The Amidah (, "standing") is one of the two main prayers of Judaism.  It has that name because people say it standing up.  Jews say it at every prayer service of the year.

It is also called Shemoneh Esrei (, "eighteen") because at first the weekday version of the prayer had eighteen blessings.  (It now has nineteen.) In the Talmud, it is called Tefilah ().  This simply means "prayer".  It has that name because it is so central to Judaism.

Blessings of the Amidah
The Amidah always has three sections.
The first section has blessings of praise to God.
The middle section is different between weekdays and Shabbat and holidays.  On weekdays it has blessings asking for God's help.  On Shabbat and holidays there is one blessing to thank God for Shabbat or the holiday.
The last section has blessings to thank God for everything He does for us.

First section: praise to God
Praises God as the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob
Praises God as having power over life and death
Praises God for being holy

Middle section (weekday): asking God for help
Asks God for the ability to think and understand
Asks God to help us follow the laws of His Torah
Asks God to forgive us for sins
Asks God to save us from trouble
Asks God to heal the sick
Asks God to bless produce and to provide us a living
Asks God to return Jewish exiles to the land of Israel
Asks God to give us fair judges on Earth
Asks God to punish heretics who then slander Jews
Asks God to support righteous people
Asks God to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem
Asks God to bring the Messiah
Asks God to accept all our prayers

End section: thanking God
Thanks God for allowing our prayers
General blessing of thanks to God
Thanks God for peace

Saying the Amidah
The Amidah is said at least three times every day: at the morning, afternoon and evening prayer services.  A person should say it standing.  A person should say it loud enough to hear it.  But it should be quiet enough that other people cannot hear it.

At the morning and afternoon services, the Amidah is repeated out loud by the prayer leader.  When the Amidah is said out loud:
The third blessing includes a section called Kedushah, or "holiness", centered around Isaiah's vision of angels declaring God's holiness.
The eighteenth blessing includes a section called Modim d'Rabbanan, or "The Rabbis' Prayer of Thanks." The Talmud says that everyone must thank God himself or herself, even during public prayer.
The Amidah is not said out loud at night.

In Reform Judaism the Amidah is not said quietly.  It is said out loud at every prayer service.

Changes on Shabbat and Jewish holidays
On Shabbat and important Jewish holidays, the Amidah prayer changes in two important ways.
People do not ask God to help them meet their needs.  The middle section of the weekday Amidah is replaced by one blessing about the holiness of the Shabbat or holiday.  The first three blessings and last three blessings are the same as on weekdays.
The Amidah is said a fourth time.  This Amidah is called the musaf, or additional service.  The middle blessing is about the additional offering given at the Temple in Jerusalem on Shabbat and holidays.
There are two Amidah prayers during the year that are different from any others.  See the pages on these holidays for more information.
On Rosh Hashanah, the musaf Amidah has nine blessings instead of seven.
On Yom Kippur, a fifth Amidah, called Ne'ilah ("closing") is said at the very end of the day.

Related pages
Siddur

Reference
A siddur (Jewish prayer book) is always the best reference for information about Jewish prayers:

.

It is a very good English/Hebrew siddur to use for learning about prayers.

Notes

Judaism

Amidah


The Albert Hall (official name: Royal Albert Hall of Arts and Sciences), is a large building in the City of Westminster, London. It was opened in 1871, by Queen Victoria. The hall is dedicated to her husband, Albert, Prince Consort, who had died ten years earlier. It is an auditorium where events are held.

The Albert Hall is one of the most famous buildings in the world. Events like concerts for classical music or pop music, ballet, even tennis or boxing matches, or large ceremonies or parties or conferences. In the summer the BBC Proms take place there every day. The Royal Albert Hall has been holding concerts since 1941.

The history of how it was built
In the early 19th  century the whole area was still countryside. In 1851, there was a Great Exhibition in Hyde Park, just next to Kensington Park opposite where the RAH now stands. The exhibition building, called Crystal Palace, was a glass building which was just there for the exhibition. Prince Albert had the idea that public buildings should be built in the area for the arts and sciences. Some huge museums were built, including the Science Museum, Natural History Museum, Victoria and Albert Museum etc. When Prince Albert died in 1861 this plan had only just got started. The Royal Albert Hall was built and named after him. Queen Victoria laid the first stone.

The Royal Albert Hall is very large. As many as 9,000 people used to get in, but now the safety rules make about 5,500 the usual number. It is round, like an Ancient Greek or Roman amphitheatre. This is why the floor area is called the "arena" (as in an amphitheatre). There is a very large glass and wrought-iron dome. It is 41m high. Round the outside, a little lower than the roof, there is a big mosaic frieze with pictures of "The Triumph of Arts and Sciences" and some writing in terracotta letters. It says that the first stone was laid by Her Majesty Queen Victoria on 20 May 1867 and was opened by her on 29 March 1871. It also has some words from the Bible. When Queen Victoria opened the building she was so emotional that she could not speak. Her son Edward, the Prince of Wales had to say her words for her. He said: "The Queen declares this Hall is now open".

The RAH throughout its history

The hall has been used for lots of important events ever since 1871. Many of the seats are still owned by members of a Corporation which was called "the Corporation of the Hall of Arts and Sciences". This group had been formed in 1866 as a charity to get money to build the hall. Its members still have a right to occupy 1,300 of the 5,200 seats.

There was a problem with the sound because there was too much echo. It was not until 1969 that something was done about it. Big fibreglass dishes were hung from the ceiling. People who go to the RAH today call them "mushrooms" or sometimes "flying saucers". They make music sound much better.

There is a very large organ at the front of the hall. It was built by an organ maker called Henry Willis and was later rebuilt by Harrison & Harrison and most recently by Mander Organs; It is the biggest organ in the British Isles with 9,997 pipes.

The Promenade Concerts which were started by Henry Wood in 1895 have taken place in the RAH ever since 1941 when the Queen's Hall was destroyed by bombs in World War II. For two months there is at least one concert every day, and people can be seen queuing for standing tickets all the way down the steps towards Prince Consort Road.

People who go to the proms today can choose between standing in the arena (the flat area downstairs), or sitting in the stalls (the seats around the side of the arena), or sitting in the Loggia Boxes, Second Tier Boxes, Circle (upstairs), Choir (where the choir sit if there is one, i.e. behind the orchestra) or standing in the gallery (at the very top). For some events such as tennis matches or ballets or operas the action takes place in the arena, so audience do not sit or stand there.

Recent improvements
During the last few years a lot of money has been spent on improving the Royal Albert Hall. The 1,800 seats in the balcony (now called the "Circle") were very uncomfortable, so new seats were put in which are slightly bigger. The south entrance has been made into the main entrance (as it was years ago), with a porch to match the north entrance. The area south of the hall has been blocked off to traffic and pedestrianised. Dressing rooms (where artists change) are now on stage level instead of down in a basement. There is an underground car park and loading area so that lorries bringing things do not need to unload in the street and get in the way of the people. Lots of other improvements have been made, including better ventilation.

Related pages
 BBC Proms

Other websites

 Official site with timeline

Concert halls in London

Royal Albert Hall


A glow-worm, or glowworm, is an insect.
Other names for glow-worms are fire-fly and lightning bug.

There are several insects given this name. Most are beetles, but one is a fly, Arachnocampa. They are nocturnal, active during the night. They have special organs that can produce light. This is used to find mates. The patterns in which the beetles flash is unique to each species.

The major families are
Lampyridae (Fireflies). The adult female of this family has no wings. It is the glow worm of the literature.
Phengodidae (Glow-worm beetles, glow-worms), found in North and South America. One species, the railroad worm features two colors.
Arachnocampa,  flies found in Australia and New Zealand

Beetles
Flies

Glow-worm


Danger on Deception Island is the ninth installment in the Nancy Drew point-and-click adventure game series by Her Interactive. The game is available for play on Microsoft Windows platforms. It has an ESRB rating of E for moments of mild violence and peril. Players take on the first-person view of fictional amateur sleuth Nancy Drew and must solve the mystery through interrogation of suspects, solving puzzles, and discovering clues. There are two levels of gameplay, Junior and Senior detective modes, each offering a different difficulty level of puzzles and hints, however neither of these changes affect the actual plot of the game. The game is loosely based on a book entitled Whispers in the Fog (1999).

Plot
When Katie Firestone, a friend of George Fayne, invites Nancy Drew to Deception Island in Washington state for a whale-watching excursion, the sleuth arrives to find Katie's tour boat heavily vandalized. A threatening note that was left behind warns Katie to "stop meddling". Apparently, the residents of the harbor are divided over what to do with an orphaned female Orca whale that recently appeared in the channel, and Katie has ruffled a lot of feathers in the debate. Nancy must hunt down the vandal while unraveling some of Deception Island's hidden secrets.

Development

Characters

Nancy Drew - Nancy is an 18-year-old amateur detective from the fictional town of River Heights in the United States. She is the only playable character in the game, which means the player must solve the mystery from her perspective.
Katie Firestone - A friend of George Fayne who invited Nancy to stay with her on Deception Island. Katie is a marine biologist who owns a whale watching tour and takes tourists up close to the orca with her permit.  Her studies theorize that the female whale is sick, and she thinks it should go to an aquarium for further research. Did her unpopular opinions land her in hot water?
Holt Scotto - Holt is an influential community member and veteran fisherman who does not take nonsense from anybody. He is running for public office as harbormaster. He would like nothing more than to get rid of the female orca that is eating the fish in his waters and causing the fishing ships to detour around the harbor. Could he be the one sabotaging the Snake Horse Harbor to intimidate the orca supporters?
Andy Jason - Andy is the owner of Whale World, which rivals Katie's whale-watching tour. He is well-mannered, but an aggressive businessman. He has offered to hire Katie and buy her boat so he can own a larger tour chain on the coast, but she has refused several times.
Jenna Deblin - Jenna is the owner of a local coffee shop. She is usually very friendly, but when it comes to Katie and her research she gets pretty nasty due to their conflicting viewpoints about the orphaned whale. Jenna believes that the orca should be rejoined with its pod immediately and by any means possible. Would that include damaging boats and leaving threats?

Cast
Nancy Drew - Lani Minella
Bess Marvin - Alisa Murray
George Fayne - Jena Cane
Frank Hardy - Wayne Rawley
Joe Hardy - Rob Jones
Katie Firestone - Shelley McIntyre
Jenna Deblin - Amy Augustine
Andy Jason / Casey Porterfield - Jonah von Spreekin
Holt Scotto - Richard Stein
Wood Expert - Julie Rawley
Hilda Swenson - Shannon Kipp

Reception
According to PC Data, Danger on Deception Island sold 40,601 retail copies in North America during 2003. According to review aggregation website Metacritic, the game received "generally favorable reviews" from critics.

Charles Herold of The New York Times found Danger on Deception Island to be inferior to The Haunted Carousel.

References

2003 video games
Detective video games
Video games based on Nancy Drew
Point-and-click adventure games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games scored by Kevin Manthei
Video games set in the United States
Video games set in Washington (state)
Windows games
Windows-only games
Her Interactive games
Single-player video games
North America-exclusive video games

Nancy Drew: Danger on Deception Island


"I'm a Slave 4 U" is a song from Britney Spears' third album, Britney. It was the first single off that album. It was released in late 2001. It was the only song from the album to hit the top 40 on the Billboard Hot 100.

The song created controversy. That was partly because of the words, which could be seen as sexual. It was also partly because of her performance of the song on the MTV Video Music Awards.

Britney Spears songs
2001 songs

I'm a Slave 4 U


A very high-level programming language (VHLL) is a programming language with a very high level of abstraction, used primarily as a professional programmer productivity tool.

VHLLs are usually domain-specific languages, limited to a very specific application, purpose, or type of task, and they are often scripting languages (especially extension languages), controlling a specific environment. For this reason, very high-level programming languages are often referred to as goal-oriented programming languages.

The term VHLL was used in the 1990s for what are today more often called high-level programming languages (not "very") used for scripting, such as Perl, Python, PHP, Ruby, and Visual Basic.

See also
Automatic programming
Low-level programming language
Feature-oriented programming

Notes

References

Symposium on Very High Level Languages. SIG- PLAN Notices (ACM) 9, 4 (April 1974), 1-132.
Teichroew, D. A survey of languages for stating requirements for computer-based information systems. Proc. AFIPS 1972 FJCC, AFIPS Press, Montvale, N.J., pp. 1203-1224.
Libre Software Meeting 2004
Libre Software Meeting: Proceedings of the VHLL track (2004).
Libre Software Meeting (2003) VHLL Track announcement

 Programming language classification

Very high-level programming language


Jean Élie Paul Zay (6 August 1904 – 20 June 1944) was a French politician. He served as Minister of National Education and Fine Arts from 1936 until 1939.  He was imprisoned by the Vichy government from August 1940 until he was murdered in 1944.

Early life
Zay was born in Orléans, in the department of Loiret, about  south of Paris.  His father, Leon Zay, descended from a Jewish family from Metz, but was born and died in Orléans, where he was the director of a radical socialist regional newspaper, Le Progrès du Loiret.  His mother Alice Chartrain was a Protestant and a teacher. He grew up with his sister in the Protestant religion.

Zay was educated at the Lycée Pothier in Orléans, and became a lawyer in 1928.  He was politically active from his early days, joining the Radical Party aged 21.

With his wife, Madeleine Dreux, he had two daughters, Catherine Martin-Zay, and Hélène Mouchard-Zay (born 1940).

Political career
In May 1932, he was elected to the French parliament as député to represent Loiret, for the Radical Socialist Party.  He defeated the incumbent representative of the Popular Democratic Party, Maurice Berger.  He became one of the Jeunes Turcs (Young Turks) who wanted to renew the Radical Party, and was instrumental in the party joining the Popular Front in 1935.  After the 1936 election, he was the Minister of National Education and Fine Arts from June 1936. While serving in his position, he extended the school leaving age and introduced a common curriculum in elementary schools.

In 1938, Jean Zay proposed the creation of an international film event in France, which was planned to debut in Cannes in 1939.  Due to the outbreak of the Second World War, the inauguration of the Cannes Film Festival was postponed until 1946.

He was a freemason.

Second World War
He resigned as minister in 1939 to join the French Army on the outbreak of the Second World War, serving as a second lieutenant attached to the headquarters of the Fourth Army.  He remained a député until 1942, and he was given leave to attend the last session of the French Parliament, held in Bordeaux in June 1940.  After the invasion of France by Nazi Germany in 1940, he was one of the passengers aboard the vessel Le Massilia that left from Bordeaux bound for Casablanca on 21 June 1940, with the intention of forming a resistance government in North Africa.  He was arrested in August 1940, for desertion, and returned to France where he was held at the military prison in Clermont-Ferrand.

A press campaign, organised by Philippe Henriot, the minister of information in the Vichy government, called for his execution for being "Jewish, freemason and member of the Radical Party", and pointing to his anti-war poem of March 1924, Le Drapeau (The Flag), as evidence of his lack of patriotism.

Zay was convicted of desertion by a military tribunal in October 1940, and sentenced to loss of military rank and deportation for life.  Held in Marseille, his sentence was commuted to  one of internment in France, and he was held in the prison in Riom, sharing a cell with Rabbi Edward Gourévitch.  He was allowed to communicate with friends and family, and did not attempt to escape.  He was removed from the prison by three miliciens on 20 June 1944, Henri Millou, Charles Develle and Pierre Cordier, purportedly so he could be transferred to Melun.  They murdered him in a wood near an abandoned quarry, at a place called Les Malavaux in the faille du Puits du diable, at Molles in Allier.

Post-war rehabilitation
Zay's conviction was posthumously annulled by the appeal court in Riom in July 1945.  His body was found with those of two others in 1946, under a pile of stones.  The three were initially reburied together in Cusset, but Zay's body was exhumed in 1947 and identified through his dental records.  The surviving milicien Charles Develle was convicted of Zay's murder in February 1953, and sentenced to forced labour for life, but released in 1955.  Zay was buried in Orléans in 1948.  A memorial was erected near the site of his death in Molles, and a plaque at his high school in Orléans. The rue Jean Zay in Trélazé is named after him.

A French literary prize, the Prix Jean-Zay, was created and named in his honour in 2005.

In March 2014, French President François Hollande announced his intention to recognize Jean Zay at the Panthéon in Paris as a leading figure in the Resistance, along with Pierre Brossolette, Germaine Tillion, and Geneviève de Gaulle-Anthonioz. The official ceremony was held on 27 May 2015, National Day of Resistance.

In 2019 a new supercomputer acquired by the CNRS was named for Jean Zay.

References

1904 births
1944 deaths
Politicians from Orléans
French Protestants
French people of Jewish descent
Burials at the Panthéon, Paris
Radical Party (France) politicians
French Ministers of National Education
Members of the 15th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic
Members of the 16th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic
Human Rights League (France) members
French Freemasons
French Resistance members
Jewish resistance members during the Holocaust
Jews in the French resistance
People executed by Vichy France
Executed French people

Jean Zay


John Stephen Horn (May 31, 1931 – February 17, 2011) was President of California State University, Long Beach and later a five-term Republican United States Congressman from California from 1993 to 2003.

Early life
Horn was born on May 31, 1931, in San Juan Bautista, California, Horn served in the United States Army Reserves from 1954 until 1962.

Horn earned his bachelor's degree from Stanford University in 1953 and went on to earn a Master of Public Administration from Harvard's Graduate School of Public Administration in 1955. In 1958 he earned his Ph.D. at Stanford University.

Government service
In 1959, Horn became administrative assistant to Secretary of Labor James P. Mitchell. In 1960, he went to work for then U.S. Senator Thomas Kuchel (R-CA) as a legislative assistant and served in that capacity until 1966, when he left to become a Senior fellow at the Brookings Institution. Horn played a major role in the 1964 presidential campaign of Nelson Rockefeller in California. He also served as Vice Chairman of the U.S. Civil Rights Commission from 1969 to 1980 and as a member of the National Institute of Corrections from 1972 until 1988 (serving as chairman from 1984 until 1987).

University president
Horn was President of California State University Long Beach from 1970 until 1988 when he stepped down to run for Congress.

As President of CSULB, Horn reformed the university's graduation and general education requirements to emphasize learning skills, cultural literacy, and interdisciplinary education, as well as creating the first university and human resource opportunities course requirement in the United States.  Horn also gained passage of legislation allowing California's senior citizens to take courses for reduced fees on all 23 campuses of the California State University. Horn established one of America's first programs for women returning to college. He also created the CSULB Disabled Resources Center, which served as a model to institutions across the United States.  Horn led the university through 11 major construction projects, including the North Campus Center and buildings for Engineering/Computer Science, Social Science/Public Affairs, and Student Services Administration.

Congressional service
Horn first ran for Congress in 1988 in a race to succeed Republican Dan Lungren but lost the primary to conservative Dana Rohrabacher.

After the 1991 reapportionment, his home in Long Beach was drawn into the neighboring 38th district, then held by veteran Democratic incumbent Glenn M. Anderson.  When Anderson announced his retirement in 1992, Horn jumped into the race to succeed him.  He narrowly won an 8-way Republican primary before beating Anderson's stepson, then Long Beach city councilman Evan Anderson Braude, in the general election.

A moderate Republican, Horn won his Democratic-leaning district with relative ease four more times. In 1994 he rode the Republican tide to an easy victory over a weak opponent. In 1996, his reelection was eased when he became the only Republican west of the Mississippi River to be endorsed by the Sierra Club; In 1998 he once again bested his 1994 foe despite a strong year for Democrats statewide in California. Only in 2000 did he have a close race, beating Democrat Gerrie Schipske by less than 1 percent.

After the 2001 reapportionment, Democrats in the California legislature made this already Democratic-leaning district even more so.  Horn subsequently announced his retirement and did not seek reelection in 2002.  He did, however, give a surprise endorsement to Democrat Hector De La Torre, who ran to succeed Horn in the re-drawn seat (now numbered 39) and finished second to Linda T. Sanchez in the Democratic primary.

In 2003, Project on Government Oversight, a government watchdog group, awarded Horn with its first ever Good Government Award for his contributions to government transparency and oversight, particularly his advocacy for public access to government information.

Death
Horn died on February 17, 2011, at the age of 79, of complications from Alzheimer's disease.

Electoral history

References

External links

 Stephen Horn Collection at the Carl Albert Center

1931 births
2011 deaths
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians
Deaths from dementia in California
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
Harvard Kennedy School alumni
People from San Juan Bautista, California
Presidents of California State University, Long Beach
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from California
Stanford University alumni
United States Army reservists
United States Commission on Civil Rights members
United States congressional aides

Steve Horn


A Shetland Sheepdog is a kind of small dog whose ancestors came from the Shetland Islands.   Many people call them "Shelties". They are popular pets in many countries. Shelties have the same origins with Rough Collie and Border Collie. Shelties are a working dog and are sometimes used for herding.

A Sheltie can have a mix of several colors in its coat. Most shelties are sable and white (brown and white) or tri-color (black, white and tan). Their fur is long and they shed twice a year.  Shelties range in size from 13 to 16 inches.  They usually weigh about 25-30 pounds.

Shelties are very energetic dogs that run and bark a lot. They are great with children.
It was said that Shelties were sheep dogs so they try to please their master and have a strong sense of responsibility. They do not need very much discipline. Shelties rank in the top ten smartest dogs. They learn new things very quickly and remember them well. Shelties make great family pets as long as you do not mind a dog that barks.

Dog breeds originating in Scotland
FCI breeds
Shetland

Shetland Sheepdog


An ocarina is a kind of flute that is not made out of a tube. Because the ocarina is in a round or box-like shape, its sound is a little different from other flutes.

History

The ten-hole ocarina was first made by Giuseppe Donati, in Italy, in 1853. Instruments like the ocarina had been made for hundreds of years before that in South America, China, and Africa. In Europe, a form called the gemshorn was made in the 16th century. The gemshorn was made from an animal horn.

In the 19th century, groups of ocarina players, with different sized ocarinas, played classical and folk music. Italian ocarinas became known throughout the world, because of this.

In the United States the ocarina was called the sweet potato, because its shape is like a sweet potato.

In 1928, the Japanese began making ocarinas. They added two small holes to the old kind of ocarinas. Japanese 12-hole ocarinas can play a larger scale than 10-hole ocarinas.

English Ocarina

In the 1960s, the English ocarina was invented. It has four finger holes, and may have one or two thumb holes. English ocarinas are made in many shapes.

Other websites
 Ocarina Knowledge Pages  - All About Ocarinas

References

Flutes

Ocarina


Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr (; 631–657), was the youngest son of the first Islamic caliph Abu Bakr. His mother was Asma bint Umais, who was a widow of Ja'far ibn Abi Talib prior to her second marriage with Abu Bakr. He became the stepson of the fourth caliph Ali, and became one of his generals. He was one of the main figures in rebellion against Uthman and was actively involved in siege of his house which resulted in caliph's death. Gayyab narrates in his book Fitnat Maqtal 'Uthman, 1/209 that "it is clear that Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was innocent in the murder of Usman, just as the wolf was innocent of the blood of Yusuf 'alayh al Salam."

Life

He was a son of Abū Bakr from his marriage with Asma bint Umays. When Abu Bakr died, Asma bint Umais married Ali ibn Abi Talib. Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr had a son named Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr's wife was called Asma and she was the daughter of Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr who was Abu Bakr's other son. The daughter of Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr and Asma was called Fatima (Umm Farwah).

After the Battle of Siffin, Ali ibn Abi Talib appointed Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr as the Governor of Egypt, then a newly conquered province of the Islamic empire. In 658 CE (38 AH), Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the then Governor of Syria, sent his general Amr ibn al-As and six thousand soldiers against Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. He hadn't proved himself to be a good governor, Lesley Hazleton writes "Muhammad AbuBakr – Aisha's half brother – had proved a weak governor. Ali himself ruefully acknowledged that he was "an inexperienced young man". Muhammad asked Imam Ali for help. Ali is said to have instructed his foster son to hand the governorship over to his best general and childhood friend, Malik al-Ashtar, whom he judged better capable of resisting Amr ibn al-As. However, Malik died on his way to Egypt. The Shi'a and Institute for Shia Ismaili Studies and London's Shi'aism researcher Wilferd Madelung believe that Malik was poisoned by Muawiyah I.

Ibn Abi Bakr was eventually defeated by 'Amr ibn al-'As. 'Amr's soldiers were ordered to capture him, bring him alive to Muawiyah I or kill him. A soldier named Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj is said to have quarreled with the prisoner and killed him out of hand. Ibn Hudayj was so incensed at Ibn Abi Bakr that he put his body into the skin of a dead donkey and burned both corpses together, so that nothing should survive of his enemy. However, Shi'a accounts say that the Muawiyah I who later became the first Umayyad Caliph was the actual killer of Ibn Abu Bakr. His grave is located in a mosque in Cairo, Egypt.

He had spent considerable time in Egypt and was part of the delegation that complained about the activities of the governor of Egypt to the third Caliph Uthman ibn Affan. The Caliph promised to immediately dismiss the Egyptian governor and replace him with Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr. However, after sensing betrayal from Uthman ibn Affan (but actually perpetrated by Marwan ibn al-Hakam) against the Muslim petitioners from Egypt, Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr rushed back with the petitioners to Medina where he initially took part in the uprising against Uthman ibn Affan. After realizing his error in getting involved in the Assassination of Uthman, he repented and withdrew from the uprising, although he had already led the group of rebels inside Uthman ibn Affan's residence.

The history is related as follows:

A group of seven hundred Egyptians came to complain to Caliph Uthman ibn Affan about their governor Ibn Abi Sarh's tyranny, so Uthman ibn Affan said: "Choose someone to govern you." They chose Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr, so Uthman ibn Affan wrote credentials for him and they returned. On their way back, at three days' distance from Madinah, a messenger caught up with them with the news that he carried orders from Uthman ibn Affan to the governor of Egypt. They searched him and found a message from Uthman ibn Affan to ibn Abi Sarh ordering the death of Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr and some of his friends. They returned to Madinah and besieged Uthman ibn Affan. Uthman ibn Affan acknowledged that the camel, the servant, and the seal on the letter belonged to him, but he swore that he had never written nor ordered the letter to be written. It was discovered that the letter had been hand-written by Marwan ibn al-Hakam.

Shi'a Muslim view

The Shi'a highly praise Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr for his devotion to 'Ali and his resistance to the other rulers who were usurpers. Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was a pious Muslim who supported the Imam of his time, Ali ibn Abi Talib, even though his sister Aisha opposed 'Ali in the battle of Jamal, Ibn Abu Bakr was faithful to his stepfather. And he was in Ali's army in the Battle of Jamal and later it was Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr who escorted Aisha back to Madina. His grand daughter Fatima (Umm Farwah) was wife of Imam Muhammad al-Baqir. Thus Shi'a Imam after Imam Muhammad al-Baqir were his descendants from the mother side, starting with the great legal doctor of the Shi'a, Hanafi and Maliki Sunnis, Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq.

According to a Shi'a Muslim author:

'Ali loved Muhammad Ibn Abi Bakr as his own son and his death was felt as another terrible shock. 'Ali prayed for him, and invoked God's blessings and mercy upon his soul.

Openly opposed Mu'awiya

Both of Abu Bakr's sons Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr and Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr openly opposed Mu'awiya.

The appointment of Yazid was unpopular in Medina. Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 6, Book 60, Number 352, Narrated by Yusuf bin Mahak:

Marwan had been appointed as the governor of Hijaz by Mu'awiya. He delivered a sermon and mentioned Yazid bin Mu'awiya so that the people might take the oath of allegiance to him as the successor of his father (Mu'awiya). Then 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr told him something whereupon Marwan ordered that he be arrested. But 'Abd al-Rahman entered 'Aisha's house and they could not arrest him. Marwan said, "It is he ('Abd al-Rahman) about whom Allah revealed this Verse: 'And the one who says to his parents: 'Fie on you! Do you hold out the promise to me..?'" On that, 'Aisha said from behind a screen, "Allah did not reveal anything from the Qur'an about us except what was connected with the declaration of my innocence (of the slander)."

Ibn Kathir wrote in his book the Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah
that "in the year 56 AH Mu'awiya called on the people including those within the outlying territories to pledge allegiance to his son, Yazid, to be his heir to the Caliphate after him. Almost all the subjects offered their allegiance, with the exception of Abd al-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr (the son of Abu Bakr), Abd Allah ibn Umar (the son of Umar), al-Husayn bin Ali (the son of Ali), Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr (The grandson of Abu Bakr) and Abd Allah ibn Abbas (Ali's cousin). Because of this Mu'awiya passed through Medina on his way back from Mecca upon completion of his Umrah Pilgrimage where he summoned each one of the five aforementioned individuals and threatened them. The speaker who addressed Mu'awiya sharply with the greatest firmness amongst them was Abd al-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr as-Siddiq, while Abd Allah ibn Umar ibn al-Khattab was the most soft-spoken amongst them.

Their sister Asma bint Abi Bakr was just as outspoken. Asma's son, Abd Allah, and his cousin, Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, were both grandsons of Abu Bakr and nephews of Aisha. When Husayn ibn Ali was killed in Karbala, Abd Allah, who had been Husayn's friend, collected the people of Mecca and made the following speech:

O people! No other people are worse than Iraqis and among the Iraqis, the people of Kufa are the worst. They repeatedly wrote letters and called Imam Husayn to them and took bay'at (allegiance) for his caliphate. But when Ibn Ziyad arrived in Kufa, they rallied around him and killed Imam Husayn who was pious, observed the fast, read the Quran and deserved the caliphate in all respects.

After his speech, the people of Mecca also joined Abd Allah to take on Yazid. When he heard about this, Yazid had a silver chain made and sent to Mecca with the intention of having Walid ibn Utba arrest Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr with it. In Mecca and Medina Husayn's family had a strong support base, and the people were willing to stand up for them. Husayn's remaining family moved back to Madina. Eventually Abd Allah consolidated his power by sending a governor to Kufa. Soon Abd Allah established his power in Iraq, southern Arabia, the greater part of Syria and parts of Egypt.

Yazid tried to end Abd Allah's rebellion by invading the Hejaz, and he took Medina after the bloody Battle of al-Harra followed by the siege of Mecca. But his sudden death ended the campaign and threw the Umayyads into disarray, with civil war eventually breaking out. This essentially split the Islamic empire into two spheres. After the Umayyad civil war ended, Abd Allah lost Egypt and whatever he had of Syria to Marwan I. This, coupled with the Kharijite rebellions in Iraq, reduced his domain to only the Hejaz.

Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr was finally defeated by Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, who sent Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf. Hajjaj was from Ta'if, as were those who had killed Husayn. In his last hour, Abd Allah asked his mother Asma what he should do. Asma replied to her son:

You know better in your own self that if you are upon the truth and you are calling towards the truth go forth, for people more honourable than you were killed and have been killed, and if you are not upon the truth, then what an evil son you are, you have destroyed yourself and those who are with you. If you say what you say, that you are upon the truth and you will be killed at the hands of others then you will not truly be free, for this is not the statement of someone who is free... How long will you live in this world, death is more beloved to me than this state you are on, this state of weakness.

Then Abd Allah said to his mother after she had told him to go forth and fight: "I am afraid I will be mutilated by the people of Sham. I am afraid that they will cut up my body after they have killed me." She said: "After someone has died, it won't make any difference what they do to you if you have been killed." Abd Allah said to his mother:

I did not come to you except to increase myself in knowledge. Look and pay attention to this day, for verily, I am a dead man. Your son never drank wine, nor was he fornicator, nor did he wrong any Muslim or non-Muslim, nor was he unjust. I am not saying this to you to show off or show how pure I am but rather as an honour to you.

Abd Allah then left by himself on his horse to take on Hajjaj. Hajjaj's army defeated Abd Allah on the battlefield in 692. He beheaded him and crucified his body. He said, "No one must take down his body except Asma. She must come to me and ask my permission, and only then will his body be taken down." Asma refused to go and ask permission to take down her son's body. It was said to her, "If you don't go, his body will remain like that." She said, "Then let it be." Eventually Hajjaj came to her and asked, "What do you say about this matter?" She replied, "Verily, you have destroyed him and you have ruined his life, and with that you have ruined your hereafter."

The defeat of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr re-established Umayyad control over the Empire.

See also
Muhammad (name)
Ali
Abu Bakr (name)
Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr
Abd Allah ibn Abi Bakr
Aisha
Asma bint Abi Bakr
Siddiqui
Bodla
Qallu
Sheekhaal

References

Wilferd Madelung, The Succession to Muhammad, Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Further reading

External links
Biography
http://www.livingislam.org/n/shb_e.html - "Nevertheless, he brought in those who killed [Uthman]!"
https://sabazius.oto-usa.org/mohammed/ - Uthman became quite unpopular, and he was murdered by insurgents led by the son of Abu Bakr, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, in 656 e.v

631 births
658 deaths
7th-century Arab people
Abu Bakr family
Children of Rashidun caliphs
Rashidun governors of Egypt
Egyptian people who died in prison custody

Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr


Robert Cohen (born 1938) is an American university professor, theatre director, playwright, and drama critic. Now a Claire Trevor Professor emeritus after 50 years teaching at the University of California, Irvine since 1965, he continues to write, and has published  many books on theatre, along with articles, dramatic anthologies and many plays, and has conducted advanced teaching residencies in numerous countries and much of the United States. He has been called a Master Teacher by the Voice and Speech Trainers Association, has been praised as a "walking theatre directory and encyclopedia" by his fellow teachers, and has been honored during his career with the Polish Medal of Honor, the Honoris Causa Professor Degree at Babes-Bolyai University in Romania, UCI's Distinguished Professor of Research, and the Career Achievement Award from the Association for Theatre in Higher Education.

Biography
Cohen was born in 1938 in Washington, D.C. His theatrical education began as an undergraduate student at Dartmouth College and UC Berkeley and earned his DFA (Doctorate in Fine Arts) in 1965 at the Yale School of Drama.  Soon after, Cohen joined the charter faculty of the brand new campus of the University of California, Irvine, where he served as its founding departmental chair of drama for twenty-five years, and, since 2015, has become an emeritus Bren Fellow and Claire Trevor Professor of Drama for the University. He is an accomplished director, scholar, drama critic, and theorist, and his approach to stage acting, which employs a system he refers to as "GOTE," , a derivative combination of Chekov and Meisner, Cohen has been acknowledged as one of the most widely used approaches to stage acting in use today.  Cohen resides in Laguna Beach, California with his wife Lorna.  They have two children, Michael and Whitney.

Directing career
Cohen signed his first Equity contract to direct a production of Wilder's Our Town for the Virginia Museum Theater with his Yale classmate Keith Fowler as producer and actor in the role of the Stage Manager.  In his directing career he has staged twelve classical productions at the Utah and Colorado Shakespeare Festivals and over ninety stage productions at his Irvine campus and other theatres; his work includes classics like King Lear, Macbeth, and Twelfth Night; his own translations of Tibi's Law, The Misanthrope, Carmen, The Magic Flute, and Pedro Gynt; and a variety of American musicals including My Fair Lady, Oklahoma!, Sweeney Todd, and Kiss Me, Kate.

In 2006, Cohen directed the premiere of his play Machiavelli: The Art of Terror at the Hayworth Theatre in Los Angeles (photo, left).

Five of Cohen's productions have been seen abroad, in Australia, Romania, Poland and the Czech Republic; two of these, written by Bryan Reynolds, have been with the Transversal Theater Company, a Dutch-American experimental theatre group: Railroad at the Sibiu International Theatre Festival, Romania and The National Theatre, Cluj, Romania, May–June 2006; Blue Shade at Teatr Lalek, Wrocław, Poland; Teatr Modjeska, Legnica, Poland; Teatr 77,  Łódź, Poland; Divadlo DISK, Academy of Performing Arts (DAMU), Prague, Czech Republic, May–June 2007; Teatrul Mic, 17th Annual National Theatre Festival, Bucharest, Romania, November 2007.

Writing career
As a writer, Cohen published a wide variety of theatre texts, including Acting One, Acting Two, Acting Power, Acting Professionally: Raw Facts about Careers in Acting, and his latest text, Acting Power: the 21st Century Edition, most of which are used in colleges, universities, and conservatories around the world; some having been translated into Hungarian, Romanian, Finnish, Estonian, Chinese and Korean. His texts explain and demonstrate a system of acting and theatre analysis called GOTE, as well as presenting a series of theatre exercises ranging from beginner to advanced.  Cohen's Theatre, now in its eleventh edition, has become one of the leading texts on the history of world theatre. Reviewing this book, the "Revue d'histoire du theatre" noted that: "[The Theatre] was written in a very clear fashion and an elegant and compelling style,… makes for a document that should be found in every library."
Cohen's other books include Jean Giraudoux: Three Faces of Destiny, a study of the French playwright; Creative Play Direction, Working Together in Theatre: Collaboration and Leadership, More Power To You; his 2014 autobiography, Falling Into Theatre...and Finding Myself, a memoir, Acting iShakespeare, and his 2015 Shakespeare on Theatre, plus more than three dozen journal articles and four hundred play reviews.  Most of his reviews are in the London-published Plays International, while his essays have appeared in Theatre Journal, Theatre Topics, Theatre Forum, Theatre Survey, Modern Drama, Theater der Zeit, Essays in Theatre, On Stage Studies, The Drama Review, Contemporary Literature, Contemporary Literary Criticism, Slavic and East European Performance, Experiment and Innovation, Dramatics, Alternatives Théâtrales, and Dramatic Theory and Criticism.

Cohen's play, Machiavelli: the art of terror (formerly The Prince), published by Dramatic Publishing Company and in Romania and the U.K., has been professionally produced in Los Angeles, Long Beach, Pittsburgh, the Madach Theatre in Budapest and the National Romanian Theatre in Cluj, and in staged readings in New York and Los Angeles. The Moebius Strip premiered at the National Romanian Theatre in Cluj in 2013–16, and his Bzaap! premiered with the Transversal Theatre Company in Amsterdam in 2014 and the National Romanian Theatre in Cluj in 2016.  His dramatic translations (The Bourgeois Gentleman, The Misanthrope, Clizia, and Tibi's Law), and his opera translations (The Magic Flute, Carmen) have been both produced and published widely.

International reputation as lecturer

Internationally, Cohen has lectured and/or conducted multi-day "Acting Power" residencies at the Theatre Academy of Bucharest (Romania), the Korean National University for the Art(Seoul), the Shanghai Theatre Academy (China), the University of Ghana (Legon), the National Theatre of Ghana (Accra), the Hungarian National Theatre and Film Academy (Budapest), the Hong Kong Academy for the Performing Arts, the Hong Kong Repertory Theatre, the Queensland Institute of Technology (Brisbane, Australia), the Sibiu International Theatre Festival (Romania), the Estonian Theatre Union (Tallinn), Teatterikorkeakoulu (the Finnish National Theatre Academy, Helsinki), the University of Jyvaskala (Finland), the University of Tampere (Finland), the University of Costa Rica (San Jose), the Pécs National Theatre (Hungary), the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (Pécs), the International Amateur Theatre Association (headquartered in Copenhagen, event took place in Tampere, Finland), the Association of British Columbia Drama Educators (Vancouver), the National Theatre of Cluj (Romania), the Babes-Bolyai University (Romania), the International Stanislavskij Symposium (Stockholm), and the Royal Dramatic Theatre (Stockholm).

In the United States, Cohen has given keynote speeches at six national and regional acting conferences, and conducted invited multi-day acting residencies at the Actors' Center (New York City), the Alliance Theatre Conservatory (Atlanta), the Coconut Grove Playhouse (Miami), the Royal Shakespeare Company festival at Davidson College, plus national conferences of the Association for Theatre in Higher Education and the American Alliance for Theatre in Education and regional conferences of the Northwest, Southwest, New England, Texas, South Carolina, and Georgia theatre conferences – along with more than two dozen colleges and universities.

G.O.T.E. Sheet

The methods that Cohen developed in his derivative approach to the training of the actor are represented by the word "GOTE."  Cohen's GOTE Sheet consists of four elements of acting, each represented by a letter in the acronym "GOTE":

Goal (of the character)
Other people (that stand in the way of the character's goal)
Tactics (that the character employs)
Expectations (that the character has)

Robert Cohen's approach to stage acting has become one of the most widely used in America today.

See also
UC Berkeley
UC Irvine
Yale School of Drama
Jean Giraudoux

Bibliography

Original plays
Abraham and Isaac in Jerusalem (2010)
Machiavelli: the art of terror (formerly The Prince) (2004)
The Moebius Strip (2013)
Bzzap! (2014)

Play translations
Tibi's Law
The Misanthrope
Pedro Gynt
The Bourgeois Gentleman
The Plaie Called Corpus Christi: The Beginnings
Clizia

Opera translations
Carmen
The Magic Flute

Articles
Cohen has published scholarly articles in the following:
Theatre Journal
Theatre Topics
Theatre Forum
Theatre Survey
Alternative Théâtrales
Contemporary Literary Criticism
Modern Drama
Theater der Zeit
Essays in Theatre
On Stage Studies
The Drama Review
Contemporary Literature
Slavic and East European Performance
Experiment and Innovation
Journal of Dramatic Theory and Criticism
Dramatics

Books
Acting Professionally: Raw Facts about Careers in Acting
Acting One
Acting Two (formerly Advanced Acting)
Acting Power
Acting Power: the 21st Century Edition
Acting in Shakespeare
Theatre
More Power to You
Dramatic Anthologies
Creative Play Direction
Giraudoux: Three Faces of Destiny
Working Together in Theatre: Collaboration and Leadership*Falling Into Theatre...and finding myself
Shakespeare on Theatre: A Critical Look at his Theories and Practices

References

External links
Robert Cohen Drama
Guide to the Robert Cohen Papers. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.
Guide to the Robert Cohen Collection on Jerzy Grotowski. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.

20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
Acting theorists
University of California, Irvine faculty
David Geffen School of Drama at Yale University alumni
Dartmouth College alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
American theatre directors
Living people
1938 births
Writers from Washington, D.C.
People from Laguna Beach, California

Robert Cohen (playwright)


William H. Calvin (born April 30, 1939) is an American theoretical neurophysiologist and professor at the University of Washington in Seattle. He is known for popularizing neuroscience and evolutionary biology, including the hybrid of those two fields, neural Darwinism. He relates abrupt climate change to human evolution and more recently has been working on global climate change issues.

In his 1996 book How Brains Think: Evolving Intelligence, Then and Now, Calvin writes as an advocate of the idea that brain-based Darwinian processes are what provides brains with what are called "consciousness" and "intelligence".  Calvin starts with the harmless division of brain processes into two types, those that depend on "cerebral ruts" (hardware) and those that dance more freely through the brain and so are able to function like "software"; Calvin usually calls these "firing patterns".

In his research monograph The Cerebral Code, Calvin suggests that the pattern of action potentials in any particular neocortical minicolumn can be replicated and spread through the cortex like a piece of software code and be "played" on the millions of other minicolumns in the same way one can play a million copies of a compact disc (CD) on a million CD players – the key difference being that while all CD players are designed to do basically the same task, the various cortical minicolumns can all have their own unique "ruts" and the copies of the firing patterns are not exact duplicates.

This allows for a "cerebral symphony" rather than just a million-fold amplification of the same tune and a "survival of the fittest" process whereby those firing patterns that resonate best with the existing pool of "ruts" will dominate one's consciousness and generate intelligent behavior ("Our long train of connected thoughts is why our consciousness is so different from what came before.").

In writing about what mind will become, in A Brief History of the Mind he notes, "We will likely shift gears again, juggling more concepts and making decisions even faster, imagining courses of action in greater depth. Ethics are possible only because of a human level of ability to speculate, judge quality, and modify our possible actions accordingly."

William H. Calvin has advanced the view that use of the Acheulean hand axe in hominids was a major factor in the evolution in human intelligence.

Books
 Inside the Brain (with George A. Ojemann, New York:New American Library, 1980).
 The Throwing Madonna: Essays on the Brain (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983. Update 1991 by Bantam.)
 The River That Runs Uphill: A Journey from the Big Bang to the Big Brain (New York: Macmillan, 1986. )
 The Cerebral Symphony: Seashore Reflections on the Structure of Consciousness (New York: Bantam Books, 1990. )
 The Ascent of Mind: Ice Age Climates and the Evolution of Intelligence (New York: Bantam Books, 1991. )
 How the Shaman Stole the Moon: The Search of Ancient Prophet-Scientists: From Stonehenge to the Grand Canyon (New York: Bantam Books, 1991. )
 Conversations with Neil's Brain: The Neural Nature of Thought and Language (with George A. Ojemann)
 How Brains Think: Evolving Intelligence, Then and Now (New York: Basic Books, 1996. )
 The Cerebral Code: Thinking a Thought in the Mosaics of the Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996)
 Lingua ex Machina: Reconciling Darwin and Chomsky with the Human Brain (with Derek Bickerton) (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000. )
 A Brain for All Seasons: Human Evolution and Abrupt Climate Change (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002. )
 A Brief History of the Mind: From Apes to Intellect and Beyond (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. )
 Almost Us: Portraits of the Apes (2005, )
 Global Fever: How to Treat Climate Change (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2008). . Japanese translation, 2020.
 The Great Climate Leap: A Climate Surprise Is Like a Heart Attack (Seattle; ClimateBooks, 2012), .
 The Great CO2 Cleanup: Backing Out of the Danger Zone (Seattle: ClimateBooks, 2012), .
 Extreme Weather and What to Do About It (Seattle: CO2Foundation.org, 2019), .

References

External links
 William Calvin's website includes many articles and slides. He is co-founder of CO2Foundation.org.
 "The Great Climate Flip-flop" is his cover story for the Atlantic Monthly.
 "The Fate of the Soul" in Natural History magazine.
 "Abrupt Climate Jumps and the Evolution of Higher Intellectual Functions during the Ice Ages," chapter for R. J. Sternberg, ed., The Evolution of Intelligence (Erlbaum, 2001), pp. 97–115.
 He coined the term "Darwin machine" in "The brain as a Darwin Machine" in Nature (1987).
 "The Six Essentials? Minimal Requirements for the Darwinian Bootstrapping of Quality," Journal of Memetics 1:1 (1997).

1939 births
Living people
Human evolution theorists
University of Washington alumni
University of Washington faculty

William H. Calvin


Powermonger is a real-time strategy video game developed by Bullfrog Productions and published by Electronic Arts. Originally released in 1990 for the Amiga and Atari ST, it was derived from the Populous engine but presented using a 3-dimensional game map.

Gameplay

The game features a 3-dimensional game map, although camera movement is limited to rotating the map by 90 degrees or small discrete intervals and 8 pre-defined levels of zoom. Only the map topography itself is 3-dimensional; people, trees and other game objects are 2-dimensional sprites.

The game features a fairly advanced (for its time) "artificial life" engine. Each person seems to have a mind of their own and will go about his or her job, fishing, farming, shepherding, collecting wood or making items without any input from the player. The player can also use a query tool to view the name, sex, age, allegiance, vital stats, hometown and equipment of any given individual. This aspect of the game has some clear resemblances (though less advanced) with the later Black & White game also designed by Peter Molyneux.

While the player cannot form the land like in Populous, actions can still have some limited effect on the environment. For example, if a large area is deforested, the weather pattern will change and more rain or snow (depending on the season) will fall, making movement slower.

The player starts out on each map with a small number of soldiers, and maybe a few towns already under control. To win the map, the balance of power needs to be tipped completely to the player's side (represented by a scale below the mini-map), by conquering all (or at least most) of the towns on the map and killing any opposing captains. Once a town is under the player's control, locals can be drafted into the player's army and bigger towns or enemy armies can be taken on. Some of the bigger towns also have neutral captains and if these survive the battle they come under the player's command as well.

The player can only control as many armies as captains, so it is important to keep them alive. If a captain is killed, his army is disbanded and his surviving soldiers go back to their town of origin. Unlike the player's main army – which the main character commands – the subordinate captains have a "lag" time (indicated by a tiny homing pigeon animation next to their command icon) before their commands are executed. The further away from the player's main character they are, the longer it takes for orders to reach them.

Food is the single most important resource in the game. Aside from friendly towns the player can also slaughter wandering sheep, barter food from neutral towns, or kill an enemy captain and pillage his food supply.

Aside from manpower and food, towns can also provide equipment. Townspeople will occasionally make items but to speed things up the player can order an army to "invent" at a friendly town. Depending on nearby resources and what posture the army is set to (passive, neutral or aggressive), men will then go to work collecting resources and make items. As the more useful items can usually only be made in one or two towns on any given map these have great strategic importance.

There is no micromanagement involved with equipment. Once an army is ordered to equip itself from a pile of equipment it is automatically distributed. If there are bows, swords, and pikes available, soldiers will pick them up in that order. As long as there are soldiers without any weapon in the army no one will pick up more than one weapon. If everyone has something then people with the least valuable weapon will have first pick and so on. The captain carries any excess equipment. There is no limit to how much a captain can carry, but the more he carries the slower he (and his army) will move.

Expansions
In 1991 an expansion pack titled Powermonger: World War I Edition was released, which changed the setting from the conquest of a medieval kingdom, to World War I. World War I Edition retains the core gameplay of Powermonger, but with more ranged weapons and war-machines. More expansion packs with different settings were planned depending on the success of the World War I expansion, but were never released. The unreleased expansions include a fantasy theme, Feudal Japan, and the American Civil War. The fantasy scenario was planned to have a magic system with the ability to create custom spells, and fantasy races such as elves and gnomes.

Development
The Amiga and Atari ST versions of Powermonger cost £29.99 in 1990, and were released in October 1990; the version for IBM PC compatibles was released in 1991. Magazine advertisements for Powermonger quoted Peter Molyneux, who stated that the game is "Better than Populous". A 3DO version was planned but never released.

Reception

The game got 5 out of 5 stars in Dragon. Computer Gaming World in 1991 praised Powermonger as "simply superb ... a joy to play". Reviewing the Amiga version, CGW favorably cited its graphics and realism, but criticized its unusually strict copy protection and the need to load a saved game twice to return to the previous state. In a 1993 survey of strategy games set pre 20th-century, the magazine gave the game three stars out of five.

Reviewing the Sega CD version, GamePro criticized the graphics, commenting that "the maps are so pixelated that you can barely see what's going on or who's who. After going through lots of slow strategy, a nice visual payoff of your decisions being executed would've really added to the FunFactor." However, they gave the game an overall recommendation based on its slow-paced strategy gameplay. Electronic Gaming Monthly gave Powermonger an overall score of 6.6 out of 10 from five reviewers, who praised the high detail of the simulation.

Powermonger won Computer Gaming World'''s 1991 Strategy Game of the Year award, and was ranked the 32nd best game of all time by Amiga Power''.

References

External links

Powermonger at the Hall of Light

1990 video games
Amiga games
Atari ST games
Bullfrog Productions games
Cancelled 3DO Interactive Multiplayer games
DOS games
Electronic Arts games
Imagineer games
Classic Mac OS games
Multiplayer null modem games
FM Towns games
NEC PC-9801 games
Real-time strategy video games
Sega CD games
Sega Genesis games
X68000 games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games scored by Barry Leitch
Video games scored by Tim Wright (Welsh musician)
Video games with expansion packs

Powermonger


A period 7 element is an element in the seventh period (row) of the periodic table.  It contains  32 elements, beginning at francium and ending with oganesson. The Actinides are part of this period. They are all really radioactive. As of 2016, period 7 elements are the last period of elements that have been made.

Period 7 elements have electrons in the first seven electron shells. All period 7 elements have one or more electrons in the seventh electron shell (valence electrons). When atomic number increases by one, another electron is added. Two electrons join the 7s orbital, 14 electrons join the 5f orbital, ten electrons join the 6d orbital, and six electrons join the 7p orbitals.

References

Periodic table

Period 7 element


The Battle of the Thames , also known as the Battle of Moraviantown, was an American victory in the War of 1812 against Tecumseh's Confederacy and their British allies. It took place on October 5, 1813, in Upper Canada, near Chatham. The British lost control of Southwestern Ontario as a result of the battle; Tecumseh was killed, and his confederacy largely fell apart.

British troops under Major General Henry Procter had occupied Detroit until the United States Navy gained control of Lake Erie, cutting them off from their supplies. Procter was forced to retreat north up the Thames River to Moraviantown, followed by the tribal confederacy under Shawnee leader Tecumseh who were his allies.

American infantry and cavalry under Major General William Henry Harrison drove off the British and then defeated the Indigenous peoples, who were demoralized by the death of Tecumseh in action. American control was re-established in the Detroit area, the tribal confederacy collapsed, and Procter was court-martialed for his poor leadership.

Background

The American Army of the Northwest under Major General William Henry Harrison was attempting to recover Fort Detroit and capture Fort Malden at Amherstburg, Ontario during the last months of 1812 and for much of 1813 from the Right Division of the British Army in Upper Canada, which was commanded by Major General Henry Procter. The British position depended on maintaining command of Lake Erie, as the sparsely populated region produced insufficient crops and cattle to feed Procter's troops, the sailors of the British ships on the lake, and the large number of Indians and their families gathered at Amherstburg under Tecumseh.

Supplies could effectively be brought to them only by water, usually from Long Point near the eastern end of Lake Erie. If naval command of Lake Erie passed to the Americans, they would be able to land an army on the north shore, cutting off Procter from reinforcement from the east.

British armed vessels had maintained control of the lake from the start of the war to the end of July 1813. The United States Navy was constructing its own squadron at Presque Isle Bay commanded by Master Commandant Oliver Hazard Perry. During July, the British under Commander Robert Heriot Barclay kept the Americans pinned down in Presque Isle, but they had to lift the blockade for two days in order to receive supplies.

Perry was able to move his ships across the sandbar at the entrance to the harbor and into the lake, and Barclay failed to attack them. Perry's superior squadron instituted a counter-blockade of Amherstburg as soon as his vessels were armed and manned, and supplies of food rapidly ran short.

With supplies almost exhausted, Barclay put out to seek battle with Perry on September 10, but Perry gained a complete victory in the Battle of Lake Erie. Perry hastily wrote a note to General Harrison stating: "We have met the enemy and they are ours". Harrison knew that Procter would be forced to retreat, so he ordered an advance. One thousand mounted troops began advancing along the lake shore to Detroit, and 2,500 foot soldiers were carried there and to Amherstburg by Perry's ships once they had repaired any damage received during the battle.

Procter's retreat
Procter had made preparations to fall back to the British position at Burlington Heights at the western end of Lake Ontario even before he received news of Barclay's defeat, and Tecumseh knew that this would remove all protection from the confederation tribes whose lands lay to the west of Detroit. He attempted to dissuade Procter:

Our fleet has gone out, we know they have fought; we have heard the great guns but know nothing of what has happened to our Father with one Arm [Barclay had lost an arm in 1809]. Our ships have gone one way, and we are much astonished to see our Father [Proctor] tying up everything and preparing to run the other, without letting his red children know what his intentions are.... We must compare our Father's conduct to a fat animal that carries its tail upon its back; but when affrighted, it drops it between its legs and runs off.

Nevertheless, Procter could not defend Fort Amherstburg, as there was no food and the guns had been removed from the fort to be mounted on Barclay's ships. He began to retreat up the Thames River on September 27. Tecumseh had no option but to go with him. Procter apparently agreed to a compromise to retreat only as far as Moraviantown, a settlement of Lenape Indians who had migrated from the United States. This was the highest navigable point of the river, so it was safe from outflanking moves by water. Also, some supplies could be brought there overland from Burlington Heights, although the roads were very poor. However, Procter made no attempt to fortify this position.

The British retreat was badly managed, and the soldiers had been reduced to half rations. Procter allegedly left the main body of his army under command of Colonel Augustus Warburton of the 41st Regiment, without orders, while he led the retreat accompanied by his wife and family, the other women and dependents, and his personal baggage. The British soldiers were becoming increasingly demoralized, and Tecumseh's warriors grew ever more impatient with Procter for his unwillingness to stop and fight.

The Americans left a brigade under Duncan McArthur to garrison Detroit and another under Lewis Cass to garrison Sandwich, Ontario. Harrison led the main body from Sandwich in pursuit of Procter on October 2. As they advanced, Harrison's men captured several abandoned boats and a steady stream of British stragglers. They caught up with the retreating British and Indians late on October 4. Tecumseh skirmished with the Americans near Chatham, Ontario to slow their advance, but the Indians were quickly overwhelmed. The boats carrying Warburton's reserve ammunition and the last of the food ran aground and were left behind to be captured by an American raiding party.

Forces

William Henry Harrison's force numbered at least 3,500 infantry and cavalry. He had a small detachment of regulars from the 27th U.S. Infantry and five brigades of Kentucky militia led by Isaac Shelby, the 63 year-old governor of Kentucky and a hero of the American Revolutionary War. He had 1,000 volunteer cavalry under Colonel Richard Mentor Johnson. Most of Johnson's men were from Kentucky, but some were from the River Raisin area of Michigan, all of them spurred on by the slogan "Remember the River Raisin."

Procter had about 800 soldiers, mainly from the 41st Regiment. The veterans of the regiment's 1st Battalion had been serving in Canada since 1803 and had suffered heavy casualties in several engagements in 1813, including the Battle of Lake Erie, where more than 150 of its men had served aboard Barclay's ships. They had been reinforced by the young soldiers of the 2nd Battalion. Most of the regiment's officers were dissatisfied with Procter's leadership, but Colonel Warburton, the next in seniority, refused to countenance any move to remove him from command. Tecumseh led about 500 Indians.

Battle

Procter ordered his troops to abandon their half-cooked breakfast and retreat a further two miles shortly after daybreak on October 5, then formed them into line of battle with a single 6-pounder cannon. He planned to trap Harrison on the banks of the Thames, driving the Americans off the road with cannon fire, but he had made no attempt to fortify the position by creating abatis or throwing up earthworks, and the ground presented no obstacle to the American horsemen, while scattered trees masked the British fire. Tecumseh's men formed a line in a black ash swamp on the British right to flank the Americans. Tecumseh rode along the British line, shaking hands with each officer before rejoining his warriors.

General Harrison surveyed the battlefield and ordered James Johnson (brother of Col. Johnson) to make a frontal attack on the British regulars with his mounted riflemen. Despite the Indians' flanking fire, Johnson's Kentuckians broke through, the British cannon not having fired. The exhausted, dispirited, and half-starved British regulars fired a single ragged fusillade before retreating in disorder.

Procter and about 250 of his men fled from the battlefield, while the rest of his soldiers threw down their weapons and surrendered. Most of the British soldiers, including Lieutenant Richard Bullock's grenadier company, who escaped the battlefield were on the right of the British line, where the ground was marshy and more thickly wooded.

Tecumseh and his followers remained and carried on fighting. Col. Johnson charged into the Indian position at the head of about 20 horsemen to draw attention away from the main American force, but Tecumseh and his men answered with a volley of musket fire that stopped the cavalry charge. Fifteen of Johnson's men were killed or wounded, Johnson himself was hit five times, and his main force became bogged down in the swamp mud. Tecumseh is believed to have been killed during this fighting.

The main force made its way through the swamp, and James Johnson's troops were freed from their attack on the British. The American reinforcements were converging as news spread of the death of Tecumseh, and Indian resistance dissolved. Richard Mentor Johnson was credited with shooting Tecumseh, though the evidence is unclear. William Whitley, a Revolutionary War veteran, is also credited with killing him. Lawyer and one-armed marksman James A Drain Sr., in his autobiography Single Handed (1927), wrote of hearing from Whitley's granddaughter the family tradition that Whitley and Tecumseh killed each other simultaneously.

Casualties

Harrison reported that the British regulars had 72 killed and 22 wounded prisoners. Lieutenant Richard Bullock of the 41st Regiment, however, said that there were 12 killed and 36 wounded prisoners. More than a year after the battle, British Colonel Augustus Warburton and Lieutenant Colonel William Evans both reported that 18 were killed and 25 wounded. Harrison reported 601 British troops captured, a figure that included the prisoners taken during the retreat leading up to the battle and stragglers captured after it.

The Indians recorded their own casualties as 16 killed, including Tecumseh, although Harrison claimed that 33 dead Indians were found in the woods after the battle. General Procter wrote in a letter dated October 23, 1813, "The Indian cause and ours experienced a serious loss in the death of Round Head." American soldiers scalped and skinned some of the dead Indians in order to acquire souvenirs.

There are conflicting versions of the American loss in the battle. Harrison stated that 7 were killed outright, 5 died of wounds, and 17 more were wounded. Major General Isaac Shelby said that 7 or 8 were killed outright, 4 died of their wounds, and about 20 more were wounded. Participant Robert McAfee gave 10 killed and 35 wounded, while Peter Trisler Jr. said that there were 14 killed and 20 wounded.

Historian Samuel R. Brown states that there were 25 killed or fatally injured and 50 wounded in Johnson's regiment, and 2 killed and 6–7 wounded in the infantry, for a total of 27 killed and 56 or 57 wounded. Harrison informed Secretary of War John Armstrong Jr. that the only casualties inflicted by the British were three men wounded; all of the rest were caused by the Indians.

Aftermath

The enlistments were about to expire for the militia component of Harrison's army, so the Americans retired to Detroit.

The American victory led to re-established American control over the Northwest frontier, and the Detroit area remained comparatively quiet for the rest of the war, apart from skirmishes such as the Battle of Longwoods and an American mounted raid near the end of 1814 which resulted in the Battle of Malcolm's Mills. American victory at the Thames failed to translate into recapture of Illinois, Wisconsin, and other Midwestern territories, which the British and Indians held until the war's end; efforts also failed to regain control of the Old Northwest and of fur trade routes after the British victory at the subsequent Engagements on Lake Huron.

The death of Tecumseh was a crushing blow to the Indian alliance which he created, and it dissolved following the battle. Harrison signed an armistice at Detroit with the chiefs or representatives of several tribes, although others fought on until the end of the war and beyond. He then transferred most of his regulars east to the Niagara River and went himself to Washington where he was acclaimed a hero. However, a comparatively petty dispute with President James Madison and John Armstrong resulted in him resigning his commission as major general. Harrison's popularity grew, and he was eventually elected president. Richard Mentor Johnson eventually became vice president to President Martin Van Buren, based partly on the belief that he had personally killed Tecumseh.

A few days after the battle, Procter rallied 246 men of the 41st Regiment at the Grand River, reinforced by some young soldiers of the 2nd battalion who had not been present at the battle. The two battalions were reorganized and merged, as the regiment was severely understrength at this point, and the survivors of the 1st Battalion were placed in the grenadier and light infantry companies. The soldiers of the 41st who were taken prisoner at Moraviantown and the Battle of Lake Erie were exchanged or released towards the end of 1814. They had been held in encampments near Sandusky, Ohio, and had suffered severely from sickness during their captivity.

In May 1814, Procter was charged with negligence and improper conduct, though a court martial could not be held until December, when campaigning had ceased for the winter and a senior board of officers could be assembled. They judged that Procter had managed the retreat badly, failing to secure his stores, and also disposed the troops ineffectively at Moraviantown. He was sentenced to be suspended from rank and pay for six months.

Legacy
Three modern battalions of the United States Army perpetuate the lineage of the old 27th Infantry Regiment, elements of which were at the Battle of the Thames.

Order of battle
The following units and commanders of the American, British, and Native American armed forces Battle of the Thames:

Abbreviations used

 MG = Major General
 BG = Brigadier General
 Col = Colonel
 Ltc = Lieutenant Colonel
 Maj = Major
 Cpt = Captain
 Lt = 1st Lieutenant
 w = wounded
 k = killed
 m = missing

American Forces
Army of the Northwest: MG William Henry Harrison

General Staff
Inspector-General: Col George Walker
Military Secretary: Maj William T. Barry
Judge Advocate General: Maj Thomas Barr
Adjutant General: Joseph McDowell
Aide-de-Camp: Oliver Hazard Perry
Aide-de-Camp: BG Lewis Cass

Kentucky Militia
Governor Isaac Shelby

General Staff
 1st Aide de Camp: BG John Adair
 2nd Aide de Camp: Maj John J. Crittenden
 Quartermaster General: BG John Payne

British and Native forces
Major General Henry Procter

British
41st (Welsh) Regiment of Foot:  Col Augustus Warburton
Local militia (composition unknown)

Tecumseh's confederacy
Tecumseh †

Shawnee: Tecumseh
Odawa: Naiwash
Ojibwe: Oshawahnah

Notes

References

Sources

Carter-Edwards, Dennis. "The War of 1812 Along the Detroit Frontier: A Canadian Perspective," in The Michigan Historical Review, 13:2 (Fall 1987), pp. 25–50.
Cleaves, Freeman. Old Tippecanoe: William Henry Harrison and His Time. New York: Scribner, 1939.  (1990 reissue).
Edmunds, R. David. "Forgotten Allies: The Loyal Shawnees and the War of 1812" in David Curtis Skaggs and Larry L. Nelson, eds., The Sixty Years' War for the Great Lakes, 1754–1814, pp. 337–351. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2001. .
Elting, John R. Amateurs, To Arms! A Military History of the War of 1812. Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin, 1991.  (hardcover);  (1995 Da Capo Press paperback).
Forester, C.S. The Age of Fighting Sail, New English Library,

Hitsman, J. Mackay and Graves, Donald. The Incredible War of 1812, Robin Brass Studios, Toronto, 1999.
Latimer, Jon. 1812: War with America. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2007.
Sugden, John. Tecumseh's Last Stand. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985. .
Sugden, John. Tecumseh: A Life. New York: Holt, 1997.  (hardcover);  (1999 paperback).
Zaslow, Morris (ed) The Defended Border, Macmillan of Canada, 1964,  BOBBY

Conflicts in 1813
Thames
William Henry Harrison
Tecumseh
1813 in North America
October 1813 events
Thames

Battle of the Thames


A storm drain, storm sewer (U.S.), stormwater drain (Australia and New Zealand) or surface water system (UK) is designed to drain extra rain and ground water from paved streets, parking lots, sidewalks, and roofs. Storm drains vary in design from small residential dry wells to large municipal systems. They are fed by street gutters on most motorways, freeways and other busy roads, as well as towns in areas which experience heavy rainfall, flooding and coastal towns which experience regular storms.

Drainage

Storm drain


Physics is a branch of science. It is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines. The main goal of physics is to explain how things move in space and time and understand how the universe behaves. It studies matter, forces and their effects.

The word  physics comes from the Greek word ἡ φύσις, meaning "nature". Physics can also be defined as "that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events".

Physics is very important in the development of new technologies, such as airplanes, televisions, computers and nuclear weapons. Mechanics, a branch of physics, helped develop the mathematical field of calculus.

Modern physics connects ideas about the four laws of symmetry and conservation of energy, momentum, charge, and parity.

Astronomy, a part of physics, is the oldest natural science. In the past it was a part of 'natural philosophy' with other fields of science, such as chemistry and biology. During the scientific revolution, these fields became separate, and physics became a distinct field of knowledge.

History

Ancient astronomy
Astronomy is the oldest natural science. The Sumerians, and Ancient Egyptians studied the stars, mostly with a view to prediction and religion. The first Babylonian star maps date from about 1200 BC. That astronomical events are periodic also dates back to the Babylonians.  Their understanding was not scientific, but their observations influenced later astronomy. Much astronomy came from Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Ancient Egypt, and Ancient Greece. Astronomers from Egypt built monuments that showed how objects in the sky moved, and most of the names for the constellations in the Northern hemisphere came from Greek astronomers.

Natural philosophy
Natural philosophy started in Greece around 650 BC when a movement of philosophers replaced superstition with naturalism, which refuted the spiritual. Leucippus and his student Democritus suggested the idea of the atom around this period.

Physics in the medieval Islamic world
Islamic scholars continued to study Aristotelian physics during the Islamic Golden Age. One main contribution was to observational astronomy. Some, like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna, worked  on optics and vision. In The Book of Optics, Ibn al-Haytham rejected previous Greek ideas concerning vision and proposed a new theory. He studied how light enters the eye, and  developed the camera obscura. European scientists later built eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, and cameras from this book.

Classical physics
Physics became a separate field of study after the scientific revolution. Galileo's experiments helped to create classical physics. Although he did not invent the telescope, he used it when he looked into the night sky. He supported Copernicus' idea that the Earth moved around the Sun (heliocentrism). He also investigated gravity. Isaac Newton used Galileo's ideas to create his three laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation.  Together these laws explained the motion of falling bodies near the earth and the motion of earth and planets around the sun.

In a couple centuries, the Industrial Revolution was in full swing and many more discoveries were made in many fields of science. The laws of classical physics are good enough to study objects that move much slower than the speed of light, and are not microscopic. When scientists first studied quantum mechanics, they had to create a new set of laws, which was the start of modern physics.

Modern physics
As scientists researched particles, they discovered what classical mechanics could not explain. Classical mechanics predicted that the speed of light varied, but experiments showed the speed of light stayed the same. This was predicted by Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity. Einstein predicted that the speed of electromagnetic radiation through empty space would always be the same. His view of space-time replaced the ancient idea that space and time were quite separate things.

Max Planck came up with quantum mechanics to explain why metal releases electrons when you shine a light at it, and why matter emits radiation. Quantum mechanics applies for very small things like the electrons, protons, and neutrons that make up an atom. People like Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, and Paul Dirac continued to work on quantum mechanics and eventually we got the Standard Model.

Definition

Physics is the study of energy and matter in space and time and how they are related to each other. Physicists assume the existence of mass, length, time and electric current and then define (give the meaning of) all other physical quantities in terms of these basic units. Mass, length, time, and electric current are never defined but the standard units used to measure them are always defined. In the International System of Units (abbreviated SI from the French Système International), the kilogram is the basic unit of mass, the metre is the basic unit of length, the second is the basic unit of time, and the ampere is the basic unit of electric current.
In addition to these four units, there are three other ones: the mole, which is the unit of the quantity of matter, the candela which measures the luminous intensity (the power of lighting) and the kelvin, the unit of temperature.

Physics studies how things move, and the forces that make them move. For example, velocity and acceleration are used by physics to show how things move. Also, physicists study the forces of gravity, electricity, magnetism and the forces that hold things together.

Physics studies very large things, and very small things. For instance, physicists can study stars, planets and galaxies but could also study small pieces of matter, such as atoms and electrons.They may also study sound, light and other waves. As well as that, they could examine energy, heat and radioactivity, and even space and time.
Physics not only helps people understand how objects move, but how they change form, how they make noise, how hot or cold they will be, and what they are made of at the smallest level. In short, physics is the branch of science that deals with properties of matter and energy along with the interaction between them.

Physics and mathematics
Physics is a quantitative science because it is based on measuring with numbers. Mathematics is used in physics to make models that try to predict what will happen in nature. These predictions are compared to the way the real world works. Physicists are always working to make their models of the world better.

Branches

Classical mechanics contains major topics such as Newton's laws of motion, Lagrangian mechanics, Hamiltonian mechanics, kinematics, statics, dynamics, chaos theory, acoustics, fluid dynamics, continuum mechanics.  Classical mechanics is all about forces acting on a body in nature, balancing forces, maintaining equlibrium state, etc .

Electromagnetism is study of charges on a particular body.  It contains subtopics such as Electrostatics, electrodynamics, electricity, magnetism, magnetostatics, Maxwell's equations, optics .

Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics are related with temperature.  It includes main topics such as Heat engine, kinetic theory.  It uses terms such as heat(Q), work(W), and internal energy (U).  First law of thermodynamics gives us the relation them by the following equation (ΔU = Q − W)

Quantum mechanics is the study of particle at the atomic level taking into consideration the atomic model.  It includes subtopics Path integral formulation, scattering theory, Schrödinger equation, quantum field theory, quantum statistical mechanics.

Relativity

Advanced knowledge

General description
Physics is the science of matter and how matter interacts. Matter is any physical material in the universe. Everything is made of matter. Physics is used to describe the physical universe around us, and to predict how it will behave.
Physics is the science concerned with the discovery and characterization of the universal laws which govern matter, movement and forces, and space and time, and other features of the natural world.

Breadth and goals of physics
The sweep of physics is broad, from the smallest components of matter and the forces that hold it together, to galaxies and even larger things. There are only four forces that appear to operate over this whole range. However, even these four forces (gravity, electromagnetism, the weak force associated with radioactivity, and the strong force which holds protons and neutrons in an atom together) are believed to be different parts of a single force.

Physics is mainly focused on the goal of making ever simpler, more general, and more accurate rules that define the character and behavior of matter and space itself.
One of the major goals of physics is making theories that apply to everything in the universe. In other words, physics can be viewed as the study of those universal laws which define, at the most basic level possible, the behavior of the physical universe.

Physics uses the scientific method
Physics uses the scientific method. That is, data from experiments and observations are collected. Theories which attempt to explain these data are produced. Physics uses these theories to not only describe physical phenomena, but to model physical systems and predict how these physical systems will behave. Physicists then compare these predictions to observations or experimental evidence to show whether the theory is right or wrong.

The theories that are well supported by data and are especially simple and general are sometimes called scientific laws. Of course, all theories, including those known as laws, can be replaced by more accurate and more general laws, when a disagreement with data is found.

Physics is quantitative
Physics is more quantitative than most other sciences. That is, many of the observations in physics may be represented in the form of numerical measurements. Most of the theories in physics use mathematics to express their principles. Most of the predictions from these theories are numerical. This is because of the areas which physics has addressed work better with quantitative approaches than other areas. Sciences also tend to become more quantitative with time as they become more highly developed, and physics is one of the oldest sciences.

Fields of physics
Classical physics normally includes the fields of mechanics, optics, electricity, magnetism, acoustics and thermodynamics. Modern physics is a term normally used to cover fields which rely on quantum theory, including quantum mechanics, atomic physics, nuclear physics, particle physics and condensed matter physics, as well as the more modern fields of general and special relativity, but these last two are often considered fields of classical physics as they do not rely on quantum theory. Although this difference can be found in older writings, it is of little new interest as quantum effects are now understood to be of importance even in fields that before were called classical.

Approaches in physics
There are many ways to study physics, and many different kinds of activities in physics. The two main types of activities are the collection of data, and the development of theories.

Some subfields of physics can be studied by experiment. For example, Galileo Galilei invented kinematics by making experiments and studying the data. Experimental physics focuses mainly on an empirical approach. Some experiments are done to explore nature, and other experiments are performed to produce data to compare with the predictions of theories.

Some other fields in physics like astrophysics and geophysics are mostly observational sciences because most of their data has to be collected passively instead of through experimentation. Galileo, for example, could only look at Jupiter and discover that it has moons. However, observational programs in these fields use many of the same tools and technology that are used in the experimental subfields of physics.

Theoretical physics often uses quantitative approaches to develop the theories that attempt to explain the data. In this way, theoretical physicists often use tools from mathematics. Theoretical physics often can involve creating quantitative predictions of physical theories, and comparing these predictions quantitatively with data. Theoretical physics sometimes creates models of physical systems before data is available to test and support these models.

These two main activities in physics, data collection, theory production and testing, use many different skills. This has led to a lot of specialization in physics, and the introduction, development and use of tools from other fields. For example, theoretical physicists use mathematics and numerical analysis and statistics and probability and computer software in their work. Experimental physicists develop instruments and techniques for collecting data, using engineering and computer technology and many other fields of technology. Often the tools from these other areas are not quite appropriate for the needs of physics, and need to be changed or more advanced versions have to be made.

It is frequent for new physics to be discovered if experimental physicists do an experiment that current theories cannot explain, or for theoretical physicists to generate theories which can then be put to the test by experimental physicists.

Experimental physics, engineering and technology are related. Experiments often need specialized tools such as particle accelerators, lasers, and important industrial applications such as transistors and magnetic resonance imaging have come from applied research.

Physicists

Prominent physicists

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695)
Isaac Newton (1643–1727)
Leonhard Euler (1707–1783)
Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736–1813)
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827)
Joseph Fourier (1768–1830)
Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (1796–1842)
William Rowan Hamilton (1805–1865)
Rudolf Clausius (1822–1888)
James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)
J. Willard Gibbs (1839–1903)
Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906)
Hendrik A. Lorentz (1853–1928)
Henri Poincaré (1854–1912)
Nikola Tesla (1856–1943)
Max Planck (1858–1947)
Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
Milutin Milanković (1879–1958)
Emmy Noether (1882–1935)
Max Born (1882–1970)
Niels Bohr (1885–1962)
Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961)
Louis de Broglie (1892–1987)
Satyendra Nath Bose (1894–1974)
Wolfgang Pauli (1900–1958)
Enrico Fermi (1901–1954)
Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976)
Paul Dirac (1902–1984)
Eugene Wigner (1902–1995)
Robert Oppenheimer (1904–1967)
Sin-Itiro Tomonaga (1906–1979)
Hideki Yukawa (1907–1981)
John Bardeen (1908–1991)
Lev Landau (1908–1967)
Anatoly Vlasov (1908–1975)
Nikolay Bogolyubov (1909–1992)
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1910–1995)
John Archibald Wheeler (1911–2008)
Richard Feynman (1918–1988)
Julian Schwinger (1918–1994)
Feza Gürsey (1921–1992)
Chen Ning Yang (1922– )
Freeman Dyson (1923–2020 )
Gunnar Källén (1926–1968)
Abdus Salam (1926–1996)
Murray Gell-Mann (1929– )
Riazuddin (1930– )
Roger Penrose (1931– )
George Sudarshan (1931– )
Sheldon Glashow (1932– )
Tom W. B. Kibble (1932– )
Steven Weinberg (1933– )
Gerald Guralnik (1936–)
Sidney Coleman (1937–2007)
C. R. Hagen (1937–)
Ratko Janev (1939– )
Leonard Susskind (1940– )
Michael Berry (1941– )
Bertrand Halperin (1941–)
Stephen Hawking (1942–2018 )
Alexander Polyakov (1945–)
Gerardus 't Hooft (1946– )
Jacob Bekenstein (1947–)
Robert Laughlin (1950–)

Related pages
 American Physical Society
 Astronomy
 Energy
 Matter
 Time

References

Other websites

 Units and Measurements Question

Physics


Philip of Burgundy (1464 in Brussels – 7 April 1524 in Wijk bij Duurstede) was Admiral of the Netherlands from 1498 to 1517 and bishop of Utrecht from 1517 to 1524.

Philip was an illegitimate son of Duke Philip the Good. 1486 he was knighted and in 1491 he single-handedly killed an opponent. He was at the head of the Burgundian army in the Sticht and, as such, refused to bury his
half-brother David of Burgundy, bishop of Utrecht, as long as the election of a Burgundian-favoured successor had not been arranged. He was appointed admiral in 1498 by Duke Philip the Fair and after an expedition to Rome in 1508 he settled in the castle Souburg on Walcheren.

In a politically motivated move, Philip was appointed bishop of Utrecht by Duke Charles (later Emperor Charles V) to replace Frederick IV of Baden. When he made his entrance into Utrecht he had not received any kind of ordination; these were given to him in the following days. He led a luxurious life in the episcopal residence, Duurstede Castle, taking a particular interested in weaponry, women and horses. He was a true renaissance-ruler, and was little concerned with religious matters, which he delegated to his servants. He ignored the rising Lutheranism.

Philip's politics were not very successful; he left much to his councillors and had trouble keeping himself standing in the midst of the faction-struggles in the bishopric. During his rule the Oversticht was largely lost in the Guelders War between the Empire and Guelders. The bishopric maintained only Hasselt, Steenwijk and Oldenzaal.

Philips only positive contribution was his patronage of the arts. For years he maintained the painter Jan Gossaert and the humanist Gelderhouwer, and he acted as a protector of Erasmus. He also was the sculptor Conrad Meit's first employer in the Low Countries.  He also owned works by Hieronymous Bosch.

Sources

Prince-Bishops of Utrecht
1464 births
1524 deaths
Roman Catholic priests from the Habsburg Netherlands
Clergy from Brussels
House of Valois-Burgundy
Philip the Good (Duke of Burgundy)
16th-century Roman Catholic bishops in the Holy Roman Empire
Military personnel from Brussels
Stadtholders of Guelders and Zutphen

Philip of Burgundy (bishop)