A sympagic environment is one where water exists mostly as a solid, ice, such as a polar ice cap or glacier. Solid sea ice is permeated with channels filled with salty brine. These briny channels and the sea ice itself have its ecology, referred to as "sympagic ecology".

Residents of temperate or tropical climates often assume, mistakenly, that ice and snow are devoid of life. In fact, a number of varieties of algae such as diatoms engage in photosynthesis in arctic and alpine regions of Earth. Other energy sources include Aeolian dust and pollen swept in from other regions. These ecosystems also include bacteria and fungi, as well as animals like flatworms and crustaceans.  A number of sympagic worm species are commonly called ice worms.

Additionally, the ocean has abundant plankton, and prolific algal blooms occur in the polar regions each summer as well as in high mountain lakes, bringing nutrients to those parts of the ice in contact with the water. In the Arctic Ocean, ice algae accounts for close to half of the primary production during the summer months.

In the spring, krill can scrape off the green lawn of ice algae from the underside of the pack ice.

See also
Polynya

References

External links
"Studies on the Arctic pack-ice habitat and sympagic meiofauna – seasonal and regional variabilities", Henrike Schünemann, University of Kiel, dissertation, 2004
The Arctic: Ocean of Ice
Antarctic life
Glaciology

Aquatic ecology
Water ice
Subfields of ecology

Sympagic ecology


Luster (or lustre) is a description of the way light interacts with the surface of a crystal, rock, or mineral. For example, a diamond has an adamantine lustre and pyrite has a metallic lustre. The term is also used to describe other items with some kind of sheen (for example, fabric, especially silk and satin, or metals).

The word lustre comes from the Latin word lux, meaning "light", and generally implies radiance, gloss, or brilliance.

Minerals

Luster (mineralogy)


Hot Club de Paris are a band which came from Liverpool, United Kingdom. They are signed to the London-based Moshi Moshi Records, a record company, and released their debut album Drop It 'Til It Pops in October 2006. Their second album, Live at Dead Lake, was released in June 2008.

History
The band formed in early 2004 after band members Matthew and Paul met in 2003 working at Chester racecourse. It's other members were playing in different bands in the Liverpool music scene including street punkers Down and Outs and new wave popsters Victor FME.

They both loved American punk rock bands (Minutemen, Firehose, SST Records bands etc.) and they became interested in math rock and experimental indie bands which influenced their music a lot. They signed to Moshi Moshi Records in 2005, and have since toured around the world to support the release of their debut record.

They have been shown on a number of music-based TV shows in the UK and their record played airplay on a number of radio stations including BBC Radio1, BBC 6 Music and XFM, whose DJ John Kennedy has championed the band. Kennedy claimed that their debut album is 'one of the best of 2006'.

They have toured with a number of bands including Jamie T, Maxïmo Park and The Who.

They played at the 2007 SXSW music festival in Austin, Texas and have toured in the UK, Italy, Belgium, Ireland, Spain, France, Sweden, Iceland, Germany, Switzerland, the United States, Holland and India.

They recorded their second album (Live at Dead Lake) in Chicago with Brian Deck. Brian Deck has previously produced Iron and Wine and Modest Mouse. It was released in 2008.

They released two EPs in 2010: With Days Like This As Cheap As Chewing Gum, Why Would Anyone Want To Work? and The Rise And Inevitable Fall Of The High School Suicide Cluster Band. Tracks from these EPs were released on the album Free The Pterodactyl Three in 2011.

Singles
 "Sometimesitsbetternottostickbitsofeachotherineachotherforeachother" (2006) UK #126
 "Everyeveryeverything" (2006) UK #140
 "Shipwrecked" (2007) UK #153
 "Clockwork Toy/You can call me Al" (2007) UK #N/A
 "Will You Still Be In Love With Me Next Year?" (2007)
 "Hey! Housebrick" (2008)
 "My Little Haunting" (2008)

Compilation contributions

Hot Club De Paris have released several tracks on compilation albums, including Can You Hear Me Clearly?, on Moshi Moshi records, and a rare CDR release Munkyfest v7.0, released by the organisers of the Munkyfest festival.

Sources
Interview
BBC gig review
Article on gigwise

Other websites
Official website
Interview on www.krugermagazine.com
Official hotclubdeparis myspace
HCdP page  on Moshi Moshi Records web site
album review on This is Fake DIY

English rock bands
Musical groups from Liverpool

Hot Club de Paris


Capillary action means either of two things:

 When liquid moves through thin tubes.
 When liquid moves through something that is full of little holes (like a sponge).

Capillary action is a result of the surface tension of liquids.

An example of capillary action is what happens inside a drinking straw left in a cup of water. The force of adhesion which holds the water together and to the straw is a little stronger than gravity, so the water will rise inside the straw a little higher than the rest of the water.

Another example is what happens when putting a sponge in a puddle of water. The little bubbles in the sponge work like many straws gathered together. When the sponge is dipped in water, the water starts to go into the holes, and the bubbles that are inside the sponge pull on the water that they touch.

Capillary action also takes place inside the human body. For example, it removes tears from the eyes.

Related pages
 Capillaries

Fluid mechanics

Capillary action


Phobos (Greek for "fear", is the root word of phobia) is one of the sons of Ares and Aphrodite in Greek mythology and the twin brother of Deimos. He is known as the god of fear, panic, flight and battlefield rout. He went with his father into battle, driving his chariot and spreading fear in his path. As a son of Aphrodite, goddess of love, each twin also represented the fear of loss.

The larger and innermost of Mars' two moons was named after him, and the other was named after Deimos.

Greek gods and goddesses

Phobos


Hari-Kuyō () is the Japanese Buddhist and  Shinto Festival of Broken Needles, celebrated on February 8 in the Kanto region, but on December 8 in the Kyoto and Kansai regions. It is celebrated by women in Japan as a memorial to all the sewing needles broken in their service during the past year, and as an opportunity to pray for improved skills. It is also called the Needle Mass and Pin Festival. "Hari" means "needle" and the suffix "-kuyo" means "memorial", derived from a Sanskrit word pūjā or pūjanā, meaning "to bring offerings".

History
Hari-Kuyō began four hundred years ago as a way for housekeepers and professional needle-workers to acknowledge their work over the past years and respect their tools. In the animist traditions, items as well as humans, animals, plants, and objects are considered to have souls. This festival acknowledged the good given to people by their tools. Practitioners went to Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples to thank their broken needles for their help and service. This is in keeping with the philosophy of "not wasting" or "paying honor to the small things" exemplified in the concept of mottainai.

Modern practice
Festival-goers gather at shrines and temples, bringing their broken needles and pins. In a funereal atmosphere, the implements are laid to rest in tofu or konnyaku (soft jelly cakes) in a spirit of tenderness and gratitude.

"A small three-step altar is set up and hung with a sacred rope and strips of cut white paper which indicate a sanctified area. On the top step are offerings of fruit and sweet cakes. On the middle step is a cake of tofu and on the bottom step are various sewing accessories.

On this day, the seamstresses take a holiday and bring their old needles to the temple to stick them in a piece of tofu or konnyaku. Threads of the five Buddhist colors were used with the needles."

Sources
Asai, Hiro. "Needle mass: Hari-kuyo" Beauty of Kimono in New York at https://web.archive.org/web/20140221184439/http://blog1.kimonohiro.com/2009/02/needle-mass-hari-kuyo.html accessed on February 8, 2014.
Bates, Debbie. "Hari-kuyo: Festival of Broken Needles," Stitchtress.com at https://web.archive.org/web/20140225201850/http://stitchtress.com/2010/02/08/hari-kuyo/ accessed on February 8, 2014.
Boyd, David, ed. "Hari-kuyo." The Japan Foundation at http://www.jpf.org.au/onlinearticles/hitokuchimemo/issue7.html accessed on February 9, 2015.
Greve, Gabi. "Saijiki for Festivals and Ceremonies" at http://wkdfestivalsaijiki.blogspot.com/2011/01/needle-ceremonies-hari-kuyo.html accessed on February 9, 2014.
Japan Times. "Festivals in Japan" at http://www.japantimes.co.jp/events/festival-listings/ accessed on February 9, 2014.
 Kretschmer, Angelika. "Mortuary Rites for Inanimate Objects: The Case for Hari Kuyō", Japanese Journal of Religious Studies Vol. 27, No. 3/4, Mortuary Rites in Japan (Fall, 2000), 379-404.

Notes

Buddhist festivals in Japan
Shinto festivals
Sewing equipment

Hari-Kuyō


The 163rd Infantry Division () was a German Army infantry division in World War II. Formed in November 1939, it was engaged in the invasion of Norway the following year. It fought alongside the Finnish Army during Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union. During this time, the division's transit through neutral Sweden caused the Midsummer Crisis of 1941. The division spent most of the war in Finland, before being returned to Germany. It was destroyed in March 1945 in Pomerania by the First Polish Army, subordinated to the Soviet 1st Belorussian Front.

History
The 163rd Infantry Division was raised in November 1939. In April 1940 it was employed in the invasion of Norway, landing at Oslo, Kristiansand, Arendal, and Stavanger. It was troops from this division that was present on the heavy cruiser Blucher when it was sunk in the Battle of Drøbak Sound in the early hours of the invasion of Norway. Thereafter it remained on occupation duty in Norway until June 1941, when it was subordinated to the Finnish army to support operations along the River Svir during Operation Barbarossa.

In the early stages of Operation Barbarossa and the Continuation War the 163rd Division was to be transferred from Norway to Finland, and Sweden decided to allow safe transit of the division by railway through Swedish territory. The decision was in conflict with the Swedish neutrality-policy causing a political crisis (the "Midsummer Crisis" of 1941), and it raised many challenging questions about Sweden's neutrality during World War II. Today this remains a highly debated subject in Sweden and in the Nordic countries. The division was transferred 25 June to 12 July. In Swedish literature the division is better known as "Division Engelbrecht", after its commander at the time.
The transport took the route Charlottenberg-Laxå-Hallsberg-Krylbo-Ånge-Vännäs-Boden-Haparanda.

In February 1942 it joined the German XXXVI Mountain Corps near Kandalaksha, and remained there until the Germans withdrew from Finland back into Norway in autumn 1944. In early 1945 it was transferred back to Germany, standing in reserve for a time at Berlin, then destroyed by the Soviets in Pomerania in March.

Organization
Structure of the division:

 Headquarters
 307th Infantry Regiment
 310th Infantry Regiment
 324th Infantry Regiment
 234th Artillery Regiment
 234th Reconnaissance Battalion
 234th Tank Destroyer Battalion
 234th Engineer Battalion
 234th Signal Battalion
 234th Field Replacement Battalion
 234th Divisional Supply Group

Commanding officers
General der Artillerie Erwin Engelbrecht, 25 October 1939 – 15 June 1942
General der Infanterie Anton Dostler, 15 June 1942 – 28 December 1942
Generalleutnant Karl Rübel, 29 December 1942 – 8 March 1945

See also

 Operation Weserübung
 Norwegian Campaign order of battle
 Continuation War
 German XXXVI Mountain Corps
 Division (military)
 Military unit
 List of German divisions in World War II
 Heer, Wehrmacht

References

External links
 Pipes, Jason. "163.Infanterie-Division". Retrieved April 9, 2005.
 Wendel, Marcus (2004). "163. Infanterie-Division". Retrieved April 9, 2005.
 "163. Infanterie-Division". German language article at www.lexikon-der-wehrmacht.de. Retrieved April 9, 2005.

German units in the Arctic
Continuation War
Military units and formations established in 1939
Military units and formations disestablished in 1945
Infantry divisions of Germany during World War II
1939 establishments in Germany

Sweden in World War II

163rd Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)


પ્લેટો શિષ્ય, મહાન તત્ત્વજ્ઞાની, ભૌતિક વિજ્ઞાની, તત્ત્વમીમાંસાસક, કવિ, નાટ્યકાર, સંગીતકાર, તર્કશાસ્ત્રિ, મહાન વક્તા, રાજનીતિજ્ઞ, જીવવિજ્ઞાની, વનસ્પતિશાસ્ત્રિ, પ્રાણીશાસ્ત્રિ જેવી બહુમુખી પ્રતિભા ધરાવતા ગ્રિસના યુગપુરુષ, એરિસ્ટોટલ (ગ્રિક:  Aristotélēs) (ઇ.પૂ. ૩૮૪ – ઇ.પૂ. ૩૨૨) એલેક્ઝાન્ડર ના શીક્ષક હતા.

વિગત
તેમના ગુરુ પ્લેટો તથા સોક્રેટિસની સાથે જ એરિસ્ટોટલની ગણના પણ પાશ્ચાત્ય ફિલસૂફીના મહાનત્તમ વ્યક્તિઓ માં થાય છે.  તેઓ પાશ્ચાત્ય ફિલસૂફીની સર્વગ્રાહી પ્રણાલી, નીતિશાસ્ત્ર સૌંદર્ય શાસ્ત્ર, તર્કશાસ્ત્ર, વિજ્ઞાન, રાજનીતિ અને તાત્વિક મીમાંસાના ગ્રંથોના પ્રણેતા હતા. તેમના ભૌતિક વિજ્ઞાન વિશેના વિચારો નો પ્રભાવ મધ્યયુગીન વિચારધારા થી લઇ છેક નવજાગરણ સુધી રહ્યો. અંતતઃ આધુનિક ભૌતિક વિજ્ઞાન દ્વારા તેમના વિચારો બદલાવામાં આવ્યા. તેમની જૈવિક વિજ્ઞાન વિશેની કેટલીક ટિપ્પણીયો ને છેક  ઓગણીસમી સદીમા ખરી હોવાની પુષ્ટિ મળી. તેમનું તર્કશાસ્ત્ર વિશેનું અધ્યયન સૌથી પૌરાણિક માનવામા આવે છે. તેમના આ અધ્યયનોને ઓગણીસમી સદીના આધુનિક  પ્રમાણશાસ્ત્રમાં સમાવિષ્ટ કરવામાં આવ્યા. ઇસ્લામિક અને યહૂદી પરંપરાઓંની દાર્શનિક ઔર બ્રહ્મવૈજ્ઞાનિક વિચારધારા પર તેમનો ખુબ ઊંડો પ્રભાવ હતો. ઉપરાંત, મધ્યયુગમાં પણ તેમનો ખ્રિસ્તી ધર્મશાસ્ત્ર પર પ્રભાવ જાળવાયો જે ખાસ કરી ને "ઇસ્ટર્ન ઓર્થોડોક્સ" તથા "રોમન કેથોલિક ચર્ચ" પર જોવા મળે છે. આજે એરિસ્ટોટલ દર્શનના દરેક પાસાનો અભ્યાસ આધુનિક દર્શનશાસ્ત્રમાં થતો જોવા મળે છે.
એરિસ્ટોટલ દ્વારા વિપુલ પ્રમાણમાં ગ્રંથોની રચના થયેલી છે (સીસરોએ તેમને "સોનાની એક નદી" રુપે આલેખ્યા હતા), પરંતુ હાલમાં ફક્ત એક તૃતિયાંશ  ભાગનું સાહિત્ય જાળવી શકાયું છે.

જીવન

એરિસ્ટોટલ  ઈ.સ.પૂ.૩૮૪માં Stageira,Chalcidice,માં જન્મ્યા હતા,  , about 55 km east of modern-day Thessaloniki. His father, Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. એરિસ્ટોટલ was trained and educated as a member of the aristocracy. At about the age of eighteen, he went to એથેન્સ to continue his education at પ્લેટો's Academy. એરિસ્ટોટલ remained at the academy for nearly twenty years, not leaving until after પ્લેટો's death in 347 BC. He then traveled with Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in એશીયા Minor. While in એશીયા, એરિસ્ટોટલ traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the વનસ્પતિશાસ્ત્ર and પ્રાણીશાસ્ત્ર of the island. એરિસ્ટોટલ married Hermias's adoptive daughter (or niece) Pythias. She bore him a daughter, whom they named Pythias. Soon after Hermias' death, એરિસ્ટોટલ was invited by Philip of Macedon to become tutor to એલેક્ઝાન્ડર the Great in 343 B.C.

During his time as the head of Macedon's royal academy, એરિસ્ટોટલ gave lessons not only to એલેક્ઝાન્ડર, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander.  In his Politics, એરિસ્ટોટલ states that only one thing could justify monarchy, and that was if the virtue of the king and his family were greater than the virtue of the rest of the citizens put together. Tactfully, he included the young prince and his father in that category. એરિસ્ટોટલ encouraged એલેક્ઝાન્ડર toward eastern conquest, and his attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric.  In one famous example, he counsels એલેક્ઝાન્ડર to be 'a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants'. Near the end of એલેક્ઝાન્ડર's જીવન he began to suspect plots, and threatened એરિસ્ટોટલ in letters. એરિસ્ટોટલ had made no secret of his contempt for એલેક્ઝાન્ડર's pretense of divinity, and the king had executed એરિસ્ટોટલ's grand-nephew Callisthenes as a traitor. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected એરિસ્ટોટલ of playing a role in એલેક્ઝાન્ડર's death, but there is little evidence for this.

By 335 BC he had returned to એથેન્સ, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. એરિસ્ટોટલ conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in એથેન્સ, his wife Pythias died, and એરિસ્ટોટલ became involved with Herpyllis of Stageira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. According to the Suda, he also had an eromenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.

It is during this period in એથેન્સ from 335 B.C. to 323 B.C. when એરિસ્ટોટલ is believed to have composed many of his works. એરિસ્ટોટલ wrote many dialogues, only fragments of which survived. The works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication, as they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul) and Poetics.

એરિસ્ટોટલ not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant contributions to most of them. In physical science, એરિસ્ટોટલ studied anatomy, astronomy, અર્થશાસ્ત્ર, embryology, geography, geology, meteorology, ભૌતિક વિજ્ઞાન and પ્રાણીશાસ્ત્ર. In philosophy, he wrote on aesthetics, ethics, government, તત્ત્વમીમાંસા, રાજનીતિ, psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge. It has been suggested that એરિસ્ટોટલ was probably the last person to know everything there was to be known in his own time.

Upon એલેક્ઝાન્ડર's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in એથેન્સ once again flared. Eurymedon the hierophant denounced એરિસ્ટોટલ for not holding the gods in honor. એરિસ્ટોટલ fled the city to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, explaining, "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy," a reference to એથેન્સ's prior trial and execution of સોક્રેટિસ. However, he died in Euboea of natural causes within the year (in 322 BC). એરિસ્ટોટલ named chief executor his student Antipater and left a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.

તર્કશાસ્ત્ર

એરિસ્ટોટલ's conception of તર્કશાસ્ત્ર was the dominant form of તર્કશાસ્ત્ર until 19th century advances in mathematical તર્કશાસ્ત્ર. Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that એરિસ્ટોટલ's theory of તર્કશાસ્ત્ર completely accounted for the core of deductive inference.

ઇતીહાસ
એરિસ્ટોટલ "says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of'". However, પ્લેટો reports that syntax was devised before him, by Prodikos of Keos, who was concerned by the correct use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from dialectics; the earlier philosophers made frequent use of concepts like reductio ad absurdum in their discussions, but never truly understood the logical implications. Even પ્લેટો had difficulties with તર્કશાસ્ત્ર; although he had a reasonable conception of a deduction system, he could never actually construct one and relied instead on his dialectic. પ્લેટો believed that deduction would simply follow from premises, hence he focused on maintaining solid premises so that the conclusion would logically follow. Consequently, પ્લેટો realized that a method for obtaining conclusions would be most beneficial. He never succeeded in devising such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book Sophist, where he introduced his division method.

તર્કશૈલી'

What we today call Aristotelian તર્કશાસ્ત્ર, એરિસ્ટોટલ himself would have labeled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of એરિસ્ટોટલ 's work is probably not in its original form, since it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of એરિસ્ટોટલ were compiled into six books in about the early 1st century AD:
 Categories
 On Interpretation
 Prior Analytics
 Posterior Analytics
 Topics
 On Sophistical Refutations

The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of એરિસ્ટોટલ's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). There is one volume of એરિસ્ટોટલ's concerning logic not found in the Organon, namely the fourth book of Metaphysics..

વૈજ્ઞાનીક પદ્ધતી

Like his teacher પ્લેટો, એરિસ્ટોટલ's philosophy aims at the universal. એરિસ્ટોટલ, however, found the universal in particular things, which he called the essence of things, while પ્લેટો finds that the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their prototype or exemplar. For એરિસ્ટોટલ, therefore, philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences, while for પ્લેટો philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) to a contemplation of particular imitations of these. For એરિસ્ટોટલ, "form" still refers to the unconditional basis of phenomena but is "instantiated" in a particular substance (see Universals and particulars, below). In a certain sense, એરિસ્ટોટલ's method is both inductive and deductive, while પ્લેટો's is essentially deductive from a priori principles.

In એરિસ્ટોટલ's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and included fields that would be regarded today as ભૌતિક વિજ્ઞાન, biology and other natural sciences. In modern times, the scope of philosophy has become limited to more generic or abstract inquiries, such as ethics and તત્ત્વમીમાંસા, in which logic plays a major role. Today's philosophy tends to exclude empirical study of the natural world by means of the scientific method. In contrast, એરિસ્ટોટલ's philosophical endeavors encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry.

In the larger sense of the word, એરિસ્ટોટલ makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "વિજ્ઞાન". Note, however, that his use of the term વિજ્ઞાન carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For એરિસ્ટોટલ, "all વિજ્ઞાન(dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25). By practical વિજ્ઞાન, he means ethics and રાજનીતિ; by poetical વિજ્ઞાન, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; by theoretical વિજ્ઞાન, he means ભૌતિક વિજ્ઞાન, mathematics and તત્ત્વમીમાંસા.

If logic (or "analytics") is regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, the divisions of Aristotelian philosophy would consist of: (1) Logic; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics, Mathematics, (3) Practical Philosophy and (4) Poetical Philosophy.

In the period between his two stays in એથેન્સ, between his times at the Academy and the Lyceum, એરિસ્ટોટલ conducted most of the scientific thinking and research for which he is renowned today. In fact, most of એરિસ્ટોટલ's જીવન was devoted to the study of the objects of natural science. એરિસ્ટોટલ's તત્ત્વમીમાંસા contains observations on the nature of numbers but he made no original contributions to mathematics. He did, however, perform original research in the natural sciences, દા.ત., વનસ્પતિશાસ્ત્ર, પ્રાણીશાસ્ત્ર, ભૌતિક વિજ્ઞાન, astronomy, chemistry, meteorology, and several other sciences.

એરિસ્ટોટલ's writings on વિજ્ઞાન are largely qualitative, as opposed to quantitative. Beginning in the sixteenth century, scientists began applying mathematics to the physical sciences, and એરિસ્ટોટલ's work in this area was deemed hopelessly inadequate. His failings were largely due to the absence of concepts like mass, velocity, force and temperature. He had a conception of speed and temperature, but no quantitative understanding of them, which was partly due to the absence of basic experimental devices, like clocks and thermometers.

His writings provide an account of many scientific observations, a mixture of precocious accuracy and curious errors. દા.ત., in his History of Animals he claimed that human males have more teeth than females. In a similar vein, John Philoponus, and later Galileo, showed by simple experiments that એરિસ્ટોટલ's theory that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. On the other hand, એરિસ્ટોટલrefuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out (correctly, even if such reasoning was bound to be dismissed for a long time) that, given "current astronomical demonstrations" that "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then...the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."

In places, એરિસ્ટોટલ goes too far in deriving 'laws of the universe' from simple observation and over-stretched reason. Today's scientific method assumes that such thinking without sufficient facts is ineffective, and that discerning the validity of one's hypothesis requires far more rigorous experimentation than that which એરિસ્ટોટલ used to support his laws.

એરિસ્ટોટલ also had some scientific blind spots. He posited a geocentric cosmology that we may discern in selections of the Metaphysics, which was widely accepted up until the 1500s. From the 3rd century to the 1500s, the dominant view held that the પૃથ્વી was the center of the universe (geocentrism).

Since he was perhaps the philosopher most respected by European thinkers during and after the Renaissance, these thinkers often took એરિસ્ટોટલ's erroneous positions as given, which held back વિજ્ઞાન in this epoch. However, એરિસ્ટોટલ's scientific shortcomings should not mislead one into forgetting his great advances in the many scientific fields. For instance, he founded logic as a formal વિજ્ઞાન and created foundations to biology that were not superseded for two millennia. Moreover, he introduced the fundamental notion that nature is composed of things that change and that studying such changes can provide useful knowledge of underlying constants.

ભૌતિક વિજ્ઞાન

પંચ મહાભૂત

 અગ્નિ, which is hot and dry.
 પૃથ્વી, which is cold and dry.
 વાયુ , which is hot and wet.
 જળ, which is cold and wet.
 Aether, which is the divine substance that makes up the heavenly spheres and heavenly bodies (stars and planets).

Each of the four earthly elements has its natural place; the earth at the centre of the universe, then જળ, then વાયુ, then અગ્નિ. When they are out of their natural place they have natural motion, requiring no external cause, which is towards that place; so bodies sink in જળ, air bubbles up, rain falls, flame rises in air. The heavenly element has perpetual circular motion.

Causality, The Four Causes

 The material cause is that from which a thing comes into existence as from its part, constituents, substratum or materials. This reduces the explanation of causes to the parts (factors, elements, constituents, ingredients) forming the whole (system, structure, compound, complex, composite, or combination), a relationship known as the part-whole causation. Simply put it is the influence of the material substances on the event. So imagine two dominos, the first of which is lighter. The first is knocked over into the second but does not have enough power to knock it over, this is Material cause.
 The formal cause tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put it is the influence of the form (essence) of the things on the event. So take the two dominos again except this time the second is shaped to prevent it from falling *eg. triangular.* this is formal cause.
 The efficient cause is that from which the change or the ending of the change first starts. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. More simply again that which immediately sets the thing in motion. So take the two dominos this time of equal weighting, the first is knocked over causing the second also to fall over. This is effectively efficient cause.
 The final cause is that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or telos is the purpose or end that something is supposed to serve, or it is that from which and that to which the change is. This also covers modern ideas of mental causation involving such psychological causes as volition, need, motivation, or motives, rational, irrational, ethical, all that gives purpose to behavior.
Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. (Thus એરિસ્ટોટલ first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or influence of cause upon effect). Moreover, એરિસ્ટોટલ indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects; its presence and absence may result in different outcomes. Simply it is the goal or purpose that brings about an event (not necessarily a mental goal). Taking our two dominos, it requires someone to intentionally knock the dominos over as they cannot fall themselves.

એરિસ્ટોટલ marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same ભાષા refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentially, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect.

All further investigations of causality will consist of imposing the favorite hierarchies on the order causes, such as final > efficient > material > formal (Thomas Aquinas), or of restricting all causality to the material and efficient causes or to the efficient causality (deterministic or chance) or just to regular sequences and correlations of natural phenomena (the natural sciences describing how things happen instead of explaining the whys and wherefores).

તકો અને સ્વયંસ્ફૂરણા
Spontaneity and chance are causes of effects. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of એરિસ્ટોટલ's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place. દા.ત.: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, એરિસ્ટોટલ would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance.

There is also more specific kind of chance, which એરિસ્ટોટલ names "luck", that can only apply to human beings, since it is in the sphere of moral actions. According to એરિસ્ટોટલ, luck must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. "What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance".

તાત્વિક મીમાંસા

એરિસ્ટોટલ defines તત્ત્વમીમાંસા as "the knowledge of immaterial being," or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction." He refers to તત્ત્વમીમાંસા as "first philosophy", as well as "the theologic science."

તત્ત્વ, સંભાવ્યતા અને યથાર્થતા
એરિસ્ટોટલ examines the concept of substance and essence (ousia) in his Metaphysics, Book VII and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form. As he proceeds to the book VIII, he concludes that the matter of the substance is the substratum or the stuff of which it is composed, e.g. the matter of the house are the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house. While the form of the substance, is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia (see also predicables). The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.

With regard to the change (kinesis) and its causes now, as he defines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption 319b-320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from: 1) growth and diminution, which is change in quantity; 2) locomotion, which is change in space; and 3) alteration, which is change in quality.

The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter and the form.

Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if it is not prevented by something else. દા.ત., the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei) plant, and if is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate or learned. દા.ત., the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate - being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise - acting).

Actuality is the fulfillment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that actuality is when the seed of the plant becomes a plant.

" For that for the sake of which a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see."

In conclusion, the matter of the house is its potentiality and the form is its actuality. The formal cause (aitia) then of that change from potential to actual house, is the reason (logos) of the house builder and the final cause is the end, namely the house itself. Then એરિસ્ટોટલ proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality.

With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), એરિસ્ટોટલ tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, e.g., what is that makes the man one? Since, according to પ્લેટો there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to એરિસ્ટોટલ, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same thing.

સાર્વત્રિક અને વિશેષત:

એરિસ્ટોટલ's predecessor, પ્લેટો, argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property, or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, દા.ત., we see an apple, and we can also analyze a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other.

પ્લેટો argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. દા.ત., it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Bertrand Russell is a contemporary philosopher that agreed with પ્લેટો on the existence of "uninstantiated universals".

એરિસ્ટોટલ disagreed with પ્લેટો on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated. એરિસ્ટોટલ argued that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. According to એરિસ્ટોટલ, if a universal exists, either as a particular or a relation, then there must have been, must be currently, or must be in the future, something on which the universal can be predicated. Consequently, according to એરિસ્ટોટલ, if it is not the case that some universal can be predicated to an object that exists at some period of time, then it does not exist.

One way for contemporary philosophers to justify this position is by asserting the eleatic principle.

In addition, એરિસ્ટોટલdisagreed with પ્લેટો about the location of universals. As પ્લેટો spoke of the world of the forms, a location where all universal forms subsist, એરિસ્ટોટલ maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to એરિસ્ટોટલ, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.

જીવવિજ્ઞાન અને વૈદીક
In Aristotelian વિજ્ઞાન, most especially in biology, things he saw himself have stood the test of time better than his retelling of the reports of others, which contain error and superstition. He dissected animals, but not humans and his ideas on how the human body works have been almost entirely superseded.

પ્રયોગમૂલક સંશોધન

એરિસ્ટોટલ is the earliest natural historian whose work has survived in some detail. એરિસ્ટોટલ certainly did research on the natural ઇતીહાસ of Lesbos, and the surrounding seas and neighbouring areas. The works that reflect this research, such as History of Animals, Generation of Animals, and Parts of Animals, contain some observations and interpretations, along with sundry myths and mistakes. The most striking passages are about the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and available from the catches of fishermen. His observations on catfish, electric fish (Torpedo) and angler-fish are detailed, as is his writing on cephalopods, namely, Octopus, Sepia (cuttlefish) and the paper nautilus (Argonauta argo). His description of the hectocotyl arm was about two thousand years ahead of its time, and widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in the ઓગણીસમી સદી. He separated the aquatic mammals from fish, and knew that sharks and rays were part of the group he called Selachē (selachians).

Another good example of his methods comes from the Generation of Animals in which એરિસ્ટોટલ describes breaking open fertilized chicken eggs at intervals to observe when visible organs were generated.

He gave accurate descriptions of ruminants' four-chambered fore-stomachs, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark Mustelus mustelus.

જીવોનું વર્ગીકરણ
એરિસ્ટોટલ's classification of living things contains some elements which still existed in the ઓગણીસમી સદી. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, એરિસ્ટોટલ called 'animals with blood' and 'animals without blood' (he was not to know that complex invertebrates do make use of haemoglobin, but of a different kind from vertebrates). Animals with blood were divided into live-bearing (humans and mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ('animals without blood') are insects, crustacea (divided into non-shelled – cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs). In some respects, this incomplete classification is better than that of Linnaeus, who crowded the invertebrata together into two groups, Insecta and Vermes (worms).

For Charles Singer, "Nothing is more remarkable than [એરિસ્ટોટલ's] efforts to [exhibit] the relationships of living things as a scala naturae" એરિસ્ટોટલ's History of Animals classified organisms in relation to a hierarchical "Ladder of Life" (scala naturae), placing them according to complexity of structure and function so that higher organisms showed greater vitality and ability to move.

એરિસ્ટોટલ believed that intellectual purposes, i.e., formal causes, guided all natural processes. Such a teleological view gave એરિસ્ટોટલ cause to justify his observed data as an expression of formal design. Noting that "no animal has, at the same time, both tusks and horns," and "a single-hooved animal with two horns I have never seen," એરિસ્ટોટલ suggested that Nature, giving no animal both horns and tusks, was staving off vanity, and giving creatures faculties only to such a degree as they are necessary. Noting that ruminants had a multiple stomachs and weak teeth, he supposed the first was to compensate for the latter, with Nature trying to preserve a type of balance.

In a similar fashion, એરિસ્ટોટલ believed that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to man, the scala naturae or Great Chain of Being. His system had eleven grades, arranged according "to the degree to which they are infected with potentiality", expressed in their form at birth. The highest animals laid warm and wet creatures alive, the lowest bore theirs cold, dry, and in thick eggs.

જીવવિજ્ઞાન વિષયક સિદ્ધાન્ત
એરિસ્ટોટલ also held that the level of a creature's perfection was reflected in its form, but not preordained by that form. Ideas like this, and his ideas about souls, are not regarded as વિજ્ઞાન at all in modern times.

He placed emphasis on the type(s) of soul an organism possessed, asserting that plants possess a vegetative soul, responsible for reproduction and growth, animals a vegetative and a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and sensation, and humans a vegetative, a sensitive, and a rational soul, capable of thought and reflection.

એરિસ્ટોટલ, in contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Notable is એરિસ્ટોટલ's division of sensation and thought, which generally went against previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon.

His analysis of procreation is frequently criticized on the grounds that it presupposes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing જીવન to an inert, passive, lumpen female element; it is on these grounds that એરિસ્ટોટલ is considered by some feminist critics to have been a misogynist.

એરિસ્ટોટલનો શીષ્ય, થીઓફરેટસ

એરિસ્ટોટલ's successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on વનસ્પતિશાસ્ત્ર—the History of Plants—which survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to વનસ્પતિશાસ્ત્ર, even into the Middle Ages. Many of Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as carpos for fruit, and pericarpion for seed vessel.

Rather than focus on formal causes, as એરિસ્ટોટલ did, Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, drawing analogies between natural and artificial processes, and relying on એરિસ્ટોટલ's concept of the efficient cause. Theophrastus also recognized the role of sex in the reproduction of some higher plants, though this last discovery was lost in later ages.

ગ્રીસના વૈદકશાસ્ત્ર પર પ્રભાવ (Hellenistic medicine)

After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in એરિસ્ટોટલ's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.

The first medical teacher at Alexandria Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected એરિસ્ટોટલ, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not. Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about જીવન, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr claimed that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance." એરિસ્ટોટલ's ideas of natural ઇતીહાસ and medicine survived, but they were generally taken unquestioningly.

વ્યાવહારિક દર્શન

નીતિશાસ્ત્ર

એરિસ્ટોટલ considered ethics to be a practical વિજ્ઞાન, i.e., one mastered by doing rather than merely reasoning. Further, એરિસ્ટોટલ believed that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge (such as તત્ત્વમીમાંસા or epistemology) but is general knowledge. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, Nichomachean Ethics, in which he outlines what is commonly called virtue ethics.

એરિસ્ટોટલ taught that virtue has to do with the proper function of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. એરિસ્ટોટલ reasoned that man must have a function uncommon to anything else, and that this function must be an activity of the soul. એરિસ્ટોટલ identified the best activity of the soul as eudaimonia: a happiness or joy that pervades the good જીવન. એરિસ્ટોટલ taught that to achieve the good જીવન, one must live a balanced જીવન and avoid excess. This balance, he taught, varies among different persons and situations, and exists as a golden mean between two vices - one an excess and one a deficiency.

રાજ્યનીતિ

In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, એરિસ્ટોટલ addressed the city in his work titled Politics. એરિસ્ટોટલ's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner. એરિસ્ટોટલ considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, i.e., last in the order of becoming, but first in the order of being . He is also famous for his statement that "man is by nature a political animal." એરિસ્ટોટલ conceived of રાજનીતિ as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others.

It should be noted that the modern understanding of a political community is that of the state. However, the state was foreign to એરિસ્ટોટલ. He referred to political communities as cities. એરિસ્ટોટલ understood a city as a political "partnership"  and not one of a social contract (or compact) or a political community as understood by Niccolò Machiavelli. Subsequently, a city is created not to avoid injustice or for economic stability , but rather to live a good જીવન: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together" . This can be distinguished from the social contract theory which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."

વકતૃત્વ અને કાવ્ય

એરિસ્ટોટલ considered epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry and music to be imitative, each varying in imitation by media, object, and manner. દા.ત., music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with ભાષા. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation - through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. એરિસ્ટોટલbelieved that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.

While it is believed that એરિસ્ટોટલ's Poetics comprised two books - one on comedy and one on tragedy - only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. એરિસ્ટોટલ taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. એરિસ્ટોટલ concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.

એરિસ્ટોટલ was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.

લુપ્ત ગ્રંથો
According to a distinction that originates with એરિસ્ટોટલ himself, his writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric" and the "esoteric". Most scholars have understood this as a distinction between works એરિસ્ટોટલintended for the public (exoteric), and the more technical works (esoteric) intended for the narrower audience of એરિસ્ટોટલ's students and other philosophers who were familiar with the jargon and issues typical of the Platonic and Aristotelian schools. Another common assumption is that none of the exoteric works is extant - that all of એરિસ્ટોટલ's extant writings are of the esoteric kind. Current knowledge of what exactly the exoteric writings were like is scant and dubious, though many of them may have been in dialogue form. (Fragments of some of એરિસ્ટોટલ's dialogues have survived.) Perhaps it is to these that Cicero refers when he characterized એરિસ્ટોટલ's writing style as "a river of gold"; it is hard for many modern readers to accept that one could seriously so admire the style of those works currently available to us. However, some modern scholars have warned that we cannot know for certain that Cicero's praise was reserved specifically for the exoteric works; a few modern scholars have actually admired the concise writing style found in એરિસ્ટોટલ's extant works.

One major question in the ઇતીહાસ of એરિસ્ટોટલ's works, then, is how were the exoteric writings all lost, and how did the ones we now possess come to us? The story of the original manuscripts of the esoteric treatises is described by Strabo in his Geography and Plutarch in his Parallel Lives. The manuscripts were left from એરિસ્ટોટલto his successor Theophrastus, who in turn willed them to Neleus of Scepsis. Neleus supposedly took the writings from એથેન્સ to Scepsis, where his heirs let them languish in a cellar until the first century BC, when Apellicon of Teos discovered and purchased the manuscripts, bringing them back to એથેન્સ. According to the story, Apellicon tried to repair some of the damage that was done during the manuscripts' stay in the basement, introducing a number of errors into the text. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla occupied એથેન્સ in 86 BC, he carried off the library of Apellicon to Rome, where they were first published in 60 BC by the grammarian Tyrannion of Amisus and then by philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes.

Carnes Lord attributes the popular belief in this story to the fact that it provides "the most plausible explanation for the rapid eclipse of the Peripatetic school after the middle of the third century, and for the absence of widespread knowledge of the specialized treatises of એરિસ્ટોટલ throughout the Hellenistic period, as well as for the sudden reappearance of a flourishing Aristotelianism during the first century B.C." Lord voices a number of reservations concerning this story, however. First, the condition of the texts is far too good for them to have suffered considerable damage followed by Apellicon's inexpert attempt at repair. Second, there is "incontrovertible evidence," Lord says, that the treatises were in circulation during the time in which Strabo and Plutarch suggest they were confined within the cellar in Scepsis. Third, the definitive edition of એરિસ્ટોટલ 's texts seems to have been made in એથેન્સ some fifty years before Andronicus supposedly compiled his. And fourth, ancient library catalogues predating Andronicus' intervention list an Aristotelean corpus quite similar to the one we currently possess. Lord sees a number of post-Aristotelean interpolations in the Politics, દા.ત., but is generally confident that the work has come down to us relatively intact.

As the influence of the falsafa grew in the West, in part due to Gerard of Cremona's translations and the spread of Averroism, the demand for એરિસ્ટોટલ's works grew. William of Moerbeke translated a number of them into Latin. When Thomas Aquinas wrote his theology, working from Moerbeke's translations, the demand for એરિસ્ટોટલ's writings grew and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe, and ultimately revitalizing European thought through Muslim influence in Spain to fan the embers of the Renaissance.

પૂર્વગામી

Twenty-three hundred years after his death, એરિસ્ટોટલremains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He was the founder of formal logic, pioneered the study of પ્રાણીશાસ્ત્ર, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Despite these accolades, many of એરિસ્ટોટલ's errors held back વિજ્ઞાન considerably. Bertrand Russell notes that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell also refers to એરિસ્ટોટલ's ethics as "repulsive", and calls his logic  "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell notes that these errors make it difficult to do historical justice to એરિસ્ટોટલ, until one remembers how large of an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.

The immediate influence of એરિસ્ટોટલ's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. એરિસ્ટોટલ's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Meno, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. એરિસ્ટોટલ's influence over એલેક્ઝાન્ડર the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for એરિસ્ટોટલwas diminished as his travels made it clear that much of એરિસ્ટોટલ's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, એલેક્ઝાન્ડર complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"

એરિસ્ટોટલ is referred to as "The Philosopher" by Scholastic thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas. See Summa Theologica, Part I, Question 3, etc. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having
                     At his bedded hed
Twenty books clothed in blake or red
Of એરિસ્ટોટલ and his philosophie
The Italian poet Dante says of એરિસ્ટોટલ in the first circles of hell,
I saw the Master there of those who know,
Amid the philosophic family,
By all admired, and by all reverenced;
There પ્લેટો too I saw, and સોક્રેટિસ,
Who stood beside him closer than the rest.

The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from એરિસ્ટોટલ. However implausible this is, it is certainly the case that એરિસ્ટોટલ's rigid separation of action from production, and his justification of the subservience of slaves and others to the virtue - or arete - of a few justified the ideal of aristocracy. It is Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of એરિસ્ટોટલ, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. More recently, Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Ayn Rand considered એરિસ્ટોટલ to be her only significant influence.

Notes and References

વધુ વાંચો
The secondary literature on એરિસ્ટોટલ is vast. The following references are only a small selection.
 Ackrill J. L. 2001. Essays on પ્લેટો and એરિસ્ટોટલ, Oxford University Press, USA
  A popular exposition for the general reader.
 Bakalis Nikolaos. 2005. Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5
 Barnes J. 1995. The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle, Cambridge University Press

 Bolotin, David (1998). An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing. Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.
 Burnyeat, M. F. et al. 1979. Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy
 Chappell, V. 1973. Aristotle's Conception of Matter, Journal of Philosophy 70: 679-696
 Code, Alan. 1995. Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76
 Frede, Michael. 1987. Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
 Gill, Mary Louise. 1989. Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton: Princeton University Press

 Halper, Edward C. (2007) One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha — Delta, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-21-6
 Halper, Edward C. (2005) One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books, Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-05-6
 Irwin, T. H. 1988. Aristotle's First Principles. Oxford: Clarendon Press
 Jori, Alberto. 2003. Aristotele, Milano: Bruno Mondadori Editore (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science") ISBN 88-424-9737-1
 Knight, Kelvin. 2007. Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity Press.
 Lewis, Frank A. 1991. Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Lloyd, G. E. R. 1968. Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of his Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., ISBN 0-521-09456-9.
 Lord, Carnes. 1984. Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
 Loux, Michael J. 1991. Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press
 Owen, G. E. L. 1965c. The Platonism of Aristotle, Proceedings of the British Academy 50 125-150. Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R. R. K. Sorabji (eds.), Articles on Aristotle, Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth (1975). 14-34
 Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Aristotle's conception of the deepest human relationship viewed in the light of the ઇતીહાસ of philosophic thought on friendship.
 Reeve, C. D. C. 2000. Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Indianapolis: Hackett.

  An classic overview by one of Aristotle's most prominent English translators, in print since 1923.
 Scaltsas, T. 1994. Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
 Strauss, Leo. "On Aristotle's Politics" (1964), in The City and Man, Chicago; Rand McNally.

  For the general reader.
 Woods, M. J. 1991b. "Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics." Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy supplement. 41-56

આ પણ વાંચો
 Aristotelian ethics
 Aristotelian ભૌતિક વિજ્ઞાન
 Aristotelian view of God
 Aristotelianism
 Conimbricenses
 Hylomorphism
 List of teachings attributed to Aristotle
 Philia
 Phronesis
 Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)

બાહ્ય કડિઓ

Collections of Aristotle's works
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology  - primarily in English
 P. Remacle's collection - primarily Greek texts
 Project Gutenberg - English texts
 Tufts University - at the Perseus Project, in both English and Greek
 University of Adelaide  - primarily in English
 Timeline of Aristotle's life

તેમના પર લેખો
 The Catholic Encyclopedia (general article)
 The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (general article)
 Scholarly surveys of focused topics from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: articles on Aristotle, Aristotle in the Renaissance, Biology, Causality, Commentators on Aristotle, Ethics, Logic, Mathematics, Metaphysics, Natural philosophy, Non-contradiction, Political theory, Psychology, Rhetoric

એરિસ્ટોટલ


The Ark of the Covenant (ארון הברית in Hebrew: aron hab'rit) is described in the Bible as a holy container where the Ten Commandments and other holy Israelite objects are held.  According to the Bible, Yahweh commanded the ark be built when Moses had a prophetic vision at Sinai (Exodus 25:9-10). Some people believe the Ark contained Aaron's Rod, a jar of Manna, and the first Torah Scroll written by Moses, based on their reading of Book of Exodus, Book of Numbers, and the Letter to the Hebrews. The first of the Books of Kings says that during the time of King Solomon, the Ark held only the Ten Commandments.

Terminology
The Hebrew word aron is used in the Bible to designate any type of ark or chest, for any purpose (Genesis 50:26; 2 Kings 12:9, 10). The Ark of the Covenant is distinguished from all others by such titles as "Ark of God" (1 Samuel 3:3), "Ark of the Covenant" (Josh. 3:6; Hebrews 9:4), "Ark of the Testimony" (Ex. 25:22).
The Ark (aron kodesh in Hebrew meaning holy cupboard) is a raised cupboard found in Jewish Synagogues which contains the holy Torah scrolls. These are all written by hand and can take years to make. It is always on the wall of the Synagogue which faces towards Jerusalem.
When the Ark is opened and the Torah removed for reading everyone stands in respect of God. During some prayers and services the Ark doors an inner curtain (parochet) are kept open.

Description
The Bible describes the Ark as made of acacia or shittah-tree wood. It was a cubit and a half broad and high, and two and a half cubits long (about 130 cm × 78 cm × 78 cm or 4.29 × 2.57 × 2.57 feet, for Egyptian royal cubit was most likely used). The Ark was covered all over with the purest gold.

Footnotes

Related pages
Middle Eastern: Israel

People: Joshua, Samuel, Solomon

Further reading
 Carew, Mairead, Tara and the Ark of the Covenant: A Search for the Ark of the Covenant by British Israelites on the Hill of Tara, 1899-1902]. Royal Irish Academy, 2003.
 Fisher, Milton C., The Ark of the Covenant: Alive and Well in Ethiopia?. Bible and Spade 8/3, pp. 65–72, 1995.
 Grierson, Roderick & Munro-Hay, Stuart, The Ark of the Covenant. Orion Books Ltd, 2000.
 Hancock, Graham, The Sign and the Seal: The Quest for the Lost Ark of the Covenant. Touchstone Books, 1993.
 Hertz, J.H., The Pentateuch and Haftoras. Deuteronomy. Oxford University Press, 1936.
 Leeman, Bernard, Queen of Sheba and Biblical Scholarship. Queensland Academic Press, 2005.
 Ritmeyer, L., The Ark of the Covenant: Where it Stood in Solomon's Temple. Biblical Archaeology Review 22/1: 46-55, 70-73, 1996.

Other websites

Classic Texts
 "Shemot - Chapter 25". Tanach - Torah, Judaica Press.

Descriptions
 "Ark of the Covenant". The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume I.
 Pendleton, Philip Y., "A Brief Sketch of the Jewish Tabernacle". 1901. (International Sunday-school Lessons for 1902. Standard Eclectic Commentary comprising original and selected notes, explanatory, illustrative, practical. Embellished with maps, diagrams, chronological charts, tables, etc.)
 Barrow, Martyn, "The Ark of the Covenant  (Exodus 25:10-22)". 1995.
 Kaulins, Andis, "Ark of the Covenant ".
 Shyovitz, David, "The Lost Ark of the Covenant". Jewish Virtual Library.
Chester Comstock "The Ark placed in historical and geographical context" Art History
Replicas
 "Ark of the Covenant". arkcovenant.com

Location
 JAH, "The Ark of The Covenant in Ireland".
 Israel National News "Kabbalist Blesses Jones: Now's the Time to Find Holy Lost Ark". Iyar 5765, May, 2005.
 Peters, Aland, "Templars excavaton of Solomon's Temple ".
 Searcy, Jim, "The Ark of the Covenant: Present Location and Importance". Cyprus.
 Wyatt, Ron "The Ark of the Covenant : Ron Wyatt's description of his excavations for 3.5 years, and his claim to have seen it".
 Wyatt, Ron "The Ark of the Covenant: Found by Ron Wyatt north of Jerusalem in a cave,".

General
 "The Ark of the Covenant ". Old Testament - Exodus, The Brick Testament.
 " ". Book and Interactive CD-ROM detailing find of the Ark.

Link collections
 Shapiro, Gerald N., "A small selection of the information collected on the subject ". September 19, 2004.

Original article text
 Initial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 listing of the Ark
 Portions of this article have been taken from the Jewish Encyclopedia  of 1906 listing Ark of the Covenant

Old Testament
Judaism

Ark of the Covenant


The Bayer designation for stars uses Greek letters to assign names to stars. For example:

α Canis Majoris
θ Orionis
ζ Reticuli

It usually starts with the letter alpha (α) assigned to the brightest star in the constellation, then going down the Greek alphabet to assign letters for other stars (beta, gamma, delta, etc.) in order of decreasing brightness (apparent magnitude).

Astronomical catalogues

Bayer designation


The School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences (; EHESS) is a graduate grande école and grand établissement in Paris focused on academic research in the social sciences. It is regarded as one of the most prestigious institutions of graduate education in France. The school awards Master and PhD degrees alone and conjointly with the grandes écoles École Normale Supérieure, École Polytechnique, and École pratique des hautes études.

Originally a department of the École pratique des hautes études, created in 1868 with the purpose of training academic researchers, the EHESS became an independent institution in 1975. Today its research covers social sciences, humanities, and applied mathematics. Degrees and research in economics and finance are awarded through the Paris School of Economics.

The EHESS, in common with other grandes écoles, is a small school with very strict entry criteria, and admits students through a rigorous selection process based on applicants' research projects. Scholars in training are subsequently free to choose their own curriculum amongst the School's fields of research. The école has a small student-faculty ratio; 830 researchers for 3,000 students (27.6%).

Most of the School's faculty belong to other institutions, mostly within the French National Centre for Scientific Research and schools affiliated with PSL University. The School is notable for its work connected to amongst others sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, philosopher Jacques Derrida, as well as economist Thomas Piketty.

History

École pratique des hautes études
Originally part of the École pratique des hautes études (EPHE) as its VI Section: Sciences économiques et sociales, the EHESS gained autonomy as an independent higher education institution on 23 January 1975. The creation of a dedicated branch for social science research within the EPHE was catalyzed by the Annales historical school and was supported by several academic initiatives of the Rockefeller Foundation, dating to the 1920s. After WWII, the Rockefeller Foundation invested more funds in French institutions, seeking to encourage non-Marxist sociological studies.

The VIth section was created in 1947, and Lucien Febvre took its head. Soon after its creation (1947), the VI Section, later EHESS, became one of the most influential shapers of contemporary historiography, area studies and social sciences methodology, thanks to the contribution of eminent scholars such as Fernand Braudel, Jacques Le Goff and François Furet. F. Braudel succeeded L. Febvre in 1956. He concentrated the various study groups at the well-known building on boulevard Raspail (area of allée Claude-Cahun-Marcel-Moore), in part by financing from the Ford Foundation.

Independent institution
Today, the EHESS is one of France's Grands établissements. It functions as a research, teaching, and degree-granting institution. It offers advanced students high-level programs intended to lead to research careers. Students are admitted on the relevance of their research project and undertake at the EHESS master programs and doctoral studies. The main areas of specialization include: history, literary theory, linguistics, philosophy, philology, sociology, anthropology, economics, cognitive science, demographics, geography, archaeology, psychology, law, and mathematics. The institution's focus is on interdisciplinary research within these fields. The EHESS has more than 40 research centers (among which are several joint research units with the CNRS) and 22 doctoral programs, 13 of which are in partnership with other French Universities and Grandes écoles.

PSL Research University
The school is a constituent college of the federal PSL Research University. Other institutions include the College de France, the École Normale Supérieure, the École pratique des hautes études, Chimie ParisTech, ESPCI ParisTech, the École des mines, and Paris Dauphine University.

Research

History

Influence from the Annales School
Lucien Febvre and Fernand Braudel were members of the École des Annales, the dominant school of historical analysis in France during the interwar period. However, this school of thought was contested by the growing importance of the social sciences and the beginning of structuralism. Under pressure from Claude Lévi-Strauss, in particular, they integrated new contributions from the fields of sociology and ethnography to event-based historical analysis, a concept put forward by the Annales school, to advocate for the concept of "a nearly imperceptible passage of history". They were reproached, along with the structuralists, for ignoring politics and the individual's influence over his fate during a period in which the colonial wars of liberation were taking place.

The work of Braudel, Le Roy Ladurie and other historians working under their influence greatly affected the research and official teaching of history in France beginning in the 1960s. The work of Jean-Marie Pesez renewed interest in the issue of methodology in medieval archeology and created the idea of "material culture". François Hartog, who serves as the director of the school's ancient and modern historiography department, is also noted for proposing that the problems of modern time schema are not entirely caused by an imperialist past. He is also known for challenging the Eurocentric reflection of history and the present.

New History
During the 1970s, EHESS became the center of New History under the influence of Jacques Le Goff and Pierre Nora. During this period, a generation of ethnologists working under the ideas of Georges Balandier and Marc Augé were critical of the French colonial tradition and applied modern sociological concepts to third world countries.

New Polish School of Holocaust Scholarship
In 2019, held the New Polish School of Holocaust Scholarship conference. The conference was disrupted by Polish nationalists. EHESS President, Christophe Prochasson, said he could not recall such a violent disturbance at any scientific conference. Minister Frédérique Vidal condemned Polish authorities.

Sociology
Pierre Bourdieu, Luc Boltanski, Alain Touraine, Jean-Claude Passeron have all been associated with EHESS.

Economics
EHESS has always been a central place for economic debate in Europe. In France this debate is also enabled by the proximity of the researchers in Paris with national economic institutions: In this sense EHESS's advisors who have been drawn from economic professors have enjoyed a large media audience (one notable example was Jean Fourastié). The diversity of viewpoints has been a priority, and liberal and Marxist economists have had the chance to debate in EHESS. Since the 1970s and 1980s EHESS has focused on quantitative economics, with classes led by well-known professors such as Louis-André Gérard-Varet, Jean-Jacques Laffont, François Bourguignon and Roger Guesnerie. They initiated not only the Paris School of Economics but the Toulouse School of Economics and Grequam (Aix-Marseille).

Domestic and foreign networks

Affiliations
The school is a founding member of the Paris School of Economics, Toulouse School of Economics, and Aix-Marseille School of Economics, the three French leading centers in Quantitative Economics. Since 2014 it is an associated member of the Paris Research University (PSL).

International partnerships
EHESS has exchange programs with universities such as Oxford and Cambridge in the United Kingdom; Columbia, Yale, University of California, and Michigan State in the United States; Heidelberg in Germany; Tokyo and Kyoto in Japan; Peking University in China; and the European University Institute in Florence, Italy. It also has exchange programs with universities in Asia and the Middle-East, and holds research centers on Asian Studies and Islamic Studies.

Notable alumni

 Manola Antonioli
 Roberto Beneduce
 Nicole Brenez
 Françoise Briand
 Manuel Carvalheiro
 Antonio Casilli
 Arachu Castro
 Yves Censi
 Philippe Corcuff
 Julien Coupat
 Louis Chauvel
 Louis Dumont
 Pascal Chaigneau
 Jacques Dassié
 Robert Delort
 Božidar Đelić
 Aïssa Dermouche
 Mamadou Diawara
 Albert Doja
 Esther Duflo
 Serge Dufoulon
 Moisés Espírito Santo
 Safi Faye
 Caroline Fourest
 Dario Gamboni
 Susan George
 Nathalie Heinich
 Béatrice Hibou
 Jean Hyppolite
 Bruno Jaffré
 Christian Geffray
 Michel Lauwers
 Marc Lazar
 José Manuel López López
 Frédéric Lordon
 Édouard Louis
 Caterina Magni
 Sabrina Malek
 Alain Marleix
 Frédéric Martel
 Walter Mignolo
 Laure Murat
 Sébastien Nadot
 Guadalupe Nettel
 Christine Niederberger Betton
 Laurent Nunez
 Hector Obalk
 Thomas Pavel
 Thomas Piketty
 Guy Poitevin
 Ignacio Ramonet
 Joseph Gaï Ramaka
 Bernard Salanié
 Cheick Oumar Sissoko
 Bernard Stiegler
 Jean-Louis Swiners
 David Thesmar
 Alain Touraine
 Nicolas Trifon
 Laurent Turcot
 Frédéric Vandenberghe
 Olivier Weber

Notable faculty

Past and present faculty (including EPHE's VI Section):

 Sylviane Agacinski
 Marc Augé
 Roland Barthes
 Claude Berge
 Augustin Berque
 Pierre Bourdieu
 François Bourguignon

 Fernand Braudel
 Claude Calame
 Fernando Henrique Cardoso
 Manuel Castells
 Cornelius Castoriadis
 Roger Chartier
 Annie Cohen-Solal
 Jacques Derrida
 Philippe Descola
 Oswald Ducrot
 Louis Dumont
 Nicolas Ellison

 Lucien Febvre
 Marc Ferro
 David Feuerwerker
 Maribel Fierro
 François Furet
 Marcel Gauchet
 Maurice Godelier
 Nilüfer Göle
 Algirdas Julien Greimas
 Roger Guesnerie
 Pierre Hadot
 Bernard Harcourt
 Stanley Hoffmann
 Olivier Jeanne

 Milan Kundera
 Jacques Lacan
 Marie-Claire Lavabre
 Jacques Le Goff
 Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie
 Claude Lefort
 Pierre Manent
 Jacques Mehler
 Christian Metz
 Edgar Morin
 Thomas Piketty
 Richard Portes
 Ignacio Ramonet
 Juliette Rennes
 Pierre Rosenstiehl
 Emma Rothschild
 Olivier Roy

 Jean-Claude Schmitt
 Carlo Severi

 Sanjay Subrahmanyam
 Jean Tirole

 Alain Touraine
 Alessandro Triulzi
 Jean-Pierre Vernant
 Georges Vigarello
 Arundhati Virmani
 Eduardo Viveiros de Castro

 Michel Wieviorka

See also
 École libre des hautes études
 The New School for Social Research
 Paris Universitas
 :Category:School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences alumni
 :Category:Academic staff of the School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences

References

External links

 L'École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales - official site
  EHESS's history
  List of EHESS research centers

Grands établissements
Education in Paris
Educational institutions established in 1975
6th arrondissement of Paris
Social science research institutes
Research institutes in France
1975 establishments in France
Universities in Paris
Grandes écoles


Muhammad Ali Jinnah (26 December 1876 – 11 September 1948) was the founder of the country of Pakistan. After the partition of India, he became the Governor-General of Pakistan. As a mark of respect, Pakistanis call him Quaid-e-Azam. bra
Quaid-e-Azam is a phrase which, in the Urdu language, means "the great leader". He is also called Baba-e-Qaum, another phrase in the Urdu language which means "the father of the nation". The day of his birth is a national holiday.

Early life of M.A jinnah
Muhammad Ali Jinnah was born on 25 December 1876 in Karachi into the Isma'ilism family of Poonja Jinnah. Jinnah. He was born in Karachi, City of Sindh. His father's name was Jinnah Poonja (1857- 1901) and his mother's name was Mithibai. Jinnah was the eldest of the seven children of Jinnah Poonja and Mithibai. His family had migrated to Sindh from the Kathiawar area of Gujarat, present-day India.

Jinnah's birth name was Muhammad Ali Jinnah. He later changed it to the much simpler 'Muhammad Ali Jinnah' or M.A. At home, his family talked in Gujarati language, and the children also came to speak Kutchi and English. Except for Fatima, little is known of his siblings.

Early working years
In 1891 (when he was fifteen), Jinnah went to London and worked for a few years for a company. At around that time, his mother died.

In 1894, Jinnah quit his job to study law. He joined the course at Lincoln's Inn and graduated in 1896. While still in London, he also started to participate in politics. He greatly admired Indian political leaders Dadabhai Naoroji and Sir Pherozeshah Mehta. Gradually Jinnah was developing his own political outlook. He was thinking on the line that India should have a constitutional self-government.

Around this time, his father lost his business. This put Jinnah under great difficulty. In the meantime, he had started to practice as a lawyer in Mumbai. He also built a house in Mumbai's Malabar Hill area. The house is now known as Jinnah House.

He became a successful lawyer. In 1908 he represented Bal Gangadhar Tilak, a famous leader of the Indian National Congress. Tilak was facing charges of sedition against the British Rule. Jinnah pleaded the case well, but Tilak was sent to prison.After that he lost hope

Early years as a politician
Jinnah had already joined the Indian National Congress in 1906 when he started his politics. The Congress was the largest political organization in British India. Many members and leaders of the Indian National Congress favoured a limited self-government for the people of the Indian subcontinent. Jinnah also held the same view. At that time, his role model was Gopal Krishna Gokhale.

On 25 January 1910, Jinnah became a member on the Seventy two-member Imperial Legislative Council. He was an active member of the council. Like many other leaders of British India, Jinnah also supported Great Britain during World War I. The leaders had supported the Great Britain thinking that after the war, Great Britain would grant the people of the subcontinent political freedom.

At the beginning Jinnah had avoided joining the All India Muslim League, another political organization of British India. Muslims had formed the League in 1906. In 1913, Jinnah became a member of the Muslim League. In 1934, he became the president of the Muslim League. He helped in making an agreement between the Congress and the Muslim League (Lucknow Pact in 1916). The agreement tried to present a united front to the British for giving the people of the subcontinent self-government dominion status in the British Empire. This was similar to the dominion status which Canada, New Zealand and Australia had at that time.

In 1918, Jinnah married again. His second wife was Rattanbai Petit. She was twenty-four years younger than him. She was the daughter of Jinnah's personal friend Sir Dinshaw Petit was a Parsi but rattanbai embraced Islam before marrying Jinnah and changed her name to Maryam. The couple resided in Bombay (now Mumbai) and frequently travelled to Europe. In 1919, his wife bore a daughter who was named Dina.

By 1918, Mohandas Gandhi had become one of the leaders of the Congress Party. Gandhi took a line of non-violent protest for gaining self-government for British India. Jinnah took a different line. He wanted constitutional struggle to gain the self-government for British India. Jinnah also opposed Gandhi's support for the Khilafat movement. Gradually, many differences between them had arisen. In 1920, Jinnah left the Congress party. He became the president of the Muslim League. At this time, Jinnah brought out a program to reduce the differences between the Congress Party and the Muslim League. The program had fourteen points of action. Therefore, it became popularly known as Jinnah's Fourteen Points. But the Congress party did not accept these.

During these years Jinnah's personal life had suffered. His focus upon politics had led to tensions in Jinnah's marriage. The couple separated in 1927 and after a serious illness Rattanbai died.

Around that time, there was a conference of British Indian leaders with the government of Great Britain. It was held in London and is known as the Round Table Conference. Jinnah criticized the policy of Gandhi. The conference failed. Jinnah was also not happy with the Muslim League. He decided to quit politics. He again started to work as a lawyer in England. During all these years, his sister Fatima Jinnah took care of Jinnah's affairs, both at home and outside. She also became a close adviser to him. She helped him in raising Jinnah's daughter, Dina Wadia. The daughter married Neville Wadia, a Parsi who had converted to Christianity. Jinnah did not like this marriage.

Leader of the Muslim League
Many Muslim leaders of British India like Aga Khan III, Coudhary Rahmat Ali and Sir Muhammad Iqbal requested Jinnah to come back to the British Raj.

The leaders of the Muslim League wanted him to take charge of the Muslim League. Jinnah agreed to come back to India. In 1934, he left London and returned to India to reorganize the Muslim league again. But he could not revive the stature of the party until after the elections of 1937 as the Muslim League won only a few seats. However, at this time, the League was helped by the powerful Premier of the Punjab, Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan. In October 1937, he agreed with Jinnah's Muslim League joining his strong government. This was called the Jinnah-Sikandar Pact.

His differences with the Congress Party continued to become bigger. In 1930, some Muslim leaders like Allama Iqbal had argued for a separate country for the Muslim people of India. At last he came to the conclusion that Hindus and Muslims cannot live in a single country. Jinnah also started to have the idea of a separate country for Muslims of India. Jinnah and the Muslim League started work to get such a separate country. They made a plan for this in 1940 called the Pakistan Resolution. This new country was to be named Pakistan.

In 1941, Jinnah founded a newspaper, named the Dawn. This newspaper published the views and political thinking of the Muslim League. During World War II, Jinnah supported the British, and opposed the Quit India movement of the Congress party. In 1944, Gandhi held 14 rounds of talks with Jinnah, but they could not come to any conclusion. By this time, the Muslim League had formed governments in some provinces, and had also entered the central government.

Founder of Pakistan
The Muslim League under Jinnah's leadership accepted both the plans. But, on 16 August 1946, Jinnah also announced the Direct Action to achieve independence for Pakistan, a separate country of Muslims of the former British Raj.

Governor-General

The British Indian Empire was partitioned into two countries, namely, India and Pakistan. Jinnah became the first Governor-General of Pakistan, his sister Fatimah Jinnah became the "Mother of the Nation". He also became the president of Pakistan's constituent assembly. In an address to the constituent assembly on 11 August 1947, Jinnah told about the future of Pakistan as a secular state. He told this in the following words:

You may belong to any religion caste or creed - that has nothing to do with the business of the state. In due course of time, Hindus will cease to be Hindus and Muslims will cease to be Muslims, not in the religious sense, because that is the personal faith of each individual, but in the political sense as citizens of the state.

Jinnah also took the direct charge of the government. After the partition, large scale violence between Muslims and the Hindus took place. Such violence was very serious in Punjab and Bengal. Jinnah toured the areas with Hindu leaders from British India to calm down the population. Many people died in the violence. The estimates of death vary from two hundred thousand deaths to over a million deaths. Jinnah was personally very sad at all these happenings.

Soon after the independence of India and Pakistan, armed conflict broke out in Kashmir. Kashmir's king had agreed to become a part of India. but mostly Muslims of Kashmir did not like this. They started fighting in Kashmir. India had to send his troops to Kashmir, which had become a part of India. India raised the issue to the United Nations. The United Nations ordered the conflict to end and a Plebiscite. This problem still continues to have a bad effect on the India-Pakistan relationship.

Jinnah's role in creation of Pakistan as a new nation was very important. This made him very popular among the people of Pakistan. In East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), people opposed Jinnah's view that the language most commonly known as Urdu should be the sole national language.

Death
Muhammad Ali had been suffering from tuberculosis since the early 1940s. Only his sister and very few other persons close to the family knew this. After the partition of India and creation of Pakistan, he had become the governor general of Pakistan. His work was increased, but his health was deteriorating. To regain his health, he spent many months at his official rest house. The rest house was located at a place named in Ziarat. Jinnah could not regain his health. He died on 11 September 1948 from tuberculosis.

Modern views on Jinnah
In recent years, some scholars have given some new views about Jinnah's actions. Jinnah showed interest that some of the Hindu majority princely states should join Pakistan. These scholars argue that this view was against Jinnah's declared view that Hindus and Muslims could not live together.

Some historians like H M Seervai and Ayesha Jalal say that Jinnah wanted a united South Asia. He demanded a separate state for Muslims as the Congress leaders were not willing to share power with the Muslim League.

Recently, Indian leaders belonging to the Bhartiya Janta Party, like Lal Krishna Advani and Jaswant Singh praised Jinnah. Jaswant Singh was expelled from the party because he had praised Jinnah in his book 'Jinnah- India, Partition and Independence'.

Commemoration
Nations and people have done many things in memory of Jinnah. In Pakistan he is called Quaid-e-Azam. His pictures appear on many Pakistani banknotes and coins. Karachi's international airport is named after him. In 1998 a new university in Karachi was named the Mohammad Ali Jinnah University. Another university in Islamabad is named after Quaid-e-Azam university.

Many other places and institutions bear his name in Pakistan and elsewhere. For example, in Turkey, a very large street is named after him. In Iran, one of the highways of its capital city Tehran bears his name and in Mumbai Jinnah Hall, a public hall is named after him.

Many books, movies and TV programs tell about the life and work of Jinnah, including the biographical movie, Jinnah.

Famous quotes
 "With faith, discipline and selfless devotion to duty, there is nothing worthwhile that you cannot achieve."
 "Think 100 times before you take a decision, But once that decision is taken, stand by it as one man."
 "Failure is a word unknown to me."
 "No nation can rise to the height of glory unless your women are side by side with you."
 "Expect the best, Prepare for the worst."
 "No struggle can ever succeed without women participating side by side with men."
 "You have to stand guard over the development and maintenance of Islamic democracy, Islamic social justice and the equality of manhood in your own native soil."
 "Islam expect every Muslim to do this duty, and if we realise our responsibility time will come soon when we shall justify ourselves worthy of a glorious past."
 "That freedom can never be attained by a nation without suffering and sacrifice has been amply borne out by the recent tragic happenings in this subcontinent."
 "We are victims of evil customs. It is a crime against humanity that our women are shut up within the four walls of the houses as prisoners. There is no sanction anywhere for the deplorable condition in which our women have to live."
 "Pakistan not only means freedom and independence but the Muslim Ideology which has to be preserved, which has to come to us as a precious gift and treasure and which, we hope other will share with us."

Related pages
 History of Pakistan

Further reading

References

Other websites
 Jinnah Quotes (27 quotes) goodreads.com

1876 births
1948 deaths
Governors General of Pakistan
Leaders of All India Muslim League
National symbols of Pakistan
Pakistani Muslims
Politicians from Karachi
Speakers of the National Assembly of Pakistan

Muhammad Ali Jinnah


A gravitational singularity (sometimes called a spacetime singularity) is a term used to describe the center of a black hole where gravity is thought to approach infinity.

In the center of each black hole is a singularity, a point where infinite density develops as spacetime approaches it. Spacetime goes toward infinite curvature and matter is crushed to infinite density under the pull of infinite gravity. At a singularity, space and time cease to exist as we know them and current laws of physics cannot be applied to this region.

Singularities form by a collapse of a star, where star with high enough mass (above 30 times the sun) would shrink under its own gravity and force until it becomes a single, one dimensional point. When it forms, space and time would be infinite in there.

An example would be that if a person were to stand on a collapsing star right before the singularity forms, and they sent a signal every second to a nearby observer, time and space would slow down as the singularity is being formed. The observer would hear the signal slowing down. Let's say the singularity forms at 12:00 exactly. The observer would receive all the signals, one after another, with each new signal slowing down at a very small rate until the 12:00 signal. When the 12:00 signal was sent, time and space would be infinite -- in other words, it would take forever to get the signal.

To understand singularities, you have to think about infinite density, like how the original Big Bang started. The Big Bang, most scientists believe, started from an earlier universe that was pulled together by gravity into a single point. After that, it exploded and made all the matter in the expanding universe. A black hole singularity is similar, except on a smaller scale. Imagine if our sun decreased to the size of the nucleus of an atom. It would be very dense. However, our sun does not have a high enough mass to become a black hole. It is well below the Chandrasekhar limit, which means it will shrink to a white dwarf, with radius of a few thousand kilometers\miles. It can't become a black hole, because it is too small.

(Paragraph 3-5 Based on "Brief History of Time" by Stephen Hawking)

Singularity can also refer to
Technological singularity
Mathematical singularity

References

Relativity
Black holes
Gravitation

Gravitational singularity


Butcher's Film Service was a British film production and distribution company that specialised in low-budget productions. The company was founded by William Butcher, a chemist from Blackheath. The company survived through several production slumps in the British film industry and two World Wars.

In later years the company mainly released films made at the Nettlefold Studios in Walton-upon-Thames in Surrey. Amongst the films produced after the Second World War was a series of four Paul Temple films and The Story of Shirley Yorke which proved to be a surprise hit. The company attempted to give its films a patriotic and populist appeal, and were particularly aimed at working-class audiences in industrial areas. In 1954 it was renamed Butcher's Film Distributors.

Selected filmography

East Is East (1916 film)
Grim Justice (1916)
The Princess on Broadway (1927) starring Pauline Garon, Johnny Walker, Ethel Clayton, and Dorothy Dwan
Send for Paul Temple (1946)
The Story of Shirley Yorke (1948)
The Hi-Jackers (1963)

References

Bibliography
 Low, Rachael. The History of the British Film, 1918-1929. George Allen & Unwin, 1971.
 Chibnall, Steve & McFarlane, Brian. The British 'B' Film. Palgrave MacMillan, 2009.

British film studios
Film distributors of the United Kingdom
Film production companies of the United Kingdom

Butcher's Film Service


The Republic of Mahabad (also Republic of Kurdistan), established in Iranian Kurdistan, was the second independent Kurdish state of the 20th century after the Republic of Ararat in Turkey. Its capital was the Kurdish city of Mahabad in northwestern Iran. The Republic was part of the Iran crisis a conflict between the United States and USSR.

The republic was led by President Qazi Muhammad and Minister of Defense Mustafa Barzani. Prime Minister was Hadschi Baba Scheich. The Republic of Mahabad declared independence on January 22, 1946, but the movement was defeated a year later by the army of the central government of Iran.  . After the collapse of the republic in 1947, Qazi Muhammad was hanged in public in Chuwarchira Square in the center of Mahabad.

Massoud Barzani, the current President of Iraqi Kurdistan, was born in Mahabad when his father, the late General Mustafa Barzani, was chief of the military of Mahabad declared in Iranian Kurdistan  .

Archibald Roosevelt son of the former US-President Theodore Roosevelt, wrote in "The Kurdish Republic of Mahabad", that a main problem of the peoples Republic of Mahabad, was the Kurds needed the power of the USSR. Only with the Red army they had a chance. But these close relationship to Stalin and the USSR let many Kurdish tribes to be in opposition with this Kurdish state.

References
 "The Republic of Kurdistan: Fifty Years Later," International Journal of Kurdish Studies, 11, no. 1 & 2, (1997).
 The Kurdish Republic of 1946, William Eagleton, Jr. (London: Oxford University Press, 1963)
 Moradi Golmorad: Ein Jahr autonome Regierung in Kurdistan, die Mahabad-Republik 1946 - 1947 in: Geschichte der kurdischen Aufstandsbewegungen von der arabisch-islamischen Invasion bis zur Mahabad-Republik, Bremen 1992,
 M. Khoubrouy-Pak: Une république éphémère au Kurdistan, Paris u.a. 2002,
 Archie Roosevelt, Jr., "The Kurdish Republic of Mahabad", Middle East Journal, no. 1 (July 1947), pp. 247–69.
 Kurdish Republic of Mahabad, Encyclopedia of the Orient.
 The Kurds: People without a country, Encyclopædia Britannica
 Meiselas, Susan Kurdistan In the Shadow of History, Random House, 1997.
 McDowall, David A Modern History of the Kurds, I. B. Tauris, 1996 (Current revision at May 14, 2004).
 Yassin, Burhaneddin A., Vision or Realty: The Kurds in the Policy of the Great Powers, 1941-1947, Lund University Press, Lund/Sweden, 1995. ,  Lund University Press. ou  Chartwell-Bratt Ltd.

Related pages
 Republic of Ararat
 Kurdish Autonomous Region
 Ethnic minorities in Iran

Other websites
 Mahabad Republic at Britanica encyclopedia
 Kurds at the crossroad
 The Encyclopedia of World History
 The kurdish Republic of Mahabad at PDKI-Canada

History of Iran
Kurdistan
Former countries in the Middle East
Former republics

Republic of Mahabad


In physics, resonance is the tendency of a system to vibrate with increasing amplitudes at some frequencies of excitation. These are known as the system's resonant frequencies (or resonance frequencies). The resonator may have a fundamental frequency, and any number of harmonics.

An example of useful effect of resonant frequency is a guitar string which makes a characteristic noise when it is touched. The noise depends on how thick or slack the string is.

Another example can be seen in a playground swing. There is one specific rate at which you must push away a person on a swing to cause the swing to go high. This rate is the resonant frequency.

In earthquake engineering, on contrary, any possibility of a resonance is detrimental for the building structure.

The Kirkwood gap and other connections among orbits are caused by orbital resonance.

Related pages
 Resonator
 Seismic damper
 Vibration control
 Vibration isolation

References

Physics
Mechanical vibrations
Earthquake engineering

Resonance