In the Hungarian People's Republic, agricultural collectivization was attempted a number of times in the late 1940s, until it was finally successfully implemented in the early 1960s. By consolidating individual landowning farmers into agricultural co-operatives, the Communist government hoped to increase production and efficiency, and put agriculture under the control of the state.

Post-War background
In early 1945, the provisional Hungarian government had appointed "land claimants" committees to examine the situation of the peasantry and develop a plan for land reform. When the proposed legislation was passed in March, it merely acknowledged the seizures the peasants had already undertaken. Prior to the reforms, half of agricultural land had controlled by large, privately owned "hacienda-type" estates. The provisional government legislation redistributed 35% of Hungary's territory, some 93,000 square kilometers of land. While the wealthy who lost their land in the deal had obviously lost out, the problems of smaller peasant landholders were by no means solved. Many of them saw only slight increases in their property size to 11,000 square meters, "too small to provide a livelihood, let alone the basis for efficient agricultural production." These smallholders formed a political party which won a significant majority in the November election, but political maneuvering and election fraud by the Communists led to its failure in the following election.

First attempt at collectivization
While it remains unclear how the Smallholders Party would have solved the problems resulting from their dwarf properties, the plans of the Hungarian Working People's Party (MDP) soon became clear. The model of Stalinist collectivization would be adopted and applied with physical force if necessary. In July 1948, government regulations allowed the seizure of larger landholdings from nagygazdák (Hungarian [kulak]s). These regulations enabled over 800 square kilometers of land to be confiscated, 60% of which went to recently formed farming co-operatives, the rest going to private peasants. This first serious attempt at collectivization corresponded with the first Five Year Plan, and both bore the marks of Stalinist agricultural policy. Both economic and direct police pressure were used to coerce peasants to join co-operatives, but large numbers opted instead to leave their villages. In the early 1950s, only one quarter of peasants agreed to join co-operatives. Even once collectivized, farms were subject to harsh compulsory deliveries (production quotas in physical units passed down from central planning) and incredibly low agricultural producer prices. Although individual families were allowed a small private household plot intended to serve their own personal needs, decrees passed in 1949 and 1950 limited these plots with an absolute limit of 4,300 square meters, and its output was also subject to compulsory deliveries. The Five Year Plan initially promised 11 billion forints of credit for co-operatives (later downscaled to 8 million) but by 1953, less than half of that had been made available. Without credit from the government, or any reasonable ability to earn a surplus, peasants were unable to invest in their own farms and the co-operatives began to crumble.

Nagy's New Course and Rákosi's return
Although certainly not radical, Imre Nagy's "New Course," introduced in 1954, promised an easing of social tension between co-operatives and the state. First, the compulsory deliveries were abolished, alleviating much stress for farmers. Second, the government devoted nearly one quarter of its national investment to agriculture and in just one year "more tractors were put into service than during the entire 1950-3 period." These new beginnings would not last long, however, as power struggles within the MDP in the spring of 1955 led to Mátyás Rákosi's return to power and a condemnation of the "right deviation" supported in the Nagy's New Course. Rákosi renewed the drive for collectivization, again using physical force to encourage membership. This attempt failed to last even as long as the previous drive. Nikita Khrushchev's secret speech and Rákosi's ensuing resignation led to second failure at collectivization. The weaknesses in the Stalinist model had been rather apparent to some after the first wave in the early 1950s, but the inflexibility of the Rákosi government left no room for any creative solutions.

1957 Agrarian Theses
After the events of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and the re-establishment of political order, officials of the new Hungarian Socialist Workers Party (MSzMP) began to draw up a plan for a more gradual collectivization drive. Like Nagy's New Course, the changes suggested in the July 1957 Agrarian Theses were not drastic, but they made room for the possibility of further reforms. Some changes came almost immediately. The compulsory deliveries were not reintroduced and the purchasing prices introduced in 1957 were 80% higher than the compulsory prices had been.

Tractors and machine stations
The government began to allow the co-operatives to purchase limited amounts of machinery for their own use. Until this point, all farm machinery had been kept in special state-run machine stations, but new regulations encouraged co-operatives to buy most forms of light machinery. By the end of the year, the 2557 existing agricultural co-operatives had purchased over 1000 light tractors. In March 1958, Khrushchev suggested that machine stations had outlived their usefulness, and they were soon abolished. More purchasing of machinery was allowed the following year, and in 1961, a number of machine stations were allowed to sell off their obsolete machines. Furthermore, the machine stations in Turkeve and Székesfehérvár were converted into repair shops. Out of 235 machine stations in use in 1961, only 63 were open in 1964 and by the end of the decade, only a few remained in poor areas. Most of the stations were transformed into repair shops to service the machinery quickly being acquired by the co-operatives. The new independent machine ownership would later spawn further demands by the collective farmers.

Household plots and sharecropping
Another shift that resulted from the Agrarian Theses was a new willingness on the part of Party to accept household plots belonging to members of co-operative farms. The acceptance of household plots grew primarily out of necessity; the infrastructure required to shelter livestock co-operatively could simply not be built quickly enough. The government adopted the common-sense solution of allowing members to keep animals on their household plots. The solution was a good fit. The farmers enjoyed the benefits of keeping their own animals (including milk, eggs, even calves and piglets) and the government avoided the unnecessary slaughter of animals that would have resulted from strict enforcement. Although the household plots had long existed, the idea of household stock-breeding was not approved of by everyone. In 1959, a report to the Political Committee worried that in some areas, local farm leaders continued to oppose the creation of household plots and made life difficult for those private owners. Government attempts push for tolerance of their measures stressed the "transitional" nature of the situation. In the summer of 1960, Lajos Fehér, Deputy Prime Minister, insisted that "...[h]ousehold farming is an integral complementary part of cooperative farming ... It will be needed so long as the economic activity of the co-operative ... has not reached a high enough level for collective production to take over the supply . . . In many places the transitional measures are being branded in a sectarian manner as 'capitalist tendencies' or regarded as some sort of 'sin or act against socialism' ... These damaging, narrow-minded ideas must now be forcefully eliminated, and everybody must understand ... the country needs meat!"

Also allowed was the practice of sharecropping, in which co-operatively owned land was divided up between families and worked on relatively independently. The family would receive pay based on their work hours but also a percentage of the surplus from their particular strip of land. This helped to motivate members to work harder, particularly with crops like potatoes that required more manual labor. Both of these transitional measures integrated pre-soviet "family labor" practices with the ideal "socialist wage labor" to balance ideology with economic well-being.

Resistance
With relatively little use of force, the great wave of collectivization occurred between 1959 and 1961, earlier than forecast in the Agrarian Theses.  At the end of this period, more than 95% of agricultural land in Hungary had become the property of collective farms. In February 1961, the Central Committee declared that collectivization had been completed. This quick success should not be confused with enthusiastic adoption of collective idealism on the part of the peasants. Private ownership meant independence and self-sufficiency, collectivization meant negotiation and uncertainty. Although pensions for members of co-operatives were a legal requirement after 1958, some elderly potential members were not convinced of the long-term financial security of co-operatives, and chose to leave their farms to seek industrial work where they were sure of a pension. In the end, however, psychological factors might have been the deciding influence. Demoralized after two successive (and harsh) collectivization campaigns and the events of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the peasants were less interested in resisting, and as membership levels increased, those who remained likely grew worried about being left out.

Benefits
Whether or not peasants really wanted to join, the adjustments made to the agricultural system in 1957 clearly managed to satisfy the membership adequately enough that the co-operatives did not fall apart as they had in the past. Like Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia underwent a Stalinist phase of collectivization in the 1950s before leaving it behind in the search for a new model. In Poland, a sort of "dual agricultural" model was developed in which 20% of land was controlled by large, inefficient state farms, and the rest privately owned, mostly in the form of small peasant farms. This isolated situation left the peasants open to obvious discrimination and they suffered from a lack of financial and structural support from the state. In Czechoslovakia, the state had only a bare tolerance for household plots and the transitional system was marked by its almost total inflexibility.  In contrast, transitional measures in Hungary worked with the concerns of the farmers, allowing them mechanical independence, semi-private production on their household plots and crop-shared fields, and a decent standard of living from higher agricultural producer prices and substantial government investment.

Drawbacks
With the ever-looming uncertainty of collectivization, Hungarian farmers became fearful and hesitant to purchase even simple tools to improve the production of their farms. They feared that their investment would be unable to be reaped by themselves, but would instead be used to benefit others. Additionally, many of the individual farms which operated before the collectivization attempts in the late 1940s and 1950s which were used for specific agricultural niches, such as horse-breeding and viticulture, for which there was a significant market, were changed to instead produce food crops. This, mixed with the inefficiency of the state-run farms, led to an overall decrease in production and profit for many farmers.

See also
Collectivization in the USSR
Eastern Bloc economies

References
Swain, RFFS, 35.
Swain, CFWW, 3.
Swain, RFFS, 35.
Swain, RFFS, 36.
Swain, RFFS, 42.
Berend, 2
Swain, CFWW, 27
Berend, 106.
Swain, CFWW, 37.
Berend, 102.
Berend, 98.
Swain, CFWW, 33.
Swain, CFWW, 4.
Bell, 137
Swain, Structures in Transition, 4.
Swain, Structures in Transition, 4.

Sources
Nigel Swain, Collective Farms Which Work? (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985),
Nigel Swain, Hungary: The Rise and Fall of Feasible Socialism (London: New Left Books, 1992)
Nigel Swain, Central European Agricultural Structures in Transition (Discussion Paper for Frankfurt Institute for Transition Studies, 1999)
Iván T. Berend, The Hungarian Economic Reforms 1953-1988 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
Peter D. Bell, Peasants in Socialist Transition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984)

Agricultural labor
Collective farming
Hungarian People's Republic

Collectivization in Hungary


The Copper Queen Mine was a copper mine in Cochise County, Arizona, United States. Its development led to the growth of the surrounding town of Bisbee in the 1880s. Its orebody ran 23% copper, an extraordinarily high grade. It was acquired by Phelps Dodge in 1885.

In the early 1900s, this was the most productive copper mine in Arizona. While copper mining declined in the area in the 1930s and 1940s, the Copper Queen continued to be mined by the open-pit process during the years following World War II. With decreasing returns, Phelps Dodge closed it in 1985.

History

The presence of copper ore in the Mule Mountains of southeast Arizona may have been known as early as 1876, but the first mining claim was filed on August 2, 1877. In 1877, a U.S. Cavalry patrol from Fort Bowie was tracking Apache Indians and camped at what is today known as Iron Springs. The men didn't like the quality of the water and they sent Scout Jack Dunn to look for better quality water. During his search he found a spring along a very large cliff of limestone, known today as Castle Rock, and on his return an outcrop containing lead carbonate, which was known to carry silver, in a gorge later known as Tombstone Canyon. Dunn told his commanding officer Lt. John Rucker and a packer named Ted Byrne of his discovery. They named the find the "Rucker" and planned to file a claim, but were delayed when their patrol was ordered to resume pursuit of a band of Apache warriors. Before departing Fort Bowie, they met a 42-year old George Warren and persuaded him to file a claim for them with the agreement that Warren would name Dunn in all notices of locations for mining claims that he located. They provided him with a  grubstake, provisions, and a map to mining claim site.

Warren didn't keep his agreement with Dunn. On his way to the claims office, Warren stopped in a saloon, got drunk, and gambled away the grubstake given him by Dunn and the others. He went to Fort Huachuca and recruited additional backers from Tombstone. On September 27, 1877, 56 days after Dunn located the Rucker Mine, Warren filed a claim for the Mercy Mine  up Mule Pass Canyon from Iron Spring. Over the next six months his name is mentioned either as the locator or witness in several other claims in the Tombstone Canyon and Mule Mountains and established what became known as the Warren Mining District. He held a one-ninth interest in the new Copper Queen mine.

While drinking with acquaintances in Charleston, Warren made a friendly, drunken bet that he could outrun a man on a horse, but lost the bet and his one-ninth interest in the Copper Queen Mine, later estimated to be worth US$20,000 (or about  $ today).

Entrepreneurs Edward Reilly and Levi Zeckendorf bought an option to purchase the mine in 1880 for US$20,000. When the ore assayed at 22% copper, Reilly became enthusiastic about the mine's possibilities. He bought out others' interest in the claims in April, 1880, and went to San Francisco to see if he could market his option on the claims. Reilly persuaded engineers DeWitt Bisbee, William H. Martin, and John Ballard in San Francisco to visit the mine, and they were pleased with the prospects. On May 12, 1880, Martin and Ballard agreed to furnish the funds to mine and smelt the ore and received seven-tenths interest in the Copper Queen mine and two-thirds interest in the Copper King. Reilly retained the remainder.

James Douglas, of Phoenixville, Pennsylvania who had invented new methods of smelting copper, learned of the Warren mining district early on. He was sent by the  Phelps Dodge company of New York City to examine potential copper mines. During his research, Douglas concluded the risk was great but persuaded the company they should go forward. Offered the choice of a flat fee or a 10% interest in the property for his services, he chose the latter, a decision that subsequently made him a fortune.  The company bought the Atlanta Mine and poured over $76,000 (or about  $ today) into exploration before they found the ore body. When the claims and ore bodies in the area would likely overlap, leading to potential costly litigation, they merged with their neighbor the Copper Queen mine, forming the Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Company in 1885.

The surface pockets of cerussite were soon exhausted, but the owners found that the orebody ran 23% copper, with silver and gold as byproducts. Most mines of that era could profitably mine ore containing 8% to 10% copper, so the Copper Queen orebody was considered extraordinarily high grade. The surface oxide ore was exhausted after three or four years, but miners explored deeper and eventually found even larger orebodies.

In 1884–85 the mine was offered for sale to London investors for £350,000, but the offer was not taken up. In the early 20th century, the Copper Queen ranked as the most productive copper mine in Arizona and was viewed by many as the best run copper mine in the United States. Deposits of gold and silver were also discovered in the mine.

The mining work was extremely hazardous. The Phelps Dodge mine operators routinely demanded unpaid work, subjected miners to intrusive physical strip searches, and followed dangerous practices like blasting while miners were in the mine and not permitting safety operators on drills and elevators. There were also widespread claims of discrimination against non-white miners. A miners union organized in 1917, when the mine was the site of an Industrial Workers of the World miners' strike. Phelps Dodge resisted union organizing and illegally used private police to arrest more than 1300 miners. They put them on railroad cars and expelled them from the town and area in what became known as the Bisbee Deportation.

Before engines were used to transport cars of ores, mules were trained to pull ore cars out of the mines. The loaded cars weighed up to . The mules lived in the mines 24/7, sleeping in stables in the mines. The mules would spend four years working in the mines, after which time their eyesight deteriorated. In order to adjust them to daylight, blinders were placed over the mules' eyes with small holes poked in the material. The holes were slowly widened as the mule's eyes adjusted to the light.

In the 1950s, Phelps Dodge developed open-pit mining at the Copper Queen; this enabled mining operations to continue. Underground work was also done. By the mid-1960s, the grade of ore from the Copper Queen had declined to 4%. The mine ceased production in 1975.

As proposed by the mayor and volunteers seeking an alternative economic base, the company agreed to allow part of the mine to be open for tours. This area was renovated by paid and volunteer workers to create a heritage tourism site. More than one million visitors have seen the mine since it reopened in 1976. Phelps Dodge's former headquarters building in Bisbee has been adapted as a mining museum, which offers interpretation of the mining era and its effects in the region.

The company was acquired by Freeport McMoRan, which in the early 21st century was investigating new means of mining in this area.

See also

 Bisbee Massacre
 Copper mining in Arizona
 Courtland, Arizona
 Lavender Pit

References

External links
 Copper Queen Mine website

Copper mines in Arizona
Buildings and structures in Cochise County, Arizona
History of Arizona
Underground mines in the United States
Museums in Cochise County, Arizona
Mining museums in Arizona
Industrial Workers of the World in Arizona
1877 establishments in Arizona Territory

Copper Queen Mine


Access control is the ability to allow or deny the use of a certain object by a certain person or entity. Access control machine can be used in managing physical objects (such as a movie theater, to which only people with tickets are allowed in) or digital objects (for example, a private text document on a computer, which only certain users should be able to read).

Because every person's fingerprint, iris, voice, retina, face, hand, vein and signature are unique, a biometric time clock provides a quick, accurate, and reliable way to record who is accessing an object or place. That is why many companies now employ biometrics (systems that identify people based on a body part).

In recent times, there are large number of biometric systems that are commercially available. Such biometric systems are based on unique characteristics of human being. The most common, reliable and successful system is the one based on fingerprints. Users are supposed to put their thumb/index finger (or any specified finger) in the finger reader. The system then compares the fingerprint that is read with the one in the central database for authentication.

Most biometric systems do not keep an image of the fingerprint but a template. A template is basically a number that is calculated based on various characteristics of the fingerprint. This is done so that persons may not sneak unauthorised images of fingerprints into the database. When a fingerprint is to be matched, its "template number" is computed and compared with that stored in the database. Most systems allow for dry, greasy, chaffed and minor cuts on the fingers. The other biometric systems are based on retina of the eye, palm, photograph or voice pattern recognition. The palm-based systems take the image of the palm from various angles and compare them.

References

Security

Access control


gabinete
Gabinete
gabinete
gabinete $7 gabinete $1 gabinete
$2
gabinete $6.

gabinete

gabinete

gabinete | gabinete.

You are currently unable to edit Wikipedia.
You are still able to view pages, but you are not currently able to edit, move, or create them.
Editing from $7 has been blocked (disabled) by $1 for the following reason(s):
$2
This block has been set to expire: $6.

Even if blocked, you will usually still be able to edit your user talk page and email other editors and administrators.

Other useful links: Blocking policy · Username policy ·
Appealing blocks: policy and guide

If the block notice is unclear, or it does not appear to relate to your actions, please ask for assistance as described at Help:I have been blocked.

gabinete


Naked eye, also called bare eye or unaided eye, is the practice of engaging in visual perception unaided by a magnifying, light-collecting optical instrument, such as a telescope or microscope, or eye protection.

In astronomy, the naked eye may be used to observe celestial events and objects visible without equipment, such as conjunctions, passing comets, meteor showers, and the brightest asteroids, including 4 Vesta. Sky lore and various tests demonstrate an impressive variety of phenomena visible to the unaided eye.

Basic properties
Some basic properties of the human eye are:
Quick autofocus from distances of 25 cm (young people) to 50 cm (most people 50 years and older) to infinity.
Angular resolution: about 1 arcminute, approximately 0.017° or 0.0003 radians, which corresponds to 0.3 m at a 1 km distance.
Field of view (FOV): simultaneous visual perception in an area of about 160° × 175°.
Ability to see faint stars up to +8 magnitude under a perfectly dark sky.
Photometry (brightness) to ±10% or 1% of intensity – in a range between night and day of 1:10,000,000,000.
Symmetries of 10–20' (3–6 m per 1 km), see the measurements of Tycho Brahe.
Interval estimations (for example at a plan on paper) to 3–5%.
Unconscious recognizing of movement (that is "alarm system" and reflexes).

Visual perception allows a person to gain much information about their surroundings:
the distances and 3-dimensional position of things and persons
the vertical (plumb line) and the slope of plain objects
luminosities and colors and their changes by time and direction

In astronomy

The visibility of astronomical objects is strongly affected by light pollution. Even a few hundred kilometers away from a metropolitan area where the sky can appear to be very dark, it is still the residual light pollution that sets the limit on the visibility of faint objects. For most people, these are likely to be the best observing conditions within their reach. Under such "typical" dark sky conditions, the naked eye can see stars with an apparent magnitude up to +6m. Under perfect dark sky conditions where all light pollution is absent, stars as faint as +8m might be visible.

The angular resolution of the naked eye is about 1; however, some people have sharper vision than that. There is anecdotal evidence that people had seen the Galilean moons of Jupiter before telescopes were invented. Uranus and Vesta had most probably been seen but could not be recognized as planets because they appear so faint even at maximum brightness; Uranus's magnitude varies from +5.3m to +5.9m, and Vesta's from +5.2m to +8.5m (so that it is only visible near its opposition dates). Uranus, when discovered in 1781, was the first planet discovered using technology (a telescope) rather than being spotted by the naked eye.

Theoretically, in a typical dark sky, the dark adapted human eye would see the about 5,600 stars brighter than +6m while in perfect dark sky conditions about 45,000 stars brighter than +8m might be visible. In practice, the atmospheric extinction and dust reduces this number somewhat. In the center of a city, where the naked-eye limiting magnitude due to extreme amounts of light pollution can be as low as 2m, as few as 50 stars are visible. Colors can be seen but this is limited by the fact that the eye uses rods instead of cones to view fainter stars.

The visibility of diffuse objects such as star clusters and galaxies is much more strongly affected by light pollution than is that of planets and stars. Under typical dark conditions only a few such objects are visible. These include the Pleiades, h/χ Persei, the Andromeda Galaxy, the Carina Nebula, the Orion Nebula, Omega Centauri, 47 Tucanae, the Ptolemy Cluster Messier 7 near the tail of Scorpius and the globular cluster M13 in Hercules. The Triangulum Galaxy (M33) is a difficult averted vision object and only visible at all if it is higher than 50° in the sky. The globular clusters M 3 in Canes Venatici and M 92 in Hercules are also visible with the naked eye under such conditions. Under really dark sky conditions, however, M33 is easy to see, even in direct vision. Many other Messier objects are also visible under such conditions. The most distant objects that have been seen by the naked eye are nearby bright galaxies such as Centaurus A, Bode's Galaxy, Sculptor Galaxy, and Messier 83.

Five planets can be recognized as planets from Earth with the naked eye: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Under typical dark sky conditions Uranus (magnitude +5.8) can be seen as well with averted vision, as can the asteroid Vesta at its brighter oppositions. Under perfect dark sky conditions Neptune may be visible to the Naked eye only if Neptune is at its maximum brightness (magnitude +7.8). The Sun and the Moon—the remaining noticeable naked-eye objects of the solar system—are sometimes added to make seven "planets". During daylight only the Moon and Sun are obvious naked eye objects, but in many cases Venus can be spotted in daylight and in rarer cases Jupiter. Close to sunset and sunrise, bright stars like Sirius or even Canopus can be spotted with the naked eye as long as one knows the exact position in which to look.
Historically, the zenith of naked-eye astronomy was the work of Tycho Brahe (1546–1601). He built an extensive observatory to make precise measurements of the heavens without any instruments for magnification. In 1610, Galileo Galilei pointed a telescope towards the sky. He immediately discovered the moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus, among other things.

Meteor showers are better observed by naked eye than with binoculars. Such showers include the Perseids (10–12 August) and the December Geminids. Some 100 satellites per night, the International Space Station and the Milky Way are other popular objects visible to the naked eye.

19 March 2008 A major gamma-ray burst (GRB) known as GRB 080319B, set a new record as the farthest object that can be seen from Earth with the naked eye. It occurred about 7.5 billion years ago, the light taking that long to reach Earth.

In geodesy and navigation
Many other things can be estimated without an instrument. If an arm is stretched the span of the hand corresponds to an angle of 18 to 20°. The distance of a person, just covered up by the outstretched thumbnail, is about 100 meters. The vertical can be estimated to about 2° and, in the northern hemisphere, observing the Pole Star and using a protractor can give the observer's geographic latitude, up to 1 degree of accuracy.

The Babylonians, Mayans, ancient Egyptians, ancient Indians, and Chinese measured all the basics of their respective time and calendar systems by naked eye:
the length of a year and a month to ±0.1 hour or to better than 1 minute (0.001%)
the 24 hours of a day, and the equinoxes
the periods of the planets were calculated by Mayan astronomers, to within 5 to 10 minutes accuracy in the case of Venus and Mars.

In a similar manner star occultations by the moon can be observed. By using a digital clock an accuracy of 0.2 second is possible. This represents only 200 meters at the moon's distance of 385,000 km.

Small objects and maps
Observing a nearby small object without a magnifying glass or a microscope, the size of the object depends on the viewing distance. Under normal lighting conditions (light source ~ 1000 lumens at height 600–700 mm, viewing angle ~ 35 degrees) the angular size recognized by naked eye will be round 1 arc minute = 1/60 degrees = 0.0003 radians. At a viewing distance of 16" = ~ 400 mm, which is considered a normal reading distance in the US, the smallest object resolution will be ~ 0.116 mm. For inspection purposes laboratories use a viewing distance of 200–250 mm, which gives the smallest size of the object recognizable to the naked eye of ~0.058–0.072 mm (58–72 micrometers).  The accuracy of a measurement ranges from 0.1 to 0.3 mm and depends on the experience of the observer. The latter figure is the usual positional accuracy of faint details in maps and technical plans.

Environmental pollution

A clean atmosphere is indicated by the fact that the Milky Way is visible. Comparing the zenith with the horizon shows how the "blue quality" is degraded depending on the amount of air pollution and dust. The twinkling of a star is an indication of the turbulence of the air. This is of importance in meteorology and for the "seeing" of astronomy.

Light pollution is a significant problem for amateur astronomers but becomes less late at night when many lights are shut off. Air dust can be seen even far away from a city by its "light dome".

See also
Macrograph
Satellite flare
ISS flare

Literature
Davidson, N.: Sky Phenomena: A Guide to Naked Eye Observation of the Heavens. FlorisBooks (208p), , Edinburgh 1993.
Gerstbach G.: Auge und Sehen – der lange Weg zu digitalem Erkennen. Astro Journal Sternenbote, 20p., Vol.2000/8, Vienna 2000.
Kahmen H. (Ed.): Geodesy for Geotechnical and Structural Engineering. Proceedings, Eisenstadt 1999.

References

External links
Naked Eye Observing in Astronomy
Naked-Eye Stargazing: Learning the Sky and its constellations
Naked Eye Navigation, Polynesia Voyages (archived 22 February 2004).
Detection of weak optical signals by the human visual system: Perspectives in Neuroscience and in Quantum Physics
The Naked-eye Planets in the Night Sky (and how to identify them)

Observational astronomy
Vision

Naked eye


Median ngagambarkeun harti teknis middle (tengah) dumasar kana "perasaan".

Median dina Statistik
Dina statistik, kecap median mangrupa nilai anu ngabagi sampel satengah ka luhur jeung satengah ka handap. Keur manggihkeun median, susun data observasi ti nilai panghandapna nepi ka pangluhurna terus pilih salah sahiji anu di tengah. If there are an even number of observations, take the mean of the two middle values. When we use the median to describe what the observations have in common, there are several choices for a méasure of variability, the range, the interquartile range, sarta simpangan mutlak. Since the median is the same as the second quartile, its calculation is illustrated in the article on quartiles.

The median is primarily used for skewed distributions, which it represents more accurately than the arithmetic mean. Consider the set {1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 9}. The median is 2 in this case, as is the mode, and it might be seen as a better indication of central tendency than the arithmetic mean of 3.166....

The median is also the central point which minimises the average of the absolute deviations; in the example above this would be (1+0+0+0+1+7)/6=1.5 using the median, while it would be 1.944... using the méan.

Even though sorting n items takes in general O(n log n) operations, by using a recursive "Divide-and-Conquer" algorithm the median of n items can be computed with only O(n) operations.

Calculation of medians is a popular technique in summary statistics and summarizing statistical data, since it is simple to understand and éasy to calculate, while also giving a méasure that is more robust in the presence of outlier values than is the mean. The difference between the median and the méan is less than or equal to one standard deviation.

Median of a Triangle
In a triangle, a median is a line joining a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side. It divides the triangle into two parts of equal area. The three medians intersect in the triangle's centroid or center of mass, and two-thirds of the length of éach median is between the vertex and the centroid, while one-third is between the centroid and the midpoint of the opposite side.

Any other lines which divide the aréa of the triangle into two equal parts do not pass through the centroid.

Median strip of a road
On an expressway, motorway, or autobahn, the median is the strip of grass or the wall which separates opposing lanes of traffic. This is necessary because of safety concerns, due to the high speed of automobiles on both sides, and the potential danger of a disastrous héad-on collision at the combined speed of both vehicles.

Medians function secondarily as "green areas", béautifying roadways. Some jurisdictions mow their medians, others scatter wildflower seeds which germinate and re-seed themselves every year, while still others créate extensive plantings of trees, shrubs, herbaceous perennials and decorative grasses. Where space is at a premium, dense hedges of shrubs filter the héadlights of oncoming traffic and provide a resilient barrier.

See also
 Median number

Statistika

Median


Per Bak Jensen (born 22 April 1949) is a Danish landscape photographer. His desolate images of nature or industrial sites often convey an almost metaphysical impression. His unusual subjects include corn stubble, twigs in the snow or a few isolated rocks. Always attentive to angle, light and exposure, he never manipulates his photographs once they have been taken.

Early life
After completing his schooling in Copenhagen, in 1973 Bak Jensen married Susanne Høj, the daughter of photographer Ebbe Høj. He had many different jobs until, at the age of 30, he began to study at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts (1980–1986). From 1987, he worked as a lector at the Academy in the phototechnical laboratory. He was the first graduate from the Academy to use photography as his only art form.

Career

He embarked on his career with the exhibition Den gådefulde by (The Enigmatic City) at Copenhagen's Galleri Gari in 1988, simultaneously publishing the series in book form. The black-and-white photographs, taken with a large-format camera, cover the city's parks, cemeteries and areas around museums and monuments. But the city he presents appears empty, distant and alienated. The photographs have an almost metaphysical dimension as the "invisible" aspects of the town come over in a new, mysterious light.

One of the most precise characterizations of Bak Jensen is an article by Poul Erik Tøjner titled "Metaphysical realism". Tøjner explains how Bak Jensen removed realism by revealing the unreal at the centre of everyday life. Bak Jensen continued to follow this path, producing enlargements in increasingly large dimensions. Unfortunately, his photographs fail to produce the same effect when published in book form. This is particularly true of the exhibition Project Højbane (The Elevated Railway Project) which was his first venture into colour photography.

For Bak Jensen, photography is a means of interpreting the world. By choosing places and themes that are not normally considered interesting, he points to qualities in life we often ignore, for example the outlying areas of the city on Amager, Copenhagen street scenes in Den gådefulde by (The Enigmatic City), or industrial sites and motorways in Fotografi some ritual (Photography as a Ritual). Whether in black and white or colour, Bak Jensen makes optimal use of the technique's expressiveness.

He has also been effective in promoting photography. Students were keen to assist him in his laboratory at the Academy in the hope of deepening their knowledge of the art. He also conducted two seminars in 1989 and 1997, each resulting in a report documenting the discussions between artists and technicians about the potential of photography.

Exhibitions
Bak Jensen's CV, lists the following exhibitions:
"Per Bak Jensen 1981", Galleri Image, Århus (1981)
"Per Bak Jensen 1985", Galleri A Gruppen, Copenhagen (1985)
"Den Gådefulde By", Galleri GARI, Copenhagen (1988)
"Per Bak Jensen 1989", Fotomuseet Brandts Klædefabrik, Odense (1989)
"Projekt Højbanen", Nørrebro Station, Copenhagen (1990)
"Amagerbilleder", Traneudstilling Gentofte Kunstbibliotek, Gentofte (1991)
"Nye fotografier", Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen (1992)
"Stedernes Væsen", Louisiana, Humlebæk (1993)
"Politikkens Tryk", Politikens Galleri, Copenhagen (1995)
"Pilgrimsbilleder", Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek Loggia, Copenhagen (1996)
"Fremdragninger", Arken Museum for Moderne Kunst, Ishøj (1997)
"Fremdragninger", Esbjerg Kunstmuseum, Esbjerg (1998)
"New Zealand", Sarjeant Galleri, Whanganui, New Zealand (1998)
"Gennemstrejf", Stalke Galleri, Copenhagen, (1999)
"Omgivelse", Vestsjællands Kunstmuseum, Sorø (2000)
"Omgivelse", Sønderborg Slot, Sønderborg (2000)
"Pure Nature", Galleri von Bartha, Basle, Switzerland (2000)
"Per Bak Jensen", Galleri Niklas von Bartha, London (2001)
"Forseelse", Herning Kunstmuseum, Herning (2002)
"Det syvende billede" Kunstmuseet Trapholdt, Kolding (2003)
"Figur og landskab" Galleri Bo Bjerggaard, Copenhagen (2004)

Books by Bak Jensen
Stedernes Væsen. The Being of Places. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1993.
Hengivne Øjeblikke, Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 2001.
Forseelse. Forlaget Bjerggaard, 2002.

Awards
Eckersberg Medal (2005)
Thorvaldsen Medal (2015)

See also
Photography in Denmark

References

1949 births
20th-century Danish photographers
21st-century Danish photographers
Danish photographers
Living people
Landscape photographers
Artists from Copenhagen
Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts alumni
Recipients of the Eckersberg Medal

Per Bak Jensen


Shipkila is a mountain pass and border post on the Republic of India-People's Republic of China border. It is through this pass which the river Sutlej enters India (from the Tibet Autonomous Region).

It is located in Kinnaur District in the state of Himachal Pradesh, India, and Tibet Autonomous provincial Region in People's Republic of China. The mountainous pass is India's third border post for trade with China after Nathula in Sikkim, and Lipulekh in Uttarakhand. The pass is close to town of Khab. Like other border passes along the Indo-Sino disputed border, it is cliamed by the Chinese and the border because of this is now no longer open for non-residents.

Coordinates & Location Type

Area Type: Hypsographic
Location Type: Pass
Latitude: 31.81667
Longitude: 78.75
Latitude (DMS): 31° 49' 0 N
Longitude (DMS): 78° 45' 0 E

Territorial disputes of China
Territorial disputes of India
Mountain passes of India

Shipki La Pass


A dystopia is the opposite of a utopia, and can mean a utopia that has become corrupt. This can be seen in George Orwell's book 1984. and Aldous Huxley's book Brave New World. A dystopia often has many problems, such as poverty, pollution, or a cruel ruler.

A frequent theme is a place that is supposed to be a beautiful and perfect utopia, but where something unforeseen ruins it.

References

Society
Life

Dystopia


Chechnya Advocacy Network (CAN) is a United States-based non-government organization that conducts research, awareness, and advocacy on Chechnya and the Chechen people. It is the largest Chechnya-specific organization in North America. Its headquarters is located in New York City, with branch offices in Washington, DC, Portland, Seattle and San Francisco. Co-founders of this organization include the former United Nations worker Almut Rochowanski and prominent Chechen-American Albina Digaeva.

According to the organization's website, the goals of Chechnya Advocacy Network are "the well-being of people living in Chechnya, the North Caucasus region and migrants from that region elsewhere in Russia and around the world." The organization has been calling for an improvement of the human rights situation in the North Caucasus, an end to  armed violence in the region, end to racial discrimination against ethnic Chechens, consideration of refugee resettlement in U.S. for Chechen refugees, and increased humanitarian aid to the region. The organization is apolitical in its stance on the First and Second Chechen Wars, saying it is neither pro-Russian nor pro-independence.

External links
Chechnya Advocacy Network official website

Chechen American
Human rights in Chechnya
Human rights organizations based in the United States
Organizations based in New York City
Indigenous rights organizations

Chechnya Advocacy Network


Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (3 April 1903 – 29 October 1988) was an Indian social reformer and freedom activist. She was most remembered for her contribution to the Indian independence movement; for being the driving force behind the renaissance of Indian handicrafts, handlooms, and theatre in independent India; and for upliftment of the socio-economic standard of Indian women by pioneering the co-operation. She is the first lady in India to stand in elections from Madras Constituency. While she lost in the election, she pioneered the path for women in India.

Several cultural institutions in India today exist because of her vision, including the National School of Drama, Sangeet Natak Akademi, Central Cottage Industries Emporium, and the Crafts Council of India. She stressed the significant role which handicrafts and cooperative grassroots movements play in the social and economic upliftment of the Indian people. To this end she withstood great opposition both before and after independence from the power centres.

In 1974, she was awarded the Sangeet Natak Academy Fellowship, the highest honour conferred by the Sangeet Natak Academy, India's National Academy of Music, Dance & Drama. She was conferred with Padma Bhushan and Padma Vibhushan by Government of India in 1955 and 1987 respectively. She is known as Hatkargha Maa for her works in handloom sector.

Biography

Early life
Born in a Saraswat Brahmin family on 3 April 1903 in Mangaluru, Karnataka, Kamaladevi was the fourth and youngest daughter of her parents. Her father, Ananthayya Dhareshwar, was the District Collector of Mangalore, and her mother, Girijabai, from whom she inherited an independent streak, belonged to a land-owning Chitrapur Saraswat brahmana family from coastal Karnataka. Kamaladevi's paternal grandmother was well-versed in the ancient Indian epics and puranas, and Girijabai was also well-educated, although mostly home-tutored. Together, their presence in the household gave Kamaladevi a firm grounding and provided benchmarks to respect for her intellect as well as her voice, something that she came to be known for in the future.

Kamaladevi was an exceptional student and also exhibited qualities of determination and courage from an early age. Her parents befriended many prominent freedom fighters and intellectuals such as Mahadev Govind Ranade, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and women leaders like Ramabai Ranade, and Annie Besant. This made young Kamaladevi an early enthusiast of the swadeshi nationalist movement.

She studied about the ancient Sanskrit drama tradition of Kerala - Kutiyattam, from its greatest Guru and authority of Abhinaya, Nātyāchārya Padma Shri Māni Mādhava Chākyār by staying at the Guru's home at Killikkurussimangalam.

Tragedy struck early in life when her elder sister and best friend Saguna, whom she considered a role model, died in her teens, soon after her early marriage, and when she was just seven years old her father died as well. To add to her mother Girijabai's trouble, he died without leaving a will for his vast property, so according to property laws of the times, the entire property went to her stepson (Kamaladevi's half brother), and they only got a monthly allowance. Girijabai defiantly refused the allowance and decided to raise her daughters on her dowry property.

Her rebellious streak was visible even as a child when young Kamaladevi questioned the aristocratic division of her mother's household, and preferred to mingle with her servants and their children wanting to understand their life as well. She was a great freedom fighter.

First marriage and widowhood
She was married in 1917 at the age of 14, but was widowed two years later.

1920s

Marriage to Harindranath
Meanwhile, studying in Queen Mary's College in Chennai, she came to know Suhasini Chattopadhyay, a fellow student and the younger sister of Sarojini Naidu, who later introduced Kamaladevi to their talented brother, Harindranath Chattopadhyay (née Harin), by then a well-known poet-playwright-actor. It was their mutual interest in the arts, which brought them together.

Finally, when she was twenty years old, Kamaladevi married Harin, much to the opposition of the orthodox society of the times, which was still heavily against widow marriage. Their only son Rama was born in the following year.
Harin and Kamaladevi stayed together to pursue common dreams, which wouldn't have been possible otherwise, and in spite of many difficulties, they were able to work together, to produce plays and skits.

Later she also acted in a few films, in an era when acting was considered unsuitable for women from respectable families. In her first stint, she acted in two silent films, including the first silent film of Kannada film industry, Mricchakatika (Vasantsena) (1931), based on the famous play by Shudraka, also starring Yenakshi Rama Rao, and directed by pioneering Kannada director, Mohan Dayaram Bhavnani. In her second stint in films she acted in a 1943 Hindi film, Tansen, also starring K. L. Saigal and Khursheed, followed by Shankar Parvati (1943), and Dhanna Bhagat (1945).

Eventually, after many years of marriage, they parted ways amicably. Kamaladevi broke a tradition by filing for divorce.

Move to London
Shortly after their marriage, Harin left for London, on his first trip abroad, and a few months later Kamaladevi joined him, where she joined Bedford College, University of London, and later she received a diploma in Sociology.

Call of the freedom movement
While still in London, Kamaladevi came to know of Mahatma Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement in 1923, and she promptly returned to India, to join the Seva Dal, a Gandhian organisation set up to promote social upliftment. Soon she was placed in charge of the women's section of the Dal, where she got involved in recruiting, training and organising girls and women of all ages women across India, to become voluntary workers, 'sevikas'.

In 1926, she met the suffragette Margaret E. Cousins, the founder of All India Women's Conference (AIWC), who inspired her to run for the Madras Provincial Legislative Assembly. Thus she became the first woman to run for a legislative seat in India. Though she could campaign for only a few days, she lost by a small margin of 55 votes.

The All-India Women's Conference
In the following year, she became a founding member of the All-India Women's Conference (AIWC) and was its first Organizing Secretary. In the following years, AIWC grew to become a national organisation of repute, with branches and voluntary programs run throughout the nation, and work steadfastly for legislative reforms. During her tenure, she travelled extensively to many European nations and was inspired to initiate several social reform and community welfare programs, and set up educational institutions, run for and by women. Another shining example in this series was the formation of Lady Irwin College for Home Sciences, one of its kind college for women of its times, in New Delhi.

1930s
Later she was a part of the seven-member lead team, announced by Mahatma Gandhi, in the famous Salt Satyagraha (1930), to prepare Salt at the Bombay beachfront, the only other woman volunteer in the team was Avantikabai Gokhale. Later in a startling move, Kamaladevi went up to a nearby High Court, and asked a magistrate present there whether he would be interested in buying the "Freedom Salt" she had just prepared.

On 26 January 1930 she gained widespread media attention when in a scuffle, she clung to the Indian tricolour to protect it.

1940s
When World War II broke out Kamaladevi was in England, and she immediately began a world tour to represent India's situation to other countries and drum up support for Independence after the war.

While on this tour she journeyed across the southern United States. In 1941 she boarded a segregated train. In Louisiana, a conductor tried to remove her from a car reserved for white passengers. Upon realizing that she was not a Black American, the conductor reportedly grew confused about how he should proceed and asked her where she was from. To her first answer, "New York," he pressed to learn "which land [she hailed] from," to which she reportedly responded: "It makes no difference. I am a colored woman obviously and it is unnecessary for you to disturb me for I have no intention of moving from here." The conductor left her sitting in that train car.

Post-independence work
Independence of India, brought Partition in its wake, and she plunged into rehabilitation of the refugees. Her first task was to set up the Indian Cooperative Union to help with rehabilitation, and through the Union she made plans for a township on cooperative lines. At length Jawahar Lal Nehru reluctantly gave her permission on the condition that she did not ask for state assistance, and so after much struggle, the township of Faridabad was set up, on the outskirts of Delhi, rehabilitating over 50,000 refugees from the Northwest Frontier. She worked tirelessly in helping the refugees to establish new homes and new professions; for this they were trained in new skills. She also helped set up health facilities in the new town.

Thus began the second phase of her life's work in rehabilitation of people as well as their lost crafts. She was considered singlehandedly responsible for the great revival of Indian handicrafts and handloom, in the post-independence era, and is considered her greatest legacy to modern India.

1950s and beyond
Around this time she became concerned at the possibility that the introduction of Western methods of factory-based (machinery) mass production in India as part of Nehru's vision for India's development would affect traditional artisans, especially women in the unorganised sectors. She set up a series of crafts museums to hold and archive India's indigenous arts and crafts that served as a storehouse for indigenous know-how. This included the Theater Crafts Museum in Delhi.

She equally promoted arts and crafts, and instituted the National Awards for Master Craftsmen, and the culmination of her enterprising spirit led to the setting up of Central Cottage Industries Emporia throughout the nation to cater to the tastes of a nation, rising to its ancient glory.

In 1964 she started the Natya Institute of Kathak and Choreography (NIKC), Bangalore, under the aegis of Bharatiya Natya Sangh, affiliated to UNESCO. Its present director is dancer Maya Rao.

Chattopadhyay was a woman ahead of her time, she was instrumental in setting up the All India Handicrafts Board, and was also its first chairperson. The Crafts Council of India was also the first president of the World Crafts Council, Asia Pacific Region.

Chattopadhyay also set up the National School of Drama and later headed the Sangeet Natak Akademi, and was also a member of UNESCO. Her autobiography, Inner Recesses and Outer Spaces: Memoir was published in 1986. She died on 29 October 1988 in Bombay, aged 85.

Awards and recognition

The Government of India conferred on her the Padma Bhushan in 1955, and the Padma Vibhushan in 1987, which are among the most revered civilian awards of the Republic of India. She was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award in 1966 for Community Leadership. In 1974, she was awarded the Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship, Ratna Sadasya, in recognition of her lifetime's work. The Fellowship is the highest award of Sangeet Natak Akademi, India's National Academy of Music, Dance and Drama.

UNESCO honoured her with an award in 1977 for her contribution towards the promotion of handicrafts. Shantiniketan honoured her with the Desikottama, its highest award.

On 3 April 2018, on what would have been her 115th birthday, Google honoured her with a Doodle on their homepage.

Books by Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay
 The Awakening of Indian women, Everyman's Press, 1939.
 Japan-its weakness and strength, Padma Publications 1943.
 Uncle Sam's empire, Padma publications Ltd, 1944.
 In war-torn China, Padma Publications, 1944.
 Towards a National theatre, (All India Women's Conference, Cultural Section. Cultural books), Aundh Pub. Trust, 1945.
 America,: The land of superlatives, Phoenix Publications, 1946.
 At the Cross Roads, National Information and Publications, 1947.
 Socialism and Society, Chetana, 1950.
 Tribalism in India, Brill Academic Pub, 1978, .
 Handicrafts of India, Indian Council for Cultural Relations & New Age International Pub. Ltd., New Delhi, India, 1995. .
 Indian Women's Battle for Freedom. South Asia Books, 1983. .
 Indian Carpets and Floor Coverings, All India Handicrafts Board, 1974.
 Indian embroidery, Wiley Eastern, 1977.
 India's Craft Tradition, Publications Division, Ministry of I & B, Govt. of India, 2000. .
 Indian Handicrafts, Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd, Bombay India, 1963.
 Traditions of Indian Folk Dance.
 The Glory of Indian Handicrafts, New Delhi, India: Clarion Books, 1985.
 Inner Recesses, Outer Spaces: Memoirs, 1986. .

Books on Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay
 Sakuntala Narasimhan, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay. New Dawn Books, 1999. .
 S.R. Bakshi, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya : Role for Women's Welfare, Om, 2000, .
 Reena Nanda, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya: A Biography (Modern Indian Greats), Oxford University Press, USA, 2002, .
 Jamila Brij Bhushan, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya – Portrait of a Rebel, Abhinav Pub, 2003. .
 M.V. Narayana Rao (Ed.), Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay: A True Karmayogi. The Crafts Council of Karnataka: Bangalore. 2003
 Malvika Singh, The Iconic Women of Modern India – Freeing the Spirit. Penguin, 2006, .
 Jasleen Dhamija, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, National Book Trust, 2007.
Indra Gupta , India's 50 Most Illustrious Women. .

References

Further reading
 Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay: A Biography, by Reena Nanda. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2002.
 Vinay Lal, A Beautiful Mind: Looking back at the life of Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, Indian Express, 25 October 2015.
 Devaki Jain, A Singular Woman, The Caravan, 1 July 2015.
 Shruti Balaji. 2023. "From Colonial Subjecthood to Shared Humanity: Social Work and the Politics of "Doing" in Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay's International Thought." Global Studies Quarterly 3(1).

External links

Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in social work
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in social work
1903 births
1988 deaths
Women Indian independence activists
Indian rebels
Writers from Mangalore
Recipients of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship
Gandhians
Indian cooperative organizers
Mangaloreans
Indian arts administrators
Indian art writers
Kalakshetra Foundation alumni
Indian social reformers
Indian independence activists from Karnataka
Indian people of World War II
Indian women of World War II
Military personnel from Karnataka
20th-century Indian women writers
20th-century Indian women scientists
20th-century Indian educational theorists
Businesswomen from Karnataka
20th-century Indian businesspeople
20th-century Indian women educational theorists
Indian political writers
Indian women political writers
Indian artisans
Women writers from Karnataka
Women scientists from Karnataka
Indian social sciences writers
20th-century Indian non-fiction writers
Educators from Karnataka
Women educators from Karnataka
Konkani people
Businesspeople from Mangalore
20th-century Indian women educators
20th-century Indian educators

Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay


The  is a group of high-speed rail lines in Japan, upon which the famous "Bullet Trains" run. It is the world's first high-speed rail.

The Shinkansen are run by the many JR companies. In the past, Japan Railway was called Japanese National Railways. It is now one group of private companies. JR also runs commuter trains and inter-city trains around Tokyo.

Naming
The name "Bullet Train" is the English translation of the Japanese word dangan ressha (弾丸列車), which was the name given to the project while it was being studied in the 1940s. Nowadays, the trains are called Shinkansen trains. The name Shinkansen means "New Trunk Line". The trains are called "Super Expresses".

History
Japan was the first country to build railway lines for high-speed travel. Because Japan has many mountains, the network that already existed was made of 3'6" gauge (1067 mm) narrow gauge lines, which tended to take non-direct routes and could not be adapted to higher speeds. Because of this, Japan had a greater need for new high-speed lines than countries where the existing standard gauge or broad gauge rail system could be upgraded easily. Unlike the older lines, Shinkansen lines are standard gauge, and use tunnels and viaducts to go through and over obstacles, rather than around them.

Construction of the first section of the Tokaido Shinkansen between Tokyo and Osaka started in 1959. The line opened on October 1, 1964, just in time for the Tokyo Olympics. The line was an immediate success, reaching the 100 million passenger mark in less than three years on July 13, 1967 and one billion passengers in 1976.

The first Shinkansen trains ran at speeds of up to , later increased to . Some of these trains, with their classic bullet-nosed appearance, are still in use for stopping services between Hakata and Osaka. A driving car from one of the original trains is now in the British National Railway Museum in York.

Many more advanced models of the train followed the first type, generally each with its own distinctive appearance. Shinkansen trains now run regularly at speeds of up to , putting them among the fastest trains running in the world, along with the French TGV and German ICE trains.

Originally meant to carry passengers and freight trains by day and night, the Shinkansen lines carry only passenger trains. The system shuts down
between midnight and 6:00 AM every day to allow maintenance to take place, including the running of Doctor Yellow test trains. The few overnight trains that still run in Japan run on the old narrow-gauge network to which the Shinkansen runs parallel to.

In 2003, JR Tokai reported that the Shinkansen's average arrival time was within 6 seconds of the scheduled time. This includes all-natural and human accidents and errors and is calculated from about 160,000 trips Shinkansen made. The previous record was from 1997 and was 18 seconds.

The first derailment (train accident) of a Shinkansen train in passenger service occurred during the Chuetsu Earthquake on October 23, 2004. 6 of the total of 8 cars of the train on the Joetsu Shinkansen derailed near Nagaoka Station in Nagaoka, Niigata.

In 1965 pay phones were made available on Shinkansen trains. That service ended on 29 June 2021, because of the widespread ownership of mobile phones by passengers.

Future
In recent years, due to noise pollution, increasing speed is getting harder. Thus, the current research is aimed to reduce the amount of noise, mainly when trains exit a tunnel.

Three extensions are under construction for opening by 2014-2018: Nagano-Kanazawa, Aomori-Hakodate and Takeo-Onsen-Isahaya.

The first ever Shinkansen line (built in 1964) travelled at  and was called the Tōkaido Shinkansen. In 1972 a second one was developed and the improvements on infrastructure allowed it to travel at around . In 2003 the Japanese built the world's fastest ever Shinkansen, with a top speed of .

List of Shinkansen lines

Tōkaidō Shinkansen (Tokyo - Shin-Ōsaka)
Sanyō Shinkansen (Shin-Ōsaka - Hakata)
Tōhoku Shinkansen (Tokyo - Shin-Aomori)
Jōetsu Shinkansen (Ōmiya - Niigata)
Hokuriku Shinkansen (Takasaki - Kanazawa)
Kyūshū Shinkansen (Hakata - Kagoshima-Chūō)
Hokkaidō Shinkansen (Shin-Aomori-Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto)

Two further lines, known as Mini-Shinkansen (ミニ新幹線), have also been constructed by upgrading existing sections of line:

Yamagata Shinkansen (Fukushima-Shinjo)
Akita Shinkansen (Morioka-Akita)

Another standard gauge line using Shinkansen trains is not considered to be a Shinkansen line:

Hakata Minami Line (Hakata-Hakata-Minami)
Gala-Yuzawa Line (Echigo-Yuzawa – Gala-Yuzawa)

The following lines are under development:

Hokkaidō Shinkansen (under construction, Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto - Sapporo)
Hokuriku Shinkansen (under construction, Kanazawa - Tsuruga)
Kyūshū Shinkansen (under construction, Takeo-Onsen-Nagasaki)
Chūō Shinkansen (maglev, under construction, Shinagawa - Nagoya)

Most Shinkansen lines that were proposed during the boom of the early 1970s have been postponed indefinitely. These include a link to Shikoku by the Honshu-Shikoku bridge system, a link from Tokyo to New Tokyo International Airport, and a route covering the entire Sea of Japan coast of Honshu.

List of Shinkansen train models
0 Series (disused)
100 Series (disused)
200 Series (disused)
300 Series (disused)
400 Series (Mini-Shinkansen, disused)
500 Series (disused in Tōkaidō Shinkansen)
700 Series (disused in Tōkaidō Shinkansen)
N700 Series
800 Series
N700S Series
E1 Series (Max,disused)
E2 Series
E3 Series (Mini-Shinkansen)
E4 Series (Max)
E5 Series
E6 Series (Mini-Shinkansen)
E7 Series
H5 Series
W7 Series

List of types of Shinkansen services
Aoba (disused)
Asahi (disused)
Asama
Hayabusa
Hayate
Hikari
Hikari Rail Star
Kodama
Komachi
Max Asahi (disused)
Max Nasuno
Max Tanigawa
Max Toki
Max Yamabiko
Mizuho
Nasuno
Nozomi
Sakura
Tanigawa
Toki
Tsubame
Tsubasa
Yamabiko
hakutaka
Kagayaki

Other websites

East meets West, a story of how the Shinkansen brought Tokyo and Osaka closer together.

Shinkansen


Gin is a type of alcoholic drink with a high amount of alcohol in it, usually about 35-50% alcohol by volume. It was invented in the Netherlands in the 17th century, and soon became very popular in England. This became a problem when many people drank themselves to death, because gin was cheap to make and contained so much alcohol.

Gin is flavored with juniper berries. Today, gin is usually a dry liquor, which means that it is not very sweet. Gin is also very popular in cocktails - two of the most common of these are the Gin & Tonic (gin mixed with tonic water) and the martini (gin mixed with vermouth, usually with an olive added). Gin is still one of the most popular liquors to this day.

Alcoholic spirits

Gin


ASIC or Application-specific integrated circuit is a kind of integrated circuit. It is built for a particular use instead of for general-purpose use. Digital circuits are a common form of ASIC, but analog ASICs were manufactured beginning in the latter half of the 1990s.

ASIC has advantages compared to programmable logic controller or standard logic gate IC.
 ASIC can be smaller.
 ASIC can improve speed.
 ASIC needs less electric power to operate.

There are also disadvantages of ASIC.
 the cost per a unit can be high when producing a small number of units because of the fixed cost of producing a Photomask.
 they can be hard to design and it is expensive and wastes time if they need to be redesigned.
 the time of a manufacturing process can be long.

Design
Design of ASIC is gate array design, cell base design, embedded array design, standard cell design, and structured ASIC design.

Gate array design has elementary gate circuit at first base, (we) manufacture the products with putting ordered proper wire-layers.
Manufacturing is quick because a finished product needs only production of wire-layers and it is cheap because of mass production of its foundation.
However, because (we) form a circuit with formation of standard gate, it has worse contact rate and efficiency.

Cell base design uses wire-layer between block that was designed and arranged and logical circuit. and product is manufactured .
Performance is better than gate array, but time of making cell base is longer than time of making gate array, and cost of making cell base is more expensive than cost of making gate array.

Embedded array design Use finished functional block were located. It was rest of theory for wired to use part of gate array. It was called that gate array and basis of cell were compromising.

Standard cell design is a general term for gate array, cell base, embedded array. if standard cell is cell base IC, direction is different each company.

Structured ASIC design uses customization of standard subsystems to speed design and production.
Designers of ASIC use a hardware description language (HDL) such as Verilog or VHDL to describe the functionality of the design.

Other websites
 ASIC basics tutorial

References

Electronic components
Electronic circuits

Application-specific integrated circuit


Kurt Karl-Heinrich Ahrens, also known as Kurt Ahrens Jr., (born 19 April 1940 in Braunschweig, Germany) is a former sports car racing and touring car racing driver who occasionally appeared in German Grand Prix races, mostly in Formula 2 cars.

His father, Kurt Ahrens Sr., was a German speedway champion who competed against his son for five years. Kurt Ahrens Jr. started in 1958 with a Cooper-Norton Formula 3 and won the German Formula Junior title in 1961 and 1963, when his father retired.

He then raced Formula 2 and was present when Jim Clark was killed at the Hockenheimring in 1968. Due to the long Nürburgring track, it was possible to take part in the German Grand Prix in Formula 2 cars. He participated mostly with Brabhams for the Caltex Racing team, and was invited to drive the Brabham-Repco F1 in the wet 1968 German Grand Prix.

In 1968, Ahrens Jr. joined the Porsche factory sports car team and shared victory with Jo Siffert in the 1969 Austrian 1000 km event. He co-drove the pole-setting Porsche 917 "long tail" at the 1969 24 Hours of Le Mans and the 1970 24 Hours of Le Mans, but neither car finished. In 1970, he partnered with Vic Elford to win the 1000km Nürburgring in a Porsche 908.

Ahrens retired after 1970, taking pride in never crashing in a race. He had suffered a high speed shunt in April 1970 while testing a long tail Porsche on a wet Ehra-Lessien, with the car disintegrating badly- the car went under the Armco barrier and broke in half (as they were known to do), leaving Ahrens strapped in the back.

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key)

Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results

References

External links
 ahrens24.de
 Kurt Ahrens Jr. profile at The 500 Owners Association

1940 births
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
European Formula Two Championship drivers
German Formula One drivers
German racing drivers
Living people
Sportspeople from Braunschweig
Racing drivers from Lower Saxony
World Sportscar Championship drivers
24 Hours of Daytona drivers

Porsche Motorsports drivers

Kurt Ahrens Jr.


In Christianity, Sloth is about a person not wanting to work, because of their lack of motivation. The person will be physically inactive and neglect what God has said. Very often, this will lead to resources being wasted. As an example, sloth is about a person not helping those in need, even though they would be able to. Sloth is one of the seven capital sins, which are also called seven deadly sins.

For Protestants, Diligence (or hard work) is one of the ways to please God. Max Weber (1864-1920) treats this in his work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. In his work "Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht", Immanuel Kant stated that of the capital sins sloth, cowardice and falsehood, the first one is the most despicable. However, he also sees this as a measure of self-protection of the individual, as long phases of hard work will lead a person to become tired, and to make short pauses between intervals of work. Without these pauses, the restless malice that is in the world would do a far greater amount of damage. In 1846, Louis Blanc wrote about the right to work. There was a financial crisis at the time, and many people were unemployed. The crisis led to the French Revolution of 1848.
In 1880, the Socialist Paul Lafargue  published an essay called The Right to be Lazy, where he explains that the worker should have a right to be lazy.

References

Seven deadly sins

Sloth (deadly sin)


Songs from a Room is the second album by Canadian musician Leonard Cohen, released in 1969. It reached No. 63 on the US Billboard Top LPs and No. 2 on the UK charts.

Background
The recording sessions for Songs From a Room began in Hollywood in May 1968 with David Crosby as producer. That didn't work out, and the album was eventually produced in Nashville, Tennessee, with producer Bob Johnston (two of the tracks from the Crosby sessions are included as bonus tracks on the 2007 remastered version). Johnston and Cohen had wanted to work together on Cohen's first album, but the studio had assigned Johnston elsewhere. After his experiences with Crosby, Cohen was not keen to continue the project, but after speaking with Johnston, he agreed to carry on as Johnston was prepared to work on achieving the spartan sound Cohen considered appropriate for his songs after the disputes he had with John Simon during the mixing sessions of Songs of Leonard Cohen. At the time, Johnston was best known for producing Bob Dylan, Johnny Cash and Simon and Garfunkel. As Anthony Reynolds observes in his book Leonard Cohen: A Remarkable Life, "Since at this point in time Cohen was something of a hybrid of all of these acts, Cohen moved from the Chelsea in New York City to Franklin, Tennessee, where he lived on a farm 30 miles from Nashville itself. Cohen recorded some demos on the actual farm and otherwise immersed himself in a version of the country life."

Recording
Unlike his augmented debut, Cohen's sophomore effort is austere by comparison, with considerably less drums, and featuring a stripped-down approach that emphasize the words rather than the musical arrangements.  In 2001, Cohen admitted to Sylvie Simmons of Mojo, "It's very stark.  A lot of my friends who were musical purists had castigated me for the lushness and over-production of my first record and I was determined to do a very simple album."  The sessions in Nashville began in the fall of 1968 at Columbia's Studio A on 16th Avenue in Nashville.  Johnston enlisted a smaller coterie of musicians than had backed Cohen on his debut album, including Ron Cornelius playing acoustic and electric guitar, Charlie Daniels playing bass, fiddle and acoustic guitar, Elkin "Bubba" Fowler contributing banjo, bass and acoustic guitar, while Johnston himself played keyboards.  The album also features some prominent (if strictly ornamental) Jew's harp.  As biographer Ira Nadel notes in the 1996 Cohen biography Various Positions, although Cohen still showed signs of insecurity in the recording studio, producer Johnston created a hospitable atmosphere:  "In the studio, Daniels and the other musicians were told to listen to Cohen in order to get into the songs.  It was like mixing colors; you had to be one of the colors for it to work.  Johnston later referred to the album as a painting, not a record, and described his role as 'a musical bodyguard,' protecting Cohen and his music from artificial intrusions and falsification of sound."  According to Nadel, Johnston felt that French voices would enhance "The Partisan" so he and Cohen flew to France and overdubbed three female French singers.

Composition
The album contains "Bird on the Wire", one of Cohen's most famous songs.  In a 1973 interview with Alastair Pirrie of the New Musical Express, Cohen stated, "The song is so important to me. It's that one verse where I say that I swear by this song, and by all that I have done wrong, I'll make it all up to thee.  In that verse it's a vow that I'll try and redeem everything that's gone wrong. I think I've made it too many times now, but l like to keep renewing it."  In the liner notes to the 1975 compilation The Best of Leonard Cohen, Cohen wrote about the song: "I always begin my concert with this song. It seems to return me to my duties. It was begun in Greece and finished in a motel in Hollywood around 1969 along with everything else.  Some lines were changed in Oregon.  I can't seem to get it perfect.  Kris Kristofferson informed me that I had stolen part of the melody from another Nashville writer. He also said that he's putting the first couple of lines on his tombstone, and I'll be hurt if he doesn't."  In the 1960s, Cohen lived on the Greek island Hydra with his girlfriend Marianne. She has related how she helped him out of a depression by handing him his guitar, whereupon he began composing "Bird on the Wire" – inspired by a bird sitting on one of Hydra's recently installed phone wires, followed by memories of wet island nights. Cohen has described "Bird on the Wire" as a simple country song, and the first recording, by Judy Collins, was indeed done in a country setting. In the book Songwriters on Songwriting, Cohen speaks at length to Paul Zollo about the song:
It was begun in Greece because there were no wires on the island where I was living to a certain moment. There were no telephone wires. There were no telephones. There was no electricity. So at a certain point they put in these telephone poles, and you wouldn't notice them now, but when they first went up, it was about all I did - stare out the window at these telephone wires and think how civilization had caught up with me and I wasn't going to be able to escape after all. I wasn't going to be able to live this 11th-century life that I thought I had found for myself. So that was the beginning.  Then, of course, I noticed that birds came to the wires and that was how that song began. 'Like a drunk in a midnight choir,' that's also set on the island. Where drinkers, me included, would come up the stairs. There was great tolerance among the people for that because it could be in the middle of the night. You'd see three guys with their arms around each other, stumbling up the stairs and singing these impeccable thirds. So that image came from the island: 'Like a drunk in a midnight choir.'

In 1988, Cohen explained to John McKenna of RTÉ in Ireland that "Story of Isaac" was an anti-war protest song but added, "I was careful in that song to try and put it beyond the pure, beyond the simple, anti-war protest, that it also is. Because it says at the end there the man of war the man of peace, the peacock spreads his deadly fan. In other words it isn't necessarily for war that we're willing to sacrifice each other. We'll get some idea – some magnificent idea – that we're willing to sacrifice each other for; it doesn't necessarily have to involve an opponent or an ideology, but human beings being what they are we're always going to set up people to die for some absurd situation that we define as important."  In the same interview, Cohen confirmed that "Seems So Long Ago, Nancy" was inspired by a woman he had grown up with in Montreal:
I think that the world throws up certain kinds of figures. Sometime in abundance, sometimes very rarely, and that some of these figures act as archetypes or prototypes for another generation which will manifest these characteristics a lot more easily, maybe a lot more gracefully, but not a lot more heroically. Another twenty years later she would have been just like you know, the hippest girl on the block. But twenty years before she was - there was no reference to her, so in a certain way she was doomed.

In sheet music for the album, a song titled "Priests" was included, and although reportedly recorded, it didn't appear on the LP or on any subsequent Cohen record. The song was recorded by Judy Collins on her 1967 album Wildflowers, and by Richie Havens on his 1969 album Richard P. Havens, 1983.

The album cover is a simple black-and-white photo heavily matted as to almost wash out Cohen's face. The back cover features a black-and-white photo of his Norwegian girlfriend Marianne Ihlen sitting at a desk with a typewriter, books and some papers. The picture was taken on the Greek island of Hydra. Cohen used their seven-year relationship as the basis for several of some his earliest songs, including "So Long, Marianne", "Hey, That's No Way To Say Goodbye", and "Bird on the Wire".

Reception

Songs From a Room was released in April 1969 and hit #63 on the U.S. charts and #2 in the UK.  A single, "The Old Revolution", was released but did not chart.  Like his debut LP, it received mixed reviews from critics, who were put off by his unusual singing voice but intrigued by the songs.  In the original Rolling Stone review, Alec Dubro wrote, "Well, it looks like Leonard Cohen's second try won't have them dancing in the streets either.  It doesn't take a great deal of listening to realize that Cohen can't sing, period.  And yet, the record grows on you..."  Mark Deming of AllMusic calls it "something of a letdown" and "neither as striking or self-assured as Songs of Leonard Cohen" but concedes, "Despite the album's flaws, Songs from a Room'''s strongest moments convey a naked intimacy and fearless emotional honesty that's every bit as powerful as the debut, and it left no doubt that Cohen was a major creative force in contemporary songwriting."  Writing in 2011, Cohen biographer Anthony Reynolds declared, "Compared to the relative 'party' of the previous album, Songs From a Room is the hangover of the morning after... Yet there was a voluptuousness in the album's austerity, a richness of the 'less is more' variety."  Amazon.com raves that Songs From a Room is "fully loaded with poetic classics."  In a 2014 Rolling Stone readers poll ranking the top ten Leonard Cohen songs, "Bird on a Wire" came in at #5.

Many of the songs from Cohen's second album would appear on 1973's Live Songs, a collection of performances from 1970 and 1972.  Songs from a Room was released on CD in 1990. A digitally remastered version, including two bonus tracks produced by David Crosby, was released in February 2007.

Track listing
All songs written by Leonard Cohen except as noted.

Side one
"Bird on the Wire" – 3:28
"Story of Isaac" – 3:38
"A Bunch of Lonesome Heroes" – 3:18
"The Partisan" (Hy Zaret, Anna Marly) – 3:29
"Seems So Long Ago, Nancy" – 3:41

Side two
"The Old Revolution" – 4:50
"The Butcher" – 3:22
"You Know Who I Am" – 3:32
"Lady Midnight" – 3:01
"Tonight Will Be Fine" – 3:53

Bonus tracks
"Like a Bird (Bird on the Wire)" – 3:21
"Nothing to One (You Know Who I Am)" – 2:17

Personnel
Leonard Cohen – vocals, classical guitar
Ron Cornelius – acoustic and electric guitar
Bubba Fowler – banjo, bass guitar, violin, acoustic guitar
Charlie Daniels – bass guitar, violin, acoustic guitar
uncredited - backing vocals in French (4)
Technical
Bob Johnston – production (original album), keyboards
David Crosby – production (11–12), harmony vocals (12)
Neil Wilburn – engineer

Original songs and their covers
"Bird on the Wire", described by Cohen as a simple country song, has been covered by many musicians including Jennifer Warnes (his one-time backup singer), The Neville Brothers, Joe Cocker, Willie Nelson, The Lilac Time, Esther Ofarim, Johnny Cash, Fairport Convention and subsequently their guitarist Richard Thompson.

"Story of Isaac", based on the Old Testament story of God's demand that Isaac be sacrificed by his father Abraham, has also been covered by a number of musicians including Judy Collins, Suzanne Vega, Linda Thompson, The Johnstons, Pain Teens, and Roy Buchanan.

"Seems So Long Ago, Nancy" has been translated in Italian by Fabrizio De André and included in his album Volume 8 (1975).

"You Know Who I Am" was covered by Mama Cass in her 1968 album Dream a Little Dream and by Esther Ofarim on the 1968 album Esther Ofarim''.

The Partisan

"The Partisan" is Cohen's cover of the French song "La Complainte du partisan" by Emmanuel d'Astier and Anna Marly, which is about the French resistance during World War II.
The English translation was written by Hy Zaret. The rock journalist Alex Young notes, "[Cohen] is often incorrectly credited as the composer of the song – although he is certainly responsible for its survival." Young also notes that the English translation that Cohen recorded differs from the French in that it excludes the direct references that d'Astier and Marly made in the original lyrics to the occupation of France by Nazi Germany.

Charts

Certifications

References

1969 albums
Leonard Cohen albums
Albums produced by Bob Johnston
Columbia Records albums

Songs from a Room


The Colony of Niger () was a French colonial possession covering much of the territory of the modern West African state of Niger, as well as portions of Mali, Burkina Faso and Chad. It existed in various forms from 1900 to 1960 but was titled the Colonie du Niger only from 1922 to 1960.

Military territory
While French took control of some of the areas of modern Niger began in the 1890s, a formal Zinder Military Territory was formed on 23 July 1900. This military territory only governed what is modern southern Niger, with only nominal rule east of Zinder or north of Tanout. Its Commandant was based at the village of Sorbo-Haoussa near Niamey, where the headquarters was moved in 1903. Administratively, it was part of the Senegambia and Niger Colony from 1902 to 1904 and Upper Senegal and Niger colony from 1904 to 1911. While commanded by officers of the French Troupes de marine, its budget and administration was dependent on the Lieutenant Governor at Kayes (latter Bamako), and military decision making—as well as contact with authorities in the Metropole or other colonies was through the Governor General in Dakar. The area also appears on French maps as the "Third Military Territory". On 22 June 1910 the territory was renamed Niger Military Territory, and included parts of modern northeast Mali (Gao Cercle) and Northern Chad (Tibesti Cercle). On 21 June 1911 the Cercle of Gao ceded to French Sudan, and throughout the late nineteen-teens, efforts were made to establish permanent French posts in the north and east, in Bilma, N'guigmi and elsewhere. In 1911, the headquarters of the territory was moved to Zinder, reflecting both the relative peacefulness of the west of the territory, and the fear of incursion from the British to the South and the Italians from Libya. Despite this, French control of the northern and eastern areas remained minimal. Along with Mauritania, Niger remained the only part of French West Africa to remain under military rule.

Civilian colonial rule
On 13 October 1922 the civilian Colony of Niger took control of most of southern and western areas, with a lieutenant governor reporting to the Governor General of French West Africa. The 1919 creation of French Upper Volta as a civil colony removed the areas of modern Niger west of the Niger River. In 1926, the capital was moved again to Niamey from Zinder. In 1930, Tibesti Cercle ceded to Chad Colony in French Equatorial Africa, and in 1932, the colony of French Upper Volta was divided amongst its neighbors, with the Cercles of Dori and Fada N'gourma ceded to Niger Colony.

World War II
Niger Colony officials, unlike neighboring Chad, remained loyal to the French Vichy government after 1940, and thus closed its southern border (to Nigeria) and eastern border until 1944.

Decolonization
On 31 December 1946 the Military Territories of N'Guigmi and Agadez were ceded to Niger Colony, leaving only Bilma Cercle as the last military-run section of modern Niger. This area in the far north east only came under French civilian administration in 1956.

In 1947, French Upper Volta was reconstituted, and the Cercles of Dori and Fada N'Gourma ceded to Upper Volta Colony. While there were minor border changes after 1947, the modern borders of Niger were roughly established with this change.

Following the 1956 Loi Cadre, rudiments of internal rule were created with the Territorial Assembly of Niger elected by popular vote, but holding only advisory and administrative powers. In 1958 the French Community succeed the French Union. On 25 August 1958 the Lieutenant Governor became High Commissioner of Niger, but remained Head of State of a quasi-independent state which controlled some purely internal administration.

The Constitution of 25 February 1959 was ratified by the Constituent Assembly of Niger, a body created for this purpose from the Territorial Assembly of Niger elected in December 1958. On 12 March 1959 the Constituent Assembly became the Legislative Assembly of Niger, with the head of government, Hamani Diori, retaining the title of President of the Council. Nominal executive powers were vested in the Assembly, with the constitution establishing elements, such as the flag of Niger, the national anthem of Niger and the coat of arms of Niger, along with language on naming of political bodies, rights and powers which have been retained in subsequent texts.

Following the Algerian War and the collapse of the French Fourth Republic, the colonies of the French Union became fully independent in 1960. Niger ratified its first fully independent constitution on 8 November 1960, and Jean Colombani stepped down as high commissioner on 10 November 1960.

See also
Niger
History of Niger
List of colonial governors of Niger

Notes

References
Niger: Rulers.org. Accessed 2009-04-15.

History of Niger
French West Africa
Former colonies in Africa
Former French colonies
French colonisation in Africa
French Union
1922 establishments in Africa
1960 disestablishments in Africa
1922 establishments in the French colonial empire
1960 disestablishments in the French colonial empire
20th century in Niger
France–Niger relations
States and territories established in 1922
States and territories disestablished in 1960

Colony of Niger


The Manitoba Agricultural Museum is dedicated to collecting vintage farm machinery and buildings from 1900 and before. Located on  near Austin, Manitoba in the Municipality of North Norfolk, to date they have amassed over 500 pieces of machinery and a pioneer village consisting of more than 20 buildings complete with artifacts. This is Canada's largest collection of vintage equipment. The facilities include a camping and picnic grounds and a souvenir shop.

Throughout the year the museum offers various tours, schools and hands on experiences climaxing with Annual Manitoba Threshermen's Reunion and Stampede and various other expositions. The annual Threshermen's Reunion and Stampede is held near the end of July.

Attractions
The Threshermen's Reunion offers a large collection of antique steam and gas tractors as well as the other equipment that was used on early farms. Every afternoon during the reunion a parade showcases some 12 steam engines and dozens of "gas" tractors and machinery. After the parade venture into the fair grounds and watch an early steam powered saw mill blaze through logs to make planks that were the foundation of pioneer buildings. When supper time rolls around come to the Corn and Barley Corral where you can find a steam tractor steaming corn!  Every evening there is a rodeo followed by a free dance.

The Manitoba Amateur Radio Museum is also located on the grounds. This museum is dedicated to collecting, restoring and operation antique communication equipment and now has over 3700 artifacts on display. Its operating call signs are VE4ARM and VE4MTR.

Gallery

See also
Canada Agriculture and Food Museum
Ross Farm Museum
Central Experimental Farm
Agriculture in Canada
Ontario Agricultural Museum

Affiliations
The Museum is affiliated with: CMA,  CHIN, and Virtual Museum of Canada.

References

External links
Manitoba Threshermen's Reunion & Stampede
Museum Website
Facebook Page
 Manitoba Amateur Radio Museum Website

Amateur radio organizations
Telecommunications museums
Museums in Manitoba
Agriculture museums in Canada
Open-air museums in Canada

Manitoba Agricultural Museum


Euston Road is the main east/west road in the north central London.

A number of railway stations are on the Euston Road including Marylebone station, Baker Street tube station, Great Portland Street tube station, Euston railway station, Euston tube station, Euston Square tube station, King's Cross station, St Pancras station and King's Cross St Pancras tube station.

It is also the home of the British Library, the Friend's Meeting House (a place of worship for Quakers) and various buildings associated with University College London.

Euston Road is connected to Marylebone Road, Baker Street, Tottenham Court Road, Pentonville Road and many other roads.

Roads in London

Euston Road


To make a text underlined means to add a straight line below the text. It is commonly used to emphasize the text. However, it is usually not used.

Usage
Both HTML and Wikitext uses the same way in making underlined text. They both use the <u> and the </u> tags to produce an underlined text.

References

Related pages
 Bold
 Italic

Typography

Underline