up with letters which were adapted by the early Greeks to produce their alphabet. The one big difference is that the Phoenician script had no pure vowels. Arabic script has vowels which may be shown by diacritics (small marks above or below the line). The oldest Qu'ran manuscripts had no diacritics. Israeli children today use texts with vowel 'dots' added, to about the third grade.p89

No ancient script, alphabetic or not, had pure vowels before the Greeks. The Greek alphabet even has two vowels for 'e' and two for 'o', to distinguish between the long and short sounds. It is fairly clear from this that careful thought went into both the Phoenician invention and the Greek adaptation. However, no details survive of either process.

Semitic scripts apparently derive from Proto-Sinaitic, a script of which only 31 inscriptions (plus 17 doubtful) are known. It is thought by some researchers that the original source of this script was the Egyptian hieratic script. By the late Middle Kingdom (about 1900BC) hieratic had added some alphabetic signs for representing the consonants of foreign names. Egyptian activity in Sinai was at its height at that time. A similar idea had been suggested many years before.

Undeciphered scripts
There are a number of scripts which have never been deciphered, despite much effort.p145 Perhaps the most famous are the script of the Indus Valley civilization, and Etruscan. The Indus River civilisation predates other literate civilisations on the Indian subcontinent, going back to about 2500BC. Their cities of Mohenjo-Daru and Harappa were well-planned, with good drainage. The script is found on seal stones, terracotta, bronze, bone and ivory. All are brief, and the language is unknown.

The Etruscan language used Greek letter-forms, and is found mainly on Etruscan tombs, from Tuscany through to Venice. They were an empire before the Romans, who defeated them, and absorbed their ideas. All knowledge of their language was lost, except that some of the names on tomb memorials can be read from the Greek letters.

Vinča symbols

The Tărtăria tablets are three tablets discovered in 1961 in the village of Tărtăria (Hungarian: Alsótatárlaka). This is about  from Alba Iulia in Romania. The tablets, dated to around 5300 BC, have symbols in clay: the "Vinča symbols". Some claim they are a yet undeciphered language. If this is so, they would be the earliest known form of writing. In 1908 similar symbols were found during excavations, by Miloje Vasić (1869–1956) in Vinča. This is a suburb of Belgrade (Serbia), some 300 km from Turdaș. Later, more were found in another part of Belgrade. Since 1875 over one hundred and fifty Vinča sites have been found in Serbia alone. Many, including Vinča itself, have not been fully excavated. The culture of the whole area is called the Vinča culture. Although some of these symbols look exactly the same as some letters in Etruscan, Greek, and Aramaic, they are generally regarded as an original, independent development.

Literacy
It is only in the last 150 years that most people have been able to read and write in Europe and North America. In many other parts of the world this did not happen until the 20th century. Until then, literacy was mainly for clerics, that is, people who had training as priests. Even wealthy people were often illiterate, and used scribes to write for them. The invention of printing came before mass literacy. Before 1500, each book had to be created by hand, so there were few books available compared to the billions in the world today. Mass literacy needed cheap books.

Even now, there is still widespread illiteracy. There is often a political dimension to this. People who cannot write are easier to control.

Handwriting
The ordinary use of writing by means of a pen and paper. Can refer to writing for oneself, as in a diary, but mostly it refers to sending letters. Once it was almost the only means of communication between people who were separated. Now, the telephone and e-mail are the most common means of distance communication.

Related pages
Writing system
Calligraphy
Manuscript
Philology
Printing

References

Basic English 850 words

History of technology

kk:Жазу

Writing


Noah Wardrip-Fruin is a professor in the Computational Media department of the University of California, Santa Cruz, and is an advisor for the Expressive Intelligence Studio. He is an alumnus of the Literary Arts MFA program and Special Graduate Study PhD program at Brown University. In addition to his research in digital media, computer games, and software studies, he served for 10 years as a member of the Board of Directors of the Electronic Literature Organization.

Career
Wardrip-Fruin's twinned research track -- arts and humanities on the one hand and computer science on the other—is reflected in the table of the contents of The New Media Reader, which he co-edited with Nick Montfort. He has also co-edited a series of new media textbooks and anthologies with Pat Harrigan: First Person: New Media as Story, Performance, and Game (2004) as well as Second Person: Role-Playing and Story in Games and Playable Media (2007), Third Person: Authoring and Exploring Vast Narratives (2009), and Expressive Processing (2009), all of which have been influential in the development of new media studies.

His collaborative works of electronic literature in installation form include Talking Cure (with Camille Utterback, Clilly Castiglia, and Nathan Wardrip-Fruin; 2002), which includes live video processing, speech recognition, and a dynamically composed sound environment and Screen (with Sascha Becker, Josh Carroll, Robert Coover, Shawn Greenlee, and Andrew McClain; 2003), which was created in the Cave at Brown University. He has also collaborated on what he calls "two textual instruments": News Reader and Regime Change (with David Durand, Brion Moss, and Elaine Froehlich). He also created Gray Matters with Michael Crumpton, Chris Spain and Kristin Allio (1995–97).

His single-authored book, Expressive Processing, was published by MIT Press in 2009. In it, as Doug Reside describes, Wardrip-Fruin "makes a compelling case that software studies as a field is not only an interesting avenue of research for new media specialists but also should increasingly be a basic activity of                    educated citizens in a 21st century democracy."

Screen (2003)
Wardrip-Fruin's interactive media art piece Screen is an example of digital installation art. To view and interact with the piece, a user first enters a room, called the "Cave," which is a virtual reality display area with four walls surrounding the participant. White memory texts appear on the background of black walls. Through bodily interaction, such as using one's hand, a user can move and bounce the text around the walls.  The words can be made into sentences and eventually begin to "peel" off and move more rapidly around the user, creating a heightening sense of misplacement.

"In addition to creating a new form of bodily interaction with text through its play, Screen moves the player through three reading experiences — beginning with the familiar, stable, page-like text on the walls, followed by the word-by-word reading of peeling and hitting (where attention is focused), and with more peripheral awareness of the arrangements of flocking words and the new (often neologistic) text being assembled on the walls. Screen was first shown in 2003 as part of the Boston Cyberarts Festival (in the Cave at Brown University) and documentation of it has since been featured at The Iowa Review Web, presented at SIGGRAPH 2003, included in Alt+Ctrl: a festival of independent and alternative games, published in the DVD magazines Aspect and Chaise, as well as in readings in the Hammer Museum's HyperText series, at ACM Hypertext 2004, and in other venues."

See also

Game studies
Interactive storytelling
List of electronic literature authors, critics, and works
New Media Art
New media studies
New Media
Software studies

References

External links
 Personal website
 Expressive Intelligence Studio Blog at UC Santa Cruz
 Article on Noah's new book Expressive Processing: Digital Fictions, Computer Games, and Software Studies
 Reviews of The New Media Reader
 "Talk Time" (Interview with Hamish Mackintosh for The Guardian (June 5, 2003))
 Uncharted 2's Sloppy Fiction

American literary critics
American artists
American mass media scholars
Mass media theorists
Living people
MUD scholars
University of California, Santa Cruz faculty
Video game researchers
Year of birth missing (living people)
Brown University alumni
Electronic literature writers

Noah Wardrip-Fruin


Herbert "Bert" Jansch (3 November 1943—5 October 2011) was a Scottish singer-songwriter regarded as one of Britain's great folk guitarists. He was born in Glasgow, but his parents were German. After his father left the family they moved to Edinburgh. Jansch made his own guitar by the age of 12. After leaving school he began playing guitar, mainly blues, at various music clubs in Scotland and England.

His first album, Bert Jansch, was made in 1965 and quickly became successful. The song "Needle of Death" about drug addiction, created a lot of interest as this was a subject that was not talked about very much at that time. His second album, It Don't Bother Me, featured his friend John Renbourn, another great guitar player. The two players became very popular as a duo, and made the very successful album, Jack Orion, in 1966. This album had some traditional folk songs, including a version of "Blackwaterside", played in a jazz style. The rock band Led Zepplin later recorded his arrangement of the song.

Jansch and Renbourn made another duo recording in 1966 called Bert and John. They started playing with other musicians they met in London, and finally formed a band, Pentangle, with bass player Danny Thompson, drummer Terry Cox, and vocalist Jacqui McShee. Pentangle was instantly successful. Jansch did not enjoy fame, and left the band in 1973. He continued to play and make albums.

Jansch often played on other people's recordings, including the Babyshambles album Shotter's Nation (2007). In 2010, despite being ill with lung cancer, he went on tour in the US with American musician, Neil Young. Jansch died of lung cancer in Hampstead, London.

Recordings
Jansch has made many albums including:
 Bert Jansch (1965)
 It Don't Bother Me (1965)
 Jack Orion (1966) with John Renbourn
 Bert and John (1966) with John Renbourn
 Nicola (1967)
 The Pentangle (1968) with Pentangle
 Sweet Child (1968) with Pentangle
 Birthday Blues (1969)
 Basket of Light (1969) with Pentangle
 Cruel Sister (1970) with Pentangle
 Reflection (1971) with Pentangle
 Rosemary Lane (1971)
 Solomon's Seal (1972) with Pentangle
 Moonshine (1973)
 LA Turnaround (1974)
 Santa Barbara Honeymoon (1975)
 A Rare Conundrum (1977)
 Avocet (1979)
 Thirteen Down (1980)
 Heartbreak (1982)
 From The Outside (1985)
 Leather Launderette (1989)
 Sketches (1990)
 The Ornament Tree (1990)
 Live At The 12 Bar (1996)
 When the Circus Comes to Town (1995)
 Toy Ballon (1998)
 Crimson Moon (2000)
 Downunder: Live In Australia (2001)
 Dazzling Stranger: The Bert Jansch Anthology (2000)
 Edge Of A Dream (2002)
 The Black Swan (2006)

References

Other websites
 Official website

1943 births
2011 deaths
British folk musicians
British guitarists
Musicians from Edinburgh
Scottish singer-songwriters

Bert Jansch


Guarneri is the name of a family of famous violin makers from Cremona in Italy in the 17th and 18th centuries.  Together with the families Amati and Stradivari they made some of the best violins the world has known.

Andrea Guarneri ( - 7 December 1698) was a pupil in the workshop of Nicolo Amati from 1641 to 1646 and returned to make violins for Amati from 1650 to 1654.  He married a rich lady and they were able to buy a large house which became known as the "Casa Guarneri".  They had seven children.  Two of his sons: Pietro Giovanni and Giuseppe Giovanni, became violin makers. Andrea Guarneri produced some fine violas, one of which was played by William Primrose in the early 20th century.

Pietro Giovanni Guarneri (18 February 1655 - 26 March 1720), known as Peter of Mantua (Pietro da Mantova) to distinguish him from his nephew Pietro Guarneri. He worked in his father's workshop from around 1670 until his marriage in 1677. He had settled in Mantua by 1683, where he worked both as a musician and a violin maker. His instruments are generally better than his father's. However, he did not make so many instruments because he spent a lot of his time playing them.  None of his children became violin makers. Joseph Szigeti played one of his instruments.

Andrea's younger son, Giuseppe Giovanni Battista Guarneri (25 November 1666 - 1739 or 1740), known as filius Andreae, joined his father's business in Cremona.  He inherited it in 1698. He is one of the great violin makers.

Giuseppe Giovanni Battista was father to two other instrument makers:  Pietro Guerneri who settled in Venice and Bartolomeo.

Pietro Guarneri (Peter of Venice or Pietro da Venezia) (14 April 1695 - 7 April 1762) made some instruments that are as great as those of his father.  One of his cellos was played by Beatrice Harrison.

Bartolomeo Giuseppe Guarneri (del Gesù), also known as Joseph (21 August 1698 - 17 October  1744), has been called the finest violin maker of the Amati line (Amati and his pupils). Giuseppe is known as del Gesù because his labels always have the characters I.H.S. (iota-eta-sigma) and a Roman cross. His instruments are different from the others made by his family.  They are thought of as the greatest violins with the exception of those by Stradivari. The famous violin virtuoso Niccolò Paganini's favorite instrument was a Guarneri del Gesù violin of 1743. The "Lord Wilton" Guarneri del Gesù violin made in 1742 was owned by Yehudi Menuhin and other Twentieth-century 'del Gesù' players have included, Arthur Grumiaux, Jascha Heifetz, Isaac Stern and Henryk Szeryng.

References
Grove Music Online

Other websites
Guarneri family web page, violins, violin labels
Guarneri web site
The Violin Site - Violin Making
Casa Guarneri Auctioneers of fine musical instruments

Luthiers
People from Cremona
Italian families

Guarneri


TeleG was established as the first daily digital Gaelic TV channel in Scotland on 31 October 1999, and was available on the Freeview platform until 23 May 2011.

Programs were transmitted on TeleG between 6pm and 7pm each day. The channel slot was shared with the CITV channel (which broadcast from 6am to 6pm) and ITV2 +1 (which broadcast from 7pm to 6am).

The Broadcasting Act of 1996 required that programs aired would be repeats transmitted on analogue channels (many of which are first shown outside peak hours). The Communications Act 2003 created the Gaelic Media Service which decides on the future development of Gaelic Broadcasting services.

The broadcaster and service provider of TeleG was SDN, the company which holds the license for DTT multiplex A. SDN, then owned by NTL, S4C and United Business Media, was awarded the Multiplex A licence in May 1998. Part of the capacity on Multiplex A was reserved for services provided by Channel 5, S4C in Wales and Gaelic programming in Scotland. SDN was purchased by ITV plc in 2005.

TeleG initially continued to broadcast after the launch of BBC Alba on 19 September 2008. At launch BBC Alba was only available on satellite television before later being added to cable. TeleG would continue to broadcast until the BBC Trust had reviewed the performance of BBC Alba and announced their decision on whether they would recommend carriage of BBC Alba on Freeview.

In December 2010, the BBC Trust approved a plan put forward by BBC management which would see the thirteen BBC Radio stations which broadcast on Freeview removed from the platform in Scotland during the hours of BBC Alba's broadcast to free up capacity for the TV channel to operate. The radio services would not be affected outside Scotland, and the affected BBC radio stations would continue to be available on other platforms in Scotland including: DAB digital radio, FM/AM (where applicable), satellite and cable TV and online. A date for the change to be brought in has yet to be confirmed, and as the service would broadcast on the BBC's public service multiplex, the effect that this would have on TeleG was not clear. The plans were later revised to allow BBC Radio 1Xtra, 5 Live and 6 Music to continue broadcasting alongside BBC Alba.

It was confirmed on 22 May 2011, that TeleG would close on 23 May, with BBC Alba launched on 8 June 2011, using its old EPG number on Freeview.

External links

External links
TeleG (Wayback Machine) (Official website [archived])
Media UK info on TeleG

Scottish Gaelic mass media
Defunct television channels in Scotland
Television channels and stations established in 1999
1999 establishments in Scotland
2011 disestablishments in Scotland
Television channels and stations disestablished in 2011

TeleG


The MP series is a "personal defence weapon" (PDW)  made by Heckler & Koch in Germany. It is one of the most popular submachine guns in the world. It is used by many different militaries and counter-terrorism and police groups.

MP5
The main version of the MP5, the MP5A2, uses 9mm pistol ammunition and shoots 800 rounds per minute, which is about thirteen rounds per second. The normal magazine size (how many bullets it holds at once) is 30 or 15 rounds.

There are many other versions of the gun, some which use different caliber bullets, are shorter, or have other differences. One important type of MP5 is the MP5SD series, which are MP5s with built in suppressors ('silencers').  The MP5SDs are quieter than most guns and can be used for stealth. The MP5 is used by many special forces groups around the world, including the United States Navy Seals and British SAS.

Since it is used by many heroes in pop culture, it is sometimes called the "good guy gun."

Main versions
MP5
MP5K (K=kurz: German for short)
MP5SD (SD=Schalldämpfer: German for suppressor)

MP7
The MP7 is the updated MP5. It was designed with a new cartridge with higher muzzle velocity to meet NATO requirements published in 1989. A modern PDW needs greater ability to defeat body armour, because former weapons used only conventional pistol cartridges. The MP7 went into production in 2001. It is a direct rival to the Belgian FN P90, also developed in response to NATO's requirement. The MP7 has been revised since its introduction and the current production version is the MP7A1.

References

Submachine guns

Heckler & Koch MP series


Holy Saturday (from the Latin: Sabbatum Sanctum) is the day after Good Friday. It is the day before Easter and the last day of Holy week, in which Christians prepare for Easter. This day commemorates the day that Jesus Christ's body laid in the tomb.

Christian holidays
Easter

Holy Saturday


A wappen o mass destruction  is a nuclear, radiological, chemical, biological or other wappen that can kill and bring significant harm to a muckle number of humans or cause great damage to human-made structures (e.g. biggins), natural structures (e.g., mountains), or the biosphere. The scope and usage o the term has evolved and been disputed, often signifying more politically than technically. Originally coined in reference to aerial bombing with chemical explosives, since Warld War II it has come to refer to muckle-scale wappenry of other technologies, such as chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear.

Wappen o mass destruction


Aladdin is a fictional person from the story Aladdin and the Enchanted Lamp, which is part of the Book of One Thousand and One Nights.

Story
The young man Aladdin is told by a sorcerer (magician), who is pretending to be his uncle, to get him an oil lamp from a cave. Aladdin gets the lamp, but the sorcerer tries to trick him. So, Aladdin keeps the lamp for himself. Aladdin learns that inside the lamp there is a djinn. The djinn can fulfill every wish of the lamp's owner. With the djinn's help, Aladdin becomes rich and powerful and marries a princess.

The sorcerer returns and tricks Aladdin's wife into giving him the magic lamp. Aladdin finds out that in a ring he has, there is another djinn. This djinn helps Aladdin defeat the sorcerer, get back the magic lamp, and save his wife.

Adaptions (new versions of the story)
There have been different versions of the story:

 Nicolas Isouard wrote an opera from it in 1822.
 There is a ballet version by Michael François Hoguet. That version was done in 1854. Wenzel Gährich contributed the music to the ballet version.
 There is a film The Thief of Bagdad. It was shot in 1940. It was one of the first films to use Technicolor.
 There is a Bollywood version Aladdin and Sinbad. In it, both characters meet and participate in the adventures of each other. The djinn is female. In the end Aladdin marries her (rather than the princess).
 Disney also made a version of Aladdin, who appeared in several adaptions. In the Disney film Aladdin, he is a smart young thief in the fictional city of Agrabah. He meets and falls in love with the Sultan's daughter, Jasmine, an independent soul who, much like Aladdin, wants to escape from her current life. Jafar, the Sultan's evil advisor, tricks Aladdin into helping him find a magic lamp, which ends up with Aladdin and his monkey and friend, Abu. The lamp's occupant is a lunatic, shape-shifting genie, who promises his master three wishes, and though he cannot make Jasmine fall in love with Aladdin – he can make things easier for him. By making Aladdin look like rich and handsome Prince Ali, Aladdin does not impress the Princess, and discovers that it was his true self she liked him all along. Using his own smartness and courage, Aladdin defeats Jafar and his evil plans, becoming a prince.

Characters in written fiction

Aladdin


Icing may refer to:

 Atmospheric icing, occurs when water droplets freeze on objects they contact
 Icing conditions, atmospheric conditions that can lead to the formation of water ice on various surfaces

 Aufeis, also called icing, a sheet-like mass of layered ice that forms from the freezing of successive flows of groundwater
 Claire's, which has a brand of accessories and jewelry called Icing
 Cryotherapy, also called icing, the cooling of body parts, often using ice or cold packs, to decrease pain and inflammation
 Fuel system icing inhibitor, an additive to aviation fuels that prevents the formation of ice in fuel lines
 Icing (drinking game), a drinking game involving the consumption of large quantities of Smirnoff Ice in inappropriate situations
 Icing (food), a sweet and often creamy glaze made of sugar used to cover or decorate baked goods, such as cakes, cookies or donuts
Powdered sugar, also known as confectioners' sugar or icing sugar, is a very fine sugar used for icing, frosting and other decorations
Royal icing, a hard, white icing, made from softly beaten egg whites, powdered sugar, and sometimes lemon or lime juice
 Icing (ice hockey), an ice hockey rule intended to discourage intentionally whacking the puck away from a team's goal to run out the clock
 Icing (nautical), sea spray that freezes upon contact with ships, occurs during very cold and windy weather, can cause a ship to capsize
Icing the kicker, is a tactic employed by defending teams in American or Canadian football to disrupt the process of kicking a field goal just prior to the snap.

Related pages
 Ice
 Ising

Icing


Oscilloscope Laboratories is an independent movie distribution company.  It was started by Beastie Boys member Adam Yauch and former THINKFilm executive David Fenkel. It has a recording studio and movie production facilities.

Fenkel will be returning to the company according to a statement made by an Oscilloscope spokeswoman on May 4, 2012 following Yauch's death.

Releases
All titles are given a number which goes to the spine number of the DVD (or for some titles DVD and Blu-ray)
 Gunnin' For that #1 Spot – directed by Adam Yauch (U.S.)
 FLOW: For Love of Water – directed by Irena Salina (France)
 Dear Zachary: A Letter to a Son about his Father – directed by Kurt Kuenne (U.S.)
 Wendy and Lucy – directed by Kelly Reichardt (U.S.)
 Frontrunners – directed by Caroline Suh (U.S.)
 Not Your Typical Bigfoot Movie – directed by Jay Delaney (U.S.)
 Treeless Mountain – directed by So Yong Kim (Korea)
 Scott Walker: 30 Century Man – directed by Stephen Kijak (U.S.)
 Kisses – directed by Lance Daly (Ireland)
 The Garden – directed by Scott Hamilton Kennedy (U.S.)
 The Law (La Loi) – directed by Jules Dassin (U.S.) (re-release)
 Burma VJ – directed by Anders Østergaard (Denmark)
 Unmistaken Child – directed by Nati Baratz (Israel)
 The Paranoids – directed by Gabriel Medina (Argentina)
 No Impact Man – directed by Laura Gabbert and Justin Schein (U.S.)
 The Thorn in the Heart (L'Epine dans le Coeur) – directed by Michel Gondry (France)
 Terribly Happy (Frygtelig lykkelig) – directed by Henrik Ruben Genz (Denmark)
 The Messenger – directed by Oren Moverman (U.S.)
 Beautiful Losers – directed by Aaron Rose (U.S.)
 Youssou N'Dour: I Bring What I Love – directed by Elizabeth Chai Vasarhelyi
 The Maid (La Nana) – directed by Sebastián Silva (Chile)
 Tell Them Anything You Want: A Portrait of Maurice Sendak – directed by Lance Bangs & Spike Jonze (U.S.)
 The Exploding Girl – directed by Bradley Rust Gray (U.S.)
 Bananas!* – directed by Fredrik Gertten (Sweden)
 A Film Unfinished – directed by Yael Hersonski (Israel)
 Howl – directed by Rob Epstein and Jeffrey Friedman (U.S.)
 William S. Burroughs: A Man Within – directed by Yony Leyser  (U.S.)
 I Knew It Was You: Rediscovering John Cazale – directed by Richard Shepard (U.S.)
 Monogamy – directed by Dana Adam Shapiro (U.S.)
 The Unloved – directed by Samantha Morton (UK)
 Meek's Cutoff – directed by Kelly Reichardt (U.S.)
 Exit Through the Gift Shop – directed by Banksy (U.S.)
 Who Took The Bomp? Le Tigre On Tour – directed by Kerthy Fix (U.S.)
 Rare Exports: A Christmas Tale – directed by Jalmari Helander (Finland)
 TBA
 Dark Days – directed by Marc Singer (U.S.) (re-release)
 Compassion in Emptiness (U.S.)
 If a Tree Falls: A Story of the Earth Liberation Front – directed by Marshall Curry (U.S.)
 We Can't Go Home Again – directed by Nicholas Ray (U.S.)
 Bellflower – directed by Evan Glodell (U.S.)
 Rebirth – directed by Jim Whitaker (U.S.)
 The Other F Word – directed by Andrea Blaugrund Nevins (U.S.)
 We Need To Talk About Kevin – directed by Lynne Ramsay (UK)

Upcoming releases
Happy Few (released as Four Lovers) – directed by Antony Cordier (France)
Shut Up and Play the Hits – directed by Will Lovelace and Dylan Southern (U.S.)
Hello I Must Be Going – directed by Todd Louiso (U.S.)
Brooklyn Brothers Beat The Best – directed by Ryan O'Nan
28 Hotel Rooms – directed by Matt Ross
Chasing Ice – directed by Jeff Orlowski
Wuthering Heights – directed by Andrea Arnold
The Apple Pushers – directed by Mary Mazzio

References

American entertainment companies

Oscilloscope Laboratories


The Tomb of Nicanor  (also called the Cave of Nicanor) is a famous ancient cave. According to the Jewish tradition, this is the grave of Nicanor, who built the doors on the First Temple in Jerusalem. Two famous Zionist activists were buried there: Leon Pinsker and Menachem Ussishkin.

National Pantheon of Israel
They planned to turn it into a national pantheon (monument) for the Jewish people. After the establishment of the state of Israel the national pantheon was established on Mount Herzl in the west side of the city. The cave is located in the National Botanic Garden of Israel in the campus of Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Mount Scopus.

Other websites

  Tomb of Nicanor  in the Hebrew University - Mount Scopus Botanic Garden

Archaeological sites in Israel
Tombs in Jerusalem
Caves of Asia
Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Mount Scopus
1st-century buildings and structures

Tomb of Nicanor


Marshall Gold Discovery State Historic Park is a state park of California, United States, marking the discovery of gold by James W. Marshall at Sutter's Mill in 1848, sparking the California Gold Rush.  The park grounds include much of the historic town of Coloma, California, which is now considered a ghost town as well as a National Historic Landmark District.  The park contains thre California Historical Landmarks: a monument to commemorate James Marshall (#143), the actual spot where he first discovered gold in 1848 (#530). Established in 1942, and Coloma Road (#748), . The park now comprises  in El Dorado County.

Features
The entire route of California State Route 153 lies within the park, and allows visitors to drive to the top of the hill where the monument to James W. Marshall stands.  The Gold Discovery Museum features gold-rush-era exhibits including mining equipment, horse-drawn vehicles, household implements and other memorabilia.  The American River Nature Center, operated by the American River Conservancy, features murals of local wildlife, hands-on exhibits, animal mounts and live small animals.

History
In 1886 the members of the Native Sons of the Golden West, Placerville Parlor #9, felt that the Marshall deserved a monument to mark the grave of the "Discoverer of Gold".  In May 1890, five years after Marshall's death, Placerville Parlor #9 successfully advocated the idea of a monument to the State Legislature, which appropriated a total of $9,000 for the construction of the monument and tomb, the first such monument erected in California.  A statue of Marshall stands on top of the monument, pointing to the spot where he made his discovery in 1848. The monument was rededicated October 8, 2010 by the Native Sons of the Golden West, Georgetown Parlor #91, in honor of the 200th Anniversary of James W. Marshall's birth. The California Historical Landmark No. 143 marker is at 310 Back Street, .

The old Coloma Road opened in 1847, it ran from Sutter's Fort to the city of Coloma. Marshall traveled the road to tell of his gold find to Captain John A. Sutter. During the 49ers gold rush thousands of miners traveled the road heading out to look for gold and claims.  California's first stage line, California Stage Company, traveled the road starting in 1849, the line was founded by James E. Birch.  The Coloma Road is a California Historical Landmark No. 748. A marker is in the Gold Discovery parking area at . There is a second Coloma Road California Historical Landmark, No. 747, in Rescue, California.

Gallery

See also
List of California state parks
California Historical Landmarks in El Dorado County
Marshall's Blacksmith Shop

References

External links

 Marshall Gold Discovery State Historic Park
 Gold Discovery Park Association
 American River Nature Center

1848 in California
1942 establishments in California
California Gold Rush
California Historical Landmarks
California State Historic Parks
History of El Dorado County, California
John Sutter
Mining museums in California
Museums in El Dorado County, California
Nature centers in California
Open-air museums in California
Protected areas established in 1942
National Park Service rustic in California


Psamathe or Neptune X, is a non-spherical moon of Neptune.

Psamathe was found by Scott S. Sheppard and David C. Jewitt in 2003. It orbits Neptune at a distance of about 46,695,000 km and takes almost 25 Earth years to make one orbit. It is about 24 kilometers in diameter.

It is named after Psamathe, one of the Nereids. Before the announcement of its name on February 3, 2007 (IAUC 8802), it was known by the designation S/2003 N 1.

 Eccentricity: 0.4499
 Orbital inclination: 146.60° (to Neptune's equator), 124.39° (to the ecliptic)

Given the similarity of the orbit's parameters with Neso (S/2002 N 4), it was suggested that both non-spherical moons could have been a bigger moon that broken up.

Other websites
David Jewitt pages
Scott Sheppard pages
Ephemeris (IAU)
Mean orbital parameters (NASA)

Neptune's moons

Psamathe (moon)


AIESEC (said like "Eye Seck"), is a big student organisation that was started in 1948. It was made to fix problems between countries and create peace after World War II. It has spread all over the world since it started. There are many members in about 125 countries.

AIESEC is an organisation that helps its members to develop themselves as leaders. It also has an exchange program for students and university graduates to intern or volunteer in other countries. Most members are students at university but some are paid to work for AIESEC. The organisation is presented in 125 countries and territories in the world. The headquarters of AIESEC are in Rotterdam.

Members say that AIESEC does a lot of good in the world through the exchange by helping people from different countries to share information about their culture.

For over 60 years of working AIESEC's main impact had been its alumni all over the world. These alumni become successful business leaders, politicians, and NGO directors. The approximate number of alumni 1 million.

Other websites
 AIESEC homepage

Rotterdam
International organizations
Youth organizations
1948 establishments

AIESEC


Liquid crystals are special substances that are usually liquid, but that show certain properties of a solid crystal. A liquid crystal (LC) may flow like a liquid, but its molecules may be rotated in a crystal-like way. There are many different types of liquid crystal phases. Different phases are different because their optical properties are different. Using a microscope and a polarized light source, different liquid crystal phases will have different textures. This is also shown in the image.

The contrasting areas in the texture each correspond to a domain where the LC molecules are rotated in a different direction. Within a domain, however, the molecules are well ordered. LC materials may not always be in an LC phase (just as water is not always in the liquid phase: it may also be found in the solid and gaseous phase).

Liquid crystal displays use the optical properties of liquid crystals to control light.

Physics
Thermometers

Liquid crystal


La Rioja () is an autonomous community and province in Spain, in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Its capital is Logroño. Other cities and towns in the province include Calahorra, Arnedo, Alfaro, Haro, Santo Domingo de la Calzada, and Nájera. It has an estimated population of 315,675 inhabitants (INE 2018), making it the least populated autonomous community of Spain.

It covers part of the Ebro valley towards its north and the Iberian Range in the south. The community is a single province, so there is no County Council, and it is organized into 174 municipalities. It borders the Basque Country (province of Álava) to the north, Navarre to the northeast, Aragón to the southeast (province of Zaragoza), and Castilla y León to the west and south (provinces of Burgos and Soria).

The area was once occupied by pre-Roman Berones, Pellendones and Vascones. After partial recapture from the Muslims in the early tenth century, the region became part of the Kingdom of Pamplona, later being incorporated into Castile after a century and a half of disputes. From the eighteenth century the Rioja region remained divided between the provinces of Burgos and Soria, until in 1833 the province of Logroño was created, changing the name of the province to La Rioja in 1980 as a prelude to its constitution under a single provincial autonomous community in 1982. The name "Rioja" (from Río Oja) is first attested in 1099.

The region is well known for its wines under the brand Denominación de Origen Calificada Rioja.

History

Roman and Muslim periods

In Roman times, the territory of La Rioja was inhabited by the tribes of the Berones (central country), Autrigones (upper country, extending also north and west of it) and the Vascones (lower country, extending also north and east of it). It was part of the province of Hispania Tarraconensis.

In medieval times, La Rioja was often a disputed territory. The Visigoths created the Duchy of Cantabria that probably included most of La Rioja, as a border march against the Vascones. After the Muslim invasion of AD 711, La Rioja fell into the Muslim domains of Al Andalus.

Medieval period
Most of the territory was reconquered in 923 by Sancho I of Pamplona, acting for the Kingdom of Pamplona together with the Kingdom of León and the Counts of Castile, feudal lords of the Leonese King. The lower region around Arnedo came under control of his allies the Banu Qasi of Tudela. The territory to the east of the Leza River remained under Muslim control.

Later there was a dispute between Count Fernán González of Castile and the kings of Pamplona-Navarra, involving great battles. It was decided in favour of the Navarrese after the imprisonment of the Count's family in Cirueña, in 960. La Rioja briefly formed the independent Kingdom of Viguera from 970 to about 1005, at which point it became a part of the Kingdom of Pamplona.

Sancho Garcés moved the capital of the Kingdom of Pamplona to Nájera (La Rioja), creating the so-called kingdom of Nájera-Pamplona which was, due to its large size, the first Spanish Empire. After the independence of Castile in 1035, this new kingdom fiercely fought against Pamplona for the possession of Bureba, La Rioja and other territories. In 1076, after the murder of Sancho IV, Navarre was divided among Castile and Aragon. Castile obtained La Rioja, together with other Navarrese lands. The name "La Rioja" first appears in written records in the Miranda de Ebro charter of 1099. The territory was centred on the fortified site of Logroño: the 12th-century church Iglesia de Santa Maria de Palacio recalls its origin as a chapel of the administrative palace. Logroño was a borderland disputed between the kings of Navarre and the kings of Castile from the 10th century;

From 1134 the Navarrese under García Ramírez ("the Restorer") and his son Sancho VI ("the Wise") fought bitterly with Castile for the recovery of the former Pamplonese domains. The region was awarded to Castile in a judgement by Henry II of England and annexed in 1177. Its importance lay in part in the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela, the Camino de Santiago, which crossed the River Ebro on the stone bridge, the Puente de Piedra.

Province of Logroño

Up to the 19th century the territory remained divided between the provinces of Burgos and Soria. The region was taken by Napoleonic forces in the Peninsular War and remained solidly in French hands until 1814. In the 1810 project of Llorente it was to be a part of the prefecture of Arlanzón with its capital in Burgos. The Cortes of Cádiz declared La Rioja an independent province at the time of the Liberal Constitution of 1812, and during the Liberal Triennium in January 1822 the province of Logroño was created by royal decree as part of the administrative reform of Riego, taking in the whole of the historical territory of La Rioja. However, Ferdinand VII soon annulled these decisions and restored most of the previous territorial divisions. In the 1833 reorganization, a province of Logroño was again formed within the region of Castilla la Vieja. The province increased its territory temporarily in 1841.

Autonomous community
In 1980 the province changed its name to La Rioja, and following the adoption of the Estatuto de San Millán in 1982, during the reorganization following the Spanish transition to democracy, it was constituted as a uni-provincial autonomous community,. It is the second-smallest autonomous community in Spain and has the smallest population; half of its 174 municipalities have populations under 200. Nearly half of its citizens live in the capital.

Etymology

The etymology of the toponym Rioja is complex and has been much discussed. The main theories point to different origins: the traditional popular one that makes it correspond to the river Oja, the one that points to the term Rivalia that would be translated as "land of streams", the one that points as germ a nominal tautology in the term rivo Ohia that would mean "river of fluvial bed"; and the very diverse ones that indicate that it would have its origins in the Basque language, for example as union of the words herria and ogia being translated as "land of bread".

Numerous authors from different periods have proposed different theories about it, such as the friar Mateo Anguiano in the 18th century, Ángel Casimiro de Govantes in the 19th century, Menéndez Pidal or Merino Urrutia in the 20th century, or in the 21st century, the researcher Eduardo Aznar Martínez. In addition, there are texts by older authors such as Florián de Ocampo in the 16th century or Rodrigo Méndez Silva in the 17th century, which give an account of the popular etymology of the toponym.

The first written appearances of this toponym as Rioga or Riogam date back to the 11th century, and it can also be found with different spellings such as Rioxa, Riogia, Rivo de Oia, Rivogio or in its definitive form Rioja in texts of later centuries. On the other hand, the oldest document found in which its demonym appears dates from the 13th century, with the spellings riogeñ and riogensi, that is, Riojan (Spanish: riojano).

In the first written appearances of this toponym in the 11th century, the westernmost area of the present-day Spanish region is designated under the same name; therefore, the primitive Rioja was the territory around the basins of the rivers Tirón and Oja, with some divergences in its exact location by different authors. Gradually and as a result of various historical events, the toponym was extended from the Middle Ages, to name a larger region, consisting of seven river valleys, located between the Tirón in the west and the Alhama in the east, which flow into the Ebro, namely La Rioja today.

Geography

La Rioja is bordered by the Basque Country (province of Álava), Navarre, Aragón (province of Zaragoza), and Castile and León (provinces of Soria and Burgos). The river Ebro flows through this region, as does the river Oja, after which it is named.

The Ebro runs through the north of the community. The entire right bank (which is to the south) belongs to La Rioja. There are only three municipalities, Briñas, San Vicente de la Sonsierra and Ábalos on the left bank (known as the Riojan Sonsierra), although Logroño, Agoncillo, Alcanadre, Rincón de Soto and Alfaro also have parts of their respective municipal territories on that bank. Because of their proximity, the Álava area between the Ebro and the Sierra de Cantabria is called Rioja Alavesa.

Climate

The climate is mainly continental. The Rioja Alta comarca receives more precipitation than Rioja Baja. The average temperature ranges from  and the precipitation ranges between  as an annual average. The wind called Cierzo is very frequent around La Rioja during the winter.

Mountains and mountain ranges
The mountains in La Rioja are part of the Iberian System. This mountain range extends to the south of the Ebro river, parallel to it at a distance of about , with altitudes ranging between . From the mountain range the Sierra de la Demanda runs northwards, into the heart of La Rioja, incorporating Monte San Lorenzo which, at , is the highest peak in the province. Other mountains include Sierra de Camero Viejo, Sierra de Camero Nuevo, Sierra de Cebollera, and Picos de Urbión.

Hydrography

The Ebro is the main river passing through the community. Emerging from the narrow channel between the rocks of the Conchas de Haro, it reaches La Rioja, through which it runs for , before continuing its journey to the Mediterranean. In the Conchas de Haro the altitude of the river is  and when it leaves the community, in the Sotos del Ebro Natural Reserve in Alfaro, it is  high. The river therefore flows very quickly through La Rioja.

Seven rivers descend rapidly towards the Ebro from the mountain range, which is why La Rioja is sometimes called: "Zone of the seven valleys". They are, from east to west, Alhama, Cidacos, Leza, Iregua, Najerilla, Oja and Tirón, although the headwaters of the Alhama and Cidacos originate in Soria and those of Najerilla-Neila and Tirón are from Burgos. Sometimes Linares (a tributary of Alhama) is added, grouping Tirón with its tributary, the Oja.

All the rivers of these valleys form tributaries that go on to form many valleys in their own right, such as those of Linares, Ocon, Jubera, Tuerto, Brieva, Viniegras and San Millán. There is an almost unlimited number of grandiose canyons, quite splendid in nature, such as Aguas Buenas, Nieva, Manzanares, Ardancha, Navajún, Valderresa, Ollora, Tobia, San Martín and others.

Flora and fauna
In the highlands oaks, beech and pine are grown. There are also thickets of juniper, boxwood, sloes, holly and cistus. Thyme, rosemary, common juniper, and holm oak are present. There are grand hillsides with fine pasture for livestock, cattle and sheep. In the lower areas there are oaks, olive and almond trees. Near the Ebro, in the plains, the land is used for cereal, sugar beet and potatoes, while the hills are covered with vast vineyards of the wine that has brought worldwide fame to this region.

All Riojan rivers, including the Ebro, have a row of poplars and cottonwood. About the Riojan Alamos Ana Maria Matute has written: "... see them on the edge of the water, turning the landscape, like spears magical pointing towards the unreal and mysterious country of the riverbed."

Natural resources
Gypsum and silica are mined. Arnedillo is a spa town.

Dinosaur footprints

During the Early Cretaceous period the geographical area of Cameros was part of a flooded plain that drained periodically, leaving behind muddy areas where dinosaur tracks marked the path. Eventually they were dried and covered with new sediment layers whose weight pressed down on the lower layers, causing them to solidify into rocks over millions of years. Erosion has been wearing down the upper layers making many of these rock formations visible, bringing into view the fossilized footprints. La Rioja is notable for the number and conservation of these sites, in addition to those found in the north of Soria, such as Yanguas, Santa Cruz de Yanguas and other highland locations.

Comarcas

Geographical comarcas:
 Rioja Alta
 Comarca de Anguiano
 Comarca de Ezcaray
 Comarca de Haro
 Comarca de Nájera
 Comarca de Santo Domingo de la Calzada
 Rioja Media
 Tierra de Cameros
 Camero Nuevo
 Camero Viejo
 Comarca de Logroño
 Rioja Baja
 Comarca de Cervera
 Comarca de Alfaro
 Comarca de Arnedo
 Comarca de Calahorra

Economy

The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the autonomous community was 8.5 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 0.7% of Spanish economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 29,200 euros or 97% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 102% of the EU average.La Rioja is known for its production of Rioja DOCa wines (although the Rioja viticultural region extends slightly into the neighboring administrative regions of Álava and Navarra).

Agriculture
There is dryland farming of wheat, barley and grape; irrigated cultivation of asparagus, capsicum and other crops; and animal husbandry of sheep.

Industry
Types of industry include wine production and conserves (in Logroño, Cenicero, Haro and Calahorra); textiles and footwear (in Logroño, Arnedo, Cervera del Río Alhama and Ezcaray); furniture manufacturing (in Ezcaray, Logroño and Nájera); rubber, plastics, chemical products and transport machinery; and chorizo, made in Casalarreina.

Exports are directed mostly towards the European Union, United States and Canada.

La Rioja hosts the annual Battle of Wine festival in the village of Haro. Another famous local festival is the Toro de fuego, where a metal frame in the shape of a bull is carried among festival goers, which also takes place in Haro.

Demographics
According to the INE the population of La Rioja (as at 2018) is 315,675 inhabitants, with 155,758 men and 159,917 women. Its population density is 62.57 people per km2. It is the least populous autonomous community in Spain. Its capital, Logroño, with approximately 151,113 inhabitants, is its most populous city.

La Rioja has 174 municipalities. According to the same INE data, there are more men than women in 150 of them, in two the numbers are the same and in 22 there are more females than males. In the latter set, the differences are small, except in the capital where there are 4,868 more women than men.

Major cities

Education
According to the 2007 PISA report, education in La Rioja is of the highest quality in Spain, close to that of other European countries with better overall educational levels in terms of student knowledge. In the Ministry of Education's 2009 report La Rioja was in first position among the autonomous communities as it relates to general aspects of primary and secondary education.

It is placed above the Spanish average in the list of communities with the lowest levels of school failure, with 85% of students being able to obtain the ESO title, despite its schools having the highest proportion of enrolled immigrants.

6,208 euros are spent per pupil, making it the tenth ranked community in this regard. The majority of educational institutions in the community are public, followed by subsidized and private schools, the latter of which are very scarce at the primary and secondary levels. The bachillerato is free in public schools and at a cost in charter schools.

In La Rioja the portion of the population with higher education is 30.6%, with two institutions offering studies at this level: the University of La Rioja and an online university, the International University of La Rioja.

Transportation

La Rioja has connections by air via the Logroño-Agoncillo Airport.

Rail journeys to Madrid, Zaragoza, Barcelona, Valladolid, Oviedo, Bilbao, La Coruña, Vigo are possible, since the Castejón-Miranda line crosses the region from east to west. The main railway station is that at Logroño.

Roads between La Rioja and neighboring regions are primarily through the AP-68. Additional highways have been built, such as the Autovía A-12 which connects Pamplona to Logroño since 2006, and in the future will reach Burgos. Other major road routes include:
N-111
N-232
N-120
Autopista AP-69 (proposed)
Piqueras Tunnel
Puerto de Oncala
Puerto de Piqueras

Government and politics
The current President of La Rioja is Gonzalo Capellán of PP. The autonomous community has its own Parliament. Other organs include the Consejo de Gobierno (council of government) and the Tribunal Superior de Justicia (high court of justice).

Monuments
 Monastery of Santa María la Real of Najera
 Concatedral de Santa María de la Redonda
 Catedral de Santo Domingo de la Calzada
 Iglesia de Santo Tomás
 Abbey of Santa María de San Salvador of Cañas

Notable people

Ángel Iturriaga Barco
Celso Morga Iruzubieta
Dani Aranzubia
Domingo de Silos
Fausto Elhuyar
Fortunato Pablo Urcey
Francisco Javier de Lizana y Beaumont
Gonzalo de Berceo
Gustavo Bueno
José Ortiz-Echagüe
Juan José Elhuyar
Manuel Bretón de los Herreros
Martín Fernández de Navarrete
Práxedes Mateo Sagasta

See also
List of presidents of the Parliament of La Rioja
Dulzaina, a popular musical instrument from La Rioja.
Jota (music), a popular dance practiced in some comarcas of La Rioja.
Caparrones, one of the most important dishes in Riojan cooking.
History of Rioja wine
Etymology of La Rioja

References

External links

Government of La Rioja
Tourism in La Rioja

NUTS 2 statistical regions of the European Union
States and territories established in 1982
Autonomous communities of Spain

hr:La Rioja

La Rioja


The 1820s was the decade that began on January 1, 1820 and ended on December 31, 1829.

Events
 Greek War for Independence
 Much of South America declares independence from Spain.

World leaders
 Emir Dost Mohammad Khan (Afghanistan)
 Supreme director José Rondeau (Argentina)
 Acting supreme director Juan Pedro Julián Aguirre y López de Anaya (Argentina)
 President Bernardino Rivadavia (Argentina)
 President Vicente López y Planes (Argentina)
 General Manuel Dorrego (Argentina)
 General Juan Manuel de Rosas (Argentina)
 Emperor Francis II (Austria)
 Chancellor Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (Austria)
 Sheikh Sulman ibn Ahmad Al Khalifah (Bahrain)
 Sheikh Khalifah ibn Sulman Al Khalifah (Bahrain)
 Administrative leader Tendzin Drugdra (Bhutan)
 Administrative leader Choki Gyaltshen (Bhutan)
 President Simón Bolívar (Bolivia)
 President Antonio José de Sucre (Bolivia)
 President José María Pérez (Bolivia)
 President José Miguel de Velasco (Bolivia)
 President Pedro Blanco (Bolivia)
 President Andrés de Santa Cruz (Bolivia)
 Emperor Pedro I (Brazil)
 Sultan Muhammad Kanzul Alam (Brunei)
 Sultan Muhammad Alam (Brunei)
 Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II (Brunei)
 King Ang Chan II (Cambodia)
 President Bernardo O'Higgins (Chile)
 President Agustín Eyzaguirre (Chile)
 Provisional triumvirate of the three provinces Congreso de Plenipotenciarios (Chile)
 Interim Supreme Director Ramón Freire (Chile)
 Acting Supreme Director Diego José Benavente (Chile)
 President Manuel Blanco Encalada (Chile)
 President Francisco Antonio Pinto (Chile)
 President Francisco Ramón Vicuña (Chile)
 President José Tomás Ovalle (Chile)
 Emperor Daoguang (China)
 President Simón Bolívar (Greater Colombia)
 King Frederick VI (Denmark)
 Governor Muḩammad 'Alī (Egypt)
 Emperor Iyoas II (Ethiopia)
 Emperor Gigar (Ethiopia)
 Emperor Baeda Maryam III (Ethiopia)
 President José Cecilio del Valle (Federal Republic of Central America)
 President Manuel José Arce (Federal Republic of Central America)
 President José Francisco Barrundia (Federal Republic of Central America)
 King Louis XVIII (Restoration France)
 King Charles X (Restoration France)
 Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias (Greece)
 King Henri Christophe (Haiti)
 President Jean Pierre Boyer (Haiti)
 Pope Pius VII
 Pope Leo XII
 Shogun Tokugawa Ienari (Japan)
 Khan Omar Beg (Kokand)
 Khan Mohammed Ali (Kokand)
 Emperor Sunjo (Korea)
 Emir Jaber I Al-Sabah (Kuwait)
 Emperor Agustín de Iturbide (Mexico)
 President Guadalupe Victoria (Mexico)
 President Vicente Guerrero (Mexico)
 President José María Bocanegra (Mexico)
 President Pedro Vélez (Mexico)
 Sultan Slimane (Morocco)
 Sultan Abderrahmane (Morocco)
 Fath Ali Shah of Qajar dynasty (Persia)
 King Frederick William III (Prussia)
 Emperor Alexander I (Russia)
 Emperor Nicholas I (Russia)
 King Victor Emmanuel I (Sardinia)
 King Charles Felix (Sardinia)
 King Rama II (Siam)
 King Rama III (Siam)
 King Ferdinand VII (Spain)
 Pasha Yusuf Karamanli (Tripoli)
 King George IV (United Kingdom)
 King William I (United Kingdom of the Netherlands)
 President James Monroe (United States)
 President John Quincy Adams (United States)
 Emperor Minh Mang (Vietnam)

Births
 Clara Barton
 Louis Pasteur

Deaths
 Carl Maria Von Weber
 Thomas Jefferson
 John Adams

Notes

1820s


Samurai Warrior: The Battles of Usagi Yojimbo is a video game released for the Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC platforms in 1988, by the now-defunct label Firebird. It is based on the comic book Usagi Yojimbo, which featured the adventures of an anthropomorphic samurai rabbit. The game closely follows some of the themes of the comic. The package artwork comes from the cover of the comic book Anything Goes #6.

The game was released in the United States under the title Usagi Yojimbo as part of the Thunder Mountain Action Pack, Vol. 1. It was contained on Disk 1, Side 1 along with the games Great Escape, Paradroid, and (on Side 2) Implosion. The packaging for this version used artwork from the cover of Usagi Yojimbo Volume 1, #17 along with images from the other games included in the set.

The game was designed and programmed by Doug Palmer, Paul Kidd and Russel Comte. Neil Brennan wrote the music.

Gameplay

The game is a sideways-scrolling adventure, where Miyamoto Usagi has to defeat opponents in sword fights, and also have encounters with other characters (also anthropomorphic animals), for example priests, who usually carry a cane and utter Zen Buddhist kōans, such as "if you see the Buddha on the path, kill him". Usagi is often attacked by bandits and enemy ninja. These opponents frequently disguise themselves as harmless peasants, villagers or priests.

Although progress is always left-to-right, there are branches along the way that allow some gameplay liberty. There is also a sword training level, with bales of hay instead of enemies.

The scoring system is based on karma; doing good deeds raises Usagi's karma, and doing bad deeds reduces it. If Usagi's karma drops to zero, he will perform seppuku. Good deeds include killing armed opponents and donating money to peasants and priests. Conversely, attacking priests or unarmed characters or even drawing his sword in front of them reduces it (besides turning them hostile).

To earn money, Usagi can gamble at inns along the path and collect coins from slain enemies. The money can be spent on food, which in turn increases his energy.

Planned content
The game was originally envisioned as a much larger, open world experience, but due to the hardware and memory limitations of the Commodore 64, for which it was originally developed, numerous features had to be cut from the final product.

Paul Kidd and Russel Comte originally wrote a much larger script for the game, which would see Usagi be able to traverse through many multiple paths and lead to entirely different adventures and endings. In the design documents for the game, characters and situations are detailed such as mole ninjas surfacing out of the soil, a side quest rescuing an innocent villager being dragged by a stampeding horse and numerous activities such as gambling and dialogue sequences in the town sections of the game.

Likewise, the karma system was downscaled into a simplistic numeric system which acted as an onscreen counter that led Usagi to commit suicide if it fell under 0. In the original game design documents, karma was envisioned as a more fulfilled reputation system, which would affect the NPCs' views and actions towards Usagi.

Reception
Zzap!64 enjoyed the game, describing it as "an excellent adaptation of the oriental beat 'em up theme, and a good conversion from the comic". It was awarded an overall rating of 91%.

References

External links
 Samurai Warrior: The Battles of Usagi Yojimbo at Hardcore Gaming 101

1988 video games
Beam Software games
Beat 'em ups
Usagi Yojimbo
Amstrad CPC games
ZX Spectrum games
Commodore 64 games
Cancelled Amiga games
Cancelled Atari ST games
Video games based on Dark Horse Comics
Video games about rabbits and hares
Video games about samurai
Video games set in Japan
Video games developed in Australia


Transubstantiation is a teaching, and also a Catholic doctrine, which says that, after a priest consecrates them, the bread and wine at the Mass  become the body and blood of Jesus, whom Christians believe is the son of God. According to the teaching of transubstantiation, although the appearance, smell, and taste of bread and wine remain, the substances of bread and wine have really changed into the body and blood of Jesus.

Transubstantiation is also taught by some other Christian churches.

Beliefs about transubstantiation
Christians who believe in transubstantiation believe that the bread they eat at Mass is the body of Jesus. They know that the bread still tastes like bread, looks like bread and smells like bread. It is just like bread, but it becomes the body of Jesus. The priest says prayers at Mass so that the bread and wine become the flesh and blood of Jesus.

This started when Jesus ate a meal called the Last Supper the night before he died. He said that the food his friends were eating was his body and blood. In the Gospel of Matthew 26:26, it says, "Take this [bread] all of you and eat it. This is my body which will be given up for you," which means that he would die for them. Then, in Matthew 26:27, Jesus said, "Take this [cup] all of you and drink from it. This is the cup of my blood, the blood of the new and everlasting covenant." This means that Jesus's blood would make a promise forever between God and his people. Then he said, "My blood will be shed for you and for all so that sins may be forgiven." This means that Jesus would die for everyone so their sins, or things they do wrong, could be forgiven. Then he said, "Do this in memory of me." This is Jesus commanding people to continue what he did. From that time until now, people have continued what Jesus did and it reminds them of the Last Supper.

Related pages
Eucharist

Christian theology

Transubstantiation