Peter Kenneth Frampton (born 22 April 1950) is an English-American guitarist, singer and songwriter who rose to prominence as a member of the rock bands the Herd and Humble Pie. Later in his career Frampton found significant success as a solo artist. He has released several albums, including his breakthrough album, the live release Frampton Comes Alive! (1976), which spawned several hit singles and has earned 8× Platinum by the RIAA in the United States. He has also worked with various acts such as Ringo Starr, the Who's John Entwistle, David Bowie, and both Matt Cameron and Mike McCready of Pearl Jam.

Frampton is known for his hit songs "Show Me the Way", "Baby, I Love Your Way", "Do You Feel Like We Do", and "I'm in You", all of which remain staples of classic rock radio. He has also appeared as himself in television shows such as The Simpsons, Family Guy, and Madam Secretary.

Early life
Peter Kenneth Frampton was born to Owen Frampton and Peggy (née ) Frampton in Beckenham, Kent. He attended Bromley Technical High School, at which his father was a teacher and the head of the Art department. He first became interested in music when he was seven years old. Having discovered his grandmother's banjolele in the attic, he taught himself to play it, going on to later teach himself how to play guitar and piano as well.  At the age of eight, he began taking classical music lessons.

His early influences came from Cliff Richard & the Shadows, Buddy Holly, Eddie Cochran and later the Ventures, Jimi Hendrix and the Beatles. His father introduced him to the recordings of French gypsy jazz guitarist Django Reinhardt.

Music career

Early bands
By the age of 12, Frampton played in a band called the Little Ravens. Both he and David Bowie, who was three years older, were pupils at Bromley Technical School where Frampton's father was Bowie's art teacher. The Little Ravens played on the same bill at school as Bowie's band, George and the Dragons. Peter and David would spend lunch breaks together, playing Buddy Holly songs.

At the age of 14, Peter was playing with a band called the Trubeats followed by a band called the Preachers, who later became Moon's Train, produced and managed by Bill Wyman of the Rolling Stones. Frampton's parents were at the time concerned about their son playing regular late night gigs whilst still at school, so Alex Brown, a member of The Preachers, was designated to meet his parents at their house, along with his son Steven, to show that the band members were responsible people. After this meeting, Frampton was allowed to join the band.

He became a successful child singer, and in 1966 he became a member of the Herd. He was the lead guitarist and singer, scoring several British pop hits. Frampton was named "The Face of 1968" by teen magazine Rave.

In 1969, when Frampton was 18 years old, he joined Steve Marriott of the Small Faces to form Humble Pie.

While playing with Humble Pie, Frampton also did session recording with other artists, including: George Harrison, Harry Nilsson, Jerry Lee Lewis, and John Entwistle's Whistle Rymes in 1972. Pete Drake introduced him to the "talk box" that was to become one of his trademark guitar effects.

Solo career
After four studio albums and one live album with Humble Pie, Frampton left the band and went solo in 1971, just in time to see Rockin' the Fillmore rise up the US charts. He remained with Dee Anthony (1926-2009), the same personal manager that Humble Pie had used.

His own debut was 1972's Wind of Change, with guest artists Ringo Starr and Billy Preston. This album was followed by Frampton's Camel in 1973, which featured Frampton working within a group project. In 1974, Frampton released Somethin's Happening. Frampton toured extensively to support his solo career, joined for three years by his former Herd mate Andy Bown on keyboards, Rick Wills on bass, and American drummer John Siomos. In 1975, the Frampton album was released. The album went to No. 32 in the US charts and is certified Gold by the RIAA.

Peter Frampton had little commercial success with his early albums. This changed with Frampton's best-selling live album, Frampton Comes Alive!, in 1976, from which "Baby, I Love Your Way", "Show Me the Way", and an edited version of "Do You Feel Like We Do", were hit singles. The latter two tracks also featured his use of the talk box guitar effect. The album was recorded in 1975, mainly at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco, California, where Humble Pie had previously enjoyed a good following. Frampton had a new line-up, with Americans Bob Mayo on keyboards and rhythm guitar and Stanley Sheldon on bass. Wills had been sacked by Frampton at the end of 1974, and Bown had left on the eve of Frampton Comes Alive, to return to England and new fame with Status Quo. Frampton Comes Alive was released in early January, debuting on the charts on 14 February at number 191. The album was on the Billboard 200 for 97 weeks, of which 55 were in the top 40, of which 10 were at the top. The album beat, among others, Fleetwood Mac's Fleetwood Mac to become the top selling album of 1976, and it was also the 14th best seller of 1977. The album won Frampton a Juno Award in 1977.

A tribute to the album's staying power, readers of Rolling Stone ranked Frampton Comes Alive No. 3 in a 2012 poll of all-time favourite live albums. The article's text stated, "He was loved by teenage girls, and their older brothers. He owned the year 1976 like nobody else in rock." The success of Frampton Comes Alive! put him on the cover of Rolling Stone, in a famous shirtless photo by Francesco Scavullo. Frampton later said he regrets the photo because it changed his image as a credible artist into a teen idol.

In late 1976, he and manager Dee Anthony visited the White House at the invitation of Steven Ford, the president's son.

On 24 August 1979, Frampton received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6819 Hollywood Boulevard for his contributions to the recording industry.

Setbacks
Frampton's following album, I'm in You (1977), contained the hit title single and went platinum, but fell well short of expectations compared to Frampton Comes Alive!.

He starred, with the Bee Gees, in producer Robert Stigwood's poorly received film Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1978). Frampton's career seemed to be falling as quickly as it had risen. He also played guitar on the title song of the 1978 film Grease, a song newly written for the film by Barry Gibb.

Frampton suffered a near-fatal car accident in the Bahamas in 1978 that marked the end of his prolific period and the beginning of a long fallow period where he was less successful than previously. He returned to the studio in 1979 to record the album Where I Should Be. Among those contributing to the album were past band members Stanley Sheldon (bass), Bob Mayo (keyboards/guitar/vocals), and John Siomos (drums/vocals).

In 1980, his album Rise Up was released to promote his tour in Brazil, although he suffered another serious setback that year when all his guitars were thought destroyed in a cargo plane crash that killed four people. Among the instruments he lost was the black Les Paul Custom which he had named "Phenix" (pictured on the cover of Frampton Comes Alive) given to him by Mark Mariana and first used on the night of the recording of the Humble Pie live album Performance, and which he had used all through his early solo career. The guitar was recovered and returned to him in December 2011. The album eventually turned into Breaking All the Rules, released the next year in 1981. These albums were the first he recorded almost completely live. In 1982, following the release of The Art of Control, Frampton tried unsuccessfully to split his ties with A&M Records; he, however, re-signed with the label in 2006 and released his Grammy Award–winning Fingerprints.

Return
Although his albums generally met with little commercial success, Frampton continued to record throughout the 1980s. He did, however, achieve a brief, moderate comeback of sorts in 1986 with the release of his Premonition album, and the single "Lying", which became a big hit on the Mainstream Rock charts. Most notably, he also united with old friend David Bowie, and both worked together to make albums. Frampton played on Bowie's 1987 album Never Let Me Down and sang and played on the accompanying Glass Spider Tour. Frampton would, in 2013, credit his participation in this tour for helping revive his career.

Looking for the band experience again after touring with Bowie, Frampton kept referencing Steve Marriott, and at the beginning of 1991 rejoined his old Humble Pie mate for some shows (Marriott's last English gigs) at the Half Moon in Putney, London. The chemistry was still there for a while, as both Frampton and Marriott laid down some tracks in L.A. and prepared to do a "Frampton-Marriott" tour. However, Marriott abruptly returned to England in April and he died in a house fire less than 24 hours after his return. Broken up by Marriott's death, Frampton went off the road for a time, then reformed his old touring band with his old friends Bob Mayo and John Regan.  At least three songs, and possibly a fourth, from the ended Marriott-Frampton partnership were subsequently recorded; two ending up on Frampton's "Shine On" compilation, a third on his subsequent solo album.

In the late 1990s, he starred in an infomercial plugging the internationally successful eMedia Guitar Method, a piece of instructional software represented as an alternative to taking actual guitar lessons. He claimed in the infomercial that the software was the best way to learn guitar.

In 1994, Frampton wrote and released the album Peter Frampton, the final version of which contained material recorded on Tascam cassette recorders. Originally released on the Relativity label, this record was re-released in 2000 by Legacy Records, with four bonus tracks and additional notes by Peter.

In 1995, Frampton released Frampton Comes Alive! II, which contained live versions of many of the songs from his 1980s and 1990s solo albums. Frampton Comes Alive! II was recorded at The Fillmore Theater on 15 June 1995. Although there was a large amount of marketing for the album, it did not sell well. After Frampton Comes Alive! II, he recorded and toured with Bill Wyman's Rhythm Kings and Ringo Starr's All-Starr Band, where he and Jack Bruce performed a cover version of Cream's "Sunshine of Your Love".

In 2003, Frampton released the album Now, and embarked on a tour with Styx to support it. It was on this tour in 2004 he lost good friend and long time bandmate Bob Mayo. He also toured with the Elms, and appeared in 2006 on the Fox Broadcasting variety show Celebrity Duets, paired with Chris Jericho of WWE fame. They were the first pair voted out.

On 12 September 2006, Frampton released an instrumental work titled Fingerprints. His band consisted of drummer Shawn Fichter, guitarist Audley Freed, bassist John Regan (Frampton's lifelong best friend,), and keyboardist-guitarist Rob Arthur, and guest artists such as members of Pearl Jam, Hank Marvin, Warren Haynes and his bassist on Frampton Comes Alive!, Stanley Sheldon – the only member of the backing band on that album still alive.

Recent events
On 11 February 2007, Fingerprints was awarded the 2007 Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Album. In February 2007, he also appeared on the Chicago-based PBS television show Soundstage.

Frampton released his 14th studio album, Thank You Mr. Churchill, on 27 April 2010. In summer 2010 he began touring North America with the English band Yes; the two acts had played stadium shows on a bill together in 1976. His 2010 band consisted of Rob Arthur (keyboards, guitar, backing vocals), John Regan (bass), Adam Lester (guitar), and Dan Wojciechowski (drums).

He embarked on a UK Tour in March 2011 in support of his new album, visiting Leamington Spa, Glasgow, Manchester, London and Bristol.

Frampton went on tour in 2011 with The Frampton Comes Alive 35th Anniversary Tour that showcased and followed exactly the songs on the play list for the original tour from 1976, recorded for the famous Frampton Comes Alive! The concerts each night started with the prerecorded thump of a microphone being turned on, familiar to many fans of the album, followed by the recorded voice of Jerry Pompili saying, "If there was ever a musician that was an honorary member of San Francisco society, Mr. Peter Frampton ...", and then the crowd goes wild. He played the album song-for-song at 69 locations between 15 June 2011, and 22 October 2011, throughout the US.

On 11 June 2011, Frampton performed a live set for "Guitar Center Sessions" on DirecTV. The episode included an interview with program host Nic Harcourt.

In 2013, he performed throughout North America as part of the "Frampton's Guitar Circus" tour which featured periodic guest performers including B.B. King, Robert Cray, Don Felder, Rick Derringer, Kenny Wayne Shepherd, Steve Lukather, Sonny Landreth, Davy Knowles, David Hidalgo, Mike McCready, Roger McGuinn and Vinnie Moore.

On 9 February 2014, Frampton was one of several musicians to participate in The Night That Changed America: A Grammy Salute to The Beatles a tribute to the Beatles on the 50th anniversary of their first appearance on American television.

On 23 June 2014, Frampton released a new album entitled Hummingbird in a Box.

On 11 June 2015, Frampton announced his new studio album: Acoustic Classics; then, on 14 January 2016, he launched the first song: a version of "Do You Feel Like I Do".

In 2016, Frampton was inducted into the Musicians Hall of Fame and Museum.

In 2017 and 2018, Frampton toured with the Steve Miller Band, opening the show.

On 22 February 2019, Frampton announced he would be retiring from touring with his 'Peter Frampton Finale—The Farewell Tour' commencing on 18 June 2019 in Tulsa, Oklahoma, running through 12 October ending in Concord, California at the Concord Pavilion. The tour featured special guest Jason Bonham's Led Zeppelin Evening, as well as Peter's son Julian Frampton on the West Coast stops. He also revealed the reason for the farewell tour; he received a diagnosis of inclusion body myositis (IBM), a progressive muscle disorder characterised by muscle inflammation, weakness, and atrophy (wasting). A dollar of every ticket sold for the tour was donated to benefit Frampton's myositis research fund established at Johns Hopkins, where he was treated.

In June 2019, his most recent album, All Blues, debuted at number one in the Billboard Top Blues Albums Chart.

In December 2019, Frampton announced his farewell UK tour to consist of five performances in May 2020. In April this UK/EU tour was cancelled "because of the COVID-19 virus". In November 2022 Frampton resumed his Finale, the Farewell Tour with three dates in the UK (Stoke, Glasgow, London) and five more in Europe, then one concert at Joe Satriani's workshop in Las Vegas,  announcing in advance that he would be seated on stage during these performances. "Standing", he told Guitar World in September 2022, "would be dangerous for me now, because I get so carried away when I'm playing that I'm liable to fall over". Of how the disease is affecting his ability to actually play the guitar, Frampton continued, "It's starting to affect my hands, but not enough yet, so I can still play a good lick. But I'll be honest, I'm anxious about it."

On 6 August 2022, Frampton came out of retirement for one night to perform during "Buddy Holly's 85th Birthday Celebration" at the Buddy Holly Hall of Performing Arts and Sciences in Lubbock, Texas. "I sat down for the first time ever on stage," he told Guitar World later. "And it felt very comfortable [laughs]. Better than leaning on a piano."

As of 2023, Frampton embarked on a tour entitled, Never Say Never. Frampton has noted that he didn't expect to be able to play again as a result of his diagnosis. He has stated that while his fingers don't work as well as they used to, they worked better than he thought they would — citing it as reason-enough to keep doing what he loved on stage.

Media appearances
In 1974, Frampton appeared in the movie The Son of Dracula as a guitarist in the Count Downes.

In 1978, he portrayed coastwatcher Peter Buckley in an episode of the World War II drama series Baa Baa Black Sheep titled "A Little Bit of England".

In 1978, he played Billy Shears in the movie Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band starring along with the three brothers Gibb of the band the Bee Gees. The movie was inspired by the Beatles album of the same name. Critics were hostile, and the film was a box-office failure.

In 1978, he appeared on the parody talk show, America 2-Night.

In 1988, he appeared in the video release of David Bowie's Glass Spider, a video recording of the 1987 tour of the same name.

In 1996, he appeared in an episode of The Simpsons entitled "Homerpalooza", in which he played "Do You Feel Like We Do". He also made a TV appearance in the Family Guy episode "Death Lives", in which Peter Griffin asks Death to bring Peter Frampton to play "Baby, I Love Your Way" to Lois.

Also in 2000, he served as a technical advisor for Cameron Crowe's autobiographical film, Almost Famous. He wrote some of the songs performed by the fictional band "Stillwater" in the film, supplied guitar tracks, and was the guitar instructor for Billy Crudup, who starred as Russell Hammond, the guitarist for the band. Crudup is quoted as saying, "Who could ask for a better tutor than Peter Frampton?" As an inside joke, he also appears briefly in the film as "Reg", a road manager for Humble Pie, Frampton's real-life former band.

In 2001, he appeared as himself in Drew Carey's Back-to-School Rock 'n' Roll Comedy Hour, in which he performs "You Had To Be There" and appears in a brief scene with Mimi, in which he recalls their past relationship.

On 20 December 2006, he appeared on The Colbert Report. Stephen Colbert had a fake feud with the Decemberists to be decided by a head cutting duel. When Colbert faked an injury, Colbert called on Father Christmas to supply a guitar hero, at which point Frampton appeared and won the shred-down.

On 23 April 2010, he became the all-time celebrity champion of the trivia game called No Apparent Reason, with five correctly answered questions on the nationally syndicated Mark and Brian Radio Program originating from KLOS Los Angeles. However, on 5 May 2010, Frampton was reduced to second place after only two weeks by Luke Perry's answering six questions correctly.

On 4 November 2010, he appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show as one of her favourite musicians.

On 21 October 2011, he was honoured at Music City's at Walk of Fame Park in Nashville, Tennessee.

On 2 March 2016, he was interviewed and performed on the Howard Stern Show.

On 17 March 2016 he performed a NPR Music Tiny Desk Concert with guitarist Gordon Kennedy.  The performance was published on 27 April 2016 on the
NPR Music YouTube channel.

On 6 January 2019, he appeared as himself on Madam Secretary, where he performed a small portion of "Baby I Love Your Way".  He similarly appeared on the final episode of that program (aired 7 December 2019) performing numerous songs at the wedding of the President's daughter.

On 6 August 2021, he challenged OJ Borg through his Radio 2 game "Mid-Afternoon Mastermind" (as OJ was covering for Steve Wright's afternoon show). The subject was Peter Frampton, and OJ scored 2/3.

Personal life

Marriages, other relationships and family
Frampton has been married three times and has three children.

His first marriage was to Mary Lovett, from 1972 to 1976.

He was sued by Penelope J. "Penny" McCall in 1978 for palimony. McCall asked for half of Frampton's earnings during the five years that they were together. According to McCall, she left her husband and gave up her job as a rock promoter and devoted herself full-time to Frampton, just as he achieved superstar status. A New York judge ruled that Frampton and McCall never intended to marry each other and "never held themselves out to the public as husband and wife" and dismissed her complaint because to act otherwise would condone adultery. The case set precedent in New York.

From 1983 to 1993, Frampton was married to Barbara Gold, with whom he had two children named Jade and Julian. The latter co-wrote and sang on Frampton's song "Road to the Sun" from Thank You Mr. Churchill.

His third marriage was on 13 January 1996 to Tina Elfers, with whom he had a daughter, actress Mia Frampton, and a stepdaughter named Tiffany Wiest. Frampton filed for divorce from Elfers in Los Angeles, California, on 22 June 2011, citing irreconcilable differences.

Other
In June 1978, Frampton was involved in a near-fatal car accident in the Bahamas and suffered broken bones, a concussion, and muscle damage. Dealing with the pain of the accident led to a brief period of drug abuse.

Frampton has lived in London and various U.S. locations, including Westchester County, New York; Los Angeles; and Nashville, Tennessee. He moved to Indian Hill, Ohio, a suburb of Cincinnati, in June 2000. This is the birthplace of his ex-wife Elfers, and the city in which they were married in 1996. They chose to live there to be closer to Elfers' family. In 2014, Frampton moved back to Nashville.

Frampton cites the September 11 attacks as his reason for obtaining American citizenship, saying he wanted to begin voting in U.S. elections.

He is a vegetarian.

On 20 October 2020, Frampton published his memoir Do You Feel Like I Do?, co-written with Alan Light.

In December 2022, it was announced BMG had acquired the rights to Frampton's catalogue.

Equipment
On the cover of the double live album Frampton Comes Alive, Frampton plays a highly customized 1954 black Gibson Les Paul Custom that was given to him during a concert by his friend, Marc Mariana. However, he lost it in a cargo plane crash in Venezuela. Frampton and the Les Paul were reunited 30 years later. He continues to play the Les Paul now known as the "Phenix".

Frampton was known as the artist who made the talk box famous. Frampton's talk box was used to transfer the guitar's sound through a plastic tube attached to a microphone. The effect is Frampton's melodic guitar simulating speech while asking the audience on the live track "Do You Feel Like We Do?" Frampton also now sells his own line of custom-designed "Frampton" products, including the talk box.

In 1987, Frampton played two natural-finish maple bodies Pensa-Suhr Strat types, hand-made by New York-based John Suhr. He used a Coral electric sitar, given to him in the late 70s and previously owned by Jimi Hendrix, on David Bowie's 1987 album Never Let Me Down.

Discography

 Wind of Change (1972)
 Frampton's Camel (1973)
 Somethin's Happening (1974)
 Frampton (1975)
 Frampton Comes Alive! (1976)
 I'm in You (1977)
 Where I Should Be (1979)
 Rise Up (1980)
 Breaking All the Rules (1981)
 The Art of Control (1982)
 Premonition (1986)
 When All the Pieces Fit (1989)
 Peter Frampton (1994)
 Frampton Comes Alive! II (1995)
 Now (2003)
 Fingerprints (2006)
 Thank You Mr. Churchill (2010)
 Hummingbird in a Box (2014)
 Acoustic Classics (2016)
 All Blues (2019)
 Frampton Forgets the Words (Instrumental cover tracks) (2021)

References

External links

 Audio interview at BBC Wiltshire
 Five audio interview segments with Peter Frampton from 1986
 Peter Frampton Live Photo Gallery
 The Herd at Harvey Lisberg

1950 births
Living people
20th-century British guitarists
20th-century English male singers
21st-century British guitarists
21st-century English male singers
A&M Records artists
English autobiographers
English child singers
English expatriates in the United States
English male guitarists
English male singer-songwriters
English rock guitarists
English rock singers
Grammy Award winners
Humble Pie (band) members
Juno Award for International Album of the Year winners
Lead guitarists
Musicians from Kent
Naturalized citizens of the United States
People from Beckenham
People from Indian Hill, Ohio
Ringo Starr & His All-Starr Band members
Singers from London
Singers from Nashville, Tennessee
The Herd (British band) members

Peter Frampton


Minhag ( "custom", classical pl. מנהגות, modern pl. מנהגים, minhagim) is an accepted tradition or group of traditions in Judaism. A related concept, Nusach (נוסח), refers to the traditional order and form of the prayers.

Etymology

The Hebrew root N-H-G () means primarily "to drive" or, by extension, "to conduct (oneself)".

The actual word minhag appears twice in the Hebrew Bible; both times in the same verse and translated as "driving":

Homiletically, one could argue that the use of the word minhag in Jewish law reflects its Biblical Hebrew origins as "the (manner of) driving (a chariot)".  Whereas Halakha (law), from the word for "walking-path," means the path or road set  for the journey, minhag (custom), from the word for driving, means the manner people have developed themselves to travel down that path more quickly.

The present use of minhag for "custom" may have been influenced by the Arabic minhaj; in current Islamic usage, this term is used for the intellectual methodology of a scholar or school of thought (cf. Hebrew  derech) rather than for the customs of a local or ethnic community.

Minhag and Jewish law
In addition to the 613 commandments, Jews have traditionally considered Halacha (Jewish law as derived from the Talmud, responsa literature, Torah, and later codes) binding upon all Jews. In addition to these, there have always been customs and traditions not in the law itself. Some customs were at some points universally adopted (e.g., head-covering among men) or almost universally (e.g., monogamy). Others were or are observed by major segments of Jewry but not by others (e.g., not eating kitniyot on Passover). Other customs are bound to certain localities or groups that originated in certain localities.
These minhagim exist in various forms:
 Ancient minhagim go back to the time of the Talmud and earlier. Today, they are generally regarded as universally binding. The oldest recorded minhag is that of 'beating the Aravot' (willow branches) on Hoshana Rabbah is believed to date back to the era of the Hebrew prophets.
 Later minhagim are followed by specific groups.
 Jews whose ancestors continued to live in the Middle East and Africa until the establishment of the State of Israel, regardless of where they live now, tend to follow a variety of customs, such as Mizrahi, Sephardi, or Temani Jews. Jews whose ancestors lived in Central Europe in the Middle Ages (regardless of where they live now) tend to follow Ashkenazic customs, while those whose families originated in the Iberian peninsula generally follow Sephardic customs. (The Talmud gives detailed rules for people who visit or move to a locale where the custom differs from their own.) Hasidim tend to follow their own minhagim.
 Within these broad categories there are also sub-groups by origin (e.g., Lithuanian, Polish, or German customs), by location (e.g., "minhag Yerushalayim") or by denominational affiliation (e.g., Skverrer Hasidim follow different customs than Chabad Hasidim).
 Families and even individuals may adhere to specific minhagim not followed by others.

Discussion in rabbinic literature
Various sources in rabbinic literature stress the importance of a long-held tradition, culminating in the statement "the minhag of our fathers is [equivalent to] Torah". Custom can thus determine Halachic practice in cases of disagreement among rabbinic authorities. In numerous instances, Rabbi Moses Isserles warns that one should not abolish long-held customs. (Isserles' gloss on the Shulchan Aruch was, in fact, written so as to delineate Ashkenazi minhagim alongside Sephardi practices in the same code of law.)

Despite the above, a minhag does not override clear biblical or Talmudic enactments, and one may not transgress the latter for the sake of the former. In fact, any minhag that intrinsically involves an element of Halacha violation is considered null and void.

The Talmud rules that a valid minhag accepted by previous generations of a family or community is binding upon all later generations. The Rosh states that the Talmud's ruling fundamentally applies to practices undertaken by learned individuals; innovations by the unlearned need only be followed publicly. Other Halachic authorities hold that the Talmud's ruling applies to all valid practices initiated by either learned or unlearned individuals.

In most cases, personal acceptance of a new minhag is tantamount to vowing performance of that minhag. Consequently, abandonment of such a minhag typically requires hatarat nedarim or sh'eilat chakham: Halachic procedures for absolving oneself from oaths. This was often necessary when, for example, an Ashkenazi Jew moved to the Ottoman Empire and wished to join the local Sephardi community.

Changing minhagim
Jewish law provides for a number of mechanisms to change or remove a custom when it is held to be mistaken or illogical. Orthodox rabbi and historian of Jewish law Menachem Elon writes:

Custom, because of its spontaneous and undirected nature, sometimes calls for a measure of supervision and control. At times a custom may be founded on error, or develop unreasonably or illogically in a certain direction, or may even be in conflict with substantive and fundamental principles of Jewish law in a manner leaving no room for its integration into the system. From time to time the halakhic scholars exercised such control in order to contain or discredit entirely a particular custom.

Present day
The acute displacement brought about by World War II and the Holocaust, and the large-scale immigration to the United States, various European countries, and especially the State of Israel, have led to a mixing of various minhagim and arguably the gradual disuse of certain customs. In addition, the baal teshuva movement has created a large group who have no clear tradition from their parents. In response to these phenomena, certain scholars have focused on the minhagim, and attempts have been made to revive minhagim that have fallen into disuse.

Nusach
Nusach (properly nósach) primarily means "text" or "version"; the correct wording of a religious text. Thus, the nusach tefillah is the text of the prayers generally or as used by a particular community. In common use, nusach has come to signify the entire liturgical tradition of the community, including the musical rendition. It is narrower than minhag, which can refer to custom in any field and not necessarily that of communal prayer.

Both nusach and minhag can thus be used for liturgic rite or liturgic tradition; sometimes, a nusach appears to be a subdivision of a minhag or vice versa; see different Jewish rites and popular siddurim under Siddur. In general, one must pray according to one's "nusach of origin" unless one has formally joined a different community and accepted its minhag. (Perisha rules that if one abandons a nusach that has been accepted universally by the wider Jewish community, his prayer is disqualified and must be repeated using the accepted nusach: Arba'ah Turim, Orach Chayim, 120 ad loc).

The main segments of traditional Judaism, as differentiated by nusach (broadly and narrowly), are these:
 Nusach Ashkenaz: the general Ashkenazi rite of non-Chasidim can be subdivided into:
 Minhag Ashkenaz (German rite)
 Minhag Polin/Lita (Polish/Lithuanian/Prague rite)
 Nusach Sefard or Nusach Ari (Ashkenazi Chasidic rite, heavily influenced by the teachings of Sephardi Kabbalists)
 Minhag Sefaradi: in general refers to the various Sephardi liturgies, but also to obligation/permissibility of Kabbalistic elements within the rite.  Versions of this are:
 The Spanish and Portuguese Jewish Rite
 Nusach Morocco (Moroccan rite: there are differences between the Spanish-Moroccan and the Arab-Moroccan customs)
 Nusach HaChida (The Chida'''s rite, named after Rabbi Chaim Joseph David Azulai: often used by North African Jews)
 Nusach Livorno (Sephardic rite from nineteenth-century editions printed in Italy and often used by North African Jews)
 Minhag Edot HaMizrach: often used to mean the Baghdadi rite, is more or less influenced by the Sephardi minhag
 Nosach Teiman, can be subdivided into:
 Nosach Baladi, closely resembling the original Yemenite rite, but with later additions
 The form used by Dor Daim, who attempt to safeguard the oldest Baladi tradition of Yemenite Jewish observance, is the version originally used by all Yemenite Jews near the time of Maimonides.
 Nosach Shami, adopted from Sephardic siddurim. Rabbi Shalom ben Aharon HaKohen Iraqi would go to a different synagogue each Shabbath with printed Sephardic siddurim, requesting that they pray in the Sephardic rite and forcing it upon them if necessary
 Nusach Eretz Yisrael; has not survived in any community, though an attempt to revive it has been made by Rabbi David Bar-Hayim of Machon Shilo; however it is thought to have had some influence on:
 Nusach Ashkenaz
 Minhag Italiani and Minhag Benè Romì, see Italian Jews
 Minhag Romania, the rite of the Romaniotes, that is, the original Greek Jewish community as distinct from the Sephardim

See also
Metuentes

References

External links and resources
 References
  Custom, jewishencyclopedia.com
  A Historical Map of Jewish Liturgical Influence and Variation
  The Rules of Halacha, Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan
  Customs (Minhagim), nishmat.net

 Resources
 Rabbinic literature
  Sages of Ashkenaz Database - Online collection of minhag seforim
 Minhagei Maharil, Rabbi Yaakov ben Moshe Levi Moelin (Maharil), 1556.
 "Sefer HaMinhagim" (Hebrew Fulltext, PDF) Rabbi Isaac Tyrnau, 1566.
 "Ta'amei HaMinhagim", Rabbi A. I. Sperling, 1896; translation: "Reasons for Jewish customs and traditions". Bloch Pub. Co 1968.
 "Likutei Maharich". Rabbi Yisroel Chaim Freedman of Rachov.
 "Sefer HaMinhagim", Rabbis M. Greenglass and Y. Groner, 1966; translation: "The Book of Chabad-Lubavitch Customs". Sichos In English Pub. 1998.
 "Otzar Ta'amei ha-Minhagim", Rabbi Shmuel Gelbard, 1995; translation: "Rite and Reason"  Feldheim Pub. 1997
 General
 "The Biblical and Historical Background of Jewish Customs and Ceremonies", Rabbi Abraham Bloch. Ktav 1980.
 "The Minhagim: The Customs and Ceremonies of Judaism, Their Origins and Rationale", Rabbi Abraham Chill. Sepher Hermon 1978.
 "To Be a Jew: A Guide to Jewish Observance in Contemporary Life", Rabbi Hayim Donin. Basic Books 1991.
 "Jewish Book of Why", Rabbi Alfred J. Kolatch. Jonathan David 1995.
 "Minhagei Yisrael: Origins and History", Rabbi Daniel Sperber. Mossad Harav Kook, 1998.
 "The Complete Book of Jewish Observance", Rabbi Leo Trepp. Behrman House Publishing 1980.
 "Jewish Spiritual Practices", Yitzhak Buxbaum. Jason Aronson Inc. 1994.  (hardcover)  (paperback)

Hebrew words and phrases in Jewish law
Jewish law and rituals
Jewish life cycle

Minhag


The Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma Mk-2 is a medium helicopter designed and built in France by Eurocopter. It's a modernized variant of the Eurocopter AS-332 Super Puma. Originally civilian, it's also a military helicopter, used for transport, search and rescue, and support. Maiden flight in 2000, it's in production in 2013. Some are used by French Navy as replacement of formers Super Frelon.

French military aircraft
Helicopters
EC225 Super Puma Mk-2

Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma Mk-2


Hecuba (also Hekuba or Hekabe) was a person in Greek mythology. She was the wife of King Priam of Troy.

Her children with Priam were: Sons: Hector, Paris, Deiphobos, Helenos, Pammon, Polites, Antiphus, Hipponous, Polydoros. And daughters: Ilione, Creusa, Laodice, Polyxena, and Kassandra.

After the Trojan War she became a slave of Odysseus.

People in Greek mythology
Slaves

Hecuba


Kata (型, 形 means: "the form") is a Japanese word which is used in some martial arts and theatre (as kabuki). In karate, this word describes a simulation of combat—the sequence of movements—which is given in detail and is trained individually or in group. Before learning it, the martial artist has to try the training of basic technique called kihon.

Such simulation represents a sequence of movements, the attack and the defence in an imagined combat. Every attack must be made as if there were an opponent in front of the karateka (the karate fighter) in order to reach him, and every defence must be made as if the opponent attacked in a real situation of danger. Every movement has an interpretation. The karateka has to show the consideration for its timing and ability to use it.

The goal of the kata is help in the development of the qualities and the abilities both psychological and of the body. These abilities are necessary for the real combat.

Japanese martial arts

Kata


The Game of Life is a popular board game. Players spin a spinner, which tells them where to go next. They then go through an imaginary "life," getting married and having kids. The object of the game is to have more money than the other players by the end of the game.

Board games

The Game of Life


A group is any column on the periodic table. Elements in the same group usually have similar properties, because they have the same number of electrons in the outermost electron shell. There are eight main groups of elements, numbered 1, 2, and 13-18. The other ten groups are transition metals:

Group 1: the alkali metals (lithium family) *not including hydrogen
Group 2: the alkaline earth metals (beryllium family)
Groups 3-12: the transition metals
Group 13: the triels (boron family)
Group 14: the tetrels (carbon family)
Group 15: the pnictogens (nitrogen family)
Group 16: the chalcogens (oxygen family)
Group 17: the halogens (fluorine family)
Group 18: the noble gases (helium/neon family)

Alkali Metals
See Alkali metal

The most reactive metals consisting of Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb), Cesium (Cs), and Francium (Fr)
 never include hydrogen.

Alkaline Earth Metals
See Alkaline earth metal. They consist of Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba), Radium (Ra)

Transition groups
See Transition metals. Transition Metals are the most number of elements in the periodic table. They consist of Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), Chromium (Cr), Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni), Manganese (Mn), Mercury (Hg), Scandium (Sc), Titanium (Ti), Vanadium (V), Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), Cadmium (Cd), Tungsten (W), Platinum (Pt), Yttrium (Y), Molybdenum (Mo) and others.

The noble gases
The noble gases are the 18th group in the periodic table. They consist of Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), and Radon (Rn). They were previously called Inert gases due to their inert properties.
Periodic table

Group (periodic table)


Transcription means to listen to a recorded voice and to write down what it is saying. Medical transcription means to do this for doctors or other clinicians.

When doctors and nurses help someone in the hospital, they do not have time to write down what they saw or heard. So later they record what they saw and heard, so someone else can write it down. The notes are then added to the hospital's history. The person who does this as a profession is called a medical transcriptionist.

People who do medical transcription normally work in hospitals, doctor's offices, old age homes, and other places where doctors and nurses work.

There is huge rise in outsourcing of Medical Transcription to other companies. In the United States this field of business is worth US$10 to $25 billion and growing 15 percent each year.
Because of rising costs of Medical Transcription it became recently popular to use different computer products (software) that can reduce transcription costs by as much as 50%. There is no available research about market share between in-house Transcription, outsourcing and software based.

Education
People who do medical transcription do not need as much education as doctors, but they need to know medical words and have basic medical knowledge. They normally go to school for 1 to 2 years. They study some of the things doctors study, plus English and typing. They also learn to use computers and other things needed for medical transcription.

Some medical trainscriptionists go to school using only a computer by using the internet. These medical transcriptionists use tools like email and other things that let people work together from far away. Some people like to learn medical transcription this way more, because it lets you learn when you want to and sometimes saves money.  This style of learning is not as common as learning transcription in a classroom.

To prove they have been trained properly, some medical transcriptionists get certification, which is like a badge showing that they are good at medical transcription. Most good certifications are offered by the AHDI. These are the CMT (Certified Medical Transcriptionist) and the RMT (registered Medical Transcriptionist) certifications. Once a medical transcriptionist has gone to school and gotten a certification, they are considered a good transcriptionist.

Pay

Medical transcriptionists normally make $20,000-30,000 a year in the US, or about $10-16 an hour. The ones who make the most make around $45,000 per year, or $21 an hour.

References

Healthcare occupations
Writing

Medical transcription


Fulla is a goddess in Germanic and Norse mythology. She is one of Frigg's three handmaidens. She was described wearing a golden snood. Fulla tended to the ashen box and Frigg's shoes. Fulla was also the one who Frigg told all of her secrets.

Norse gods and goddesses

Fulla


A hydrogen car is a vehicle that uses hydrogen as fuel. A hydrogen car does not have to be a car. It can be any vehicle that uses hydrogen in a similar way, such as an aircraft.

Hydrogen energy

Hydrogen is the simplest and the most abundant element in the universe.  Even though it is simple and there is so much of it, hydrogen does not occur naturally as a gas on Earth. It is always combined with other elements.  Hydrogen has a large amount of energy. An engine that uses pure hydrogen as fuel makes almost no pollution.

Advantages of hydrogen energy

 Hydrogen comes from water by splitting it into oxygen and hydrogen, so supplies are almost limitless.

 The only thing made from using hydrogen as fuel is water. Using hydrogen does not make the harmful gases that gasoline and diesel cars make, such as carbon dioxide.

 Hydrogen is not poisonous. This means hydrogen is safer to use as fuel than any other gas.

Disadvantages of hydrogen energy

 It is hard to store the large amount of hydrogen that is needed to fuel a car. Hydrogen has a low energy density. This means it needs larger vessels and connections with higher pressure.

 Hydrogen is often taken from resources that are not renewable, such as fossil fuels.

Fuel cells

In principle, fuel cells are electrochemical devices similar to batteries that convert the chemical energy of a fuel directly and very efficiently into electricity (DC) and heat, thus doing away with combustion.   Unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not run down or require recharging. It will produce energy in the form of electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied.

A fuel cell consists of two electrodes sandwiched around an electrolyte.  Oxygen passes over one electrode and hydrogen over the other, generating electricity, water and heat.  Layers of materials with distinct electrochemical properties are sandwiched together to form a single galvanic cell.  At the heart lies a membrane that can only be crossed by charged molecules.  Gas-permeable electrodes coated with a catalyst adhere to this membrane, adding a layer on either side.  The electrodes are in turn connected to a device that can utilize electricity.  Hydrogen gas flows into channels on one face of the cell and migrates through that electrode, while the same occurs with oxygen gas along the opposite electrode.  Spurred by a catalyst, favorable chemistry causes the hydrogen to oxidize into hydrogen protons and give up its electrons to the neighboring electrode, which thereby becomes the anode.  This buildup of negative charge then follows the path of least resistance via the external circuit to the other electrode.  It is this flow of electrons through a circuit that creates electricity.

Problem to solve for the practical use of hydrogen car

Most important problem involved in the practical use of hydrogen car is hydrogen storage materials. If it uses a fuel cell that generates electricity through reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, it does not matter. However, if method is that hydrogen is sprayed to internal-combustion engine, it does matter. Now hydrogen storage tank with highest possibility is method using metal hydride. Metal hydride is that reversible reaction between metal and hydrogen make new form of compound. Now Hydrogen storing technology using Hydrogen storage compound metal comes to practical use step in the side of technical, however, hydrogen storing capacity per weight is no match for demand of user, so this technology is not widely used yet. Therefore, that problem should be solved.

References

Car classifications

Hydrogen car


Devonport Naval Base is the home of the Royal New Zealand Navy, located at Devonport, New Zealand on Auckland's North Shore. It is currently the only base of the navy that operates ships, and has been in use as a navy base since 1841. The base consists of HMNZS Philomel (the administration centre for the base), the Fleet Support Organisation, and the Fleet Personnel and Training Organisation.

Operation

All operational units of the Royal New Zealand Navy are based at Devonport. The Navy's munitions are stored and maintained at Kauri Point Armament Depot in Auckland. Senior naval staff are located at the NZDF headquarters in Wellington. The operational headquarters, and the effective fleet commander, the Maritime Component Commander are both located at Headquarters Joint Forces New Zealand adjacent to Trentham Military Camp in the Upper Hutt suburb of Trentham. Within the Royal New Zealand Navy many land-based facilities and services ensure support for ships and personnel when deployed.

Facilities

Shore based support is predominantly based at the Devonport Naval Base, Auckland, with a long and varied list of services and facilities, including facilities for training, sports, and cultural activities, dry dock, as well as engineering and flight support and the Navy Hospital (and Hyperbaric Unit).

Maritime Engineering Support Team

The Navy's fleet of ships are maintained by the Maritime Engineering Support Team (MEST). The MEST is based at Devonport Naval Base and is a blended workforce of Navy personnel in the Defence Logistics Command (Maritime) and Babcock New Zealand employees. Babcock New Zealand is the Strategic Maritime Partner for the New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF).

The base also has a modern converter system to supply the substantial power even a berthed navy ship requires. As NZ's navy ships use NATO standard 60-hertz power, such converters were needed to enable the base to use power supplied by the national grid. The new converters were installed in the late 2000s for $10 million, and will offer significant savings over using diesel generators, or having the vessels use their own power systems while in port.

RNZN College

The RNZN College is also situated at Devonport Naval Base. Navy training encompasses numerous disciplines, from Recruit Training Squadron, Junior Officer Common Training and Sea Survival Training Squadron to specialised training for Operational, Technical and Trade, and Support Logistics branches.

Calliope Dock

One of the more famous elements of the base is the Calliope Dock, a drydock built in 1888 and still in use. At that time, it was the largest in the Southern Hemisphere, and a strategic asset for the Royal Navy. It was named for Calliope Point, out of which it had been hewn by hand over three years. Coincidentally, one of the two first ships to enter it (as a show of her capacity) was . Administered at first by the Auckland Harbour Board, the dock was transferred to the navy when the Auckland naval base moved from Torpedo Bay to Devonport, into a swamp area next to the dock.

References

External links

 HMNZS PHILOMEL (official base website)
 Navy Museum (official museum website) (accessed 2014-01-27)
 Auckland Naval Base Murders (from the crime.co.nz website)
 Photographs of Devonport Naval Base held in Auckland Libraries' heritage collections.

Royal New Zealand Navy bases
Buildings and structures in Auckland
North Shore, New Zealand
Waitematā Harbour

Devonport Naval Base


West Palm Beach is a city of Florida in the United States. West Palm Beach is the county seat of Palm Beach County, Florida. As of 2020, the population of West Palm beach was 117,415.

History
The city was founded by Henry Flagler as a community to house the servants working in the two grand hotels on the neighboring island of Palm Beach, across Lake Worth. The original spelling was "Westpalmbeach", but it was feared that the 13-letter word would be a bad omen for the new community. On November 5, 1894, 78 people met at the "Calaboose" (the first jail and police station located at Clematis St. and Poinsettia, now Dixie Hwy.) and passed the motion to incorporate the Town of West Palm Beach in what was then Dade County (now Miami-Dade County). This made West Palm Beach the oldest incorporated municipality in the county and in South Florida.  The town council quickly addressed the building codes and the tents and shanties were replaced by brick, brick veneer, and stone buildings. The city grew rapidly in the 1920s as part of the Florida land boom. Many of the city's landmark structures and old neighborhoods were built during this period.

Originally, Flagler intended for his Florida East Coast Railway to end in West Palm but after the area experienced a deep freeze, he chose to extend the railroad to Miami instead.

In the 1960s, Palm Beach County's first enclosed shopping mall, the Palm Beach Mall, and an indoor arena were completed. They led to a short revival for the city, but crime continued to be a serious problem and by the early 1990s there were not many people living or working in downtown. Since the 1990s, developments such as CityPlace and renovation of 1920s architecture on Clematis Street have brought people back to downtown for the entertainment and shopping district.

Notable area residents, past and present
Hank Aaron, former all-time home run king.  A street is named for him
Tori Amos, singer-songwriter
Bob Barker, Entertainer/Gameshow Host
Jason Bonham, drummer and son of Led Zeppelin's legendary drummer John Bonham
Glenn Close, actress
Celine Dion, singer
Jeff Gordon, NASCAR driver
Devin Hester, NFL Player with the Chicago Bears
Hey Monday, alternative rock band
Alan Jackson, Country singer
Tommy Lee Jones, actor
Rush Limbaugh, Radio talk show host
Joe Namath, former NFL quarterback
Olivia Newton-John, actress, singer
Lilly Pulitzer, Fashion Designer
Burt Reynolds, Actor, graduate of Palm Beach High School
Adrian Rogers, former president Southern Baptist Convention and pastor of Bellevue Baptist Church
Rod Stewart, singer
Donald Trump, real estate mogul, TV host
Serena Williams, former No.1 ranked Tennis Champion
Venus Williams, former No.1 ranked Tennis Champion
Tiger Woods, Professional Golfer on the PGA Tour
Mark Zuckerberg, founder of Facebook

References

Cities in Florida
County seats in Florida
Palm Beach County, Florida
1894 establishments in the United States
19th-century establishments in Florida

West Palm Beach, Florida


Guam () is an island in Micronesia in the Pacific Ocean and is a U.S. territory. This means that it is part of the United States and citizens of Guam are citizens of the United States as well. Guam is not an independent country, but like all populated U.S. territories, it enjoys a greater degree of autonomy than U.S. states. The Chamorro people are the native people from Guam. The capital city of Guam is the city of Hagåtña and the largest city is Dededo. Guam has important United States Air Force and Naval bases, which occupy a major part of Guam's land area. Guam is also a popular tourist destination.

Guam is one of two U.S. territories where the metric system is officially used and is dominant. (The other is Puerto Rico, which was also a Spanish colony. The metric system was introduced to both territories, before they became U.S. territories.)

History
Guam was one of the first islands in the Pacific Ocean to be visited by the Europeans. In 1521, while leading the Spanish expedition, Ferdinand Magellan became one of the first Europeans to set foot on Guam. From then on, Guam became an important part of the trade route followed by the Spanish trading ships called Manila Galleon, which sailed between Mexico and the Philippines every year. And in 1668, Spain took over Guam as one of its territories. During this time, the natives assimilated the Spanish culture to a large extent.

In the 1898, Spanish–American War, Spain lost most of its territories to the United States under the Treaty of Paris, including Guam, Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico.  Guam continued to be important due to its strategic location for shipping, and later for air travel in the Pacific.  During World War II, Japan occupied Guam in 1941 for 31 months, but lost the territory to the United States soon after.  The Chamorro people are spread across Guam and Northern Mariana Islands- which is also a United States territory. However, the Chamorro people from Northern Mariana Islands have not integrated well into the territory as they were under Japanese occupation for about 30 years.

In 1950, the United States Congress passed a law to incorporate the people of Guam as American citizens.

In August 2017, North Korea warned that it might launch mid-range ballistic missiles into waters within 18 to 24 miles (29 to 38 kilometers) of Guam, following an exchange of threats between the governments of North Korea and the United States.

Money
The currency of Guam is the United States dollar. Guam gets most of its money from the United States government. Much of that money is spent on the military bases, but there are also federal grants given to the Guam government for various programs. Because it is only a territory, federal income taxes paid by Guam residents are given to the Guam government for its operations.

Guam is a sought after travel destination. Almost all of these visitors are from Japan. Japanese tourists like Guam because it is closer to Japan than other American places. Guam has lots of hotels and other fun places for people to visit. Tumon Bay is Guam's biggest beach. It has lots of pretty white sand, and the water has lots of fish. Tumon is becoming a busy city.

The number of visitors to Guam has decreased significantly mainly because of economic slowdown in most parts of Asia, which is also the cause for lost jobs in Guam.

Land and water
Guam is 212 square miles (549 square kilometers) large. In the north part, it has a flat area of coral and limestone rock. The south part has mountains. Around the island is a coral reef.

Guam is next to the Marianas Trench, which is the deepest part of the Earth and underwater. It sometimes has earthquakes, some of which have been very strong.

Guam is a tropical island. It is usually quite warm and wet and the temperature does not change very much. From February to July it is dry, but the rest of the year it is rainy. Sometimes Guam has very strong and dangerous storms in October and November.

References

Other websites

Guampedia, Guam's Online Encyclopedia
The Insular Empire: America in the Mariana Islands, PBS documentary film & website
Official Portal for the Island of Guam

U.S. Census Bureau: Island Areas Census 2000

Portals to the World: Guam from the U.S. Library of Congress

KUAM TV/AM/FM
War in the Pacific – Liberation of Guam

Maps – Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection
Military: Naval Air Station, Agana (Tiyan) (closed). GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2010-02-19.
 Goetzfridt, Nicholas J. (2011) Guahan: A Bibliographic History. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press
NOAA's National Weather Service - Guam
Guam -Citizendium

Micronesia

Guam


Frank Jack Fletcher (29 April 1885 - 25 April 1973) was an Admiral in the United States Navy. He was born at Marshalltown, Iowa, of the same family line as Captain Frank "Pat" Fletcher and of Rear Admiral Frank Friday Fletcher, noted men in the Navy. He attended the Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland and had jobs on many warships. In 1914 he got the Medal of Honor at Vera Cruz. Then he was in control of a destroyer in World War I received the Navy Cross. Later he took Naval and Army War College training, became chief of staff Asiatic Fleet, aide to Secretary of the Navy Swanson, and Commanding Officer of battleship New Mexico. He became Rear Admiral in control of Cruiser Division 3 in 1939. He was Commander of Cruisers, Pacific Fleet at the time
of Pearl Harbor. In the very bad, first six months of the war, he was Task Force Commander at the Battle of Coral Sea, the Battle of Midway, and the Battle of Eastern Solomons. Vice Admiral Fletcher then became Commander North Pacific Forces where he took the surrender of the Imperial Northern Fleet. After the war he became Chairman of the Navy General Board till he retired. Admiral Fletcher rests at Arlington National Cemetery.

"Frank Jack Fletcher, was the best fighting commander in the U.S. Navy in the twentieth century. He came out best in all three aircraft carrier battles in which he fought -- there were only five such fights in of all history. Admiral Fletcher was outnumbered at all times and when the other side was at its highest point in the early years of the Pacific War. He did not let the other side take Australia, Midway, and Guadalcanal. He put down six of the ten Japanese carriers with four of the six great carriers that had attacked Pearl Harbor. His acts were completely his own, because there was no such thing as carrier fighting experience before him to learn to fight ships from the air. He kept the Pacific safe which let much support to go to Europe and started the Allied victory in World War II."

References

1885 births
1973 deaths
American admirals
American military personnel of World War I
American military personnel of World War II
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Military people from Iowa
United States Navy Medal of Honor recipients

Frank Jack Fletcher


Hamiltonian mechanics is a mathematical way of understanding the way something  mechanical will behave. It was invented  in 1833 by Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton.

The value of the Hamiltonian is the total energy of the thing  being described. For a closed system, it is the sum of its  kinetic and potential energy. There will be  a set of differential equations known as the Hamilton equations which show how the thing changes through time.

Hamiltonians can be used to describe such simple systems as a bouncing ball, a pendulum or an oscillating spring in which energy changes between  kinetic and  potential energy and back again over time. Hamiltonians can also be used to study the orbits of planets and in the behaviour of atoms using the principles of quantum mechanics.

Mechanics

Hamiltonian mechanics


The Areni-1 shoe is a 5,500-year-old leather shoe that was found in 2008 in excellent condition in the Areni-1 cave located in the Vayots Dzor province of Armenia. It is a one-piece leather-hide shoe, the oldest piece of leather footwear in the world known to contemporary researchers. The discovery was made by an international team led by  Boris Gasparyan, an archaeologist from the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the National Academy of Sciences of Armenia (co-directors of the project are Ron Pinhasi from University College Cork in Ireland, and Gregory Areshian from UCLA).

Discovery
An Armenian post-graduate student, Diana Zardaryan, discovered the leather shoe in the course of excavations by a team of archeologists from Armenia's Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, Ireland and the United States. The shoe was found upside down at the base of a shallow, rounded, and plastered pit that was  deep and  wide, beneath an overturned broken Chalcolithic ceramic bowl. A broken pot and goat horns also were found nearby. Excavations in the same area also found the world's oldest known wine-making site.

The research was funded by the National Geographic Society, the Chitjian Foundation, the Gfoeller Foundation, the Steinmetz Family Foundation, the Boochever Foundation and the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA. The team's findings were published on June 9, 2010, in the journal PLOS One.

Analysis
The shoe was found in near-perfect condition due to the cool and dry conditions in the cave and a thick layer of sheep dung which acted as a solid seal. Large storage containers were found in the same cave, many of which held well-preserved wheat, barley, and apricots, as well as other edible plants. The shoe contained grass and the archaeologists were uncertain as to whether this was because the grass was used as insulation to keep the foot warm, or used to preserve the shape of the shoe while not being worn. Lead archaeologist Ron Pinhasi could not determine whether the shoe belonged to a man or a woman. While small, approximately a woman's United States and Canada size 7, European size 37, or United Kingdom size 6, he stated that "the shoe could well have fitted a man from that era". The shoe laces were preserved as well.

Major similarities exist between the manufacturing technique and style of one-piece leather-hide shoes discovered across Europe and the one reported from Areni-1 Cave, suggesting that shoes of this type were worn for millennia across a large and environmentally diverse geographic region. According to Pinhasi, the Areni-1 shoe is similar to the Irish pampootie, a shoe style worn in the Aran Islands up to the 1950s. The shoes are very similar to the traditional shoes of the Balkans, still seen today in festivals, known as Opanci (Opanke).

When the material was dated by the two radiocarbon laboratories in Oxford and California, it was established that the shoe dates back to 3,500 B.C.  This date is some two hundred years older than the date given for the leather shoe found on Ötzi the Iceman.

After having been treated for preservation, the Areni-1 shoe is on display at the History Museum of Armenia, Yerevan.

See also
 Areni-1 winery

References

Copper Age Asia
Archaeological artifacts
Leather clothing
Historical footwear
2008 archaeological discoveries
Archaeological discoveries in Armenia
Areni
4th-millennium BC works

Areni-1 shoe


A water-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which water circulates in tubes heated by fire from outside. The fire is produced by the fuel being burned inside the furnace for the boiler.

Design types
 Babcock and Wilcox boiler
 A/D/M/O-type boiler
 Flex-tube boiler
 Forced-circulation boiler
 Low water content
 Stirling boiler
 Thornycroft
 White-Forster
 Yarrow boiler

Use
 Marine
 Railway
 Stationary

Boilers

Water-tube boiler


Cannabidiol (CBD) is one of the 150+ naturally occurring phytocannabinoids found in certain strains of hemp and in all cannabis plant strains.

CBD is the abbreviated version of cannabidiol, which is one of the leading compound found in hemp plant, as naturally hemp has more CBD than any other compound found in its chemical composition. CBD is a cannabinoid, and due to their relationship with the body's endocannabinoid system, it is a unique compounds from others, it uses cannabinoids to perform regulatory actions which affect our overall wellbeing.

It is legal in many places and is used in the management and treatment of chronic pain, PTSD, anxiety, anxiety disorder, depression, diabetes type 1, diabetes type 2, seizures, and in conjunction with allopathic approaches to diseases including cancer chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Anecdotally CBD is being used with claimed positive results by patients for almost every illness.

Legal
CBD, unlike Δ9-THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol), is a non psycho-active compound of cannabis. Its use and popularity as an alternative to pharmaceutical drugs is growing worldwide despite difficulties, ambiguities and, in some cases, contradictory legal status in some states and countries.

In the USA the consumption of CBD hemp oil is federally legal, since CBD hemp oil falls under the same importation and commerce laws as other hemp products. Some US states have not enacted legislation specifically relating to CBD hemp oil and continue to use high THC cannabis laws to govern the status of CBD. At the same time many states have legislated to legalize or decriminalize cannabis.

Most states have detailed information relating to the legal status of recreational cannabis, CBD, and what is increasingly referred to as 'medicinal cannabis'. up-to-date state specific info can be seen at Legal history of cannabis in the United States (in Notes).

In 1939 Irishman William Brooke O'Shaughnessy introduced cannabis extract to American pharmacies and thus began it's popularity as a remedy. A wide range of cannabis extracts became freely available and could be gotten from travelling doctors, 'snake oil salesmen', and apothecaries across America and Europe.

The general lack of controls and regulation at the time lead to some deaths and injuries linked back to supposed cannabis extracts. Unscrupulous makers produced formulations that were of questionable quality for quick profits and some cases the ingredients were toxic or poisonous. This unfortunate practice was widespread across the profitable field of medicine and remedies.

As result, in 1906, The Pure Food and Drug Act was passed by the United States Congress. It required that certain special drugs, including cannabis extracts, be properly and correctly labeled with contents. Prior to this many drugs were marketed as 'patented' medicines with 'secret ingredients'. The new regulations, however, did nothing to stem criticism about the availability of narcotics in particular and around 1910 there was a new round of legislation aimed to strengthen requirements for their sale and remove 'loopholes' in poison laws.

The 1910 revisions were designed to restrict all narcotics, including cannabis, as poisons therefore requiring a doctors prescription and limiting sales to pharmacies only. The first instance of the 1906 Act was enacted by the District of Columbia in the same year as 'An act to regulate the practice of pharmacy and the sale of poisons in the District of Columbia, and for other purposes'. The act was again updated in 1938 to the Federal Pure Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act of 1938 which is still current as of the early 21st century. To date, marijuana remains under this law defined as a "dangerous drug".

CBD as a separate substance or as an ingredient of other products is legal across the USA since it is a hemp extract however when purchasing people should check their specific local and national laws.

History

Evidence suggests that hemp and cannabis may have been farmed for up to 12,000 years and had many uses including the making of cloth, rope, paper, food, and medicine. However, in the modern context, it was not until its introduction to American pharmacies by William Brooke O'Shaughnessy in 1839 that Cannabis extracts came into mainstream awareness as a medicine. A wide range of cannabis extracts became easily available and could be gotten from travelling doctors and salesmen, doctors, and drugstores throughout America. This ended the introduction of the Pure Food and Drug Act. Similar products were also available across Europe.

Uses of CBD
In the early decades of the 21st century, CBD is again becoming well known for its qualities as a remedy for health problems. Its world-wide popularity is ahead of the slow process of making it legal to produce, supply, buy, and use cannabis for enjoyment in non-medical settings, and especially when it comes to CBD, which doesn't have a psycho-active component.

There is some experience that CBD has a positive effect in managing and treating chronic pain, PTSD, anxiety, anxiety disorder, depression, diabetes type 1, diabetes type 2, seizures, and also combined with allopathic approaches to diseases including chemotherapy and radiation therapy for treating cancer. No toxic dose for CBD is known, and there is no record from any source of a death or serious injury from CBD as of this writing.

CBD may be useful either as treatment for a specific illness or in a smaller dose for maintenance of good health. Usually, CBD is taken by mouth as oil drops or a powder that dissolves in water, or made into a food to be eaten. Another form of CBD is used on the skin as the oil or a cream to rub in. CBD is popularly taken in the 'vape' method (from the word "vapor"), with the CBD is heated so it can be inhaled. This method is favoured because the effect is felt sooner than by other means. Patients who need long-lasting relief from pain or other symptoms such as nausea, may combine two methods: for example, first vape and then eat a food made with CBD.

References

Cannabis
Organic compounds

Cannabidiol


Underclocking is the process of configuring a computer processor or other electronic circuit to operate at a lower speed than usual. This will reduce the speed of the computer, but it will usually make the battery last longer and the computer will produce less heat. Some computers automatically underclock themselves when the system is not doing a lot of work. For even further battery and heat savings a computer can be undervolted, where the processor is operated at a lower voltage than usual. Other devices such as video cards and smartphones can also be underclocked. The opposite of underclocking is called overclocking, and it is used to increase the speed of the computer but at the cost of battery life (if there is a battery) and heat output.

Computer hardware
Computer processors

Underclocking


Pallone (Italian for an inflated ball, similar to the word balloon) is the name of several traditional ball games, played in various regions of Italy, with minimal differences in regulations.

Games

Pallone col bracciale
Pallone col bracciale was particularly popular throughout Italy in the 18th century then in 19th century and 20th century until 1930 was the most popular sport of ancient Italian national sports; its first official regulations date back to 1555. The pallone col bracciale players are called pallonisti and during 19th century Italian professional pallonisti were richest and best rewarded sportsmen of all the world. This sport and his champions were described by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Giacomo Leopardi, Edmondo de Amicis, Antonio Francesco Grazzini, Ottavio Rinuccini, Gabriello Chiabrera, Tommaso Grossi, Giuseppe Gioachino Belli. Where Angels Fear to Tread (1991) includes a brief film depiction of this game.

Balls are struck back and forth with a wooden cylinder, called bracciale, worn over the forearm, if carelessly played, a broken arm can result: in fact bracciale weighs 2 or 1 kilogram. Originally the ball of 934 grams was inflated, but now hard rubber ball of 350 grams is  used. Scoring is by fifteens, as in tennis and the team which wins 12 games is final winner of the match. A special feature is that the ball is put into play by a designated server, who otherwise is not part of the game.  The receivers can reject serves at will. Pallone is played on courts marked out on town streets. Registered players of official championships dispute their matches in a kind of stadium named sferisterio or sferodromo in Italian language. Nowadays they play two forms of this sport: 3 players a side with lateral wall and 4 players a side in open playing field without lateral wall.

Celebrated former professional champions include:
Antonio Mariotti from Ancona
Antonio Gambero from Genova
Ubaldo Travagli
Pietro Orazietti
Pietro Tarini from Fano
Luigi Eredi from Ravenna
Lorenzo Pierotti from Firenze
Giovanni Contieri from Udine
Gaetano Trentin from Bassano del Grappa
Vettor Gasparini from Bassano del Grappa
Gaspare Socci from Firenze
Giuseppe Mariotti from Ancona

Pallapugno
Pallapugno, one time named pallone elastico, is a game from Piedmont and Liguria and it is played with a bandaged fist; rubber ball has diameter of 10,5
centimetres and weighs 190 grams. Scoring is also by fifteens, but in this version a second bounce can result in a "chase" rather than an outright point, similar to real tennis. Every team has 4 players and the team which wins 11 games is final winner of the match. Professional players dispute their matches in sferisterio 90 metres long and 18 metres large with lateral wall. Professional Italian pallapugno league is top level of competitions: in 2008 10 teams competed.

This sport is played in various nations and they dispute a world championship.

Pallapugno leggera
Pallapugno leggera is played in courtfield which has same size of volleyball's courtfield without net (device). Each team has 4 players with 2 reserve players. A match consisted of one set or three sets.

Pantalera
Pantalera or pallapugno alla pantalera is generally played on the urban streets. First action of every match consisted of shot pushing up the ball for rebound on a roof called pantalera in Piedmontese language. Other rules are the same of pallapugno.

Pallonetto
Pallonetto or pallonetto ligure al lungo is generally played on the urban streets with tennis balls without covering felt. Playing field is long between 60 and 90 metres and it's large 18 metres with or without lateral wall. Players push the ball using one bandaged hand.

Related pages
 Italian variants
 Palla
 Tamburello
 Similar ball games
 Frisian handball
 Llargues

References

 Morgan, Roger (1989). "European Derivatives of Tennis" in The Royal Game, L. St J. Butler & P. J. Wordie, ed.  Stirling: Falkland Palace Real Tennis Club.  or .
 McNicoll, Kathryn (2005). Real Tennis, pp. 21–22.  Buckinghamshire: Shire Publications. .
 Whitman, Malcolm D. (1932). Tennis: Origins and Mysteries, p. 85.  Mineola, NY: Dover Publications (2004 reprint). .

Other websites
 Italian Pallapugno Federation
 Italian Union of Pallone Elastico Players

Video

Sport in Italy

Pallone


Miljenko Smoje (14 February 1923 – 25 October 1995) was a Croatian writer and journalist.

Smoje was born in Split, at the time in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, in a family of poor labourers. The neighbourhood where he grew up was known for its support for anarchism, socialism and other left-wing ideologies. This would later influence Smoje's work and help him develop a strong dislike of authorities and the establishment.

Smoje finished high school in Split in 1941, but his further education was interrupted by the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia and Split being occupied by Italy. Smoje joined the Communist Party of Yugoslavia and took part in the local resistance movement. However, due to his rebellious nature, he was expelled from the Party, but he survived that, as well as a brief incarceration by Italian authorities. After the end of the war he finished college and worked as a teacher. In 1950 he took a job as a reporter for the Split daily newspaper Slobodna Dalmacija, where he would write until his formal retirement in 1979.

As a reporter, Smoje developed a specific style that included use of Čakavština dialect in his articles. His specialty was articles about ordinary people and through the decades he travelled over Dalmatia chronicling many aspects of its life. Later he used many of those experiences as the basis for his short stories, plays and novels. He liked to inject all of his work with a strong dose of humour, laced with elements of every-day tragedy. All this helped Smoje become one of the most respected and more popular writers of former Yugoslavia, as well as arguably the greatest humourist of Croatian literature.

It was the medium of television which helped Smoje become famous. In 1970 he wrote the script for Naše malo misto (also known as Malo misto), a mini-series chronicling three decades of life in small Dalmatian coastal town. The series featured many memorable characters that would later become part of local culture. Smoje also showed ability to use broad comedy as a way to criticise aspects of Communism. The series nevertheless became an instant hit and grew in popularity through the decades.

In 1980 Smoje tried to repeat the success with Velo misto, a more ambitious project chronicling life in Split between 1910 and 1947. Velo misto became very popular and developed cult status of its own.

After his retirement Smoje continued to write for Slobodna Dalmacija and Nedjeljna Dalmacija weekly. In the late 1980s and early 1990s he opposed Croatian nationalism and for that reason he was snubbed by the media controlled by Franjo Tuđman and his ruling Croatian Democratic Union. When Tuđman's supporter Miroslav Kutle took over Slobodna Dalmacija in 1993, Smoje began to write for the satirical weekly Feral Tribune.

Semi-official snub of Miljenko Smoje ended in late 1990s when his shows were allowed to be aired on Croatian Radiotelevision.

Smoje was married twice. He is buried in Žrnovnica near Split.

Sources
 Smoje, Miljenko at enciklopedija.hr

External links

1923 births
1995 deaths
Journalists from Split, Croatia
Writers from Split, Croatia
Croatian socialists
Croatian screenwriters
Deaths from lung cancer

Yugoslav screenwriters
Yugoslav journalists

Miljenko Smoje


The word monitor is a Latin word for warner or suggester. The many uses of the word are listed below.

Display technology
A computer monitor (display screen)
A medical monitor, or any other hardware device that measures electrical events, such as a heart rate monitor
A speaker used on stage (facing the musicians) or in a studio to enable musicians to hear what is being performed
A video monitor, a television-like device used in studio, lab or test environments
A baby monitor, which lets parents hear what happens in their babies room from other parts of the house

Roles or positions
A hall monitor, one who patrols the hall of a school

Warships
USS Monitor, the ironclad warship of the American Civil War
A monitor (warship), a type of ship based on the USS Monitor and built by several navies for coastal defense in the 1860s and 1870s. It reappeared in a different form during the World War I and lasted until the end of World War II
A river monitor, the strongest type of river warships

Other meanings
Monitor lizards, a family of large tropical lizards (Varanidae)

Related pages
 Monitoring

fi:Näyttö

Monitor


Oceania is a name used in geography for the region made up of Australia, Polynesia, Melanesia, and several other island nations in the surrounding area. It is often listed as one of the continents of the world.

The term "Oceania" does not have one single agreed definition. The widest definition of Oceania includes the entire region between continental Asia and the Americas, including Australasia, as well as islands in the Pacific Rim such as the Japanese archipelago, Taiwan, and the Aleutian islands.

On the other hand, the Oceania ecozone includes all of Micronesia, Fiji, and all of Polynesia except New Zealand. Sometimes, people use the term 'Oceania' to include only the Polynesian and Melanesian islands in the Pacific Ocean, as separate from Australasia. When Oceania is treated separately from Australia, the region of Oceania is referred to as "Australia and Oceania".

In the United Nations' geographic regions, Oceania includes Australia and the nations of the Pacific from Papua New Guinea east, but not the Malay Archipelago or Indonesian New Guinea.

A smaller usage of Oceania as a continent includes only Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and the islands between them. This part of the world is usually called Australasia instead. For these reasons, it is not correct to say that Australasia is part of Oceania, because what is meant by 'Oceania' is not clear. Australasia has an exact definition in biogeography and geology; Australasia includes New Zealand, Australia (including Tasmania), and Melanesia, New Guinea, and the islands just north and east of Australia. All these are south-east of the Bali–Lombok line, also known as the Wallace Line.

Countries in Oceania
Some listed here are part of a larger State.

  A State of the U.S.A.

  Wallis and Futuna

References

Notes

Oceania


Kharagpur () is a semi-planned urban agglomeration and a major industrial city in the Paschim Medinipur district of West Bengal, India. It is the headquarters of the Kharagpur subdivision and the largest city of the district. It is located 120 km west of Kolkata. Kharagpur holds the oldest and biggest Indian Institute of Technology namely IIT Kharagpur. It has one of the largest railway workshops in India. Kharagpur Junction contains the fourth longest railway platform in the world (1072.5 m) and is the headquarter of the Kharagpur Division of the South Eastern Railways.

History
Kharagpur received its name from the twelfth king of the Mallabhum dynasty, Kharga Malla, when he conquered it. Kharagpur was a part of the Hijli Kingdom and ruled by Hindu Odia rulers as a feudatory under Gajapati Kings of Odisha. Historians claim that in the 16th century, Kharagpur was still a small village surrounded by dense forests. The village was on high rocky barren land. The only inhabited settlement near Kharagpur was Hijli. Hijli was a small island village on the banks of the Rasulpur River, in the delta of Bay of Bengal.  It developed into a port town in 1687. Hijli was also a province and it existed until 1886.  It covered parts of Bengal and Orissa. It had important towns like Tamluk, Panskura, and Debra, along with the Kelghai and Haldi rivers on the north, south, and east sides bounded by Bay of Bengal and Kharagpur, Keshiary, Dantan, and Jaleswar on the west.

Hijli was ruled by Taj Khan who was the disciple of Guru Peer Mackdram Sha Chisti. It was also ruled by the Kushan, Gupta, and Pal dynasties, and by the Mughals. It is said that Hijli had excellent business and trade centers with judiciary, prison, and administrative offices during the reign of Hindu Kings and during the Mughal Raj. The capital of Hijli was in Bahiri up to 1628 and was shifted to Hijli afterwards. Hijli Province was at its peak in 1754 and was highly prosperous during this period.

Captain Nicolson was the first English colonialist to invade Hijli and captured the port. In 1687 Job Charnock with soldiers and warships captured Hijli, defeating Hindu and Mughal defenders. After the war with the Mughals, a treaty was signed between Job Charnock and the Mughal Emperor. The loss suffered by Job Charnock forced him to leave Hijli and to proceed towards Uluberia, while the Mughal Emperor continued to rule the province. From there, they finally settled at Sutanuti in Kolkata to establish their business in Eastern India. This was the start of the East India Company in India. Hijli as we know it today is only a small part of the Hijli Province, and was created for establishing administrative offices by the British in the 19th century. It is curious that almost the entire Kharagpur division of today has boundaries identical to Hijli Province.

In the 18th century Khejuri, another port town was set up on the banks of the Koukhali River in the delta region. It was established by the British primarily for carrying out trade with European countries. Khejuri was also an island. In the devastating cyclone of 1864, both ports were destroyed. The islands have since merged with the mainland.

Geography

Location
Kharagpur is located at .

Note: The map alongside presents some of the notable locations in the city. All places marked in the map are linked in the larger full screen map.

Urban structure
Kharagpur is the fourth largest city of West Bengal in area after Kolkata, Durgapur and Asansol. It is also the fifth most populated city of West Bengal after Kolkata, Asansol, Siliguri, Durgapur - located at  , covering an area of about 127 km2 in southern part of West Midnapore. It has an average elevation of 29 metres (95 ft). This sub-division town is formed with Dalma Pahar and alluvial tract of Midnapore. It is intersected by numerous waterways, the important rivers being Subarnarekha, Keleghai and Kangsabati.

Nimpura contains colonies housing thousands of railway employees. There is a long winding road from Nimpura to Hijli which goes through Tangrahut (Arambati), Talbagicha and another from Kalaikunda to Gopali through Hiradihi, Talbagicha and Hijli cooperative society also planned residential area of Kharagpur city. The south of Kharagpur is a planned area belonging to the Indian Railways and which was established by the Britishers as a residential area. Nearby is the Kharagpur Municipality and the fire station. Kharagpur Railway Colony is the biggest railway settlement in India having about 13,000 quarters. There are several railway residential areas namely Chhota Ayma, Bara Ayma, Old Settlement, New Settlement, Mathurakati, Nimpura, South Side, Traffic and several more. The BNR (Bengal Nagpur Railway) ground, owned by the railway, is a very large undeveloped playground which holds great potential to be developed and properly maintained. Outside the railway settlement popular areas are Bhawanipur, Subhaspally, Kharida, Malancha, Inda, Jhapatapur, Talbagicha, Prem Bazaar, amongst others. An important market place has developed in and around Gole Bazaar, a reliable but highly congested shopping destination for locals. Other marketplaces like Talbagicha Bazar, Gate Bazar, Inda Bazar, Puratan Bazar, the Janata Market, the DVC market and the Technology market are also renowned in Kharagpur. Growth is witnessed around Chowringhee and Inda areas where new constructions and projects are taking shape. Big Bazaar, operated by Future Group, was the first mall to open in Kharagpur. It remained the only mall in the town for nearly a decade. Post 2017, a number of new malls and shopping centers have opened, including a Spencer's. The Railway Garden (also known as BNR garden) on the south side of railway station is a park and is frequented by people of all ages, being a popular picnic spot. It offers toy-train rides within the park.

Climate
Kharagpur has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification Aw). Summers start in March and are hot and humid, with average temperatures close to 30 °C (86 °F). They are followed by the monsoon season that sees about 1140 mm (45 inches) of rain. Winters are brief but chilly, lasting from December to mid February, with average temperatures around 22 °C (72 °F). Total annual rainfall is around 1400mm.

Demographics

 India census, Kharagpur Urban Agglomeration had a population of 293,719 out of which 150,487 were males and 143,232 were females. The 0–6 years population was 25,130. Effective literacy rate for the 7+ population was 85.61%. This marks higher than the national average literacy rate of 74%.

 India census, Kharagpur had a population of 207,984 (municipality area) and 88,339 (railway settlement area), the fourth largest in West Bengal. Males constituted 52% of the population and females 48%. Kharagpur had an average literacy rate of 64%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy was 75%, and female literacy was 52%. In Kharagpur, 10% of the population were under 6 years of age. Kharagpur acquires its unique place in India as a town of mixed ethnicity and linguistic diversity.

Kharagpur (Town) police station has jurisdiction over Kharagpur municipality. Kharagpur (Local) police station has jurisdiction over Kharagpur I and Kharagpur II CD Blocks.

The state government is also working on setting up a separate police commissionerate at Kharagpur to enhance the security of this growing region.

Civic administration and utility services
Kharagpur Municipality looks after civic affairs in the town. There is a proposal to upgrade it to a Municipal Corporation after including the railway area under its jurisdiction. As of now responsibility of civic amenities in railway area lies with the Divisional Railway Manager, Kharagpur Division who is also the head of railway establishment in Kharagpur.

State-owned Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, or BSNL, as well as private enterprises, among them Bharti Airtel, Jio and Vodafone Idea are the leading telephone, cell phone and internet service providers in the city.

Economy

Industries

Kharagpur has one of the largest industrial setups in West Bengal. Several large industrial plants are located in and around Kharagpur due to its proximity to Kolkata, good rail and road connectivity via NH 6 and NH 60, availability of labour, and raw materials. Important establishments like Tata Metaliks, Tata Bearings, Shyam Metallics, Siemens, Godrej, Tata Hitachi, Humboldt Wedag, Ramco Cements and Mahindra & Mahindra have set up their plants in and around Kharagpur. Many small iron rolling mills and rice mills dot the town. The Vidyasagar Industrial Park is located here. Establishment of an IT park is also in progress. Kharagpur will be part of two new economic corridors EC-1 Mumbai-Kolkata and EC-14 Kharagpur-Siliguri under Bharatmala project. Recently, the government has revealed plans to establish a civilian airport.

Transport

Railways
The first railway establishment at Kharagpur started with the commissioning of the rail link between Cuttack – Balasore – Kharagpur and from Sini to Kolaghat via Kharagpur.  Kharagpur as a junction station was established in Railway map in December 1898.  The public mood and the reaction of society on introduction of rail transport in this region has been nicely depicted by the famous Bengali Novelist Dr Ramapada Chowdhury (who was born and raised in Kharagpur) in his novel Prothom Prohor. (1954) It is said that the people were initially afraid to travel by train for fear of the bridge collapsing, and for fear of getting outcaste or Dalit status, since there were no separate seating arrangement for different castes and religions. However, things changed due to famines in the early 20th century. The railway company came forward and offered jobs to the local unemployed men, gave them free rides on trains, and even offered blankets to those travelling by train. This promotional scheme broke the taboos and made rail transport acceptable to this society.

Midnapur's District Headquarters was connected to the bank of the Kosai River in February 1900. Construction of the bridge over Kosai completed in June 1901. The rail line from Howrah to Kolaghat up to the Eastern bank and from Kharagpur up to Western bank of Rupnarayan River was completed in 1899. However, trains between Howrah and Kharagpur were possible only in April 1900 after the bridge over Rupnarayan River was completed.

Howrah – Amta light Railway (2 ft gauge - 610 mm) line was completed in 1898 and was operated by M/s Martin & Co. of Calcutta. This link remained operative till 1971. After closure of the light railways, the demand for a broad gauge line between Howrah and Amta gained momentum. The project was completed in four phases. In the first phase, the line between Santragachi and Domjur was completed in 1984. In the second phase it got extended up to Bargachia in 1985, and later up to Munsirhat. Mahendralal Nagar station was completed in 2000, and the final leg to Amta was completed in December 2004.

Former captain of Indian Cricket team Mahendra Singh Dhoni also worked as a ticket collector at the Kharagpur Railway station from 2000 to 2003 before commencing his cricket career playing for India.

The need for a rail link between Panskura and Tamluk was conceived at the beginning of the 20th century, almost at the same time the rail link between Howrah and Kharagpur was opened. The railway company received offers for construction from two Agencies, M/s Martin & Company and M/s Babu Nibaran Chandra Dutta, the former against a guaranteed return of 3.5% while the latter with none. Although the offer of the latter was lucrative, the dilemma of whether to offer the work of construction to a native or not forced the project to be abandoned. After Independence, the requirement of rail link connecting Panskura and Durgachak came up primarily for the purpose of constructing the Haldia Port. The rail link between Panskura – Durgachak via Tamluk completed in 1968, which was later extended to Haldia in 1975. Extension of the rail link to Digha from Tamluk was sanctioned in 1984; it took 20 years to complete, set in two phases. The first phase linked Tamluk and Contai in November 2003, and the tourist destination Digha was connected to Howrah in December 2004.

Geographical location of Kharagpur and its rail links with the rest of the country favored the construction of a centralized workshop with facilities to carry out major repairs of all broad gauge stock. The work was sanctioned in 1900; construction of the workshop was completed in 1904.

Kharagpur has Asia's largest railway Solid State Interlocking (SSI) system.

The Railways also plan to have an East Coast Dedicated Freight Corridor stretching from Kharagpur in West Bengal to Vijayawada of Andhra Pradesh.

Healthcare

The need for a centralized Hospital at Khargpur was also felt in the late 19th century. Subsequently, a Hospital with complete medical facilities was established in 1897. Dr Arthur Martin-Leake, Victorian Cross winner was appointed as Chief Medical Officer of Kharagpur Hospital in 1904. However the town still needs good private hospitals and advanced medication and healthcare facilities as in current situation its citizens have to depend on Kolkata for treatment, which is at a distance of 132 km.

Today, the Railway Main Hospital and Kharagpur Sub-divisional Hospital (Chandmari Hospital) are main public sector hospitals in Kharagpur. Recently, since the city lies at an important junction of state and national highways, a Trauma Care Centre of level - 3 category is being set up in Kharagpur Sub-divisional Hospital. A number of private clinics and nursing homes also operate here.

Dr. B. C. Roy Institute of Medical Science & Research is a medical college and hospital near IIT Kharagpur.

Culture
Bengali is the most commonly spoken language of the region. Other common languages are Hindi, Urdu, Odia, Telugu and Punjabi

Places of worship include a Durga Mandir and Jama Masjid at Gole Bazar and at Kharida, Sitala Mandir at Puratan Bazar, Kanaka Durga Temple near Nimpura, Jagannath Mandir near Gate Bazar, a Gurudwara at Subhaspally and at Nimpura, Jalaram Temple at Jhapatapur and several religious structures.

Kharagpur has a Book Fair (Kharagpur Boimela in Bengali) which started in 2000 and is held every January. A Flower Fair (Pushpa Mela in Bengali) is also organized every year.

The city also host a multiplex named Bombay Cineplex.

Education
The first Indian Institute of Technology of India namely IIT Kharagpur, one of the Institutes of National Importance, was founded in Kharagpur in May 1950.

Other colleges are:
 Kharagpur College (also known as Inda College)
 Hijli College
 Kharagpur Homoeopathic Medical College and Hospital
 Dr B C Roy Institute of Medical Sciences & Research

Notes
Basu, S. (2001). Interaction Between Population and Urban Environment: A Case Study of Kharagpur. Environment, Population, and Development: Felicitation Volume in Honour of Prof. SL Kayastha, p. 275.

References

External links

 Kharagpur Municipality
 Midnapore Kharagpur Development Authority(MKDA)
 Kharagpur's diaspora reunited
 Kharagpur on Encyclopædia Britannica

Kharagpur
Cities and towns in Paschim Medinipur district
Cities in West Bengal

Kharagpur


The Post Office Department is the former name of the United States Postal Service when it was a Cabinet department. It was headed by the United States Postmaster General.

The Postal Service Act signed by President George Washington on February 20, 1792 established the Department. Postmaster General John McLean was the first to call it the Post Office Department rather than just the "Post Office." The organization became more important in the government when President Andrew Jackson asked his Postmaster General, William T. Barry, to sit as a member of the Cabinet.

During the Civil War, postal services in the  Confederacy were provided by the Confederate States of America Post Office Department, headed by Postmaster General John Henninger Reagan.

The Postal Reorganization Act signed by President Richard Nixon on August 12, 1970, replaced the cabinet-level Post Office Department with the independent United States Postal Service.  The Act took effect on July 1, 1971.

References

Post Office Department
Post Office Department
1792 establishments in the United States
1971 disestablishments in the United States

United States Post Office Department