Janet Ellen Morris (born May 25, 1946) is an American author of fiction and nonfiction, best known for her fantasy and science fiction and her authorship of a non-lethal weapons concept for the U.S. military.

Background

Writing
Janet Morris began writing in 1976 and has since published more than forty novels, many co-authored with her husband Chris Morris or others.  Her debut novel, written as Janet E. Morris, was High Couch of Silistra, the first in a quartet of character-driven novels with a female protagonist.  According to original publisher Bantam Books, the Silistra quartet had over four million copies in print when the fourth volume, The Carnelian Throne was published. Charles N. Brown, co-founder and editor of Locus magazine, is quoted on the Baen Books reissues of the series, noting that the stories featured "engrossing characters in a marvelous adventure."

Morris has contributed short fiction to the shared universe fantasy series Thieves' World, in which she created the Sacred Band of Stepsons, a mythical unit of ancient fighters modeled on the Sacred Band of Thebes.

She created, orchestrated, and edited the Bangsian fantasy series Heroes in Hell, writing stories for the series as well as co-writing the related novel, The Little Helliad, with Chris Morris.

Most of her fiction work has been in the fantasy and science fiction genres, although she has also written historical and other novels. Her 1983 book I, the Sun, a detailed biographical novel about the Hittite King Suppiluliuma I was praised for its historical accuracy; O. M. Gurney, Hittite scholar and author of The Hittites, commented that "the author is familiar with every aspect of Hittite culture."

Morris has written, contributed to, or edited several book-length works of non-fiction, as well as papers and articles on non-lethal weapons, developmental military technology and other defense and national security topics.

Academic, strategic and business activity

Morris was elected to the New York Academy of Sciences in 1980. Morris served as Research Director and Senior Fellow (1989–1994) at the U.S. Global Strategy Council, as well as Adjunct Fellow at the Center for Strategic and International Studies (1993–1995). Morris co-authored The Warriors Edge, which explores embracing unconventional psychological combat techniques, in 1990. Janet Morris and the USGSC's campaign for the creation of a non-lethality panel resulted in the assembly of the Non-Lethality Policy Review Group, led by Major General Chris S. Adams, USAF (ret.) in 1991. The group earned the political backing of Sam Nunn, chair of the United States Senate Committee on Armed Services. Janet Morris published numerous white papers in 1991, detailing the USGSC's non-lethal war doctrine proposals. The papers promoted diversifying and expanding non-lethal weapon capability for use in increased American intervention in global conflicts. The papers urged additional development of anti-personnel incapacitants as well as vehicular area denial devices.

In 1991, Morris visited the Moscow Institute of Psycho-Correlations and observed the demonstration of the transmission of subliminal commands via infrasound.

In 1995, Morris and her husband founded M2 Technologies. Since that time, their writing output has decreased in proportion to the increasing success of the company, which works with U.S. federal and military agencies on non-lethal weapon systems, novel technology applications, and software.

In 2003 and 2004, she served on the Council on Foreign Relations Independent Task Force on Nonlethal Weapons and Capabilities and contributed to the Task Force report, Nonlethal Weapons and Capabilities (2004).

Equestrian

A lifelong horsewoman, Morris and her husband bred Thoroughbreds from 2003 to 2013 and still maintain a World-Champion producing Morgan Horse breeding program begun in 1996. Her foundation mare, "UVM Christine" (pictured above), won Morgan Grand National Champion Four-Year-Old Mare, World Champion Senior Mare, and Reserve World Champion Mare in 1998.

Other Grand National and Reserve Grand National and World Champions followed, including Reserve World Champion and Reserve Grand National Champion Park Horse, "Pastorale" in 2001 and 2002; homebred Grand National Champion Morgan Snaffle-Bit Reining Horse, "Spring Diva", in 2003; Grand National Champion Pleasure Driving Gelding "Burkland Rafinesque" in 2008; and homebreds "Privilege", World Champion Western Pleasure in 2014; and "Concordia", World Champion Pleasure Driving in 2018. The Morrises' Morgan breeding program was featured on the cover and in a profile article in Equine International in 2009.

Select fiction bibliography

Silistra
High Couch of Silistra (1977) aka Returning Creation
The Golden Sword (1977)
Wind from the Abyss (1978)
The Carnelian Throne (1979)

Kerrion Empire
Dream Dancer (1980)
Cruiser Dreams (1981)
Earth Dreams (1982)

Threshold (with Chris Morris)
Threshold (1990)
Trust Territory (1992)
The Stalk (1994)

ARC Riders (with David Drake)
ARC Riders (1995)
The Fourth Rome (1996)

Novels
I, the Sun (1983)
The 40-Minute War (1984) (with Chris Morris)
Active Measures (1985) (with David Drake)
Afterwar (1985)
Medusa (1986) (with Chris Morris)
Warlord! (1987)
Kill Ratio (1987) (with David Drake)
Outpassage (1988) (with Chris Morris)
Target (1989) (with David Drake)

Series contributed to
Merovingen Nights
The Fleet
War World
Thieves' World

The Sacred Band of Stepsons saga
Beyond Sanctuary (1985)
Beyond the Veil (1985)
Beyond Wizardwall (1986)
Tempus (1987)
City at the Edge of Time (1988) (with Chris Morris)
Tempus Unbound (1989) (with Chris Morris)
Storm Seed (1990) (with Chris Morris)
The Sacred Band (2010) (with Chris Morris)
The Fish the Fighters and the Song-girl (2012) (with Chris Morris)

Heroes in Hell
Heroes in Hell (1986)
The Gates of Hell (1986) (with C J Cherryh)
Rebels in Hell (1986) (with C J Cherryh)
Crusaders in Hell (1987)
Angels in Hell (1987)
Masters in Hell (1987)
Kings in Hell (1987) (with C J Cherryh)
The Little Helliad (1988) (with Chris Morris)
War in Hell (1988)
Prophets in Hell (1989)
Explorers in Hell (1989) (with David Drake)
Lawyers in Hell (2011) (edited with Chris Morris)
Bridge Over Hell (2012) (Michael A. Armstrong)
Poets in Hell (2014) (edited with Chris Morris)
Dreamers in Hell (2013) (edited with Chris Morris)
Poets in Hell (2014) (edited with Chris Morris)
Doctors in Hell (2015) (edited with Chris Morris)
Hellbound (2015) (Andrew P. Weston)
Pirates in Hell (2017) (edited with Chris Morris)
Hell Hounds (2017) (Andrew P. Weston)
Lovers in Hell (2018) (edited with Chris Morris)
Hell Gate (2019) (Andrew P. Weston)

Select short story bibliography

 "Raising the Green Lion" (1980)
 "Vashanka's Minion" (1980)
 "A Man and His God" (1981)
 "An End to Dreaming" (1982)
 "Wizard Weather" (1982)
 "High Moon" (1983)
 "Basileus" (1984)
 "Hero's Welcome" (1985)
 "Graveyard Shift" (1986)
 "To Reign in Hell" (1986)
 "Power Play" (1984)
 "Pillar of Fire" (1984)
 "Gilgamesh Redux" (1987)
 "Sea of Stiffs" (1987)
 "The Nature of Hell" (1987)
 "The Best of the Achaeans" (1988)
 "The Collaborator" (1988)
 "[...] Is Hell" (1988)
 "Moving Day" (1989)
 "Sea Change" (1989)
 "Interview with the Devil" (2011) (with Chris Morris)
 "Tribe of Hell" (2011)
 "Babe in Hell" (2012) (with Chris Morris)(2012)
 "Which Way I Fly Is Hell" (2012)
 "Boogey Man Blues" (2013) appeared in What Scares the Boogey Man? edited by John Manning
 "Hell Bent" (2013)
 "Alms for Oblivion" (2013) (with Chris Morris)
 "Dress Rehearsal" (2014)
 "Seven Against Hell" (2014) (with Chris Morris)
 "The Black Sword" (2014) (with Chris Morris) appeared in Nine Heroes edited by Walter Rhein

Select non-fiction bibliography

 "Nonlethality: A Global Strategy" (1990, 2010) (with Chris Morris)
 "Weapons of Mass Protection" (1995) (with Morris and Baines)
 The American Warrior (1992) (Morris and Morris, ed.)

References

External links
Janet Morris fiction bibliography

M2 Technologies information on Janet Morris
Council on Foreign Relations Independent Task Force Report on Nonlethal Weapons and Capabilities
Nonlethality: A Global Strategy
Weapons of Mass Protection
Psychic Warfare and Non-Lethal Weapons

1946 births
Living people
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American women novelists
American fantasy writers
American science writers
American science fiction writers
American military writers
Women military writers
American women short story writers
American short story writers
Women science fiction and fantasy writers
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
American women non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers

Janet Morris


The atomic radius of an element is the distance between the nucleus and the edge of the electron cloud.

The atomic radius is rather hard to define, because it is impossible to know where all of the electrons are at a given time.

In the periodic table of the elements, the atomic radius tends to increase as you move down a group because the number of electrons is greater, and so the radius of the circle of electrons in the element is bigger. As you move to the right across a period, the atomic radius tends to decrease due to the shielding effect.

Nuclear physics

Atomic radius


Dynamite is an explosive invented by Alfred Nobel, the creator of the Nobel Prize. Its main explosive component is nitroglycerin. Nitroglycerin is very sensitive to movement. It explodes very easily when it is moved. For this reason, it is absorbed into diatomaceous earth to make it less sensitive. Diatomaceous earth is a soft, sedimentary rock made of fossil diatoms. About one-quarter of dynamite is diatomaceous earth, the other three-quarters are nitroglycerin. A little sodium carbonate is added to stabilize the mixture.

Even though the diatomaceous earth takes away some of the dangers of nitroglycerin, there are still problems because the mixture is not stable in damp environments. Water causes the nitroglycerin to leak away. The nitroglycerin can build up, and explode unexpectedly.

For this reason, the formulation was changed. Instead of diatomaceous earth, gelignite was used to hold the nitroglycerin. Gelignite holds the nitroglycerin so that it cannot dissolve in water.

Today, dynamite is not much used. It has been replaced by explosives based on ammonium nitrate which use gelignite. These explosives cost less to make and are easier to handle than dynamite. However, works of fiction still show people using dynamite.

Explosives
Demolition

Dynamite


A cross is a symbol, which is used for many things.

Crosses in religion
the Christian cross
the Ankh, an Ancient Egyptian symbol for life
the Swastika, a symbol in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, but also used in many cultures at different times.

Other crosses

the Swastika, also known as Hakenkreuz used as a symbol of Nazism. This sign is thought to be insulting by many people in the West.
the Cross of Saint Peter, an upside down Latin cross, used by Catholics and also associated with Satanism.
the Red Cross, used by medical and humanitarian groups

Symbols

Cross


The Nehru–Gandhi family is an Indian political family that has occupied a prominent place in the politics of India. The involvement of the family has traditionally revolved around the Indian National Congress, as various members have traditionally led the party. Three members of the family—Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi—have served as the prime minister of India, while several others have been members of parliament (MP).

The Guardian wrote in 2007, "The Nehru brand has no peer in the world—a member of the family has been in charge of India for 40 of the 60 years since independence. The allure of India's first family blends the right to rule of British monarchy with the tragic glamour of America's Kennedy clan."

The Gandhi surname came from Feroze Gandhi, a politician of Gujarati Parsi ancestry, who  after joining the independence movement, changed the spelling of his surname from Ghandy to Gandhi, to match that of Mahatma Gandhi despite not being related familially. Indira Priyadarshini Nehru, daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, married Feroze Gandhi in 1942 and adopted his surname.

Family trees

Earliest record

Raj Kaul (late 1600s to early 1700s) a Kashmiri Pandit. He is the earliest recorded ancestor of the Nehru family. He is believed to have moved from Kashmir to Delhi in 1716 AD. A Jagir with a house situated on the banks of a canal was granted to Raj Kaul, and, from the fact of this residence, 'Nehru' (from Nahar, a canal) came to be attached to his name. Kaul was the original family name; this changed to Kaul-Nehru; and, in later years, Kaul was dropped out and the family name became only "Nehru".
During the early part of the 19th century, Gangadhar Nehru's father, Lakshmi Narayan Nehru, worked as a clerk in Delhi for the East India Company. Lakshmi Narayan Nehru was the son of Mansa Ram Nehru who was the son Vishwanath Kaul Nehru who in turn was the son of Raj Kaul.

First generation
 Gangadhar Nehru (1827–1861), a direct descendant of Raj Kaul. He was the last Kotwal of Delhi (equivalent to Chief of Police), prior to the Indian Rebellion of 1857. He was the father of freedom fighter Motilal Nehru and grandfather of Jawaharlal Nehru who was the first prime minister of India, thus part of the Nehru family.

Second generation
Bansi Dhar Nehru, Gangadhar's eldest son. He worked in the judicial department of the British Government and, after being appointed successively to various places, was partly cut off from the rest of the family.
Nandlal Nehru (1845–1887), older brother of Motilal Nehru. He was the Diwan (prime minister) of the princely state of Khetri in Rajputana.
Motilal Nehru (1861–1931), patriarch of Nehru–Gandhi family. He was a lawyer and a prominent leader of the Indian independence movement. He also served as the president of Congress twice, 1919–1920 and 1928–1929.
Swarup Rani Nehru (1868–1938), played a prominent role in India's freedom movement in the 1920s–30s as an advocate of civil disobedience against the British Raj and its salt laws.

Third generation

Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964), son of Motilal Nehru. He was the first prime minister of India and was one of the most prominent leaders of the Indian independence movement. He had succeeded his father as president of the Congress in 1929.
Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit (1900–1990), eldest daughter of Motilal Nehru. She was an Indian diplomat and politician who later became the president of the United Nations General Assembly. Married Ranjit Sitaram Pandit in 1921.
Krishna Nehru Hutheesing (1907–1967) was an Indian writer, the youngest sister of Jawaharlal Nehru and Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, and part of the Nehru–Gandhi family.
Kamala Nehru (1899–1936), wife of Jawaharlal Nehru. She was a prominent social reformer and was an active member of the All India Congress Committee.
Brijlal Nehru (1884–1964), son of Nandlal Nehru and a nephew of Motilal Nehru. He was the Finance Minister of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir during the rule of Maharaja Hari Singh.
Rameshwari Nehru (1886–1966), wife of Brij Lal Nehru. She was a journalist and social worker who co-founded All India Women's Conference
Uma Nehru (1884-1963) was an Indian independence activist and politician. She married Shamlal Nehru, cousin of Jawaharlal Nehru.

Fourth generation
Indira Gandhi (1917–1984), only daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru. She became the first woman prime minister of India.
Feroze Gandhi (1912–1960), husband of Indira. He was a politician and journalist.
Braj Kumar Nehru (1909–2001), son of Brijlal Nehru. He served as the Indian diplomat and ambassador to the United States and as High Commissioner to the United Kingdom. He later served as Governor of several Indian states and was an adviser to his cousin Indira Gandhi.
Magdolna Nehru (1908–2017), nicknamed Fori, wife of Braj Kumar Nehru.
Balwant Kumar Nehru (1916–1996), son of Brijlal Nehru and brother of Braj Kumar Nehru. Engineer and corporate manager who rose to become the deputy chairman of ITC and the president of the All-India Management Association.
Sarup Nehru, wife of Balwant Kumar Nehru.
Harsha Hutheesing (1935–1991) and Ajit Hutheesing (1936–2017), sons of Krishna Nehru Hutheesing and Raja Hutheesing
Chandralekha Mehta, the eldest of the three daughters born to Jawaharlal Nehru's sister, Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit
Nayantara Sahgal (born 10 May 1927), the second of the three daughters born to Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit
Rita Dar, the youngest of the three daughters born to Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit
Ratan Kumar Nehru (1902–1981), civil servant and diplomat, son of Mohanlal Nehru, grandson of Nandlal Nehru.
Shyam Kumari Khan (1904-1980), daughter of Uma Nehru she was an Indian lawyer, freedom fighter, politician and social worker. She was a member of the Rajya Sabha from 1963 to 1968. She married Abdul Jamil Khan.

Fifth generation

Arun Nehru (1944–2013), great grandson of Nandlal Nehru. He was a politician and union minister during the 1980s.
Rajiv Gandhi (1944–1991), eldest son of Indira and Feroze Gandhi. He became the 6th prime minister of India after Indira's death.
Sanjay Gandhi (1946–1980), second son of Indira. He was also one of the most trusted lieutenants of his mother during the 1970s and was widely expected to succeed his mother as prime minister of India, but met with an untimely death in a plane crash.
Sonia Gandhi (née Maino 1946), widow of Rajiv Gandhi. She was born in Italy and took Indian citizenship, 11 years after marrying Rajiv Gandhi. She was the president of the Indian National Congress from 1998 to 2017, from 2019 to 2022 and has served as the Chairperson of the United Progressive Alliance since 2004.
Maneka Gandhi (née Anand 1956), widow of Sanjay Gandhi. She is a noted environmentalist and animal welfare activist. She is a prominent member of the Bharatiya Janata Party.  She has served as a cabinet minister in four government. She also served as the Indian Union Cabinet Minister for Women & Child Development in the BJP led Government of 2014–2019.
Subhadra Nehru, wife of Arun Nehru.
Sunil Nehru (born 1946), eldest son of Balwant Kumar Nehru. Engineer and corporate strategist, senior company executive at Max India, adventurer, scuba diver, and ardent trekker.
Neena Nehru (born 1946 née Neena Heble), wife of Sunil Nehru. Artist, poet, architect.
Nikhil Nehru (born 1948), second son of Balwant Kumar Nehru.  He had a stellar career in advertising, rising to become the president of McCann-Erickson and Chairman of Results International Group, India.
Samhita Nehru, wife of Nikhil Nehru.
Vikram Nehru (born 1952), third son of Balwant Kumar Nehru.  Entered the field of international development with a career at the World Bank. Became the World Bank's Chief Economist and Director for Poverty Reduction, Economic Management, Private and Financial Sector Development for East Asia and the Pacific. Subsequently, became the Chair in Southeast Asian Studies at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in Washington, D.C., and then Distinguished Practitioner-in-Residence at the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies.

Sixth generation
Rahul Gandhi (born 1970), son of Rajiv Gandhi and Sonia Gandhi. He was the president  of the Congress party from 2017 and 2019, and was a member of Parliament from Amethi, UP from 2004 to 2019. He was the Chairman of the Congress coordination panel for 2014 Lok Sabha polls and the current MP from Wayanad, Kerala in the Lok Sabha.
Priyanka Gandhi (born 1972), daughter of Rajiv Gandhi and Sonia Gandhi. She is the General Secretary of the Indian National Congress. Priyanka is married to Robert Vadra, a businessman.
Varun Gandhi (born 1980), son of Sanjay Gandhi and Maneka Gandhi. He is a member of the Bharatiya Janata Party, National Executive and the youngest National Secretary in the history of the party. He is a member of 2014 Lok Sabha, the lower house of Parliament of India, representing the Sultanpur constituency.
 Yamini Gandhi, wife of Varun Gandhi.
 Avantika Nehru, elder daughter of Arun Nehru.
 Radhika Vickram Tikkoo, younger daughter of Arun Nehru.

Seventh generation
 Anasuya Gandhi (born 2020), daughter of Varun Gandhi and Yamini Gandhi.
 Raihan Vadra and Miraya Vadra—children of Priyanka Gandhi and Robert Vadra.
Akhil Madan, Yash Madan and Vickram Tikkoo, grandsons of Arun Nehru.

Gallery

See also
 List of political families

References

External links

 The making of the Ghandhi dynasty at The Guardian

Indian National Congress
People from Prayagraj
Parsi people
Hindu families
Political families of India
History of Prayagraj

Nehru–Gandhi family


The first season of Body of Proof, an American television series created by Christopher Murphey, commenced airing in the United States on March 29, 2011, concluded May 17, 2011, and consisted of 9 episodes. It follows the life and career of Dr. Megan Hunt, a medical examiner, once a neurosurgeon, who now works in Philadelphia's Medical Examiner's office after a car accident ended her neurosurgery career. Along with Hunt solving homicide cases are her colleagues, Nicholas Bishop as Peter Dunlop, Jeri Ryan as Dr. Kate Murphy, John Carroll Lynch and Sonja Sohn as Detectives Bud Morris and Samantha Baker and fellow medical examiners, Geoffrey Arend as Dr. Ethan Gross and Windell Middlebrooks as Dr. Curtis Brumfield. Mary Mouser plays Megan's daughter Lacey, Jeffrey Nordling plays her ex-husband Todd and Joanna Cassidy plays her mother Joan. All of whom she has a strained relationship with, one of the continuing stories throughout the season.

Body of Proof'''s first season aired in the United States (U.S.) on Tuesdays at 10:00 pm ET on ABC, a terrestrial television network. In the United Kingdom, the season premiered on July 19, 2011 at 9pm, and subsequently aired Tuesdays at 10 pm on Channel 5. It aired in Canada on Citytv and in Australia on Channel Seven. Body of Proof — The Complete First Season'' was released on DVD as a two-disc set on September 20, 2011 by Buena Vista Home Entertainment in Region 1, on November 5, 2012 in Region 2 and August 15, 2012 in Region 4.

Note that the episode list includes the names of the murderers (unlike normal Wikipedia episode lists).

Cast and characters

Episodes

Ratings

DVD release

References

External links

2011 American television seasons
1

Body of Proof (season 1)


Sophocles (497 BC, 496 BC, or 495 BC – 406 BC) was an Ancient Greek writer who wrote over 100 plays, according to the Suda. Only seven of his tragedies have survived complete. Sophocles was the second of the three greatest Ancient Greek writers of tragedies, the others were Aeschylus and Euripides.

The most famous of Sophocles' tragedies are those about Oedipus and Antigone: these are often called the Theban plays. Each play was a part of different tetralogy (set of four), the other members of which are now lost.

Life
Sophocles, the son of Sophillus, was a rich member of the rural community of Colonus Hippius in Attica. This was the setting for his plays. He was probably born there. His birth took place a few years before the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC: the exact year is unclear, although 497/6 is perhaps most likely. Sophocles' first great play was in 468 BC when he took first prize in the Dionysia theatre competition ahead of Aeschylus.

Surviving plays
 The Theban plays (the Oedipus Cycle):
 Antigone
 Oedipus the King (Oedipus Tyrannos (Greek) or Oedipus Rex (Latin)
 Oedipus at Colonos
 Ajax
 The Trachiniae
 Electra
 Philoctetes

The Oedipus story
In Oedipus the King, Oedipus is the main character.

Oedipus' death as a child is planned by his parents, Laius and Jocasta, to stop him fulfilling a prophecy. A servant  passes the infant on to a childless couple, who adopt him. They did not know his history.

Oedipus eventually learns of the Delphic Oracle's prophecy of him. It was: he would kill his father and marry his mother. He thought this meant his adopted parents. He flees to avoid his fate. Oedipus meets a man at a crossroads accompanied by servants. Oedipus and the man fight, and Oedipus kills the man. This man was his father, Laius, not that anyone apart from the gods knew this at the time.

Oedipus becomes the ruler of Thebes after solving the riddle of the sphinx. In the process, he marries the widowed Queen, his mother Jocasta. Thus the stage is set for horrors. When the truth comes out, Jocasta commits suicide, Oedipus blinds himself and leaves Thebes. The children are left to sort out the results for themselves.

In Oedipus at Colonus, the banished Oedipus and his daughters Antigone and Ismene arrive at the town of Colonus where they encounter Theseus, King of Athens. Oedipus dies and trouble begins between his sons Polyneices and Eteocles.

In Antigone the protagonist is Oedipus' daughter. The king, Creon, has forbidden the burial of Polyneices as a traitor to the city. Antigone is faced with a choice: allow her brother Polyneices' body to remain unburied, outside the city walls. There it would be exposed to the ravages of wild animals. Or, she could bury him and face death. Antigone decides to bury his body and face the results of her actions.

Creon sentences her to death. Eventually, Creon is convinced to free Antigone from her punishment, but his decision comes too late. Antigone has committed suicide. Her death leads to the suicide of two others close to King Creon: his son, Haemon, who was going to marry Antigone, and the queen, who commits suicide after losing her only surviving son.

Running through such tragedies is the theme of fate, which cannot be avoided. A forbidden act is committed in innocence, and the consequences follow remorselessly.

Influence on Greek Drama

Aristotle writes that after Aeschylus introduced a second actor called the deuteragonist into plays so that there could be dialogue between characters, Sophocles added a third actor called the tritagonist so that dialogue became more important. But it was still possible for there to be more than three characters because different actors played more than one character.

Related pages
 Theatre of Ancient Greece

References

Sophocles

Sophocles


Colette Rolland (born 1943, in Dieupentale, Tarn-et-Garonne, France) is a French computer scientist and Professor of Computer Science in the department of Mathematics and Informatics at the University of Paris 1 Pantheon-Sorbonne, and a leading researcher in the area of information and knowledge systems, known for her work on meta-modeling, particularly goal modelling and situational method engineering.

Biography
In 1966 she studied applied mathematics at the University of Nancy, where she received her PhD in 1971. In 1973 she was appointed Professor at the University of Nancy, Department of Computer Science. In 1979 she became professor at University of Paris 1 Pantheon-Sorbonne Department of Mathematics and Informatics.
She has been involved in a large number of European research projects and used to lead cooperative research projects with companies. She is currently Professor Emeritus of Computer Science in the department of Mathematics and Informatics.

Rolland is in the editorial board of a number of journals including Journal of Information Systems,  Journal on Information and Software Technology,  Requirements Engineering Journal,  Journal of Networking and Information Systems, Data and Knowledge Engineering Journal, Journal of Data Base Management and Journal of Intelligent Information Systems. She is the French representative in IFIP TC8 on Information Systems and has been the co chair and chairperson of the IFIP WG8.1 during nine years.

Rolland has been awarded a number of prizes including the IFIP Silver Core, IFIP service award, the Belgium prize 'de la Fondation Franqui' and the European prize of 'Information Systems'.

Work
Roland's research interests are in the areas of information modeling, databases, temporal data modeling, object-oriented analysis and design, requirements engineering and specially change engineering, method engineering, CASE and CAME tools, change management and enterprise knowledge development.

Publications
Rolland is the co-author of 7 textbooks; editor of 25 proceedings and author or co-author of over 280 invited and referred papers.

 Books, a selection:
 1991. Automatic Tools for Designing Office Information Systems: The Todos Approach. Research Reports ESPRIT, Project 813, Todos, Vol. 1. With B. Pernici.
 1992. Information System Concepts: Improving the Understanding, Proceedings. With Eckhard D. Falkenberg. IFIP Transactions a, Computer Science and Technology.
 1993. Advanced Information Systems Engineering. With F. Bodart. Springer.
 1994. A Natural Language Approach For Requirements Engineering. With C. Proix.
 1996. Facilitating "Fuzzy to Formal" Requirements Modelling. With Janis Bubenko, P. Loucopoulos and V. Deantonellis.
 1988. Temporal Aspects in Information Systems. With F. Bodart. Elsevier Science Ltd.
 1998. A framework of information system concepts. The FRISCO report. With Eckhard D. Falkenberg, Paul Lindgreen, Björn E. Nilsson, J.L. Han Oei, Ronald Stamper, Frans J M Van Assche, Alexander A. Verrijn-Stuart and Klaus Voss.
 1998. "A proposal for a scenario classification framework". With others. In: Journal of. Requirements Engineering. vol. 3 pp. 23–47 – Springer Verlag, 1998
 2000. Engineering information systems in the Internet context: IFIP TC8/WG8.1. With Sjaak Brinkkemper and Motoshi Saeki.
 2005. "Modeling Goals and Reasoning with Them" with Camille Salinesi, in Engineering and Managing Software Requirements, edited by Aybüke Aurum and Claes Wohlin, Springer:Berlin/Heidelberg, p. 189‑217.
 2005. "Measuring the fitness relationship" with Anne Etien, Requirements Engineering, vol. 10, p. 184‑197, 2005.

Papers, a selection:
 1998. "A proposal for a scenario classification framework". With others. In: Journal of. Requirements Engineering. vol. (3) pp. 23–47 – Springer Verlag, 1998
 2005. "Map-driven Modular Method Re-engineering: Improving the RESCUE Requirements Process". CAiSE Short Paper Proceedings 2005 with Jolita Ralyté et al.
 2006. "Intentional Cognitive Models with Volition". With Ammar Qusaibaty, Newton Howard
 2007. "Capturing System Intentionality with Maps", in Conceptual Modelling in Information Systems Engineering, edited by John Krogstie, Andreas Opdahl and Sjaak Brinkkemper, Springer:Berlin/Heidelberg, p. 141‑158.
 2007. "On the Adequate Modeling of Business Process Families". With Naveen Prakash. Paper 8th Workshop on Business Process Modeling, Development, and Support.
 2008. Requirements engineering: foundation for software quality : 14th international working conference, REFSQ 2008, Montpellier, France, June 16–17, 2008 : proceedings. With Barbara Paech (eds.).
 2008. "Towards Engineering Purposeful Systems: A Requirements Engineering Perspective", in Database and Expert Systems Applications,  edited by S. S. Bhowmick, J. Küng and R. Wagner, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 5181, Springer:Berlin/Heidelberg, p. 1‑4.
 2009. "Exploring the Fitness Relationship between System Functionality and Business Needs", in Design Requirements Engineering: A Ten-Year Perspective, edited by Kalle Lyytinen, Pericles Loucopoulos, John Mylopoulos and Bill Robinson, Lecture Notes in Business Information processing, Springer:Berlin/Heidelberg, p. 305‑326.
 2009. "Method engineering: towards methods as services", Software Process: Improvement and Practice, vol. 14, no 3, p. 143‑164.
 2010. "An Intentional Approach to Service Engineering" with Manuele Kirsch-Pinheiro and Carine Souveyet, IEEE Transactions on Services Computing, vol. 3, p. 292‑305, 2010.
 2013. Seminal Contributions to Information Systems Engineering: 25 Years of CAiSE. With Janis Bubenko, John Krogstie, Óscar Pastor, Barbara Pernici, Colette Rolland, Arne Sølvberg (eds.).

References

External links
  home page
 REMORA by Colette Rolland  , Virtual Exhibitions in Informatics at uni-klu.ac.at

1943 births
Living people
French computer scientists
Enterprise modelling experts
Information systems researchers
French women computer scientists
Academic staff of the University of Paris
Nancy-Université alumni
Academic staff of Nancy-Université
Academic staff of Paris-Sorbonne University

Colette Rolland


Steam is an internet-based digital distribution, digital rights management, multiplayer and social networking program developed and distributed by Valve Corporation. Steam has its own store where the user can purchase video games and other software. It is available for Microsoft Windows, OS X and Linux. Steam also has an application with fewer functions for smartphones which is available for Android and iOS. Steam can also be used as a communication software, meaning that you can talk with people if they are your friends on Steam.

Popularity
The Steam platform is considered to be one of the largest digital distribution platform for PC gaming, and was estimated by Screen Digest to have 75% of the market space in October 2013. In 2015, users purchasing titles through Steam or through Steam keys from third-party vendors totaling around $3.5 billion representing 15% of the global PC game sales for the year, based on estimations made by the tracking website Steam Spy. By the end of 2015, the service had over 125 million registered accounts, with 12.5 million concurrent users. The success of the Steam platform has led to the development of a line of Steam Machine micro-console, as well as SteamOS, an in-house fork of the Debian operating system. As of February 2015, Steam has over 125 million users.

References

Other websites

Software

Steam (service)


Michael Spivey (commonly known as Mike Spivey) is a British computer scientist at the University of Oxford.

Spivey was born in 1960 and educated at Archbishop Holgate's Grammar School in York, England. He studied mathematics at Christ's College, Cambridge and then undertook a DPhil in computer science on the Z notation at Wolfson College, Oxford and the Programming Research Group, part of the Oxford University Computing Laboratory.

Mike Spivey is a University Lecturer in Computation at the Oxford University Department of Computer Science and Misys and Anderson Fellow of Computer Science at Oriel College, Oxford.  His main areas of research interest are compilers and programming languages, especially logic programming. He wrote an Oberon-2 compiler.

Publications
Understanding Z: A Specification Language and its Formal Semantics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Tracts in Theoretical Computer Science, No. 3, 2008. .
The Z Notation: A reference manual, Prentice Hall International Series in Computer Science, 1992. .
An introduction to logic programming through Prolog, Prentice Hall International Series in Computer Science, 1996. .

References

External links
 Official home page
 Personal home page

1960 births
Living people
People educated at Archbishop Holgate's School
Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge
Alumni of Wolfson College, Oxford
Fellows of Oriel College, Oxford
English computer scientists
Formal methods people
Logic programming researchers
Computer science writers
Members of the Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford
Programming language researchers
Z notation

Michael Spivey


This page is about the character in the book called the Nibelungenlied. For Wagner's opera see Siegfried (opera).

Sigurd (Old Norse: Sigurðr) is a strong hero in the Nibelungenlied, an epic poem written about the year 1200. He killed the dragon Fafnir and took its treasure, the Nibelungenschatz. After killing the dragon, he bathed in its blood and so changed his skin, so that he could not be wounded any more. The earliest extant representations for his legend come in pictorial form from seven runestones in Sweden and most notably the Ramsund carving (c. 1000) and the Gök Runestone (11th century).

But a leaf fell from a linden tree above while he was bathing and landed on his back, and the little patch of skin that it covered did not touch the dragon's blood, so that Siegfried remained vulnerable (he could be hurt) in that one spot.

Siegfried wants to marry Kriemhild, the sister of Gunther, kin of the Burgundians in Worms. But before he is allowed to marry her he has to help Gunther to win against Brünhild, the queen of Iceland. He does it with the help of a cloak which lets him become invisible.

After their marriage Siegfried and Kriemhild live in Siegfried's kingdom for some years. Then they come to visit Worms and Kriemhild's family again. Brünhild, the wife of Gunther, and
Kriemhild argue about who is of higher rank. Now Kriemhild tells Brünhild that Siegfried helped Gunther in his fight against her and that he gave a proof of this victory to Kriemhild. Therefore, Brünhild becomes so furious that she decides that Siegfried must be killed. This is done by Hagen, one of Gunther's men, while Siegfried is drinking from a well during a hunt in the Odenwald. Hagen also takes the treasure of Siegfried from Kriemhild and throws it into the Rhine.

The name Siegfried in German means "victory peace".

Siegfried appears in two of the four operas in Wagner's Ring cycle: the third opera is called Siegfried and the fourth one is called Götterdämmerung'' although originally Wagner called it "Siegfrieds Tod" ("The Death of Siegfried"). Wagner makes several changes to the story.

References

Fictional European people

Siegfried


Council Julian Goodell (February 18, 1885 – September 17, 1967), also called Julian Goodell, was an American attorney and jurist who served as an associate justice of the District Court of Appeal of California from 1945 to 1953.

Early life and education

Born in San Francisco, California, the youngest of five children of Council Goodell, a boarding house keeper and his wife Catherine (née McNeeve.) Goodell, the grandson of Irish immigrants on his mother's side, was raised a Roman Catholic in the working class area located South of Market. Goodell's father died when he was six, and he worked as a clerk to help support the family. He was educated at Sacred Heart College (now Sacred Heart Cathedral Preparatory) and the California Institute of Mechanical Arts (now Lick-Wilmerding High School).
While working as a clerk at a lumber yard, and later as a stenographer he attended the YMCA Law College (now Golden Gate University School of Law.)

After passing the (then completely oral) bar examination he was admitted to the practice of law on November 18, 1908 (although Goodell would not formally receive his law degree until September 1909).

Legal career

After graduation, Goodell lived for a time in Coronado, California, before in 1911 being appointed Town Attorney for Suisun City, California, representing the town before the courts and the Railroad Commission of California (now the California Public Utilities Commission.) He returned to live in San Francisco in 1913.

Superior Court

Following a career in private practice, Goodell, a Republican, was in May 1928 appointed  to the San Francisco Superior Court bench by Governor C. C. Young; he was elected in his own right in 1930 and was re-elected in 1936 and 1942 His tenure on the court included several terms as a pro tem Justice on the District Court of Appeal as well as service as presiding judge of the Superior Court bench.

District Court of Appeal

On January 2, 1945, Governor Earl Warren appointed Goodell an associate justice of the District Court of Appeal, First Appellate District, Division Two in place of Homer R. Spence who was elevated to the California Supreme Court on the same day. The First District then heard appeals from the trial courts of Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, Monterey, San Benito, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara and Santa Cruz counties. Goodell was retained by the voters in 1946 for the balance of a 12-year term expiring in January 1957. He would hold office until December 31, 1953, when he retired.

Later years
Following his service on the court, Goodell returned to practice, taking a few cases to the California Courts of Appeal and one to the California Supreme Court. He was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws by his legal alma mater in 1955. In August 1957, he was named the first Chairman of the San Francisco Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity.
He was a member of the American Bar Association, the Bohemian Club and the Commonwealth Club. At San Andreas, California, on July 24, 1912, he married Ethel Segale, they had one son; she died in 1958. After her death, Goodell married Lucie Reincke in Los Angeles on December 29, 1960, she died in January 1967. A resident of San Francisco's Sunset District during his years on the bench, Goodell moved to Pacific Heights after the death of his first wife. Justice Goodell died in San Rafael, California, on June 17, 1967, and was survived by his son, Julian. Goodell is buried in Holy Cross Cemetery in Colma, California.

References

External links
 List of Past and Present Justices. California Court of Appeal, First District.

1885 births
1967 deaths
20th-century American judges
Lawyers from San Francisco
People from Suisun City, California
Judges of the California Courts of Appeal
Superior court judges in the United States
California state court judges
Golden Gate University School of Law alumni
20th-century American lawyers
Lick-Wilmerding High School alumni

C. J. Goodell


WQED (channel 13, digital channel 38) is a PBS television station based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Established 1 April 1954, it was the first community-sponsored television station in the United States as well as the fifth public TV station. WQED also became the first station to telecast classes to elementary classrooms when Pittsburgh launched the Metropolitan School Service in 1955. WQED has produced many shows for PBS, such as Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (which aired first run episodes from 19 February 1968 to 31 August 2001) after the station hired Fred Rogers. Pittsburgh Magazine is also a publication of WQED.

American television stations
Public Broadcasting Service
Pittsburgh
1954 establishments in the United States
1950s establishments in Pennsylvania

WQED (TV)


Minnie Mouse is an American cartoon character. She is Mickey Mouse's significant other. They were both created by Walt Disney. Her birthday is on 18th November 1928. She only first appeared in 1928, in "Plane Crazy". She is also known as Princess Minnie and Maestro Minnie. Minnie's favorite foods are cheese, chocolate and cake. She loves listening to jazz music, cooking, baking, shopping and makeup.

She was voiced by Walt Disney from 1928 to 1929, then by Marcelite Garner, and then voiced by Russi Taylor.

Family
Minnie Mouse's parents are unknown, but Marcus Mouse may be her father's name. His name was first used in the comic strip story "Mr. Slicker and the Egg Robbers" (published 22 September — 26 December, 1930). The same story featured photographs of Minnie's uncle Milton Mouse with his family and her grandparents Marvel Mouse and Matilda Mouse. She also has an uncle named Mortimer Mouse and twin nieces, Millie and Melody Mouse.

Pets
Minnie Mouse has two pets, a dog and a cat. The dog is called Fifi. Fifi has 5 puppies with Mickey's dog, Pluto. Pluto was Mickey's first dog; he was called Rover at that time. She also has a cat called Figaro. This is the same cat which appears in the Disney movie Pinocchio. It has been recently discovered that she has adopted two new pets, a lizard and a snake, their names are Lolly and Pop, respectively. This is due to her sudden fascination with reptiles.

Marriage to Mickey
Walt Disney said in a interview in 1933 that in private Mickey and Minnie are married. He also said that many people asked him about this. Depending on the movie, Minnie and Mickey are married or sometimes not married. They also, at least in public, have no children yet.

Gossip about Minnie's name
From 19th January 1942 to 2nd May 1942 there was a comic magazine called "The Gleam". In this magazine once it said that Minnie's real name was Minerva Mouse. But the Walt Disney head office said that there is no register about her real name as Minerva. There is not much information about Minerva, but she is similar to Minnie's character. Therefore, many people misunderstood that Minerva was Minnie's real name. Formally Minnie's name is only registered as "Minnie Mouse".
However some sources say that Minerva is Minnie's real name, and that Minnie's full name is Minerva "Minnie" Mouse.
More likely is that Minnie's original name was the German/Dutch Wilhelmina, which is about the only name for which Minnie is the "official" abbreviation (http://www.thinkbabynames.com/meaning/0/Minnie ). Possibly, this fact was suppressed during the 1930s, as Germany became more unpopular due to its political and racial leanings.

In episode 14 of season 4 of the series Mickey Mouse, which began airing on the Disney Channel in June 2013, Mickey addresses Minnie as "Minifred" (a pun on the name Winifred), but this is non-canon.

Friends
It seems that Minnie's closest friends are Daisy Duck, Donald Duck's girlfriend, and also sometimes Clarabelle Cow. She often goes shopping with Daisy and she spends a lot of time with her. Her friendship with Daisy is more of a product of recent cartoons, as they never interacted with each other during the classic shorts. Minnie also has another friend called Honor the Hippo and they keep their secrets in bits of moss on the pavement. Minnie's other friend Carly the Cat has a middle parting in her long hair.

References

Fictional mice and rats
Mickey Mouse universe characters

Minnie Mouse


Krumbach, Swabia (district) was until 1972/07/01 a district in Swabia in the southwest of Bavaria, Germany. Krumbach was the capital of this district. The carsign was KRU.

The district had 49 municipalities. The largest of them were the towns Krumbach, Bavaria and Thannhausen and the municipalities Ziemetshausen, Neuburg an der Kammel and Ursberg.

In 1972 the district became together with Günzburg (district) and the urban district Günzburg, the Günzburg district in today's form.

Günzburg Rural District

Krumbach, Swabia (district)


Coelurosauria is the clade containing all theropod dinosaurs more closely related to birds than to carnosaurs.

This is a varied group that includes tyrannosaurs, ornithomimosaurs, compsognathids and maniraptors; Maniraptora includes birds, the only descendents of coelurosaurs alive today.

All Paraves discovered so far have been coelurosaurs. It is probable that all coelurosaurs were feathered.

Some diagnostic characteristics of coelurosaurs include elongated arms and well-developed hinge-like ankles (possible rotation of the ankle is reduced, which is helpful during locomotion). These features may be lost or modified by later coelurosaurs (birds, for example).

An increase in the proportion of the brain occupied by the cerebrum seems to have occurred in the Coelurosauria and "continued throughout the evolution of maniraptorans and early birds".

Fossil history
A few fossil traces of the Coelurosauria date back as far as the Upper Triassic. A possible, but not confirmed, example would be the archosaur Protoavis. What has been found between then and the start of the late Jurassic is fragmentary.

Many nearly complete fossil coelurosaurians are known from the late Jurassic. Archaeopteryx is known from Solnhofen limestone at 155-150 million years ago (mya). Ornitholestes, the troodontid WDC DML 110, Coelurus fragilis and Tanycolagreus topwilsoni are all known from the Morrison Formation in Wyoming at about 150 mya. Epidendrosaurus and Pedopenna are known from the Daohugou Beds in China, whose age is still being debated, but may be about 160 Ma or 145 mya.

The wide range of fossils in the late Jurassic and morphological evidence suggests that coelurosaurian differentiation was virtually complete before the end of the Jurassic.

In the early Cretaceous, a superb range of coelurosaurian fossils (including avians) are known from the Yixian Formation in Liaoning. All known theropod dinosaurs from the Yixian Formation are coelurosaurs. Many of the coelurosaurian lineages survived to the end of the Cretaceous period (about 65 Ma) and fossils of some lineages, such as the Tyrannosauroidea, are best known from the late Cretaceous. Most coelurosaur groups became extinct in the K/T extinction event. Only the Neornithes (modern birds) survived, and continued to diversify into the numerous forms found today.

There is consensus among paleontologists that birds are the descendants of coelurosaurs. Birds are classified by most paleontologists as belonging to the subgroup Maniraptora.

Related pages
 Origin of birds

References

Coelurosauria


Campsite, campground, and camping pitch are all related terms regarding a place used for camping (an overnight stay in an outdoor area). The usage differs between British English and American English.

In British English, a campsite is an area, usually divided into a number of camping pitches, where people can camp overnight using tents, campervans or caravans. In the US, the expression used is campground and not campsite. In American English, the term campsite generally means an area where an individual, family, group, or military unit can pitch a tent or park a camper; a campground may contain many campsites.

There are two types of campsites (US) or pitches (UK): one, a designated area with various facilities; or two, an impromptu area (as one might decide to stop while backpacking or hiking, or simply adjacent to a road through the wilderness).

Campgrounds

The term camp comes from the Latin word campus, meaning "field". Therefore, a campground consists typically of open pieces of ground where a camper can pitch a tent or park a camper. More specifically a campsite is a dedicated area set aside for camping and for which often a user fee is charged. Campsites typically feature a few (but sometimes no) improvements.

Dedicated campsites, known as campgrounds,  usually have some amenities. Common amenities include, listed roughly in order from most to least common:
 Fireplaces or fire pits in which to build campfires (this can be a circle of rocks, a metal enclosure, a metal grate, a concrete spot, or even just a hole).
 Road access for vehicles
 A gravel or concrete pad on which to park a vehicle
 Picnic tables
 Marked spaces indicating a boundary for one camper or a group of campers
 Reservations to ensure there will be available space to camp
 Utility hookups, such as electricity, water, and sewer, primarily for the use of travel trailers, recreational vehicles, or similar
 Raised platforms on which to set up tents
 Piped potable water

Campgrounds may include further amenities:
 Pit toilets (outhouses)
 Flush toilets and showers
 Sinks and mirrors in the bathrooms
 A small convenience store
 Shower facilities (with or without hot water)
 Wood for free or for sale for use in cooking or for a campfire
 Garbage cans or large rubbish bins in which to place refuse

Camping outside a designated campsite may be forbidden by law. It is thought to be a nuisance, harmful to the environment, and is often associated with vagrancy. However some countries have specific laws and/or regulations allowing camping on public lands (see Freedom to roam). In the United States, many national and state parks have dedicated campsites and sometimes also allow impromptu backcountry camping by visitors. U.S. National Forests often have established campsites, but generally allow camping anywhere, except within a certain distance of water sources or developed areas. Camping may also be prohibited in certain 'special areas' of national forests containing unusual landforms or vegetation. And if conditions allow campfires, a campfire permit is required for campfires outside of developed campsites.

In Britain, it is more commonly known as wild camping, and is mostly illegal. However, Scotland has a relaxed view and wild camping is legal in most of Scotland.

In many parts of Canada, "roughing it" or "dormir a la belle etoile" (French) is considered to be wilderness camping on government owned, public land known as crown land and commonly called "the bush". There are no amenities of any kind and typically no development except for possibly logging roads or ATV trails, and few rules beyond the requirement in some provinces to move the site at least 100 metres every 21 days.

RV parks/caravan parks

In North America many campgrounds have facilities for Recreational Vehicles and are also known as RV parks. Similar facilities in the UK are known as Caravan Parks. The Kampgrounds of America (KOA) is a large chain of commercial campgrounds located throughout the United States and Canada.

Both commercial and governmental campgrounds typically charge a nominal fee for the privilege of camping there, to cover expenses, and in the case of an independent campground, to make a profit. However, there are some in North America that do not charge a use fee and rely on sources such as donations and tax dollars. Staying the night in a big-box store parking lot is also common (called "boondocking"), and some retailers welcome RVs to their parking lots.

Trailer parks
Frequently confused with campsites, campgrounds and RV parks, trailer parks are made up of long term or semi-permanent residents occupying mobile homes, park trailers or RVs.

Holiday park

The holiday park is a United Kingdom version of the North American trailer park. Created to allow coastal resorts to enable temporary and high-income accommodation to be easily created, under UK planning laws, no residents are permanent, and the park must be wholly shut to all for at least two months each year. All of the mobile homes are either available for rent from the land owner, or pitches are leased on a long-term basis from the land owner and the lease's own mobile home placed on the pitch. Permanent sites owners lease includes the provision by the land owner of water, sewerage and general site and grounds maintenance. Some holiday parks includes a small campsite for those touring the area, where they can pay to pitch tents or site touring caravans and motorhomes. Touring campsites have full access to the Holiday parks facilities, including clothes washing and showering. Most holiday parks include a central entertainments block, which can include a shop, restaurants, and a multi-purpose theatre used for both stage and activity-based entertainment.

Types of holiday park accommodation in the UK
Caravan Holiday Homes

Holiday parks vary in size and type, as do the kinds of accommodation available within them. Caravans are a popular choice with holiday makers, and modern varieties come complete with features like double glazing and central heating, cookers, fridges, showers, hot/cold water supplies, electricity and gas mains input.  A standard caravan is a single unit, built to a maximum of 14 feet wide.

Other types of mobile home include Lodges and Park Homes which are more expensive than caravans and offer more luxurious features. Higher end Lodges can be built using some of the same methods as traditional bricks and mortar buildings and include familiar materials like plasterboard and tongue and groove walls for an end result that's very similar to a standard house.  A standard lodge uses similar materials as a standard caravan such as wood, gypsum board and plywood where the main difference being the extra width.  Lodges and Parkhomes can come in sizes up to 22 feet wide and 45 feet long, making them a popular choice with big families and large groups.

Holiday homes can be rented on an ad-hoc basis or purchased – caravans can be purchased from around £30,000 while park homes and lodges can cost between £100,000 and £500,000.

Once purchased, holiday homes have various ongoing costs including insurance, site fees, local authority rates, utility charges, winterisation and depreciation. Depending on the holiday home and the park these costs can range from £1,000 to £40,000 per year.

Certificated and Certified Locations
Certificated and Certified Locations are smaller privately owned caravan sites which have to be approved by the UK based Camping and Caravanning Club, The Caravan Club, and other organisations). These campsites are normally reserved exclusively for Club members. These smaller campsites are allowed to operate under The Public Health Act 1936 and The Caravan and Control of Development Act 1960.

Backcountry camping

In the U.S., backcountry or dispersed camping is common in large undeveloped protected areas. These areas can only be reached on foot, bicycle, canoe or on horseback. The camping areas are usually established campsites or "zones", which have a predetermined maximum number of persons that are allowed to stay in the section per night. Strict regulations are imposed regarding food storage and resource protection. Usually in organized parks or wilderness areas, backcountry campsites require a permit, which may be free, obtainable at visitor centers and ranger stations. Backcountry camping in other areas may not require a permit.

Canadians refer to it as crownland camping, or rough camping. Canadian citizens and people who have lived in Canada for at least seven months of the preceding 12-month period can camp for free up to 21 days on any one site in a calendar year. This ensures sites are available to others and helps reduce environmental impacts. The Crownland Atlas (map) provides usage designations and several web pages (map) or blogs provide more details about specific sites.

History

United States
As with camping, campgrounds predated the automobile.  When President Theodore Roosevelt addressed Congress in 1901, he called for the creation of free campgrounds on Federal lands.    Already four national parks—Yellowstone, Sequoia, Yosemite, and Mount Rainier—were established and by the time Congress formally established the National Park Service in 1916, America had a dozen national parks.

While a handful of campgrounds, both public and private, could be found at  tourist destinations, as late as 1936 it was still difficult to find places to stop along the route to these parks.    Instead, it was common for motorists to pull off the road and set up camp on private property.  This practice not only reinforced the negative, nomadic image of RV travelers, it was a detriment to expanding the trailer market.  The Trailer Coach Manufacturers Association began to lobby states to establish sanitation standards and worked with civic and business leaders to establish additional campgrounds, emphasizing the economic benefits of a campground in their community.  The Denver Civic Association wrote that a campground was just as essential to a town as a railway station.   The trailer industry's efforts were effective.  The number of campgrounds in the Trailer Travel Magazine's directory of campgrounds doubled to 1,650 by the end of 1936 and promised to double again by the end of 1937.

The campgrounds themselves also changed.  Martin Hogue wrote, "The first public campgrounds in the United States were nothing more than large, dedicated clearings, free of trees, within which to concentrate groups of tourists."   A plant pathologist named Emilio Meinecke, was commissioned to study the effect of motor tourism in the Redwoods in 1929.  Meinicke's recommendations explained that instead of allowing campers to park haphazardly within a park, the camper's impact on the environment could be minimized through campground roads forming a one-way loop leading to individual parking spurs next to each campsite.   Although he would later continue to write of the effect of campers on nature, submitting a memorandum to the National Forest Service in 1935 entitled "The Trailer Menace," he had established the basic design for campgrounds still used today.

Movies and documentaries
 The Long, Long Trailer (1951)
 Carry On Camping (1969)
 Nuts in May (1976)
 Friday the 13th (1980)
 The Forest Primeval (1983)
 Sleepaway Camp (1983)
 Camping del Terrore (1986)
 Dirty Dancing (1987)
 Indian Summer (1993)
 The Red Squirrel (1993)
 Sune's Summer (1993)
 Camping Cosmos (1996)
 Ponterosa (2001)
 Món été au camping (2003)
 Happy Camper (Camping sauvage) (2004)
 Once I Was a Beehive (2015)
 Bodom (2016)

See also

 Bear-resistant food storage container
 Camping
 Cantonment
 List of human habitation forms
 Military camp
 Motorhome stopover
 National Park Service
 Paraje
 RV park
 Summer camp

References

External links

Backpacking
Property law
Human habitats
Camping

Campsite


An anthem is a piece of music written for a choir to sing at an Anglican church service.  The difference between an anthem and a motet is that an anthem is sung in English.  Also most anthems are accompanied by an organ.

The word "anthem" has come to mean "a song of celebration". Anthems are also patriotic songs adopted by countries of the world. It has 158 stanzas, written by the poet Dionysios Solomos (although the cut-down version is shorter than Uruguay's, which is more than five minutes long). The anthem of Greece "Hymn to liberty" is the longest anthem in the world.

Anthems for the church have been composed ever since King Henry VIII argued with the Pope and did not want to be Roman Catholic any more.  He founded (started) the English Anglican church.  Church composers were told to write music in English.  The words usually come from the Bible.  We know that as early as 1502 the composer Fayrfax was paid 20 shillings for composing an anthem.  After the Reformation many anthems were composed.  At first they were like motets, but in English.  Soon the English anthem developed differently from the continental motet.  Two kinds of anthem developed: the "Full Anthem" in which the whole anthem was sung by the full choir, and the "Verse Anthem" which was usually longer and had several verses which would be sung by soloists, with choruses for the full choir in between.

Almost every music director of cathedrals or large churches has written anthems.  A few of the most famous composers of anthems are:

 Thomas Tallis (1505-1585)
 William Byrd (1543-1623)
 Orlando Gibbons (1583-1625)
 Henry Purcell (1659-1695)
 George Frideric Handel (1685-1759)
 William Boyce (1710-1779)
 Samuel Sebastian Wesley (1810-1876)
 Edward Bairstow (1874-1946)
 William H.Harris (1883-1973)
 Herbert Howells (1892-1983)
 William Mathias (1934-1992)
 John Tavener (1944-2013)
 John Rutter (b.1945)

References

musical forms

Anthem


For the bird, see kite (bird)

A kite is a flying object that is attached to the ground by a rope, or ropes. Kites can be flown for fun, or in competitions. In India, people fly kites on Makar Sankranti.

History

Kites come in all shapes and sizes. Kites were created in China about 2,800 years ago. Later they spread into other Asian countries, like (India), Japan and Korea. However, the kite only appeared in Europe around the year 1600

The first kites had sails made of paper or light fabrics such as silk. The poles were made from bamboo sticks, or other strong but flexible woods. The kite line was made from string, or twine.

Modern kites are made from synthetic materials, such as ripstop nylon or more exotic fabrics on the sails. They have fiberglass or carbon fiber poles, and use dacron or dyneema for the kite lines.

Today, there are different types of kites. Some are large and are made to look good. Some are smaller and are made for speed, children and competitions.

Also, there are many different types of kites. The most important types of kite are stunt kites and parafoil kites. However, they can come in a variety of sizes, types and designs.

Inflatable kites are made in an inflatable shape, animal or other design. The inflatable kite is one the few modern inventions in the world of kite design.

Though the exact origin of kites are not known, it is known that they were flown in China and the Malay Archipelago two to three thousand years ago. The earliest written accounts of kite flying were the exploits of the Chinese general Han Hsin, Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.).
Toys
Sports equipment

Kite


Vapour-compression refrigeration or vapor-compression refrigeration system (VCRS), in which the refrigerant undergoes phase changes, is one of the many refrigeration cycles and is the most widely used method for air conditioning of buildings and automobiles. It is also used in domestic and commercial refrigerators, large-scale warehouses for chilled or frozen storage of foods and meats, refrigerated trucks and railroad cars, and a host of other commercial and industrial services. Oil refineries, petrochemical and chemical processing plants, and natural gas processing plants are among the many types of industrial plants that often utilize large vapor-compression refrigeration systems. Cascade refrigeration systems may also be implemented using two compressors.

Refrigeration may be defined as lowering the temperature of an enclosed space by removing heat from that space and transferring it elsewhere. A device that performs this function may also be called an air conditioner, refrigerator, air source heat pump, geothermal heat pump, or chiller (heat pump).

Description

Vapor-compression uses a circulating liquid refrigerant as the medium which absorbs and removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently rejects that heat elsewhere. Figure 1 depicts a typical, single-stage vapor-compression system. All such systems have four components: a compressor, a condenser, a metering device or thermal expansion valve (also called a throttle valve), and an evaporator. Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated vapor and is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is then in the thermodynamic state known as a superheated vapor and it is at a temperature and pressure at which it can be condensed with either cooling water or cooling air flowing across the coil or tubes.

The superheated vapor then passes through the condenser. This is where heat is transferred from the circulating refrigerant to an external medium, allowing the gaseous refrigerant to cool and condense into a liquid. The rejected heat is carried away by either the water or the air, depending on the type of condenser.

The condensed liquid refrigerant, in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated liquid, is next routed through an expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in the adiabatic flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant. The auto-refrigeration effect of the adiabatic flash evaporation lowers the temperature of the liquid and vapor refrigerant mixture to where it is colder than the temperature of the enclosed space to be refrigerated.

The cold refrigerant liquid and vapor mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes in the evaporator. Air in the enclosed space circulates across the coil or tubes due to either thermal convection or a fan. Since the air is warmer than the cold liquid refrigerant, heat is transferred which cools the air and causes evaporation of the liquid, returning it to a gaseous state whilst absorbing heat. While liquid remains in the refrigerant flow, its temperature will not rise above the boiling point of the refrigerant, which depends on the pressure in the evaporator. Most systems are designed to evaporate all of the refrigerant to ensure that no liquid is returned to the compressor.

To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is again a saturated vapor and is routed back into the compressor. Over time, the evaporator may collect ice or water from ambient humidity. The ice is melted through defrosting. The water from the melted ice or the evaporator then drips into a drip pan, and the water is carried away by gravity or a condensate pump.

Refrigerants

The selection of working fluid has a significant impact on the performance of the refrigeration cycles and as such it plays a key role when it comes to designing or simply choosing an ideal machine for a certain task. One of the most widespread refrigerants is "Freon". Freon is a trade name for a family of haloalkane refrigerants manufactured by DuPont and other companies. These refrigerants were commonly used due to their superior stability and safety properties: they were not flammable at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, nor obviously toxic as were the fluids they replaced, such as sulfur dioxide. Haloalkanes are also an order(s) of magnitude more expensive than petroleum-derived flammable alkanes of similar or better cooling performance.

Unfortunately, chlorine- and fluorine-bearing refrigerants reach the upper atmosphere when they escape. In the stratosphere, substances like CFCs and HCFCs break up due to UV radiation, releasing their chlorine free-radicals. These chlorine free-radicals act as catalysts in the breakdown of ozone through chain reactions. One CFC molecule can cause thousands of ozone molecules to break down. This causes severe damage to the ozone layer that shields the Earth's surface from the Sun's strong UV radiation and has been shown to lead to increased rates of skin cancer. The chlorine will remain active as a catalyst until and unless it binds with another particle, forming a stable molecule. CFC refrigerants in common but receding usage include R-11 and R-12.

Newer refrigerants that have reduced ozone depletion effects compared to CFCs have replaced most CFC use. Examples include HCFCs (such as R-22, used in most homes) and HFCs (such as R-134a, used in most cars).  HCFCs in turn are being phased out under the Montreal Protocol and replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which do not contain chlorine atoms. However, CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs all have very large global warming potential (GWP).

More benign refrigerants are currently the subject of research, such as supercritical carbon dioxide, known as R-744. These have similar efficiencies compared to existing CFC- and HFC-based compounds, and have many orders of magnitude lower global warming potential. General industry and governing body push are toward more GWP-friendly refrigerants. In industrial settings ammonia, as well gasses like ethylene, propane, iso-butane and other hydrocarbons are commonly used (and have own R-x customary numbers), depending on required temperatures and pressures. Many of these gases are unfortunately flammable, explosive, or toxic; making their use restricted (i.e. well-controlled environment by qualified personnel, or a very small amount of refrigerant used). HFOs which can be considered to be HFC with some carbon-carbon bonds being double bounds, do show promise of lowering GWP very low to be of no further concern. In the meantime, various blends of existing refrigerants are used to achieve the required properties and efficiency, at a reasonable cost and lower GWP.

Thermodynamic analysis of the system

The thermodynamics of the vapor compression cycle can be analyzed on a temperature versus entropy diagram as depicted in Figure 2. At point 1 in the diagram, the circulating refrigerant enters the compressor as a low-temperature, low-pressure saturated vapor. From point 1 to point 2, the vapor is isentropically compressed (compressed at constant entropy) and exits the compressor as a high-pressure, high-temperature superheated vapor. Superheat is the amount of sensible heat added to the vapor above its saturation point, i.e. its boiling point.

From point 2 to point 3, the vapor travels through part of the condenser which removes the superheat by cooling the vapor. Between point 3 and point 4, the vapor travels through the remainder of the condenser and is condensed into a high-temperature, high-pressure subcooled liquid. Subcool is the amount of sensible heat removed from the liquid below its maximum saturation. The condensation process occurs at essentially constant pressure.

Between points 4 and 5, the subcooled liquid refrigerant passes through the expansion valve and undergoes an abrupt decrease of pressure. That process results in the adiabatic flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of a portion of the liquid (typically, less than half of the liquid flashes). The adiabatic flash evaporation process is isenthalpic (occurs at constant enthalpy).

Between points 5 and 1, the cold and partially vaporized refrigerant travels through the coil or tubes in the evaporator where it is totally vaporized by the warm air (from the space being refrigerated) that a fan circulates across the coil or tubes in the evaporator. The evaporator operates at essentially constant pressure and boils off all available liquid after adding 4–8 kelvins of superheat to the refrigerant in order to make sure the liquid has evaporated completely. This is a safeguard for the compressor, as it cannot pump liquid.

The resulting superheated vapor returns to the compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the thermodynamic cycle.

The above discussion is based on the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle which does not take into account real world items like frictional pressure drop in the system, slight internal irreversibility during the compression of the refrigerant vapor, or non-ideal gas behavior (if any).

Types of gas compressors

The most common compressors used in refrigeration are reciprocating and scroll compressors, but large chillers or industrial cycles may use rotary screw or centrifugal compressors. Each application prefers one or another due to size, noise, efficiency, and pressure issues. Compressors are often described as being either open, hermetic, or semi-hermetic, to describe how the compressor and/or motor is situated in relation to the refrigerant being compressed. Variations of motor/compressor types can lead to the following configurations:

Hermetic motor, hermetic compressor
Hermetic motor, semi-hermetic compressor
Open motor (belt driven or close coupled), hermetic compressor
Open motor (belt driven or close coupled), semi-hermetic compressor

Typically in hermetic, and most semi-hermetic compressors (sometimes known as accessible hermetic compressors), the compressor and motor driving the compressor are integrated, and operate within the refrigerant system. The motor is hermetic and is designed to operate, and be cooled by, the refrigerant being compressed. The obvious disadvantage of hermetic motor compressors is that the motor drive cannot be maintained in situ, and the entire compressor must be removed if a motor fails. A further disadvantage is that burnt out windings can contaminate whole refrigeration systems requiring the system to be entirely pumped down, and the refrigerant replaced.

An open compressor has a motor drive which is outside of the refrigeration system, and provides drive to the compressor by means of an input shaft with suitable gland seals. Open compressor motors are typically air-cooled and can be fairly easily exchanged or repaired without degassing of the refrigeration system. The disadvantage of this type of compressor is a failure of the shaft seals, leading to loss of refrigerant.

Open motor compressors are generally easier to cool (using ambient air) and therefore tend to be simpler in design and more reliable, especially in high pressure applications where compressed gas temperatures can be very high. However the use of liquid injection for additional cooling can generally overcome this issue in most hermetic motor compressors.

Reciprocating compressors

Reciprocating compressors are piston-style, positive displacement compressors.

Rotary screw compressors

Rotary screw compressors are also positive displacement compressors. Two meshing screw-rotors rotate in opposite directions, trapping refrigerant vapor, and reducing the volume of the refrigerant along the rotors to the discharge point.

Small units are not practical due to back-leakage but large units have very high efficiency and flow capacity.

Centrifugal compressors

Centrifugal compressors are dynamic compressors. These compressors raise the pressure of the refrigerant by imparting velocity or dynamic energy, using a rotating impeller, and converting it to pressure energy.

Centrifugal Compressor Surge
Chillers with centrifugal compressors have a 'Centrifugal Compressor Map' that shows the "surge line" and the "choke line." For the same capacity ratings, across a wider span of operating conditions, chillers with the larger diameter lower-speed compressor have a wider 'Centrifugal Compressor Map' and experience surge conditions less than those with the smaller diameter, less expensive, higher-speed compressors. The smaller diameter, higher-speed compressors have a flatter curve.,

As the refrigerant flow rate decreases, some compressors change the gap between the impeller and the volute to maintain the correct velocity to avoid surge conditions.

Scroll compressors

Scroll compressors are also positive displacement compressors. The refrigerant is compressed when one spiral orbits around a second stationary spiral, creating smaller and smaller pockets and higher pressures. By the time the refrigerant is discharged, it is fully pressurized.

Others

Compressor lubrication
In order to lubricate the moving parts of the compressor, oil is added to the refrigerant during installation or commissioning. The type of oil may be mineral or synthetic to suit the compressor type, and also chosen so as not to react with the refrigerant type and other components in the system. In small refrigeration systems the oil is allowed to circulate throughout the whole circuit, but care must be taken to design the pipework and components such that oil can drain back under gravity to the compressor. In larger more distributed systems, especially in retail refrigeration, the oil is normally captured at an oil separator immediately after the compressor, and is in turn re-delivered, by an oil level management system, back to the compressor(s). Oil separators are not 100% efficient so system pipework must still be designed so that oil can drain back by gravity to the oil separator or compressor.

Some newer compressor technologies use magnetic bearings or air bearings and require no lubrication, for example the Danfoss Turbocor range of centrifugal compressors. Avoiding the need for oil lubrication and the design requirements and ancillaries associated with it, simplifies the design of the refrigerant system,  increases the heat transfer coefficient in evaporators and condensers, eliminates the risk of refrigerant being contaminated with oil, and reduces maintenance requirements.

Control
In simple commercial refrigeration systems the compressor is normally controlled by a simple pressure switch, with the expansion performed by a capillary tube or thermal expansion valve. In more complex systems, including multiple compressor installations, the use of electronic controls is typical, with adjustable set points to control the pressure at which compressors cut in and cut out, and temperature control by the use of electronic expansion valves.

In addition to the operational controls, separate high-pressure and low-pressure switches are normally utilised to provide secondary protection to the compressors and other components of the system from operating outside of safe parameters.

In more advanced electronic control systems the use of floating head pressure, and proactive suction pressure, control routines allow the compressor operation to be adjusted to accurately meet differing cooling demands while reducing energy consumption.

Other features and facts of interest
The schematic diagram of a single-stage refrigeration system shown in Figure 1 does not include other equipment items that would be provided in a large commercial or industrial vapor compression refrigeration system, such as:

 A horizontal or vertical pressure vessel, equipped internally with a demister, between the evaporator and the compressor inlet to capture and remove any residual, entrained liquid in the refrigerant vapor because liquid may damage the compressor. Such vapor–liquid separators are most often referred to as "suction line accumulators". (In other industrial processes, they are called "compressor suction drums" or "knockout pots".)
 Large commercial or industrial refrigeration systems may have multiple expansion valves and multiple evaporators in order to refrigerate multiple enclosed spaces or rooms. In such systems, the condensed liquid refrigerant may be routed into a pressure vessel, called a receiver, from which liquid refrigerant is withdrawn and routed through multiple pipelines to the multiple expansion valves and evaporators.
 Filter Dryers, installed before the compressors to catch any moisture or contaminants in the system and thus protect the compressors from internal damage
 Some refrigeration units may have multiple stages which requires the use of multiple compressors in various arrangements.

In most of the world, the cooling capacity of refrigeration systems is measured in watts. Common residential air conditioning units range in capacity from 3.5 to 18 kilowatt. In a few countries it is measured in "tons of refrigeration", with common residential air conditioning units from about 1 to 5 tons of refrigeration.

Applications

Economic analysis

Advantages
Very mature technology.
Relatively inexpensive.
Can be driven directly using mechanical energy (water, car or truck motor) or with electrical energy.
Efficient up to 60% of Carnot's theoretical limit (as evaluated in ASHRAE testing conditions: evaporation temperature of −23.3 °C, condensing temperature of 54.4 °C, and ambient temperature of 32 °C) based on some of the best commercially available compressors, as produced by manufacturers Danfoss, Matsushita, Copeland, Embraco, Bristol, and Tecumseh. However, many refrigeration systems use compressors that have lower efficiencies of between 40 and 55%, since the 60% efficient ones cost almost twice as much as the lower efficiency ones.

Disadvantages
Many systems still use HCFC refrigerants, which contribute to depletion of the Earth's ozone layer. In countries adhering to the Montreal Protocol, HCFCs are due to be phased out and are largely being replaced by ozone-friendly HFCs. However, systems using HFC refrigerants tend to be slightly less efficient than systems using HCFCs. HFCs also have an extremely large global warming potential, because they remain in the atmosphere for many years and trap heat more effectively than carbon dioxide.

With the ultimate phasing out of HCFCs already a certainty, alternative non-haloalkane refrigerants are gaining popularity. In particular, once-abandoned refrigerants such as hydrocarbons (butane for example) and CO2 are coming back into more extensive use. For example, Coca-Cola's vending machines at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany used refrigeration utilizing CO2. Ammonia (NH3) is one of the oldest refrigerants, with excellent performance and essentially no pollution problems. However, ammonia has two disadvantages: it is toxic and it is incompatible with copper tubing.

History

In 1805, the American inventor Oliver Evans described a closed vapor-compression refrigeration cycle for the production of ice by ether under vacuum. Heat would be removed from the environment by recycling vaporized refrigerant, where it would move through a compressor and condenser, and would eventually revert to a liquid form in order to repeat the refrigeration process over again. However, no such refrigeration unit was built by Evans.

In 1834, an American expatriate to Great Britain, Jacob Perkins, built the first working vapor-compression refrigeration system in the world. It was a closed-cycle that could operate continuously, as he described in his patent:
I am enabled to use volatile fluids for the purpose of producing the cooling or freezing of fluids, and yet at the same time constantly condensing such volatile fluids, and bringing them again into operation without waste.

His prototype system worked although it did not succeed commercially.

A similar attempt was made in 1842, by American physician, John Gorrie, who built a working prototype, but it was a commercial failure. American engineer Alexander Twining took out a British patent in 1850 for a vapor compression system that used ether.

The first practical vapor compression refrigeration system was built by James Harrison, a British journalist who had emigrated to Australia. His 1856 patent was for a vapor compression system using ether, alcohol or ammonia. He built a mechanical ice-making machine in 1851 on the banks of the Barwon River at Rocky Point in Geelong, Victoria, and his first commercial ice-making machine followed in 1854. Harrison also introduced commercial vapor-compression refrigeration to breweries and meat packing houses and, by 1861, a dozen of his systems were in operation in Australia and England.

The first gas absorption refrigeration system using gaseous ammonia dissolved in water (referred to as "aqua ammonia") was developed by Ferdinand Carré of France in 1859 and patented in 1860. Carl von Linde, an engineering professor at the Technological University Munich in Germany, patented an improved method of liquefying gases in 1876. His new process made possible using gases such as ammonia, sulfur dioxide , and methyl chloride (CH3Cl) as refrigerants and they were widely used for that purpose until the late 1920s.

See also
Absorption refrigerator
Einstein refrigerator
Air conditioning
Flash evaporation
Heat pump
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)
Magnetic refrigeration
Refrigerant
Refrigeration
Refrigeration cycle
Working fluid

References

Further reading

External links
"The ideal vapor compression refrigeration cycle", University of Nevada (US)
"The Refrigeration Cycle: Central Air Conditioner For Homeowners"
"The Refrigeration Cycle", from HowStuffWorks
Scientific papers about CO2 heat pumps and refrigeration

American inventions
Chemical processes
Cooling technology
Gas technologies
Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
Industrial gases
Industrial processes
Thermodynamic cycles

Vapor-compression refrigeration


In construction, underpinning is the process of strengthening and stabilizing the foundation of an existing building or other structure. Underpinning may be needed for a many of reasons:

The original foundation is not strong or stable enough.
The usage of the building has changed.
The type of soil supporting the foundation may have changed (possibly through subsidence) or were misjudged during planning.
The construction of nearby structures causes the excavation of soil supporting existing foundations.
It is more economical, due to land price or otherwise, to work on the current structure's foundation than to build a new one.

Construction

Underpinning


In Egyptian mythology, Thoth was the deity of scribes. He is thought to be one of the most important said to be born from the skull of Seth also said to be born from the heart of Ra.

Thoth was considered the heart and tongue of Ra. He was also the one who translated Ra's will into speech.

Shrines
The main shrine of Thoth was at Khemennu. It was there that he was the head of the local company of deities.  He also had shrines in Abydos, Hesert, Urit, Per-Ab, Rekhui, Ta-ur, Sep, Hat, Pselket, Talmsis, Antcha-Mutet, Bah, Amen-heri-ab, and Ta-kens.

Worship
Thoth was mostly prayed  in the early dynasty. He was also prayed through the five days of celebration. They would sing hymns and chant spells for Thoth. There were many celebrations like "The feast of Thoth" in the year. He was a major god for the early dynasty.

Myth

Thoth played very important roles in Egyptian myths. He was said to have resurrected Osiris after he was slain by Seth and also later resurrected his son, Horus. He was also credited for creating 365 days instead of 360. One myth explains how Ra bans Nut from having children on any day of the year. Thoth then goes to the moon god, Khonsu, and gambles five days out of him, therefore giving five days (the demon days) when Nut can have children. He also was sometimes said to take the place of the Primeval Goose and be the creator of the world and all other gods.

Family
Thoth had one direct relation to Ma'at that people know of, although some myths say he was the son of Ra. His feminine counterpart was a goddess named Seshat. She was also sometimes credited to be the inventor of hieroglyphs, while Thoth taught them. She was also said to be Thoth's wife or daughter.

Relationship to Ma'at
Ma'at also played a big role next to Thoth. He was there at the weighing of the heart, noting, while Ma'at weighed the heart. They both stood on either side of Ra's boat and also he was sometimes said to be Ma'at's husband. Ma'at was the goddess of law, order, truth, and justice.

Physical Description
Thoth was a unique god. He is said to have two forms: an ibis-headed human and a squatting dog-headed baboon. He held a stylus and a pallet, and sometimes the symbol of life, called the Ankh.

Titles and Roles
Thoth had many titles and a lot of roles. He was often called "Three times Great". He was mediator, messenger, scribe and teacher. Some of his titles included;
'Scribe of Ma'at in the company of the gods'
'Lord of Ma'at'
'Lord of divine words'
'Judge of the two combatant gods'
'Three times great' or 'Thrice Great'
These numerous titles show that Thoth had a very significant importance to ancient Egyptian mythology. He had his high point of worship in the Old Kingdom.

Hermes and the Greeks
When the Greeks conquered Egypt, they equated Thoth with Hermes, their messenger god. Thoth's central city was Khemenu, (where he has his chief temple) which the Greeks renamed to Hermopolis, city of Hermes. Today, ancient temples and ruins worshiping Thoth are there and what used to be Khemenu is now el-Eshmunein.

References

Sources
 Bleeker, Claas Jouco. 1973. Hathor and Thoth: Two Key Figures of the Ancient Egyptian Religion. Studies in the History of Religions 26. Leiden: E. J. Brill
Boylan, Patrick. 1922. Thot, the Hermes of Egypt: A Study of Some Aspects of Theological Thought in Ancient Egypt. London: Oxford University Press. (Reprinted Chicago: Ares Publishers inc., 1979)
 Budge, E. A. Wallis. Egyptian Religion. Kessinger Publishing, 1900.
 Budge, E. A. Wallis. The Gods of the Egyptians Volume 1 of 2.  New York: Dover Publications, 1969 (original in 1904).
Bunson, Margaret     A Dictionary of Ancient Egypt
Remler, Pat  Egyptian Mythology A to Z
Wilkinson, Richard   The Complete Guide to Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt
Gahlin, Lucia    EGYPT Gods, Myth and Religion
Barrett, Clive    The Egyptian Gods and Goddesses
Ions, Veronica    Egyptian Mythology
Bunson, Margaret     A Dictionary of Ancient Egypt

Related pages
 List of Egyptian gods and goddesses

Other websites

 About the Emerald Tablets The Emerald Tablets of Thoth-The-Atlanean (with commentaries by Dr V.Atnonov).
http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/thoth.htm
http://www.egyptianmyths.net/mythbookthoth.htm
https://egyptianmuseum.org/deities-thoth
http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/gods/explore/main.html

Egyptian gods and goddesses

Thoth


Tommy Atkins (often just Tommy) is a term for a common soldier in the British Army.  The term was used in the 19th century, but it is particularly associated with World War I.  It can be used when talking about the soldiers, or when speaking to them. German soldiers would call out to "Tommy" across no man's land if they wanted to speak to a British soldier. French and Commonwealth troops would also call British soldiers "Tommies".

Harry Patch, who died aged 111 on 25 July 2009 was known as the "Last Tommy" because he was the last surviving British soldier who fought in World War I.

Other websites
 The Last Tommy  - a campaign to mark the passing of the last WWI Tommy with a state funeral.

British Army
Slang
19th century in the United Kingdom

Tommy Atkins


Penryn is a small town in south Cornwall, United Kingdom. It is on the Penryn River about one mile (1.6 km) northwest of Falmouth. The population was 7,166 in the 2001 census.

Penryn was in the Middle Ages an important port but underwent a severe decline after Falmouth had been established in the 17th century. Today it is a busy town and has managed to retain a much of its heritage; a large proportion of its buildings date back to Tudor, Jacobean and Georgian times, the town is an important conservation area, and has more listed buildings than any other town in Cornwall.

References

Towns in Cornwall

Penryn (Cornwall)


A lifeboat, also known as a liferaft, is a small, stiff or inflatable boat carried for emergencies in the event of a disaster on a ship. Lifeboats are required by law to be on larger ships.

When steamships became commonplace in the 19th century, so did lifeboats. At the beginning of the 20th century larger ships meant that more people could travel, but rules about lifeboats were often overlooked. After the RMS Titanic sank on April 15, 1912, people realized that bigger ships need more lifeboats. The Titanic's lifeboats were only capable of carrying 1,178 people although the Titanic had 3,330 people.

Because many lifeboats were needed on the decks of passenger ships this led to the use of most of the deck space being used for lifeboats which created the problem of narrow passageways. This was fixed by using inflatable boats.

Safety
Boats

Lifeboat (shipboard)


The Yo-yo effect means people quickly gaining weight after a diet. Other words for this activity are yo-yo dieting or weight cycling. People's weight can move down and back up like a yo-yo when they follow several diets one after another. A person's weight after the diet is often higher than it was before dieting.

The Steps
The steps to the weight cycle are normal eating, weight gain, diet, metabolism slow-down, and end of the diet. But they repeat again and that's the Yo-Yo effect. For example, Sherman Morrison talks about someone on the website healevate.com, saying, "In the 1990's she got up to 237 pounds, dropped it back down to 160 in the early 2000's, but then crept back up over 200. Recently, however, she shed 30 pounds using Weight Watchers." Which means she first gained weight, then she lost weight, and finally she gained it back. Basically, Morrison is describing that the Yo-Yo effect is gaining and losing weight over and over again.

Causes
The body needs less energy after losing weight on a diet. People have less fatty tissue and often less muscle after the diet. Muscle tissue needs more energy than fatty tissue. Reducing the amount of muscle tissue therefore reduces the need for energy. Also, limit the number of calories people take in. At some point, a dieter's body will change the way it uses energy if there are less calories to burn. The body does this to make sure it survives when less food is available. These changes in the body cause people to gain weight rapidly when they stop dieting and return to their old eating habits.

Avoiding It
People can avoid the yo-yo effect by changing their diet. If a diet works without the body switching to a more efficient way of using calories, there will be no yo-yo effect. A diet should change the dieter's eating habits for a long time. New eating habits should not give the body more energy than it needs. At the end of the diet, it also makes sense to raise the number of calories someone eats slowly. Exercise and sports can increase the amount of calories burned by the body rather than turned into fat.

References

Diets

Yo-yo effect


Klaus Wowereit (born 1 October 1953) is a German politician. He was born in Berlin. He was the SPD Governing Mayor of Berlin from 2001 to 2014. He and his party won 31.4% of the votes in the 2001 state elections, and he started a coalition government with Linkspartei.PDS. He was President of the Bundesrat in 2001/02. He was re-elected as Governing Mayor in 2006, and has carried on the coalition.

He supports Kurt Beck as "Kanzlerkandidat", the SPDs nominee for the Chancellorship of Germany. Many people wanted Wowereit to be the candidate, not so many after he decided to stay in coalition with Die Linke after the 2006 elections.

He is openly gay.

Background
Klaus Wowereit attended the Ulrich-von-Hutten-Oberschule in Berlin until 1973. He went on to study law at the Free University Berlin, passing his first State Exams in 1981 and the second set in 1984.

Political career
After university Wowereit spent three years as a civil servant in the Senate Office (that is, Ministry) of the Interior. At the age of 30, he was became the youngest councillor in the city of Berlin when he was elected a councillor of Tempelhof Borough. After eleven years he stood for the Berlin House of Deputies Abgeordnetenhaus which is City's Landtag or state legislature in 1995. In December 1999, he was elected chairman of the SPD parliamentary group in the Abgeordnetenhaus. From June 2001 to December 2014 he served as Governing Mayor, Regierender Bürgermeister, of Berlin.

Sexual orientation
Wowereit is one of the most famous German politicians who has openly declared himself homosexual. He came out at a convention of the Berlin SPD just before the 2001 mayoral elections, when he said "" ("I am gay, and it's good that way".) This is now a famous quotation in Germany. He probably came out so that the tabloid newspapers could not publish what they thought were embarrassing stories about him.

Wowereit is not the only gay mayor of a large European city. Bertrand Delanoë, the mayor of Paris, is openly gay, and Ole von Beust, the former mayor of Hamburg, is also gay.

In September 2007, Wowereit published an autobiography called "...und das ist auch gut so.", after his famous coming out phrase.

References

Other websites

 Konsequent Berlin (Personal website for British and French readers)
 CityMayors.com profile

1953 births
Living people
Gay men
German autobiographers
German LGBT people
German politicians of the Left Party
LGBT politicians
Politicians from Berlin
Politicians of the Social Democratic Party of Germany

Klaus Wowereit