Not Before Sundown (orig. fin. Ennen päivänlaskua ei voi, United States: Troll - a love story) is a novel by Finnish writer Johanna Sinisalo published in 2000.  In the same year it won a Finlandia Prize for literature. Since then it has won several awards including The James Tiptree Jr. award in 2004 for works of science fiction or fantasy that expand or explore understanding of gender.

Plot
The story is about a homosexual photographer Mikael, who finds a young and injured troll from his home yard and takes it to his home. This troll is inspired by Finnish folklore and is an intelligent, almost human-like animal that in appearance resembles a cat and a monkey. In the world of the novel trolls are existing animals instead of mythical creatures, although quite rare.

The book has multiple narrative levels, and each chapter is broken into short segments that alternate between viewpoints of different characters. Interspersed between the story are newspaper articles, old stories, novel segments, jokes and other slightly altered history that illustrates the long relationship between humans and trolls in the world of the novel. By concentrating on gay characters the story explores power structures in interpersonal relationships without the need to consider how gender roles affect them.

Name
The name of the book as well as the names of it chapters are taken from a Finnish song Päivänsäde ja Menninkäinen by Tapio Rautavaara and Reino Helismaa, which says "Kas, menninkäinen ennen päivänlaskua ei voi milloinkaan olla päällä maan" (translated "A troll cannot ever stay above the ground before sundown").

Translations
The novel has been translated into the following languages:
Sweden: Bara sedan solen sjunkit, publisher Wahlström & Widstrand, Stockholm, 2002, translator Ann-Christine Relander.
Latvia: Pirms saulrieta nav lauts, publisher Atena, Riga, 2002, translator Maima Grinberga.
Lithuania: Trolis, , Vilnius, 2011, translator Danutė Sirijos Giraitė.
Japan: Tenshi wa mori e kieta, publisher Sunmark Publishing, Tokyo, 2002, translator Mei Yumi.
UK: Not Before Sundown, publisher Peter Owen Publishers, London, 2003, translator Herbert Lomas.
France: Jamais avant le coucher du soleil, publisher Actes Sud, Arles, 2003, translator Anne Colin du Terrail.
Czech: Ne před slunce západem, publisher One Woman Press, Prague, 2003, translator Viola Parente-Capková.
United States (edited from the British version): Troll – A Love Story; publisher Grove/Atlantic, translator Herbert Lomas, 2004.
Germany: Troll - Eine Liebesgeschichte, Tropen, 2005 (other information missing).
Poland: Nie przed zachodem słońca, publisher slowo/obraz terytoria, 2005, translator Sebastian Musielak.
Spain: Angel y el troll "Una fábula sólo para adultos", publisher Ediciones Poliedro 2006, translator Bengt Oldenburg.
Russia: Troll, publisher Amphora, Moscow, 2006, translators E. Ioffe, L. Virolainen

Fantasy novels
20th-century Finnish novels
James Tiptree Jr. Award-winning works
2000 novels
Novels with gay themes
LGBT speculative fiction novels
2000 fantasy novels
Tammi (company) books
2000s LGBT novels
2000 LGBT-related literary works

Not Before Sundown


A regnal name, or reign name, is a formal name or label which refers to the years of the reign of a monarch or a pope.

A monarch sometimes chooses a reign name which is different from his or her personal name.
Example: Edward VII of the United Kingdom, born Albert Edward of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha

A pope chooses a regnal name when he is elected. It becomes his new personal name.
Example: Pope John Paul II, born Karol Józef Wojtyła,

The new name -- or sometimes the old one -- is followed by an ordinal number to create a unique name for the period in which the monarch is on the throne.
Example: Elizabeth II was queen of the United Kingdom and many other Commonwealth Realms until her death in 2022Elizabeth I of England (1533–1603) was the 1st British queen named Elizabeth.  She ruled over "Elizabethan" England. Her time on the throne was called the "Elizabethan era" or the "Elizabethan age".

Related pages
 Family name
 Given name
 Posthumous name
 Surname
 Japanese era names

Names
Monarchy

Regnal name


The Sony Ericsson P800 is a smartphone introduced in 2002 based upon UIQ version 2.0 (which itself is based upon Symbian OS v7.0) from Sony Ericsson. The P800 is considered the successor of the Ericsson R380, and initial design work was done within Ericsson, but it was produced after Sony & Ericsson merged their mobile phone businesses.

Technical information
The P800 uses the UIQ (version 2.0) user interface and has a touch screen much like a PDA. It is powered by an ARM9 processor running at 156MHz, which was also used for the successive models Sony Ericsson P900, Sony Ericsson P910. It came with a 16MB Memory Stick Duo but supports up to 128MB. The touchscreen displays 4,096 colours (12-bit colour depth). It was succeeded in 2003 by the Sony Ericsson P900.

Later versions and successors
A updated version of the "P" series phones, the Sony Ericsson P990 was launched at the Symbian Smartphone Show in September 2005. It is based upon the UIQ3 platform (utilizing Symbian OS v9.1).

The latest successor is the Sony Ericsson P1, announced on 8 May 2007. Whilst using the same UIQ platform as the P990, it has a smaller form factor based on the Sony Ericsson M600 and updated hardware.

References

External links
 UIQ Technology
 UIQ Developer Portal

Sony Ericsson smartphones
Mobile phones introduced in 2002
Symbian devices
Mobile phones with infrared transmitter

Sony Ericsson P800


Oleg S. Tymoshenko (Ukrainian: [ɔlɛg tɪmɔʃɛ'nkɔ]; born December 4, 1932; died December 20, 2010), was a Ukrainian choral conductor, professor, artist and academician. Tymoshenko was the honorary President of Green Cross Ukraine. He was a People's Artist of Ukraine, a member of The Lviv National Academy of Arts, and a full Cavalier of the Order of Merit. He was a member of the Ministry of Culture of Ukraine and the Ministry of Education. Tymoshenko was Rector of Petro Tchaikovsky National Music Academy of Ukraine.

Biography
Tymoshenko was born on December 4, 1932, in Kreminna, in the Luhansk Oblast (province) of Ukraine.

Starting in 1949, he studied at Lugansk College of Music. He graduated from there in 1953. He then studied at the Kiev Conservatory, graduating in 1960.

From 1960–1963, he worked as Director and teacher at the Nikolai Leontovich Music College in Vinnytsia.

In 1963-2004 he worked at the Kiev Conservatory. His positions there included:

1963–1965—Senior Lecturer
1965–1983—Vice-rector for Educational
1983–2004—Rector

In 1996, he was selected as a founding member of the National Academy of Arts of Ukraine.

In 2000, Oleg Tymoshenko, supported by the founding president of Green Cross International (en), Mikhail Gorbachev, created a national branch of Green Cross (English name Green Cross Ukraine), which he headed until 2010.

He died on December 20, 2010, in Switzerland.

References

Other websites
 About founding Green Cross Ukraine ;
 Memorial plaque

1932 births
2010 deaths
Ukrainian academics
Conductors
Ukrainian musicians

Oleg Tymoshenko


The Brunts Academy is a secondary school in Mansfield, England. It is a performing arts college. The school teaches in drama, music and dance. It used to be a grammar School and a technical school. The school started by Samuel Brunts in 1709. One of its former students, Rebecca Addlington, won two gold medals in the 2008 Summer Olympics.

History
The Brunts Academy started as primary/first school in 1687. It had funds of 100 pounds. This was a large amount of money at the time.  In 1709, Samuel Brunts' will said that he wanted the local children to "learn an Honest Trade" and get a good job. This led to the Brunts' estate having up with 40 boys and girls learning reading, writing and maths by 1831. The girls also learned knitting and sewing. 60 years later, the estate and the school were combined. In 1891, the school was called Brunts Technical School.

In 1830 "Brunts Charity" owned buildings and land in East Bridgford, Nottingham's marketplace and at Claypool in Lincolnshire. It was the richest of all the charitable organisations in Mansfield in 1832.

A new building was built in 1891. In 1976, Brunts Grammar School became a secondary/second school.

In 2012, the name changed to The Brunts Academy.

Today
The school's students come from several schools known as 'the family of schools'. They include King Edward School, Sutton Road School, St Peter's (C of E) School, High Oakham School and Newgate Primary School.

The school's uniform has a green blazer/jacket. The school colours are green and gold. Its logo is a griffin with its back two legs inside a shield. The shield has Nil Mortalibus Ardui Est around the logo. This is the school's Latin motto. It means "nothing is impossible for humankind".

In 2002, there were nearly 1500 students in the school. Only a small number of the students were aged 16 years or below. The school gained 57% A-C passes. Only a small amount of the students did not pass. This was 5% higher than the England average and 10% better than the United Kingdom average.

The school is known for having a large number of white students compared with the national average. Nearly all of its students are from England.

Alumni
 Rebecca Adlington, won two Gold Medals in the 2008 Olympic Games
 Arthur Bown (1921-1924) Conductor
 Mark Bryant - cartoonist/Artist
 Sir Richard Leese - Leader of Manchester City Council
 Nigel Francis Lightfoot, (1945-) Microbiologist
 Jim McGrath, Television commentator
 Adrian Metcalfe (1942-) Athlete. Won a silver medal at the 1964 Summer Olympics

Schools in England
1709 establishments
1700s establishments in Europe
18th-century establishments in England

The Brunts School


A calendar is a seestem o organisin days for social, releegious, commercial or admeenistrative purposes. This is duin bi giein names tae periods o time, teepically days, weeks, months, an years. A date is the designation o a single, specific day within such a seestem. A calendar is an aa a pheesical record (eften paper) o such a seestem. A calendar can an aa mean a leet o planned events, such as a coort calendar or a pairtly or fully chronological leet o documents, such as a calendar o wills.

Periods in a calendar (such as years an months) are usually, tho nae necessarily, synchronised wi the cycle o the sun or the muin. The maist common teep o pre-modren calendar wis the lunisolar calendar, a lunar calendar that occasionally adds ane intercalary month tae remeen synchronised wi the solar year ower the lang term.

The calendar in maist widespread uise today is the Gregorian calendar, introduced in the 16t century bi Pape Gregory XIII as a modification o the Julian calendar, which wis itsel a modification o the auncient Roman calendar.
The term calendar itsel is taken frae calendae, the term for the first day o the month in the Roman calendar, relatit tae the verb calare "tae cry oot", referrin tae the "cryin" o the new muin when it wis first seen.
Laitin calendarium meant "accoont beuk, register" (as accoonts war settled an debts war collected on the calends o each month). The Laitin term wis adoptit in Auld French as calendier.

References

Calendar


Élie (or Elias) Bouhéreau (1643 – 19 March 1719) was a French Huguenot refugee in Ireland and the first librarian of Marsh's Library in Dublin.

Career
Bouhéreau, according to the burial register of the Conformist Huguenot churches in Dublin, was a "distinguished medical doctor and zealous Protestant of La Rochelle, very knowledgeable and very highly regarded."  He was also a scholar, and published a French translation of the third century Christian work Contra Celsus.  After the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes Bouhéreau fled to England.  He travelled in Europe between 1689 and 1692 as personal secretary of Thomas Coxe, the king's envoy to the Swiss cantons, and again between 1694 and 1696 as personal secretary to the Marquis de Ruvigny, commander-in-chief of English forces in Piedmont. He served in Ireland with Ruvigny (then earl of Galway) when the latter was Lord Justice of Ireland, 1697-1701. In 1701 he was made librarian of Marsh's Library.  From the time of his first journey in 1689 to his death he kept a diary, which is kept in the Library.

Conservation work
Bouhéreau had with him documents from the Reformed Church of France, which he had brought from La Rochelle to save them from destruction.  They were deposited at Marsh's library, the governors stipulating "that they were to be kept until such time as the same shall be demanded by the said Reformed Church."  In 1760 John Wynne, the third librarian, expressed himself "apprehensive lest the papists might have access to make bad use of or destroy them."  They were finally returned to the Consistory of La Rochelle in 1862.  There are still many works in Bouhéreau's collection in the library that deal with French Huguenot history, including the manuscript of Joseph Guillaudeau's Journal of What Passed at La Rochelle 1584-1643.

Personal life
Bouhéreau was married to a cousin, Marguerite Massiot.  They had ten children, of whom eight survived. His son John was ordained a minister, became a Doctor of Divinity and was the first assistant librarian of Marsh's Library.  Marguerite died on 22 May 1704.  Her death occasioned an emotional entry in an otherwise factual diary.

References

1643 births
1719 deaths
People from La Rochelle
Irish librarians
French emigrants to Ireland

Élie Bouhéreau


Eugene Onegin (Евгений Онегин in Russian) is an opera by Pyotr Tchaikovsky. It is usually thought to be his greatest opera and one of the best of all Russian operas. Tchaikovsky finished composing it in 1878 and it was first performed in Moscow in 1879.

The story of Eugene Onegin was written by Alexander Pushkin. He was Russia's most famous writer and Tchaikovsky made several of his stories into operas. He was careful not to make the opera too long, and chose several chapters from Pushkin's original book so that the story sometimes jumps from one time to a time much later. Russian operas are quite often like this: they are a series of "tableaux", i.e. scenes from a story. Sometimes the audience has to imagine what happens between the acts.

Roles
 Eugene Onegin - baritone
 Tatyana - soprano
 Olga - contralto
 Lenski - tenor
 Gremin - bass

The story of the opera

Act 1

Tatyana is a young girl who comes from a rich family. She is with her younger sister Olga. Tatyana is reading a novel, but her mother, Madame Larina, tells her that real life is very different from what it is in books. Visitors arrive: Olga's fiancée Lensky who is a young poet, and his friend Eugene Onegin. Onegin is a rather lazy man who likes to go to parties and socialize. Tatyana immediately feels attracted to him.

Back in her room Tatyana tells her nurse that she is in love. When she is alone she writes a letter to Onegin saying how she loves him. When the nurse returns Tatyana asks her to make sure the letter is sent to Onegin.

Onegin returns to give Tatyana an answer to her letter. He says very politely that he is not really suited to marriage. Tatyana is very upset.

Act 2

It is Tatyana's name-day party. Onegin is annoyed that people are gossiping about him and Tatyana. He is cross with Lensky for making him come. He decides to make Lensky cross by dancing with his fiancée Olga. Olga likes this, and Lensky is very jealous. A singer entertains the party by singing a song in honour of Tatyana. Lensky is now furious and tells everyone in a loud voice that he is no longer Onegin's friend. He challenges Onegin to a duel which Onegin has to accept to keep his honour.

In the next scene Lensky is waiting for Onegin, and sings a famous song about his fate and his love for Olga. Onegin arrives. Onegin shoots Lensky dead.

Act 3

The next act takes place several years later. A rich nobleman in St Petersburg is having a ball. Onegin is thinking about his empty life and how bad he feels about Lensky's death. Prince Gremin enters with his wife, Tatyana, who is now older and still very beautiful and wealthy. Gremin sings how happy he is with Tatyana and introduces Onegin to her (he does not know anything about how Tatyana used to love him). Onegin desperately wants her to love him again.

In a reception room Tatyana has had a letter from Onegin. Onegin enters and begs her to love him. Tatyana wonders why he is now in love with her. She says she loves him but that she wants to be faithful to her husband. Onegin keeps begging her but in the end she leaves him. Onegin is left in despair.

Discography
 1936: Panteleimon Nortsov (Onegin), Lavira Zhukovskaya (Tatyana), Bronislava Zlatogorova (Olga), Sergey Lemeshev (Lensky), Aleksandr Pirogov (Gremin); Bolshoy Theatre Orchestra and Chorus, Vasiliy Nebolsin - (Melodiya)
 1948: Andrey Ivanov (Onegin), Yelena Kruglikova (Tatyana), Maria Maksakova (Olga), Ivan Kozlovsky (Lensky), Mark Reyzen (Gremin); Bolshoy Theatre Orchestra and Chorus, Aleksandr Orlov - (Arkadia)
 1955: Dushan Popovich (Onegin), Valeria Heybalova (Tatyana), Biserka Cvejic (Olga), Drago Starc (Lensky), Miroslav Changalovich (Gremin); Belgrade National Opera Chorus and Orchestra, Oscar Danon - (Decca)
 1956: Yevgeniy Belov (Onegin), Galina Vishnevskaya (Tatyana), Larissa Avdeyeva (Olga), Sergey Lemeshev (Lensky), Ivan Petrov (Gremin); Bolshoy Theatre Orchestra and Chorus, Boris Khaikin - (Opera d'Oro)
 1974: Bernd Weikl (Onegin), Teresa Kubiak (Tatyana), Julia Hamari (Olga), Stuart Burrows (Lensky), Nicolai Ghiaurov (Gremin); John Alldis Choir, Orchestra of The Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, Georg Solti - (Decca)
 1987: Thomas Allen (Onegin), Mirella Freni (Tatyana), Anne Sofie von Otter (Olga), Neil Shicoff (Lensky), Paata Burchuladze (Gremin); Rundfunkchor Leipzig, Staatskapelle Dresden, James Levine - (Deutsche Grammophon)

The music

Eugene Onegin is often described as a "lyrical" opera. The melodies are very beautiful and romantic. Two of the most famous arias in the opera are the aria that Tatyana sings when she writes the letter to Onegin, and Lensky's aria which he sings just before the duel. Tatyana is sung by a soprano, Lensky is a tenor and Eugene Onegin is a baritone.

1870s operas
Compositions by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky

Eugene Onegin (opera)


The word pool refers to many different things:

A pool is a body of water. It is also called a pond. It can also mean a body of water that people have made. This is called a swimming pool.
Pool is also a game. It is a form of billiards. The object is to use a cue ball to knock other balls into pockets around the edge of the table.
People also use the word "pool" to mean something many people have contributed to. People can pool their money to buy something, or to make a bet. Sometimes it can mean cooperation, people working together to get something done.

Pool


Mermaids is a 1990 American comedy-drama movie. It set during 1963 in Massachusetts. It is based on a novel of the same name. The movie stars Cher as Rachel, Winona Ryder as her elder daughter Charlotte and Christina Ricci as her younger daughter Kate. This movie was released December 14, 1990 in the U.S. It got positive reviews from movie critics.

Other websites

1990 comedy-drama movies
1990s coming-of-age movies
1990s teen comedy movies
1990s teen drama movies
American comedy-drama movies
American teen comedy movies
American teen drama movies
Coming-of-age comedy movies
Coming-of-age drama movies
English-language movies
Movies about families
Movies about virginity
Movies based on books
Movies set in Massachusetts
Movies set in the 1960s
Movies directed by Richard Benjamin

Mermaids


Gothic Chapel in Peterhof is an Orthodox church in the name of Saint Alexander Nevsky situated in the Alexandria Park of Petergof, Russia. It was designed at the request of Nicholas I of Russia by Karl Friedrich Schinkel in Gothic Revival style in 1829 and consecrated in July 1834. Prior to the Russian Revolution of 1917 this Gothic structure functioned as the private family church of the House of Romanov.

The church, complementing the Alexandria Park Cottage, a summer residence built by Adam Menelaws in 1826–1829, was erected in 1831–1834 under direction of Adam Menelaws and Ludwig Charlemagne. The sculptor Vasily Demut-Malinovsky designed 43 copper figures lining the walls. The iconostasis was designed and painted by Carl Timoleon von Neff. Later, in 1860s, the church acquired copies of paintings by the same artist; it housed numerous icons donated by the Romanovs. Most of this art perished in World War II; the interior was not restored until 1998.

During the reburial of Empress Maria Fyodorovna in September 2006, her coffin was brought to the chapel which served as her home church during the reign of Alexander III. A funeral service was held in the church on September 27.

External links
Description and views

Russian Orthodox churches in Saint Petersburg
Gothic Revival church buildings in Russia
Buildings and structures in Petergof
Cultural heritage monuments of federal significance in Saint Petersburg

pt:Peterhof#Kapella

Gothic Chapel (Peterhof)


Litmus is a water-soluble mixture of different dyes extracted from lichens, especially Roccella tinctoria. It is often absorbed onto filter paper to produce one of the oldest forms of pH indicator, used to test materials for acidity. Blue litmus paper turns red under acidic conditions and red litmus paper turns blue under basic (i.e. alkaline) conditions, with the color change occurring over the pH range 4.5-8.3 at 25 °C. Neutral litmus paper is purple. Litmus can also be prepared as an aqueous solution that functions similarly. Under acidic conditions the solution is red, and under basic conditions the solution is blue.

The litmus mixture has the CAS number 1393-92-6 and contains 10 to 15 different dyes. Most of the chemical components of litmus are likely to be the same as those of the related mixture known as orcein, but in different proportions. In contrast with orcein, the principal constituent of litmus has average molecular weight of 3300. Acid-base indicators on litmus owe their properties to a 7-hydroxyphenoxazone chromophore. Some fractions of litmus were given specific names including erythrolitmin (or erythrolein), azolitmin, spaniolitmin, leucoorcein and leucazolitmin. Azolitmin shows nearly the same effect as litmus.

చరిత్ర
Litmus was used for the first time about 1300 AD by Spanish alchemist Arnaldus de Villa Nova. From the 16th century on, the blue dye was extracted from some lichens, especially in the Netherlands.

సహజ వనరులు

Litmus can be found in different species of lichens. The dyes would be extracted from such species as Roccella tinctoria (South America), Roccella fuciformis (Angola and Madagascar), Roccella pygmaea (Algeria), Roccella phycopsis, Lecanora tartarea (Norway, Sweden), Variolaria dealbata, Ochrolechia parella, Parmotrema tinctorum and Parmelia. Currently, the main sources are Roccella montagnei (Mozambique) and Dendrographa leucophoea (California).

ఉపయోగాలు

The main use of litmus is to test whether a solution is acidic or basic. Wet litmus paper can also be used to test water-soluble gases; the gas dissolves in the water and the resulting solution colors the litmus paper. For instance, ammonia gas, which is alkaline, colors the red litmus paper blue.

Chemical reactions other than acid-base reaction can also cause a color-change to litmus paper. For instance, chlorine gas turns blue litmus paper white – the litmus dye is bleached, due to presence of hypochlorite ions. This reaction is irreversible and therefore the litmus is not acting as an indicator in this situation.
లిట్మస్ పేపర్ ప్రత్యామ్నాయం గా ఒక తెల్ల కాగితం పై మందార పువ్వును రుద్ది ఆరా పెడితే లిట్మస్ పేపర్ కు ప్రత్యామ్నాయం తయారైనట్లే.

ఇవి కూడా చూడండి
Nitrazine strips - Measures pH about 4.5 to 7.5 with more precision
pH సూచిక
ఫినాప్తలీన్
బ్రోమోథిమోల్ బ్లూ
మిథైల్ ఆరెంజ్
సార్వత్రిక సూచిక - Modern paper measures pH 1 to 14 with distinct colors for each. The color chart is usually included with the strips.

మూలాలు

PH సూచికలు
కాగితం ఉత్పత్తులు

లిట్మస్


In computer science, an instruction is a single operation of a processor defined by the processor instruction set.

The size or length of an instruction varies widely, from as little as 4-bits in some microcontrollers to many as multiples of a bytes in some very long instruction word (VLIW) systems.  Most modern processors used in personal computers, mainframes, and supercomputers have instruction sizes between 16 and 64 bits. In some architectures, especially Reduced instruction set computers, instructions are of fixed length, typically corresponding with that architecture's word size.

On traditional architectures, an instruction includes an opcode specifying the operation to be performed, such as "add contents of memory to register", and zero or more operand specifiers, which may specify registers, memory locations, or literal data. The operand specifiers may have addressing modes determining their meaning or may be in fixed fields.

In VLIW architectures, which include many microcode architectures, multiple simultaneous operations and operands are specified in a single instruction.

Instructions are rarely specified using their machine code form; they may be specified by programmers using an assembly language or, more commonly, may be generated by compilers.

There is another more general definition for an "instruction" not only related to the processor instruction set, which is: An "instruction" may be any representation of an element of an executable computer program.

Related pages
Machine language

Microprocessor design

Instruction (computer science)


A power cut, sometimes called a power outage or blackout, is a word for when the electric power does not work in an area. It is sometimes caused by a power line (or electricity cable) falling down, but may also happen due to routine maintenance. In poor countries, such as many in Africa, there are regular power cuts as more people try to use the electricity than there is to go around. An uninterruptible power supply can protect sensitive equipment such as computers or other electronics during a power cut, allowing it to be properly shut down.

Electricity

Power cut


Andreas Libavius or Andrew Libavius was born in Halle, Germany  and died in July 1616. Libavius was a renaissance man who spent time as a professor at the University of Jena teaching history and poetry. After which he became a physician at the Gymnasium in Rothenburg and later founded the Gymnasium at Coburg. Libavius was most known for practicing alchemy and writing a book called Alchemia, one of the first chemistry textbooks ever written.

Life
Libavius was born in Halle, Germany, as Andreas Libau, the son of Johann Libau.  His father, only a linen worker, could not give Libavius an education because in this time period only the wealthy were able to get a higher education. Showing great intelligence as a child Livavius overcame his personal status and attended the University of Whittenburg at the age of eighteen in 1578. In 1579 he entered the University of Jena where he studied philosophy, history and medicine. In 1581 he obtained the academic degree of magister artium and was named a poet laureate.

He began teaching in Ilmenau in 1581 and remained there until 1586 when he moved to Coburg to teach there. In 1588 he went to study at the University of Basel and received the degree of medicinae doctor. Shortly thereafter, he became a professor of history and poetry at the University of Jena. At the same time, he also supervised the disputations in the field of medicine.

In 1591 he became physician of the city council of Rothenburg and, one year later, became the superintendent of schools. This position led to conflict with the rector of schools causing Libavius to move to Coburg in 1605. In 1606 he was offered and accepted the position of headmaster of the reestablished Casimirianum Gymnasium in Coburg. He lived in Coburg from 1607 until his death in 1616.

Little is known about his personal life, but he did have two sons, Michael, and Andreas, who followed in his father's footsteps and became a teacher and physician. He also had two daughters, Susanna, and one whose name is not known.

Alchemy
Libavius is best known for his work as an alchemist above all else. Alchemy was an early science whose goals were to transform matter like turning base metals to gold. Alchemists also tried to find an elixir of life that would allow them to cure all disease. Alchemy is the study that turned into what we know today as chemistry. Libavius believed that his studies in alchemy would help further advancements in the medical field.

In 1597 Libavius published Alchemia, a textbook that summarized all the discoveries alchemists had made at this point. Alchemia was organized into four parts: what to have in a laboratory, descriptions of procedures, chemical analysis, and transmutation. Publishing such a book was blasphemous, as many alchemists wanted to keep their findings to themselves to prevent their findings from being misused. Libavius thought that knowledge should be shared if it could be used to help better mankind.

His studies in alchemy led to many new discoveries in chemistry. He discovered methods to prepare a number of chemicals like hydrochloric acid, ammonium sulfate and tin chloride. He also recorded the dangers of alchemy, as most of it was done in homes, and proposed the development of a series of laboratories, called chemical houses, to make alchemy a safer practice.

Views on alchemy
Libavius was a staunch believer in chrysopoeia, or the ability to transmute a base metal into gold. This viewpoint was a matter of much debate for alchemists of the time, and he defended it in several of his writings. Though he did discover several new chemical processes, he tended to be more of a theoretician, and he leaned toward traditional Aristotelianism rather than Paracelsian alchemy.

He was an opponent of Paracelsus on the grounds of Paracelsus' disrespect for ancient thought, magnification of personal experience above others' experience, overstatement of the didactic function of nature, use of magical words and symbols in natural philosophy, confusion of natural and supernatural causes, interjection of seeds into the creation of the universe, and postulation of astral influences. Despite this, he did not entirely reject all Paracelsian methods.
In The Rosicrucian Enlightenment, Frances Yates states:

Andrea Libavius was one of those chymists who was influenced up to a point by the new teachings of Paracelsus in that he accepted the use of the new chemical remedies in medicine advocated by Paracelsus, whilst adhering theoretically to the traditional Aristotelian and Galenist teachings and rejecting Paracelsist mysticism. Aristotle and Galen appear, honourably placed, on the title-page of Libavius's main work, the Alchymia, published at Frankfurt in 1596 ... Libavius criticized the Rosicrucian Fama and Confessio in several works. Basing himself on the texts of the two manifestos, Libavius raises serious objections to them on scientific, political, and religious grounds. Libavius is strongly against theories of macro-microcosmic harmony, against Magia and Cabala, against Hermes Trismegistus (from whose supposed writings he makes many quotations), against Agrippa and Trithemius—in short he is against the Renaissance tradition.

He accepted the Paracelsian principle of using occult properties to explain phenomena with no apparent cause but rejected the conclusion that a thing possessing these properties must have an astral connection to the divine.

He was also critical of alchemists who claimed to have produced a panacea, or cure-all, not because he didn't believe that a panacea was possible, but because these alchemists invariably refused to disclose their formulas. He believed that anyone who managed to create a panacea was duty bound to teach the process to as many other people as possible, so that it could benefit mankind. He was particularly critical of Georgius am Wald (also called Georgius an und von Wald), an alchemist who wrote a book in which he claimed to have made a panacea. Libavius considered am Wald to be a fraud and declared that am Wald's panacea was no more than sulfur and mercury, not gold as am Wald claimed. Between 1595 and 1596 he dedicated four volumes, Neoparacelsica, Tractatus duo physici, Gegenbericht von der Panacea Amwaldina, and Panacea Amwaldina victa to exposing am Wald as a quack.

Works

Within a span of 25 years (1591–1616) Libavius wrote more than 40 works in the field of logic, theology, physics, medicine, chemistry, pharmacy and poetry. He was actively involved in polemics, especially in the fields of chemistry and alchemy, and as such many of his writings were controversial at the time.

Libavius was an orthodox Lutheran, and in his theological treatises, which he wrote under the pseudonym of Basilius de Varna, he criticized Catholicism, specifically the Jesuit order, and later on in his life, Calvinism. This can also be seen in some of his non-theological works, particularly in some of the works produced during his involvement with the conflict between the Paracelsists, anti-Paracelsists, Galenists, and Hermetics.

In 1597, he wrote the first systematic chemistry textbook, Alchymia, where he described the possibility of transmutation. In this book he also showed that cuprous salt lotions are detectable with ammonia, which causes them to change color to dark blue. In 1615 he wrote Syntagmatis alchamiae arcanorum where he detailed the production of tin chloride, something that he developed in 1605. He was not the first person to invent this process, however, as the Franciscan friar Ulmannus had discovered it earlier and wrote about in the book Buch der heiligen Dreifaltigkeit in 1415.

He also contributed works to the study of medicine. Between 1599 and 1601 he wrote Singularia, a four volume collection of lectures on natural science, which included a collection of descriptions and discussions about medical phenomena. In 1610  he published one of the first German medical texts, Tractatus Medicus Physicus und Historia des fürtrefflichen Casimirianischen SawerBrunnen/ unter Libenstein/ nicht fern von Schmalkalden gelegen.

Other works
Quaestionum physicarum - 1591
Dialectica - 1593
Neoparacelsica - 1594
Tractatus duo physici - 1594
Exercitiorum logicorum liber - 1595
Dialogus logicus - 1595
Antigramania - 1595
Gegenbericht von der Panacea Amwaldina, auff Georg vom Waldt davon aussgegangenen Bericht - 1595
Singularium pars prima … pars secunda - 1595
Tetraemerum - 1596
Commentationum metallicorum libri  - 1597
Variarum controversarium libri duo - 1601
Analysis dialéctica colloquii Ratisbonensis - 1602
Poemata epica, lyrica, et elegica - 1602
Alchymistische Practic - 1603 (Digitalisat)
Gretserus triumphatus - 1604
Praxis alchymiae - 1604
Alchymia triumphans - 1607
Pharmacopea - 1607
Syntagma selectorum - 1611
Syntagma arcanorum - 1613
Syntagmatis arcanorum chymicorum  - 1613
Examen philosophiae novae - 1615
Analysis confessionis Fraternitatis de Rosae Cruce - 1615
Wolmeinendes Bedencken / Von der Fama, und Confession der Brüderschaft deß Rosen Creutzes - 1616

References

Frances Yates, The Rosicrucian Enlightenment RKP 1972
"AndreaasLibavius (or Libau), Andreas."  Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. 2008. Encyclopedia.com.
Benbow, Peter K. 2009. "Theory and Action in the Works of Andreas Libavius and Other Alchemists." Annals of Science 66, no. 1: 135-139.

Further reading
 Rice University article
 Indiana University article**
 Forshaw, Peter J (2008) "Paradoxes, Absurdities, and Madness": Conflict over Alchemy, Magic and Medicine in the Works of Andreas Libavius and Heinrich Khunrath.
 Dr. Günther Bugge: Das Buch der Grossen Chemiker; first volume from Zosimos to Schönbein, publisher Chemie, GMBH Weinheim/ Bergstr. final pressing 1955, p. 107-124
 Complete History of Scientific Biography

External links

 Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by and/or portraits of Andreas Libavius in .jpg and .tiff format.
 Andreas Libavius (1606) Alchymia - digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library.

1550s births
1616 deaths
16th-century alchemists
16th-century German physicians
16th-century German writers
16th-century German male writers
17th-century alchemists
17th-century German physicians
17th-century German writers
17th-century German male writers
German alchemists
17th-century German chemists
People from Halle (Saale)
Academic staff of the University of Jena

Andreas Libavius


The Standard Cross-Cultural Sample (SCCS) is a sample of 186 cultures used by scholars engaged in cross-cultural studies.

Origin
Cross-cultural research entails a particular statistical problem, known as Phylogenetic autocorrelation: tests of functional relationships (for example, a test of the hypothesis that societies with pronounced male dominance are more warlike) can be confounded because the samples of cultures are not independent. Traits can be associated not only because they are functionally related, but because they were transmitted together either through cross-cultural borrowing or through descent from a common cultural ancestor.

George Peter Murdock attempted to tackle the problem of autocorrelation by developing a sample of cultures relatively independent from each other—i.e., with relatively weak phylogenetic and cultural diffusion relationships. Murdock began with the twelve hundred or so peoples in his Ethnographic Atlas (Murdock, 1967), dividing them into roughly 200 "sampling provinces" of closely related cultures. Murdock and Douglas R. White chose one particularly well-documented culture from each sampling province to create the SCCS (Murdock and White, 1969). The number of cultures is large and varied enough to provide a sound basis for statistical analysis; the sample includes 186 cultures, ranging from contemporary hunter gatherers (e.g., the Mbuti), to early historic states (e.g., the Romans), to contemporary industrial peoples (e.g., the Russians)  (; ).

Scholars engaging in statistical cross-cultural analysis are encouraged to use the set of cultures in the SCCS, since each new study adds to the number of coded variables capable of being used with already existing variables. By focusing scholarly attention on this sample of 186 cultures, the data have steadily improved in scope and quality. The open access electronic journal World Cultures, founded by White, published by William Divale, and now edited by J. Patrick Gray, functions as the repository of the SCCS, archiving the now nearly 2000 coded variables and publishing a number of papers on cross-cultural methodology. The journal moved in 2006 to the University of California eScholarship Repository.

Murdock also founded the Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) at Yale University in the 1940s. However, the SCCS contains a different set of cultures, uses a different set of ethnographic sources, and can be considered entirely distinct from the HRAF.

The dataset is available to view on the Database of Places, Language, Culture, and Environment (D-PLACE).

Cultures in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample

See also
Human Relations Area Files

References

 Divale, William. (2000). Pre-Coded Variables for the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample from World Cultures. Volumes I & II. York College, CUNY, Spring 2000.
 Divale, William, Daria Khaltourina and Andrey Korotayev. (2002). A Corrected Version of the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample Database. World Cultures 13(1): 62–98.
 Hoy, Andrew R. (1994). "The Relationship Between Male Dominance and Militarism: Quantitative Tests of Several Theories." World Cultures. 8(2): 40–57
.
 Murdock, George P. (1967). Ethnographic Atlas: A Summary. Pittsburgh: The University of Pittsburgh Press.
 Murdock, George Peter and Douglas R. White. (1969). "Standard Cross-Cultural Sample." Ethnology. 8(4):329–369.(2006 On-line edition)
 Naroll, R. (1965). "Galton's problem: The logic of cross cultural analysis." Social Research. 32: 428–51.
 .
 White, Douglas R. (1986) Focused Ethnographic Bibliography for the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample World Cultures 2(1):1–126. (Reprinted 1989 Behavior Science Research 23:1–145 and 2000 by William Divale)
 White, Douglas R. (2007) Standard Cross-Cultural Sample Free Distribution Site (UC Irvine)
 White, Douglas R. and George P. Murdock. (2006). Pinpointing Sheets for the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample

Further reading
Variables in SCCS
Ethnographies used to code variables in SCCS
Resource page for SCCS
SCCS inventory and UC Irvine library citations

External links
Pinpointing specifications for each culture
Public Domain Release 1: Exact Pinpointing for societies SCCS 1–18
Public Domain Release 2: Exact Pinpointing for societies SCCS 19–36
Public Domain Release 3: Exact Pinpointing for societies SCCS 37–59
Public Domain Release 4: Exact Pinpointing for societies SCCS 55–65
Public Domain Release 5: Exact Pinpointing for societies SCCS 66–80
Public Domain Release 6: Exact Pinpointing for societies SCCS 81–113
Public Domain Release 7: Exact Pinpointing for societies SCCS 114–141
Public Domain Release 8: Exact Pinpointing for societies SCCS 142–162
Public Domain Release 9: Exact Pinpointing for societies SCCS 163–186

Anthropology
Cross-cultural studies

Standard Cross-Cultural Sample


The lovable rogue is a fictional stock character, often from a working-class upbringing, who tends to recklessly defy social norms and social conventions, but who still evokes empathy from the audience or other characters.

Description

Character stereotypes
The lovable rogue is generally male and is often trying to "beat the system" and better himself, though not by ordinary or widely accepted means. If the protagonist of a story is also a lovable rogue, he is frequently deemed an antihero. The lovable rogue's wild disposition is viewed not as repulsive and alarming so much as exciting and adventurous. Some examples of this include: Snide or arrogant remarks, brawn over brains (yet challenging calls to action with wit before brawn), using their gut instincts to get out of hostility if personal profit is at stake, perhaps they love themselves more than women, thinking fast and talking faster, as well as having aspirations for a better life. The lovable rogue is generally regarded as handsome or attractive and his daredevil attitude further makes him sexually desirable to other characters. He often has a fiery temper and is streetwise—possessing practical knowledge—usually having self-taught and never been educated in a formal setting.

Motives and morality
Lovable rogues are not the standard paragons of virtue because they frequently break the law or seem to act for their own personal profit; however, they are charming or sympathetic enough to convince the audience to root for them. As with the case of George Wickham in Pride and Prejudice, authors may even intentionally write them that way in order to hide the fact that they are a villain from readers until this information becomes necessary to plot.

Although they appear at first to act only for personal gain or to break the law needlessly, lovable rogues are often justified in these actions later on due to some ethical motivation that had not yet been revealed at the time or, at least, have the capacity to atone for their wrongdoings. Many lovable rogues are simply prone to being misled when making ethical decisions while others who appear to act unethically actually maintain a flexible and complicated but legitimate code of ethics.

Despite his common external appearance of selfishness, foolhardiness, or emotional detachment, the lovable rogue may in fact strongly associate with a highly idealistic belief system and understand the concept of a code of honor so highly valued that it transcends normal social constraints such as conformity, tradition, or the law. This sense of an internalized, personal code is usually what makes the lovable rogue lovable, since it serves to confirm that he is moral whereas he may have appeared at first glance to be immoral. The lovable rogue, thus, is not a villain, because he has either a sincere, strong sense of morality (though he may be unwilling to expose it) or has the definite potential for establishing such a moral sense. In addition, his tendency to violate norms may be regarded as a positive trait—having a highly individualistic, creative, or self-reliant personality.

See also
Similar characters
Outlaw (stock character)
Social bandits

Rogue-related articles
 Eavesdrop
 Defector
 Sabotage
 Status symbol
 Bad boy (archetype)
 Rake (stock character)

References

James Huneker wrote of Francis Wilson portrayal of the lovable rogue

Male stock characters
Stereotypes of working-class men

Lovable rogue


The Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück) () was an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire from 1225 until 1803. It should not be confused with the Diocese of Osnabrück (), which was larger and over which the prince-bishop exercised only the spiritual authority of an ordinary bishop. It was named after its capital, Osnabrück.

The still-extant Diocese of Osnabrück, erected in 772, is the oldest see founded by Charlemagne, in order to Christianize the conquered stem-duchy of Saxony. The episcopal and capitular temporal possessions of the see, originally quite limited, grew in time, and its prince-bishops exercised an extensive civil jurisdiction within the territory covered by their rights of Imperial immunity. The Prince-Bishopric continued to grow in size, making its status during the Reformation a highly contentious issue. The Peace of Westphalia left the city bi-confessional and had the Prince-Bishops alternate between Catholic and Protestant.

The bishopric was dissolved in the German Mediatisation of 1803, when it was incorporated into the neighboring Electorate of Hanover. The see, the chapter, the convents and the Catholic charitable institutions were secularized. The territory of the see passed to Prussia in 1806, to the Kingdom of Westphalia in 1807, to Napoleonic France in 1810, and back to Hanover in 1814.

With the end of the prince-bishopric, the future of the diocese became unclear. Klemens von Gruben, titular Bishop of Paros in Greece, was made vicar apostolic of Osnabrück, and as such cared for the spiritual interests of the Catholic population. The ordinary Latin (Roman) Catholic episcopacy was restored in 1824, but henceforth the bishops would no longer wield any temporal power.

History
The temporal protectorate (; ) exercised over so many mediaeval dioceses by laymen became, after the 12th century, hereditary in the Amelung family, from whom it passed to Henry the Lion.

After Henry's overthrow, it came into the possession of Count Simon of Tecklenburg and his descendants, though it was the source of many conflicts with the bishops. In 1236 the Count of Tecklenburg was forced to renounce all jurisdiction over the town of Osnabrück, as well as the lands of the see, the chapter and the parish churches. On the other hand, the bishop and chapter, from the 13th century on, expanded their jurisdiction over many convents, churches and hamlets. Scarcely any other German see freed itself so thoroughly from civil jurisdiction within its territory. The royal prerogatives were transferred little by little to the bishop, e.g. the holding of fairs and markets, rights of toll and coinage, forest and hunting rights, mining royalties and fortresses so that, by the early part of the 13th century, the bishop was the real governor of the civil territory of Osnabrück.

Among the prominent mediaeval bishops were: Drogo (952–68); Conrad of Veltberg (1002); the learned Thietmar or Detmar (1003–22); Benno II (1067–88); Johann I (1001–10), who built the actual cathedral in place of the wooden one destroyed by fire in the time of his predecessor; Diethard I (1119–37) who was the first bishop elected by the free choice of the cathedral clergy; Philip II (1141–73) who ended the conflicts between his see and the Imperial Abbeys of Corvey and Hersfeld; and Arnold of Berg (1137–91), who died a crusader at Akkon. In the time of Engelbert of Altena-Isenberg (1224–26, deposed following his implication in Archbishop Engelbert II of Berg's assassination, rehabilitated 1238–50), Bruno of Altena-Isenberg (1250–59), and under Conrad II of Rietberg (1269–97), the new orders of Franciscans, Dominicans and Augustinians were received with favour.

14th to 16th centuries

In the 14th and 15th centuries, the power of the bishops waned before the increasing influence of the cathedral chapter, of the military servants (or knights) of the diocese, and of the town of Osnabrück. The last sought to free itself from the bishop's sovereignty, but never became a Free City of the Empire. The see was almost continually engaged in warlike troubles and difficulties and had even to defend itself against the Bishops of Minden and Münster. From the 14th century auxiliary bishops became necessary due to the civil duties that absorbed the attention of the bishop himself.

The successor of Bishop Conrad IV of Rietberg (1488–1508) was Eric of Brunswick (1508–32), simultaneously Bishop of Münster and Paderborn. He opposed the Reformers strongly and successfully. Franz of Waldeck (1533–53), also Bishop of Minden, acted, on the contrary, a very doubtful part. He offered little resistance to Lutheranism in Münster, though he vigorously opposed the Anabaptists; after 1543 he allowed in Osnabrück an evangelical service. However, the chapter and the Dominicans opposed a German service that dispensed with all the characteristics of the Roman Catholic Mass. In 1548, Bishop Franz promised to suppress the Reformation in Osnabrück and to execute the Augsburg Interim, but fulfilled his promise very indifferently; on his deathbed he received Lutheran communions. His successor, John IV of Hoya (1553–74), was more Catholic, but was succeeded by three bishops of a Protestant mind: Henry II of Saxe-Lauenburg (1574–85), Bernhard of Waldeck (1585–91), and Philip Sigismund (1591–1623). Under them the Reformation swept over most of the diocese.

17th and 18th centuries

In 1624, Cardinal Eitel Frederick of Hohenzollern became Bishop of Osnabrück and called in the Jesuits. However, he  died soon afterwards. His successor, Francis of Wartenberg (1625–61), fulfilled the task of imposing the Counter-Reformation decrees. The city-council was purged of anti-Catholic elements and the former Augustinian convent was turned over to the Jesuits. The Edict of Restitution was executed successfully by him and in 1631 he founded a university at Osnabrück.

But in 1633, Osnabrück was captured by the Swedes: the university was discontinued, Catholic religious exercises suppressed, and the see (1633–51) administered by the conquerors. In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia was negotiated in Osnabrück and the nearby city of Munster. The Treaty of Osnabrück stipulated that the bishopric would return to the religious status it had in 1624. Henceforth, the prince-bishops would alternate between Catholic and Protestant officeholders, with the Protestant bishops to be selected from the cadets of the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg. The alternance was to be maintained without prejudice to the Catholic status of the bishopric or the right over it of the Archbishop of Cologne as metropolitan.

Wartenberg was made cardinal in 1660 and was succeeded by the married Protestant bishop, Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover (1661–98), who largely resided in Hanover. He built the new palace in Osnabrück from 1667 and was succeeded by the Catholic bishop, Prince Charles Joseph of Lorraine. The Protestant bishop Ernest Augustus (1715–28), second son of the previous Ernest Augustus, was succeeded by Clemens August of Bavaria, Archbishop-Elector of Cologne (1728–61). The last bishop was Prince Frederick of Great Britain (1764–1803), the second son of George III, King of Great Britain and Elector of Hanover. Prince Frederick was only six months old when he was elected bishop.

Residence
From about 1100, after a fire destroyed Osnabrück cathedral and its adjacent bishop's house, bishops had their residence at Iburg Castle. They moved back into town after Ernest Augustus built a baroque palace in Osnabrück, completed in 1673. Today Iburg Castle is a museum and seat of a local court while the Bishop's Palace houses the University of Osnabruck. King George I of Great Britain died in the palace while visiting his brother, prince-bishop Ernest Augustus, Duke of York and Albany, in 1727.

List of prince-bishops
Prince-bishops of Osnabrück include:
 1224–1226: Engelbert I von Isenberg
 1206–1227: Otto I
 1227–1239: Konrad I von Velber
 1239–1250: Engelbert I von Isenberg
 1251–1258: Bruno von Isenberg
 1259–1264: Balduin von Rüssel
 1265–1269: Widukind von Waldeck
 1270–1297: Konrad von Rietberg
 1297–1308: Ludwig von Ravensberg
 1309–1320: Engelbert II von Weyhe
 1321–1349: Gottfried von Arnsberg
 1350–1366: Johann II Hoet
 1366–1376: Melchior von Braunschweig-Grubenhagen
 1376–1402: Dietrich of Horne
 1402–1410: Henry I of Schauenburg-Holstein
 1410–1424: Otto von Hoya
 1424–1437: Johann III von Diepholz
 1437–1442: Erich von Hoya
 1442–1450: Heinrich von Moers
 1450–1454: Albert von Hoya
 1454–1455: Rudolf von Diepholz
 1455–1482: Konrad III von Diepholz
 1482–1508: Konrad IV von Rietberg
 1508–1532: Eric of Brunswick-Grubenhagen
 1532–1553: Franz von Waldeck (Lutheran after 1543)
 1553–1574: Johann II von Hoya (Catholic)
 1574–1585: Henry II of Saxe-Lauenburg (Lutheran)
 1585–1591: Bernhard von Waldeck (Lutheran)
 1591–1623: Philip Sigismund of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (Lutheran)
 1623–1625: Eitel Frederick von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (Catholic)
 1625–1634: Franz Wilhelm von Wartenberg (Catholic)
 1634–1648: Gustav Gustavsson af Vasaborg (Lutheran)
 1648–1661: Franz Wilhelm von Wartenberg (Catholic)
 1662–1698: Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover (Lutheran)
 1698–1715: Charles Joseph of Lorraine (Catholic)
 1715–1728: Ernest Augustus, Duke of York and Albany (Lutheran)
 1728–1761: Klemens August of Bavaria (Catholic)
 1764–1802: Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany (Lutheran), last Prince-Bishop

The prince-bishopric was mediatized in 1803 to the Electorate of Hanover. For Catholic bishops after the mediatization, see Roman Catholic Diocese of Osnabrück.

Notes

References
Attribution

Further reading
 Official site (in German)
 Osnabrück at catholic-hierarchy.org
 Map of Lower Saxony in 1789

Prince-bishoprics of the Holy Roman Empire in Germany

Osnabrück
Lower Rhenish-Westphalian Circle
1220s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1225 establishments in Europe
1803 disestablishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Former monarchies of Europe

Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück


Das Lied von der Erde is a piece of music and symphonic song cycle. It was written by Gustav Mahler in 1908-1909 as a symphony with sonata form. It is a large work of six separate songs for two voices and orchestra. It is based on Hans Bethge's The Chinese Flute, an anthology of ancient Chinese poetry. It was first performed on November 20, 1911 in Munich.

Compositions by Gustav Mahler
Orchestral works
Vocal music

Das Lied von der Erde


Cocaine (also cocain) is a strong stimulant drug that is made from coca leaves. Cocaine is usually a white powder. Most cocaine is used as an illegal drug. Because it is a stimulant, cocaine gives people energy. It also makes people feel very happy when it is taken. When used this way, cocaine is very addictive. However, cocaine can also be used as a local anesthetic if it is applied topically (onto the skin or gums).

Origin and effects

Where cocaine comes from

Cocaine is taken from the leaves of the coca plant. Coca plants are mostly grown in South America, in countries like Brazil or Argentina. When Spanish conquistadors (explorers) discovered coca plants, they sent them back to Europe. People started using cocaine as a medicine, as well as in drinks and food. This was because they did not know how damaging and addictive the drug could be when used.

In America, cocaine was used during surgery, or to treat toothaches. It was also put into drinks. When Coca-Cola was first made in 1885, it got the first part of its name from the "handful of coca leaves" added to the drink for energy. (The caffeine in the drink came from the kola nut, so the name "Coca-Cola" was chosen.) Cocaine was taken out of Coca-Cola completely by the 1920s because of pressure from groups in the United States.

Effects of cocaine
When cocaine is applied topically (onto the skin or gums), it causes numbness.

When cocaine is chewed or eaten, inhaled into the nose ("snorted"), or injected into the veins, it causes people to feel euphoric (very happy), alert, very confident, and full of energy.  This feeling is called being "high."  Some people who take cocaine also have unpleasant feelings.  They may feel worried, anxious, or even paranoid.  They may also have physical symptoms, like shaking, a high heart rate, and high body temperature.

Cocaine cannot be smoked in its normal form. It must react with another chemical to form crack cocaine, which can be smoked. This is because burning normal cocaine destroys it, so the user does not get the effect they want.

Cocaine as an illegal drug

In most countries, it is illegal to make, sell, or use cocaine (unless it is being used for approved medical reasons).

As an illegal drug, cocaine can be used in its powder form, or it can be made into crack cocaine. Usually, crack is made by adding baking soda and water to cocaine and then heating the mixture. Crack is usually less expensive than the normal form of cocaine. Crack is usually smoked. It gives users a high that is very strong, but does not last as long as the high from regular cocaine. Both forms of cocaine are addictive, although crack cocaine is thought to be more addictive as it is usually smoked.

Dangers of using cocaine
If people use cocaine, they may take too much and get sick or even die. This is called an "overdose". When people take cocaine, they get intoxicated as well. When a person is intoxicated, they may do dangerous things, such as having unsafe sex with a person they do not know, or getting into a violent fight with a person.

If a person uses cocaine for a long time, they can start to get strange feelings, like there are bugs crawling under their skin, or they can get paranoia (a feeling that there are people that want to hurt them).

Cocaine is a very addictive drug. It can lead to psychological and/or physical dependence. When a person is addicted to a drug, they might do bad or criminal acts in order to get money for more drugs, such as crimes (for example theft, robbery, fraud, or prostitution).  If the person tries to stop using cocaine, they will go through cocaine withdrawal.

Another danger from using cocaine is the risk of infection when using unsafe ways of taking cocaine (like using dirty needles when injecting cocaine). A person can get infectious diseases like HIV or Hepatitis C when they use cocaine in these ways.

Cocaine as a legal medicine
Cocaine is also occasionally used as a legal medicine in Australia and some parts of Europe, if a person has a prescription from a doctor. Doctors sometimes prescribe cocaine for people who want to lose weight, because cocaine decreases the appetite.

Dentists in countries like Australia sometimes use forms of cocaine in dental operations, as an anaesthetic. Doctors, surgeons, and dentists use anaesthetics when they are doing operations, so that the patient will not feel pain. Dentists put the cocaine on the patient's mouth so that the patient will not feel pain in their mouth during the operation.

Notes and references

Illegal drugs
Organonitrogen compounds
Esters

Cocaine


Infrared (IR) radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation (a wave with electricity) . The wave is longer than light which humans can see and shorter than microwaves. The word infrared means below red. It comes from the Latin word infra (meaning below) and the English word red. (Infrared light has a frequency below the frequency of red light.) Red light has the longest wavelength that human eyes can see. Infrared waves cannot be seen by the eye.

Near-infrared waves are between 800 nm and 1.4 µm. Most infrared from the Sun is near-infrared. Thermal imaging is mostly done with thermal radiation waves between 8 and 15 µm.

People sense infrared as heat.

Most remote controls use infrared to send the control signals. Many missiles for anti-aircraft warfare find their target by infrared.

Telecommunications
Before Bluetooth was invented, some computers, personal digital assistants, and cell phones used infrared technology to send files to other devices. Bluetooth replaced infrared in the early 2000s. Infrared is limited by the need to have both devices in a "line of sight" with each other.

Infrared lasers are used to provide the light for optical fiber communications systems. Infrared light with a wavelength around 1,330 nm (least dispersion) or 1,550 nm (best transmission) are the best choices for standard silica fibers.

Related pages
 Infrared spectroscopy
 Infrared telescope

References

Infrared


John Spencer Hardy, Sr. (May 7, 1913 – May 1, 2012), was a lieutenant general who served as chief of operations for the United States Army Air Corps in the Mediterranean Sea during World War II.

Background
Hardy was born in Logansport in DeSoto Parish in western Louisiana. In 1930, he graduated from Logansport High School and then attended Baylor University in Waco, Texas, and Louisiana Tech University in Ruston. In 1938, he obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree from Methodist-affiliated Centenary College in Shreveport, Louisiana. In February 1935, Hardy entered aviation cadet training at Randolph Field in San Antonio. In 1936, he received his pilot wings thereafter at the since closed Kelly Field, also in San Antonio. After serving on active duty for a year as a flying cadet with the 17th and 3rd Attack Groups, he was commissioned a second lieutenant effective March 1, 1937.

World War II service
His first commissioned assignment was at Barksdale Field in Bossier City, Louisiana, where he assumed squadron and, later, group operational duties. Designated as assistant chief of operations early in 1942, he helped to activate the Eighth Air Force headquarters at Savannah, Georgia, and at Bolling Field in Washington, D.C. In the summer of 1942, Hardy was assigned to England with the Eighth Air Force and became chief of operations in 1943. For his work during this period, he received the Distinguished Service Medal. His duties took him to the Mediterranean in 1944, at which time he participated in the planning for air offensives against southern Europe, the Balkans, and the Allied landings in southern France.

Cold War service
During the Cold War, Hardy was deputy chief for the United States Air Force's Pacific Air Command, for the Pacific unified command, commander of the Third Air Force in England, and the commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's Allied Air Forces based in Naples, Italy. He subsequently served as Commandant of the Industrial College of the Armed Forces at Fort Lesley J. McNair in Washington, D.C.  He received the Army and Air Force Distinguished Service Medals, Legion of Merit with two Oak Leaf Clusters, Belgian Croix de Guerre with Palm, and the Royal Hellenic Order of King George I.

Hardy was involved in negotiations relating to the Taiwan Straits Crisis in 1958 and the renegotiation of the defense treaty with Japan in 1959. His assignments took him to many locations, including Hickam Air Force Base in Hawaii and from 1960 to 1964 as the commander of Keesler Technical Training Center in Biloxi, Mississippi.

Retirement years
Upon his military retirement effective August 1, 1970, Hardy resided in Shreveport, where he served on the Centenary College board and was inducted into the institution's Hall of Fame. He was a member of  the board of the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, the advisory board of the Louisiana Old State Capitol and the Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Shreveport. He was honored as a "Louisiana Legend" in 2008 by Louisiana Public Broadcasting.

Hardy's first wife was the former Virginia Elizabeth Doyle, whom he married in her native Shreveport in 1940. Their children are Beth Courtney of Baton Rouge, the long-time president of Louisiana Public Broadcasting, and her husband, Robert "Bob" Courtney; John S. Hardy, Jr., of Baton Rouge, and his wife, Karen, and George Dickson Hardy of San Diego, California. After Virginia's death, General Hardy married Jean Talbot Hopkins. His third wife, whom he married in 1993, is the former Norma Ann Hendrick of Shreveport, who survived him. He had three grandchildren, Julia George Moore, Robin Virginia Hardy Moreland and Spencer Miles George Hardy, two great-grandchildren, and six step-children, James Hopkins, Janie Hopkins, Susan Meyers, Talbot Trudeau, Dr. Robert Hendrick, and Virginia Haddad.

Hardy died in Baton Rouge, less than a week from what would have been his 99th birthday. Services were held in the Frost Chapel of First Baptist Church of Shreveport, where he was a long-time member. Interment with full military honors was at Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia.

References

1913 births
2012 deaths
United States Army officers
United States Air Force generals
United States Army personnel of World War II
People from Logansport, Louisiana
Military personnel from Shreveport, Louisiana
People from Biloxi, Mississippi
Military personnel from Washington, D.C.
Baylor University alumni
Louisiana Tech University alumni
Centenary College of Louisiana alumni
Baptists from Mississippi
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Baptists from Louisiana
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
20th-century Baptists

John Spencer Hardy


A private carrier is a company that transports only its own goods. The carrier's primary business is not transportation.

Private carriers may refuse to sell their services at their own discretion, but common carriers must treat all customers equally. Some corporations mix both systems, using common carriers and private carriage in what is called a blended operation.

Private carriage usually refers to trucking but is also found in rail and water transportation, as well as communication. Private carriage is distinguished from independent carrier, which is an individual owner-operator or trucker who may make discretionary deals with private carriers, common carriers, or contract carriers.

A private carrier may also refer to communication or communication services. Certain frequencies that are restricted to use by law enforcement are sometimes called "private carriers". Station class codes beginning with FB6 or FB7 are private carriers.

In the telecommunications industry, defining "private carrier" and "common carrier" has become increasingly difficult with the growth of mobile phone service providers, VOIP, and other nontraditional means of delivering communication services.

References

External links

FCC station class codes

Freight transport

Private carrier


Alabaster is a name applied to varieties of two distinct minerals. Gypsum is a hydrous sulfate of calcium, and calcite is a carbonate of calcium. Gypsum is the alabaster of the present day; calcite is generally the alabaster of the ancients. Both are easy to work. They are attractive to look at. Both have been used for making a variety of artworks and objects, especially small carvings.

The two kinds are easy to tell apart. One is harder than the other. Calcite is hard (Mohs hardness 3). Gypsum is soft (Mohs hardness 1.5 to 2). It can be easily scratched by a fingernail. Also, calcite effervesces when it is treated with hydrochloric acid. Gypsum does not.

Minerals
Building materials
Sedimentary rocks

Alabaster


Half-Life 2 is a first person shooter video game created by the company Valve Corporation and released in 2004. This game is the sequel to the original Half-Life video game which came out in 1998. It is sold through the Steam platform also developed by Valve. It is also available in The Orange Box, along with Half-Life 2: Episode One and Half-Life 2: Episode Two (sequels to Half-Life 2), Portal, and Team Fortress 2. Half-Life 3 is currently in development. Half-Life 2 is based on a game engine called Source. There have been many other Source-based games, such as Portal, Team Fortress 2, Counter-Strike: Source, and Garry's Mod.

Half-Life was a very popular video game, and Half-Life 2 was also very popular. Many reviewers believe Half-Life 2 is better than Half-Life and one of the best games ever made. It took six years to create Half-Life 2 (from 1998 to 2004). It was supposed to be released in 2003, but it was not ready. Many fans were very angry and said Valve lied to them. However, it did release the next year (2004). It had much better graphics than Half-Life. It also had more complicated non-player characters and more of a story.

Plot and characters
In Half-Life 2, the player is Gordon Freeman (the same character as in Half-Life). It begins about 20 years after the first Half-Life. The Combine, a group of evil aliens, took over Earth and made humans their slaves. Gordon Freeman wakes up on a train in a place named City 17. He finds the resistance, some humans who fight the Combine. In the game, he must help them and fight with them. The game ends with Gordon Freeman stopping Doctor Breen, the evil human who is helping the Combine.

There are many important characters in this game other than Gordon Freeman. Some are Eli Vance, who worked at Black Mesa with Gordon Freeman before the Combine came. He is part of the resistance. Alyx Vance is Eli's daughter. She travels with Gordon in part of the game. Doctor Mossman also worked at Black Mesa. She works with the resistance, but is also a traitor who helps Doctor Breen. Barney Calhoun was a guard at Black Mesa. Now he leads the resistance.

Other websites
Official website
Steam website

Half-Life 2


The Shattered Chain is a novel by American writer Marion Zimmer Bradley, part of her Darkover series. In terms of the Darkover timeline, The Shattered Chain takes place about ten years before Thendara House.

The Shattered Chain is the first Darkovan novel to explore the world of the Renunciates - the Free Amazons or comhii letzi. The Renunciates are women who, despite living in a deeply patriarchal and feudal culture, have renounced both the protection and control of men, cutting their hair and living apart, vowing never to marry di catenas with a man.

The Shattered Chain is divided into three parts, the first titled 'Rohana Ardais: Comynara', the second 'Magda Lorne: Terran Agent' and the third, 'Jaelle n'ha Melora: Free Amazon', and each follows one female character's experiences with the Free Amazons of Darkover.

Plot summary

Part I: Rohana Ardais, Comynara
Lady Rohana Ardais, a Comyn woman of middle-age who possesses psychic laran abilities, specifically telepathy, travels with a band of Renunciates to the city of Shainsa. She hopes to free her kinswoman, Melora, who was kidnapped ten years earlier by a Dry Town raider. In the desert Dry Towns, women are literally owned by men and kept in chains as property.

While the women manage to free the heavily pregnant Melora and her twelve-year-old daughter Jaelle, Melora dies giving birth to a son, leaving Jaelle in the care of Rohana. Jaelle rejects the Comyn life, rather choosing to stay with the Renunciates. The section ends with the Jaelle's request of her new foster-mother, Kindra: "Foster-mother, will you cut my hair?"

Rohana's experiences with the Renunciates and in the Dry Towns profoundly change her self-perception as a woman, and of the relationship between the sexes.

Part II: Magda Lorne, Terran Agent
Twelve years later, Terran agent Magda Lorne assumes Renunciate disguise under the direction of Rohana, in order to save her ex-husband, Peter Haldane, from kidnappers (who believe he is Rohana's son). Just as Rohana's journey to rescue Melora was prompted by her male kin's refusal to jeopardize the Domains' political relationship with the Dry Towns, Magda's Terran employers refuse to rescue Peter for similar reasons.

Magda travels alone, hoping to escape notice. She comes across a group of genuine Renunciates led by the now-adult Jaelle. Magda's deceit is uncovered, and she is forced to take the Renunciate oath, the traditional punishment for a woman who takes the guise of a Renunciate without actually being one. Magda agrees to enter Nevarsin Guild House to begin training as a Renunciate, but secretly intends to escape and continue with the original rescue plan. Shortly after parting from the other Renunciates, Magda and Jaelle are attacked by bandits. Jaelle is seriously injured. Magda must choose whether to abandon Jaelle and hold true to her responsibility to her ex-husband, or to uphold her oath to the Renunciates and to the injured Jaelle. Magda chooses to do both, taking Jaelle with her into the mountains, rescuing Peter, and then traveling with both to the Ardais estate.

Magda's conflict and eventual decision to abide by her oath to Jaelle and to the Renunciates echoes Rohana's earlier inner conflict in choosing whether to leave her life for the Renunciates or to continue in her life as Comyn nobility. Rohana chooses to continue as a noblewoman, but uses her position as head of a domain for good, taking her epileptic husband's place in the Comyn council and running her estate. Magda eventually chooses to pursue the life of a Renunciate.

Part III: Jaelle n'ha Melora, Free Amazon
Jaelle, Magda and Peter shelter for the winter at the mountain estate of Ardais, with Rohana, her husband and children. Peter meets the aggressive and intimidating Kyril Ardais, his doppelganger twin, the man the bandits intended to kidnap. Jaelle learns that Rohana has chosen to remain a traditional Comyn woman to protect her children from her husband's enraged outbursts, and protect her epileptic husband from himself. Her experiences with the Renunciates have freed her, even if she has chosen a traditional path.

Jaelle chooses to become freemate to Peter, and questions both her choice to become a Renunciate at a young age, along with the decision to ignore her developing laran.

In the spring, Jaelle, Magda, and Peter return to Thendara, where Jaelle must face her responsibility as an heir to a Comyn domain with powerful and untrained laran. Magda must decide whether to honors her oath to the Renunciates and to her now-dear friend Jaelle, or returns to the Terran zone to continue her work as translator and agent.

Jaelle seeks a third choice, choosing to live with Peter as freemates in the Terran zone in Thendara, undertaking Magda's role as translator. Magda chooses to comply with her Renunciate oath, agreeing to train at Thendara Guildhouse.

The women's stories are completed in the sequel novel, Thendara House.

Characters
 Jaelle n'ha Melora (aka Jaelle Aillard), a Renunciate
 Magda Lorne (aka Margali n'ha Ysabet), a Terran operative
 Peter Haldane, Magda's ex-husband, a Terran intelligence officer
 Rohana Ardais, wife of Gabriel Ardais
 Melora Aillard, mother of Jaelle
 Kindra, a Renunciate
 Jalak of Shainsa, Dry Town bandit

Gender and society
The Shattered Chain presents the Renunciate organization and worldview in greater detail than previous books in the series. The first free Amazon character that Bradley created, Kyla Raineach in The Planet Savers, was a two-dimensional caricature who ended up rather conventionally falling in love with her male employer. As the series developed, the Renunciates evolved into a complex experiment in separatist feminism. The Renunciates are one of the most popular character groups in the Darkover series, resulting in a considerable amount fan fiction, some of which ended up in the 12 short story anthologies.

The Shattered Chain is a distinct deviation from the male-dominated narratives of Bradley's previous Darkovan novels, and also as an experiment in feminist writing for an author who had previously written very conventionally male-dominated fiction.

Later novels in the Renunciate series, in particular Thendara House, explore issues of female sexuality and matriarchal social structures, with particular emphasis on the character Magda's developing sense of herself as a lesbian, and as an independent woman raised to be a 'traditional Darkovan woman' and yet living a liberated, autonomous life beyond the rule of fathers and husbands.

Linda Leith suggests that these novels express Bradley's ambivalence towards Rousseauist society (Darkover) on the one hand, and American technological society (Terran Empire) on the other. The Renunciate characters of Magda and Jaelle offered the author an opportunity to explore the world of women-centered and lesbian-accepting communities within a patriarchal context.

Susan Schwartz, writing for the New York Times, noted of this book: "Bradley may have followed C.L. Moore in creating Amazons, but she raises her book The Shattered Chain above the level of heroic fantasy by having her characters explicitly debate the varieties of feminist theory, discussing among other things the merits of celibacy, lesbianism and conventional marriage".

References

Sources

External links

Darkover books
1976 American novels
Novels by Marion Zimmer Bradley
American science fiction novels
DAW Books books
American LGBT novels

The Shattered Chain


In ethology, territory is the area that a species of  animal consistently defends against related animals. Sometimes it means areas defended against animals of other species. Animals that defend territories in this way are referred to as territorial.

Territoriality is not shown by most species. More commonly, a  group of animals has an area that they use but do not necessarily defend. This is called their home range. The home ranges of different groups of animals often overlap, and in the overlap areas, the groups tend to avoid each other.

Many animals use vocalisations to advertise their territory. These are short-term signals given only when the animal is present. The sound can travel long distances and through various habitats. Examples include birds, frogs and canids.

Scent markings are used by many mammals. Some have special scent glands; others squirt urine on key places. Domestic cats have graded ritualized aggression. This starts off with vocalizations and sometimes mounts to direct attack.

Territories may be held by an individual, a mated or unmated pair, or a group, and it may vary at different times of the year.

References

Ethology

Territory (animal)


The Dancing House (), or Ginger and Fred, is the nickname given to the Nationale-Nederlanden building on the Rašínovo nábřeží (Rašín Embankment) in Prague, Czech Republic. It was designed by the Croatian-Czech architect Vlado Milunić in cooperation with Canadian-American architect Frank Gehry on a vacant riverfront plot. The building was designed in 1992. The construction, carried out by BESIX, was completed four years later in 1996.

Gehry originally called the house Ginger and Fred (after the dancers Ginger Rogers and Fred Astaire – the house resembles a pair of dancers), but the nickname Ginger & Fred is now mainly used for the restaurant located on the seventh floor of the Dancing House Hotel. Gehry himself later discarded his own idea, as he was "afraid to import American Hollywood kitsch to Prague".

Origin

The "Dancing House" is set on a property of great historical significance. Its site was the location of an apartment building destroyed by the U.S. bombing of Prague in 1945. The plot and structure lay decrepit until 1960, when the area was cleared. The neighboring plot was co-owned by the family of Václav Havel, who spent most of his life there. As early as 1986 (during the Communist era), Vlado Milunić, then a respected architect in the Czechoslovak milieu, conceived an idea for a project at the place and discussed it with his neighbour, the then little-known dissident Havel. A few years later, during the Velvet Revolution, Havel became a popular leader and was subsequently elected president of Czechoslovakia. Thanks to his authority, the idea to develop the site grew. Havel eventually decided to have Milunić survey the site, hoping for it to become a cultural center, though this was not the result.

The Dutch insurance company Nationale-Nederlanden (ING Bank from 1991 to 2016) agreed to sponsor the construction of a house onsite. The superbank chose Milunić as the lead designer and asked him to partner with another world-renowned architect to approach the process. The French architect Jean Nouvel turned down the idea because of the small square footage, but the Canadian-American architect Frank Gehry accepted the invitation. Because of the bank's excellent financial state at the time, it was able to offer almost unlimited funding for the project. Starting with their first meeting in 1992 in Geneva, Gehry and Milunić began to develop Milunić's original idea of a building consisting of two parts, static and dynamic ("yin and yang"), which were to symbolize the transition of Czechoslovakia from a communist regime to a parliamentary democracy.

Structure

The style is known as deconstructivist ("new-baroque" to the designers) architecture due to its unusual shape. The "dancing" shape is supported by 99 concrete panels, each a different shape and dimension. On the top of the building is a large twisted structure of metal nicknamed Mary.

In the middle of a square of buildings from the eighteenth and nineteenth century, the Dancing House has two main parts. The first is a glass tower that narrows at half its height and is supported by curved pillars; the second runs parallel to the river and is characterized by undulating mouldings and unaligned windows.

Dancers Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers are represented in the structure. A tower made of rock is used to represent Fred. This tower also includes a metal head. A tower made of glass is used to represent Ginger.

This design was driven mainly by aesthetic considerations: aligned windows would make evident that the building has two more floors, although it is the same height as the two adjacent nineteenth century buildings. The windows have protruding frames, such as those of paintings, as the designer intended for them to have a three-dimensional effect. The winding mouldings on the façade also serve to confuse perspective and diminish contrast with the surrounding buildings.

Interior
The Czech-British architect Eva Jiřičná designed most of the interior. The building is 9 floors tall and consists of two floors underground. The layout of each of the floors varies due to the asymmetric shape of the building, causing the rooms inside to also be asymmetric. The commercial areas of the building are in the lobby and the first floor. The six floors above are used primarily as office spaces. The ninth floor housed a restaurant. Since the building takes a slim shape, and the building is split into two parts vertically, the office space is limited. To make the most of the space, architect Jiřičná used design elements common in ships and incorporated small hallways into the interior of the building. The total interior of the building is 3,796 sqm.

In 2016, over a course of five months, two floors of the building were renovated into a 21-room hotel by Luxury Suites s.r.o. The hotel also has apartments available in each of the tower named after Fred and Ginger. The Ginger & Fred Restaurant now operates on the seventh floor. There is now a glass bar on the eighth floor. There is also now an art gallery in the building.

Awards

The general shape of the building is now featured on a gold 2,000 Czech koruna coin issued by the Czech National Bank. The coin completes a series called "Ten Centuries of Architecture". The Dancing House won Time magazine's design contest in 1997. The Dancing House was also named one of the five most important buildings in the 1990s by Architekt Magazine.

Criticism
The Dancing House has been called inappropriate in the classical city of Prague. The deconstructivist design is controversial because the house disrupts the Baroque, Gothic, and Art Nouveau buildings for which Prague is famous. The style, shape, heavy asymmetry, and material are considered out of place by some critics and civilians.

See also
 List of works by Frank Gehry
 Krzywy Domek

References

External links

Official website
Radio Prague article with Vlado Milunic

Buildings and structures completed in 1996
Buildings and structures in Prague
Deconstructivism
Frank Gehry buildings
Twisted buildings and structures
Visionary environments
Tourist attractions in Prague
Postmodern architecture in the Czech Republic
New Town, Prague
1996 establishments in the Czech Republic
20th-century architecture in the Czech Republic

Dancing House


Aaron Anthony Brown (born 23 June 1983 in Wolverhampton, England) is a professional footballer who plays for Farmhouse Beacon. He plays as a centre back.

Playing career
A defender who had previously played for Stafford Rangers and Tamworth, Brown joined Reading on 23 November 2005 on loan, before signing permanently in January 2006, for a fee in the region of £100,000. After one month since joining Reading, but made no appearances for the team so far, Brown joined AFC Bournemouth, to cover for Shaun Cooper, who suffered an injury. After one month with Bournemouth, Brown made a return to Reading. Ahead of a new season, with Reading promoted, Brown suffered an ankle injury, in a friendly match against Bromley on 15 July 2006, which they won and his injury ruled him out for two months. Brown said on his injury and career: "I am devastated, absolutely gutted. This was going to be the biggest year of my career. But everything happens for a reason and I have to stay really positive and try to come back even stronger and more determined. I have never even had an injury before, so it's a new experience for me. It's about being strong mentally as much as anything. I will be out for around six to eight weeks and then I will need a few weeks after that to get fit." However, Brown suffered another set-back injury on his ankle. In January, Brown returned from injury.

On 5 June 2007, Reading took up the option to extend his contract by a year, which will keep him at the club for the duration of the 2007–08 season. He moved to Walsall on loan for the remainder of that contract on 27 March 2008.

Yeovil Town
He was released by Reading on 16 May 2008, following their relegation from the Premier League. He signed a week-by-week contract with Yeovil Town on 11 August 2008. Having yet featured in the club's starting line-up for the first eight games, Brown finally made his debut for the club, making his first start and playing 90 minutes, in a 2–1 loss against Southend United on 4 October 2008. Five weeks after his debut, Brown scored his first goal for the club, in a 2–0 win over Oldham Athletic. After scoring his first goal, Brown says "I am a big guy and I like going forward, I should be scoring a lot more goals. I have given myself a target of a few more and it is something I work on in training. Scoring at Oldham was a dream. It was good to score and get the tension out of the whole team. Once we scored we kicked on and got a good win away from home." Also a week after scoring his first goal, Brown received a red card for a professional foul, in the first round replay of the FA Cup, in a 5–0 loss against Stockport City. Skipper Terry Skiverton believes Brown must move on from the red card incident. A month later, on 24 January 2009, Brown scored his second goal, in a 1–0 win over against Southend United – the team that he made his Yeovil debut. A week later, on 14 February 2009, Brown scored his third goal, in a 3–1 win over Peterborough United. However, his time at Yeovil Town was struggling despite scoring three gis battling to hold down a regular place in the Yeovil Town defence. He released by Yeovil Town at the end of the 2008–09 season.

Various career in England
Brown spent the summer of 2009 on trial at Gillingham, Wrexham and Burton Albion before signing non-contract forms at Conference North side Redditch United. At the end of September, Brown then joined Burton Albion on a one-month deal and played one League game against Accrington Stanley. In January, Brown was then released by the club, along with striker Serge Makofo.

On 19 January, Brown joined Telford United on a short-term contract, where he made one appearance. After leaving AFC Telford, Brown then moved on to Truro City. On 11 March 2010 Brown signed for Aldershot Town on non-contract terms until the end of the 2009–10 season. On 26 May 2010 Brown Joined League One Leyton Orient on a one-year deal.

On 24 January 2011 he joined Stockport County on an initial one-month loan deal and made his club debut five days later and scored an own-goal in his new club's 4–0 defeat at Rotherham. Having made six appearances, Brown loan spell at Stockport County was extended for another month. Again, his loan spell was extended until 26 April, having stayed at Stockport County, under the 93-day rule.
He returned to Orient on 26 April 2011 having made 17 appearances during his loan spell.

In May 2011, he was released by Orient at the end of his contract and a week later rejoined Aldershot Town on a free transfer, signing a two-year contract. After seven months at the club, with only ten appearances, his contract with Aldershot Town ended after having his contract terminated by mutual consent.

Preston North End
On 4 February 2012, Brown signed for Preston North End, having had his Aldershot contract settled, allowing him to complete his formalities with the Lilywhites after the deadline. Brown did not play many games while with the club, but he did feature as a striker against Sheffield Wednesday. In May 2012, Brown was released from the club after being told his contract would not be renewed.

Floriana
After leaving Preston, Brown joined Maltese side Floriana on 23 August 2012, become his first club outside England. One day after his move, Brown made his debut for the club, in a 1–1 draw against Ħamrun Spartan, making his first start and playing 90 minutes for the club. Aged 28 on his debut, Brown scored his first goal with a header, from a cross from Aman Verma, in a 3–0 win over Rabat Ajax. However, during the match, Brown received a red card following a second bookable offence after a confrontation with Patrick Borg, who also received a red card. In early November, Brown's contract with Floriana was terminated over a financial dispute, along with that of Akanni-Sunday Wasiu. The dispute led to Malta FA Control and Disciplinary Board threatening to give Floriana a points deduction, unless the club paid the wages owed to Brown. Eventually, the club avoided a points deduction after settling outstanding payments to Brown and Wasiu.

Limerick
In March 2013, Brown joined newly promoted League of Ireland Premier Division club Limerick.
Brown's registration was completed only hours ahead of Limerick's second match of the season, away to 2012 runners up Drogheda United. He made an immediate impact, getting on the end of a cross to head home Limerick's first top flight goal in 19 seasons, leaving both sides level at half time. Shortly after the restart, Brown received his marching orders as the referee adjudged him to have taken down an opponent in the box. Limerick 'keeper Barry Ryan saved the resultant penalty, and a very eventful match eventually finished with both sides sharing the spoils at 2–2.

Kidderminster Harriers
With little prior publicity, Brown appeared on the bench for the Harriers' FA Cup game against Sutton United on 9 November 2013.

International
Brown played for the England National Game XI team while with Tamworth.

References

External links

1983 births
Living people
Footballers from Wolverhampton
English men's footballers
Walsall F.C. players
Reading F.C. players
Stockport County F.C. players
AFC Bournemouth players
Stafford Rangers F.C. players
AFC Telford United players
Tamworth F.C. players
Yeovil Town F.C. players
Aldershot Town F.C. players
Redditch United F.C. players
Leyton Orient F.C. players
Preston North End F.C. players
Men's association football midfielders
England men's semi-pro international footballers
National League (English football) players
English Football League players
Kidderminster Harriers F.C. players
Worcester City F.C. players
Limerick F.C. players
Truro City F.C. players
Floriana F.C. players
English expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in Malta
Burton Albion F.C. players

Aaron Brown (footballer, born 1983)


Savonlinna Opera Festival () is held annually in the city of Savonlinna in Finland. The Festival takes place at the medieval Olavinlinna (St. Olaf's Castle), built in 1475. The castle is located amid spectacular lake scenery.

Origin
The birth of the Savonlinna Opera Festival ties in closely with the emerging Finnish identity and striving for independence at the beginning of the 20th century. Attending a nationalist meeting in Olavinlinna Castle in 1907, the Finnish soprano Aino Ackté, already famous at opera houses the world over and an ardent patriot, immediately spotted the potential of the castle as the venue for an opera festival.

The first opera festival was held in 1912. Aino Ackté directed the festival for five summers, staging four Finnish operas. The only opera by a non-Finnish composer was Charles Gounod's Faust, with Ackté herself in the leading female role of Marguerite.

In 1917 the festival ran into difficulties because of First World War, Finnish Declaration of Independence and the ensuing Finnish Civil War.

For fifty years, the opera festival was dormant, but in 1967,  Savonlinna Music Days decided to organise an opera course for young singers. The high point of the course was a performance of Beethoven's Fidelio in the castle. Therefore, 1967 is nowadays regarded as the start of the present Festival; since then it has had steady growth of both audience and reputation.

Present-day festival

The Savonlinna Opera Festival has grown into an internationally recognised festival lasting a month. Each year it performs to a total audience of around 60,000, an estimated quarter of whom come from abroad. Each year the Festival has, in addition to staging leading works from classical operatic repertoire, staged its own productions.

Premieres
Thirteen operas have been premiered at the Savonlinna Opera Festival since 1967: The Horseman (1975), The King Goes Forth to France (1984, commissioned jointly by Covent Garden and the BBC), The Palace (1995) and Linna vedessä (2017) by Aulis Sallinen, The Knife (1989) by Paavo Heininen, Aleksis Kivi (1997) by Einojuhani Rautavaara, The Age of Dreams (2000–2001) by Herman Rechberger, Olli Kortekangas and Kalevi Aho, Koirien Kalevala (2004) by Jaakko Kuusisto, Hui kauhistus (2006) by Jukka Linkola, Isän tyttö (2007) by Olli Kortekangas, Seitsemän koiraveljestä (2008) by     Markus Fagerudd, La Fenice (2012) by Kimmo Hakola, and Norppaooppera (2013) by Timo-Juhani Kyllönen.

Visits by foreign opera companies
For over a decade, the Savonlinna Opera Festival has hosted foreign opera companies: The first of these was the Estonia Theatre from Tallinn. This was followed for the next three seasons by the world-famous Mariinsky (Kirov) Theatre from St. Petersburg, by Covent Garden from London in 1998, the Opéra national du Rhin from Strasbourg in 1999, the New Israeli Opera in 2000, Los Angeles Opera in 2001, the Deutsche Oper am Rhein in 2002, and the Choir and Orchestra of the Municipal Theatre of Santiago in 2003, with a staging of Sergio Ortega's Fulgor y Muerte de Joaquín Murieta, after a libretto by Nobel Prize winner Pablo Neruda.
The Welsh National Opera (UK) performed Nabucco and Manon Lescaut at the festival in 2014.

See also
List of opera festivals

References

External links

 Savonlinna Opera Festival

Music festivals in Finland
Opera festivals
Opera Festival
Tourist attractions in South Savo
Recurring events established in 1912
1912 establishments in Finland
1912 in the arts
Recurring events established in 1967
1967 establishments in Finland
1967 in the arts

Savonlinna Opera Festival


In Greek mythology, Orion is a giant hunter. When he goes hunting, his dogs Sirius and Procycon accompany him. He lived in Boeotia and Crete. People do not agree about his parents: Sometimes he is said to be the son of Poseidon and the gorgon Euryale, at other times, he is said to have three fathers, Poseidon, Zeus and either Hermes or Ares. All three mixed their sperm in a bag of animal hide. Zeus gave him his craving for erotic adventures, from Poseidon, he got the ability to walk on water.

He is married to Side, but Hera cast his wife into the Tartaros, because Side was too proud of her own beauty.

In Greek literature he first appears as a great hunter in Homer's epic the Odyssey, where Odysseus sees his shade in the underworld. The bare bones of his story are told by the Hellenistic and Roman collectors of myths, but there is no literary version of his adventures. Other heroes' stories are told, for example  Jason in Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica or Euripides' Medea. The entry in Ovid's Fasti for May 11 is a poem on the birth of Orion, but that is one version of a single story. The surviving fragments of legend have provided a fertile field for speculation about Greek prehistory and myth.

Orion served several roles in ancient Greek culture. The story of the adventures of Orion, the hunter, is the one on which we have the most evidence (and even on that not very much); he is also the personification of the constellation of the same name; he was venerated as a hero, in the Greek sense, in the region of Boeotia; and there is one etiological passage which says that Orion was responsible for the present shape of the Straits of Sicily.

People in Greek mythology

Orion (mythology)


A suggestion is an idea that one suggests, or says is good for another (or others) to follow. Some people may agree to it, and some may disagree. If they disagree or have a different suggestion, the person who first suggested the idea will usually discuss with the other people and find a good conclusion that satisfies both and is good.

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Suggestion