Density is a measurement that compares the amount of matter an object has to its volume. An object with much matter in a certain volume has high density. An object with little matter in the same amount of volume has a low density.
Density is found by dividing the mass of an object by its volume:

where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume.

Changes of density
In general, density can be changed by changing either the pressure or the temperature. Increasing the pressure always increases the density of a material. Increasing the temperature usually lowers the density, but there are exceptions. For example, the density of water increases slightly between its melting point at 0 °C and 4 °C. When water freezes, it expands by about 9% in volume, making ice that is less dense than liquid water. Water expands as it drops below 4 °C.

Measures
Fresh water is often used as a standard of relative density. This is called specific gravity.

The most common SI units for density are g/cm3 and kg/m3. When the numerator is much larger than the denominator, that means the substance has a higher density. When the denominator is much larger than the numerator, the substance has a lower density.

Other uses of the term
"Density" sometimes means the ratio between other properties instead of mass and volume.  Then it means how much of a property can be found in a specific piece of what they are looking at.  For example, population density is how many people live within the same amount of land area. The population density in the city is higher than the country side because people live closer to each other in the city. In computers, storage density is how much data can fit on a data storage device in relation to its physical size. A Blu-ray disc has a higher storage density than a DVD which has a higher storage density than a CD, even though they all have almost exactly the same volume.

References

Releted pages
Archimedes' principle

Physical quantity
Matter

Density


Not proven is a type of verdict in Scottish law. Out of the country, the "not proven" verdict may be referred to as the Scottish verdict, and in Scotland itself it may be referred to colloquially as the bastard verdict, which was a term coined by Sir Walter Scott, who was sheriff in the court of Selkirk.

Scottish law is distinct from English law, and this is one of the differences. Juries may convict with a guilty verdict or they may acquit (see below)). A criminal case jury consists of 15 jurors, and make their decision by a simple majority vote: eight votes are necessary and sufficient for the verdict "guilty", which has replaced the older verdict "proven".

In Scotland there are two forms of acquittal:
Not guilty means the accused is innocent, in the opinion of the jury.
Not proven means the prosecution has failed to prove their case, but the jury has disagreed as to the innocence of the accused.

References

Legal terms
Scots law

Not proven


A black smoker is a kind of hydrothermal vent that can be found on the ocean floor. It is a crack in the planet's surface from which geothermally heated water comes out. Hydrothermal vents are commonly found near volcanically active places, areas where tectonic plates are moving apart, ocean basins, and hotspots.

Hydrothermal vents are common on earth because it is both geologically active and has large amounts of water on its surface and within its crust. Common land types include hot springs, fumaroles and geysers. The most famous hydrothermal vent system on land is probably within Yellowstone National Park in the United States. Under the sea, hydrothermal vents may form features called "black smokers".

Relative to the majority of the deep sea, the areas around submarine hydrothermal vents are biologically more productive, often hosting complex communities fueled by the chemicals dissolved in the vent fluids. Chemosynthetic archaea form the base of the food chain, supporting diverse organisms, including giant tube worms, clams, limpets and shrimp.
Active hydrothermal vents are believed to exist on Jupiter's moon Europa, and ancient hydrothermal vents have been speculated to exist on Mars.

Other websites
 Ocean Explorer (www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov) - Public outreach site for explorations sponsored by the Office of Ocean Exploration.
 NOAA, Ocean Explorer Gallery.

Oceanography

Black smoker


Iambe was the goddess of rhyme and merriment in Greek mythology. She was the daughter of Pan and Echo.

Iambic pentameter
Iambe is said to have created the iambic pentameter verse pattern in poetry. This is a metered verse with two different sounds, and it was named after Iambe. The iambic pentameter verse is used by many poets, one of which is William Shakespeare.

Demeter
In the myth, Demeter, was sad about losing her daughter, Persephone. It was only Iambe who was able to make Demeter laugh. She did this by using poetry and wit to cheer Demeter up. When Demeter was not sad any more, the earth became fertile again. Iambe then became Demeter's first priestess.

Greek gods and goddesses

Iambe


Prince Ferdinand Philippe of Orléans, Duke of Orléans  (Ferdinand Philippe Louis Charles Henri Joseph; 3 September 1810 – 13 July 1842) was the eldest son of Louis Philippe d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans and future King Louis Philippe I. Born in exile in his mother's native Sicily, he was their heir to the House of Orléans from birth. Following his father's succession as King of the French in 1830, he became the Prince Royal and subsequently Duke of Orléans (French: duc d'Orléans), the title by which he is best known. Dying in 1842, he never succeeded his father nor saw the collapse of the "July Monarchy" and subsequent exile of his family to England.

Infancy and background

He was named after his two grandfathers King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies and Philippe Égalité. He was born in Palermo and given the title of Duke of Chartres. He was also a prince of the blood at the French royal court of Versailles. This gave him the style of Serene Highness. His father was banned from attending court at Versailles due to his liberal views. Prince did not attend either. He instead remained at his father's court at their Parisian residence the Palais Royal.

Heir to the throne

His father became King of the French in 1830. This made the prince the heir to the title of Duke of Orléans and heir to the throne. From that time the heir to the French throne was to be known as the Duke of Orléans. His father also declared his descendants through the male line were entitled to use the style of Royal Highness. They also used the title (a title in its own right) of Prince of Orléans. The prince became known as His Royal Highness, Prince Ferdinand Philippe of Orléans, Duke of Orléans. His sons were also entitled to the same style and title.

Marriage

There were plans for him to marry his cousin, Louise Marie Thérèse d'Artois. But the plans never materialised. There were also negotiations for the young prince to marry an Austrian Archduchess as well as a Russian grand duchess. But the plans again never materialised as the new monarchy in France was seen as fragile and not expected to survive. Instead the choice came in the form of Duchess Helene of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. She was a member of a minor ducal family native to Germany. The couple eventually married on 30 May 1837. This gave her the style of Royal Highness and made her one of the first princesses of Orléans by marriage. The couple eventually had two sons and had a very happy marriage.

Children

Prince Philippe of Orléans, Count of Paris (1838–1894). He married Princess Marie Isabelle of Orléans, Infanta of Spain (1848–1919). They had children.
Prince Robert of Orléans, Duke of Chartres (1840–1910). He married Princess Françoise of Orléans (1844–1925) and had children.

Ancestry

Titles and styles

3 September 1810 - 21 September 1824 His Serene Highness The Duke of Chartres.
21 September 1824 – 3 August 1830 His Royal Highness The Duke of Chartres.
3 August 1830 – 9 August 1830 His Royal Highness The Prince Royal, Prince of Orléans.
9 August 1830 – 13 July 1842 His Royal Highness The Duke of Orléans, Prince Royal, Prince of Orléans.

1810 births
1842 deaths
Heirs apparent who never acceded
Ferdinand-Philippe d'Orleans

Dukes and Duchesses of Chartres
Dukes and Duchesses of Orléans
People from Palermo

Ferdinand Philippe, Duke of Orléans


An oxbow lake is a lake, or area of water, in a U-shape. It is made by special bends in a river, called meanders, getting farther away from the river until they become separate. The river becomes straight and the bend becomes a lake. This happens due to floods or when a meander's neck gets too thin.

Why does this happen?

Water flows at different speeds at different parts of the river. In the middle, farthest away from the sides (or banks), the water flows fastest. At the banks, the water flows slowest. When the river bends, water flows faster on the outside of the bend than the inside. The fast water on the outside 'erodes' the outside of the bend. This means it breaks bits of the bank off. At the same time, the slow water on the inside of the bend leaves behind mud, sand and parts of plants (deposition). Together, these make the bend move in the direction of the outside of the bend.

The bend moves farther and farther along until it leaves the river. The river becomes straight and the bend is left as an oxbow lake.

Lakes

Oxbow lake


Domitianus was probably a Roman soldier who was acclaimed emperor during the reign of Aurelian.

He was in northern Gaul in late 270 or early 271 AD. He struck gold coins to advertise his claim to the throne. This claimant did not survive the year. He is mentioned by the Byzantine historian Zosimus and also in the Historia Augusta, a collection of biographies.

Roman people
270s deaths

Domitian II


Routledge is a British publisher. It has changed names and owners many times since it was first formed by George Routledge (1812–1888) in 1836. The firm continued to grow until 1902 when it almost became bankrupt. However, it managed to recover after refinancing and began to buy up and merge with other publishing companies. From 1912 onwards, it increasingly focuses on academic publishing. It soon became well known for its books in humanities and social sciences. Taylor & Francis bought Routledge in 1998.

Publishing companies of the United Kingdom

Routledge


The 20 Hunchakian gallows (or Ksan Gakhaghan, also "The 20 Martyrs", "The 20s") is the common name for the group of Hunchakian activists who were hanged in the Sultan Bayazid square of Constantinople in June 15, 1915.

History
The 7th General Convention of the Social Democrat Hunchakian Party which was held in Constanţa, Romania, in 1913, had a unique and great importance not only for the Hunchaks, but in the history of the Armenian people as a whole. During the Convention, members stressed their concern of the Ittihad (Young Turk) government's blatant disregard of the Armenian lives who resided in Historic Armenia. The Hunchaks feared that this disregard would only escalate as time past. The Hunchaks also stressed the importance of a United Independent Armenia which would be impossible under the racist and dictatorial Young Turk government's rule of the Ottoman Empire.

Thus the convention adjourned with two main objectives:

I - As stated in its original program, the party was to move from licit to illicit activities, thus becoming once again a covert organization.

II - To plan and assassinate the leaders of the Ittihad (Young Turk) party, the same leaders that carried out the Adana massacres of 1909, and thus the same leaders who at that moment were planning the annihilation of the Armenian people.

Unfortunately, these secret objectives were passed on to the Turks by an Armenian agent for the government; consequently as soon as the delegates arrived in Constantinople, they were arrested. By the end of the year a total of one hundred and forty Hunchak leaders were arrested.

After spending two years in terrible conditions in Turkish prisons, and undergoing lengthy mock trials, twenty prominent figures - Paramaz, Dr. Benne, Aram Ach'ekbashian, Vanig and others were sentenced to death by hanging. A few weeks after the beginning of the Armenian Genocide on June 15, 1915, all twenty men were hanged in the central square of Constantinople, known as Sultan Bayazid Square. Paramaz's last words before his hanging were, "You can only hang our bodies, but not our ideology. ...You will see tomorrow on the Eastern horizon a Socialist Armenia."

Since their execution, the Twenty Martyrs have been a source of inspiration for thousands of young Armenians throughout the world.

In 2001 the monument of Paramaz and his 19 Hunchakian comrades was opened in Meghri town, Armenia.

The list of hanged Hunchakians
 Paramaz,
 Dr. Benne (Bedros Torosian, Kharpert),
 Aram Achekbashian (Krikor Garabedian, Arabkir),
 Kegham Vanig (Van), one of the editors of "Gaidz" youth journal,
 Mourad Zakarian (Mush),
 worker Yervant Topuzian,
 Hagop Basmajian,
 Smpat Keljian,
 Roupen Garabedian,
 Armenag Hampartsoumian,
 Apraham Mouradian,
 Hrand Yegavian,
 Karnig Boyajian,
 Hovhannes Yeghiazarian,
 Mgrdich Yeretsian,
 Yerevia Manoukian,
 Tovmas Tovmasian,
 Karekin Boghosian,
 Minas Keshishian,
 Boghos Boghosian.

Two other prominent Hunchakian activists, Stepan Sabah-Goulian and Varaztahd, were condemned to death in absentia.

Other websites
 The Twenty Hunchakian Gallows

References

Armenian people
1915 deaths
Executed people

The 20 Hunchakian gallows


The Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn is one of the four Inns of Court around the Royal Courts of Justice in London. They may call members to the Bar and allow them to practice as barristers. (The other Inns are Middle Temple, Gray's Inn and Inner Temple.)

Lincoln's Inn is thought to be the oldest of the four Inns of Court. The history of the Inn can be traced back to 1422, although its actual origins are even older.

It is in Holborn, in the London Borough of Camden, on the border with the City of London and the City of Westminster.

Famous Members

Lord Denning
Sir Thomas More
Richard Cromwell
Thomas Langlois Lefroy, Chief Justice of Ireland from 1855 to 1866
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Founder of Pakistan
Sir Allama Muhammad Iqbal, Muslim poet, famous for the idea of Pakistan, philosopher, politician, National Poet of Pakistan
John Henry Cardinal Newman
Mirza Hameedullah Beg, Chief Justice of India
Tony Blair, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
Cherie Blair QC (Known professionally as Cherie Booth QC)
John Donne
Margaret Thatcher, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
William Osgoode, first Chief Justice of Ontario after whom Osgoode Hall (and therefore Osgoode Hall Law School) was named
Syed Sajjad Ali Shah, Chief Justice of Pakistan
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Prime Minister and President of Pakistan
John Kofi Agyekum Kufour, President of the Republic of Ghana

Preachers of Lincoln's Inn
The office of Preacher of Lincoln's Inn or Preacher to Lincoln's Inn is a clerical office in the Church of England.  Past Preachers of Lincoln's Inn include:
John Donne
William Warburton
Henry Wace
Derek Watson

Other websites

Lincoln's Inn website
www.shaw-hardwick.co.uk

Inns of Court

Lincoln's Inn


Jerry Gana,  is a Nigerian scholar, politician and one time senator of the Federal Republic of Nigeria in 1983 then Director for the Directorate of Food, Roads and Infrastructure (DFRRI).He was the director of the Mass Mobilization for Social Justice and Economic Recovery, popularly known as MAMSER under Ibrahim Babangida, then Minister of Agriculture and Natural Resources,  in the  Interim National Government under  Ernest Shonekan.  Later he became Minister of Information and Culture under General Sani Abacha, then Minister of Corporation and Integration in Africa under Olusegun Obasanjo as well as being Minister of Information and national Orientation. He also served as Political Adviser to Olusegun Obasanjo, before announcing  plans to run for president in June 2006.

Background

Gana was born on 30 November 1945 at Busu near Bida, in Niger State. He obtained the West African School Certificate from Government College, Bida in 1964, and proceeded to Okene Secondary School for the Higher School Certificate (H.S.C.) from 1965 to 1966, passing out with distinctions as the best results in 1967. Gana proceeded to Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria and graduated in 1970 with a B.A. (Hons) degree (Upper Division) in Geography. He then attended Kings College of the University of Aberdeen University, Scotland.for an M.Sc Course in Rural Resources Planning, leading to a PhD in Market Place Systems and Rural Development in 1974. He obtained a Certificate of Education from the University of London and taught at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria from 1974 to 1986, rising to the post of a Professor in 1985.

He was Pro-Chancellor of the University of Lagos until 2017

Political career
He was elected Senator in 1983, serving briefly until the military coup that brought General Muhammadu Buhari to power.
He was appointed chairman of Mass Mobilisation for Social and Economic Recovery under General Ibrahim Babangida's government. He subsequently became a cabinet minister for Agriculture and Natural Resources, Information and Culture, Cooperation and Integration in Africa and again for Information and National Orientation.

Gana ran unsuccessfully for president in 1992 on the Social Democratic Party platform.

Fourth Republic

Gana was the founding national secretary of the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) in 1998.
In June 2001, President Olusegun Obasanjo appointed Gana Minister of Co-operation and Integration in Africa.
In January 2001, Obasanjo reassigned his cabinet. In the new cabinet announced in February 2001 Gana was Minister of Information.
Gana was also secretary of the PDP Board of Trustees.
Gana resigned in July 2006 as special advisor to President Olusegun Obasanjo, and in August 2006 announced he would contend for the PDP candidature for the 2007 presidential elections.

In 2018 Gana announced he would be running as a Social Democratic Party (SDP) candidate for president in the 2019 Elections.

References

Living people
1945 births
People from Niger State
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
Ahmadu Bello University alumni
Academic staff of Ahmadu Bello University

Jerry Gana


An insult is a description of someone that will offend them. It may or may not be true. It is called derogatory language. Terms like foolish, stupid, idiot and moron are insults, because they say that a person's mind is not quick or smart.

Insulting someone's mother directly is a serious insult in many cultures.

Ritual insults are part of many cultures. For example, they can be found in sports and military training. They are also very common in jargons. For example, the word newbie is a part of net jargon. Calling someone a newbie is usually insulting.

One should be very careful when using new words to describe others.

Reason
Usually, someone insults others because they want to feel like they are better or have more power (influence) than the people they insult. They may want this because they are actually afraid that they are worse or less powerful than the people they are insulting.

Effects
When someone is insulted, their pride is hurt. They may want to fight back by insulting the person who insulted them, or by telling someone who is older.

Figures of speech

Insult


Dementia is a group of diseases with symptoms, which affect the way people think and interact with each other. It can often be linked to a disease or damage done to the brain. Very often, short-time memory, mind, speech and motor skills are affected. Certain forms of dementia cause a change in the personality of the sufferer. A person suffering from dementia will lose certain skills and knowledge they already had. This is the main difference to other conditions affecting the mind. People who suffer from learning problems, or lower intelligence will never acquire certain skills, people suffering from dementia will lose skills they have acquired. Dementia is more common in older people, but younger people can be affected as well. Certain forms of dementia can be treated, to some extent. The most common form of dementia is Alzheimer's disease, which accounts for between 50 and 60 percent of all cases. Other types include vascular dementia and lewy body dementia.

Famous people who suffered from dementia include Augusto Pinochet, the Chilean leader, and also Rosa Parks, the civil rights activist.

People who see the following worsen may suffer from dementia:
 Decision-making ability
 Judgment
 Orientation in time and space
 Problem solving
 Verbal communication

Behavioral changes may include:
 Eating
 Dressing (may need assistance)
 Interests
 Routine activities (may become unable to perform household tasks)
 Personality (inappropriate responses, lack of emotional control)

Some types dementia are reversible. This means the damage can be undone. Other types are irreversible. This means that they cannot be undone. Irreversible dementia is usually caused by an incurable disease, such as Alzheimer's disease.

Reversible causes of dementia also include diffuse axonal injury after injuries to the head or the brain, known medically as Traumatic brain injury.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease causes a dementia that gets worse quickly, over weeks or months, and is caused by prions. ,other forms like encephalopathy or delirium may develop relatively slowly, over a number of years.

The two leading causes of dementia are Alzheimer's disease and Multi-infarct disease. Glioma related tumors are another kmown cause. Alcohol dementia, is sometimes associated with Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, and is caused by long-term or uncontrolled, heavy alcohol abuse.

Possible metabolic causes are such as liver failure or kidney failure; and chronic subdural hematoma. Possible other causes may include brain infection by illnesses like meningitis leading in cases to viral encephalitis drug toxicity (e.g. anticonvulsant drugs). A recent report by Science Daily says that researchers at the University of Bergen, in Norway have discovered a connection between Oral health and Alzheimers disease.

Related pages
Alzheimer's disease
Vascular dementia
Meningitis
Encephalitis
Primary central nervous system lymphoma

References

Other websites

Dementia


Augustine Thoman, formerly known as "Auggie" was a professional Fijian footballer in "Fiji me football". In 1965 he started playing district level football . In 1951 his team went as the first international team to play against New Zealand with a 0-0 draw against them. The next year, he faced  the New Zealand Football Team, in 1961 he faced New South Wales, and in 1963 he faced The South Pacific Games. In 1961, he played a part of the team Inter-district soccer tournament. The exact day he died is unknown but it is suspected he passed away in the early 1990s.

Playing History
Augustine played for the Lautoka Football Association from 1949-1960, moved to BA in 1961, then rejoined Lautoka in 1962-1965. He played for Fiji from 1952-1963.

Memorial
The exact day he died is unknown but it is suspected he passed away in the 1990s. Today, in Fiji there is a gate and a street loosely named after him.

Inter-District Championships - 1959

Semi Final
In the semi-finals of the Nadogaga 1-0 series, the score was Ba vs. Suva, 3-1, Hatti and Latok.

Finals for 1959
The final game is played by Lotok and it will be given to Geetice by Lotto 6-0. I have got a lot of tricks from GEET to Lootok Tin Daffe (in a line) and some logs, Lotto, Lloyd-Ferrebrother Cup, but there is no rule for FIFA batsmen. The 8th game will be for the Lloyd Farebrand Trophy.

See More
 Fiji me football

Thoman, Augustine
Thoman, Augustine
Thoman, Augustine

Augustine Thoman


Electrochemistry is a kind of chemistry that studies chemical reactions that use or make electricity. Reactions like this happen at electrodes which are made from something that conducts electricity, and put in an electrolyte. An electrolyte is a solution that has ions in it.

Electrochemistry was "invented" at the same time as the voltaic pile; the first kind of electric battery.

Related pages
Isotope electrochemistry

Physical chemistry

Electrochemistry


Pechtish (Scots Gaelic: Cruithnis) is a term uised for the extinct leid or leids thocht tae hae been spaken by the Pechts, the fowk o northren an central Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. Pechtish is thocht tae hae been a Brythonic, Celtic leid.

The Pechts wis in whit is nou Scotland lang afore the Scots or Scotland, an acause o this Scots Gaelic haes some o thair tongue in it. Wirds the likes o "Pit" (fermtoun) an "Aber" (Gub o a muckle river) gies us a keek at whit the aulder leid o Scotland. Aber is niver foond in the Erse but are in the Welsh, Cornish an Breton forby.

This Pechtish leid wis a gey close kin o the Welsh an the aulder forebeirs o fowk in Scotland wis kent by maist as the Pechts an afore them wis the real "Aulder Kindred" the Creenie. Aw thae Celties an Widkerns that haedna been brocht inta the Roman Empire wis gien the Laitin name "populi picti" (pentit fowk) an this is whaur Pict comes frae.

There wis Britanni (in Laitin) or mair like "Pretani" that micht coud be unerstuid bi ony modren body wi the Welsh Leid an mair o mair import they warna "tame" they bade ootwi the waws baith Hadrian's an the Antonine. Tae the Romans they war a richt pain, but the mercators troked an the raidin gaen on athort the waws. In aulder times afore the Romans the tribes or clans of the "Pretani" frae the Sooth o England tae the Nor' end o Scotland wis kith an kin an shared a cultur an leid. The Romans wi their Empire chynged aw that.

It disnae maiter syne the auld Welsh o Scotland wis a form of P-Celtic an samples o it bides yet in place names sic as Ecclefechan (Eglwys fechan or the "Kirk o the Yunkers"). Mony a place in Scotland still hauds bitties o the auld leid an gies us the clue that Arthur an Merlin micht just hae been in Camelot close forenenst Fawkirk or, Eglwys Brych tae gie its aulder name.

Extinct Celtic leids
Extinct leids o Scotland

Pechts leid


Yehudi Menuhin, Baron Menuhin, OM, KBE  (22 April 1916 in New York City - 12 March 1999 in Berlin) was a violinist and conductor. As a child he was one of the most extraordinary violin prodigies there has ever been. He was one of the greatest violinists of the 20th century. In later life he also performed a lot as conductor. He was a very influential teacher who started a school, the Yehudi Menuhin School, near London, for musically gifted children. He was born an American citizen, but then became Swiss in 1970, and then took on British nationality in 1985.

Life

Early years

Yehudi Menuhin was born in New York City, New York. His parents were Russian Jews who came from what is now Belarus. His sisters were Hephzibah Menuhin who became a pianist, and Yaltah Menuhin who became a pianist, painter and poet. His father, Moshe Menuhin, had been a rabbinical student and writer who oppposed Zionism.

Menuhin had his first violin lessons just after the age of four in San Francisco with the violin teacher Sigmund Anker. He immediately showed extraordinary talent. He continued to study with Louis Persinger, and performed with the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra in 1924. and in New York in 1926. He performed in Paris in February 1927, after which he studied with the Romanian composer and violinist George Enescu. When he played Beethoven's Violin Concerto with the conductor Fritz Busch in New York in November 1927 he immediately became world famous. He not only had the most amazing technique but he also understood the music just as well as any grown up musician. As a child he made many recordings. One of the most remarkable was a recording made in 1932 of Elgar's Violin concerto. Elgar, who was then 75 years old, was conducting the orchestra.

Mid career
During World War II Menuhin gave more than 500 performances for American and allied soldiers. He was the first person to perform in the Paris Opéra after the war and he went with the composer Benjamin Britten to perform for the people who were prisoners in the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, after they were made free in April 1945. He returned to Germany in 1947 to perform with the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra with the conductor Wilhelm Furtwängler. Many Jews said he should not have done this, because they said that Furtwängler had played for the Nazis who had killed so many Jews, but Menuhin said it was the right thing to do.

Menuhin continued to give many performances, but there were times when he did not play so well. He may have worked too hard. He had to give himself time off performing and he practised very carefully and studied meditation and yoga to help him get over his problems.

Later career

Menuhin continued to perform until he was quite old. He did not just play classical music but explored other kinds of music such as jazz which he often played with the famous jazz violinist Stéphane Grappelli, and he explored Indian music and played with the sitarist Ravi Shankar. He also conducted some of the world's greatest orchestras and founded his own chamber orchestra.

In 1959 Menuhin made his home in London. He performed a lot in England, including at the Bath Festival, but also continued to travel all over the world.

In 1962 he started a school for children who had special musical talent. It was called the Yehudi Menuhin School. The school is in Stoke d'Abernon, Surrey, just south of London.

In 1983 he founded together with Robert Masters the Yehudi Menuhin International Competition for Young Violinists. Many of today's famous violinists won prizes at this competition, including Tasmin Little and Nikolaj Znaider.

In 1991 he was given the Wolf Prize by the Israeli Government. In the Israeli Knesset he gave a speech in which he criticised Israel's occupation of the West Bank. He said that it was not right for the Jews, who have lived by strict moral behaviour for 5000 years, not to let others (meaning the Palestinians) live their lives there too.

Menuhin had many pupils who became famous, including Nigel Kennedy.

Personal life
Yehudi Menuhin was married twice. He first married Nola Nicholas, daughter of an Australian industrialist, and sister of Hephzibah Menuhin's first husband. They had two children. After their divorce, he married the British ballerina and actress Diana Gould. They had two sons, Gerard and Jeremy, who became a pianist.

The name Yehudi means 'Jew' in Hebrew. It means "Thanks to God".

Yehudi Menuhin was given many honours from all over the world. These include the Commander of the Légion d'honneur, a Knight of the Dutch Order of Oranje Nassau, an Hon. KBE, and the Nehru Award for International Understanding. In 1993 he was made a life peer and became Lord Menuhin.

Lord Menuhin died in Berlin, Germany, from bronchitis.

Soon after his death, the Royal Academy of Music was given the Yehudi Menuhin Archive, a very large collection of musical books, letters etc. that had belonged to Yehudi Menuhin.

Other websites
Official website for Yehudi Menuhin

1916 births
1999 deaths
American conductors
American violinists
British conductors
British violinists
Grammy Award winners
Jewish American musicians
Jewish British musicians
Jewish Wolf Prize winners
Knights and Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Legion of Honour
Musicians from New York City
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
Order of Merit
Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Swiss musicians
Swiss Jews
United Kingdom Life Peers

Yehudi Menuhin


A mobile home, or house trailer, is a moving home which can be pulled behind a truck, tractor or strong car on major roads. Some mobile homes have multiple sections, such as with a double-wide trailer, which can be joined together after being pulled onto a lot as separate trailers. Some also have front or back porches which can be joined outside the doors of the house trailer. Mobile homes can also be referred to as simply trailers or caravans.
Mobile homes are usually left in one location permanently, but they have possibility to move in emergencies or other events.

References

Housing

Mobile home


A warlord is a ruler whose status is based solely on power of violence without any legitimacy (that is: right by law). A warlord is a military commander, usually a militant leader, rebel or militia, who has a private army. The Condottieri of Middle Ages Italy are well known examples. Many warlords lived in China and Mongolia. Warlordism is also known in Afghanistan and Somalia. While feudal lords may have private armies and wage private wars, they are not considered as warlords as their status is based on legitimacy.

Warlords appear when a state collapses. For example feudal lords took over in Europe when the Roman Empire fell. Warlordism is the inevitable consequence of anarchy. Many warlords are former officers, clan leaders, mafia bosses or gang leaders. A warlord may attempt to build a state at the area where he is in power, or he may simply plunder and rob his subjects.

A state which has collapsed into warlordism is in continuous civil war. Such countries have few industries except agriculture, mining and contraband, such as drugs and weapons.

Military people

Warlord


The Herald is a daily morning newspaper published in Rock Hill, South Carolina, in the United States.  Its coverage is York, Chester, and Lancaster counties. In 1990, the paper was bought by The McClatchy Company of Sacramento, California. After McClatchy claimed bankruptcy in 2020, the paper was bought by Chatham Asset Management.

History

The paper became a semi-weekly in 1893. In 1911, it was converted to a daily afternoon paper — except Sundays — and renamed The Evening Herald. That name and production schedule would endure for 75 years through several ownership changes.

In March 1985, the company was purchased by the News & Observer Co. of Raleigh, North Carolina, then owned by descendants of Josephus Daniels. The new owners changed the Saturday edition to morning and got rid of the Evening part of the name. In 1986, they launched a Sunday edition and two years later switched to morning publication seven days a week. In 1990, the Daniels family sold the paper to McClatchy. The purchase of The Herald and two other dailies in South Carolina -- The Island Packet in Hilton Head, and The Beaufort Gazette of Beaufort—marked McClatchy's first foray into the Southern United States. The Herald was reunited with the N&O when McClatchy bought the Raleigh paper in 1995.

McClatchy's purchase of most of Knight Ridder's properties, finalized in June 2006, made The Herald a sister publication of its longtime rival, The Charlotte Observer. The papers plan to remain separate, and the publisher of the Observer has said the paper has no plans to close its Rock Hill bureau.

On November 7, 2007, it was announced that Valerie Canepa, publisher of the Herald for the past four and a half years, would be moving to Columbus, Georgia, to become publisher of the Columbus Ledger-Enquirer. At the same time it was also announced that Debbie Abels, 34-year veteran of The Charlotte Observer, would take over as publisher beginning November 26, 2007. Debbie Abels will also report to the publisher of The Charlotte Observer, Ann Caulkins, instead of the McClatchy Regional Vice President as Canepa did.

In February 2009, it was announced that as of March 2, the Herald would be going to a regional printing arrangement, in which the newspaper would be printed on The Charlotte Observer'''s presses in NC.

In February 2016, it was announced that Angela Joines, a 20-year veteran of The News & Observer (Raleigh, NC) would take over as General Manager/Advertising Director, filling vacancy left by former publisher, Debbie Abel's retirement in December 2015.

Jim Hoagland, a nationally syndicated columnist for The Washington Post and a winner of the Pulitzer Prize, began his career working summers at The Evening Herald''.

See also

 List of newspapers in South Carolina

References

External links
heraldonline.com official site
Official mobile site
Herald Sports
The McClatchy Company's subsidiary profile of The Herald

McClatchy publications
Newspapers published in South Carolina
York County, South Carolina
Rock Hill, South Carolina
1872 establishments in South Carolina

The Herald (Rock Hill)


Province 8 (VIII), also called the Province of the Pacific, is one of nine ecclesiastical provinces making up the Episcopal Church in the United States of America. It is composed of sixteen dioceses in the nine states of Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, and Washington. Also part of the province are the Episcopal Diocese of Taiwan, which has been a diocese of the Church since 1960; and the Navajoland Area Mission which was established in 1979 to serve the specific spiritual and cultural needs of the Navajo Nation.

The province encompasses more than a third of the land mass of the United States, and nearly twenty percent of the country's population. Because of its sheer size, the province claims to contain the most demographically diverse population in the world. The Rt. Rev. James Mathes of the Diocese of San Diego serves as President and D. Rebecca Snow of the Diocese of Oregon serves as Vice President.

Dioceses of Province VIII

Diocese of Alaska
Diocese of Arizona
Diocese of California
Diocese of Eastern Oregon
Diocese of El Camino Real
Diocese of Hawaii
Diocese of Idaho
Diocese of Los Angeles
Diocese of Nevada
Diocese of Northern California
Diocese of Olympia
Diocese of Oregon
Diocese of San Diego
Diocese of San Joaquin
Diocese of Spokane
Diocese of Taiwan
Diocese of Utah

Other jurisdictions of Province VIII

Navajoland Area Mission
Episcopal Church in Micronesia

References and external links
ECUSA Province Directory
Province VIII website

Ecclesiastical provinces of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America

Province 8 of the Episcopal Church


A naval ensign is an ensign (maritime flag) used by naval ships of various countries to denote their nationality. It can be the same or different from a country's civil ensign or state ensign.

It can also be known as a war ensign. A large version of a naval ensign that is flown on a warship's mast just before going into battle is called a battle ensign. An ensign differs from a jack, which is flown from a jackstaff at the bow of a vessel.

Most countries have only one national flag and ensign for all purposes. In other countries, a distinction is made between the land flag and the civil, state and naval ensigns. The British ensigns, for example, differ from the flag used on land (the Union Flag) and have different versions of plain and defaced Red and Blue ensigns for civilian and state use, as well as the naval ensign (White Ensign). Some naval ensigns differ in shape from the national flag, such as the Nordic naval ensigns, which have 'tongues'.

Countries having specific naval ensigns
Naval ensigns that are different from the civil ensign and the national flag:

Historical naval ensigns

References

Naval ensigns
Types of flags

Naval ensign


Melting is the process of changing something from a solid into a liquid (like metal into liquid metal). It is the opposite of freezing. The temperature at which something begins to melt is called its melting point. When an object is heated, the object's particles begin to move faster and faster until the structured particles are freed. Now it is a liquid. It is a solid that is turning into a liquid. Ice takes longer to melt it is in cold water, because the water is near the melting point. It melts more quickly in warm water, far from the melting point.

References

Related pages
Freezing
Sublimation

Matter

Melting


Into the Wild is a 2007 American biographical drama survival movie. It was written and directed by Sean Penn. It is an adaptation of the 1996 non-fiction book of the same name by Jon Krakauer.

It is about living without money. It is very sad at its end.

It stars Emile Hirsch as McCandless with Marcia Gay Harden and William Hurt as his parents and also features Catherine Keener, Vince Vaughn, Kristen Stewart, and Hal Holbrook. The movie received many positive reviews. Holbrook was nominated for an Academy Award for his role.

2007 movies
Movies based on books
American biographical movies
American drama movies
English-language movies
Survival movies
American independent movies

Into the Wild (movie)


The Classis Ravennas ("Fleet of Ravenna"), later awarded the honorifics praetoria and Pia Vindex, was the second most senior fleet of the imperial Roman Navy after the Classis Misenensis.

History
Ravenna had been used for ship construction and as a naval port at least since the Roman civil wars, but the permanent classis Ravennas was established by Caesar Augustus in 27 BC .  It was commanded by a praefectus classis, drawn from the highest ranks of the equestrian class, those with a net worth more than 200,000 sesterces, and its mission was to control the Adriatic Sea and perhaps the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. As the honorific praetoria, awarded by Vespasian for its support during the civil war of AD 69, suggests, together with the classis Misenensis, it formed the naval counterpart of the Praetorian Guard, a permanent naval force at the emperor's direct disposal.

Its home port of Classis (modern Classe), which was named after the fleet, was built under Augustus, and included a canal, the Fossa Augusta, which united the port with the lagoons of the interior, as well as with the river Po to the north. Naval arsenals and docks stretched along the Fossa, in a complex that reached 22 km in length. According to a passage by Cassius Dio, related by Jordanes, the harbour could accommodate 250 ships.

The classis Ravennas recruited its crews mostly from the East, especially from Egypt. Since Rome did not face any naval threat in the Mediterranean, the bulk of the fleet's crews was idle. Some of the sailors were based in Rome itself, initially housed in the barracks of the Praetorian Guard, but later given their own barracks, the Castra Ravennatium across the Tiber. There they were used to stage mock naval battles (naumachiae), and operated the mechanism that deployed the canvas canopy of the Colosseum. In 70, Emperor Vespasian also levied the legio II Adiutrix from the marines of classis Ravennas.

In the civil war of 192-193, the fleet supported Septimius Severus, and, together with the classes Misenensis, it participated in the campaign against Pescennius Niger, transporting his legions to the East. The fleet remained active in the East for the next few decades, where the emergence of the Persian Sassanid Empire posed a new threat that required frequent reinforcements to be ferried.

In 324 the fleet's ships participated in the campaign of Constantine the Great against Licinius and his decisive naval victory in the Battle of the Hellespont. Afterwards, the bulk of the ships were moved to Constantinople, where emperor Constantine had moved the capital of the Roman Empire.

praefecti classis Ravennatis
The following list is based on Werner Eck and Hans Lieb, "Ein Diplom für die Classis Ravennas vom 22. November 206", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, 96 (1993), pp. 85f

List of known ships
The following ship names and types of the classis Ravennas have survived:
 2 quinqueremes: Augustus, Victoria.
 6 quadriremes: Fortuna, Mercurius, Neptunus, Padus, Vesta, Victoria.
 28 triremes: Aesculapius, Apollo, Aquila, Archinix, Ariadna, Augustus, Castor, Concordia, Costantia, Danae, Danubius, Diana, Felicitas, Hercules, Mars, Mercurius, Minerva, Neptunus, Nereis, Pax, Pietas, Pinnata, Providentia, Silvanus, Triumphus, Venus, Virtus, Victoria.
 5 liburnians: Ammon, Diana, Pinnata, Satyra, Varvarina.
 5 other vessels: Clementia, Danubius, Hercules, Mercurius, Victoria.

See also
 Roman navy
 Classiarius

References

Sources

Ravennas
27 BC establishments
Military units and formations established in the 1st century BC
Ravenna

Classis Ravennas


Fortitude Valley (often called "The Valley" by local residents) is an inner suburb of the City of Brisbane, the state capital of Queensland, Australia. In the , Fortitude Valley had a population of 9,708 people. The suburb features two pedestrian malls at Brunswick Street Mall and Chinatown, and is one of the hubs of Brisbane's nightlife, renowned for its nightclubs, bars and adult entertainment.

Geography
Fortitude Valley is built upon a low-lying marshy flat, immediately northeast of the Brisbane central business district.

History

Originally inhabited by the Meanjin peoples of the Turrbal and Jagera/Yuggera Indigenous groups. Later on, Scottish immigrants from the ship  arrived in Brisbane in 1849 in hopes to take the land, enticed by Rev Dr John Dunmore Lang on the promise of free land grants. Denied land, the immigrants set up camp in York's Hollow waterholes in the vicinity of today's Victoria Park, Herston, Queensland. A number of the immigrants moved on and settled the suburb, naming it after the ship on which they arrived.

Fortitude Valley National School opened on 4 March 1861 in a hall attached to the Foresters' Arms Hotel near the corner of Ann and Brunswick Streets, diagonally opposite the Royal George Hotel. The first purpose-built school opened at 95 Brookes Street on 12 August 1867. In 1874 an additional building was erected at 99 Brookes Street and the school was split into two separate departments - Fortitude Valley Boys' State School, and Fortitude Valley Girls' and Infants' State School. The year 1887 witnessed the opening of a further new school building for boys at 85 Brookes Street and in 1888 the Girls' and Infants' School was split again to create Fortitude Valley Girls' State School, and Fortitude Valley Infants' State School. In 1950 the Boys' and the Girls' campuses were amalgamated as the Fortitude Valley State School on the site of the former 1887 boys' school which was demolished in 1948/49. In 1951, the Infants' School merged with the Fortitude Valley State School. The school closed in December 2013 due to low student numbers, despite a prolonged campaign by parents and students to keep it open. The Queensland Government argued that there was another school only  away that could accommodate the students. However, it was reopened in January 2020 as Fortitude Valley State Secondary College in response to a growing population in the area. It was Brisbane's first new inner city school in more than 50 years, built vertically to fit in with the increased population density of the suburb.

A Primitive Methodist church opened in October 1861 in Windmill Street (now McLachlan Street).

All Hallows' School opened on 1 November 1861 by the Sisters of Mercy in the Dean's Cottage beside the Catholic Cathedral (now Old St Stephen's Church) in Adelaide Street in the Brisbane town centre. It was the first secondary school for girls in Queensland. Needing more space to accommodate a growing school they moved on 1 November 1863 to the house Adderton on Duncan's Hill in Fortitude Valley.

In 1862 the Jireh Baptist Church opened in Fortitude Valley.

A Primitive Methodist church opened at 483 Brunswick Street on Sunday 15 October 1876.

A post office was established in 1887.

St Patrick's Catholic Church was built in Wickham Street by Father James Hanly, uphill from the Prince Consort Hotel. St Patrick's Convent School was established later at the Wickham Street site. Both were wooden structures. In 1882, the congregation moved to a new (and still current) St Patrick's Church in Morgan Street. On 5 December 1887, Cardinal Moran laid the foundation stone for a new school building in Ivory Street opening onto Hope Street at the rear. The new school opened on January 1889. In 1952 Brisbane City Council announced that it would be undertaking work in Ivory Street as part of a solution to eliminate traffic bottlenecks and St Patrick's School was one of the affected properties. In 1955 the school buildings were relocated to the church grounds in Morgan Street. The school closed on 19 November 1982.

1891 saw the train line extended from the Brisbane central business district (the area around Queen Street) into Fortitude Valley, and Thomas Beirne opened a business on Brunswick Street. His business thrived and, after extension, he travelled to England in 1896, leaving his manager of two years, James McWhirter, in charge. Soon after his return, McWhirter established a competing drapery business opposite Beirne's in 1898. Beirne and McWhirter became keen rivals and are credited with establishing the Valley as a hub of commerce from the late 1890s.

In the late 19th century, commercial activities in Brisbane were divided along religious lines, with Protestant shopkeepers setting up along Queen and Adelaide Streets in the central business district, and shops operated by Roman Catholics in Stanley Street, South Brisbane. However, in the 1893 Brisbane flood (and again in 1897), major floods wiped out many shops in South Brisbane, and owners in that area decided to move and set up operations north of the river in an area free of flooding. The area they chose was Fortitude Valley. By that time Brisbane's horse-drawn tram system already centred on Fortitude Valley, making it the logical choice to establish a shopping precinct.

Fortitude Valley was also strongly advocated as the location of a new town hall in what became known as "the battle of the sites". Brisbane Town Council already purchased a piece of land in Fortitude Valley and supporters of the Fortitude Valley site pointed out that it would allow stronger foundations compared to the swampy site proposed at Adelaide Street in the existing commercial district. However, a petition was raised in support of the Adelaide Street site and with the support of Charles Moffatt Jenkinson, the mayor of Brisbane in 1914, it was chosen over the Fortitude Valley site. Jenkinson committed the council to that decision by selling the site in Fortitude Valley to the Catholic Church for the construction of the Holy Name Cathedral (a project that, although commenced, made little progress and was eventually abandoned).

From the early 1900s through to the 1960s, the thriving shopping precinct was dominated by McWhirters, Beirne's and, later, Overells' department stores. The Overells Building was completed in 1907. They were ultimately bought out by the Myer, David Jones and Waltons chains respectively with Overells being bought by Walton in 1956. Woolworths and Coles supermarkets and a host of smaller shops also flourished in the precinct during this period. Owing to its proximity to the central business district and the close concentration of public transport in the area, the Valley became the largest non-CBD shopping precinct in Australia through the 1950s and 1960s.

Between 1923 and 1948 mixed gender opportunity classes for the intellectually impaired and handicapped were conducted at the boys' school. In 1951 the Fortitude Valley Opportunity School was approved and operated as a separate entity in its own right shortly afterwards. The school closed in 1961.

The rise of suburban shopping centres and the closure of the tram network in 1969 sounded the death knell for Fortitude Valley, with a gradual decrease in customers. David Jones closed its Valley store in the 1970s and Myer closed its doors in the early 1990s.

In 2010 the Music Industry College opened at 458 Wickham Street with 27 students. In 2014 the college relocated to its own premises at 38 Berwick Street.

In 2017 the Angelorum College opened at 377 St Pauls Terrace as an independent Catholic school, established by families who had previously been home schooling their children.

Demographics

In the , Fortitude Valley had a population of 6,978 people, 54.0% were male and 46.0% were female. The median age of the Fortitude Valley population was 31 years, 7 years below the Australian median. Children aged under 15 years made up 4.3% of the population and people aged 65 years and over made up 4.7% of the population. 46.1% of people living in Fortitude Valley were born in Australia, compared to the national average of 66.7; the next most common countries of birth were India 4.4%, New Zealand 4.2%, England 3.2%, Brazil 2.4% and Colombia 2.2%. 65.1% of people spoke only English at home; the next most popular languages were Spanish 3.5%, Mandarin 2.7%, Portuguese 2.3%, Hindi 1.8% and Korean 1.8%. The most common responses for religion were No Religion 40.8% and Catholic 18.0%.

In the , Fortitude Valley had a population of 9,708 people.

Heritage listings

Fortitude Valley has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:

 112 Alfred Street: Fortitude Valley Child Health Centre
 501 Ann Street: Queensland Brewery Company Building
 547 Ann Street: All Hallows' School Buildings
 740 Ann Street: former Fortitude Valley Post Office
 33 Arthur Street: Doggetts Cottage
 Boundary Street: Howard Smith Wharves
 95 Boundary Street: Austral Motors Building
 Bradfield Highway: Story Bridge
 95 & 99 Brookes Street: Fortitude Valley State School including the former Fortitude Valley Infants' School and former Fortitude Valley Boys' School
 116–120 Brookes Street: Fortitude Valley Methodist Church
 119 Brookes Street: Fortitude Valley Police Station
 141 Brookes Street: Holy Trinity Church
 141 Brookes Street: Holy Trinity Parish Hall
 141 Brookes Street: Holy Trinity Rectory
 323–335 Brunswick Street: Royal George Hotel and Ruddle's Building
 339 Brunswick Street: Empire Hotel
 446–452 Brunswick Street: former Corbett and Son Store
 483 Brunswick Street: Fortitude Valley Primitive Methodist Church
 517 Brunswick Street: La Scala
 28 Duncan Street: TC Beirne Department Store
 Gipps Street: Holy Name Cathedral Site
 9 McLachlan Street: Bulolo Flats
 58 Morgan Street: St Patricks Church
 167–173 St Paul's Terrace: Villa Maria Hostel
 464–468 St Paul's Terrace: Jubilee Hotel
 342 Water Street: Drill Shed
 Wickham Street: McWhirters
 85 Wickham Street: Centenary Place
 230 Wickham Street: Prince Consort Hotel
 308 Wickham Street: Wickham Hotel
 620 Wickham Street: West's Furniture Showroom

Entertainment district

Chinatown

The Chinatown Mall is a pedestrian street which occupies all of Duncan Street opened in 1987 as the first step to the revitalisation of Fortitudes Valley's entertainment district. The Mall runs parallel to Brunswick Street Mall, and connects Wickham Street and Ann Street.

The 1990s saw the development of Fortitude Valley into a thriving live music scene and nightclub district. In 1991, the Brunswick Street pedestrian shopping mall was established. Thereafter, the Brisbane City Council led a concerted urban renewal campaign, encouraging high density residential development around the suburb.

In 2012, around 50,000 people head to Fortitude Valley's clubs, pubs and restaurants each weekend night. Around 30 venues are licensed to trade until 3:00 am.

Valley Music Harmony Plan
In 1999, residents' complaints about neighbouring clubs' live music threatened the closure of the Empire Hotel and the Press Club, two established venues. Musicians and their fans revolted through the "Save the Music" campaign and, 20,000 signatures later, petitioned Brisbane City Council and the Queensland Government to address the emerging problem. The Brisbane City Council commenced the development of a Valley Music Harmony Plan in July 2002. The aim of the Valley Music Harmony Plan is to manage the impacts of music noise on residents and businesses without compromising the viability of the entertainment industry in Fortitude Valley.

That resulted in 2005 in Fortitude Valley becoming Australia's first "Special Entertainment Precinct", designed to protect both live music and new residents through planning restrictions. The Special Entertainment Precinct status exempts entertainment venues within the area from the amplified noise requirements of the Liquor Act 1992, and allows council to manage amplified music noise under the Amplified Music Venues Local Law 2006. But it also requires new residential and accommodation development construction to achieve a minimum noise reduction of 25 decibels in the 63 hertz frequency band.

Drink Safe Precinct
The Fortitude Valley Drink Safe Precinct was a two-year-long trial starting in December 2010. Trials also took place in Surfers Paradise and Townsville. After one year club owners responded positively to the trial. Statistics released in May 2012 showed arrests, evictions and tickets for liquor infringements have declined.

Birdees
Birdees (commonly referred to as 'The Bird' in advertising) is an entertainment venue catering to students and backpackers.

Transport

Transport for Brisbane operates buses to, from and through Fortitude Valley. Fortitude Valley railway station serves all suburban and interurban lines, including Airport line service to Brisbane Airport. The station has four platforms and is located in Zone 1 of the Translink integrated public transport system.

Taxis
Secure taxi ranks to enable patrons to catch a taxi home are set up at various strategic points and enable easy access without the need to hail a cab. Fortitude Valley has five locations with these ranks on Friday and Saturday night. Funding for this free service is provided by the Brisbane City Council, the Queensland State Government and the Taxi Council of Queensland. These secure ranks are staffed by taxi supervisors and security guards to ensure commuters an orderly and safe environment whilst they wait for service. A 'Chaplain' service also operates where some people might be suffering the effects of excess drugs or alcohol and need some care and attention in a safe place rather than on a bench or footpath. The combination of these services have reputedly assisted in reducing the incidents of fights, disputes and arrests especially between the hours of midnight and 5 am on weekends.

Speed limits
On 24 August 2007, a  speed limit was introduced to parts of Wickham Street, Ann Street, McLachlan Street and Warner Street. The speed limit applies between 10 pm and 6 am from Friday to Sunday night. The speed limit was introduced following safety audits of the Fortitude Valley identifying pedestrian-vehicle conflict as a major issue.

James Street Precinct
Fortitude Valley's James Street is a retail and lifestyle precinct, beaming with lush tropical tree coverage and vines. While redeveloped and repurposed, Fortitude Valley's James Street precinct pays homage to its industrial past, while also celebrating contemporary Brisbane. The neighbourhood is home to a range of cafes, restaurants, boutique stores, luxury hotels, and James Street Palace Cinemas. The Calile Hotel is situated on James Street, and houses boutique stores and restaurants. James Street's designer and retail stores include, but are not limited to, Zimmerman, Camilla and Marc, Dion Lee, Bassike; and retailers like Coco Republic, Pottery Barn, Pottery Barn Kids, West Elm, Matt Blatt, Space Furniture, Winning Appliances, Nick Scali Furniture, and Everyday Living.The precinct also has a number of luxury car dealerships like Tesla, Inc., BMW Brisbane, Mercedes-Benz Fortitude Valley, Lexus, and Volvo.

Education
Angelorum College is a private primary and secondary (Prep-9) school for boys and girls at 377 St Pauls Terrace (). In 2017, the school had an enrolment of 35 students with 4 teachers and 3 non-teaching staff (2 full-time equivalent).

Music Industry College is a private secondary (11-12) school for boys and girls at 38-42 Berwick Street (). In 2017, the school had an enrolment of 80 students with 7 teachers (5 full-time equivalent) and 6 non-teaching staff (4 full-time equivalent).

Humanitas High School is a private secondary school (Years 7 to 12), run as a democratic community school with full input from parents, teachers and students. It opened in July 2021 and in 2023 catered to caters to 40 students in Years 7 to 9.

There is one government High School in the Valley - Fortitude Valley State Secondary College.  This school was opened in 2020 on the same grounds as the old Fortitude Valley State Primary School.  The nearest government primary schools are Brisbane Central State School (in Spring Hill) and New Farm State School (in New Farm).

All Hallows' School is a Catholic faith based private school in Fortitude Valley. It is said to be Queensland's oldest secondary school.

There were no government secondary schools in Fortitude Valley (the nearest was Kelvin Grove State College) until the start of 2020 when the new Fortitude Valley State Secondary College opened.

Local events and culture

Valley Fiesta
The Valley Fiesta is an annual three-day event featuring free live music, market stalls, food and drink from many local restaurants and cafés, and other entertainment. Artists that have performed at the Valley Fiesta include Hilltop Hoods, Downsyde, Katie Noonan, Tim Rogers, Butterfingers, Evermore and The Preatures on the Brunswick Street Mall stage and Nick Skitz and End Of Fashion at surrounding venues.

International Jazz Festival
The International Jazz Festival replaced the biennial Valley Jazz Festival in 2013. The festival is put on by Jazz Queensland. It is 5 five day festival generally held during the first week of June.

Straight Out of Brisbane (SOOB)
Straight Out of Brisbane was formed in 2002 by a group of emerging artists who wanted to create new opportunities in Queensland's independent cultural sector. The festival is not-for-profit artist-run event that features workshops, performances, exhibitions, screenings, live music and public art. The festival has been held every year up until 2007.

Fortitude Valley Diehards
Fortitude Valley Football Club, also simply known as "Valleys", were the oldest surviving rugby league team in Brisbane until their demise in 1995. In 2002, Valleys entered a partnership with another former Brisbane rugby league team, Brothers. Playing under the name Brothers-Valleys until changing their name to Brothers Diehards for the 2004 season. Valley's Juniors are still active members of the QRL South East Division having been based at Emerson Park in Grange since the 1970s.

Big Gay Day
Big Gay Day is a gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender pride festival held over one day in and around the Wickham Hotel in Fortitude Valley. The celebration raises money for LGBTQIA+ groups such as GLWA and Open Doors. Previous entertainment has included various local and international DJ's, performers such as Marcia Hines, Melanie C and TV Rock as well as drag shows.

Swimming
The Commercial Swimming Club trains at the Valley Pool and has produced many Olympic and World Champions.

Amenities
There are a number of parks, including:

 Bedford Playground Park ()
 Brunswick Street Park ()
 Centenary Place Park ()
 Church Street Park ()
 Howard Smith Wharf Precinct ()
 Morse St Park ()
 Wilson Outlook Reserve ()

Notable people
 Edward Archibald Douglas (1877–1947)
 Born on 2 November and attended St. Benedict's College, Fort Augustas
 Appointed judge of the Industrial Court of Queensland in 1915 by T. J. Ryan's Labor Government
 Appointed Supreme Court Judge in 1929 until his death in 1947 from a coronary occlusion
 Harriette Martha Voss (1887–1951)
 Born on 10 October and attended Brisbane Girls Grammar School and the University of Sydney
 Appointed resident medical officer upon graduation and in March 1915 she was appointed Chief R.M.O.
 In 1948, Voss became the manager of Hillcrest Hospital but was forced to resign in 1951 due to ill health
 She died on 20 December later that year with her final wish of Hillcrest Hospital being attained by St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church
 Charles Edward Chuter (1880–1948)
 Born 11 March, Chuter attended Fortitude Valley Primary School and later on Brisbane Grammar School on scholarship
 July 1898, he joined the Home Secretary's Department as clerk until 1922 when he was prompter assistant under-secretary of the Home Secretary's Department
 Chuter retired 31 December 1947 and passed from a coronary occlusion 31 January 1948

See also

 Mana Bar

References

External links

 Valley Fiesta
 Valley Jazz Festival
 A childcare centre closes in the Valley: A history of "Practical Sympathy" – John Oxley Library, State Library of Queensland
 The Zoo turns 30! (A brief history of Gen X in Brisbane)

Red-light districts in Australia
Gay villages in Australia
Entertainment districts in Australia
1887 establishments in Australia
Populated places established in 1887
LGBT culture in Brisbane
Pre-Separation Queensland

Fortitude Valley, Queensland


The Seward Peninsula is a large peninsula on the western coast of the U.S. state of Alaska. It sticks out about  into the Bering Sea. It is just below the Arctic Circle. The peninsula is about  long and  wide.

The town of Seward, Alaska is actually not on the Seward Peninsula. It is much further south, on the Kenai Peninsula.

The Seward Peninsula was once part of the Bering land bridge. This was a strip of land that used to exist that connected Alaska with Siberia with mainland Alaska. It existed millions of years ago during a time called the Pleistocene Ice Age. People, animals, and plants all came across the land bridge into North America.  Archaeologists have found proof that Inupiat Eskimos have been living there for thousands of years.

Demographics
The Peninsula does not have a lot of people today. There are no roads going there. The largest town is Nome. There are about 3,000 people there. The next largest town, Shishmaref, has only 607 people. Most of the other towns there have only a few hundred people. Some old mining towns there have no people left at all and have become ghost towns.

Geography and ecology
The Devil Mountain Lakes are on the Seward Peninsula. They are a kind of lake called a maar which is made by a volcano. The Devil Mountain Lakes are the biggest lakes like this in the whole world. There are four mountain ranges on the peninsula, the biggest ones are the Kigluaik (or Sawtooth) Mountains. The highest point on peninsula is the peak of  Mount Osborn. Other mountain ranges on the Seward Peninsula include the Bendeleben Mountains, Darby Mountains, and York Mountains. There is also a big lava flow called The Lost Jim Lava Flow. Several hot springs are located throughout the peninsula as well.

The Seward Peninsula has several rivers. The rivers are important to the people who live there for several reasons. One reason is that they can catch fish to eat in them. Another reason is that they can travel by boat since there no roads. That way they can get to other towns on the river or to places where there are animals to hunt. Finding food is important there because there are not a lot of stores and it costs a lot of money to take food that far in an airplane or boat. The rivers freeze in the wintertime.

The most common kind of tree there is called a black spruce. It is a kind of pine tree.

Cape Prince of Wales is on the Peninsula. No other part of the mainland of North America is further west. It is only  from Russia.

The peninsula was named after William H. Seward. He was the United States Secretary of State made the deal with Russia to let the United States buy Alaska from them in 1867.

References

Geography of Alaska
Peninsulas of the United States

Seward Peninsula


A right of veto means that somebody can stop decisions or legislation.

For example, the President of the United States has veto power over the USA's Congress.  This can stop legislation from being passed.  If the President vetoes a bill passed by the Congress, it only becomes a law if Congress passes it again, this time with at least twice as many members of each of the two houses voting for it than voting against it.

Similarly, the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council (the United States of America, the United Kingdom, China, Russia and France) each has veto power.  Using this, they can stop the Security Council's decisions from being passed and becoming resolutions unless they all agree to them.  These vetoes cannot be overturned by any more voting on that resolution; if there is a need to address the same issue again in the future, a new and separate resolution must be written, passed, and not vetoed.

The veto was invented in ancient times for the Roman tribunes so they could protect the people from bad laws made by the Roman Senate.

Related pages
 Line-item veto

Other websites
 Regular Vetoes and Pocket Vetoes: An Overview (report) by Kevin R. Kosar
 Senate Reference Webpage on Vetoes, which includes lists of vetoes from 1789 to the current day.

Government

Veto


Moraines are accumulations of debris that are found in regions where there are glaciers or were glaciers formerly.

Moraines which are found far off from existing glaciers were created during a past ice age.  The debris may have been taken off the valley floor as a glacier moved or fallen off the valley walls as a result of weathering.  Moraines may be made of silt like glacial flour to large boulders. Moraines may be on the glacier's surface or deposited as piles or sheets of debris where the glacier has melted.  Moraines may also develop when a glacier or iceberg reaches the sea and melts, dropping rocks that it has carried.

Related pages
 Landform
 Long Island

References

Easterbrook, D. J. (1999) Surface processes and landforms. (Second Ed). Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Landforms

Moraine


David Blake (born 2 September 1936) is an English composer and founder member of the Department of Music at the University of York.

Early life and education
Blake was born in London. Following national service, he learnt Mandarin Chinese and spent one year in Hong Kong. He went on to read music at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, where his teachers were Patrick Hadley, Peter Tranchell and Raymond Leppard. He was awarded the Mendelssohn Scholarship for Composition in 1960, and, uniquely for a British composer of his generation, he went to East Berlin to study with Arnold Schoenberg's pupil, the Marxist composer Hanns Eisler, as a Meisterschüler of the GDR Akademie der Künste (Academy of Arts, Berlin). During this time, he composed the first of his acknowledged compositions – the Variations for Piano and the String Quartet No. 1.

Career
In 1963, he was awarded the Granada Arts Fellowship at the newly opened University of York, and the following year, with Wilfrid Mellers and Peter Aston, he founded the Department of Music there. He was Lecturer in Music in the Department until 1976 and then succeeded Wilfrid Mellers as Professor. His first important commission came in 1966, from the York Festival, for his Chamber Symphony. Subsequent commissions included Lumina (soloists, chorus and large orchestra) for the 1970 Leeds Festival; the Violin Concerto for the 1976 BBC Proms; Toussaint, an opera in three acts for the English National Opera, first produced in 1977 (and revived 1983); Rise Dove (solo bass and orchestra) for the BBC; The Plumber's Gift, an opera in two acts for the English National Opera, first produced in 1989 with libretto by John Birtwhistle; and the Cello Concerto, commissioned by the BBC for the 1993 Cheltenham Festival.

He also went on to found the University of York Music Press – known as UYMP – in 1995 with Bill Colleran, with a purpose to promote new and established composers with a range of aesthetic backgrounds. He retired from the University of York in 2001, but remains on the board of UYMP.

Selected list of works
His extensive output, which includes operas and orchestral works, is published by Chester Novello (to 1994) and by UYMP (after 1994).

Operas and stage works
 It's a Small War, musical for schools (1962)
 Toussaint, opera in 3 acts (1974–77)
 The Plumber's Gift, opera in 2 acts (1985–88, rev, 1990).
 Scoring A Century (1999) First Performance 4 March 2010 in Birmingham

Chorus and orchestra
 Lumina (words by Ezra Pound) for soprano, baritone, chorus and orchestra (1969)
 Three Ritsos Choruses for chorus and orchestra without violins (1993 [original for men's voices and guitars, 1992])
 The Fabulous Adventures of Alexander the Great for soloists, young people's choir and orchestra (1996)

Unaccompanied chorus
 Three Choruses on Poems of Robert Frost (1964)
 Four Songs of Ben Jonson (1965)
 What is the Cause? (1967)

Orchestra and chamber orchestra
 Chamber Symphony (1966)
 Metamorphoses (1971)
 Violin Concerto (1976)
 Sonata alla marcia for chamber orchestra (1978)
 Scherzi ed intermezzi (1984)
 Pastoral Paraphrase for bassoon and small orchestra (1988)
 Cello Concerto (1992)
 Nocturne for string orchestra (1994) [arrangement of A Little More Night Music for saxophone quartet, 1990]

Brass band
 Mill Music (1990)
 Winelands for symphonic wind ensemble (1997)

Voice with orchestra or chamber accompaniment
 The Bones of Chuang Tzu (Chang Heng, trans. Arthur Waley), cantata for baritone and small orchestra (1972, orch. 1973 [original version baritone and piano]))
 In Praise of Krishna (from the Bengali) for soprano and 9 instruments (1973)
 From the Mattress Grave (Heinrich Heine) for high voice and 11 instruments (1978)
 Change is Going to Come (various S. African poets), cantata for mezzo, baritone, chorus and 4 players (1982)
 Rise Dove (Aimé Césaire) for bass and orchestra (1983)
 The Griffin's Tale, legend for baritone and small orchestra (1994)
 The Shades of Love (Cavafy) for bass baritone and small orchestra (2000)
 Rings of Jade (Ho Chi Minh, Prison Diary) for medium voice and orchestra (2005)

Voice and piano
 Beata l'Alma (Herbert Read), cantata for soprano and piano (1966)

Chamber music
 String Quartet No. 1 (1962)
 Nonet for wind instruments (1971, rev. 1978)
 String Quartet No. 2 (1973)
 Cassation for wind octet (1979)
 Clarinet Quintet (1980)
 Capriccio for 7 players (1980)
 String Quartet No. 3 (1982)
 Seasonal Variants for 7 players (1985)
 Diversions on themes of Hanns Eisler for saxophone and piano (1995)
 Four Intermezzi for violin and piano (1995)
 String Quartet No. 4 (2004)

Solo instrumental
 Variations for piano (1960)
 Scenes for solo cello (1972)
 Arias for solo clarinet (1978)
 Fantasia for solo violin (1984)

References

External links
David Blake – Publisher's profile (Chester Novello)
UYMP homepage – Blake founded UYMP
David Blake – Staff profile, University of York
A Comic Opera on Politics – Interview and Article with David Blake and Keith Warner for Scoring A Century

1936 births
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
English classical composers
English opera composers
Male opera composers
Living people
Composers from London
English male classical composers
20th-century English composers
Academics of the University of York
20th-century British male musicians
21st-century British male musicians

David Blake (composer)


Italian is a leid spoken bi aboot 70 million fowk, maistly fowk frae Italy, frae whaur it gets its name.
It is an ofeecial leid in Italy, San Marino, Vatican Ceety, Swisserland an in some ceeties o Slovenie an Croatie. It is uised in some pairts o Monaco, Maltae, Albanie, Dodecaneso (Greece), Eritrea, Libie, Ethiopie, Somalie, Tunisie, Slovenie, Croatie an some ither places an aw.

It is maistly derived frae Laitin, wi some wirds frae Greek, Etruscan an ithergates. It is cried an inflectit leid - that means that the meanin o wirds can be chynged bi chyngin their endins. Italian noons is aither masculine or feminine (thir's grammatical terms, for ordinar anerly indirect adae dae wi gender).

Maist singular masculine noons ends in -o, an maist plural masculine noons ends in -i.

Maist singular feminine noons ends in -a, an maist plural feminine noons ends in -e.

Sae - gatto = male cat, gatta = female cat, gatti = male cats, gatte = female cats

The endin o verbs is awfu complicate, acause they lippen on the tense o the verb (past, praisent, futur an sae on) an on the person o the verb (A, ye , thay etc).

Frae that - parlo = A speak, parliamo = we speak, parlava = he wis speakin, parlarono = thay spak, parlerò = A will speak, parliamo = lat's speak!

There's gey mony o thir endins tae learn - it is a difficult pairt o Italian. But soondin is semple - there's anerly a puckle rules tae learn, an haurdly ony difficult soonds.

Mony Italian wirds haes entered the Scots leid. Pizza, spaghetti an ravioli is juist some o the fuid wirds that we uise. Mony technical wirds in muisic is Italian, sic as forte an allegro. Mony muisical instruments' names air Italian an aw, sic as cello an tuba. Frae the daurker side o Italian life we get Mafia an vendetta.

Notes

References

Ither wabsites
 Italian grammar and interactive course (in Inglis)
 Italian proverbs(in Inglis)
 Italian Learning Tips (in Inglis)
 Italian Grammar Primer(in Inglis)
 Italian Online Dictionaries and Glossaries (in Inglis)

See Forby
 Romance leids
 Spaingie leid
 French leid
 Portuguese leid
 Laitin leid
 Italy

Leids o Australie
Leids o Italy
Leids o San Marino
Leids o Slovenie
Leids o Swisserland
Leids o Vatican Ceety
SVO leids

Italian leid


The New York Disability Benefits Law (DBL) is article 9 of the Workers' Compensation Law (which is itself chapter 67 of the Consolidated Laws of New York) and creates a state disability insurance program designed to provide employees with some level of income replacement in case of disability caused off-the-job.

Eligibility
To be required to have DBL coverage for its employees, a company must employ at least one person besides the proprietor within the state of New York. Full-time employees are eligible for coverage after four consecutive weeks of work, and part-time employees are eligible after their twenty-fifth day of employment.

Out of state employees cannot be covered under DBL policies, but the employer must have coverage if some employee's work primarily in New York. Only the New York employees will be covered.

Cost and rates
DBL insurance groups are divided up into those covering fewer than 50 employees and those with 50 or more employees.

Employers with less than 50 employees are written at rates which are fixed for all groups, but that vary from one insurance carrier to another. Rates for employers with less than 50 employees are usually written as a dollar cost per employee, per month. These rates are further divided into separate male and female rates (which are higher than the male rates), to reflect the impact that pregnancy has on DBL claims. Many carriers offer a discounted rate for employers willing to pay all of their premium at the beginning of the year. If a carrier offers this option, the rate will be expressed as a dollar amount per male per year, and per female per year.

Carriers are prevented by the state Worker's compensation Board from raising or lowering their rates for groups with fewer than 50 lives. If a carrier's overall loss ratio (claims paid divided by premium) for their groups with less than 50 employees is too low, then the Worker's compensation Board may force the carrier to lower their rates for all of the groups with fewer than 50 covered lives.

Employers with 50 or more employees are not given fixed rates, but will request a quote from various insurance carriers through an insurance agent or broker. These rates can vary considerably and are based on the overall risk factors of the case. Carriers are permitted to review these groups and increase or decrease the rates based on the claims paid to the group and the premiums that the group pays to the carrier. These reviews are generally conducted quarterly, and the carriers will issue letters to the policyholders and their insurance brokers indicating the proposed changes in rate.

Rates for cases with more than 50 employees are usually given as a dollar amount per employee, per month (called a "per capita rate") with no division into male- and female-specific rates, or as a dollar amount per $100 of covered payroll. Other, less common rate structures include offering a dollar amount per male and per female (as with the groups with less than 50 employees), and offering a dollar amount per $10 of benefit.

Benefits
As of 2006, DBL offers a benefit of 50% of weekly wages to a maximum of $170 per week of benefit beginning on the right day of disability. Benefits can extend to a maximum duration of 26 weeks.

It is possible for carriers to offer benefits that extend beyond the statutory DBL coverage known as "enhanced" or "enriched" DBL. This extended coverage usually takes the form of a higher maximum benefit, but can also include shorter waiting periods or a longer maximum duration. Carriers take these factors into account when underwriting DBL coverage, and so enriched DBL is often more costly than statutory DBL coverage.

Premium payment
An employer is allowed, but not required, to collect contributions from its employees to offset the cost of providing benefits. An employee's contribution is computed at the rate of one-half of one percent of his/her wages, but no more than sixty cents a week (WCL §209).

Paid Family Leave
In 2016, Governor Cuomo signed into law the Paid Family Leave policy. Starting January 1, 2018, the New York State Paid Family Leave Program provides New Yorkers job-protected, paid leave to bond with a new child, care for a loved one with a serious health condition or to help relieve family pressures when someone is called to active military service. Coverage for this benefit will generally be provided as a rider to the DBL insurance policy. For employers who are not required to have DBL coverage, PFL coverage may be obtained on a stand-alone basis. (NYCRR 380).

See also
United States state disability programs
Law of New York

References

External links
 NYS Workers Comp Board
 All 50 States' and D.C.'s Home Page and Workers' Compensation Agencies
 New York State Disability Benefits Law is found under Article 9 of New York State Workers Compensation Law

Welfare in New York (state)
United States labor case law
Employee benefits
Insurance legislation
New York (state) statutes
United States disability legislation
Employee compensation in the United States

New York Disability Benefits Law


A fair catch is part of American football. A receiver of a punt may signal for a "fair catch" when the ball is in the air.  To signal for it, the receiver must wave one arm over his head from side to side.  Once he signals for it, no one from the other team is allowed to touch him.  When the receiver catches the ball, he may not run with it.  The play ends at that spot, and his team takes possession where he caught it.

American football
Sports words

Fair catch


The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis is the 1978 English-language translation of a seminar held by Jacques Lacan. The original () was published in Paris by Le Seuil in 1973. The Seminar was held at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris between January and June 1964 and is the eleventh in the series of The Seminar of Jacques Lacan. The text was published by Jacques-Alain Miller.

Background
In January 1963, Serge Leclaire succeeded Lacan as president of the S.F.P. (Societé Francaise de Psychanalyse). In May, envoys from the I.P.A (International Psychoanalytic Association) visited Paris and meet with Leclaire. Not only did they express doubts about Lacan's attitude towards Freud, but they also claimed that Lacan manipulates transference through the short session: he must be excluded from the training courses. At the Congress of Stockholm, in July, the I.P.A. votes an ultimatum: within three months Lacan's name has to be crossed off the list of didacticians. Two weeks before the expiration of the deadline fixed by the I.P.A. (October 31), a motion was called for Lacan's name to be removed from the list of training analysts. On November 19 a general meeting had to make a final decision on I.P.A.'s conditions regarding Lacan. Lacan then wrote a letter to Leclaire announcing he would not attend the meeting because he could foresee the disavowal. Thus, on November 19, the members' majority takes the position in favor of the ban. As a result, Lacan no longer is one of the didacticians. The next day, his seminar on "The Names-of-the-Father" was to start at Sainte-Anne: he announced its end. Fragments of it would be published in L'excommunication.
 Lacan then founded  L'École Française de Psychanalyse that would become L'École Freudienne de Paris (E.F.P.): "I hereby found the École Française de Psychanalyse, by myself, as alone as I have ever been in my relation to the psychoanalytic cause."

In early 1964, with Claude Lévi-Strauss and Fernand Braudel's support, he was appointed lecturer at the École Pratique des Hautes Etudes. He begins his new seminar on "The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis" on January 15 in the Dussane room at the École Normale Supérieure.

Contents
Lacan talks about the censorship of his teachings and his excommunication from official psychoanalytical circles. He wants to train analysts and, at the same time, address the non-analyst by raising the following questions: Is psychoanalysis a science? If so, under what conditions? If it is – the "science of the unconscious" or a "conjectural science of the subject" – what can it teach us about science?

Lacan sought in his eleventh Seminar to cover what he called "the major Freudian concepts – I have isolated four that seem to come within this category...the first two, the Unconscious and Repetition. The Transference – I hope to approach it next time -...and lastly, the Drive." Praxis thus, which "places the subject in a position of dealing with the real through the symbolic," produces concepts, of which four are offered here: the Unconscious, Repetition, Transference and the Drive.

The 1973 title, Les quatre concepts fondamentaux de la psychanalyse, has often been contested in favor of the 1964's: Les fondements de la psychanalyse, which implies neither that it is a matter of concepts, nor that there are only four of them. Lacan is suspicious of the rapport between psychoanalysis, religion and science. Did they not have a founding father and quasi-secret texts? Freud was "legitimately the subject presumed to know," at least as to the unconscious: "He was not only the subject who was presumed to know, he knew." "He gave us this knowledge in terms that may be said to be indestructible." "No progress has been made that has not deviated whenever one of the terms has been neglected around which Freud ordered the ways that he traced and the paths of the unconscious." This declaration of allegiance contrasts with the study of Freud's dream about the dead son screaming "Father, can't you see I'm burning?" The main problem remains that of transference: the Name-of-the-Father is a foundation, but the legacy of the Father is sin, and the original sin of psychoanalysis is Freud's desire that was not analyzed. In "The Freudian thing", Lacan presents the Name-of-the-Father as a treasure to be found, provided it implies self-immolation as a sacrificial victim to truth.

Of the four concepts mentioned, three were developed between 1953 and 1963. As to drives, whose importance has increased since the study of objet a in the 1963 Seminar L'angoisse, Lacan considers them as different from biological needs in that they can never be satisfied. The purpose of the drive is not to reach a goal (a final destination) but to follow its aim (the way itself), which is to circle round the object. The real source of jouissance is the repetitive movement of this closed circuit. Freud defined Trieb as a montage of four discontinuous elements: "Drive is not thrust (Drang); in "Instincts and Their Vicissitudes" Freud distinguishes four terms in the drive: Drang, thrust; Quelle, the source; Objekt, the object; Ziel, the aim. Such a list may seem quite natural; my purpose is to prove that the text was written to show that it is not as natural as that." The drive is a thoroughly cultural and symbolic construct. Lacan integrates the aforementioned elements into the drive's circuit, which originates in an erogenous zone, circles the object and returns to the erogenous zone. This circuit is structured by the three grammatical voices:

 the active (to see)
 the reflexive (to see oneself)
 the passive (to make oneself be seen).

The first two are autoerotic; only in the passive voice a new subject appears, "this subject, the other, appears in so far as the drive has been able to show its circular course." The drive is always active, which is why he writes the third instance as "to make oneself be seen" instead of "to be seen."

Lacan rejects the notion that partial drives can attain any complete organization since the primacy of the genital zone is always precarious. The drives are partial, not in the sense that they are a part of a whole (a genital drive), but in that they only represent sexuality partially: they convey the dimension of jouissance. "The reality of the unconscious is sexual reality – an untenable truth," much as it cannot be separated from death. Objet petit a is something from which the subject, in order to constitute itself, has separated itself off as organ. This serves as symbol of the lack, of the phallus, not as such, but in so far as it is lacking. It must be an object that is separable and that has some rapport to the lack. At the oral level, it is the nothing; at the anal level, it is the locus of the metaphor – one object for another, give the feces in place of the phallus – the anal drive is the domain of the gift; at the scopic level, we are no longer at the level of demand, but of desire, of the desire of the Other; it is the same at the level of the invocatory drive, which is the closest to the experience of the unconscious." The first two relate to demand, the second pair to desire. Under the form of objet a, Lacan groups all the partial drives linked to part objects: the breast, feces, the penis, and he adds the gaze and the voice. Here, he asserts the split between the eye and the gaze when he analyzes Holbein's painting The Ambassadors as a "trap for the gaze" (piège à regards), but also as a dompte-regard (the gaze is tamed by an object) and a trompe-l'oeil. In the foreground, a floating object, a phallic ghost object gives presence to the – Φ of castration. This object is the heart of the organization of desire through the framework of the drives.

In "La Lettre volée", The Purloined Letter, Lacan states that "the unconscious is the discourse of the Other," meaning that "one should see in the unconscious the effects of speech on the subject." The unconscious is the effect of the signifier on the subject – the signifier is what gets repressed and what returns in the formations of the unconscious. How then is it possible to reconcile desire linked to the signifier and to the Other with the libido, now an organ under the shape of the "lamella," the placenta, the part of the body from which the subject must separate in order to exist? A new conception of repetition comes into play, whose functioning stems from two forces: automatism on the side of the signifier and the missed yet desired encounter on the side of the drive, where objet a refers to the "impossible" Real (that as such cannot be assimilated). If transference is the enactment (la mise en acte) of the reality of the unconscious – what Lacan's deconstruction of the drive wants to bring to light – if desire is the nodal point where the motion of the unconscious, an untenable sexual reality, is also at work, what is to be done? The analyst's role is to allow the drive "to be made present in the reality of the unconscious": he must fall from the idealized position so as to become the upholder of objet a, the separating object.

The appearance during its course of what he called 'the newly published, posthumous work of my friend Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Le Visible et l'invisible" led Lacan however – "free as I am to pursue...the way that seems best to me" – into a long detour midway upon "the eye and the gaze – this is for us the split in which the drive is manifested at the level of the scopic field."

The French edition contained Lacan's 1965 "Report" on the Seminar" and a "Postface" penned in 1973 on the occasion of the French publication. Both were omitted from the 1977 English-language translation in favour of a specially written "Preface". The original "Report" and "Postface" can be consulted in English.

Editions
  Seminar on The Purloined Letter, Écrits, transl. by Jeffrey Mehlman, "French Freud" in Yale French Studies 48, 1972.

See also
 Seminars of Jacques Lacan
 Gaze
 Psychoanalytic theory

References

Further reading
 Richard Feldstein, Maire Jaanus, Bruce Fink (eds.), Reading Seminar XI: Lacan's Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis: The Paris Seminars in English, New York, State University of New York Press, 1994. .
 Lacan, Jacques "Report on the 1964 Seminar" Hurly-Burly, 5, 2011.
 Lacan, Jacques "Postface to Seminar XI". Hurly-Burly, 7, 2012.

External links
Practice
École de la Cause freudienne
World Association of Psychoanalysis
CFAR – The Centre for Freudian Analysis and Research. London-based Lacanian psychoanalytic training agency
Homepage of the Lacanian School of Psychoanalysis and the San Francisco Society for Lacanian Studies
The London Society of the New Lacanian School. Site includes online library of clinical & theoretical texts
The Freudian School of Melbourne, School of Lacanian Psychoanalysis – Clinical and theoretical teaching and training of psychoanalysts

Theory
Lacan Dot Com
Links about Jacques Lacan at Lacan.com
"How to Read Lacan" by Slavoj Zizek – full version
Jacques Lacan at The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
LacanOnline.com

1973 non-fiction books
Books about psychoanalysis
Éditions du Seuil books
French non-fiction books
Hogarth Press books
Works by Jacques Lacan


A vassal during the feudalism of medieval Europe, was someone who had shared duties  with a lord. Usually the vassal provided soldiers to the lord. The lord used his army of soldiers from all of his vassals to protect those vassals. The lord also gave him the piece of land that he held as a fief. By analogy the term vassal is used also for similar systems in other feudal societies.

Western vassalage
The development of the vassal, in a society that was increasingly organised around the concept of "lordship"– in French the seigneur– is one sign that Antiquity ended and the Early Middle Ages began. Lordship is the basic social institution as Tacitus described them in his book Germania. The Roman West experienced them for the first time in the Migration Period.

As the system developed in the seventh century, the vassals were gangs of freemen who subjected themselves, in some degree of formality, to the authority of a leader, from whom they could expect to be fed, clothed and armed. The quality of a vassal was only in his fighting ability and the strength of his loyalty. The etymology (where the word came from) of "vassal" is from a Celtic word gwas "boy" that meant a young male slave, with a Latinised form, vassus that appeared in Salic Law (Rouche 1987 p 429), like the way  "knight" came from the from  Old English word cniht and similar words in Frisian and Dutch, all meaning "lad" .

Related pages
Gokenin, vassals of the shogunate in Japan

References
Cantor, Norman, The Civilization of the Middle Ages 1993
Ganshof, François Louis, Feudalism translated 1964
Rouche, Michel, "Private life conquers state and society," in A History of Private Life vol I, Paul Veyne, editor, Harvard University Press 1987

History of Europe

Vassal