William Norman Birkett, 1st Baron Birkett,  (6 September 1883 – 10 February 1962), was a British barrister, judge, politician and preacher who served as the alternate British judge during the Nuremberg Trials.

Birkett received his education at Barrow-in-Furness Higher Grade School. He was a Methodist preacher and a draper before attending Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in 1907, to study theology, history and law. Upon graduating in 1910 he worked as a secretary and was called to the Bar in 1913.

Declared medically unfit for military service during World War I, Birkett used the time to make up for his late entry into the legal profession and was appointed a King's Counsel in 1924. He became a criminal defence lawyer and acted as counsel in a number of famous cases including the second of the Brighton trunk murders. A member of the Liberal Party, he sat in Parliament for Nottingham East twice, first in 1923 and again in 1929.

Despite refusing appointment to the High Court of Justice in 1928, he was offered the position again in 1941 and accepted, joining the King's Bench Division. In 1945 he served as the alternate British judge at the Nuremberg trials, and he was made a privy counsellor in 1947. He joined the Court of Appeal in 1950 but retired in 1956 when he had served for long enough to draw a pension. From 1958 he served in the House of Lords, and his speech against a private bill in 1962 (the Bill sought to convert the Cumbrian lake Ullswater into a reservoir) saw it defeated by 70 votes to 36, two days before he died on 10 February 1962.

Described as "one of the most prominent Liberal barristers in the first half of the 20th century" and "the Lord Chancellor that never was", Birkett was noted for his skill as a speaker, which helped him defend clients with almost watertight cases against them. As an alternate judge, Birkett was not allowed a vote at the Nuremberg Trials, but his opinion helped shape the final judgment. During his tenure in the Court of Appeal he oversaw some of the most significant cases of the era, particularly in contract law, despite his avowed dislike of judicial work.

Early life and education
Norman was born in Ulverston, Lancashire (now part of the administrative county of Cumbria), on 6 September 1883 to Thomas Birkett, a draper, and his wife Agnes, who died in 1884 of tuberculosis. He attended the Wesleyan primary school in Ulverston until 1894, when he moved to Barrow-in-Furness Higher Grade School. Although intelligent, Birkett was not noted as a particularly academic student and spent as much time on practical jokes as he did on his studies. He left school in 1898, starting work as an apprentice in one of the draper's shops owned by his father and beginning to preach. He was a popular local preacher on the local Methodist circuit, and, on deciding that he was unlikely to be a good draper, his father allowed him to leave the business in 1904 to become a minister under Charles Bedale. In 1905, Bedale suggested Birkett should go to Cambridge University to study history and theology. Birkett liked the idea, having previously conversed with A. C. Benson, the Master of Magdalene College, and applied to Emmanuel College, Cambridge. The college offered him a place, with the condition that he would have to pass an entrance examination and complete the responsions to be accepted into the university as a whole. He spent three months learning Latin and Greek and was accepted into the university in October 1907.

At Cambridge, Birkett preached on the local Methodist circuit and at The Leys School. He was also active in sport, playing rugby, football and golf. He first spoke at the Cambridge Union Society in his second term at Cambridge on the motion of "this House would welcome the Disestablishment of the Church of England", and the Cambridge Review reported that it was "a most interesting speech". In his second year, he was elected to the Emmanuel Debating Society Committee and spoke many times at the Union on subjects including Home Rule for Ireland, cruelty to animals and secular education. He befriended Arnold McNair, the Secretary of the Union, and McNair agreed to put Birkett's name on the electoral papers for election to the Union Committee. Birkett failed to get in, but on running again in 1910 was elected Secretary of the Union by a margin of only six votes. He became vice-president the following term, and President the term after that. While Birkett was president, the Cambridge Review reported that there was "no speaker more sure of pleasing the house", and the speech he gave when Theodore Roosevelt visited Cambridge was well received by both Roosevelt and the university as a whole.

He gained a Second Class in the first History Tripos in 1909, and won the English Essay Prize with an essay on political satire in English poetry. He won the same prize again in 1910, and that year gained first-class honours in his Theological Special Examination. By this point, he was having doubts about his future as a minister and consulted with the university Law Reader as to the possibility of a career as a barrister. On the Reader's advice, Birkett took the second Law Tripos in 1911, passing with second-class honours. Birkett interviewed with the editors of The Guardian and The Observer in his search for a job to sustain him while he took the bar exam. He took a job as personal secretary to George Cadbury Junior, with a wage of £200 a year, which he planned to hold until he qualified as a barrister. After only a month of working for Cadbury, his salary was raised to £500, and he was offered a permanent position. While there, he continued his political work and spoke on behalf of the Liberal Party, cementing his reputation as an effective speaker by, on one occasion, holding the attention of more than a thousand people for an hour. He took the first part of the Bar Examination in 1912, but failed the paper on real property; he passed it on his second attempt, and was called to the Bar at the Inner Temple on 4 June 1913.

While working for Cadbury, Birkett befriended Ruth "Billy" Nilsson, and after he had proposed to her several times, she agreed to marry him. Nilsson gave up her position at Bourneville to move to London and they were married on 25 August 1920. They had two children, a daughter Linnea Birkett on 27 June 1923, and a son Michael Birkett on 22 October 1929. A keen golfer, he was a member of the Harewood Downs Golf Club, near Amersham, Buckinghamshire.

Practice at the Bar and time as a member of parliament

After qualifying as a barrister, he moved to Birmingham in 1914, choosing the city because he had some connections there thanks to his association with Cadbury, and began work at the chambers of John Hurst. His career was aided by the outbreak of World War I; many of the younger and fitter barristers were called up for war service, whilst Birkett himself, who was thirty when he joined the bar, avoided conscription as he was declared medically unfit. He was suffering from tuberculosis, and he returned to Ulverston for six months to recover. During his time in Birmingham, he continued his work as a minister, regularly preaching at the Baptist People's Chapel.

Birkett became a popular defence counsel, something that on occasion caused him trouble; he was once forced to refuse a defendant's request to act as his representative because Birkett was expected in a different court. He impressed the Bench in Birmingham so much that, in 1919, he was advised by a local Circuit Judge to move to London to advance his career. Although he was initially hesitant, saying that "competition in London is on quite a different scale, and if I failed there, I would have lost everything I have built up here", a case he took in 1920 changed the situation. He acted as a junior for the prosecution in the so-called Green Bicycle Case against Edward Marshall Hall. Although he lost, he sufficiently impressed Marshall Hall for the latter to offer him a place in his chambers in London. He had no connections with the solicitors in London, and the clerk at his new chambers got around this lack of contacts by using him as counsel in cases involving Marshall Hall, who as a King's Counsel could appear in court only when accompanied by a junior barrister such as Birkett.

Member of Parliament
His father had been a supporter of the Liberal Party, and Birkett had helped campaign for them during the 1906 general election. He had been invited to become the Liberal candidate for Cambridge in 1911, but he refused because he had no income; he did, however, help his employer George Cadbury, Jr. get elected as a Liberal Councillor in Birmingham and helped start a branch of the National League of Young Liberals in the city.
Birkett was the Liberal candidate for Birmingham King's Norton in the 1918 general election, but lost to Herbert Austin. Birkett's political career took off in 1923. He ran for Nottingham East in the 1923 general election, and was elected with a majority of 1,436 votes, a feat that was described as an "overwhelming victory" since the Conservative Party had held the seat since 1910 and had a majority of 4,000 at the previous election.

Birkett's maiden speech in Parliament responded to a proposal by Charles Dukes, a Labour Party Member of Parliament, in favour of state pensions for widows with children, and wives whose husbands were unable to work because of injury. Birkett went further than the proposed change and suggested that pensions should be provided to unmarried mothers, deserted wives and divorced wives. His speech was well-received; the Nottingham Journal described it as making "a most excellent impression" on the House of Commons, and Charles Masterman called him "a possible future Lord Chancellor". Because of his focus on his career as a barrister rather than as a politician, Birkett rarely appeared in the House of Commons, but he worked hard when he did attend. On one occasion, he spent all night in a Parliamentary session that ended at 6 a.m. and then attended a court session the next day.

He applied to become a King's Counsel in 1924, since barristers who were also parliamentarians stood a higher chance of getting accepted than others. He was accepted on 15 April 1924 and sworn in on the same day. His promotion was met with approval from several noted judges, including Arthur Greer, later a Lord Justice of Appeal, who wrote that "unless my judgement is very much astray, you will quickly acquire a leading place in the front row", a feeling which was echoed by other justices including William Finlay, who wrote that "I am confident that you will rise to the top of the profession, and I shall very greatly rejoice when my confidence is justified." In his first year as a King's Counsel Birkett earned £8,600, double what he had taken the previous year as a junior brief.

In 1924, the Campbell Case brought down the Labour minority government and forced a general election. Birkett returned to Nottingham East to campaign for his re-election, though he faced a much more difficult job than he had in 1923. The Conservative candidate, Edmund Brocklebank, was much stronger than in the previous election, and the left-wing vote was split because he was also campaigning against Tom Mann, a noted Communist. A few days before the election, the Zinoviev letter, allegedly addressed to the Communist Party, was published that mentioned organising uprisings in British colonies; fear of the "socialist menace" drove many voters to the right, and in the election on 29 October 1924, many Liberal members of parliament, including Birkett, lost their seats to Conservatives.

Practice at the Bar in London
While working with Marshall Hall, Birkett was involved in several notable criminal cases that helped cement his reputation as an outstanding speaker at the Bar.

In 1925, a case known as the "Bachelor's Case" came up at the High Court of Justice between Lieutenant-Colonel Ian Dennistoun and his ex-wife Dorothy Dennistoun. When the Dennistouns divorced, Mr. Dennistoun could not pay ancillary relief. He instead promised that he would provide for his ex-wife in the future when he had the money. Some time after the divorce, Mr. Dennistoun married Almina Herbert, Countess of Carnarvon, the widow of Lord Carnarvon, a rich woman thanks to the terms of her husband's will, who provided for her new husband. After hearing about this, Dorothy Dennistoun demanded the alimony money she had been promised. Lady Carnarvon saw this as blackmail and persuaded her new husband to take his wife to court for what Sir Henry McCardie, who tried the case, called "the most bitterly conducted litigation I have ever known". Marshall Hall and Birkett both worked on the case representing Lady Carnarvon and Mr. Dennistoun, while Ellis Hume-Williams, one of the most respected divorce barristers of the day, represented Mrs. Dennistoun.

The case initially appeared to be going badly for Marshall Hall. An inept cross-examination on his part weakened his argument, and an illness made him irritable and short-tempered. On the advice of his clerk, he asked Birkett to make the closing address before the court, which turned the mood of the courtroom completely and an initially hostile jury decided to disregard the agreement of Mr. Dennistoun to pay ancillary relief to his former wife. Birkett's performance made the front pages of many evening newspapers, including The Daily Mail which described Birkett as "the greatest legal discovery of the year" and called his speech "a brilliant piece of advocacy". His work for this case and the newspaper coverage of it brought him to the attention of many London solicitors, and led to him earning £8,000 in the first seven months of 1925. In that year he made £12,000 overall, an amount which rose to £16,500 in 1926 and peaked in 1929 when he earned £33,500. On meeting Miles Malleson, an old friend from his time at Cambridge, he said in surprise "did you know, Miles, that I am making more money than I thought existed in the world!"

Return to politics
Birkett was returned as MP for Nottingham East at the general election on 31 May 1929 in which he won 14,049 votes, taking the seat with a majority of 2,939.

As the largest single party, the Labour Party formed a minority government and set about filling the ministerial posts. The Labour Party had few experienced lawyers in the House of Commons, so Labour Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald attempted to lure prominent Liberal lawyers to fill the positions of Attorney General and Solicitor General for England and Wales. William Jowitt defected to the Labour Party in exchange for the position of Attorney General, and the position of Solicitor General was offered to Birkett. Birkett replied that "he could not change his politics in twenty-five minutes, and even if the Liberal Party should disintegrate completely, he would not be seen taking refuge in the Labour ark".

Despite having to juggle his career at the Bar and as a member of parliament, Birkett kept up a good attendance in the House of Commons, and along with Sir John Simon he became the leading Liberal spokesperson on the legal side of legislation. His attack on a clause of the Finance Act 1930 drew much praise from both Liberal and Conservative politicians, including Winston Churchill, who said that "I have rarely heard a speech more precisely directed at the object under debate, more harmoniously attuned to the character of Committee discussion, than the excellent statement the Honourable and learned Gentleman has just made". Birkett led the Liberal response to the Labour proposal of the Trade Disputes Bill 1931 and "reduced it to tatters", although the Bill passed because of some Liberal abstentions. The speech was a particularly well-received one and led MacDonald to again offer the position of Solicitor General to Birkett, as the incumbent postholder James Melville was about to resign. Again Birkett refused, and Stafford Cripps was appointed. When the Liberal Party returned to power in 1931 in coalition with the Conservatives and National Labour as part of MacDonald's National Government, it was expected that Birkett would be offered the position being a Liberal Member of Parliament, but by the time they proposed candidates for Solicitor General, the Liberals had exceeded their ministerial quota agreed to in the coalition. Birkett was offered a non-legal office but said that he "could not contemplate a post that meant giving up my practice".

After an economic crisis in 1931, the King dissolved parliament and Birkett returned to Nottingham East to defend his seat; his main opponent was the Conservative, Louis Gluckstein, who had challenged him in the 1929 election. The Conservative Party's support of protectionism met with approval from the electorate, as most were employed in industries which had suffered after the institution of free trade. Gluckstein won the general election on 27 October 1931 with a majority of 5,583 votes.

On 3 November, Birkett was informed that if he had been returned, the Prime Minister intended to make him Solicitor-General. Disillusioned with the circumstances of the election, Birkett "[bade] farewell to East Nottingham" and retired from politics. He was invited to become a Liberal candidate two more times; once in 1931 for Torquay and once in 1932 for North Cornwall. The second was a tempting offer; the seat had become vacant on the death of its previous holder, a National Liberal with a comfortable majority, and it was felt that Birkett was almost certain to be returned to Parliament. Despite this, he refused, disliking the National Liberal policies and the extent to which they had aligned themselves with the Conservative Party.

Return to the Bar
In 1930, Birkett was involved in the so-called Blazing Car murder case. On 6 November 1930, two men returning home in Northampton noticed a bright light in the distance and saw a man come out of a ditch at the side of the road, glance back toward the light and say "looks like somebody has had a bonfire". The two young men ran toward the light, saw it was a burning car and fetched a policeman. When the fires died away, a body was found inside the boot of a car with a face so charred it was impossible to determine the identity of the man; the numberplate of the car was intact, however, and traced to an Alfred Arthur Rouse. Rouse was arrested and appeared at Northampton Crown Court on 26 January 1931, charged with the murder of an unknown man. He was defended by Donald Finnemore, and the Crown was represented by Birkett and Richard Elwes. Rouse was damned by a series of events. When arrested, he made statements such as "I'm very glad it's over" and "I'm responsible" and that the car engine had been off at the time of the fire, ruling out the possibility of accidental ignition. When he appeared as a witness, the defendant claimed that after giving an unknown man a lift, he had found that he was running out of petrol and had asked the passenger to take the spare can in the car and fill up the fuel tank. While he was doing this, Rouse testified that he went to the side of the road to urinate, and while there heard a large explosion. He said he saw a large flame and became convinced the petrol tank would explode. As such he ran away as fast as possible, at which point he ran into the two young men on the road.

The cross-examination of him and other witnesses by Birkett swayed the jury, and they took only fifteen minutes to find Rouse guilty of murder. After his appeal had been rejected by both the Court of Appeal and the Home Secretary, Rouse admitted that he had in fact committed the murder – although he never gave a reason – it was theorised that he had done so in an attempt to fake his own death. Despite his admission of guilt the identity of the victim has never been discovered.

In 1934, Birkett acted as counsel for the second of the two Brighton trunk murders, a case which was described as "his greatest triumph in a capital case". In June 1934, a woman's torso was found in a suitcase in Brighton railway station. The legs were discovered at King's Cross station the next day, but her head and arms were never found, and the case is still unsolved. A woman by the name of Violette Kaye had disappeared, and the appearance of the first woman's body prompted greater scrutiny on Kaye's case. On 14 July, they interviewed Toni Mancini, Kaye's boyfriend, who convinced them that the dead woman could not possibly be Kaye; the dead woman had been identified as around thirty five years old and five months pregnant, while Kaye was ten years older. Kaye was last seen alive on 10 May looking distressed in the doorway to her house and had been scheduled to visit her sister in London who received a telegram on 11 May reading "Going abroad. Good job. Sail Sunday. Will write. Vi." in block capitals. The post office clerks could not remember who sent it, but experts testified that the handwriting on the telegram had similarities to that on a menu written by Mancini. On 14 May, with the help of another man, Mancini moved his belongings from the house he shared with Kaye, which included a large trunk which was too heavy to move by hand. Mancini had told people that he had broken up with Kaye and she had moved to Paris, and that before she left he had beaten her. He later said to a friend, "What is the good of knocking a woman about with your fists? You only hurt yourself. You should hit her with a hammer same as I did and [chop] her up." A hammerhead was later found in the rubbish at his old house.

After the police had left on 14 July, Mancini got on a train to London. When the police arrived the next morning, they were unable to find Mancini but found Kaye's body decomposing in the trunk in his new home. They immediately sent out a country-wide call for Mancini to be arrested, and he was picked up near London. He claimed he was not guilty, and stated during interviews with police that he had returned home to find Kaye dead. Fearing that with his criminal record, the police would not believe him, he had hidden the body in a trunk. While Mancini was in prison, his solicitor phoned Birkett and asked him to work as counsel for the defence, which Birkett agreed to do. In his defence, Birkett highlighted flaws in the prosecution's case to introduce an element of doubt in the minds of the jury. His cross-examination of Sir Bernard Spilsbury, famous Home Office pathologist and potentially the most dangerous witness for the Crown, was seen as "masterly". Birkett also emphasised the affectionate nature of the relationship between Kaye and Mancini before Kaye's death. Despite strong evidence that he had committed the crime, including marks on the victim's skull believed to be from a hammer and marks of blood on Mancini's clothing, the jury found Mancini not guilty after two and a half hours of deliberations. Mancini confessed to the murder before dying.

In May 1937 Birkett was appointed Chairman of the Inter-Departmental Committee for Abortion set up by the Minister of Health and Home Secretary, preparing a report "to inquire into the prevalence of abortion, and the law relating thereto, and to consider what steps can be taken by more effective enforcement of the law", something which occupied him for two years. During the summer of 1937, Birkett was asked to represent the English Bar at the annual meeting of the Canadian Bar Association in Toronto, where he was a popular speaker. In January 1938, he was asked to act as a Commissioner of Assize to open the Assize Court in Aylesbury, dealing with an average of 10 cases a day. After the outbreak of World War II in 1939, he became a member of a committee advising the Home Secretary on the detention of suspected enemy agents. The committee dealt with more than 1,500 cases in two years. Although the work was unpaid, he was knighted (as a Knight Bachelor) on 6 June 1941 as a reward for his work. He also delivered weekly radio broadcasts after the Friday night news to counter the broadcasts of William Joyce, known as Lord Haw Haw. The first broadcast took place on 9 February 1940, and they were considered to be a morale boost during the so-called Phoney War.

Judicial work
Birkett had been offered appointment to the High Court as early as 1928, but turned it down, saying that "I wasn't really drawn to the judicial office... I loved the Bar too much". After the death of the High Court judge Sir Anthony Hawke in October 1941, the Lord Chancellor Lord Simon offered Birkett the seat. Birkett considered it his "public duty" to join the bench and wrote back on 4 November accepting the offer. He was sworn in on 11 November 1941 and first sat on 24 November. He did not enjoy his time in the high courts, admitting that he "missed the limelight" of being an advocate, and, combined with ill-health, he suffered from depression in 1942. He was, however, a popular judge, although he felt he was too weak in his judgments because he "did not desire to hurt people's feelings". At one point, the Daily Herald reported he was to be made Viceroy of India. For several weeks in 1943, he sat in the Court of Appeal before departing on an Assize visit. He fell ill after a few weeks with a combination of heart disease and pneumonia, and he returned home to recover. He suffered from more illness over the next year and considered resigning as a judge, as he felt that he could no longer trust his abilities as one. During his time in the High Court, he dealt with several notable cases including Constantine v Imperial Hotels Ltd, which reaffirmed the common law principle that innkeepers must not refuse accommodation to guests without just cause.

Nuremberg trials
On 30 August 1945, Birkett received a letter from the Lord Chancellor asking him to serve as the British judge at the Nuremberg Trials of German War Criminals. He accepted, saying that it was "a great honour to be selected". But when he went to London to discuss it, he was informed that the Foreign Office wanted a more senior judge to be in attendance, ideally a Law Lord, but since no Law Lord was available, they had requested that a judge from the Court of Appeal should be appointed. Geoffrey Lawrence was made the main British judge, and Birkett was offered the position of alternate judge for the trials, which he accepted, although with less enthusiasm than he had shown when accepting the original offer. He became friends with the American judge Francis Biddle, although when they first met he accidentally confused him with Anthony Drexel Biddle and remarked how useful his diplomatic training would be in the trials.

The trial lasted from 18 October 1945 to 30 September 1946, and although Birkett did not have a vote in the proceedings as an alternate judge, his opinion was given weight, and it helped sway the decisions made by the main judges. After returning home from the trials, he received praise from both the Lord Chancellor, who said that "The country owes much to him for vindicating our conceptions of an impartial trial under the rule of law", and from John Parker, the American alternate judge, who wrote that:
Although only an alternate member of the tribunal without a vote, his voice was heard in all of its deliberations, his hand drafted a large and most important part of its judgment, and no one connected with the tribunal, member or otherwise, had a greater part than he in shaping the final result. If, as I confidently believe, the work of the tribunal will constitute a landmark in the development of world order based on law, to Norman Birkett must go a large share of the credit for the success of the undertaking. To few men does the opportunity come to labour so mightily for the welfare of their kind.

After the judges returned home, Lawrence was made a Baron for his work at Nuremberg, but Birkett received nothing. The lack of reward for his work pushed him into depression, which he took many months to recover from. He was eventually made a Privy Counsellor in the 1947 Birthday Honours list, but he saw this as poor reward for the work he had put in at Nuremberg.

Further judicial work

The rest of his time in the High Court passed uneventfully, but he continued to be unhappy with his work as a judge, noting that "I am nervous of myself, without much confidence in my judgment and hesitant about my sentences and damages and things of that kind. I have felt no glow of achievement in any summing up, though none of them have been bad."

He was again struck by depression in 1948 when Sir Alfred Thompson Denning and Sir John Singleton were both appointed to the Court of Appeal ahead of him, despite having been appointed to the High Court after him. On 30 July 1949, Birkett went to the Lord Chancellor and discussed the possibility of his appointment to the Court of Appeal, but left dissatisfied. On 14 November, a duodenal ulcer perforated, from which he spent six months recovering. In an attempt to appease him, the Lord Chancellor offered Birkett a peerage without salary on 8 May 1950, but he refused as he lacked the means to survive without paid employment. While speaking at a conference in Washington, D.C., on 31 August 1950, he received a telegram from the Lord Chancellor offering him appointment to the Court of Appeal; he immediately wired back his acceptance. He was sworn in on 2 October, and heard his first case the following day.

He found the work in the Court of Appeal dull, and his disappointment increased the longer he worked. As in the High Court, he felt uncertain about his judgements and unsure as to whether he was affecting the law. Despite his personal opinion of himself, the judiciary as a whole felt that his mix of humanity and common sense was beneficial to the court. During the 1951 Long Vacation he broadcast three talks for the BBC on the subject of international law and its growth and gave a speech for the Law Society titled "The Lawyer's Contribution to Society". Despite his unhappiness with his work in the Court of Appeal, he worked until 1956, when his long service as a judge allowed him to draw a pension. In his remaining time in the Court of Appeal, Birkett judged several notable cases, in particular Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain v Boots Cash Chemists (Southern) Ltd [1953] 1 QB 401, and Entores Ltd v Miles Far East Corporation [1955] 2 QB 327, where the court made a landmark decision on acceptance of a contract in relation to Telex.

Retirement
On 13 June 1957 he became chairman of a committee of Privy Counsellors holding an inquiry into the Home Secretary's use of telephone tapping. After twenty-nine meetings, Birkett drafted a report which he passed on to Parliament supporting the use of telephone taps and noting their effectiveness. On 9 December, a letter arrived from the Prime Minister offering him a peerage. He accepted, and his name appeared in the 1958 New Years Honours list, and was created Baron Birkett, of Ulverston in the County of Lancaster, and took his seat in the House of Lords on 20 February 1958. In the same year, he was awarded a LLD by the University of Cambridge, where the speaker said that Birkett was "endowed with such a voice as Cicero declared to be first requisite of an orator" and that "in our own time there had been no one more skilled in swaying the mind of a jury." In February 1959, he appeared on the first episode of the BBC television program Face to Face, where he was described as "one of the three or four greatest criminal lawyers of this century, and perhaps one of the three or four greatest criminal lawyers of all time". Outside politics and the law, he also served as Master of the Worshipful Company of Curriers four times.

Birkett tried to sit as regularly in the House of Lords as possible, and made his maiden speech on 8 April 1959 on the subject of crime in the United Kingdom. In May, he moved the first reading of the Obscene Publications Bill, which passed with support from both sides of the house. Privately, Birkett believed that "there will never be a satisfactory law in England about obscenity. Our 1959 Act is the best we have yet done." In 1961, he was again invited by the BBC to give a series of talks on the BBC Home Service, this time titled "Six Great Advocates". He picked Edward Marshall Hall, Patrick Hastings, Edward Clarke, Rufus Isaacs, Charles Russell and Thomas Erskine. He sat for the last time in the House of Lords on 8 February 1962, where he made a speech criticising an element of the Manchester Corporation Bill which would have water drained from Ullswater to meet the needs of the growing population in Manchester. His speech was "deeply felt and eloquent", and when the votes were announced, Birkett and his supporters had won by 70 votes to 36. The Ullswater Yacht Club now holds an annual Lord Birkett Memorial Trophy Race on the lake.

The next morning he complained of heart trouble, collapsed shortly after lunch and was taken to the hospital. The doctors discovered that he had ruptured an important blood vessel and immediate surgery was needed to fix it. The operation failed to fix the problem, and he died early in the morning on 10 February 1962. His son, Michael, succeeded him as Baron Birkett.

Arms

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References

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Norman Birkett, 1st Baron Birkett


The avoirdupois system is a system for measuring weight. It is based on a pound of 16 ounces or 7,000 grains (453.59 grams). It is the system used in the United States. It is still used by many people in Canada, United Kingdom, and Ireland.

Imperial units

Avoirdupois system


The Louisville Colonels were a Major League Baseball team that played from 1882 to 1899. The Colonels represented the city of Louisville, Kentucky, in the United States.

The team played in the American Association (AA). This was an early American major league baseball league from the 1800s. The team was first called the Louisville Eclipse from 1882 to 1884. Then it was renamed the Louisville Colonels in 1885. The name the Colonels comes from the Kentucky colonel, a title of honor in the Commonwealth of Kentucky.

In 1891, the AA folded (stopped existing). The Colonels then joined the National League. The team played for the National League through 1899.

Notable Colonel players include Fred Clarke, Honus Wagner, and Rube Waddell.

Major League Baseball teams
Sportspeople from Louisville, Kentucky
1882 establishments in the United States
1880s establishments in Kentucky
1899 disestablishments
1890s disestablishments in the United States

Louisville Colonels


William Hugh Kenner (January 7, 1923 – November 24, 2003) was a Canadian literary scholar, critic and professor. He published widely on Modernist literature with particular emphasis on James Joyce, Ezra Pound, and Samuel Beckett. His major study of the period, The Pound Era, argued for Pound as the central figure of Modernism, and is considered one of the most important works on the topic.

Biography

Early years and education
Kenner was born in Peterborough, Ontario, on January 7, 1923. His father H. R. H. Kenner taught classics and his mother Mary (Williams) Kenner taught French and German at Peterborough Collegiate Institute. Kenner attributed his interest in literature to his poor hearing, caused by a bout of influenza during his childhood.

Attending the University of Toronto, Kenner studied under Marshall McLuhan, who wrote the introduction to Kenner's first book Paradox in Chesterton, about G. K. Chesterton's works. Kenner's second book, The Poetry of Ezra Pound (1951) was dedicated to McLuhan, who had introduced Kenner to Pound on June 4, 1948, during Pound's incarceration at St. Elizabeths Hospital, Washington, DC, where Kenner and McLuhan had driven as a detour from their trip from Toronto to New Haven, Connecticut. (Pound, who became a friend of Kenner's, had suggested the book be titled The Rose in the Steel Dust.) Later, Kenner said of McLuhan, "I had the advantage of being exposed to Marshall when he was at his most creative, and then of getting to the far end of the continent shortly afterward, when he couldn't get me on the phone all the time. He could be awfully controlling." Later, when McLuhan wrote that the development of cartography during the Renaissance created a geographical sense that had never previously existed, Kenner sent him a postcard reading in full: "Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, Yours, Hugh."

In 1950, Kenner earned a PhD from Yale University, with a dissertation on James Joyce, James Joyce: Critique in Progress, for Cleanth Brooks. This work, which won the John Addison Porter Prize at Yale, became Dublin's Joyce in 1956.

Academic career
Kenner's first teaching post was at the University of California, Santa Barbara (1951 to 1973); he then taught at Johns Hopkins University (from 1973 to 1990) and the University of Georgia (from 1990 to 1999).

Kenner played an influential role in raising Ezra Pound's profile among critics and other readers of poetry. The publication of The Poetry of Ezra Pound in 1951 "was the beginning, and the catalyst, for a change in attitude toward Pound on the American literary and educational scenes." The Pound Era, the product of years of scholarship and considered by many to be Kenner's masterpiece, was published in 1971. This work was responsible for enshrining Pound's reputation (damaged by his wartime activities) as one of the greatest Modernists.

Though best known for his work on modernist literature, Kenner's range of interests was wide. His books include an appreciation of Chuck Jones, an introduction to geodesic math, and a user's guide for the Heathkit H100/Zenith Z-100 computer; in his later years he was a columnist for both Art & Antiques and Byte magazine. Kenner was a friend of William F. Buckley, Jr., to whom Kenner introduced word processing, and a contributor to National Review. He also shared a close correspondence with Guy Davenport, the noted scholar and fiction writer.

Personal life
Kenner was married twice: his first wife, Mary Waite, died in 1964; the couple had three daughters and two sons. His second wife, whom he married in 1965, was Mary-Anne Bittner; they had a son and a daughter.

Death
Hugh Kenner died at his home in Athens, Georgia, on November 24, 2003.

Selected bibliography

 Paradox in Chesterton (1947)
 The Poetry of Ezra Pound (New Directions, 1951)
 Wyndham Lewis: A Critical Guidebook (1954)
 Dublin's Joyce (Indiana University Press, 1956; rpt., Columbia University Press, 1987)
 Gnomon: Essays in Contemporary Literature (1959)
 The Art of Poetry (1959)
 The Invisible Poet: T. S. Eliot (1959; rev. ed, 1969)
 Samuel Beckett: A Critical Study (Grove Press, 1961; rev. ed., 1968)
 T. S. Eliot: A Collection of Critical Essays (editor) (Prentice-Hall, 1962)
 The Stoic Comedians: Flaubert, Joyce, and Beckett (1962) (illustrated by Guy Davenport)
 Seventeenth Century Poetry: The Schools of Donne & Jonson (editor) (1964)
 Studies in Change: A Book of the Short Story (editor) (1965)
 The Counterfeiters: An Historical Comedy (Indiana University Press, 1968; The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985) (illustrated by Guy Davenport)
 The Pound Era (University of California Press, 1971)
 Bucky: A Guided Tour of Buckminster Fuller (William Morrow, 1973)
 A Reader's Guide to Samuel Beckett (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1973)
 A Homemade World: The American Modernist Writers (Alfred A. Knopf, 1975)
 Geodesic Math and How to Use It (1976)
 Joyce's Voices (University of California Press, 1978)
 Ulysses (George Allen & Unwin, 1980; rev. ed., The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987)
 A Colder Eye: The Modern Irish Writers (Alfred A. Knopf, 1983)
 The Mechanic Muse (Oxford University Press, 1987)
 A Sinking Island: The Modern English Writers (1988)
 Mazes: Essays (North Point Press, 1989)
 Historical Fictions: Essays (University of Georgia Press, 1995)
 Chuck Jones: A Flurry of Drawings (1994)
 The Elsewhere Community, CBC Massey Lectures (1998)
  A Passion for Joyce: The Letters of Hugh Kenner and Adaline Glasheen ed. Edward M. Burns (University College Dublin Press, 2008)
 Questioning Minds: The Letters of Guy Davenport and Hugh Kenner, ed. Edward M. Burns (Counterpoint Press, 2018)

References

External links
Hugh Kenner: An Inventory of His Papers at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center

1923 births
2003 deaths
Canadian literary critics
University of Toronto alumni
Yale University alumni
Johns Hopkins University faculty
University of Georgia faculty
University of California, Santa Barbara faculty
People from Peterborough, Ontario
Canadian people of German descent
James Joyce scholars
American academics of English literature
Canadian expatriates in the United States

Hugh Kenner


The Jagdpanzer IV, Sd.Kfz. 162, was a German tank destroyer based on the Panzer IV chassis and built in three main variants. As one of the casemate-style turretless Jagdpanzer (tank destroyer, literally "hunting tank") designs, it was developed against the wishes of Heinz Guderian, the inspector general of the Panzertruppen, as a replacement for the  (StuG III). Guderian objected against the needless, in his eyes, diversion of resources from Panzer IV tank production, as the StuG III was still more than adequate for its role.

Officially, only the L/48-armed vehicle was named Jagdpanzer IV. The L/70-armed vehicle was named Panzer IV/70. In this article, both versions are referred to in general as Jagdpanzer IV, except in the variants and surviving vehicles section.

Development

With experience gained during the initial phases of the Battle of Stalingrad, in September 1942 the Wehrmacht's arms bureau, the Waffenamt, called for a new standard for heavy assault guns: 100 mm of armor to the front, 40–50 mm on the sides, wider tracks, ground clearance of , top speed of  and the lowest possible firing positions. The new Panzerjäger ("tank hunter") design would be armed with the same 7.5 cm gun as fitted to the Panther tank: the Pak 42 L/70. Initially a new chassis was planned, but that of the Panzer IV had to be used.

Previous efforts to mount bigger guns on smaller chassis resulted in the Marder I, II and III series and the Sturmgeschütz III. The Marder series were tall and had open crew compartments. The new design had a low silhouette and completely enclosed, casemate-style fighting compartment.

The Jagdpanzer IV used a modified Panzer IV Ausf. H chassis, but the almost-vertical front hull plate was replaced by sloped armor plates. Internally, the layout was changed to accommodate the new superstructure, moving the fuel tanks and ammunition racks. Since the Jagdpanzer lacked a turret, the auxiliary engine which powered the Panzer IV's turret traverse mechanism could be eliminated.

The new superstructure had 80 mm thick sloped armour, giving much greater protection than vertical armour of 100 mm. To make the manufacturing process as simple as possible, the superstructure was made from large, interlocking plates that were welded together.

Armament

Main gun
Armament consisted of a 7.5 cm main gun firing Fixed QF 75 × 640mm R ammunition, originally intended to be the Pak 42 L/70. Due to shortages, older guns were initially used, the 7.5 cm Pak 39 L/43 for pre-production, and the 7.5 cm Pak 39 L/48 for the initial production variant. These were shorter and less powerful than the Pak 42, and also carried a muzzle brake.

Installing the much heavier Pak 42 meant that the Jagdpanzer IV was nose-heavy, especially with the heavy frontal armour. This made them less mobile and more difficult to operate in rough terrain, leading their crews to nickname them Guderian-Ente ("Guderian's duck"). To prevent the rubber rims of the roadwheels being dislocated by the weight of the vehicle, some later versions had steel roadwheels installed on the front.

The final prototype of the Jagdpanzer IV was presented in December 1943 and production started in January 1944, with the Pak 39 L/48 armed variant staying in production until November. Production of the Pak 42 L/70 armed variants started in August and continued until March/April 1945.

Secondary armament

Early versions of the Jagdpanzer IV carried two standard (no modification made) MG 42 machine guns on both sides of the main gun mantlet/glacis, firing 7.92×57mm Mauser rifle ammunition through a firing port which was protected by an armored cover plate (with the MG 42 retracted) when not in use. As the main gun was located between these machine guns one machine gun could be operated from the left side only, which is impractical for non-left-handed operators, and the other one from the right side only. Later version Jagdpanzer IVs carried only one MG 42 as internal secondary armament with about 1,200 rounds of ammunition. The Jagdpanzer IV secondary armament was exceptional, as other World War II era German tanks or other armored vehicles used the MG 34 for internal secondary or co-axial armament.

Production
On 19–22 August 1943, after the Battle of Kursk, Hitler received reports that StuG IIIs performed better than the Panzer IV within the constraints of how they were deployed. It was thus intended to stop production of the Panzer IV itself at the end of 1944 to concentrate solely on production of the Jagdpanzer IV, but the Panzer IV continued to be produced until the end of the conflict along with Jagdpanzer IV. VoMAG in Plauen switched completely from Panzer IV production to Jagdpanzer IV in Spring 1944, Krupp-Grusonwerk in Magdeburg switched to StuG IV in early 1944, and only the Nibelungenwerk in St. Valentin continued with Panzer IV production.

Variants

Jagdpanzer IV 0-Serie
with 7.5 cm Pak 39 L/43: a small number of these were built as the preproduction (0-Serie) probably in December 1943.
Jagdpanzer IV (Sd.Kfz.162)
with 7.5 cm Pak 39 L/48, developed under the name Sturmgeschütz neuer Art mit 7.5 cm Pak L/48 auf Fahrgestell PzKpfw IV, with 769–784 produced in January 1944 - November 1944.
Panzer IV/70 (V) (Sd.Kfz.162/1)
was one of two variants armed with the same Pak 42 L/70 gun. The (V) stands for the designer, Vomag. The most produced version, with 930–940 built in August 1944 - April 1945. Equipped with a long, powerful L/70 7.5cm anti-tank gun that could outrange opposing Allied tank weapons, the Panzer IV/70(V) Lang proved a formidable foe. The "Lang" (German for "long") in its name was added to distinguish it from its predecessor with a shorter L/48 7.5cm gun.
Panzer IV/70 (A) (Sd.Kfz.162/1)
the other Pak 42 L/70 armed Jagdpanzer IV. In order to send Pak 42 L/70 armed vehicles to the front as soon as possible, in July 1944 Hitler ordered an interim solution to speed up Nibelungenwerke's transition from Panzer IV production to Panzer IV/70 production. "A" stands for Alkett, a manufacturer of the StuG III, that was ordered to redesign the Jagdpanzer IV superstructure to be mounted onto a standard Panzer IV chassis. The Vomag design used a modified chassis permitting a very low silhouette. Mounting the superstructure onto the original Panzer IV chassis required additional vertical steel plates mounted onto the chassis to counter height differences. The resulting vehicle was about 40 cm taller and lacked the sharp edged nose of the Vomag variant. Only 278 were built by Nibelungenwerke from August 1944 to March 1945.

Minor modifications and improvements were made throughout the production runs of all variants, as well as several field improvements, the most common being the addition of armour sideskirts (or in German, Schürzen).

Originally the Jagdpanzer IV's gun had a muzzle brake installed, but because the gun was so close to the ground, each time it was fired, huge dust clouds would betray the vehicle's position, leading many crews to remove the muzzle brake in the field. Later variants dispensed with the muzzle brake.

Early vehicles had zimmerit applied to the hull to protect against magnetic mines, but this was discontinued after about September 1944. Later vehicles had three return rollers rather than the original four, and adopted the twin vertical exhausts typical of the late Panzer IV series.

Combat history

The Jagdpanzer IV served in the anti-tank sections of Panzer and SS Panzer divisions. The vehicle fought against Western Allied forces in Normandy and the Battle of the Bulge, and Soviet tanks and troops on the Eastern Front. It was very successful as a tank destroyer due to its low profile, accurate gun and good armour protection, but performed poorly when used out of role as a substitute for tanks or assault guns to support infantry. This was increasingly necessary in the later stages of the war from late 1944 to 1945, because there was often nothing else available to the badly depleted German armoured units.

Romania received several Jagdpanzer IV/70 from the Red Army after the war ended. They were officially known as TAs T4 in their army's inventory and were used until 1950 when they were phased out. German armour in Romanian service, including the Jagdpanzer IV, was replaced entirely with Soviet vehicles in 1954. Bulgaria also received Jagdpanzer IVs from both Germany and the Soviet Union (most coming from the latter post-war), and they saw limited service in the postwar Bulgarian military before being stripped of all engine components, dug in and turned into fixed gun emplacements on its border with neighbouring Turkey, as part of the Krali Marko Line (now fallen into disrepair). Most of these ex-German vehicles have been dug up recently, with some scrapped while others await restoration locally or abroad.

Jagdpanzer IV aces include SS-Oberscharführer (Technical Sergeant) Rudolf Roy from the 12th SS Panzerjäger Battalion of 12th SS Panzer Division. He was killed by an American sniper while looking out of the hatch of his Jagdpanzer IV on December 17 in 1944 during the Ardennes Offensive in Belgium, the last major German offensive on the Western Front.

After the war, West Germany continued the Jagdpanzer concept with the Kanonenjagdpanzer, but few other fixed-casemate self-propelled guns were built in the postwar era. An innovative exception was the Swedish Stridsvagn 103, more widely known as the "S-Tank".

Along with Panzer IVs and Sturmgeschütz IIIs, Syria acquired in the 1950s six Jagdpanzer IV L/48s. These were used in the conflicts with Israel up until 1967 when most were either destroyed, abandoned on the Golan Heights overlooking Israel, or scrapped.

Comparable vehicles
 Germany: Hetzer, StuG III, StuG IV
 Italy: Semovente da 75/34
 Japan: Type 3 Ho-Ni III
 Romania: Mareșal
 Soviet Union: SU-85
 United States: M10 GMC

Related
The Kanonenjagdpanzer (also known as "Jagdpanzer Kanone 90mm", or "tank destroyer, gun") was a German Cold War tank destroyer equipped with a 90mm anti-tank gun from obsolete M47 Patton tanks. Its design was very similar to that of World War II Jagdpanzer IV.

Survivors
Jagdpanzer IV 0-Serie
 Deutsches Panzermuseum in Munster, Germany. The vehicle is a preproduction model with rounded front plates. It was previously part of the Musée des Blindés in Saumur, France

Jagdpanzer IV L/48
 Deutsches Panzermuseum in Munster, Germany. It is an early version with 60 mm armor. This vehicle is on loan from the WTS in Koblenz, Germany, and previously belonged to the United States Army Ordnance Museum in Aberdeen, Maryland. It was returned to Germany in the 1960s.
 Musée des Blindés in Saumur, France. It is an early model with 60 mm armor.
 Thun Tank Museum in Switzerland. It is a late model with 80 mm front armor.
 In storage in a military area in Bulgaria. This is a very early L/48 model, and the only surviving example with the driver's machine gun slot welded over. It was previously part of a defensive line on the Bulgarian border. In February 2008 it was ordered recovered by the Bulgarian Defense Minister to be either preserved in a museum in Bulgaria, or sold to a private collector. As of 2020, the tank is at the Museum of Combat Glory in Yambol, Bulgaria.
 A wreck of Jagdpanzer IV L/48 is stored in Armoured Warfare Museum in Poznań. It was excavated in 2009 in the vicinity of the Citadel.
 Khmeimim Air Base near Lattaquié, Syria.
 Near Mount Hermon, Golan Heights, Israel. It is unknown if this vehicle still resides here.

Panzer IV L/70 (V)
 National Museum of Military History in Sofia, Bulgaria.
 Kubinka Tank Museum in Russia.
 United States Army Ordnance Museum once located in Aberdeen, Maryland, now in storage at Ft Lee, Virginia.
 Patton Museum once located at Fort Knox, Kentucky, now in storage at Ft. Benning, GA. This vehicle was previously part of the Shrivenham Study Collection in the UK.
 Canadian War Museum located in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. This vehicle was previously at the Canadian Forces Base/Area Support Unit Shilo in Canada.
 Australian Armour and Artillery Museum Restored to running order.

Panzer IV L/70 late (A)
 Musée des Blindés in Saumur, France. The vehicle was used in 1944-45 by Free French forces. The vehicle is displayed with damage resulting from a direct hit by an armor-piercing shell.

References

External links
 Jagdpanzer IV at Panzerworld
 Panzer IV/70 at Panzerworld
 Jagdpanzer IV/70 in Kubinka tank museum

 Jagdpanzer Photos of the Jagdpanzer IV at the Canada War Museum
 Surviving Panzer IV variants - A PDF file presenting the Panzer IV variants (Jagdpanzer IV, Hummel, Nashorn, Brummbär, StuG IV, Flakpanzer tanks and prototypes based on Pz IV) still existing in the world

Self-propelled anti-tank gun
World War II tank destroyers of Germany
Military vehicles introduced from 1940 to 1944
Tanks introduced in 1943

Jagdpanzer IV


Oleksa Mykolajovych Hirnyk (, Oleksa Mykolajovyč Hirnyk; 28 March 1912 – 21 January 1978) was a Ukrainian Soviet dissident, an engineer by profession, who burned himself to death as an act of protest against Soviet suppression of the Ukrainian language (russification), culture and history. The act was quickly covered up by the Soviet authorities and remained unknown to general populace for decades.

Background
Hirnyk was born on 28 March 1912 in the town of Bohorodchany, then Austria-ruled Galicia, currently in Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast (province) in western Ukraine. He came from a family of boykos with a long background of preserving Ukrainian culture and heritage, his grandfather was the founder of the Prosvita Society in Bohorodchany, a society that promoted Ukrainian culture and the Ukrainian language.

After finishing secondary education, his parents wanted him to study at the seminary to become a priest. He, however, enrolled into a paramilitary organization "Sokil". When he was getting ready to study philosophy at the University of Lviv, he was conscripted into the Polish army. While serving, he protested the treatment of Ukrainian soldiers by the Polish officers. Because of statements against the Polish government and speaking about the independence of Ukraine, he was sentenced to five years in prison. When the Soviets took control of Ukraine in 1939, Hirnyk escaped from prison in Lviv. In that same year he persisted with his promotion of the Ukrainian language and of Ukrainian culture, and he did not hide his aspirations for independent Ukrainian statehood.  He was arrested and sentenced to 8 years, which he spent in a penal colony in the Ural region. After he was released in 1948 he returned to Ukraine, married Carolyna Petrash and worked in different jobs. Soon he became conscious of the dire state of the Ukrainian language in the country and witnessed that, due to the Soviet policies of Russification, Ukrainian language was no longer spoken, particularly in the eastern and central regions. In his house he began to produce handwritten leaflets (accompanied with quotes of Taras Shevchenko) — overall 1000 copies in 8 different versions.

Protest
The night of 21 January 1978, the eve of the sixtieth anniversary of Ukraine's declaration of independence by the Tsentralna Rada government, Hirnyk doused himself with four liters of gasoline and burned himself to death on Chernecha Hill, in Kaniv not far from Taras Shevchenko's tomb.  He had written close to a thousand leaflets containing quotes of Taras Shevchenko, protests against the russification of Ukraine, and calls for Ukrainian independence, and left them scattered on the hill. The KGB and local police quickly collected about 950 of them, however a few were hidden by the locals and even by some policemen. The man who discovered the body was arrested and coerced into silence. Hirnyk's wife was initially told that her husband died in a car accident and she was later forced to sign a written statement pledging not to tell anyone about the particulars of her husband's death. Hirnyk's son was 23 years old at the time of his father's death.

Commemoration
Unlike the Czech student Jan Palach, who also burned himself to death in protest of Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia, Hirnyk's sacrifice was not well known. However for years on the anniversary of his death, unknown people were putting on the place of his death a cluster of red guelder-rose fruits as a tribute. After Ukraine's independence, Hirnyk's story began to emerge from the archives and testimonies of the witnesses. In 1993 a street was named after him in Kalush, and a memorial plaque was put on his house. In 1999 the Hirnyk charitable fund was set up dedicated to the promotion of children's literature in Ukrainian. In 2000 a guelder-rose bush was planted on the place of his death. By decree of the President of Ukraine of 18 January 2007, Oleksa Hirnyk was awarded the title of the Hero of Ukraine posthumously and awarded the Order of the State.

As part of the derussification campaign that swept through Ukraine following the February 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Suzdal Street in (Ukraine's capital) Kyiv was renamed Oleksa Hirnyk Street on 23 March 2023.

See also
 List of political self-immolations
 Vasyl Makukh
 Jan Palach
 Jan Zajíc
 Ryszard Siwiec
 Romas Kalanta
 Liviu Babeș

Notes

References

 Mariya Hantsyak, "Oleksa Hirnyk burned himself in protest against Russification of Ukraine, Welcome to Ukraine, 2007/1
 М. Іщенко.  Спалився за Україну : Художньо-біографічна повість. Київ: Просвіта, 2004.
 Museum of Dissident Movement

1912 births
1978 suicides
People from Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast
People from the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
Ukrainian Austro-Hungarians
Self-immolations in protest of the Eastern Bloc
Ukrainian dissidents
Suicides in the Soviet Union
Suicides in Ukraine
Recipients of the title of Hero of Ukraine
Soviet dissidents
Gulag detainees
Inmates of Bereza Kartuska Prison
Anti-Russification activists
1978 deaths

Oleksa Hirnyk


The AC Frua or AC 428 is a Breetish GT biggit bi AC Caurs frae 1965 tae 1973. With an Italian body, Breetish chassis, an American big block V-8 it is a true hybrid.  It is also extremely rare, with anerlie 81 caurs biggit in total: 49 coupés (known as fastbacks), 29 convertibles, an 3 special bodied.

The Frua is aften confused wi the gey similar lookin Pietro Frua designed Maserati Mistral.  However, anerlie the front quarter windaes an door handles ar shared.

Heestory
The Frua is biggit on an AC Cobra 427 Mark III race-bred coil springs chassis extended bi 6 inches (150 mm). Chassis wur biggit at the AC plant in Ingland then shipped tae Frua's workshop in Italy where the body wis fitted an then sent back tae Ingland tae hae the pouer train an trim added. The cost wis huge an the caurs coud na be sold at a competitive price. Unlike similar caurs such as the Iso Grifo, Iso Rivolta, an Monteverdis an De Tomasos o the period, the AC Frua features fully independent racin based coil spring suspension.

The AC Frua wis never fully developed because AC Caurs lacked the financial means. The caur's main drawback, common tae similarly-engined big-block U.S. muscle caurs o the period, is a tendency o the huge V-8's heat tae bleed into the cabin. This design flaw can be overcome bi uisin modern insulation on the firewall an unner the floor.

Chassis

Chassis construction wis similar tae maist Italian supercaurs o that era, wi squerr an rectangular tubin connectin the steel body tae the frame. Though the 4 inch (100 mm) tubular chassis allowed baith coupé an convertible versions tae be immensely rigid, the design wis intricate an prone tae rust.  The bonnets an boot lids wur fabricated frae aluminium.

See also
Breetish motor industry

External links

Sports car manufacturers
Elmbridge
Frua

AC Frua


टंजानिया अफ्रीका-महाद्वीपे देश: अस्‍ति.

The United Republic of Tanzania (Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania in Swahili) is a country on the east coast of central Africa. It is bordered by Kenya and Uganda on the north, Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the west, and Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique on the south. To the east it borders the Indian Ocean.

Tanzania has two capital cities, Dar es Salaam and Dodoma. The government moved some government offices to Dodoma from Dar es Salaam during the 1970s.

संबद्घ विषया:

 eng

सारमञ्जूषा योजनीया

सम्बद्धाः लेखाः

 संस्कृतम्
 भारतम्
 हिन्दूधर्मः
 वैदिकसाहित्यम्

टंजानिया


MSN Games (also known as Zone.com - formerly known as The Village, Internet Gaming Zone, MSN Gaming Zone, and MSN Games by Zone.com) is a casual gaming web site, with single player, multiplayer, PC download, and social casino video games. Games are available in free online, trial, and full feature pay-to-play versions.

MSN Games is a part of Xbox Game Studios, associated with the MSN portal, and is owned by Microsoft, headquartered in Redmond, Washington.

History
The first version of the site, which was then called "The Village", was founded by Kevin Binkley, Ted Griggs, and Hoon Im. In 1996, Steve Murch, an employee of Microsoft, convinced Bill Gates and Steve Ballmer to acquire the small online game site, then owned by Electric Gravity. The site was rebranded to "Internet Gaming Zone" and launched in 1996.

It started with a handful of card and board games like Hearts, Spades, Checkers, Backgammon, and Bridge.

For the following 5 years, the Internet Gaming Zone would be renamed several times and would increase in popularity with the introduction of popular retail- and MMORPG-games, such as MechWarrior, Rainbow Six, UltraCorps, Age of Empires, Asheron's Call and Fighter Ace.

The website also featured a community forum which was set-up in 2006. This lasted until the closure of MSN Groups in 2009.

Microsoft announced in July 2019 that it would be shutting down the Internet series of games built into Windows operating systems. Windows XP and ME games were shut down on July 31, 2019, while the remaining games on Windows 7 were shut down on January 22, 2020 (a little over a week after Microsoft ceased support for Windows 7).

CD-ROM matchmaking
MSN Games announced in early 2006 the retiring of support for CD-ROM games, chat lobbies, the ZoneFriends client and the Member Plus program, scheduled for June 19, 2006:
"...as of June 19, 2006, we will be retiring our CD-ROM matchmaking service, along with the original versions of several classic card and board games: Classic Backgammon, Bridge, Classic Checkers, Chess, Cribbage, Euchre, Go, Classic Hearts, Reversi, and Spades. We'll be sad to see them go! These games are like old friends: they gave us our start, and helped us grow from an innovative little entertainment site to a truly stellar online gaming experience. But over the years, it's become more and more difficult to maintain the aging hardware and software that supports them. We held out absolutely as long as we could, but it was finally time to make that decision."

"...Along with our old servers, the ZoneFriends tool will be taking a long-overdue retirement. All of our remaining (and future!) multiplayer games will be integrated with MSN Messenger. So, wait, does this mean no lobbies? That's correct, at least for now. The old lobby system was built into our earliest classic games, and is to current game technology what a biplane engine would be to a stealth jet: similar, but essentially incompatible."

"...Officially, the Member Plus program has ended."

In a series of public chats held with various administrators and developers of the Zone, MSN outlined its plan to shift its gaming environment into Windows Live Messenger, a more frequently updated client than the outdated ZoneFriends messenger used on the Zone. However, due primarily to MSN's inability to provide a timeframe for the expected replacement of chat lobbies, tournaments, and its Member Plus volunteer moderator program, thousands of players appeared at each session to express their discontent, and began an online petition in an attempt to stop MSN's scheduled changes. As with previous changes, however, MSN continued to stand firm in its commitment to the retirement of its services, citing outdated hardware and lack of economic viability for the old products.

Although alternatives exist to the Zone for CD-ROM gameplay, many Microsoft game studios embedded Zone links and functionality into their games, including Rockstar San Diego' Midtown Madness and Ensemble Studios' Age of Empires game series. Ensemble only began their switch to an in-game matchmaking system with the release of Age of Mythology. Age of Empires III (2005) also had in-game matchmaking.

Games as recent as Flight Simulator 98 and Star Wars Galactic Battlegrounds utilized the Zone's lobby system for matchmaking. For many such games, no replacement service has been announced. The first game in the Flight Simulator series to use in-game matchmaking is Flight Simulator X, released early 2007, leaving a gap of several months without MSN supported matchmaking services.

Competitors
The Zone's first competitors were AOL's Games.com, as well Mplayer.com (and its successor Gamespy), Pogo.com and Sega's Heat.net. Formerly, the site competed with other similar free-game sites, such as Yahoo! Games and msngames.org.

Volunteers
MSN's competition with AOL Games resulted in the creation of a Volunteer Program for the Zone, which AOL also offered. The idea was to have volunteers moderating chat lobbies, hosting tourneys, offering tech support, and interacting with the gamers to collect general feedback. Volunteer Moderators for the Zone were initially designated as members of the "Zone Team", or zTeam, with assorted tokens assigned to five different teams: the Gaming Team (!), Helproom Team (+), Tournament Hosting Team (%), zStar Team (*), and Tech Support Team (?).

Because of legal complexities when AOL was sued by their volunteers—and the volunteers won the case—MSN Games reformed their policy by contracting a third-party company to manage the program. In 2001, Participate Systems won the contract and would continue to lead the program until its official disbanding. During the volunteer program's conversion to its new management, all previous token designations were replaced with a single "+" token and a new name, the "Member Plus", or MPlus program. Participate Systems was acquired by Outstart.com in November 2004.

The Zone sanctioned a number of independent groups to operate tournaments on the Zone, subject to the groups retaining a tokened tournament director and obeying the Zone Code of Conduct. Groups operated in a number of games, including backgammon, cribbage, chess, hearts, and others.  Some of these groups (for example RTW Online's Thunder and MrFixitOnline's Smackdown series of tournaments in the Age of Empires series of games) created an intense following, and the associated intercine rivalries. A few, such as GammonZone and Warpgammon (backgammon) and Pegging Pals (cribbage) even survived the demise of the Zone and migrated to other servers.

Citing MSN's statement regarding the closure of CD-ROM games on the Zone on June 19, 2006, the Member Plus program was also disbanded at that time, due to the removal of chat capabilities from game lobbies and the end of support for the ZoneFriends client.

Setbacks
 In 2000, the site started to be a target of continuous crack attacks. Crackers, script kiddies for the most part, targeted the Zone software. In 2004, the worst crack attack occurred through the use of social engineering, giving the intruders access to the administrator tools. The intruders used their new-found tools to ban players and other site volunteers.
 After the dot-com boom, web sites claimed difficulties managing their finances. MSN Games changed its market strategy and left the retail market to focus solely on free and premium games, a decision that finally culminated in their decision to retire support for CD-ROM games and lobbies on June 19, 2006.
 Specialized programs, including the Fighter Ace and Allegiance teams, disbanded during the Zone's transition to the Member Plus program, due primarily to the planned retirement of their associated games.

Legacy
 Personalities such as Bill Gates and his friend, Warren Buffett, have played bridge on the Zone. Garry Kasparov, chess champion, played in a chess game organized by Microsoft. World champion Alex Moiseyev and grandmaster Tim Laverty also played checkers on Zone. The Sheik of The United Arab Emirates invited a few backgammon players from the Zone to play in his "2nd annual Abu Dhabi Backgammon Championship". Many of the "Giants of Backgammon" (top 32 in the world) participated in Zone tournaments, including Neil Kazaross, Johannes Levermann, Steve Sax, Howard Ring, Paul Weaver, Kit Woolsey, and Bill Robertie.
 MSN Games is credited for assisting with the introduction of new games on Windows Live Messenger and the development of Xbox Live Arcade.
 Writer Dorothy Rosencrans wrote a book about her experiences at MSN Games and her encounter with Bill Gates.
 MSN Games is credited with renaming DiamondMine to Bejeweled, which is one of the most popular casual games of all time.
 Members Plus originally utilized a Microsoft-authored program called ZoneCommander to access lobbies directly, bypassing web pages. This was later replaced by ZoneOrchestrator, a program written by two Members Plus which improved upon ZoneCommander by adding chat monitoring facilities and an enhanced user interface. Some years later, ZoneCommander was retired in favor of ZoneOrchestrator, which became the official tool of choice and remained so until the lobbies closed on June 19, 2006.

See also
 Kasparov versus the World

References

 Playing Around: My Adventures on the Zone.Com by Dorothy Rosencrans,
 Acoustical Poetry: A collection of Writings by Lily Sparkletoon,1598002619 which can be found at https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1598002619.

External links

 The book about MSN Zone by Dorothy Rosencrans

Browser-based game websites
Microsoft games
Microsoft websites
MSN
Online video game services

pl:MSN (portal internetowy)#MSN Games

MSN Games


A baby hatch (also called foundling wheel) is a system where parents can leave infants for adoption anonymously. Such systems were in use since the Middle Ages. Baby hatches are usually installed at hospitals or social centers or churches. There, mothers or fathers can put their newborn baby into the hatch. The hatches consist of a door or flap in an outside wall which opens onto a soft bed, heated or at least insulated. Sensors in the bed alert carers when a baby has been put in the hatch so that they can come and take care of the child. It will be cared for by hospital staff. If it is not claimed within a given time period, it will be given up for adoption. Such hatches are popular in Germany and Pakistan.

One reason baby hatches are used is because some mothers can't take care of their babies.

History
Baby hatches started in medieval times. They started in 1198 in Italy. They became more popular after the 17th century. They became less popular during the 19th century.

Today only some countries have baby hatches. In others they are illegal.

Images

Related pages
Anonymous birth

Hospitals
Babies

Baby hatch


The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), is a bovine (cloven hoofed animal). It is also known as the Cape buffalo. They are not closely related to other bovines. Because of its aggressive behavior, it has not been domesticated like the domestic Asian water buffalo.

Appearance
They can be up to 3.2 meters high, 6 meters long, and can weigh from 800-1200 kg. The males are bigger than the females. The African buffalo's power and size make it easy to defend itself. They have been known to kill hyenas, lions, and other wild predators, and sometimes even humans. The African buffalo is part of the African big five. The phrase "big five" was introduced by hunters. The big five are the hardest animals to hunt, and the African buffalo is considered the most dangerous.

Bovines
Mammals of Africa

African buffalo


Thoralf Albert Skolem (; 23 May 1887 – 23 March 1963) was a Norwegian mathematician who worked in mathematical logic and set theory.

Life
Although Skolem's father was a primary school teacher, most of his extended family were farmers. Skolem attended secondary school in Kristiania (later renamed Oslo), passing the university entrance examinations in 1905. He then entered Det Kongelige Frederiks Universitet to study mathematics, also taking courses in physics, chemistry, zoology and botany.

In 1909, he began working as an assistant to the physicist Kristian Birkeland, known for bombarding magnetized spheres with electrons and obtaining aurora-like effects; thus Skolem's first publications were physics papers written jointly with Birkeland. In 1913, Skolem passed the state examinations with distinction, and completed a dissertation titled Investigations on the Algebra of Logic. He also traveled with Birkeland to the Sudan to observe the zodiacal light. He spent the winter semester of 1915 at the University of Göttingen, at the time the leading research center in mathematical logic, metamathematics, and abstract algebra, fields in which Skolem eventually excelled. In 1916 he was appointed a research fellow at Det Kongelige Frederiks Universitet. In 1918, he became a Docent in Mathematics and was elected to the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.

Skolem did not at first formally enroll as a Ph.D. candidate, believing that the Ph.D. was unnecessary in Norway. He later changed his mind and submitted a thesis in 1926, titled Some theorems about integral solutions to certain algebraic equations and inequalities. His notional thesis advisor was Axel Thue, even though Thue had died in 1922.

In 1927, he married Edith Wilhelmine Hasvold.

Skolem continued to teach at Det kongelige Frederiks Universitet (renamed the University of Oslo in 1939) until 1930 when he became a Research Associate in Chr. Michelsen Institute in Bergen. This senior post allowed Skolem to conduct research free of administrative and teaching duties. However, the position also required that he reside in Bergen, a city which then lacked a university and hence had no research library, so that he was unable to keep abreast of the mathematical literature. In 1938, he returned to Oslo to assume the Professorship of Mathematics at the university. There he taught the graduate courses in algebra and number theory, and only occasionally on mathematical logic. Skolem's Ph.D. student Øystein Ore went on to a career in the USA.

Skolem served as president of the Norwegian Mathematical Society, and edited the Norsk Matematisk Tidsskrift ("The Norwegian Mathematical Journal") for many years. He was also the founding editor of Mathematica Scandinavica.

After his 1957 retirement, he made several trips to the United States, speaking and teaching at universities there. He remained intellectually active until his sudden and unexpected death.

For more on Skolem's academic life, see Fenstad (1970).

Mathematics
Skolem published around 180 papers on Diophantine equations, group theory, lattice theory, and most of all, set theory and mathematical logic. He mostly published in Norwegian journals with limited international circulation, so that his results were occasionally rediscovered by others. An example is the Skolem–Noether theorem, characterizing the automorphisms of simple algebras. Skolem published a proof in 1927, but Emmy Noether independently rediscovered it a few years later.

Skolem was among the first to write on lattices. In 1912, he was the first to describe a free distributive lattice generated by n elements. In 1919, he showed that every implicative lattice (now also called a Skolem lattice) is distributive and, as a partial converse, that every finite distributive lattice is implicative. After these results were rediscovered by others, Skolem published a 1936 paper in German, "Über gewisse 'Verbände' oder 'Lattices'", surveying his earlier work in lattice theory.

Skolem was a pioneer model theorist. In 1920, he greatly simplified the proof of a theorem Leopold Löwenheim first proved in 1915, resulting in the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem, which states that if a countable first-order theory has an infinite model, then it has a countable model. His 1920 proof employed the axiom of choice, but he later (1922 and 1928) gave proofs using Kőnig's lemma in place of that axiom. It is notable that Skolem, like Löwenheim, wrote on mathematical logic and set theory employing the notation of his fellow pioneering model theorists Charles Sanders Peirce and Ernst Schröder, including Π, Σ as variable-binding quantifiers, in contrast to the notations of Peano, Principia Mathematica, and Principles of Mathematical Logic. Skolem (1934) pioneered the construction of non-standard models of arithmetic and set theory.

Skolem (1922) refined Zermelo's axioms for set theory by replacing Zermelo's vague notion of a "definite" property with any property that can be coded in first-order logic. The resulting axiom is now part of the standard axioms of set theory. Skolem also pointed out that a consequence of the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem is what is now known as Skolem's paradox: If Zermelo's axioms are consistent, then they must be satisfiable within a countable domain, even though they prove the existence of uncountable sets.

Completeness
The completeness of first-order logic is a corollary of results Skolem proved in the early 1920s and discussed in Skolem (1928), but he failed to note this fact, perhaps because mathematicians and logicians did not become fully aware of completeness as a fundamental metamathematical problem until the 1928 first edition of Hilbert and Ackermann's Principles of Mathematical Logic clearly articulated it. In any event, Kurt Gödel first proved this completeness in 1930.

Skolem distrusted the completed infinite and was one of the founders of finitism in mathematics. Skolem (1923) sets out his primitive recursive arithmetic, a very early contribution to the theory of computable functions, as a means of avoiding the so-called paradoxes of the infinite. Here he developed the arithmetic of the natural numbers by first defining objects by primitive recursion, then devising another system to prove properties of the objects defined by the first system. These two systems enabled him to define prime numbers and to set out a considerable amount of number theory. If the first of these systems can be considered as a programming language for defining objects, and the second as a programming logic for proving properties about the objects, Skolem can be seen as an unwitting pioneer of theoretical computer science.

In 1929, Presburger proved that Peano arithmetic without multiplication was consistent, complete, and decidable. The following year, Skolem proved that the same was true of Peano arithmetic without addition, a system named Skolem arithmetic in his honor. Gödel's famous 1931 result is that Peano arithmetic itself (with both addition and multiplication) is incompletable and hence a posteriori undecidable.

Hao Wang praised Skolem's work as follows:
Skolem tends to treat general problems by concrete examples. He often seemed to present proofs in the same order as he came to discover them. This results in a fresh informality as well as a certain inconclusiveness. Many of his papers strike one as progress reports. Yet his ideas are often pregnant and potentially capable of wide application. He was very much a 'free spirit': he did not belong to any school, he did not found a school of his own, he did not usually make heavy use of known results... he was very much an innovator and most of his papers can be read and understood by those without much specialized knowledge. It seems quite likely that if he were young today, logic... would not have appealed to him. (Skolem 1970: 17-18)

For more on Skolem's accomplishments, see Hao Wang (1970).

See also

Leopold Löwenheim
Model theory
Skolem arithmetic
Skolem normal form
Skolem's paradox
Skolem problem
Skolem sequence
Skolem–Mahler–Lech theorem

References

Primary

Skolem, T. A., 1970. Selected works in logic, Fenstad, J. E., ed. Oslo: Scandinavian University Books. Contains 22 articles in German, 26 in English, 2 in French, 1 English translation of an article originally published in Norwegian, and a complete bibliography.

Writings in English translation

Jean van Heijenoort, 1967. From Frege to Gödel: A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931. Harvard Univ. Press.
1920. "Logico-combinatorial investigations on the satisfiability or provability of mathematical propositions: A simplified proof of a theorem by Löwenheim," 252–263.
1922. "Some remarks on axiomatized set theory," 290-301.
1923. "The foundations of elementary arithmetic," 302-33.
1928. "On mathematical logic," 508–524.

Secondary
Brady, Geraldine, 2000. From Peirce to Skolem. North Holland.
Fenstad, Jens Erik, 1970, "Thoralf Albert Skolem in Memoriam" in Skolem (1970: 9–16).
Hao Wang, 1970, "A survey of Skolem's work in logic" in Skolem (1970: 17–52).

External links

 Fenstad, Jens Erik, 1996, "Thoralf Albert Skolem 1887-1963: A Biographical Sketch," Nordic Journal of Philosophical Logic 1: 99-106.

1887 births
1963 deaths
Norwegian mathematicians
Mathematical logicians
Norwegian logicians
Lattice theorists
Set theorists
Model theorists
20th-century Norwegian philosophers

Thoralf Skolem


Famine is a situation where most people do not have enough food to eat. Without food, the human body grows weaker and weaker until the person becomes very sick or dies (see malnutrition). In poor countries with much subsistence farming such as in parts of Africa and Latin America, famine can be common.

Famous famines

 1816, the Year without a Summer was caused by Mount Tambora erupting. Tens of thousands died.
 The Irish Potato Famine lasted from 1846 to 1849.  It was caused by a potato blight.
 In the Holodomor, about 7 million of people starved to death in Ukraine in 1932 and 1933.
 The Great Leap Forward killed a few tens of millions of Chinese, in what was probably the biggest famine in history.

Other websites

Famine Early Warning System monitors agricultural production and other warning signs worldwide
United Nations World Food Programme Hunger relief against poverty and famine
International Food Policy Research Institute Sustainable solutions for ending hunger
In Depth: Africa's Food Crisis, BBC News

Disasters
Agriculture
Hunger

Famine


Mahamaya Dham or Mahamaya (supreme illusion) Temple of Bogribari, about 30 km east from Dhubri town and 10 km west from Bilasipara town, is regarded as a greatest Shakti Peethas for Hindu pilgrims in Lower Assam, India. It is located under Parbatjhora sub-division of district Kokrajhar. In terms of attractions, this temple is the second to Kamakhya Temple of Guwahati to the pilgrims and tourists. It is believed that the famous goddess Mahamaya was traditionally worshipped by the local people of Parvatjowar like Kacharies, Koches and Naths. It was also the presiding deity of the Zamindar (landlord) of Parvatjowar. Latter the goddess received wide acceptance and these days, all Hindus of Lower Assam worship mother Mahamaya.

This temple has a 400-year-old tradition of animal sacrifice especially at the time of Durga Puja. Usually hundreds of animals or birds, like buffaloes, goats, pigeons and ducks are sacrificed. It is always rumoured that animals are sacrificed when new large scale construction especially bridge is undertaken. These days animal lovers are voicing against this ghastly tradition.

Another place of worship connected to Mahamaya goddess is the Mahamaya Snaanghat Temple, which is situated few kilometers away from the main Mahamaya temple, on the bank of the Tipkai River which is a tributary of mighty river Brahmaputra. In the ancient time, as the local people belief, it is the place where the goddess Mahamaya used to take bath. From that time, the place came to be known as Mahamaya Snaanghat. Every year in the month of January around, a Shakti Yagya is performed here by the temple priests.

References

External links
 Dhubri District Website

Hindu temples in Assam
Shakti temples
Dhubri
Hindu temples practicing animal sacrifice

Mahamaya Dham


The String Quartet No. 19 in C Major, K. 465 by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, nicknamed "Dissonance" on account of its unusual slow introduction, is perhaps the most famous of his quartets.

It is the last in the set of six quartets composed between 1782 and 1785 that he dedicated to Joseph Haydn. According to the catalogue of works Mozart began early the preceding year, the quartet was completed on 14 January 1785.

Movements

As is normal with Mozart's later quartets, it is in four movements:

 Adagio-Allegro
 Andante cantabile in F major
 Menuetto. Allegro. (C major, trio in C minor)
 Allegro molto

The first movement opens with ominous quiet Cs in the cello, joined successively by the viola (on A moving to a G), the second violin (on E), and the first violin (on A), thus creating the "dissonance" itself and narrowly avoiding a greater one.  This lack of harmony and fixed key continues throughout the slow introduction before resolving into the bright C major of the Allegro section of the first movement, which is in sonata form.

Mozart goes on ( ) to use chromatic and whole tone scales to outline fourths. Arch shaped lines emphasizing fourths in the first violin (C – F – C) and the violoncello (G – C – C' – G') are combined with lines emphasizing fifths in the second violin and viola. Over the barline between the second and third measures of the example, a fourth-suspension can be seen in the second violin's tied C. In another of his string quartets, KV 464, such fourth-suspensions are also very prominent.

The second movement is in sonatina form, i.e., lacking the development section. Alfred Einstein writes of the coda of this movement that "the first violin openly expresses what seemed hidden beneath the conversational play of the subordinate theme".

The third movement is a minuet and trio, with the exuberant mood of the minuet darkening into the C minor of the trio.

The last movement is also in sonata form.

Notes

References
Einstein, Alfred, trans. Mendel, A., and Broder, N., Mozart, his character, his work. Dover Publications paperback, 1972, republication of 1945 Oxford University Press edition. .

Further reading
 John Irving, Mozart, the "Haydn" quartets. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (1998)

External links

 'Mozart – Quartet in C major, K465 (Dissonance)', lecture by Roger Parker, followed by a performance by the Badke Quartet, Gresham College, 10 October 2007 (available for download as MP3 or MP4, as well as a text document)
Recording by the Borromeo String Quartet from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in MP3 format

19
Compositions in C major
1785 compositions

String Quartet No. 19 (Mozart)


The Argentine Constitution of 1819 was a Constitution drafted by the Congress of Tucumán in 1819, shortly after the Argentine War of Independence. It was promoted by Buenos Aires but rejected by the other provinces and did not come into force.

Sanction
The Congress of Tucumán had moved to Buenos Aires, after having issued the Argentine Declaration of Independence in San Miguel de Tucumán. The draft was based on the current laws ruling the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, as well as in foreign constitutions like those of the US, France or Spain. It was written by José Mariano Serrano, Diego Estanislao Zavaleta, Teodoro Sánchez de Bustamante, Juan José Paso and Antonio Sáenz.

Contents
The Constitution set the separation of powers into three distinct branches, with the executive power to be held by a "Supreme Director", who would be elected by a majority of a Joint Session of Congress, and who would serve a 5-year term. Under the form of government established in 1814, the executive power had been exercised by the Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, but there had been attempts to crown a Bourbon as King of the United Provinces. He would have the authority to designate the governors of the provinces.

The legislative power was meant to be exercised by two chambers; one of Senators, the other of deputies. Besides a fixed number of Senators by province, the chamber of Senators would also be composed by three military people (rank colonel or higher), one bishop, three clergymen, a representative of each University, and the former Supreme Director. Both senators and deputies had to prove an estate of $8.000 and $4.000 respectively. The chamber of deputies was to have the initiative in issues related with taxes.

Reactions
The constitution was promulgated on May 25, 1819. It was immediately rejected by the provinces, which would wage war against the Supreme Directorship. As the national armies that were fighting the War of Independence refused to fight a civil war, the diminished troops of Supreme Director José Rondeau were defeated during the February 1, 1820 Battle of Cepeda. The 1819 Constitution was thus repealed.

See also
 Argentine Constitution of 1826

External links

Constitutions of Argentina
Argentine Civil War
Defunct constitutions
1819 establishments in Argentina
1819 in law
1820 disestablishments in Argentina
1819 documents

Argentine Constitution of 1819


C-type asteroids are asteroids made of carbonates. They are the most common variety taking up around 75% of known asteroids, and an even higher percentage in the farther part of the belt beyond 2.7 AU, which is dominated by this asteroid type. The amount of C-types may actually be higher than this, because C-types are much darker than most other asteroid types except D-types and others common only at the extreme farther edge of the Main Belt.

Characteristics
This type of asteroid has very similar spectra to carbonaceous chondrite meteorites (types CI and CM), whose chemical make-up is about the same as the Sun and the primitive solar nebula, except that they do not contain hydrogen, helium and other volatiles. Hydrated (water-containing) minerals are present.

C-type asteroids are very dark with albedos usually in the 0.03 to 0.10 range. Consequently, whereas a number of S-types can normally be viewed with binoculars at opposition, even the biggest C-types require a small telescope. The potentially brightest C-type asteroid is 324 Bamberga, but that object's very high eccentricity means it rarely reaches its maximum magnitude.

Their spectra contain moderately strong ultraviolet absorption at wavelengths below about 0.4 μm to 0.5 μm, while at longer wavelengths they are very featureless but slightly reddish. The so-called "water" absorption feature around 3 μm, which can be a sign of water content in minerals is also present.

The biggest unequivocally C-type asteroid is 10 Hygiea, although the SMASS classification places the biggest asteroid 1 Ceres, here as well, because that scheme lacks a G-type.

References
 S. J. Bus and R. P. Binzel Phase II of the Small Main-belt Asteroid Spectroscopy Survey: A feature-based taxonomy, Icarus, Vol. 158, pp. 146 (2002).

Asteroids

C-type asteroid


In South Korea, an officetel (, a portmanteau of 'office' and 'hotel'), is a multi-purpose building with residential and commercial units.
This is a type of studio apartment or studio flat.

An officetel is designed to be a partially self-contained building, such that its occupants can live and work in the same building, minimizing commute time. Because of the convenience of having daily routines located in one building, a significant proportion of the officetel's inhabitants include lawyers, accountants, tax accountants, professors, and artists. Office space is usually parceled out or leased to trading companies and small- to medium-sized businesses.

Officetels are mainly found downtown or around major transportation hubs. As the scale of construction grows over time, officetels tend to offer more commercial and housing features through amenities like sports centers and shopping facilities. After the Asian financial crisis of 1997, the construction of officetels has increased rapidly due to governmental deregulations, and they are now taking a substantial portion of the housing market in the Seoul Metropolitan Area.

Features

Officetel parcels are commonly 50 to 100 m2 in size. Most officetel residential spaces are a studio apartment with bathroom, kitchen, and bed areas. Basic furnishings are usually included with an officetel lease. It is currently illegal to have a tub or balcony in an officetel. Ondol heating systems were initially prohibited, but the Ministry of Territories and Oceans Decree 2010-351 permitted ondol floor heating up to 85 m2.

History
The first officetel was built in Mapo, Seoul by the Korea Development Corporation in 1985. After that, demand increased, so construction companies and housing cooperations took part in the growing the trend of building officetels.

References

Apartment types
House types
Housing in South Korea

Officetel


Hyder Ali (, , Haidarālī; , Haidar Alī; c. 1720 – 7 December 1782, 2 Muharram 1197 in the Islamic calendar) was the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India. Born Hyder Naik, he distinguished himself militarily, eventually drawing the attention of Mysore's rulers. Rising to the post of dalwai, or commander-in-chief to Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, he came to dominate the titular monarch and the Mysore government, and eventually seized control of all of the reins of power. He expanded the kingdom's borders at the expense of the Maratha Empire and Nizam of Hyderabad (among others), and was one of the few local rulers to effectively blunt the military advances of the British East India Company during two wars. In the First and Second Anglo-Mysore Wars he came within striking distance of the British outpost at Madras. He was given a number of honorific titles, and was referred to as Sultan Hyder Ali Khan or Hyder Ali Sahib.

Hyder's rule of Mysore was characterised by frequent warfare with his neighbours and rebellion within his territories. This was not unusual for the time, as much of the Indian subcontinent was then in turmoil, with the Hindu Maratha Empire struggling with the remnants of the Islamic Mughal Empire. He was a shrewd leader, and left his son Tipu Sultan a kingdom that was significantly larger than when he first took it over. He organised his military in part along European lines, and was a pioneer in the military use of rocket artillery. He had at least two wives, and fathered at least three children.

1720s births
1782 deaths
Indian monarchs
18th century in India

Hyder Ali


A hospital is a place where a person goes to be healed when he or she is sick or injured. The difference between a hospital and other healthcare places like a clinic or a doctor's office is that a hospital will have beds where patients can stay overnight. These patients are called inpatients. The goal of inpatient treatment is to provide 24-7 medical stabilization, which is why this type of treatment has more of a hospital-like feel since patients are monitored by doctors, nurses, therapists, and social workers. Treatment is structured and has a schedule that can include individual therapy, group therapy, case management, and support groups.

Hospitals also treat people who do not stay overnight, called outpatients. Doctors and nurses work at hospitals. Doctors make use of advanced medical technology to heal patients.

Patients who are staying at the hospital will always be under the care of doctors and nurses who are always available for taking care of the injured or sick patients. Hospitals always have the tools and machines needed for treating the patients.

The word hospital originally meant "a place where people can stay". There have been hospitals for sick people since ancient times. They were often created and run by religious groups. In the early modern period, hospitals began to be funded by donations from rich people and by governments. Today, hospitals might get money from the government, from charging patients for treatments and check-ups, from patients' health insurance, from people giving to charity or a mixture of those things.

Related pages
 Intensive care unit

References

Other websites

Basic English 850 words

Hospital