The Daughters of Bilitis (), also called the DOB or the Daughters, was the first lesbian civil and political rights organization in the United States. The organization, formed in San Francisco in 1955, was conceived as a social alternative to lesbian bars, which were subject to raids and police harassment. As the DOB gained members, their focus shifted to providing support to women who were afraid to come out. The DOB educated them about their rights and about gay history. The historian Lillian Faderman declared, "Its very establishment in the midst of witch-hunts and police harassment was an act of courage, since members always had to fear that they were under attack, not because of what they did, but merely because of who they were." The Daughters of Bilitis endured for 40 years, becoming an educational resource for lesbians, gay men, researchers and mental health professionals.

Background
After World War II, anti-communist sentiments quickly became associated with the personal secrets of people who worked for the US government. Congress began to require the registration of members of "subversive groups." In 1950, the State Department declared homosexuals to be security risks (because of vulnerability to blackmail), and what followed was a succession of more repressive acts that included the dismissal of federal, state and local government employees suspected of being homosexual; politically motivated police raids on gay bars all over the US and Canada; even the enactment of laws prohibiting cross-dressing for men and women. More specifically, regarding San Francisco's history where the Daughters of Bilitis were founded, there were police raids specifically on lesbian bars like Adler and Tommy's Place, both occurring on September 8, 1954.

History

In 1955, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon had been lovers for three years when they complained to a gay male couple that they did not know any other lesbians. The gay couple introduced Martin and Lyon to another lesbian couple, one of whom, a Filipina woman named Rosalie "Rose" Bamberger, suggested they create a social club. The original founding couples met on September 21, 1955. Attendees included: Rose Bamberger and Rosemary Sliepen, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon, Marcia Foster and her partner June, as well as Noni Frey and her partner Mary. Rose and Rosemary, who were both working class and employed at brush-manufacturing factories, hosted the meeting in their home. One of the priorities of the founding members was to have a place to dance, as dancing with the same sex in a public place was illegal. Martin and Lyon recalled later, "Women needed privacy...not only from the watchful eye of the police, but from gaping tourists in the bars and from inquisitive parents and families." Although unsure of how exactly to proceed with the group, they began to meet regularly, realized they should be organized, and quickly elected Martin as president. From the start they had a clear focus to educate other women about lesbians and reduce their self-loathing brought on by the socially repressive times.

Naming

The name of the newfound club was chosen in its second meeting. Bilitis is the name given to a fictional lesbian contemporary of Sappho by the French poet Pierre Louÿs in his 1894 work The Songs of Bilitis, in which Bilitis lived on the Isle of Lesbos alongside Sappho. The name was chosen for its obscurity; even Martin and Lyon did not know what it meant. "Daughters" was meant to evoke association with other American social associations such as the Daughters of the American Revolution. Early DOB members felt they had to follow two contradictory approaches: trying to recruit interested potential members and being secretive. Martin and Lyon justified the name, writing later, "If anyone asked us, we could always say we belong to a poetry club." They also designed a pin to wear to be able to identify with others, chose club colors and voted on the motto "Qui vive", French for "on alert". The organization filed a charter for non-profit corporation status in 1957, writing a description so vague, Phyllis Lyon remembered, "it could have been a charter for a cat-raising club."

Mission

Within a year of its creation, most of the original eight participants were no longer part of the group, but their numbers had grown to 16, and they decided they wanted to be more than only a social alternative to bars. Of the original participants, several working-class women were not comfortable going public when DOB began. They subsequently left DOB and went on to form two secret groups for lesbians, Quatrefoil and Hale Aikane. Historian Marcia Gallo writes "They recognized that many women felt shame about their sexual desires and were afraid to admit them. They knew that...without support to develop the self-confidence necessary to advocate for one's rights, no social change would be possible for lesbians."

By 1959 there were chapters of the DOB in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Rhode Island along with the original chapter in San Francisco. Upon arrival at a meeting, attendees would be greeted at the door.  In a show of good faith, the greeter would say, "I'm ---. Who are you? You don't have to give me your real name, not even your real first name."

Soon after forming, the DOB wrote a mission statement that addressed the most significant problem Martin and Lyon had faced as a couple: the complete lack of information about female homosexuality in what historian Martin Meeker termed "the most fundamental journey a lesbian has to make." When the club realized they were not allowed to advertise their meetings in the local newspaper, Lyon and Martin, who both had backgrounds in journalism, began to print a newsletter to distribute to as many women as the group knew. In October 1956 it became The Ladder, the first nationally distributed lesbian publication in the U.S. and one of the first to publish statistics on lesbians, when they mailed surveys to their readers in 1958 and 1964. Martin was the first president and Lyon became the editor of The Ladder.

The DOB advertised itself as "A Woman's Organization for the purpose of Promoting the Integration of the Homosexual into Society." The statement was composed of four parts that prioritized the purpose of the organization, and it was printed on the inside of the cover of every issue of The Ladder until 1970:

 Education of the variant...to enable her to understand herself and make her adjustment to society...this to be accomplished by establishing...a library...on the sex deviant theme; by sponsoring public discussions...to be conducted by leading members of the legal psychiatric, religious and other professions; by advocating a mode of behavior and dress acceptable to society.
 Education of the public...leading to an eventual breakdown of erroneous taboos and prejudices...
 Participation in research projects by duly authorized and responsible psychologists, sociologists, and other such experts directed towards further knowledge of the homosexual.
 Investigation of the penal code as it pertain to the homosexual, proposal of changes,...and promotion of these changes through the due process of law in the state legislatures.

New York chapter president Barbara Gittings noted that the word "variant" was used instead of "lesbian" in the mission statement because "lesbian" was a word that had a very negative connotation in 1956.

Methods

The early gay rights movement, then called the Homophile Movement, was centered around the Mattachine Society, formed in 1950. Although the Mattachine Society began as a provocative organization with roots in its founders' communist activism, leadership of the Mattachine thought it more prudent and productive to convince heterosexual society at large that gays were not different from themselves rather than to agitate for change. They changed their tactics in 1953. The Daughters of Bilitis followed this model by encouraging its members to assimilate as much as possible into the prevailing heterosexual culture.

This was reflected in ongoing debate over the propriety of butch and femme dress and role play among its members. As early as 1955 a rule was made that women who attended meetings, if wearing pants, should be wearing women's slacks. However, many women remember it being a rule that went unfollowed as attendees at many meetings were wearing jeans, and the only jeans available in the 1950s were men's. Barbara Gittings recalled years later an instance when, in preparation for a national convention, members of the DOB persuaded a woman who had worn men's clothing all her life "to deck herself out in as 'feminine' a manner as she could... Everyone rejoiced over this as though some great victory had been accomplished... Today we would be horrified at anyone who thought this kind of evangelism had a legitimate purpose."

The Daughters of Bilitis were used as political fodder in the 1959 mayoral race in San Francisco. Russell Wolden, challenging incumbent George Christopher, distributed information implying that Christopher was making the city safe for "sex deviants". Wolden was responsible for materials that stated, "You parents of daughters — do not sit back complacently feeling that because you have no boys in your family everything is all right... To enlighten you as to the existence of a Lesbian organization composed of homosexual women, make yourself acquainted with the name Daughters of Bilitis." There were only two copies of the subscription list of The Ladder, a deliberate attempt to discourage its getting into the hands of anyone who might use it against the subscribers. DOB leaders moved the list from its headquarters and later found out that San Francisco police had searched the office after its removal. Even the FBI was curious enough to attend meetings to report in 1959, "The purpose of the DOB is to educate the public to accept the Lesbian homosexual into society."

National conventions

In 1960, the DOB held their first convention in San Francisco. Press releases announcing the convention were sent to local radio and newspapers, prompting San Francisco Chronicle columnist Herb Caen to direct a jab at Russell Wolden and publicize the convention, writing: "Russ Wolden, if no one else, will be interested to learn that the Daughters of Bilitis will hold their nat'l convention here May 27–30. They're the female counterparts of the Mattachine Society — and one of the convention highlights will be an address by Atty. Morris Lowenthal titled, 'The Gay Bar in the Courts.' Oh brother. I mean sister. Come to think of it, I don't know what I mean...." The blurb was reprinted in the March issue of The Ladder.

Two hundred women attended the conference, as did the San Francisco police, who came to check if any of the DOB members were wearing men's clothes. Del Martin brought them inside to see all the women wearing dresses, stockings and heels. The attendees listened to speakers, including a debate between two attorneys about the legality and morality of gay bars, a presentation by the American Civil Liberties Union, and an Episcopal priest who "served up damnation with dessert", as he went on a "tirade" reminding the audience they were sinners, to which they listened politely. The DOB also gave awards to men who were allied with them, whom they called "Sons of Bilitis", or SOBs, including their lawyer, photographer, and members of the Mattachine Society who assisted them with the convention.

The second national convention, held in 1962, was also notable for its being covered on television on the KTTV's Confidential File, a nationally syndicated show; this was probably the first American national broadcast that specifically covered lesbianism. The DOB held further conventions every two years until 1968. Cleo Bonner, under the name Cleo Glenn, gave the welcoming address at the 1964 convention.

Change in direction

In 1960, letters from readers in The Ladder appeared that expressed exasperation with the emphasis on conformity in the DOB. In the 1970s, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon reflected that by contemporary standards, the early ideals of the DOB for integration and adjustment of the lesbian into society were outmoded, but they remembered that in the 1950s and early 1960s many gay men and lesbians considered those ideals unreachable and this approach radical. The DOB never had the number of members comparable to the Mattachine Society's. Although some may have considered the DOB's ideals unrealistic, some also considered them too tame.

In 1961 the largest raid on a gay bar in San Francisco resulted in the arrests of 100 people, and the police forced women arrested in another raid in Chicago to disrobe to prove they were not wearing men's underwear, bringing a call in The Ladder to be more active. "If we ever hope to win our battle, we must fight. First, unshackle ourselves from fear, for it alone is our omnipresent enemy," read the report.

However, in 1962 at the Daughters' second convention, national president Jaye Bell again argued for the pragmatic approach of integration and patience with a slow criminal justice system. Two things happened in 1963 that changed the course of the organization. A windfall came to the group when an anonymous donor who refused for her name to be recorded, known only to the DOB as "Pennsylvania," began donating large sums of money to the DOB: $100,000 over five years. "Pennsylvania" wrote $3,000 checks to different DOB members, who in turn signed them over to the organization. The editorship of The Ladder changed from Del Martin to Barbara Gittings.

Because The Ladder was the primary method of communication from the leadership of the DOB to its individual chapters, the editor position was extremely influential in the group. Gittings made significant changes to the magazine, putting an emphasis on being more visible. One of Gittings's priorities was aligning the DOB with the East Coast Homophile Organizations (ECHO), a coalition of other social and political clubs for gays and lesbians. ECHO was established in January 1962, with its formative membership including the DOB chapter in New York, the Mattachine Society chapters in New York and Washington D.C., and the Janus Society. ECHO was meant to facilitate  cooperation between homophile organizations and outside administrations.

Evidence of how impatient audiences were getting with psychiatrists telling them they were mentally ill was displayed in 1964 when, at an ECHO convention, a featured speaker named Albert Ellis stated that "the exclusive homosexual is a psychopath" to which someone in the audience responded, "Any homosexual who would come to you for treatment, Dr. Ellis, would have to be a psychopath!" a comment that was met with applause.

In 1964, Martin and Lyon began to control less of the organization, saying, "We felt that if the organization had any validity at all it couldn't be based on two people, it had to be able to stand and grow on its own. And it was never going to do it if we didn't move out." Martin and Lyon joined the newly formed Council on Religion and the Homosexual (CRH) to develop a dialogue between organized religion and gays and lesbians. They urged the DOB to join the organization as well, but a previous rule precluding the DOB from joining separate organizations (set in place primarily to ensure it would not join organizations that sympathized with Communist aims) precluded it from doing so. However, the DOB did collaborate with the CRH at times. Most notably, on the eve of January 1, 1965, several homophile organizations in San Francisco, California, including the DOB, the CRH, the Society for Individual Rights, and the Mattachine Society, held a fund-raising ball for their mutual benefit at California Hall on Polk Street. San Francisco police had agreed not to interfere; however, on the evening of the ball, the police showed up in force and surrounded the California Hall and focused numerous klieg lights on the entrance to the hall. As each of the 600-plus persons entering the ball approached the entrance, the police took photographs.  A number of police vans were parked in plain view near the entrance to the ball. Evander Smith, a lawyer for the groups organizing the ball including the DOB, and Herb Donaldson tried to stop the police from conducting the fourth "inspection" of the evening; both were arrested along with two heterosexual lawyers, Elliott Leighton and Nancy May, who were supporting the rights of the participants to gather at the ball. But twenty-five of the most prominent lawyers in San Francisco joined the defense team for the four lawyers, and the judge directed the jury to find the four not guilty before the defense had even had a chance to begin their argumentation when the case came to court. This event has been called "San Francisco's Stonewall" by some historians; the participation of such prominent litigators in the defense of Smith, Donaldson and the other two lawyers marked a turning point in gay rights on the west coast of the United States.

The homophile movement was influenced by the successful activism of the civil rights movement (possibly partially because in 1964 Cleo Bonner, an African-American, was elected the DOB's national president) and higher-profile members of the DOB, such as Barbara Gittings, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon, began to picket the White House, the State Department, and other federal buildings in 1965 and 1966 with members of the Mattachine Society. Gittings, as editor of The Ladder, encouraged others to do the same, and their activism became controversial in the leadership of the DOB. Gittings also ran a regular column in The Ladder that she called "Living Propaganda" encouraging women to come out to their friends and family members. It often included contributions from Frank Kameny urging political action. Some readers responded positively to Kameny, who in a speech declared homosexuals as normal as heterosexuals; some were put off by the political tone, and some were angered by Kameny, as a man, suggesting to them what they should do. DOB leaders disliked Kameny and the decisions Gittings was making for the magazine, and she was let go as editor in 1966.

Rise of feminism

Del Martin has written that the Daughters of Bilitis was a feminist organization from the beginning, focusing on the problems of women as well as problems of the female homosexual; however, in the mid-1960s feminism became a much higher priority to many of the women in the organization. In 1966, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon joined the National Organization for Women, and urged readers of The Ladder to do the same, even reporting they got a family discount. The historian Martin Meeker points to the 1966 DOB convention that was a 10-day affair joining the DOB with the North American Conference of Homophile Organizations (NACHO) as the turning point where women's issues in the DOB began to have more importance to its members than gay issues. It was the largest convention DOB had yet organized, publicized in mass media all over San Francisco, attended by a large panel of nationally known speakers, and many of the presentations focused on topics that were exclusively male-centered.

A November 1966 essay by DOB president Shirley Willer pointed out the differences in problems faced by gay men and lesbians: gay men dealt more with police harassment, entrapment, solicitation, sex in public places, and until recently few women were being arrested for cross-dressing. Willer pointed out the problems specific to lesbians were job security and advancement, and family relationships, child custody, and visitation. Feeling as if their issues were not being addressed by homophile organizations, many members of the DOB began to say that lesbians had more in common with heterosexual women than men.

The Daughters were also affected by the changing times. Younger members did not share the concerns of older members; they were more moved by revolutionary tactics. (Though not all older members in the DOB were anti-radical; for example, as president of the New York chapter of the DOB, Ruth Simpson organized gay rights demonstrations as well as educational programs for DOB members during the period of 1969–71. Several times when NYC police, without warrants, illegally entered DOB's lesbian center in lower Manhattan, Simpson stood between the police and the DOB women. On three occasions she was cited for court appearances by the police.) Problems in the organization of the national governing board were becoming increasingly worse when local chapters were unable to take action on issues important to them without the approval of the national board. Members became disillusioned and left, and younger lesbians were more attracted to join feminist organizations. By the time the 1968 convention was held in Denver, less than two dozen women attended.

Controversial ending

Longtime DOB member Helen Sandoz had taken over editing The Ladder following an interim period after Barbara Gittings left. Sandoz became  burdened by the responsibilities the job entailed, to the point that it adversely affected the relationship she was involved in at the time. In 1968 she passed the editing duties on to Barbara Grier, who had been contributing to the magazine as a book reviewer and poetry writer. Grier edited the magazine from Kansas City and was a relative newcomer to the workings of the DOB, despite contributing to the magazine since 1957.

Grier had high aspirations for The Ladder. She removed "A Lesbian Review" from the cover, placed there in 1964 by Gittings, to attract more women readers. She doubled the size of the magazine, expanding every section, and devoted much of the space in the magazine to feminist ideals. She reported the first DOB chapter in Australia in 1969 and attempts to form chapters in New Zealand and Scandinavia. In 1970, convinced that the DOB was falling apart and The Ladder must be saved, Barbara Grier worked with DOB president Rita LaPorte to take the subscriber list from the DOB headquarters in San Francisco to Reno and expand the magazine further.

There were only two copies of the subscription list. Despite assurances from The Ladder to subscribers that these names would be kept confidential, Rita LaPorte took the list of 3,800 names from DOB headquarters and the printers without telling anyone but Grier. When Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon discovered its loss, they assumed the police or FBI had confiscated it. Previous editors Martin, Lyon, Gittings, and Sandoz considered the act a theft. Because LaPorte took the list over state lines, pursuing it would have been a federal matter, and the Daughters did not have the resources to see it through. Grier severed ties with DOB leadership and in doing so took away the Daughters' primary method of communication from the national organization to its individual chapters. As a national organization, the Daughters of Bilitis folded in 1970, although some local chapters still continued until 1995. Grier also effectively ended The Ladder, despite her plans for the magazine to run on advertising (something The Ladder had not previously had) and subscriptions, when the $3,000 checks from "Pennsylvania" written to the DOB stopped coming. By 1972, The Ladder had run out of funds and it folded.

Dozens of other lesbian and feminist organizations were created in the wake of the Daughters of Bilitis. However, the impact of the 14-year run of the DOB on the lives of women was described by historian Martin Meeker thusly: "The DOB succeeded in linking hundreds of lesbians across the country with one another and gathering them into a distinctly modern communication network that was mediated through print and, consequently, imagination, rather than sight, sound, smell, and touch."

Organizational archives

The complete surviving organizational records of the national office and the San Francisco Chapter of the Daughters of Bilitis are available to researchers as part of the Phyllis Lyon and Del Martin Papers at the GLBT Historical Society, a nonprofit archives and research center in San Francisco. An online finding aid provides a detailed catalog of the collection.

The Lesbian Herstory Archives hosts the Red Dot Collection, which consists of the library of the New York City chapter of the Daughters of Bilitis.

Boston's The History Project archive houses the Boston Daughters of Bilitis Collection, which contains the Boston chapter's organization records, as well as the publication records of Boston DOB's magazine Maiden Voyage, later renamed Focus.

The University of California, Berkeley Libraries houses a partial collection of digitized publications of the Daughter's publication, The Ladder; This collection includes Volumes 5–16. Alexander Street Libraries also houses a partial collection including Volumes 1-2 and 9–16.

See also

Beth Elliott
Cleo Bonner
Daughters of Bilitis (Australia)
History of lesbianism in the United States
Minorities Research Group
Ruth Simpson
The Ladder (magazine)
Homophile Movement

References

Notes

Bibliography
 Adam, Barry. Rise of a Gay and Lesbian Movement. Twayne Publishers; 1987
 Charles, Douglas M. Hoover's War on Gays: Exposing the FBI's "Sex Deviates" Program. University Press of Kansas, 2015.
 Faderman, Lillian. Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth Century America. Penguin Books; 1991
 Gallo, Marcia. Different Daughters: A History of the Daughters of Bilitis and the Rise of the Lesbian Rights Movement. Carrol & Graf Publishers, 2006.
 Katz, Jonathan. Gay American History. Crowell Publishers; 1976 0690011652
 Meeker, Martin. Contacts Desired: Gay and Lesbian Communications and Community, 1940s-1970s. University of Chicago Press, 2006.
 Tobin, Kay, Wicker, R. The Gay Crusaders. Arno Press, 1975

Further reading
 Martin, Del and Phyllis Lyon. Lesbian/Woman, 1972. .
 Simpson, Ruth. From the Closet to the Courts. Washington, D.C.: Take Root Media, 2007.  .

Archival sources
 Daughters of Bilitis, Boston Chapter Records, 1974–1986 (1 linear foot) are housed at the Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College
 Daughters of Bilitis papers, 1960-1965 (0.25 linear feet) are housed at the University of Minnesota Libraries.
 Barbara Gittings and Kay Tobin Lahusen gay history papers and photographs, 1855-2009 (bulk 1963-2007) (79 linear feet) are housed at the New York Public Library. Contains significant amounts of material created or accumulated during the creators' participation in the Daughters of Bilitis.

External links
The Songs of Bilitis
On Important Pre-Stonewall Activists(broken)
The Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender Historical Society
Boyd, Nan Alamilla. Wide Open Town: A History of Queer San Francisco to 1965,  University of California Press, 2003.
Bullough, Vern L. Before Stonewall:  Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context.  Harrington Park Press, 2002.
D'Emilio, John. Sexual Politics, Sexual Communities, University of Chicago Press, 1983.
Stein, Marc. City of Sisterly and Brotherly Loves: Lesbian and Gay Philadelphia, 1945-1972, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000; reprinted by Temple University Press, 2004.
LGTBQ Places in Los Angeles: Daughters of Bilitis, Los Angeles Conservancy.

1950s in LGBT history
1955 establishments in California
1970 disestablishments in California
20th century in Los Angeles
Feminist organizations in the United States
History of LGBT civil rights in the United States
History of women in California
Lesbian feminist organizations
Lesbian history in the United States
Lesbian organizations in the United States
LGBT history in San Francisco
LGBT political advocacy groups in the United States
Organizations disestablished in 1970
Organizations established in 1955

Daughters of Bilitis


A carbonyl is the group C=O in a molecule. It is a carbon and an oxygen atom with a double bond between them. Carbon has another two bonds, which can in general be with any other group. For example, a carbonyl is the C=O bit of a ketone, aldehyde or ester.

Because oxygen is more electronegative than carbon, the electrons in the bond are more towards it. This means that in acid, a proton will go on the oxygen atom. Both the carbon and the oxygen in the group are sp2 hybridized.

The carbonyl is a very important functional group, because chemists can do many reactions with it. It is easy to do nucleophilic additions to it, which makes the molecule bigger. It is also easy to do redox reactions, for example forming an alcohol. The alcohol then is also a very useful group.

Carbonyls are found in many natural substances and also in drugs and medicines. It is easy to check if a carbonyl is in a molecule. It gives a very strong signal in infrared spectroscopy. In carbon NMR spectroscopy, the signal is usually at very high frequency, away from many other peaks.

Functional groups

Carbonyl


A caldarium (also called a calidarium, cella caldaria or cella coctilium) was a room with a hot plunge bath, used in a Roman bath complex.

This was a very hot and steamy room heated by a hypocaust, an underfloor heating system using tunnels with hot air, heated by a furnace tended by slaves. This was the hottest room in the regular sequence of bathing rooms; after the caldarium, bathers would progress back through the Tepidarium to the Frigidarium.

In the caldarium, there would be a bath (alveus, piscina calida or solium) of hot water sunk into the floor and there was sometimes even a laconicum—a hot, dry area for inducing sweating.

The bath's patrons would use olive oil to cleanse themselves by applying it to their bodies and using a strigil to remove the excess. This was sometimes left on the floor for the slaves to pick up or put back in the pot for the women to use for their hair.

The temperature of the caldarium is not known exactly: however, since the Romans used sandals with a wooden sole, it could not be higher than .

The bather would wait long enough for the perspiration to start, in order to guard against the danger of passing too suddenly into the high temperature of the next room.

See also

 Ancient Roman bathing

References

External links
 Greek and Roman baths at the Perseus Project

Ancient Roman baths
Rooms

Caldarium


The Sarmiento History Museum (), located in the Buenos Aires neighborhood of Belgrano, is a museum dedicated to Argentine history, and in particular to the Generation of '80 and the life of President Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, a writer and political figure who was President of Argentina between 1868 and 1874. There are also sections that show the literary works of Nicolás Avellaneda, his presidential successor and about the revolution caused by the federalization of Buenos Aires in 1880, when the national government had to abandon its location in downtown Buenos Aires and move to the building where the museum is today in Belgrano, then the outskirts of the city.

History

The building

The building is an Italian-style townhouse, built in 1873 as planned by Juan Antonio Buschiazzo, one of the architects brought in the mid-19th century to Argentina by Bernardino Rivadavia. At the time, it housed the executive, legislative and judicial powers of the federal government, when they had to leave Buenos Aires. The National Congress, met in the biggest of it meeting  when they declared Buenos Aires as the nation's capital, under president Avellaneda. At the end of the civil war, the Federalization Law was signed in this building. Due to this event, it was declared a National Historic Monument.

In 1938, at the 50th anniversary of Sarmiento's death, the federal government dedicated it as a museum. On 28 July of that year, the mansion was dedicated by presidential decree of then president Roberto Marcelino Ortiz, after a proposal of then head of the Historical Museums Commission Ricardo Levene.

The collection
The museum displays some of Sarmiento's belongings, as established by Law #12556. In 1913 his grandchildren donated other objects of his to the collection. The museum's collection contains furniture, and various sets of cutlery obtained by the president during his travels.

Rooms

Sarmiento Room
Used for temporary exhibitions Has a portrait of Sarmiento by his granddaughter Eugenia Belin Sarmiento and showcases with different objects of daily use.
Bedroom This room displays the period from 1811 to 1841 in chronological order. It contains Victorian furniture from Sarmiento's home in Buenos Aires.
Dining room Another portrait of the president by his granddaughter, Eugenia Belin Sarmiento, plus some personal objects.
Facundo's room This room commemorates the work on Facundo: Civilization and Barbarism  written by Sarmiento, showing old editions and copies from editions in other languages.

Gallery

References
 Museo Histórico Sarmiento

Museums in Buenos Aires
History museums in Argentina
Culture in Buenos Aires
National Historic Monuments of Argentina
Biographical museums in Argentina

Sarmiento Historical Museum


The free software movement is a software movement which aims to improve the user's rights on software and reducing proprietary (non-free) software through the use of operating systems such as Ubuntu. The movement is generally signified through open source software such as Mozilla Firefox, Mozilla Thunderbird, FileZilla and open source operating systems such as Linux and ReactOS. The movement is against non-free software that restricts the user's rights. Examples of non-free software include Microsoft Windows, Adobe Acrobat and UltraEdit.

The word 'free' is ambiguous in English. Here, it means 'free as in freedom', not 'free as a gift'. It does not mean that the software is available at no cost. An example is, "think of free speech, not free beer."

Related pages
 Free Software Foundation
 GNU General Public License
 Linux
 Mozilla Firefox

Software

Free software movement


The International Court of Justice (French La Cour internationale de justice (CIJ), is an international organization. It is the main judicial organ or branch of the United Nations. In short, International Court of Justice is ICJ; sometimes people call it the World Court. In French language, it is Cour internationale de justice. Established ICJ in 1945, ICJ has its headquarters at The Hague, Netherlands. The ICJ began its working from 1946. It replaced an earlier similar court named Permanent Court of International Justice. The International Court of Justice is different from the International Criminal Court. The ICJ uses two languages, the English language and the French language.

The International Court of Justice has two major functions. Firstly, it settles disputes, which the member countries may bring before it. Secondly, it may give its opinions on legal matters. Since 1980s, many developing countries have been using the services of the ICJ. But, in 1986, the United States of America did not accept the court's views on all matters, but rather selectively, on a case-to-case basis. Since the year 2000 the docket went down from 23 to 12 cases. In the meantime the staff tripled.

Structure
The ICJ has fifteen permanent judges. The UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council elects the judges. A judge serves for a nine-year period and may be re-elected if necessary. If a serving judge dies, another judge, from the same country he or she belonged to is generally elected to fill the vacant position. Elections are staggered, thus five judges (one-third of the Court) come up for election every three years.

The fifteen permanent judges are elected from a list of persons nominated by the national groups in the Permanent Court of Arbitration. The election process is set out in Articles 4-12 of the ICJ statute Generally, five members of the Security Council of the United Nations always have a judge from their country. These countries are China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, and the United States of America.

In some case, the ICJ allows Ad hoc judges. Thus, the countries in dispute have a right to nominate one judge each for that particular case, if desired. This right is not available if that country already has a judge of its nationality in the ICJ. Thus, sometimes, instead of fifteen, seventeen judges may be deciding a case.

There are many rules, which lay down the qualifications and conduct of the judges of the ICJ.

Procedure
Generally, all the judges of the ICJ sit together to hear and decide any matter. However, sometimes smaller chambers of three to five judges hear and decide a case. Such chambers may be for special types of cases. Sometimes, the ICJ sets up ad hoc chambers to hear and decide particular disputes.

While deciding the case, the ICJ applies the principles of international law. It also uses the laws of the civilized world. This may be the civil and criminal law of major countries. It may also refer to legal writings, law books, and earlier decisions while deciding any matter.

Further reading
 Rosenne S, Rosenne's the world court: what it is and how it works 6th ed (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2003).

Other websites
 International Court of Justice, Official site

United Nations
The Hague
1945 establishments

International Court of Justice


Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (, ; 29 January 1860 – 15 July 1904) was a Russian physician, dramatist and author who is considered to be among the greatest writers of short stories in history. His career as a dramatist produced four classics and his best short stories are held in high esteem by writers and critics.  Chekhov practised  as a doctor throughout most of his literary career: "Medicine is my lawful wife", he once said, "and literature is my mistress."

Itokasi

Àwọn ará Rọ́síà
Àwọn olùkọ̀wé

Anton Chekhov


The Forum of Arcadius (, ), was built by the Emperor Arcadius in the city of Constantinople, now Istanbul.

Built in 403, it was built in the Xerolophos area and was the last forum before reaching the Constantinian city walls and the Golden Gate in a line of forums, including the Forum of Theodosius, the Forum of Constantine, the Forum Bovis, and the Forum Amastrianum, built westward from the city center along the Mese.

The forum was later converted to a bazaar by the Ottomans, referred to as the Avrat Pazarı or "Women's Bazaar", which was mistaken  with the Slave Market at Tavukpazari near Nur-u Osmaniye used for the auctioning of female slaves, otherwise known as 'Cariye', which technically during the period had a completely different social status than regular slaves. This practice was abolished in 1847 during Reshid Pasha's time possibly due to the British influence Slavery Abolition Act 1833.

The Column of Arcadius, located in the center of the forum, was decorated with spiral bands of sculpture in bas relief representing the triumphs of the emperor, like Trajan's Column in Rome. At the top of the column, which was more than 50m high, there was an enormous Corinthian capital surmounted by an equestrian statue of Arcadius, placed there in 421 by his son, Theodosius II. This statue was eventually toppled from the column and destroyed during an earthquake in 704.  The column itself remained standing for another thousand years until it was deliberately demolished in 1715, when it appeared to be in imminent danger of collapsing on the neighboring houses. Now all that remains are the mutilated base and some fragments of sculpture from the column which are on display in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum.

References

Bibliography
 Brian Croke, 'Count Marcellinus and his Chronicle', 2001

Fora of Constantinople

Forum of Arcadius


The Epiphany Monastery (, Bogoyavlensky monastyr; better translated as "Theophany Monastery") is the oldest male monastery in Moscow, situated in the Kitai gorod, just one block away from the Moscow Kremlin.

According to a legend, it was founded by Daniel, the first prince of Moscow, around 1296. It is also believed that a would-be metropolitan Alexis was one of the monks at this monastery. Stefan, Sergii Radonezhski's older brother, was the first recorded hegumen of this cloister.

The first stone church at the Bogoyavlensky monastery was founded in 1342. In 1382, the monastery was sacked by Tokhtamysh's horde. In 1427, it suffered an outbreak of pestilence. The monastery also survived numerous fires, the most important being recorded in 1547, 1551, 1687 and 1737.

The Epiphany monastery has always been under the patronage of grand princes and tsars. By the order of Ivan the Terrible, the monastery became a collection facility for metayage, quitrent, and fodder. In 1584, the tsar donated a substantial amount of money for the remembrance of the disgraced. In 1632, the Epiphany monastery was granted an exclusive right for tax free floating of a certain amount of building materials and firewood. The monastery had its own stables, forge and rented out its own facilities.

Vasili III, Ivan the Terrible, Boris Godunov, the Romodanovsky boyars, Xenia Repnina, and others donated some of their sizeable estates to the monastery. In 1680-1687, the Epiphany monastery was home to a school of the Likhud brothers, which would later be transferred to the Zaikonospassky monastery and transformed into the famous Slavic Greek Latin Academy.

The now-existing Epiphany cathedral was consecrated in 1696. A splendid specimen of the Muscovite baroque style, it incorporated some notable medieval sepulchres. In the 1690s, they also built cells for monks and abbot's chamber, which would be re-built in the 1880s. In 1739, a belltower was erected. By 1744, the monastery had already owned 216 peasant homesteads and 1014 peasants.

In 1764, monastic real estate was confiscated. Thenceforth monastery's staff rarely included more than 17 monks. In 1788, the Epiphany monastery was proclaimed a residence of the vicarian bishop of the Moscow bishopric. In the late 18th century, the buildings enclosing the monastery were rented out to the haberdashers.

In 1905-1909, they built the so-called dokhodniy dom, or a building with "office space" for rent. By 1907, The Bogoyavlensky monastery had already had 14 monks and 18 novitiates and owned 60 desyatinas of land. It was also receiving an allowance of 1245 rubles from the state treasury.

After the October Revolution, the Epiphany monastery was closed down. In 1929, they stopped holding services in the Bogoyavlensky cathedral. The monastic facilities were first transformed into a campus for students of the Mining Academy and workers, engaged in the subway construction, and later - into metalworks. In the 1950s, they built an office building on the site of the monastery. The cathedral, belltower, monk cells and abbot's chamber were the only buildings to survive. In May, 1991, the Epiphany monastery was restored and officially returned to the Russian Orthodox Church.

References

Kitay-Gorod
Monasteries in Moscow
Russian Orthodox monasteries in Russia
Religious organizations established in the 1290s
Christian monasteries established in the 13th century
Cultural heritage monuments of federal significance in Moscow

Epiphany Monastery


Nyayakusumanjali ( A Handful of Flowers of Logic) is a treatise in Sanskrit composed by 10th century CE Indian logician and philosopher Udayana. The work has been described as codification of the Hindu arguments for the existence of God. It has been noted that this treatise is the most elaborate and the most fundamental work of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika school on the Isvara doctrine.

An outline of Nyaya-kusumanjali
In Indian philosophical writings a prakarana refers to a genre of work that may be considered as roughly equivalent to the Western concept of a monograph. Nyayakusumanjali is a treatise belonging to this genre.  Since the work consists of verses (known as karikas) interspersed with prose, it can be considered as a work of the genre Misra-prakarana (meaning "mixed-prakarana").

There are seventy-three verses in Nyayakusumanjali. These verses are distributed unevenly in five chapters (called  Stabakas, that is, "cluster of blossoms" or  "bunch of flowers"). These chapters contain respectively twenty, four, twenty-three, six and twenty verses. These verses form the core of the work, the prose passage that accompanies each being an elaborate explanation of it.

After a few introductory lines,  Udayana enumerates five principal arguments which are said to invalidate the existence of Isvara: "With regard to this there are five erroneous opinions (which assert that there exists no Isvara) on the ground that:
 there is no other-worldly means (of attaining) a world beyond;
 even without assuming an Isvara the performance of the means of (attaining) the world beyond is possible;
 there are arguments that make known the non-existence of Isvara;
 even if Isvara existed, he would not be a source of valid cognition; and
 there are no arguments that can validly establish his (existence)".

The various chapters of the Nyayakusumanjali deal with and refute these five erroneous opinions in the order in which they have been enunciated. However, some scholars are of the opinion that the first Stabaka refutes the view of the Carvakas, the second the view of the Mimamsakas, the third that of the Buddhists, the fourth that of the Jains and the fifth the view of the Samkhyins. Of the five chapters, the first four chapters have a negative tone in the sense that their main intention is to refute the objections of the different schools against the existence of Isvara. The last chapter has a positive tone in the sense that it tries to produce arguments and proofs for the existence of Isvara.

Stabaka 1

The first Stabaka begins with a dedicatory verse and it is followed with a statement regarding the theme dealt with in the book, namely the Supreme Soul. The author then summarises the reason for the logical discussion on Isvara: Despite the fact that Isvara is acknowledged by all philosophical schools and religious sects under some name or other, this study which is to be designated as reflection is made as an act of worship (upäsanä) that comes after the listening to the scriptures (sravanam). Then the  five objections against the existence of Isvara are listed.

Udayana lists five arguments for the existence of a supra-mundane means for attaining the other world. There is a supra-mundane cause because of the following reasons:

 This world is dependent on causes.
 The stream of causes is beginning-less.
 There is diversity of effects.
 There is universal practice  of sacrificial rites etc.
 The experience (of pleasure and pain) is confined to each individual soul.

The discussion of these five arguments forms the subject matter of the first Stabaka.

Stabaka 2

In this Stabaka, Udayana tries to refute the argument that the transmission of Dharma or religious duties is possible without an Isvara.
Udayana argues that the transmission of Dharma or religious duties is possible, because of the following reasons:

 Validity of cognition is not intrinsic, but extrinsic.
 There are creations and dissolutions of the universe.
 There can be no confidence in the transmission of Dharma by a person other than Isvara.
 There is no other way of explaining the transmission of Dharma except through Isvara.

The explanation of these four themes forms the content of the second Stabaka.

Stabaka 3

Taking one by one the different means of valid cognition admitted by the opponents, Udayana shows in this Stabaka that none of them can disprove the existence of Isvara.

 Direct perception cannot disprove the existence of Isvara.
 Inference cannot disprove the existence of Isvara.
 Comparison cannot disprove the existence of Isvara.
 Verbal testimony cannot disprove the existence of Isvara.
 Implication cannot disprove the existence of Isvara.
 Non-perception cannot disprove the existence or Isvara.

Stabaka 4

The major portion of this Stabaka is devoted to the refutation of the Mimamsaka theory that valid cognition must be of an object not previously cognised. Udayana then shows that the cognition of Isvara cannot be said to be invalid even according to the definition of valid cognition given by the opponents.

Stabaka 5

Udayana brings forward in this Stabaka a number of proofs to establish the existence of Isvara. The various proofs can be summarized as follows. Isvara's existence is established from:

 käryatvät: the fact that the earth etc., being effects, presuppose a cause that produces them.
 ayojanat: the necessity of a conscious agent to impel the atoms to combine themselves and form the universe.
 dhrteh: the necessity of a supporting agent of the universe preventing it from falling down.
 samharanat: the necessity of a being endowed with the quality of effort in order to cause the dissolution of the universe into its ultimate components.
 padat: the fact that at the time of the new creation an instructor is required to teach the living beings the different usages.
 pratyaydt: the authoritativeness of the Vedic tradition.
 sruteh: the fact that the Vedic nature of the Veda requires an omniscient author.
 anvayatah: the fact that the Vedic sentences require a person as author.
 samkhyävisesat: the necessity of a relating cognition, at the time of the origin of the universe, in order to produce the plural number which in turn causes magnitude in the triads.

Other works by Udayana
Seven works have been ascribed to Udayana. The following are the titles of the works in the chronological order in which they are believed to have been composed.

Laksanamala: This is a short manual giving very clear definitions and the main divisions of the sixteen categories of the Nyaya and the six categories of the Vaisesika system.
Laksanavali : This work resembles the Laksanamala in form, purpose and method of treatment. It differs from the latter in that it deals exclusively with the Vaisesika categories and their subdivisions.
Atmatattvaviveka: This is an independent work in four chapters of varying lengths. Each of these chapters is devoted to refute different theories put forward to establish the non-existence of a permanent soul (atma) such as conceived by the Nyäya-Vaisesikas.
Nyayakusumanjali: (See outline above)
Nyayaparisista: This deals exclusively with the Jatis and Nigrahasthanas, which form the subject matter of the fifth chapter of the Nyayasutras.
Nyayavarttikatatparyaparisuddhi: This is an elaborate commentary on the Nyäyavarttikatätparyatika of Vacaspatimisra.
Kiranavali: This is a  commentary on the Padarthadharmasamgraha of Prasastapada.

See also
Pramāṇa-samuccaya
Tattvacintāmaṇi

References

Arguments for the existence of God
Indian philosophy
Nyaya
Philosophy of religion
10th-century books

Nyayakusumanjali


A thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT-LCD) is a technology which is used in LCD monitor and television displays. TFT technology can be used to give one of the clearest pictures of any flat screen display and it uses much less electricity than older screens. TFT displays are very fragile because they are made as thin and light as possible but this means they need far less space. Widescreen Displays (which have an aspect ratio of 16:9) are becoming the most popular form of television and monitor displays. Standard format (which have an aspect ratio of 4:3) was the most popular for a long time.

Resolution

The number of pixels in a display screen is called the resolution.
The word resolution means the solution of a problem. Better resolution on a display screen describes how detailed a picture can be displayed. Each pixel is another detail on the screen. This is normally described as two numbers, (width) x (height).

than the older CRT displays.

TFT dislays are also known as flatscreen, flat-panel, and liquid crystal display (LCD) but these types are not always TFTs.

TFT displays are made with a special chemical technology called chemical vapor deposition. With this special technology very thin glass can be coated with electrically  metal and still be transparent. Chemical vapor deposition makes the thinnest computer and television display screens possible.

As a result of applying this solution, a capacitor with a transistor is fixed to the pixels. Therefore, it is possible to create the necessary contrast. Among the minuses: poor viewing angle, impaired color rendering, increased power consumption. This technology has not yet been discontinued just because it is in high demand among consumers due to its affordable cost.

Rendering

Most display screens have hundreds of thousands of pixels. Each pixel has to be set to the right colour (most display screens are capable of 16 million colours in each pixel). To make a clear picture, the screen might need to make millions of calculations. Any group of pixels that change to the same colour can be changed with one calculation, making the calculations much smaller. For example, if the picture to display was just a white screen, the screens processor would only calculate the colour once and use the same calculation for the whole screen. Changing one pixel at a time would take many more calculations. If the same picture was shown many times on the screen, the processor would calculate the picture once and then repeat it in whatever position and in different sizes, if needed. The processor can make very complicated calculations, but in the end it does less work. This is called rendering technology. Rendering technology in the most modern displays is like making a mosaic.

A display with a resolution of 1600 x 1200 pixels has four times the number of pixels in an 800 x 600 resolution. Without rendering technology the 1600 x 1200 display would do four times as much work as an 800 x 600 display so rendering technology is very useful to make a bigger display with some of the same parts used to make a smaller display.

Response Time

The response time is the length of time it takes between the processor receiving a signal from the computer or the television station and displaying something on the screen. Today's displays have a very low response time (very fast). It is hard to see response times but they can affect a clear picture. A low response time is best for clear pictures when playing games and watching movies on the screen. For office work and internet browsing a fast response time is less important.

TFT response time is measured as the average time it takes to change the pixels from one shade of grey to another shade of grey.

Changing a pixel between colours takes more time than changing from black to white on a display screen. TFT is very fast for changing between colours which is more important for movies and games.

Comparison of TFT displays and CRT displays

Positive aspects of TFT displays:

easy to construct and uses less electricity
more pixels (higher resolution)
makes less radiation
is digital
a format of 16: 9 is much easier to produce

Negative aspects of TFT displays

display screen is very sensitive to touch (easily scratched or broken) (not really)
in some TFT displays the view from an angle (from the side) is very dark

At one time, there were some positive advantages of CRT displays, which are no longer true:

purchase price is cheap
colours are very clear from all angles

Negative aspects of CRT displays:

very big and heavy
use more electricity
make a lot of heat
are sensitive to electrical wires. If electrical wires are too close the colours might not work correctly

TN panels

TN is an abbreviation for Twisted Nematic. This is a new kind of TFT technology. They offer higher resolutions (more pixels). TN panels have a lower response time (they react faster).

Display technology
Television technology
Computer science
Electronics

Thin film transistor liquid crystal display


Vices & Virtues is the third full-length studio album from Panic! at the Disco. It was released on March 18, 2011 under Fueled By Ramen and Decaydance Records. The album was produced and mixed by music engineers Butch Walker and John Feldmann. The album peaked at number seven on the Billboard 200 albums chart and number five on the Billboard Digital Albums chart. The lead single off the album, "The Ballad of Mona Lisa", was released on February 1, 2011. The single peaked at number 84 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The second single off the album, titled "Ready to Go (Get Me Out of My Mind)", was released on June 6, 2011. It peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart.

The album has a different sound than their previous two studio album releases A Fever You Can't Sweat Out (2005) and Pretty. Odd. (2008). That is because two group members had left, and because of the amount of time between the releases of Vices and Pretty. Odd. The album has elements from the band's debut album. It has heavy use of synthesizers and guitars. The track "Mona Lisa" returns to the idea of the band's first single "I Write Sins, Not Tragedies", which had heavier guitar and rock influences.

The song "Let's Kill Tonight" was released in the United Kingdom for the band's 2012 Spring Vices & Virtues Tour. A music video was uploaded on February 10, 2012 on the Fueled By Ramen official YouTube channel with a minute and ten seconds of the band performing the song live in London.

Release
Vices & Virtues was released March 22, 2011 in the United States, Brazil, and Canada. It was released on other dates in other countries. The record debuted at number seven on the US Billboard 200 albums chart, with first-week sales of 56,000 copies in the United States. This is very different from the group's previous effort, Pretty. Odd., which debuted without much commercial attention in 2008, with first-week sales of 139,000. The album also came in at #2 on Neilson SoundScan Alternative Albums chart and #5 on the Digital Albums ranking.

Track listing

 "The Ballad of Mona Lisa"
 "Let's Kill Tonight"
 "Hurricane"
 "Memories"
 "Trade Mistakes"
 "Ready to Go (Get Me Out of My Mind)"
 "Always"
 "The Calendar"
 "Sarah Smiles"
 "Nearly Witches (Ever Since We Met...)"
 "New Perspective" (bonus track from the soundtrack of the 2009 horror film Jennifer's Body)

Bonus tracks

 "Oh Glory" (demo version)
 "Stall Me"
 "I Wanna Be Free"
 "Bittersweet"
 "Turn Off The Lights"
 "Kaleidoscope Eyes"
 "The Ballad of Mona Lisa" (radio edit)

References

2011 albums
Panic! at the Disco albums

Vices & Virtues


Dignitas is a Swiss group that helps people with assisted suicide. This means that, if a person is very ill and wants to die, the doctors and nurses help them to end their life. Only people who have a terminal illness or very bad physical or mental illnesses are allowed to be helped. The patients must be able to understand what is happening and decide for themselves that death is what they want.

Dignitas was started in 1998 by Ludwig Minelli, a Swiss lawyer. The law in Switzerland says that someone can help in an assisted suicide so long as they do not have any self-interest (for example, so long as they are not going to inherit money from the person who dies). The doctor has to meet the person on two occasions and make sure that the person really does wish to die. There must be evidence for this, i.e. the patient has to sign a paper, and two witnesses have to sign to say they saw the patient signing. If the patient is too ill to sign, a video film can be made. The patient is asked several times whether that is what they want. If everyone is absolutely sure, then he or she is given a drug which will kill them.

Some people travel from other countries such as Britain to the Dignitas clinic in Switzerland so that they can be helped to die. For example, the rugby player Daniel James, who was 23, had a terrible injury to his spine which left him paralysed from his chest down, travelled there with his parents to die. In 2009 the British conductor Edward Downes and his wife both travelled to Dignitas where they died together.

References

Other websites
Dignitas website (In German) ()

Euthanasia
Non-profit organizations of Europe
Organizations based in Zürich

Dignitas (Swiss non-profit organisation)


Autocar (stylized in all caps) is a weekly British automobile magazine published by Haymarket Media Group. It was first published in 1895 and refers to itself as "the world's oldest car magazine". Mark Tisshaw is editor and other team members include Steve Cropley, Rachel Burgess, James Attwood, Matt Prior, Matt Saunders and Felix Page.

Autocar has several international editions, including China, India, New Zealand, and South Africa.

History

The publication was launched as The Autocar by Iliffe and Son Ltd. "in the interests of the mechanically propelled road carriage" on 2 November 1895 when, it is believed, there were only six or seven cars in the United Kingdom. L. J. K. Setright suggests that the magazine was set up by Henry Sturmey as an organ of propaganda for Harry J. Lawson, founder of the Daimler Company and a journalist on the magazine in its early days. Henry Sturmey stood down as editor of The Autocar magazine and left the company in 1901.

Autocar claims to have invented the road test in 1928 when it analysed the Austin 7 Gordon England Sunshine Saloon. Autocar has been published weekly throughout its life with only strikes in the 1970s interrupting its frequency.

The magazine's name was changed from The Autocar to Autocar at the start of 1962.

In 1988 Autocar absorbed the rival magazine Motor, with which it had done battle on the newsstands since 1903. From the 7 September 1988 issue the magazine became Autocar & Motor. It reverted to Autocar for the 21 September 1994 issue.

The magazine has scored many firsts in its history, including the first full road tests and independent performance tests of the Jaguar XJ220, McLaren F1, and the Porsche 911 GT1.

It was also the first magazine to produce independently recorded performance figures for the Bugatti Veyron, which were published in the 31 May 2006 issue.

In 2023, Autocar digitised its entire archive dating back to 1895. The Autocar Archive is available to subscribers online.

Regular features
 News – includes "scoop" photographs and information about still-secret future models
 First drives – brief road tests of new models
 Group tests – analysis of how a model compares relative to rivals
 Motorsport – summaries of current racing news, predominantly in Formula 1 and rallying
 Road tests – Thorough test and analysis of one new model per issue. In the issue closest to Christmas, Autocar traditionally publishes a "road test" of a more unusual vehicle. These have included tests of New Routemaster, HMS Ark Royal, Concorde, and HMS Diamond.
 Used car news
 Long term car tests
 New car data

Writers and illustrators
In the 1950s, the magazine's sport editor, John Cooper, used Cooper T11 parts to create the Cooper-Alta. Former Autocar writers include Russell Bulgin, Chris Harris, and former Top Gear presenter James May.

In 1992, May was fired from Autocar after he added an acrostic into the 1992 "Road Test Yearbook". May had to write every review in the issue. Each spread featured four reviews and each review started with a big red capital letter known as a rubricated initial. May was bored and to alleviate the boredom, he wrote the reviews so the first four spreads would spell the words "ROAD", "TEST", "YEAR" and "BOOK". The other pages had another acrostic but that was not immediately recognizable as it was spread over the rest of the magazine, spelling seemingly random letters starting with "SOYO" and "UTHI". After it was published, readers discovered it. This was the one that got James May fired because it used profanity. The message, when punctuated was: "So you think it's really good, yeah? You should try making the bloody thing up; it's a real pain in the arse."

Current Autocar writers include Richard Bremner, used car expert James Ruppert, Editor at Large Matt Prior and Editor in Chief Steve Cropley.

The current editor is Mark Tisshaw, a former deputy editor, news editor and reporter for the magazine.

Editors

1895–1901 Henry Sturmey

1901–?[after 1914] Herbert Walter Staner

?–? Hugo Massac Thomas Buist

1930–1938 Harold Carlisle Lafone

1955–1968 Maurice Armstrong Smith

1968–1975 Peter Garnier

1975–1985 Ray Hutton

?1985–?1991 Bob Murray

1991–1997 Michael Harvey

1997–2001 Patrick Fuller

2001–2006 Rob Aherne

2006–2011 Chas Hallett (editor of What Car? 2011–2014)

2011–2013 Jim Holder (editor of What Car? 2014–2016)

2014–2017 Chas Hallett

2017–present Mark Tisshaw

International editions
Autocar has been licensed to publishers around the world, and is now published in sixteen countries outside the United Kingdom, including China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, and Vietnam.

References

External links
 Autocar official site
 Autocar India official site
 Autocar Indonesia official site

1895 establishments in the United Kingdom
Automobile magazines published in the United Kingdom
Weekly magazines published in the United Kingdom
Magazines established in 1895
Multilingual magazines

Autocar (magazine)


A personal computer (PC) is the common name for a type of computer that is most popular in offices and homes. The first PC called the "IBM PC" was made by the company called IBM in 1981, although many computers were made before like the Commodore PET. Smartphones and tablets are also computers for personal use, but they are not often called "personal computers".

Operating Systems
Today, most PCs usually have a basic set of software called an operating system. The operating system is responsible for several tasks including providing a user interface (UI). The most popular operating system on PCs is Windows, sold by Microsoft Corporation. PCs made by a company called Apple Inc. use a different system of software called Mac OS that is also made by Apple Inc.

Many free operating systems are available. Some are called Linux operating systems. There are over 300 different Linux "distributions". Each one has a different purpose/feel. Ubuntu Linux is the most-used Linux distribution.

Parts of a personal computer
A modern PC has a minimum set of parts to be useful. The "base unit" or "tower" (case) houses the computer parts. Usually, a mouse and keyboard are used for input, however some operating systems need only a keyboard. A monitor is usually needed to view output. In a laptop computer these parts are all together.

Inside the base unit or tower there are many electronic parts. The main parts are the motherboard, CPU, memory, and a data storage device, such as a hard disk or solid-state drive.

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) follows the instructions in the operating system and application programs. The memory, or RAM (random access memory), is for moving information (or data) quickly to and from the processor. The hard disk or solid-state drive hold programs and data while the computer is powered off. Floppy drives, CD-ROM drives, and USB flash drives are used for portable data storage.

Computers sometimes have a modem to send and receive data over a phone line, or more recently, over cable television lines. Computers can also be connected to a computer network using a network card.

Modern PCs have various sockets called ports. The most common ports are known as USB ports.

Uses for personal computers
Computers may be used for work, including doing research using the internet, keeping records; or writing documents. Other uses include communicating, with people across the world using Instant messaging, e-mail or Skype or recreation activity such as playing computer games.

Computers
Time People of the Year

Personal computer


General Government (GG, Polish: Generalne Gubernatorstwo) is a term who refers to a region in central Poland. This region, after its annexation from the Nazi Germany in 1939, was declared semi-autonomous with local civil and military administration. Unlike Vidkun Quisling's Norway, it wasn't a puppet state. The local authorities were staffed with Germans faithful to National Socialism.

The creation
Germany invaded in Poland on September 1, 1939, triggering the start of World War II. Germany won Poland in just 18 days. In September 18, the Soviet Union, signatory party of the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact, also invades Poland. Thus, Poland is divided in three parts:

 The western part who was annexed directly in the Greater German Reich as Gau Wartheland.
 The eastern part was annexed by the Soviet Union. Unlike Germany, much of the occupied Polish territory remained in the Soviet Union after the war.
 The central part is remaining occupied by Germany. According to a Hitler's decree of October 12, 1939, a General Government is created.

At first, General Government was composed of four Polish voivodeships: Warsaw, Radom, Lublin and Kraków. In August 1941, the General Government was enlarged, incorporating Galicia which was detached from the Soviet Union. Kraków was the capital.

References

Other websites

 Poland under Nazist occupation, Northwestern University

Nazi Germany
History of Poland

General Government


Ulpiano Fernández-Checa y Sanz (April 3, 1860 – January 5, 1916), known as Ulpiano Checa, was a Spanish painter, sculptor, poster designer and illustrator. He used both impressionistic and academic techniques, and mainly painted historical subjects.

Biography
He was born in Colmenar de Oreja, Spain, and exhibited a talent for art when he was a young child. At thirteen, he met Don José Ballester, the husband of a neighbor in Colmenar, who owned the Cafe de la Concepción in Madrid. Ballester was impressed with his work and, after consultation with Luis Taberner (1844–1900), a recognized and popular artist in Madrid, Ballester decided to bring Checa and his family to the capital to begin his art studies.

In 1873, he entered the Escuela de Bellas Artes de San Fernando in Madrid, followed by study at the , where he would paint Invasion of the Barbarians (since lost in a fire) which won the gold medal at the National Exhibition of Fine Arts in 1887.

Early career

During his formative years, Checa was directed by Alejandro Ferrant, Federico de Madrazo, and . He was an outstanding student, which led him to get two grants for painting, and a position as assistant professor in the subject of perspective. During the years 1880–1881, he left school to begin work as an artist. He worked as an assistant to Manuel Dominguez in the decoration of the Palace of Linares and the Basilica San Francisco el Grande, two of the largest decorative projects in Madrid during the last decades of the century.

To mark the bicentenary of the death of Calderón de la Barca, he made his first contribution, an illustration, to La Ilustración Española y Americana. Interested in current artistic trends, he moved within the cultural circles of Madrid, and served as a founding member of the Círculo de Bellas Artes of Madrid.

In 1884, he obtained a pension that enabled him to study at the Academy of Fine Arts in Rome. A year later, during the final year of his pension, he travelled to Paris and participated in the Salon of the Champs Elysees with his version of The Rape of Proserpina, causing dissent within the Spanish Academy. After completing his studies, he applied for another pension for the Academy in Rome, but it was awarded to Mariano Benlliure.

Move to Paris

Checa fixed his gaze upon Paris, which was by then the cultural center of Europe. In 1889, he settled there and participated in the World's Fair, held in Paris that year, with his painting In the Church, which was awarded third prize. He met Matilde Chayé (1864–1945), herself a painter, from a prominent Gascon family of Argentine origin, and in 1890 they married. Checa now split his time between Paris and Bagnères-de-Bigorre, the small town in the Hautes-Pyrenees where his wife's family lived. He never forgot his origins, and returned to Spain on several occasions to spend time resting and visiting friends and relatives in Colmenar de Oreja. His restless spirit and their economic position allowed him to travel around the world and this made him an artist of international fame.
In 1890, he had his first critical triumph in the Salón de Paris, the annual exhibition of the Academy of Arts in Paris; presenting his painting of a chariot race and winning third prize. His name became well-known in art circles and he was considered to be one of the most promising Spanish painters who worked in the French capital. A year later, the Spanish government awarded him the Order of Charles III.

Checa participated in numerous shows, both in and outside of Paris, and won prizes in many of them. He also entered shows throughout Europe, and in Argentina, Brazil, Algeria and Tunisia. In 1894 the French government awarded him the Legion of Honor. The following year, he had his first solo exhibition at the galleries of Georges Petit, in which he introduced nearly sixty new works. That same year he was a jury member of the committee charged with organizing a celebration of the centenary of lithography.

In 1897, he ventured into other art forms. At this time he received a commission from the Union of Thermal Baths, located in Bagnerès-de-Bigorre, to produce advertising posters. He also created his first book illustrations for Espagne. Le Généralife. Sérénades et Songes by Zacharie Astruc. During the summer months, he painted two murals in the chancel of the parish of Santa Maria Maggiore; on the left wall was the Annunciation and, on the right, a Presentation of the Virgin. Years later he made a third mural, of Saint Christopher.

Later successes
The year 1900 was very productive. He published his Treatise on Perspective, won a gold medal at the Exposition Universelle for The Last Days of Pompeii and painted the small dome of  "Le Train Bleu", a restaurant at the Gare de Lyon that was decorated by numerous contemporary artists.

In 1901, he was commissioned to design the costumes for a silent film version of , directed by Lucien Nonguet. In 1902, after attending the first exhibition of Spanish artists living in France at the Modern Artists Gallery, he traveled to Argentina and Uruguay. He made this trip to settle his wife's financial affairs, but, after learning of the important art market that was developing there, he extended his stay for several months.

He exhibited in major galleries in Azul, Buenos Aires and Montevideo. There, he met Juan Zorrilla de San Martín, who suggested that Checa illustrate his new book, Tabaré, which was published in 1904. The following year, he traveled to Italy, where he painted a great number of works, and a year later returned to Buenos Aires to paint the portrait of the recently deceased General Bartolomé Mitre.

Algeria was one of his favorite destinations. He continued to travel there frequently until 1910. In addition to his Orientalist paintings, he documented and participated in various exhibitions. In 1908, he was one of the illustrators for another book by Astruc called Les Alhambras. Two years later, although ill with uremia and continuing to work, his production began to decline. He also continued sending paintings to the Salon in Paris and, in 1912, staged a solo exhibition at the Gallerie Imberti in Bordeaux. That same year, the Tunisian government awarded him the Order of Glory.

After World War I broke out, he left Paris to settle in Bagnères-de-Bigorre. Soon he moved to the nearby town of Dax where he died on January 5, 1916. Following his wishes, as expressed in his will, his remains were transferred to  Colmenar de Oreja, where he was buried. His wife was later placed there beside him.

See also

 Orientalism
 List of Orientalist artists

References

External links

1860 births
1916 deaths
19th-century Spanish painters
19th-century Spanish male artists
Spanish male painters
19th-century sculptors
20th-century Spanish painters
20th-century Spanish sculptors
20th-century Spanish male artists
Spanish male sculptors
Artists from Madrid
Orientalist painters
Spanish illustrators
Spanish graphic designers
Spanish expatriates in France

Ulpiano Checa


The Porcelaine  is a breed of dog originating from France. In 1844, this scent hound was originally called "Briquets Francs Comtois" and named after a French region bordering Switzerland.

Appearance

The Porcelaine gets its name from its shiny coat, said to make it resemble a porcelain statuette.  The fur is white, sometimes with orange spots, often on the ears. The skin should be white with black mottling that is visible through the white coat. The fur is incredibly short and very fine. The nose of a Porcelaine dog is black with very wide nostrils. It also has black eyes and long ears that droop down. The neck is long and the tail starts thick and narrows to a point at the end.

Porcelaine males range from 22 to 23 inches (about 56 to 58.5 centimeters) tall. Bitches are 21 to 22 inches (about 53.5 to 56 centimeters) tall. They weigh from 55 to 62 pounds (about 25 to 28 kilograms).

Temperament
Porcelaines have a very high activity level and therefore need a great amount of exercise. Because of this, they are not recommended for people living in apartments because they cannot get sufficient exercise without much work on the owner's part. Despite the Porcelaines being fierce hunters, they are gentle with family and children, friendly to strangers, good with other dogs, and relatively easy to handle.

History
The Porcelaine is thought to be a descendant of the English Harrier, some of the smaller Laufhounds of Switzerland, and the now-extinct Montaimboeuf. There have been records of the breed in France since 1845 and in Switzerland since 1880. The breed actually disappeared after the French Revolution (1789–99) but has been reconstructed.
Breeders in the UK are attempting to have the Porcelaine accepted as a recognized breed.  As of 2009 there have been 14 puppies bred in the UK.

Health
Porcelaines have no health issues specific to the breed. Of course, they suffer from general dog issues like any other breed.

Care
The coat, due to its length, is very easy to care for.

Hunting purposes
The Porcelaine is a hunting dog usually used to hunt hare, roe deer, and in the north wild boar. The Porcelaines hunt in packs. Being a scent hound, it has a very good sense of smell with which it hunts. The Porcelaine is a fierce hunting dog that has been bred to hunt independently without many orders from the owner. The Porcelaine is also being bred in small numbers in Italy and used to hunt wild boar, however Italian indigenous hounds continue to be the preferred choice of local hunters.

See also
 Dogs portal
 List of dog breeds

References

External links
Club du Porcelaine

FCI breeds
Rare dog breeds
Scent hounds
Dog breeds originating in France

Porcelaine


Palynology is the study of very small natural particles. The word literally means the "study of dust". A palynologist is someone whose job is to identify what the particles are. Samples of particles can come from the air or water or soil or rocks. They could be organic and inorganic. Micropaleontology is a related area of study; it involves very small fossils.

Methods
A palynologist uses a microscope. They may also use chemical tests to find out what a particle is made of.

The methods used to study fossils in micropaleontology and in palynology are often different. Micropaleontology often involves breaking and dissolving rocks. Palynology often involves soil or sediment.

The main work of a palynologist is to identify each particle. Many different kinds of particles might be in the same sample. They may include:
 clay
 pollen
 algae with hard shells such as Diatoms, Dinoflagellates, golden algae
 spores from plants, fungi, or bacteria
 small seeds
 pieces of larger organisms
 tiny fossils

Uses

When the palynologist knows what particles are present in a sample, they may be able to say what the temperature or environmental chemistry was like where the sample came from. They may also be able to say where the sample came from.

Palynology is used in forensic science to learn where something came from, by looking at the particles in or on it.

Palynology is also very important in the study of climate history. In bodies of water such as lakes, ponds, and the ocean, sediment builds up slowly, so that the oldest sediment is at the bottom. There are ways to take a sample of the sediment that doesn't disturb the layers (either using a tube, or by freezing).

In glacial lakes, the sediment may have varves, which are two layers per year that are different colours. If there are varves, a lot of detailed information can be discovered in a core sample.

Subfields of paleontology
Branches of botany
Fungi
Forensics

Palynology


In cryptography, a Feistel cipher is a symmetric structure used in the construction of block ciphers, named after the German IBM cryptographer Horst Feistel; it is also commonly known as a Feistel network. A large set of block ciphers use the scheme, including the Data Encryption Standard

The Feistel structure has the advantage that encryption and decryption operations are very similar, even identical in some cases, requiring only a reversal of the key schedule. Therefore the size of the code or circuitry required to implement such a cipher is nearly halved.

Feistel construction is iterative in nature which makes implementing the cryptosystem in hardware easier.

Feistel networks and similar constructions are product ciphers, and so combine multiple rounds of repeated operations, such as:
 Bit-shuffling (often called permutation boxes or P-boxes)
 Simple non-linear functions (often called substitution boxes or S-boxes)
 Linear mixing  (in the sense of modular algebra) using XOR to produce a function with large amounts of what Claude Shannon described as "confusion and diffusion".

Bit shuffling creates the diffusion effect, while substitution is used for confusion.

Theoretical work
Many modern symmetric block ciphers use Feistel networks, and the structure and properties of Feistel ciphers have been extensively explored by cryptographers.  Specifically, Michael Luby and Charles Rackoff analyzed the Feistel block cipher construction, and proved that if the round function is a cryptographically secure pseudorandom function, with Ki used as the seed, then 3 rounds is sufficient to make the block cipher a pseudorandom permutation, while 4 rounds is sufficient to make it a "strong" pseudorandom permutation (which means that it remains pseudorandom even to an adversary who gets oracle access to its inverse permutation).  Because of this very important result of Luby and Rackoff, Feistel ciphers are sometimes called Luby-Rackoff block ciphers.  Further theoretical studies generalized the construction, and defined more precise limits for security.

Construction

Let  be the round function and let
 be the sub-keys for the rounds  respectively.

Then the basic operation is as follows:

Split the plaintext block into two equal pieces, (, )

For each round , compute (calculate)

.

Then the ciphertext is . (Commonly the two pieces  and  are not switched after the last round.)

Decryption of a ciphertext  is accomplished by computing for

.

Then  is the plaintext again.

One advantage of this model is that the round function  does not have to be invertible, and can be very complex.

The diagram illustrates the encryption process. Decryption requires only reversing the order of the subkey  using the same process; this is the only difference between encryption and decryption:

Unbalanced Feistel ciphers use a modified structure where  and  are not of equal lengths. The MacGuffin cipher is an experimental example of such a cipher.

The Feistel construction is also used in cryptographic algorithms other than block ciphers.  For example, the Optimal Asymmetric Encryption Padding (OAEP) scheme uses a simple Feistel network to randomize ciphertexts in certain asymmetric-key encryption schemes.

List of Feistel ciphers
Feistel or modified Feistel:
Blowfish,
Camellia,
CAST-128,
DES,
FEAL,
ICE,
KASUMI,
LOKI97,
Lucifer,
MARS,
MAGENTA,
MISTY1,
RC5,
TEA,
Triple DES,
Twofish,
XTEA,
GOST 28147-89

Generalised Feistel:
CAST-256,
MacGuffin,
RC2,
RC6,
Skipjack

References

Cryptography

Feistel cipher


Cognac is an alcoholic drink. It is made from grapes. It is a kind of brandy. This means there is 40 percent of alcohol or more in it. It is made around the city of Cognac. Only a few very special kinds of grapes may be used to produce the brandy.

The most important cognac importers are the United States, followed by Great Britain and Japan.

Alcoholic spirits

Cognac


A wok is a Chinese pan used for cooking. It has a round bottom. The most common use for the wok is stir frying, though it can also be used for deep frying, smoking, braising, roasting, grilling, and steaming.

In Indonesia, the wok is known as a wadjang, kuali in Malaysia, and kawali (small wok)  and kawa (big wok) in the Philippines.

Other websites

Cookware and bakeware

Wok


Fishsticks or fish fingers are a type of food probably invented in the United Kingdom. They are made of a whitefish like cod that is battered and breaded. They are often eaten with tartar sauce, cocktail sauce, or ketchup. Fishsticks are popular with children and their parents as an easy-to-prepare finger food that is somewhat healthy for kids.

History
Fishsticks first came about as a result of the invention of the plate froster in 1929, the first quick freezer. To ensure rapid freezing, food needed to be in slim rectangular slabs. A suitable candidate for this freezing method was fishsticks, slivers (small, thin pieces) cut from large fish and dipped in bread crumbs for frying.

In Britain in the 1950s, most of the herring catch was pickled and exported to other North European countries. In an attempt to make herring more appealing on the home market, companies tried to present it in a new way, creating herring fishsticks called "herring savouries" and were tested on the market against a bland control product of cod sticks, sold as "fish fingers." Shoppers in Southampton and South Wales, showed an overwhelming preference for the cod. Cod fishsticks were first produced in Great Yarmouth and introduced in Britain on 26 September 1955. They became immensely popular after television advertising began in 1956. To this day, fish sticks are a favorite food among children.

Production

On modern production lines, headless fish are processed through a machine that removes a fillet from each side of the backbone. The fillets then pass over a wheel and a blade that separates the skin from the flesh. Machine filleting leaves a few pin-like bones in the fillet, so the flesh containing the bones is cut out.

Fillets are formed into frozen blocks. A conveyor sends the blanks through batter and breadcrumbs, doubling the thickness of the fishstick. Then each is passed through a hot vegetable oil bath for about one minute to seal the coating and allow the fishstick to be grilled or fried. Then the fishstick is frozen again, with the center reaching -4 °F/-20 °C in less than 20 minutes. After packaging, it is stored at -18 °F/-28 °C, ready for distribution.

Trivia

 Fans of the New York Rangers of the NHL often taunt their rival team and fans, the New York Islanders because in the mid-1990s, the Islanders briefly changed their uniform from their traditional logo to a more new-age logo that featured a fisherman that many thought resembled the one on the box of Gorton's fish sticks. Rangers fans have been known to chant "We want Fishsticks" at both Madison Square Garden and the Nassau Coliseum during games between the teams.

Sources
 Readers Digest. (1990). "Fish fingers: coated cod fillets ready for frying." How in the World? Pleasantville, NY: The Reader's Digest Association, Inc.

Seafood
Fast food

Fishstick


Lance Evers (born April 3, 1969) is a semi-retired Canadian professional wrestler known under the ring name Lance Storm and is best known for his time in known for his work in World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW), World Championship Wrestling (WCW) and Ring of Honor (ROH).

He currently runs a professional wrestling school in Calgary, Alberta called Storm Wrestling Academy.

Career
He joined Extreme Championship Wrestling in 1997. He competed for ECW from 1997 to 2000. During that time, he won the ECW World Tag Team Championship with Chris Candido. They held the belts for 200 days and broke up. They feuded with each other after that and Storm introduced Tammy Lynn Bytch as his manager. The name Tammy Lynn Bytch was a parody of Candido's real life girlfriend Tammy Lynn Sytch.

After their feud was finished, Storm teamed with his trainee Justin Credible and named their tag team the Impact Players. The team won two ECW World Tag Team Championships and feuded with Jerry Lynn and Sabu and Tommy Dreamer and The Sandman. He also worked as a booker in ECW but left for the World Championship Wrestling to support his family when the company began to suffer financial hardships.

He joined World Championship Wrestling in 2000 and won the United States Heavyweight Championship, the Cruiserweight Championship, and the Hardcore Championship in rapid succession. He renamed the titles to the Canadian Heavyweight Championship, 100 kg and Under Championship, and Saskatchewan Hardcore International Title (S.H.I.T.) which also featured large stickers that covered the belts' faceplates.

He was also a member of the wrestling stable Team Canada which also featured Mike Awesome, Jim Duggan, Major Gunns, Carl Oulette, Jacques Rougeau, Elix Skipper and also Bret Hart for one night. The stable feuded with Misfits In Action.

The WCW was purchased World Wrestling Federation in 2001 and portrayed as a serious, humourless heel. He was a member of The Alliance and was also the first WCW wrestler to invade a WWF program on the May 28, 2001 episode of Raw.

During his time in WWF, he won the WWE Intercontinental Championship and formed a tag team with The Hurricane. Storm and Hurricane feuded with the Hardy Boyz over the WWF and WCW Tag Team Titles. Team Alliance lost at the 2001 Survivor Series and Storm was fired (in storyline) along with the rest of the alliance roster by Vince McMahon.

Storm defeated The Rock with help from Test in a match which earned Storm a WWF contract. Storm formed The Un-Americans along with Christian, Test, and later William Regal. The Un-Americans lead angry tirades against the United States and waved an inverted American flag in the ring. Storm and Christian defeated Hulk Hogan and Edge at Vengeance to win the WWE Tag Team Championship.

The stable broke up but Storm continued to tag with Regal with the same type of gimmick. With Regal, Storm won the World Tag Team Championship twice. Regal had health problems and Chief Morley said that they would be stripped of the titles. Morley teamed with Storm and they were named the World Tag Team Champions.

He was involved in a storyline where Stone Cold Steve Austin, who was an authority figure at the time, told the fans to chant "boring" during Storm's matches. Goldust helped improve Storm's charisma and turn Storm into a fan favorite. He reformed his tag team with Morley but they didn't really get a push.

He turned into a heel again and was tired of pleasing the fans and how it was just a waste of his time. He was squashed by Rhyno immediately thereafter which turned Rhyno into a fan favorite once again. This would turn out to be Storm's last appearance on Raw.

In April 2004, he then decided to retire from in-ring action and accepted a position backstage with WWE where he worked as a wrestling trainer in Ohio Valley Wrestling. He resigned from WWE in May 2005 and intended to open his own training school in his hometown of Calgary, the Storm Wrestling Academy. After he left the WWE, Storm competed in the Independent circuit for a while which also included Ring of Honor. He still competes in the independent circuit from time to time.

Championships
Canadian Rocky Mountain Wrestling
CRMW Commonwealth Mid-Heavyweight Championship (five times)
CRMW International/North American Championship (one time)
CRMW North American Tag Team Championship (two times) (with Chris Jericho)
Catch Wrestling Association
CWA Catch Junior Heavyweight Championship (two times)
Extreme Championship Wrestling
ECW World Tag Team Championship (three times) (with Chris Candido (one) and Justin Credible (two))
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
He was ranked #13 of the top 500 singles wrestlers by the PWI in the PWI 500 in 2001.
Smoky Mountain Wrestling
SMW Beat the Champ Television Championship (one time)
Wrestle Association "R"
WAR International Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship (two times) (with Yuji Yasuraoka)
WAR World Six-Man Tag Team Championship (one time) (with Kouki Kitahara and Nobutaka Araya)
World Championship Wrestling
WCW Cruiserweight Championship (one time)
WCW Hardcore Championship (one time)
WCW United States Championship (three times)
World Wrestling Federation / World Wrestling Entertainment
World Tag Team Championship (four times) (with Christian (one), William Regal (two) and Chief Morley (one))
WWF Intercontinental Championship (one time)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards
Most Underrated Wrestler (2001)

Personal life
Since retiring, he runs a professional wrestling school in Calgary, Alberta called Storm Wrestling Academy.

He is married to his wife Tina and they have two daughters, Rachel and Rebecca.

References

Other websites
Official website
WWE Alumni profile

1969 births
Living people
Canadian professional wrestlers
Former WWE wrestlers
People from Sarnia
Sportspeople from Ontario

Lance Storm


The Sleekit Mr Tod is a bairn's novelle written by Breetish author Roald Dahl. It wis setten furth in 1970 by George Allen & Unwin in the Unitit Kinrick an Alfred A. Knopf in the Unitit States, wi illustrations by Donald Chaffin. The beuk wis later setten furth wi new illustrations by Jill Bennett, Tony Ross an Quentin Blake. The story is aboot Mr Tod an hou he begowks his fermer neebours for tae steal thair fuid frae richt unner thair nebs.

Bairn's beuks

The Sleekit Mr Tod


Roberto Devereux is an Italian opera in three acts by Gaetano Donizetti, libretto by Salvatore Cammarano, after François Ancelot's Elisabeth d'Angleterre, it was first performed in Naples, on October 29, 1837. It is a powerful and sweeping work and is sometimes considered one of the most "verdian" of Donizetti's operas. After almost a century of neglect, it was revived in Naples by soprano Leyla Gencer in 1964, and has since then been regularly performed, notably by sopranos Montserrat Caballé and Beverly Sills. The plot is about the love between Queen Elizabeth I of England and her favorite Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex.

Principal roles
 Elisabetta I - soprano
 Roberto Devereux - tenor
 Sara, Duchess of Nottingham - mezzo-soprano
 Duke of Nottingham - baritone

Sources
 The Complete Dictionnary of Opera & Operetta, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993.

1830s operas
Compositions by Gaetano Donizetti

Roberto Devereux


In astronomy, a guide star is a reference star used to accurately maintain the tracking by a telescope of a celestial body, whose apparent motion through the sky is primarily due to Earth's rotation.

Accurate telescope pointing and tracking is critical for obtaining good astronomical images and astrophotographs. However, because Earth rotates, the sky appears to be in a constant state of motion relative to Earth. Although this movement appears to be relatively slow when viewed with the naked eye, with the high magnification and consequently smaller field of view provided by even a small telescope, this motion becomes apparent on timescales of the order of seconds.

Though space telescopes are not mounted on a spinning planet, they still use guide stars including those listed in the HST Guide Star Catalog.

Computer-controlled electric motors are commonly employed to allow the telescope to move in sync with the apparent motion of the sky, according to a pre-computed pointing model. However, there is usually a significant non-zero error associated with the model, which is an approximation to the true motion of the sky.

Most modern professional telescopes use a guide star. An autoguider is pointed to a sufficiently luminous star that lies near the object being observed and, if the pointing begins to drift, the error can be detected and the movement corrected. This is most accurate when the corrections are applied by a computer, but amateur telescopes often have manual correction (requiring the observer to continuously follow the star by eye for the exposure period, which may be a significant length of time).

Guide stars are also employed in adaptive optics. In this application, the star is not used to correct for the rotation of the Earth, but to correct for turbulence in the Earth's atmosphere. By measuring the observed motion of the guide star, and making minute distortions to the primary mirror, the telescope can produce images with much greater sharpness than is possible without adaptive optics. However, only about 1 percent of the night sky is close enough to a natural guide star to use adaptive optics, so various methods to create artificial laser guide stars have been developed, including the sodium laser system developed by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and used by the University of California's Lick and Keck observatories.

See also
Pole star
Celestial sphere
Fixed stars

References

Observational astronomy

Guide star