The Doni Tondo or Doni Madonna, is the only finished panel painting by the mature Michelangelo to survive. (Two other panel paintings, generally agreed to be by Michelangelo but unfinished, The Entombment and the so-called Manchester Madonna, are both in the National Gallery in London.) Now in the Uffizi in Florence, Italy, and still in its original frame, the Doni Tondo was probably commissioned by Agnolo Doni to commemorate his marriage to Maddalena Strozzi, the daughter of a powerful Tuscan family. The painting is in the form of a tondo, meaning in Italian, 'round', a shape which is frequently associated during the Renaissance with domestic ideas.

The work was probably created during the period after Doni's marriage in 1503 or 1504, and before the Sistine Chapel ceiling frescoes were begun in 1508. The Doni Tondo portrays the Holy Family (the child Jesus, Mary, and Joseph) in the foreground, along with John the Baptist in the middle-ground, and contains five nude male figures in the background. The inclusion of these nude figures has been interpreted in a variety of ways.

Description
Mary is the most prominent figure in the composition, taking up much of the center of the image.  She sits directly on the ground without a cushion between herself and the grass, to better communicate the theme of her relationship to the earth (?).  Joseph is positioned higher in the image than Mary, although this is an unusual feature in compositions of the Holy Family.  Mary is seated between his legs, as if he is protecting her, his great legs forming a kind of de facto throne.  There is some debate as to whether Mary is receiving the Child from Joseph or vice versa.  Saint John the Baptist, the patron saint of Florence, is very commonly included in Florentine works depicting the Madonna and Child. He is in the middle-ground of the painting, between the Holy Family and the background.  The scene appears to be a rural one, with the Holy Family enjoying themselves on the grass and separated from the curiously (seemingly) unrelated group at the back by a low wall.

The painting is still in its original frame, one that Michelangelo might have influenced or helped design.  The frame is ornately carved and rather unusual for the five heads it contains which protrude three-dimensionally into space.  Similar to the nudes of the background, the meanings of these heads has been the subject of speculation.  The frame also contains carvings of crescent moons, stars, vegetation, and lions' heads.  These symbols are, perhaps, references to the Doni and Strozzi families, taken from each one's coat of arms.  As depicted on the frame, "the moons are bound together with ribbons that interlock with the lions," possibly referring to the marriage of the two families.

There is a horizontal band, possibly a wall , separating the foreground and background. The background figures are five nudes, whose meaning and function are subject to much speculation and debate.  Because they are much closer to us, the viewers, the Holy Family is much larger than the nudes in the background, a device to aid the illusion of deep space in a two-dimensional image. Behind Saint John the Baptist is a semi-circular ridge, against which the 'ignudi' are leaning, or upon which they are sitting. This semi-circle reflects or mirrors the circular shape of the painting itself and acts as a foil to the vertical nature of the principal group (the Holy family). Mary and Joseph gaze at Christ, but none of the background nudes looks directly at him.  The far background contains a mountainous landscape rendered in atmospheric perspective.

Technique

The Doni Tondo is believed to be the only existing panel picture Michelangelo painted without the aid of assistants; and, unlike his Manchester Madonna and Entombment (both National Gallery, London), the attribution to him has never been questioned.  The juxtaposition of bright colors foreshadows the same use of color in Michelangelo's later Sistine Ceiling frescoes. The folds of the drapery are sharply modelled, and the modelling of the figures is distinctly sculptural, suggesting they are carved in medium marble. The nude figures in the background have softer modelling and look to be precursors to the ignudi, the male nude figures in the Sistine Ceiling frescoes. Michelangelo's technique includes shading from the most intense colors first to the lighter shades on top, using the darker colors as shadows. By applying the pigment in a certain way, Michelangelo created an "unfocused" effect in the background and focused detail in the foreground.  The most vibrant color is located within the Virgin's garments, signifying her importance within the image.  The masculinity of Mary could be explained by Michelangelo's use of male models for female figures, as was done for the Sistine Chapel.

Michelangelo used a limited palette of pigments comprising Lead White, Azurite, Verdigris and a few others. He avoided ochres and used very little vermilion.

Influences

The composition is, most likely, partially influenced by the cartoon (a term referring to a detailed later-stage preliminary drawing) for Leonardo da Vinci's The Virgin and Child with St. Anne. Michelangelo's Holy Family forms a tight, separated group in the centre foreground of the image, with the Virgin's figure constructing a typical Renaissance pyramid or triangle.  Michelangelo saw the drawing in 1501 while in Florence working on the David.

The Doni Tondo is also associated with Luca Signorelli's Medici Madonna in the Uffizi.  Michelangelo probably knew of the work and its ideas, and he wanted to incorporate those ideas into his own work. Signorelli's Madonna similarly uses a tondo form, depicts nude male figures in the background, and displays the Virgin sitting directly on the earth.

Three aspects of the painting can be attributed to an antique sardonyx cameo and a 15th-century relief from the circle of Donatello, available to Michelangelo in the Palazzo Medici: the circular form, the masculinity of Mary, and the positioning of the Christ Child. The Virgin's right arm mirrors the arm of the satyr in the cameo, and the cameo also depicts an infant located on the shoulders of the satyr, a position similar to the Christ Child being passed over the right arm of Mary.

Additionally, some scholars suggest that Michelangelo was inspired by the famous Greco-Roman group of Laocoön and His Sons, excavated in 1506 in Rome, an event at which Michelangelo is believed to have been present . The pose of the nude figure in the background immediately behind Saint Joseph, to our right, appears to have been influenced by the twisting contortions of the figures captured by the serpent in the Laocoön (again, if this were so, it would alter the date of the Doni Tondo by several years).

Furthermore, the inclusion of the five protruding heads in the paintings frame is often seen as a reference to a similar motif found on Ghiberti's Porta del Paradiso, the bronze doors of the Florence Baptistry which Michelangelo is known to have greatly admired.

Plant symbolism
The plant in front of John the Baptist has aspects of both hyssop and cornflower, yet is most likely a hyssop because it grows from a wall. Cornflower is an attribute of Christ and symbolizes Heaven while hyssop symbolizes both the humility of Christ and baptism. There is a citron tree in the background, which represents the Cedar of Lebanon. Michelangelo uses the hyssop and tree as a visual representation of a quote by Rabanus Maurus, "From the Cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop which grows on a stony wall we have an explanation of the Divinity which Christ has in his Father and of the humanity that he derives from the Virgin Mary." The clover in the foreground represents the Trinity and salvation.  The anemone plant represents the Trinity and the Passion of Christ.

Scholarly theories

There is a multitude of interpretations for the various parts of the work. Most interpretations differ in defining the relationship between the Holy Family and the figures in the background.

Paul Barolsky argues that the Doni Tondo is a "devotional image […] more than an example of style, symbolism, [or] iconography".  Barolsky bases much of his thesis on the language used by Giorgio Vasari in his work Lives of the Most Excellent Italian Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, from Cimabue to Our Times.  His support for the idea of devotion comes from Christ being presented in the painting like a gift, which he links to the painting's patron due to a perceived pun on the Italian word for "gift," "donare," and the patron's name, Doni (meaning literally, in Italian, 'gifts').  Furthering the Christ-as-gift metaphor, Mary's holding of Christ in the painting is seen to reference the elevating of the host during mass.
Mirella D'Ancona argues that the image reflects Michelangelo's views on the roles of the members of the Holy Family in human salvation and the soul's immortality. The Virgin's placement and emphasis is due to her role in human salvation. She is both the mother of Christ and the best intercessor for appealing to him. Michelangelo, who had been strongly influenced by the Dominican Fra Girolamo Savonarola in Florence, is using the picture to defend the Maculist point of view, a philosophy of the Dominican order rejecting the idea of the Immaculate Conception of Mary. The Maculist view is that the Virgin did not receive her sanctification at birth but at the moment of the incarnation of Christ; thus, the image depicts the moment of Mary's sanctification by showing the Christ Child blessing her. Michelangelo depicts Christ as if he is growing out of Mary's shoulder to take human form, one leg hanging limply and the other not visible at all, therefore making him a part of Mary. Moreover, his muscles and balance convey an upward movement, as if he is growing out of her, although he is above Mary, asserting his superiority to her.  Furthermore, she argues that the nudes are to be interpreted as sinners who have removed their clothes for cleansing and purification through baptism. The water, which separates the sinners from the Holy Family, just beyond the horizontal band in the middle of the painting, can therefore be seen as the "waters of separation" mentioned in the Bible.  She also argues that the five figures may represent the five parts of the soul: the higher soul (soul and intellect) on the left and the lower soul (imagination, sensation, and nourishing faculty) on the right, a visual depiction of the views of Marsilio Ficino, whom Michelangelo references in other works.  Additionally, in looking at them as separate groupings, she suggests that the two figures on Mary's right represents the human and divine natures of Christ, while the three on her left represent the Trinity.

Andrée Hayum argues that the commissioning of the tondo by the Doni family helped to emphasize the "secular and domestic ideals" of the painting rather than seeing it as a "devotional object."  In choosing a tondo as the format for the picture, Michelangelo is referencing the form's long association with depicting the "Adoration of the Magi, the Nativity, [and] the Madonna and Child."  Hayum also finds many allusions to Noah throughout the work.  She posits a referencing of the Madonna to Noah's daughter-in-law, a sibyl, which thus makes Joseph an embodiment of Noah himself.  Hayum further supports this by acknowledging the direct link between Joseph and Noah as depicted in Michelangelo's Sistine Ceiling paintings.  This link to Noah also gives an explanation to the nudes in the background, whose forms may have inspired the sons in the Drunkenness of Noah.  The allusion to the Noah story also brings up themes of baptismal water, thus giving rise to an interpretation of the nudes similar to D'Ancona's: "catechumens awaiting baptism" from John the Baptist, whose "isolation within a pit-like space" indicates his special role as baptizer.

Roberta Olson states that the painting depicts the "importance of the family" and is related to "Doni's hoped-for descendants." One of the ways in which the painting depicts a "good marriage" is by the seemingly "reciprocal action" of the handling of Jesus between Joseph and Mary.  Much importance is given to Joseph by way of the colors of his clothes: yellow, indicating the divine aspect of the family as well as "truth," and purple, standing for royal lineage tracing from the House of David.  Additionally, Joseph is important to the painting by referencing the middle name of the "Doni's third child who lived beyond infancy."   The theme of baptism is also suggested on the painting's frame through a possible reference to Ghiberti's Porta del Paradiso - being one of the three sets of doors of the Florentine Baptistry (two of which by Ghiberti) - the sculpted details indirectly referring to the rite of Baptism, important for the Donis and their desire for a child as the product of a good marriage, exemplified by the Holy Family, perhaps one reason behind the commissioning of the work.

See also
List of works by Michelangelo

Notes

References

Natali, Antonio (2014), Michelangelo. Inside and outside the Uffizi, Florence: Maschietto Editore, 2014.
Michelangelo Buonarroti, Doni Tondo, ColourLex
 E. Buzzegoli, R. Bellucci, Michelangelo's Doni Tondo investigated with non-invasive analytical techniques, in Studying old master paintings, Technology and Practice, ed. by M. Spring, London 2011

External links

1507 paintings
Religious paintings by Michelangelo
Paintings of the Holy Family
Paintings depicting John the Baptist
Paintings by Michelangelo in the Uffizi
Nude art

Doni Tondo


Colin Henry Wilson (26 June 1931 – 5 December 2013) was an English novelist and writer. Wilson also wrote widely on true crime and criminology, mysticism, the paranormal, and other topics. In all, there are over 120 books, including some fiction. He preferred to call his philosophy new existentialism or phenomenological existentialism.

Wilson was interested in metaphysics and the occult. In 1971, he wrote a nonfiction book named The Occult: A History. In it, he talked about the beliefs of Aleister Crowley, George Gurdieff, Helena Blavatsky, Kabbalah, primitive magic, Franz Mesmer, Grigori Rasputin, and Paracelsus. He also wrote a biography of Crowley, Aleister Crowley: The Nature of the Beast. He also wrote biographies on other visionaries in spirituality and psychology. Some were about George Gurdjieff, Carl Jung, and Wilhelm Reich.

Wilson suffered a stroke in June 2012 and lost his ability to speak. He died in December 2013, aged 82.

The Outsider
This was the book which made his name. It was really a work of literary criticism, but was also about social philosophy. It was based mainly on the work of Dostoyevsky, Camus and Satre, all of whom featured characters who were lost, outsiders, alienated from society.

Gollancz published the 24-year-old Wilson's The Outsider in 1956. The book became a best-seller and helped popularise existentialism in Britain. It has never been out-of-print since publication day and has been translated into over thirty languages (including Russian and Chinese).

Crime
Wilson's writing on crime is quite extensive and commercially successful. He wrote several books about serial killers and murderers.
 The mammoth book of true crime. New edition 1988. London: Robinson.
 The serial killers: a study in the psychology of violence. London: W.H. Allen. (with Donald Seaman)
 A plague of murder: the rise and rise of serial killing in the modern age. London: Robinson.

References

Other websites

 Colin Wilson Papers (2 document boxes) housed at the Eaton Collection of Science Fiction and Fantasy of the University of California, Riverside Libraries.
  The Colin Wilson Collection at the University of Nottingham, United Kingdom - This is Wilson's bibliographer Colin Stanley's collection of books, articles, manuscripts, letters, photographs and assorted ephemera now at the University of Nottingham. Regularly updated by Stanley.

1931 births
2013 deaths
British esotericists
English science fiction writers
English philosophers
Mystics
Writers  from Leicester
Literary critics

Colin Wilson


A personal trainer is an individual who creates and delivers safe and effective exercise programs for healthy individuals and groups, or those with medical clearance to exercise. They motivate clients by collaborating to set goals, providing meaningful feedback, and by being a reliable source for accountability. Trainers also conduct a variety of assessments beginning with a preparticipation health-screening and may also include assessments of posture and movement, flexibility, balance, core function, cardio-respiratory fitness, muscular fitness, body composition, and skill-related parameters (e.g. power, agility, coordination, speed, and reactivity) to observe and gather relevant information needed to develop an effective exercise program and support client goal attainment.

These assessments may be performed at the beginning of and after an exercise program to measure client progress toward improved physical fitness. Trainers create exercise programs following a progression model, using the baseline assessment as the starting point of a client's physical abilities and framing the program to fit the individual personally. They also provide education on many other aspects of wellness,  including general health and nutrition guidelines. Helping clients to reach their full potential in various aspects of life requires a comprehensive client-centered approach along with a belief that clients are resourceful and capable of change.

Qualified personal trainers or certified personal trainers (CPTs) recognize their own areas of expertise. If a trainer suspects that one of their clients has a medical condition that could prevent the client from safe participation in an exercise program, they must refer the client to the proper health professional for medical clearance.

Purpose of personal training
  The scope of practice for a personal trainer has a primary focus on prevention and involves enhancing components of health and fitness for the general, healthy population or those cleared for exercise.
Proper exercise prescription may result in improved body composition, physical performance, heart condition, and health outcomes. The decision to hire a personal trainer may be related to a perceived health threat, a lack of knowledge, a personal belief in one's ability to begin and adhere to an exercise program, or some sort of psychological effect. Often clients will seek the guidance of a personal trainer for factors related to motivation and adherence. A personal trainer pays close attention to the client's exercise technique, workout routine, goals, values, and nutrition. Personal training in men and women has been shown to improve the benefit-to-concern ratio for exercise (decisional balance), and increase confidence to choose exercise in the face of other time demands (scheduling self-efficacy).  Personal training results in higher strength, higher workout intensities, and higher perceived exertion during exercise.

Employment characteristics

The profession is generally not restricted by the venue, and personal trainers may work in fitness facilities, in their own homes, in client homes, over live video (also called "virtual personal trainers"), or outdoors. Almost all exercise professionals work in physical fitness facilities, health clubs, and fitness centers located in the amusement and recreation industry or in civic and social organizations.  Personal training is not regulated in any jurisdiction in the United States except for Washington D.C. which adopted registration requirements for personal fitness trainers in February 2014. Some employers, such as gyms, require personal trainers to be certified. However, this is not always the case and some personal trainers can find work without certification. Overall, personal trainers must possess certain skills, such as a passion for fitness and helping others achieve their goals, industry knowledge, leadership, and the ability to communicate effectively with their clients.

Personal trainers may specialize in a certain training type, training philosophy, performance type, exercise modality, or client population. In general, most personal trainers develop exercise plans for aerobic exercise, resistance exercise, and/or flexibility training. With aerobic exercise prescription, personal trainers determine the type of exercise, duration of exercise, and frequency of exercise. For resistance exercise prescription, the type of exercise, total session volume, rest period, frequency, and intensity are determined.  Personal trainers may also be involved in the prescription of stretching routines or other approaches. Personal trainers help clients to perform exercises with correct techniques, minimizing the risk of injury. While some discuss nutrition, ergogenic supplementation, and spiritual practices with clients, there is debate within the industry as to whether it fits within their scope of practice and training qualifications.

Accreditation

Personal trainer accreditation is a process that provides certification of competency. Qualification standards for personal trainers vary between countries. Personal trainer accreditation is also viewed as experience in the field with many client testimonials on their achievements working with their personal trainer.

International
The International Confederation of Registers for Exercise Professionals (ICREPs) is an international partnership between registration bodies around the world that register exercise professionals.  Member countries conform to the international standards set by ICREPs for personal training (and other exercise education credentials) and are transferable to other member countries. The current members of ICREPs (as of 2019) are: Fitness Australia, NFLA Canada, REPs India, REPs Ireland, REPs New Zealand, REPs Poland, REPs South Africa, REPs United Arab Emirates, USREPs, and IranREPs.

Australia
In Australia, personal trainers may work independently with suitable insurance or choose to be a member of a registering body (Fitness Australia or Physical Activity Australia). The qualifications levels include; Level 1 - Certificate III in Fitness, Level 2 - Certificate IV in Fitness and Level 3 - Diploma of Fitness. These can be obtained from nationally accredited colleges (TAFE, Australian College of Sport & Fitness, Fitness Industry Training, Global Fitness Institute, Australian Institute of Fitness, Australian Fitness Academy). Once working in the industry, trainers who are members of associations are also required to complete short courses to obtain continuing education credit (CEC) points they need to keep their registration. A minimum of 20 CEC points every two years is required. Many personal trainers also have additional qualifications in weight loss, strength training, kid's fitness, and nutrition, which is in part due to the CEC program. CEC courses can cover a wide variety of topics such as different training techniques, nutrition, exercise styles, health conditions, physiology, lifestyle, and rehabilitation.

Once members obtain their Australian Cert III & IV in Fitness, they can practice nationally. This can be done with this certification and using the Global Portability Matrix. The Global Portability Matrix was designed by ICREPS. This stands for International Confederation of Registers for Exercise Professionals, which allows all members to practice in other countries. Members can train in Belgium, The Netherlands, Hungary, The United Kingdom, Ireland, Lebanon, Poland, The United States, The Caribbean, South Africa, United Arab Emirates, Canada, and New Zealand.

Brazil
In Brazil, personal trainers must have a bachelor's degree in "Physical Education" (a degree that combines knowledge in the fields of Exercise Science and Healthcare science) and be registered with the Conselho Federal de Educação Física (Federal Council of Physical Education), and risk criminal charges if they operate without these two requirements.

Canada
In Canada, the main certifying bodies are Canadian Fitness Education Services (CFES), Canadian Fitness Professionals (CanFit Pro), Certified Personal Trainers Network, the Canadian Society of Exercise Physiology (CSEP), and the National Fitness Leadership Association (NFLA). CSEP requires a diploma or degree in the exercise field, most other organizations require experience and/or workshops to qualify for a credential. Many personal trainers receive a CFES, CanFit Pro, NFLA or an NCCA accredited certification, but there are no certifications required by law. Fitness instruction in Canada is an unregulated industry.

Iran
In Iran, the main certifying bodies are IranREPs and Bodybuilding Federation which these two organizations signed a memorandum of understanding in the beginning of 2019. IranREPs requires a diploma or degree in the exercise field from EuropeActive accredited providers or Sport universities.
IranREPs joined the ICREPs in 2020.

Europe
In Europe, personal trainers may work independently, but will always need accreditation by one of the main certifying bodies   such as:

NASM: National Academy of Sports Medicine. NASM Certified Personal Trainers are eligible to join the European Register of Exercise Professionals (EREPS). The NASM has attributed to the success of personal trainers in Europe and accredited companies like UNITEDFIT in the Netherlands became recognized as a qualified fitness organization in Europe.

ACE: American Council on Exercise. ACE is the first U.S. fitness certification provider to earn approval by the EuropeActive Standards Council and this makes ACE certified Personal Trainers and Group Fitness Instructors eligible to join the European Register of Exercise Professionals (EREPS).

EREPS: The European Register of Exercise Professionals (EREPS) is an independent process for the registering of instructors, trainers and teachers working in the European health, fitness and physical activity sector. It is a pan-European system, based on independent national registers, which culminate in a central European database.

New Zealand
New Zealand has one major registration body for exercise professionals – REPs New Zealand. REPs New Zealand is recognised by both Exercise New Zealand (the industry association) and ICREPs.

REPs NZ currently have three major registration categories

1: Exercise Prescription

2: Group Exercise

3; Yoga Teacher

To be eligible to register for REPs you need to have one the below options

a) Completed an initial qualification from a REPs registered Provider

b) Complete a NZ University Degree with an Exercise focus

c) Hold a NZ Certificate in Exercise 4

d) Hold current registration with an ICREPs partner

To maintain your REPs registration you will need to

a) Renew your registration yearly

b) Keep your CPR and First Aid up to date and valid

c) Complete 10CPD points per year

United Kingdom
In the UK, there are several ways to achieve a personal training qualification. Most personal training qualifications are accredited through awarding bodies like Focus Awards, YMCA Awards, VTCT and City and Guilds. These qualifications are generally delivered by Further Education (FE) establishments like colleges, or by private training providers. Upon successful completion of an accredited awarding body qualification, candidates become eligible for CIMSPA Practitioner status.

There is no legal restriction on the title of Personal Trainer nor any formal body associated with regulating Personal Training.

United States
A number of certifications are available in the U.S., although a number are not accredited. Most require a high school diploma, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and automated external defibrillator (AED) certification, and some type of examination.

The United States Registry of Exercise Professionals (USREPS) is the official registry of exercise professionals in the United States and provides clients, employers, healthcare practitioners, policymakers, and insurance providers a single source for finding well-qualified exercise professionals or to verify credentials.

A 2002 investigation evaluated a random sample of 115 personal trainers using the Fitness Instructors Knowledge Assessment (FIKA) (which measures knowledge in nutrition, health screening, testing protocols, exercise prescription, and special populations). The study described that:
 70% of those surveyed did not have a degree in any field related to exercise science.
 Those who did not have a bachelor's degree in an exercise science-related field scored 31% less on average than those with a bachelor's degree or higher in the field.
 Those holding one of two specific certifications (the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) or the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) certification) scored 83% of the questions correctly on average. Those holding any certification other than ACSM or NSCA answered only 38% of the questions correctly.
 Years of experience was not found to be predictive of personal trainer knowledge.

In partnership with the fitness industry, the International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association (IHRSA), which represents over 9,000 health and fitness facilities, started an initiative in 2002 to improve standards for both its own clubs and the industry as a whole. In January 2006, IHRSA implemented a recommendation that its facilities only accept personal trainers with certifications recognized by the National Commission for Certifying Agencies (NCCA) if recognized either by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) and/or the U.S. Department of Education (USDE). As a result, the Distance Education Accrediting Commission (DEAC) was recognized by IHRSA as a recognized accreditor of fitness professional certification organizations.  Since then, the DEAC has accredited several personal trainer certification organizations, including the Athletics and Fitness Association of America (AFAA) and the International Sports Sciences Association (ISSA) among others.  As of now, NASM, ISSA, AFAA, ACSM, ACE, and NSCA certifications are among the 16 accredited certifications recognized by IHRSA, three of which are accredited by the Distance Education Accrediting Commission (DEAC).

Various organizations within the profession have lobbied for the adoption of more stringent criteria for certification developed by the NSF International. There remains no national legal restriction on the industry to date except for the District of Columbia (D.C.) which as of February 2014, passed legislation requiring personal fitness trainers to register in that jurisdiction.

See also
 Physical exercise
 Physical fitness
 Physical training instructor
 Nutritionist
 Professional fitness coach

References

Training
Sports coaches

Personal trainer


Jabberwocky is a 'nonsense poem' written by Lewis Carroll in his 1871 novel Through the Looking-Glass. All the same, it does strangely make a kind of sense.

In an early scene of Alice in Wonderland, Alice finds the verse Jabberwocky. She says (p24)
"Somehow it seems to fill my head with ideasonly I don't exactly know what they are."
This is now thought to be one of the greatest nonsense poems written in English. Its playful, whimsical language has given us nonsense words, portmanteau words and neologisms such as "galumphing" and "chortle".

Origin and publication

The concept of nonsense verse was not original to Carroll. Nonsense existed in Shakespeare's work and was well known in the Brothers Grimm's fairytales, some of which are called lying tales or lügenmärchen.
John Tenniel reluctantly agreed to illustrate the book in 1871, and his illustrations are still the defining images of the poem.

The illustration of the Jabberwock may reflect the Victorian obsession with natural history and the fast-evolving sciences of palaeontology and geology. The works of Darwin and the models of dinosaurs at the Crystal Palace Exhibition helped feed the interest. Perhaps it is not so surprising that Tenniel gave the Jabberwock "the leathery wings of a pterodactyl and the long rough neck and tail of a sauropod".

The poem
Jabberwocky

'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe;
All mimsy were the borogoves,
And the mome raths outgrabe.

"Beware the Jabberwock, my son!
The jaws that bite, the claws that catch!
Beware the Jubjub bird, and shun
The frumious Bandersnatch!"

He took his vorpal sword in hand:
Long time the Manxome foe he sought—
So rested he by the Tumtum tree,
And stood awhile in thought.

And as in uffish thought he stood,
The Jabberwock, with eyes of flame,
Came whiffling through the tulgey wood,
And burbled as it came!

One, two! One, two! and through and through
The vorpal blade went snicker-snack!
He left it dead, and with its head
He went galumphing back.

"And hast thou slain the Jabberwock?
Come to my arms, my beamish boy!
O frabjous day! Callooh! Callay!"
He chortled in his joy.

'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe;
All mimsy were the borogoves,
And the mome raths outgrabe.

Many of the words in the poem are playful words of Carroll's own invention, without special meaning. When Alice has finished reading the poem she gives her impressions:
'It seems very pretty,' she said when she had finished it, 'but it's rather hard to understand!' (You see she didn't like to confess, even to herself, that she couldn't make it out at all.) 'Somehow it seems to fill my head with ideas—only I don't exactly know what they are! However, somebody killed something: that's clear, at any rate'

In Through the Looking Glass, the character of Humpty Dumpty explains to her the nonsense words from the first stanza of the poem. However, Carroll's personal commentary on several of the words differ from Humpty's. An analysis of the poem and Carroll's commentary is given in the book The Annotated Alice by Martin Gardner.

References

19th-century British poems
Lewis Carroll
1870s works

Jabberwocky


Common sage (Salvia officinalis) is a small evergreen subshrub, with woody stems, grayish leaves, and blue to  purplish flowers that grows in southern Europe and the Mediterranean region.

It is much cultivated as a kitchen and medicinal herb, and is also called Garden sage, Kitchen sage, and Dalmatian sage. In southern Europe similar species are sometimes cultivated for the same purpose, and may be confused with the common sage.

It likes warm, quite dry soil with some shade but it will grow in almost any garden soil. It can live through winter but after three to five years the plant is past its best and should be replaced.

Related pages
 Salvia

References
 The Herb Society of America New Encyclopedia of Herbs & Their Uses,i like herbs Deni Bown (New York: DK, 2001)
 A Modern Herbal Mrs M Grieves (Surrey, UK: Merchant, 1973)

Other websites

Medicinal use: from appliedhealth.com
Medicinal use, modern and historical: from botanical.com

Herbs
Salvia

Common sage


The Daily News was a short-lived Irish tabloid newspaper launched in 1982 by Dublin businessman Hugh McLaughlin, the owner of the Sunday Tribune. The paper proved a financial and critical disaster from its first issue on such a scale that it forced its sister paper, the recently launched Sunday Tribune, which had been building its sales, into liquidation.

Among the complaints levelled against the Daily News were its substandard design, poor printing, poor quality and a concept that had little to offer. However, the paper's extremely poor distribution was the single greatest cause of its demise. Quite frequently, the morning edition was not delivered to newsagents in the capital, Dublin, until 8.00am or after — when its target demographic was already in work. This was crucial — if the 'News' could have breached a critical circulation figure, its undercapitalisation could have been remedied, but advertising revenue failed to roll in and McLaughlin was forced to shut it down.

One big mistake proved to be a decision to put a photograph of the topless wife of businessman John DeLorean on the front page. Used without her permission, the publication of the image enraged feminists, infuriated DeLorean, offended many readers and was of such poor quality that even those who wished to see the picture could not see it clearly. Within days of the débâcle the paper folded.

Its sister paper, the Sunday Tribune, was saved from bankruptcy by journalist Vincent Browne, who bought the title. A decade later, another newly launched sister newspaper of the Tribune, the Dublin Tribune, again forced the financially successful Tribune to the brink of closure and again forced a change in ownership. No-one however bought the rights to the Daily News following its closure in 1982.

Notes

1982 establishments in Ireland
1982 disestablishments in Ireland
Defunct newspapers published in Ireland
Newspapers established in 1982
Publications disestablished in 1982

Daily News (Ireland)


Forrest Gump is a 1994 American comedy-drama film based on the 1986 novelle o the same name bi Winston Groom. The film wis directit bi Robert Zemeckis an starns Tom Hanks, Robin Wright, Gary Sinise, Mykelti Williamson, an Sally Field. The story depicts several decades in the life o Forrest Gump, a slow-wittit but kynd-hertit, guid-naiturt an athletically prodigious man frae Alabama wha witnesses, an in some cases influences, some o the definin events o the latter hauf o the 20t century in the Unitit States; mair specifically, the period atween Forrest's birth in 1944 an 1982. The film differs substantially frae Winston Groom's novelle, includin Gump's personality an several events that war depictit.

References

1994 films
1990s comedy-drama films
1990s comin-o-age films
American comedy-drama films
American comin-o-age films
American epic films
Best Drama Pictur Gowden Globe winners
Best Pictur Academy Awaird winners
Cultural depictions o Elvis Presley
Cultural depictions o John F. Kennedy
Cultural depictions o John Lennon
Cultural depictions o Lyndon B. Johnson
Cultural depictions o Richard Nixon
Feectional chairacters wi disability
Inglis-leid films
Feection wi unreliable narrators
Film scores bi Alan Silvestri
Films aboot amputees
Films aboot autism
Films based on American novelles
Films directit bi Robert Zemeckis
Films featurin a Best Actor Academy Awaird-winnin performance
Films featurin a Best Drama Actor Gowden Globe winnin performance
Films set in 1955
Films set in 1962
Films set in 1964
Films set in 1967
Films set in 1969
Films set in 1971
Films set in 1972
Films set in 1974
Films set in 1976
Films set in 1979
Films set in 1981
Films set in 1982
Films set in Alabama
Films set in Arizona
Films set in Cheenae
Films set in San Francisco
Films set in Vietnam
Films set in Washington, D.C.
Films shot in Arizona
Films shot in Californie
Films shot in Maine
Films shot in Montana
Films shot in multiple formats
Films shot in North Carolina
Films shot in Sooth Carolina
Films shot in Utah
Films that wan the Best Veesual Effects Academy Awaird
Films that's director wan the Best Directin Academy Awaird
Films that's director wan the Best Director Gowden Globe
Films that's eeditor wan the Best Film Eeditin Academy Awaird
Films that's writer wan the Best Adaptit Screenplay Academy Awaird
Hippie films
IMAX films
Incest in film
Militar humour in film
Paramount Pictures films
Screenplays bi Eric Roth
Table tennis films
American fitbaa films
Films set in the White Hoose
Unitit States Naitional Film Registry films
Vietnam War films
Nonlinear narrative films

Forrest Gump


Jesse Collings  (2 December 1831 – 20 November 1920) was Mayor of Birmingham, England, a Liberal (later Liberal Unionist) member of Parliament, but was best known nationally in the UK as an advocate of educational reform and land reform.

Background
Collings was the youngest son of Thomas Collings, Littleham-cum-Exmouth, Devon, and Annie Palmer. His father was a bricklayer, who later established a small building firm. He was educated at a Dame School and for a time at Church House School, Stoke, Plymouth. He started work as a shop assistant aged 15 years, later becoming a clerk and a traveller for an ironmongery firm. In 1850, he started working for Booth and Company, a firm of ironmongers in Birmingham; in 1864 he became a partner in the renamed business, Collings and Wallis. In 1879, he retired from the partnership. He came under the influence of George Dawson, worshipped, along with other prominent families, in Dawson's Church of the Saviour, and became an adherent of Dawson's doctrine of the "Civic Gospel".

In 1858 he married Emily Oxenbould, the daughter of a master at King Edward's Grammar School, Birmingham. They had one daughter.

Birmingham Town Council
He was a close friend of Joseph Chamberlain and supported the radical group around Chamberlain in developing local improvement schemes in Birmingham, parks, and what at the time was called "gas-and-water socialism". He took over practical management of the education committee and served as Mayor of Birmingham in 1878–79. He was responsible for free public libraries in Birmingham and was the original proponent of the Birmingham Art Gallery funded from the profits of the gas company.

Free education
Early on, Collings had shown an interest in education by helping to found the Devon and Exeter Boys Industrial School in 1862. He visited America to study its education system and published An Outline of the American School System in 1868. This pamphlet recommended that a similar free and non-sectarian (non-denominational) form of school education to that of the United States should be set up in England and Wales. Collings' pamphlet led directly to the formation of the National Education League by Birmingham Liberals in 1869, with George Dixon as President and Jesse Collings as Secretary. The League became a major campaigning organisation, but the Elementary Education Act 1870 retained the dominance of church schools in providing education for the young in England, Wales and Ireland. Collings called for Local Authorities to be obliged to set up sufficient schools to enable all children to attend; these schools should be inspected by the state and managed by local government; they should be free; and attendance should be compulsory. Collings also advocated the education of women, signing a petition seeking to award degrees to female students at the University of Cambridge in 1880.

Land reform
Collings' background in Devon gave him an appreciation of the problems of the agricultural worker and small-scale farmer rare in a major industrial city like Birmingham. He was a friend of Joseph Arch, the founder of the National Agricultural Labourers Union, who lived in Barford, Warwickshire, near Birmingham. Collings believed that education was essential to improving the conditions of agricultural workers and that it needed to be free. The National Agricultural Workers Union joined the National Education League. Collings ensured that Chamberlain, Mayor of Birmingham and a millionaire industrialist, chaired the meeting in Birmingham to support the Agricultural Workers' first strike. When Chamberlain became President of the Board of Trade, Collings acted as his unofficial advisor on agricultural matters affecting peasants in Britain and Ireland.

Collings advocated land reform through providing allotments and small holdings for the rural poor, landless peasants, and even the industrial poor.  He cited the Chartist settlement at Great Dodford as a successful example of what could be achieved. The slogan for Collings' 1885 land-reform campaign Three Acres and a Cow became the battle cry of land reform and the fight against rural poverty. Three acres and a cow was seen as being sufficient for a family to live on, particularly when compared to the rural poverty common at that time. To some, however, this slogan was backward looking and the source of amusement amongst many Conservatives and farmers.

Joseph Chamberlain adapted the Three Acres and a Cow slogan for his own Radical Programme: he urged the purchase by local authorities of land to provide garden and field allotments for all labourers who might desire them, to be let at fair rents in plots of up to  of arable and three to  of pasture.

Collings founded the Allotments Extension Association in 1883 to promote the formation of allotments and smallholdings. he also collaborated closely with the Highland Land Reform Association.

The 1882 Allotments Extension Act was put through Parliament by Collings. By 1886 there were 394,517 allotments of under  and 272,000 garden allotments (Haywood, 1991).

In 1886, Collings' work defeated Lord Salisbury's Government, which lost the vote on the Queen's speech, when Collings moved his 'Small Holdings Amendment Act'. A Liberal Government under William Ewart Gladstone took its place.

Collings' work also led to 1908 Small Holdings and Allotments Act (which led to 30,000 families being resettled on the land) and the 1919 Land Settlement Act. However, the programme of land reform via allotments and small holdings never made a considerable impact upon the countryside, either in Collings' time or in the interwar period.

Member of Parliament

He was Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for Ipswich from 1880 until he was unseated on petition in April 1886, and then for Birmingham Bordesley from 1886 until 1918 (until 1912 as a Liberal Unionist, when the party was wound up, thereafter as a Conservative).

On Chamberlain's recommendation, Collings served in Gladstone's administration as Parliamentary Secretary to the Local Government Board in 1886, although at a reduced salary. Collings joined the Liberal Unionist group set up by Chamberlain in 1886 as a result of the split with the Gladstonian Liberals over Ireland. Collings served in Salisbury's government as Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department from 1895 to 1902.

Although he served in Parliament from 1880 (with a small interruption) and was a junior minister in two Governments, he was most influential outside Parliament – his ministerial posts were not connected to his lifelong advocacy of free education and land reform.  He was appointed a Privy Counsellor in 1892.

As a Liberal Unionist
The concern of Liberal Unionists was that what they perceived as the need for important reforms was being subordinated to a preoccupation with Ireland. The land reform movement was split. Joseph Arch remained a Gladstonian Liberal and ensured that Collings was deposed from the Allotments Extension Association. Collings later set up the Rural Labourers' League, which supported land reform and advocated tariffs on imported food to support the rural economy. Collings proposed a system of vocational education through free schools in rural areas. Erroneously or not, Collings along with Chamberlain and others believed that land reform in Ireland would give the peasants a stake in the country and reduce poverty, but convinced neither the Liberals nor the Conservatives to attempt it.

He was made an Honorary Freeman of the City of Birmingham in 1911.

Collings published Land Reform in 1906 and in 1914 The Colonization of Rural Britain. He also published The Great War: Its Lessons and Warnings in 1915.

Collings continued to be active in promoting land reform until 1918, when he retired from Parliament on the abolition of his seat when he was then aged 87 and oldest member of the House. He died in November 1920 aged 88.

Portrait
A portrait of Collings, painted circa 1885, by Jonathan Pratt (1835–1911), hangs in Birmingham Council House. It is not in a public area but may be viewed by prior application.

Sources

Collings, J. and Green, J. L. (1920) The life of Jesse Collings (2 vols).

External links

1831 births
1920 deaths
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Urban agriculture
Politics of Birmingham, West Midlands
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Liberal Unionist Party MPs for English constituencies
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 1880–1885
UK MPs 1885–1886
UK MPs 1886–1892
UK MPs 1892–1895
UK MPs 1895–1900
UK MPs 1900–1906
UK MPs 1906–1910
UK MPs 1910
UK MPs 1910–1918
Mayors of Birmingham, West Midlands
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Ipswich

Jesse Collings


A skyscraper is a very tall high-rise building, usually more than 152 metres (500 feet) in height.  Most skyscrapers are built in urban areas such as cities, and they are very common in the central business district (also called downtown) areas of many large cities including New York City, Chicago, London, Paris, Sydney, Beijing, Berlin, Toronto, Moscow, Hong Kong and Tokyo. Skyscrapers  are common in downtown districts where it's more economical to build up instead of out.

History
Originally, the word skyscraper meant a tall sail on a sailing ship. Over time, the word's meaning has changed, and today it means a tall building. Until the nineteenth century, buildings taller than six stories tall were not common. Tall buildings made of weak materials would fall down. In addition, people did not like walking up many steps and running water could only be brought up to fifty feet (15m) high.

Better technology helped make skyscrapers more common. Stronger building materials such as steel and reinforced concrete were developed, so stronger buildings could be made. Water pumps brought water up to heights above fifty feet.

The first building to be considered a skyscraper, the Home Insurance Building, was built in Chicago, Illinois in the United States, and was designed by William LeBaron Jenney. The building, ten stories high, was built from 1884 to 1885. It was destroyed in 1931 because they wanted to build another building in its previous place.

In the same year the Home Insurance Building was destroyed, one of the oldest and most famous skyscrapers, the Empire State Building, opened in New York City. Later in the 20th century, people started building skyscrapers in cities that did not have many tall buildings in the past. In 1973, the then-called Sears Tower in Chicago was finished and became the world's tallest building until the late 1990s. It took the record from the World Trade Center in New York City, which opened in 1970 but was destroyed in the September 11, 2001 attacks.

Many taller buildings have been built since then, including Taipei 101 in Taipei. This building was the world's tallest from 2004 until 2008, when the Burj Khalifa in Dubai opened. Burj Khalifa is at this time the tallest building and man-made structure ever made, but the Jeddah Tower in Jeddah, which is still being built, will be even taller.

Related pages
List of tallest structures in the world
List of tallest buildings in Australia
List of tallest buildings in Thailand
List of tallest buildings in the United States
Urbanization

Skyscraper


An art movement, or ism, is a style in art. It may have a common philosophy, followed by a group of artists. It may be a label given by a critic to describe a type of artwork. It is typical of the post-photography era that art explores new directions.

Some art movements can be pinned down to a time and place, or to particular artists. Verbal explanation of movements may come from the artists themselves, sometimes in the form of an art manifesto (published statement). Quite often, a movement is labelled afterwards by some art historian or critic.

Art movements may be connected to similar ideas in architecture, literature, philosophy or even politics. In rough date order:

 classicism
 neoclassicism
 impressionism
 Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
 post-impressionism
 Art Nouveau
 modern art
 abstract art
 cubism
 fauvism
 futurism
 expressionism
 suprematism
 geometric abstraction
 constructivism
 dadaism
 Art Deco
 surrealism
 contemporary art
 abstract expressionism
 pop art
 op art
 conceptual art

Art movement


The former Illinois State Police Office in Pontiac, Illinois, United States served as the Illinois State Police District 6 headquarters from its construction in 1941 until 2003. The building, located along old U.S. Route 66, was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 2007.

History

Building
The Illinois State Police Office south of Pontiac, Illinois along U.S. Route 66 was constructed in 1941 as the headquarters for the Illinois State Police District 6. The building was one of the first headquarters buildings to be built during the era.

The new headquarters building was constructed and traffic along Route 66 continued to increase throughout the 1940s. In 1944 the route was widened to four lanes through this region of Illinois and two additional highway lanes were constructed directly in front of the building. When Interstate 55 was built about a half mile (800 m) to the west of the route during the 1970s traffic on 66 began to decrease. The Illinois State Police remained headquartered in the Pontiac U.S. Route 66 building until 2003. The building was vacated when a new facility was constructed in Pontiac, the old structure had become expensive to maintain and subject to repeated flooding issues. The building is vacant as of 2003.

After being listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in March 2007, preservationists received word that a bill had passed the Illinois House of Representatives authorizing the state to pass ownership of the building to Livingston County. The bill was sponsored by a state representative from nearby Chenoa, Dan Rutherford, who called the building "part of the heritage of Route 66." A similar bill passed the Illinois Senate on August 23, 2007 and was enacted as law the same day.

District six
The 6th District of the Illinois State Police was originally established as District 9 and it was one of initial five police districts established when the State Police were officially founded in April 1922. Its original base of operations was in Kankakee, as was the headquarters for the entire State Police agency. The district covered Cook, Will, Iroquois, and Vermilion Counties upon its inception. In 1935 the district renamed as District 6, and its coverage area was altered to just include the counties of Kankakee, Ford, Iroquois, McLean and Livingston. It was at this time that the headquarters was moved into a rented building along U.S Route 66 near Pontiac.

The official groundbreaking for the new headquarters took place in August 2001 and was attended by then-Illinois Governor George Ryan. The new headquarters building, a  facility, was the result of successive requests from the Illinois State Police every year since 1979.

Architecture
The Pontiac State Police Office is cast in the Art Moderne style, reflecting the sleek, streamlined look of new automobiles during the era. The streamline effect is reflected through the structure's use of curved corners, smooth surfaces and structural glass bricks. The building's interior contains a large squad room, used for meetings, office space, a public lobby and a garage bay for cars and motorcycles.

The one-story building has two main wings. The north wing was originally the administrative area and the south wing a garage. The building's layout has been referred to as "pistol-shaped." The same design was used by the Illinois State Police in the construction of the headquarters building at Rock Island.

References

External links

Illinois State Police District 6, official website

Government buildings completed in 1941
Police headquarters
National Register of Historic Places in Livingston County, Illinois
Pontiac, Illinois
Buildings and structures on U.S. Route 66
Streamline Moderne architecture in Illinois
Buildings and structures in Livingston County, Illinois
Government buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
State law enforcement agencies of Illinois

Illinois State Police Office (Pontiac)


Environmentalism is both a philosophy and a social movement that is about protecting nature. It advocates helping to preserve, protect, and restore the natural environment from damage.  Environmentalists often talk about threats to the earth from pollution, climate change and overpopulation.  Environmentalism is both personal and political.  In their own lives, environmentalists do things that are better for the earth, such as recycling, using natural products, and supporting businesses that try not to harm the environment.  Politically, they support laws that help the environment, like laws against pollution.

The word Environmentalism comes from 'environmental' and '-ism'.  'Environmental' is the chemical, physical, and biological components of the environment while '-ism' is a suffix used to create action nouns out of verbs.

Related pages
Anti-capitalism
Car-free movement
Climate change
Conservation biology
Earth Day
Ecology
Greenwashing
Reforesting
Simple living
Sustainability
United Nations Environment Programme
Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

Further reading

Differing arguments

References

Environmental issues
Green politics

Environmentalism


Franco-Belgian comics are comics that are made for Belgian and French readers. These countries have a long tradition in comics and comic books.  There they are known as BDs, an abbreviation of bandes dessinées.  This means drawn strips in French. Many other European comics, especially Italian comics, are strongly influenced by Franco-Belgian comics. In Europe, the French language is spoken not only in France but also by about 40% of the population of Belgium and about 20% of the population of Switzerland.

Notable comics
While hundreds of comic series have been made in the Franco-Belgian group, some are more notable than others. Most of those listed are aimed at younger readers:
XIII by William Vance and Jean Van Hamme
Adèle Blanc-Sec by Jacques Tardi
Asterix by René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo
Barbe Rouge by Jean-Michel Charlier, Victor Hubinon and others
Bécassine by Jacqueline Rivière and Joseph Pinchon
Blake and Mortimer by E.P. Jacobs
Blueberry by Jean-Michel Charlier and Jean Giraud
Boule and Bill by Jean Roba
Les Cités Obscures by François Schuiten and Benoît Peeters
Gaston by André Franquin
Incal by Alejandro Jodorowsky and Jean Giraud
Jerry Spring by Jijé
Jommeke by Jef Nys (originally made in Dutch)
Kiekeboe by Merho (originally made in Dutch)
Largo Winch by Philippe Francq and Jean Van Hamme
Lucky Luke by Morris and René Goscinny
Marsupilami by André Franquin
Michel Vaillant by Jean Graton
Nero by Marc Sleen (originally made in Dutch)
Rahan by Roger Lecureux
The Smurfs by Peyo
Spike and Suzy (Dutch: Suske & Wiske) by Willy Vandersteen (originally made in Dutch)
Spirou et Fantasio by André Franquin, Jijé and others
Tanguy et Laverdure by Jean-Michel Charlier, Jijé and others
Thorgal by Grzegorz Rosiński and Jean Van Hamme
The Adventures of Tintin by Hergé
Titeuf by Zep
Les Tuniques Bleues by Willy Lambil and Raoul Cauvin
Valérian and Laureline by Jean-Claude Mézières and Pierre Christin

Comics
Belgian culture
French literature

Franco-Belgian comics


File verification is the process of using an algorithm for verifying the integrity of a computer file, usually by checksum. This can be done by comparing two files bit-by-bit, but requires two copies of the same file, and may miss systematic corruptions which might occur to both files. A more popular approach is to generate a hash of the copied file and comparing that to the hash of the original file.

Integrity verification
File integrity can be compromised, usually referred to as the file becoming corrupted.  A file can become corrupted by a variety of ways: faulty storage media, errors in transmission, write errors during copying or moving, software bugs, and so on.

Hash-based verification ensures that a file has not been corrupted by comparing the file's hash value to a previously calculated value. If these values match, the file is presumed to be unmodified.  Due to the nature of hash functions, hash collisions may result in false positives, but the likelihood of collisions is often negligible with random corruption.

Authenticity verification
It is often desirable to verify that a file hasn't been modified in transmission or storage by untrusted parties, for example, to include malicious code such as viruses or backdoors. To verify the authenticity, a classical hash function is not enough as they are not designed to be collision resistant; it is computationally trivial for an attacker to cause deliberate hash collisions, meaning that a malicious change in the file is not detected by a hash comparison.  In cryptography, this attack is called a preimage attack.

For this purpose, cryptographic hash functions are employed often. As long as the hash sums cannot be tampered with — for example, if they are communicated over a secure channel — the files can be presumed to be intact. Alternatively, digital signatures can be employed to assure tamper resistance.

File formats

A checksum file is a small file that contains the checksums of other files.

There are a few well-known checksum file formats.

Several utilities, such as md5deep, can use such checksum files to automatically verify an entire directory of files in one operation.

The particular hash algorithm used is often indicated by the file extension of the checksum file.

The ".sha1" file extension indicates a checksum file containing 160-bit SHA-1 hashes in sha1sum format.

The ".md5" file extension, or a file named "MD5SUMS", indicates a checksum file containing 128-bit MD5 hashes in md5sum format.

The ".sfv" file extension indicates a checksum file containing 32-bit CRC32 checksums in simple file verification format.

The "crc.list" file indicates a checksum file containing 32-bit CRC checksums in brik format.

As of 2012, best practice recommendations is to use SHA-2 or SHA-3 to generate new file integrity digests;
and to accept MD5 and SHA1 digests for backward compatibility if stronger digests are not available.
The theoretically weaker SHA1, the weaker MD5, or much weaker CRC were previously commonly used for file integrity checks.

CRC checksums cannot be used to verify the authenticity of files, as CRC32 is not a collision resistant hash function --
even if the hash sum file is not tampered with, it is computationally trivial for an attacker to replace a file with the same CRC digest as the original file, meaning that a malicious change in the file is not detected by a CRC comparison.

References

See also
Checksum
Data deduplication

Computer files
Error detection and correction

File verification


Wilhelm Heinrich Erb (30 November 1840 – 29 October 1921) was a German neurologist. He was born in Winnweiler, and died in Heidelberg.

Academic career
In 1864 he received his medical degree from the University of Heidelberg, where for several years he served as an assistant to pathologist Nikolaus Friedreich (1825–1882). As a young man, he also worked for a period of time under Ludwig von Buhl (1816–1880) in Munich. In 1880 Erb attained the chair of special pathology at the University of Leipzig, where he was also appointed head of its policlinic. In 1883 he succeeded Friedreich at the University of Heidelberg, where he worked until his retirement in 1907. Psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926) and neurologists Ernst Julius Remak (1849–1911), Max Nonne (1861–1959) and Paul Julius Möbius (1853–1907)  were among his better known students and assistants.

Up until his death in 1921, he served as honorary president of the Gesellschaft Deutscher Nervenärzte (Society of German Neurologists).

Neurological research
Erb began his medical career in the fields of toxicology and histology, but later his interest switched to neurology, of which he became one of the 19th century's leading neurologists. He extensively used electrodiagnostic testing and demonstrated heightened motor nerve sensitivity in tetanus. He is also credited with popularizing the reflex hammer for use in neurological examinations.

He made early observations associated with syphilis to tabes dorsalis (nerve fiber and nerve cell degeneration). In his research of tabes dorsalis, he tried to find the link between this condition and syphilis. He also made contributions in his research of poliomyelitis, claudication intermittens, and progressive muscular atrophy. In 1878, he described myasthenia gravis, a condition sometimes referred to as the "Erb-Goldflam disease" (named along with neurologist Samuel Goldflam). Myasthenia gravis is a neuromuscular disorder that leads to fatigue and muscle weakness.

He was the author of over 250 medical works, including Handbuch der Elektrotherapie (a textbook on electrotherapy), and an important study on spinal paralysis. In 1891, he contributed to the foundation of the journal, Deutsche Zeitschrift für Nervenheilkunde – in its first volume, he published a survey on muscular dystrophies.

Associated eponyms

 Erb's palsy, also known as Erb-Duchenne palsy (named with French neurologist Guillaume Duchenne de Boulogne) or brachial plexus palsy: a muscular paralysis during childbirth.
 Erb-Charcot paralysis: a rare form of spinal syphilis; named with French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot.
 Erb's point: an anatomical location 2–3 cm above the clavicle. Electrical stimulation over this region causes contraction of various arm muscles.
 Erb-Westphal symptom: a reflex anomaly seen in tabes dorsalis, named with German neurologist Karl Friedrich Otto Westphal.
 Erb's spot: an auscultatory spot in cardiology, located in the third intercostal space, three centimeter to the left, which allows an evaluation of most heart sounds and murmurs.

Selected publications
 Zur Pathologie and pathologische Anatomie peripherischer Paralysen, (Pathology and pathological anatomy of peripheral paralysis), 1867/1868.
 Handbuch der Krankheiten der peripheren cerebrospinalen Nerven (Textbook involving disorders of the peripheral cerebro-spinal nerves), 1874.
 Über eimen wenig bekannten spinalen Symptomenkomplex. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 1875, 12: 357–359. (Erb-Charcot disease – spastic spinal paralysis).
 Handbuch der Krankheiten des Nervensystems. (Textbook on disorders of the nervous system) two volumes. Leipzig, F. C. W. Vogel, 1876–1878.
 Ueber die spastische Spinalparalyse (Tabes dorsal spasmodique, Charcot); (On spastic spinal paralysis), 1877.
 Handbuch der Elektrotherapie, (Textbook of electrotherapy), 1882.

References

External links

1840 births
1921 deaths
People from Donnersbergkreis
German neurologists
Academic staff of Heidelberg University
Academic staff of Leipzig University
People from the Palatinate (region)

Wilhelm Heinrich Erb


Emmanuel Bondeville was a French composer and music administrator, born 29 October 1898 in Rouen, and died 26 November 1987 in Paris. He was a member of the Académie des Beaux-Arts.

Biography
As a young man he was organist at the church of Saint-Nicaise in Rouen and Notre-Dame in Caen. Bondeville lost both his parents when he was 16, and took on various jobs – organist, bank clerk, translator - to get by. He made his beginnings in music around 1923 writing works for piano, symphonic poems, opéras-comiques and opéras. During this time he also travelled around Europe and worked as an assistant in a music shop. He eventually had lessons in harmony and counterpoint from Jean Déré.
In 1935 he became musical director of the radio stations Radio Tour Eiffel, Radio Paris, Radiodiffusion française then artistic director of Radio Monte-Carlo.

From 1949 to 1951 Bondeville was director of the Opéra-Comique, followed by a similar position at the Opéra de Paris from 1952 to 1969.

He was married three time among which to the mezzo-soprano Viorica Cortez, to whom he dedicated his opera Antoine et Cléopâtre, and later to Dominique Plessis (with whom he broadcast programmes entitled 'Une saison d'opéra' on France-Inter)

Works
 Les Illustrations, symphonic triptych comprising :
 Le Bal des pendus (first performed 6 December 1930 by the Lamoureux Orchestra)
 Ophélie (1931)
 Marine (1933)
 L'École des maris (opéra-comique after Molière), premiered at the Opéra-Comique on 19 June 1935 conducted by Albert Wolff
 Madame Bovary, drame lyrique after Flaubert, premiered at the Opéra-Comique on 1 June 1951 in a production by Louis Musy, conducted by Albert Wolff, with Jacqueline Brumaire in the title role.
 Illustrations pour Faust, (1942)
 Gaultier-Garguille, symphonic poem, (1951)
 Symphonie lyrique, (1956)
 Symphonie chorégraphique (1961)
 Antoine et Cléopatre, opera (1972) premiered at the Opéra de Rouen in 1974

Titles, honours
 Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur
 Commandeur de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
 Grand Officier de l'Ordre national du Mérite
 Croix de guerre 1914-1918

References

External links
Biographie
"M. Emmanuel BONDEVILLE (1898-1987)" – Discours sur sa vie de son successeur à l'académie Serge Nigg.

1898 births
1987 deaths
20th-century classical composers
20th-century French composers
20th-century French male musicians
French male classical composers
French opera composers
French radio presenters
Male opera composers
Commanders of the Legion of Honour
Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
Grand Officers of the Ordre national du Mérite
Musicians from Rouen

Emmanuel Bondeville


A digital signature or digital signature scheme is a type of asymmetric cryptography. For messages sent through an insecure channel, a good implementation of digital signature algorithm is one that makes the receiver believe that the message was sent by the claimed sender, and trust the message.

Digital signatures are equivalent to traditional handwritten signatures in many respects; properly implemented digital signatures are more difficult to copy than the handwritten type. Digital signature are implemented using cryptography. Digital signatures can also provide acknowledgement, meaning that the signer cannot successfully claim they did not sign a message, while also claiming their private key remains secret. Digital signatures are regularly used in USA, European countries and India in government as well as private offices. In India certificate called Digital Signing Certificate (DSC) is widely used for e-filing the business related documents and income tax return filing etc.

Digital signatures are often used to implement electronic signatures, a broader term that refers to any electronic data that holds a meaning of a signature, but not all electronic signatures use digital signatures. In some countries, including the United States, and in the European Union, electronic signatures may have legal significance. In India electronic signature do not have any legal significance but digital signature does have legal validity and considered as legally valid signature as per the information technology  act, 2000.

Digital signatures scheme
A digital signature system typically consists of two algorithms:

 A signing algorithm which inputs a message and a private key to output a signature.
 A signature verifying algorithm which given a message, public key and a signature, decides either to accept or reject.

Two main properties are required by the digital signature system:
 A signature generated from a fixed message and fixed private key should verify on that message and the corresponding public key.
 It should be computationally infeasible to generate a valid signature for a person who does not own the private key.

Digital signature security and attacks
The GMR signature scheme:

In 1984, Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali, and Ronald Rivest became the first to strictly define the security requirements of digital signature schemes. They described a hierarchy of attack models for signature schemes, they also present the GMR signature scheme. GMR scheme was proven to be secure against adaptive chosen-message attacks — even when an attacker receives signatures for messages of his choice, this does not allow him to copy a signature for a single additional message.

In their foundational paper, Goldwasser, Micali, and Rivest lay out a hierarchy of attack models against digital signatures:

 In a key-only attack, the attacker is only given the public verification key.
 In a known message attack, the attacker is given valid signatures for a variety of messages known by the attacker but not chosen by the attacker.
 In an adaptive chosen message attack, the attacker first learns signatures on arbitrary messages of the attacker's choice.

They also describe a hierarchy of attack results:

 A total break results in the recovery of the signing key.
 A universal forgery attack results in the ability to forge signatures for any message.
 A selective forgery attack results in a signature on a message of the adversary's choice.
 An existential forgery merely results in some valid message/signature pair not already known to the adversary.

The strongest notion of security, therefore, is security against existential forgery under an adaptive chosen message attack.

Related pages
 Electronic signature
 Cryptography

References

Other websites
 Introduction to cryptography  from the PGP international website

Cryptography

 Introduction to Digital Certificate vs Digital Signature

Digital signature


埃德温·罗伯特·安德森·塞利格曼(,)是一名美國經濟學家,在紐約市哥倫比亞大學度過了他的整個學術生涯。塞利格曼是最著名的成就是租稅收入和公共財政開創性工作。

著作

Books and pamphlets
 Railway Tariffs and the Interstate Commerce Act. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1887.
 The General Property Tax. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1890.
 Progressive Taxation in Theory and Practice (1894). Second Edition. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1908.
 The Shifting and Incidence of Taxation (1899). Second Edition. New York: Macmillan, 1902.
 Report of the Committee of Economists on the dismissal of Professor Ross from Leland Stanford Junior University. Detroit?: The Committee?, 1901.
 The Economic Interpretation of History. New York: Macmillan, 1902.
 Essays in Taxation. New York: Macmillan, 1905.
 Principles of Economics: With Special Reference to American Conditions. New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1905.
 The Income Tax: A Study of the History, Theory and Practice of Income Taxation at Home and Abroad. New York: Macmillan, 1911.
 The Social Evil: With Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York. (Editor.) New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1912.
 An Economic Interpretation of the War. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1915.
 The Next Step in Tax Reform: Presidential Address of Edwin R. A. Seligman, LL. D., Delivered at the Ninth Annual Conference of the National Tax Association, San Francisco, August 11, 1915. New York: National Tax Association, 1915.
 A University School of Business. New York: Columbia University Press, 1916.
 Financial Mobilization for War: Papers Presented at a Joint Conference of the Western Economic Society and the City Club of Chicago, June 21 and 22, 1917. (Editor.) Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1917.
 The House Revenue Bill: A Constructive Criticism. New York: Division of Intelligence and Publicity of Columbia University, 1917.
 Currency Inflation and Public Debts: An Historical Sketch. New York: Equitable Trust Company of New York, 1921.
 A Public Debate: Capitalism vs. Socialism: Professor Edwin R.A. Seligman, Columbia University, vs. Professor Scott Nearing, Rand School of Social Science. New York: The Fine Arts Guild, 1922.
 Stenographer's Report of the Selig vs. Waton Debate. New York: Marx-Engels Institute, 1922.
 Studies in Public Finance. New York: Macmillan, 1925.
 Essays in Economics. New York: Macmillan, 1925.
 The Economics of Instalment Selling: A Study in Consumers' Credit, with Special Reference to the Automobile. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1927.
 The Economics of Farm Relief: A Survey of the Agricultural Problem. New York: Columbia University Press, 1929.
 Price Cutting and Price Maintenance: A Study in Economics. With Robert Alonzo Love. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1932.
 A Report on the Revenue System of Cuba. With Carl S. Shoup. Havana: Talleres tipográficos de Carasa y cía., 1932

Selected articles
  "Economists," in Cambridge History of English and American Literature, 1907.
 "The Crisis of 1907 in the Light of History," in Edwin R.A. Seligman (ed.), The Currency Problem and the Present Financial Situation: A Series of Addresses Delivered at Columbia University 1907-1908. New York: Columbia University Press, 1908.
 "Recent Reports on State and Local Taxation," American Economic Review, 1911.
 "The Crisis in Social Evolution," in Albert Bushnell Hart, et al., Problems of Readjustment After the War. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1915.
 "Tax Exemption Through Tax Capitalization: A Reply," American Economic Review, 1916.
 "How to Finance the War," in E.R.A. Seligman, et al., War Finance Primer. New York: National Bank of Commerce in New York, May 1917.
 "Loans versus Taxes in War Finance," in Financing the War. Philadelphia: Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 75, 1918.
 "Who is the Twentieth Century Mandeville?" American Economic Review, 1918.
 "Are Stock Dividends Income?" American Economic Review, 1919.
 "The Cost of the War and How It Was Met," American Economic Review, vol. 9, no. 4 (Dec. 1919), pp. 739–770.

美國經濟學家
哥倫比亞大學校友
哥倫比亞大學教授
德国犹太裔美国人
苏联科学院通讯院士
美國經濟學會會長

艾德溫·賽里格曼


The European Union (EU) has an independent parliament and civil service which is distinct from those of the 27 member states. It has to pay for expenditure on common policies throughout the EU. Therefore, the EU has an agreed budget of €862 billion for the period 2007-2013. By comparison, the UK expenditure for 2004 alone was estimated at €759 billion.

Setting a budget
The EU has three elements to its government: the Council of Ministers, the European Commission and the European Parliament. All three take a part in setting the annual budget.

Revenue

The EU obtains most of its revenue indirectly by payments from treasuries of member states. Revenue is divided into three categories.

Traditional own resources are taxes raised on behalf of the EU as a whole, principally import duties on goods brought into the EU. These are collected by the state where import occurs and passed on to the EU. States are allowed to keep a proportion of the revenue to cover administration.

VAT based own resources are taxes on EU citizens as a proportion of Value added tax in each member country. VAT rates and exemptions vary in different countries, so a formula is used to create the 'harmonised tax base'. The starting point for calculations is the total VAT raised in a country.

GNI based own resources currently forms the largest contribution to EU funding. A simple multiplier is applied to the calculated GNI for the country concerned. Revenue is currently capped at 1.24% of GNI for the EU as a whole.

Expenditure

The largest single expenditure item is the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) at around 45% of the total budget. The second largest element is the regional policy, at 30%. Foreign policy consumes 8%, administration 6%, research 5%.

Criticisms

"As it stands today [in 2003], the EU budget is a historical relic. Expenditures, revenues and procedures are all inconsistent with the present and future state of EU integration." - The Sapir Report, 2003, p 162.

References
 EU discussion of revenue
 EU Breakdown of revenue
 EU financial report 2004

European Union

European Union budget


The Creative Commons licenses relates to the name of several copyright licenses released on December 16, 2002. The licenses were released by Creative Commons, a United States nonprofit corporation. Everybody can put their own creations under these licenses.

There are four basic license conditions. A simple overview of these four:

 Attribution (BY): Allow others to copy, distribute, display and perform the work and evolved versions of it. They must give the original creator credit for the work.
 Noncommercial (NC): Allow others to copy, distribute, display and perform the work and evolved version of it. They are not allowed to make money with it.
 No Derivative Works (ND): Allow others to copy, distribute, display and perform  the work. They are not allowed to change the work into something else.
 Share Alike (SA): Allow others to distribute evolved works only when they use the same license. See also copyleft.

It is possible to combine the license elements to allow people to use a work under certain conditions. For example, a combination of the first and fourth is called "CC BY-SA". This stands for "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike". With this license other people can use the work for free, but they must give credit to the original creator, and when they make something new with the work they must give it the same "CC BY-SA" license.

Criticism
The Free Software Foundation thinks that the Creative Commons system is confusing, because people often forget to tell which of the licenses they use. Instead they suggest to use the Free Art license.

Related pages
 Creative Commons
 Copyleft
 Free content

References
 Portions of this article are taken from the Creative Commons website, published under the Creative Commons Attribution License v1.0

Other websites
 The full selection of licenses
 Creative Commons web site

Software licences

Creative Commons licenses


A continental divide is a line of raised ground that creates a border between two watersheds. Water falling on one side of the line travels to one ocean, and water on the other side travels to another, perhaps on the other side of the continent.

Because the exact border between bodies of water is usually not very easy to see, the continental divide is not always clear. The International Hydrographic Organization's publication Limits of Oceans and Seas describes the exact boundaries of oceans, but it is not recognized around the world. A complication is that some rivers empty into deserts or inland seas, and so do not end up in the ocean.

Landforms

Continental divide


An electric motor changes electrical energy into mechanical movement.  A dynamo or an electric generator does the reverse: it changes mechanical movement into electric energy.  Most electric motors work by using the force of magnetism.  Electrostatic motors have also been used.

Machines using electric motors include: fans, washing machines, fridges, pumps, and vacuum cleaners.

Inside an Electric Motor
Let's start by looking at the overall plan of a simple two-pole DC electric motor. A simple motor has six parts:
•	Armature or rotor
•	Commutator
•	Brushes
•	Axle
•	Field magnet
•	DC power supply of some sort
An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: A motor uses magnets to create motion. If you have ever played with magnets you know about the fundamental law of all magnets: Opposites attract and likes repel. So if you have two bar magnets with their ends marked "north" and "south," then the north end of one magnet will attract the south end of the other. On the other hand, the north end of one magnet will repel the north end of the other (and similarly, south will repel south). Inside an electric motor, these attracting and repelling forces create rotational motion.

To understand how electric motors work, the key is to understand how electromagnets work. An electromagnet is the basis of an electric motor.

Electric motors are boardly classified in to two different categories i.e. DC (direct current) and AC (Alternating current). With in these categories there are numerous types, each offering unique abilities that suit them well for best applications.

History

In 1821, Michael Faraday made the first electric motor. It worked using the force of magnetism.

He created a simple electromagnet by taking a nail and a wire, wrapping about 100 loops of wire around the nail and connected it to a battery. With this he had a simple electromagnet with north and south pole. In the  middle of the nail he had made a hole and put a spindle into the hole so that the nail could rotate. He then took a horseshoe-shaped magnet and placed the wire wrapped nail in the middle.

He connected the wire of the north pole to the negative pole of the battery and the wire of the south pole to the positive pole. The basic law of magnetism told him what would happen: the north end of the electromagnet would repel the north end of the horseshoe-shaped magnet and would attract the south pole. The same happened on the other side of the nail, with the result that the nail turned.

However, Faraday was not happy with the results because the electromotor turned only once. He later discovered that by simply wrapping the wire multiple times around the nail, he could cause the polarity to change back and forth. These additional "turns" around the nail, caused the wire-wrapped nail to turn continuously around the spindle (as long as the battery is not empty).

Related pages

 Stepper motor

References

Motors
Electricity

Electric motor


Guillermo Portabales (born José Guillermo Quesada Castillo; 6 April 1911 – 25 October 1970) was a Cuban singer-songwriter and guitarist who popularized the guajira style of Cuban music from the 1930s through the 1960s. His languid, melancholy, intensely lyrical guajiras and his elegant, stylish singing made him popular throughout Latin America, where he is still revered.

Discussion of basic data
His father was José Quesada y Perez from Casteiro Oreste Spain and his mother was Marcela Estefania Castillo y Rodriguez from Vueltas Cuba.  His birthplace was Rodas in the old province of Santa Clara (Las Villas). In what is now the Province of Cienfuegos. He grew up in Cienfuegos. His father died when he was about 8 years old, his mother then remarried a man whose last name was Portabales (the director of the Hospital in Cienfuegos), thus where his "stage name" came from.  Portabales was married to a woman named Araminta and had a son Named Guillermo.  Portabales had a brother named Manuel Eleuterio Quesada y Castillo.  His brother was married to Sylvia Ester Ramirez y Gonzalez, who had four children Manuel Antonio Quesada (born in Caracas Venezuela in 1955), José Guillermo Quesada (Born in Caracas Venezuela in 1957), Sylvia Mercedes Quesada (Born in Caracas Venezuela in 1958) and Reynaldo Quesada (Born in Miami Florida in 1960).

As for his birthdate, Helio Orovio, in the original Cuban edition of 1981, left Portabales out entirely. In the usual Soviet-style way, any opponents of the revolution get 'painted out' of history; but Portabales had left Cuba years before the Castro revolution, and most such people still retained their place in official Cuban history. Portabales had even recorded an album for Gema in Cuba in 1960, after the revolution but before Egrem took over all recording rights in Cuba. The later English translation reinstated such 'enemies of the state' as Celia Cruz (who was a determined opponent of the regime) and Portabales, giving 6 April 1914 as his date of birth. Cristobal Díaz Ayala gives 6 April 1911.

The date and place of his death also vary in sources. Orovio's English edition says 1961. This is definitely incorrect, because there are at least three recording session whose dates are later in the 1960s: in 1962/3 in Miami; in 1967/8 in New York, issued on Gema 3070 Viva Portabales; and, above all, in October 1970 in Puerto Rico, just a few days before his death (issued Gema 3086 Sones cubanos: Guillermo Portabales con Los Guaracheros de Oriente). This simple refutation throws doubt upon Orovio's other data, and has led to a general acceptance of Cristobal Díaz's version of 25 October 1970.

He did indeed die on 25 October 1970 while crossing a street in Puerto Rico late at night. He used to perform at a restaurant called Las Palmas in Isla Verde, Puerto Rico and while leaving the restaurant he was hit by a car and dragged several feet.

As for location, Orovio says Isla Verde, Cuba and Díaz says San Juan, Puerto Rico. It is almost unbelievable that the two versions should be so different, and again, it seems right to prefer Díaz, especially as the best-known Isla Verde is in Puerto Rico. Both agree that he died in a traffic accident; he was apparently hit by a car when leaving a gig at the Las Palmas restaurant.

Career
At age 11, Portabales began work as a printer's assistant in Cienfuegos. In 1928, he made his radio debut on the station CMHI, and from then on divided his time between his work as a printer and performing.

In the beginning, Portabales sang a variety of styles — canción, tango, bolero, son — until he discovered that his listeners enjoyed the guajira the most. He thereby refined the style and developed his signature salon guajira style in which he depicted in bucolic terms the life of the Cuban guajiro (the rural campesino). In typical trovadore fashion, Portabales sang and played guitar, sometimes accompanied by a small group. His guajiras have a gentle, lilting rhythm, sometimes mixing with elements of the son or the bolero.

Portabales continued to perform and perfect the guajira until he went to Puerto Rico in 1937. There he became enamoured of the neighboring island and stayed there for two years, singing in theaters, clubs and on the radio. In 1939, he married Puerto Rican Arah Mina López, a journalist who joined him as he returned to Cuba in 1939. Over the years they toured together in Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Panama, New York City, and Tampa.

After returning to Havana, Portabales performed on stage and radio with the Trio Matamoros. He also made a successful tour of United States and took an extended stay in Barranquilla, Colombia. In 1953, Portabales finally settled for good in Puerto Rico, where he continued to record and perform, with occasional tours of the continent. During the 1960s, he expressed his opposition to the Cuban Revolution in several discreetly poetic compositions.

Impact
In 2006 the African group Kékélé released an album, Kinavana, that re-Africanized songs Portabales had composed or performed, giving them new lyrics in the Lingala language and playing them in a Congolese style.  As a Washington Post writer Mark Jenkins said, the 2006 album "celebrates [Portabales], who died before learning that his music had become popular in Africa."

Assessment
Portabales' early work is represented on Tumbao TCD 084 Guillermo Portabales: El creador de la guajira de salón 1937–1943: Al vaivén de mi carreta. It is this CD, with its liner notes, which may be the source of the incorrect dates.

His voice, and particularly his guitar technique, improved greatly with experience. This is quite clear from the recordings in his fifties, represented by World Circuit WCD 023 Guillermo Portabales, El Carretero. This includes examples from his three recording sessions in the 1960s

For the quality of his voice, its purity and its subtle evocation of emotion, and the exceptionally high calibre of his guitar technique – which is certainly worth attention by young musicians – Portabales must be rated as a performer of the highest calibre even given the unusually high standards of Cuban popular music.

His style is on the Spanish side of creole in contrast to many other Cuban trova performers in the 20th century: his music is clearly in the tradition of the old Spanish-descent countryside people, the guajiros. His repertoire was originally wide, but he came to specialize in guajira-sons and laments, together with some guaracha-sons. With his smooth style, he was known as the creator of la guajira de salón. As a composer he was perhaps not so important as his rootsier compatriot, Ñico Saquito, but what he did compose was of high quality, and still is popular.

Three of his noteworthy compositions: El carretero; Nostalgia guajira; Cumbiamba;
Cuando salí de Cuba(composed by the argentinian Luis Aguile in 1967) was one of his famous songs as well.

References

External links

1911 births
1970 deaths
Cuban male guitarists
Cuban songwriters
Male songwriters
Guajira (music) musicians
World Circuit (record label) artists
20th-century Cuban male singers
20th-century guitarists
Orquesta Riverside members

Guillermo Portabales


An arena is an enclosed aurie that shawcases theatre, muisical performances or sportin events.

Arena mey an aa refer tae:

Places an jurisdictions
 Arena, Iran
 Arena, Calabria, Italy
 Arena, Mauritania, Auncient ceety an umwhile bishopric in Roman Africae, nou Laitin Catholic teetular see
 Arena Po, Italy
 San Carlo all'Arena, Italy
 Arena, Saskatchewan, Canadae
 Arena, Californie, Unitit States
 Point Arena, Californie, Unitit States
 Arena Township, Lac qui Parle Coonty, Minnesota, Unitit States
 Arena, North Dakota, Unitit States
 Arena (toun), Wisconsin, Unitit States
 Arena, Wisconsin, Unitit States
 La Arena District, Peru
 San Juan de la Arena (L'Arena), Spain

Airchitectur
 Allianz Arena, a fitbaa stadium in Munich, Germany
 Amsterdam Arena, a fitbaa stadium in Amsterdam, the Netherlands
 Arena Corinthians, a fitbaa stadium in São Paulo, Brazil
 ECW Arena, multipurpose sports venue in Philadelphia, Pennsylvanie umwhile kent as The Arena
 3Arena, an indoor muisic venue in Dublin, Ireland
 Kombank Arena, ane o the lairgest European multifunctional induir sport arenas locatit in Belgrade, Serbie
 Filoil Flying V Arena, an induir sportin arena in San Juan City, Philippines
 Arena at Gwinnett Center, an induir arena in Duluth, Georgie (U.S. state)
 Hala Arena, a sports an muisic venue in Poznań, Poland
 Arena Leipzig, an induir sportin arena in Leipzig, Germany
 MSV-Arena, a fitbaa stadium in Duisburg, Germany
 Oracle Arena, an induir sportin arena in Oakland, Californie
 The Arena, Ottawa, a umwhile induir ice hockey arena in Ottawa, Canadae
 Porsche-Arena, an induir sportin arena in Stuttgart, Germany
 Pula Arena, the auncient Roman amphitheatre locatit in Pula, Croatie
 Red Bull Arena (disambiguation), three fitbaa stadiums
 Verona Arena, the auncient Roman amphitheatre locatit in Verona, Italy, famous for the opera performances
 Arena Zagallo, a proponed fitbaa stadium in Maceió, Brazil
 Arena Zagreb, multipurpose sports haw locatit in Zagreb, Croatie
 Türk Telekom Arena, a fitbaa stadium in Istanbul, Turkey

Airts an Media

Film
 Arena (1989 film), a science feection film starnin Paul Satterfield an Claudia Christian
 The Arena (1974 film), a 1974 gladiator, B-movie, starnin Pam Grier
 Arena (1953 film), a 1953 Western 3-D film, starnin Gig Young
 The Arena (2001 film), a direct-tae-video remak o the 1974 film frae producer Roger Corman, starnin Karen McDougal an Lisa Dergan
 Arena (2009 film), a 2009 Portuguese short film
 Arena (2011 film), a 2011 American film
 Arena (2013 film), a 2013 Roushie film

Gemmin
 Arena Entertainment, a Mirrorsoft video gemme label
 ArenaNet, a computer gemme developer an pairt o NCsoft Corporation
 Quake III Arena, a multiplayer first-person shuiter released on December 2, 1999
 The Elder Scrolls: Arena, the first gemme in The Elder Scrolls series, released in 1994
 Wing Commander Arena, a multiplayer Xbox 360 gemme
 Arena, a gameplay mode for Team Fortress 2
 OpenArena, a multiplayer first-person shuiter, free an opensoorce

Muisic
 Arena (Duran Duran album), a 1984 live album bi Duran Duran
 Arena (Asia album), a 1996 album bi the baund Asia
 Arena (Todd Rundgren album), a 2008 album bi Todd Rundgren
 Arena (An Absurd Notion), a 1985 concert film bi Duran Duran
 Arena (band), a Breetish progressive rock baund
 Arena rock, a form o rock muisic
 Arena di Verona Festival, an opera festival in Verona, Italy
 "The Arena", a 1966 sang bi Al Hirt

Prentit warks
 "Arena" (short story), a 1944 science feection story bi Fredric Brown
 Countdown: Arena, a comic book series, published in 2007 bi DC Comics
 Arena, a 2013 novelle bi Simon Scarrow an T.J. Andrews

Periodicals
 Arena (magazine), a Breetish style an entertainment magazine for men
 Arena (Swadish magazine), a Swadish magazine on cultur an politics
 Arena Three, a Breetish magazine for homosexual weemen published bi the Minorities Research Group
 The Arena (magazine), an early 20t century (1899–1909) American liberal leeterar an poleetical magazine
 Arena (Australie publishin co-operative)
 L'Arena, Italian newspaper

Televeesion
 Arena (G4 TV series), a G4 series aboot team competin in multiplayer video gemmes
 Arena (TV platform), a German pay TV network
 Arena (TV network), an Australie cable channel
 "Arena" (Star Trek: The Original Series), a 1967 episode o Star Trek
 Arena (TV series), a lang runnin BBC Breetish documentary telly series
 The Arena (TV series), a debate-style telly shaw produced in Singapore
 Astro Arena (TV channel), Malaysie pay-TV channel
 Arena (miniseries), a 1976 Australian mini series

Fowk
 Bruce Arena (born 1951), American association fitbaa coach
 Gildo Arena (1921–2005), Italian water polo player an freestyle soummer
 Lello Arena (born 1953), Italian actor
 Marie Arena (born 1966), Belgian politeecian
 Maurizio Arena (1933–1979), Italian actor
 Romina Arena (born 1980), Italian-American sangster-sangwriter
 Tina Arena (born 1967), Australie sangster
 Walter Arena (born 1964), Italian race walker

Computin
 Arena (saftware), simulation saftware
 Arena (wab brouser), a wab brouser developed bi the W3C for testin support for HTML 3 an Cascading Style Sheets
 Arena allocation, a memory management technique that allaes for efficient deallocation

Sports
 Arena fitbaa, a variety o gridairn fitbaa
 Arena Football League, an American induir fitbaa league
 Arena (soumwear), an Italian brand o competitive swimwear

Acronyms
ARENA mey refer tae:
 The Australie Renewable Energy Agency
 Naitionalist Republican Alliance, a poleetical pairty o El Salvador
 Naitional Renewal Alliance Pairty, a umwhile pairty o Brazil
 Umwhile name o the Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reportin in Americae

Ither uises
 Arena (coontermeisur), a Roushie active pertection seestem for tanks
 Arena tram stap in the Lunnon Borough o Croydon
 Arena (UTA station) in Salt Lake City
 Arena Pharmaceuticals, a biopharmaceutical company locatit in San Diego, Californie

See an aa
 Arenavirus
 Arenas (disambiguation)
 Larena (disambiguation)

Arena (disambiguation)