ज्वर (वा पाइरेक्सिया') छगू आपालं खनिगु चिकित्सिक लक्षण ख। थ्व लक्षणं म्हया तापक्रम साधारण (साधारण म्हुतुइ दैगु साधारण मनुया म्ह तापक्रम ३६॰८±०.७ °से॰ वा ९८.२±१॰३ °फ) स्वया अप्वगु जानकारी बी।  Fever is most accurately characterized as a temporary elevation in the body's thermoregulatory set-point, usually by about 1–2 °C. Fever differs from hyperthermia, which is an increase in body temperature over the body's thermoregulatory set-point (due to excessive heat production or insufficient thermoregulation, or both). Carl Wunderlich discovered that fever is not a disease but a symptom of disease.

The elevation in thermoregulatory set-point means that the previous "normal body temperature" is considered hypothermic, and effector mechanisms kick in. The person who is developing the fever has a cold sensation, and an increase in heart rate, muscle tone and shivering attempt to counteract the perceived hypothermia, thereby reaching the new thermoregulatory set-point.

When a patient has or is suspected of having a fever, that person's body temperature is measured using a thermometer. At a first glance, fever is present if:
 temperature in the anus (rectum/rectal) or in the ear (otic) is at or over 38.0 °C (100.4 °F)
 temperature in the mouth (oral) is at or over 37.5 °C (99.5 °F)
 temperature under the arm (axillary) is at or over 37.2 °C (99.0 °F)

However, there are many variations in normal body temperature, and this needs to be considered when measuring fever. The values given are for an otherwise healthy, non-fasting adult, dressed comfortably, indoors, in a room that is kept at a normal room temperature, during the morning, but not shortly after arising from sleep.  Furthermore, for oral temperatures, the subject must not have eaten, drunk, or smoked anything in at least the previous fifteen minutes.

Body temperature normally fluctuates over the day, with the lowest levels at 4 a.m. and the highest at 6 p.m. Therefore, an oral temperature of 37.5 °C (99.5 °F) would strictly be a fever in the morning, but not in the afternoon. Normal body temperature may differ as much as 0.4 °C (0.7 °F) between individuals or from day to day.  In women, temperature differs at various points in the menstrual cycle, and this can be used for family planning (although it is only one of the variables of temperature). Temperature is increased after meals, and psychological factors (like the first day in the hospital) also influence body temperature.

There are different locations where temperature can be measured, and these differ in temperature variability. Tympanic membrane thermometers measure radiant heat energy from the tympanic membrane (infrared). These may be very convenient, but may also show more variability.

Children develop higher temperatures with activities like playing, but this is not fever because their set-point is normal. Elderly patients may have a decreased ability to generate body heat during a fever, so even a low-grade fever can have serious underlying causes in geriatrics.

Mechanism
Temperature is regulated in the hypothalamus, in response to PGE2. PGE2 release, in turn, comes from a trigger, a pyrogen. The hypothalamus generates a response back to the rest of the body, making it increase the temperature set-point.

पाइरोजेन
ज्वर वय्‌किगु वस्तुतेत पाइरोजेन धाइ। थ्व इन्दोजेनस वा एक्जोजेनस जुइफु। पाइरोजेनया दसु ब्याक्टेरियल लिपोपोलिस्याकेराइड ख।

इन्दोजेनस
The cytokines (such as interleukin 1) are a part of the innate immune system, produced by phagocytic cells, and cause the increase in the thermoregulatory set-point in the hypothalamus. Other examples of endogenous pyrogens are interleukin 6 (IL-6), and the tumor necrosis factor-alpha.

These cytokine factors are released into general circulation where they migrate to the circumventricular organs of the brain, where the blood-brain barrier is reduced.  The cytokine factors bind with endothelial receptors on vessel walls, or interact with local microglial cells. When these cytokine factors bind, they activate the arachidonic acid pathway.

एक्जोजेनस
One model for the mechanism of fever caused by exogenous pyrogens includes LPS, which is a cell wall component of gram-negative bacteria. An immunological protein called lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP) binds to LPS. The LBP–LPS complex then binds to the CD14 receptor of a nearby macrophage.  This binding results in the synthesis and release of various endogenous cytokine factors, such as interleukin 1 (IL-1), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and the tumor necrosis factor-alpha. In other words, exogenous factors cause release of endogenous factors, which, in turn, activate the arachidonic acid pathway.

PGE2 release
PGE2 release comes from the arachidonic acid pathway. This pathway (as it relates to fever), is mediated by the enzymes phospholipase A2 (PLA2), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and prostaglandin E2 synthase. These enzymes ultimately mediate the synthesis and release of PGE2.

PGE2 is the ultimate mediator of the febrile response. The set-point temperature of the body will remain elevated until PGE2 is no longer present. PGE2 acts on neurons in the preoptic area (POA) through the EP3 subtype of PGE receptors and the EP3-expressing neurons in the POA innervate the dorsomedial hypothalamus (DMH), the rostral raphe pallidus nucleus in the medulla oblongata (rRPa) and the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN). Fever signals sent to the DMH and rRPa lead to stimulation of the sympathetic output system, which evokes non-shivering thermogenesis to produce body heat and skin vasoconstriction to decrease heat loss from the body surface. It is presumed that the innervation from the POA to the PVN mediates the neuroendocrine effects of fever through the pathway involving pituitary gland and various endocrine organs.

हाइपोथ्यालामस प्रतिक्रिया
The brain ultimately orchestrates heat effector mechanisms. These may be
 increased heat production by increased muscle tone, shivering and hormones like epinephrine.
 prevention of heat loss, such as vasoconstriction.
The autonomic nervous system may also activate brown adipose tissue to produce heat (non-exercise-associated thermogenesis, also known as non-shivering thermogenesis), but this seems mostly important for babies. Increased heart rate and vasoconstriction contribute to increased blood pressure in fever.

प्रकार
Pyrexia (fever) can be classed as:
 low grade: 38–39 °C (100.4–102.2 °F)
 moderate: 39–40 °C  (102.2–104.0 °F)
 high-grade: 40–42 °C (104.0–107.6 °F)
 hyperpyrexia: over 42 °C (107.6 °F)

The last is a medical emergency because it approaches the upper limit compatible with human life.

Most of the time, fever types can not be used to find the underlying cause. However, there are specific fever patterns that may occasionally hint the diagnosis:
 Pel-Ebstein fever: a specific kind of fever associated with Hodgkin's lymphoma, being high for one week and low for the next week and so on. However, there is some debate as to whether this pattern truly exists.
 Continuous fever: temperature remains above normal throughout the day and does not fluctuate more than 1 °C in 24 hours, e.g. lobar pneumonia, typhoid, urinary tract infection, brucellosis, or typhus.  Typhoid fever may show a specific fever pattern, with a slow stepwise increase and a high plateau.
 Intermittent fever: temperature is present only for some hours of the day and becomes normal for remaining hours, e.g. malaria, kala-azar, pyaemia, or septicemia. In malaria, there may be a fever with a periodicity of 24 hours (quotidian), 48 hours (tertian fever), or 72 hours (quartan fever, indicating Plasmodium vivax). These patterns may be less clear in travelers.
 Remittent fever: temperature remains above normal throughout the day and fluctuates more than 1 °C in 24 hours, e.g. infective endocarditis.

Febricula is a mild fever of short duration, of indefinite origin, and without any distinctive pathology.

कारक
ज्वर यक्व अवस्थाया मंका लक्षण ख। थुकिया कारण थ्व कथं जुइफु
 संक्रमक ल्वय्, e.g. influenza, common cold, HIV, malaria, infectious mononucleosis, or gastroenteritis.
 छ्यंगुया इन्फ्लामेसनs, e.g. boils, pimples, acne, or abscess.
 इम्युनोलोजिकल ल्वय्, e.g. lupus erythematosus, sarcoidosis, inflammatory bowel diseases.
 तन्तु destruction, which can occur in hemolysis, surgery, infarction, crush syndrome, rhabdomyolysis, cerebral hemorrhage, etc.
 वासः ज्वर
 directly caused by the drug, e.g. lamictal, progesterone, or chemotherapeutics causing tumor necrosis.
 as an adverse reaction to drugs, e.g. antibiotics or sulfa drugs.
 after drug discontinuation, e.g. heroin withdrawal.
 क्यन्सरत, e.g. Hodgkin disease.
 मेताबोलिक डिस्‌अर्डरत, e.g. gout or porphyria.
 थ्रोम्बो-इम्बोलिक प्रक्रियात, e.g. pulmonary embolism or deep venous thrombosis.

क्लिनिकल इन्क्वाइरी धुंका नं कारण मलुगु Persistent ज्वरयात पाइरेक्सिया अफ अन्नोन ओरिजिन धाइ।

Usefulness of fever
There are arguments for and against the usefulness of fever, and the issue is controversial. There are studies using warm-blooded vertebrates and humans in vivo, with some suggesting that they recover more rapidly from infections or critical illness due to fever.

Theoretically, fever has been conserved during evolution because of its advantage for host defense. There are certainly some important immunological reactions that are sped up by temperature, and some pathogens with strict temperature preferences could be hindered. The overall conclusion seems to be that both aggressive treatment of fever and too little fever control can be detrimental. This depends on the clinical situation, so careful assessment is needed.

Fevers may be useful to some extent since they allow the body to reach high temperatures.  This causes an unbearable environment for some pathogens. White blood cells also rapidly proliferate due to the suitable environment and can also help fight off the harmful pathogens and microbes that invaded the body.

उपचार
Fever should not necessarily be treated. Fever is an important signal that there's something wrong in the body, and it can be used for follow-up. Moreover, not all fevers are of infectious origin.

Even when treatment is not indicated, however, febrile patients are generally advised to keep themselves adequately hydrated, as the dehydration produced by a mild fever can be more dangerous than the fever itself. Water is generally used for this purpose, but there is always a small risk of hyponatremia if the patient drinks too much water. For this reason, some patients drink sports drinks or products designed specifically for this purpose.

Most people take medication against fever because the symptoms cause discomfort. Fever increases heart rate and metabolism, thus potentially putting an additional strain on elderly patients, patients with heart disease, etc. This may even cause delirium. Therefore, potential benefits must be weighed against risks in these patients. In any case, fever must be brought under control in instances when fever escalates to hyperpyrexia and tissue damage is imminent.

Treatment of fever should be based primarily on lowering the set-point, but facilitating heat loss may also contribute. The former is accomplished with antipyretics. Wet cloth or pads are also used for treatment, and applied to the forehead. Heat loss may be an effect of (possibly a combination of) heat conduction, convection, radiation, or evaporation (sweating, perspiration). This may be particularly important in babies, where drugs should be avoided. However, if water that is too cold is used, it induces vasoconstriction and prevents adequate heat loss.

लिधँसा

च्वसुत

सफू
 Rhoades, R. and Pflanzer, R. Human physiology, third edition, chapter 27 Regulation of body temperature, p. 820 Clinical focus: pathogenesis of fever. ISBN 0-03-005159-2
 Kasper, D.L.; Braunwald, E.; Fauci, A.S.; Hauser, S.L.; Longo, D.L.; Jameson, J.L. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005. ISBN 0-07-139140-1.

पिनेया स्वापूत
 What to do if your child has a fever from Seattle Children's Hospital
 Fever and Taking Your Child's Temperature
 US National Institute of Health factsheet
 BUPA factsheet

लक्षण

ज्वर


Disgaea: Hour of Darkness, known in Japan as , is a tactical role-playing video game made by Nippon Ichi for the PlayStation 2 game console. It was published in North America by Atlus, and in PAL regions by Koei. It was later re-released for the PlayStation Portable with extra content, and again on the Nintendo DS. It's about a demon named Laharl, another demon named Etna, and an angel named Flonne. It has two sequels called Disgaea 2: Cursed Memories and Disgaea 3: Absence of Justice, though the characters in this game are not the main characters in those games. It's linked to a game that was out earlier called La Pucelle: Tactics, and later games that were made called Phantom Brave and Makai Kingdom: Chronicles Of The Sacred Tomb that have Disgaea cameos. It has an anime called Makai Senki Disgaea.

Plot

Setting
The game is based in a place called the Netherworld, where demons live. The game also goes outside of the Netherworld to Celestia, a place where angels live, and Earth.

Characters
Major playable characters
Laharl - The main character. He's a young demon who wakes up after a two year sleep and finds out his father, King Krichevskoy dies, and has to work to become the King of the Netherworld.
Etna - Laharl's vassal. She's a young demon who helps Laharl along the way. She liked King Krichevskoy, and is critical of Laharl.
Flonne - A cherub who is sent from a land called Celestia by the Seraphim Lamington to assassinate King Krichevskoy, but finds out he's already dead. Flonne is obsessed with love, and decides to follow Laharl around to find out of demons can feel love.
Captain Gordon - A human who is sent from Earth by a man called General Carter to defeat King Krichevskoy and stop an invasion, along with his sidekicks Jennifer, a pretty blonde, and Thursday, a robot who looks like the robot from Lost in Space. He's the 37th Defender of Earth. He tries hard to complete his mission, but is not very smart.
Jennifer - Captain Gordon's sidekick. She's a pretty blonde, but is actually very smart, and built their robot Thursday.
Thursday - A robot. Was built by Jennifer, and helps her and Captain Gordon.
Kurtis - A man from Earth who dislikes Gordon and thinks of himself as a true Defender of Earth. He lost his wife and son in an explosion and 70% of his body. He is sent by General Carter to the Netherworld, and fights Gordon.

Non-playable characters
Seraphim Lamington - A Seraph who sends Flonne to kill King Krichevskoy.
Vyers (midboss) - A high-class demon who Laharl battles. Laharl gives him the nickname "Mid-Boss", to make fun of him by saying he's not good enough to be a real boss. He runs into Laharl through the whole game and fights him.
Archangel Vulcanus - An Archangel who is annoyed by Lamington's actions and that he sent Flonne intead of him to kill Krichevskoy. He works on his own, trying to kill Laharl, Etna, and Flonne too.
General Carter - A General from Earth who sends Captain Gordon and later Kurtis to the Netherworld.
King Krichevskoy - Laharl's father, and the King of the Netherworld before he died.
Big Sis Prinny - A Prinny who is one of Laharl's vassals and looks out for Laharl.
Baal - A demon who is sometimes called the "Lord of Terror". He's the strongest being in Disgaea.

Gameplay
Disgaea starts in a castle where the player controls Laharl. He or she can buy weapons, armor, accessories, and items, cure their team at a hospital, go to a place called Item World, go to a place called the Dark Assembly, or go to another place through a portal.

Battle
The main gameplay is a turn-based strategy role-playing game. The characters start from a blue portal on the level, and the player can take up to ten people out for a battle. The level is on a grid, and each character can move a certain number of spaces. The player can do many things after they are out of the portal, like attacking, defending, or throwing someone.

Items
There are many kinds of items like weapons, armors, accessories, and help items.

Character types
There are two main kinds of character types - human-shaped characters, like Humans, Angels, and Demons who look like humans, and Monster characters, which are demons who do not look like humans.

Item World
The Item World is a world where the player can send the characters into an item. The levels in the Item World are randomly made, and at every ten floors, there's a more powerful enemy and an exit. The more floors the player goes to, the stronger the item gets. In Item World, there are also characters called Specialists. If one of the player's characters kills them, they are captured, and make the item more powerful in some ways. For example, if the player captures a Gladiator, the item boosts the attack power of who's holding it.

Dark Assembly
The Dark Assembly is a place where Laharl can go to propose a law, which include a law that gets more expensive

Reception
The PlayStation 2 version of Disgaea got an award from IGN for "Best Game no one Played" in 2003.

Versions
PlayStation Portable: The PlayStation Portable version of this game is called Disgaea: Afternoon of Darkness.
Nintendo DS

References

Other websites

2003 video games
Atlus
Disgaea series
Nintendo DS games
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation Portable games

Disgaea: Hour of Darkness


Queen Matilda of Boulogne (1105 – May 3, 1152) was the wife of Stephen of England. She also became the Countess of Boulogne when her father died in 1125.

Matilda was born in Boulogne, France. She was the daughter of Eustace III of Boulogne and Mary of Scotland. Matilda's mother, Mary, was the daughter of Malcolm III of Scotland and Saint Margaret of Scotland.

Matilda married Stephen I of England in 1125. They were deeply in love until two of their children died Baldwin and Matilda.

Matilda died at Hedingham Castle, Essex, England. She was buried in Faversham Abbey.

1105 births
1152 deaths
Kings and Queens consort of England

Matilda of Boulogne


Gertrude Berg (born Tillie Edelstein; October 3, 1899 – September 14, 1966) was an American actress, screenwriter, and producer. A pioneer of classic radio, she was one of the first women to create, write, produce, and star in a long-running hit when she premiered her serial comedy-drama The Rise of the Goldbergs (1929), later known as The Goldbergs. Her career achievements included winning a Tony Award and an Emmy Award, both for Best Lead Actress.

Life and career
Berg was born Tillie Edelstein in 1899 in the East Harlem neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City, to Jacob and Dinah Edelstein, natives of Russia and England, respectively. Berg's chronically unstable mother Dinah, grieving over the death of her young son, experienced a series of nervous breakdowns and later died in a sanitarium.

Tillie, who lived with her family on Lexington Avenue, married Lewis Berg in 1918; they had two children, Cherney (1922–2003) and Harriet (1926–2003). She learned theater while producing skits at her father's Catskills Mountains resort in Fleischmanns, New York.

After the sugar factory where her husband worked burned down, she developed a semi-autobiographical skit, portraying a Jewish family in a Bronx tenement, into a radio show. Though the household had a typewriter, Berg wrote her script by hand, taking the pages this way to a long-awaited appointment at NBC.  When the executive she was meeting with protested that he could not read what Berg had written, she read the script aloud to him. Her performance not only sold the idea for the radio program but also got Berg the job as the lead actress on the program she had written. Berg continued to write the show's scripts by hand in pencil for as long as the program was on the air.

On November 20, 1929, a 15-minute episode of The Rise of the Goldbergs was first broadcast on the NBC radio network.  She started at US$75 a week.  Less than two years later, in the heart of the Great Depression, she let the sponsor propose a salary and was told, "Mrs. Berg, we can't pay a cent over $2,000 a week." Berg's husband, Lewis—who became a successful consulting engineer, though his job loss prompted her to write the initial radio script—refused to be photographed with his wife for publicity purposes, as he felt this was infringing on her success.

Berg became inextricably identified as Molly Goldberg, the big-hearted matriarch of her fictional Bronx family who moved to Connecticut as a symbol of upward mobility of American Jews. She wrote nearly all the show's radio episodes (more than 5,000) plus a Broadway adaptation, Me and Molly (1948). It took considerable convincing, but Berg finally prevailed upon CBS to let her bring The Goldbergs to television in 1949. Early episodes portrayed the Goldberg family openly and personally struggling to adapt to American life. Just as Berg stated in her autobiography, she chose to depict her Jewish grandfather's worship in her first radio broadcast show. Her characters Molly, Jake, Sammy and Rosie emphasized her day-to-day stories of Jewish immigration to America.

Immigrant life and the Goldberg family struggle were familiar and relatable to many families during this point in American history. Radio seemed to produce a common place to tie patriotism and families together. The program's success was largely because of the familiar feelings of the American people portrayed in the program's scripts. The first season script was later published in book form.

In 1951, Berg won the first ever Emmy Award for Lead Actress in a Television Series in her twentieth year of playing the role. The show would stay in production for five more years.

The Goldbergs ran into trouble in 1951, during the McCarthy Era. Co-star Philip Loeb (Molly's husband, patriarch Jake Goldberg) was one of the performers named in Red Channels: The Report of Communist Influence in Radio and Television and blacklisted as a result. The series was canceled as a result of Loeb's participation, and both network and sponsors insisted Loeb be fired as a condition of the show returning to air, despite Berg's protests. Loeb resigned rather than cause Berg trouble. He reportedly received a generous severance package from the show, but it did not prevent him from sinking into a depression that ultimately drove him to suicide in 1955. The Goldbergs returned a year after Loeb departed the show and continued until 1954, after which Berg also wrote and produced a syndicated film version. The show remained in syndicated reruns for another few years, after one year of production and 39 episodes (it aired on some stations as Molly). The series is currently seen on the Jewish Life Television (JLTV) cable network.

Berg continued to make guest appearances on television in the 1950s and early 1960s. She appeared on The Pat Boone Chevy Showroom, a February 1958 episode of The Ford Show, Starring Tennessee Ernie Ford,  and was the "mystery guest'" on the series What's My Line? in 1954, 1960, and 1961. In 1961, Berg made a last stab at television success in the Four Star Television situation comedy, Mrs. G. Goes to College (retitled The Gertrude Berg Show at midseason), playing a 62-year-old widow who enrolls in college. The series was cancelled after one season.

Berg continued working in theatre through these years. In 1959, she won the Tony Award for Best Actress for her performance in A Majority of One. In 1961, Berg won the Sarah Siddons Award for her work in Chicago theater. Berg also published a best-selling memoir, Molly and Me, in 1961.

Death and legacy
Berg died of heart failure on September 14, 1966, aged 66, at Doctors Hospital in Manhattan. She is buried at Clovesville Cemetery in Fleischmanns, New York.

A biography of Berg, Something on My Own: Gertrude Berg and American Broadcasting, 1929–1956, by Glenn D. Smith, Jr. (Syracuse University Press) appeared in 2007. Aviva Kempner's 2009 documentary, Yoo-Hoo, Mrs. Goldberg, deals with Berg's career, and to an extent, her personal life.

References

Further reading

 "Tuning in to Women in Television" (National Women's History Museum)

External links

Gertrude Berg Honoree at The Paley Center for Media
Syracuse University: Gertrude Berg Papers
Interview with Fred Rogers Gertrude Berg on the PBS show Children's Corner, Archive of American Television interview with Fred Rogers, part 4 of 9, about ten minutes into the program.
Webcast on Gertrude Berg, The Paley Center for Media, "From The Goldbergs to 2005: The Evolution of the Family Sitcom" (November 16, 2005)

1899 births
1966 deaths
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Actresses from New York City
American women screenwriters
American film actresses
American radio personalities
Screenwriters from New York (state)
American television actresses
Television producers from New York City
American women television producers
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
Tony Award winners
Jewish American comedians
Jewish women writers
Jewish American actresses
People from East Harlem
20th-century American actresses
Washington Irving High School (New York City) alumni
Jewish American screenwriters
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American screenwriters
20th-century American Jews

Gertrude Berg


Hanna-Barbera was a company that made cartoon television programs and movies. Some of these cartoons were Tom and Jerry, Droopy, Spike and Tyke, The Jetsons, The Flintstones, Scooby-Doo, Yogi Bear, Smurfs, Pink Panther, Wally Gator, and Peter Potamus, and the 1973 movie version of Charlotte's Web. It was started by and named after William Hanna and Joseph Barbera. In 1991, Turner Broadcasting bought Hanna-Barbera. In 1992, Cartoon Network was launched. In 2001, Hanna-Barbera studios was shut down and moved to Warner Bros. Animation. After the death of Hanna on March 22, 2001, Hanna-Barbera split into two parts: Warner Bros. Animation (for older cartoons) and Cartoon Network Studios (for the newer ones on Cartoon Network).

Hanna-Barbera Studios had many cartoon programs on the air for over four decades. This studio competed with Disney and Warner Bros to produce cartoons.

Related pages
Animation

1957 establishments in the United States
2001 disestablishments in the United States

Hanna-Barbera


The Real Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP), developed by the IETF and created in 1998 as RFC 2326, is a protocol for use in streaming media systems, which allows a client to remotely control a streaming media server, issuing VCR-like commands such as "play" and "pause", and allowing time-based access to files on a server.

The sending of streaming data itself is not part of the RTSP protocol. Most RTSP servers use the standards-based RTP as the transport protocol for the actual audio/video data. The RTSP server from RealNetworks also features RealNetworks' proprietary RDT as the transport protocol.

Clients
 GStreamer
 Media Player Classic
 MPEG4IP
 MPlayer
 QuickTime
 Avi player
 RealPlayer
 Skype
 VLC media player
 Winamp
 Windows Media Player
 Xine
 MythTV via Freebox
 Gom player

Server software
 QuickTime Streaming Server: Apple's closed-source streaming server that ships with Mac OS X Server
 Darwin Streaming Server: Open-sourced version of Quicktime Streaming Server maintained by Apple
 pvServer: Formerly called PacketVideo Streaming Server, this is Alcatel-Lucent's streaming server product.
 Helix DNA Server: RealNetworks' streaming server. Comes in both open-source and proprietary flavors.
 Live555: Open source C++ server and client libraries used in well known clients like VLC and mplayer.
 VideoLAN: Open source media player and streaming server
 Windows Media Services: Microsoft's streaming server included with Windows Server.
 VX30: Streaming video server and embedded JAVA client from Maui X-Stream.

Related pages
 Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP)
 Fusion RTSP solution for embedded systems, e.g. IPTV, internet TV and mobile internet devices.

Other websites
 RTSP.org , a central information repository about RTSP.
 Tunneling RTSP and RTP Over HTTP  A standard solution to help RTSP work through firewalls and web proxies

Application layer protocols

Real Time Streaming Protocol


理論物理入面,D-branes,有人叫做D-膜,係一類p-branes;渠個名來自渠跟嘅「Dirichlet 邊界條件」,其中Dirichlet 即係數學家Johann Dirichlet。一直以來Dirichlet 邊界條件係流體力學同埋勢論都有用;喺流體力學,固定一 Dirichlet 邊界條件可以即係畀一表示上嘅每一點一支流速;而研究靜電時,我地可以響特定嘅地方定死咗電壓來設定 Dirichlet 條件,好似傳導體嘅表面。喺是但一例,嗰啲有固定值嘅點就組成塊 D-brane。呢啲嘢響弦論特别重要,因開弦嘅每一尾一定要連住塊 D-branes。

一般我地用維度來分類 D-branes。例如, D0-brane 即係一點;D1-brane 係條線(有啲叫 D-弦 (D-string));D2-brane 係塊平面;D25-brane 就佔曬玻色弦論中最頂龍維度嘅空間。

理論背景
多數弦論模型入面有用兩種關係密切嘅弦:有一頭一尾嘅開弦同埋成個圈咁嘅閂弦(closed strings)。睇下南部後滕作用(:en:Nambu-Goto action),就會發現條弦上能量可以流,重會響頭尾消失。咁就出問題:能量守恆律話,響封閉系統入面,能量唔會無咗。  所以,弦論要行得通,就要包括埋啲能量嘅出路;呢的嘢就叫 D-branes。  任何弦論模型,有親開弦嘅,都一定要有 D-branes,而且全部開弦嘅尾都要黏疑住呢啲 branes。弦論學者認為  D-branes 真係實質嘅「物理嘢」,同啲弦本身一樣咁真— 唔只係抽象嘅曲面。因為開弦嘅尾唔甩得開渠黏住嗰幾塊 D-branes,所以 D-branes 定咗條弦嘅運動方程嘅邊界條件。 每個方向嘅運動都各自各被影響:條弦尾可自由沿住平行塊 D-brane  嘅方向郁,但垂直住塊 D-brane 嘅方向就鎖死咗。嚴格講,一塊  D-brane 決定咗條弦嘅任何座標究竟跟Neumann定跟  Dirichlet 邊界條件行:平行住塊 brane 嘅就行 Neumann,垂直住塊 brane 嘅就行 Dirichlet。

弦論預測,全部基本粒子都係量子弦嘅震態(vibrational state),咁我地自然可以問,啲 D-branes 都係唔係由弦「組成」。 某種意義上,真係嘅:嚮弦震態畀嘅粒子譜入面,有種怪嘢叫 tachyon(例如:渠有虚質量)。假設我哋有舊填滿空間 (space-filling) 嘅 D-brane,即係話,佢同宇宙有一樣嘅維度,而且無限大。(嚮玻色弦論,咁就要舊 D25-brane。)黐住呢塊 brane 嘅弦會引發「住喺」塊 brane 入面嘅一幅tachyon 場。第啲低維度嘅 D-branes 可以住嚮舊填滿成個空間嘅 brane 裏面 — 例如, D1-branes (「D-弦」) 或者 D2-branes。呢啲低維度 branes 可以當做一拃拃 tachyons, coherent in a way reminiscent of the photons in a laser beam.  Many studies in string theory ignore this viewpoint, for simplicity treating the D-brane as a single object.  (In thermodynamics, classroom discussions frequently involve a gas of atoms interacting with a large object, like a piston in a cylinder.  Of course, physicists believe that the piston is also made of atoms, but for many problems, it is not necessary to consider all the extra complexity, and they model it as a single, macroscopic object.  The case of D-branes is analogous.)

Tachyon condensation is a central concept in this field.  Ashoke Sen has argued that in Type IIB string theory, tachyon condensation allows (in the absence of Neveu-Schwarz 3-form flux) an arbitrary D-brane configuration to be obtained from a stack of D9 and anti D9-branes.  Edward Witten has shown that such configurations will be classified by the K-theory of the spacetime.

Braneworld 宇宙學

D-brane 喺物理宇宙學都有影響。 因為弦論學者預測宇宙嘅維數多過我地認為—玻色弦論要 26維,超弦論就要 10維—咁我地就要揾下點解呢啲凸出來嘅維度咁唔明顯。一種可能係見到嘅宇宙其實係舊好大嘅 D-brane,有三支空間嘅維度。 由開弦組成嘅物質嘢,黐住塊 D-brane,唔可以「垂直住現實 (reality)」咁郁,離唔開塊 brane 去外面嘅宇宙玩。呢種景況就叫brane 宇宙學。  Interestingly, the force of gravity is not due to open strings; the gravitons which carry gravitational forces are vibrational states of closed strings.  Because closed strings do not have to be attached to D-branes, gravitational effects could depend upon the extra dimensions at right angles to the brane.  (This is a fairly simple braneworld model.  More recent innovations under close study as of 2005 are more intricate, but this discussion reflects some of their spirit.)

規範場論

啲 D-branes 嘅擺位,限制住個系統入面可以有邊種弦。例如,如我地有兩塊平行嘅 D2-branes,咁我地就可以想象啲弦由 1 號brane 拉去 2 號 brane,或者相反。(嚮多數模型,啲弦都係有向嘅嘢:每條都帶住支箭嘴,定咗沿弦嘅一個方向。)  The open strings permissible in this situation then fall into two categories, or "sectors":  those originating on brane 1 and terminating on brane 2, and those originating on brane 2 and terminating on brane 1.  Symbolically, we say we have the  and the  sectors.  In addition, a string may begin and end on the same brane, giving  and  sectors.  (The numbers inside the brackets are called Chan-Paton indices,  but they are really just labels identifying the branes.)  A string in either the  or the  sector has a minimum length: it cannot be shorter than the separation between the branes.  All strings have some tension, against which one must pull to lengthen the object; this pull does work on the string, adding to its energy.  Because string theories are by nature relativistic, adding energy to a string is equivalent to adding mass, by Einstein's relation .  Therefore, the separation between D-branes controls the minimum mass open strings may have.

Furthermore, affixing a string's endpoint to a brane influences the way the string can move and vibrate.  Because particle states "emerge" from the string theory as the different vibrational states the string can experience, the arrangement of D-branes controls the types of particles present in the theory.  The simplest case is the  sector for a Dp-brane, that is to say the strings which begin and end on any particular D-brane of p dimensions.  Examining the consequences of the Nambu-Goto action (and applying the rules of quantum mechanics to quantize the string), one finds that among the spectrum of particles is one resembling the photon, the fundamental quantum of the electromagnetic field.  The resemblance is precise:  a p-dimensional version of the electromagnetic field, obeying a p-dimensional analogue of Maxwell's equations, "lives" on every Dp-brane.

In this sense, then, one can say that string theory "predicts" electromagnetism:  D-branes are a necessary part of the theory if we permit open strings to exist, and all D-branes carry an electromagnetic field on their volume.

Other particle states originate from strings beginning and ending on the same D-brane.  Some correspond to massless particles like the photon; also in this group are a set of massless scalar particles.  If a Dp-brane is embedded in a spacetime of d spatial dimensions, the brane carries (in addition to its Maxwell field) a set of d - p massless scalars (particles which do not have polarizations like the photons making up light).  Intriguingly, there are just as many massless scalars as there are directions perpendicular to the brane; the geometry of the brane arrangement is closely related to the quantum field theory of the particles "living" on it.  In fact, these massless scalars are Goldstone excitations of the brane, corresponding to the different ways the symmetry of empty space can be broken.  Placing a D-brane in a universe breaks the symmetry among locations, because it defines a particular place, assigning a special meaning to a particular location along each of the d - p directions perpendicular to the brane.

The quantum version of Maxwell's electromagnetism is only one kind of gauge theory, a U(1) gauge theory where the gauge group is made of unitary matrices of order 1.  D-branes can be used to generate gauge theories of higher order, in the following way:

Consider a group of N separate Dp-branes, arranged in parallel for simplicity.  The branes are labeled 1,2,...,N for convenience.  Open strings in this system exist in one of many sectors:  the strings beginning and ending on some brane i give that brane a Maxwell field and some massless scalar fields on its volume.  The strings stretching from brane i to another brane j have more intriguing properties.  For starters, it is worthwhile to ask which sectors of strings can interact with one another.  One straightforward mechanism for a string interaction is for two strings to join endpoints (or, conversely, for one string to "split down the middle" and make two "daughter" strings).  Since endpoints are restricted to lie on D-branes, it is evident that a  string may interact with a  string, but not with a  or a  one.  The masses of these strings will be influenced by the separation between the branes, as discussed above, so for simplicity's sake we can imagine the branes squeezed closer and closer together, until they lie atop one another.  If we regard two overlapping branes as distinct objects, then we still have all the sectors we had before, but without the effects due to the brane separations.

The zero-mass states in the open-string particle spectrum for a system of N coincident D-branes yields a set of interacting quantum fields which is exactly a U(N) gauge theory.  (The string theory does contain other interactions, but they are only detectable at very high energies.)  Gauge theories were not invented starting with bosonic or fermionic strings; they originated from a different area of physics, and have become quite useful in their own right.  If nothing else, the relation between D-brane geometry and gauge theory offers a useful pedagogical tool for explaining gauge interactions, even if string theory fails to be the "theory of everything".

黑洞

D-branes 又可用來研究黑洞。 自從1970年代,物理學人辯論緊黑洞有無熵。 諗下一次理想實驗:攞舊熱氣掟落黑洞度。因為舊熱氣出唔到黑洞嘅引力場,咁渠嘅熵就似乎由宇宙消失咗。為咗維持熱力學第二定律, one must postulate that the black hole gained whatever entropy the infalling gas originally had.  Attempting to apply quantum mechanics to the study of black holes, Stephen Hawking discovered that a hole should emit energy with the characteristic spectrum of thermal radiation.  The characteristic temperature of this Hawking radiation is given by

where G is Newton's gravitational constant, M is the black hole's mass and kB is Boltzmann's constant.

Using this expression for the Hawking temperature, and assuming that a zero-mass black hole has zero entropy, one can use thermodynamic arguments to derive the "Bekenstein entropy":

The Bekenstein entropy is proportional to the black hole mass squared; because the Schwarzschild radius is proportional to the mass, the Bekenstein entropy is proportional to the black hole's surface area.  In fact,

where  is the Planck length.

The concept of black hole entropy poses some interesting conundra.  In an ordinary situation, a system has entropy when a large number of different "microstates" can satisfy the same macroscopic condition.  For example, given a box full of gas, many different arrangements of the gas atoms can have the same total energy.  However, a black hole was believed to be a featureless object (in John Wheeler's catchphrase, "Black holes have no hair").  What, then, are the "degrees of freedom" which can give rise to black hole entropy?

String theorists have constructed models in which a black hole is a very long (and hence very massive) string.  This model gives rough agreement with the expected entropy of a Schwarzschild black hole, but an exact proof has yet to be found one way or the other.  The chief difficulty is that it is relatively easy to count the degrees of freedom quantum strings possess if they do not interact with one another.  This is analogous to the ideal gas studied in introductory thermodynamics:  the easiest situation to model is when the gas atoms do not have interactions among themselves.  Developing the kinetic theory of gases in the case where the gas atoms or molecules experience inter-particle forces (like the van der Waals force) is more difficult.  However, a world without interactions is an uninteresting place:  most significantly for the black hole problem, gravity is an interaction, and so if the "string coupling" is turned off, no black hole could ever arise.  Therefore, calculating black hole entropy requires working in a regime where string interactions exist.

Extending the simpler case of non-interacting strings to the regime where a black hole could exist requires supersymmetry.  In certain cases, the entropy calculation done for zero string coupling remains valid when the strings interact.  The challenge for a string theorist is to devise a situation in which a black hole can exist which does not "break" supersymmetry.  In recent years, this has been done by building black holes out of D-branes.  Calculating the entropies of these hypothetical holes gives results which agree with the expected Bekenstein entropy.  Unfortunately, the cases studied so far all involve higher-dimensional spaces — D5-branes in nine-dimensional space, for example.  They do not directly apply to the familiar case, the Schwarzschild black holes observed in our own universe.

史

Dirichlet boundary conditions and D-branes had a long `pre-history' before their full significance was recognized.  Mixed Dirichlet/Neumann boundary conditions were first considered by Warren Siegel in 1976 as a means of lowering the critical dimension of open string theory from 26 or 10 to 4 (Siegel also cites unpublished work by Halpern, and a 1974 paper by Chodos and Thorn, but a reading of the latter paper shows that it is actually concerned with linear dilation backgrounds, not Dirichlet boundary conditions).  This paper, though prescient, was little-noted in its time (a 1985 parody by Siegel, `The Super-g String,' contains an almost dead-on description of braneworlds).  Dirichlet conditions for all coordinates including Euclidean time (defining what are now known as D-instantons) were introduced by Michael Green in 1977 as a means of introducing point-like structure into string theory, in an attempt to construct a string theory of the strong interaction.  String compactifications studied by Harvey and Minahan, Ishibashi and Onogi, and Pradisi and Sagnotti in 1987-89 also employed Dirichlet boundary conditions.

The fact that T-duality interchanges the usual Neumann boundary conditions with Dirichlet boundary conditions was discovered independently by Horava and by Dai, Leigh, and Polchinski in 1989; this result implies that such boundary conditions must necessarily appear in regions of the moduli space of any open string theory.  The Dai et al. paper also notes that the locus of the Dirichlet boundary conditions is dynamical, and coins the term Dirichlet-brane (D-brane) for the resulting object (this paper also coins orientifold for another object that arises under string T-duality).  A 1989 paper by Leigh showed that D-brane dynamics are governed by the Dirac-Born-Infeld action.  D-instantons were extensively studied by Green in the early 1990's, and were shown by Polchinski in 1994 to produce the e^{-1/g} nonperturbative string effects anticipated by Shenker.  In 1995 Polchinski showed that D-branes are the sources of electric and magnetic Ramond-Ramond fields that are required by string duality, leading to rapid progress in the nonperturbative understanding of string theory.

睇埋
 Bogomol'nyi-Prasad-Sommerfield bound
 Brane
 M-theory

參攷
 Bachas, C. P. "Lectures on D-branes" (1998). .
 Giveon, A. and Kutasov, D. "Brane dynamics and gauge theory," Rev. Mod. Phys. 71, 983 (1999). .

 Polchinski, Joseph, TASI Lectures on D-branes, . Lectures given at TASI '96.
 Polchinski, Joseph, Phys. Rev. Lett. 75, 4724 (1995). An article which established D-branes' significance in string theory.
 Zwiebach, Barton. A First Course in String Theory. Cambridge University Press (2004). ISBN 0-521-83143-1.

弦論

D-brane


The American Society of Music Arrangers and Composers is an organization whose mission is to promote the arts of Music Arranging, Composition and Orchestration within the entertainment industry community and the general public. The ASMAC was founded in 1938.

ASMAC
The American Society of Music Arrangers and Composers (ASMAC) was founded in 1938. It welcomes all composers as either associate or full members.
The creation of ASMAC started with a various amount of composers and arrangers who were writing music for films, they were not getting the appreciation that they deserved and they decided to join together to make a group to promote their work and to educate the masses in their field of study.
Members originally dubbed their group "The American Society of Music Arrangers" (ASMA), the predecessor to ASMAC.
With eight studios hiring orchestras at the time of their creation, one of the group's first goals was to be fully employed. Another one of their early goals was to get royalties for their orchestrations, a goal that has still not been achieved in the year 2008.

Other areas, where they have had more success, include: screen credit, better working conditions, improved union scales, even parking privileges, and anything they could think of to improve their lot.

Robert Russell Bennett was ASMA's first president. ASMA became ASMAC in 1987 recognizing the fact that most members were also practicing composers.

The membership now numbers over 500 and has expanded to those who are, or have been, active in the preparation of music for movies, theatre, recording, television and live performances.

ASMAC also holds workshops, seminars and gives scholarships to deserving students.

The biggest event of the year for ASMAC is the Golden Score Awards Dinner, which features the Golden Score Award (Composing), the Irwin Kostal Award (Arranging) and/or the President's Award (Non-composing).

Scholarships

The ASMAC organization offers two scholarship competitions for young composers/arrangers. One competition is for a Big Band where the participant writes an arrangement or a new composition for a big band and the second is for a Chamber ensemble, where the participant will write a composition for a Chamber group.
Each competition offers numerous cash prizes plus a rehearsal reading and recording by some of Los Angeles' finest musicians. Each contestant must be a member of ASMAC or join ASMAC at the time of entry.

75th Anniversary

In 2013, ASMAC had its 75th birthday as an organization and had a massive anniversary celebration up which almost 400 people attended. Leading the group at this celebration was notable film composer Michael Giacchino.

Many members of the group gave their own testament at this festival including members such as Van Alexander (composer of the Ella Fitzgerald standard "A Tisket, A Tasket") Johnny Mandel (Mash and The SandPiper) Laurence Rosentha (The Miracle Worker, Becket) Doug Bsterman (Broadway Orchestrator), and many others.

At the event there were many tributes to the members which included Videos and Live Bands performing works by the members.

References

External links
 Official Site of ASMAC

1938 establishments in the United States
Music industry associations
Music organizations based in the United States
Organizations established in 1938


Political philosophy is the study of politics, liberty, justice, property, and rights. Also the law, and its enforcement (a legal code) by authority. It concerns not the details, but the basic principles, reasons and arguments.

Topics studied include the purpose of government, what rights and freedoms it should protect, what form it should take, and what the law is. Also, what duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, and when it may be legitimately overthrown, if ever.

Political philosophy is a philosophical back-up to political science, which is the social science study of politics.

Political philosophy

Political philosophy


Inland seas, also called epeiric or epicontinental seas, are shallow seas over part of a continent.

They usually happen with marine transgressions, when the sea overtops the land. They are caused by either global high ('eustatic') sea level or the formation of large geologic basins which eventually connect to the ocean.

There have been, at some periods, shallow seas inside continents. Much of present-day North America was covered by an epicontinental sea called the Sundance Sea during the Jurassic period. In the Cretaceous an even larger area was covered by the Western Interior Seaway. A modern example is the Baltic Sea. The North Sea is not an inland sea, but it does sit on continental shelf, and so is epeiric (that is what the word means). The Hudson Bay is often considered an epeiric sea because its depth averages 100ft (30 m) whereas, for example, the Bay of Bengal is 2,600 metres (8000 ft) deep. So epeiric seas are on the continental plate, as are inland seas. The inland seas, however, are more enclosed.

Examples

Amazon basin
The Amazon basin originally emptied into the Pacific Ocean when South America and Africa were part of Gondwana.

After the breakup of Gondwana, the Amazon found its exit blocked by the rise of the Andes about 15 million years ago (mya). A great inland sea developed, at times draining north through what is now Venezuela before finding its present eastward outlet into the South Atlantic. Gradually this inland sea became a vast freshwater lake and wetlands where sediment flattened its profiles and the marine inhabitants adapted to life in freshwater. Over 20 species of stingray, most closely related to those found in the Pacific Ocean, live today in the freshwaters of the Amazon, which is also home to a freshwater dolphin.

Mediterranean
The Mediterranean Sea looks like a clear-cut example of an inland sea, but its deepest point is 5,267 m (17,280 ft) in the Calypso Deep of the Ionian Sea. The Mediterranean is a genuine sea which has been squashed almost out of existence by the movement of Africa against the European tectonic plate. It was formerly part of the ancient Tethys Ocean, which surrounded the old global supercontinent of Pangaea. So the Mediterranean is different from those inland seas which sit on top of continental plates.

Black Sea
The Black Sea, on the other hand, is a genuine inland sea because it sits on continental plates which have subsided.

Western Interior Seaway
A vast inland sea extended from the Gulf of Mexico deep into present-day Canada during the Cretaceous. It split the continent of North America into two halves, Laramidia and Appalachia, for most of the mid- and late-Cretaceous period. It was 2,500 feet (760 m) deep, 600 miles (970 km) wide and over 2,000 miles (3,200 km) long.

At the same time, much of the low plains of modern-day northern France and northern Germany were covered by an inland sea, where the chalk was deposited that gave the Cretaceous Period its name.

Sundance Sea
The Sundance Sea existed in North America during the mid to late Jurassic period of the Mesozoic Era. It was an arm of what is now the Arctic Ocean, and extended through what is now western Canada into the central western United States. The sea receded when highlands to the west began to rise. The sedimentary rocks which formed in and around the Sundance Sea are often rich in fossils.

Related pages
Endorheic basin

References

Seas

Inland sea


Carl Vinson (November 18, 1883 – June 1, 1981) was an American politician who served in the U.S. House of Representatives for over 50 years and was influential in the 20th century expansion of the U.S. Navy. He was a member of the Democratic Party and represented Georgia in the House from 1914 to 1965. He was known as "The Father of the Two-Ocean Navy". He is the longest-serving member of the United States House of Representatives from the state of Georgia. From 1961 to 1965, he served as the Dean of the US House of Representatives as the longest serving member of the body.

, the third , is named after him.

Early years
Vinson was born in Baldwin County, Georgia, where he attended local schools and Georgia Military College. He graduated with a law degree from Mercer University in 1902 and was a member of the Kappa Alpha Order. After some years of practice, he was elected to the Georgia House of Representatives in 1908. After losing a third term following redistricting, he was appointed as judge of the Baldwin County court.

Following the sudden death of U.S. Senator Augustus Bacon, Representative Thomas W. Hardwick of Georgia's 10th congressional district was nominated to fill Bacon's Senate seat. Vinson announced his candidacy for Hardwick's seat in Congress. Vinson defeated three opponents. Vinson was the youngest member of Congress (30 years old) when he was sworn in on November 3, 1914.

Service in Congress

Vinson served as a Representative from November 3, 1914, to January 3, 1965. He was repeatedly re-elected by Democratic voters for this seat. During his tenure in the U.S. House, Vinson was a champion for national defense and especially the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Marine Corps. He joined the House Naval Affairs Committee shortly after World War I and became the ranking Democratic member in the early 1920s. He was the only Democrat appointed to the Morrow Board, which reviewed the status of aviation in America in the mid-1920s.

In 1931, Vinson became chairman of the House Naval Affairs Committee.  In 1934, Vinson helped push the Vinson–Trammell Act, along with Democratic Senator Park Trammell of Florida. The bill authorized the replacement of obsolete vessels by new construction and a gradual increase of ships within the limits of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 and London Naval Treaty of 1930. Initial funding for the Vinson–Trammell Navy Act was provided by the Emergency Appropriations Act of 1934. This was necessary as during the previous administration, not a single major warship was laid down and the US Navy was both aging and losing ground to the Japanese Navy. Japan repudiated the naval treaties in late 1934.

Vinson later was primarily responsible for additional naval expansion legislation, the Naval Act of 1938 ("Second Vinson Act") and the Third Vinson Act of 1940 (which was essentially a mere prelude to the Two-Oceans Act that followed a month later), as well as the Two-Ocean Navy Act of 1940. The ambitious program called for by this series of laws helped the U.S. Navy as the country entered World War II, as new ships were able to match the latest ships from Japan.

At the end of World War II, Congress had authorized four Naval four-star officers to be promoted to Fleet Admiral. A staunch partisan of Admiral William Halsey, Jr., Vinson blocked the nomination of Admiral Raymond A. Spruance several times, although the majority thought him more deserving, to ensure that Halsey got the fourth billet. Congress eventually responded by passing an unprecedented act that specified that Spruance would remain on a full admiral's pay once retired until his death.

Following World War II, the House Naval Affairs Committee was merged with the Military Affairs Committee to become the House Armed Services Committee (this consolidation mirrored the establishment of the Department of Defense when the old Departments of War and of the Navy were consolidated). When the Republicans won control of Congress in the 1946 election, Vinson served as ranking minority member of the committee for two years before becoming Chairman in early 1949, when the Democrats were again in majority; a position held for four years until the Republicans briefly returned to the majority for a single congressional term after the 1950 elections. After the Democrats retook congress in the 1952 midterms, Vinson again became Chairman, a position he held until his retirement in 1965. In this role, Vinson adopted a committee rule that came to be known as the "Vinson rule", which limited the number of questions a junior member of the committee could ask to one question per year of service on the committee. As chairman, Vinson oversaw the modernization of the military as its focus shifted to the Cold War. He was also committee chair when Congress authorized the procurement of the first nuclear-powered aircraft carriers, starting with  in the late 1950s.

A staunch segregationist, Vinson voted against the 1964 Civil Rights Act and in 1956, signed "The Southern Manifesto". Other Southern politicians signed this in resistance to the ruling by the United States Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) that segregated public education was unconstitutional, and that states needed to integrate their public schools.

Vinson did not seek re-election in 1964 and retired from Congress in January 1965.

Personal life
Vinson married Mary Green of Ohio in 1921. She died in 1949 after a long illness.

Vinson did not have children, but his great-nephew, Sam Nunn, served as a Senator from Georgia for more than 24 years. Nunn followed in his great uncle's footsteps, serving on the Senate Armed Services Committee for nearly his entire tenure in the Senate. Sam Nunn's daughter, Michelle Nunn ran unsuccessfully for one of Georgia's U.S. Senate seats in 2014.

Vinson considered his longtime assistant Charles Tillman Snead, Jr. his surrogate son, and Snead's wife, Molly Staeman Snead, was Vinson's wife's nurse for 34 years. Snead's son and grandchildren maintained this familial bond to Vinson until his death in 1981.

Death

Vinson returned to Baldwin County, Georgia, where he lived in retirement until his death on June 1, 1981. He is buried in Memory Hill Cemetery in Milledgeville, Georgia.

At the time of his death, Vinson was the last living member of the House of Representatives who was serving at the time of the United States' declaration of war against the German Empire, which precipitated the United States' entry into World War I.

Legacy
In recognition of his efforts on behalf of the U.S. Navy, a nuclear-powered aircraft carrier was named the , an honor rarely given to a person while living. On March 15, 1980, at age 96, he attended the ship's launching.

Vinson Massif, Antarctica's highest mountain, is also named after him, together with the related Mount Vinson and Vinson Plateau.

Carl Vinson served 26 consecutive terms in the U.S. House, rarely running against significant opposition. He served for 50 years and one month, a record that stood until 1992, when the mark was surpassed by Jamie L. Whitten of Mississippi.

For his commitment, Vinson was awarded the prestigious Sylvanus Thayer Award by the United States Military Academy. In 1964, President Lyndon Johnson awarded Vinson the Presidential Medal of Freedom with Special Distinction, the highest award the President can give to a civilian. During his own tenure in the House, Johnson had served for years as a junior member of the House Naval Affairs Committee under Vinson.

The Department of Veterans' Affairs Medical Center in Dublin, Georgia, serving veterans in Central and Southern Georgia, is named for Vinson.

The University of Georgia hosts the Carl Vinson Institute of Government.

Athens, Georgia, is the site of Carl Vinson Park.

Carl Vinson Parkway is located in Warner Robins, Georgia.

Georgia Military College formerly had a barracks named for him. It was razed in the mid-2000s.

Vinson Hall Retirement Community in McLean, Virginia, is named after Carl Vinson.

References

Bibliography

External links
 University of Georgia brief biography
 University of Georgia Profile of Carl Vinson
 Congressional Biography
  United States Navy website:  USS Carl Vinson
 Vinson Institute Press, "Carl Vinson: A Legacy of Public Service", 2002

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1883 births
1981 deaths
Democratic Party members of the Georgia House of Representatives
Burials in Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia (U.S. state) state court judges
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Mercer University alumni
Burials at Memory Hill Cemetery
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Georgia (U.S. state)
20th-century American judges
Deans of the United States House of Representatives
20th-century American politicians
Signatories of the Southern Manifesto

Carl Vinson


Andreas Bernd Baader (6 May 1943-18 October 1977) was a German terrorist.

He was born in Munich and was one of the first leaders of the Red Army Faction (RAF). It was often called the Baader-Meinhof gang

Start of the Baader-Meinhof gang
In 1968, Baader and his girlfriend Gudrun Ensslin were convicted of the setting fire to a department store in Frankfurt am Main.

They were arrested and sent to jail, but Baader escaped. He was caught in April 1970, but in May 1970, he was allowed to go a library outside the prison. Journalist Ulrike Meinhof and two other women were allowed to join him. They let a masked man into the library who fired shots at a 64-year-old librarian. Baader, the three women and the masked man fled through a window, and the group soon became known as the Baader-Meinhof Gang.

Baader and others then spent some time in a Palestinian military training camp in Jordan before being thrown out. Back in Germany, Baader robbed banks and bombed buildings from 1970 to 1972. On 1 June 1972, he and fellow RAF members Jan-Carl Raspe and Holger Meins were caught after a gunfight in Frankfurt.

Meins died during a hunger strike in Stammheim Prison, Stuttgart, in 1974. This was when philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre visited Baader. He described Baader as "incredibly stupid" and "an asshole"."Sartre par lui-même", 1976

Stammheim
From 1975 to 1977, there was a long and expensive trial in a specially fortified building on the grounds of Stammheim. Their jailers said Baader and the others kept their cells as dirty and disgusting as possible in stop searches for things that might be smuggled in; at this time lawyers and defendants were not separated by panes of glass during unsupervised meetings.

Meinhof was found dead in her cell in Stammheim on 9 May 1976, hanging from the ceiling. RAF members and others claimed that she was killed by the German government. The so-called second generation of the RAF committed several kidnappings and murders in a campaign in support of the prisoners. The three remaining defendants were convicted in April 1977 of several murders, attempted murders, and of forming a terrorist organization, and were sentenced to life imprisonment.

Businessman Hanns Martin Schleyer was kidnapped in Cologne on 5 September 1977. Lufthansa Flight 181 was hijacked in mid-October to try to force the release of Baader and ten other RAF members.

After several weeks that were called the German Autumn, the passengers of the aeroplane were freed in an assault carried out by German GSG 9 special forces in the early hours of 18 October 1977. On the same day, the RAF killed Schleyer in France.

Next morning, Andreas Baader and Jan-Carl Raspe were found in their prison cells, dead from gunshot wounds. Gudrun Ensslin was found hanging. RAF member Irmgard Möller was found with four stab wounds to her chest, but survived.

All the official inquiries said that Baader and the others two committed suicide. Möller insists that the deaths and her injury were extrajudicial executions.

In fiction
In 2002, director Christopher Roth released a film about Baader titled Baader.

Literature
 Hitler's Children: The story of the Baader Meinhof Terrorist Gang, Jillian Becker

Related pages
 List of members of the Red Army Faction

Other websites
 http://www.baader-meinhof.com/
Breaking Comrade Baader Out

1943 births
1977 deaths
German communists
German prisoners
German terrorists
People from Munich
Red Army Faction
Suicides by firearm in Germany

Andreas Baader


Stanley W. Drulia (born January 5, 1968) is an American former professional right winger and a scout for the Nashville Predators of the NHL as of December, 2018.

Playing career

Prior to his mid-season hiring in Milwaukee he was the head coach of the Wheeling Nailers of the ECHL where he led the Nailers to a combined 49-35-0-5 record during his tenure there. He was drafted in the eleventh round, 214th overall, by the Pittsburgh Penguins in the 1986 NHL Entry Draft.  He played 126 games in the National Hockey League, all with the Tampa Bay Lightning. He scored 15 goals and 27 assists in the NHL. Drulia was born in Elmira, New York, but grew up in Fort Erie, Ontario.

Drulia played junior ice hockey in the Ontario Hockey League with the Belleville Bulls, Hamilton Steelhawks, and the Niagara Falls Thunder. Drulia holds the OHL record for most career points with 479. Drulia won the Jim Mahon Memorial Trophy as the top scoring right winger, and the Leo Lalonde Memorial Trophy as overage Player of the Year in the 1988–89 OHL season.

While playing in the International Hockey League, Drulia won the Turner Cup playing for the Atlanta Knights and was playoff MVP winning the Norman R. "Bud" Poile Trophy in 1993–94. Drulia won another Turner Cup in 1996–97 with the Detroit Vipers. Drulia won the Poile Trophy again in 1997–98 with the Detroit Vipers, even though the Vipers lost in 7 games to the Chicago Wolves.

Personal life

After his playing career, Drulia has served as head coach of the Orlando Seals of the Atlantic Coast Hockey League, the Augusta Lynx of the ECHL, and the Port Huron Icehawks of the International Hockey League. On July 1, 2010, Drulia was named head coach of the Wheeling Nailers of the ECHL.

Career statistics

Regular season and playoffs

References

External links

1968 births
American men's ice hockey right wingers
Atlanta Knights players
Belleville Bulls players
Canadian ice hockey right wingers
Cape Breton Oilers players
Detroit Vipers players
ECHL coaches
Hamilton Steelhawks players
Ice hockey people from New York (state)
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Knoxville Cherokees players
Living people
Maine Mariners (AHL) players
New Haven Nighthawks players
Niagara Falls Thunder players
Sportspeople from Elmira, New York
Sportspeople from Fort Erie, Ontario
Phoenix Roadrunners (IHL) players
Pittsburgh Penguins draft picks
Tampa Bay Lightning players
Ice hockey players from New York (state)

Stan Drulia


Frog was a well-known British brand of flying model aircraft and scale model construction kits from the 1930s to the 1970s. The company's first model, an Interceptor Mk. 4, was launched in 1932, followed in 1936 by a range of 1:72 scale model aircraft kits made from cellulose acetate, which were the world's first.

Polystyrene models were introduced in 1955, which offered kits of aircraft, ships and cars in various scales. By the 1970s, Frog's catalogue included a large number of lesser-known aircraft types, manufactured only by the company, as well as a number of ship kits.

The last Frog-branded kits were produced in 1976, whereupon many of the Frog moulds were sold to the Soviet Union and marketed under the Novo name.

History
Founded in 1931 by Charles Wilmot and Joe Mansour, International Model Aircraft Ltd. (IMA) originally used the Frog brand name (said to stand for "Flies Right Off the Ground") on the Interceptor Mk.4 semi-scale rubber-band powered flying model, launched the following year. Also in 1932, a marketing partnership with the toy company Lines Bros Ltd. was formed and other Frog brand flying models followed. In 1936, a range of 1:72 scale aircraft models in kit or pre-built form, moulded in cellulose acetate, was launched under the Frog Penguin name (alluding to the non-flying nature of these models). These were the world's first plastic model construction kits. An early release was the No.21P Empire Flying Boat, issued in 1938.

During the Second World War, the company produced flying models for target purposes and 1:72 scale aircraft recognition models. The Penguin range was dropped in 1949 but a new range of Frog polystyrene kits was introduced in 1955. A wide variety of aircraft, ship and car subjects in various scales were issued during the 1950s and 60s, 1:72 scale being standardised from 1963 onwards for aircraft models.

Production of scale and non-scale flying models continued into the early 1960s.

Frog's 1:72 line-up by the 1970s including a large number of lesser-known aircraft types that were not available from any other model manufacturer at the time, such as the Avro Shackleton, Martin Baltimore and Maryland, Vultee Vengeance, Curtiss Tomahawk, Blackburn Shark and Skua, Bristol 138 and Beaufort, Tupolev SB2, Lavochkin La 7, Supermarine Attacker and Scimitar, Armstrong Whitworth Whitley, Gloster Javelin, SAAB Viggen, Grumman OV-1 Mohawk, de Havilland Vampire, Hornet, and DH 110, Dewoitine D.520, Morane Saulnier MS 406, Macchi MC202 Folgore, Fokker D21, Airspeed Oxford, Miles Magister, Miles Master III, Hawker Sea Fury and Tempest, Supermarine Spitfire Mk XIV, Fairey Gannet, Barracuda and Firefly I, Westland Wyvern, General Aircraft Hotspur, Focke-Wulf Ta 152H, Messerschmitt Me 410, Arado Ar 234, Heinkel He 162, Dornier Do 17z, Dornier Do 335, Heinkel He 219, Gloster E.28/39, North American Mustang II, Vickers Vimy, Ryan NYP "Spirit of St Louis", de Havilland Gypsy Moth "Jason", Fokker Southern Cross, and the Westland Wallace.

Frog also produced a line of larger-sized aircraft as 1:96 scale models, subjects including the Bristol Britannia, Douglas DC-7, Vickers Valiant, Avro Vulcan, Handley Page Victor, de Havilland Comet, and the Vickers Viscount. A lone airship model was of the R100.

In addition to aircraft models, Frog also produced a number of ship kits, four examples being the MV Shell Welder coastal oil tanker, the THLV South Goodwin Lightship, HMS Tiger, and an RNLI lifeboat.

From 1968, Frog issued around 30 ex-Hasegawa kits, mostly 1:72 scale modern jet fighters, some 1:32 scale WWII-era fighters and 1:450 scale battleships.

In France, due to cultural disquiet over the word "frog", these kits were sold and marketed under the "Tri-ang" brand, whilst in North America, for similar reasons, the Frog name was thought unacceptable and the kits were repackaged as "Air Lines" – an allusion to Lines Brothers Ltd – the founders of IMA / Tri-ang.

Demise
In 1971, IMA's parent company, now Rovex Tri-ang, entered receivership and was acquired by Dunbee-Combex-Marx the following year. During the mid-1970s, some of the Frog kit moulds were transferred to various factories in the Soviet Union and the kits began to reappear under the Novo brand name. Moulds of Second World War Axis Powers subjects were acquired by Revell around 1977, the Axis types having been declined by Novo. The last Frog-branded kits were produced in 1976. In more recent years, some ex-Frog/Novo kits have been reissued by Revell and various East European manufacturers.

Product Lines

Model subjects produced by Frog over the years include:

 Aircraft 1:72, 1:96, and other scales, covering aircraft from World War I to Cold War era.
 Famous WarshipsVarious scales, mostly World War II era.

In popular culture
On 9 December 2008 on the BBC2 programme "Flog It", a child's walking aid toy, namely a teddy bear on Tri-ang wheels, was shown being auctioned at Calder Valley auction house for the sum of £85.00. On the left flank of the bear is sewn a label stating that it was manufactured by International Model Aircraft Ltd.

See also
 Airfix
 Aurora
 ESCI
 Hasegawa
 Heller
 Italeri
 Matchbox
 Monogram
 Revell
 Tamiya
 Skybirds

References

Notes

Bibliography
 Lines, Richard and Hellström, Leif. Frog Model Aircraft, 1932–1976. London: New Cavendish Books,1989. .
 Lune, Peter van. "FROG Penguin plastic scale model kits 1936 – 1950". Zwolle, The Netherlands, 2017, published by author

External links
 The Frog Penguin website
 The Path to Jetex
 Igor Krasnoselski's FROG aircraft models list
 Novo kits website  (defunct since 2018, working archive here)
 A 1937 Flight advertisement for Frog flying scale models
 A 1939 advertisement for Frog "Penguins" models
 a Frog 1960 flying models catalogue

Model manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Defunct companies of the United Kingdom
Defunct toy manufacturers
Manufacturing companies established in 1931
Lines Bros
Toy companies of the United Kingdom
Model aircraft
Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1976
1931 establishments in England
1976 disestablishments in England

Frog (models)


The Mercer Museum is a museum located in Doylestown, Pennsylvania. The Bucks County Historical Society operates the Mercer Museum, as well as the Research Library, and Fonthill Castle, former home of the museum's founder, archeologist Henry Chapman Mercer.

The museum was individually listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972, and was later included in a National Historic Landmark District along with the Moravian Pottery and Tile Works and Fonthill. These three structures are the only poured-in-place concrete structures built by Mercer.

History

Henry Mercer was a gentleman anthropologist. On a cruise up the Ruhr in early adulthood, Mercer was impressed by the eclipse of artisanal culture by industrial production, and resolved himself to preserving artifacts of preindustrial life.

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Mercer collected pre-industrial hand tools and other implements of the past. He believed that the story of human progress and accomplishments was told by the tools and objects that people used and saw these time-honored crafts slowly disappearing from memory.

Mercer personally designed plans for a museum to house his collection, six stories tall and cast of poured-in-place concrete. Mercer's museum was completed in 1916.

In addition to tools, it displays furnishings of early America, carriages, stove plates, a gallows, antique fire engines, a whaleboat, and the Lenape Stone. The Spruance Library, which houses the Bucks County Historical Society's archive of historical research materials, is located on its third floor.

In June 2011, construction was completed on a new, extensive visitors center at the front of the museum.

Construction
The museum is one of three poured-in-place concrete structures built by Mercer. The others include his home Fonthill and the Moravian Pottery and Tile Works, both of which are located one mile from the museum.

Mercer decided to build with concrete after the Great Boston Fire of 1872 destroyed his aunt's prized collection of medieval armor, which had been stored in wooden structures. He did not want his own collections to suffer the same fate.

Locals mocked his choice of building materials, but on completion of the museum, he lit a bonfire on its roof to prove that it was fireproof. Mercer's museum was an early demonstration of rebar-reinforced concrete as a structural material.

Gallery

References

External links

Panoramic images: exterior, main chamber, stove plate gallery

Museums in Bucks County, Pennsylvania
History museums in Pennsylvania
Industry museums in Pennsylvania
National Historic Landmarks in Pennsylvania
Historic American Buildings Survey in Pennsylvania
Biographical museums in Pennsylvania
National Register of Historic Places in Bucks County, Pennsylvania
Museums established in 1904
Individually listed contributing properties to historic districts on the National Register in Pennsylvania

Mercer Museum


The O-Ringen (previously called the "Swedish 5 days") is an orienteering competition that takes place annually in different areas of Sweden.  Orienteers from all over the world come to the competition. For orienteers around the world a trip to the O'ringen 5-days is their Mecca.
This race attracts significant media coverage in Sweden and winning O-Ringen is often considered second only to the World Championships in prestige.
The competition takes place in July, and takes place over 5 days, where every active day is a competition stage. Competitors are assigned start times for the first four stages of the race, but on the fifth and final stage a "chasing start" is used. In a chasing start the overall leader in each class starts first and the remaining competitors start according to the total time they trail. This means that the first runner over the finish line on the final stage is the winner.

History
The O-Ringen was started in 1965 in Denmark, Skåne and Blekinge by Peo Bengtsson and Sivar Nordstöm.  156 participants attended the first and the participation levels have steadily increased since.  Up until today the highest participant level was in 1985 in Dalarna/Falun were there were 25 021 participants.

The O-Ringen was included in the World Cup orienteering series in 1998, 2007 and 2008.

In 2009 there were prize money in the Elite series, the main classes for both the men and the women, totalling to half a million kronor.  The final result in the junior elite classes will count towards the Silva Junior Cup.

From 2008 multi-sport has been represented at the competition in the form of the O-Ringen Multi.  The competition on the Tuesday will be a part of the Swedish Multi-sport Cup.

The O-Ringen Academy is a training program which consists of three sections; International, Leadership and Sports.  The International section focuses on training orienteers from all over the world who want to learn more about orienteering in order to develop the sport in their home countries.  The Leadership section is a leadership training course in the form of seminars and speeches.  The Sports section is more concerned with the physical side with training camps of different sorts, including a week for juniors before the O-Ringen.

Records
The first ever stage of the Swedish 5-Days was held in Denmark.
Ulla Lindkvist has the most titles in the women's class with eight wins.
Lars Lönnkvist has won the men's class four times

Statistics

See also
Tiomila
Jukola relay
List of sporting events in Sweden

References

External links
The 1973 edition at SVT's open archive

Orienteering competitions
Orienteering in Sweden
July sporting events
1965 establishments in Sweden
Recurring sporting events established in 1965

O-Ringen


In general, a piston is a lubricated sliding shaft that fits tightly inside the opening of a cylinder. Its purpose is to change the volume enclosed by the cylinder, to exert a force on a fluid inside the cylinder, to cover and uncover ports, or some combination of these.  A rubber seal is sometimes used to keep the lubricate within the shaft. Due to the constant motion of the machine this seal wears quickly and should be replaced with every servicing. If the seal should break during usage there can be disastrous long lasting consequences for the machine.

Creating force
There are two ways that a piston engine can transform combustion into motive power. These are two-stroke and four-stroke.

A single cylinder two-stroke engine produces power every crankshaft revolution, while a single cylinder four-stroke engine produces power once every two revolutions. Older designs of small two-stroke engines produced more pollution than four stroke engines. However, modern two-stroke designs, like the Vespa ET2 Injection use fuel-injection and are as clean as four-strokes. Large diesel two-stroke engines, as used in ships and locomotives, have always used fuel injection and produce low emissions. One of the biggest internal combustion engines in the world, the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C is a two-stroke; it is bigger than most two-story houses, has pistons nearly 1 metre in diameter and is one of the most efficient mobile engines in existence. In theory, a four stroke engine has to be larger than a two stroke engine to produce an equivalent amount of power. Two stroke engines are becoming less common in developed countries these days, mainly due to manufacturer reluctance to invest in reducing two-stroke emissions. Traditionally, two stroke engines were reputed to need more maintenance. Even though the simplest two stroke engines have fewer moving parts, they could wear out faster than four stroke engines. However fuel-injected two-strokes achieve better engine lubrication, and cooling and reliability should improve considerably.

External combustion engine
A steam engine is another type of piston engine. In most steam engines, the pistons are double acting: steam is alternately admitted to either end of the cylinder, so that every piston stroke produces power.

Gallery

Related pages

 Wankel engine (an internal combustion engine with a rotary 'piston')

Auto parts

Piston


The current coat o airms o Estonie is a gowden shield whilk includes three slim, blue leopards (or lions passant guardant) in the middle, wi aik branches alang the side o the shield. The insignie wis copied frae the coat o airms o Denmark, whilk ruled Northren Estonie in the 13t century.

The Riigikogu (the state assembly) o the independent Republic o Estonie offeecially adoptit the coat o airms on Juin 19, 1925.

Housomeivver, the coat o airms wis offeecially banned follaein the occupation o Estonie bi the Soviet Union in 1940, an replaced wi the Soviet-inspired coat o airms o the Estonian SSR. Soviet offeecials persecutit an jailed onyane uisin the coat o airms or the naitional colors o Estonie. The readoption o the naitional seembols markit the completion o the struggle for unthrildom whilk wis finally achieved on August 7, 1990, an regulatit bi the Law on State Coat o Airms o Aprile 6, 1993.

References
Estonian Institute  National symbols of Estonia . Retrieved October 30, 2005.

Naitional seembols o Estonie
Estonie

Coat o airms o Estonie


Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca, or Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, is an evergreen conifer native to the interior mountainous regions of western North America, from central British Columbia and southwest Alberta in Canada southward through the United States to the far north of Mexico. The range is continuous in the northern Rocky Mountains south to eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, Idaho, western and south-central Montana and western Wyoming, but becomes discontinuous further south, confined to "sky islands" on the higher mountains in Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico, with only very isolated small populations in eastern Nevada, westernmost Texas, and northern Mexico. It occurs from 600 m altitude in the north of the range, up to 3,000 m, rarely 3,200 m, in the south. Further west towards the Pacific coast, it is replaced by the related coast Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii), and to the south, it is replaced by Mexican Douglas-fir in high mountains as far south as Oaxaca. Some botanists have grouped Mexican Douglas-fir with P. menziesii var. glauca, but genetic and morphological evidence suggest that Mexican populations should be considered a different variety (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. lindleyana).

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir is most commonly treated as a variety (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca), but has also been called a subspecies (Pseudotsuga menziesii subsp. glauca) or more rarely (mainly in the past) a distinct species (Pseudotsuga glauca). The strong ecological and genetic differentiation with intergradation limited primarily to postglacial contact zones in British Columbia supports infraspecific groupings. Some botanists have further split Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir into two varieties, but these are not widely acknowledged and have only limited support from genetic testing.

Characteristics

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir is a large tree, typically reaching  in height and  in diameter, with exceptional specimens known to  tall, and  in diameter. It commonly lives more than 500 years and occasionally more than 1,200 years. The bark on young trees is thin, smooth, gray, and covered with resin blisters. On mature trees, it is moderately thick (), furrowed and corky though much less so than coast Douglas-fir.

The shoots are brown to gray-brown, smooth, though not as smooth as fir shoots, and finely pubescent with scattered short hairs. The buds are a distinctive narrow conic shape,  long, with red-brown bud scales. The leaves are spirally arranged but slightly twisted at the base to be upswept above the shoot, needle-like,  long, gray-green to blue-green above with a single broad stomatal patch, and with two whitish stomatal bands below.

The male (pollen) cones are  long, and are typically restricted to, or more abundant on, lower branches. Pollen cones develop over 1 year and wind-dispersed pollen is released for several weeks in the spring.

The mature female seed cones are pendent,  long,  broad when closed, opening to  broad. They are produced in spring, purple (sometimes green) at first, maturing orange-brown in the autumn 5–7 months later. The seeds are  long and  broad, with a  wing. Both coast Douglas-fir and Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir produce abundant crops of seed approximately every 2–11 years. Seed is produced annually except for about 1 year in any 4-to-5-year period.

Growth

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir grows more slowly than coast Douglas-fir and is also much more cold tolerant. Tolerance of different environmental conditions varies among populations of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, especially among populations from the northern and southern Rockies.  However, even nearby populations can differ in cold hardiness.

Root morphology is variable, but when unimpeded, a taproot forms within several years. "Platelike" root morphologies occur where growth is impeded. The most prominent lateral roots begin in the 1st or 2nd year of growth. Most roots in surface soil are "long ropelike laterals of secondary and tertiary origin". Fine-root production is episodic in response to changing environmental conditions; the average lifespan of fine roots is usually between several days and several weeks.

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir reaches reproductive maturity at 12–15 years. It has winged seeds that are dispersed primarily by wind and gravity. In western Montana clearcuts, seeds were dispersed up to  uphill from their source, but seedfall between  was only 7% of that found in uncut stands. Other studies determined that seedfall in clearcuts beyond  from seed trees was about 3% of seedfall in uncut stands where seed trees are close together. Well-stocked stands have resulted from seedfall from sources  distant, but most Douglas-fir seeds fall within  of their source. Small amounts of seed are dispersed by mice, chipmunks, and squirrels. Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir seeds are disseminated about twice as far as seeds of ponderosa pine.

Longevity
The oldest accurately-dated Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, 1275 years old, is in New Mexico. This longevity is apparently uncommon; growing on a relatively barren lava field has protected it from fire, animals, and humans. Growth typically slows dramatically between 90 and 140 years of age.

In the dry-belt forests of central British Columbia, ages can exceed 500 years on sites normal for the region. The oldest accurately-dated growth ring available for the region is 1475; dates in the 1500s and 1600s are more common for remnant patches that have escaped logging, fire, and other disturbances.

Pathology
It is affected by the diseases Phaeolus schweinitzii, Armillaria, Phellinus weirii, Fomes annosus, dwarf mistletoe, Dasyscypha canker and Rhabdocline needle cast.

Insects
It attracts the Douglas fir beetle, western budworm and tussock moth.

Ecology
Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir grows on a variety of sites across its wide geographic range. It grows at lower elevations adjacent to and within bunchgrass communities and is also found in upper-elevation subalpine forests. It tends to be most abundant in low- and middle-elevation forests, where it grows over a wide range of aspects, slopes, landforms, and soils.

In spring and winter (in British Columbia, Idaho, and Montana) elk browse on south- and southwest-facing Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine stands, particularly when shrubs and/or grasses are productive. In summer, elk generally are found at higher elevations (outside the Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and Pacific ponderosa pine zones). During fall, elk use stands of Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine, subalpine fir, western larch, or grand fir with high canopy cover.

In parts of Yellowstone National Park, elk browsing is so intensive that young Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir are stunted at  in height, with live branches trailing very close to the ground, and branches on the upper two thirds of the tree dead. Low-elevation and south-facing open-structure Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir types are often important winter range for white-tailed deer and mule deer. Moose winter in low-elevation Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir types in areas where willow thickets, the preferred winter habitat, are lacking; in such areas Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir is an important moose food.

Chipmunks, mice, voles, and shrews eat large quantities of conifer seeds from the forest floor, and clipped cones are a staple and major part of storage of red squirrels. These animals store a large amount of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir cones or seeds. American marten commonly den in hollow logs.

Numerous species of songbirds extract seeds from Douglas-fir cones or forage for seeds on the ground. The most common are the Clark's nutcracker, black-capped chickadee, mountain chickadee, boreal chickadee, red-breasted nuthatch, pygmy nuthatch, red crossbill, white-winged crossbill, dark-eyed junco, and pine siskin. Migrating flocks of dark-eyed juncos may consume vast quantities of seeds and freshly germinated seedlings. Woodpeckers commonly feed in the bark of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir. Blue grouse forage on needles and buds in winter; they and other birds rely heavily on Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir communities for cover.

The Douglas-fir is vulnerable to infestation by a woolly aphid, Adelges cooleyi that also infects the Engelmann spruce to complete its lifecycle.

Uses
Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir is a valuable timber tree. The wood is exceptionally strong and is used for structural timber as well as poles, plywood, pulp, dimensional lumber, railroad ties, mine timbers, log cabins, posts and poles, fencing, and firewood. Other uses listed include "machine-stress-rated lumber", glued-laminated (Glulam) beams, pallets, furniture, cabinets, doors, flooring, window frames, and other miscellaneous woodwork and millwork. Rocky Mountain Douglas-firs are also cut and sold as Christmas trees.

References

External links
 USDA Plant Profile: Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca (Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir)
 Arboretum de Villardebelle - cone photos
 Gymnosperm Database: Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca
 US Forest Service Fire Effects Database
 Site to purchase Douglas Fir Flooring products
 Conifers Around the World: Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca - Oaxacan Douglas-Fir.

menziesii var glauca
Trees of Western Canada
Trees of the Western United States
Trees of the Northwestern United States
Trees of Northwestern Mexico
Flora of the Rocky Mountains
Trees of British Columbia
Trees of the South-Central United States
Trees of the Southwestern United States
Trees of Coahuila
Trees of Chihuahua (state)
Trees of Sonora
Flora of the Sierra Madre Occidental

Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca