The Seven Star Crags () are located across from the center of Zhaoqing City, Guangdong, People's Republic of China. The crags are all situated in or around Star Lake directly opposite Paifang square in downtown Zhaoqing.

The area including the crags and Star Lake compromise .  The lake is partitioned into five separate sections divided with small strips of land and walkways.  They form one of the most scenic locations in the province and are one of the main tourist draws of the city, the other being Dinghu Mountain.  The crags are many times referred to as the little Guilin due to their striking visual similarity to Guilin's mountains.

Description
The limestone crags are naturally arranged in the same formation as the seven stars of the Big Dipper constellation. Legend has it that the pillars of limestone grew from stars that fell from the skies. There are a number of caves in this  area and some contain underground rivers that are large enough to navigate by boat. One of the crags can be climbed, having steep stairs going up the side; at the top is a small pavilion for viewing the lake and neighboring crags. Boat tours of the crags and lake can be taken from the area west of Paifang Square.  Star Lake has been designated a national park.

Numerous sculptures of Buddhist and Taoist idols are located around Star Lake. There is also a reserve for migratory birds within reach by boat ride.

Beautiful views of the crags and lake can be seen by driving or walking on Xinghu West Road on the west of the lake and Xinghu Avenue on the east.

Seven Star Crags consist of crags, lake and caves. The seven crags, seen like the Big Dipper at a distance, stand one after another around a vast expanse of dark green lake water. With the grotesque crags, fantastic caves and beautiful lakes, Seven Star Crags have long been reputed as a wonderful place boasting picturesque scenery of the West Lake in Hangzhou and the hills in Guilin. There are 531 pieces of cliff inscription in this place. It is a major historical and cultural site under state protection.

References

Zhaoqing
Landforms of Guangdong
Rock formations of China
Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Guangdong

Seven Star Crags


This article is about the chemical concept of valence, or valency. Other meanings are at valence.

In chemistry, valency or valence is the number of chemical bonds that an atom of a certain element can form.

For a long time, people thought that this number was a fixed property of the element in question. They thought that carbon always has four bonds, oxygen always has two, and hydrogen always has one. The problem was seen only later. For example, phosphorous sometimes behaves as if it had three bonds, a valence of three. At other times, though, it seems to have five bonds.

IUPAC saw this problem, and proposed oxidation numbers. This means there is one number per chemical element. The problem with this approach is that it leaves aside most chemical properties of the elements in question.

A valence band is the highest occupied molecular orbital normally occupied by valence electrons for a given solid at absolute zero temperature.

Related pages
 Valence electron

Other websites
"Valence" from the IUPAC Gold Book (PDF file)

Chemistry

Valency


The Kahlenberg () is a mountain () located in the 19th District of Vienna, Austria (Döbling).

General
The Kahlenberg lies in the Vienna Woods and is one of the most popular destinations for day-trips from Vienna, offering a view over the entire city. Parts of Lower Austria can also be seen from Stefaniewarte at the peak. Next to Stefaniewarte is a 165-meter high steel tower that serves as the transmitter for the ORF, the Austrian Broadcast Corporation. Two terraces are located on the mountain: one at a small church called St. Josef and one at a restaurant built in the 1930s by architect Erich Boltenstern. Parts of the restaurant and a nearby abandoned hotel have been torn down and replaced by a modern restaurant and Modul University Vienna, a private university established in 2007, focusing on Social and Economic Development, in particular in the areas of tourism, information technology and public governance. The demolition was opposed by the local historical society and by some architects who believed the building was worth protecting. There is also a spiritual recovery center and a center for a Catholic reform movement, the Schönstattbewegung Österreich.

Geography
Kahlenberg is 484 meters high and lies in the northeastern foothills of the Eastern Alps. The mountain is mostly flysch, which is composed of quartz, limestone, marl, and other conglomerates. East of Kahlenberg is Leopoldsberg; and to the west are Reisenberg, Latisberg, and Hermannskogel.

History
Kahlenberg (German: bald mountain) was uninhabited until the 18th century. Originally, the mountain was called Sauberg (sow mountain) or Schweinsberg (pig mountain), after the numerous wild pigs that lived in the pristine oak forests. In 1628, Ferdinand II acquired the mountain from the Klosterneuburg monastery and called it Josephsberg (Joseph's Mountain). Only after Emperor Leopold I renamed the original Kahlenberg (the neighbouring mountain) to Leopoldsberg was the name "Kahlenberg" given to the "Josephsberg".

After acquiring the mountain, Ferdinand II allowed a hermitage for the Kamaldulenser, an order of Catholic hermits, to be built. A few houses were built around the Chapel of Saint Joseph, which earned the name Josefsdorf.

Jan III Sobieski, King of Poland launched his attack on the Turkish forces during the second siege of Vienna from here. The Turkish name of the mountain is Alamandağı.

The mountain is also notable as the place where Albert Einstein, Otto Neurath, and other mathematicians and physicists made the first plans, around 1920, for what would later become the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science.

Transportation
Kahlenberg can be reached by car or by bus (Bus line 38A) via the picturesque Höhenstraße, part of which is cobblestone. The first Austrian cog railway was built to Kahlenberg in 1872 and 1873 and opened in 1874. It was designed by Carl Maader. The track climbed 316 meters over 5.5 km and started from the train station in Nußdorf (today the end station of the tram-line D) and connected through Grinzing and Krapfenwaldl to the Kahlenberg Hotel, which opened in 1872. An average of 180,000 passengers used the train line each year. After World War I, the Vienna municipality converted the trams to electric power. The surrounding citizens had already dismantled large parts of the track during the war. On September 21, 1920, the line was finally shut down.

Notes

External links

Kahlenberg. A view from the restaurant at Kahlenberg.

Tourist attractions in Vienna
Rack railways in Austria
Döbling
Hills of Vienna
Mountains of the Alps

Kahlenberg


An election for mayor of the City of Lancaster in Pennsylvania was held on November 3, 2009.  Incumbent Mayor Rick Gray, a Democrat, defeated challenger Charles W. "Charlie" Smithgall, a Republican by 313 votes, out of 7,261 cast.

Gray announced his intention to seek a second term as mayor on December 17, 2008. Former two-term mayor Charles W. "Charlie" Smithgall, who had initially declined to run, won the Republican primary by write-in vote by supporters. Smithgall, who was in office from 1998 until 2006, was not a declared candidate in the primary. Smithgall announced on June 26, 2009, that he would accept the nomination.

Election background
Smithgall was first elected to office in 1997, easily defeating his Democratic opponent, attorney Jon Lyons, with 52 to 36 percent of the vote.  Smithgall won re-election for a second term in the 2001 mayoral election against Democrat Ed Ruoff.

Smithgall sought to seek a third term in the 2005 mayoral election.  His Democratic challenger during that election was Rick Gray, a lawyer. The 2005 campaign between Smithgall and Gray was the most expensive mayoral election in Lancaster's history.  Smithgall and Gray raised a combined $229,000 for their campaigns: Smithgall raised $146,792 and Gray $82,072.  In a surprise outcome, Smithgall, an early favorite for re-election, was defeated by Gray by 16 percentage points.

2009 campaign
Gray announced his intention to seek a second term as mayor  on December 17, 2008.  He was unopposed in the Democratic primary and initially had no Republican opposition in the general election as well.

Smithgall initially declined a potential rematch with Gray, leaving no Republican challenger. However, a grassroots campaign was launched by supporters of the former mayor to support him as a write-in candidate in the Republican primary. Despite the efforts by supporters to draft him into the election, Smithgall remained out of the mayoral race until after the May 2009 primary. Smithgall received 227 write-in votes from supporters in the primary. Smithgall's supporters needed 100 votes to draft him as their write-in candidate and validate a potential candidacy.

After some consideration, Smithgall entered the race and officially announced his candidacy on June 26, 2009.

Unlike the 2005 election, Gray has outraised and outspent Smithgall by nearly five times between June 2009 and October 2009.  Gray had raised in $33,908 and had approximately $20,805 in cash on hand as of October 19, 2009. By contrast, Smithgall raised just $6,900 and had just $519 in cash on hand during the same time period.

References

External links
Rick Gray for Mayor 2009 campaign
Charlie Smithgall for Mayor 2009 campaign

Lancaster Mayor
Lancaster
History of Lancaster, Pennsylvania
2009

2009 Lancaster, Pennsylvania, mayoral election


A regular polygon is a shape that can be drawn on a flat surface. It has sides that are all the same length, and its angles are all the same. In other words, a polygon which is both equilateral (which means all its sides have the same length) and equiangular (which means that all its angles are the same) is a regular polygon. It always has the same number of edges and points.

A polygon is also convex if there aren't any two points within it that can't be connected with a straight line, where the entire straight line is also in it. An example of a concave shape is a five-pointed star. It's concave because you can connect two of the points of a star with a straight line, and most of the straight line doesn't go through the star. If a five-pointed star is both equilateral and equiangular, it is also a regular polygon, but it isn't a convex one. All regular concave polygons are stars.

Examples
The simplest examples of regular convex polygons are:
Polygons with more sides look more like circles. A polygon with an infinite number of sides is called an apeirogon. Polygons can be described in text by a special symbol called a Schläfli symbol. This symbol is written as curly brackets, with some numbers inside it, like {3}. {3} is a triangle. The number inside can also be a fraction. A Schläfli symbol of {5/2} is a five-pointed star.

Properties
Most mathematical objects have things that can be said about them that are always true. These are called properties. All polygons (convex and star polygons) can be rotated in place by some angle and still look the same—in other words, they're all rotationally symmetric. For example, a square could be rotated a quarter turn, and it would look the same as before. Another way of seeing this property is that any polygon can have a circle drawn around it, touching all its points, and the polygon's points are evenly spaced around the circle. A polygon can also have a circle drawn inside it, touching all its edges (but not overlapping), and the places where the circle touches the polygon are also evenly spaced. The centers of the two circles drawn are in the same place. This proves that a regular polygon is rotationally symmetric.

The circle outside the polygon is called circumscribed, and the circle inside the polygon is called inscribed. Any polygon where a circle circumscribes all its points is called a cyclic polygon. All regular polygons are cyclic, but not all cyclic polygons are regular.
Polygons

Regular polygon


Electrons that remain unbonded to another atom are called lone pairs, while electrons that are bonded between two atoms are called bonding pairs. A lone pair is a group of two electrons that are not used in any bonds between atoms. They are always in the last shell of an atom, the valence shell. Together with the electrons used in bonding they make up the total number of valence electrons. They are usually high in energy.

You can think of a lone pair as a pair of electrons that an atom isn't sharing with anyone else.

A lone pair can be used to form new bonds between molecules. Nucleophiles always have a lone pair that is used to attack an electrophile. Lone pairs are also important for the shape of a molecule. They take more space around an atom than a bonding electron. Lone pairs on a same atom want to be as far away from each other as possible.

Theoretical chemistry

Lone pair


Anna Maria Thelott (1683 – 1710) was a Swedish artist. She was one of the first professional female artists in Sweden and also in Scandinavia. She was an engraver, an illustrator, a woodcut-artist, and a miniaturist.

Life
Anna Maria was the daughter of the artist Philipp Jacob Thelott the Older, and sister of the artist Philip Jacob Thelott the Younger. When she was a child, she worked together with her brother and her father to illustrate the books "Campus Elysii" and "Atlantica", by Olof Rudbeck, and when she was grown up, she started to work alone and illustrate papers and maps and other things. She made miniature portraits of people, she drew animals, cities and landscapes.

Her family lived in Uppsala until 1702, when the city burnt down, and they moved to Stockholm.

In 1710, Anna Maria became one of the many victims of the last plague in Sweden.

1683 births
1710 deaths
Engravers
People from Uppsala
Swedish illustrators

Anna Maria Thelott


Samos City is the capital of the Greek island Samos. It is in the northeast of the island. Samos City has about 6,000 people. The old town of Samos city is named Vathy. Vathy is beside Samos and it is jointed with it. It is a traditional small town with traditional houses and narrow paths. Vathy has about 2,000 people.

Cities in Greece

Samos City


John Payne (May 28, 1912 – December 6, 1989) was an American actor and singer.

Career
John Payne began his career playing a small role in the William Wyler movie Dodsworth (1936). In 1938 he got a role in the comedy College Swing, directed by Raoul Walsh. He appeared on Broadway from 1935 to 1939. His first starring role was playing a boxer Steve Nelson in Kid Nightingale (1939), directed by George Amy. John Payne work with Randolph Scott and Maureen O'Hara in the war movie To the Shores of Tripoli (1942), directed by H. Bruce Humberstone.

In 1946 he got the role co-starring in Miracle on 34th Street (1947), directed by George Seaton. Another great movie starring Payne was Kansas City Confidential (1952), directed by Phil Karlson. In this movie Payne plays an ex-convict trying to become a part of society who people think robbed many armored car.

He has also been a regular performer in Westerns movies El Paso (1949), The Eagle and the Hawk (1950) and Passage West (1951) directed by Lewis R. Foster, The Vanquished (1953), directed by Edward Ludwig, Silver Lode (1954), directed by Allan Dwan, Rails Into Laramie (1954) directed by Jesse Hibbs, Santa Fe Passage (1955) directed by William Witney, The Road to Denver (1955), directed by Joseph Kane, Tennessee's Partner (1955), where he worked with Ronald Reagan, directed by Allan Dwan, and Rebel in Town (1956) by Alfred L. Werker.

Television
John Payne also had success in television. He was the star of western The Restless Gun. It was a television series broadcast on NBC between 1957 and 1959, Payne starred as Vint Bonner, a lone cowboy and former Confederate soldier. He also made appearances in Zane Grey Theater (1957), The Dick Powell Show (1962), The Name of the Game (1968), Gunsmoke (1970), Cade's County (1971), and Columbo (1975).

References
Best Western Movies: Winning Pictures, Favorite Films and Hollywood B Entries, by John Howard Reid
Movie Mystery & Suspense, by John Howard Reid

Other websites

 John Payne in Lux Radio Theater: Miracle on 34th Street (1948)  (Downloadable mp3 and streaming audio)

1912 births
1989 deaths
American movie actors
American television actors
Singers from Virginia
Actors from Virginia
People from Roanoke, Virginia

John Payne


Neil Burton Rolnick (born October 22, 1947) is an American composer and educator living in New York City.

Life
Rolnick was born in Dallas, Texas, and studied English literature at Harvard University where he received a BA in 1969. He then turned to music, studying composition first at the San Francisco Conservatory in 1973–74), then with Richard Felciano, and finally with Andrew Imbrie and Olly Wilson at the University of California, Berkeley, where he received an MA in 1976 and a PhD in 1980. Concurrently he also studied computer music with John Chowning at Stanford University and was a visiting researcher at IRCAM in Paris from 1977 to 1979 (Marshall 2001). Rolnick also studied composition with Darius Milhaud (Oteri and Rolmick 2013) and John Coolidge Adams, and computer music with James A. Moorer.. He has lived in New York City since 2002.

Teaching
From 1981 to 2013 Rolnick taught at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, where he founded the iEAR Studios (Marshall 2001). In 1991, as head of Rensselaer's Arts Department (Rensselaer Arts Department website) he led the establishment of the nation's first MFA program in Integrated Electronic Arts.

Musical production
Rolnick's compositions have appeared on 18 records and CDs, and he was a pioneer in the use of computers in performance. Much of Rolnick's musical output involves the use of computers and digital media, but it is generally notable for its accessibility and good humor. His music has been characterized by critics as "sophisticated" (Ken Smith, Gramophone), "hummable and engaging" (Steve Barnes, Albany (NY) Times Union), and as having "good senses of showmanship and humor" (Kyle Gann, The Village Voice).

Discography
Orchestra Underground: Tech & Techno (includes The iFiddle Concerto) (2014) (digital release by American Composers Orchestra)
Neil Rolnick: Gardening At Gropius House (2013) (Innova Records 877)
Neil Rolnick: Extended Family (2011) (Innova Records 782)
The NYFA Collection: 25 Years of New York New Music (includes The Gathering from Extended Family) (2010) (Innova Records 233)
Neil Rolnick: The Economic Engine (2009) (Innova Records 724)
Neil Rolnick: Digits (2006) (Innova Records 656)
Neil Rolnick: Shadow Quartet (2005) (Innova Records 631)
Neil B. Rolnick's Fish Love That (2002) (Deep Listening Records DL 18-2002CD)
Neil B. Rolnick: Requiem Songs: For the Victims of Nationalism (1996) (Albany Records Troy188)
Transforms: The Nerve Event Project (includes NerveUs) (1993) (Cuneiform Records 55011)
Neil B. Rolnick: Macedonian Air Drumming (1992) (Bridge Records BCD9030)
Neil B. Rolnick: ElectriCity (1992) (OO Discs #8)
CDCM Computer Music Series Vol. 11 (includes The Persistence of the Clave) (1992) (Centaur Records CDC2133)
CDCM Computer Music Series Vol. 7 (includes Vocal Chords and A Robert Johnson Sampler) (1990) (Centaur Records CRC2047)
Imaginary Landscapes (includes Balkanization) (1989) (Nonesuch Records 9 79235-2)
CDCM Computer Music Series Vol. 2 (includes What Is the Use?) (1988) Centaur Records CRC2039)
Neil B. Rolnick: Real Time/A La Mode (1987) (Composers Recordings, Inc. CRI SD 540)
Neil B. Rolnick: Solos (1984) (1750 Arch Records S-1793)

References
Marshall, Ingram D. 2001. "Rolnick, Neil Burton". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
 Transcribed by Julia Lu. (accessed October 3, 2013).

External links
 Neil Rolnick official site
  (accessed October 3, 2013).

Listening
 John Schaefer interviews Rolnick on WNYC (2006)
 Jennifer Nathan interviews Rolnick on WAMC (2005)

1947 births
Living people
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
American male classical composers
American classical composers
American electronic musicians
Musicians from Dallas
Harvard University alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute faculty
Pupils of Darius Milhaud
21st-century American composers
20th-century American composers
Albany Records artists

Neil Rolnick


An allegory is a term for a figure of speech.  It is a story or picture with a hidden meaning. The characters in allegories are symbols which represent particular ideas.  The story has a figurative meaning, not just a literal one.

Allegory is an example of rhetoric, but an allegory does not have to be a story in language. It may be something to look at, such as a painting or sculpture.

An allegory is like a long metaphor.  People have to use their imagination to understand what it is trying to say.  A  fable or parable is a short allegory with one basic idea (a moral).

Sometimes people say that stories have meanings which the author, in fact, did not intend. For instance, many people have suggested that The Lord of the Rings was an allegory for the World Wars, but, in fact, it was written well before the outbreak of World War II, and J.R.R. Tolkien said that it was not an allegory.  In this way people sometimes change the author's ideas.  Sometimes they do it for their own political reasons.

Examples
Allegory has been a favourite form in the literature of nearly every nation. It is often used as a way of criticizing things or people where it would not be possible to do so directly.

In classical literature Plato and Ovid wrote allegories. Dante Alighieri wrote allegories in The Divine Comedy. In the Middle Ages Everyman was a morality play. John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress tells the story of a man trying to lead a Christian life. Jonathan Swift wrote Gulliver's Travels, which tells about the strange customs of (made-up) faraway countries, but he was really criticizing things about his own country, the United Kingdom. Animal Farm by George Orwell is another example of an allegory, this time of the Soviet Union during Josef Stalin's era and the Russian Revolution. Some of the characters can be directly linked to figures during that time.

Songs may also include allegories. "Waist Deep In The Big Muddy" tells a story of American soldiers in the 1800s, ordered by their commander to march into the Mississippi River, which they could never cross on foot. In truth, it told the story of soldiers fighting in the Vietnam War in the 1960s, and being expected to do the white guy's bidding.

Allegories still continue to be popular today. Pictures, movies and plays can be allegories. William Golding's novel Lord of the Flies also has allegorical meaning. Star Trek used a great deal of allegory, to look at social conditions and moral values in the present, while telling stories based in the future. Alien races were often a reflection of Earth's own races and countries.

Allegorical artworks include Sandro Botticelli's La Primavera (Allegory of Spring) and Jan Vermeer's The Allegory of Painting.

Related pages
 Trope

References

Genres
Literary terms

Allegory


The Book of Discipline constitutes the law and doctrine of the United Methodist Church. It follows similar works for its predecessor denominations. It was originally published in 1784, in the Methodist Episcopal Church, and has been published every four years thereafter following the meeting of the General Conference, which passes legislation that is included in the Book of Discipline. The most recent edition is that of 2016.

The basic unit of reference is the paragraph, not the page, chapter or section.  The paragraphs are numbered consecutively within each chapter or section, but numbers are skipped between chapters or sections.  The paragraph is often only a few lines, but many are several pages long and they can be divided into multiple subdivisions.  Paragraphs are first divided using Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3,...) which can themselves be divided by italicized lower case letters with parentheses (a), b), c), d)...) which may  be divided using Arabic numerals within double parentheses ((1), (2), (3),...)

Traditionally a list of all the bishops with the year of their election is at the beginning of the book. That is followed by a brief history of the church, then the church constitution, and a statement concerning the doctrine and theology of the church.  The Social Principles of the church follow. Finally the legislative section, by far the largest part of The Discipline, appears.

Notes

External links
 Book of Discipline, 2016 edition, online

1784 non-fiction books
18th-century Christian texts
Methodist texts
United Methodist Church
Church order

Book of Discipline (United Methodist)


Il teatro alla moda (The Fashionable Theater) is a satirical pamphlet in which its author, the Venetian composer Benedetto Marcello (1686–1739), vents his critical opinions on the milieu of the Italian opera seria in the first decades of the eighteenth century. It was first published anonymously in Venice, by the end of 1720. Virtually every aspect of opera seria and its social environment is mercilessly criticized by Marcello: the artificiality of plots, the stereotyped format of music, the extravagant scenography and machinery, the inability and venality of composers and poets, the vanity and vulgarity of singers, the avidity of impresarios, the ineptitude of musicians.

The full title reads "THE FASHIONABLE THEATER – OR – safe and easy METHOD for correctly composing and performing Italian OPERAS in the modern style, – In which – useful and necessary Advice is given to Librettists, Composers, Musicians of both sexes, Impresarios, Performers, Engineers, and Scene Painters, comic Characters, Tailors, Pages, Dancers, Prompters, Copyists, Protectors, and MOTHERS of female Virtuoso singers, & other People belonging to Theater." In fact, Il teatro alla moda is written as a series of chapters where advice is ironically given to the various people involved in operatic productions, in order to meet "the modern customs" and bizarre requirements of such theatrical events.

Besides the title, the frontispiece contains several allusions to well-known protagonists of the Venetian theater of the time. For instance, the publisher's name "Aldiviva Licante" refers, by means of anagrams, both to Antonio Vivaldi, then very famous as an opera composer, and to the singer Caterina Canteli.

The text of Il teatro alla moda displays several striking features. To begin with, it shows a degree of vacillation in attitude toward its subject – perhaps resulting from Marcello's personal ambivalence regarding operatic music, as both a critic and a composer. For example, the dedicatory is by "the author of the book to its composer." In addition, it exhibits a number of surrealistic elements, which reach a climax in the last chapter, "The Raffle" (presumably organized by the mother of a young female singer), where the prizes include "a full dress of modern poet in fever-colored tree bark, wrapped with metaphors, translations, hyperboles" as well as "the pen that wrote Il teatro alla moda." The printing accompanies these peculiarities with a chaotic use of italic and normal typography and of capital fonts.

Translated excerpts (typography preserved)

"To the Poets – In the first place, the modern Poet should not have read and should never read the ancient Authors, Latin or Greek. And this is because the ancient Greeks or Latins have never read the moderns."

"To the Music Composers – The modern Music Composer should possess no knowledge about the Rules of good composition, except for some principle of universal practice... He should not understand the numeric Musical Proportions, nor the optimal effect of contrary Motions, or the bad Relation of Tritones and augmented Intervals."

"To the Singers – It is not necessary that the VIRTUOSO can read, or write, or have a good pronunciation of vowels, and of single and double Consonants, or understand the sense of Words, etc., but it is better if he mistakes Senses, Letters, Syllables, etc., in order to perform Ornaments, Trills, Appoggiature, very long Cadences, etc. etc. etc."

"To the Mothers of Female Singers – When the Girls have an audition with the Impresario, they (the mothers) will move the mouth with them, will prompt them the usual Ornaments and Trills and, asked about the age of the Virtuosa, will cut down at least ten years."

Further reading
 Benedetto Marcello, Il Teatro alla Moda (Castelvecchi, Roma, 1993).
 Eleanor Selfridge-Field, Marcello, Sant'Angelo, and Il Teatro alla Moda, in L. Bianconi and G. Morelli, eds. Antonio Vivaldi. Teatro musicale, cultura e società, vol. II (Olschki, Firenze, 1982).
 A discussion and full English translation is published in Musical Quarterly:

External links
 Il teatro alla moda is described and placed in context by Elam Rotem of Early Music Sources

Il teatro alla moda
Il teatro alla moda
Opera history
Il teatro alla moda
1720 books
Italian music history
Benedetto Marcello

Il teatro alla moda


Safe sex (also called Safer sex or protected sex) is to have sex in a safe way. There are many dangers with having sex. Perhaps the most well-known are:
Unwanted pregnancy; contraception can help this.
Catching diseases that can be spread through having sex. Some of these, such as Syphilis, Gonorrhea or Trichomoniasis can be cured. Others conditions, such as AIDS, Hepatitis, and Herpes simplex are caused by viruses. Such diseases or conditions are hard to cure, or they cannot be cured at all. Condoms can help limit the spread of these diseases.

There are many ways of having safe sex. Some of these include:
Using a condom or dental dam to create a barrier between the individuals. This is the way which most people have safe sex.
Masturbating rather than having normal sex. This is because the body parts never come into contact making it harder for diseases to spread.
Oral Sex is also lots safer although there is still a high risk. Using a condom or dam while having oral sex or rimming is even safer.
Abstinence, or not having sex at all.

Sexually transmitted diseases

Safe sex


Hydroxide in chemistry is a name given to the diatomic anion OH−, made up of oxygen and hydrogen atoms. Most chemical compounds that contain hydroxides are bases.

An Arrhenius base is a substance that when dissolved in an aqueous solution, it produces hydroxide ions. Therefore, hydroxide ions are heavily involved in acid-base reactions.

Many useful chemical reactions or processes involve hydroxide or hydroxide ions. Sodium hydroxide is used in industry as a strong base, potassium hydroxide is used in agriculture, and iron hydroxide minerals such as goethite and limonite have been used as iron ore. The aluminium ore bauxite is made mainly out of aluminium hydroxides.

Most inorganic hydroxide salts do not dissolve in water.

Uses of hydroxides
Many useful chemicals and chemical processes involve hydroxides or hydroxide ions. Sodium hydroxide is used in factories as an alkali, potassium hydroxide is used in farming, and iron hydroxide has been used as low grade brown iron ore.

Examples of hydroxides
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH)

Ions

Hydroxide


Oakhurst is a historic neighborhood in the southwest corner of Decatur, Georgia, a suburb of Atlanta, Georgia.  It is located south of downtown Decatur and approximately six miles east of downtown Atlanta.  Oakhurst primarily consists of residences built in early 20th century and neighborhood businesses. It is roughly bounded by the City of Atlanta's Kirkwood neighborhood (west of Winter Ave.) on the west ; the Atlanta city limits (Northern St. & Pharr Rd.) on the south; West College Ave. (and the railroad tracks paralleling West College Avenue) on the north; and South McDonough St. on the east.  There is also a neighborhood near the College Heights Early Learning Center (roughly centered on South McDonough St. & Lenore St.) referred to as "College Heights", but it is part of Historic Oakhurst.

At the center of the neighborhood is a business district popularly known as "Oakhurst Village" with several eateries, art galleries, and shops.  Oakhurst Village is also home to the former Old Scottish Rite Hospital, designed by local architect Neel Reid in 1917.  The hospital relocated to the Perimeter District of Atlanta in 1976, and the historic building currently houses an art gallery, a wine bar, and the Solarium, a community center and event facility, where local neighborhood groups meet.  There are additional commercial properties and a MARTA rail station (East Lake station) at the northern boundary of Oakhurst, on West College Avenue. The Beacon Hill Middle School (formerly Renfroe) also is here, and it is the only middle school in Decatur. Beacon Hill is located on Kings Highway, near Ansley Street.

Oakhurst is an eclectic, liberal-minded community, typical of intown Atlanta.  It has a diverse mix of African Americans, white residents, senior citizens, singles, young couples, young families, empty nesters, and a large gay community. According to the 2000 Census, slightly fewer than 5,000 people lived in Oakhurst.

History

Oakhurst originally developed as a streetcar suburb of Atlanta.  The Atlanta Consolidated Street Railway built the North Decatur trolley line in 1892.  This line crossed the South Decatur trolley line at the center of the Oakhurst business district - the intersection of East Lake Drive, Oakview Road and Mead Road. This portion of Oakhurst was owned by Eugenius N. Meade in the late 19th century.  His land was purchased by John Ridley in 1907.  Mr Ridley had a small farm at this location, but he made his money in the mercantile business and in real estate.  He sold much of his land in 1910, and it became part of the newly incorporated Town of Oakhurst.

In 1910 the Georgia Legislature approved the incorporation of Oakhurst. Oakhurst's population was approximately 100 people at the time of incorporation, mostly located around the railroad tracks near College Avenue and the present MARTA station.  The original residential directory gave addresses on Park Place, Madison (formerly Viola), College Avenue, Mead Road (formerly Meades Road) and Winter Avenue. Although residences had been constructed in the MAK Historic District as early as 1905–1907, Oakhurst primarily developed in the 1910s and 1920s.  The development occurred in clusters.  In addition to the 1910 John Ridley development, the Feld Realty development occurred in 1910, East Lake Land Development Company constructed structures in 1910 and 1924; and the A.R. and L.M. Morris development occurred in 1915.

The northern section of Mead Road was annexed by the City of Decatur in 1907, but the Town of Oakhurst was not annexed into the city of Decatur until 1914–1916. Shortly after annexation, however, Oakhurst's City Hall/Schoolhouse burned and destroyed all of the town records, so little is known about the old Town of Oakhurst.  Oakhurst remains a distinct community within the City of Decatur.

Architecture
Oakhurst is predominantly a residential community. The primary architectural style of the period homes is that of craftsman bungalows although some homes were also built in the more modest post-war style of the 1940s.  The structures are primarily down-scale, pre-World War II, brick homes with front porches.  Recently, as property values have risen due to gentrification, newer homes have been built in varying styles.  Notable historic structures, other than churches, include:
 Old Scottish Rite Hospital, 321 W. Hill St. A National Historic Landmark designed by local architect Neel Reid in 1917.

Churches
Oakhurst has several churches.
 Oakhurst Baptist Church is the oldest church building in Oakhurst, it began as a Sunday School in 1908 and was formally organized in 1913.
 Eastside United Methodist Church began holding public worship services in 2011.
 Oakhurst Presbyterian Church was founded in 1921.
 Thankful Baptist Church, Decatur's first African-American congregation, was founded in 1882. They purchased the imposing brick and stone building in 1970 from Patillo Memorial Methodist Church (formerly Oakhurst Methodist Church). Patillo had begun as a Sunday School in 1908, and was chartered in 1912.

Schools
Oakhurst's public schools include
Oakhurst Elementary, a lower elementary school, originally built in 1921. In 2020 it switched from serving grades Kindergarten-3 to serving grades Kindergarten-2.
Fifth Avenue Upper Elementary School (FAVE), originally an elementary school, was vacant for many years after Decatur restructured its school system. It was demolished, and a new building on the site opened as Decatur's 4-5 Academy in Summer 2011. In 2020 it switched from serving 4-5th grade, to serving 3-5th grade.
 Beacon Hill Middle School (Formerly Renfroe Middle School), serving grades 6–8, was built in 1972.

Festivals
Oakhurst festivals include:
 BBQ, Blues & Bluegrass Festival, Harmony Park in Oakhurst. Live music and barbecue.
 Earth Day in Oakhurst, Harmony Park in Oakhurst.
 Jazz Nights at Scottish Rite', Old Scottish Rite Hospital. Free jazz concerts under the stars.
 Oakhurst Arts & Music Festival, Harmony Park in Oakhurst. Artists market.
 Oakhurst Porchfest, "a grassroots community music festival where front porches become stages" through the neighborhood.

Parks
Oakhurst includes Decatur City Parks.
 Mead Road Park, 3/4 acre park located next to Oakhurst Elementary School
 McCoy Park/Pool,  recreation park and pool
 Oakhurst Park,  recreation park
 Harmony Park, a small neighborhood park in Oakhurst square

Transportation
Oakhurst is near major transportation arteries, but has a limited number of roads connecting it to downtown Decatur due to the east-west MARTA line.
 DeKalb Avenue/East College Avenue, is the northern boundary of Oakhurst. East College Avenue serves at a primary entry point to the neighborhood from Avondale Estates and Interstate 285.  DeKalb and East College lie on either side of the MARTA rail line, are the highest points in the neighborhood and are located on the Eastern Continental Divide.
 East Lake MARTA rail station, is located at Dekalb Avenue and East Lake Avenue.
 Memorial Drive, is located south of Oakhurst.
 Ponce de Leon Avenue, is located north of Oakhurst, and serves as the major entry point to the neighborhood from Atlanta via East Lake Drive.

Notes

References
 Clark, Caroline McKinney.  The story of Decatur, 1823-1899. Dekalb Historical Society (1996).
 Historic District Nomination Form: Oakhurst Historic District, City of Decatur. Prepared by Oakhurst Historic Preservation Group, 228 Third Avenue, Decatur, GA 30030.
 Price, Vivian.  Historic DeKalb County: An Illustrated History (Georgia Heritage Series). Historical Publishing Network (2007).

External links
 City of Decatur: Oakhurst Neighborhood Association
 Rediscovered Atlanta Neighborhoods Alliance
 Oakhurst Atlanta Neighborhood Information
 Oakhurst Neighborhood Association Website

Neighborhoods in DeKalb County, Georgia
Streetcar suburbs
Decatur, Georgia
Bungalow architecture in Georgia (U.S. state)

Oakhurst, Decatur, Georgia


The Bundesfinanzhof or Federal Finance Court  is one of the federal supreme courts of Germany. It is the final court of appeals for cases about tax and customs law.  It hears cases from the Finanzgerichte (Finance Courts).

The Federal Finance Court  was first created in 1918.  It has its headquarters in Munich, Bavaria.

Other websites
Official homepage

Munich

Bundesfinanzhof


William Hull (June 24, 1753 – November 29, 1825) was an American soldier and politician. He fought in the American Revolutionary War and was appointed as Governor of Michigan Territory (1805–13), gaining large land cessions from several American Indian tribes under the Treaty of Detroit (1807). He is most widely remembered, however, as the general in the War of 1812 who surrendered Fort Detroit to the British on August 16, 1812 following the Siege of Detroit. After the battle, he was court-martialed, convicted, and sentenced to death, but he received a pardon from President James Madison and his reputation somewhat recovered.

Early life and education
Hull was born in Derby, Connecticut, on June 24, 1753. He graduated from Yale University in 1772, studied law in Litchfield, Connecticut, and joined the bar in 1775.

Career

Revolutionary War
At the outbreak of fighting in the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783), Hull joined a local militia and was quickly promoted to captain, then through the ranks to lieutenant colonel in the Continental Army. He fought in the battles of White Plains, Trenton, Princeton, Stillwater, Saratoga, Fort Stanwix, Monmouth, and Stony Point. He was recognized by commanding General George Washington and the Second Continental Congress for his service.

Hull was a friend of Nathan Hale and tried to dissuade him from the dangerous spy mission that ultimately cost him his life. Hull was largely responsible for publicizing the last words attributed to Hale, "I only regret that I have but one life to give for my country." At the conclusion of the war, Hull was admitted as an original member of The Society of the Cincinnati in the state of Massachusetts when it was established in 1783.  After the war, he moved to his wife's family estate in Newton, Massachusetts and served as a judge and state senator. He was elected captain of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts in 1789.

Michigan Territory and War of 1812

On March 22, 1805, President Thomas Jefferson appointed Hull as Governor of the recently created Michigan Territory and as its Indian Agent. All of the territory was in the hands of the Indians except for two enclaves around Detroit and Fort Mackinac, so Hull worked to gradually purchase Indian land for occupation by American settlers. He negotiated the Treaty of Detroit in 1807 with the Odawa, Chippewa, Wyandot, and Potawatomi tribes, which ceded most of Southeast Michigan and northwestern Ohio to the United States, to the mouth of the Maumee River where Toledo developed. These efforts to expand American settlement began to generate opposition, particularly from Shawnee leaders Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa, who urged resistance to American culture and to further land cessions.

By February 1812, Congress was making plans for war with Great Britain, including an invasion of Canada, while the British were busy recruiting Indian tribes in the Michigan and Canada area. Hull was in Washington, D.C., when Secretary of War William Eustis informed him that President James Madison wished to appoint him a Brigadier General in command of the new Army of the Northwest. Hull was nearly 60 years old and had little interest in a new military commission, so Colonel Jacob Kingsbury was selected to lead the force instead. Kingsbury fell ill before taking command, however, and the offer was repeated to Hull, who accepted. His orders were to go to Ohio, whose governor had been charged by Madison with raising a 1,200-man militia that would be augmented by the 4th Infantry Regiment from Vincennes, Indiana to form the core of the army. From there, he was to march the army to Detroit where he was also to continue managing as Territorial Governor.

March to Detroit
Hull arrived in Cincinnati on May 10, 1812, and took command of the militia at Dayton on May 25. The militia comprised three regiments who elected Duncan McArthur, Lewis Cass, and James Findlay as their commanding Colonels. They marched to Staunton and then to Urbana, Ohio, where they were joined by the 300-man 4th Infantry Regiment. The men of the militia were ill-equipped and little trained, averse to strong military discipline. Hull relied on the infantry regiment to quell several instances of insubordination on the remainder of the march. By the end of June, the army had reached the rapids of the Maumee River, where he committed the first of the errors that reflected poorly on him later.

The United States declared war on Britain on June 18, 1812, and that same day Secretary Eustis sent two letters to General Hull. He sent one of them by special messenger which arrived on June 24—but it did not mention the declaration of war. The second one did announce the declaration of war, but Eustis sent it via the postal service and it did not arrive until July 2. As a result, Hull was still unaware that his army was at war when he reached the rapids of the Maumee. Taking advantage of the waterway, he sent the schooner Cuyahoga Packet ahead of the army to Detroit with a number of invalids, supplies, and official documents; but the British commander at Fort Amherstburg had received the declaration of war two days earlier, and he captured the ship as it sailed past. Thus, he gained all of Hull's military papers and plans for an attack on Fort Amherstburg.

Invasion of Canada

Hull was partly the victim of his government's poor preparation for war and poor communication. He had repeatedly urged his superiors while he was governor to build a naval fleet on Lake Erie in order to defend Detroit, Fort Mackinac, and Fort Dearborn, but his requests were ignored by General Henry Dearborn, the commander of the northeast.

Hull began an invasion of Canada on July 12, 1812, crossing the Detroit River east of Sandwich (the area around Windsor, Ontario). He issued a proclamation to the "inhabitants of Canada" indicating that he wanted to free them from the "tyranny" of Great Britain and to give them the liberty, security, and wealth which his own country was experiencing—unless they preferred "war, slavery and destruction". It soon became apparent that he would encounter great resistance, however, and he withdrew to the American side of the river on August 7 after receiving news of a Shawnee ambush on Major Thomas Van Horne's 200 men who had been sent to support the American supply convoy; half of the troops were killed. Hull had also faced a lack of support from his officers and fear among the troops of a possible massacre by Indian forces. A group of 600 troops led by Lieutenant Colonel James Miller remained in Canada, attempting to supply the American position in the Sandwich area, with little success.

Surrender of Detroit

Hull surrendered Fort Detroit to General Isaac Brock on August 16, 1812, because Brock had tricked him into thinking that he was vastly outnumbered by his foes. The force included 600 Indian warriors and 1,300 soldiers, as well as two warships, according to Brock's report. Hull had 2,500 soldiers under his command. The number of troops under Hull's command was estimated at between 750 and 1060 by his grandson.

Brock sent Hull a demand for surrender:
The force at my disposal authorizes me to require of you the immediate surrender of Fort Detroit. It is far from my intention to join in a war of extermination, but you must be aware, that the numerous body of Indians who have attached themselves to my troops, will be beyond control the moment the contest commences.

Hull believed that the surrender was a valid step because he was lacking adequate gunpowder and cannon balls to withstand a long siege. The move also saved his 2,500 soldiers and 700 civilians from "the horrors of an Indian massacre", as he later wrote.

In 1814, Hull was court martialed at a trial presided over by General Henry Dearborn, with future president Martin Van Buren as the special judge advocate in charge of the prosecution. Robert Lucas, the future governor of Ohio and territorial governor of Iowa, gave evidence against him. Hull was convicted of cowardice and neglect of duty and was sentenced to be shot. However, President James Madison commuted the sentence to merely dismissing him from the Army in recognition of his heroic service during the Revolutionary War.

Later life and death
Hull lived the remainder of his life in Newton, Massachusetts with his wife Sarah Fuller. He wrote Detroit: Defence of Brig. Gen. Wm. Hull in 1814 and Memoirs of the Campaign of the Northwestern Army of the United States: A.D. 1812, published in 1824 and both attempting to clear his name. Some later historians have agreed that he was unfairly made a scapegoat for the embarrassing loss of Detroit. The publication of his Memoirs in 1824 changed public opinion somewhat in his favor, and he was honored with a dinner in Boston on May 30, 1825. That June, the Marquis de Lafayette visited him and declared, "We both have suffered contumely and reproach; but our characters are vindicated; let us forgive our enemies and die in Christian love and peace with all mankind." Hull died at home in Newton several months later, on November 29, 1825.

His son Abraham was an Army captain during the War of 1812 and died at the Battle of Lundy's Lane at age 27. His remains were buried in the Drummond Hill Cemetery in Niagara Falls, Ontario, the only American officer to be buried there. Hull was also uncle to Isaac Hull, son of his brother Joseph. Joseph died while Isaac was young, so Hull adopted the boy. Isaac commanded the USS Constitution during the War of 1812.

See also
List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States
 The Society of the Cincinnati
 The American Revolution Institute

References

Works cited

Further reading

  (Google Books version contains both this document and Hull's Memoirs; the report of the trial begins at p. 240)

1753 births
1825 deaths
United States Army personnel of the War of 1812
Writers from Massachusetts
Writers from Michigan
Massachusetts state court judges
Massachusetts state senators
Military personnel from Connecticut
American people of English descent
Governors of Michigan Territory
Massachusetts politicians convicted of crimes
Michigan politicians convicted of crimes
American prisoners sentenced to death
People from Derby, Connecticut
United States Army personnel who were court-martialed
Prisoners sentenced to death by the United States military
Recipients of American presidential pardons
Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery
United States Army generals
War of 1812 prisoners of war held by the United Kingdom
People of colonial Connecticut

William Hull


Cry-Baby is a 1990 American romantic teen musical movie written and directed by John Waters. It stars Johnny Depp as 1950s teen rebel "Cry-Baby" Wade Walker, and also features a large ensemble cast that includes Amy Locane, Iggy Pop, Traci Lords, Ricki Lake, Kim McGuire, David Nelson, Susan Tyrrell, and Patty Hearst. The film did not achieve high audience numbers in its initial release, but has subsequently become a cult classic and spawned a Broadway musical of the same name which was nominated for four Tony Awards.

The movie is a parody of teen musicals (particularly Grease) and centers on a group of delinquents that refer to themselves as "drapes" and their interaction with the rest of the town and its other subculture, the "squares", in 1954 Baltimore, Maryland. "Cry-Baby" Walker, a drape, and Allison, a square, create upheaval and turmoil in their little town of Baltimore by breaking the subculture taboos and falling in love. The film shows what the young couple have to overcome to be together and how their actions affect the rest of the town.

Part of the movie takes place at the now-closed Enchanted Forest amusement park in Ellicott City, Maryland. Others take place in the historic towns of Reisterstown, Jessup, Milford Mill and Sykesville, Maryland.

Plot
In 1954 Baltimore, Wade "Cry-Baby" Walker is the leader of a gang of "Drapes", which includes his teenage mom sister Pepper, facially disfigured Mona "Hatchet Face" Malnorowski, wild and free-spirited Wanda Woodward, and Milton Hackett, the nervous son of overzealous religious activists. His ability to shed a single tear drives all the girls wild. One day after school, he is approached by Allison Vernon-Williams, a pretty girl tired of being a "square", and the two fall in love. That same day, Cry-Baby approaches the "square" part of town to a talent show ("Sh-Boom", "A Teenage Prayer") at the recreation center where Allison's grandmother hosts events, and introduces himself to her, who is skeptical of his motives. Cry-Baby invites Allison to a party at Turkey Point, a local hangout spot for the drapes.

Despite her grandmother's skepticism, Allison accompanies Cry-Baby to Turkey Point and sings with the drapes ("King Cry-Baby"). As Cry-Baby and Allison tell each other about their orphan lives (Cry-Baby's father was sent to the electric chair after being the "Alphabet Bomber" - a killer who bombed places in alphabetical order airport, barber shop etc.; Allison's parents always took separate flights to avoid orphaning her if they crashed, but one day both their planes went down), Allison's jealous square boyfriend, Baldwin, starts a riot. Cry-Baby is blamed for the fight and sent to a penitentiary, outraging all his friends and even Allison's grandmother, who is impressed by Cry-Baby's posture, manners, and musical talent.

As Lenora Frigid, a girl with a crush on Cry-Baby but constantly rejected by him, claims to be pregnant with his child, Allison feels betrayed and returns to Baldwin and the squares, though her grandmother advises her against rushing into a decision. Meanwhile, in the penitentiary, Cry-Baby gets a teardrop tattoo. He tells the tattoo artist, fellow drape Dupree (Robert Tyree): "I've been hurt all my life, but real tears wash away. This one's for Allison, and I want it to last forever!".

Eventually, Allison is persuaded by the newly established alliance between the Drapes and her grandmother to stand by Cry-Baby and join the campaign for his release ("Please, Mr. Jailer"). Cry-Baby is released but immediately insulted by Baldwin who, after revealing that his grandfather is the one who electrocuted Cry-Baby's father, challenges him to a chicken race. Cry-Baby wins, as Baldwin chickens out, and is reunited with Allison.

The movie ends with all watching the chicken race crying a single tear, all except for Allison and Cry-Baby, who has finally let go of the past, enabling him to cry from both eyes.

Cast
 Johnny Depp as Wade "Cry-Baby" Walker
 James Intveld as Cry-Baby's singing voice
 Amy Locane as Allison Vernon-Williams
 Rachel Sweet as Allison's singing voice
 Polly Bergen as Mrs. Vernon-Williams
 Susan Tyrrell as Ramona Rickettes
 Iggy Pop as Belvedere Rickettes
 Ricki Lake as Pepper Walker
 Traci Lords as Wanda Woodward
 Kim McGuire as Mona Malnorowski/Hatchet-Face
 Darren E. Burrows as Milton Hackett
 Kim Webb as Lenora Frigid
 Stephen Mailer as Baldwin
 Jonathan Benya and Jessica Raskin as Snare-Drum and Susie Q, Pepper's son and daughter
 Troy Donahue and Mink Stole as Mr. and Mrs. Malnorowski, Hatchet-Face's parents, who sell cigarettes to high school students
 Joe Dallesandro and Joey Heatherton as Mr. and Mrs. Hackett, Milton's overzealous, religious parents
 Robert Marbury as Pepper's angelic boyfriend
 David Nelson and Patricia Hearst as Mr. and Mrs. Woodward, Wanda's happy-go-lucky parents who remain completely oblivious to their daughter's activities
 Robert Tyree as Dupree, a faithful Drape who joins Cry-Baby in the slammer
 Robert Walsh as Judge, the judge who sentences Cry-Baby to the reformatory; he has a crush on Mrs. Vernon-Williams
 Willem Dafoe as Hateful guard

References

Other websites

 Cry-Baby at Allrovi

1990s musical movies
1990 romantic comedy movies
1990s teen comedy movies
1990s teen romance movies
American musical comedy movies
American romantic comedy movies
American teen comedy movies
American teen romance movies
1990s English-language movies
Movies set in Baltimore
Movies set in the 1950s
Universal Pictures movies

Cry-Baby


Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, becoming, existence, or reality. It is part of the major branch of philosophy known as metaphysics.

Ontology deals with questions about what things exist or can be said to exist, and how such entities can be grouped according to similarities and differences.

Overview
Ontology asks whether "categories of being" are fundamental.

Some philosophers, of the Platonic school, say that all nouns (including abstract nouns) refer to actual entities. Other philosophers contend that nouns do not always name entities. They think some are a kind of shorthand for a collection of either objects or events.

In this view, mind, instead of referring to an entity, refers to a collection of mental events experienced by a person. Society refers to a collection of persons with some shared characteristics, and geometry refers to a collection of a specific kind of intellectual activity.

Between these poles, called realism and nominalism, are other positions. Any ontology must give an account of which words refer to entities, which do not, why, and what categories result.

References

Branches of philosophy
Reality

Ontology


A is the first letter of the alphabet. It may also refer to:

In English, it is one of the two indefinite articles, the other being an.
 In measurement, A is a symbol for area.
 In medicine, A is one of the human blood types.
 In music, A is a note.
 In the International System of Units, A is the symbol for the ampere (which is also shortened to amp).
 In school, an A+ is the highest grade you can get, with an A being the grade below.
 In transport, A is the international license plate code for Austria.
In the New York Stock Exchange, A is the symbol for Agilent Technologies.
In the Cyrillic Script, А is the first letter.

A (disambiguation)


Mikhail Alexandrovich () (1333 – August 26, 1399) was Grand Prince of Tver and briefly held the title of Grand Prince of Vladimir. He was one of only two Tver princes after 1317 (the other was his father, Aleksandr) to hold the grand princely title, which was almost the exclusive purview of the Muscovite princes.

Mikhail Alexandrovich was the third son of Aleksandr Mikhailovich of Tver. Mikhail grew up in Pskov, where his father had fled after the Tver Uprising of 1327. He was christened by the Archbishop of Novgorod, Vasily Kalika, in 1333.  Five years later, he and his mother were called to Tver when Aleksandr returned to the city.  In 1341, he went to Novgorod where Archbishop Vasily taught him reading and writing (which would have meant reading the Scriptures).  In 1368, he became prince of Tver.

Mikhail Alexandrovich was among the last princes to seriously threaten Grand Duchy of Moscow for possession of the office of Grand Prince of Vladimir, hoping to unseat Moscow with the aid of his brother-in-law Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania. In 1371, he managed to gain the yarlik or patent of office as Grand Prince of Vladimir from the Khan of the Golden Horde, and was accepted as Prince of Novgorod, an important economic asset for any Russian prince. He seems to have lost power the following year when Algirdas concluded Treaty of Lyubutsk with Dmitri Donskoi of Moscow, but it is not clear who was considered grand prince between 1372 and 1375, at which time Dmitri Donskoi defeated Mikhail.

References

1333 births
1399 deaths
People from Pskov
Princes of Tver
Eastern Orthodox monarchs
14th-century Russian princes

Mikhail II of Tver


Digital media (compared to analog media) is electronic media that works on digital codes. Today, computing is based on the binary numeral system, so the "digital" refers to the use of "0" and "1" to show data. Computers are machines that use binary digital data as information. Digital media ("Formats for presenting information" according to media) like digital audio, digital video and other digital "content" can be created, referred to and distributed by digital information processing machines. Digital media is a big change from (analog) media.

Digital and analog data

The transformation of an Analog signal to Digital information by an analog-to-digital converter is called sampling. According to information theory, sampling is a reduction of information. Most digital media are based on turning analog data into digital data and vice-versa (see digital recording, digital video, television versus digital television).

Working with digital media

Compared to analog data, digital data is easier to control, and can be made into many copies without losing any quality. Mathematical operations can be made into digital information regardless of its meaning (you can add "2" to the data "65" and view the result either as the hexadecimal number "43" or the letter "C"). Thus, it is possible to use the same compression operation onto a text file or an image file or a sound file.

Examples of digital media

 Cellphones
 Compact disc
 Digital video
 Digital television
 e-book
 Internet
 Minidisc
 Video game
 World Wide Web
 e-Commerce
 and many interactive media

Related pages
 Analog-to-digital converter
 Content delivery
 Digital asset management
 Digital signal processing
 eRhetoric
 Electronic publishing

Other websites

"Reference Model for Electronic Business Media"
Digital MediaNecessary terms and definitions

Media

Digital media


The Hilsner affair (also known as the Hilsner trial, Hilsner case or Polná affair) was a series of anti-semitic trials following an accusation of blood libel against Leopold Hilsner, a Jewish inhabitant of the town of Polná in Bohemia, Austria-Hungary in 1899 and 1900. The affair achieved widespread media publicity at the time, and Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, then professor at Charles University in Prague also got involved in the case to defend Leopold Hilsner. Hilsner spent 19 years in prison before being pardoned by the Emperor of Austria-Hungary.

Background

The Anežka Hrůzová murder case
Anežka Hrůzová was a 19-year-old Czech Catholic girl, living in the village of Věžnička. She worked as a seamstress in Polná,  away. On the afternoon of 29 March 1899, she left her place of employment as usual, but did not return to her home. Three days later (1 April) her body was found in a forest, her throat having been cut and her garments torn. Nearby was a pool of blood, some blood-stained stones, parts of her garments, and a rope with which she had been either strangled to death or dragged, after the murder, to the place where the body was found. Because of the little amount of blood found near the body, and the fact that Anežka Hrůzová's disappearance had taken place during the Jewish holiday of Passover, authorities and population began speculating this was a case of Jewish ritual murder (blood libel).

The suspicion of the sheriff was first turned against four vagrants who had been seen in the neighborhood of the forest on the afternoon of the day when the murder was supposed to have been committed. Among them was Leopold Hilsner, a 23-year-old Jew, a man of little intelligence, who had been a vagrant all his life. Suspicion against him was based on the fact that he had been frequently seen strolling in the forest where the body was found. A search of his house showed nothing suspicious. He claimed to have left the place on the afternoon of the murder long before it could have been committed; but he could not establish a perfect alibi. Hilsner was arrested, and tried at Kutná Hora on 12–16 September. He denied all knowledge of the crime. The only physical evidence against him was a pair of trousers on which some stains were found, which chemical experts said might have been blood, while the garment was wet as if an attempt had been made to wash it. One witness against him claimed to have seen Hilsner, at a distance of , in company with two strange Jews, on the day on which the murder was supposed to have been committed and on the spot where the body was found. Another witness claimed to have seen him come from that place on the afternoon of 29 March and to have noticed that he was very much agitated. Both the prosecuting attorney, and the attorney for the Hrůza family, Karel Baxa, made clear suggestions of ritual murder. Testimony had proved that Hilsner was too weak to have committed the crime by himself. Still he was sentenced to death for participation in the murder, while his supposed accomplices were undiscovered and no attempt was made to bring them to justice.

The prominent Czech nationalist scholar Tomáš Masaryk, professor of the Charles University in Prague, intervened on behalf of Hilsner; he filed an appeal to the supreme court, citing technical errors in the trial. The supreme court ordered a new trial, to be held at Písek in order to avoid intimidation of the jury by the mob, and the influence of political agitation. On 20 September 1899, a few days after the first trial, Hilsner was confronted by hostile fellow prisoners, who showed him some carpenters working in the courtyard of the jail and told him that they were constructing a gallows for him. They demanded the names of his accomplices, and said he could thus obtain a commutation of his sentence. Hilsner, terrified, named Joshua Erbmann and Solomon Wassermann as those who had assisted him. Being brought before the judge on 29 September, he declared that this statement was false. On 7 October, he reiterated the statement, but again recanted on 20 November. Fortunately for those he had accused, they were able to prove perfect alibis, one of them having been in jail on the day of the murder, while the other proved, from certificates of poorhouses in Moravia which he had visited as a beggar, that he could not possibly have been in Polná on that day.

The Marie Klímová disappearance case
Meanwhile, Hilsner was accused of another murder. Marie Klímová, a servant, had disappeared on 17 July 1898. A female body was found on 27 October following in the same forest as the body of Anežka Hrůzová. This body had, with great probability, been identified as the missing girl. However, decomposition was so advanced that it could not even be established whether the girl had been murdered. Hilsner, charged with this crime also, was tried for both murders in Písek (25 October-14 November 1900). The witnesses at this trial became more definite in their statements. Those that at the first trial had spoken of a knife which they had seen in Hilsner's possession, now asserted distinctly that it was such a knife as was used in ritual slaughtering. The strange Jews who were supposedly seen in company with Hilsner were more and more particularly described. When witnesses were shown that the testimony given by them at the second trial differed from that given at the first trial, they said either that they had been intimidated by the judge or that their statements had not been correctly recorded.

Sentence, pardon and aftermath

Hilsner was found guilty of having murdered both Anežka Hrůzová and Marie Klímová and sentenced to death on 14 November 1900. The sentence was commuted by Emperor Franz Josef to life imprisonment on 11 June 1901 but requests to renew the trial were turned down. Shortly before the end of World War I (24 March 1918), Hilsner was pardoned by Emperor Karl. He spent the rest of his life in Velké Meziříčí, Prague, and Vienna; he died on 9 January 1928 at the age of 52 in Vienna. His conviction was never annulled, and no one else was ever charged with the murders. Although the case was never solved, Hilsner's innocence concerning the anachronistic charge of ritual murder is recognized. A tombstone unveiled over his grave reads: 'As the innocent victim of lies of ritual murder, he languished in prison for 19 years'. A plaque on his last place of residence also reads: 'Here stood the house where Leopold Hilsner (1876-1928) lived before his death. As the innocent victim of lies about ritual murder, he wasted 19 years in prison.'

See also
Dreyfus affair
Tiszaeszlár affair
Beilis affair
History of anti-Semitism

References

Further reading
 Beller, Steven. "The Hilsner Affair: Nationalism, Anti-Semitism and the Individual in the Habsburg Monarchy at the Turn of the Century." in TG Masaryk (1850–1937) (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1989) pp. 52-76.
 Cervinka, Frantisek. "The Hilsner Affair," Leo Baeck Institute Year Book (1968), Vol. 13, p142-157.
 Haumman, Heiko. History of East European Jews (CEU Press, 2002), at 200-01.
 Riff, Michael A. "Czech Antisemitism and the Jewish Response before 1914"  Wiener Library Bulletin (1976) no. 39/40, pp. 8–20.

External links
 Murder in Polná - Exhibition to mark the centenary of the Hilsner Affair. Spanish Synagogue, Prague: 17 June - 3 October 1999 Polna Synagogue: from November 1999 Prague Jewish Museum

Blood libel
1899 in Austria-Hungary
1900 in Austria-Hungary
19th century in Bohemia
Antisemitism in the Czech Republic

Hilsner affair


Herbert Arnould Olivier, R.I. (9 September 1861 – 2 March 1952), was a British artist, best known for his portrait and landscape paintings.  He was an uncle of Laurence Olivier.

Life
Olivier was born in Battle, East Sussex, England, where his father Henry Arnould Olivier was a clergyman. His brothers were Henry (1850–1935), who had a military career, ending as a colonel; Sydney (the father of Noël and Daphne), who became Governor of Jamaica and later Secretary of State for India; and Gerard (1869–1939), a clergyman (the father of Laurence Olivier). He also had four sisters.

Olivier was educated between 1875 and 1877 at Sherborne School, a public school in Dorset and in 1922 gave his painting Easter Morn to the school. The painting was originally intended for a church in Italy but it was put in such a bad light that he refused to leave it there. He studied at the Royal Academy Schools beginning in 1881, where he won the Creswick Prize in 1882.

Olivier exhibited extensively, including the Royal Academy starting in 1883, the R. P., the R. I. and the Paris Salon. He taught at the Bombay School of Art in the 1880s. He went to Kashmir with the Duke and Duchess of Connaught in 1884. In 1885 he showed 66 of the paintings from his trip to Kashmir at the Fine Art Society. These works were considered "effective, though hard and coarse in colour" by critics. He had a one-man exhibition at the Grafton Galleries in 1908.

In 1917, Olivier was appointed an official War Artist and in 1924 he presented to the nation, for display in 'the new War Museum at South Kensington', a number of paintings, including The Supreme War Council (the original of which was given to the French Government and displayed in the Palace of Versailles), The Armistice Meeting, The Military Representatives in Conference, The Peace Signature Table, and various portraits.  The paintings now form part of the collections of the Imperial War Museum. Also in the museum's collection is a doodle that British Prime Minister David Lloyd George made on a blotter at Versailles, which Olivier retrieved from the negotiating table.

Olivier was elected to the Royal Society of British Artists in 1887 and to the Royal Institute of Painters in Watercolours in 1929 where a major retrospective exhibition of his work was held in 1935.

He is mentioned in Mallalieu's British Watercolor Artists and Davenport's Art Reference. He may have been the H. A. Olivier whose work was reproduced in 20 colour plates for The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew: Historical and Descriptive, Cassell & Co. Ltd, London, 1908. His work and biography are published in The Modern British Paintings, Drawings, and Sculpture, Chamont, London 1964. In later life his work tended towards large ceremonial works using oils. He gave his painting, Lord Selborne and Bishop Gore-Browne to the Athenaeum Club in 1937 where it remains prominently displayed in the Morning Room opposite  Darwin.

He died in Hayling Island, Hampshire.

Gallery

References

External links

1861 births
1952 deaths
19th-century English painters
English male painters
20th-century English painters
British war artists
People educated at Sherborne School
People from Battle, East Sussex
World War I artists
World War II artists
20th-century English male artists
19th-century English male artists

Herbert Arnould Olivier


Paphos is a city in west Cyprus. It is the capital of Paphos District.  In 2018, 63,600 people lived in the urban area.

The town is a UNESCO World Heritage site for the ancient Greek and Roman city ruins.

Notable people
 Evagoras Pallikarides, EOKA Fighter, hanged by the British at 19
 Archbishop Makarios, first President of the Republic of Cyprus
 Rauf Denktaş, former President of Northern Cyprus
 Marios Joannou Elia, composer and artistic director
 Suat Günsel, billionaire businessman
 Sonay Adem, socialist politician
 Giorgos Lillikas, candidate for Cyprus Presidential elections
 Stavros Malas, Minister of Health, candidate for Cyprus Presidential elections
 Alex Christofi, Arjatos loxajis
 Özker Özgür, pro-unification Turkish-Cypriot politician
 Theo Paphitis, British-Cypriot businessman
 Andrew Theophanous, politician
 Christos Shelis, footballer

References

Cities in Cyprus
Republic of Cyprus

Paphos


Alsace (Alsatian and Alemannic German: Elsàss, pre-1996 German: Elsaß) was an administrative region of France. It is now part of the administrative region of Grand Est. Alsace was on the eastern border of France. It was on the west bank of the Upper Rhine, next to Germany and Switzerland.

The departments in Alsace were Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin.

Before the region merged with Champagne-Ardenne and Lorraine in 2014, data from INSEE stated that about 1.8 million people lived there as of 2013. Its capital was Strasbourg, the largest city. It changed hands between France and Germany many times. The people living there had an attitude and set of social values that was closer to the German ones, than the French. Language, cuisine, music, dress and customs were Germanic, and very close to the Swabian ones across the Rhine. The overall culture was generally more German than French, being somewhere between German and French.

Alsace was part of the Holy Roman Empire and was still inhabited by people speaking a dialect of Upper German.  In the 17th century, all of Alsace was annexed (in steps) under King Louis XIV of France. He made it one of the provinces of France.

The Treaty of Verdun had divided the empire of Charlemagne in the 9th century, eventually causing Alsace to be frequently mentioned in conjunction with Lorraine, because the possession of these two régions (as Alsace-Lorraine) was often contested in the 19th and 20th centuries.

References

Other websites

Alsace


Guido Gezelle (1 May 1830 – 27 November 1899) was a Roman Catholic priest from Belgium. He was also a writer, translator and poet.

Gezelle was born and died in Bruges. He became priest in 1854.

Gezelle's parents were Pieter Jan Gezelle and Monica Devrieze. He was an uncle of the Flemish writer Stijn Streuvels.

Gezelle is still famous now for his translation of The Song of Hiawatha by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.

Bibliography
Kerkhofblommen (1858)
Vlaemsche Dichtoefeningen (1858)
Kleengedichtjes (1860)
Gedichten, Gezangen en Gebeden (1862)
Longfellows Song of Hiawatha (translation, 1886)
Tijdkrans (1893)
Rijmsnoer (1897)
Laatste Verzen (1901)

1830 births
1899 deaths
Belgian poets
Belgian Roman Catholic priests
Belgian writers
People from Bruges
Belgian translators

Guido Gezelle