This is a list of rivers in Pakistan

Tributaries of the Indus River
The following rivers are tributaries of the Indus River:

The Astore River has two branches. One branch of this river is born in Deosai area and flowing to west, reaches Astore. The other branch flowing north from Rigu joins it at Astore. From Astore it flows north-west and finally empties into the Indus River at a place south of Bonji.
The Rupal River is an east-west glacial stream rising from the meltwater of the Rupal Glacier in northern Pakistan. The stream flows through the Rupal Valley, south of Nanga Parbat, before turning northeast to the village of Tarashing. The Rupal drains into the Astore River, which eventually reaches the Indus River near Jaglot.

The Gilgit River  is in the Northern Areas of  Kashmir, Pakistan.
Ghizar River
Ishkuman River
Yasin River
Hunza River
Hispar River
Khunjerab River
Chapursan River
Gujerab River
Misgar River
Shimshal River

The Gomal River
The Kundar River
The Zhob River

The Hanley River takes birth in the extreme south eastern frontiers of Ladakh region and then flowing north-west empties itself into Indus River.

Kabul River, or Kabal River
Kunar River (Kunar Rud)
Peche River
Swat River
Panjkora River

Kurrum River or Karam River
Tochi river, sometimes referred to as the Gambila River

Panjnad River
Chenab River
Jehlum River or Jhelum River
Kunhar
Liddar
Neelum
Poonch River
Pohru River
Sind Stream
Sandran River
Sang-e-Sufaid Kol Stream
Vishau River
Manawar Tavi River
Ravi River
Ojh Nadi River
Tawi River
Wardwan River
Sutlej River
Beas River

Shayok River -  a tributary of the Indus River. It rises from the Karakoram range. It is a popular place for rafting.

Shigar River () - in Baltistan District, Northern Areas, Pakistan. The Shigar River is formed from the melt water of the Baltoro Glacier and Biafo Glacier. The river is tributary to the Indus River, meeting the Indus in the Skardu valley.

Shyok River
Chang Chen Mo River
Galwan River
Nubra River
Saltoro River

The Soan River () is a river in Punjab, Pakistan.

The Sohan is a river of northern Pakistan in Punjab province. It also forms the northern border of Bannu District.

The Suru River (Indus) is a river in Jammu and Kashmir that forms the western and northern boundary of the Zanskar Range, it takes birth from the waters of Nunkun peak in its skirts flows to the north of Kargil and empties into the Indus River.
The Dras River is the source of different branches of Dras river are various glaciers in western part of Zanskar. Flowing to the north it joins the Suru River near Kargil and empties into Indus River.
The Shingo River is a tributary of the Suru River, and flows through the Ladakh region of Indian controlled Kashmir.

The Swaan River () is the most important stream of the Pothohar region of Pakistan. It drains much of the water of Pothohar. It starts near a small village Bun in the foothills of Patriata and Murree. It provides water to Simblee Dam, which is reservoir of water for Islamabad. Near Pharwala Fort it cuts through a high mountain range and that is a wonderful phenomenon of nature. The place is called Swan Cut. No stream can cut such a high mountain. It proves the Swaan was there before the formation of this range. And when the mountain rose through millions of years, the stream continued its path by cutting the rising mountain. Ling stream, following a relatively long course though Lehtrar and Kahuta falls in the Swaan near Sihala. Islamabad Highway crosses this stream near Sihala where famous bridge Cock Pull is constructed over it. Another famous, Lai stream joins this stream near Swaan Camp. After walking a tortuous path and creating a big curve, the stream reaches Kalabagh where it falls into the Indus river. This relatively small stream is more than 250 kilometers long. Due to its mountainous course and shallow bed, it is hardly used for irrigation purposes. For grinding wheat, you can find ancient types of flour mills near Chakian. Fishing is not possible in this stream as a profession. Rohu is the main species of fish in this stream. Kingfisher birds hunt here too.
The Ling stream flows in the Pothohar region of Northern Pakistan. It starts in the foothills of Lhetrar area near Kahuta and flowing and cutting its way through the hilly area it meets the Swaan River near Sehala. The road that joins Islamabad and Azad Kashmir passes it twice. Kingfisher hunts its fish.

The Tangir River originates near frontiers of Gilgit and Pakistan, in Tanglu area it flows southwards and joins Indus River near Sazin the border town of Gilgit Agency

The Zanskar River has two branches of origin. One of them takes birth in Ropshu area and flowing west-ward reaches Zanskar town. The Zanskar Gorge is in the Zanskar region of Indian-administered Kashmir . Its walls are near vertical cliffs up to 600m high.  The Zanskar River is only 5m wide in places.  It provides an access route to the Zanskar Valley, but only in winter when the river is frozen. The other branch of the Zanskar River is formed from the waters of the glaciers of central Zanskar and flowing south-east reaches Padam. From this place it turns to the north and collecting the waters of the Khurna River empties into the Indus River. Another stream called Zora flowing to the north from the southern frontiers, also joins Zanskar river.
The Khurna River originates in the south eastern part of Zanskar valley and flowing to northwest, joins Zanskar Gorge and at last empties into the Indus River at a place between Stok and Sispal Gompa.

Other rivers

The Dasht River () is in Gwadar District, Balochistan, Pakistan. Mirani Dam is being built on the Dasht river to provide drinking water to Gwadar City.
The Kech River is a tributary of the Dasht River which flows from Iran into Balochistan, Pakistan. The city of Turbat is along this river and is used to irrigate the orchards and in vegetable farming. However the area is prone to flooding - in June 2007 the flood waters entered Turbat city after the river burst it banks, thousands were affected.

The Dashtiari River () is in Gwadar District, Balochistan, Pakistan.

The Haro is the name of a river and its valley in Abbottabad District in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of northern Pakistan.

The Hingol River or Hungol River is in Makran, Balochistan

The Hub River () is in Lasbela, Balochistan, Pakistan. It forms the provincial boundary between Sindh and Balochistan, west of Karachi. Hub Dam is a large water storage reservoir constructed in 1981 on the Hub River in the arid plains north of Karachi. The reservoir supplies water for irrigation in the Lasbella district of Balochistan and drinking water for the city of Karachi. It is an important staging and wintering area for an appreciable number of waterbirds and contains a variety of fish species which increase in abundance during periods of high water. The Mahseer (Tor putitora), an indigenous riverine fish in the Hub River, grows up to 2m in length and provides for excellent angling.

The Lyari River () is a small ephemeral stream that flows through the Pakistani megacity of Karachi from north east to the center and drains into the Arabian Sea at the Monora channel. It is one of the two rivers of Karachi, the other one being the Malir River. The river is about 50 kilometres (30 miles) long. As a seasonal river it carries the collected water after the rains in the catchment area.
The Gujjar Nallah () is a stream  in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. It passes through the city from northwest to the centre and merges with the Lyari  before draining into the Arabian Sea.

Malir River () is in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Malir River passes through the city of Karachi from North East to the Centre and drains into the Arabian Sea. Malir river is one of the two rivers passing through Karachi, the other is the Lyari River. It has two other tributaries: one is Thadho and other is Sukhan. In a rainy season this river has considerable flows.
Thadho
Sukhan

The Poonch River originates in the western foothills of Pir Panjal range, in the areas of Neel-Kanth Gali and Jamian Gali. It is called Siran in this area. It flows to the north west. A stream flowing from Mandi joins it and then in the west of Poonch city another

Ancient rivers
The Ghaggar-Hakra River is an intermittent river in India and Pakistan that flows only during the monsoon season. While it is often identified with the Saraswati River, this is not a consensus view.
Saraswati River or Sarasvati River was one of the major rivers of Ancient India. The river no longer exists.

References

Pakistan
rivers
Pakistan

List of rivers of Pakistan


"The Life You Save May Be Your Own" is a short story by the American author Flannery O'Connor. It is one of the 10 stories in her short story collection A Good Man Is Hard to Find, published in 1955.

Plot summary
An elderly woman and her daughter sit quietly on their porch at sunset when Mr. Shiftlet comes walking up the road to their farm. Through carefully selected details, O'Connor reveals that the girl is deaf and mute, that the old woman views Shiftlet as 'a tramp,' and that Shiftlet himself wears a "left coat sleeve that was folded up to show there was only half an arm in it." The old woman's name is Lucynell Crater, and her daughter is also named Lucynell. The two adults exchange curt pleasantries, then Mrs. Crater offers him shelter in exchange for work but warns, "I can't pay." Shiftlet says he has no interest in money, adding that he believes that most people are too concerned with money. Sensing not only a handyman but a suitor for her daughter, Mrs. Crater asks if Shiftlet is married, to which he responds, "Lady, where would you find you an innocent woman today?" Mrs. Crater then makes known her love for her daughter, adding, "She can sweep the floors, cook, wash, feed the chickens, and hoe." Mrs. Crater is clearly offering her daughter's hand to Shiftlet. For the moment, however, he simply decides to stay on the farm and to sleep in the broken-down car. Once Shiftlet moves into the Craters' farm, he fixes a broken fence and hog pen, teaches Lucynell how to speak her first word ("bird"—a recurring symbol in O'Connor's fiction), and, most importantly, repairs the automobile. At this time Mrs. Crater gives her daughter's hand in marriage over to Mr. Shiftlet, but he declines saying, "I can't get married right now, everything you want to do takes money and I ain't got any."

Mrs. Crater, in her desperation to marry off her daughter, offers him a sum of money to marry Lucynell. He then accepts and agrees to marry her. Soon after, the three take the car into town and Lucynell and Shiftlet are married. After the wedding Shiftlet and Lucynell go on their honeymoon. They stop in a restaurant and have dinner. There Lucynell falls asleep. Once she is sound asleep on the counter of the diner, Shiftlet gets up out of his seat and begins to leave. The boy behind the counter looks at the girl and then back at Shiftlet in a confused manner. Seeing how beautiful Lucynell is, the boy exclaims, "She looks like an angel of Gawd". Shiftlet then replies "Hitchhiker" and abandons her at the restaurant. Afterwards Shiftlet "was more depressed than ever" and he "kept his eye out for a hitchhiker." As a storm is breaking in the sky, Shiftlet sees a road sign that reads, "Drive carefully. The life you save may be your own." Shiftlet then offers a ride to a boy who did not even have his thumb out.

Shiftlet tries to make conversation, telling stories about his sweet mother, who is—as the boy at the diner called Lucynell—"an angel of Gawd." But the boy rejects Shiftlet's moral. "My old woman is a flea bag and yours is a stinking polecat," he snaps, before leaping from the car. Shocked, Shiftlet "felt the rottenness of the world was about to engulf him," exclaiming, "Oh Lord! Break forth and wash the slime from the earth!" The rain finally breaks, with a "guffawing peal of thunder from behind and fantastic raindrops, like tin-can tops, crashed over the rear of Mr. Shiftlet's car." Shiftlet speeds off to Mobile, Alabama.

Themes
As in several other O'Connor stories, such as "A Good Man Is Hard to Find" and "Good Country People," in "The Life You Save May Be Your Own" a malevolent stranger intrudes upon the lives of a family with destructive consequences. Tom Shiftlet has been compared to The Misfit in "A Good Man is Hard to Find"; however, Shiftlet remains primarily a comic character and does not embody The Misfit's spiritual dimensions.

Adaptation

In 1957, the story was adapted into a television production on the Schlitz Playhouse of Stars, starring Gene Kelly.

References

External links
 The Life You Save May Be Your Own at Internet Archive

Short stories by Flannery O'Connor
1955 short stories
Southern Gothic short stories

The Life You Save May Be Your Own


Greywacke  is a type of sandstone. It is hard, and dark in color. It has different sized grains of quartz, feldspar, and small rock fragments set in a compact, fine clay matrix. It is mostly found in Palaeozoic strata. The larger grains can be sand-to-gravel-sized, and matrix materials make up more than 15% of the rock by volume.

The origin of greywacke was a problem. Gravel, sand and mud should not be laid down together, because river outflow drops heavier grains first. Now geologists think greywacke is formed by submarine avalanches or strong turbidity currents. These actions churn sediment and cause mixed-sediment slurries to occur. When this happens, the resulting rocks show various sedimentary features. Support for the turbidity current origin is the fact that deposits of greywacke are found on the edges of the continental shelves, at the bottoms of oceanic trenches, and at the bases of mountain formational areas. It also occurs in association with black shales of deep sea origin.

References

Sandstones

Greywacke


Swallows and Amazons is a series of children's books by the English writer Arthur Ransome. The series is named after the title of the first book in the series. The 12 books are about the adventures by groups of children during school holidays. Events mostly take place in England and Scotland between the World War I and World War II. The stories usually are about outdoor activities, especially camping, fishing and sailing.

Overview
The series remains popular today for its lovely, yet often realistic, depiction of childhood and the interplay between children's imagination and reality. It is part of the basis for a large tourist industry in the Lake District and Norfolk Broads areas of England, where many of the books are set. There are also several groups dedicated to the study and promotion of Ransome's work which are largely inspired by the series. The first was the Arthur Ransome Club in Japan. There is also the British-based group, The Arthur Ransome Society (TARS), which has an international membership.

The series begins with Swallows and Amazons, published in 1930. It tells the story of the Walker children, who sail a dinghy (boat) named Swallow, and the Blackett children, who sail a dinghy named Amazon. The Walkers are staying at a farm near a lake during the school holidays; the Blacketts live in a house on the opposite shore. The children meet on an island on the lake, and have a series of adventures that weave imaginative tales of pirates and exploration into everyday life in inter-War, rural England.

Series of books
English children's books
1930s books

Swallows and Amazons series


Pachuca (officially "Pachuca de Soto") is the capital city of the state of Hidalgo, in Mexico. It is also the capital of the municipality named Pachuca.

Pachuca's nickname is "The Windy Beauty" or "Bride of the Wind", because in the city there are seasons where the winds are very strong. Even local legend is depicted on a monument (the monument of the victory of the wind).

The city has a soccer club "Pachuca". It has a traditional dish called "paste" which consists of a small pie filled with a mixture of chopped potatoes, ground beef and spicy. It has a clock tower dedicated to the Mexican War of Independence.

References

Capital cities in Mexico
Hidalgo (state)

Pachuca


Southern rock is a kind of rock music from the southern part of the United States. Some southern rock music groups include: Lynyrd Skynyrd, The Allman Brothers Band and Molly Hatchet.

Notable Artist
The Allman Brothers Band
Lynyrd Skynyrd
Atlanta Rhythm Section
Wet Willy
Molly Hatchet
Blackfoot
Black Oak Arkansas

Rock music

Southern rock


IEEE 802.11 is a series of protocols for wireless networking. Often these are called Wireless LAN, WLAN, or Wi-Fi. Such a protocol allows computers that have the needed radio parts to communicate with each other, without a cable. There are many types of Wi-Fi standards, known as 802.11 a, b, g, n, and recently ac & ad. These specifications are different in terms of speed and how far away you can use them.

Later standards
The first Wi-Fi standard was made in 1997.  It is called IEEE 802.11.  It allows communication with 1-2 MBit per second.  Today it is outdated, and rare.  Later standards add a letter to the name.  They are labelled IEEE  802.11a to IEEE 802.11g.  There are plans for ones labeled h, i, j, n, p and s.  They are all compatible with each other.

Newer standards have a Bit rate of 54 MBit/s.  About 40-50% of this is usable in real-life situations.  As of 2007, the standards most widely used are IEEE 802.11g, and IEEE 802.11b.

Frequency bands
Data communication is done in the 2.4 GHz band and the 5 GHz band.  The 2.4 GHz band is a general use band.  Microwave ovens and Bluetooth are among the things that emit radio waves in this band. The 2.4 GHz band has the problem that there are only very few channels that can be used at the same time, without the signals interfering. There are three usable channels there. When more than three networks operate in the same place, signals still get to the user correctly, but interference slows them.

The 5 GHz band can solve some of these problems, but it introduces others. That band has 19 usable channels. Overall the band is less used. However there are more regulations. Most devices need to be able to choose their channel to minimize interference. Some channels require that those participating can do Transmitter Power Control. This means they adapt the strength of the signal to what is actually needed. This helps reduce the amount of interference between different networks.

Computer protocols
Computer networking

IEEE 802.11


Francis Julius Bellamy (May 18, 1855 – August 28, 1931) was an American Christian socialist Baptist minister and author. He is best known for writing the original version of the Pledge of Allegiance in 1892.

Early life
Francis Julius Bellamy was born on May 18, 1855, in Mount Morris, New York to Rev. David Bellamy (1806–1864) and Lucy Clark. His family was deeply involved in the Baptist church and both Francis and his father became ministers.  The family moved to Rome, New York, when Francis was only 5. Here, Bellamy became an active member of the First Baptist Church where his father served as minister until his death in 1864. Francis went on to attend the University of Rochester in Rochester, New York, where he studied theology and belonged to the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity.

He became a Baptist minister as a young man.  He was very much influenced by the vestiges of the Second Great Awakening.  He travelled to promote his Baptist faith and lived to be of service to others in his community. Bellamy's travels brought him to Massachusetts where he penned the "Pledge of Allegiance" for a campaign by the Youth's Companion, a patriotic circular and magazine. Bellamy "believed in the absolute separation of church and state" and purposefully did not include the phrase "under God" in his pledge.

Pledge of Allegiance

In 1891, Daniel Sharp Ford, the owner of the Youth's Companion, hired Bellamy to work with Ford's nephew James B. Upham in the magazine's premium department. In 1888, the Youth's Companion had begun a campaign to sell US flags to public schools as a premium to solicit subscriptions. For Upham and Bellamy, the flag promotion was more than merely a business move; under their influence, the Youth's Companion became a fervent supporter of the schoolhouse flag movement, which aimed to place a flag above every school in the nation. Four years later, by 1892, the magazine had sold US flags to approximately 26,000 schools. By this time the market was slowing for flags but was not yet saturated.

In 1892, Upham had the idea of using the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus reaching the Americas / Western Hemisphere in 1492 to further bolster the schoolhouse flag movement. The magazine called for a national Columbian Public School Celebration to coincide with the World's Columbian Exposition, then scheduled to be held in Chicago, Illinois, during 1893. A flag salute was to be part of the official program for the Columbus Day celebration on October 12 to be held in schools all over the US.

The pledge was published in the September 8, 1892, issue of the magazine, and immediately put to use in the campaign. Bellamy went to speak to a national meeting of school superintendents to promote the celebration; the convention liked the idea and selected a committee of leading educators to implement the program, including the immediate past president of the National Education Association. Bellamy was selected as the chair. Having received the official blessing of educators, Bellamy's committee now had the task of spreading the word across the nation and of designing an official program for schools to follow on the day of national celebration. He structured the program around a flag-raising ceremony and his pledge.

His original Pledge read as follows:

The recital was accompanied with a salute to the flag known as the Bellamy salute, described in detail by Bellamy. During World War II, the salute was replaced with a hand-over-heart gesture because the original form involved stretching the arm out towards the flag in a manner that resembled the later Nazi salute. (For a history of the pledge, see Pledge of Allegiance).

In 1954, in response to the perceived threat of secular Communism, President Eisenhower encouraged Congress to add the words "under God," creating the 31-word pledge that is recited today.

Bellamy described his thoughts as crafted the language of the pledge:

Bellamy "viewed his Pledge as an 'inoculation' that would protect immigrants and native-born but insufficiently patriotic Americans from the 'virus' of radicalism and subversion."

Political views
Bellamy was a Christian socialist, who "championed 'the rights of working people and the equal distribution of economic resources, which he believed was inherent in the teachings of Jesus.'" In 1891, Bellamy was "forced from his Boston pulpit for preaching against the evils of capitalism", and eventually stopped attending church altogether after moving to Florida, reportedly because of the racism he witnessed there. Francis's career as a preacher ended because of his tendency to describe Jesus as a socialist. In the 21st century, Bellamy is considered an early American democratic socialist.

Bellamy was a leader in the public education movement, the nationalization movement, and the Christian socialist movement. He united his grassroots network to start a collective memory activism in 1892.

French philosopher Henri de Saint-Simon's "new Christianity", which stressed using science to tackle poverty, influenced Bellamy and many of the "new St. Simonians." They saw nationalization (de-privatization) and public education as the policy solutions.

In 1889, Bellamy served as founding vice president and wrote several articles for the Society of Christian Socialists, a grassroots organization founded in Boston. The newspaper Dawn was run by his cousin Edward and Frances Willard. Francis Bellamy wrote about the Golden Rule and quoted Bible passages that denounced greed and lust for money. He was also chairman of the education committee.

Bellamy offered public education classes with topics such as "Jesus the socialist",  "What is Christian Socialism?", and "Socialism versus anarchy".  In 1891, Bellamy was asked to write down this last lecture, which called for a strong government and argued that only the socialist economy could allow both the worker and the owner to practice the golden rule. This essay, along with public relations experience, allowed him to coordinate a massive Columbus Day campaign.

On immigration and universal suffrage, Bellamy wrote in the editorial of The Illustrated American, Vol. XXII, No. 394, p. 258: "[a] democracy like ours cannot afford to throw itself open to the world where every man is a lawmaker, every dull-witted or fanatical immigrant admitted to our citizenship is a bane to the commonwealth." And further: "Where all classes of society merge insensibly into one another every alien immigrant of inferior race may bring corruption to the stock. There are races more or less akin to our own whom we may admit freely and get nothing but advantage by the infusion of their wholesome blood. But there are other races, which we cannot assimilate without lowering our racial standard, which should be as sacred to us as the sanctity of our homes."

Later life and death
Bellamy is known to have spent 19 years working in New York City but it is unclear as to when. While living there he would work in the advertising industry. He believed in high pressure advertising and thought that it could also still be truthful at the same time. Advertising was seen by him as a way to create demand for American industrial activities.

Bellamy and his second wife, Marie, moved from New York City to Tampa, Florida in 1922 where he spent the remainder of his life. Starting in 1926 he began to work part time for the Tampa Electric Company as advertising manager after persuading the company's management that they needed systemic publicity/advertising he could develop. The 1930 United States Census recorded him residing at 2926 Wallcraft Avenue. He got fired from his job at Tampa Electric Company on July 15, 1931, and applied for and got a similar job at Tampa Gas Company.

Bellamy died in Tampa on August 28, 1931, at the age of 76. His cremated remains were brought back to New York and buried in a family plot in a cemetery in Rome, New York.

Personal life
Bellamy married Harriet Benton in Newark, New York, in 1881. They had three sons: John, who lived in California; David, who lived in Rochester, New York; and Brewster, who died as an infant. His first wife died in 1918, and he married Marie Morin (1920). His daughter-in-law Rachael (David's wife) lived in Rochester until February/March 1989 when she died at the age of 93. David and Rachael had two children, David Jr. and Peter (1929-2021). His son, John Benton Bellamy, married Ruth "Polly" (née Edwards). They had three children, Harriet (1911–1999), Barbara (1913–2005) and John Benton Bellamy, Jr. (1921–2015).

Bellamy was the cousin of Edward Bellamy most famous for the utopian novel Looking Backward, which inspired the formation of Nationalist Clubs that similarly advocated a certain kind of Christian Socialism.

Notes

References

External links

 Francis Bellamy's Companion Address
 Profile of Francis Bellamy by Dr J. W. Baer
 Collection of Bellamy papers, 1890-2002 – River Campus Libraries, University of Rochester

1855 births
1931 deaths
19th-century Baptist ministers from the United States
20th-century Baptist ministers from the United States
American Christian socialists
American democratic socialists
American political writers
Baptist socialists
Baptists from New York (state)
Bellamyism
People from Mount Morris, New York
Pledge of Allegiance
Religious leaders from Rochester, New York
University of Rochester alumni
Writers from Rochester, New York
People from Tampa, Florida

Francis Bellamy


The First Universalist Church, also once known as the Central Parish Church, is a historic church at 97 Main Street in Yarmouth, Maine.  Built in 1859–60, it is an excellent local example of religious Italianate architecture, and one of the state's few surviving churches designed by architect Thomas Holt.  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.  The congregation was founded in 1859, and is affiliated with the Unitarian Universalist Association; its current minister is Rev. Hillary Collins-Gilpatrick.

Description and history
The First Universalist Church is set in the center of Yarmouth, on the north side of Main Street, east of the North Yarmouth Academy and opposite Portland Street.  It is a rectangular wood-frame structure, with a front-facing gable roof, clapboard and flushboard exterior, and a high brick foundation.  A square section projects from the front facade, supporting a multistage tower and housing the main entrance.  The entrance is set in a tall pilastered arch that also includes a pair of round-arch windows above.  This stage of the tower has a rounded gable with modillioned eave, the latter detail also extended to the main roof.  A plainly-pilastered square section tops this, with an eight-sided belfry above that has four round-arch openings.  The tower is capped by an octagonal steeple.  Windows on either side of the projecting section are two-port narrow windows, the upper section with a rounded arch top.  Round-arch windows are also found on the building sides.

The church was built in 1859–60, and is one of four known surviving church designs in the state of Thomas Holt, an architect from Bethel, Maine.  The congregation was established in 1859 by a split from the local Universalist congregation.  After 1885 the congregation declined, most of its members returning to the mother congregation.  The two congregations merged soon afterward, at which time the name "Central Parish Church" was adopted.  In 1920 it took the name "First Universalist Church", which it retained after merging with the Unitarian congregation in 1962.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Cumberland County, Maine

References

External links
First Universalist Church web site

Churches in Yarmouth, Maine
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Maine
Italianate architecture in Maine
Churches completed in 1859
19th-century churches in the United States
National Register of Historic Places in Cumberland County, Maine
Italianate church buildings in the United States

Central Parish Church


Erich von Tschermak-Seysenegg (15 November 1871 – October 11 1962) was an Austrian botanist.

Von Tschermak is one of three men – the others were Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns – who were credited with independently rediscovering Gregor Mendel's work on genetics. Von Tschermak published his findings in June 1900.

By a quirk of history, Correns had been a student of Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli. Nageli was a renowned botanist with whom Mendel corresponded about his work with peas, but who failed to understand how significant Mendel's work was. Von Tschermak was a grandson of a man who taught Mendel botany during his student days in Vienna.

Reassessment
Though von Tschermak was originally also credited with the rediscovery, this is no longer generally accepted, because he did not understand Mendel's laws.

References

Other websites
 Article relating the work of Gregor Mendel

1871 births
1962 deaths

Austrian botanists

Erich von Tschermak


El Pinacate and Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve () is a biosphere reserve and UNESCO World Heritage Site managed by the federal government of Mexico, specifically by Secretariat of the Environment and Natural Resources, in collaboration with the state governments of Sonora and the Tohono O'odham.

It is in the Sonoran Desert in northwest Mexico, east of the Gulf of California, in the eastern part of the Gran Desierto de Altar, just south of the border with Arizona, United States and north of the city of Puerto Peñasco. It is one of the most significant visible landforms in North America seen from space. A volcanic system known as Santa Clara is the main part of the landscape, including three peaks: Pinacate, Carnegie and Medio.

In the area there are over 540 species of plants, 40 species of mammals, 200 of birds, 40 of reptiles, amphibians and freshwater fishes. There are threatened endemic species as Sonoran pronghorn, bighorn sheep, gila monster and desert tortoise.

The biosphere reserve covers an area of , making up about half of the World Heritage site. The extent of the World Heritage site is 7,146 km², greater than that of the states of Aguascalientes, Colima, Morelos and Tlaxcala separated.

Formation
El Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve is known for its unique physical and biological characteristics, by the presence of a volcanic shield, and by the extensive areas of active dunes that surround it, and the greatest concentration of Maar craters. The Pinacate Mountains range has orogenic features of high interest, products of volcanic eruptions  that accumulated lava in compact rocks, sand and volcanic ashes that formed colors of special beauty, and craters such as El Elegante, Cerro Colorado, MacDougal, and Sykes.

The Pinacate Peaks (Picos del Pinacate), a group of volcanic peaks and cinder cones, are located in the Reserve north of Puerto Peñasco. The highest peak is Cerro del Pinacate (Santa Clara volcano), with an elevation of . Pinacate comes from Náhuatl language word pinacatl, for the Pinacate beetle, a stink beetle endemic to the Sonoran Desert.

The Pinacate Peaks volcanoes have erupted sporadically for about 4 million years. The most recent activity was about 11 000 years ago.

NASA sent astronauts to the Gran Desierto de Altar from 1965 to 1970, to train for walking on the moon, due to the similarities of the terrain to the lunar surface.

History

Pre-Columbian era
The first inhabitants are known as San Dieguito people, they were hunter-gatherer who lived off the land, moving from the mountains to the Gulf of California looking for food. The early stages of occupation seem to have ended at the beginning of the ice age about 20000 years ago, when drought forced people to leave the mountain range.

A second stage of occupation by San Dieguito people began in the late glacial period. This group returned to the mountains and lived as their ancestors had. Tinajas must have been a reliable source of water during this time. The second stage of occupation ended with the arrival of an antipyretic period 9000 years ago, which again forced the people to leave the territory.

The most recent indigenous inhabitants of the Pinacate and Gran Desierto de Altar are the Pinacateño band of the Hia C-ed O'odham. Like the prehistoric San Dieguito culture, the Pinacateños roamed the Pinacate all the way to the sea in search of food, concentrating their camps near the tinajas. During these voyages, they left signs of their presence; one example of this is the network of paths that go from tinaja to tinaja, as well as the stone tools and potsherds found near these water sources.

Explorations
There are few records of those who were the first explorers in this area. Possibly the first European to see the mountain now known as Sierra Pinacate was the explorer Melchior Díaz on 1540. Subsequently, in 1698 the priest Eusebio Kino, founder of Mission San Xavier del Bac in southern Tucson, Arizona, visited the site and returned on several occasions, he and his group climbed to the top of El Pinacate, which was then named Santa Clara Hill.

Before 1956, few scientists and explorers had been in El Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar, the most famous, the group MacDougal, Hornaday and Sykes who explored the western part of the mountain in 1907.

References

Jack Ruby's Kitchen Sink: Offbeat Travels through America's Southwest, by Tom Miller; pp. 10–26,

External links

 Volcano.si.edu: Global Volcanism Program—Pinacate
 NASA: Satellite photo of Volcán Pinacate
 Azcentral.com: "Sierra Pinacate a Volcanic Wonder"

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Biosphere reserves of Mexico
Protected areas of the Sonoran Desert
Protected areas of Sonora
Natural history of Sonora
Geography of Sonora
Gulf of California
Gran Desierto de Altar
Ramsar sites in Mexico
World Heritage Sites in Mexico
Protected areas established in 1993
1993 establishments in Mexico
Tohono O'odham


Feminist political ecology is a feminist perspective on political ecology, drawing on theories from Marxism, post-structuralism, feminist geography, ecofeminism and cultural ecology. Feminist political ecology examines the place of intersectional social relations in the political ecological landscape, exploring them as a factor in ecological and political relations. Specific areas in which feminist political ecology is focused are development, landscape, resource use, agrarian reconstruction and rural-urban transformation (Hovorka 2006: 209).  Feminist political ecologists suggest gender is a crucial variable – in relation to class, race and other relevant dimensions of political ecological life – in constituting access to, control over, and knowledge of natural resources.

Feminist political ecology joins three gendered areas: knowledge, environmental rights, and environmental politics and grassroots activism. Gendered knowledge encompasses the maintenance of healthy environments at home, work, or in regional ecosystems. Gendered environmental rights include property, resources, space, and legality. Gendered environmental politics and grassroots activism emphasizes the surge in women's involvement in collective struggles over their natural resources.

Research

The study of the relationship between environments, gender, and development has grown in importance because of the restructuring of economies, environments and cultures at a global and local level (Mitchell 2000). Women and men are being viewed as actors who affect environmental management, resource use, and the creation of policies for health and well-being. Feminist political ecology does not view gender differences in environmental impact as being biologically rooted. Rather, they are derived from social constructs of gender, which vary depending on culture, class, race, and geographical location, and they change over time between individuals and societies. A key moment on the development of the approach was the publication of Feminist Political Ecology, edited by Dianne Rocheleau et.al. at Clark University in 1996. The book showed how usage of environment and labor patterns are gendered, but also how certain environmental problems have particularly negative effects on women (Rocheleau et al. 1996). These concerns were largely absent in the better-known political ecology volume Liberation Ecologies, which was published in the same year and also developed at Clark (Peet & Watts, 1996).

In a study on the Rural Federation of Zambrana-Chacuey (a peasant federation) and an international nongovernmental organization (ENDA-Caribe) in the Dominican Republic, Dianne Rocheleau examines social forestry within the region. Women are involved in the forestry industry, but previous research (summary numbers, "regional maps of forestry-as-usual" (Rocheleau 1995: 460) had not represented the "different publics (differentiated by gender, class, locality, and occupation) within the Federation (p460)". Rocheleau's study draws upon post-structuralism to "expand our respective partial and situated knowledges through a politics a science that go beyond identity to affinities then work from affinities to coalitions" (p459).In other words, the study does not assume that the identity of a person defines them, but instead focuses on "affinities" (defined as "based on affiliations, and shared views of interests, subject to change over time"). The purpose of this was to "address women within the context in which they had organized and affiliated themselves (p461)". The purpose of the study was to include women in the general study of the area in a way that gave justice to the "ecological and social contexts that sustain their lives" (p461), instead of separating them from the context, rendering them invisible.

In a Botswana study on urban poultry agriculture, Alice J. Hovorka (2006) examines the implications of fast-paced urbanization on social and ecological relations in a feminist political ecology framework. Men and women are both involved and affected by development issues, so therefore "gender is an integral part of a key element of agrarian change and rural-urban transformation" (Hovorka 2006:209). Before urbanization took off, socially constructed gender roles played a huge part in gendered experiences of the landscape. Gender determined the different roles, responsibilities and access to resources. It is important to note that although Botswana women gained the right to vote in 1966, they remain excluded from political power. Gender issues are rarely raised in this country where "powerful conventions restrict women's domain to the household and women's autonomy under male guardianship" (p211). With urbanization, land use is becoming more accessible to Botswana women. But studies have revealed that "women's access to social status and productive resources remains limited compared to men's" (p213). Traditional gender roles affect women's economic situation, their access to resources and land, their education, and their labor market.

Alice Beban expands on these concepts in her research on land tenure in Cambodia, which applies a gender lens. Her study is related to the Cambodian Constitution and Land Law of 2001 which increased private land ownership under land titles. This means that those land owners without formal titles lack land rights and risk loss of land. Women are more vulnerable to insecurity in this situation. Men are more likely to be land owners and if women are in abusive relationships they have limited choices as men own the land they rely on. Similar to the Botswana case, women have less political power in this situation.

In 2009 Feminist Political Ecology took a new analytical turn with the publication of Eco-Sufficiency & Global Justice: Women write Political Ecology edited by Ariel Salleh. See analysis by Bonnie Kime Scott, 'Righting the Neoliberal Ecology Debt' in the Australian Women's Book Review volume 22.1 (2010).

Quotes on feminist political ecology

 New research in feminist political ecology moves "from a focus on women's vulnerabilities and the silencing of gendered and subaltern knowledges to stress the global significance of women's embodied practices, emerging social movements, and collaborative action". —Stephanie Buechler and Anne-Marie Hanson (2015)
 "Feminist Political Ecology aims at analyzing gendered experiences of and responses to environmental and political-economic change that brings with it changing livelihoods, landscapes, property regimes, and social relations." —Alice Hovorka (2006)
 "Rather than 'adding women' to standard methods of empirical research it was possible to include gender as a subject of study, to incorporate feminist post-structuralist perspective into the research design, and to apply it to an analysis of social and environmental change within the region." —Dianne Rocheleau 1995.
 "My first feminist paper was published, out of research I did in the late 1970s on sex difference in migration and social change in rural Puerto Rico. It had to do with how rural industrialization, reflecting US development policies, was affecting who stayed and who left. And how class and gender intersected with migration patterns in rural Puerto Rico." —Jan Monk

Practical examples

 Feminist political ecology includes the study of how water access and gender are related, particularly in developing countries. Gender mainstreaming encourages the convergence of women's issues and gender equality with natural resource protection and development projects. Feminist political ecology seeks to question and inform understanding regarding how gender, and other social labels and classifiers, influence how people relate to and interact with the natural environment, including how people have access to water.

See also

References

 Beban, A. 2021. Unwritten Rule: State-Making through Land Reform in Cambodia. Cornwell University Press.
Buechler, S. and A. Hanson.  2015. A Political Ecology of Women, Water and Global Environmental Change.  Routledge.
 Elmhirst, R. 2011. Introducing New Feminist Political Ecologies. Geoforum 42(2):129-132 (special issue)
 Hovorka, A. 2006. The No. 1 Ladies' Poultry Farm: A Feminist Political Ecology of Urban Agriculture in Botswana. Gender, Place and Culture 13(3): 207–255.
 Merchant, C. 1980. The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology and the Scientific Revolution. New York: HarperCollins.
 Mitchell, Don. 2000. Cultural Geography. Blackwell.
 Peet, R. and M.J. Watts (eds.). 1996. Liberation Ecologies. London and New York: Routledge.
 Plumwood, V. 1993. Feminism and the Mastery of Nature. London: Routledge.
 Plumwood, V. 2003. Environmental Culture: The Ecological Crisis of Reason. London: Routledge.
 Rocheleau, D. 1995. Maps, Numbers, Text and Context: Mixing Methods in Feminist Political Ecology. Professional Geographer 47(4):458-467.
 Rocheleau D., B. Thomas-Slayter and E. Wangari (eds). 1996. Feminist Political Ecology: Global Issues and Local Experiences.  London and New York: Routledge.
 Salleh, A. 2009. Eco-Sufficiency & Global Justice: Women write Political Ecology. London: Pluto Press.
 Salleh, A. 2017. "Ecofeminism" in Clive Spash (ed). Routledge Handbook of Ecological Economics. London: Routledge.
 Shiva, V. 1989. Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Development. London: Zed Books.
 Richardson, Douglas, Noel Castree, Michael F. Goodchild, Audrey Lynn Kobayashi, Weidong Liu, and Richard A. Marston. The international encyclopedia of geography: people, the earth, environment, and technology. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 2017.

Feminist theory
Feminism and education
Feminism and social class
Feminism and health
Political ecology
Human geography

Feminist political ecology


Alberto Ken'ya Fujimori (Spainyie pronunciation: [fuxiˈmoɾi]; Japanese name: Ken'ya Fujimori (藤森 謙也, Fujimori Ken'ya?)) (born in Lima on 28 Julie, 1938) served as Preses o Peru frae 1990 tae 2000. A controversial figure, Fujimori haes been creditit wi uprootin terrorism in Peru an restorin its macroeconomic stability, tho his methods hae drawn chairges o authoritarianism an human richts violations. Even amidst his 2008 prosecution for "creemes against humanity" relatin tae his presidency, twa-thirds o Peruvians polled voiced approval for his leadership in that period.

A Peruvian o Japanese strynd Fujimori fled tae Japan in 2000 amidst a corruption scandal, whaur he attemptit tae resign his presidency. His resignation wis rejectit bi the Congress o the Republic, which preferred tae remove him frae office bi force o vote. Wantit in Peru on chairges o corruption an human richts abuses, Fujimori maintained a self-imposed exile abroad till his detainment durin a veesit tae Chile in November 2005. He wis finally extraditit tae face creeminal chairges in Peru in September 2007.

In December 2007, Fujimori wis convictit o orderin an illegal sairch an seizure, an wis sentenced tae sax year in prison. The Supreme Court upheld the decision, upon his appeal.

On 7 Aprile, 2009, Fujimori wis convictit o human richts violations an sentenced tae 25 year in prison for his role in killins an kidnappins bi the Grupo Colina daith squad durin his govrenment's battle against leftist guerrillas in the 1990s. The verdict delivered bi a three-judge panel markt the first time that an electit heid o state haes been extraditit back tae his hame kintra, tried, an convictit o human richts violations. Fujimori wis specifically foond guilty o murder, bodily harm, an twa cases o kidnappin.

On 20 Julie, 2009, a Peruvian court sentenced Alberto Fujimori tae an additional 7½ years in prison for embezzlement  efter the umwhile preses admittit payin his spy chief US$15 million in state funds. He later pled guilty tae bribery.

Unner Peruvian law, tho, aw the sentences must run concurrently, wi a maximum lenth o imprisonment o twintie-five year.

Fujimori family
1938 births
Livin fowk
Academics
Agricultural ingineers
Agriculturalists
Deans (academic)
Dirty wars
Fujimorista politieecians
Leaders that teuk pouer bi coup
Preses o Peru
Fowk frae Lima
Fowk New Pairty politeecians
Peruvian creeminals
Peruvian ingineers
Peruvian fowk o Japanese strynd
Peruvian fowk impreesoned abroad
Peruvian preesoners an detainees
Peruvian Roman Catholics
Poleetical corruption
Poleetical repression
Preesoners an detainees o Chile
Preesoners an detainees o Peru
Recipients o the Starn o Romanie Order
Peruvian televeesion presenters
Varsity an college preses
Varsity o Strasbourg alumni
Varsity o Wisconsin–Milwaukee alumni
Peruvian fowk convictit o murther
Fowk convictit o murther bi Peru
Peruvian politeecians convictit o creemes

Alberto Fujimori


The Conserved Domain Database (CDD) is a database of well-annotated multiple sequence alignment models and derived database search models, for ancient domains and full-length proteins.

Philosophy
Domains can be thought of as distinct functional and/or structural units of a protein. These two classifications coincide rather often, as a matter of fact, and what is found as an independently folding unit of a polypeptide chain also carries specific function. Domains are often identified as recurring (sequence or structure) units, which may exist in various contexts. In molecular evolution such domains may have been utilized as building blocks, and may have been recombined in different arrangements to modulate protein function. CDD defines conserved domains as recurring units in molecular evolution, the extents of which can be determined by sequence and structure analysis.

The goal of the NCBI conserved domain curation project is to provide database users with insights into  how patterns of residue conservation and divergence in a family relate to functional properties, and to provide useful links to more detailed information that may help to understand those sequence/structure/function relationships. To do this, CDD Curators include the following types of information in order to supplement and enrich the traditional multiple sequence alignments that form the foundation of domain models: 3-dimensional structures and conserved core motifs, conserved features/sites, phylogenetic organization, links to electronic literature resources.

Content
CDD content includes NCBI manually curated domain models and domain models imported from a number of external source databases (Pfam, SMART, COG, PRK, TIGRFAMs). What is unique about NCBI-curated domains is that they use 3D-structure information to explicitly define domain boundaries, align blocks, amend alignment details, and provide insights into sequence/structure/function relationships. Manually curated models are organized hierarchically if they describe domain families that are clearly related by common descent. To provide a non-redundant view of the data, CDD clusters similar domain models from various sources into superfamilies.

Searching the database
The collection is also part of NCBI's Entrez query and retrieval system, crosslinked to numerous other resources. CDD provides annotation of domain footprints and conserved functional sites on protein sequences. Precalculated domain annotation can be retrieved for protein sequences tracked in NCBI's Entrez system, and CDD's collection of models can be queried with novel protein sequences via * , or at* , that allows the computation and download of annotation for large sets of protein queries.

References

External links

Biological databases
Protein structure
Protein domains

Conserved Domain Database


The Vizcaya Bridge (Bizkaiko Zubia in Basque, Puente de Vizcaya in Spanish) is a transporter bridge that links the towns of Portugalete and Las Arenas (part of Getxo) in the Biscay province of Spain, crossing the mouth of the Nervion River.

People in the area, and even the official website, commonly call it the Puente Colgante (literally "hanging bridge", used for suspension bridge in Spanish), although its structure is quite different from a suspension bridge.

History
The Vizcaya Bridge was built to connect the two banks which are situated at the mouth of the Nervion River. It is the world's oldest transporter bridge and was built in 1893, designed by Alberto Palacio, one of Gustave Eiffel's disciples. The Engineer Ferdinand Joseph Arnodin was in charge, and the main financier of the project was Santos Lopez de Letona. It was the solution given by the engineer to the problem of connecting the towns of Portugalete and Getxo without disrupting the maritime traffic of the Port of Bilbao and without having to build a massive structure with long ramps. Palacio wanted to design a bridge which could transport passengers and cargo, and that could allow ships to go through. Palacio's shuttle bridge was adequate and could be built for a reasonable price.

The service was only interrupted once, for four years, during the Spanish Civil War, when the upper section was dynamited. From his house in Portugalete, Palacio saw his masterpiece partially destroyed just before his own death.

Universal Heritage
On July 13, 2006, the Vizcaya Bridge was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. In Spain, it is the only monument in the Industrial Heritage category. UNESCO considers the bridge to be a perfect combination of beauty and functionality. It was the first to use a combination of iron technology and new steel cables which began a new form of constructing bridges which was later imitated throughout the world.

Operation

The bridge, still in use, is 164 meters long, and its gondola can transport six cars and several dozen passengers in one and a half minutes.

It operates every 8 minutes during the day (every hour at night), all year round, with different fares for day and night services, and is integrated into Barik card system. An estimated four million passengers and half a million vehicles use the bridge annually.

There are two new visitor lifts installed in the 50-metre-high pillars of the bridge that allow walking over the bridge's platform, from where there is a view of the port and the Abra bay.

Architecture
The structure is made of four 61 metre towers which are the pillars and stand on the river banks. The towers are braced by iron cables to the crossbeam and are parallel to the river and by cables following the line of the bridge into the hill behind (on the Portugalete side) and the ground (on the Las Arenas side). The upper crossbeam which lies horizontally, rests between two towers by 70 suspension cables. They also help support a great amount of weight and are supported in the corbels which helps balance the weight. The gondola transports vehicles and they hang from a 36-wheeled caty and is 25m. long. It moves along the rails through the horizontal crossbeam.

Construction
The structure is 45 metres high and 160 metres long. In the final design it was decided to use two horizontal girders to support the rails, and these are supported by four pillars which stand on four towers which are situated on the river banks. It is made of iron. Much iron was extracted from the mines of Vizcaya, which increased the mining and shipping industry. Therefore, the Vizcaya Bridge also represents the growth and triumph of a new era.

Image gallery

References

External links

 http://www.puente-colgante.com
 Tourism in the Basque Country
 https://web.archive.org/web/20070211071228/http://www.guiabizkaia.com/gbilbao/portu/Index.html
 UNESCO World Heritage Official Site with the Vizcaya Bridge profile

 Puente Vizcaya

Buildings and structures in Biscay
Transporter bridges
World Heritage Sites in Spain
Bridges completed in 1893
1893 establishments in Spain
Getxo
Estuary of Bilbao

Vizcaya Bridge


The Yukon is a territory of Canada, north of British Columbia, west of the Northwest Territories, and east of the American state of Alaska. Its population is 31,000. Most of the territory's people live in the capital of Whitehorse. Many of the people are native Canadians (First Nations).

The Yukon became a territory in 1898. It was part of the Northwest Territories from 1870 to 1898. Many people came to live in the Yukon during the Yukon Gold Rush of the 1890s.

Mount Logan, at 5959 metres above sea level, is Canada's highest mountain.

The most important industry in the Yukon is mining.

References

1898 establishments
1890s establishments in Canada

Yukon


Galerius (Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus, ~250 – 5 May 311), was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311.

Galerius served as a soldier with distinction. When the Tetrarchy was introduced by Diocletian in 293 Galerius and Constantius Chlorus were given the rank of Caesar. Galerius married Diocletian's daughter Valeria, and took over the Illyrian provinces.

War with Persia

Defeat
In 296, at the beginning of the Persian War, Galerius moved from the Danube to the Euphrates. There his first campaign ended in a defeat by the Sassanid prince Narses, near Callinicum. This disaster caused the loss of Mesopotamia.

Diocletian came to Antioch, where the official version of events was made clear: Galerius was to take the blame. In Antioch, Diocletian forced Galerius to walk a mile in advance of his imperial cart while still clad in the purple robes of an emperor.p17p292/3 The message was clear: the loss at Carrhae was not due to the failings of the empire's soldiers, but due to the failings of their commander, and Galerius' failures would not be accepted.

Victory
In 298 Galerius got reinforcements from the Danube in the Spring. He led the army to attack Narseh in northern Mesopotamia, and Narseh retreated to Armenia.

The rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but unfavorable to Sassanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces. In two battles, Galerius got victories over Narseh.p18p293

During the second encounter, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife.p18 Narseh's wife would live out the remainder of the war in Daphne, a suburb of Antioch. This was, to the Persians, a constant reminder of Roman victory.p293 Galerius advanced into Media and Adiabene, winning victories.p151 He took Nisibis (Nusaybin, Turkey) before 1 October 298. He moved down the Tigris, taking Ctesiphon, and looking at the ruins of Babylon. Then he returned to Roman territory by the Euphrates.

Narses asked for peace. Mesopotamia was returned to Roman rule and even some territory east of the Tigris. This was the greatest extension of the Roman Empire in the east.

Last years
In 305, on the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, Galerius got the title of Augustus, together with Constantius, his former colleague. Two younger men were appointed as Caesars: Maximus Daia and Severus II.

Galerius' hopes were dashed when his colleague Constantius died at York in 306. The legions raised his son Constantine to the position of Augustus. Galerius only discovered this when he got a letter from Constantine, who told him of his father's death, modestly asserted his natural claim to the succession, and respectfully lamented that the enthusiasm of his troops had not allowed him to get the Imperial purple in a regular manner.

The first emotions of Galerius were those of surprise, disappointment, and rage. As he could not restrain his passions, he threatened to burn both the letter and the messenger.p28/9p6279–80p160

When he had time to reconsider his position, he realised his chances of winning a war against Constantine was doubtful. Therefore, without commenting on the choice of the British army, Galerius accepted the son of his deceased colleague as the ruler of the provinces beyond the Alps; but he gave him only the title of Caesar, and the fourth rank among the Roman princes, whilst he conferred the vacant place of Augustus on his favourite, Severus II.

Suddenly Galerius had the unexpected loss of Italy to Maxentius, his son-in-law. Galerius' need for revenue led him to make a strict examination of the property of his subjects for the purpose of taxation. A survey was taken of their estates. Where there was the slightest suspicion of concealment, torture was used to get a sincere declaration of their personal wealth.

Italy had traditionally been exempt from any form of taxation, but Galerius ignored this. Italy began to murmur against this indignity and Maxentius used this sentiment to declare himself emperor in Italy, to the fury of Galerius. Therefore, Galerius ordered his colleague Severus to immediately march to Rome, so that, by his unexpected arrival, he would easily suppress the rebellion. Severus was quickly captured and executed by Maximian, who had once again been elevated to the rank of co-emperor, this time by his son Maxentius.

The importance of the occasion needed the presence and abilities of Galerius. At the head of a powerful army collected from Illyricum and the East, he entered Italy. He was determined to revenge the death of Severus and to punish the rebellious Romansp122 However, due to the skill of Maximian, Galerius found every place hostile, fortified, and inaccessible. Though he forced his way as far as Narni, sixty miles from Rome, he controlled only his camp.

As he was facing difficulties, Galerius made the first steps to reconciliation. He sent two officers to tempt the Romans by the offer of a conference. These offers were rejected with firmness, his friendship refused. Unless he retreated, he might meet the fate of Severus. It was not a moment too soon; money from Maxentius to his soldiers had corrupted their loyalty. When Galerius began his withdrawal from Italy, it was only with great difficulty that he managed to stop his veterans deserting him.

In frustration, Galerius allowed his legions to ravage the countryside as they passed northwards. Maxentius declined to make a general engagement.

With so many emperors now in existence, in 308 Galerius, the retired emperor Diocletian and Maximian called an imperial 'conference' at Carnuntum on the River Danube. Its aim was to bring some order back into the imperial government. Here it was agreed that Galerius' long-time friend and military companion Licinius, who had been entrusted by Galerius with the defense of the Danube while Galerius was in Italy, would become Augustus in the West, with Constantine as his Caesar. In the East, Galerius remained Augustus and Maximinus remained his Caesar. Maximian was to retire, and Maxentius was declared a usurper.

Galerius' plan soon failed. The news of Licinius' promotion was carried into the East, and Maximinus, who governed the provinces of Egypt and Syria, rejected his position as Caesar. Maximus claimed (and got) the equal title of Augustus. For the first, and indeed for the last time, six emperors administered the Roman world. Although the memory of a recent war divided the empire into two great hostile powers, their fears and the fading authority of Galerius produced an apparent tranquility in the imperial government.

The last years of Galerius saw him keep the position of first among equals. He spent the rest of his time enjoying himself, and ordering some important public works, such as discharging into the Danube the superfluous waters of Lake Pelso, and cutting down the immense forests around it.

Persecution of Christians

Christians had lived in peace during most of the rule of Diocletian. The persecutions that began with an edict of 24 February 303, were credited by Christians to the influence of Galerius. Christian houses of assembly were destroyed, for fear of secret gatherings.

But in April 311 Galerius issued the general edict of toleration, from Nicomedia in his own name and in those of Licinius and Constantine. Lactantius gives the text of the edict in De Mortibus Persecutorum ('On the Deaths of the Persecutors', chapters 34, 35). This marked the end of official persecution of Christians. Galerius died on 5 May, 311.

Other websites

 Medieval Sourcebook: Edict of Toleration by Galerius, 311.
 Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus
 Lactantius about Galerius in his "De Mortibus Persecutorum" chapter XXIII & XXVII
 Catholic Encyclopedia

References

250s births
311 deaths
4th-century Roman emperors

Galerius


Positional alcohol nystagmus (PAN) is nystagmus (visible jerkiness in eye movement) produced when the head is placed in a sideways position.  PAN occurs when the specific gravity of the membrane space of the semicircular canals in the ear differs from the specific gravity of the fluid in the canals because of the presence of alcohol.

PAN I

When a person consumes alcohol, the alcohol is carried by the bloodstream and diffused into the water compartments of the body.  Normally, the specific gravity of a canal membrane is the same as the specific gravity of the surrounding fluid.  Because of this, even though the Earth's gravity is a constant force of acceleration, the semicircular canals do not respond to it.  Alcohol has a lighter specific gravity than water.  When alcohol enters the canal membrane via capillaries, the specific gravity of the membrane is lower than that of the surrounding fluid.  The alcohol does diffuse from the membrane to the fluid, but it does so very slowly.  While the specific gravity of the membrane is lower than the specific gravity of the extracellular fluid, the hair cells on the membrane become responsive to the Earth's gravity.  This is the condition of PAN I.

PAN I is characterized by a nystagmus to the left when the left side of the head is down/right side when the right side of the head is down.  It is typically present during a rising and peak Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC).

PAN II
As soon as a person starts drinking, the body begins to process and eliminate the alcohol.  The rate of elimination is fairly constant.  Initially, the rate of absorption exceeds the rate of elimination, which results in a rising BAC.  Some time after a person stops drinking, the rate of absorption drops below the rate of elimination, and the BAC begins falling.  As alcohol is eliminated from the body, it is removed from the membrane of the semicircular canal faster than the surrounding fluid.  This creates the reverse situation of PAN I, as the specific gravity of the fluid is now lower than that of the membrane.  This results in PAN II.

PAN II is characterized by a nystagmus to the right when the left side of the head is down/left when the right side of the head is down.

Relationship between PAN and the effects of intoxication
The overstimulation of the semicircular canals during PAN I and PAN II is associated with the unsteadiness, nausea, and vertigo felt by intoxicated people.  PAN I is more associated with postural problems (e.g. standing and walking) while PAN II has been more associated with the feelings of a hangover.

There is a brief period between PAN I and PAN II when the alcohol concentrations in the canal membrane and extracellular fluid are in equilibrium.  During this time, neither PAN I nor PAN II is present.

PAN versus testing for HGN in intoxicated individuals

Horizontal Gaze Nystagmus (HGN) testing is a common practice used by law enforcement in the United States in the identification of persons who are intoxicated or under the influence of a controlled substance.  The key difference between recognizing PAN and horizontal gaze nystagmus is the position of the subject's head in relation to the body.  PAN is identified when the head is tilted to one side or the other.  In order for HGN to be properly identified, the head must be positioned in line with the spine.  Because of this, if the head is tilted towards the side when an evaluation for HGN is given, PAN may be induced and give a "false positive" for HGN. Some defendants may claim or argue that the nystagmus observed by an officer was positional and not horizontal gaze.

See also

 Optokinetic reflex
 Nystagmus

References

Intoxication
Vision
Auditory system

Positional alcohol nystagmus


Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge, 36 U.S. (11 Pet.) 420 (1837), was a case regarding the Charles River Bridge and the Warren Bridge of Boston, Massachusetts, heard by the United States Supreme Court under the leadership of Chief Justice Roger B. Taney.

In 1785, the Charles River Bridge Company was granted a charter to construct a bridge over the Charles River connecting Boston and Charlestown, roughly where the present-day Charlestown Bridge is located. When the Commonwealth of Massachusetts sanctioned another company to build the Warren Bridge in 1828, that would be very close in proximity to the first bridge and would connect the same two cities, the proprietors of the Charles River Bridge claimed that the Massachusetts legislature had broken its contract with the Charles River Bridge Company, and thus the contract clause had been violated. The owners of the first bridge claimed that the charter had implied exclusive rights to the Charles River Bridge Company. The Court ultimately sided with Warren Bridge. This decision was received with mixed opinions, and had some impact on the remainder of Taney's tenure as Chief Justice.

Charles River Bridge
In 1640 the legislature of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, in accordance with common law, assumed control over public ferries. The legislature proceeded to give Harvard College permission to run a ferry on the Charles River between Boston and Charlestown. Harvard operated the ferry until 1785. That year, a group of men petitioned the state legislature to build a bridge across the river due to the inconvenience of the ferry. As time had passed, the two towns had grown and communication between them had become more important, and technology was at a point now where a bridge appeared to be a wise economic undertaking.

The request was granted and the Charles River Bridge Company was given permission to build a bridge and collect tolls for 40 years, but during those 40 years the company would have to pay 200 pounds (or ~$670) to Harvard College annually in order to make up for the profits the college would lose from the ferry. After 40 years of collecting tolls, the company would turn the bridge over to the state, but the government would still have to make the annual payment. In 1792, the Massachusetts legislature extended this charter to seventy years from the opening of the bridge.

Warren Bridge
As time passed, the population of Boston increased, as did the amount of business the city was doing with the rest of the world. With these increases, the Charles River Bridge collected more and more profits, and the value of the company's stock started to rise. Shares that had a par value of $333.33 sold for $1,650 in 1805, and by 1814, their price had risen to $2,080. By 1823, the value of the company was estimated to be $280,000, a substantial increase from its original value of $50,000. Between 1786 and 1827 the Charles River Bridge had collected $824,798 in tolls. Very few of the shares belonged to the company's original investors at this time, and the stock was now owned by men who had bought it at very high prices. The public started to complain about having to continue to pay tolls after the bridge's profits had far surpassed the original capital, with interest; but the new investors did not care. In their opinion, they had paid a large sum for the bridge stock, and they did not wish to stop collecting tolls until they themselves had turned a profit. These proprietors decided not to meet any of the public's demands, and they refused both to improve services and reduce tolls.

There were multiple attempts to convince the state legislature to give permission to build a new bridge between Boston and Charlestown, which would be in direct competition with the Charles River Bridge. Eventually, the legislature agreed to grant a charter for a new bridge between Charlestown and Boston. In 1828, a company was given the rights to build the Warren Bridge, 275 yards from the first one. The Warren Bridge would be turned over to the state once enough tolls had been collected to pay for the bridge's construction, or after a maximum of 6 years, after which it would be free to the public. Since it was free, and so close to the Charles River Bridge, the Warren Bridge would obviously take all of the competing bridge's traffic, and therefore its construction would leave the stock of the Charles River Bridge highly devalued and the shareholders would stand to lose a great deal of money. The owners of the Charles River Bridge appealed to the legislature, which responded by giving them another 30 years to collect tolls, extending the collection period to 100 years.

Arguing the case
After the Warren Bridge charter was granted, the Charles River Bridge Company filed a lawsuit in the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court (SJC) in an effort to stop the construction of the second bridge. The SJC was divided 2–2 on the matter, and the case was appealed to the United States Supreme Court. The case was argued before the Court in 1831, where the plaintiffs argued that it was unconstitutional for the Massachusetts legislature to charter the Warren Bridge, because creating a competing bridge violated the contract clause in Article I, Section 10, which states, "No State shall pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts".

It appears as though Chief Justice John Marshall, Justice Joseph Story and Justice Smith Thompson, were all in agreement that the Massachusetts legislature had indeed violated the obligation of contract clause in the constitution, but because of justice absences, and disagreements between the justices, no final decision was reached, and the case languished for six years.  During that time, three new justices were appointed by President Andrew Jackson, including the new Chief Justice, Roger Taney; the Warren Bridge had been constructed, and made back the money it had cost to build, and had become a toll-free bridge. The Charles River Bridge was now closed, since it was no longer getting any traffic due to its toll.

Before the Charles River Bridge case was argued before the Supreme Court again, there was a situation in 1833 involving the Camden and Amboy Railroad and the Delaware and Raritan Canal companies. This was not a case that went before the Supreme Court, but many prominent lawyers and justices were asked for their opinion on the situation, and among them was Taney, who was then the Attorney General of the United States. Both of the companies had convinced the New Jersey legislature of 1832 to add a condition to their charters that no other companies would be able to build a means of transportation between Philadelphia and New York City for a certain amount of time. Taney's opinion on the case was that no legislature should have the power to stop the state from creating internal improvements because it was such an important aspect of the state's power.

Rearguing the case
The case of Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge began again, on January 19, 1837. Warren Dutton and Daniel Webster represented the Charles River Bridge Company; Simon Greenleaf, a Harvard Law School professor, and John Davis, a senator and former governor from Massachusetts, represented Warren Bridge Company.

The lawyers defending the Warren Bridge said that exclusive rights were not mentioned in the charter. The Charles River Bridge lawyers countered that, even though competing bridges were never explicitly addressed in the charter, it was implied in the contract that the Charles River Bridge Company had exclusivity to the bridge traffic between Charlestown and Boston.

The Charles River Bridge lawyers appealed to the Court by arguing that the Court's prime interest should be to protect the property interests of the nation. "I look to the law, to the administration of the law, and, above all, to the supremacy of the law, as it resides in this court," Dutton said, "for the protection of the rights of persons and property, against all encroachments by the inadvertent legislation of the states. So long as this court shall continue to exercise this most salutary and highest of all its functions, the whole legislation of the country will be kept within its constitutional sphere of action."

The plaintiffs discussed what effect the Supreme Court's decision would have on the security of property rights and on the general public around the country. Dutton stated that ten million dollars of property was at stake in Massachusetts alone. He argued that if the Court sided with the defense, the public would then be able to urge the legislature to render other corporations' property valueless, as it had for the Charles River Bridge Company. Dutton further claimed that since the Warren Bridge had now taken all of the traffic of the Charles River Bridge, the construction of the Warren Bridge had been an act of confiscation, and that the property of the plaintiffs had been taken from them and given to the public. If the Court sided with Warren Bridge, Dutton argued, then "all sense of security for the rights of persons and property would be lost."

The Warren Bridge lawyers responded that the state legislature's power was more limited than its opponents believed, and that the legislature did not have the power to give exclusive rights to a private enterprise such as the Charles River Bridge Company. Greenleaf argued that the legislature was entrusted with the right to "provide safe and convenient public ways," and that this right was to be used to benefit the public good; clearly, giving the Charles River Bridge Company exclusive rights would not better the public. The Warren Bridge lawyers also argued on the basis of eminent domain, which enables federal and state governments to take private property for public use as long as it provides the owner with compensation. The defense argued that this was a state, not federal, issue, and should not even be heard in the United States Supreme Court. Finally, the Warren Bridge lawyers pointed out that the Charles River Bridge was not an isolated situation; other enterprises had lost money because of public improvements, such as highways, which lost tolls when railroads were built.

Deciding the case

A decision was read on February 14, 1837, which was  5-2 in favor of Warren Bridge. Taney read the majority opinion. Justice John McLean read an opinion stating that he was in favor of the Charles River Bridge company but that it was not the Supreme Court's place to make a decision. Justice Story read a dissenting opinion entirely in favor of the Charles River Bridge Company.

In his opinion, Taney argued that the case was strictly about interpretation of contract, and that the charter contract should be interpreted as narrowly as possible, which meant that the Charles River Bridge did not have exclusive rights. He also stated that, in general, public grants should be interpreted closely and if there is ever any uncertainty in a contract, the decision made should be one to better the public. He said, "While the rights of private property are sacredly guarded, we must not forget that the community also have rights, and that the happiness and well-being of every citizen depends on their faithful preservation." In his remarks, Taney also explored what the negative effects on the country would be if the Court had sided with the Charles River Bridge Company. He stated that had that been the decision of the Court, transportation would be affected around the whole country. Taney made the point that with the rise of technology, canals and railroads had started to take away business from highways, and if charters granted monopolies to corporations, then these sorts of transportation improvements would not be able to flourish. If this were the case then, Taney said, the country would "be thrown back to the improvements of the last century, and obliged to stand still".

Reactions
The reactions to Bridge generally varied according to the political views of the critic in questions. Democrats were very much in favor of the decision because they saw it as a victory for states' rights, one of the party's leading platforms at the time.  One Democratic magazine wrote, in regard to Taney's opinion, "he pursues his unbroken chain of clear, logical reasoning, spreads light all around, leaving no cloud to confound or mislead those who may come after him."

The Whig Party, on the other hand, was much more disapproving of the decision.  Members of the party felt that the Massachusetts legislature had violated its contract, and that it was the federal government's responsibility to fix the state's mistake.  The federal government's failure to do so led the Whigs to believe that the power of the federal government was in decline.  The Whigs, who were largely businessmen, also feared that corporate property now had no legal protection.  Chancellor James Kent wrote in the Whig magazine, The New York Review, "A gathering gloom is cast over the future.  We seem to have sunk suddenly below the horizon, to have lost the light of the sun."  (2 New York Review 372, 385 (1838))  Many prominent men, including Daniel Webster and Chancellor Kent, a well-known jurist, expressed their disappointment in the Supreme Court for allegedly violating the Constitution.  Kent wrote, in a letter to Justice Story, "The court has fallen from its high station and commanding dignity, and has lost its energy, and spirit of independence, and accuracy, and surrendered up to the spirit of the day, the true principles of the Constitution."

See also
 List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 36

References

Further reading
 Newmyer, Kent. "Justice Joseph Story: The Charles River Bridge Case and the Crisis of Republicanism," American Journal of Legal History July 1973, Vol. 17 Issue 3, pp 232–245

External links

1837 in United States case law
United States Constitution Article One case law
Contract Clause case law
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Taney Court
Bridges in Boston
Charles River
Toll (fee)
Transport controversies

Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge


The Socialist Party is a Trotskyist political party active in England and Wales and part of the Committee for a Workers' International.  They publish a weekly newspaper entitled The Socialist and a monthly Socialism Today.  As an organisation, it has evolved from the Militant Tendency, who in the early 1980s started to be expelled from the Labour Party, for organising a mass campaign against the Poll Tax.

There was a debate with the Militant Tendency whether or not to cease working within the Labour Party and the majority of the group decided to do so, although a minority around Ted Grant broke away to form Socialist Appeal. This debate ran alongside a parallel debate on the future of Scottish politics. The result was that the experiment of operating as an "open party" was first undertaken in Scotland under the name of Scottish Militant Labour. This initiative would eventually lead to the foundation of the Scottish Socialist Alliance.  The majority of Scottish members, after forming the Scottish Socialist Party, left the CWI in early 2001 as they moved away from traditional Trotskyist politics.

For a while, the party was known as Militant Labour. In 1997, the group changed its name to the Socialist Party, but the ownership of this name has been contested by the much older Socialist Party of Great Britain. As a result, the new party is frequently known as "The Socialist Party of England and Wales". In elections, it has had to use the name "Socialist Alternative". They were one of the founders of the local Socialist Alliance groups, but they left in 2001.

Since ending their tenure in the Socialist Alliance, the Socialist Party has run candidates in elections as Socialist Alternative.  Following the UK local elections, 2006, it has three councillors in Coventry, one in Stoke, two in Lewisham, South London and one in Huddersfield.  In February 2005, the Socialist Party announced plans to contest the 2005 parliamentary elections as part of a new electoral alliance called the Socialist Green Unity Coalition.  Several former components of the Socialist Alliance that did not join Respect also joined the SGUC.

The Socialist Party is a smaller organisation than the Militant of the 1980s, but has influence in some trade unions. In 2005, 23 Socialist Party members are elected members of trade union national executive committees. Under the leadership of Peter Taaffe, their policies have remained close to the Trotskyist mainstream. Their demand for the nationalisation of the one hundred and fifty top British companies and their longstanding practice of running in elections has led some critics to label them as reformists though the party insists that their method is based on Trotsky's Transitional Programme.

The Socialist Party is affiliated to the Committee for a Workers International, and is indeed the largest of its forty members. The party participates also in the broader European Anticapitalist Left.

In November 2005 at its annual 'Socialism' event, the Socialist Party formally launched the 'Campaign for a New Workers' Party' with the aim of persuading individuals, campaigners and trade unions to help set up and back a new broad left alternative to New Labour that would fight for working class people.  The National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers (RMT union) held a conference in January 2006 to address what it calls 'The crisis in working class representation',  in which Dave Nellist was invited to speak. Most of the speakers were in favour of a broad left alternative to New Labour. The remaining speakers, such as MP John McDonnell, wished it well.

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