Sir Carl Wilhelm Siemens  (4 April 1823 – 19 November 1883), anglicised to Charles William Siemens, was a German-British electrical engineer and businessman.

Biography
Siemens was born in the village of Lenthe, today part of Gehrden, near Hanover where his father, Christian Ferdinand Siemens (31 July 1787 – 16 January 1840), a tenant farmer, farmed an estate belonging to the Crown. The Siemens family is an old family of Goslar which has been documented since 1384. His mother was Eleonore Deichmann (1792–8 July 1839), and William, or Carl Wilhelm, was the fourth son of a family of fourteen children.  Of his siblings, Ernst Werner Siemens, the fourth child, became a famous electrician and was associated with William in many of his inventions. He was also the brother of Carl Heinrich von Siemens and a cousin of Alexander Siemens.

On 23 July 1859, Siemens was married at St James's, Paddington, to Anne Gordon—the youngest daughter of Mr Joseph Gordon, Writer to the Signet, Edinburgh, and sister of Mr Lewis Gordon, Professor of Engineering in the University of Glasgow—and became a naturalised British citizen. He used to say that on 19 March of that year he took oath and allegiance to two ladies in one day—to The Queen and to his betrothed.  He was knighted—becoming Sir William—a few months before his death. He died on the evening of Monday 19 November 1883 and was buried one week later in Kensal Green Cemetery, London. A glass window installed in Westminster Abbey in his honour commemorated him. Lady Siemens died in 1902.

The early years
In the autumn of 1838 when William was fifteen years old, he began his studies to become an engineer. He attended a highly respected School of Trade and Commerce, the Gewerbe-Schule Magdeburg. William had a particularly close relationship with his eldest brother; Ernst Werner Siemens had decided to teach William mathematics so that he could learn English at school instead. This programme helped them both and William's knowledge of English proved an incalculable advantage to them both. He went on to pass his examination easily. Less than a year later, their mother died and their father soon afterwards in 1840.

Once William had completed his course at the Magdeburg school he went on to the University of Göttingen where he attended lectures on physical geography and technology, high mathematics, theoretical chemistry and practical chemistry and physics. He was also able for a short time to work with Wilhelm Weber, the renowned scientist and inventor, in his Magnetic Observatory.

William was nearly nineteen when he left university to become an apprentice engineer. He also found time for more artistic pursuits such as taking dancing lessons and even painting a landscape of Nordhausen for the wife of the factory manager. His progress in the engineering factory was so rapid that his two-year apprenticeship was cut down to one.

Due to the education of the younger members of the family becoming a financial worry, on 10 March 1843, Carl Wilhelm Siemens left for London. He was acting as an agent for his brother Werner, and he hoped to earn enough money by selling a patent in England to help support and educate his many brothers and sisters. He felt a keen desire to see England and the journey cost him £1. William had already shown himself to be an enthusiastic businessman, having financed his trip by selling an invention of his brother's, an improvement to the gold and silver plating process, to George Richards Elkington. He was well aware, as he wrote to Werner, that his visit might achieve nothing, but if all went well he intended to remain. This indeed proved to be the case.

Career
Siemens had been trained as a mechanical engineer, and his most important work at this early stage was non-electrical; the greatest achievement of his life, the regenerative furnace. Though in 1847 he published a paper in Liebig's Annalen der Chemie on the 'Mercaptan of Selenium,' his mind was busy with the new ideas upon the nature of heat which were promulgated by Carnot, Clapeyron, Joule, Clausius, Mayer, Thomson, and Rankine. He discarded the older notions of heat as a substance, and accepted it as a form of energy.  Working on this new line of thought, which gave him an advantage over other inventors of his time, he made his first attempt to economise heat, by constructing, in 1847, at the factory of John Hick, of Bolton, an engine of four horse-power, having a condenser provided with regenerators, and using superheated steam.

Two years later he continued his experiments at the works of Messrs. Fox, Henderson, and Co., of Smethwick, near Birmingham, who had taken the matter in hand.  The use of superheated steam was attended with many practical difficulties, and the invention was not entirely successful; nevertheless, the Society of Arts, in 1850, acknowledged the value of the principle, by awarding Siemens a gold medal for his regenerative condenser.

In 1850 he established the London sales office of Siemens & Halske, the engineering company producing telegraphs, which his brother Werner had founded in 1847 at Berlin. He started selling such devices to the wire rope producer R.S. Newall and Company in Dundee, of which his friend (and uncle of his later wife) Lewis Gordon was the co-owner. Newall & Co also outsourced test jobs for cables to Siemens and such enabled the new company to enter the ocean cable-laying business. The branch office became Siemens Brothers in 1858. In the 1850s, the company was involved in building long distance telegraph networks in Russia. In 1855, a company branch headed by another brother, Carl Heinrich von Siemens, opened in St Petersburg, Russia. By 1863, Sir William had his own cable factory built at Charlton, London. In 1867, Siemens completed the monumental Indo-European (Calcutta to London) telegraph line.

In 1859 William Siemens devoted a great part of his time to electrical invention and research; and the number of telegraph apparatus of all sorts – telegraph cables, land lines, and their accessories – which have emanated from the Siemens Telegraph Works (at Charlton, SE London) has been remarkable. In 1872 Sir William Siemens became the first President of the Society of Telegraph Engineers which became the Institution of Electrical Engineers, the forerunner of the Institution of Engineering and Technology

In 1860 William Siemens constructed a remarkable gas engine (the same year the very first commercial engine was produced by Lenoir). It didn't get beyond the experimental stage, though its principle of operation (described in Siemens British patent 2074 of 1860, and by Siemens in The Theory of the Gas Engine) appears to be similar to the commercially successful Brayton engine of 1872. In the discussion section of The Theory of the Gas Engine Siemens discloses that :
"The engine promised to give very good results, but about the same time he began to give his attention to the production of intense heat in furnaces, and having to make his choice between the two subjects, he selected the furnace and the metallurgic process leading out of it ; and that was why the engine had remained where it was for so long a time."

Siemens was also responsible for the hot tube ignition system used on many of the early gas engines.

In June 1862 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1871 delivered their Bakerian Lecture.

As a member of the circumnavigation committee preparing the oceanographic expedition of HMS Challenger, Siemens was commissioned in 1871 to develop an electric thermometer to measure the temperature of the ocean at different depths.

He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1877.

The regenerative furnace is the greatest single invention of Charles William Siemens, using a process known as the Siemens-Martin process. The electric pyrometer, which is perhaps the most elegant and original of all William Siemens's inventions, is also the link which connects his electrical with his metallurgical researches. Siemens pursued two major themes in his inventive efforts, one based upon the science of heat, the other based upon the science of electricity; and the electric thermometer was, as it were, a delicate cross-coupling which connected both.

In 1874 he had a special cable ship built, according to his design, for Siemens Brothers, the CS Faraday. In 1881, a Siemens AC Alternator driven by a watermill was used to power the world's first electric street lighting in the town of Godalming, United Kingdom.

See also
Siemens cycle
Turboexpander

References

Sources
Shaping the Future. The Siemens Entrepreneurs 1847–2018. Ed. Siemens Historical Institute, Hamburg 2018, .
William Pole, Life of William Siemens, (London, 1888), p. 471; Facsimile reprint Siemens Ltd. 1986,
 Richard Hennig, Buch der berühmten Ingenieure (A book on famous engineers), (Leipzig, 1911)

 Sir William Siemens – A Man of Vision, A collection of articles by various authors published by Siemens plc in 1993, contains substantial material on the history of Siemens in the UK

External links

Profile from the Siemens company
Past IEE Presidents
 Portrait of Carl Wilhelm Siemens from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, UC Santa Cruz Library's Digital Collections

1823 births
1883 deaths
19th-century German engineers
Bessemer Gold Medal
British electrical engineers
British inventors
German industrialists
British technology chief executives
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery
Fellows of the Royal Society
German chief executives
German electrical engineers
German emigrants to the United Kingdom
19th-century German inventors
Knights Bachelor
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
People associated with the internal combustion engine
People from Gehrden
People from the Kingdom of Hanover
People of the Industrial Revolution
Presidents of the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers
Wilhelm
Engineers from Lower Saxony

Carl Wilhelm Siemens


Vinland is an area of the coast of North America, which Leif Erikson discovered around AD 1000. The name appears in the Vinland Sagas. It probably describes Newfoundland and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, as far north as New Brunswick.

What the name refers to
Note that the vines the name refers to could also have been blackcurrant. Even today, blackcurrant is called Vinbär ("wine-berry") in Swedish. In the north of Germany the name Weinbeere has been used to refer to blackcurrant, since the Middle Ages.The terms Meertrübli or Trübli (small grape) is still present in some southern German dialects, to refer to blackcurrant.

The first reference outside the Sagas is that of Adam of Bremen (1076) in his Gesta Hammaburgensis.  He wrote: "Praeterea unam adhuc insulam recitavit a multis in eo repertam occeano, quae dicitur Winland, eo quod ibi vites sponte nascantur, vinum optimum ferentes. Nam et fruges ibi non seminatas habundare, non fabulosa opinione, sed certa comperimus relatione Danorum." This can be translated as: "In addition [the king of the Danes] reports on one of many islands in the ocean, which is called Winland, because vines grow there wild, which produce wine. That there are fruit in abundance which have non been [planted], we have not known from an incredible rumour, but from the report of the Danes."

References
 Adam von Bremen (1076?): "Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum" (Latin)

History of North America

Vinland


This is about the mental disorder, the studio album is at Folie à Deux (album)
Folie à deux is the name for a condition where an otherwise sane person develops the symptoms and delusions of a person suffering from psychosis. If more than two people share the symptoms or delusions, people speak about folie à trois (3), folie à quatre (4), folie à plusieurs, or folie en famille. Officially, the condition is known as induced delusional disorder or shared psychotic disorder today, but many publications still use the original terms, which were developed in France in the 19th century.
Today, there are two main forms of the condition:
Folie imposée: A person forms a delusion, and passes it on to other people. If the people get separated, the delusions in those people who did not develop them first will usually disappear quickly.
Folie simultanée: Two people suffering from delusions influence each other so that their delusions become very similar.
Newer studies seem to indicate that this classification may not be sufficient to fully describe 'folie à deux'. There may be more symptoms than are usually described in the cases above. Also, in many cases, separating the two patients may not be enough to make the condition go  away in one of them. Also, the person described as "sane" before developing the folie à deux may already be suffering from a psychiatric illness, or may develop one.

The condition was first described in an article pubilshed by Ernest-Charles Lasègue and Jules Farlet in 1877.

Mass hysteria can be seen as a form of folie à deux.

References

Psychosis

Folie à deux


Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy (September 8, 1892 - December 5, 1963) was a politician from Bengal in undivided India, and later in East Pakistan. He served as Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1956 until 1957. He is also known for his controversial role in the Direct Action Day of August 16, 1946. Following riots in Bengal during the last days of India's fight for freedom, he was considered a favourite of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. He is also considered to be the first populist leader in Pakistan's history. He is the founder of the Awami League, one of the two major political parties of present-day Bangladesh.

1892 births
1963 deaths
Prime Ministers of Pakistan

Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy


The Bethlehem Housing Authority (BHA) provides social housing in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.

The Bethlehem Housing Authority was formed in 1939. Its job was to build houses for the people living in Bethlehem, which is a city in eastern Pennsylvania.

The National Housing Act (1937) was one of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's first tries to make better the living conditions of Americans badly affected by the Great Depression of the 1930s. Bethlehem's Housing Authority was one of the first in the nation. Robert Nuemeyer became the Authority's first executive director in 1939. BHA's first board consisted of chairman (and mayor) Robert Pfeifle, Weir Jepson, Merritt Kreidler, Lt. Colonel William Coyle and Andrew W. Litzenberger.

The first thing the BHA built was "low-income public housing". That means the houses were built for people who did not earn a lot of money, and they were not built to be sold to make money. The new houses were called Pembroke Village. They were on reclaimed farmland in the northeast part of the city. This area was near the border with the boroughs of Freemansburg, Steel City and Bethlehem Township.

Pembroke Village was planned to have 202 houses or apartments, and a community building/office. At about this time, the US entered into World War II. The war meant there was very little building in the US. But Bethlehem Steel's factory was more or less turned over completely toward providing goods for the war effort. Thousands of workers were brought into Bethlehem to help the plant work for 24 hours a day. This meant a lot of houses were needed in the city. The government and the housing authority got extra land and built three communities as "temporary war housing". 700 homes for these workers were built at Parkridge, South Terrace and Clearfield. Pembroke Village was hurried to completion and its 202 units were set aside as "permanent war housing", meaning that at the end of the war, Pembroke would revert to low-income housing, while the others would be demolished.

After the end of WWII, Bethlehem had another housing crisis. Men were leaving the armed forces and going back home. From about the start of 1946, the population of the United States increased greatly. In Bethlehem the city population increased from 50,000 to 75,000 by 1960.

This meant that a lot of affordable housing was needed. The BHA decided to keep the Parkridge, South Terrace and Clearfield units and use them as public housing.

The BHA also planned to build another 500 - 600 units next to Pembroke on a former family farm along Pembroke Road. These buildings would increase Bethlehem's public housing stock to more than 1,400 units.

By June 1950, firms had offered to build Fairmount for $962,000.00. By the end of the year, the Marvine Village bid was also approved for $3.9 million. A lot of the Fairmount project was paid for by the State of Pennsylvania. It stayed part of the state's housing inventory until the late 1970s.

By 1952, Mr. Nuemeyer became ill and stepped down. He was replaced by Ralph J. Bartholomew, who was a longtime member of the banking community. During Mr. Bartholomew's tenure, the housing authority started an expansion program designed to help the growing needs of the elderly population.

1960 - 1974
In 1962, BHA showed plans for its first development designed for older people. The Robert Pfeifle Homes, was a 50 unit community in the northeast area. It had ten buildings.
They were among the very first of their type in the United States. In the next ten years, the BHA would design and build more public housing for seniors, including the Litzenberger House, the Bodder Building and the Bartholomew Building and the Monocacy Tower. BHA www.bha645.com  now has some 450 apartments to serve the older adults in need of affordable housing.

At around this time, Mr. Bartholomew died and his successor was brought in from the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). Frank V. Loretti, with a background in labor relations became the BHA's third director.

1974 - 2003

Frank Loretti wanted to modernize the way the authority worked and was organized. He wanted to use computers for the authority's records and other functions. In addition, the board wanted to begin an authority-wide building modernization program.

During this time a plan was formulated to address the authority's aging infrastructure. The war-time era South Terrace, Parkridge and Clearfield projects were demolished. South Terrace and Parkridge were rebuilt between 1985 and 1991 and all other buildings were modernized, using capital fund money, which was made available by the federal government.

Also during this period, various management functions were centralized for greater organization and efficiency. The maintenance shops were also centralized within one modern facility in 1978. A Central Supply facility was dedicated in 1977.

Today
The current executive director is Clara A. Kendy (2004). Today, BHA's challenge is similar to all other housing agencies. Federal subsidy reductions of up to 15% have caused housing authorities to become leaner and to look toward innovation in order to succeed.

BHA has several new ideas, including homeownership initiatives where the authority connects eligible tenants with opportunities to help them own their own home. One such example is a partnership with Habitat For Humanity. Economic self-sufficiency is a goal that BHA continuously tries to help its residents achieve.

Today, the Bethlehem Housing Authority manages 1,430 conventional housing units within ten developments serving the city of Bethlehem. In addition, there are nearly 500 Housing Choice Vouchers available for eligible families. HCV was formerly known as "Section 8" housing. The authority also has various recreational and social programs for tenants of all ages.

In 2007, BHA's new First Tee Golf Learning program received a national merit award, recognizing it as an innovative recreation/learning program for children. During its 70th anniversary in 2009, it proudly broke ground for a brand new community in northeast Bethlehem. The first "Bayard Homes" will be rented during the first months of the year (2011).

Other websites
 Official website

Organizations based in Pennsylvania
Accommodations
Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
1939 establishments in the United States
1930s establishments in Pennsylvania

Bethlehem Housing Authority


Charles Gordon Fullerton (October 11, 1936 – August 21, 2013) was a United States Air Force colonel, a USAF and NASA astronaut, and a research pilot at NASA's Dryden Flight Research Facility, Edwards, California. His assignments included a variety of flight research and support activities piloting NASA's B-52 launch aircraft, the Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA), and other multi-engine and high performance aircraft.

Fullerton logged more than 380 hours in space flight, and was a NASA astronaut from September 1969 until November 1986 when he joined the research pilot office at Dryden. In July 1988, he completed a 30-year career with the U.S. Air Force and retired as a colonel. He continued in his position of NASA research pilot as a civilian. Fullerton, his wife, and their two children lived in Lancaster, California.

Biography

Early years and education
Born October 11, 1936, in Rochester, New York, Fullerton graduated from Ulysses S. Grant High School, Portland, Oregon, in 1953. He received Bachelor of Science and Master of Science degrees in mechanical engineering from the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, in 1957 and 1958, respectively.

Air Force career
Fullerton entered the U.S. Air Force in July 1958 after working as a mechanical design engineer for Hughes Aircraft Company, Culver City, California.

After primary and basic flight school, he was trained as an F-86 interceptor pilot, and later became a B-47 bomber pilot at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona. In 1964 he was chosen to attend the Air Force Aerospace Research Pilot School (now the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School), Edwards Air Force Base, California. Upon graduation he was assigned as a test pilot with the Bomber Operations Division at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. In 1966, Fullerton was selected for and served as a flight crew member for the Air Force Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) program until its termination in 1969.

NASA career

Fullerton was part of NASA Astronaut Group 7 in September 1969 after the cancellation of the MOL program. After assignment to the NASA Johnson Space Center as an astronaut, Fullerton served on the support crews for the Apollo 14, 15, 16, and 17 lunar missions.

In 1977, Fullerton was assigned to one of the two-man flight crews which piloted the Space Shuttle prototype Enterprise during the Approach and Landing Tests Program at Dryden that same year.

Fullerton was the pilot on the eight-day STS-3 Space Shuttle orbital flight test mission March 22–30, 1982. Launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, the mission exposed the orbiter Columbia to extremes in thermal stress and tested the  Canadarm used to grapple and maneuver payloads to orbit. STS-3 landed at Northrup Strip, White Sands, New Mexico, because Rogers Dry Lake at Edwards AFB was wet due to heavy seasonal rains.

Fullerton was commander of the STS-51-F "Spacelab 2" mission, launched from Kennedy Space Center on July 29, 1985. This mission, with the orbiter Challenger, was the first pallet-only Spacelab mission and the first to operate the Spacelab Instrument Pointing System (IPS). It carried 13 major experiments in the fields of astronomy, solar physics, ionospheric science, life science, and a super fluid helium experiment. The mission ended August 6, 1985, with a landing at Edwards Air Force Base.

Research test pilot career
Fullerton served as project pilot on the NASA/Convair 990 aircraft which has been modified as a Landing Systems Research Aircraft to test Space Shuttle landing gear components. Additionally, Fullerton was also project pilot on F-18 Systems Research Aircraft, a test bed to develop new flight control actuators, fiber optic control systems, and other advanced aircraft technology.

As the project pilot on the Propulsion Controlled Aircraft program, he successfully landed an F-15 and an MD-11 with all control surfaces fixed, using only engine thrust modulation for control.

In addition to these activities, Fullerton was a project pilot on a number of other research programs at Dryden. Among them were the C-140 Jetstar Laminar Flow Control, F-111 Mission Adaptive Wing, F-14 Variable Sweep Flow Transition, Space Shuttle orbiter drag chute and F-111 crew module parachute tests with the B-52, and X-29 vortex flow control. As project pilot on the B-52 launch aircraft, Fullerton was involved in tests to develop a new F-111 crew module recovery system. He also flew the B-52 for the first six mid-air launchings of the commercially developed Pegasus space vehicle.

Fullerton was one of two NASA pilots who flew the Russian-built Tu-144LL supersonic aircraft used in a joint high speed research program.

With over 16,000 hours of flying time, Fullerton piloted 135 different types of aircraft, including full qualification in the T-33, T-34, T-37, T-39, F-86, F-101, F-106, F-111, F-14, X-29, KC-135, C-140, and B-47. After joining Dryden as a research pilot, Fullerton piloted nearly all the research and support aircraft flown at the facility, including the T-38, F-18, F-15, B-52, NASA/Convair 990, 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, and the DC-8.

Later years and death
Fullerton retired in 2007.  He suffered a stroke in 2009 and was cared for in a facility in Lancaster, California, where he died from complications on August 21, 2013, aged 76.

Awards and honors

Military and government awards

Other awards and honors
 Iven C. Kincheloe Award from the Society of Experimental Test Pilots, 1978
 U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame, 2005 inductee
 General Thomas D. White Space Trophy, 1977
 Haley Space Flight Award from the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, 1982
 Certificate of Achievement Award from the Soaring Society of America
 Ray E. Tenhoff Award from the Society of Experimental Test Pilots in 1992 and 1993.
 Fellow of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots
 Member, Tau Beta Pi
 Honorary member of the National World War II Glider Pilot Association
 Fellow of the American Astronautical Society

Fullerton was inducted with Lousma into the International Space Hall of Fame during a ceremony with the governor of New Mexico in 1982 for their involvement in the STS-3 mission. The governor also presented them with the International Space Hall of Fame's Pioneer Award, and were the second group to receive this award.

References

Sources

 Biography of C. Gordon Fullerton

1936 births
2013 deaths
Military personnel from Rochester, New York
Military personnel from Portland, Oregon
United States Air Force officers
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal
California Institute of Technology alumni
United States Astronaut Hall of Fame inductees
U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School alumni
American test pilots
Grant High School (Portland, Oregon) alumni
United States Air Force astronauts
Space Shuttle program astronauts
Burials_at_Arlington_National_Cemetery
Recipients of the NASA Distinguished Service Medal

C. Gordon Fullerton


Fluid statics (also called hydrostatics) is the science of fluids at rest, and is a sub-field within fluid mechanics. The term usually refers to the mathematical treatment of the subject. It embraces the study of the conditions under which fluids are at rest in stable equilibrium. The use of fluid to do work is called hydraulics, and the science of fluids in motion is fluid dynamics. Hydrostatic pressure is pressure that a fluid exerts when pushing against the sides of a vessel.

Related pages
 Fluid dynamics
 Fluid mechanics
 Hydraulics

Fluid mechanics

Fluid statics


Eusociality is a term in animal behaviour for the more complex kinds of social organisation. The term "eusocial" was introduced in 1966 by Suzanne Batra. E.O. Wilson gave it a more precise meaning.

Meaning of the term
At the start, it was used for invertebrates only, usually social insects. These are its main features:
 Different animals have different jobs to do. There is a division of labour. Some castes may be sterile.
 Animal generations overlap. There are different generations in the hive or nest.
 Animals cooperate to care for the young.

Presociality is a term for simpler (basal) kinds of sociality.

Definition debates
After Wilson's original definition, others discussed it, and some wanted to change its details.

Examples
The most familiar examples of eusociality are insects such as ants, bees, wasps, and termites. All of these are colonial animals which have queens for reproduction. The animals that are workers or soldiers are usually sterile - they cannot have offspring.

There were only two known mammal species which are eusocial. These are the naked mole rat and the Damaraland mole rat.

Eusociality with sterile individuals is the most extreme form of kin altruism. They do specialized tasks, often caring for the reproductive members. It includes individuals whose behaviour, body shape and function is modified for group defence, including self-sacrifice (altruism).

Eusociality played a key role in the development of theories in sociobiology.

Naked mole rat

Naked mole rats are eusocial mammals. Colonies averaging 75-80 individuals live together in complex systems of burrows in arid African deserts. The tunnel systems built by naked mole rats can stretch up to two or three miles in cumulative length.

Other examples
Recently, some species of gall-making aphids (Order Hemiptera) and thrips (Order Thysanoptera) are eusocial, with many separate origins of the state (convergent evolution). These species have extremely high relatedness between individuals. This is due to their mode of reproduction: sterile soldier castes are of the same clone as the reproducing female. The gall-inhabiting behavior gives these species a resource which sets them apart from related species with similar genetics. In these groups, therefore, high relatedness alone does not lead to the evolution of social behavior, but requires that groups occur in a restricted, shared area.

Similarly, eusociality occurs in some crustaceans and other arthropods. On some tropical reefs, several species of minute Synalpheus pistol shrimp are eusocial. They depend on certain sponges for the survival of their colony, and have a single breeding female and a number of male defenders armed with large snapping claws. Again, there is a single shared domicile for the colony members, and the non-breeding members act to defend it.

Theories of social evolution
In colonies of eusocial animals, some animals are sterile. They can not pass on their genes at all. How can these animals evolve and persist? Since they do not breed, their fitness should be zero and any genes causing this condition should be eliminated from the population immediately. In On the Origin of Species, Darwin called this eusocial behavior the "one special difficulty, which at first appeared to me insuperable, and actually fatal to my theory". Darwin thought that the resolution to the paradox would lie in the close family relationship.

Darwin could not say more because he did no know what the mechanism of heredity was. The first explanations were kin selection, and inclusive fitness. Both rely on the discovery of how genes are inherited. This discovery was made after Darwin had published On the Origin of Species, and not understood until after 1900.

Early ideas on eusociality included suggestions that trophallaxis or food sharing was a basis for sociality. The most widely accepted model to explain eusociality is based on W.D. Hamilton's idea of inclusive fitness.

Inclusive fitness
Haplodiploidy determines the sex in all members of the insect order Hymenoptera (bees, ants, and wasps), and the Thysanoptera ('thrips').p408

In this system, sex is determined by the number of sets of chromosomes an individual receives. An offspring formed from the union of a sperm and an egg develops as a female, and an unfertilized egg develops as a male. This means that the males have half the number of chromosomes that a female has, and so are haploid.

The haplodiploid sex-determination system has a number of peculiarities. Most importantly, the relatedness between the sisterhood of worker bees in a hive or nest is 0.75. This means the workers are significantly more closely related than siblings in other sex determination systems. It is this point which drives the kin selection theory of how eusociality evolved.p465

Consequences
If the theory of inclusive fitness is accurate, the haplodiploidy makes kin selection easier. Sisters are more related to each other than to any offspring they might have. Hamilton called them supersisters. On average, two supersisters have 75 percent of the same genes. If they  breed, they would share only half of their genome with their offspring. From the selfish gene's point-of-view, it is better to raise more sisters. Even though workers often do not reproduce, they are potentially passing on more of their genes by caring for sisters than they would by having their own offspring.

This unusual situation may explain why eusociality evolved several times in the haplodiploid group Hymenoptera — ants, bees and wasps. As of 2009, 11 separate cases are known. However, Hymenoptera is a large group and the majority of its species are not social. Furthermore, highly developed eusociality also exists in non-hymenopterans, perhaps most obviously in termites. Most such cases involve organisms that display high levels of inbreeding, so that colony members share more than half of their genes. Therefore the same model is considered to apply to these species.

Reeve and Holldobler put forward a theory of a superorganism. They look at competition and co-operation between groups as well as within groups. In their model, an individual's inclusive fitness varies according to how much it invests in within-group competition (e.g. hoarding a private food cache) versus between-group competition (e.g. contributing to common foraging); and on its relatedness to the other group members.

In a colony with one breeder (queen) and many workers, the evolutionarily stable state is for each individual to invest entirely in helping the group. This leads to a perfect "superorganism". In other words, the eusociality is stable, a result that agrees with Hamilton's findings. Also, they show that the effect is reinforced if there are many groups competing for the same resources.

Related pages
Presociality
Leaf-cutter ant

References

Other websites
 International Union for the Study of Social Insects

Evolutionary biology
Genetics
Insects
Zoology

Eusociality


Waits or waites were British town musicians. From medieval times up to the early 19th century, every important British town and city had a band of waites. Some other countries in Europe also had waits.  They were called Stadtpfeifer in Germany and Pifferi in Italy.

The duties (things they had to do) varied in different towns and at different times in history.  One of their most important jobs was to play at certain times of day so that people knew what the time was.  They often played from the top of church towers.  Sometimes they were also guards, watching from the towers so that they could spot any danger.  They were like watchmen, making sure everything was all right (there was no police at that time).  They woke people up in the mornings by playing music in the streets.

The instruments they played also varied.  Mostly they were loud wind instruments such as the shawm.  It was a paid job.  The waits wore smart liveries and silver chains of office with the town's arms.

In Germany the Stadtpfeifer would also play at church services.  They would play shawms or  trombones on normal days, but trumpets and drums on feast-days.

In Britain there were no more waits after 1835. The name "waits" is still used in "Christmas Waits" (any group of people singing carols at Christmas).

References

English musical groups
History of Europe
Music history

Waits


The Caiman is a subfamily of the Alligators. The alligators are divided into True alligators and caimans. Caimans and true alligators develop slower than the rest of the crocodiles. Their lifestyle is also slower. Because of this, they grow older than the other crocodiles. In total, there are 6 species of caimans. All of them live in South America, the Spectacled Caiman can also be found in Central America.

There are three groups:

 True Caiman (Caiman)
 Musky caiman Spectacled Caiman (C. Crocodilus)
 Yacare Caiman (C. Yakare)
 Broad-snouted caiman (C. latirostris)

 Paleosuchus (Dwarf caimans?)
 Cuvier's Dwarf Caiman
 Smooth-fronted Caiman (P. trigonatus)), also known as Schneider's Smooth-fronted Caiman Black Caiman (Melanosuchus niger'') (h) (only member of Melanosuchus)

Crocodilia
Reptiles of South America

Caiman


Ward's Bridge carries NY 17K across the Wallkill River at the western end of the village of Montgomery in Orange County, New York, United States. It is named, as its predecessors were, for James Ward, an early settler in the area who established his grist mill on what is now the village side and built the first bridge in the mid-18th century. Originally, Montgomery was even called Ward's Bridge, and today a nearby restaurant calls itself the Ward's Bridge Inn.

The mill has long since been demolished, but the earliest buildings in the village that were built around it still stand and are now the Bridge Street Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Another Registered Historic Place, the Daniel Waring House, is located at the corner of 17K and River Road on the western side.

The current bridge, a steel through truss, is  long, with a  roadway and small sidewalk on the eastern (downriver) side. It was built in 1940, and renovated in 1982.

Traffic patterns

Traffic on the bridge is very heavy at rush hour, since the bridge is the main connection for travel between two regions of the county. The combination of nearby intersections and the layout of Route 17K through the area. The western approach funnels vehicles from the northwest, via county highways like Albany Post Road and River Road (the direct route between Montgomery and Walden). Both terminate at 17K within a quarter-mile (400 m) of the bridge. Within the same distance to the east, in the village, there is the traffic light at the north end of NY 211, which connects Montgomery to Middletown and Goshen, via NY 416.

Route 17K also bends sharply as it intersects both highways to the west, then takes a 90-degree turn onto Ward Street as it enters the village and encounters the light, for eastbound traffic the first since Bullville,  to the west. Both turns slow traffic approaching in either direction, and it in turn backs up drivers on Albany Post and River roads trying to make left turns on 17K.

These issues were aggravated between 2003 and 2005, when the construction of the Walden Veterans' Memorial Bridge downstream led the state Department of Transportation to detour truck traffic to 17K, since the Walden Low Bridge could not handle the prolonged heavy loads.

References

Bridges in Orange County, New York
Truss bridges in the United States
Bridges completed in 1940
Bridges over the Wallkill River
Road bridges in New York (state)
Steel bridges in the United States

Ward's Bridge


Jerusalem City Hall is a building complex housing the city hall of Jerusalem. It is in Safra Square. The complex was built beside the old city hall on a corner of Jaffa Street between the Old City and the Russian Compound. In 1950, The Israeli municipal government in Jerusalem decided to build a new building for the city hall. After many proposed architectural plans, the final plan was decided on in 1986. Construction began in 1988, and a ceremony for the establishment of the new municipality was done in the old city hall. In 1993, the new municipal complex was opened by mayor Teddy Kollek and heads of state.

Government buildings in Israel
Buildings and structures in Jerusalem
Local government in Israel

Jerusalem City Hall


Mary Queen of Shops is a British television series presented by Mary Portas broadcast on BBC Two. The series began with a four-week run starting on 7 June 2007, and returned for a second series of six episodes beginning on 9 June 2008. A third three-part series, titled Mary Queen of Charity Shops, began on 2 June 2009. The show returned for a fourth series on 7 June 2010, featuring various independent shops, rather than just fashion boutiques. The title of the programme is a play on Mary, Queen of Scots' name.

In each episode, Mary Portas troubleshoots her way around the UK on a mission to help turn around struggling fashion boutiques. Mary is a leading retail communications expert and is the founder and creative director of Yellowdoor. Her aim is to turn the businesses around and put glamour back into shopping. First, she visits the boutiques while the owners are away. Then she revamps them, gets the shop owners right up-to-date and hopefully helps them to start making money again. In season 3, Mary takes on other retail shops.

Mary Queen of Shops premiered in the United States on 14 August 2009 on BBC America. The programme also airs on GEM HD in Australia.

External links

Mary Queen Of Shops website
Mary Queen of Charity Shops - An Independent Review

BBC television documentaries
2007 British television series debuts
Fashion-themed reality television series
British reality television series
Television series by All3Media
Works about retailing

Mary Queen of Shops


Sinhala or Sinhalese, earlier referred to as Singhalese, is the language of the Sinhalese. They are largest ethnic group of Sri Lanka. It belongs to the Indo-Aryan language family.

Sinhala has two varieties/forms - Spoken and Written, the former being the most popular form. Spoken Sinhala is easier to learn and use because it is so much relaxed in grammatical formality and rigidity.

Sinhala is spoken by about 19 million people in Sri Lanka, about 16 million of them are native speakers. It is one of the constitutionally-recognised official languages of Sri Lanka, with Tamil. Sinhala has its own writing system (see Sinhala script) which is an offspring of the Indian Brahmi script.

The oldest Sinhala inscriptions were written in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC; the oldest existing literary works date from the 9th century AD.

The closest relative of Sinhala is Dhivehi, the language of the Maldives, .

The word order of Sinhala language is SOV (subject-object-verb) just like Japanese, Korean and many other languages in Asia. It would be easy for people from that particular language style to learn Sinhala with a little time and practice.

Ex 1 :
       I     home   go
       Mama  gedara yanawa.
Ex 2 :
       beautiful  dress
       Lassana    anduma

Morphologically, the words are built with the stem followed by a particle. The particle can vary so that it adds more grammatical change into the word connecting it to the whole sentence.

pusa yanawa -
 kitten is going.
pusath yanawa -
 kitten is also going.

ballata denawa -
 giving (it) to the dog
ballatath denawa
 giving it to the dog as well
ballatama denawa
 giving it to the dog itself.

If you really take a good look at these sentences, you may easily find the stem of the words: pusa, pusath; ballata, ballathath, ballatama.

pusa- is the stem of the subjectival phrase. (kitten)

Pusa + th - as well

pusa + ta - to kitty

pusa + ta + th - to kitty as well

pusa + ta + ma - to kitty itself
^^

Writing system

References

Sinhala language


CBS Cable was an early but short-lived cable television network operated by CBS, Inc., dedicated to the lively arts (i.e. symphony, dance, theatre, opera, etc.). It debuted on October 12, 1981 and ceased operations on December 17, 1982.

CBS Cable was a personal project of CBS founder William Paley, who hoped it would blaze a trail for cultural programming in the then-emerging cable television medium. Its program offerings were ambitious and often critically praised. Nevertheless, the network struggled, and ultimately failed, largely because of the reluctance of many cable systems across the United States to give it carriage, limiting severely its ability to attract both viewers and advertisers for its costly lineup of programming. Its program offerings, while critically hailed in their own right, frequently overlapped cultural, literary and historical programs broadcast over the air in prime time by PBS in nearly every television market. Further, cable systems in the early 1980s had far more limited channel capacity than they do today (usually the standard thirty-five channels in most cities). CBS Cable was competing for channel space by appealing to a select and relatively small upscale audience, while other networks coming on line at the same time such as MTV and ESPN promised larger and more broad-based viewership and therefore got cable operators to carry them far more easily. MTV and ESPN thrived and gave rise to additional companion channels within a short time, while the CBS Cable channel folded after just over 14 months in operation.

CBS made another effort to launch a cable network using the CBS name, CBS Eye On People, which launched in 1997, featuring mostly biography programming and programs from the CBS News archives, along with old episodes of 60 Minutes and other CBS newsmagazines. However the effort proved to be unsuccessful, and in 1998 CBS sold its stake in the network to Discovery Communications, which rebranded it as Discovery People before utilizing the channel slots acquired in the deal for their other networks.

As a CBS division name
The CBS Cable name was used for three years as the name of the network's cable division, after the 1996 purchase of The Nashville Network (now the general-interest Paramount Network) and Country Music Television from Gaylord Entertainment, along with CBS' existing stakes in the regional sports networks Midwest Sports Channel in the Twin Cities/Milwaukee (now split into Bally Sports North, serving Minnesota and the Dakotas, and Bally Sports Wisconsin for Wisconsin, purchased in 1992 by CBS as part of their acquisition of Midwest Television, the owners of WCCO-TV and Green Bay's WFRV-TV) and the Home Team Sports network in the Baltimore/Washington market (now Monumental Sports Network). TNN and CMT were folded into MTV Networks after the 1999 merger with Viacom, with the sports networks sold to other parties shortly after the merger.

Host
 Patrick Watson (also known for PBS' Live at Lincoln Center)

Programs
 Artists and Mothers included the film A Film About My Home, an autobiographical piece by Oren Rudavsky, as well as pieces by Joseph Cornell, Martin Scorsese, Jonas Mekas and Mark Rance.
 Confessions of a Cornermaker, an original dance piece by Twyla Tharp.
 Count Basie Live at Carnegie Hall, one of Basie's final performances, featuring guests Tony Bennett, George Benson, Joe Williams and Sarah Vaughan.
 Gertrude Stein Gertrude Stein Gertrude Stein, starring Pat Carroll, a video recreation of her one-woman off-Broadway play of the same name from 1977.
 Gilbert & Sullivan productions by Brent Walker (H.M.S. Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance, Iolanthe, The Mikado, and The Gondoliers) aired in its last week of broadcast.
 Kennedy's Children (1982), play by Robert Patrick, directed by Marshall W. Mason, produced by Glenn Dubose, Feb. 11 & 12, 1982, starring Shirley Knight, Jane Alexander, Lindsay Crouse, Brad Dourif, and personnel from the Caffe Cino.
 Mornings at Seven
 Music Music Music (1981), the history of music in 90 seconds, with a score arranged by Mel Tormé; designed and directed by John Canemaker.
 Nichols and Dimes: A documentary film about business investment, with Mike Nichols' very successful Arabian horse business portrayed as an example. This was the first show broadcast on the network.
 The Quiz Kids, a revival of the 1950s game show, hosted by Norman Lear.
 The Ring of the Fettuccines, parody opera co-authored by Marie Allyn King
 Signature, an interview series in which the camera never cut away from the interviewee.
 Singin!, three specials produced by and featuring Nancy Dussault singing popular classics.
 The Song Writers, a series saluting composers of The Great American Songbook
 Tintypes, a revue of American music from 1895 to 1912.
 Mixed Bag, a selection of highlights from the channel's short history, shown as the network's final program.

References

 Beck, Kirsten.  Cultivating the Wasteland: Can Cable Put the Vision Back in TV? New York: American Council for the Arts (Edwards Brothers Printing), 1983.  Chapter: "The CBS Cable Story".

Defunct television networks in the United States
Television channels and stations established in 1981
Television channels and stations disestablished in 1982
American companies established in 1981
Entertainment companies established in 1981
Former CBS Corporation subsidiaries

CBS Cable


Shchukinskaya () is a station on the Tagansko-Krasnopresnenskaya Line of the Moscow Metro. Named after the village of Schukino before it was consumed by Moscow and became a municipality in the 1940s, it was opened on 30 December 1975. The design follows the original pillar-trispan (40 columns instead of 26). The pillars are faced with different shades of pinkish marble (from the Ukrainian deposit of Burovshchina) and punctuated by a vertical strip of anodized aluminum on each face. The walls are of corrugated, bronze-coloured aluminum, an alloy of extensive strength and flexibility, adorned with decorative panels. The floor is covered with polished grey granite. The architects were Nina Aleshina, N. Samoylova and M. Alekseev.

During the construction of the extension tunnel Oktyabrskoe Pole – Shchukinskaya a new engineering method was developed. Because the Moscow soil was sandy, the metro tunnels had traditionally been built using the open pit method (i.e. digging from the surface) or by restricting building work from passing under inhabited areas as cave-ins would have been very likely. For the Shchukinskaya tunnel however circular concrete blocks were pressed rather than mounted into the soil, and as this was done rapidly the elements did not have time to develop into heavy pressure and sap into the tunnel. This removed the need for festering a sand-cement mixture into the finish, thereby dramatically increasing the potential speed of construction, and saving on building materials. Another achievement was that no metal was used for the mounting of the tunnel blocks, instead a bitumen mixture formed from the pressure of the boring complex was used to join the blocks. As this was denser than the soil, there was no need for festering of the cement.

The entrances to the station are located near the intersection of Shchukinskaya Ulitsa and Ulitsa Marshala Vasilevskogo.

The station handles 93500 people daily.

External links
metro.ru
mymetro.ru
KartaMetro.info — Station location and exits on Moscow map (English/Russian)
Yuri Gridchin's website

Moscow Metro stations
Railway stations in Russia opened in 1975
Tagansko-Krasnopresnenskaya Line
Railway stations located underground in Russia

Shchukinskaya


John Grant Mitchell (November 6, 1838 – November 7, 1894) was an Ohio lawyer and a general in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He was active in several important campaigns and battles in the Western Theater, including the Chickamauga, Atlanta, and Franklin-Nashville and Carolinas campaigns. He commanded a brigade of veteran infantry in many of these operations.

Early life and career
Mitchell was born in Piqua, Ohio. He was educated in the common schools and then attended Kenyon College in Gambier, Ohio, as a young man. He graduated in 1859 and subsequently studied law in Columbus, Ohio, with the firm Swan, Andrews, and Noble.

Civil War
Shortly after the outbreak of the Civil War in early 1861, Mitchell enlisted as a private in the first battalion of the Ohio Reserves. On July 27, he was appointed as the first lieutenant and adjutant of the 3rd Ohio Infantry regiment. On December 21, after reenlisting for three-years, he was advanced to captain and took command of his company. He participated in Ormsby M. Mitchel's campaign in Tennessee and Alabama.

In the autumn of 1862, Mitchell helped raise and recruit what became the 113th Ohio Infantry and was appointed as the regiment's lieutenant colonel on September 2. On May 6, 1863, Mitchell continued his progression through the ranks, being elevated to colonel and leading his regiment during the Tullahoma Campaign. In September of that year, Mitchell took command of the 2nd Brigade, 3rd Division of the Reserve Corps of the Army of the Cumberland. The following month, he became part of the XIV Corps, with which he was associated with for much of the rest of the war.

During the Battle of Chickamauga, Mitchell led a brigade under James B. Steedman which arrived late on the second day and played a leading role in aiding George H. Thomas in holding onto his delaying position atop Horseshoe Ridge. At the Battle of Missionary Ridge near Chattanooga, Tennessee, Mitchell supported Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman's assault column. Later he moved to Ambrose Burnside's relief during the Siege of Knoxville. During the 1864 Atlanta Campaign, Mitchell led the advance on the enemy positions in the Battle of Rocky Face Ridge. His regiment suffered severely at the Battle of Resaca and played a prominent role in the battles of Dallas and New Hope Church. His old 113th lost over a hundred men in the assault on Kennesaw Mountain. Mitchell reported to Thomas and took command of the detached XIV Corps during the Battle of Nashville and the subsequent pursuit of the retreating Confederate army of John Bell Hood.

On January 12, 1865, on the recommendation of General Sherman, the 26-year-old Mitchell was promoted to brigadier general of volunteers, becoming one of the youngest civilian-soldiers to attain that rank without benefit of preparative military training. He participated in one of the war's final major campaigns, the Carolinas Campaign, in the late winter and early spring of 1865. He commanded his brigade at the battles of Averasborough and Bentonville, where his actions halted a major Confederate advance. He was present during the surrender of Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston at Bennett Place in April.

Mitchell then led his men in the Grand Review of the Armies through the streets of Washington, D.C. in early May. In the omnibus promotions following the war, Mitchell received a brevet promotion to major general of volunteers backdated to March 13.

Postbellum career
Mitchell resigned from the Army on July 3, 1865, and returned home to Columbus, Ohio, to resume his legal career. In October 1862, he married Laura Platt, the daughter of Fanny Hayes Platt and niece of fellow Civil War general (and future Ohio Governor and U.S. President) Rutherford B. Hayes. The couple eventually would have four children—three girls and a boy. Mitchell and Hayes remained good friends for the rest of their lives. Mitchell served as the Register in Bankruptcy, President of the Columbus City Council, and as the Ohio pension commissioner.

John G. Mitchell died in Columbus on the day after his 56th birthday. After a large and well attended funeral, he was interred in Green Lawn Cemetery. His personal and military papers are archived in the collection of the library of the Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center.

His only son, Grant Mitchell, became a leading character actor in Hollywood, California, in the early 20th century.

See also

List of American Civil War generals (Union)

Notes

References
 Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press, 2001, .

External links
  at generalsandbrevets.com

Union Army generals
People of Ohio in the American Civil War
People from Piqua, Ohio
Kenyon College alumni
Ohio lawyers
Burials at Green Lawn Cemetery (Columbus, Ohio)
1838 births
1894 deaths
Columbus City Council members
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American lawyers

John G. Mitchell (general)


The term Thraco-Illyrian refers to a hypothesis according to which the Daco-Thracian and Illyrian languages comprise a distinct branch of Indo-European. Thraco-Illyrian is also used as a term merely implying a Thracian-Illyrian interference,  mixture or sprachbund, or as a shorthand way of saying that it is not determined whether a subject is to be considered as pertaining to Thracian or Illyrian. Downgraded to a geo-linguistic concept, these languages are referred to as Paleo-Balkan.

The linguistical hypothesis was especially current in the early 20th century, but after the 1960s it was seriously called into question. New publications argued that no strong evidence for Thraco-Illyrian exists, and that the two language-areas show more differences than correspondences (Vladimir Georgiev, , Eric Hamp, et al.), whereas more recent linguists like Sorin Paliga have argued that based on the available data, Illyrian and Thracian were mutually intelligible or at very least formed a dialect continuum in a way comparable to Czech-Slovak and Spanish-Portuguese or Continental Scandinavian languages (Danish, Norwegian and Swedish).

Linguistic contact and similarity
The Vardar, South Morava and Great Morava rivers are generally considered to approximate the border between the Illyrian and Thracian spheres, in the west and east respectively. However, Thracian and Illyrian did not have a clear-cut frontier.
There was also, clearly, significant interaction between the Illyrian and Thracian spheres, with some Thracian groups occupying the Illyrian sphere and vice versa; the identity of some groups as Illyrian or Thracian has also remained unclear, or, in some instances, a Thraco-Illyrian mix. Such factors reinforce the impression that many similarities between the Illyrian and Thracian lexes resulted from language contact.

Other scholars, such as Romanian linguist and historian , argue that there were major similarities between Illyrian and Thracian and so a shared, ancestral linguistic branch is probable, rather than them forming a sprachbund. Among the Thraco-Illyrian correspondences noted by I. I. Russu are the following:

Not many Thraco-Illyrian correspondences are definite, and a number may be incorrect, even from the list above. Sorin Paliga (2002) however states: "According to the available data, we may surmise that Thracian and Illyrian were mutually understandable, e.g. like Czech and Slovak, in one extreme, or like Spanish and Portuguese, at the other."

Other linguists however argue that Illyrian and Thracian were different Indo-European branches which later converged through contact. It is also of significance that Illyrian languages still have not been classified whether they were centum or satem language, while it is undisputed that Thracian was a satem language by the Classical Period (the satem nature of proto-Thracian is disputed, Olteanu 2002).

Due to the fragmentary attestation of both Illyrian and Thraco-Dacian, the existence of a Thraco-Illyrian branch remains controversial. Evidence of a Thraco-Illyrian branch has also been sought in the Albanian language, which might have developed from either a Thraco-Dacian language with Illyrian influences or an Illyrian language with Thraco-Dacian influences, or from a totally unattested Balkan Indo-European language that was closely related to Illyrian and Messapic.

See also
 Albanian language
 Balkan sprachbund
 Classification of Thracian
 Dacian language
 Paleo-Balkan languages
 Romanian words of possible Dacian origin (and comparison with Albanian words)
 Albanian–Romanian linguistic relationship
 Thracian language
 Venetic language

Notes
 The place of Paeonian remains unclear. Not much has been determined in the study of Paeonian, and some linguists do not recognize a Paeonian area separate from Illyrian or Thracian. The place of Ancient Macedonian is also undetermined. Paliga (2002) states: "It is therefore difficult to say whether the ancient Macedonians spoke an idiom closer to Thracian, Illyrian, Greek or a specific idiom."

References

Bibliography
 Georgiev, Vladimir.
 Paliga, Sorin. Pre-Slavic place-names. 2002.

Indo-European linguistics
Thracian language
Dacian language

Thraco-Illyrian


A legal threat is a statement by a party that it intends to take legal action on another party, generally accompanied by a demand that the other party take an action demanded by the first party or refrain from taking or continuing actions objected to by the demanding party.

Nature

Legal threats take many forms.  Common to all is that the party making the threat will take some form of action of a legal nature. Most common is the threatened initiation of a lawsuit against the second party. Other threats might include an administrative law action or complaint, referring the other party to a regulatory body, turning the party into the legal authorities over a crime or civil infraction, or the like.  Legal threats are often veiled or indirect, e.g. a threat that a party "shall be forced to consider its legal options" or "will refer the matter to legal counsel."

Types

Cease and desist

A cease and desist (C&D) letter is a formalized legal demand that a party stop ("cease") and refrain ("desist") from an activity that the demanding party finds objectionable, generally couched in formal language accusing the activity of violating the law.

The objected-to activity may be most anything, although cease-and-desist letters are particularly common among certain areas of the law:
alleged intellectual property infringement (e.g. patent infringement, trademark infringement, copyright infringement, etc.)
alleged defamation such as libel and slander
harassment, nuisance, and other torts
violation of certain agreements to not engage in certain commercial conduct (e.g. with respect to competition, territories, etc.)
where a personal financial and legal administrator (e.g. as commonly appointed in Australia) acting under an Order of a court for a represented person (e.g. a person with an alleged disability) for a specified time, as specified in the Order, continues the administration beyond the anniversary date (end date) of the Order, against the represented person's wishes.

Demand letter

A demand letter is a formalized demand by a party that another party pay money or take certain acts, often accompanied by a claim that the second party has engaged in illegal conduct, with an implicit or explicit threat that the demanding party will take some form of legal action.

Effect
For the most part, a legal threat is of no legal significance other than a matter of negotiation tactics; however, in certain instances a legal threat does have some legal significance.  Among other things, a legal threat may do the following:
 Establish notice - the party receiving the threat, and the party making the threat, are "on notice" of the circumstances and cannot later claim they were unaware.
 Constitute extortion, blackmail, or some other crime or tort involving improper threats of harm: for example, it is considered unethical, and in some cases a crime, to threaten to report criminal conduct to the police unless a settlement is reached.
 In some circumstances, a claim (veiled or not) that a party will take action based on alleged violation of the law gives rise to a right by the receiving party to bring an action for declaratory judgment that it has not broken the law: for example, if the holder of a trademark claims that a party is infringing a trademark, that party may bring suit asking a court to declare that there is in fact no infringement.

In addition to their legal significance, legal threats may create a number of practical results:
 Intimidating a party into acquiescing to the demand, whether or not there is a legal basis for it, out of fear of litigation expense, negative publicity, loss of entitlement (e.g. losing a business license), or other negative consequence
 Alerting a party to illegal conduct it was unaware of, or that it did not realize was illegal or objectionable
 Delaying or disrupting lawful and legitimate activity, as the victim of the threats must devote time to obtaining expensive legal counsel.
 Risking public disclosure of the threat, thereby portraying the party making the threat in a bad light (see the Streisand effect). Threats of frivolous litigation against major news organisations are extraordinarily risky in this regard, as the newspaper will most often report the threat in the paper itself.

See also
Abuse of process
Barratry (common law)
Franchise fraud
Frivolous litigation
In terrorem
Malicious prosecution
Strategic lawsuit against public participation
Vexatious litigation

References

External links
 chillingeffects.org - database of "cease-and-desist" letters

Legal documents
Informal legal terminology

Legal threat


George Fredrick Müller (German: Georg Friedrich Müller) (September 27, 1805 – March 10, 1898), was an Christian evangelist and worker of orphanages in Bristol, England. He cared for about 10,000 orphans in his life. He was well known for giving an education to the children under his care, so much that sometimes he was accused of giving the poor more than they should be given.

Biography

Childhood
Müller was born in Kroppenstedt, a village in the Kingdom of Prussia. His early life he was not very righteous. He was a thief, a liar and a gambler. At age 14, while his mother was dying, he was playing cards with friends and drinking.
His father wanted to give him a religious education that would give him a wealthy job as a clergyman in the church. While studying divinity at college, a fellow student invited him to a Christian house meeting. He was welcomed there, and he soon began reading the Bible. He also began talking much with the others at the meetings. He soon left his sinful life, and began wanting to be a missionary. He began preaching in churches nearby. He still met with the growing group of evangelical believers in his university.  he had a pet monkey named curious George.

Early years
In 1828, Müller almost started working with Jews in England. But when he got there, in 1829, he fell ill. When he got better, he promises he would obey the will of God. He soon left London. He believed that God would provide for his needs as he did his Christian work. He became the pastor of a chapel in Devon. Soon after, he married Miss Mary Groves. While he was the pastor of the church, he would not take a regular salary. He also stopped renting pews for the church. He said that would give too much money to the wealthy.

He moved to Bristol in 1832. In 1834, he founded the "Scripture Knowledge Institution for Home and Abroad". It had the goal of helping Christian schools and missionaries. And also it gave away the Bible. He did not get any money from the government. He only accepting personal gifts. But still they received, and gave away £1.5 million ($2,718,844 USD) by the time of his death. It was mainly used for supporting the orphanages he worked at. But also they giving away nearly two million Bibles and other religious texts.

Middle life

Müller and his wife began working with orphans in 1836. They then kept thirty girls in their own home. Soon after that, they opened three more orphanages. That made the total of children they cared for about 130. In 1845, as they got bigger, Müller decided that they would build another building for around 300 children. In 1849, that home opened. By 1870, more than 2,000 children were being helped in their five homes.

To this point, Müller had never asked for financial support, and he did not go into debt. Even though their five homes cost over £100,000 to build. Many times, he would get free food donations only hours before it was time to eat. That helped his faith in God even more. Every morning after breakfast there was a time of Bible reading and prayer. Every child was given a Bible when they left the orphanage. The children had nice clothes. Müller even had a school inspector make sure things were done right.

In 1871, an article in The Times stated that since 1836, 23,000 children had been educated in the schools. Also it said that thousands had been educated in other places that they paid for. The article also said that since he started, 64,000 Bibles, 85,000 Testaments, and 29,000,000 religious books had been made, and given away. They also had to pay the support of 150 missionaries.

Later years
In 1872, after the death of his first wife in 1870, he got married to Susannah Grace Sanger. In 1875, at the age of 70, he began a 17-year period of missionary travel. He preached in the United States, India, Australia, Japan, China, and nearly forty other countries.  He traveled over 200,000 miles, and that was before the airplane was invented. Because he knew several languages, he was able to preach in English, French, and German.  His sermons were translated into over twelve other languages.

He told in his autobiography how he came to closely read the Bible, he came with "great astonishment" to find that it was able to "speak decidedly" to him. He was a founding member of the "Open Brethren" movement. In 1892, he went back to England. He later died on March 10, 1898.

References

Other websites

 The George Müller Foundation
 Mueller Resources at WholesomeWords.org
 George Mueller's Strategy for Showing God (lecture by John Piper on Feb. 3, 2004)
 Bristol Suburbs Photo Album (Including pictures from the Orphanage at Ashley Downs)
 George Müller  By Gilson Santos
 The Church under attack : George Muller & Bethesda Chapel, Bristol

1805 births
1898 deaths
British autobiographers
British Protestants
Evangelists
German Protestants
Christian missionaries
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
People from Saxony-Anhalt

George Müller


Seed plants are a group of plants. Gymnosperms and angiosperms form the group.

Their seeds have three parts: (1) an embryo, (2) a supply of nutrients for the embryo, and (3) a seed coat. They are also called spermatophytes or phanerogams. The seed plants dominate almost all the environments on land.

The living spermatophytes are in five groups:

Cycads, a subtropical and tropical group of plants with a large crown of compound leaves and a stout trunk
Ginkgo, a single living species of tree
Conifers, cone-bearing trees and shrubs
Gnetophyta, woody plants in the genera Gnetum, Welwitschia, and Ephedra
Angiosperms, the flowering plants, a large group including many familiar plants in a wide variety of habitats

The fossil seed ferns (Pteridospermatophyta) were one of the earliest successful groups of land plants. Forests dominated by seed ferns were common in the Permian. Glossopteris was a widespread tree genus in the ancient southern supercontinent of Gondwana in the Permian period. By the Triassic period, seed ferns had declined, and modern gymnosperm groups were abundant. Gymnosperms were dominant to the Upper Cretaceous, when the angiosperms radiated. Angiosperms are the most common plants today, though there are still large pine forests in the northern hemisphere.

Related pages
Seed

Plant taxonomy
Seed plants

Seed plants


Mortar acts as a kind of glue to keep stones and bricks together. When it is used, it is a kind of paste. Some kinds of mortar need to dry before they can act as a glue, in others, a chemical reaction is needed. Certain kinds of mortar can withstand fire for some time. The first kind of mortar was developed in Ancient Rome.

Building materials

Mortar (masonry)


The Italian conquest of the British Somali Coast Protectorate was an Italian campaign during World War II against the British Empire. It was the only Italian victory against the Allies that was won without help from Germany.

Background
When Italy declared war in May 1940, the Italian troops were not prepared for a prolonged war in Eastern Africa. As a consequence, Mussolini ordered only some limited aggressive actions to capture territory along the borders of Kenya, Egypt and Sudan. Some skirmishes happened even in French Somalia, with an invasion of the western half of Djibouti.

In June 1940, Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, the Governor-General of Italian East Africa, convinced the Italian Supreme Command (Commando Supremo) to plan a campaign to conquer a British colony: British Somali Coast Protectorate. The King of Italy Victor Emmanuel III and Mussolini agreed and at the beginning of August the campaign was ready to start.

Order of Battle
The Italian force attacking British Somali Coast Protectorate in August 1940 was commanded by General Guglielmo Nasi and included five colonial brigades, three Blackshirt battalions, and three bands (bande) of native troops. The Italians had the 2nd Light Tank Company and the 322nd Medium Tank Company (13 L3/35 light and 12 M11/39 medium tanks), artillery, and, most important, superior air support. The Italians numbered about 4,800 and about 30,000 native troops.

The Italians were opposed by a British contingent of about 4,000 soldiers consisting of the Somaliland Camel Corps (commanded by Colonel Arthur Reginald Chater), elements of the 2nd (Nyasaland) Battalion King's African Rifles (KAR) and the 1st Battalion Northern Rhodesian Regiment, the 3rd Battalion 15th Punjab Regiment, and the 2nd Battalion, Black Watch.

Initial Offensive
In the early hours of 3 August 1940, the Italian army crossed the border between Italian East Africa (called by the Italians Africa Orientale Italiana) and British Somali Coast Protectorate.

The Italians attacked with military columns in three directions: to the north toward the port of Zeila, to the center toward Adadlek and to the south toward Odweina.

After conquering in French Somaliland the Fort at Loyada, on 5 August the port of Zeila was occupied by the Italians after heavy fighting and so was cut every possibility of help from French Somaliland for the retreating British. The northern Italian column then proceeded south along the coast and occupied the village of Bulhar.

The Italian central column, commanded by Lieutenant-General Carlo De Simone faced more difficulties because of the mountainous terrain and was stopped by the English at the Karrin Pass, before Hargeisa.

Colonel Arthur Reginald Chater, used his camel corps to skirmish with and screen against the advancing Italians as the other British and Commonwealth forces pulled back towards Tug Argan.

Battle of Tug Argan
On 6 August, within three days of the invasion, the towns of Zeila and Hargeisa were taken by the Italians. Odweina fell the following day and the Italian central and eastern columns combined to launch attacks against the main British and Commonwealth positions at Tug Argan.

On 7 August the British and Commonwealth forces in British Somali Coast Protectorate received reinforcements with the arrival of the 1st Battalion 2nd Punjab Regiment. On 11 August, a new commander, Major-General Alfred Godwin-Austen, reached Tug Argan.

The defensive positions of the British army were centered around six hills overlooking the only road toward Berbera.
On 11 August an Italian brigade commanded by De Simone attacked the hill defended by the 3rd Battalion 15th Punjab Regiment and captured it with heavy casualties. The British launched two unsuccessful counterattacks but the next day were forced to abandon two other nearby hills.

On 14 August the Italians began to encircle the British defenders from their eastern positions, and the defenders' situation started to look critical.

After three days of battle, early on 15 August Godwin-Austen (fearing an imminent encirclement) concluded that further resistance at Tug Argan would be futile. He contacted the British Middle East Command headquarters in Cairo, Egypt and requested and received permission to withdraw his forces from British Somali Coast Protectorate.

The determined effort of the Black Watch battalion, which covered the retreat, allowed the entire British and Commonwealth contingent to withdraw to Berbera with minimal losses.

British evacuation from Berbera
Whilst the British made their fighting retreat to Berbera, the British Royal Navy had constructed an all-tide jetty and had commenced evacuating civilian and administrative officials. The two main Italian columns (the central and the southern) were united at the village of La Farruk, approximately 30 km south of Berbera.

From Bulhar the third Italian column reached the area of Berbera on 14 August but the British defenders were able to hold them off. On 16 August they started to embark troops onto the waiting ships and had completed the evacuation by the afternoon of the following day, departing for Aden in the Arabian peninsula. They had little interference in this operation as a result of a fierce bayonet charge against the Italians by the Black Watch at Barkasan The Somaliland Camel Corps, rather than evacuate, was disbanded and dispersed.

On 19 August the Italians took control of Berbera and then moved down the coast to complete their conquest of British Somali Coast Protectorate. The British colony was annexed by Mussolini to the Italian Empire in Italian East Africa.

Casualties
According to Italian historians, during the campaign to conquer British Somali Coast Protectorate the casualties were 250 for the British army and 205 for the Italian.

But, according to the British account of events, total British casualties were 260 and Italian losses were estimated at between ten and twenty times higher.

Aftermath
This campaign in Somali Coast Protectorate was like all the others of the Axis: it initially started with a victory, then after a period of time (like the campaigns in the Balkans, in the Philippines or in Russia), finished with a complete defeat. But in the specific case of the Italian conquest of British Somali Coast Protectorate, the defeat (that happened in spring 1941) was followed by nearly two years of Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia.

British Somali Coast Protectorate remained part of the Italian East Africa until March 1941 when the 1st/2nd Punjab Regiment and the 3rd/15th Punjab Regiment returned from Aden to re-occupy the territory.

Related pages
 World War II
 Italian Mare Nostrum
 Italian invasion of French Somaliland

Notes

Bibliography
 Antonicelli, Franco. Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945 (in Italian).  Mondadori ed. Torino, 1961.
 Del Boca, Angelo. Italiani in Africa Orientale: La caduta dell'Impero (in Italian).  Laterza. Roma-Bari, 1986.
 Mockler, Anthony. Haile Selassie's War: The Italian-Ethiopian Campaign, 1935-1941. Random House. New York, 1984.
 Rovighi, Alberto. Le Operazioni in Africa Orientale (in Italian). Stato Maggiore Esercito, Ufficio storico. Roma, 1952.

Other websites
   Photos (in old wikis articles) of the italian conquest of Somaliland
  Official Italian "Bulletins of War" on the conquest of British Somali Coast Protectorate (in Italian)

World War II

Italian invasion of British Somaliland


In the People's Republic of China, a public security bureau (PSB)  is a kind of government office. These offices acting as a Police stations. Smaller offices are called Police posts. These are similar Japanese Kōban.

PSBs in each province and large city take care of policing law enforcement, public security, and social order. Other duties of such offices include residence registration as well as immigration and travel affairs of foreigners.
Organizations based in the People's Republic of China

Public security bureau (China)


The Fall of Neskaya is a science fantasy novel  by American writers Marion Zimmer Bradley and Deborah J. Ross, part of the Darkover series. Set in The Hundred Kingdoms time period, the book is the first in a three-novel series subtitled The Clingfire trilogy. The Fall of Neskaya is followed by Zandru's Forge, which takes place about 25 years later.

The books in The Clingfire trilogy explore, by analogy, the concept of mutually assured destruction and the use of chemical weapons whose consequences are beyond the control of the user. Bradley's "Compact" gives the Darkovans a way out of this trap through a moral agreement to abjure any weapons that do not place the users within arms' reach of each other (i.e. swords and knives). This development in Darkover's social order and its author, Varzil the Good, is referenced in most of the earlier and later books, but had not been fully explored before this trilogy.

Damian Deslucido and his brother, Rumail, exhibit a Macbeth-Lady Macbeth relationship: Rumail's raw ambition drives his rather hollow brother to excesses of power that he would not have sought on his own, and ultimately destroys both of them.

The story of the Deslucido brothers is told as an old legend in Dorothy J. Heydt's "The Wind Man" in the 1993 Darkover anthology Towers of Darkover, though the surname is not explicitly mentioned.

Plot summary

Book One
A larenzu, Rumail Deslucido, arrives at Verdanta Castle, to make an alliance between Verdanta and his brother, Damian Deslucido, the ambitious king of Ambervale and Linn. Rumail tests each of the children for laran, then arranges a proxy marriage between the youngest daughter, Kristlin (who dies about a year later). He sends the youngest son, Coryn, to Tramontana Tower.

At Tramontana, Coryn learns to control his laran, and to put aside his differences with the rival Storn family. The Tower's keeper, Kieran, believes that the Towers should be neutral in the many petty wars of the Hundred Kingdoms, and should not supply laran weapons to anyone.

Rumail Deslucido and his brother King Damian scheme to control more of the minor kingdoms of the Hellers, hoping eventually to challenge the Hasturs of the lowlands. Rumail reveals his laran ability – lying under truthspell and twisting the minds of others to do the same. Eventually, Rumail is dismissed from Neskaya Tower for immoral or illegal use of laran.

Book Two

Taniquel Hastur-Acosta experiences a premonition of danger moments before Deslucido attacks Acosta Castle. The castle falls, but Taniquel escapes. In the forest, she meets Coryn, who gives her some of his supplies. After several days, they separate – she bound for Thendara and he for Neskaya.

Taniquel reaches Thendara, and describes these events to her uncle, King Rafael Hastur II. A month or so later, minor nobles from the Acosta region arrive to request Hastur protection from Deslucido. Taniquel agrees to ride at the head of the army in the name of her unborn son. She foresees that Deslucido will eventually bring his armies to Hastur's doorstep.

Damian Deslucido requests that the Comyn Council return Taniquel to his control. Under the power of his brother's ability to defeat truthspell, he lies convincingly. Taniquel tells her uncle what she has observed (Deslucido says she was allowed to sit vigil with her late husband, but in reality, she was locked in her room). Ultimately, King Rafael believes her and supports her claim. It is clear that Deslucido will declare war on Hastur.

Book Three
Aran, a matrix worker at Tramontana, informs Coryn that war is coming, and that the two towers must cease contact. Coryn urges his Neskaya colleagues to refuse to make laran weapons, such as clingfire.

Belisar Deslucido's forces are defeated in battle by the Hastur forces. Rumail, meanwhile, intends to deploy a laran weapon, but the Hastur laranzu'in explode the device early. Belisar deserts his dying men. Rumail survives, owing to compassionate assistance from the Hastur laranzu'in, and makes his way back to his brother.

Coryn leads Rafael Hastur's forces through the mountains at Verdanta, freeing his siblings from Deslucido's men. They gather local men to join the fight. Coryn's sister, Margarida, leaves for Thendara to join the Sisterhood of the Sword.

Book Four
Coryn returns to Neskaya Tower and urges his colleagues to join Hastur's cause.

Damian Deslucido learns that Verdanta Castle has been freed by Hastur. He marches out to meet the Hastur army. Taniquel, as regent queen of Acosta, joins the Hastur forces. They come under laran attack from Tramontana Tower, which Rumail now controls, but are able to throw off the veil of confusion. Taniquel ventures into the Overworld to organizes a counterattack by Hali and Neskaya Towers.

Neskaya and Tramontana attack each other in the Overworld. Rumail believes that a post-hypnotic suggestion he has implanted in Coryn years earlier will prevent Coryn from acting against him. Coryn is able to overcome Rumail, and Tramontana tower crumbles. Neskaya begins to crumble also.

Book Five
In battle, Taniquel takes Belisar Deslucido prisoner. She demands to know if he, also, has the ability to lie under truthspell. He confirms that he does. She learns that his father, Damian, has also been captured. Taniquel recommends to King Rafael that both be executed to wipe out the laran trait for lying under truthspell. After an audience with both men, Rafael comes to agree with Taniquel, and has them hung.

Taniquel learns that contact with Neskaya has been lost. She and her men ride to Neskaya and learn that the tower has collapsed. The surviving tower workers tell her that Coryn is trapped in the Overworld.

Taniquel enters the Overworld in an attempt to free Coryn.  She encounters what's left of Rumail Deslucido, and he tries to kill her, but fails. She finds Coryn but learns that he cannot leave the Overworld with his laran intact. She asks him to choose, and he chooses to return to the world with her.

Taniquel returns to Acosta, as regent for her infant son, with Coryn at her side as consort and paxman.

Epilogue
A ragged man, apparently Rumail Deslucido, arrives in a small village along the Kadarin River, with vengeance on his mind.

Characters
 Coryn Leynier, third son of Lord Beltran Leynier of Verdanta, laranzu.
 Taniquel Hastur-Acosta, niece of King Rafael Hastur II.
 Damian Deslucido, king of Ambervale-Linn.
 Rumail Deslucido, nedestro brother of Damian Deslucido, laranzu, dismissed from Neskaya Tower.
 Belisar Deslucido, son of Damian Deslucido.
 Rafael Hastur II, king of Hastur.

Publication history
 2001, USA, DAW Books , pub date July 2001, hardback
 2001, USA, Science Fiction Book Club #39176, pub date September 2001, hardcover
 2002, USA, DAW Books , pub date July 2002, paperback

References

Darkover books
2001 American novels
Novels by Marion Zimmer Bradley
American science fiction novels
DAW Books books
Novels published posthumously
Novels by Deborah J. Ross

The Fall of Neskaya


Perseus () is a hero in Greek mythology. He is the legendary founder of Mycenae and is most famous for killing the Gorgon Medusa. He is a demigod, the son of Zeus and the mortal princess Danaë. With his wife, the Ethiopian princess Andromeda, his children are the sons Perses, Alkaios, Sthenelos, Elektryon, and the daughter Gorgophone. Perseus is also the great-grandfather of Herakles, as well as his half-brother.

Birth
King Akrisios of Argos was told by an oracle that he would be killed by his grandchild. Because of that he put his daughter Danaë in a tower where no one was allowed to enter, so she could not have a child. But the god Zeus could enter in the form of a golden rain, and with him her child was Perseus.

Akrisios then put Danaë and her baby Perseus in a box and threw it into the sea. But Zeus tells the sea-god Poseidon to help them, and so Danaë and her son come to the island Seriphos. There they are found by Diktys, who lets them live with him.

A long time after that, the grown up Perseus takes part in some funeral games. During the games Perseus throws a discus, which accidentally hits Akrisios. Akrisios is killed by it: he was killed by his grandchild, like the oracle's prophecy said.

Perseus and Medusa

Perseus was sent to retreive Medusa's head by King Polydectes, who wanted him dead so he could marry his mother. To do this, he was advised by Athena to seek the Gray sisters, who told him how to fight Medusa when he stole their eye. Hermes lent Perseus winged sandals, Hades lent him his helm of darkness (which makes the wearer invisible), and Athena lent him a shield which he could see Medusa's reflection in, since whoever looked her in the eye would turn to stone. With all these magic items, Perseus was able to cut off Medusa's head. On the way back home, he fights a sea monster to save Andromeda, who is chained to a cliff as a sacrifice, and marries her.
People in Greek mythology

Perseus


ISO/IEC 8859-12 would have been part 12 of the ISO/IEC 8859 character encoding standard series.

ISO 8859-12 was originally proposed to support the Celtic languages. ISO 8859-12 was later slated for Latin/Devanagari, but this was abandoned in 1997, during the 12th meeting of ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2/WG 3 in Iraklion-Crete, Greece, 4 to 7 July 1997. The Celtic proposal was changed to ISO 8859-14, with part 12 possibly being reserved for ISCII Indian.

References

ISO/IEC 8859

ISO/IEC 8859-12


Frank Eugene Hook (May 26, 1893 – June 21, 1982) was a politician from the U.S. state of Michigan.

Hook was born in L'Anse, Michigan and graduated from L'Anse High School in 1912. He attended the College of Law of the University of Detroit and graduated from the law department of Valparaiso University in 1918. He served in the United States Army Infantry during World War I from July 1918 until February 1919.

After the war, he was employed in lumber woods and as an iron ore miner and also as a law clerk at Wakefield, Michigan, 1919–1924. He was a member of the board of supervisors of Gogebic County, 1921–1923. Admitted to the bar in 1924, he commenced practice in Wakefield. He was admitted to practice before the United States Supreme Court in 1936. He also served as city commissioner of Wakefield from 1921 to 1923 and as municipal judge of Wakefield in 1924 and 1925.

Hook moved to Ironwood in 1925 and continued the practice of law. He was president of WJMS Radio Station in Ironwood, 1930–1933 and was a delegate to Democratic National Conventions in 1936, 1940, 1944, and 1948.

In 1934, Hook was the Democratic Party candidate from Michigan's 12th congressional district for the U.S. House of Representatives. Hook defeated incumbent Republican W. Frank James in the general election to be elected to the 74th Congress and to the three succeeding Congresses, serving from January 3, 1935 to January 3, 1943. In 1942, Hook lost in the general election to Republican John B. Bennett (having previously defeated him in 1938 and 1940). In 1944, Hook defeated Bennett to reclaim the seat in the 79th Congress, serving from January 3, 1945 to January 3, 1947. He lost the seat again to Bennett in 1946. In 1948, he made an unsuccessful bid to be elected the United States Senate, losing to Republican Homer Ferguson.

Hook served under Presidents Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman. He voted to declare war upon Japan, when Congress was convened upon the attack on Pearl Harbor. Hook was instrumental in the establishment of Social Security and the minimum wage — part of Roosevelt's New Deal. He also proposed a bill to establish the Isle Royale National Park, located in Lake Superior and had the honor of dedicating it in August 1946.

In 1940, Hook alleged in Congress that Martin Dies had ties to William Dudley Pelley, the leader of a fascist organization, the Silver Legion of America. However, unbeknownst to him, the documents Hook used to make his case turned out to be forgeries.

Hook's moniker "Fightin' Frank," earned from high school days, was reinforced once again during an infamous bout on the floor of Congress. His nemesis, John Rankin of Mississippi, drew his ire, but could not cull a punch, as Hook was later quoted, "A gentleman cannot strike an old man." The wrassling match was physically initiated by Rankin jumping on Hook's back on Washington's birthday in 1945, during the session. The skirmish was the end result of a verbal exchange between Hook & Rankin concerning the former's support and the latter's denouncement of the C.I.O. Rankin hollered shouts of "communism!" while Hook defended the integrity of the organization. As to the disruption, Hook later recited a 3-minute apology, while Rankin maintained his own innocence. When Hook offered to resign if Rankin would also "...for the good of the country," Rankin "held his tongue" and the controversial exchange faded into obscurity.

Hook was a member of the President's Fair Employment Practices Committee in 1943 and 1944 and was appointed a member of Motor Carrier Claims Commission October 1, 1949, serving until his resignation August 22, 1950. He made several unsuccessful attempts to reclaim a seat in the U.S. House from the 12th district, losing in 1954 to Bennett in the general election, losing in 1956 and 1958 to Joseph S. Mack in the Democratic primary elections. In 1966, he lost to incumbent Raymond F. Clevenger in the Democratic primary for the 11th district.

He resumed the practice of law in Detroit and in 1953 moved to Ironwood where he reestablished his law practice. He was admitted to the Wisconsin bar in 1962 and was a resident of Edina, Minnesota, at the time of his death. He is interred in Fort Snelling National Cemetery in Minneapolis, Minnesota.

References

The Political Graveyard
"Fightin' Frank, The Biography of Upper Peninsula's 12th District Democratic Congressman" by Mary Louise Hook Allen

External links
President Truman stumps for Hook

1893 births
1982 deaths
People from L'Anse, Michigan
Valparaiso University alumni
American Lutherans
Burials in Minnesota
University of Detroit Mercy alumni
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Michigan
20th-century American politicians
People from Wakefield, Michigan
20th-century Lutherans

Frank Eugene Hook


In Egyptian mythology, Nut was the goddess of the sky. Her body made a protective layer over the Earth. Nut was the sister and wife of Geb, and the mother of (with Ra) Osiris, Nephthys,Isis and Seth and grandmother of Horus. Horus was also a grandchild of Ra.

The ancient Egyptians believed that Nut swallowed the sun-god, Ra, every night and gave birth to him every morning.

Worship
Although Nut was pictured in many temples and tombs, as well as on ceilings. She was not well observed in popular places.

Purpose

Nut was the goddess of the sky but had many other purposes as well. She had three other names: Nuit, Newet, and Nueth. Nut was known as the mother of all gods, including Ra (her grandfather) because she swallowed him up every night and gave birth to him again in the morning. She was also the mother of heavenly bodies, whose laughter was thunder and tears were rain. She often carried the sun across the sky. She played a part in funeral beliefs and was sometimes drawn on the tops of sarcophagi. Nut was one of the nine major gods. She was the personification of the sky and the heavens. Egyptians called her "the mother of the sky". Nut was one of the oldest deities among history.

Appearance
As the sky goddess, Nut was shown arching over Geb (earth god), her fingertips near his head and her toes by his feet. She was commonly pictured dark blue and wore no robes, although some Egyptians believed that Nut wore a rainbow-colored robe, with stars all over her body. Big paintings of her were often found on ceilings of tomb chambers. She can be seen with small vulture wings or a vase on her head. She was often shown as a cow, when carrying the sun across the sky. The cow was a very motherly figure.

Nut was a very beautiful and kind goddess. She was loving, and caring. She fell in love with Thoth, the god of knowledge, and Geb, the god of the Earth. She was a motherly figure and a very strong and independent goddess, for she would not marry just any person. She did what she wanted and when angered she never let anyone stand in her way.

Family

Nut had a strong relationship with Geb, her twin brother, as well as Thoth the god of scribes and wisdom. She was the goddess of the Sky and Geb was the god of the Earth. In the morning they were separated but at night they came together, which created the darkness. This is a story the ancient Egyptians used to explain their 365-day calendar. Nut loved Geb and Thoth, but she was married to Ra. When Ra found out about her secret loves, he was furious. He told Nut that she could not have any children on any of the 360 days of the year. This saddened her, so she went to Thoth for help. She gambled with Khonsu (the moon god) to create 5 more days, so she and Geb could have five children. The children were: Osiris was first, Horus was second, Set was third, Isis was fourth, and Nephthys was the fifth. She and Ra also had one daughter named Sekhmet, the lion goddess, who had a flip personality called Hathor the goddess of love and peace.
Nut is gorgeous and worshipped, and she was a protective goddess, like Bast (the cat goddess).

Calendar
The ancient Egyptians had three calendars, but the Agricultural one was the one that was used in everyday life. It was made up of three seasons, each containing four months. The seasons were Akhet, (the inundation) Peret (when the water retreated) and Shemu (harvest season). Nut loved Geb, but Ra was not happy that she loved Geb so he told Shu, their father (the air god) to separate them. Then, Ra put a curse on Nut so she could not have babies on any of the three-hundred sixty days of the year. Thoth wanted to let Nut be able to have babies so he challenged Khonsu, the moon god, to a game of Senet. If he won, he would be able to add five days to the year. If he lost, he would be killed. Thoth won and added five more days to the year. On the first day, Nut had Osiris to replace Ra, but Set later deceived him and Osiris became god of the underworld. On the second day she had Horus, the war god. On the third day, she had Set, the god of storms, evil, and Chaos, on the forth day she had Isis the goddess of magic, and on the fifth day she had Nephthys the river goddess. After a long time, the Egyptians realized the calendar was off because they did not have the quarter day at the end, like we do by having leap years. The calendar said it was flood season, but the flood did not come until later. The ancient Egyptians noticed the star Sirius would rise right before the flood. They used this as the beginning of the year and as the beginning of flooding.

Notes and references
 Fleming, Fergus & Lothian, Alan The Way to Eternity P. 52
 Lesko, Barbara The Great Goddesses of Egypt pp. 22–23
 Thames & Hudson The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient #Egypt p. 160-61
 Lons, Veronica, Egyptian Mythology pp. 48–50
 Lurker, Manfred The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Egypt P. 90

Other websites
 http://www.gwydir.demon.co.uk/jo/egypt/nutgeb.htm#
 http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/nut.htm
 http://www.ancient-egypt.org/index.html
 http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/egypt/dailylife/calendar.html
 http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/animalgods.htm
 http://www.philae.nu/akhet/netjern.html
 http://www.goddessgift.com/goddess-myths/goddess-nut.htm

Egyptian gods and goddesses
Gods and goddesses of the sky

Nut (goddess)