Edward Durell Stone (March 9, 1902 – August 6, 1978) was an American architect. He is most known for designing buildings with modernist style between 1950-1960s.

Notable projects
Radio City Music Hall and the Center Theater, in Rockefeller Center, New York City, (He was senior designer working for the Rockefeller Center Associated Architects with Donald Deskey and Eugene Schoen, interior designers, 1932)
Richard H. Mandel House, Bedford Hills, New York (with Donald Deskey, interior designer, 1933)
Mepkin Plantation for Mr. and Mrs. Henry R. Luce, (now known as Mepkin Abbey), Monck's Corner, South Carolina (1936)
Museum of Modern Art, New York City, (with Philip S. Goodwin, 1937)
A. Conger Goodyear House, Old Westbury, New York (1938)
Ingersoll Steel, Utility Unit House, Kalamazoo, Michigan (1946)
El Panama Hotel, Panama City, Panama (1946)
Fine Arts Center, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas (1948)
United States Embassy, New Delhi, India (1954)
Phoenicia Hotel, Beirut, Lebanon (1954, changed in 1997)
Stanford Medical Center, Palo Alto, California (1955)
Bruno & Josephine Graf Residence, Dallas, Texas (1956)
Main Library and Mitchell Park Branch Library, Palo Alto, California (1956) The Mitchell Park Branch was torn down (demolished) in 2010.
Edward Durell Stone Townhouse, 130 East 64th Street, New York City (1956)
Stuart Pharmaceutical Co., Pasadena, California (1956, partially demolished)
U.S. Pavilion at the Expo 58, Brussels, Belgium (1957, partially demolished)
First Unitarian Society Church, Schenectady, New York (1958)
Gallery of Modern Art, including the Huntington Hartford Collection (now known as Museum of Arts & Design), New York City (1958. The building was changed a lot in 2006)
International Trade Mart (now known as World Trade Center of New Orleans), New Orleans, Louisiana (1959)
Robert M. Hughes Memorial Library, Norfolk, Virginia (1959)
Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, California (1959)
North Carolina State Legislative Building, Raleigh, North Carolina (1960)
Beckman Auditorium, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California (1960)
National Geographic Society Building, Washington, D.C. (1961)
Ponce Museum of Art, Ponce, Puerto Rico (1961)
Windham College (now known as Landmark College), Putney, Vermont (1961)
State University of New York at Albany, Albany, New York (1962)
John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, Washington, D.C. (1962)
Prince George's Center (now known as University Town Center), Hyattsville, Maryland (1962)
Busch Memorial Stadium, St. Louis, Missouri (1962, demolished 2005)
WAPDA House {Water and Power Development Authority}, Lahore, Pakistan (1962)
Stuhr Museum of the Prairie Pioneer, Grand Island, Nebraska (1963)
Claremont School of Theology, Claremont, California (1963)
Davenport Public Library, Davenport, Iowa(1964)
General Motors Building, New York City (1964)
Von KleinSmid Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California (c. 1965)
Garden State Arts Center (now known as PNC Bank Arts Center), Holmdel, New Jersey (1965)
Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology, (1965)
Georgetown University Law Center Bernard P. McDonough Hall, Washington, D.C. (1966)
W.E.B. DuBois Library, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts (1966)
Fort Worth City Hall, Fort Worth, Texas (1967)
PepsiCo World Headquarters Complex, Purchase, New York (1967)
Jefferson County Civic Center, Pine Bluff, Arkansas (1968)
Worcester Science Museum (now known as the EcoTarium), Worcester, Massachusetts, (1964, changed in 1998)
Standard Oil Building (now known as Aon Center), Chicago, Illinois (1972)
Scripps Green Hospital, La Jolla, California (1974)
First Bank Building (now known as First Canadian Place), Toronto, Ontario (1975)
Babin Kuk Resort, Dubrovnik, Croatia (1976)
Valamar Dubrovnik President Hotel, Dubrovnik, Croatia (by Edward Durell Stone Associates, 1976)
Florida State Capitol, Tallahassee, Florida (1977)
University of Alabama School of Law, Tuscaloosa, Alabama (1977)
Museum of Anthropology, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico (by Edward Durell Stone Associates, 1986)

Gallery

Awards and recognitions

Honorary degrees
Doctor of Fine Arts, University of Arkansas, 1951
Doctor of Fine Arts, Colby College, 1959
Master of Fine Arts, Otis Art Institute of Los Angeles County, 1961
Doctor of Fine Arts, Hamilton College, 1962
Doctor of Humane Letters, University of South Carolina, 1964

Memberships and honors
Medal of Honor, New York Chapter of the American Institute of Architects, 1955
American Institute of Architects, Fellow, 1958
National Institute of Arts & Letters, Member, 1958
National Urban League, Trustee, 1958
American Academy of Arts & Sciences, Fellow, 1960
American Federation of Arts, Trustee, 1960
Royal Society of Arts, Fellow, 1960
National Institute of Social Sciences, Gold Medal, 1961
Building Stone Institute, Architect of the Year, 1964
Horatio Alger Award, 1971
Commendatore Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana [Commander, Order of Merit of the Italian Republic], 1971

Architectural awards
Silver Medal, Architectural League of New York, 1937 - Guest House for Henry R. Luce, Mepkin Plantation, Moncks Corner, South Carolina
Silver Medal, Architectural League of New York, 1950 - A. Conger Goodyear Residence, Old Westbury, New York
Gold Medal, Architectural League of New York, 1950 - Museum of Modern Art, New York City, New York (Philip Goodwin, Associate)
Gold Medal, Architectural League of New York, 1950 - El Panama Hotel, Panama City, Panama
Honorable Mention, Architectural League of New York, 1952 - University of Arkansas Fine Arts Center, Fayetteville, Arkansas
Honor Award, American Institute of Architects, 1952 - University of Arkansas Medical Center, Little Rock, Arkansas
First Honor Award, American Institute of Architects, 1958 - Stuart Pharmaceutical Co., Pasadena, California
Award of Merit, American Institute of Architects, 1958 - U.S. Pavilion, Brussels, Belgium
First Honor Award, American Institute of Architects, 1961 - U.S. Embassy, New Delhi, India
Award of Merit, American Institute of Architects, 1963 - Community Hospital of the Monterey Peninsula, Carmel, California
First Honor Award, American Institute of Architects and American Library Association,  1963 - University of South Carolina Undergraduate Library, Columbia, South Carolina
Honor Award, American Institute of Architects, 1967 - Ponce Museum of Art, Ponce, Puerto Rico

Related pages
Rockefeller Center
Rockefeller family
Museum of Modern Art

References
Bibliography
 Everett, Derek R.  "Modern Statehouses for Modern States: Edward Durell Stone's Capitol Architecture in North Carolina and Florida." Southern Historian, Vol. 28 (Spring 2007): pp. 74–91.
 Head, Jeffrey. "Unearthing Stone." Metropolis magazine, Urban Journal, January 2008.
 Hunting, Mary Anne. "Edward Durell Stone, Perception and Criticism." PhD diss., Graduate Center, City University of New York, 2007.
 Hunting, Mary Anne. "From Craft to Industry: Furniture Designed by Edward Durell Stone for Senator Fulbright." The Magazine Antiques, Vol. 165, No. 5 (May 2004): pp. 110–121.
 Hunting, Mary Anne. "Living with Antiques: The Richard H. Mandel House in Bedford Hills, New York." The Magazine Antiques, Vol. 160, No. 1 (July 2001): pp. 72–83.
 Ricciotti, Dominic.  "Edward Durell Stone and the International Style in America: Houses of the 1930s." American Art Journal, Vol. 20, No. 3 (Summer 1988): pp. 48–73.
 Ricciotti, Dominic. "The 1939 Building of the Museum of Modern Art: The Goodwin-Stone Collaboration." American Art Journal, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Summer 1985): pp. 51–76.
 Stone, Edward Durell. Edward Durell Stone: Recent and Future Architecture. New York: Horizon Press, 1967.
 Stone, Edward Durell. The Evolution of An Architect. New York: Horizon Press, 1962.
 Williams, John G. The Curious and the Beautiful. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1984.

Notes

1902 births
1978 deaths
Harvard University alumni
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
American architects
Businesspeople from Arkansas
People from Fayetteville, Arkansas

Edward Durell Stone


A county borough  was a type of local government district in England until abolished in 1974.

Local government powers were divided between county councils and urban or rural districts.

For example: rural districts may not be able to maintain footpaths or street lighting because of their size.  Urban districts were based in a town and were able handle these jobs.  Schools were the responsibility of county councils because districts were too small to run all types of schools themselves.

A county borough was a town big enough to run all its own local government, so the local county council had no power inside the county borough.

Political systems
Local government in England
1974 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
20th-century disestablishments in England

County borough


Albrecht Ludolf von Krehl (December 26, 1861 – May 26, 1937) was a German internist and physiologist who was a native of Leipzig. He was the son of Orientalist Christoph Krehl (1825–1901).

He studied at the Universities of Heidelberg and Leipzig, and later was an assistant to Ernst Leberecht Wagner (1829–1888) and Heinrich Curschmann (1846–1910) at the medical clinic in Leipzig. In 1888 he obtained his habilitation, becoming head of the medical clinic at Jena in 1892. In 1899 he became director of the clinic at the University of Marburg, and soon afterwards served as professor of special pathology and therapy of internal diseases in Greifswald (1900–02).

From 1902 to 1904 he was a professor at the University of Tübingen, and in 1904 he succeeded Bernhard Naunyn (1839–1925) at the University of Strasbourg. While at Strasbourg, he provided the necessary facilities to Albert Fraenkel (1864–1938) for the latter's testing of intravenous strophanthin. From 1907 until 1932 he was a professor and director of the medical clinic at the University of Heidelberg. One of his better known assistants at Heidelberg was Viktor von Weizsäcker (1886–1957).

Krehl made contributions in the field of cardiac pathology and in his research of metabolic diseases. Also, he admired the psychoanalytic work of Sigmund Freud and Josef Breuer, and had a keen interest in psychopathological aspects of disease from an individualized, psychosomatic standpoint.

Among his written works was a landmark textbook on pathological physiology that laid a scientific basis for clinical medicine. This textbook was first published in 1893 as Grundriß der allgemeinen klinischen Pathologie (Later known as Pathologische Physiologie), and eventually ran to fourteen editions. Krehl was a catalyst behind the founding of the "Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research", which today is known as the Max Planck Institute for Medical Research in Heidelberg.

Selected writings
 Grundriß der allgemeinen klinischen Pathologie, (Fundamentals of General Clinical Pathology), later known as Pathologische Physiologie (Pathological Physiology); Leipzig (1893)
 Die Erkrankungen des Herzmuskels, In: Carl Nothnagel's: Experimentelle Pathologie und Therapie, Bd. 15/1, Holder, Wien (1901)
 Krankheitsform und Persönlichkeit, Thieme, Leipzig (1929)
 Über die Naturheilkunde (1935)

References

 Deutsche Biographie (translated biography)
 "This article incorporates information based on a translation of an equivalent article at the German Wikipedia".

External links

1861 births
1937 deaths
German physiologists
Physicians from Leipzig
Academic staff of Heidelberg University
Academic staff of the University of Tübingen
Academic staff of the University of Marburg
Academic staff of the University of Greifswald
Academic staff of the University of Jena
Academic staff of the University of Strasbourg
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Max Planck Institute directors

Ludolf von Krehl


Silver Street was a radio soap opera broadcast on the BBC Asian Network from 24 May 2004 to 26 March 2010. It was the first soap to be aimed at the British South Asian community,

Broadcast history
It was introduced in 2004 as part of the Sonia Deol show, which was replaced from 24 April 2006 by the Anita Rani show, and until 12 May 2006 each episode had an early evening repeat at 19.20–19.30 in the Drive Programme. Since 15 May 2006 the serial had been broadcast from 13.30 to 13.40 each weekday during the Nikki Bedi show. The Omnibus edition of the show was broadcast every Sunday between 16.30 and 17.00.

In 2007 it became one of the first BBC Asian Network programmes to be available as a podcast and was the most downloaded show on the network. On 21 April 2008 BBC Radio Leicester began to broadcast current episodes of the show after a few weeks of highlights and compilations to introduce the stories.

Synopsis
Storylines focused on the lives of a primarily British South Asian community in an English town of unspecified name and location, with themes that generally related to issues that affect the daily lives of British South Asians and their neighbours.

Many guest stars appeared in the programme, including Saeed Jaffrey as the family doctor of the Chauhan family at a point in the story when the character Roopa Chauhan was struggling with bulimia, Sonia Deol (as herself) popping into a shop on the street on one occasion, and Toyah Willcox playing the estranged mother of major Silver Street character Sean Brady.

Main cast list
Character (actor):

Rita Chauhan (Bharti Patel)
Jas Chauhan (Hema Mangoo)
Roopa Chauhan (Rakhee Thakrar)
Arun Chauhan (Naithan Ariane)
Kamla Dattani (Surendra Kochar)
Mushtaq Jilani (Paul Bhattacharjee)
Zenab Jilani (Sudha Bhuchar)
Rozena Hussaini (Pooja Ghai)
Sameer Hussaini (Alex Caan)
Pervaiz Akhtar (Shajait Khan)
Nadia Akhtar (Sohm Kapila)
Zak Akhtar (Jetinder Summan)
Mary Brady (Carole Nimmons)
Pete Brady (Jez Thomas)
Sean Brady (Kee Ramsorrun then Lloyd Thomas)
Brian Kavanagh (Gerard McDermott)
Kuljit Singh (Sartaj Garewal)
Sway Holloway (Mark Monero)
Jodie Howard (Vineeta Rishi)
Jaggy Singh (Jay Kiyani)
Simran Kaur (Balvinder Sopal)
Wahid Masud (Saeed Jaffrey)
Shazia Malik (Shobu Kapoor)
Ambika (Ayesha Dharker)

Special appearances
Nikki Sanderson as Faye Dunbar
Ian Watkins (Steps) as Dave Thomas
John Altman as Mr Walsh
Kim Vithana as Farrah Malik
Pal Aron as Akram Malik
J Skillz as himself
John Abraham as himself
John Craven as himself
Raghav as himself
Hard Kaur as herself
MC Raa as himself
Anita Dobson as Sandra Lester

Writers
Silver Street had a roster of around six writers at a time that changed over the years. Commissions were made monthly and each writer was commissioned to write one week of episodes. Past writers include:

Sonali Battacharya
Gurpreet Bhati
Lorna French
Tanika Gupta
Shai Hussain
Waris Islam
Kris Kenway
Sonia Likhari
Amber Lone
Nirjay Mahindru
Anjum Malik
Prakash Patel
Philip Qizilbash
Saman Shad
Sukhbender Singh
Darren Rapier

Cancellation
On 16 November 2009, the BBC announced that they would be cancelling Silver Street. The final episode (number 1,525) was broadcast on 26 March 2010. The song played at the end of the final episode was "Silver Street" by Ben Folds. The cancellation grew out of criticisms of the Asian Network in the BBC Trust's annual report. In July 2009 it was revealed that the Asian Network had lost 20% of its listeners in one year and, per listener, was the most expensive BBC Station. Silver Street was replaced by monthly half-hour dramas.

References

External links

British radio soap operas
BBC Asian Network programmes
2004 radio programme debuts
2010 radio programme endings
British Indian mass media

Silver Street


A refrigerator is a machine used for keeping things cold. It is sometimes called a fridge or an icebox. It is normally maintained at 4-5  degree Celsius for household use. People put food and drinks in it, to keep those items cold or good (unspoiled) for a longer time. A refrigerator has a heat pump which takes heat away from the air inside the fridge. The heat is moved to the air outside. The heat pump is usually driven by an electric motor.

There are also ice boxes available that do not use electricity because they are filled with ice to provide the colder temperature. The ice can keep things cold until the ice melts. Ice boxes can be taken on camping trips. Sometimes they are called coolers. Refrigerator-sized iceboxes were used before electricity was available.

Most modern refrigerators are available in a variety of colours, although most are white. Smaller versions of the popular refrigerator are also used. They are mainly used in hotels and college dorm rooms.

Freezer

A freezer is a special type of refrigerator that stores food at freezing temperatures. Inside a freezer, it is normally . Freezers can be found in household refrigerators, as well as in industry and commerce. When stored in a freezer, frozen food can be stored safely for a longer time than storing at room temperatures.

Domestic freezers can be a separate compartment in a refrigerator, or can be a separate appliance. Household refrigerators usually have a separate compartment where the heat pump is used to pump even colder temperatures to the contents. Most household freezers maintain temperatures from . Some freezer-only units can achieve  and lower. Most household refrigerators generally do not achieve a temperature lower than , because it is difficult to control the temperature for two different compartments. This is because both compartments shares the same coolant loop.

Domestic freezers normally stand upright, resembling refrigerators. Sometimes a domestic freezer is laid on its back to look like a chest. Many modern upright freezers come with an ice dispenser built into their door. Many commercial freezers stand upright and have glass doors so shoppers can see the contents.

References

Other websites

Home appliances
Machines
HVAC

Refrigerator


William Percival Crozier (1 August 1879 – 16 April 1944) was a British journalist and editor of the Manchester Guardian from 1932, when he succeeded Ted Scott, who had died in a sailing accident, until his death in 1944.

Crozier was born at Stanhope in County Durham on 1 August 1879, the youngest son of Rev. Richard Crozier, a Methodist minister, and his wife, Elizabeth Hallimond. He was educated at Manchester Grammar School and Trinity College, Oxford, where he gained a first class degree in Classics (1900).

After leaving Oxford, he spent a year as a schoolmaster in Knaresborough, before abandoning teaching for journalism, joining first The Times and then the Manchester Guardian in 1903. He made an impression with his critical analysis of the case for tariff reform, and quickly came to the attention of the Guardian's then editor, C. P. Scott, who, recognising Crozier's potential, made him his right-hand man at the paper in charge of news gathering. In 1912 Crozier was made news editor and in 1918 military critic. He also later served as foreign editor. Under Scott, Crozier reorganized the Guardian's foreign news service, increased the use of photographs and maps, encouraged new features and introduced the daily crossword in 1929. He also developed a deep commitment to Zionism and became "the leading advocate in the daily press of a Jewish national home" (Morris).

Crozier was made a member of the Manchester Guardian's board and was appointed editor in April 1932 after the death of Edward Taylor Scott. Crozier's appointment was in part intended to guarantee editorial continuity, and he maintained a close control over the paper, frequently contributing leading articles and editorials. Foreign news had always been Crozier's chief interest and his editorship coincided with the establishment of the National Socialist regime in Germany and the Second World War. Working closely with his friend and sometime German correspondent, F. A. Voigt, Crozier "considered it no less than his duty personally and persistently to expose the Nazis" (Morris) and pursued this policy with a crusading zeal until the very end. In the late 1930s his health became increasingly frail and he suffered from a perforated ulcer in 1936. In June 1936 he was elected to serve on the Liberal Party Council. In 1943 he was diagnosed with the heart condition which proved ultimately to be fatal.

Crozier died at his Manchester home on 16 April 1944, aged 64, just two months before his son Major S.F. Crozier was part of the Military Police operations overseeing logistics landings using the Mulberry Harbours at Gold Beach (Arromanche) after D-Day.  He was 'mentioned in dispatches' for this work and later awarded the MBE.

Novels
 Letters of Pontius Pilate: Written During His Governorship of Judea to His Friend Seneca in Rome (1928)
 The Fates are Laughing (1945; published posthumously)

References

Further reading
 David Ayerst, Guardian: Biography of a Newspaper'' (1971) Collins; London

British male journalists
1879 births
1944 deaths
The Guardian journalists
People educated at Manchester Grammar School
People from Stanhope, County Durham

William Percival Crozier


The American Civil War (1861–1865) was a civil war in the United States of America. It was fought when 11 Southern states left the United States and formed the Confederate States of America (also called the Confederacy). The US government and the states that remained loyal to it were called the Union.

The main cause of the war was slavery, which was allowed in the South, including all 11 Confederate States. Slavery was illegal in most of the North. The Confederate States tried to leave the Union after Abraham Lincoln, who disliked slavery, was elected US president. The Union believed that it was illegal for the states to break away. There were five states that allowed slavery which stayed in the Union.

The war began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter, a fort in South Carolina that was held by Union soldiers. The war lasted four years and caused much damage in the South. Most battles were in northern states until 1862 and in southern states after 1862.

After four years of fighting, the Union won the war, and soon, slavery was made illegal everywhere in the United States of America.

Background
When the United States of America was founded in 1776, most states allowed slavery. However, over the next 84 years, the Northern states decided that slavery was a bad thing and banned it. The Southern states kept slavery legal. Slaves from Africa grew tobacco, cotton and other cash crops in those states. It was very different in the North, where the Industrial Revolution led to more people working in factories instead of on farms.

The United States became divided into slave and free states. By 1860, those groups were angry at each other. Few people wanted to end slavery in the South and so Americans argued on whether slavery should be allowed to spread to the territories and new states in the west. In the late 1850s, there was fighting in Kansas over whether the territory should allow slavery.

Abraham Lincoln from the Republican Party won the 1860 United States presidential election. He then did not want to ban slavery in the states. Like nearly everyone else, he believed that the US Constitution did not allow the federal government to ban slavery (the amendment to ban slavery was passed later, in 1865). He also thought that banning it suddenly would anger the South.

Instead, Lincoln and his Republican Party thought that slavery should be banned in US territories. They thought that slavery would die out if it could not go to new places.

Lincoln became president on March 4, 1861. In the four months between the election and the day that Lincoln became president, seven Southern states declared their independence from the Union. The outgoing US president, James Buchanan, said that was against the law but he could do nothing to stop them.

The Republican Party treated secession as a rebellion. No country in the world ever recognized the Confederacy as a separate nation. That was because of diplomacy on the part of the Union, anti-slavery feelings in Europe and the northern blockade of southern ports, and of war against the United States.

The first seven states to join the Confederacy were South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. Four others joined after the fighting began: Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina. The Confederacy claimed Kentucky and Missouri belonged to them, but they never joined the Confederacy. Kentucky, Missouri, and Maryland were slave states that tried to avoid taking sides. Delaware supported the Union although it was a slave state. Also, the western counties of Virginia chose to remain in the Union and created a new state, West Virginia.

Fighting begins
Fighting started when the Confederates shot and threw bombs at Fort Sumter, a Union Army fort in South Carolina. Lincoln then asked the Union states to bring soldiers to fight the Confederates.

The Confederates said that all forts and other federal buildings in the South belonged to them. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces attacked the fort and forced the Union soldiers in it to surrender. Lincoln then asked every Union state for volunteers to join the Union Army. Four more southern slave states joined the Confederates, rather than supply forces to fight against them.

The US Navy stopped other ships from going in or out of southern ports. That stopped the Confederacy from selling its cotton and other goods and also made it harder for the South to buy weapons and military supplies.

The war

The American Civil War was fought in three important land areas, or "theaters." The Eastern Theater was the land east of the Appalachian Mountains. The Western Theater included everything between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River and along the river. The Trans-Mississippi Theater included territory west of the Mississippi River.

Both the United States and the Confederacy had their capital cities in the Eastern Theater. Washington, DC, had been the US capital since 1800. When the South seceded, its first capital was Montgomery, Alabama, but it moved the capital to Richmond, Virginia. Richmond and Washington DC are only about 90 miles (145 km) apart.

One of the first battles of the war was fought in Virginia. The Union tried to march to Richmond, but the Confederates stopped them at the First Battle of Bull Run, on July 21, 1861. The Union Army of the Potomac then tried to capture Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign during the spring of 1862, but Robert E. Lee became leader of the Army of Northern Virginia and defeated the Union Army. He then won the Second Battle of Bull Run in August 1862. Lee tried to win the war by invading Maryland, but he lost the Battle of Antietam and retreated to Virginia. The Eastern Theater was the hardest fight for the Union, as they did not get far in Virginia until 1864. They did much better in other areas.

There was much fighting between ships in the war, but the Union had a stronger and bigger navy. Lincoln put the Confederates under a blockade and so the Union Navy would not let any ships into or out of southern ports. The Confederates used ships called blockade runners to bring things from Europe like weapons. The navies of each side also fought on the rivers. The ships included ironclads, which were protected by iron on their sides, and cottonclads, which used cotton along their sides. During the Battle of Hampton Roads, the Confederate ironclad Virginia fought against the Union ironclad Monitor. It was the first time in world history that two ironclads fought each other.

In the Western Theater, much of the fighting happened along the Mississippi River. Ulysses S. Grant was an important Union general in the West. The Confederates tried to send their soldiers into the state of Kentucky in the summer of 1861. In the early months of 1862, the Union Army made the Confederates retreat from Kentucky and from western Tennessee. They tried to recapture western Tennessee by attacking Grant's army at the Battle of Shiloh, but Grant won the battle. The Confederates then tried to send their soldiers into eastern Kentucky in the fall of 1862 but lost the Battle of Perryville and then left Kentucky. Over the next year, the Union took control of the rest of Tennessee.

The North won control of almost all of the Mississippi River by capturing the cities along the river in the fall of 1862 and the spring of 1863. However, the Confederacy still held Vicksburg, an important city and fort. If they held, the Confederates could move soldiers and supplies from one side of the river to the other. Grant started the Siege of Vicksburg during the month of May 1863. The siege continued until July 4, 1863, when the Confederates there surrendered to Grant. That was one of the turning points in the war by dividing the Confederacy into two parts.

There were also battles west of the Mississippi River Valley in the Trans-Mississippi Theater. For example, two important battles were the Battle of Wilson's Creek and the Battle of Pea Ridge. The Confederates tried to invade New Mexico in February and March 1862 but they were defeated at the Battle of Glorieta Pass. After the Union captured Vicksburg, the area became separated from the rest of the Confederate States. Other battles happened in the area after the capture of Vicksburg.

During the Siege of Vicksburg in the west, another turning point came in the east. After winning some battles, Lee decided to invade the North again. Lee and his Army of Northern Virginia went into Pennsylvania. The Confederate Army met the Union Army near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania and fought the Battle of Gettysburg, which lasted from July 1 to 3, 1863. More soldiers died at Gettysburg than in any other Civil War battle, which the Union won. Lee and his troops were pushed back into the South and could no longer invade the North.

From Vicksburg, Grant led the army to finish taking control of Tennessee in the Chattanooga campaign. Lincoln then decided that Grant was his best general and put Grant in control of all Union armies. Abraham Lincoln also made William Tecumseh Sherman the general in charge leading the Union troops from Tennessee to Georgia. Grant led many attacks on Lee's army in Virginia. The battles were made up the Overland Campaign.

The Union had more success when Sherman marched into Georgia in May 1864, into the middle of the Confederate States. In September, he captured Atlanta, an important city. Sherman then led a "march to the sea" and captured Savannah. He then marched north through South Carolina and North Carolina. Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston attacked Sherman at the Battle of Bentonville. Sherman won the battle. Even in the 20th century, Southerners remember Sherman's march as destroying many homes, farms, and railroads, but his soldiers are blamed for things that they could not have done since they were too far away.

By late 1864, Lee's army was struggling, as they had less soldiers and supplies than Grant's army. Helped by Philip Sheridan, Grant's army slowly started to push into Virginia. At the start of April 1865, they won several battles against Lee's army and captured Richmond. Lee decided that he had too few soldiers to keep on fighting. He surrendered to Grant on April 9, 1865 near Appomattox Court House. Later, many other Confederate armies surrendered as well. The last Confederate general to surrender was Brigadier General Stand Watie, who surrendered on June 23, 1865, in Oklahoma.

After the war ended, Lincoln pardoned all of the Confederate soldiers and so they could not be arrested or punished for fighting against the Union. The South would be allowed to rejoin the United States but only later. Some Confederates did not want to return to the United States and moved to places like Mexico or Brazil.

Why the Union won
Historians have had different ideas about whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most of them, such as James McPherson, say that it would have been difficult but possible. The Union had far more people, money and industry. By most estimates, the Union had over 2 million soldiers while the Confederacy had 1 million.

One advantage the Confederacy had was that they only needed to defend their land, whereas the Union could only win if they took full control of the Confederate states. Furthermore, the Union could only fight the war if their people wanted them to keep fighting. Lincoln had opponents in the North (the Copperheads) who wanted the war to end. If the Confederacy had defended itself for long enough, it may have led to more people in the Union turning against the war and supporting the Copperheads. However, Lincoln held on to his support and won the 1864 election.

The Union Navy blocked ships from going into the Confederate ports. Although some ships managed to get past, most could not. The Confederacy had big money problems because they could not sell cotton and other goods to other countries. The Confederacy collected less taxes than the Union, so they printed money to pay for the war. This caused inflation (rising prices).

Another factor was that the Confederacy could not get help from outside. They had hoped that Britain and France would support the Confederacy because they wanted to buy their cotton. However, Britain and France did not give them help. There were three reasons for this. Firstly, they thought that slavery was wrong. Secondly, they did not want to become enemies of the United States. Thirdly, they could get cotton from elsewhere.

Most historians also think that Abraham Lincoln was a better leader than Jefferson Davis. Don E. Fehrenbacher says that Lincoln's skills helped keep the Border States and ordinary people on his side. Lincoln left his generals alone if they did a good job and fired them if they did not. Davis lacked a clear plan, tried to do too many tasks at once and often chose people to do jobs just because they were his friends. He annoyed his generals and other Confederate politicians. William Cooper says that better leadership helped the Union, but they were already more likely to win.

After the war
Many soldiers on both sides died during the war. Most of the war was fought in the South. Many railroads, farms, houses and other things were destroyed, and most people there became very poor.

The period after the war, called Reconstruction, lasted from the end of the war to 1877. The Union Army stayed in some Southern states and made them occupied territory. Three important amendments were added on to the US Constitution. The amendments were proposed (or suggested) by the US government. Although not every American supported them, they got enough support to pass:
 The Thirteenth Amendment says that slavery is not allowed anywhere in the United States, which completed the work of the Emancipation Proclamation.
 The Fourteenth Amendment makes it clear that all people born in the United States are citizens, and all citizens have equal rights.
 The Fifteenth Amendment says that people in the United States could not be kept from voting because of their race.

After the war, some of the Union Army's leaders went into politics. Generals Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Harrison, and McKinley became US presidents. Other veterans were elected to other offices.

The Southern states were allowed to ask to rejoin the union. When they were accepted, that could send senators and representatives to the US Congress again and make their own state laws. During Reconstruction, black Americans built schools and other social infrastructure. Some of the schools became the historically black colleges that still exist. After southern states rejoined the Union, most of them made laws that limited what black people could do.

The Amnesty Act of 1872 restored the rights to vote and to hold political office for most former members of the Confederacy. Some of them also became politicians.

References

Other sources
 Gibboney, Douglas Lee. Tragic Glory: A Concise, Illustrated History of the Civil War. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Sergeant Kirkland's, 1997. .
 Roland, Charles P. An American Iliad: The Story of the Civil War. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002. .

Other websites

 Civilwar.com
 American Civil War Citizendium

Wars involving the United States
Rebellions in North America
19th-century rebellions

American Civil War


Doc Walker is a country music band from Portage la Prairie, Manitoba, Canada, which is near Winnipeg. Band members are Murray Pulver - guitars and vocals, Chris Thorsteinson - lead vocals and guitars, Dave Wasyliw - vocals and guitars. They have been together since the band formed in 1995, have been called "the hardest working country band in Canada".

They have had several Top 10 songs on the charts. Hits include "Beautiful Life", "From Here", and "I'm Gonna Make You Love Me". Other great songs are "That Train", "North Dakota Boy", "Rocket Girl", "Driving With the Breaks On", "Coming Home", and "Whoever Made Those Rules".

"Simplicity is the best hook sometimes," - Chris Thorsteinson.

Other websites
http://www.cmt.ca/Artist/DocWalker
http://docwalker.ca/

Country bands

Doc Walker


Irrigation is when people add water to plants, to help them grow when there is not enough rain. Irrigation water can be pumped from rivers, natural lakes or lakes created by dams, from wells or allowed to flow to the fields by or open canals.

Types of Irrigation
There are many different types of irrigation methods. The most common ones are:
 Sprinkler Irrigation
 Drip irrigation
 Surface irrigation
 Sub surface irrigation
 Manual irrigation
Sprinkler irrigation mimics natural rainfall where water falls on the plants.
In sprinkler irrigation, water is moved through pipes to sprinklers scattered around and within the field. The Sprinklers shoot water from pressurized outlets or guns from pipes into the air which then fall on the plants. Center pivot irrigation is a type of sprinkler irrigation. It's basically, sprinklers on wheels.

In drip irrigation, water drips directly to the roots of plants from pipes which have small holes or special emitters spaced along the pipe. Drip irrigation is more efficient than other irrigation methods because water is applied directly or close to plants' roots i.e. where it is needed. Thus, it uses less water, reduces leeching of soil nutrients and erosion of top soil.

In Surface irrigation, water from a source such as rivers, pipes, dams, canals e.t.c. floods the soil surface. Surface irrigation uses a lot of water compared to other irrigation methods. It could also drain nutrients beyond the reach of the plant roots. If the water is excessive, it could cause damage to the plant. However, surface irrigation is used extensively in rice farming. This is because the permanent flooding acts as a natural pest control method and rice can survive waterlogged soil.

Sub-Surface irrigation is when water comes from below the surface of the soil. Sub-surface irrigation create an artificial water table to place water right within reach of plants. Water seeps through the walls into the soil of farms from canals passing through and/or around the farm. Drip irrigation becomes sub-surface irrigation when the pipes are placed underground.

With Manual irrigation irrigation is done by humans using buckets, pipes or watering cans. It is labor-intensive and inefficient.

Impacts
Irrigation can let more crops be grown on the same land, or allow a crop to grow in a dry period. It is expensive and care should be taken to ensure that the benefits from increased crop yields are not exceeded by the installation and operating costs of the irrigation scheme.

Irrigation causes a subsequent rise in water-tables. If saline water is below, it may rise to the surface. Sometimes salinity becomes high enough to kill the plants. Irrigation water itself can carry salt and sometimes other toxic materials that hurt the plants. To prevent this, irrigation projects must also assure good drainage.

References

Agriculture
Water

Irrigation


A phantom island is an island that was thought to exist at some point in time. Because of this, the island was shown on a map. Later, the islands were removed from maps. Some islands are described and later on change their name, or with the description given it is possible to associate a real island. Other islands sink below sea level because of natural causes such as erosion. Such islands still exist. Two examples are Earnest Legouve Reef and Maria-Theresa Reef in the South Pacific. Because they are far away from ships' routes, their existence can not be proved so far. In the year 1908, Robert Peary claimed to have found a lost continent, called Crocker Land.

People such as João Vaz Corte-Real were rewarded for finding islands that turned out to be phantom islands. In the case given, the phantom island was Bacalao. The island showed up on maps in the early 16th century. Baccalieu Island is probably named after the phantom island.

Some phantom islands were later found. That way Baja California was first thought to be an island. Later, people found it was in fact a peninsula. Thule was discovered in antiquity; in modern times, people who found it may have talked about Norway, the Orkney Islands, Shetland or Scandinavia. Other interpretations include Iceland, Greenland, or the island Saaremaa in the Baltic Sea.

Other phantom islands may exist because of mistakes in navigation, or optical illusions, such as superior mirage. One example of this is New South Greenland, which was observed in the Weddell Sea in 1823, and has not been seen since.

Some phantom islands may have existed, but they have been destroyed, or are no longer above the water line. These include Thompson Island in the South Atlantic, and Bermeja, off the coast of Yucatán.

Phantom island


A computer is a machine that uses electronics to input, process, store, and output data. Data is information such as numbers, words, and lists. Input of data means to read information from a keyboard, a storage device like a hard drive, or a sensor. The computer processes or changes the data by following the instructions in software programs. A computer program is a list of instructions the computer has to perform. Programs usually perform mathematical calculations, modify data, or move it around. The data is then saved on a storage device, shown on a display, or sent to another computer. Computers can be connected together to form a network such as the internet, allowing the computers to communicate with each other.

The processor of a computer is made from integrated circuits (chips) that contains many transistors. Most computers are digital, which means that they represent information using binary digits, or bits. Computers come in different shapes and sizes, depending on the brand, model, and purpose. They range from small computers, such as smartphones and laptops, to large computers, such as supercomputers.

Characteristics
The two things make it a computer are that it responds to a specific instruction set in a well-defined manner, and that it can execute a stored list of instructions called a program. There are four main actions in a computer: inputting, storing, outputting and processing.

Modern computers can do billions of calculations in a second. Being able to calculate many times per second allows modern computers to multi-task, which means they can do many different tasks at the same time. Computers do many different jobs where automation is useful. Some examples are controlling traffic lights, vehicles, security systems, washing machines and digital televisions.

Computers can be designed to do almost anything with information. Computers are used to control large and small machines that, in the past, were controlled by humans. Most people have a personal computer at home or at work. They are used for things such as calculation, listening to music, reading an article, writing, or playing games.

Hardware
Modern computers are electronic computer hardware. They do mathematical arithmetic very quickly, but computers do not really "think." They only follow the instructions in their software programs. The software uses the hardware when the user gives it instructions and produces useful outputs.

Controls
Computers are controlled with user interfaces. Input devices which include keyboards, computer mice, buttons, and touch screens, etc.

Programs
Computer programs are designed or written by computer programmers. A few programmers write programs in the computer's own language, called machine code. Most programs are written using a programming language like C, C++, JavaScript. These programming languages are more like the language with which one talks and writes every day. The compiler converts the user's instructions into binary code (machine code) that the computer will understand and do what is needed.

History of computers

First computer
In 1837, Charles Babbage proposed the first general mechanical computer, the Analytical Engine. The Analytical Engine contained an Arithmetic Logic Unit, basic flow control, punched cards, and integrated memory. It is the first general-purpose computer concept that could be used for many things and not only one particular computation. However, this computer was never built while Charles Babbage was alive, because he didn't have enough money. In 1910, Henry Babbage, Charles Babbage's youngest son, was able to complete a portion of this machine and perform basic calculations.
Before the computer era there were machines that could do the same thing over and over again, like a music box. But some people wanted to be able to tell their machine to do different things. For example, they wanted to tell the music box to play different music every time. This part of computer history is called the "history of programmable machines" which in simple words means "the history of machines that I can order to do different things if I know how to speak their language."

One of the first examples of this was built by Hero of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD). He built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums. These ropes and drums were the language of the machine- they told what the machine did and when. Some people argue that this is the first programmable machine.

Some people disagree on which early computer is programmable. Many say the "castle clock", an astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, is the first known programmable analog computer. The length of day and night could be adjusted every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year. Some count this daily adjustment as computer programming.

Others say the first computer was made by Charles Babbage. Ada Lovelace is considered to be the first programmer.

The computing era
At the end of the Middle Ages, people started thinking math and engineering were more important. In 1623, Wilhelm Schickard made a mechanical calculator. Other Europeans made more calculators after him. They were not modern computers because they could only add, subtract, and multiply- you could not change what they did to make them do something like play Tetris. Because of this, we say they were not programmable. Now engineers use computers to design and plan.

In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard used punched paper cards to tell his textile loom what kind of pattern to weave. He could use punch cards to tell the loom what to do, and he could change the punch cards, which means he could program the loom to weave the pattern he wanted. This means the loom was programmable. At the end of the 1800s Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a medium that could then be read by a machine, developing punched card data processing technology for the 1890 U.S. census. His tabulating machines read and summarized data stored on punched cards and they began use for government and commercial data processing.

Charles Babbage wanted to make a similar machine that could calculate. He called it "The Analytical Engine". Because Babbage did not have enough money and always changed his design when he had a better idea, he never built his Analytical Engine.

As time went on, computers were used more. People get bored easily doing the same thing over and over. Imagine spending your life writing things down on index cards, storing them, and then having to go find them again. The U.S. Census Bureau in 1890 had hundreds of people doing just that. It was expensive, and reports took a long time. Then an engineer worked out how to make machines do a lot of the work. Herman Hollerith invented a tabulating machine that would automatically add up information that the Census bureau collected. The Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation (which later became IBM) made his machines. They leased the machines instead of selling them. Makers of machines had long helped their users understand and repair them, and CTR's tech support was especially good.

Because of machines like this, new ways of talking to these machines were invented, and new types of machines were invented, and eventually the computer as we know it was born.

Analog and digital computers
In the first half of the 20th century, scientists started using computers, mostly because scientists had a lot of math to figure out and wanted to spend more of their time thinking about science questions instead of spending hours adding numbers together. For example, if they had to launch a rocket ship, they needed to do a lot of math to make sure the rocket worked right. So they put together computers. These analog computers used analog circuits, which made them very hard to program. In the 1930s, they invented digital computers, and soon made them easier to program. However this is not the case as many consecutive attempts have been made to bring arithmetic logic to l3.Analog computers are mechanical or electronic devices which solve problems.Some are used to control machines as well.

High-scale computers
Scientists figured out how to make and use digital computers in the 1930s to 1940s. Scientists made a lot of digital computers, and as they did, they figured out how to ask them the right sorts of questions to get the most out of them. Here are a few of the computers they built:

 Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was the first working machine that used binary arithmetic. Binary arithmetic means using "Yes" and "No." to add numbers together. You could also program it. In 1998 the Z3 was proved to be Turing complete. Turing complete means that it is possible to tell this particular computer anything that it is mathematically possible to tell a computer. It is the world's first modern computer.
 The non-programmable Atanasoff–Berry Computer (1941) which used vacuum tubes to store "yes" and "no" answers, and regenerative capacitor memory.
 The Harvard Mark I (1944), A big computer that you could kind of program.
 The U.S. Army's Ballistics Research Laboratory ENIAC (1946), which could add numbers the way people do (using the numbers 0 through 9) and is sometimes called the first general purpose electronic computer (since Konrad Zuse's Z3 of 1941 used electromagnets instead of electronics). At first, however, the only way to reprogram ENIAC was by rewiring it.

Several developers of ENIAC saw its problems. They invented a way to for a computer to remember what they had told it, and a way to change what it remembered. This is known as "stored program architecture" or von Neumann architecture. John von Neumann talked about this design in the paper First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture started around this time. The first of these was completed in Great Britain. The first to be demonstrated working was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or "Baby"), while the EDSAC, completed a year after SSEM, was the first really useful computer that used the stored program design. Shortly afterwards, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paper—EDVAC—was completed but was not ready for two years.

Nearly all modern computers use the stored-program architecture. It has become the main concept which defines a modern computer. The technologies used to build computers have changed since the 1940s, but many current computers still use the von-Neumann architecture.

In the 1950s computers were built out of mostly vacuum tubes. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in the 1960s because they were smaller and cheaper. They also need less power and do not break down as much as vacuum tubes. In the 1970s, technologies were based on integrated circuits. Microprocessors, such as the Intel 4004 made computers smaller, cheaper, faster and more reliable. By the 1980s, microcontrollers became small and cheap enough to replace mechanical controls in things like washing machines. The 1980s also saw home computers and personal computers. With the evolution of the Internet, personal computers are becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the household.

In 2005 Nokia started to call some of its mobile phones (the N-series) "multimedia computers" and after the launch of the Apple iPhone in 2007, many are now starting to add the smartphone category among "real" computers. In 2008, if smartphones are included in the numbers of computers in the world, the biggest computer maker by units sold, was no longer Hewlett-Packard, but rather Nokia.

Kinds of computers
There are many types of computers. Some include:
 personal computer
 workstation
 mainframe
 minicomputer
 supercomputer
 embedded system
 tablet computer
 quantum computers

A "desktop computer" is a small machine that has a screen (which is not part of the computer). Most people keep them on top of a desk, which is why they are called "desktop computers." "Laptop computers" are computers small enough to fit on your lap. This makes them easy to carry around. Both laptops and desktops are called personal computers, because one person at a time uses them for things like playing music, surfing the web, or playing video games.

There are larger computers that can be used by multiple people at the same time. These are called "mainframes," and these computers do all the things that make things like the internet work. You can think of a personal computer like this: the personal computer is like your skin: you can see it, other people can see it, and through your skin you feel wind, water, air, and the rest of the world. A mainframe is more like your internal organs: you never see them, and you barely even think about them, but if they suddenly went missing, you would have some very big problems.

An embedded computer, also called an embedded system is a computer that does one thing and one thing only, and usually does it very well. For example, an alarm clock is an embedded computer. It tells the time. Unlike your personal computer, you cannot use your clock to play Tetris. Because of this, we say that embedded computers cannot be programmed because you cannot install more programs on your clock. Some mobile phones, automatic teller machines, microwave ovens, CD players and cars are operated by embedded computers.

All-in-one PC
All-in-one computers are desktop computers that have all of the computer's inner mechanisms in the same case as the monitor. Apple has made several popular examples of all-in-one computers, such as the original Macintosh of the mid-1980s and the iMac of the late 1990s and 2000s.

Uses of computers

At home
 Playing computer games
 Writing
 Solving math problems
 Watching videos
 Listening to music and audio
 Audio, Video and photo editing
 Creating sound or video
 Communicating with other people
 Using The Internet
 Online shopping
 Drawing
 Online bill payments
 Online business

At work
 Word processing
 Spreadsheets
 Presentations
 Photo Editing
 E-mail
 Video editing/rendering/encoding
 Audio recording
 System Management
 Website Development
 Software Development

Working methods
Computers store data and the instructions as numbers, because computers can do things with numbers very quickly. These data are stored as binary symbols (1s and 0s). A 1 or a 0 symbol stored by a computer is called a bit, which comes from the words binary digit. Computers can use many bits together to represent instructions and the data that these instructions use. A list of instructions is called a program and is stored on the computer's hard disk. Computers work through the program by using a central processing unit, and they use fast memory called RAM (also known as Random Access Memory) as a space to store the instructions and data while they are doing this. When the computer wants to store the results of the program for later, it uses the hard disk because things stored on a hard disk can still be remembered after the computer is turned off.

An operating system tells the computer how to understand what jobs it has to do, how to do these jobs, and how to tell people the results. Millions of computers may be using the same operating system, while each computer can have its own application programs to do what its user needs. Using the same operating systems makes it easy to learn how to use computers for new things. A user who needs to use a computer for something different, can learn how to use a new application program. Some operating systems can have simple command lines or a fully user-friendly GUI.

The Internet
One of the most important jobs that computers do for people is helping with communication. Communication is how people share information. Computers have helped people move forward in science, medicine, business, and learning, because they let experts from anywhere in the world work with each other and share information. They also let other people communicate with each other, do their jobs almost anywhere, learn about almost anything, or share their opinions with each other. The Internet is the thing that lets people communicate between their computers. The Internet also allows the computer user to play an Online game.

Computers and waste
A computer is now almost always an electronic device. It usually contains materials that will become electronic waste when discarded. When a new computer is bought in some places, laws require that the cost of its waste management must also be paid for. This is called product stewardship.

Computers can become obsolete quickly, depending on what programs the user runs. Very often, they are thrown away within two or three years, because some newer programs require a more powerful computer. This makes the problem worse, so computer recycling happens a lot. Many projects try to send working computers to developing nations so they can be re-used and will not become waste as quickly, as most people do not need to run new programs. Some computer parts, such as hard drives, can break easily. When these parts end up in the landfill, they can put poisonous chemicals like lead into the ground-water. Hard drives can also contain secret information like credit card numbers. If the hard drive is not erased before being thrown away, an identity thief can get the information from the hard drive, even if the drive doesn't work, and use it to steal money from the previous owner's bank account.

Main hardware
Computers come in different forms, but most of them have a common design.
 All computers have a CPU.
 All computers have some kind of data bus which lets them get inputs or output things to the environment.
 All computers have some form of memory. These are usually chips (integrated circuits) which can hold information.
 Many computers have some kind of sensors, which lets them get input from their environment.
 Many computers have some kind of display device, which lets them show output. They may also have other peripheral devices connected.

A computer has several main parts. When comparing a computer to a human body, the CPU is like a brain. It does most of the thinking and tells the rest of the computer how to work. The CPU is on the Motherboard, which is like the skeleton. It provides the basis for where the other parts go, and carries the nerves that connect them to each other and the CPU. The motherboard is connected to a power supply, which provides electricity to the entire computer. The various drives (CD drive, floppy drive, and on many newer computers, USB flash drive) act like eyes, ears, and fingers, and allow the computer to read different types of storage, in the same way that a human can read different types of books. The hard drive is like a human's memory, and keeps track of all the data stored on the computer. Most computers have a sound card or another method of making sound, which is like vocal cords, or a voice box. Connected to the sound card are speakers, which are like a mouth, and are where the sound comes out. Computers might also have a graphics card, which helps the computer to create visual effects, such as 3D environments, or more realistic colors, and more powerful graphics cards can make more realistic or more advanced images, in the same way a well trained artist can.

Largest computer companies

References

Computer


Johann Heinrich Schmelzer (born in Austria some time between 1620 and 1623; died in Prague some time between 29 February and 20 March 1680) was a German composer. He was one of the most important composers of instrumental music in the mid-17th century.

Nothing is known about his early life. He became a member of the imperial chapel in the mid 1630's. His job there was probably a violinist. We know very little about his life, except that over the years he became a famous composer. The emperor must have liked him because he gave him presents of money and gold chains.

In 1671 he became deputy Kapellmeister at the imperial court. In 1673 the emperor gave him the honorary title "von Ehrenruef" which he put after his name. A few years later the court moved to Prague to try to escape the plague that was killing so many people in Vienna. At the end of 1679 the emperor's Kapellmeister died and Schmelzer became Kapellmeister. It was the first time that the Kapellmeister at the Habsburg court had not been a foreigner but an Austrian. However, the following March Schmelzer died of the plague.

Schmelzer wrote a lot of music for small groups of instruments as well as a lot of ballet music. His dance suites are made up of several dances such as galliard, bourree, sarabande, gigue, gavotte and allemande as well as more unusual dances. He wrote several sonatas for two violins and continuo. They are full of fast scales and arpeggios. He also seems to have written church music, but it has all been lost.

References

1623 births
1688 deaths

Baroque composers
Austrian composers

Johann Heinrich Schmelzer


Kim is a novel by Nobel Prize-winning English author Rudyard Kipling. It was first published serially in McClure's Magazine from December 1900 to October 1901 as well as in Cassell's Magazine from January to November 1901, and first published in book form by Macmillan & Co. Ltd in October 1901. The story unfolds against the backdrop of the Great Game, the political conflict between Russia and Britain in Central Asia. The novel popularized the phrase and idea of the Great Game.

Setting
It is set after the Second Afghan War (which ended in 1881), but before the Third (fought in 1919), probably in the period 1893 to 1898. The novel is notable for its detailed portrait of the people, culture, and varied religions of India. "The book presents a vivid picture of India, its teeming populations, religions, and superstitions, and the life of the bazaars and the road."

Accolades
In 1998, the Modern Library ranked Kim No. 78 on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. In 2003 the book was listed on the BBC's The Big Read poll of the UK's "best-loved novel".

Plot summary
Kim (Kimball O'Hara) is the orphaned son of an Irish soldier (Kimball O'Hara Sr., a former colour sergeant and later an employee of an Indian railway company) and a poor Irish mother (a former nanny in a colonel's household) who have both died in poverty. Living a vagabond existence in India under British rule in the late 19th century, Kim earns his living by begging and running small errands on the streets of Lahore. He occasionally works for Mahbub Ali, a Pashtun horse trader who is one of the native operatives of the British secret service. Kim is so immersed in the local culture that few realise he is a white child, although he carries a packet of documents from his father entrusted to him by an Indian woman who cared for him.

Kim befriends an aged Tibetan lama who is on a quest to free himself from the Wheel of Things by finding the legendary ″River of the Arrow″. Kim becomes his chela, or disciple, and accompanies him on his journey. On the way, Kim incidentally learns about parts of the Great Game and is recruited by Mahbub Ali to carry a message to the head of British intelligence in Umballa. Kim's trip with the lama along the Grand Trunk Road is the first great adventure in the novel.

By chance, Kim's father's regimental chaplain identifies Kim by his Masonic certificate, which he wears around his neck, and Kim is forcibly separated from the lama. The lama insists that Kim should comply with the chaplain's plan because he believes it is in Kim's best interests, and the boy is sent to an English school in Lucknow. The lama, a former abbot, funds Kim's education. Kim is divided between his love for his Lama master, his eagerness to become a secret agent and even have a price put on his head, and his natural independence as a free spirit.

Throughout his years at school, Kim remains in contact with the holy man he has come to love. Kim also retains contact with his secret service connections and is trained in espionage (to be a surveyor) while on vacation from school by Lurgan Sahib, a sort of benevolent Fagin, at his jewellery shop in Simla. As part of his training, Kim looks at a tray full of mixed objects and notes which have been added or taken away, a pastime still called Kim's Game, also called the Jewel Game. Other parts of this training are disguise and the careful study of the Indian population, and the characteristic dress, behaviour and "even how they spit" in order to go undercover or to discover those in disguise.

After three years of schooling, Kim is given a government appointment so that he can begin to participate in the Great Game. Before this appointment begins, however, he is granted a much-deserved break. Kim rejoins the lama and at the behest of Kim's superior, Hurree Chunder Mookherjee, they make a trip to the Himalayas so Kim can investigate what some Russian intelligence agents are doing.

Kim obtains maps, papers and other important items from the Russians, who are working to undermine British control of the region. Mookherjee befriends the Russians undercover, acting as a guide, and ensures that they do not recover the lost items. Kim, aided by some porters and villagers, helps to rescue the lama.

The lama realises that he has gone astray. His search for the River of the Arrow should be taking place in the plains, not in the mountains, and he orders the porters to take them back. Here Kim and the lama are nursed back to health after their arduous journey. Kim delivers the Russian documents to Hurree, and a concerned Mahbub Ali comes to check on Kim.

The lama finds his river and is convinced he has achieved Enlightenment, and wants to share it with Kim. However, it is not revealed what happens to them next.

Characters
Kimball "Kim" O'Hara – an orphan son of an Irish soldier, the protagonist; "A poor white, the poorest of the poor"
Kimball O'Hara Sr. - Kim's father and an Irish soldier
Teshoo Lama – a Tibetan lama, the former abbot of the Such-zen monastery in the western Himalayas, on a spiritual journey
Mahbub Ali – a famous Ghilzai Pashtun horse trader and spy for the British.
Colonel Creighton – British Army officer, ethnologist, and spy
Lurgan Sahib – a Simla gem trader and spy
Hurree Chunder Mookherjee (Hurree Babu, also the Babu) – a Bengali intelligence operative working for the British; Kim's direct superior
the Kulu woman (the Sahiba) – an old hill Rajput noble lady settled near Saharanpur in the plains.
the Woman of Shamlegh (Lispeth) who helps Kim and the Lama to evade the Russian spies and return to the plains
the old soldier – a Sikh Risaldar (native officer) who had been loyal to the British during the Mutiny.
Reverend Arthur Bennett – the Church of England chaplain of the Mavericks, the Irish regiment to which Kim's father belonged
Father Victor – the Roman Catholic chaplain of the Mavericks
a Lucknow prostitute whom Kim pays to help disguise him
a Kamboh farmer whose sick child Kim helps to cure
Huneefa – a sorceress who performs a devil invocation ritual to protect Kim
E.23 – a spy for the British whom Kim helps avoid capture
Her Majesty's Royal Loyal Musketeers, also known as the Mavericks – a fictional Irish Regiment of the British Army which also mentioned in Kipling's novella "The Mutiny of the Mavericks"

Locations mentioned in the novel

 Kipling's father John Lockwood Kipling was the curator of the old, original Lahore Museum, and is described in the scene where Kim meets the lama. The present Lahore Museum building was completed later.
 The gun in front of the Lahore Museum described in the first chapter is an existing piece called Zamzama, sometimes referred to as Kim's gun.
 The "Gate of the Harpies", where Mahbub Ali is made unconscious and searched by the treacherous prostitute "Flower of Delight" and her "smooth-faced Kashmiri" pimp, still exists in the old city of Lahore, Pakistan. It is known as the "Heera Mandi" and is in the Taxali Gate area. Prostitution is still a common trade there.
 Kim dreams of a "Red bull in a green field" which he recognises when he sees a military formation ensign of a bull on a green background. The formation ensign is still used by a military formation in Ambala Cantonment in India. Even in the book the formation ensign belonged to an establishment in Ambala.  A yellow bull in a red field is the sleeve patch for the Delhi and Rajasthan Area formation of the Indian Army. The Grenadier Guards of the British Army also have a Tactical Recognition Flash depicting a black bull with red hooves on a green background.
 The Jang-i-Lat sahib (Urdu: War Lord/Commander-in-Chief) who comes to dinner to Col. Creighton's house, is in fact based on the real British Indian Army general, Field Marshal Lord Roberts of Kandahar, who was known to both John Lockwood and Rudyard Kipling.
 St Xavier's School, Lucknow, where Kim is sent to study, is in fact based on the La Martiniere Lucknow college.
 The small Simla shop of Lurgan sahib, with all its antiques, curios, etc., was based on a real shop, once run in Simla's bazaar by AM Jacob, a person who might have been the model for Lurgan himself.
 The quote "We'll make a man of you at Sanawar—even at the price o' making you a Protestant" refers to the Lawrence School, Sanawar.

Critical assessment
Considered by many to be Kipling's masterpiece, opinion is varied about its consideration as children's literature or not. Roger Sale, in his history of children's literature, concludes "Kim is the apotheosis of the Victorian cult of childhood, but it shines now as bright as ever, long after the Empire's collapse..."

About a reissue of the novel in 1959 by Macmillan, the reviewer opines "Kim is a book worked at three levels. It is a tale of adventure...It is the drama of a boy having entirely his boy's own way... and it is the mystical exegesis of this pattern of behaviour..." This reviewer concludes "Kim will endure because it is a beginning like all masterly ends..."

Nirad C. Chaudhuri considered it the best story (in English) about India itself – singling out Kipling's appreciation of the ecological force of "the twin setting of the mountains and the plain...an unbreakable articulation between the Himalayas and the Indo-Gangetic plain".

Adaptations

Film and television

 An MGM film adaptation of the novel, directed by Victor Saville and produced by Leon Gordon, was released in 1950. It was adapted by Helen Deutsch and Leon Gordon, and starred Errol Flynn, Dean Stockwell, Paul Lukas, Robert Douglas, Thomas Gomez and Cecil Kellaway.
In 1960, a one-hour color adaptation of Kim was televised as part of NBC's series Shirley Temple's Storybook. Tony Haig portrayed Kim, Michael Rennie played Captain Creighton, and Alan Napier played Colonel Devlin.
 A London Films television film version of Kim was made in 1984. It was directed by John Davies and starred Peter O'Toole, Bryan Brown, John Rhys-Davies, Julian Glover and Ravi Sheth as Kim.

Games
 A 2016 computer game, named after the novel, adapted the book.

Homages to and works inspired by Kim
 The first part of Robert Heinlein's 1957 novel Citizen of the Galaxy depicts a clever  boy of mysterious parentage living in a feudal planet and guided by an interstellar spy. Peopled with fakirs, street vendors and wealthy elites, the beginning of the novel parallels Kim in many ways.
Paul Scott's four-novel sequence The Raj Quartet (1966-1975) contains a subplot which mirrors Kim: an Indian boy (Hari Kumar/Harry Coomer) is sent to England by his wealthy father to be raised in such a manner that when he returns, Englishmen will not be able to tell that he's Indian.
 Poul Anderson's 1985 Game of Empire, the last of his Dominic Flandry series, is loosely modeled on Kim. Like others in the series, the novel takes place in a future galactic empire setting.
 T.N. Murari's The Imperial Agent (1989) is a sequel.
 Tim Powers's 2001 novel Declare uses Kim for inspiration and epigraphs.
 In Laurie R. King's 2004 novel The Game (book 7 of the Mary Russell series), the protagonist and her husband, Sherlock Holmes, travel to India in search of Kimball O'Hara, who Holmes has encountered after the events of "The Final Problem".
 Steven Gould's 2011 novel 7th Sigma is based on the novel. Gould's work features a young boy (named Kim) who is raised by a martial arts teacher and becomes involved in intelligence work. He becomes a trained agent. Quotes from Kim are used as chapter headers.

Real life tributes
The town of Kim, Colorado is named in honour of the book.

British spy and defector Kim Philby was born Harold Philby in Ambala, then in British India.  His father, a member of the Indian Civil Service, gave him the nickname 'Kim' on account of his fraternisation with the servants.

References

Bibliography

Editions
The Sussex edition is standard for Kipling's works. Noted critical editions include:
 Kipling, Rudyard. Kim (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987).  With an introduction and notes by Edward Said.
 Kipling, Rudyard, Kim, (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2002).  A modern edition with extensive notes, essays, maps and references.

Critical works
 Benedetti, Amedeo, Il Kim di Kipling. In: "LG Argomenti", Genova, Erga, a. XLIII (2007), n. 4, pp. 17–21.
 Hopkirk, Peter, Quest for Kim: in Search of Kipling's Great Game (London: John Murray, 1996).   The author visits the locations of the novel and discusses the real-life personages that may have possibly inspired its characters.
 Wilson, Angus, The Strange Ride of Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Works, (New York, The Viking Press: 1977).

External links

Sources

Kim available at Internet Archive (scanned books, illustrated)
  (plain text and HTML)

Criticism
"Kim, by Rudyard Kipling", by Ian Mackean. Literary analysis.
Kerr, Douglas. Kim. The Literary Encyclopedia. 21 March 2002. Accessed 19 May 2008.
"Artist of empire: Kipling and Kim", The Hudson Review, Winter 2003 by Clara Clairborne Park.
Kim: Study Guide", from eNotes
Kim, reviewed in The Atlantic, 1901.
Kim; Rudyard Kipling's Fascinating Story of India, reviewed in The New York Times, 1901.
Other
Kim travels (interactive map of geographic locations mentioned in novel)

1901 British novels
Novels by Rudyard Kipling
British spy novels
Novels about the Great Game
Novels first published in serial form
20th-century British children's literature
British novels adapted into films
Picaresque novels
Works originally published in McClure's
Victorian novels
Novels set in India
Novels set in the 19th century
Macmillan Publishers books
Novels about orphans
Lahore in fiction
Buddhist novels
Novels set in Tibet
Novels set in British India

Kim (novel)


Westminster Cathedral in London, England, is a Roman Catholic cathedral. It is the mother church of the Roman Catholic community in England and Wales and the Metropolitan Church and Cathedral for the Archbishop of Westminster.

The cathedral is near Victoria in the City of Westminster. It is the largest Roman Catholic church in England and Wales. It should not be confused with Westminster Abbey.

The cathedral was opened in 1903. It was designed by John Francis Bentley and is in the style of Byzantine church architecture. The nave is the widest of any church in England. The sanctuary is higher than the nave, so that the altar can be seen from any part of the nave. A very large crucifix hangs from the chancel arch. The Archiepiscopal Throne or cathedra, of marble and mosaic, is modelled on the Papal Throne at the Basilica of St. John Lateran in Rome. There are beautiful marble pillars which are all carved differently. In the crypt there are monuments to famous people.

Westminster Cathedral has a famous choir. The first Master of Music (choirmaster) was Sir Richard Runciman Terry. Since 2000, the Master of Music has been Martin Baker. Mass is sung every day.

The choir are famous for singing Gregorian chant and polyphony of the Renaissance. Composers such as Benjamin Britten and Ralph Vaughan Williams have written music for the choir.

All the boys of the Choir are boarders at the nearby Westminster Cathedral Choir School.

The organ is very large. It is in the west gallery (above the entrance). It was built by the organ builder Henry Willis III from 1922 to 1932. One of Louis Vierne's best-known organ pieces, "Carillon de Westminster," was composed for it and dedicated to the builder.

On 28 May 1982, the first day of his six-day visit to the United Kingdom, Pope John Paul II celebrated Mass in the cathedral.

In 1995, Cardinal Basil Hume invited HM The Queen. This was the first visit of a reigning monarch of the United Kingdom to a Catholic liturgy since 1688 when James II & VII was king.

Other websites
 Westminster Cathedral official site

Cathedrals in England
Roman Catholic cathedrals
Buildings and structures in the City of Westminster
Westminster

Westminster Cathedral


The scattered disc (or scattered disk) is a distant part of the solar system. The area has small icy minor planets known as scattered disc objects (SDOs).  The part of the scattered disc closest to the sun is in an area of space called the Kuiper belt. The Oort cloud lies beyond the scattered disc. The first SDO was found in 1995 by Spacewatch.

The scattered disk is still not understood well. Astronomers believe that it was created when objects in the Kuiper belt were "scattered" by the gravity of the outer planets, mainly Neptune. Unlike most objects in the Solar System which move in a round and flat path, scattered disc objects go every which way. Different SDOs have different orbital eccentricity and orbital inclination.

References

Solar System
Minor planets

Scattered disc


Popstars is a reality show where a number of people audition of a spot in a new popgroup. The concept has been sold to most parts of the world.
Also solo artists has been searched for in this show, Girls Aloud are one of the most famous groups coming out from the reality show also Nicole Scherzinger from Pussycat Dolls audition for a spot on Edens Crush on American Popstars.

Reality television series

Popstars