Madras Music Academy is one of the earliest established music academies in South India. Before the concept of infrastructure was introduced to India in the early 1920s, it was a gathering for elite musicians simply called (and is still more commonly referred to as) Music Academy () It plays an important role in encouraging and promoting primarily the Carnatic Music Indian art form. It played a vital role in the revival of the Indian classical dance form of Bharatnatyam in the 1930s when it faced near extinction due to a negative connotation caused by conservative societal standards.

They also run a music school called the Teachers college of Carnatic Music which has many eminent musicians on its faculty. Musicians such as Tiger Varadachariar, Appa Iyer, Valadi Krishnaiyer and Mudicondan Venkatarama Iyer adorned the chair of Principal of the Teacher's College.

History
In 1927, the Indian National Congress held the All India Music Conference in Madras. At the end of the conference it was decided that an organisation be formed that helped the cause of music. The prime reason for this conference was E. Krishna Iyer who had played a vital role in reviving the south Indian dance art form—Bharatanatyam.

The academy was formally inaugurated on 18 August 1928 by C. P. Ramaswami Iyer, in the Y.M.I.A. Auditorium before a large and distinguished gathering.

Annual music conferences are held every December to collect all information regarding music, maintain the library and publish a journal. They also help to bring to public notice aspiring musicians and scholars by conducting competitions and other presentations.

For a decade, E. Krishna Iyer worked as the Secretary of the Madras Music Academy. The first Music Festival was held in December 1927 which is before the inauguration of the Music Academy. Since then, it had become a part of the Madras Music Academy's Activities to conduct several expositions and concerts on Carnatic Music every December. This later came to be popularly known as the Margazhi Season or is even referred to as the Music Season amongst Carnatic enthusiasts. This soon became the norm for all sabhas in Madras to conduct several concerts each day during the season. There were several sabhas before the formation of the Music Academy like the Parthasarathy Swami Sabha in Triplicane which was formed as early as 1900. However, it was the Madras Music Academy that set the trend of conducting the music festival during December.

Dr U. Rama Rao was the founder President of the academy and Basheer Ahmed Sayeed, the founder vice-president. The present President is N. Murali. The six past presidents are: Rama Rao, K. V. Krishnaswamy Iyer, T. L. Venkatarama Iyer, T. S. Rajam, K. R. Sundaram Iyer, and T. T. Vasu. Before the present building (T. T. Krishnamachari Auditorium) was constructed, the annual conferences and programmes were held in various locations around the city.

The building
During the first few years, the academy conducted its activities provisionally in George Town and later moved to Mylapore. In 1955, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru laid the foundation stone for the music academy building that exists today on TTK Road in Mylapore. It was inaugurated on 20 December 1962 by Maharaja Jayachamaraja Wodeyar Bahadur, the then Governor of Madras.

There are two buildings for the Music Academy:

 The T.T. Krishnamachari Hall
 The Kasturi Srinivasan Hall

The T.T. Krishnamachari Hall is the first building that was built in 1955. It has a seating capacity of 1600.

The Kasturi Srinivasan Hall was built in 1982. It houses a small auditorium for conferences and concerts, a library, a committee room and a recording and demonstration room. It was here that T. N. Rajarathnam Pillai's tapes and audio CDs were produced.  Kasturi Srinivasan's nephew's son, N. Murali, the Joint Managing Director of The Hindu, is the current President of the academy.

Awards, recognition and contributions
Sangeetha Kalanidhi: The Music Academy, since 1929 has been recognising and rewarding people who contributed to the field of Carnatic music by honouring them with the title Sangeetha Kalanidhi. In 1968, M.S. Subbulakshmi was the first woman to receive the Sangeetha Kalanidhi award from Madras Music Academy.
Sangeetha Kala Acharya: It was later in 1993 that the academy also started giving out the Sangeetha Kala Acharya title. It is awarded to 2 or 3 senior musicians every year.
Natya Kala Acharya: Since 2012, the academy has been recognising dancers with the Natya Kala Acharya title. A separate Dance conference is held in the first week of January. This award is now renamed as Nrithya Kalanidhi.
Vaggeyyakkara Award
Musicologist Award
Spirit of Youth-festival of Dance and Music: During the October of every year nearly 40 young artists are projected by the academy for their Classical Music and Dance talent.
Special TTK Award
Special Life Time Achievement award: This award has been conferred on only 3 people:
 Kamala Lakshminarayan
 Lalgudi Jayaraman
 TH Vinayakram
Best Artiste Award
Music Welfare
R.R.Talent Promotion Scheme: Two talented artists are selected by the academy and are sponsored for coaching under an eminent musician chosen by the academy. At the end of the training period the artists get to perform in the academy.
Teacher's College of Music is a school run by the academy for offering certified courses on Vocal, Violin and Mridangam.
Books: The academy conducts research on Music and publishes their findings. Some of the academy's publications:
The Ragas of Sangita Saramrta, a book written by King Tulaja I.
Lakshana Gitas
Raga Lakshanas

Library
Music Academy received a donation of Rs. 1,00,000 from S. Visvanathan in memory of K. R. Sundaram Iyer for the improvement of library activities. The library is now named as K. R. Sundaram Iyer Memorial Library. It has rare books, manuscripts and tape recordings of the proceedings of the Expert Committee sessions. The students of the Teacher's College of Music, members, music students and research scholars. Books on both music and other general subjects donated by the families of P. Sambamoorthy, Sangita Vidvan K. C. Thyagarajan, V. Raghavan, Venkatakrishnan, S. R. Janakiraman and other individuals.

See also

 Eastern fare music foundation
 Delhi University

References

External links
Music academy official website
Sabhas - Music Academy
The Music Academy
The Inauguration of the Music Academy building - Article from The Hindu

- Music Academy

Carnatic music
Culture of Chennai
Cultural centres in Chennai
Music venues in India
Music schools in India
1928 establishments in India
Arts organizations established in 1928
Music organisations based in India

Madras Music Academy


Piccadilly is a major street in central London, running from Hyde Park Corner in the west to Piccadilly Circus in the east. It is completely within the City of Westminster. St. James's lies to the south of the eastern section of the street, while the western section overlooks Green Park. The area to the north is Mayfair.

It is the location of Fortnum & Mason, the Royal Academy, The Ritz Hotel, the RAF Club and Hatchards book shop. Simpsons, once amongst the United Kingdom's leading clothing stores, opened on Piccadilly in the 1930s. The store closed in 1999 and the site is now the flagship shop of the booksellers Waterstone's.

History

The name Piccadilly may come from a tailor named Robert Baker, in the late 16th century and early 17th century. He amassed a large fortune by making and selling piccadills – stiff collars with scalloped edges and a lace border, which were then in fashion. With his great fortune he bought a large tract of what was then open country to the west of London.

After the Restoration of the English monarchy in 1660, Piccadilly and the area to the north (Mayfair) began to be systematically developed as a fashionable residential locality. Some of the grandest mansions in London were built on the northern side of Piccadilly: Clarendon House, Berkeley House (later Devonshire House), and Sir John Denham's house (later Burlington House) were built in the 17th century. Later mansions included Melbourne House (now The Albany), Apsley House, Bath House  and Cambridge House. Several members of the Rothschild family had mansions at the western end of the street, and that part was colloquially referred to as Rothschild Row.

By the 1920s most of these buildings had been demolished or were in institutional use.  The enlargement of Park Lane and the formation of Hyde Park Corner as a major traffic gyratory system has cut off the western stretch of Piccadilly, with the result that Apsley House has become detached from it.

21st century Piccadilly is not one of London's principal shopping streets, despite the presence of several famous shops. The Ritz Hotel is in the street, along with some other luxury hotels. There are also some offices and some very expensive flats. Piccadilly is one of the widest and straightest streets in central London.

City of Westminster
Roads in London

Piccadilly


Physiognomonics (; ) is an Ancient Greek pseudo-Aristotelian treatise on physiognomy attributed to Aristotle (and part of the Corpus Aristotelicum).

Ancient physiognomy before the Physiognomonics
Although Physiognomonics is the earliest work surviving in Greek devoted to the subject, texts preserved on clay tablets provide evidence of physiognomy manuals from the First Babylonian dynasty, containing divinatory case studies of the ominous significance of various bodily dispositions.  At this point physiognomy is "a specific, already theorized, branch of knowledge" and the heir of a long-developed technical tradition.

While loosely physiognomic ways of thinking are present in Greek literature as early as Homer, physiognomy proper is not known before the classical period.  The term physiognomonia first appears in the fifth-century BC Hippocratic treatise Epidemics (II.5.1).  Physiognomy was mentioned in a work by Antisthenes on the Sophists, which provides evidence of its recognition as an art (techne).

In Aristotle's time, physiognomics was acknowledged as an art (techne) with its own skilled practitioners (technitai), as we see from a reference in Generation of Animals (IV.3): Then people say that the child has the head of a ram or a bull, and so on with other animals, as that a calf has the head of a child or a sheep that of an ox. All these monsters result from the causes stated above, but they are none of the things they are said to be; there is only some similarity, such as may arise even where there is no defect of growth. Hence often jesters compare someone who is not beautiful to a goat breathing fire, or again to a ram butting, and a certain physiognomist reduced all faces to those of two or three animals, and his arguments often prevailed on people. (trans. Pratt rev. Barnes)

Already in antiquity, physiognomy's pretensions to a "scientific" foundation were questioned and debated.  It had connections to medicine, but also to magic and divination.

The treatise

Structure and content
The treatise is divided into sections on theory (805a1-808b10) and method (808b11-814b9).  The connections between bodily features and character are treated in detail, cataloguing, for example, twelve kinds of nose, and the distinctive features of the cinaedus.

Connections to Aristotle
The pseudo-Aristotelian treatise begins with an allusion to Aristotle's Prior Analytics (II.27, on the body-soul correlation), and many of the physiognomic connections discussed are mentioned specifically in the History of Animals.

Influence
The author's systematic scheme of physiognomic relationships was not adopted by later writers on the subject; the proliferation of incompatible teachings had "the cumulative effect of undermining the authority of the profession as a whole."

Notes

References
 T. Corey Brennan, "Review: [Aristoteles] Physiognomonica, edited by S. Vogt", Classical World 99.2 (2006), pp. 202-203.
 Giampiera Raina (trans. and comm.), Pseudo Aristotele: Fisiognomica; Anonimo Latino: Il trattato di fisiognomica, 2nd ed., Milan: Biblioteca Universale Rizzoli, 1994.

Further reading
 Sabine Vogt (trans. and comm.), Aristoteles: Physiognomonica, Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1999,

External links

 Greek texts: Immanuel Bekker's text available via Greco interattivo; Richard Foerster's 1893 Teubner edition via Google Books

 English translation of E.S. Forster and T. Loveday in The Works of Aristotle, Oxford, 1913

Physiognomy
Ancient Greek pseudepigrapha
Works by Aristotle

Physiognomonics


Maria Callas (December 3, 1923 – September 16, 1977) was a Greek soprano. She was one of the most famous and most controversial opera singers of the 20th century. She had a very distinctive voice of great range, power and agility enabling her to sing a wide variety of roles and was a singer-actress of great dramatic intensity. She was dubbed La Divina (The Divine One) by her admirers. She was mainly associated with the Italian repertoire, particularly Bellini's Norma, Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor, Verdi's La traviata and Puccini's Tosca.

Life and career

Maria was born Maria Kalogeroupoulou at Terence Cardinal Cooke Health Care Center in New York City, to Greek parents, she returned to Greece in 1937, with her mother and older sister. There, she studied singing with Elvira de Hidalgo, and made her debut while still a teenager with the Athens Opera in 1941.

During a short return to America to visit her father in 1945, she auditioned at the Metropolitan Opera without success. Her first major break came with her Italian debut in Verona in 1947, as La Gioconda. There, she met conductor Tullio Serafin who became her mentor and guided her towards the bel canto repertoire. She sang her first Norma in Florence in 1948, and the following year, as a last minute replacement, she appeared as Elvira in Bellini's I puritani in Venice, which was to be her first great success.

In 1949, she married industrialist Giovanni Battista Meneghini who became her manager. She was sometimes known as Maria Meneghini Callas after her marriage.

Shortly after, she made her debut at La Scala in Milan, where the major part of her career and greatest triumphs were to take place. In collaboration with conductors like Carlo Maria Giulini, Leonard Bernstein, Gianandrea Gavazzeni, and directors like Franco Zeffirelli and Luchino Visconti, lavish productions of works such as Cherubini's Medea, Spontini's La Vestale, Bellini's La sonnambula and Norma, Donizetti's Anna Bolena and Poliuto, Verdi's La traviata and Un ballo in maschera, were made especially for her to great acclaim.

She also made guest appearances at the Royal Opera House in London, the Berlin State Opera, the Paris Opéra, the Lyric Chicago Opera, the Dallas Opera and  the Metropolitan Opera in New York City.

In 1958, she met Greek shipping magnate Aristotle Onassis which led to her divorce from Meneghini, and slowly began to withdraw from the stage. Her final appearance was in Tosca in London in 1965. She made a last world concert tour in 1973–74 with her often partner tenor Giuseppe Di Stefano, but by then her voice was almost gone.

Callas died of a heart attack in Paris, France, at the age of 53.

Reference
 The Complete Dictionary of Opera & Operetta, James Anderson, Wings Books, 1993.
 Broadcast  auditions (2) "Maria Callas" (cycle "From collection of the rare recordings" by Maxim Malkov – in Russian).

1923 births
1977 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Greek singers
Italian opera singers
Singers from New York City
Sopranos

Maria Callas


A mess kit is a collection of silverware and cookware designed for use by military personnel for food and military rations. They may also be used during camping and backpacking. There are many varieties of mess kits that militaries issue to their personnel that later become available to consumers.

Mess tin

A mess tin is an item in a mess kit, designed to be used over portable cooking apparatus. A mess tin can be thought of as a portable version of a saucepan, intended primarily for boiling but also useful for frying. Mess tins were originally a military design, but are also popular among civilian campers.

Mess tins are generally rectangular with rounded off edges - the rounded edges are easier to clean inside than a sharp corner. Most mess tins are supplied as a set, with one slightly larger than the other, allowing them to nestle together for easy packing. This arrangement is also useful when using the tins for boiling, as the smaller tin can be used to hold the liquid, with the larger tin placed on top to act as a lid. In order to save weight, some designs stick with a single mess tin with a lid, with the lid often having a secondary role as a frying pan.

Military

While functionally similar to a one-man civilian mess kit, military mess kits are designed to be even more compact, using their space as efficiently as possible. Thus lids will almost always be used for preparing, cooking, and/or eating, and usually come in two or three pieces. As such, it may sacrifice certain features, or use other features to complement it.

When in a large camp, it is common for soldiers to use either normal dining ware, or a multi-compartment mess tray similar to a TV dinner tray, but much larger.

United States
Prior to World War II, two factors influenced the design of the US Army's M-1926, M-1932, and M-1942 mess kits. First, unlike most other armies of the day, the US mess kit was designed to serve men queuing in feeding lines and served in unit formations from large garrison-type field kitchens when not on daily combat operations. Secondly, US soldiers in the field were never expected to forage or to completely cook their rations, even in daily combat or front line service. Instead, when not used as a serving tray for company-size or larger units, the mess kit was used to re-heat pre-measured servings of the canned Reserve Ration. After 1938, it was used for the new C-ration, a canned combat ration with several menu precooked or dried food items. Today, though canned and dried combat rations have further evolved into the MRE, these can now be self-heated, and thus only a containment tray is required for most units.

The US Army's flat ovoid M-1932 wartime-issue mess kit was made of galvanized steel (stainless steel in the later M-1942), and was a divided pan-and-body system. When opened, the mess kit consisted of two halves: the deeper half forms a shallow, flat-bottom, ovoid "Meat can, body", designed to receive the "meat ration", the meat portion of the pre-war canned Reserve Ration. The "Meat can, body", with its folding handle extended, can double as a crude skillet. The "Mess kit, plate" (lid) is even shallower, and is pressed to form two compartments, with a center divide wide enough to accommodate the folding handle. The plate also has a very secure ring that is held in place by friction.

When stored, the "Mess kit, plate" is placed on top of the ovoid "Meat can, body", while the stamped folding handle is folded over the inverse side of the plate's center divider, and latched onto the edge of the body. It is further secured folding the lid's ring toward the center of the mess kit, which locks onto another latch. In use, each piece may be used individually, or as a unitary three-compartment mess tray, accomplished by sliding the lid-plate's center divider onto the folding handle, and securing it to the handle by the ring-and-latch mechanisms. When latched, the kit can be held in a ready position by the user in one hand to receive US Army's 'A' or 'B' field kitchen rations. As the soldier passed along the mess line, food service personnel would dole out hot items first, often meat followed by vegetables, potatoes, and other side dishes, ostensibly separated by the tray dividers. While a soldier could use the handled "Meat can, body" from his kit to cook raw food, it is really too shallow and thin to serve as an effective skillet, and was usually restricted to heating the canned meat ration. After 1938, the "Meat can, body" was used to heat the meat and vegetable component of the C-ration, or to reconstitute breakfast items such as C-ration powdered eggs.

To complement the mess kit, soldiers used a stamped cup especially molded to fit over the bottom of the US Army's standard one-quart (950 ml) canteen. This cup could be used to boil water for coffee, or for heating or reconstituting soup or other foods. During World War II, units preparing heated combat rations in the "Meat can, body" or canteen cup mainly used locally procured combustible materials or Sterno fuel units of jellied alcohol. The latter could be stored within an issued folding stove for deployment when heating food, soup, or coffee in the field.

After World War II, a specially-designed Esbit stove was issued to fit over the cup-and-canteen unit, similar to designs used in other armies.

German and Japanese

During World War II, the German and Japanese Imperial Army used mess kits that were similar in several ways. In storage, their dimensions were similar to US mess kits, but were split widthwise instead of lengthwise, around two-thirds of the body, creating a pot with handle and a cup.

The German mess kit (Essgeschirr) was designed in 1908, a modification of a Swiss design from 1882. Originally, the base held two litres, marked into 1/4 sections, and the lid holding another 1/4. This model replaced the 1850 Kochgeschirr. The new 1908 Essgeschirr was made of aluminium and not designed for cooking; only to contain food distributed from field kitchens. The early models of the 1908 were painted in a distinct matte black.
In 1910, the aluminum handle was replaced with one of galvanised iron, as aluminum often got hot in the soldiers' hands. The 1908 model was in production until 1940. In 1931, a model later called Kochgeschirr 31 (Cooking pot model 31) was developed. It was capable of cooking, and held 1.7 liters. With only very minor changes, this model remained in service with the German military (both East and West) as well as with the German disaster relief services (THW), which were painted grey.

They were mainly used in conjunction with a folding Esbit stove, which, when folded, could store Esbit pellets and occupy a very small area. The German mess kit was usually held together with a leather strap, which was used to fasten the mess kit to the soldier's bread bag in combat order or assault pack of the webbing equipment in marching order.

The Japanese Army enlisted men's mess kit, or  (rice container), differed from other armies' mess kits in several respects. No attempt was made to conform the hangō to the Japanese one-liter M-94 oval water bottle, which was larger than that issued to the armies of some other nations. The hangō consisted of a brown kidney-shaped, oval-bottomed, heavy-gauge aluminum rice cooker pot with lid, and an insert tray stored inside the pot. The lid and tray were also used as serving plates. A simplified model, the Ro, was introduced later in the war, which lacked the pot insert.

The men cooked with hangōs over open fires or cans of jellied alcohol. In addition to its usefulness as a cooking vessel, the hangō was useful for carrying the cooked rice. During the Second World War, it was occasionally adopted by members of the United States Army and Chinese Army which had captured Japanese equipment, and later by the Viet Minh.

Finnish

The Finnish Defence Forces mess kit (kenttäkeittoastia or kenttäpakki) is almost identical to the German M31 mess kit design, but, unlike the latter, a lusikkahaarukka (a type of folding spoon-fork utensil) is included with a Finnish mess kit instead of a separate fork and spoon set. A lusikkahaarukka therefore cannot be stored inside a Finnish mess tin as it would cause excessive noise in the mess tin.

Soviet/Russian
During the Second World War the Soviet Army mess kit was a two-piece design similar to that used by the Wehrmacht forces that consisted of a large main canteen part, and a smaller saucepan component that also doubled as the mess tin lid. The kit also had a wire handle which many soldiers used to hang the mess kit from their web equipment or backpack. This design was supplemented in the mid-1980s with a second design that featured a metal water bottle held in the middle. The next layer of the set was a large canteen/cooking pot with a wire handle, then a smaller saucepan-type component with a folding metal handle. This last component fitted over the base of the larger cooking pot, the handle was then folded up and clipped over the cooking pot and the lip of the water bottle. This variant was often called "VDV type". The mess set was sometimes issued with a pouch, although this was by no means certain and many soldiers simply hung it onto their equipment from the wire handle. Officers were often issued a satchel-type bag for their mess kits in keeping with their smart image. This latest design of mess kit continues to be used today in the armies of many former Soviet republics, but in recent years the military of the Russian Federation has stopped issuing mess kits to soldiers due to the lack of adequate supply owing to the size of newly formed combat units, lack of adequate domestic production, poor storage of existing units and the sale of Soviet-era stockpiles to civilians and third-party buyers.

Swedish
The Swedish Armed Forces Kokkärl m/1940 mess kit is a complete package, similar in design to a German mess kit, but larger and oval-shaped. It breaks down into two parts, the first part being a steel stand/windshield/wood-burning stove (with a Svea alcohol burner unit), whilst the other part consists of two pots (usually aluminium). The larger pot has a wire handle, or bail, for suspending over a fire; the smaller has hinged handle. The two pots nest together and stow inside the windshield. The set is completed by a small plastic fuel bottle. It is recommended that the fuel bottle and burner unit be stored separately, outside the pots (since alcohol may otherwise seep out). A Swedish army plastic mug can also be fitted inside the pots.

The stove uses small sticks, wood chips, or pine cones as fuel. When using the alcohol burner, the Svea burner unit may advantageously be replaced with a Trangia replacement burner, which appears to be more efficient.

Swiss

The Swiss mess kit (French gamelle) was originally introduced in 1875 in the form of a pot made of tin-plated sheet steel with a lid and handle. That first design was however later deemed unsuitable and so in 1882 a revised design was introduced which is closer to the Canteen-cup system design: a tall, one liter canteen, with a stove (burns woodchips, etc.) that cups the bottom of the bottle and a cup/pot that goes over the canteen; the cup can fit inside the stove, better heating its contents. The 1882 design later formed the basis of the modern German mess kit design as mentioned above.

British

1908 Pattern Mess Tin
In the First World War, the British Army used a metal, two-piece, kidney shaped mess tin.

The 1874-model was made of tinplated steel and had a "D" plan view with rounded corners. The tray or cup piece had a folding handle that opened to the side. The tray also functioned as a deep lid for the pan. This change from the 1854-model allowed the use of the narrow and tighter curved side of the cup rim for drinking. It also permitted the tray to briefly be held over a fire.  The corners of the square shaped bail were also more rounded.

The geometry of the older British mess tins was substantially different. The 1854-model was "D" shaped in plan view and was made of tinplated iron. It was fabricated from front and back panels of sheet metal. The tray or cup nested inside the pan. The handle of the tray or cup folded inside but was on the flat "back side" forcing the user to drink from the broadly curved front. The lid was intermediate in depth, could be used as a plate, and set down securely on the pan. The bail was square shaped and the corners were tight curves.

The 1810 (181314)-model is semicircular or "C" shaped in plan view and is made of tinplated iron. The tray of the 1810-model had no handle but nested inside the pan or lower section. The lid covered the pan and had a pull ring for easy removal, but apparently had no other intended use. The bail was curved.

1937 Pattern Mess Tin
A new pattern of mess tin was developed for the Web Equipment 1937 Pattern, which was a nested, two-piece rectangular mess tin with long, folding handles. An enamelled tin mug was used for drinking hot liquids. The water bottle of the 1908 Pattern Web Equipment was unchanged, though the web carrier was changed to incorporate the 1-inch-wide brace ends of the 1937 gear.

Contemporary
The British Armed Forces generally use mess tins for cooking in the field, although with the British Armed Forces primarily using Boil in the Bag rations, many soldiers prefer a single large metal mug, as one item can be used to cook food and to make and consume hot drinks, thereby cutting down on equipment weight. As such cups fit beneath the standard water bottle, they also take up less space in the soldiers' equipment. The mess tin or cup is usually used with the standard issue FireDragon folding burner & fuel.

Canadian

Historical
Canadian mess equipment was similar to that used by the British in the first half of the 20th century, i.e., that issued with 1908 and 1937 Pattern Web Equipment. Canada issued its own 1951 Pattern Web Equipment, 1964 Pattern Web Equipment, and 1982 Pattern Web Equipment.

Contemporary
The use of aluminium in mess equipment has been identified as a health hazard, and plastics and disposables have become more common. In particular, the use of Individual Meal Packs (IMP) have become common, with chemical cooking bags. Messing from hayboxes/fresh rations in the field is often accomplished with disposable mess gear (i.e. paper plates).

Camping
A civilian mess kit, which may serve from one person to a family of eight, is a collection of common kitchen wares designed to be lightweight and easy to store. Such kits are typically constructed from aluminium, though enameled steel is also common, and some items (such as cutlery or plates) may be made of more expensive materials, such as titanium, to further save weight, or of plastic. A civilian mess kit usually contains at least a skillet, a kettle (which may also serve as a coffee pot), a plate, a cup (typically a Sierra cup), and cutlery. Utensils usually consist of forks, knives, and spoons, as at home, but may be replaced by specialty items like sporks or folding chopsticks. Kits usually come with either folding handles or a detachable handle which can be used with other cookware. Items are stored compactly by nesting them in other components; the whole kit may be placed in a stuff sack.

See also
 Tiffin carrier
 Bento box

References

Further reading

External links

Camping equipment
Cooking appliances
Military catering

Mess kit


The Adventures of Superman is a novel by George Lowther. It was first published in 1942 with illustrations by Joe Shuster, the co-creator of Superman. A facsimile edition was released in 1995 by Applewood Books, with a new introduction by Roger Stern.

This book is the first novelization of a comic book character, and also the first Superman story credited to someone other than Jerry Siegel. It was Lowther who first provided many now-familiar details of Superman's birth and early life. The first two chapters provided the first detailed description of the planet Krypton, and renamed Kal-El's parents Jor-El and Lara who previously had been named Jor-L and Lora. The next three chapters dealt with Clark Kent's childhood on the farm of his adoptive parents, Eben and Sarah Kent (in the comics, the Kents suffered through many name changes before settling on Jonathan and Martha in 1952). In the sixth chapter, Clark arrived in Metropolis and got a job with the Daily Planet, while the remaining eleven chapters deal with a mystery involving ghost ships and Nazi spies.

The book is illustrated with four full-page color illustrations, six full-page black-and-white illustrations, and numerous sketches, all examples of Joe Shuster's work.

The book was published as Armed Services Edition #656 in May, 1945.

1942 American novels
Superman novels
1942 fantasy novels
1942 science fiction novels
DC Comics novels
Random House books

The Adventures of Superman (novel)


Leslie Poles Hartley  (30 December 1895 – 13 December 1972) was a British novelist and short story writer. Although his first fiction was published in 1924, his career was slow to take off. His best-known novels are the Eustace and Hilda trilogy (1944–1947) and The Go-Between (1953). The latter was made into a film in 1971, as was his 1957 novel The Hireling in 1973. He was known for writing about social codes, moral responsibility and family relationships. In total, Hartley published 17 novels, six volumes of short stories and a book of criticism.

Early life
Leslie Poles Hartley was born on 30 December 1895 in Whittlesey, Cambridgeshire. He was named after Leslie Stephen, the father of the writer Virginia Woolf. His father, Harry Bark Hartley, owned a brickfield and was also a solicitor and justice of the peace. His mother was Mary Elizabeth  Thompson. He had two sisters, Enid and Annie Norah. Hartley was raised in the Methodist faith. While he was young, his family moved to Fletton Tower, near Peterborough. Hartley began his education at home and particularly enjoyed the work of Edgar Allan Poe. He wrote his first story, a fairy tale about a prince and dwarf, when he was 11 years old. In 1908 he attended Northdown Hill Preparatory School in Cliftonville and then briefly Clifton College. It was there he first met Clifford Kitchin. In 1910, Hartley finally settled at Harrow School, where he was a Leaf Scholar and highly regarded by his peers. While there, Hartley converted to Anglicanism but was still greatly influenced by his earlier Methodism.

In 1915, during the First World War, he went to Balliol College, Oxford, to read Modern History. This period was a time when most of his contemporaries were volunteering for the armed services instead of pursuing university careers. In 1916, with the arrival of conscription, Hartley joined the army, and in February 1917, he was commissioned as an officer in the Norfolk Regiment; however, he never saw active duty because of a weak heart. He returned to Oxford in 1919, with the intention of becoming a writer. While there, Hartley made a number of literary friends, including Lord David Cecil and Aldous Huxley. He left Oxford in 1921 with second-class honours in Modern History.

Career

Editor and reviewer

Oxford Poetry first published Hartley's work in 1920 and 1922. During this time, he edited Oxford Outlook with Gerald Howard and A. B. B. Valentine, publishing work by L. A. G. Strong, Edmund Blunden, John Strachey, and Maurice Bowra. His essays, short stories, and reviews were included in its pages. In this early part of his career, Hartley spent most of his time broadening his social life. He was introduced by Huxley to Lady Ottoline Morrell, who welcomed him into her famed literary circle. Kitchin, with whom he had been reunited at Oxford, introduced him to Cynthia Asquith, who became a lifelong friend. He also met the writer and socialite Elizabeth Bibesco, whose support and status catapulted Hartley into aristocratic British circles. Although he enjoyed rapid social success, his career as a writer failed to take off, and he was unhappy.

After his years at Oxford, Hartley worked as a book reviewer. He wrote articles for multiple publications, such as The Spectator, Saturday Review, and The Nation and Athenaeum. His favourite publication to write for was The Sketch. Hartley was praised extensively for his critical, steady, and wise reviews. However, the large number of books he had to read distracted him from his goal to write novels.

Short stories and novels
In 1924, he met Constant Huntington of G. P. Putnam, who published his  first volume of short stories, Night Fears, in that year, as well as his novella Simonetta Perkins in 1925. Night Fears was relatively unsuccessful, earning him no money. Simonetta Perkins brought him only £12, though it was written about favourably. The Saturday Review called the young writer "one of the most hopeful talents", and The Calendar of Modern Letters said that Simonetta Perkins was a "distinguished first novel". Modern critics have called it his most dangerous novel, as Hartley explored infatuation and sexuality in a way not considered respectable at the time. In 1932, Hartley published The Killing Bottle, a collection of ghost stories. Cynthia Asquith included some of them in an anthology, which increased his popularity with the public. Critics thought of Hartley as the successor of the Edwardian greats M. R. James and E. F. Benson.

Although he had worked on it for two decades, Hartley did not publish The Shrimp and the Anemone, his first full-length novel, until he was age 49 He had started and stopped writing the novel many times and even submitted it to a writing contest under a different name, but it did not win. The main characters, Eustace and Hilda, were inspired by Hartley himself and his sister Enid. He continued the series with the novels The Sixth Heaven and Eustace and Hilda. The trilogy explores the ideas of childhood nostalgia and the reality of adulthood. By the time of the third book's publication, Hartley had become a well-known author. Critics reviewed the books favourably, often marvelling at the author's ability to create characters that were lovable despite their high-class status. Walter Allen in the New Statesman called the last novel "one of the few masterpieces in contemporary fiction", and other critics agreed in similar reviews. Some, however, found the plentiful Italian dialogue pretentious. Despite the overwhelmingly good reviews, Hartley most valued the reactions of his friends and fellow writers. Both Edith Sitwell and Clifford Kitchin wrote him touching letters, expressing their awe and love of the novel.

After writing a few more novels with moderate success, Hartley wrote The Go-Between in just five months. Having left his previous publisher after disputes over compensation, he decided to publish this one with Hamish Hamilton. Critics' reviews were enthusiastic, and Knopf immediately wanted to publish the novel in the United States. There, it became extremely popular and even made The New York Timess bestseller list. The novel was translated into Italian, French, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Finnish and Japanese. Hartley gained favour with other writers as well. W. H. Auden read the book and told Hartley that he was his favourite novelist. Many of Hartley's friends drew parallels between him and the main character Leo; just like Hartley, Leo was stuck between his middle-class upbringing and his high-class social circle. Leo also comes to understand near the end of his life that being alone is not something he wants, wishing that he was married instead. (This theme would be repeated in Hartley's later works.) Hartley had intended The Go-Between to be a commentary on the loss of innocence and morality; however, he was shocked when he found that many readers sympathized with the characters he thought should be hated. He was known to be a strict moralist, once describing compassion as doing away with moral worth and a substitute for justice.

Conflicts with Virginia Woolf and Cynthia Asquith
Although Hartley joined the Chelsea literary group, the Bloomsbury group was also prominent in England at the time. The Bloomsbury circle was more popular, but Hartley had no interest in joining them. He expressed his distaste for Virginia Woolf after her novel The Waves was published, asking Raymond Mortimer, the leader of the Bloomsbury group: "What are the Wild Waves saying?" On another occasion Woolf asked Hartley "Have you written any more shabby books, Mr. Hartley?", particularly referring to "the one that might have been written by a man with one foot in England and the other in Venice". She advised him to change his formal way of writing.

Cynthia Asquith was a support through much of Hartley's career, publishing some of his early writings in her anthologies and welcoming him into her social circles. However, feelings started to change after Hartley did not allow her to publish his novel The Go-Between. Asquith reminded him of this fact often, and Hartley came to believe that the only reason she continued to be friends with him was his increased popularity. At one point, Asquith convinced Hartley's cook to leave him and work for her. On another occasion, she gave him vinegar instead of alcohol.

Major themes and influences
The major influences on Hartley's work were Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry James, and Emily Brontë. His books often explore themes of social and personal morality—in particular, depicting passion as a route to disaster. He wrote about characters on the brink between adolescence and adulthood, contrasting childhood innocence with eventual self-knowledge. Hartley is usually regarded as both a realist and a romantic by critics and historians. He is known for using symbolism to develop characters and comment on the complexities of the class system. He is also praised for introducing fantasy, horror, and mysticism to comment on the mystery of existence. In columns Hartley wrote for The Daily Telegraph, he often expressed a distaste for contemporary culture because of its general vulgarity and rudeness. Beginning in 1952, Hartley travelled in England, Germany, Italy, and Portugal to lecture about his critical ideas.

Awards and legacy
In 1947 Hartley was awarded the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for his novel Eustace and Hilda, and his 1953 novel The Go-Between was joint winner of the Heinemann Award. He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1956 New Year Honours. In 1972, he was named a Companion of Literature by the Royal Society of Literature. He was the head of the English section of P.E.N. and was also a member of the management council of the Society of Authors. In total, Hartley published 17 novels, 6 volumes of short stories, and a book of criticism. These were mostly done during the last half of his life.

In 1971, the director Joseph Losey made a film based on Hartley's novel The Go-Between, starring Julie Christie and Alan Bates. In 1991, the filmmaker Clive Dunn directed a documentary about Hartley for Anglia Television, titled Bare Heaven.

Personal life
While attending Oxford, Hartley proposed to Joan Mews; it is not known if she accepted his proposal or not. In 1922, he suffered a nervous breakdown. Soon afterwards he started spending much of his time in Venice, Italy, and he continued to do so for many years. He travelled there with his aristocratic circle, eventually buying a home next to the church of San Sebastiano. A statue of Saint Sebastian outside the church, with arrows piercing his body, had a great influence on Hartley, as he would soon come to see the saint as "a symbol of mankind". While there, he owned a gondola, employed his own personal gondolier, and was known to spend entire days on the canals. He also entertained many guests – including the painter  Henry Lamb, the art critic Adrian Stokes, and the novelist Leo Myers – and often set his writing aside to focus on social events.

During the later part of his life, Hartley resided in London at Rutland Gate, enjoying swimming and rowing during his free time. He was known to have many servants, a number of whom became dear companions and appeared in his novels. Hartley became relatively reclusive during these years, no longer attending the social gatherings that had punctuated much of his earlier life. Hartley enjoyed reading a number of his contemporary authors, such as Elizabeth Bowen, Edith Wharton, and Henry Green.

Hartley was known to be a hypochondriac, particularly afraid of tetanus and a painful death. Many believe this fear of sickness came from his mother, who was known to be overly concerned about his health. Hartley was very concerned with remaining an individualist within the structures of modern society; this led many to label him as a non-conformist. He referred to himself as a moralist.

During his trips to Venice, David Cecil joined him many times, leading many to believe that Hartley was homosexual. The first novel in which he included homosexual characters was My Fellow Devils – but instead of painting their sexuality in a favourable light, he portrays it as the reason for a friendship's ruin. He regarded his 1971 novel The Harness Room as his "homosexual novel" and feared the public reaction to it. Hartley died in London on 13 December 1972, aged 76, and was buried at Golders Green Crematorium.

List of works
Works by Hartley include the following:
 Night Fears (1924):
"The Island", "Talent", "Night Fears", "The Telephone Call", "St. George and the Dragon", "Friends of the Bridegroom", "A Portrait", "A Sentimental Journey", "A Beautiful Character", "A Summons", "A Visit to the Dentist", "The New Prime Minister", "A Condition of Release", "A Tonic", "Witheling End", "Apples", "The Last Time"
 Simonetta Perkins (1925)
 The Killing Bottle (1932):
"A Visitor from Down Under", "The Killing Bottle", "Conrad and the Dragon", "A Change of Ownership", "The Cotillon", "Feet Foremost"
 The Shrimp and the Anemone (1944), Eustace and Hilda Trilogy I
 The Sixth Heaven (1946), Eustace and Hilda Trilogy II
 Eustace and Hilda (1947), Eustace and Hilda Trilogy III
 The Travelling Grave and Other Stories (1948):
"A Visitor from Down Under", "Podolo", "Three, or Four, for Dinner", "The Travelling Grave", "Feet Foremost", "The Cotillon", "A Change of Ownership", "The Thought", "Conrad and the Dragon", "The Island", "Night Fears", "The Killing Bottle"
 The Boat (1949)
 My Fellow Devils (1951)
 The Go-Between (1953)
 The White Wand and Other Stories (1954):
"The White Wand", "Apples", "A Tonic", "A Condition of Release", "Witheling End", "Mr Blandfoot's Picture", "A Rewarding Experience", "W.S.", "The Vaynes", "Monkshood Manor", "Up the Garden Path", "Hilda's Garden", "A Summons", "The Price of the Absolute"
 A Perfect Woman (1955)
 The Hireling (1957)
 Facial Justice (1960)
 Two for the River (1961):
"Two for the River", "Someone in the Lift", "The Face", "The Corner Cupboard", "The Waits", "The Pampas Clump", "Won by a Fall", "A Very Present Help", "A High Dive", "The Crossways", "Per Far L'Amore", "Interference", "Noughts and Crosses", "The Pylon"
 The Brickfield (1964)
 The Betrayal (1966)
 Essays by Divers Hands, Volume XXXIV (1966), editor
 The Novelist's Responsibility (1967), essays
 Poor Clare (1968)
 The Collected Short Stories of L. P. Hartley (1968)
 The Love-Adept: A Variation on a Theme (1969)
 My Sisters' Keeper (1970)
 Mrs. Carteret Receives (1971):
"Mrs Carteret Receives", "Paradise Paddock", "Pains and Pleasures", "Please Do Not Touch", "Roman Charity", "Home Sweet Home", "The Shadow on the Wall", "The Silver Clock", "Fall In at the Double"
 The Harness Room (1971)
 The Collections: A Novel (1972)
 The Will and the Way (1973)
 The Complete Short Stories of L. P. Hartley (1973)
 The Collected Macabre Stories (2001):
"From the Introduction to Lady Cynthia Asquith's Third Ghost Book", "A Visitor from Down Under", "Podolo", "Three, or Four, for Dinner", "The Travelling Grave", "Feet Foremost", "The Cotillon", "A Change of Ownership", "The Thought", "Conrad and the Dragon", "The Island", "Night Fears", "The Killing Bottle", "A Summons", "W.S.", "The Two Vaynes", "Monkshood Manor", "Two for the River", "Someone in the Lift", "The Face", "The Corner Cupboard", "The Waits", "The Pampas Clump", "The Crossways", "Per Far L'Amore", "Interference", "The Pylon", "Mrs Carteret Receives", "Fall In at the Double", "Paradise Paddock", "Roman Charity", "Pains and Pleasures", "Please Do Not Touch", "Home Sweet Home", "The Shadow on the Wall", "The Sound of Voices", "Mrs G. G.", "The Stain on the Chair"

References

Further reading
 S. T. Joshi, "L. P. Hartley: The Refined Ghost", in The Evolution of the Weird Tale (New York: Hippocampus Press, 2004), pp. 64–74
 A. Mulkeen, Wild Thyme, Winter Lightning: The Symbolic Novels of L. P. Hartley (1974)
 J. Sullivan, Elegant Nightmares: The English Ghost Story from Le Fanu to Blackwood (1978) [Incl. critique of Hartley's ghost stories]

External links

 L. P. Hartley manuscripts and materials in the L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University
 L. P. Hartley Papers at John Rylands Library, Manchester.

1895 births
1972 deaths
20th-century English novelists
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
British Army personnel of World War I
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
English horror writers
English male novelists
English short story writers
British gay writers
Ghost story writers
James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients
English LGBT writers
People educated at Clifton College
People educated at Harrow School
People from Whittlesey
Royal Norfolk Regiment officers
20th-century British short story writers
20th-century English male writers
Weird fiction writers
20th-century English LGBT people
Military personnel from Cambridgeshire
Presidents of the English Centre of PEN

L. P. Hartley


Rust is a type of corrosion. It happens to iron and its alloys when it is exposed to air or water for a long time. Rust slowly decomposes iron into other chemicals, because of a reaction with the oxygen molecules. Both air and water are needed for rust. Almost all metals corrode but they can be protected by covering with paint, a coating of oil or grease or even plastic.  Sacrificial protection or industrial galvanizing can also work.  Alloys (mixes of metals) such as stainless steel, rust more slowly than pure iron.  When iron rusts, it becomes red or brown, and the metal eventually decays.

Rust appears on metal if it is left outside in the damp air. For example, rust occurs mostly in cracks of alloys or metals.  Rain water can enter the cracks and stay in the cracks, and cause the metal to corrode.  Eventually it becomes rust.  Iron is not strong after it rusts.

Some metals, such as aluminium, titanium, and stainless steel form a very thin coating of tough corrosion on the metal. The metal cannot continue corroding because the coating isolates the rest of the metal from the source of oxygen. This is why aluminium keeps its shine. It also makes aluminium seem very unreactive, even though it can react with water. Rusting iron makes iron oxides that are not tough, so air and water continue to get in and the iron continues to rust.

Some types of basidiomycete fungi can be mistaken for rust because they are similar to rust in color and texture and sometimes are on metals.

Related pages
 Iron(III) oxide
 Hematite
 Corrosion

Other pages

Metals

Rust


Roy Anthony Johnson (born 25 December 1957), better known simply as Anthony Johnson, is a Jamaican reggae musician who was a member of the group Mystic I and is known for the 1980s hit song "Gunshot".

Biography
Johnson was born in Kingston, Jamaica in 1957. His mother Cynthia Hamilton was a market woman by trade, and his father was a Barbadian who worked as a waiter at the Sombero Club in Kingston. Anthony's parents had three children together before separating. They also had other children separately, so Johnson has several siblings.

Johnson was raised by his mother in a tenement yard in the heart of Trench Town. Biah's yard at 15½ James Street is significant in Johnson's development as an artist and musician. This yard, owned by an Indian who had moved to Kingston from Cuba, doubled as a popular dance hall on weekends and holidays. Some of the big sound systems of the era, including King Tubby's, played at dances in Biah's yard. Many of the top Jamaican singers of the time were also from Trench Town, and Johnson took inspiration from the likes of John Holt, Dennis Brown, and Alton Ellis, regularly visiting the latter's yard in nearby White Street. When political violence escalated in Kingston, Johnson moved away to Montego Bay, where he stayed with Ellis's younger brother Irving. While there sang with Irving's steel band, which performed at local hotels. When Johnson moved back south, he lived in Portmore, where he befriended the actor/comedian Carl Bradshaw, and played in Bradshaw's backing band.

In the mid-1970s, Johnson began auditioning at Kingston's studios, along with his friend Horace Grassett (better known as Badoo). His first recording was "Free Black Man" for producer Bunny Lee, although this was not released; Lee did, however, suggest that Johnson drop 'Roy' from his name, and he has performed as Anthony Johnson since. He went on to record for the Hoo Kim brothers at Channel One Studios, and was sufficiently successful that he could buy a guitar. Johnson spent a lot of time at the Rasta camp on Selassie Drive, where he met Les Clarke and Balvin Fials, with whom he formed the vocal trio Mystic I. They recorded several tracks with Linval Thompson, which he released without their knowledge as the album Mysterious in the UK in 1979. Tracks from those sessions were also released in 2009 by Johnson on the Perilous Time Showcase album. The group then recorded three tracks for Lee "Scratch" Perry at his Black Ark studio, with "Forward With Jah Orthodox" released by Perry as a single on his Black Art label. Ongoing solo, he recorded for several of the top Jamaican producers, most at Channel One Studios, including Linval Thompson ("Africa", "Life is Not Easy"), Henry "Junjo" Lawes ("Let Go This One", "Now I Know"), and Harry J ("Follow Them Footsteps"), but had his greatest success working with Jah Thomas who produced his first big hit in 1982 with "Gunshot", which pleaded for a cessation of the so-called "shotta" mentality, and which has remained a perennial favorite with sound systems. The single was followed by an album of the same name. Johnson continued to record throughout the 1980s, working with Prince Jammy on the hit single "A Yah We Deh", and with Dillinger on the single "Too Much".

Johnson is well known in Jamaica and on the European reggae circuit. Since the late 1980s he has lived in the UK, where he worked with producers such as Jah Warrior, Rootsman, and Mike Brooks, and still performs all over Europe, especially with the French Band Positive Roots Band.

Discography

Albums
Gunshot (1982), Midnight Rock
Reggae Feelings (1983), Vista Sounds – expanded version issued 1999, Culture Press
I'm Ready (Showcase Style) (1983), Rusty International
Reggae Feeling (1984), Live & Learn
We Want More Lovin''', ProgressiveA Yah We Deh (1985), Jammy'sRasta Brothers (1985), Dancefloor – with Don Carlos and Little JohnRobert French Meets Anthony Johnson (198?), Midnight Rock – with Robert FfrenchTogetherness (1996), House of Reggae – reissued (2001), PrestigeReggae Chronicles (2006), HallmarkGun Shot: Extended Version (2007), RootsI'm The One, TeamsDancehall Victory (2010), Rupa Rupa records

With Mystic IMysterious (1979), Burning SoundsPerilous Time Showcase'' (2009), Anthony Johnson Music

Singles
"She Afi Come a Me" (1977), Grimm Ben
"Africa" (1979), Strong Like Sampson
"Africa We Want to Go" (1979), GG's
"Hey Baby" (1980), Laser
"Ice Cream" (1980), Laser
"Life is Not Easy" (1980), Strong Like Sampson
"Let Go This One" (1981), Greensleeves
"Just Call Me Girl" (1981), Freedom Sounds – with Lee Van Cliff
"Africans Must Be Free" (1982), Heartbeat
"Dancehall Style" (1982), Corner Stone
"Don't Let Me Down Girl" (1982), Heartbeat
"Gunshot" (1982), Midnight Rock
"Sound Clash" (1982), Midnight Rock
"Too Much" (1982), Oak Sound
"Baby Loving" (1983), Rusty International
"Dreadlocks Fight" (1983), Rusty International
"Now I Know" (1983), Greensleeves
"I'll Never Fall in Love Again" (1984), Rusty International
"Nah Lick Shot" (1984), Black Scorpio
"Nice & Easy" (1984), Black Scorpio
"Stop My Loving" (1984), Rusty International
"Spend the Night With You" (1988), Heights
"Gunshot 90's Remix" (1991), One Love
"Aware of Love", Harry J
"Come in the Lawn", Connection
"Dance With Me", Midnight Rock
"Every Time I Hear Music", Midnight Rock
"Feel Like Dancing/Dance & Romance", Midnight Rock – with Jah Thomas
"Follow Them Footsteps", Harry J
"I Feel Good", Youth in Progress
"I'm The One", Teams
"Know The Truth", Black Zodiac
"Lost Love", Black Symbolic
"Loving a Woman", Midnight Rock
"Move in Move Out", Explosion
"My Girl", Duke of Earl
"Nice Up the Dance", Jammy's
"Say You Love Me", Connection
"She's My Queen", Reggae Sting
"Strictly Rub a Dub", Midnight Rock
"Take Me to the Show", Midnight Rock
"You I Love", Midnight Rock
"Swinging Medley", Silver Kamel
"True True Love", Jamaica Vices
"Tribulation" (2009), Heartical
"Concentration" (2007), Rupa Rupa Records

With Mystic I
"Forward With Jah Orthodox" (1978), Black Art
"Feeling Happy" (1978), 56 Hope Road – miscredited as 'Mystic M'
"Shining Light" (1978), Black Rose – miscredited as 'Mystic Eyes'

References

External links
Anthony Johnson at Roots Archives

1957 births
Living people
Musicians from Kingston, Jamaica
Jamaican male singers
Jamaican reggae musicians
Jamaican people of Barbadian descent

Anthony Johnson (musician)


Lusaka is the caipital an lairgest ceety o Zambie. It is locatit in the soothren pairt o the central plateau, at an elevation o 1279 m. It haes a population o 3,100,000 (2007 estimate). It is a commercial centre as well as the centre o govrenment, an the fower main hieways o Zambie heids north, sooth, east an wast frae it. The twa main leids spoken in Lusaka are Inglis an Nyanja.

History

Lusaka wis the site o a veelage named efter its heidman Lusakasa, which, accordin tae history, wis locatit at Manda Hill, near whaur the Zambie's Naitional Assembly biggin nou staunds. In the Nyanja leid, Manda means graveyard. The aurie wis expandit bi European (mainly Breetish) settlers in 1905 wi the biggin o the railwey.

In 1935, due tae its fairly central location, its situation on the railwey an at the crossroads o the Great North Road an Great East Road, it wis chosen tae replace Livingstone as the caipital o the Breetish colony o Northren Rhodesie.

Efter the federation o Northren an Soothren Rhodesie in 1953, it wis a centre o the unthirldom movement amangst some o the educatit elite that led tae the creation o the Republic o Zambie. In 1964, Lusaka became the caipital o the newly independent Zambie.

In recent years, Lusaka haes acome a popular urban dounset for Zambians an tourists alike. Its central naitur an fast growin infrastructure sector haes increased donor confidence an as sic Zambians are seein signs o development in the form o job creation, hoosin, etc. Consequently, it is thocht that wi proper an effective economic reforms, Lusaka as well as Zambie as a whole will develop considerably. Lusaka is hame tae a diverse community o foreigners, mony o whom wirk in the aid industry as well as diplomats, representatives o releegious organisations an some business fowk.

Sister ceeties
  Dushanbe, Tajikistan, syne 1966
  Los Angeles, Unitit States, syne 1968
  Cork Ceety, Republic o Ireland, syne 1971
  Izhevsk, Roushie.

References

Lusaka Province
Provincial caipitals in Zambie
Caipitals in Africae
Populatit places in Zambie
Populatit places established in 1905

Lusaka


The Bengali Language Movement (also called the Language Movement) were protests by people living in Bangladesh, which was part of Pakistan during that time. The people living in Bangladesh  started protesting because they did not like that the government of Pakistan made Urdu the official language, which they did not speak. The government responded to the protests by making meetings outside illegally . At the height of the movement on 21 February 1952, police killed students that were protesting. The Shaheed Minar was a monument built to honor these students.

Bengali did become an official language on 29 February 1956. This day is celebrated by Bangladesh as Language Movement Day.

History of Pakistan
Languages of Bangladesh

Bengali language movement


Martine-Elisabeth Mercier Descloux (16 December 1956 – 20 April 2004) was a French musician, singer-songwriter, composer, actress, writer and painter.

Early life
Mercier Descloux grew up in Lyon, France, but returned to her native Paris in her teens to attend art school. With her partner Michel Esteban, she helped establish the store Harry Cover, temple of the punk movement in France, and the new wave magazine Rock News. She struck up friendships with Patti Smith and Richard Hell when visiting New York in 1975, and both contributed material to her first book, Desiderata. She and Esteban moved to New York in 1977, meeting Michael Zilkha, with whom Esteban formed ZE Records.

Musical career
With guitarist D.J. Barnes (Didier Esteban), Mercier Descloux formed the performance art duo Rosa Yemen, and recorded an eponymous mini-album for ZE Records in 1978. The following year, ZE released her solo debut LP Press Color. Self-taught as a guitarist, she expressed herself as a minimalist within the no wave genre, concentrating on single-note lines combined with wrong-note harmonies and funky rhythms. While the record did not sell well, she did tour the USA and Europe.

Island Records boss Chris Blackwell bankrolled the sessions in Nassau, Bahamas for her second album Mambo Nassau, with Compass Point All Stars engineer Steven Stanley and keyboardist Wally Badarou co-writing and producing. The album was influenced by African music as well as art rock, funk and soul. While the record was unsuccessful in the U.S., it won her a contract with CBS Records in France.

Returning to France, she released two singles, then traveled through Africa, drawing on the music of Soweto for the infectious "Mais où Sont Passées les Gazelles?" ("But where have the gazelles gone?"), a hit in France in 1984, and the album Zulu Rock, with producer Adam Kidron. Collaborating with Kidron as a producer, she recorded the albums One for the Soul (1986) in Brazil with the jazz trumpeter Chet Baker and later Suspense (1988) in London with the American musician Mark Cunningham of Mars. She also acted, composed film scores, and wrote poetry.

In the mid 1990s, she moved to Corsica and devoted herself to painting and writing an unpublished novel.

Death
In 2003, she was diagnosed with ovarian and colon cancers, from which she died the following year. Fellow new wave musician and ZE labelmate Cristina dedicated a song on the 2004 re-release of her album Sleep It Off to Mercier Descloux, "chère copine in adversity...In loving memory of her talent, her courage, and her kindness."

After her death, Esteban worked with the record label Light in the Attic to reissue some of her recordings.

Albums

 Rosa Yemen – Live in N.Y.C July 1978 (1978)
 Press Color (1979)
 Mambo Nassau (1981)
 Zulu Rock (1984)
 One for the Soul (1985)
 Suspense (1988)

References

External links

1956 births
2004 deaths
CBS Records artists
Deaths from cancer in France
Deaths from colorectal cancer
Deaths from ovarian cancer
French women guitarists
French film score composers
French rock guitarists
French rock singers
French women singer-songwriters
French singer-songwriters
Island Records artists
Musicians from Paris
No wave musicians
Musicians from Lyon
Philips Records artists
Polydor Records artists
Post-punk musicians
Singers from Paris
ZE Records artists
20th-century guitarists
20th-century French women singers
Women punk rock singers
20th-century women guitarists

Lizzy Mercier Descloux


Mahalia Jackson (October 26, 1911 – January 27, 1972) was an American gospel singer and musician. She was born in New Orleans. She had many hit songs during her career. She was in Evergreen Park,IL in 1972 when she died. She lived with her Aunt Duke when her mother died in 1917. She started to sing at Mt. Moriah Baptist Church at the age of 12.

Singers from New Orleans
Musicians from New Orleans
American gospel singers
American gospel musicians
1911 births
1972 deaths

Mahalia Jackson


Izz ud-Din, Izz al-Din (Arabic: عزّ الدين or commonly written عزّ الدين, 'izzu 'd-dīn, 'izza 'd-dīn, also written Azzedine or Azzeddine) is an Arabic male given name meaning "high rank (honour, esteem, prestige) of the Islamic religion/ faith".

The prefix "'izz" meaning "high rank, honour, esteem, prestige" is also the notions of being respected, cherished, be strong or powerful.

It may refer to:

People
Izz al-Din Usama (12th century), Ayyubid emir
'Izz al-Dīn Qilij Arslān bin Mas'ūd, or Kilij Arslan II (died 1192), Seljuq Sultan of Rum
Izz ad-Din Mas'ud (died 1193), Zangi emir of Mosul
'Izz al-Dīn Kaykā'ũs bin Kaykhusraw, or Kaykaus I (died 1220), Seljuq Sultan of Rum
Ali 'Izz al-Din Ibn al-Athir al-Jazari, also known as Ali ibn al-Athir (1160–1233), Muslim historian
Izz al-Din Aybak (died 1257), Mamluk sultan of Egypt
Izz al-Din `Abd al-Hamid ibn Hibat-Allah ibn Abi al-Hadid al-Mu`tazili al Madaini (died 1258), Shia Mu`tazili Islamic scholar and writer
Izz-ud-din Balban-i-Yuzbaki – Mamluk Governor of Bengal for Mamluk Sultanate (Delhi) from 1257 to 1259.
Izz al-Din ibn Shaddad (1217–1285), Syrian official and historian
Izz al-Dīn Kaykā'ũs bin Kaykhusraw, or Kaykaus II (died c. 1280), Seljuq Sultan of Rum
Izz al-Din Aydamir Al-Jaldaki (died 1342), Persian physician and alchemist
Izz al-Din ibn Rukn al-Din Mahmud (died 1382), Mihrabanid malik of Sistan
 Izz al-Din Shir (d. 1423), founder of the Emirate of Hakkâri
 Muhammad Izz al-Din I (died 1539), leader of the Tayyibi Isma'ili community
Hasan 'Izz ud-din (fl. 1760), king of the Huraa dynasty of the Maldives
Yusuf Izzettin Efendi (1857–1916), Ottoman prince
Izz ad-Din al-Qassam (1882–1935), Palestinian Islamic preacher and resistance fighter
Yusuf Izzuddin Shah of Perak (1890–1963), Sultan of Perak, Malaysia
Ezzel Dine Zulficar (1919–1963), Egyptian film director
Mohammad Ezodin Hosseini Zanjani (1921-2013) Iranian Shia Marja
Azzeddine Laraki (born 1929), Prime Minister of Morocco
Azzedine Alaia (born 1940), Tunisian fashion designer
Azzedine Boukerche, Canadian engineer
Ezzedine Salim (1943–2004), Iraqi writer and politician
Ramzy Ezzeldin Ramzy (born 1954), Egyptian politician and diplomat
Azzedine Amanallah (born 1956), Moroccan footballer
Ezzeddine Hadj Sassi (born 1962), Tunisian footballer
Izz El-Deen Sheikh Khalil (c. 1963–2004), Palestinian resistance fighter
Hassan Izz-Al-Din (born c. 1963), Lebanese wanted by the United States government
Azzedine Brahmi (born 1966), Algerian long-distance runner
Azzedine Sakhri (born 1968), Algerian long-distance runner
Mansoura Ez-Eldin (born 1976), Egyptian novelist and journalist
Abu Izzadeen (adopted name) (born 1976), British Muslim activist
Azzedine Zerdoum (born 1977), Algerian cross-country runner
Azzedine Benchaïra (born 1978), Algerian footballer
Azzedine (born 1979), screen name of porn star, model and film actor François Sagat during his debut years at Citébeur studios
Mohamed Izzadeen (born 1979), Sri Lankan footballer
Sofiane Azzedine (born 1980), Algerian footballer
Azzeddine Ourahou (born 1984), Moroccan footballer
Ezzedin Yacoub Hamed, Egyptian long-jumper
Salah Ezzedine, Lebanese businessman accused of running a pyramid scheme

Places
Izz al-Din, Syria, a village in between Hama and Homs
Izzeddin Fortress, Crete
İzzettin, Sındırgı, Turkey

Arabic-language masculine given names
Masculine given names

Izz al-Din


A circus is a special kind of entertainment that can be enjoyed by children and adults. Circuses are a group of performers that may include acrobats, clowns, trained animals, trapeze acts, musicians, hoopers, tightrope walkers, jugglers and other artists who perform stunts. Circuses usually travel about to different parts of the country or to different countries. They perform in a huge tent called the "Big Top". There may be room for hundreds of people in the audience. The seating is tiered (the seats at the back are higher than those in front). In the middle is the circular area where the artists perform. This area is called the "ring". The person in charge of the whole show is the "ringmaster". Not all circuses travel about. A few circuses perform in their own way.

Acts
There are many different acts in circuses. Some people do acrobatics and gymnastics. Often a group of gymnasts will finish up standing on top of one another in a pyramid. The gymnasts may also do jumping acts on trampolines. Some people are jugglers, throwing things in the air and catching them. There may be people who walk on stilts or who ride on unicycles. They may perform magic which may include swordswallowing, knife throwing or fireeating. There are always clowns who do funny things to make people laugh. They trip over things and fall over, throw buckets of water over one another or put custard pies into one another's faces. Sometimes these clowns are also very skilful acrobats, musicians or jugglers. They may pretend to be stupid at first, but they often show that they are very clever.

Animal acts

During the last two centuries, and until recently, the modern circus used many kinds of animals. There were wild animals such as lions, tigers or bears. There may also have been camels, horses, elephants, sea lions and domestic animals such as dogs. In recent years people have changed their ideas. They think that it is unkind to make wild animals perform tricks that are unnatural to them. Many of their trainers used cruel methods to teach these animals to do tricks, e.g. hitting the animals, giving them electric shocks or causing pain in other ways. The animals were always touring around, living in tiny cages. Many countries now do not want to see wild animals in circuses.

History

In Ancient Rome the circus was a round or oval building for showing horse and chariot races, horse shows, staged battles, acts with animals, jugglers and acrobats. The Roman circus had tiered seats. The important people sat at the bottom, near the action. The Latin word circus comes from the Greek word kirkos, meaning "circle" or "ring".

The first circus in Rome was the Circus Maximus, in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine hills. At first it was made of wood. It was rebuilt several times; the last building of the Circus Maximus could seat 250,000 people.

After the period when Rome was powerful, Europe did not have a circus tradition. In China there were shows with acrobatic performances, but they did not influence the Western circus, which started to be popular towards the end of the 18th century. In London there were circuses with horse-riding. These were started in 1768 by Philip Astley. A "Royal Circus" was set up in Lambeth, London by John Hughes. Circuses grew in size and had lots of animals. They were a bit like a zoo. They had wild animals such as lions and elephants. In 1793 a circus building was opened in Philadelphia, USA. Circuses became popular in the USA, especially the circus of Dan Rice. In 1840 Thomas Cooke brought his circus with horses from the USA to England. The circus started to become popular in many countries all over the world. The Barnum & Bailey Greatest Show On Earth toured from 1897 to 1902. They showed animal acts and human acts. There were even shows with freaks (people who were physically unusual, e.g. dwarfs and giants). During most of the 20th century this is what circuses were mostly like.

In 1919, Lenin, head of the USSR, said he wanted the circus to be treated as a serious art form, just like opera and ballet. The Moscow Circus School, which was started in 1927, is still one of the best circuses today. The artists are very skilful acrobats, gymnasts etc. Chinese circuses also have artists who are some of the world's best gymnasts.

Notes

References
 Children's Britannica 1973;

Circus


Eagle could mean:

Animals
 Eagle, the broad family of birds
 Eagle ray, a type of Ray

Vehicles

 All American Racers Eagles, race cars built by Dan Gurney
 AMC Eagle, the last car made by the American Motors Corporation
 Apollo 11 lunar module, the first manned Earth vehicle to land on the Moon
 Eagle automobile, an automotive brand of the Chrysler Corporation from 1988 to 1998, formed from the remnants of the American Motors Corporation
 HMS Eagle, a series of Royal Navy warships
 F-15 Eagle, a fighter aircraft
 MOWAG Eagle, a lightly armored reconnaissance vehicle
 P-75A Eagle, a United States Army Air Forces fighter of World War II
 Rolls-Royce Eagle, an aircraft engine of World War I
 Rolls-Royce Eagle 22, an aircraft engine of the late 1940s
 USCGC Eagle (WIX-327), a United States Coast Guard school ship
 Eagle Bus (1958-1993) Originally imported by Setra, later manufactured in the U.S. for Continental Trailways
 Eagle Kit Cars, a kit car manufacturer
 North American Eagle, a vehicle intended to challenge the land speed record

Corporate
 Eagle Electric
 Eagle Food Centers, a chain of grocery stores that had operated in midwestern states until 2003

Groups/Organizations
 Boston College Eagles of the U.S. Atlantic Coast Conference
 Crystal Palace F.C., an English soccer team who are also known as The Eagles
 Eagle Scout (Boy Scouts of America), the highest rank in the Boy Scouts of America
 Eagle Scout rank (Boy Scouts of the Philippines), the highest rank in the Boy Scouts of the Philippines
 Eagles (band), the country rock band of the 1970s
 Eagles (rugby), a rugby club in South Africa
 The Eagles, an American band
 Fraternal Order of Eagles
 Goodyear Eagles, a South African cricket team based in Bloemfontein
 Georgia Southern University Eagles of the U.S. Southern Conference
 Philadelphia Eagles, a National Football League team
 West Coast Eagles, an Australian Football League team
 Woodville-West Torrens Eagles, a South Australian National Football League team
 University of Southern Mississippi Golden Eagles of Conference USA
 USA national rugby union team The Eagles
 Ateneo de Manila University Blue Eagles of the University Athletics Association of the Philippines

Characters
 American Eagle (comics), a superhero
 Blue Eagle (comics), a superhero
 Eagles (Middle-earth) of J.R.R. Tolkien's Middle-earth
 Eagle (video game character)
 Emil Eagle, a Disney character
 April Eagle and her father Commander Eagle, characters in the animated television series Saber Rider and the Star Sheriffs

People
 Eddie Belfour, Eddie the Eagle Belfour, a professional hockey player
 Espen Bredesen, a Norwegian ski jumper once dubbed "Espen the Eagle"
 Eddie 'the Eagle' Edwards, a British ski jumper
 Big Eagle (c.1827-1906), Mdewakanton Sioux leader
 Terry Calling Eagle, Lakota winkte
 Eagle of Delight (d.1822), emissary of the Otoe tribe
 Jay Red Eagle, Cherokee flutist
 Running Eagle, a female Piegan war chief
 Douglas Spotted Eagle, Native American flutist
 Chief War Eagle (c.1785-1851), a Santee Sioux leader
 William Weatherford (1780-1824), a Muscogee leader, also known as Red Eagle

Places
 Places in the United States:
 Bald Eagle Township, Pennsylvania
 Black Eagle, Montana
 Eagle, Alaska
 Eagle, Colorado
 Eagle, Idaho
 Eagle, Michigan
 Eagle, Nebraska
 Eagle, New York
 Eagle, Wisconsin
 Eagle (town), Wisconsin
 Eagle, Richland County, Wisconsin
 Eagle Bend, Minnesota
 Eagle Butte, South Dakota
 Eagle County, Colorado
 Eagle Grove, Iowa
 Eagle Harbor, Maryland
 Eagle Harbor Township, Michigan
 Eagle Lake, Florida
 Eagle Lake, Maine
 Eagle Lake, Minnesota
 Eagle Lake Township, Minnesota
 Eagle Lake, Texas
 Eagle Lake, Wisconsin
 Eagle Mountain, Texas
 Eagle Mountain, Utah
 Eagle Nest, New Mexico
 Eagle Pass, Texas
 Eagle Point, Oregon
 Eagle Point, Chippewa County, Wisconsin
 Eagle River, Wisconsin
 Eagle Rock (Idaho) (now known as Idaho Falls, Idaho)
 Eagle Rock, Los Angeles
 Eagle Township, Michigan
 Eagle Township, Minnesota
 Eagle Point Township, Minnesota
 Eagle Valley Township, Minnesota
 Eagle View Township, Minnesota
 Eagle Village, Alaska
 Eagle-Vail, Colorado
 Grey Eagle, Minnesota
 Little Eagle, South Dakota
 New Eagle, Pennsylvania
 North Eagle Butte, South Dakota
 Eagle, Lincolnshire, England
 Eagle and Child, public house in Oxford, England
 Eagle (crater), the landing spot of the Opportunity rover on Mars

Currency
 Eagle (U.S. coin), a gold United States coin worth $10.00
 American Gold Eagle, a bullion coin
 American Silver Eagle, a bullion coin
 American Platinum Eagle, a bullion coin

Computer software and hardware
 Eagle (program), electronic design automation software
 Eagle Computer, an early IBM-PC clone manufacturer
 Eagle Web platform, a CICS-to-Web development environment
 Fujitsu Eagle, a model of disk drive popular in the 1980s

Miscellaneous
 Eagle (heraldry), an eagle which appears in a coat of arms
 Roman battle standards
 The Eagle (comic), a UK comic
 In the sport of golf, an eagle means two strokes under par
 "War Eagle!", the battle cry of athletes and fans of Auburn University of the Southeastern Conference. The school's official nickname is the Auburn Tigers, however
 96.4 The Eagle, a radio station that broadcasts from Guildford in England
 Eddie Eagle, a mascot of a National Rifle Association program teaching young children to avoid guns

Eagle (disambiguation)


Estopa are a popular duo from Cornellà, Spain. The band consists of the brothers José and David Muñoz, who sing different sounds reflecting many genres, including rock, rumba and flamenco. Their first album, Estopa, has sold over 1,000,000 copies to date. Their latest album, Voces de Ultrarumba, sold more than 200,000 copies on its first day of release. Their music has made them one of the most successful rock groups in Spanish history.

Members
José Muñoz, the younger brother, was born in 1978. He plays guitar for Estopa. David Muñoz, the older brother, was born in 1976. He is the singer and also plays some guitar. They are brothers born in Extremadura. The brothers grew up listening to such bands as Los Chichos, Los Chunguitos, and Bordón on their trips with their parents from Cornellà to Zarza Capilla, where their parents were from.

As they grew up, José and David attended college for some time before deciding that it was not right for them. After quitting their studies, they worked for a factory manufacturing car parts for the company SEAT. It was in that factory where they began composing their earliest songs and they began to play in local bars.

After playing a song for the bosses at BMG Music España, Estopa was given a record deal.

Spanish musical entertainers
People from Extremadura
Spanish musical groups

Estopa


Fort Canning Lighthouse also known as Fort Canning Light is located on top of Fort Canning Hill and was formerly one of the 13 important lighthouses in the Straits of Malacca. Located nearby with The Flagstaff and the Time Ball, the three navigation structures played an essential role during the early maritime history of Singapore.

History
Fort Canning Hill, with its strategic location overlooking the Singapore Harbour, was used as a communication centre after the British established port here in 1819. The first communication facility built on the hill was a flagstaff. The flagstaff was used to display the arrival, identity, location and status of ships entering Singapore Harbour. This was  followed by a time ball, a lighthouse and a telegraph office in later years.

Construction
Fort Canning Lighthouse was built on the southern side of Fort Canning Hill to guide ships safely towards the Singapore Harbour. The first signal light on Fort Canning was a simple lantern attached to the top of the Flagstaff in 1855. The Flagstaff light was replaced by the Lighthouse in 1903 by Riley, Hargreaves & Co., who in 1909 combined with another company to form United Engineers that is still present to this day at nearby River Valley.

The light was created by a burner fuelled by kerosene, which generated 20,000 candlepower and itself was dioptric occulting type. The light was "eclipsed" (darkened) every 17 seconds by lowering a metal cylinder around the burner for 3 seconds, thus giving rise to the term
"occulting type".
Though the Lighthouse survived the destruction of the Second World War, it was finally closed and dismantled in December 1958, when new tall buildings were making it invisible from the sea. It was replaced by a new signal light using electricity that was erected on top of the Fullerton Building. The Fullerton Light was itself taken down in 1979 and is now in the Maritime Museum of Singapore.

The Lighthouse today
Due to its historic significance, a replica of the Lighthouse was later erected near its original site by the government of Singapore. Though its lights are fully functional, it no longer serves its original purpose but stands today as a legacy of its contribution to Singapore maritime history.

Gallery

See also

 List of lighthouses in Singapore

References

External links

Demolished buildings and structures in Singapore
Buildings and structures demolished in 1958
Lighthouses completed in 1903
Lighthouses in Singapore
Tourist attractions in Singapore
Museum Planning Area
20th-century architecture in Singapore

Fort Canning Lighthouse


An articulated vehicle is a vehicle which has a pivot joint. This allows the vehicle to turn more sharply.

There are many kinds of articulated vehicles: buses, trams and trains may be articulated. Steam locomotives were sometimes articulated so the driving wheels could pivot around turns. In fact, the whole idea of a train is an articulated set of vehicles which run along a track.

Any vehicle towing a trailer could be described as articulated. The term (UK) of "articulated lorry" refers to the combination of a front part which pulls (the "tractor") and a rear part which follows (the "trailor"). In American English, these may be called semi-trailer trucks..

Vehicles

Articulated vehicle


In psychology, compensation is a way people hide something that they cannot do well, by doing something else really well. They may not even be aware that they are doing it. Compensation can hide real or imagined problems and personal or physical inferiority. However it does not really solve the cause of the problem. Positive compensations may help a person overcome difficulties. But negative compensations do not, and can even make the problems worse.

There are two kinds of negative compensation:
Overcompensation, where a person has a goal to gain superiority. This leads to wanting power, dominance, self-esteem and self-devaluation.
Under compensation which includes a demand for help, leads to a lack of courage and a fear for life.

A well-known example of failing overcompensation, can be seen in people going through a mid life crisis. Approaching midlife many people (especially men) lack the energy to maintain their psychological defenses, including their compensatory acts.

Origin
Alfred Adler, founder of individual psychology, used the word compensation in relation inferiority feelings. In his book Study of Organ Inferiority and Its Physical Compensation (1907) he wrote if a person feels inferior (weak) then they will (usually) try to compensate for it somewhere else.

Adler's reason to explore this was from his own experience. He was shy and yet he pushed himself to give lectures.

Adler also "transferred" this idea of compensation to psychic training.

Cultural implications
Narcissistic people, by compensation theory, hide their feelings of low self-esteem by:
 talking "highly"
 contacting "highly admired" persons

Narcissistic children try to compensate for their jealousy and anger by fantasizing about:
 power
 beauty
 wealth

Christopher Lasch, an American historian and social critic wrote in his book The Culture of Narcissism (1979) that North American society in the 1970s was narcissistic. The narcissistic society:
 worships consumption
 fears dependency, aging, and death.
Therefore, it is "fascinated" with fame.

Consumption can be an example of compensation (see study by Allison J. Pugh: From compensation to 'childhood wonder'). Examples:
 use of goods to convey human relationships.
 parents make up for "bad" conditions (poverty, abuse ...) they lived in
 parents make up for "bad" conditions (divorce, ...) they caused to children

References
 Claude S. Fisher: Comment On "Anxiety": Compensation In Social History
 Christopher Lasch (1979). The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations. New York: Norton.
 Allison J. Pugh: 'From compensation to 'childhood wonder': Why parents buy.
 http://www.infinityinst.com/articles/alfred_adler.htm
 http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=535671

Psychology

Compensation (psychology)


The National College of Arts in  Lahore, Pakistan is usually referred to by its acronym NCA. It is the oldest fine arts training institute in the country and one of the oldest and best in all of Asia.

The NCA has a rich historical tradition dating back to the days of the British Raj. During the 1860s, it was established in Lahore, in the Punjab region, as the 'Punjab School of Arts' and was then renamed the 'Mayo School of Arts, Lahore', after Lord Mayo, a Viceroy of India. In the 1890s, it moved to its present location next to the Lahore Museum and became the 'Mayo College of Arts' and after Partition and Independence of Pakistan in 1947, it was formally designated as the 'National College of Arts'.

The old Mayo School and College had the unique distinction of having as its first principal and head, Mr John Lockwood Kipling, father of the writer Rudyard Kipling, who was also Curator of the Lahore Museum simultaneously.

Colleges and universities in Lahore

National College of Arts


An IP address (short for Internet Protocol address) is a label which is used to identify one or more devices on a computer network, such as the internet. It can be compared to a postal address. An IP address is a long
number written in binary. Since such numbers are difficult to communicate, IP addresses are usually written as a set of numbers in a given order. Devices using IP addresses use the internet protocol to communicate.

Registration
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority assigns IP addresses to regional internet registries (RIRs). The RIRs assign them to Internet Service Providers. Internet Service Providers then assign IP addresses to their customers. Very often, people have a router or gateway at home, to which they connect computers, printers, and other devices. These routers or gateways are often configured to assign "local" IP addresses to the devices that are connected.

Parts
Each address has two parts: one that specifies the computer or group of computers, and another which specifies the network. A device can have more than one IP address. Certain types of IP addresses are used to address a group of devices, while others are used to address only one device. Certain types of addresses are unique, others can be re-used. A number of IP addresses are used for special purposes, for example to obtain an IP address automatically.

MAC address
An IP address is converted to physical or Media Access Control Address using the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). If an IP address is your phone number, then your MAC address is your name. You may change your phone number, but your name will not change.

Example
Suppose one of our friends wants to meet us but they don't know our address.  They ask us for our address and then we give it (Example: 123 Main Street, Anytown, USA).  Knowing the address, they can easily locate us.  The same thing is done in case of internet.  Every network is assigned an address.

Who allocates IP Address
IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) allocates the IP address. IANA is responsible for the IP addressing system.

What an IP address looks like
An IP address is a long binary number, made of ones and zeros. An IPv4 address is 32 binary digits (or bits) long. An IPv6 is 128 bits long, allowing many more IP addresses to be used. IP addresses are usually written in human-readable form, where 8 bits are grouped into one octet. IPv4 addresses are usually written as a group of four numbers. Each number can take a value from 0 to 255. IPv6 addresses are written as a group of eight hexadecimal numbers. Many Ipv6 addresses contain many zeroes. There are special rules which say that in certain cases, these zeroes do not need to be written.

Public and private addresses
Certain IP addresses can be assigned freely on the local area network. Since they are not unique, they are not routed on the internet. The addresses which can be freely assigned are called private IP addresses, and the ones which are unique are called public. To be routed, a private address needs to be translated into a public one. This process of translating between private and public addresses is called network address translation, or NAT. Routers and firewalls often also perform this task.

Reaching one or more devices
There are three different types of addresses:
 Unicast addresses: The address is assigned to one specific device. This is the most common case, most addresses are unicast addresses.
 Broadcast addresses: Addresses all computers on the same network. There are certain cases where this is useful, such as to obtain a new address automatically. The sender sends the data once, and the devices used for routing the data make copies, as needed.
 Multicast addresses: This case is similar to the broadcast case above: Some devices are interested in receiving certain data, and the network copies the data as needed. The big difference to the broadcast case above is that all devices connected to the broadcast network see the data sent using broadcast. With multicast, devices need to subscribe to see a given content. The devices on the same network that are not subscribed will not see the content.

Obtaining a new IP address
There are different ways of assigning a new IP address.  One of them is called Bootstrap Protocol (usually shortened to BOOTP). The device that needs a new address, does not know what network it is in, so it uses an IP address of all zeroes (0.0.0.0) which it sends as a broadcast to the current network, on a special port. In addition, it sends the MAC address of the network card, plus a 4 byte random number. The BOOTP server will send a reply, also as broadcast, addressed to a different port. The reply will contain the mac address of the client, the random number, and the IP address of the client. When the client receives the data, it will set the address specified. If the BOOTP server is configured that way, it will also send the IP address and hostname of the BOOTP Server, the name and path to a file which should be loaded to boot the client (using TFTP) or the name of a directory, which the client should mount using NFS.

DHCP extends BOOTP, and allows to send more information, such as the address of a time server, or information which is useful for routing.

IP addresses obtained automatically can be dynamic or static. Static addressing means the same machine will always get the same IP address. With dynamic addresses, a device will get the next address which is not used. Dynamic addresses which are used need to be reviewed from time to time. If they are not renewed, they can be used for other devices.

IP Version 4
With IPv4, each address consists of four 8-digit binary numbers, called octets. An IPv4 address is 32 bits in total. The biggest number one can make with 8 regular digits is 99,999,999, but the biggest number one can make with 8 binary digits is 255 (11111111 in binary), so each octet can be any number from 0 to 255.

An IPv4 address could look something like this:
 198.51.100.137
Each octet is converted to its decimal form and separated by a period.

There are also special meanings associated with two different ending numbers. In general, a last number of 0 stands for the network (called base address), and a last number of 255 stands for all hosts on that network (called broadcast address). Computers that are on the same local network share 3 of the 4 numbers. A computer can be on more than one network. It can also have several names.

Public/Private addresses
The problem with IPv4 is that it only allows for 4.3 billion addresses, and we've almost used them all. To delay this, Network Address Translation (NAT) was created. Network Address Translation has a network share one public IP address and give every computer on the network a private IP address. Everyone living in the same house uses the same address, but mail can be meant for multiple different people living in the house.

Special IP addresses
There are some IP addresses that are reserved for special purposes. For example, the address 127.0.0.1 is called the Loopback Address and will "loop back" any packets sent to this address back to the computer that sent them, like sending mail to yourself. Although this may not seem useful, it is used to test servers.

Network
It identifies the class of a network.

Host Part
It identifies the host on a network.

Static IP Address
It is a permanent internet address. It has to be configured manually. It is used in smaller networks. All servers use static IP addresses. It is a simple way for communication.

Dynamic IP Address
(Dynamic means Constantly changing)

It is a temporary internet address. It is assigned by a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server from a specific range of IP address.

IPv4 subnetting
To make a network work faster, it is split up into subnets. To do this, an IP address contains a network ID, subnet ID, and a host ID. A special binary number called a Subnet Mask is used to determine the size of the network, subnet, and host IDs.

The original IPv4 only supported 254 networks, so in 1981 the Internet addressing specification was changed to a classful network architecture. Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual networks. The first three bits of an IP address determined its class. Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for normal computer communication (Unicast). The size of the network ID was based on the class of the IP address. Each class used more octets for the network ID, making the host ID smaller and reducing the number of possible hosts.

Classful networks have been replaced by Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) since 1993. CIDR also provides a network address and host address. CIDR does not have classes, which means network and host address sizes don't have to be in octets.

An IPv4 Address in CIDR notation looks like192.168.0.14/24The slash and number represent the amount of bits that the network id uses, in this case 24 or 3 octets.

IP Version 6
Because IPv4 is only 32 bits, the number of available addresses will run out. To prevent this, an organization called the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) created IP Version 6 (IPv6), which will eventually finish replacing IPv4.

IP Version 6 uses 8 octets each 16 bits = 128 bits in total. Octets in IPv6 are written in hexadecimal, and separated by colons (:). An IPv6 address might look like this:
 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
An IPv6 address can be long and this can lead to mistakes when typing them into the computer or writing them down. There are two ways in which an IPv6 address can be made shorter without leaving anything out:
 Leading zeroes can be left out: 2001:0db8:00b8:0008:0000:0000:0000:0001 becomes 2001:db8:b8:8:0:0:0:1
 Any number of sequential, all-zero 'chunks' may be compressed to simply ::. This can be done only once in the same address: 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001 could be written as 2001:db8::1

DNS
DNS stands for Domain Name System

It is also called a service server, and is based on client server network architecture. Like a phonebook, it contains a database of public IP addresses.

Other versions
Versions before IPv4 were experimental and never widely used. Version 5 was used exclusively for the Internet Stream Protocol, which was also never widely used.

Internet

IP address


Glenn Jordan (born April 5, 1936) is a retired American television director and producer.

Born in San Antonio, Texas, Jordan directed multiple episodes of Family and numerous television movies, several based on real persons as diverse as Benjamin Franklin, George Armstrong Custer, Lucille Ball, Christa McAuliffe, and Karen Ann Quinlan. His directing credits include small-screen adaptions of The Picture of Dorian Gray, Les Misérables, Hogan's Goat, Eccentricities of a Nightingale, A Streetcar Named Desire, O Pioneers!, and A Christmas Memory. Additional television directing credits include Heartsounds, Botticelli, Sarah, Plain and Tall, To Dance with the White Dog, Barbarians at the Gate, The Long Way Home, Sarah, Plain and Tall: Winter's End, The Boys, and Jane's House.

Jordan directed three feature films: Only When I Laugh, The Buddy System, and Mass Appeal.

Jordan was nominated for thirteen Emmy Awards and won four, for producing the miniseries Benjamin Franklin, for producing and directing the Hallmark Hall of Fame production Promise, and for executive producing the HBO production Barbarians at the Gate. He won two New York area Emmys for the PBS series Actor's Choice and New York Television Theatre. He won the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in a Dramatic Series for Family and was nominated for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Specials or Movies for Television for Les Misérables. Three of his productions (Benjamin Franklin, Heartsounds, and Promise) have won Peabody Awards.

References

External links

1936 births
American television directors
Television producers from Texas
Primetime Emmy Award winners
People from San Antonio
Living people
Film directors from Texas
Directors Guild of America Award winners

Glenn Jordan


Herman Northrop Frye, CC, FRSC, usually called Northrop or Norrie, (July 14, 1912 – January 23, 1991) was a Canadian literary critic and literary theorist.  This means he wrote about books to help people understand them.  He is often said to be one of the most influential critics and theorists of the 20th century.

His most famous book is The Anatomy of Criticism (1957).

1912 births
1991 deaths

Writers from Quebec
Order of Canada

Northrop Frye