The debt-to-equity ratio (D/E) is a financial ratio indicating the relative proportion of shareholders' equity and debt used to finance a company's assets. Closely related to leveraging, the ratio is also known as risk, gearing or leverage. The two components are often taken from the firm's balance sheet or statement of financial position (so-called book value), but the ratio may also be calculated using market values for both, if the company's debt and equity are publicly traded, or using a combination of book value for debt and market value for equity financially.

Usage
Preferred stock can be considered part of debt or equity. Attributing preferred shares to one or the other is partially a subjective decision but will also take into account the specific features of the preferred shares.

When used to calculate a company's financial leverage, the debt usually includes only the Long Term Debt (LTD). Quoted ratios can even exclude the current portion of the LTD. The composition of equity and debt and its influence on the value of the firm is much debated and also described in the Modigliani–Miller theorem.

Financial economists and academic papers will usually refer to all liabilities as debt, and the statement that equity plus liabilities equals assets is therefore an accounting identity (it is, by definition, true). Other definitions of debt to equity may not respect this accounting identity, and should be carefully compared.
Generally speaking, a high ratio may indicate  that the company is much resourced with (outside) borrowing as compared to funding from shareholders.

Formula
In a general sense, the ratio is simply debt divided by equity. However, what is classified as debt can differ depending on the interpretation used. Thus, the ratio can take on a number of forms including:

Debt / Equity
Long-term Debt / Equity
Total Liabilities / Equity

In a basic sense, Total Debt / Equity is a measure of all of a company's future obligations on the balance sheet relative to equity. However, the ratio can be more discerning as to what is actually a borrowing, as opposed to other types of obligations that might exist on the balance sheet under the liabilities section. For example, often only the liabilities accounts that are actually labelled as "debt" on the balance sheet are used in the numerator, instead of the broader category of "total liabilities". In other words, actual borrowings like bank loans and interest-bearing debt securities are used, as opposed to the broadly inclusive category of total liabilities which, in addition to debt-labelled accounts, can include accrual accounts like unearned revenue.

Another popular iteration of the ratio is the long-term-debt-to-equity ratio which uses only long-term debt in the numerator instead of total debt or total liabilities. Total debt includes both long-term debt and short-term debt which is made up of actual short-term debt that has actual short-term maturities and also the portion of long-term debt that has become short-term in the current period because it is now nearing maturity. This second classification of short-term debt is carved out of long-term debt and is reclassified as a current liability called current portion of long-term debt (or a similar name). The remaining long-term debt is used in the numerator of the long-term-debt-to-equity ratio.

A similar ratio is debt-to-capital (D/C), where capital is the sum of debt and equity:

D/C =  =

The relationship between D/E and D/C is:

D/C =  =

The debt-to-total assets (D/A) is defined as

D/A =  =

It is a problematic measure of leverage, because an increase in non-financial liabilities reduces this ratio.  Nevertheless, it is in common use.

In the financial industry (particularly banking), a similar concept is equity to total assets (or equity to risk-weighted assets), otherwise known as capital adequacy.

Background
On a balance sheet, the formal definition is that debt (liabilities) plus equity equals assets, or any equivalent reformulation. Both the formulas below are therefore identical:
A = D + E
E = A − D or D = A − E.

Debt to equity can also be reformulated in terms of assets or debt:

D/E =  = .

Example
General Electric Co. ()
Debt / equity: 4.304 (total debt / stockholder equity) (340/79).  Note: This is often presented in percentage form, for instance 430.4.
Other equity / shareholder equity: 7.177 (568,303,000/79,180,000)
Equity ratio: 12% (shareholder equity / all equity) (79,180,000/647,483,000)

See also
Financial ratio
Debt-to-capital ratio

References

External links

Financial ratios

Debt-to-equity ratio


A passenger is a term that is used for a person who travels in a vehicle, but not the driver or a person working in the vehicle.

There are two common ways in which the term is used:

 The first is for persons who ride in cars or vans. The term is used for these type of passengers if they have or have not paid for the ride.
 The second is for persons who pay to ride in public transport vehicles such as buses, trains, aircraft, and ships. People who work on the vehicle are crew, not passengers.

In most places the company who owns the vehicles and the people who work on them have legal obligations to the passengers riding with them.

Transport

Passenger


Alfonso Andria (born 27 May 1952 in Salerno) is an Italian politician and Member of the European Parliament for Southern with the Margherita Party, part of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe and sits on the European Parliament's Committee on Regional Development.

He is a substitute for the Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety, a member of the Delegation for relations with the United States and a substitute for the Delegation for relations with Switzerland, Iceland and Norway and to the European Economic Area (EEA) Joint Parliamentary Committee.

Education
 1978: Graduate in law

Career
 1973-1995: Director of the provincial tourism authority of Salerno
 Member of the 'Margherita' party executive
 1985-1993: Member of Salerno Municipal Council
 1995-2004: Chairman of Salerno Provincial Council
 1995-1999: Member of the Bureau of the UPI - Union of the Provincial Councils of Italy
 Former regional Vice-Chairman of the AICCRE
 2001-2004: Chairman of the Federal Council of the League of Local Authorities
 2002-2004: Member of the Committee of the Regions of the European Union
 until 2001: Chairman of the Board of Directors of the company managing the European Employment Pact for Agro Nocerino-Sarnese
 responsible for the contract for the Salerno 'Crater'
 former member of the CNEL consultative committee for the Mezzogiorno (Coordinator)
 General Secretary (1983–1988), adviser to the Chairman (1988–2001) and Chairman (since 2002) of the European University Centre for the Cultural Heritage of Ravello
 Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Consortium PRUSST 'Ospitalità da favola' and the Atheneum Consortium (Training in film, television and multi-media work)

Decorations
 Commander of the Order of St Gregory the Great
 Knight of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George

See also
 2004 European Parliament election in Italy

External links

1952 births
Living people
People from Salerno
Democratic Party (Italy) politicians
MEPs for Italy 2004–2009
21st-century Italian politicians
Democracy is Freedom – The Daisy MEPs
Presidents of the Province of Salerno

Alfonso Andria


is a Japanese word consisting of two kanji: 怪 (kai) meaning "strange, mysterious, rare, or bewitching apparition" and 談 (dan) meaning "talk". A female spirit, rises from the depths of the  underworld, to conjure fortification of revenge, usually onto a bewitching male wronging an enslaved female witch.

Overall meaning and usage
In its broadest sense, kaidan refers to any ghost story or horror story, but it has an old-fashioned ring to it that carries the connotation of Edo period Japanese folktales. The term is no longer as widely used in Japanese as it once was: Japanese horror books and films such as Ju-on and Ring would more likely be labeled by the katakana . Kaidan is only used if the author/director wishes to specifically bring an old-fashioned air into the story.

Examples of kaidan
Banchō Sarayashiki (The Story of Okiku) by Okamoto Kido
Yotsuya Kaidan (Ghost Story of Tōkaidō Yotsuya) by Tsuruya Nanboku IV (1755–1829)
Botan Dōrō (The Peony Lantern) by Asai Ryoi
Mimi-nashi Hōichi (Hōichi the Earless)

Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai and kaidanshu
Kaidan entered the vernacular during the Edo period, when a parlour game called Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai became popular. This game led to a demand for ghost stories and folktales to be gathered from all parts of Japan and China.The popularity of the game, as well as the acquisition of a printing press, led to the creation of a literary genre called kaidanshu. Kaidanshu were originally based on older Buddhist stories of a didactic nature, although the moral lessons soon gave way to the demand for strange and gruesome stories.

Examples of kaidanshu
Tonoigusa, called Otogi Monogatari (Nursery Tales) by Ogita Ansei (1660)
Otogi Boko (Handpuppets) by Asai Ryoi (1666)
Ugetsu Monogatari (Tales of Moonlight and Rain) by Ueda Akinari (1776)

Background of the romanized translation
The word was popularised in English by Lafcadio Hearn in his book Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things. The spelling kwaidan is a romanization based on an archaic spelling of the word in kana - Hearn used it since the stories in the book were equally archaic. The revised Hepburn romanization system is spelled kaidan.

When film director Masaki Kobayashi made his anthology film Kwaidan (1964) from Hearn's translated tales, the old spelling was used in the English title.

Plot elements
Originally based on didactic Buddhist tales, kaidan often involve elements of karma, and especially ghostly vengeance for misdeeds.  Japanese vengeful ghosts (Onryō) are far more powerful after death than they were in life, and are often people who were particularly powerless in life, such as women and servants.

This vengeance is usually specifically targeted against the tormentor, but can sometimes be a general hatred toward all living humans.  This untargeted wrath can be seen in Furisode, a story in Hearn's book In Ghostly Japan about a cursed kimono that kills everyone who wears it.  This motif is repeated in the film Ring with a videotape that kills all who watch it, and the film franchise Ju-on with a house that kills all who enter it.

Kaidan also frequently involve water as a ghostly element.  In Japanese religion, water is a pathway to the underworld as can be seen in the festival of Obon.

See also
 Yose
 Glen Grant
 Japanese horror
 Japanese mythology
 Junji Ito
 Obake
 Shigeru Mizuki
 The Unbelievable
 Yōkai
 Yūrei
 Aesop's Fables

External links
Ghoul Power - Onryou in the Movies  Japanzine By Jon Wilks
Tales of Ghostly Japan Japanzine By Zack Davisson
Japanese GhostsMangajin #40 by Tim Screech
Hearn's Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things.
A site with several kaidan.
Asian Folklore Studies: The Appeal of Kaidan Tales of the Strange.
Information on The Kaidan Suite, a musical interpretation of kaidan by the Kitsune Ensemble.
Hyakumonogatari.com A website of translated kaidan
TheJapaneseHorror.com Website with several translated Kaidan

Buddhist folklore
Japanese folklore

Japanese words and phrases

Kaidan


Kenneth Ewart Boulding (; January 18, 1910 – March 18, 1993) was an English-born American economist, educator, peace activist, and interdisciplinary philosopher.  Boulding was the author of two citation classics: The Image: Knowledge in Life and Society (1956) and Conflict and Defense: A General Theory (1962). He was co-founder of general systems theory and founder of numerous ongoing intellectual projects in economics and social science. He was married to sociologist Elise M. Boulding.

Biography

Early years

Boulding was born and raised in Liverpool, England, the only child of William C. Boulding and Elizabeth Ann Boulding. His father was a gas fitter and a lay preacher in the Wesleyan Methodist Church, and his mother was a housewife. Boulding's middle name Ewart came from William Ewart Gladstone, of whom his father was a great admirer. In his adolescent years Boulding became interested in pacifism and joined the Religious Society of Friends.

After attending Liverpool Collegiate School on a scholarship, Boulding won a chemistry scholarship to Oxford University at New College in 1929. He soon transferred to Philosophy, Politics and Economics. His economics tutors were Henry Phelps Brown, and Maurice Allen (1908–1988), who would become a director of the Bank of England in the late 1960s. Boulding obtained a First in economics in 1931. In his last year he wrote "The Place of the 'Displacement Cost' Concept in Economic Theory", which was accepted and published in The Economic Journal, after extensive comments by its editor John Maynard Keynes.

On a small university scholarship Boulding spent another year at Oxford doing graduate work, which resulted in a thesis on capital movements. While he was turned down for a fellowship for Christ Church, Oxford, in 1932 he did win a Commonwealth Fellowship to the University of Chicago. En route he became "quite well acquainted" with Joseph Schumpeter.

On the fellowship from 1932 to 1934, Boulding continued his economics studies at Chicago and at Harvard University. Although Jacob Viner encouraged him to focus on his PhD work, he studied with Schumpeter, took classes from Henry Schultz and Frank Knight, and wrote some of his own articles. At Chicago, he became friends with another graduate student, Albert Gailord Hart.

His studies with Schumpeter were interrupted by a spontaneous pneumothorax ('collapsed lung'). After recovery he spent the last six months of his Commonwealth Fellowship in Chicago, writing articles on capital theory. Two of those articles, "The Application of the Pure Theory of Population Change to the Theory of Capital", and "The Theory of a Single Investment", were published in The Quarterly Journal of Economics in 1934–1935, and were the topic of Frank H. Knight's reflection the next year. After returning to the UK for three years, Boulding settled in the U.S. He was granted citizenship in 1948.

University of Edinburgh

Under the terms of his Commonwealth Fellowship Boulding returned to the UK in the summer of 1934, and obtained a three-year position in economics at the University of Edinburgh. Academic life at the university seemed very dead to him, and he made himself unpopular with a speech to students that was published in The Scotsman with the headline, "Scottish University Sitting on Haunches for the last Fifty Years."

In those days Boulding was actively involved in the Quaker community, writing a pamphlet on nonviolent methods in 1936 and drafting a letter for the Friends to the prime minister, asking Britain to disclaim the "war guilt" clauses in the Treaty of Versailles and move toward a more just peace.

During this period Boulding learned about Paton's accounting theory and the principles of accounting. This theory made him view the firm as "governed by a principle that might be called the homeostasis of the constant changing balance sheet". Boulding (1989) explained that: "In the short run, the firm simply responded to changes in the balance sheet resulting from purchases. When customers purchased finished goods, inventory went down, cash went up, and the cash would be spent on labour and materials to make more finished goods. This equilibrium balance sheet, however, would be constantly changing as technologies, new goods, and new enterprises came into play."

In 1935, in his second year in Edinburgh, Frank H. Knight published an article on his work, entitled "The theory of investment once more: Mr. Boulding and the Austrians," in The Quarterly Journal of Economics. This brought Boulding at the age of 24 to prominence as a notable intellectual in the social sciences.

US academic life

In the summer of 1937 Boulding returned to the US to attend a world congress of Quakers in Philadelphia. He obtained a faculty position in upstate New York at Colgate University. From 1937 to 1941 he taught economics there. Fontaine (2010) summarized his stay:

In a state of spiritual crisis Boulding managed to finish his textbook, Economic Analysis, which he had started in the free summer semesters at Colgate in the previous two years. This work would become a bestseller and earned him even more respect in the field of economics.

From 1942 to 1943, Boulding taught at Fisk University, a historically black school in Nashville, Tennessee. From 1945 to 1949 he was a faculty member of Iowa State College, now Iowa State University, and from 1949 to 1967 he was a faculty member of the University of Michigan. In 1967 he joined the faculty of the University of Colorado at Boulder, where he remained until his retirement.

A number of national and regional scholarly societies elected Boulding as their president, including the American Economic Association in 1968–69,  the Society for General Systems Research, the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) in 1980, the International Studies Association, the Peace Research Society, and the Association for the Study of the Grants Economy. In 1978 Larry D. Singell stated:

Boulding was nominated for the Nobel Prize at different times for both peace and economics. He was an elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1957), the American Philosophical Society (1960), and the United States National Academy of Sciences (1975).

Religious Society of Friends
Boulding, with his wife Elise, was an active member of the Religious Society of Friends, or Quakers. He took part in Quaker gatherings, served on committees, and spoke to and about the Friends. The two were members of meetings in Nashville, Ann Arbor, and Boulder. Although he usually stuttered, when he ministered at a Friends meeting, he spoke fluently.

Kenneth Boulding was instrumental in organizing the first Vietnam War teach-in at the University of Michigan in March, 1965. He later spoke on the steps of the Hatcher Graduate Library at the university and was pelted with snowballs by a group of disagreeing students.

In March 1977, he conducted a silent vigil at the headquarters of the American Friends Service Committee in Philadelphia to protest what he considered its distancing itself from Quakers. He penned the widely circulated "There is a Spirit", a series of sonnets he wrote in 1945 based on the last statement of the 17th century Quaker James Nayler.

Work
Boulding was widely recognized in academia as a prolific writer and an integrator of knowledge. For Boulding, economics and sociology were not social sciences— rather, they were all aspects of a single social science devoted to the study of human persons and their relationships (organizations). Boulding spearheaded an evolutionary (instead of equilibrium) approach to economics.

Boulding emphasized that human economic and other behavior is embedded in a larger interconnected system. To understand the results of our behavior, economic or otherwise, we must first research and develop a scientific understanding of the ecodynamics of the general system, the global society in which we live, in all its dimensions spiritual and material. Boulding believed that in the absence of a committed effort to the right kind of social science research and understanding, the human species might well be doomed to extinction. But he was optimistic, believing our evolutionary journey had just begun.

Economic Analysis, 1941
Boulding's first major work in economics was his introductory textbook, entitled Economic Analysis. It was written when he was an instructor at Colgate University in the late-1930s and first appeared in 1941 from Harper & Brothers in single-volume and two-volume editions. The book was augmented and republished in four editions, the last in 1966. In a 1942 book review, Max Millikan pointed out that the book was published at the right time and the right place. According to Millikan:

Millikan concluded that Boulding's work had filled the gap "neatly and effectively... material is organized by tools of analysis and the problems in the solution of which those tools are useful rather than in the conventional manner". In the preface Boulding had explained that the book was "intended as a text from which the student can learn and the teacher can teach the methods and results of economic analysis. It also seeks to be a contribution to the development and systematization of the body of economic analysis itself."

Looking back in 1989, Boulding explained, that "the first edition fundamentally followed Irving Fisher and Keynes's Treatise on Money. Even though I had read Keynes's General Theory by that time, I think I had not really understood it. I am not quite sure that I do now. The second edition, however, in 1948, was a thoroughly Keynesian general theory." The first edition was published at the outbreak of World War II and did not sell well, but the second revised edition did and became "one of the core textbooks used in college in the United States (and eventually around the world)."

Evolutionary economics

Boulding was an exponent of the evolutionary economics movement. In his "Economic Development as an Evolutionary System" (1961, 1964), Boulding suggests a parallel between economic development and biological evolution.

The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth, 1966
Following the publication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring in 1962, the developing environmental movement drew attention to the relationship between economic growth and development and environmental degradation. Boulding in his influential 1966 essay "The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth" identified the need for the economic system to fit itself to the ecological system with its limited pools of resources.

Publications
Boulding published some thirty books and more than eight hundred articles.

Books
1940s to 1960s
 1941, Economic Analysis, Harper & Brothers; 3rd single edition, 1955;4th ed. part II, 1966
 1942, A Peace Study Outline: The Practice of the Love of God, Philadelphia Yearly Meeting Book Committee
 1945, The Economics of Peace, Prentice Hall.
 1945, There is a Spirit: The Nayler Sonnets, Fellowship Publications.
 1950, A Reconstruction of Economics, J. Wiley.
 1953, The Organizational Revolution: A Study in the Ethics of Economic Organization, Harper & Brothers.
 1956, The Image: Knowledge in Life and Society, University of Michigan Press.
 1958, The Skills of the Economist, Cleveland: Howard Allen.
 1958, Principles of Economic Policy, Prentice-Hall, 1958.
 1962, Conflict and Defence: A General Theory, Harper & Bros.
 1964, The Meaning of the Twentieth Century: the Great Transition, Harper & Row.
 1966 The Impact of the Social Sciences, Rutgers University Press
 1966, "The Economics of Knowledge and the Knowledge of Economics". American Economic Review, Vol. 56, No. 1/2, March 1, 1966: 1–13
 1968, Beyond Economics: Essays on Society, Religion, and Ethics, (University of Michigan Press)
 1969, "The Grants Economy", Michigan Academician (Winter)

1970s
 1970, Economics as a Science, (McGraw-Hill, 1970).
 1970, A Primer on Social Dynamics: History as Dialectics and Development, (Free Press, 1970).
 1971, Economics, Colorado Associated University Press, 1971.
 1973, Political Economy, Colorado Associated University Press, 1973.
 1973, The Economy of Love and Fear: A Preface to Grants Economics, Wadsworth.
 1974, Toward a General Social Science, Colorado Associated University Press.
 1975, International Systems: Peace, Conflict Resolution, and Politics, Colorado Associated University Press.
 1975, Sonnets from the Interior Life, and Other Autobiographical Verse, Colorado Associated University Press.
 1978, Stable Peace, University of Texas Press.
 1978, Ecodynamics: A New Theory of Societal Evolution, Sage.

1980s to 1993
 1980, Beasts, Ballads, and Bouldingisms: A Collection of Writings, Transaction Books.
 1981, Evolutionary Economics, London: Sage.
 1981, A Preface to Grants Economics: The Economy of Love and Fear. New York: Praeger.
 1985, Toward the Twenty-First Century: Political Economy, Social Systems, and World Peace, Colorado Associated University Press.
 1985, Human Betterment, Sage.
 1985, The World as a Total System, Sage.
 1986, Mending the World: Quaker Insights on the Social Order, Pendle Hill Publications.
 1989, Three Faces of Power, Sage.
 1992, Towards a New Economics: Critical Essays on Ecology, Distribution, and Other Themes, Edward Elgar.
 1993, The Structure of a Modern Economy: the United States, 1929–1989, Macmillan.

Selected articles
Some of his most cited works:
 Boulding, Kenneth E. "General systems theory—the skeleton of science". Management Science 2.3 (1956): 197–208; Online at panarchy.org, 2000–2017.
 Boulding, Kenneth E. "National images and international systems", Journal of Conflict Resolution 3.2 (1959): 120–131.
 Boulding, Kenneth E. "The economics of the coming spaceship earth", Environmental Quality Issues in a Growing Economy (1966).
 Boulding, Kenneth E. "Economics as a moral science", The American Economic Review 59.1 (1969): 1–12.
 Boulding, Kenneth E. "Evolutionary economics", Journal of Business Ethics 2 (2):160–162 (1983).

See also
 Holism in science
 Loss of Strength Gradient
 Spaceship Earth

References

Further reading
 Dopfer, Kurt. "Kenneth Boulding: A founder of evolutionary economics." Journal of Economic Issues 28.4 (1994): 1201–1204.
 Keyfitz, N. "Kenneth Ewart Boulding: January 18, 1910 – March 18, 1993". National Academy of Sciences: Biographical Memoirs at nasonline.org.
 Knight, Frank H. "The theory of investment once more: Mr. Boulding and the Austrians." The Quarterly Journal of Economics 50.1 (1935): 36–67.
 Tandy, Charles. Educational Implications of the Philosophy of Kenneth Boulding. UMI: Ann Arbor. (1993 PhD dissertation: UMI Publication Number 9412524).
 Wright, Robert. Three Scientists and Their Gods: Looking for Meaning in an Age of Information. HarperCollins, 1989. Profiles of Edward Fredkin, Edward O. Wilson, and Kenneth Boulding.

External links

 Kenneth Ewart Boulding Papers: 1880–1968 at Bentley Historical Library
 New York Times Obituary of Kenneth Boulding
 An overview of Boulding's major contributions by David Latzko
 Boulding's 1966 essay The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth

1910 births
1993 deaths
20th-century American economists
20th-century Quakers
Academics from Liverpool
Alumni of New College, Oxford
American Christian pacifists
American Quakers
British Christian pacifists
20th-century British economists
British emigrants to the United States
British Quakers
British systems scientists
Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences fellows
Christian Peace Conference members
Distinguished Fellows of the American Economic Association
Ecological economists
Environmental economists
People associated with criticism of economic growth
People from Everton
Presidents of the American Economic Association
Quaker writers
University of Michigan faculty
Members of the National Academy of Medicine
Presidents of the International Society for the Systems Sciences
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Presidents of the International Studies Association

Kenneth E. Boulding


Charles Koechlin (pronounce:"Ke-klin" with "klin" to rhyme with French "vin"), (born Paris,  November 27 1867; died Le Canadel, December 31 1950) was a French composer, teacher and writer on music.  He wrote a very large amount of music, but very little of it was published because he was more interested in helping younger composers than making himself well-known.  Some of his best works include his symphonic poems and his film music.

His life
Koechlin was born in Paris, the youngest child of a large and rich family. His mother's family came from the Alsace near the French border with Germany, and he was proud of his Alsatian background.  His grandfather on his mother's side had started a cotton textile firm in Mulhouse and his father worked in the textile business.  When Koechlin was 14 his father died.  He showed an interest in music, but his family wanted him to be an artillery officer. However, he had tuberculosis and had to spent six months getting better in Algeria.  After finishing his schooling he was allowed to enter the Paris Conservatoire in 1890.  Two years later he was studying composition with Massenet, and in 1896 he was a pupil of Gabriel Fauré. Ravel was a pupil in the same class.  Fauré had a big influence on Koechlin who wrote a book about him and helped him to arrange some of his music for orchestra.

Koechlin became a freelance composer and teacher. He married Suzanne Pierrard in 1903 and they had five children.  At first he was comfortably off, but after World War I the family lost a lot of money and they had to sell their country house.

Koechlin had very free views about music, and this is probably why he never got a teaching job at the Piano Conservatoire.  He also agreed with some things that the Communists thought.  He did not like modern inventions like the telephone and radio.  He looked like an old Russian patriarch with his long beard.  He dressed in velvet trousers, sandals and a shepherd's cape for bad weather.   He liked outdoor activities such as swimming and mountaineering.  He was offered the Legion d'honneur in 1940 but refused it.

His music

Koechlin composed in a variety of styles, even changing the style during a piece.  He often liked quiet music with long chords which are played for the sounds they make rather than for giving the music a traditional shape.  Sometimes there were no barlines in his music.  He often composed in his head while on a train or climbing a mountain.

His works for orchestra include Les Bandarlogs which was based on the Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling.  Kipling's "Bandarlog" are a troupe of monkeys in the forest.  The music describes the monkeys, but Koechlin also gives it another meaning: he is criticising music critics, comparing them to monkeys.   In the Seven Stars Symphony each movement is about a famous film star.  They include Greta Garbo, Marlene Dietrich and  Charlie Chaplin.  He wrote a lot of chamber music and piano music, including some dances for Ginger Rogers.

Sources
Robert Orledge, Charles Koechlin (1867-1950) His Life and Works (London, 1989)

1867 births
1950 deaths
20th-century French composers

Charles Koechlin


Guangzhou (;  or ; ) is the capital of Guangdong Province of southern China. Historically, it was known to Westerners as Canton, which is a misnomer, or a mistake in naming, since the name is an older English pronunciation for the entire region that the city is in, Guangdong. It is also called the City of Flowers. It is in the south of China and is one of the five biggest cities in China. In mainland China, Guangzhou is regarded as one of the three most popular cities with Beijing and Shanghai, which is called Bei-Shang-Guang for short. It is where the 16th Asian Games were held and it is famous for its food all over the world.

Geography

Guangzhou is the core city of South China. It is on the north of Zhu Jiang Delta (Pearl River Delta), where the Dong Jiang River (East River), Xi Jiang River (West River) and Bei Jiang River (North River) join together. On its South is the South China Sea. With its geographical advantages, Guangzhou has been a very important port in South China for hundreds of years. Today, it is the biggest and most important port for air, sea, and trains in China. The area of Guangzhou is about . The north part and middle part of Guangzhou are hills. The west part and south part are plains that have a lot of rivers and streams. Guangzhou is in the subtropics monsoon climate region. It has a lot of sunshine and rain. The average temperature is from 21.4 to 21.9 °C (about 71 °F) and the lowest temperature in winter is about . The rainy season lasts for almost six months and the typhoons in summer also bring lots of rain. The average humidity is about 77 percent.

Guangzhou has Baiyun Airport, which is one of the three most important parts of air transportation in the country. The passenger throughput ranks third in China and 19th in the world. It is also a very important harbor in China, second to Shenzhen in South China and the fourth one in the country. With the Jing-Guang Railway, Jing-Jiu Railway, Guang-Shen Railway and other railways, Guangzhou has become one of the four biggest railway passenger stations in China. A high speed railway has been built here.

Economy

Guangzhou has been the city famous for business for hundreds of years. It has been open to the world for nearly 2000 years. After the Reform and Opening Up in 1979, Guangzhou has gained great economic achievement. For example, Guangzhou's GDP (Gross Domestic Product) has grown about 14% per year. It ranks as the third economic city in China (not including Hong Kong, Taiwan and Macao). In addition, Guangzhou has become a city with a sound industrial foundation and developed tertiary-industry. In September of 1993, Guangzhou was accepted as a member of the World Association of Metropolises.

The most important elements of Guangzhou's economy are light manufacturing sector and foreign trade. They are the main reasons for Guangzhou's economic achievement and its attraction to appeal people from all over the world to begin their own business in this city. Every year, the China Import and Export Commodities Fair (Guangzhou Fair) is held here. It has the biggest conference and exhibition center, Guangzhou International Convention and Exhibition Center, in Asia. After 2000, Guangzhou began to change its industrial structure and increase its investment in the heavy manufacturing sector. Nowadays, the automobile industry, petrochemical industry, and the IT industry have been the three mainstay industries in Guangzhou.

Culture and Education

Guangzhou is a typical city for Lingnan Culture. The main characters of Lingnan Culture are open-mindedness, practical spirit and civilian consciousness. People here don't adhere to traditional rules. They combine culture from different parts in the world with the local culture and are creating new culture to adjust to the modern world. This is very different from the Center Plains Culture in the north part of China. Guangzhou has its own opera, Guangdong Opera, and its own language, Cantonese. In Guangzhou Metro, you can hear the announcement for station not only in Chinese and English, but also in Cantonese. Besides, sotto portico is the typical construction for Lingnan Culture. A flowers market held every Spring Festival is famous around South China.

The education in Guangzhou began in the Western Han Dynasty. Now, Guangzhou is one of the cities with the most colleges and universities in the South China. It is one of the cities which has the most education resource in the country. The best comprehensive university here is Sun Yat-sen University. It is a university built in memory of Sun Yat-sen, who led the Xinhai Revolution and is regarded as the father of China.

Capital cities in Asia

Guangzhou


Confucius (, or ), literally "Master Kong", (traditionally 28 September 551 BC – 479 BC) was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period.

The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice and sincerity. These values gained prominence in China over other doctrines, such as Legalism () or Taoism () during the Han Dynasty (206 BC – AD 220). Confucius' thoughts have been developed into a system of philosophy known as Confucianism ().

Confucius


Franz Peter Schubert (; 31 Januar 179719 November 1828) wis an Austrick componer o the late Clessical an early Romantic eras. Despite his short lifetime, Schubert left ahint a vast oeuvre, includin mair nor 600 secular vocal warks (mainly Lieder), seiven complete symphonies, saucrit muisic, operas, incidental muisic an a lairge bouk o piano an chaumer muisic. His major warks include the Piano Quintet in A major, D. 667 (Trout Quintet), the Symphony No. 8 in B minor, D. 759 (Unfeenished Symphony), the three last piano sonatas (D. 958–960), the opera Fierrabras (D. 796), the incidental muisic tae the play Rosamunde (D. 797), an the sang cycles Die schöne Müllerin (D. 795) an Winterreise (D. 911).

Born tae immigrant parents in the Himmelpfortgrund suburb o Vienna, Schubert's uncommon gifts for muisic war evident frae an early age. His faither gae him his first violin lessons an his aulder brither gae him pianae lessons, but Schubert suin exceedit thair abeelities. In 1808, at the age o eleiven, he becam a pupil at the Stadtkonvikt schuil, whaur he becam acquaintit wi the orchestral muisic o Haydn, Mozart, an Beethoven. He left the Stadtkonvikt at the end o 1813, an returned hame tae leeve wi his faither, whaur he begoud studyin tae acome a schuilteacher; despite this, he conteena'd his studies in composeetion wi Antonio Salieri an still componed proleefically. In 1821, Schubert was granted admission to the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde as a performing member, which helped establish his name amang the Viennese ceetizenry. He gae a concert o his awn warks tae creetical acclaim in Mairch 1828, the anerly time he did sae in his career. He dee'd aicht months later at the age o 31, possibly due tae typhoid fiver.

Appreciation o Schubert's muisic while he wis aleeve wis leemitit tae a relatively smaw circle o admirers in Vienna, but interest in his wark increased signeeficantly in the decades follaein his daith. Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schumann, Franz Liszt, Johannes Brahms an ither 19t-century composers diskivert an championed his warks. The day, Schubert is ranked amang the greatest componers o the 19t century, and his muisic conteenas tae be popular.

1797 births
1828 daiths
19t-century Austrick fowk
19t-century clessical componers
Austrick agnostics
Austrick clessical componers
Austrick expatriates in Hungary
Austrick male clessical componers
Austrick opera componers
Austrick fowk o Moravian-German strynd
Austrick fowk o Silesian German strynd
Buirials at the Zentralfriedhof
Bairn clessical muisickers
Clessical-period componers
Componers for piano
Daiths frae syphilis
Hoose o Esterházy
Infectious disease daiths in Austrick
Pupils o Antonio Salieri
Romantic componers
Viennese componers

Franz Schubert


Providers is a Danish hip hop, R&B and pop song production team made up of Jeppe Federspiel and Rasmus Stabell.

Jeppe Federspiel and Rasmus Stabell started as musicians playing drums. Years later, they joined forces to form Providers, an urban production team. They are best known for having produced Medina's album Velkommen til Medina and the double platinum-selling hit single from the album "Kun for mig" (translated as Only for me) that reached the top of the Danish Singles Chart Tracklisten staying for 7 weeks at #1 and selling +60,000 copies totalling 63 weeks in the Danish charts. It was released in its English version as "You and I" and was a Top 40 hit in UK Singles Chart and reached #3 in Bulgaria and at #10 in Germany.

Moreover, Providers have written and produced for a number of well-known artists such as:
Medina
Jay Sean
Szhirley
L.O.C.
Outlandish
Ataf Khawaja
Burhan G
Rasmus Seebach
Majid
Remee
Terri Bjerre
Boyo
Charlie Sachs
Kenisha Pratt

In 2009, they produced the single "Natteravn" (vs. Providers) from Rasmus Seebach's same name album, the second biggest selling album of Denmark in 2009. The single "Natteravn" was a hit in Danish charts and reached #6 in Sweden.

Jeppe Federspiel and Rasmus Stabell operate together with Thomas Borresen record company Labelmade, which has artists like Medina and Svenstrup & Vendelboe

References

External links
Labelmade Official website
Providers MySpace site
Rasmus Stabell Official website
Jeppe Federspiel Facebook

Danish musical groups
Danish record producers

Providers


The Brüning Museum, also known as Museo Regional Arqueológico Enrique Bruning de Lambayeque was inaugurated in 1966 and it is located in two blocks of the principal park in Lambayeque, Peru. It was based on the collections of Hans Heinrich Brüning, a German researcher.

It is an excellent museum based on the collections that Bruning gathered at the end of the 19th century and the first decades of the 20th century. The Peruvian government acquired this collection from Bruning in 1924. This museum has been constantly enriched by pieces obtained in confiscations, donations and discoveries. The most recent procurement are the pieces acquired in the Tomb of the "Lord of Sipán". His remains and the mortuary trousseau are displayed at the museum. The Golden Room shows up to 500 works of art.

The museum was constructed as a modern and functional facility, inspired by the works of the 20th-century French architect, Le Corbusier. The more than 1500 pieces come from different indigenous cultures, including an invaluable textile collection and ceramics of Chimú and Vicús. Thousands of golden objects are kept in sealed rooms, including funeral masks of copper, ceremonial vessels, an extraordinary necklace and jewelry of Mochica and Chimú cultures, as well as pieces of the Lambayeque culture.

In the gardens of the museum is a statue dedicated to the mythical figure of Naylamp, founder of the Lambayecanos Kings' dynasty. The front facade has a mural with Lambayecanos motifs. The interior of the principal building is a sequence of four levels, which in total  exhibit more than 1,400 archaeological pieces. These represent the Lambayeque, Moche, Chavín, Vicús, Inca cultures and others. Some of the most important pieces date to more than 10,000 years ago.

See also
 List of museums in Peru

Notes and references

External links
 Monografias on-line
Brüning Museum on HowToPeru

Museums in Peru
Buildings and structures in Lambayeque Region
Tourist attractions in Lambayeque Region
Museums established in 1924
1924 establishments in Peru

Brüning Museum


Joe Chill is a fictional Batman character who was the mugger who killed Bruce Wayne's parents when he was young. He was the reason why Batman became Batman from his parents death. Chill was killed during a trial.

He was played by Richard Brake in Batman Begins.

Batman characters
DC Comics characters

Joe Chill


The 1955 Formula One season was the 6th of the championship. The champion was Juan Manuel Fangio in a close battle.

Season review

1955 Drivers Championship final standings

 * Fastest lap (1 point awarded)
 † Position shared between more drivers of the same car
 Only the best 5 results counted towards the Championship. Numbers without parentheses are Championship points; numbers in parentheses are total points scored.

Non-Championship race results
Other Formula One races also held in 1955, which did not count towards the World Championship.

Formula One seasons
1955 in sports

1955 Formula One season


Roger Eugene Maris (September 10, 1934 – December 14, 1985) was a baseball player for the Cleveland Indians, Kansas City Athletics, New York Yankees, and the St. Louis Cardinals. He was named the Most Valuable Player in the American League in 1960 and 1961. Also in 1961, the Yankees won the World Series and Maris set a record by hitting 61 home runs that season. The Yankees won the World Series again in 1962. Sports writers called Maris and Mickey Mantle the M&M boys. After the 1966 season, the Yankees traded Maris to the Cardinals. In 1967, the Cardinals won the World Series. Maris retired after the 1968 season.

1934 births
1985 deaths
Cleveland Indians players
Kansas City Athletics
New York Yankees players
St. Louis Cardinals players

Roger Maris


Magik is an object-oriented programming language that supports multiple inheritance and polymorphism, and it is dynamically typed. It was designed and implemented in 1989 by Arthur Chance of Smallworld Systems Ltd. as part of Smallworld Geographical Information System (GIS). Following Smallworld's acquisition in 2000, Magik is now provided by GE Energy, still as part of its Smallworld technology platform.

Magik (Inspirational Magik) was originally introduced in 1990 and has been improved and updated over the years. Its current version is 5.2.

In July 2012, Magik developers announced that they were in the process of porting Magik language on the Java virtual machine. The successful porting was confirmed by Oracle Corporation in November of the same year.

Similarities with Smalltalk

Magik itself shares some similarities with Smalltalk in terms of its language features and its architecture: the Magik language is compiled into byte codes interpreted by the Magik virtual machine. The Magik virtual machine is available on several platforms including Microsoft Windows, various flavours of Unix and Linux.

Magik is console based and code can be modified on the fly even when an application is running. The console can also be used to execute Magik code and to see the results.

Compiled code is stored in a single file called an image file. Each image file holds the compiled byte-codes and the state of the session (for example variable values) when the image was last saved.

Language features

Comments
Magik uses the # token to mark sections of code as comments:

  # This is a comment.

Assignments
Magik uses the << operator to make assignments:
  a << 1.234
  b << b + a
  c << "foo" + "bar" # Concat strings
For clarity, this notation is read as "a becomes 1.234" or "b becomes b plus a". This terminology separates assignment from comparison.

Magik also supports a compressed variation of this operator that works in a similar way to those found in C:
  b +<< a # Equivalent to b << b + a
To print a variable you can use the following command

  a << "hello"
  write(a)

Symbols
As well as conventional data types such as integers, floats and strings Magik also implements symbols. Symbols are a special token data type that are used extensively throughout Magik to uniquely identify objects. They are represented by a colon followed by a string of characters. Symbols can be escaped using the vertical bar character. For example:
  a << :hello  # whenever :hello is encountered, it is the same instance
  b << :|hello world|

Dynamic typing
Magik variables are not typed as they are in say C# and can reference different objects at runtime. Everything in Magik is an object (there is no distinction between objects and primitive types such as integers):
  a << 1.2     # a floating point number is assigned to variable 'a'
  a << "1.2"   # later, a string is assigned to variable 'a'
Objects
Objects are implemented in Magik using exemplars. Exemplars have similarities to classes in other programming languages such as Java, but with important differences. Magik supports multiple inheritance, and mixins (which implement functionality with no data). New instances are made by cloning an existing instance (which will typically be the exemplar but does not have to be).

New exemplars are created using the statement def_slotted_exemplar(), for example:
  def_slotted_exemplar(:my_object,
  {
    {:slot_a, 34},
    {:slot_b, "hello"}
  }, {:parent_object_a, :parent_object_b})
This code fragment will define a new exemplar called my_object that has two slots (or fields) called slot_a (pre-initialised to 34) and slot_b (pre-initialised to "hello") that inherits from two existing exemplars called parent_object_a and parent_object_b.

Comparison
Magik implements all usual logical operators (=, <, <=, >, >=, ~=/<>) for comparison, as well as a few unusual ones. The _is and _isnt operators are used for comparing specific instances of objects, or object references rather than values.

For example:
  a << "hello"
  b << "hello"

  a = b # returns True (_true) because the values of a and b are equal
  a _is b # returns False (_false) because a is not the same instance as b

  a << "hello"
  b << a
  a = b # returns True (_true) because the values of a and b are equal
  a _is b # returns True (_true) because b was assigned the specific instance of the same object as a, rather than the value of a.

Methods
Methods are defined on exemplars using the statements _method and _endmethod:
  _method my_object.my_method(a, b)
    _return a + b
  _endmethod
It is convention to supply two methods new() (to create a new instance) and init() (to initialise an instance).
  # New method
  _method person.new(name, age)
    _return _clone.init(name, age)
  _endmethod

  # Initialise method.
  _private _method person.init(name, age)
     # Call the parent implementation.
     _super.init(name, age)
     # Initialise the slots.
     .name << name
     .age << age
    _return _self
  _endmethod
The _clone creates a physical copy of the person object. The _super statement allows objects to invoke an implementation of a method on the parent exemplar. Objects can reference themselves using the _self statement. An object's slots are accessed and assigned using a dot notation.

Methods that are not part of the public interface of the object can be marked private using the _private statement. Private methods can only be called by _self, _super and _clone.

Optional arguments can be declared using the _optional statement. Optional arguments that are not passed are assigned by Magik to the special object _unset (the equivalent of null). The _gather statement can be used to declare a list of optional arguments.
  _method my_object.my_method(_gather values)
  _endmethod

Iteration
In Magik the _while, _for, _over, _loop and _endloop statements allow iteration.

_block
	_local s << 0
	_local i << 0
	_while i <= 100
	_loop
		s +<< i
		i +<< 1
	_endloop
>> s
_endblock

Here, the _while is combined with _loop and _endloop.

  _method my_object.my_method(_gather values)
    total << 0.0
    _for a _over values.elements()
    _loop
       total +<< a
    _endloop
    _return total
  _endmethod

  m << my_object.new()
  x << m.my_method(1.0, 2, 3.0, 4) # x = 10.0
Here values.elements() is an iterator which helps to iterate the values.

In Magik generator methods are called iterator methods. New iterator methods can be defined using the _iter and _loopbody statements:
  _iter _method my_object.even_elements()
    _for a _over _self.elements()
    _loop
      _if a.even? _is _true
      _then
         _loopbody(a)
      _endif
    _endloop
  _endmethod

Procedures
Magik also supports functions called procedures. Procedures are also objects and are declared using the _proc and _endproc statements. Procedures are assigned to variables which may then be invoked:
  my_procedure << _proc @my_procedure(a, b, c)
    _return a + b + c
  _endproc

  x << my_procedure(1, 2, 3) # x = 6

Regular Expression
Magik supports // regular expression syntax:

_if /Hello\,\s(\w)+!/.matches?("Hello, Magik!") _then
    write("Got a match!")
_endif

and to capture groups in Regex:

/sw([0-9]+)-([0-9]+).*/.replace_all("sw65456-324sss", "$1") # "65456"
/sw([0-9]+)-([0-9]+).*/.replace_all("sw65456-324sss", "$2") # "324"

HTTP Library
Magik supports making HTTP or HTTPS requests via http library, see below examples:

magikhttp << http.new()
magikhttp.url("https://www.google.com").get()
magikhttp.url("https://www.google.com").post({"User-agent", "Bot"}, "some data")

Language Quirks
Because Magik was originally developed in England, methods in the core smallworld libraries are spelled using British English. For example:

   Use "initialise", not "initialize".

Collections
Like other programming language Magik too has collections.  They include the following:
Simple Vector
Rope
Hash Table
Property List
Equality set
Bags

Hello World example
The following is an example of the Hello world program written in Magik:

  write("Hello World!")

References

External links
Smallworld Product Suite Technology
MDT - Magik Development Tools IDE for GE Smallworld GIS developers
Open Source (SourceForge)
Language forum post on Magik
Technical Paper No. 5 - An Overview of Smallworld Magik
GE Smallworld, Emacs Extensions for Magik developers
Visual Studio Code extension for Smallworld Magik programming language.

Class-based programming languages
Dynamically typed programming languages

Magik (programming language)


is a manga magazine aimed at teens made by Shueisha. The magazine is also known as Shonen Jump, Weekly Jump, or Jump. The manga from the magazine are made into Jump Comics.

International Magazines

These books are released on a monthly basis, whereas the Japanese magazine is released on a weekly basis.

SHONEN JUMP

The printer of magazines, Shueisha joined the printer of manga VIZ Media, LLC. (before heard as Viz Communications, LLC.) to print a monthly work of Weekly Shonen Jump. The first print was made in 2003 with picture of Goku on the front. The English words in the magazine used circumflexes besides macrons. Not all the time the magazine does this.

BANZAI!

The Weekly Jump magazine is printed as the magazine BANZAI! in Germany. The printer of magazines, Carlsen Verlag created the printed book. The first issue was in 2001 and stopped going in 2005. The printed book put the series Hakuchi One, I"s, Shaman King, Nekomajin, DNA2, Sand Land, Dr. Slump, Halloweens, and Hunter x Hunter. Two book labels were made for the manga called Best of BANZAI! and BANZAI! präsentiert (BANZAI! presents).

Swedish Shonen Jump

The Swedish printed version was made by Bonnier Carlsen. The printed book only appeared in 2007 and put the manga Yu-Gi-Oh!, Naruto, and Shaman King in it. The manga Bleach was printed in it after the other manga. The book also had short manga like Sand Land; and made people learn how to create manga.Hishodi Madutsu:the final  Hishodo madutsu

Norwegian Shonen Jump

The Norwegian printed book was made by Shibsted. The book was printed through 2005-2007. The magazine put series like Rurouni Kenshin, Yu-Gi-Oh!, and Shaman King. The comics Shaman King and Naruto are going to be printed in books. Two labels were made for the manga called En Bok Fra Shonen Jump (A Book From Shonen Jump) and Dragon Ball Ekstra (Dragon Ball Extra).

References

Other websites
Pop Web Jump
SHONEN JUMP
SHONEN JUMP !
Norwegien Shonen Jump website
BANZAI! Official website

Manga
Magazines of Asia

Weekly Shōnen Jump


Francisco Ascaso Abadía (April 1, 1901 – July 20, 1936) was a famous Anarcho-syndicalist in Spain, friend of Buenaventura Durruti. He was born in Almudévar and died in Barcelona. In his life he traveled and fought in Spain, France, Argentine, Belgium, Germany, Sweden, Latin America and was deported to the Canary Islands. In the Spanish Civil War, the anarchist Ascaso joined the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and he fought in the first time in the armed group called and then in 1922 in the group called Los Solidarios. In 1934 he became regional general secretary of the CNT. He died in the Spanish Civil War, on the first day of conflict in Barcelona. After his death, a groups of anarchists called them the "Francisco Ascaso Column".

Related pages
 Anarchy

1901 births
1936 deaths
Spanish anarchists

Francisco Ascaso


Kilmainham (In Irish: Cill Mhaighneann, "St Maighnenn's church") is an area of Dublin. It lies south of the River Liffey and west of the city centre in the Dublin 8 postal district.

History
In the Viking era, there was a monastery here. The monastery was home to the first Norse base (longphort) in Ireland.

In the 12th century the lands on the banks of the Liffey belonged to the Knights Templars. Strongbow built a castle for them, about a mile away from the Danish wall of old Dublin. Here the Templars lived for nearly a century and a half. In 1308, Edward II ruled that they were no longer allowed to practice their religion. Thirty members of the Templars were imprisoned in Dublin. Their lands and rights were given to the priory of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. They were there until the monasteries were closed in the 16th century.

The Manor of Kilmainham was a liberty. This means it had special rights. "The manor" was an area that included parts of James's Street and side-streets and went as far as Lucan and Chapelizod.

Until the time of Queen Elizabeth, the lord lieutenants used the manor of Kilmainham. In 1559, the earl of Sussex, found that the building at Kilmainham was damaged by a storm. The following year Elizabeth ordered that Dublin Castle be improved so the lord lieutenant could live there. From that time, Kilmainham was no longer used much.

Things to see
The Royal Hospital Kilmainham is in Kilmainham. It was built on the site where the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem had their priory in Dublin. It is now the Irish Museum of Modern Art. Nearby is also Kilmainham Gaol, where the executions of the leaders of the Easter Rising took place.

Kilmainham also has one of a small number of Viking era burial sites (Old Norse haugr meaning barrow or mound), within Dublin.

References

Dublin

Kilmainham


The Roman Senate was the longest-lasting institution in Ancient Rome. It began in the first years of the city, which was supposedly founded in 753 BC. It survived the Roman Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC), the Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC), the Roman Empire (27 BC–395 AD) and the fall of the Western Roman Empire (395–476 AD).

The Senate started as an advisory council of elders. The word "senate" came from 'senex' meaning "old man". The Senate reached its peak in the middle Republic, when it was the most powerful body in Rome. The Senate lost much of its power in the first period of the Empire, known as the Principate.

After Diocletian, when the centre of government was moved out of Rome, the Senate became just a municipal body. The influence of the old idea lived on, and Constantine II set up a Senate in Constantinople.

Functions
The Senate passed decrees called senatus consultum, which were advice from the Senate to a magistrate (senior official). They usually were obeyed in practice.

Through such advice, the Senate directed the magistrates, especially the Roman Consuls (the chief magistrates) in their handling of military conflicts.

The Senate also had power over the civil government in Rome. Only the Senate could authorize paying out public funds from the treasury. As the Roman Empire grew, the Senate also supervised the administration of the provinces, which were governed by former consuls and praetors. It decided which magistrate should govern which province.

The senators were patricians, and so members by birth, or men of lesser birth who had notable achievements. Under the early kings, the Senate numbered 100, but grew to 900, then Augustus reduced it to 600. Even so, only about 100 to 200 members were active at any given time. From time to time there were other sources of power in Rome, such as assemblies, magistrates, dictators and emperors, but the Senate always played a part.

Other websites
 Roman Senate Citizendium

Other reading
 Lintott, Andrew 1999. The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. .

Ancient Rome

Roman Senate


Microcode is the name for a number of instructions or data structures which are involved in implementing higher-level machine language in many processors, especially microprogrammed ones. Microcode is on memory that is very fast to access. When a machine level instruction needs to be executed, microcode tells the processor what electronic circuits should be used. When a new processor is designed, an engineer also writes the microcode for the instructions of machine language. This is called Microprogramming, the resulting code is called a microprogram.

In early processors, each instruction was hard-wired. This has several drawbacks, the most obvious is that correcting an error in processor design means that the processor needs to be replaced.

Example
A processor should add two values, which are in registers A and B.

 Configure the ALU for addition
 Put the value of register A on one input of the ALU
 Put the value of register B on one input of the ALU
 After waiting a short time, to allow for the addition, the result needs to be copied into a register, which has not been used yet
 The value of that register needs to be copied to register A
 The next instruction needs to be fetched from memory

Items 1-3, as well as  5-6, can be coded as one instruction. It is also possible to hard-wire the logic needed for this operation. This has the benefit of being faster, but the drawback that it no longer allows changes that might be needed later on.

The concept of microprogramming was developed by Maurice Wilkes in 1951, using diode matrices for the memory element.

References

Microprocessor design

Microcode


Francisco de Paula del Villar y Lozano (1828, in Murcia – 1901, in Barcelona) was a Spanish architect.

Biography
Villar studied architecture in Madrid at the Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, and qualified in 1852. The following year he settled in Barcelona and was elected a member of what is now known as the Reial Acadèmia Catalana de Belles Arts de Sant Jordi. In 1854 he designed a series of emergency hospitals for victims of the cholera epidemic. Amongst other public appointments he became president of the Association of Architects and director of the Higher School of Architecture.

He held the post of diocesan architect from 1874 to 1892, and was succeeded in it by his son Francesc de Paula del Villar i Carmona. He restored the church of  Santa Maria del Pi, the Basílica de Santa Maria de Vilafranca and the Casa de Misericòrdia; he also designed many parish churches and the apse of the basilica of the Monastery of Montserrat, a commission on which Antoni Gaudí worked under him in a junior capacity.

Sagrada Família
In 1877 he was commissioned by the Associació de Devots de Sant Josep to build the church of the Sagrada Família. Villar planned a Neo-Gothic design, of which only the crypt was built. He abandoned the project in 1883 as a result of disagreements with Joan Martorell, the architect advising  Josep Maria Bocabella, president  of the Associació de Devots de Sant Josep and promoter of the  project. The job was offered to  Martorell, who turned it down, and instead recommended Antoni Gaudi. Gaudi then took charge of the project and made it into his magnum opus.

External links
 Arquitectura Barcelona :: Francisco de Paula del Villar i Lozano

Spanish architects
1828 births
1901 deaths
Gothic Revival architects

Francisco de Paula del Villar y Lozano


John Freind  (1675 – 26 July 1728) was an English physician.

Life
He was younger brother of Robert Freind (1667–1751), headmaster of Westminster School, and was born at Croughton, Northamptonshire. He was under Richard Busby at Westminster School, and studied at Christ Church, Oxford under Henry Aldrich.

After this he began the study of medicine, and having proved his scientific attainments by various treatises was appointed a lecturer on chemistry at Oxford in 1704. In the following year he accompanied the English army, under Charles Mordaunt, 3rd Earl of Peterborough, into Spain. Shortly after his return in 1713 from Flanders, where he had accompanied British troops, he took up residence in London, where he soon obtained a reputation as a physician.

In 1716 he became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, delivered the Goulstonian Lectures in 1717, was chosen one of the censors in 1718 and Harveian orator in 1720. In 1722 he entered the House of Commons as Member of Parliament (MP) for Launceston in Cornwall; but, being suspected of favoring the cause of the exiled Stuarts, he spent half of that year in the Tower of London. In 1726 Freind was appointed physician to Queen Caroline, an office which he held till his death.

He had purchased the manor of Hitcham in Berkshire and was buried there. There is a memorial to him in Westminster Abbey by the architect James Gibbs and the sculptor John Michael Rysbrack.

Works
While still very young, he produced with Peter Foulkes an edition of the speeches of Aeschines and Demosthenes on the affair of Ctesiphon. On returning home in 1707, he wrote an account of the expedition to Spain, which attained great popularity. In 1709 he published his Prelectiones chimicae, which he dedicated to Sir Isaac Newton.

During his imprisonment he conceived his major work, The History of Physic, of which the first part appeared in 1725, and the second in the following year. Included in this volume was a paper by Dr. Henry Levett, also written in Latin, addressing the treatment of smallpox.

A complete edition of his Latin works, with a Latin translation of the History of Physic, edited by John Wigan, was published in London in 1732.

References

Attribution

1675 births
1728 deaths
People from West Northamptonshire District
18th-century English medical doctors
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Fellows of Christ Church, Oxford
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for Launceston
British MPs 1722–1727
Fellows of the Royal Society

John Freind (physician)


Philip II was an ancient king of Macedonia. He ruled from 359 BC to 336 BC. He was the father of the emperor Alexander the Great, who was born in 356 BC. Philip united all of Ancient Greece. He would either bring a city-state into his hegemony with his military or he would talk/bribe the leaders into joining his empire. It was under his reign in 338 BC at Chaeronea against Athens that Alexander first showed his military genius. Philip was assassinated by one of his bodyguards, at the celebration of the wedding of his daughter. Alexander soon carried out Philip's plan to attack the Persian Empire.

382 BC births
336 BC deaths
Ancient Greeks

Philip II of Macedon


Peter Morrison Vitousek (born January 24, 1949 ) is an American ecologist, particularly known for his work on the nitrogen cycle.

Born in Hawaii, Vitousek graduated from Amherst College in 1971 and received his Ph.D. in biology from Dartmouth College in 1975. Since then, he has worked as an Assistant Professor of Zoology and Biology at Indiana University (1975–79), an Associate Professor of Botany and Biology at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (1980–83), and a Professor in the Department of Biology at Stanford University since 1984. He is married to fellow Stanford professor and ecologist Pamela Matson.

He was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1992. In 1993, he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vitousek was awarded the 2006 NAS Award for Scientific Reviewing "for his scholarly and inspirational book and reviews on nitrogen cycling and its role in the evolving patterns of ecosystem productivity and diversity." In 2010, he was awarded the Japan Prize.

Vitousek is the son of Betty and Roy Vitousek Jr of Hawaii.  He is the grandson of Roy A. Vitousek who was a three-term Speaker of the Hawaii House of Representatives.

Selected publications
Peter M. Vitousek (1982) Nutrient Cycling and Nutrient Use Efficiency. Am Nat. 119, pp. 553.
Peter M. Vitousek, Paul R. Ehrlich, Anne H. Ehrlich and Pamela A. Matson (1986) Human Appropriation of the Products of Photosynthesis. BioScience 36: 368-373
Peter M. Vitousek & L.R. Walker (1989) Biological invasion by Myrica faya in Hawai'i: plant demography, nitrogen fixation, and ecosystem effects. Ecological Monographs 59: 247–265.
Peter M. Vitousek & R W. Howarth (1991) Nitrogen limitation on land and in the sea: How can it occur? Biogeochemistry 13: 87-115
Peter M. Vitousek, John D. Aber, Robert W. Howarth, Gene E. Likens, Pamela A. Matson, David W. Schindler, William H. Schlesinger, David G. Tilman (1997) Human alteration of the global nitrogen cycle: Sources and consequences. Ecological Applications: 7, 737-750.
Peter M. Vitousek, Harold A. Mooney, Jane Lubchenco, Jerry M. Melillo. (1997) Human Domination of Earth's Ecosystems. Science 277: 494 – 499.
Peter M. Vitousek (2004) Nutrient Cycling and Limitation: Hawai'i as a Model System. Princeton University Press.
Peter M. Vitousek, T.L. Ladefoged, P.V. Kirch, A.S. Hartshorn, M.W. Graves, S.C. Hotchkiss, S. Tuljapurkar, and O.A. Chadwick (2004) Agriculture, soils, and society in precontact Hawai'i. Science 304: 1665–1669
Peter M. Vitousek, R. Naylor, T. Crews, M. B. David, L.E. Drinkwater, E. Holland, P. J. Johnes, J. Katzenberger, L. A. Martinelli, P. A. Matson, G. Nziguheba, D. Ojima, C. A. Palm, G. P. Robertson, P. A. Sanchez, A. R. Townsend, F. S. Zhang (2009) Nutrient Imbalances in Agricultural Development: Science 324: 1519-1520.

References

1949 births
American ecologists
Amherst College alumni
Dartmouth College alumni
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Indiana University faculty
Living people
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Scientists from Hawaii
Stanford University Department of Biology faculty
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill faculty
Fellows of the Ecological Society of America

Peter Vitousek


Coastal sage scrub, also known as coastal scrub, CSS, or soft chaparral, is a low scrubland plant community of the California coastal sage and chaparral subecoregion, found in coastal California and northwestern coastal Baja California. It is within the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, of the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome.

Characteristics
Plant community
Coastal sage scrub is characterized by low-growing aromatic, and drought-deciduous shrubs adapted to the semi-arid Mediterranean climate of the coastal lowlands.  The community is sometimes called "soft chaparral" due to the predominance of soft, drought-deciduous leaves in contrast to the hard, waxy-cuticled leaves on sclerophyllous plants of California's chaparral communities.

Flora
Characteristic shrubs and subshrubs include:
 California sagebrush (Artemisia californica)
 Black sage (Salvia mellifera)
 White sage (Salvia apiana)
 California buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum)
 Coast brittle-bush (Encelia californica)
 Golden yarrow (Eriophyllum confertifolium)
Larger shrubs include:
 Toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia)
 Lemonade berry (Rhus integrifolia)
Herbaceous plants, grasses, and in some locales, cacti and succulents, are also part of the flora. Hesperoyucca whipplei, colloquially known as Chaparral Yucca, is commonplace throughout the climate zone.

Geographical subtypes
The coastal sage scrub plant community is divided into three geographical subtypes—northern coastal scrub, southern coastal scrub, and maritime succulent scrub.

The coastal scrub communities are divided into three regions:
 Northern Coastal Scrub and Coastal Prairie, which extends from San Luis Obispo to Oregon.
 Coastal Sage scrub, which extends from Ensenada, Baja California to Monterey.
 Maritime Succulent Scrub, which can be found in San Diego County and Baja California.

The Northern Coastal Scrub consists of prairie, which is terraces with deep alluvial soils, and scrub, which is found on steeper slopes and ravine areas. Evergreen shrubs and subshrubs, which are soft leaves. They are found in semi-open with a height of 2–3 meters, with multiple layers. Some examples of the plant species that can be found are Bush monkeyflower (Mimulus aurantiacus), Poison oak (Taxicodendron diversilobum), Coffee berry (Frangula californica), Golden yarrow (Eriophyllum confertiflorum).

California sagebrush (Artemisia californica) can be found in Coastal Sage Scrub community, especially in Orange County. Some other plant species that can be found is also giant coreopsis (Coreopsis gigantea), Californian black sage (Salvia mellifera), California buckwheat (Eriogonoum fasciculatum), and Californian white sage (Salvia apiana).

Plant species that can be found in Maritime Succulent Scrub is coast prickly pear (Opuntia littoralis), coast barrel cactus (Ferocactus viridescens), cliff spurge (Euphorbia misera), bush rue (Cneoridium dumosum), and Dudleya spp.

Northern coastal scrub
Northern coastal scrub occurs along the Pacific Coast from the northern San Francisco Bay Area to southern Oregon. It frequently forms a landscape mosaic with the California coastal prairie plant community.

The predominant plants are low evergreen shrubs and herbs. Characteristic shrubs include coyote brush (Baccharis pilularis), yerba santa (Eriodictyon californicum), coast silk-tassel (Garrya elliptica), salal (Gaultheria shallon), and yellow bush lupine (Lupinus arboreus). Herbaceous species include western blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchium bellum), Douglas iris (Iris douglasiana), and grasses.

Southern coastal scrub

Southern coastal scrub is mostly found along the maritime Central Coast region, and the terraces and mountains with coastal climate influence in Southern California. Its distribution extends from the southwestern San Francisco Bay Area in the north, through Big Sur, Vandenberg Air Force Base, the Oxnard Plain, the Los Angeles Basin, most of Orange County, parts of Riverside County, coastal San Diego County, and the northwestern region of Baja California state in Mexico, including the areas around Tijuana and Ensenada.

Southern California
The metropolitan areas of Los Angeles, San Diego, and Tijuana are located in the southern coastal scrublands, and most of the scrublands have been lost to urbanization and agriculture. The plants of this community prefer the mild maritime climates found along Southern California's coastline. World Wildlife Fund estimates that only 15 percent of the coastal sage scrublands remain undeveloped. Some of the remaining southern coastal scrub in Los Angeles County can be found in dunes under the takeoff path at Los Angeles International Airport—LAX, in the coastal Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area, and at the Robert J. Bernard Field Station at the Claremont Colleges. In San Diego County, the Camp Pendleton Marine Corps Base protects larger areas, and the Marine Corps Air Station Miramar has vernal pools and the endemic mint Pogogyne abramsii.  One of the largest remaining areas of inland coastal sage scrub is found in the Temescal Mountains of Riverside County.

A few rare and endangered species occur in southern coastal scrub habitats. For example, the coastal California gnatcatcher (Polioptila californica californica) is a threatened bird species endemic to the coastal sage scrublands. Other endemic fauna includes the El Segundo blue butterfly in the LAX dunes; and the Palos Verdes blue butterfly (Glaucopsyche lygdamus palosverdesensis), at only one site on the Palos Verdes Peninsula.

The endangered Torrey pine (Pinus torreyana) is the dominant tree at Torrey Pines State Reserve in San Diego, one of only two known stands of this pine species.

See also
California coastal prairie
California coastal sage and chaparral
Terrace (geology)

Notes

References
  In: Mayer KE and Laudenslayer WF. A Guide to Wildlife Habitats of California. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Fish and Game; "Coastal Scrub"; de Becker, Sally. (1988).
 Schoenherr, Allan A. (1992).  A Natural History of California.  Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

External links

National Park Service: Coastal Sage Scrub and Southern Maritime Chaparral Communities
Santa Barbara College, Biology Dept: "Soft Chaparral or Coastal Sage Scrub Community"
Calflora Database — Southern California Plant Communities — see #4. Coastal sage scrub.
Claremont Colleges: Robert J. Bernard Field Station website — Lists and photographs of organisms found in Coastal sage scrub.
Las Pilitas horticulture database: California coastal sage scrub plant community — text, images, species links.
Theodore Payne Foundation for Wild Flowers and Native Plants: Native Plant Guides — Southern California species.

California chaparral and woodlands
Plant communities of California
Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub in the United States
Ecoregions of California
Plant communities of the West Coast of the United States
Natural history of Baja California
Coast

Coastal sage scrub


When a state uses taxes and government spending to influence the economy, this is known as fiscal policy in economics and political science. Idea from John Maynard Keynes. The state can influence the following parameters:
Aggregate demand and the level of economic activity
How resources are allocated
How wealth is distributed
There are two basic kinds of taxes: those on revenue, and those on economic activity, usually called excise taxes. Lowering the excise taxation will lead to increased economic activity, for example. Changes in welfare also have an impact on economic activity.

In general, fiscal policy is cyclic: Effects which result from changes in fiscal policy need some time until they can be observed.

Certain schools of thought think that fiscal policy should not be used to influence the economy. This is the case for Monetarism, which demands that keeping money at its value is the most important goal.

Economic policy

Fiscal policy


Jeremy John Irons (born 19 September 1948) is an Inglis actor. Efter receivin clessical trainin at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School, Irons begoud his actin career on stage in 1969 an haes syne appeared in mony West End theatre productions, includin The Winter's Tale, Macbeth, Much Ado About Nothing, The Taming of the Shrew, Godspell, Richard II, an Embers. In 1984, he made his Broadway debut in Tom Stoppard's The Real Thing an received a Tony Awaird for Best Actor.

Irons's first major film role came in the romantic drama The French Lieutenant's Woman (1981), for that he received a BAFTA nomination for Best Actor. Efter starnin in dramas, sic as Moonlighting (1982), Betrayal (1983), an The Mission (1986), he wis praised for portrayin twin gynaecologists in David Cronenberg's psychological thriller Dead Ringers (1988). Irons wan multiple awairds, includin the Academy Awaird for Best Actor, for his portrayal o the accused attempted murtherer Claus von Bülow in Reversal of Fortune (1990).

Ither films hae included Steven Soderbergh's mee
stery thriller Kafka (1991), the period drama The House of the Spirits (1993), the romantic drama M. Butterfly (1993), the vyce o Scar in Disney's The Lion King (1994), Simon Gruber in the action film Die Hard with a Vengeance (1995), the drama Lolita (1997), Musketeer Aramis in The Man in the Iron Mask (1998), the action adventur Dungeons & Dragons (2000), the drama The Merchant of Venice (2004), the drama Being Julia (2004), the epic historical drama Kingdom of Heaven (2005), the fantasie-adventur Eragon (2006), the Western Appaloosa (2008), an the indie drama Margin Call (2011). In 2016, he appeared in Assassin's Creed an, startin that year, haes portrayed Alfred Pennyworth in the DC Extended Universe, beginnin wi Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice an reprisin the role in Justice League (2017).

Irons haes an aw made mony appearances in telly dramas. He earned his first Gowden Globe Awaird nomination for his brak-oot role in the ITV series Brideshead Revisited (1981). In 2005, Irons appeared in the historical miniseries Elizabeth I, for that he received a Gowden Globe Awaird an an Emmy Awaird for Best Supportin Actor. Frae 2011 tae 2013, he starned as Pape Alexander VI in the Showtime historical series The Borgias. He is ane o the few actors that hae achieved the "Triple Croun o Actin", winnin an Academy Awaird for film, an Emmy Awaird for telly an a Tony Awaird for theatre. In October 2011, he wis nominated the Goodwill Ambassador for the Fuid an Agricultur Organisation o the Unitit Naitions.

References

Alumni o Bristol Old Vic Theatre School
Best Actor Academy Awaird winners
Best Drama Actor Gowden Globe (film) winners
Best Supportin Actor Gowden Globe (televeesion) winners
Ootstaundin Performance bi a Male Actor in a Miniseries or Televeesion Movie Screen Actors Guild Awaird winners
César Awaird winners
Ootstaundin Performance bi a Supportin Actor in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Awaird winners
Genie Awaird winners for Best Actor
Tony Awaird winners
Inglis male film actors
Inglis male vyce actors
Male Shakespearean actors
Cusack faimily (Ireland)
Inglis male stage actors
Inglis male televeesion actors
Audio beuk narrators
Fowk eddicatit at Sherborne Schuil
Fowk frae Cowes
Royal Shakespeare Company members
1948 births
Livin fowk
David di Donatello winners
20t-century Inglis male actors
21st-century Inglis male actors

Jeremy Irons


The Swiss Alps (German: Schweizer Alpen, Fraunch: Alpes suisses, Italian: Alpi svizzere, Rumanc: Alps svizras) is the pairt o the Alps muntain range that lies within Swisserland. Acause o thair middlins locus in the hail Alpine range, thay are kent as the Middlins Alps.

The heichest heid o the Swiss Alps is the Dufourspitze (4,634 metres (15,202 ft)) nawr the Swiss-Italian mairch. The heichest muntain that aw lies on Swiss launds is the Dom (4,545 metres (14,911 ft)). Ither heidie heids can be fund in the list o muntains in Swisserland.

Sin the middlins speals, farin ower the Alps hean a heidie haundlin in history. The aurie noorth o the St. Gotthard Pass becam the steid of the Auld Swiss Confederacy in 1291.

Moontain ranges
Swisserland
Moontain ranges o Europe

nl:Alpen#Zwitserland

Swiss Alps


Merchants deal with trade. That means they deal goods that they do not produce themselves, in order to get profit.

Merchants can be two types:

 A wholesale merchant works between producer and retail merchant. Some wholesale merchants only organise the movement of goods rather than move the goods themselves.
 A retail merchant sells goods to consumers (including businesses), commonly known as retailers. A shop owner is a retail merchant.

In the US, "merchant" is  any person while engaged in a business or profession or a seller who deals regularly in the type of goods sold.  Under the common law in the United States, merchants are held to a higher standard in the selling of products than those who are not engaged in the sale of goods as a profession. For example, when a merchant sells something, he or she is expected to give a warranty, guaranteeing that the product is fit to be sold, even if there is nothing in writing to this effect.

Related pages
 capitalism

Commerce
Business occupations

Merchant


Barack Obama was inaugurated as the 44th president of the United States on Tuesday, January 20, 2009. This inauguration was the beginning of the first term of Obama as President and of Joe Biden as Vice President. The oath of office was given by Chief Justice John G. Roberts on the Lincoln Bible.

The ceremony was attended by more people than any event held in Washington, D.C. Based on the combined numbers of people there, people watching it on television and the Internet, it was one of the most-watched events ever by the global audience.

Barack Obama
Obama, Barack
2009 in Washington, D.C.
January events

First inauguration of Barack Obama


is the name for incorrect, unreadable characters shown when computer software fails to show text correctly. When using computers, text is encoded using a character encoding.  In transfer, each character is replaced by its position (or number) in the encoding. To display the character again, the position is again replaced by the character. When the original encoding is not specified, a different character may be used when the number is again replaced with the character for display. Unicode was introduced to solve this problem: UTF-8 is able to encode most common characters in 2 bytes.

Before Unicode was introduced, other character encodings were used. As an example, ISO-8859 contains 15 different encodings. These are the same for the characters commonly used in English. They have several "blocks" of "special characters", which are filed differently for each encoding.

Origin of the word
Mojibake is a Japanese word. The word 文字化け () is composed of two parts. 文字 (moji) means letter, character. 化け (bake), from the verb 化ける (bakeru), means to appear in disguise, to take the form of, to change for the worse. Literally, it means "character mutation".

References

Computer science
Encodings

Mojibake


A road number is usually given to a portion of public roadway. The chosen number often depends on the type of road. The numbers will be different if the road is an interstate, a motorway, an arterial thoroughfare, a two-lane road, and so forth.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the route number has a letter and a number. It is between 1 and 4 digits/numbers long. For instance, the main road from London to Edinburgh is called the A1. The "A" means it is a first class route. This also means it is more important than "B" roads. The A2, A3, A4, A5, A6 begin in London and go towards various towns around the coast. Roads which start in the area between the A1 and the A2 must start with the number 1 (A137, B1412), etc. Scotland is also divided into zones by the A7, A8 and A9 leave from Edinburgh. Motorways have the letter "M", for example the M25. Motorways have a different numbering system from "A" and "B" roads.

This system is used in other European countries (for example, Spain and France).

Roads

Road number


In cryptography, RC2 is a symmetric-key block cipher. Designed by Ronald Rivest in 1987. "RC" stands for "Rivest Cipher", or alternatively, "Ron's Code".

RC2 is a 64-bit block cipher with a variable key size and using 18 rounds.

Rounds are arranged as a source-heavy feistel network, with 16 rounds of one type called "mixing rounds" interleaved by two rounds of another type called "mashing rounds".

The 18 rounds are performed using the following interleaved sequence:
 perform 5 mixing rounds.
 perform 1 mashing round.
 perform 6 mixing rounds.
 perform 1 mashing round.
 perform 5 mixing rounds.

RC2 uses key-expansion algorithm by which an expanded key consisting of 64 (16-bit words) is produces depending in a complicated way on every bit of the supplied "variable-length" input key. A mixing round consists of four applications of the "mix-up" transformation, as shown in the diagram. A round is "mashed" by adding to it one of the 16-bit words of the expanded key (RFC 2268).

RC2 is susceptible to a related-key attack using 234 chosen-plaintext attacks (Kelsey et al., 1997).

The development of RC2 was sponsored by Lotus, who were seeking a custom cipher be exported as part of their Lotus Notes software, after evaluation by the NSA. The NSA suggested a couple of changes, which Ronald Rivest incorporated. After further negotiations, the cipher was approved for export in 1989.

Along with RC4, RC2 with a 40-bit key size was treated under US export regulations for cryptography. Now all 40-bit encryption algorithms are obsolete because they are dangerously susceptible to brute force attacks.

Initially, the details of the algorithm were kept secret — proprietary to RSA Security — but on 29 January 1996, source code for RC2 was anonymously posted to the Internet on the Usenet forum, sci.crypt. A similar post had occurred earlier with RC4. It is unclear whether the poster had access to the specifications or whether it had been reverse engineered.

References
 Steven Levy, Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government — Saving Privacy in the Digital Age, , 2001.
 Lars R. Knudsen, Vincent Rijmen, Ronald L. Rivest, Matthew J. B. Robshaw: On the Design and Security of RC2. Fast Software Encryption 1998: 206–221
 John Kelsey, Bruce Schneier, David Wagner: Related-key cryptanalysis of 3-WAY, Biham-DES, CAST, DES-X, NewDES, RC2, and TEA. ICICS 1997: 233–246

Other websites
 RFC 2268 - A Description of the RC2(r) Encryption Algorithm
 RSA FAQ: What is RC2?
 sci.crypt posting revealing the RC2 algorithm

Cryptography

RC2


Johann Adam Weishaupt (6th February 1748-18th November 1830) was a German philosopher influenced by the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment. During his life, he was also influenced by the ideas of Liberalism. He was a Freemason, and liked the ideas of Deism and Republicanism. He also started the short-lived secret society called Illuminati.

Weishaupt studied history, law, political science and philosophy in Ingolstadt, In 1768, he got his Doctorate in philosophy. In 1772 he became a professor for law, with a specialization in church law.

1748 births
1830 deaths
German philosophers

Adam Weishaupt


A Time to Kill is a 1996 American legal drama thriller movie directed by Joel Schumacher released in July 1996. It is based on the 1989 novel of the same name by John Grisham It stars Samuel L. Jackson, Sandra Bullock, Matthew McConaughey and Kevin Spacey. Jackson plays an Carl Lee Hailey whose ten-year-old daughter Tonya is raped by two white racist men in Mississippi. He acts as a vigilante by killing the two rapists. McConaughey plays Jake Tyler Brigance, a lawyer who defends Hailey in court during his murder trial. A Time to Kill was a strong box office success during 1996 and was distributed through Warner Bros..

Other websites

1996 crime drama movies
1996 crime thriller movies
1996 drama thriller movies
1990s legal movies
American crime drama movies
American crime thriller movies
American drama thriller movies
American legal movies
1990s English-language movies
Movies about murderers
Movies about revenge
Movies about racism
Movies set in Mississippi
Rape in movies
Warner Bros. movies
Movies directed by Joel Schumacher

A Time to Kill


Arsène Jules Étienne Juvenel Dupuit (18 May 1804 – 5 September 1866) was a French civil engineer and economist.

He was born in Fossano, Cisalpine Republic then under the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte. At the age of ten he went to Versailles with his family where he studied — winning a Physics prize at graduation. He then studied in the École Polytechnique as a civil engineer. He gradually took on more responsibility in various regional posts. He received a Légion d'honneur in 1843 for his work on the French road system, and shortly after moved to Paris. He also studied flood management in 1848 and supervised the construction of the Paris sewer system. He died in Paris.

Engineering questions led to his interest in economics, a subject in which he was self-taught. His 1844 article was concerned with deciding the optimum toll for a bridge. It was here that he introduced his curve of diminishing marginal utility. As the quantity of a good consumed rises, the marginal utility of the good declines for the user. So the lower the toll (lower marginal utility), the more people who would use the bridge (higher consumption). Conversely as the quantity rises (people allowed on the bridge), the willingness of a person to pay for that good (the price) declines.

Thus, the concept of diminishing marginal utility should translate itself into a downward-sloping demand function. In this way he identified the demand curve as the marginal utility curve. This was the first time an economist had put forward a theory of demand derived from marginal utility. Although not the first time that the demand curve had been drawn, it was the first time that it had been proved rather than asserted. Dupuit, however, did not include a supply curve in his theory.

Dupuit went on to define "relative utility" as the area under the demand/marginal utility curve above the price and used it as a measure of the welfare effects of different prices – concluding that public welfare is maximized when the price (or bridge toll) is zero. This was later known as Marshall's "consumer surplus".

Dupuit's reputation as an economist does not rest on his advocacy of laissez-faire economics (he wrote "Commercial Freedom" in 1861) but on frequent contributions to periodicals. Wanting to evaluate the net economic benefit of public services, Dupuit analysed capacities for economic development, and attempted to construct a framework for utility theory and measuring the prosperity derived with public works. He also wrote on monopoly and price discrimination.

Dupuit also considered the groundwater flow equation, which governs the flow of groundwater. He assumed that the equation could be simplified for analytical solutions by assuming that groundwater is hydrostatic and flows horizontally. This assumption is regularly used today, and is known by hydrogeologists as the Dupuit assumption.

See also
Robert Ekelund

References
 Hager, W.H. (2004): Jules Dupuit—Eminent Hydraulic Engineer. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Volume 130, Issue 9, pp. 843–848.
Dupuit, Arsène Jules Étienne Juvénal (1844): De la mesure de l'utilité des travaux publics, Annales des ponts et chaussées, Second series, 8.
Translated by R.H. Barback as On the measurement of the utility of public works, International Economic Papers, 1952, 2, 83–110
reprinted in: Kenneth J. Arrow and Tibor Scitovsky, eds., Readings in welfare economics (Richard D. Irwin, Homewood, IL, 1969), 255–283.
Robert Ekelund and Robert F. Hébert: Secret Origins of Modern Microeconomics: Dupuit and the Engineers University of Chicago Press, 1999.

External links
 Biography of Jules Dupuit

French chief executives
École Polytechnique alumni
École des Ponts ParisTech alumni
Corps des ponts
1804 births
1866 deaths
French civil engineers
French economists
French hydrologists
19th-century French businesspeople

Jules Dupuit


Luminous paint or luminescent paint is a kind of paint that gives off visible light and that glows in the dark. There are several ways this can be done:
It is possible to convert invisible UV light into visible light. Typically, blue light, and the near-blue part of UV light is changed to a bigger wavelength, such as blue-green, yellow or red. This effect is known as fluorescence. At the same intensity, tones of red or yellow appear brighter to the human eye. This kind of paint is used for high-visibility clothing, for example.

It is possible to store the energy of the light, and to emit this energy in the form of visible light later on. The effect is known as phosphorescence. Emergency exits are marked with this kind of paint.
A  radioactive substance can be used; the energy of this radioactive decay can be converted into visible light. Today, the radiation of these substances is shielded easily, since the substances used only emit alpha radiation, or low-energy beta radiation. At the beginning of the 20th century, radium isotopes were used, which led to a number of cases of radiation poisoning; one of the most prominent cases is that of the Radium girls.

Related pages
Luminosity
Luminescence
Bioluminescence

Paints

Luminous paint


Line dancing is a form of group dancing that is done to either country or hip-hop music. The term line dance is derived from the idea that the group of people participating in the dance are all facing the same direction when conducting the series of moves in the line dance. A line dance can go from 32 beats upwards of up to 92 beats per minutes, and can also be either a 4 or 2 wall dance. When the dance starts off everyone is facing the front wall, after all of the counts of the dance are complete (let's say we were doing a 32 count dance) then everyone would finish the dance facing either the back wall or the left or right wall. One example of a line dance is the "Men In Black" line dance. This dance is usually done to a hip-hop song, such as "Yeah 3X", by Chris Brown. Once the first 32 counts of the dance are completed everyone will finish the dance facing the left wall, and would have turned one quarter to their left counter clockwise. Once the series of moves is completed 4 times the group will end up facing the front wall again.

Dance types

Line dance