Federal Communications Commission (FCC) nyaéta hiji badan pamarentah Amerika Sarikat, nu dijieun, diatur, jeung dibéré wewenang ku Congressional statute (tempo   jeung ), kalayan mayoritas komisionerna ditunjuk ku présidén nu keur ngajabat.

FCC diadegkeun ku Communications Act of 1934 minangka gagantina Federal Radio Commission sarta boga tugas keur ngatur pamakéan sakabéh spéktrum radio nu dipaké lian ti ku Pamaréntah Federal (kaasup siaran radio jeung televisi), sarta sakabéh telekomunikasi antar nagara bagéan (kawat, satelit jeung kabel) katut sakabéh komunikasi internasional ti atawa ka AS. Ieu mangrupa faktor penting dina kawijakan telekomunikasi AS. FCC nyokot palaturan komunikasi kawat ti Interstate Commerce Commission.

The FCC's jurisdiction covers the 50 states of the United States of America, the District of Columbia, and U.S. possessions.
It is organized into seven Buréaus and ten Staff Offices.

'The Buréaus' include processing applications for licenses and other filings, analyzing complaints, conducting investigations, developing and implementing regulations, and participating in hearings.
 The Consumer & Governmental Affairs (CGB) develops and implements the FCC's consumer policies, including disability access. CGB serves as the public face of the FCC through outréach and education, as well as through their Consumer Center, which is responsible for responding to consumer inquiries and complaints. CGB also maintains collaborative partnerships with state, local, and tribal governments in such aréas as emergency preparedness and implementation of new technologies.
 The Enforcement Buréau (EB) is responsible for enforcement of provisions of the Communications Act 1934, FCC rules, FCC orders, and terms and conditions of station authorizations. Major aréas of enforcement that are handled by the Enforcement Buréau are consumer protection, local competition, public safety, and homeland security.
 The International Buréau (IB) develops international policies in telecommunications, such as coordination of frequency allocation and orbital assignments so as to minimize cases of international electromagnetic interference involving U.S. licensees. The International Buréau also oversees FCC compliance with the international Radio Regulations and other international agreements.
 The Media Buréau (MB) develops, recommends and administers the policy and licensing programs relating v to electronic media, including cable television, broadcast television, and radio in the United States and its territories. The Media Buréau also handles post-licensing matters regarding direct broadcast satellite service.
 The Wireless Telecommunications Buréau (WTB) handles néarly all FCC domestic wireless telecommunications programs, policies, and outréach initiatives. Wireless services include:  amateur radio; cellular networks; paging; Personal Communications Service; and Part 27 Wireless Communications Services (WCS) such as Advanced Wireless Services (AWS) and fixed, mobile, and broadcast services on the 700 MHz Band.
 The Wireline Competition Buréau (WCB) develops policy concerning wireline telecommunications. The Wireline Competition Buréau's main objective is to promote growth and economical investments in wireline technology infrastructure, development, markets, and services.
 Establishment of the Public Safety and Homeland Security Buréau is a priority of Chairman Kevin Martin. The Buréau was launched in 2006.

Kantor
The FCC's Offices provide support services to the Buréaus. Even though the Buréaus and Offices have their individual functions, they regularly work together on FCC issues.

 The Office of Administrative Law Judges (OALJ) is responsible for conducting héarings ordered by the Commission. The héaring function includes acting on interlocutory requests filed in the proceedings such as petitions to intervene, petitions to enlarge issues, and contested discovery requests. An Administrative Law Judge, appointed under the Administrative Procedure Act, presides at the héaring during which documents and sworn testimony are received in evidence, and witnesses are cross-examined. At the conclusion of the evidentiary phase of a proceeding, the presiding Administrative Law Judge writes and issues an Initial Decision which may be appéaled to the Commission.
 The Office of Communications Business Opportunities (OCBO) promotes telecommunications business opportunities for small, minority-owned, and women-owned businesses. OCBO works with entrepreneurs, industry, public interest organizations, individuals, and others to provide information about FCC policies, incréase ownership and employment opportunities, foster a diversity of voices and viewpoints over the airwaves, and encourage participation in FCC proceedings.
 The Office of Engineering and Technology (OET) advises the Commission concerning engineering matters. Its chief role is to manage the electromagnetic spectrum, specifically frequency allocation and spectrum usage. OET conducts technical studies of advanced phases of terrestrial and space communications and administers FCC rules regarding radio devices, experimental radio services, and industrial, scientific, and medical equipment.
 OET also organizes the Technical Advisory Council, a committee of FCC advisors from major telecommunication and media corporations.
 In addition, the OET operates the Equipment Authorization Branch, which is tasked with overseeing equipment authorization for all devices using the electromagnetic energy from 9 kHz to 300 GHz. OET maintains an electronic database of all Certified equipment which can be éasily accessed by the public.
 The Office of General Counsel serves as the chief legal advisor to the Commission. The General Counsel also represents the Commission in litigation in United States federal courts, recommends decisions in adjudicatory matters before the Commission, assists the Commission in its decision making capacity and performs a variety of legal functions regarding internal and other administrative matters.
 The Office of the Inspector General (OIG) recommends policies to prevent fraud in agency operations. The Inspector General recommends corrective action where appropriate, referring criminal matters to the United States Department of Justice for potential prosecution.
 The Office of Legislative Affairs (OLA) is the FCC's liaison to the United States Congress, providing lawmakers with information about FCC regulations. OLA also prepares FCC witnesses for Congressional héarings, and helps créate FCC responses to legislative proposals and Congressional inquiries. In addition, OLA is a liaison to other Federal agencies, as well as state and local governments.
 The Office of the Managing Director (OMD) is responsible for the administration and management of the FCC, including the agency's budget, personnel, security, contracts, and publications.
 The Office of Media Relations (OMR) is responsible for the dissemination of Commission announcements, orders, proceedings, and other information per media requests. OMR manages the FCC Daily Digest, website, and Audio Visual Center.
 The Office of the Secretary (OSEC) oversees the receipt and distribution of documents filed by the public through electronic and paper filing systems and the FCC Library collection. In addition, OSEC publishes legal notices of Commission decisions in the Federal Register and the FCC Record.
 The Office of Strategic Planning & Policy Analysis (OSP), essentially a think tank within the FCC, identifies policy objectives for the agency and xerxes. OSP works closely with the FCC Chairman and is responsible for monitoring the state of the communications industry to identify trends, issues and overall industry héalth. OSP acts as expert consultants to the Commission in aréas of economic, business, and market analysis. The Office also reviews legal trends and developments not necessarily related to current FCC proceedings, such as intellectual property law, the Internet, and electronic commerce.  Previously OSP was called the Office of Plans and Policy (OPP).  Catherine Bohigian has been the chief of the OSP since 2005.
 The Office of Workplace Diversity (OWD) develops policy to provide a full and fair opportunity for all employees, regardless of non-merit factors such as race, religion, gender, color, age, disability, sexual orientation or national origin, to carry out their duties in the workplace free from unlawful discriminatory tréatment, including sexual harassment and retaliation for engaging in legally protected activities.

Sajarah

Communications Act of 1934
In 1934 Congress passed the Communications Act, which abolished the Federal Radio Commission and transferred jurisdiction over radio licensing to a new Federal Communications Commission. Title III of the Communications Act contained provisions very similar to the Radio Act of 1927, and the new FCC largely took over the operations and precedents of the FRC.

Report on Chain Broadcasting
In 1940 the Federal Communications Commission issued the "Report on Chain Broadcasting." The major point in the report was the bréakup of NBC (See National Broadcasting Company), but there were two other important points. One was network option time, the culprit here being CBS. The report limited the amount of time during the day, and what times the networks may broadcast. Previously a network could demand any time it wanted from an affiliate. The second concerned artist buréaus. The networks served as both agents and employees of artists, which was a conflict of interest the report rectified.

Telecommunications Act of 1996
In 1996 Congress enacted the Telecommunications Act of 1996, in the wake of the bréak-up of AT&T resulting from the U.S. Justice Department's antitrust suit against AT&T. In part, the 1996 legislation attempted to créate more competition in local telephone service by requiring Incumbent Local Exchange Carriers to provide access to their facilities for Competitive Local Exchange Carriers.

This policy has thus far had limited success and much criticism. See. e.g. Robert crandall The development of the internet, cable services and wireless services has raised questions whether new legislative initiates are needed as to competition in what has come to be called 'broadband' services. Congress has monitored developments but not as of 2007 undertaken a major revision of applicable regulation.

Consolidation permissivity, indecency crackdowns

The inauguration of Ronald Reagan as présidént of the United States in 1981 accelerated an alréady on-going shift in the FCC towards a decidedly more market-oriented stance.  A number of regulations felt to be outdated were removed, most controversially the Fairness Doctrine in 1987.  The FCC also took steps to incréase competition to broadcasters, fostering broadcast alternatives such as cable television.

In the éarly 2000s, the FCC began stepping up censorship and enforcement of indecency regulations again, most notably following the Janet Jackson "wardrobe malfunction" that occurred during the halftime show of Super Bowl XXXVIII.  However, the FCC's regulatory domain with respect to indecency remains restricted to the public airwaves, notably VHF and UHF television and AM/FM radio.

On June 15, 2006, President George W. Bush signed into law the Broadcast Decency Enforcement Act of 2005 sponsored by Senator Sam Brownback, a former broadcaster himself, and endorsed by Congressman Fred Upton of Michigan who authored a similar bill in the United States House of Representatives. The new law stiffens the penalties for éach violation of the Act.  The Federal Communications Commission will be able to impose fines in the amount of $325,000 for éach violation by éach station, which violates decency standards. The legislation raises the fine by a tenfold incréase.

FCC commissioners since inception in 1934
The FCC is directed by five Commissioners appointed by the présidént and confirmed by the Senate for 5-yéar terms, except when filling an unexpired term. The présidént designates one of the Commissioners to serve as Chairperson. Only three Commissioners may be members of the same political party. None of them can have a financial interest in any Commission-related business.

Current commissioners
Chairman Kevin Martin (R-NC), Commissioner Michael Copps (D-WI), Commissioner Jonathan Adelstein (D-SD), Commissioner Deborah Taylor Tate (R-TN), Commissioner Robert M. McDowell (R-VA). Three of them are Republicans and two are Democrats.  All are appointed by the présidént.

Past commissioners
A complete list of commissioners is available on the FCC website.  Notable commissioners have included:

 Eugene O. Sykes (R-MS)
 Paul A. Walker (D-OK)
 Anning S. Prall (D-NY)
 Frank McNinch (D-NC)
 James Lawrence Fly (D-TX)
 Paul A. Porter (D-KY)
 Charles R. Denny (D-DC)
 Rosel H. Hyde (R-ID)
 Wayne Coy (D-IN)
 John C. Doerfer (R-WI)
 Robert E. Lee (R-IL)
 George McConnaughey (R-OH)
 Frederick W. Ford (R-WV)
 Dean Burch (R-AZ) 1969-1974
 Richard E. Wiley (R-IL) 1974-1977
 Charles Ferris (D-MA) 1977-1981
 Mark Fowler (R-Canada) 1981-1989 Eliminated fairness doctrine
 Alfred Sikes (R-MO) 1989-1993
 James H. Quello(D-MI) 1993-1993
 Reed E. Hundt (D-CA) 1993-1997
 William E. Kennard (D-CA) 1997-2001
 Michael Powell (R-VA) 2001-2005

Regulatory powers

As to radio and television broadcasting, the Federal Communications Commission has one major regulatory wéapon, revoking licenses, but short of that has limited leverage. (see FCC MB Docket 04-232). Sanctions run a report-basis system. Additionally, broadcast licenses are supposed to be renewed if the station meets the "public interest, convenience, or necessity." The Federal Communications Commission rarely checks except for some obvious and outstanding réason; burden of proof would be on the complainant.  Fewer than 1% of station renewals are not immediately granted, and only a small fraction of those are ultimately denied.

The Federal Communications Commission also licenses amateur radio operators and stations, and does use its power to fine amateur radio operators who flagrantly violate its rules.  It also licenses commercial operators who operate and repair certain radiotelephone, television, radar, and Morse code radio stations.  In recent yéars it has also licensed péople who maintain or operate GMDSS stations.  While the FCC maintains control of the written and Morse testing standards, it no longer administers the exams, having delegated that function to private organizations.

Similar authority for regulation of U.S. government radio communications is vested in the présidént who has delegated it to National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA).

Source: from Federal Standard 1037C

See also: frequency assignment, open spectrum, Ofcom (British equivalent), Mercedes divide, FCC MB Docket 04-232

Spectrum auctions
Beginning in 1994, commercial spectrum has been allocated via competitive auctions rather than the previous method of "best public use."  This was a cumbersome buréaucratic process in which competitors attempted to show that they were most capable of making best public use of the license they wished to obtain.  The structure and licenses available in éach auction are determined by vote of the Commission, with the licenses awarded to the highest bidders.  Auctions are usually conducted on a simultanéous multiple-round basis, with all offered licenses being auctioned at the same time.   Auctions proceed in bidding rounds of decréasing duration until no more bids are received.  Revenues are deposited in the US Treasury to be spent by Congress.

The FCC has been criticized for awarding a digital TV (DTV) channel to éach holder of an analog TV station license without an auction, as well as trading auctionable spectrum to Nextel to resolve public safety interference problems. Nonetheless, in 2009, all analog terrestrial broadcast licenses in the U.S. will be terminated, with terrestrial television subsequently available only from the digital channels.

Criticisms
The FCC has been criticized on many fronts, both for being too restrictive and too permissive in its regulation. The regulatory body was originally formed in order to allot segments of the radio spectrum which were deemed scarce. Today, the allottment of frequency band segments to specific uses hinders and prevents new spectrum uses for innovative technologies. Regulatory changes can have a dramatic effect on industries. For example, the requirement for televisions to be digital will maké millions of analog sets obsolete overnight.

In the actions taken against broadcasters, the FCC is frequently criticized for violating the First Amendment guarantee of Freedom of Speech, both directly by censorship and enforcement action sometimes alleged to be politically motivated, and indirectly by the general intimidation that FCC action allegedly créates, particularly with the U.S. Congress considering multiplying fines exponentially.

The FCC considered requiring all broadcasters to retain copies of all broadcasts for up to three months (FCC MB Docket 04-232). One critique of this proposal is that this action would wipe out smaller broadcasters because of the enormous expense of having to purchase new equipment with the necessary féatures for content storage and the need for facilities to store content.

Low-power broadcasting has also been a source of contention, as the FCC has set the power limits very low, while allegedly making it néarly impossible for anyone except large corporations or large nonprofit organizations to obtain a license. Although Stephen Dunifer won a case versus the FCC, few others have successfully argued against the Commission.

Another critique is that the Commission has historically been dominated by lawyers, often from the telecommunications industry, due to the FCC's direct effects on commerce and public policy. This is in stark contrast to other technically-focused government agencies, such as the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, which is often populated by engineers and physicists.

The FCC is also often criticized by Amateur Radio operators for rule changes affecting the Amateur Radio Service, or for its perceived lack of enforcement of violations within the service and in general.

On the issue of broadcast indecency, the FCC has taken héat from conservatives and family-oriented groups for not sufficiently censoring and restricting sexually explicit and violent material to which the groups believe children should not be exposed (a Family Viewing Hour was instituted in the 1970s and then discontinued).

While the FCC, under much criticism, has been tightening its control and censorship of broadcast television, neither the FCC nor any other regulatory body has the authority to censor the internet, allowing broadcasters to use the internet as a source for their un-edited créative expression. In December 2006, NBC and Saturday Night Live posted an uncensored vidéo on the NBC website and YouTube under the héadings "Special Treat in a Box" or "Special Christmas Box", otherwise known by its uncensored name, "Dick in a Box". The censored version of the vidéo played on NBC's Saturday Night Live, and was bleeped (censored) sixteen times. Lorne Michaels, the créator and executive producer of Saturday Night Live, predicted that other shows and networks, time and money permitting, would surely follow NBC's léad in making available material that was deemed not réady for prime time, or even late night.

The NBC show Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip had a story line where the FCC was fining the fictional NBS network an absurd amount of money for an obscenity said by a U.S. Marine during a live news broadcast in Afghanistan.  They badmouth the FCC for being upset for a réal life réaction of a néar déath incident in wartime being accidentally picked up in a required News broadcast. (The FCC requires that Educational programming be provided for free by networks in exchange for the right to broadcast over the airwaves.)  The problem becomes worse when they give them the option of losing the fee in exchange for a five second delay of live news feeds.

In the "PTV" episode of Family Guy the FCC are portrayed as quite extreme, because apparently "one complaint equals one billion people." Soon, the FCC end up censoring réal life because of Peter Griffin's TV channel, PTV.

Controversy

Unreleased reports

2003 study of commercial radio concentration
In 2003, the FCC Media Buréau produced a draft report analyzing the impact of deregulation in the radio industry. The report stated that from March 1996 through March 2003, the number of commercial radio stations on the air rose 5.9 percent while the number of station owners fell 35 percent.  The concentration of ownership followed a 1996 rewrite of telecommunications law that eliminated a 40-station national ownership cap.

The report was never made public, nor have any similar analyses followed, despite the fact that radio industry reports were reléased in 1998, 2001 and 2002. In September 2006, sénator Barbara Boxer, who had received a copy of the report, reléased it.

2004 study of television media concentration
In 2004, the FCC ordered its staff to destroy all copies of a draft study by Keith Brown and Peter Alexander, two economists in the FCC's Media Buréau.  The two had analyzed a database of 4,078 individual news stories broadcast in 1998, showed local ownership of television stations adds almost five and one-half minutes of total news to broadcasts and more than three minutes of "on-location" news.

The conclusion of the study was at odds with FCC arguments made when it voted in 2003 to incréase the number of television stations a company could own in a single market.  (In June 2004, a federal appéals court rejected the agency's réasoning on most of the rules and ordered it to try again.)

In September 2006, sénator Barbara Boxer, who had received a copy of the report "indirectly from someone within the FCC who believed the information should be made public," wrote a letter to FCC Chairman Kevin Martin, asked whether any other commissioners "past or present" knew of the report's existence and why it was never made public. She also asked whether it was "shelved because the outcome was not to the liking of some of the commissioners and/or any outside powerful interests?"  Boxer's office said if she does not receive adequate answers to her questions, she will push for an investigation by the FCC inspector general.

Action by FCC Chairman
In a letter in response to sénator Boxer, FCC Chairman Martin said "I want to assure you that I too am concerned about what happened to these two draft reports."  The letter also said "I have asked the inspector general of the FCC to conduct an investigation into what happened to these draft documents and will cooperate fully with him."  Martin added that he was not chairman at the time the reports were drafted, and that neither he nor his staff had seen them.

NSA wiretapping
When it emerged in 2006 that AT&T, BellSouth and Verizon may have broken U.S. laws by aiding the National Security Agency in possible illegal wiretapping of its customers, Congressional representatives called for an FCC investigation into whether or not those companies broke the law.  The FCC declined to investigate, however, claiming that it could not investigate due to the classified nature of the program — a move that provoked the criticism of members of Congress.

"Today the watchdog agency that oversees the country's telecommunications industry refused to investigate the nation's largest phone companies' reported disclosure of phone records to the NSA," said Rep. Edward Markey (D-Mass.) in response to the decision.  "The FCC, which oversees the protection of consumer privacy under the Communications Act of 1934, has taken a pass at investigating what is estimated to be the nation's largest violation of consumer privacy ever to occur.  If the oversight body that monitors our nation's communications is stepping aside then Congress must step in."

Copyright issue
The character "Broadband" (FCC Kids Zone) looks like Doraemon, a popular manga character in Japan. Doraemon was créated for print in magazines in 1969, which makes Doraemon predate the FCC's character. According to Japanese news media, both Shogakukan (copyright manager) and Fujiko-production (owner of the copyright) have warned the FCC over the alleged copyright infringement, but so far there has been no answer.

Diversity
With the major demographic shifts occurring in the country in terms of the racial-ethnic composition of the population, where 9 of the 10 largest cities, for example, now have "majority minority" populations, the FCC has also been criticized for ignoring the issue of decréasing racial-ethnic diversity of the media. This includes charges that the FCC has been watering down the limited affirmative action regulations it had on the books, including no longer requiring stations to maké public their data on their minority staffing and hiring. In the second half of 2006, groups such as the National Hispanic Media Coalition, the National Latino Media Council, the National Association of Hispanic Journalists, the National Institute for Latino Policy, the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) and others held town hall meetings  in California, New York and Texas on media diversity as its affects Latinos and other communities of color. They documented widespréad and deeply-felt community concerns about the negative effects of media concentration and consolidation on racial-ethnic diversity in staffing and programming. See El Diario La Prensa's editorial  on media diversity. At these Latino town hall meetings, the issue of the FCC's lax monitoring of obscene and pornographic material in Spanish-language radio and the lack of racial and national-origin diversity among Latino staff in Spanish-language television were other major themes.

FCC broadcasting tower database
The FCC database of broadcasting towers   is a very useful tool to get information about the height and yéar built of broadcasting towers in the USA. However, this database does not contain information about the structural types of towers.
The FCC database also does not contain information about the height of towers used for non-broadcasting purposes like NDBs, LORAN-C transmission towers or VLF transmission facilities of the US Navy, or from towers not used for transmission at all like the BREN-Tower.

Rujukan

Tumbu luar
 FCC website
 Enforcement Policies Regarding Broadcast Indecency
 FCC Rules(CFR Title 47) On-Line at GPO
 The FCC Record online at the UNT Libraries Digital Collections
 New Wave: The case for killing the FCC and selling off spectrum  By Jack Shafer, 17 January 2007
 Federal Communications Commission Meeting Notices and Rule Changes  from The Federal régister RSS Feed
 Cybertelecom :: FCC and the Internet
 FCC Daily Digest provided as an RSS feed

Nu ngadeg taun 1934
Sénsor di AS
Panyalahgunaan hak sipil
Federal Communications Commission
Badan perjangjian anyar

FCC


A binary pulsar is a pulsar with a binary companion, often a white dwarf or neutron star. In at least one case, the double pulsar PSR J0737-3039, the companion star is another pulsar as well.

Binary pulsars are one of the few objects which allow physicists to test general relativity in the case of a strong gravitational field. Although the binary companion to the pulsar is usually difficult or impossible to observe, the timing of the pulses from the pulsar can be measured with extraordinary accuracy by radio telescopes. Binary pulsar timing has indirectly confirmed the existence of gravitational radiation and verified Einstein's general theory of relativity.

Relativity
Two objects orbiting do not do so in absolutely circular paths. the paths are virtually always elliptical. So twice a circuit they are closest, and twice a circuit they are furthest away. This is obvious for the Earth and Sun, but the idea applies much more widely.

When the two bodies are close, the gravitational field is stronger, and the passage of time is slowed. With pulsars, the time between pulses (or ticks) is lengthened. As the pulsar clock travels more slowly through the weakest part of the field it regains time. This is a relativistic time delay. It is the difference between what one would expect to see if the pulsar were moving at a constant distance and speed around its companion, and what is actually observed.

Binary pulsars are one of the few tools scientists have to detect evidence of gravitational waves. Einstein's theory of general relativity predicts that two neutron stars would emit gravitational waves as they orbit a common center of mass, which would carry away orbital energy, and cause the two stars to draw closer together. As the two stellar bodies draw closer to one another, often one pulsar will absorb matter from the other, causing a violent accretion process. This interaction can heat the gas being exchanged between the bodies and produce X-ray light which can appear to pulsate, causing binary pulsars to occasionally be referred to as X-ray binaries. This flow of matter from one stellar body to another is known as an accretion disk. Millisecond pulsars (or MSP's) create a sort of "wind", which in the case of binary pulsars can blow away the magnetosphere of the neutron stars and have a dramatic effect on the pulse emission.

History

The first binary pulsar, PSR B1913+16 or the "Hulse-Taylor binary pulsar" was discovered in 1974 at Arecibo by Joseph Taylor and Russell Hulse, for which they won the 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics. Pulses from this system have been tracked, without glitches, to within 15 μs since its discovery.

The 1993 Nobel Prize was awarded to Joseph Taylor and Russell Hulse after they discovered two such stars. While Hulse was observing a new pulsar, named PSR B1913+16, he noticed that the frequency with which it pulsed fluctuated. It was concluded that the simplest explanation was that the pulsar was orbiting another star very closely at a high velocity. Hulse and Taylor determined that the stars were equally heavy by observing these pulse fluctuations, which led them to believe the other spacial object was also a neutron star.

The observations made of the orbital decay of this star system was a near perfect match to Einstein's equations. Relativity predicts that over time a binary system's orbital energy will be converted to gravitational radiation. Data collected by Taylor and his colleagues of the orbital period of PRS B1913+16 supported this relativistic prediction. They reported in 1983 that there was a difference in the observed minimum separation of the two pulsars compared to that expected if the orbital separation had remained constant. In the decade following its discovery the system's orbital period had decreased by about 76 millionths of a second per year. This means the pulsar was approaching its maximum separation more than a second earlier than it would have if the orbit had remained the same. Subsequent observations continue to show this decrease.

References

Binary stars
Relativity
Variable stars

Binary pulsar


A sweater is a piece of clothing worn on the upper body to keep the person warm. Sweaters are usually knitted or crocheted. Other names for sweaters are pullover, jersey, or jumper. Sweaters that open in the front are often called cardigans. They are named after James Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan, a British general during the Crimean War, who led the famous charge of the Light Brigade. Sweaters without sleeves are often called vests.  Sweaters can be worn all year long for comfort and warmth.

Tops (clothing)

de:Sweatshirt

Sweater


Jórvík was the Viking name for the English city of York and the kingdom centred there.

York had been founded as the Roman legionary fortress of Eboracum and revived as the Anglo-Saxon trading port of Eoforwic. It was first captured in November 866 by a large army of Danish Vikings.

Other websites
 Brenda Ralph Lewis & David Nash Ford, "York: Viking Times"
Timeline of Anglo-Saxon England
 Jorvik Viking Centre
 York Archaeological Trust
 Welcome to Jorvik : links on on-line resources

9th century in England
York

Jorvik


Bunhill Fields adalah sebuah kawasan perkuburan terletak di United Kingdom, di London Borough of Islington, utara City of London, dan diuruskan oleh City of London Corporation. Ia adalah lebih kurang  in extent; although historically was much larger.

Ia telah digunakan sebagai sebuah tapak pengembumian untuk Nonconformists dari kurun ketujuhbelas hingga ke pertengahan kurun kesembilanbelas dan mengandungi kubur-kubur dari banyak orang yang terkenal.

Latar belakang bersejarah

Bunhill Fields adalah sebahagian dari rumah besar Finsbury (terdahulunya Fensbury), yang adalah dari antikuiti hebat, rumah besar itu mempunyai asal usulnya sebagai sebuah prebend St Paul's Cathedral ditubuhkan pada 1104.
Pada 1315 rumah besar prebendary telah granted oleh Robert de Baldock kepada Mayor dan commonalty of London, membenarkan lebih kecapaian orang ramai pada sebuah kawasan besar fen atau moor memanjang dari ssempadan City of London (Tembok London), ke kampung Hoxton.

Pada 1498 sebahagian dari landskap tidak dipagari telah dimuatkan tepi untuk membentuk sebuah padang besar untuk latihan pemanah dan warga ketenteraan lain, dan juga hari ini bahagian rumah besar ini masih memegang nama "Artillery Ground". Di samping dengan ini terletaknya Bunhill Fields, nama yang berasal dari "Bone Hill", yang kemungkinan suatu rujukan pada daerah ini yang telah digunakan untuk pengembumian sekali-sekala dari lebih kurang zaman Saxon, walaupun lebih mungkin ia berasal dari peristiwa-peristiwa tidak biasa pertengahan kurun keenambelas. Pada lebih kurang 1549, sebuah kereta sorong penuh dengan tulang-tulang manusia telah secara zaman dibawa sini - sesetengah seribu loads in total - to make space in St Paul's charnel house for new interments. The dried bones were simply deposited on the moor and capped with a thin layer of soil, leading to such topographical elevation of the otherwise damp, flat fens, that three windmills could safely be erected in a spot that came to be known as Windmill Hill.

Opening as a burial ground

In keeping with this tradition, in 1665 the City of London Corporation decided to use some of the fen or moor fields as a common burial ground for the interment of bodies of inhabitants who had died of the plague and could not be accommodated in the churchyards. Although enclosing walls for the burial ground were completed, the ground was, it appears, never consecrated or actually used by the authorities for burials. Instead, a Mr Tindal took over the lease. He allowed extramural burials in its unconsecrated soil, which became popular with Nonconformists - those citizens of London or surrounding villages who treasured the independence of their religious beliefs and therefore practised Christianity outside of the Church of England. The burial ground, which became known as "Tindal's Burial Ground" attracted mainly dissenters from the Established Church who were of a Protestant persuasion, partly owing to their much larger numbers in the locality than other faiths who did not conform to the Church of England's ways, such as Catholics or Jewish citizens. Nonetheless, the burial ground was open for interment to anyone who could afford the fees.

Something of its seventeenth century origins can be seen today in an inscription at the entrance gate to Bunhill Fields: This church-yard was inclosed with a brick wall at the sole charges of the City of London, in the mayoralty of Sir John Lawrence, Knt., Anno Domini 1665; and afterwards the gates thereof were built and finished in the mayoralty of Sir Thomas Bloudworth, Knt., Anno Domini, 1666.

In 1769 an Act of Parliament gave the City of London Corporation the right to continue to lease the ground from the prebendal estate for a further 99 years. This enabled the City authorities to continue to let the ground to their tenant as a burial ground; although in 1781 the Corporation decided to take over the management of the burial ground directly.

So many historically important Protestant nonconformists chose this as their place of interment, that the nineteenth century poet and writer Robert Southey gave Bunhill Fields the memorable appellation: the Campo Santo of the Dissenters; a phrase that also came to be commonly applied to its 'daughter' cemetery at Abney Park.

Thousands of Quakers (members of the Religious Society of Friends) are buried in the neighbouring Quaker Burying Ground. This was purchased as the burial place for London Quakers in 1661, becoming their first freehold burial land in London.

Closure as a burial ground
In 1852 the Burial Act was passed which enabled places such as Bunhill Fields to be closed once they became full. Its Order for closure was made in December 1853 and the final burial (Elizabeth Howell Oliver) took place on January 5 1854. By this date approximately 120,000 interments had taken place.

Two decades before its closure, a group of City nonconformists led by George Collison, secured a site for a new landscaped alternative - in Stoke Newington. This was named Abney Park Cemetery, and opened in 1840. Here too all parts were to be made available for the burial of any person, regardless of religious creed, making Abney Park Cemetery the only Victorian garden cemetery in Britain with "no invidious dividing lines" and a unique nondenominational chapel (see the architecture of William Hosking).

The neighbouring Nonconformists' ground, the Quaker Burying Ground, was also closed for burials in 1855.

Opening as a community garden

Following closure of the Bunhill Fields Burial Ground, its future remained uncertain for a while since its lessee, the City of London Corporation, was perilously close to expiry of its lease, scheduled for Christmas 1867. In a move to prevent the land from being built upon on expiry of the lease, the Corporation formed the Special Bunhill Fields Burial Ground Committee in 1865 which became formally known as the Bunhill Fields Preservation Committee.

Appointed by the Corporation, the committee consisted on twelve advisors under the chairmanship of Charles Reed FSA (son of the Congregational philanthropist Dr Andrew Reed) who rose to prominence as the first MP for Hackney and Chairman of the first School Board for London before being knighted. Along with his interest in making Bunhill Fields into a parkland landscape, he was similarly interested in the wider educational and public benefits of Abney Park Cemetery, of which he was a prominent Director.

Following the work of the committee, the City of London Corporation obtained an Act of Parliament in 1867 "for the Preservation of Bunhill Fields Burial Ground... as an open space". This legislation enabled the Corporation to continue to maintain the site when the freehold reverted to the Church Commissioners; provided it was laid out as a public open space with seating, gardens, and the restoration of some of its most worthy monuments. The new park was opened by the Lord Mayor on October 14 1869.

The nearby Quaker Burial ground was similarly landscaped. It became maintained at private expense by the Quakers which today provides open space around a Quaker Meeting House (the remnant of Bunhill Memorial Buildings erected in 1881 that remains after bomb damage in 1942).

The main burial ground was also severely damaged by German bombing during World War II, necessitating an expansion of the public park area in 1960, such that close to half of the former burial ground became laid out and maintained as a public garden with open access. The rest remains attractively landscaped though enclosed behind railings, to protect the areas with more delicate monuments and the whole is maintained by the City of London Corporation. Legislation in 1960 transferred the freehold to the Corporation.

Today, the earliest monumental inscription that can still be seen in the main Bunhill Fields Burial Ground reads: Grace, daughter of T. Cloudesly, of Leeds. Feb. 1666. (Maitland's Hist. of London, p.775.) Many monuments of historical note can be visited, in particular,
 John Bunyan, author of Pilgrim's Progress (a book translated into more languages than any other apart from the Bible)
 Dr Isaac Watts, the celebrated 'Father of Hymnology' whose hymns have been sung worldwide and was also a poet and educationalist.
Close by are the burial of many other eminent nonconformists such as the ministers Dr John Owen (d. 1683) and Dr Goodwin (d. 1679). A more complete listing of the burials of well known figures is provided below.

The small park is worth visiting for its impressive trees as well as its monuments, and the adjoining Quaker Burial ground, known as Quaker Gardens, would also repay a visit (it is situated on the other side of Bunhill Row to the main nonconformist grounds and is the burial site of George Fox, founder of the Quakers).

Notable graves
Notable burials here include:

 Thomas Bayes (1702 – 1761), statistician and friend of Richard Price
 William Blackburn (1750 - 1790), architect and surveyor
 William Blake (1757 – 1827), painter, engraver, poet, and mystic
 John Bunyan (1628 – 1688), author of Pilgrim's Progress
 Thomas Fowell Buxton (1758 – 1795), anti - slavery philanthropist
 Eleanor Coade, Pioneer of the artificial stone known as 'Coade' stone
 Dr John Conder, President of Homerton College
 Cromwells, two tombs bear the family name - "R Cromwell" and "H Cromwell"
 Daniel Defoe (1661 – 1731), author of Robinson Crusoe
 Lt. Gen. Charles Fleetwood (? – 1692), married eldest daughter of Oliver Cromwell and fought in The Civil War
 James Foster (1697-1753), Baptist minister and author of Essay on Fundamentals, one of the first non-conformist texts.
 George Fox (1624 - 1691), a founder of the Quaker movement
 John Gill (1697 – 1771), author of the Exposition of the Bible and the Body of Divinity
 Thomas Hardy (1752-1832), political reformer and founder of the London Corresponding Society
 Joseph Hart (1712 - 1768), hymn writer and Calvinist minister in London
 Jabez Carter Hornblower (1744-1814), Steam engine pioneer.
 John Hyatt (1767-1826), One of the founding preachers of Calvinist Methodism at Whitefield's Tabernacle, Tottenham Court Road 1806 - 1828.
 Theophilus Lindsey (1723 - 1808), a founder of Unitarianism
 Thomas Newcomen (1663-1729) Steam Engine Pioneer (exact site of burial unknown)
 Joseph Nightingale (1775 – 1824), writer and preacher
 John Owen (1616 – 1683), Puritan divine and statesman
 Dame Mary Page (1672 - 1728), wife of Sir Gregory Page
 Apsley Pellatt (1763-1826), Glass Manufacturer.
 Richard Price (1733 – 1791), founder of life insurance principles
 Thomas Pringle (1789 - 1834), Scottish poet and author, and Secretary to the Anti-Slavery Society
 John Rippon (1750 – 1836), Baptist clergyman, composer of many well known hymns
 Thomas Rosewell (1630 - 1692), nonconformist minister of Rotherhithe
 Richard 'Conversation' Sharp (1759-1835) Prominent among the Dissenters' 'Deputies', critic, merchant and MP.
 John Benjamin Tolkien, grandfather of writer J R R Tolkien
 Isaac Watts (1674 – 1742), Hymn Writer, Educationalist and Poet
 Susanna Wesley (1669 – 1742), mother of John Wesley, founder of Methodism
 George Whitehead (1636-1723), Quaker leader and author of The Christian Progress of George Whitehead
 Daniel Williams (1643 – 1716), founder of Dr Williams's Library

 William Shrubsole

Lihat juga
 Poets' Graves

Pautan luar
 City of London Corporation Bunhill Fields page
 Sacred Destinations: Bunhill Fields
 UK Online Bunhill Fields
 Plethora of Photos at UK Graves Info
 Quakers around Shoreditch

Cemeteries in London
Honourable Artillery Company
Parks and open spaces in Islington
Congregationalism
Parks and open spaces of the City of London Corporation

Bunhill Fields


The Fine Gael leadership election of March 1987 was held to find a successor to Garret FitzGerald who resigned following the party's defeat in that year's general election.

It was the first time that a formal election by the parliamentary party had taken place, previous leaders having emerged through a consultation process and were then elected unopposed.  This procedure was not used in 1987 as a number of eligible candidates emerged.

Three candidates immediately emerged for the party leadership – Alan Dukes, former Minister for Justice; John Bruton, former Minister for Finance and the Public Service; and Michael Noonan, former Minister for Industry and Commerce.  An early unofficial ranking of candidates had put Dukes slightly ahead with Noonan trailing in a distant third.  Peter Barry, the deputy leader of the party, refused to announce his candidacy immediately, however, he eventually entered the leadership race as Michael Noonan refused to go stand due to a lack of support.

82 TDs, Senators and MEPs from the Fine Gael parliamentary party were entitled to cast their vote.  The rules in place required the victor to reach 42 votes (half the total vote plus one).  The results were not made public after the election.

On 21 March Alan Dukes was elected leader of Fine Gael by a significant majority.  John Bruton, who would eventually success Dukes as leader, was said to have come second with Peter Barry trailing in third.

References

1987 elections in the Republic of Ireland
History of Fine Gael
Fine Gael leadership elections
Indirect elections
Fine Gael leadership election

1987 Fine Gael leadership election


Daniel Coit Gilman (; July 6, 1831 – October 13, 1908) was an American educator and academic. Gilman was instrumental in founding the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale College, and subsequently served as the second president of the University of California, Berkeley, as the first president of Johns Hopkins University, and as founding president of the Carnegie Institution.

Eponymous halls at both Berkeley and Hopkins pay tribute to his service.  He was also co-founder of the Russell Trust Association, which administers the business affairs of Yale's Skull and Bones society. Gilman served for twenty five years as president of Johns Hopkins; his inauguration in 1876 has been said to mark "the starting point of postgraduate education in the U.S."

Biography

Early life and education
Born in Norwich, Connecticut, the son of Eliza (née Coit) and mill owner William Charles Gilman, a descendant of Edward Gilman, one of the first settlers of Exeter, New Hampshire, of Thomas Dudley, Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and one of the founders of Harvard College, and of Thomas Adgate, one of the founders of Norwich in 1659. Daniel Coit Gilman graduated from Yale College in 1852 with a degree in geography. At Yale he was a classmate of Andrew Dickson White, who would later serve as first president of Cornell University. The two were members of the Skull and Bones secret society, and traveled to Europe together after graduation and remained lifelong friends. Gilman was also a member of the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity. Gilman would later co-found the Russell Trust Association, the foundation behind Skull and Bones. After serving as attaché of the United States legation at St. Petersburg, Russia from 1853 to 1855, he returned to Yale and was active in planning and raising funds for the founding of Sheffield Scientific School. Gilman contemplated going into the ministry, and even took out a license to preach, but later settled on a career in education.

Career

From 1856 to 1865, Gilman served as librarian of Yale College, and was also concerned with improving the New Haven public school system. When the Civil War broke out, Gilman became the recruiting sergeant for the Norton Cadets, a group of Yale graduates and faculty who drilled on the New Haven Green under the oversight of Yale professor William Augustus Norton. In 1863, Gilman was appointed professor of geography at the Sheffield Scientific School, and became secretary and librarian as well in 1866. Having been passed over for the presidency of Yale, for which post Gilman was said to have been the favorite of the younger faculty, he resigned these posts in 1872 to become the third president of the newly organized University of California, Berkeley. His work there was hampered by the state legislature, and in 1875 Gilman accepted the offer to establish and become first president of Johns Hopkins University.

Before being formally installed as president in 1876, he spent a year studying university organization and selecting an outstanding staff of teachers and scholars. His formal inauguration, on 22 February 1876, has become Hopkins' Commemoration Day, the day on which many university presidents have chosen to be installed in office. Among the legendary educators he assembled to teach at Johns Hopkins were classicist Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve, mathematician James Joseph Sylvester, historian Herbert Baxter Adams and chemist Ira Remsen.

In 1876, Gilman was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society.

Gilman's primary interest was in fostering advanced instruction and research, and as president he developed the first American graduate university in the German tradition. The aim of the modern research university, said Gilman, was to "extend, even by minute accretions, the realm of knowledge" At his inaugural address at Hopkins, Gilman asked: "What are we aiming at?" The answer, he said, was "the encouragement of research and the advancement of individual scholars, who by their excellence will advance the sciences they pursue, and the society where they dwell."

In 1884, Gilman was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society.

Gilman was also active in founding Johns Hopkins Hospital in 1889 and Johns Hopkins Medical School in 1893. He founded and was for many years president of the Charity Organization of Baltimore, and in 1897 he served on the commission to draft a new charter for Baltimore. From 1896 to 1897, he was a member of the commission to settle the boundary line between Venezuela and British Guiana.

Gilman served as a trustee of the John F. Slater and Peabody education funds and as a member of John D. Rockefeller's General Education Board. In this capacity, he became active in the promotion of education in the southern United States. He was also president of the National Civil Service Reform League (1901–1907) and the American Oriental Society (1893–1906), vice president of the Archaeological Institute of America, and executive officer of the Maryland Geological Survey. He retired from Johns Hopkins in 1901, but accepted the presidency (1902–1904) of the newly founded Carnegie Institution of Washington.

His books include biographies of James Monroe (1883) and James Dwight Dana, a collection of addresses entitled University Problems (1898), and The Launching of a University (1906).

Personal life
]
Gilman married twice. His first wife was Mary Van Winker Ketcham, daughter of Tredwell Ketcham of New York City. They married on December 4, 1861, and had two daughters: Alice, who married Everett Wheeler; and Elisabeth Gilman, who became a social activist and was a candidate for mayor of Baltimore, and for governor and senator of Maryland, on the Socialist Party of America ticket. Mary Ketcham Gilman died in 1869, and Daniel Coit Gilman married his second wife, Elizabeth Dwight Woolsey, daughter of John M. Woolsey of Cleveland, and niece of Yale president Theodore Dwight Woolsey, in 1877. Daniel Gilman's brother Edward Whiting Gilman was married to Julia Silliman, daughter of Yale University professor and chemist Benjamin Silliman. Daniel Coit Gilman died in Norwich, Connecticut.

Legacy
The original academic building on the Homewood campus of the Johns Hopkins University, Gilman Hall, is named in his honor.  In 1897, he helped found a preparatory school called 'The Country School for Boys' on the Johns Hopkins campus.  Upon relocation in 1910, it was renamed in his honor and today, the Gilman School continues to be regarded among the nation's elite private boys' schools.

On the University of California, Berkeley campus, Gilman Hall, also named in his honor, is the oldest building of the College of Chemistry and a National Historic Chemical Landmark. Named for Gilman as well is Gilman Street in Berkeley. Gilman Drive, which passes through the University of California, San Diego campus in La Jolla, CA is also named for Gilman. The Daniel Coit Gilman Summer House, in Maine, was declared a U.S. National Historic Landmark in 1965. Gilman High School in Northeast Harbor, Maine, was named for Daniel Coit Gilman, who was active in local educational affairs, but it was later rebuilt and christened Mount Desert High School.

Published works by Daniel Coit Gilman
 Scientific Schools in Europe, Hartford, 1856
 A Historical Discourse Delivered in Norwich, Connecticut, September 7, 1859, at the Bi-Centennial Celebration of the Settlement of the Town, Boston, 1859
 The Library of Yale College: Historical Sketch, New Haven, 1860
 Our National Schools of Science, Cambridge, 1867
 Statement of the Progress and Condition of the University of California, Berkeley, 1875
 James Monroe in His Relations to the Public Service During Half a Century, 1776–1826, Boston, 1883
 The Benefits Which Society Derives from Universities, Baltimore, 1885
 An Address Before the Phi Beta Kappa Society of Harvard University, July 1, 1886, Baltimore, 1886
 Development of the Public Library in America, Ithaca, 1891
 Our Relations to Our Other Neighbors, Baltimore, 1891
 The Johns Hopkins University from 1873 to 1893, Baltimore, 1893
 Recollections of the Life of John Glenn Who Died in Baltimore, March 30, 1896, Baltimore, 1896
 University Problems in the United States, New York, 1898
 Democracy in America, Alexis de Tocqueville, introduction by Daniel Coit Gilman, New York, 1898
 The Life of James Dwight Dana, Scientific Explorer, Mineralogist, Geologist, Zoologist, Professor in Yale University, New York, 1899
 Memorial of Samuel de Champlain: Who Discovered the Island of Mt. Desert, Maine, September 5, 1604, Baltimore, 1904
 The Launching of a University and Other Papers, New York, 1906

Papers of Daniel Coit Gilman
The Papers of Daniel Coit Gilman were donated to Johns Hopkins University by Gilman's daughter Elisabeth, and are open on an unrestricted basis to the public at the Milton S. Eisenhower Library at Hopkins. Aside from many photographs of Gilman and his contemporaries, the papers include Gilman's correspondence with leading figures of the day, including Charles W. Eliot, Sidney Lanier, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry James, James Russell Lowell, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, William McKinley, Basil Gildersleeve, Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, George Bancroft, Alexander Graham Bell, Thomas Huxley, Andrew Carnegie, Horace Greeley, Helen Keller, Louis Pasteur, Henry Ward Beecher, William Osler, W.E.B. Du Bois, Booker T Washington and others.

See also
 Daniel Coit Gilman Summer House
 Elisabeth Gilman
 Gilman School
 Gilman Hall
 Frances Benjamin Johnston
 Benjamin Silliman
 Theodore Dwight Woolsey
 Andrew Dickson White
 Skull and Bones

References

Further reading
 Francesco Cordasco (1973). The Shaping of American Graduate Education: Daniel Coit Gilman and the Protean Ph.D. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield. .

External links

 Daniel Coit Gilman papers – Finding aid for collection of Gilman papers at the Johns Hopkins University
  A Historical Discourse Delivered in Norwich, Connecticut, September 7, 1859, Bi-Centennial Celebration of the Settlement of the Town, Daniel Coit Gilman, Printed by George C. Rand & Avery, Boston, Mass., 1859

 Statue of Daniel Coit Gilman, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, monumentcity.org
 The Building of the University, An Inaugural Address, Delivered at Oakland, Nov. 7th, 1872, Daniel C. Gilman, President of the University of California
 The Graves-Gilman House, New Haven, Connecticut, Historic Buildings of Connecticut
 Daniel Coit Gilman HIstoric Marker, Bolton HIll Historic District, Baltimore, Maryland
 Inaugural Address of Daniel Coit Gilman as First President of Johns Hopkins University, February 22, 1876

1831 births
1908 deaths
American social activists
American male journalists
Journalists from California
People of Connecticut in the American Civil War
American Congregationalists
Gilman family of New Hampshire
People from Norwich, Connecticut
People from Northeast Harbor, Maine
American diplomats
American geographers
American librarians
American non-fiction writers
American biographers
American male biographers
American essayists
American encyclopedists
Johns Hopkins Hospital
Presidents of Johns Hopkins University
University of California, Berkeley faculty
Yale University faculty
University of California regents
American people of Welsh descent
American people of English descent
Socialist Party of America politicians from Maryland
Yale College alumni
Leaders of the University of California, Berkeley
American male essayists
Activists from California
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Members of Skull and Bones

Daniel Coit Gilman


The Portland Pirates were an American professional ice hockey team that played from 1993 to 2016. Throughout this time, they played in the American Hockey League (AHL) and were the farm team of the Buffalo Sabres of the NHL. They played their home games in Portland, Maine at the Cumberland County Civic Center, and won one Calder Cup which was in 1993.

The team left Portland after the 2015–16 season when it was bought by a group from Springfield, Massachusetts. That city had lost its AHL team, the Springfield Falcons, when the team was bought by the owners of the NHL's Arizona Coyotes and moved to Tucson, Arizona, where it now plays as the Tucson Roadrunners. The former Pirates team now plays as the Springfield Thunderbirds.

Other websites
Portland Pirates' Official Site

American Hockey League teams
Ice hockey teams in the United States
Portland, Maine
1993 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Maine
2016 disestablishments in the United States

Portland Pirates


Suprematism is an abstract art movement started in Russia, 1915/1916. It focussed on basic geometric forms such as the square and circle. It is an example of geometric abstraction.

Suprematism was founded by Kazimir Malevich. In his book The Non-Objective World, published abroad as a Bauhaus Book in 1927, Malevich described the inspiration which brought about the powerful image of the black square on a white ground:

I felt only night within me and it was then that I conceived the new art, which I called Suprematism.

He created a suprematist 'grammar' based on fundamental geometric forms; in particular, the square and the circle. In 1915, Malevich exhibited his early experiments in suprematist painting. The centerpiece of his show was the Black Square, placed in what is called the red/beautiful corner in Russian Orthodox tradition, the place of the main icon in a house. "Black Square" was painted in 1915 and was a breakthrough in his career and in art in general. Malevich also painted White on White which marked a breakthrough from polychrome to monochrome suprematism.

Some of the titles to paintings in 1915 express the concept of a non-euclidean geometry which imagined forms in movement, or through time; titles such as: Two dimensional painted masses in the state of movement.

Association
The Supremus group met from 1915 onwards to discuss the philosophy of suprematism and its development into other areas of life. There was some crossover with constructivism, with suprematists such as Lyuba Popova and especially El Lissitzky working on propaganda and industrial design.

Lissitzky spread suprematist ideas abroad in the early 1920s.

Architecture
Nikolai Suetin used suprematist motifs on works at the St. Petersburg Lomonosov Porcelain Factory where Malevich and Chashnik were also employed, and Malevich designed a suprematist teapot. The suprematists also made architectural models in the 1920s which offered a different conception of socialist buildings to those developed in constructivist architecture.

Malevich's architectural projects were known after 1922 Arkhitektoniki. Designs emphasized the right angle, with similarities to De Stijl and Le Corbusier, and were justified with an ideological connection to communist governance and equality for all. Another part of the formalism was low regard for triangles which were dismissed as ancient, pagan, or Christian.<ref>Hanno-Walter Kruft, Elsie Callander, Ronald Taylor, and Antony Wood 2003. [https://books.google.com/books?id=OPTfVyHyVW4C&dq=suprematist+architecture&pg=PA416 A history of architectural theory]: from Vitruvius to the present. 4th ed, Princeton Architectural Press. , 9781568980102 p416</ref>

Social context

This development in artistic expression came about when Russia was in a revolutionary state, ideas were in ferment, and the old order was being swept away. As the new order became established, and Stalinism took hold from 1924 on, the state began limiting the freedom of artists. From the late 1920s the Russian avant-garde experienced direct and harsh criticism from the authorities and in 1934 the doctrine of socialist realism became official policy, and prohibited abstraction and different artistic expression.

 References

Books
 Dmytro Gorbatschow: Malevitsch und Ukraine. Kiew, Ukraine 2006. ISBN 966-96670-0-3
 Marie-Luise Heuser: Russischer Kosmismus und extraterrestrischer Suprematismus, in: Planetarische Perspektiven'', Marburg 2009, S. 62–75.

Art movements
Architectural styles

Suprematism


In boxing, the term Middleweight is used for a specific group of people based on weight. A middleweight is a boxer weight does not exceed 160 pounds (73 kg).

Boxing organizations created many divisions so that fighters could fight people of the same size.

The first heavyweight champion under modern rules was Irish boxer Jack (Nonpareil) Dempsey.

Famous heavyweight champions have include Bob Fitzsimmons, Nino Benvenuti, Rocky Graziano, Marvin Hagler, Bernard Hopkins, Roy Jones Jr., Jake LaMotta, Carlos Monzon,
Sugar Ray Robinson, Tony Zale and Sugar Ray Leonard.

Boxing

Middleweight


Theodorus Bailey Myers Mason (May 8, 1848 – October 15, 1899) was the founder and first head of the United States Office of Naval Intelligence, with the post of Chief Intelligence Officer (prior to it being redesignated as Director of Naval Intelligence in 1911).

Mason came from a distinguished New York family. He was the son of Theodorus Bailey Myers, who was a lawyer and served as a colonel in the United States Army during the Civil War; his uncle, Rear Adm. Theodorus Bailey, served under Admiral David Farragut in New Orleans. He adopted the last name Mason in deference to his maternal grandfather Sidney Mason, who had no male heirs to carry on the family name.

A graduate of the United States Naval Academy in 1868, Mason was a distinguished linguist with an inquisitive mind, qualities that gave him respect and recognition in the Navy. After a stint in the Hydrographic Office, he travelled extensively in Europe and South America as a naval observer collecting ideas on naval intelligence systems; he knew what information was available and how to obtain it. He recognized that in order for the Navy to compete with its European counterparts, research in naval science and technology should be encouraged; as part of this objective, a unified intelligence agency was needed to gather information on foreign developments for proper dissemination and coordination with the different Bureaus. He made these recommendations upon the request of Secretary of the Navy William H. Hunt.

Hunt read and agreed with most of Lt. Mason's recommendations, and consequently issued General Order No. 292 on March 23, 1882, establishing the Office of Naval Intelligence as part of the Bureau of Navigation, with Mason himself as its first "Chief Intelligence Officer". He assumed this post in June 1882. The Office was initially assigned to a small office in the State, War and Navy Building (now the Old Executive Office Building).

Despite initial difficulties, the different Bureaus recognized its value and used it to share information amongst themselves and used this information in justifying funds needed for Navy expansion and modernization.

Mason clearly guided the ONI well during its first years, and was succeeded by Lt. Raymond P. Rodgers in April 1885. He was promoted to Lieutenant Commander in January 1894, and retired from the Navy in December due to ill health. He died in Saugerties on 15 October 1899 and was interred in the Mason family mausoleum at the Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, NY.

In The War of the Pacific Coast of South America Between Chile and the Allied Republics of Peru and Bolivia, Mason wrote one such account in which he described the belligerents of the Atacama border dispute. As stated above, he was resourceful and reports that the material used for the paper was derived from personal observation, from apparently authentic publications, and from other Naval officers within the region at the time of the conflict. Mason's work is a chronology of events leading up to, during, and the outcome of the War of the Pacific.

Personal life

In 1875, Mason married Edmonia Taylor Phelps (February 1, 1858 – July 10, 1909), daughter of Rear Admiral Thomas S. Phelps.

References

External links

1848 births
1899 deaths
Burials at Green-Wood Cemetery
United States Naval Academy alumni
United States Navy officers
Directors of the Office of Naval Intelligence
People from Saugerties, New York

Theodorus B. M. Mason


Thomas Eugene Kurtz (born February 22, 1928) is a retired Dartmouth professor of mathematics and computer scientist, who along with his colleague John G. Kemeny set in motion the then revolutionary concept of making computers as freely available to college students as library books were, by implementing the concept of time-sharing at Dartmouth College. In his mission to allow non-expert users to interact with the computer, he co-developed the BASIC programming language (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) and the Dartmouth Time Sharing System during 1963 to 1964.

A native of Oak Park, Illinois, United States, Kurtz graduated from Knox College in 1950, and was awarded a Ph.D. degree from Princeton University in 1956, where his advisor was John Tukey, and joined the Mathematics Department of Dartmouth College that same year, where he taught statistics and numerical analysis.

In 1983, Kurtz and Kemeny co-founded a company called True BASIC, Inc. to market True BASIC, an updated version of the language.

Kurtz has also served as Council Chairman and Trustee of EDUCOM, as well as Trustee and Chairman of NERComP, and on the Pierce Panel of the President's Scientific Advisory Committee. Kurtz also served on the steering committees for the CONDUIT project and the CCUC conferences on instructional computing.

In 1974, the American Federation of Information Processing Societies gave an award to Kurtz and Kemeny at the National Computer Conference for their work on BASIC and time-sharing. In 1991, the Computer Society honored Kurtz with the IEEE Computer Pioneer Award, and in 1994, he was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery.

Early life and education
In 1951, Kurtz' first experience with computing came at the Summer Session of the Institute for Numerical Analysis at University of California, Los Angeles. His interests have included numerical analysis, statistics, and computer science ever since. He graduated in 1950 when he obtained his bachelor's degree majoring in mathematics and in 1956, at the age of 28, he went on to acquire his PhD from Princeton University. His thesis was on a problem of multiple comparisons in mathematical statistics. Kurtz composed his first computer program in 1951 while working with computers at UCLA in the institute of numerical analysis. He performed this feat just after finishing grad school and one year into his tuition at Princeton University.

Dartmouth
In 1963 to 1964, Kurtz and Kemeny developed the first version of the Dartmouth Time-Sharing System, a time-sharing system for university use, and the BASIC language.

From 1966 to 1975, Kurtz served as Director of the Kiewit Computation Center at Dartmouth, and from 1975 to 1978, Director of the Office of Academic Computing. From 1980 to 1988 Kurtz was Director of the Computer and Information Systems program at Dartmouth, a ground-breaking multidisciplinary graduate program to develop information system (IS) leaders for industry. Subsequently, Kurtz returned to teaching full-time as a Professor of Mathematics, with an emphasis on statistics and computer science.

BASIC
As part of the Dartmouth Time-Sharing System, Kemeny and Kurtz created the BASIC programming language. The very first BASIC program ran on May 1, 1964 at 4 a.m., and neither Kemeny nor Kurtz thought of this as a start to something grand. They merely hoped it would help students learn something about the computers they were using. The pair made certain that their invention was immediately dispersed to the public and made no real money from it. Dartmouth College copyrighted BASIC; however it made BASIC available and free to anyone wanting to use it. The name for the language originated from Kurtz's wish to have a simple acronym that meant something as well. Kurtz states that, "We wanted a word that was simple but not simple-minded, and BASIC was that one." BASIC along with the books published on it earned a lot of positive feedback, for example: "This second edition of Basic Programming gives a thorough description of BASIC, which is useful not only for the beginner, but also for the more experienced programmer." "My overall evaluation of BASIC programming is that it is ideal for the individual who wishes to program with a minimum of effort and of equal value for group or classroom instruction."

The theme that BASIC was for the average computer user is stressed by Kurtz. In an open letter he reiterates upon past statements that BASIC was invented to give students a simple programming language that was easy to learn, as all the current languages of the time were dedicated to professionals. He then went on to say that BASIC was for people who did not want to dedicate their lives to programming. The repetition of this idea by Kurtz accentuates that even through all of his success the language he wrote would remain implemented for the masses and not just specialists.

BASIC standards were created in the 1980s for the ECMA, and ANSI with their versions being released in 1986 and 1987 respectively. BASIC popularity skyrocketed in 1975 after a pair of youngsters in a Harvard dormitory, Bill Gates and Paul Allen, created a version of BASIC that was viable on one of the earliest personal computers. Gates and Allen's version became the most prominent iterations of BASIC.

His work on BASIC was recognized by the IEEE as part of their milestone program which marks historic places for human innovation from around the world. Places honored include Thomas Edison's lab in Menlo Park, New Jersey, where he invented the light bulb and phonograph, and the hilltop outside Bologna, Italy where Guglielmo Marconi sent the first transatlantic radio transmission. The plaque was placed on 22 February 2021.

Influence
The road to BASIC itself was a long one. Kemeny and Kurtz had forged DARSIMCO – Dartmouth Simplified Code – Dartmouth's inaugural attempt at making a computing language in 1956; however DARSIMCO soon became obsolete when the language FORTRAN manifested itself. In 1962 Kemeny and a Dartmouth undergraduate, Sidney Marshall, created the language DOPE, Dartmouth Oversimplified Programming Experiment, which was a direct predecessor of BASIC. DOPE itself was little used, and Kurtz preferred trying to implement successful languages such as FORTRAN and ALGOL. Kurtz's experience with Dartmouth ALGOL 30 for the LGP-30 convinced him that devising subsets of these languages was not quite practical, and this led him to adopt Kemeny's notion of creating a new language entirely.

Critics
Although BASIC was widely regarded as a success, many computing professionals thought it was a poor choice for larger and more complicated programs. Larger programs became confusing and messy when they used the "GO TO" statement to jump from one line of a program to another. A further criticism of the original language was that it was unstructured, which made it difficult to split programs into separate parts to improve readability. BASIC not being structured also hindered the ability to debug and modify parts of the code, and this limited its use by larger companies. Hence it largely remained a language used for only smaller programs.

True BASIC

In 1983, in response to a proliferation of "Street BASICs," a group of graduating Dartmouth students persuaded Kemeny and Kurtz to offer the Dartmouth version of the language as a commercial product. The first offering of their company, True Basic, Inc., was based on Dartmouth BASIC 7, which featured modern programming constructs such as "IF..THEN..ELSE, DO..LOOP and EXIT DO".  The company described its product as "Simple. Elegant. Powerful. True BASIC." Upon Kemeny's advice, True BASIC was not limited to a single OS or computer system. "Today versions of True BASIC are available for DOS, macOS, Windows, Unix, and Linux systems". When Kurtz retired from Dartmouth College in 1993, he continued to develop and maintain True Basic.

See also
 New Hampshire Historical Marker No. 261: BASIC: The First User-Friendly Computer Programming Language

References

External links
Alumni Page
A Guide to Thomas E. Kurtz Papers
About his 1991 Computer Pioneer Award

1928 births
American computer scientists
BASIC programming language
Dartmouth College faculty
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Knox College (Illinois) alumni
Living people
Princeton University alumni
Programming language designers

Thomas E. Kurtz


George II Šubić of Bribir (;  1275 – Klis, 15 December 1328) was Croatian nobleman, a member of the Šubić noble family, who ruled from the Klis Fortress.

Early life
George II Šubić was son of Paul I Šubić of Bribir, who was the most powerful Croatian nobleman at the end of the 13th century and beginning of the 14th century. After the capture of his brother Mladen II Šubić, George II became the head of the Šubić family with support of his two remaining brothers: Gregory I Šubić and Paul II Šubić.

Career
When George I died in 1303, his nephew George II succeeded him as ruler in Dalmatia. When Paul I died in May 1312, Mladen II succeeded as Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia, and he shared out his cities to his brothers: Gregory received Šibenik and Bribir, while George II received Omiš, Nin and Klis.

George II tried to retake the land and influence that his brother, Mladen II Šubić, had lost in the last war over Bosnia. But he didn't claim Bosnia, instead, he pursued the conquest of lands in Croatia, which had been taken from Šubić's by Prince Nelipac. Stjepan II Kotromanić again changed allegiances and started to fight again for the Šubićs. In the summer of 1324 Prince Nelipac and George II clashed near the waterfalls of Krka. Stjepan II gave considerable support to the Šubićs, but he did not dare involve himself into the fight. Šubić's party was defeated near Knin, and George II himself was captured by Prince Nelipac some time after the battle. Stjepan had attempted to liberate George II from imprisonment, but all attempts had failed. He died in 1328.

Issue
Juraj II Šubić had five children:

 Paul III (d. 1356), married Venetian noblewoman Catherine Dandolo
 Katarina, married count Ivan Jurišić
 Božidar or "Deodat" (d. 1348), count of Bribir 1345–47
 Mladen III (d. 1348), ruled Klis in 1330–48, married Serbian princess Jelena Nemanjić
 Jelena (ca. 1306–1378) who married Regent of Bosnia Vladislav Kotromanić in Klis, and gave birth to the first Bosnian King Tvrtko I.

References

13th-century Croatian people
14th-century Croatian people
Šubić
Year of birth unknown
1328 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Subic
Subic
Subic
Subic

George II Šubić of Bribir


A federal district is a type of administrative division of a federation, usually under the direct control of a federal government and organized sometimes with a single municipal body. Federal districts often include capital districts, and they exist in various federations worldwide.

Countries

Current

Brazil
The Federal District () contains the Brazilian capital Brasília.

India
In India, the term "Union Territory" is used for the eight territories governed directly by the Union government (also, called central government), administered by a Lieutenant Governor or an Administrator: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu, Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Lakshadweep and Puducherry. Of these, Delhi and Puducherry possess partial statehood with their own elected Chief Ministers.

Malaysia
In Malaysia, the term Federal Territory (Wilayah Persekutuan) is used for the three territories governed directly by the federal government: Kuala Lumpur (national capital), Putrajaya (federal government administrative centre) and Labuan (international offshore financial centre).

Nigeria
The Federal Capital Territory is a federal territory in central Nigeria. Abuja, the capital city of Nigeria, is located in this territory. The Federal Capital Territory was formed in 1976 from parts of the states of Nasarawa, Niger and Kogi. It is within the Middle Belt region of the country. It is administered by the Federal Capital Territory Administration, headed by a minister appointed by the President.

Pakistan
In Pakistan, the term Federal Territory is used for the five zones and 12 union councils of Islamabad governed directly by the state government as Islamabad Capital Territory.

Russia
Russia has three cities of federal importance, established by the Constitution — Moscow, Saint Petersburg and Sevastopol (internationally recognised as part of Ukraine, administered by Russia). Each city is treated as a separate federal subject and has its own legislative body. Russia has federal districts, but these form an additional administrative layer between the federation government and the federal subjects rather than being a distinct type of jurisdiction.

United States
The seat of the U.S. federal government in Washington is located in a federal district called the District of Columbia. Other federally administered areas that are within one of the 50 states, but not under its jurisdiction, are called federal enclaves.

Additionally, the U.S. federal court system divides each state, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico into one or more federal judicial districts. A United States district court and a bankruptcy court are located in each. There are also regional federal judicial circuits, each consisting of a group of states (except for the District of Columbia Circuit, which consists of the federal district, and the Federal Circuit, whose jurisdiction is based on specific subject matter instead of geography); Puerto Rico and the United States territorial courts are also assigned to circuits. Each circuit has a United States court of appeals.

Venezuela
Capital District (Venezuela), where the Venezuelan capital Caracas is located.

Former

Argentina
Federal District (Argentina) was converted into the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires in 1994.

Australia
The Jervis Bay Territory is an internal territory of the Commonwealth of Australia, surrendered by the state of New South Wales in 1915 to the Commonwealth Government so that the landlocked Australian Capital Territory would have maritime access.  Due to the terms of the Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act, the laws of the ACT apply to the Jervis Bay Territory, and it was administered by the Department of the Interior (and later by the Department of the Capital Territory) as if it were part of the Australian Capital Territory, although it has always been a separate Commonwealth territory.  In 1989, when the ACT achieved self-government, the Department of the Arts, Sport, the Environment, Tourism and Territories took over responsibility for the JBT's administration, and it has since been administered by various Commonwealth departments responsible to the Minister for Territories.

Mexico
Former Federal District (Mexico), was converted into Mexico City in January 2016.

See also
 Direct-controlled municipality
 Federal territory
 Federated state

References

Districts
Types of administrative division
Public administration by country

Federal district


Rancho Los Alamitos takes its name from an 1834 Mexican partition of the 1784 Rancho Los Nietos, a Spanish concession, covering an area in present-day California's southwestern Los Angeles County and northwestern Orange County. Los Alamitos means the Little Cottonwoods or Poplars in Spanish, after the native Fremont Cottonwood trees there.

Rancho Los Alamitos originally included much of the area of present-day eastern Long Beach, all of Los Alamitos and Rossmoor, and most of Seal Beach, Cypress, Stanton and Garden Grove. It is also sometimes referred to as Bixby Ranch, after its last private owners. The early 19th century adobe ranch house still stands today, housing a museum which presents the history of the area.

History
The history of the  Rancho Los Alamitos is almost a microcosm for the history of expansion throughout Southern California, from the Native Americana cultures to contemporary times. The area was first the location of the major circa 500 C.E. - 1780s Tongva — Gabrieliño sacred ceremonial and trading village of Povuu'nga, now an archeological site. After Spanish occupation the ownership was to change and the boundaries would shrink many times. Situated in the floodplain between the mouths of the ever-shifting Los Angeles, San Gabriel and Santa Ana Rivers, the coastal plain terrain of the rancho is virtually flat rich soil, and was subject to frequent flooding. The rancho building itself is located near Puvunga springs alongside on one of the few small hills, Alamitos Mesa, in the area.

Rancho Los Alamitos was one of five ranchos that resulted from the partition of the original Rancho Los Nietos grant given to Manuel Nieto, a former sergeant in the Spanish army, in 1784 by governor Pedro Fages, coincidentally his former commander. Nieto's grant was not only one of the first three awarded by the Spanish in Alta California, it was also the largest. After Nieto died, his children requested his original grant be partitioned. In 1834, Mexican governor José Figueroa officially declared Rancho Los Alamitos as one of the five partitions.

In 1844 the rancho was purchased by Abel Stearns, a Massachusetts native who typified the many Yankees who settled in California and merged with the ruling Mexican Californios population. Stearns, who married Arcadia Bandini, the daughter of the early Spanish regional civic and business leader Juan Bandini, became one of the leading merchants and major ranchos owners in Mexican Alta California.

The rancho was on the periphery of the battles that settled the California Campaign of the Mexican–American War by 1846. During the California Gold Rush, the rancho supplied much of the beef that would be herded north to feed the growing number of Immigrants who were flocking to the gold fields of Northern California from 1848 on. After California became a U.S. state in 1850, Rancho Los Alamitos was the headquarters of the largest cattle ranch then in existence in the United States. Through shrewd business dealings, Stearns assumed control of Los Alamitos and many other surrounding ranchos.

With the cession of California to the United States following the Mexican-American War, the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided that the land grants would be honored.  As required by the Land Act of 1851, a claim for Rancho Los Alamitos was filed with the Public Land Commission in 1852, and the grant was patented to Abel Stearns Aug. 29, 1874, for 28,027.17 acres.

After a disastrous drought in the 1860s, Stearns lost control of the ranch which was then sub-let to a number of farmers until the early 1880s when John William Bixby, a cousin of Jotham Bixby and Llewellyn Bixby who controlled the adjacent Rancho Los Cerritos, bought the rancho along with a group which included his cousins and Isaias Hellman, the founder of the Farmers and Merchants Bank of Los Angeles.

Trying to capitalize on the 1880s Southern California land boom, John Bixby developed the townsite of Alamitos Beach, which would eventually be assumed by Long Beach. Before Bixby could do much more he died suddenly in 1888, apparently due to an appendicitis attack, and Rancho Los Alamitos was separated between three major parties. The developed Alamitos Beach properties were shared equally, while John Bixby's heirs kept the central section of the remaining rancho, the Bixby cousins from Rancho Los Cerritos assumed control of the northern section, and Hellman took control of the southern lands around present day Seal Beach. Unfortunately, a financial crisis prevented the various parties from seriously pursuing John Bixby's dream of developing Alamitos Beach.

The Bixbys had once flirted with sugar beet production on properties they held in Northern California. In the 1890s, Jotham Bixby arranged to provide land on the rancho for sugar beet production and recruited the capital of William Clark, who was amongst the richest men in the United States, to build a sugar beet refinery plant on a portion of the Bixby Ranch property. Later oil discoveries from the Long Beach Oil Field continued to fund the rancho.

The historic ranch house, surrounding ranching facilities, and some open landscape of Rancho Los Alamitos can still be found adjacent to Cal State Long Beach. The Bixby family descendants donated the property to the City of Long Beach in 1967.

Historic sites of the Rancho
The early 19th century adobe ranch house still stands today, surrounded by its historic gardens designed by Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. and Florence Yoch & Lucile Council, all of which are on the National Register of Historic Places. The Rancho Los Alamitos house and grounds are a museum which presents the history of the rancho era, the country house era, and the region.

See also
 Los Cerritos Ranch House
 List of City of Long Beach Historic Landmarks
 List of Ranchos of California
 Ranchos of Orange County
 Ranchos of Los Angeles County

References

External links
Official Rancho Los Alamitos: Historic Ranch and Gardens website
Rancho Los Alamitos: Historical and Architectural Narrative. (33pg. pdf)
 National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan: "Californio to American: A Study in Cultural Change"
National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary: Early History of the California Coast
Rancho Los Alamitos: History Timeline of Ownership & Occupants

Alamitos, Los
Los Alamitos
Los Alamitos
Gardens in California
Houses in Los Angeles County, California
Historic house museums in California
Museums in Long Beach, California
Open-air museums in California
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in California
Buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Los Angeles County, California
Ranches on the National Register of Historic Places in California
Garden Grove, California
Los Alamitos, California
Long Beach, California
Paramount, California
History of Long Beach, California
History of Orange County, California
Landscape design history of the United States
Landmarks in Long Beach, California
Los Alamitos

Rancho Los Alamitos


Same-sex marriage is recognized in all of the United States. As of May 2014, same-sex marriage was legal in 19 states: California, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Illinois, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oregon, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont and Washington. It was also legal in Washington, D.C.. On June 26, 2015, the United States Supreme Court ruled that same-sex marriage is legal in all states, because of the 14th Amendment.

The movement to give marriage rights and benefits to homosexual couples in the United States began in the 1970s. It grew in United States politics around 1993 when the Supreme Court of Hawaii declared the prohibition in that state to be unconstitutional. It was not until around the 21st century that public support for same-sex marriage began growing. On May 9, 2012, Barack Obama was the first President to declare public support for the legalization of same-sex marriage. On June 26, 2015 the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that Section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act is unconstitutional (see United States v. Windsor). That section prevented the federal government from recognizing marriages other than marriages between one man and one woman.

On December 13, 2022, the Respect for Marriage Act became law. It was passed by Congress and signed by President Joe Biden. This act says that same-sex marriage must be legal everywhere in the United States. Even if the Supreme Court were to reverse its decision, same-sex marriage would still be protected.

References

United States federal legislation
Same-sex marriage

Same-sex marriage in the United States


A fable is a type of story which shows something in life or has a meaning to a word. A fable teaches a lesson or suggests a moral from it. A fable starts in the middle of the story, that means, jumps into the main event without detailed introduction of characters. The characters of a fable may be animals, plants and legendary creatures. When animals are used in fables, they think and talk like people, even though they act like animals. For example, in a fable a clay pot might say that it is frightened of being broken.

The stories told by fables are usually very simple. To understand a fable, the reader or listener does not need to know all about the characters, only one important thing. For this reason animals are often used in fables in a way that is easily understood because it is always the same. They keep the same characteristics from story to story.
 A lion is noble
 A rooster is boastful
 A peacock is proud
 A fox is cunning
 A wolf is fierce
 A horse is brave
 A donkey is hard-working

The most famous fables are those attributed to Aesop (6th century B.C.). Many fables are so well known that their morals have become English sayings.

For example:
 If a person says "sour grapes!" then they are referring to "The Fox and the Grapes". This fable is about a fox who saw a beautiful bunch of grapes hanging on a vine. He wanted to eat them but they were high up. He tried and tried to jump high enough to pull them down. When he was too tired to jump anymore, he went away saying "I'll bet those grapes were sour!"

So, if a person sees a beautiful thing that they want, but cannot have, sometimes they say "I don't want it, anyway! I'll bet it is really no good!" This way of thinking is called "sour grapes".

"Crying wolf" is another well-known English saying. This comes from "The Boy Who Cried Wolf". This fable is about a boy who was sent to mind the sheep. The boy got lonely while minding the sheep, so he shouted "Wolf! Wolf!" The people came running. The next day, he did it again and they were very angry. On the third day the boy saw a wolf. He cried "Wolf! Wolf!" but no one came and the wolf ate him.

So if a person always makes a great fuss to get attention, or if a person says something bad has happened when it has not, then it is called "crying wolf" and people will stop bothering to pay attention, even when things go really wrong.

Related pages
 Children's literature
 Jean de La Fontaine
 Myth
 Fairy tale

Other websites

 Animal Symbolism List of frequently described animals and their characteristics
 The Dragon-Tyrant
 Fables - Collection and guide to fables for children
 Imaginexus  A collection of interconnected stories that anyone can edit
 Beast Fable Society  An academic society focused on fables and related genres

Fairy tales

Fable


The Southern Governorate  is the largest of the five governorates of Bahrain. It includes parts of Bahrain's old municipalities - Al Mintaqah al Gharbiyah, Ar Rifa' wa al Mintaqah al Janubiyah, and Juzur Hawar (the Hawar Islands). It has the least number of people of the regions on Bahrain.  It is the least economically productive.

Governorates of Bahrain

Southern Governorate


New Place is a site in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England where a house once stood belonging to William Shakespeare. He retired to the house following his career in the London theatres. Many years after his death in 1623, the house became a tourist attraction. A neighbor, weary of constant visitors, bought the house and tore it down.

Sites associated with William Shakespeare

Buildings and structures in Warwickshire

New Place


Julia DeForest Tuttle, née Sturtevant; 22 Januar 1849 – 14 September 1898) wis an American businesswumman who wis lairgely responsible for, an the oreeginal awner o, the land upon which Miami, Florida, wis built. For this raison, she is cried the "Mother of Miami."

History
Julia Sturtevant marriet Frederick Leonard Tuttle on 22 Januar 1867. They haed twa childer: a dochter, Frances Emeline (b. 1868), an a son, Henry Athelbert (b. 1870). Julia Tuttle first visitit the Biscayne Bay region o soothren Florida in 1875 wi her husband, visitin a 40 acre (0.16 Km2) orange grove her faither haed purchased. She lovit the experience, but returned tae Cleveland, Ohio wi her faimily.

Muivin tae soothren Florida
Tuttle came tae Fort Dallas frae Cleveland, Ohio, via steamship wi her faither, Ephean T. Sturtevant, in 1871. A little ower ten years later in 1886, her husband dee'd, leavin her the iron foondry he awned, which she continued tae operate. In 1891, when her faither dee'd an left her his laund in Florida, she sauld the iron foondry business in Ohio an relocatit tae Biscayne Bay.

She uised the money frae the sale o the business tae purchase the James Egan grant o , whare the ceety o Miami is nou locatit, on the north side o the river, includin the auld Fort Dallas stane biggins, which she convertit intae her home. In 1891, Tuttle brocht her faimily tae live thare. Tuttle repaired an convertit the hame intae ane o the show places in the aurie wi a sweepin view o the river an Biscayne Bay.

Tuttle immediately decidit tae tak a leadin role in the muivement tae stairt a new ceety on the river, but kent that a decent transportation (in that time, a railwey) wis necessary tae attract development. Tuttle tree'd tae induce Henry Flagler tae extend his railwey tae Fort Dallas (Miami), an affered tae divide her lairge real estate hauldins if he wad dae this. She wrote numerous letters tae Flagler in this connection an feenally made the trip tae St. Augustine an in person repeated her offer.  Her efforts wur o nae avail at that time; housomeivver, providence favored Tuttle. The great freeze on 1894-1895 devastatit the auld orange belt o central an northren Florida, destroyin valuable groves an wipin oot fortunes owernicht.

Either Flagler then recried Tuttle's story o the tropical Biscayne Bay County weather an sent some men tae investigate, or Tuttle alertit Flagler that the freeze haed spared the Miami River, sendin as evidence a bouquet o flouers an foliage (possibly oranges) tae Flagler, whose order tae extend the Florida East Coast Railway wis then gien. On 15 Februar 1896 Joseph B. Reilly, John Sewell an E.G. Sewell, the vanguard o the Flagler forces, arrivit, an the wirk o biggin the Royal Palm Hotel wis commencit.

Unner a greement atween the twa, Tuttle supplee'd Flagler wi the land for a hotel an a railwey station for free, an they split the remainder o her 640 acres (2.6 km²) north o the Miami River in alternatin sections. On 22 Aprile 1896, train service o the Florida East Coast Railway came tae the aurie. On 28 Julie, male residents votit tae incorporate a new city, Miami. Thareefter, the ceety steadily grew frae a sma toun tae a metropolis.

Daith an legacy
In 1898, Tuttle fell ill wi apparent meningitis. Plans wur made tae muive her tae Asheville, North Carolina, bi rail for treatment, but her condition deterioratit afore she coud be transportit. She dee'd on September 14, 1898, at age 49. Her funeral teuk place at her Fort Dallas hame, an she wis buriet in a place o honor at the City of Miami Cemetery.

She dee'd leavin a lairge amoont o debt, pairtly the result o her altruistic laund grants tae Flagler. Her childer sauld her remainin laund tae pay aff the debt. For that raison, her name wis maistly lost as a contributor tae Miami's foondin till it wis placit on a causewa for Interstate 195 ower Biscayne Bay. In contrast, the name o William Brickell, a lairge laundawner on the sooth side o the Miami River who contributit tae Tuttle's efforts tae incorporate the ceety, wis widely uised on the sooth side o wha became Miami.

Just as Tuttle is cried the Mother of Miami, Flagler became kent as the Father of Miami. Coincidentally, baith Tuttle an Flagler haed previously livit in Cleveland, whare they first met.

In addition tae the Julia Tuttle Causeway, the memory o Tuttle haes been honored wi a statue in Bayfront Park.

References

Sources

Akin, Edward N.. The Cleveland Connection: Revelations from the John D. Rockefeller - Julia Tuttle Correspondences. In Tequesta: the Journal of the Historical Association of Southern Florida, no. XLII (1982).
Peters, Thelma. Biscayne Country, 1870-1926. Miami, Fla.: Banyan Books, c1981.
Tuttle faimily papers. Finding aid.
Wiggins, Larry. The Birth of the City of Miami. In Tequesta: the Journal of the Historical Association of Southern Florida, no. LV (1995).

1849 births
1898 daiths
American ceety foonders
American real estate businessfowk
American weemen in business
Businessfowk in agricultur
History o Miami, Florida

Julia Tuttle