Fraktur is a highly artistic and elaborate illuminated folk art created by the Pennsylvania Dutch, named after the Fraktur script associated with it. Most Fraktur were created between 1740 and 1860.

Fraktur drawings were executed in ink and/or watercolors and are found in a wide variety of forms: the Vorschriften (writing samples), the Taufscheine (birth and baptismal certificates), marriage and house blessings, book plates, and floral and figurative scenes. The earlier Fraktur were executed entirely by hand, while printed text became increasingly common in later examples. Common artistic motifs in Fraktur include birds (distelfinks), hearts, and tulips, as well as blackletter (Fraktur) and italic calligraphy.

Many major American museums, including the American Folk Art Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Philadelphia Museum of Art, and the Winterthur Museum have Fraktur in their collections. Important Fraktur have been sold by major American auction houses and antique dealers for prices in excess of $100,000. The definitive text on Fraktur is widely considered to be The Fraktur-Writings or Illuminated Manuscripts of the Pennsylvania Germans, written by Dr. Donald A. Shelley and published by the Pennsylvania German Society in 1961. In late 2004, the majority of Dr. Shelley's Fraktur collection was sold at public auction at Pook & Pook, Inc. in Downingtown, Pennsylvania, for $913,448.

Notable artists

Notable fraktur artists within the Pennsylvania German community include:

Christian Alsdorff
Johannes Bard
Samuel Bentz
Martin Brechall
George Peter Deisert
George Heinrich Engellhard
Johann Adam Eyer
Johann Conrad Gilbert
Samuel Gottschall
Johann Jacob Friedrich Krebs
Christian Mertel
Daniel Otto
Johann Henrich Otto
Daniel Peterman
Francis Charles Portzline
Daniel Schumacher
Johannes Ernst Spangenberg
Christian Strenge
John Van Minian

Other artists of note include Jacob Strickler, from the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, and Anna Weber, an Ontario resident and one of a few fraktur artists active in Canada. Anonymous artists whose work is recognized include the Cross-Legged Angel Artist, the Ehre Vater Artist, and the Sussel-Washington Artist. Stylistically related work was produced by Ludwig Denig.

See also

 Hex sign

Further reading
Hartung, Ruthanne. Fraktur: Tips, Tools, and Techniques for Learning the Craft. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 2008.
Moyer, Dennis K. Fraktur writings and folk art drawings of the Schwenkfelder Library Collection. Kutztown, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania German Society, 1997.
Shelley, Donald. The Fraktur Writings or Illuminated Manuscripts of the Pennsylvania Germans. Allentown, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania German Folklore Society, 1961.
Earnest, Corinne and Russell. To The Latest Prosperity: Pennsylvania-German Family Registers in the Fraktur Tradition. University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania German Society, 2004.
Earnest, Corinne and Russell. Papers For Birth Dayes: Guide To the Fraktur Artists and Scriveners.  East Berlin, Pennsylvania:  Russell D. Earnest Associates, 1997. 2 Volumes.
Earnest, Corinne and Russell. Fraktur: Folk Art & Family. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 1999.
Earnest, Russell and Corinne. Flying Leaves and One-Sheets: Pennsylvania German Broadsides, Fraktur, and Their Printers. New Castle, Delaware: Oak Knoll Books, 2005.
Fraktur and Related Works on Paper, The Pioneer Collection of Dr. & Mrs. Donald A. Shelley, Auction Catalogue, October 8, 2004, Pook & Pook, Inc., Downingtown, Pennsylvania - www.pookandpook.com.

External links

 ExplorePaHistory.com
 Fraktur and related resources.
 Schwenkfelder Museum.
 Pennsylvania Fraktur.
 Penn State University Press To the Latest Posterity, the most recent book published by the Pennsylvania German Society on the Fraktur tradition.
 Pennsylvania German Arts and Antiques: News and Commentary by Clarke Hess
 Auction report by Maine Antique Digest on the auction of the Shelley's fraktur.
 Free Library of Philadelphia - Fraktur  - Digital Collections
Several digitized books on Pennsylvania Dutch arts and crafts, design, and prints from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries

Blackletter
Pennsylvania culture
Illuminated manuscripts
American folk art
Pennsylvania Dutch culture

Fraktur (folk art)


Anne Wood CBE (born December 1, 1937) is a British children's television producer.  Her independent production company, "Ragdoll Productions", was founded in 1984 and specialises in making original programming for children 10 and under. Ragdoll is based in Stratford-upon-Avon, UK and has produced Pob, Brum, Rosie and Jim, Tots TV, Teletubbies, Boohbah and most recently In the Night Garden.
She has won a BAFTA.

Notable TV guest appearances
Good Morning Australia playing "Herself" 10 February 2004

Other websites

Teletubbies
Living people
1937 births
British television producers

Anne Wood


The corpus cavernosum penis (or corpus cavernosum urethrae) is one of two sponge-like sections of tissue in the male penis. They contain most of the blood during an erection. The term literally means "cave-like body"

Process
The corpus cavernosum are placed along the length of the penis. They are found along the penis shaft, from the pubic bones to the head of the penis. The spongy tissue fills with blood. The blood comes from arteries down the length of the penis. The blood fills the corpora cavernosa. This causes it to swell. When swollen, it holds 90% of the blood involved in an erection. This increases both the length and circumference of the penis.

Blood can leave only through a system of veins around the outside wall of the corpus cavernosum. The expanding tissue constricts these veins. This preventing blood from leaving. The penis becomes rigid as a result.

Anatomy of the male reproductive system

Corpus cavernosum penis


This page describes the different types of attacks in professional wrestling.

Bell clap
A bell clap is a move where a wrestler slaps both of the ears of an opponent at the same time with the palms of their hands, mess up their balance. A bell clap is usually used to escape a bear hug.

Body press

A body press or splash, is a move where a wrestler falls against their opponent with the middle of their body. A body press can either be used from a running or a jumping position. It uses momentum and weight to impact the opponent, and most versions can be transitioned into a pin. It is a plancha in lucha libre.

Big splash
A big splash is a type of splash where the wrestler jumps forwards and lands stomach-first on their downed opponent.

Body avalanche
A body avalanche is where a wrestler charges into their opponent that is in the corner of the ring. The wrestler performing the body avalanche does not leave their feet during the move.

Crossbody
A crossbody or crossbody block is a move where a wrestler jumps onto their opponent and lands horizontally across their torso, forcing them to the mat and sometimes resulting in a pinfall attempt. There is also an aerial version, called the diving crossbody, where wrestler will leap from a high position towards their opponent.

Lou Thesz press
A Lou Thesz press is a move where a wrestler jump towards a standing opponent and knocks them over, it results in the opponent lying on their back with the attacking wrestler sitting on the opponent's chest. A version of the Lou Thesz press involves the wrestler jumping on a running opponent and repeatedly striking the opponent in the face while in the mounted position. This version was made popular by Stone Cold Steve Austin. The original move was invented, popularized and named after Lou Thesz.

Stinger splash
A stinger splash is where a wrestler runs at their opponent, who is upright in the corner, and jumps forward so that they splash their whole body stomach-first into their opponent, crushing them between the attacking wrestler and the turnbuckle. The move is also known as a corner splash.

Tilt-a-whirl crossbody
A tilt-a-whirl crossbody is where a wrestler, that is being held and spun into a tilt-a-whirl by the opponent, falls down and pushes the opponent down back-first against the canvas after reaching a certain point where he is horizontally positioned against the opponent's torso. The move is uncommon and is a counter to the tilt-a-whirl backbreaker/tilt-a-whirl mat slam.

Vertical press
A vertical press is where a wrestler does a jumping attack against a standing opponent and lands against the opponent's upper body while remaining upright, and bringing them down to the mat into a vertical splash (seated senton) position.

Bronco buster
A bronco buster is where a wrestler jumps in the corner on a seated opponent, straddles their opponent's body, and bounces up and down on their opponent's chest. The move is usually treated as having either comic or sexual meaning rather than as a legitimately painful move, the latter mostly true during some matches that involve female wrestlers.

Koronco buster
The koronco buster is a move similar to the bronco buster where the wrestler jumps onto their standing opponent in the corner, straddles and sits on their opponent's chest, and rests their feet on the second rope. The attacking wrestler then follows up with mounted punches.

Chops

Backhand chop
A backhand chop or knife edge chop is when a wrestler uses a backhand wing and slaps the chest of their opponent with the palm of their hand. The move was popularized by Ric Flair an the crowd always responds to a backhand chop with a "Wooo!" noise.

Cross chop
A cross chop is a version of the backhand chop where the wrestler runs and lunges forward in a crossbody-type position, crosses their arms in an "X" fashion and then hits a double backhand chop on the opponent.

Forehand chop
A forehand chop, frying pan chop or open-hand chop is a move where the wrestler slaps the chest of their opponent with their forehand.

Kesagiri chop
A kesagiri chop is a move where the wrestler does a downward diagonal backhand chop to the side of their opponents neck, collar bone or throat.

Mongolian chop
A Mongolian chop is a move where a wrestler 'karate chops' both of the opponent's shoulders and sides of the neck with their hands' edges in a swinging motion at the same time.

Overhead chop
An overhead chop, brain chop or tomahawk chop is a move where a wrestler draws their hand back and hits their opponent vertically with a backhand chop. It usually hits the opponent's head.

Clothesline
A clothesline happens when a wrestler runs toward their opponent and extends their arm out to hitting the opponent in the neck or chest while knocking them over. It is often confused with a lariat.

Cactus clothesline
A cactus clothesline is a type of clothesline that was used by Mick Foley during his "Cactus Jack" gimmick which it is named after. The wrestler performing the move charges at their opponent who is against the ring ropes and clotheslines them. Both the force and momentum of the charge knocks both the wrestler and their opponent over the top rope and onto the floor.

Corner clothesline
A corner clothesline is a move where a wrestler, instead of knocking into a standing opponent, charges against them in the corner.

Flying clothesline
A flying clothesline is where a wrestler runs towards their opponent, leaps into the air and hits a clothesline. There is another version of this where a wrestler leaps into the air and hits a clothesline on the opponent leaning against the corner turnbuckle.

Rebound clothesline
A rebound clothesline is where the opponent run to the ropes on one side of the ring and rebounds off of them. The wrestler doing the move then runs to the same ropes, rebounds off of them and as the opponent turns around to face to the wrestler, the attacker hits the opponent with a clothesline.

Short-arm clothesline
A short-armed clothesline, short clothesline or short-range clothesline is a type of clothesline where a wrestler Irish whips their opponent but holds onto their arm. When the opponents arm is completely extended, the wrestler pulls their opponent back and hits a clothesline with the other arm. The move can also be used the same way but with an arm wrench or wrist lock replacing the Irish whip.

Springboard clothesline
A springboard clothesline is a type of clothesline where a wrestler jumps onto a rope, springboards off of it and clotheslines their opponent. The most common version is where a wrestler is on the apron, goes to the top rope, and hits it on the opponent either in the ring or onto the floor. Another version is where a wrestler jumps to the second rope, springboards off over the top rope, and then clothesline their opponent on the apron. There are many different versions of the springboard clothesline.

Three-point stance clothesline
A three-point stance clothesline is where a wrestler lines up in a three-point stance, charges at the opponent and clotheslines them.

Double axe handle
A double axe handle, Double Sledge, Polish Hammer or Double Axe Hammer is a move where a wrestler clutches both of their hands together, swings them at their opponent and hits a part of them. The name Polish Hammer came from Ivan Putski. There is also a top rope version.

Drops
Drops are types of moves where a wrestlers either jumps or falls down onto their opponent on the floor and lands with a specific part of the body.

Butt drop

Chop drop
A chop drop is where a wrestler either falls forward, or jumps up and drops down, and hits a lying opponent with a backhand chop on the way down. The attacking wrestler usually lands on their knees.

Elbow drop
An elbow drop is where a wrestler jumps or falls down onto their opponent while driving their elbow into anywhere on the opponent's body. A common type of elbow drop is where a wrestler will raise one elbow before they fall to one side and strike it across the opponent. Another common type of elbow drop is where a wrestler raise both of their elbows up and drop them directly forward either dropping one, or both elbows onto the opponent. This one is known as the pointed elbow drop.

Corkscrew elbow drop
A corkscrew elbow drop is where a wrestler raises one of their elbows before they fall and twist around as they fall to one side, striking their opponent with the elbow anywhere on their body. Sometimes, the attacking wrestler will swing one of their legs around before they fall, to gain momentum for the corkscrew twist.

Spinning headlock elbow drop
A spinning headlock elbow drop is where a wrestler, after applying a headlock, performs any type of elbow drop. The most well known version of this is the inverted facelock elbow drop where a wrestler puts their opponent into an inverted facelock, turns 180°, and drops their elbow across the opponent's chest, driving them down to the mat. Another version of the move is where a wrestler uses their whole arm as a lariat instead of just the elbow. A side headlock can also be executed from a jumping position, and twisted around into a sitout lariat

Fist drop

A fist drop is a move where a wrestler either jumps or falls down on an opponent and drives their fist into anywhere on the opponent's body.

Forearm drop
A forearm drop is where a wrestler jumps down onto an opponent and drives their forearm into anywhere on the opponent's body.

Headbutt drop
A headbutt drop is a move where a wrestler either jumps or falls down onto an opponent and drives their head into anywhere on the opponent's body.

Knee drop
A knee drop is a move where a wrestler either jumps or falls down onto an opponent and drives their knee into anywhere on the opponent's body. The move is usually sold as more powerful if the attacking wrestler bounces off the ropes first. A type of knee drop called the Knee drop bulldog is where wrestler places one of their knees against the base of the leaning opponent's neck and dropping. This forces the opponent's head down to the mat, while the wrestler lands on the opponent's upper body, and drives their knee to the neck of their opponent. There is also a diving version.

Leg drop

A leg drop is where a wrestler either jumps or falls and lands so that the back of their leg hits across either the opponent's chest, throat, or face.

Elbow
An elbow attack is where a wrestler uses either their elbow of back elbow to attack opponent's chest, face, neck, etc.

Back elbow
A back elbow or reverse elbow is a move where a wrestler stands with their back to either a standing or a running opponent and strikes the opponent with the back of the elbow.

Bionic elbow
The bionic elbow is a mover where a wrestler jumps or falls from a higher position and drops to the floor, dropping the point of their elbow right on the opponent. The move is banned from many mixed martial arts organizations, including the UFC and Strikeforce.

Corner back elbow
A corner back elbow is a move where a wrestler strikes their back elbow to an opponent in the corner, lying (facing inwards or outwards the ring) against the corner. The move is usually struck from a wrestler that is running.

Discus back elbow
A discus back elbow is a move where a wrestler that is facing away from the opponent, spins around to face away from the opponent and strikes the opponent in the face with a back elbow.

Discus elbow smash
A discus elbow smash or roaring elbow is where a wrestler facing away from the opponent, spins 180°, and hits their opponent with an elbow smash. Another version of the move is where a wrestler that is first facing the opponent, spins a full 360° to face the opponent again to hits them with an elbow smash.

Elbow smash
An elbow smash is where a wrestler makes a punching motion, tucks their hand towards their chest so the elbow and forearm make contact. The elbow smash can be used as a replacement for punches because hitting opponents with a clenched fist is illegal in most wrestling matches.

Upward Elbow
The wrestler strikes the opponent's chin with their elbow upwards similar to an uppercut.

Mounted elbow drop
A mounted elbow drop is where a wrestler approaches an opponent in the corner, and climbs up to either the second or top rope beside the opponent with one of their legs on either side of the opponent. The wrestler jumps off the ropes, and hits a bionic elbow on either the opponent's head, neck (if the opponent's neck is bent-down) or shoulder.

Short-arm elbow smash
A short-arm elbow smash is a version of the elbow smash where a wrestler Irish whips their opponent but holds on to their arm. After the opponent's arm is completely extended, they wrestler pulls the opponent back and hits them with an elbow smash while using their other arm. The move can also be used in the same way but instead of an Irish whip, it is replace with either an arm wrench or wrist lock. It is used by grabbing hold of one of the opponent's arms, pulling it back towards the wrestler and elbowing them with the spare arm.

Facewash
A facewash is a move where a wrestler rubs the sole of their boot across the face of the seated opponent in the bottom corner turnbuckle. The wrestler then runs and rebounds off of the opposing ropes, charges at the opponent and does either a running front kick, a running knee, a running low-angle big boot, a running low-angle single leg dropkick, or any other striking move.

Forearm club

A forearm club is a move where a wrestler uses one of their hands to take a hold of an opponent by either their head or hair. They then lean the opponent forward while extending their other arm, clench their fist and throw the arm down onto the opponent, either hitting the back of their head of neck. There is lesser used version of this move where the wrestler takes hold of the opponent, leans them backwards to expose their chest and clubs their chest.

Forearm smash
A forearm smash is when a wrestler charges at their opponent and hits them in either the chest or face with a forearm to force them back and down to the mat.

Flying forearm smash
A flying forearm smash is a where a wrestler runs towards an opponent (usually bouncing off the ropes), leaps into the air and hits the opponent with a forearm smash. The Springboard version is known by AJ Styles, called the "Phenomenal Forearm".

Sliding forearm smash
A sliding forearm smash is where a wrestler runs towards an opponent (usually bouncing off the ropes), does a slide across the mat and hits their opponent with a forearm smash.

Headbutt
A headbutt is where a wrestler uses their head to hit an opponent in a part of their body. It is usually used to hit the face. Unlike a actual headbutt, the professional wrestling version usually impacts with the opponent's forehead and counts on the superior hardness of the wrestler's head as well as the momentum that is delivered to hurt the opponent without hurting the attacking wrestler.

Battering ram
A battering ram is where a wrestler stands and faces an upright opponent. The wrestler then lowers their head, either jumps or charges forwards and drives the top of their head into their opponent's abdomen. It can also be used as a double-team move.

Trapping headbutts
Trapping headbutts are where a wrestler holds both of the opponent's arms under their own and hits the opponent with a series of headbutts. The opponent is not able to counter it.

Knee strikes
A knee strike is where a wrestler strikes their opponent using their knees. The idea of using knees as an offensive move is popular throughout British wrestling.

Go 2 Sleep
A Go 2 Sleep or Go to Sleep (often abbreviated to GTS)  is a move where the wrestler places their opponent in a fireman's carry and drops the opponent in front of them. While their opponent is falling, the wrestler lifts a knee up and striks the opponent in the face. KENTA, the creator of the move, also uses an inverted version where he lifts the opponent up into an Argentine backbreaker rack, throws them forward, and strikes the back of the opponent's head with his knee. Former WWE superstar CM Punk popularized the move.

Double knee
A double knee is where a wrestler charges towards their opponent and strike them in either the head, chest or back with both of their knees.

High knee
A high knee is where a wrestler charges towards their opponent, jumps up, and raises their knee so it hits either the side of their face or head. The move has been closely associated with Harley Race and is often referred to as a "Harley Race-style High Knee".

Shining Wizard
A shining wizard is where a wrestler delivers a knee strike to an opponent that is down on one knee. The wrestler steps off of the opponent's raised knee with one of their feet and swings their other leg so it strikes the opponent's head with either the side of their knee or shin. There a slight version of this where the wrestler uses a running enzuigiri to the kneeling opponent's head without the use of the opponent's knee for leverage. That version is known as a Shining Apprentice. The move can also be used on a standing opponent as well. The standing version is likely applied by stepping off of the opponent's chest and delivering a knee to their face. The move was created by Keiji Mutoh, otherwise known as the Great Muta

Spinning knee
A spinning knee, discus knee, or rolling knee is where a wrestler moves towards their opponent, performs a 360° spin and uses the momentum that they gained to deliver a jumping knee strike to their opponent's head. The maneuver can be delivered to either a sitting or standing opponent.

Hip attack
A hip attack, butt bump, or butt thump is a move where a wrestler gains a running start, jumps into the air, spins around, and thrusts their pelvis backwards, hitting either the opponent's head or chest with their hip or buttocks.

Kicks
A kick is where a wrestler uses the foot, knee or leg to strike any part of the opponent's body.

Back kick
A back kick or reverse side kick is a move where a wrestler that is facing their opponent, turns 180° so their back is facing the opponent, extends their leg backwards which exploits the turning momentum to hit the opponent in wither the chest or stomach with the sole of their foot. There is also a jumping back kick where a wrestler does the turning motion when they jump.

Backflip kick
A backflip kick or Pelé kick (named after the Brazilian Association football player) is a move where a wrestler has their back turned to the opponent, performs a standing backflip and hits their opponent in the head with either one or both of their legs. There is also a version called the Corner backflip kick where the opponent is in the corner and a wrestler charges at them, running the ropes beside the opponent (sometime up the opponent), reaches the top and kicks off the opponent's chest to do a backflip so the wrestler lands on their feet.

Big boot
A big boot, Yakuza kick or Mafia kick is a move where when the opponent is charging at the wrestler, the wrestler lifts their leg up and uses the opponent's momentum to hit the wrestler's boot with their head or face. The move is usually done by taller wrestlers to further show its view as a strong attack although the wrestler is not moving and its the opponent that runs into their foot because of the wrestler's height making it easy for their leg to reach the head of a normal-sized opponent.

Bicycle kick
A bicycle kick is a move where the wrestler jumps up and kicks forward with both feet in a pedaling motion. The foot that gets lifted second extends fully and hits the charging opponent in the face. There is another version of the kick where the wrestler charges from a standing opponent and delivers the kick.

Calf kick
A calf kick is a move where the wrestler either one of their sides and connects the side of their rear leg to either the opponent's face or neck.

Crane kick
A crane kick is where a wrestler performs a crane stance, by standing on one of their legs, with their other knee raised and their arms extended in a crane position. They then strike either the opponent's head or face with either the standing or raised leg.

Dragon whip
A dragon whip is a type of leg lariat or spinning heel kick where an opponent catches the wrestlers leg (after some attempt at a kick). The opponent throws the leg away from them self and the wrestler continues to spin all the way out with their leg still extended to hit a leg lariat.

Dropkick

A dropkick is a move where a wrestler jumps up and kicks the opponent with both the soles of their feet, the wrestler twists as they jump so that when the feet hit with the opponent, one of the feet is raised higher that the other. The wrestler then falls back to the mat on either their side or their front. The move is usually done by lighter wrestlers to gain an advantage with their agility.

Enzuigiri

An enzuigiri is any move that hits the opponent in the back of the head. The move is usually done by lighter wrestlers and wrestlers that have a martial arts background or gimmick. The move is usually used as a counter move after one of the wrestler's kick is blocked and caught by the opponent. One of the more common versions of the enzuigiri is when the wrestler steps up the opponent's chest and hits the back of their head with the other leg or foot. The name enzuigiri comes from Enzui (the Japanese word for medulla oblongata) and giri (meaning "to chop"). The name of the move is sometimes misspelled as 'ensuigiri' or 'enzuiguri'. The move was created by Antonio Inoki.

Football kick
A football kick or soccer kick is a move where a wrestler kicks an opponent, that is sitting on the mat, vertically into their back, with their foot hitting the base of the opponent's spine, and the shin hitting the back of the head.

Jumping high kick
The jumping high kick or gamengiri is a move where the wrestler jumps up and kicks the opponent in either the face or the side of their head. It is often confused with the enzuigiri because of the similar nature of the move.

Legsweep
A legsweep is a move where a wrestler drops to one knee and extends their other leg, they then quickly pivot their body around and using their extended leg to knock away the opponent's legs.

Mule kick
A mule kick is a move where a wrestler that is facing away from a charging opponent, bends down and pushes out one of their feet, hitting the opponent with the bottom of it. There is also another version called the double mule kick where a wrestler that is facing away from the opponent jumps and kicks backwards with both of their legs, hitting the opponent with both soles of their feet. The move is sometimes done in the corner. If the wrestler is acrobatically talented enough, they can roll forward into a standing position.

Overhead kick
An overhead kick is a move where a wrestler starts by either lying down or dropping down on the mat while the opponent standing near their head. The wrestler then lifts one of their legs and kicks up over their waist and chest, hitting the opponent with the top of their foot, usually in the head. The move can be used as a counter attack to an attack from behind.

Punt
A punt kick is a move where a wrestler runs up to a kneeling opponent and hits them in the head with the sole of their foot. It is based on the field goal kick but is named after the punt kick from American football.

Rolling wheel kick
A rolling wheel kick, abisegiri, rolling koppou kick, or a rolling liger kick is a move where a wrestler rolls towards a standing opponent, and extends a leg which hits the opponent in either the back, chest, or head.

Savate kick
The most common type of savate kick is the chassé, a piston-action kick, where the wrestler kicks the opponent so that the sole of their foot hits either their head or chin.

Scissors kick

A scissors kick, jumping axe kick or butterfly kick is a type of leg drop where a wrestler bounces off the ropes, jumps, and drives their leg(s) into the back of the opponent's head and neck, similar to a pair of scissors. There is also a corkscrew version where the wrestler twists during the strike and faces the floor while performing the scissor kick.

Shoot kick
A shoot kick is move where a wrestler hits the opponent in the face, chest or legs with their shin. It is a kickboxing-style kick. The shoot kick is used in many shoot-style environments and by many Japanese wrestlers.

Sole kick
A sole kick is a move where a wrestler turns their torso away from their opponent while lifting their leg horizontally and extending it forward at the same time. It then hits the opponent in the torso with the sole of the wrestler's foot. There is also a spin kick version where a wrestler spins around and performs the sole butt kick with their outer leg. It is known as the rolling sole butt in Japan. There is a jumping version as well where the wrestler jumps straight up, spins in midair and hit the sole butt with their outer leg, hitting the opponent's head.

Spin kick
A spin kick or reverse roundhouse kick is a high kick that gains power and momentum after the wrestler spins in place. The move is similar to the spinning heel kick but the wrestler does not jump off of the ground which makes it a leg lariat of some sorts. It is a common move after an opponent was Irish whipped off of the ropes. The move is known as La Filomena in Mexico.

Spinning heel kick
A spinning heel kick is a move where a wrestler spins 360° as they jump so their body is somewhat horizontal, before they hit their opponent with back of either their leg(s) or heel(s) on either the face, neck or chest.

Stomp
A stomp or foot stomp is a move where a wrestler stamps their foot on any part of a downed opponent. Another version of the foot stomp is where a wrestler performs a series of stomps all over the body of a downed opponent in the order of left arm, left chest, left stomach, left upper leg, left lower leg, right lower leg, right upper leg, right stomach, right chest, right arm, and finally the jaw. It has become known as the "Garvin Stomp" and it was created in the late 1980s by former NWA World Heavyweight Champion Ron Garvin. There is also a double foot stomp or double stomp version where a wrestler jumps and stamps both of their feet on any part of an opponent.

Superkick

A superkick happens when a wrestler delivers a kick to the opponent's face or chin and is usually preceded by a sidestep. Shawn Michaels used a superkick known as the Sweet Chin Music as his finishing move during his in-ring career.

Tiger feint kick

A tiger feint kick is a move where a wrestler jumps through both the second and top rope while they hold on to the ropes, and use the momentum to swing back around into the ring. The move was first performed as a fake dive to trick the opponents and fans into thinking that the wrestler was going to dive through the ropes to opponents outside the ring. The move is usually used by smaller wrestlers in Japan and Mexico. Rey Mysterio uses a tiger feint kick called the 619 as his finishing move.

Toe kick
A toe kick is a move where the wrestler hits the opponent in either the midsection or stomach with the point of their foot in order to bend the opponent over. The move is used by mostly all wrestlers and is used to setup a hold or throw.

Lariat
In professional wrestling, a lariat is a move where a wrestler runs towards and wraps their arm around both the upper chest and neck of an opponent. The move forces the opponent to the ground. The move is similar to a clothesline but the difference between a lariat and a clothesline is that in a clothesline, the wrestler's arm is kept straight to the side of the wrestler while performing it and in the lariat, the wrestler hits their opponent with their arm. The lariat to the back of the neck and shoulders is sometimes called the northern lariat or enzui lariat. A lariat where a wrestler doesn't run but strikes the opponent while standing next to them is sometimes called a short range lariat or a burning lariat.  The wrestler can hold the opponent's head up before performing the lariat with the other arm. A short-arm lariat is a version where the wrestler grabs one of the opponent's wrists with their hand and pulls the opponent closer, they then strike the opponent with the lariat with their other arm. Usually, a lariat is used as a finishing move and the clothesline as just a regular move. The main differences between the two moves are stiffness. The lariat is basically a very stiff clothesline that is used as a finisher rather than a regular move.

Crooked arm lariat
A crooked arm lariat is a move where a wrestler runs towards their opponent with the arm bent upward at the elbow 60–90 degrees and wraps their arm around the opponent's head which forces them to the ground.

Flying lariat
A flying lariat is a move where a wrestler uses the ropes to build up speed, leaps forward and wrap their arm around the opponent's neck which causes the power of the force to knock the opponent down.

Lariat takedown
A lariat takedown, running neckbreaker, or bulldog lariat is a move where a wrestler runs towards their opponent, wraps their arm around the opponent's upper chest and neck, and the wrestler swings their legs forward, while using their momentum to pull the opponent down with them to the mat, on to their upper back.

Leg lariat
A leg lariat, jumping leg lariat, or a running calf kick is a move where a wrestler runs at an opponent, jumps and wraps their leg around the opponent's head / neck knocking the opponent to the ground.

Leapfrog body guillotine
A leapfrog body guillotine is move where a wrestler running from behind towards an opponent resting on the second rope, jumps and lands on their opponent's back, neck and head, sliding through the ropes out of the ring and forcing the opponent against the second rope.

Punch
It is a close-fisted punch, that usually hits the opponent's body or face. Unlike most of the other illegal attack, the punch almost never result in disqualification. Instead, the referee warns the wrestler to stop but they usually don't.

Back fist
The back fist is a version of the close-fisted punch where the wrestler hits their opponent with the back of their fist. There is also a spinning back fist version where the wrestler holds their arm out and does a back fist while turning their body with speed so that the back of their fist hits the opponent in either the head or chest on rotation.

Heart Punch
A heart punch is a move where a wrestler either raises the opponent's left arm over their head or folds it behind their neck and delivers a strong punch into the side of the opponent's ribcage. The move is alleged to rely on "Oriental pressure points" to strike a nerve causing the opponent's heart to momentarily stop, rendering them unconscious.

Mounted punches
One of the most common versions of mounted punches involves the wrestler standing on the middle or top ropes and delivering repeated punches to the face while the opponent is backed up against the turnbuckles. The punches usually go until ten with the crowd counting along unless the opponent pushes the wrestler off of the ropes. Another version of mounted punches is where a wrestler either does a standing double leg takedown or Lou Thesz press first, mounts the opponent's chest or back and starts punching them in the head area.

Wind-up punch
A wind-up punch is a move where a wrestler rotates their arm in a "winding-up" motion before they hit the opponent, making the punch seem more effective. The wind-up punch was commonly used by Hulk Hogan.

Slap
It is where a wrestler delivers an overpowering open-hand slap to their opponent.

Double slap
A double slap is where a wrestler slaps both of the opponent's cheeks with both of their hands. It call also sometimes be referred to as a bell clap.

Palm strike
A palm strike or shotei is where a wrestler delivers an open-hand strike with the palm of their hand, usually to the opponent's chin.

Senton
A senton is similar to a big splash except the wrestler jumps over an opponent while falling backwards and landing back-first onto the opponent. The move is also referred to as either a senton splash or back splash in reference to the big splash as well as to difference itself from the diving version of the senton. Another variation of a standard senton is where a wrestler jumps forward and performs a somersault to land back-first onto the opponent. It is called the somersault senton, and is also referred to as a front flip senton/rolling senton.

Cannonball

A cannonball senton is a move where the wrestler performs a front flip senton onto an opponent sitting in a corner. When the opponent is sitting in the corner, the wrestler runs towards them flips forward 180° so that their back impacts on both the opponents chest and head which causes the opponent to be sandwiched between both the turnbuckle and the wrestler.

Seated senton
A seated senton, vertical splash or butt drop is a move where the wrestler jumps down into a sitting position across the fallen opponent's chest or stomach. The move is usually done one of two ways: either from a standing position over the opponent or from the middle rope with the opponent in the corner. Some larger wrestlers, like Rikishi and Earthquake used the seated senton as their finishers. It is also an used as a counter to the sunset flip.

Shoulder block
A shoulder block is where a wrestler hits their opponent with their shoulder by usually ramming their shoulder, keeping their arm to their side and into either the opponent's shoulder or abdomen of an opponent that is running towards them. Often times, larger wrestlers will stand still and have the opponent run towards them to try and perform the move only to get knocked down. The move is often used to show the size and strength of the wrestler, with the larger wrestler challenging to run off the ropes and hit the move. It usually sees the opponent try and attempt to charge at the larger wrestler many times only for their attempts to either have no effect or the opponent to get knocked down themselves. A slight version of this is called the body block which is usually used by large wrestler and sees the opponent run a the larger wrestler and the wrestler just engulfing the charging opponent by swinging their arms around and forcing the opponent to impact the wrestler's entire body.

Chop block
A chop block is a move where a wrestler does a shoulder block and targets the back of the opponent's knee. The wrestler comes from behind, drops down and connects their shoulder with the back of the opponent's knees. It's often used to weaken the leg for a submission hold.

Spear

A spear or shoulder block takedown is a move where a wrestler charges at the standing opponent and brings their body parallel to the ground so that it drives their shoulder into the opponent's midsection, which pulls on the opponent's legs, as in a double leg takedown, and forces them back-first into the mat. There is also a striking spear version where a wrestler charges towards a standing opponent and drives his shoulder into the opponent's midsection, which tackles the opponent and forces them down into the mat back-first. Instead of the regular spear, the wrestler does not pull on the opponent's legs, as in a double leg takedown, and relies on the momentum of the strike to force the opponent down. Goldberg and Edge used the spear as their finishing moves in WCW and WWE. Rhyno also uses a move similar to the spear called the Gore.

Turnbuckle thrust
The turnbuckle thrust is move where the wrestler performs a shoulder block to an opponent that is set up on the turnbuckle. The opponent usually rests back-first against the turnbuckles and the wrestler places their shoulder against the opponent, swinging their legs back and forth to gain momentum for the wrestler driving their shoulder into the opponent's chest.

Standing moonsault
A standing moonsault is a type of moonsault that happens when a wrestler turns their back to a downed opponent, does a backflip and lands on their opponent chest-first.

Standing shooting star press
A standing shooting press is a type of shooting star press that happens when a wrestler jumps forward and performs backflip, landing on the downed opponent's chest.

Stink Face
A stink face is where a wrestler rubs their buttocks in the face of an opponent that is lying in the corner of the ring. It is done to humiliate the opponent. Rikishi used it as one of his signature move.

Uppercut

A uppercut is a type of punch that is used in boxing. It is usually aimed at the opponent's chin. The uppercut is, along with the hook, one of the two main punches that count as power punches in the statistics. In boxing, the uppercut refers only to a punch, while in wrestling the other forms of uppercuts are used including an open-handed punch version.

European uppercut
A European uppercut is a forearm uppercut where a wrestler uses a quick grapple and brings their arm up inside to hit their opponent under the chin.

Knee lift
A knee lift is a move where a wrestler uses their knee and brings it up to hit the opponent under the chin. The move can either be used mid clinch or while the wrestler is charging at a kneeling or bent over opponent, lifting their knee upwards to strike underneath the opponent's jaw or the side of their head. There is also a double knee lift versions where a wrestler forces the opponent's head down and quickly jumps, bending at the knees, and hitting the opponent in either the face or chest.

Throat thrust
A throat thrust, throat strike, sword stab, or an open-hand uppercut is a move where a wrestler strikes at the opponent's throat with their open hand and usually with their palm facing upwards and with all five fingers together. The move is done like a normal uppercut. It can also be used with their opponent in a side headlock.

Weapon shots
A weapon shot is where a wrestler takes a weapon and strikes their opponent with it. Common weapons in professional wrestling are folding chairs, guitars, folding tables, title belts, "kendo sticks", and trash cans. Using weapons as weapons are usually illegal except in matches with No Disqualifications.

Chair shot

A chair shot is where a wrestler hits their opponent with a chair. The strike with the chair is used with the flat face of the chair to slow the swing and deal out the impact, to prevent injury to the opponent.

Chair thrust
A chair thrust or guillotine shot is where a wrestler placing the top of a chair either under the opponent's chin or by the Adam's Apple, and while holding the chair with one hand and the back of the opponent's head with another, the wrestler hits the mat with the legs of the folded chair while it is still placed under the opponent's chin and at the same time forcing the opponent's head down. This highly damages that part of the opponent.

Guitar shot
A guitar shot or El Kabong (a reference to Quick Draw McGraw) is where a wrestler breaks a guitar  over an opponent's head. Jeff Jarrett Honky Tonk Man and Elias performed the move a lot during his career.

One man con-chair-to
This attack has a wrestler lay their opponents head on a folding chair, they take another chair and hit their opponents head sandwiching the head in-between the two chairs.

Transition moves
Some of the moves that are done by wrestlers are not meant to pin an opponent, weaken them or force them to submit. Some of the moves are used to set up the opponent for another attack.

Discus
A discus is a move where a wrestler spins in place before they hit an attack, like the discus clothesline, discus punch, or the discus forearm. The move is usually used instead of charging towards an opponent to build up momentum for an attack, or using the discus spin to evade other attacks.

Handspring
A handspring is a move where a wrestler runs towards the ropes and performs a handstand next to the opponent. The wrestler then uses the momentum to throw their legs against the ropes and uses the spring that is gained to throw themselves backwards and back onto their feet. They still us the momentum to leap backwards and usually to deliver an attack. The most common version is the back elbow strike. Another common version is a handspring transition which the wrestler Irish whips the opponent onto a turnbuckle from the opposite corner. The wrestler then does a handspring combination towards the opponent. The combination usually features a cartwheel followed by either one or two back-tucks which leaves the wrestler's back facing the opponent. The wrestler then uses the momentum of the handspring combo to leap backwards and hit their opponent either a back elbow, back thump, dropkick, or any other type of attack.

Pendulum
A pendulum is a move where a wrestler does a tilting sequence, similar to that of a pendulum, in between the ropes (usually near a ringpost) to gain momentum to perform either an attack or counterattack.

Rolling Thunder

A rolling thunder is a move where a wrestler does a forward roll towards an opponent and uses the complete rotation to spring up onto their feet and into the air to perform an attack. The most popular version of the move ends with a jumping somersault senton. Rob Van Dam does a rolling thunder as one of his signature moves.

Illegal moves
Illegal moves are moves that can result in a disqualification. Illegal moves are usually done by heel wrestlers. The moves are usually done when the referee is either downed or distracted.

Asian mist
Asian mist is the illegal move of spitting a colored liquid into an opponent's face in professional wrestling. After the wrestler does this, the opponent will (in storyline) be blinded and will experience intense stinging in their eyes. The Asian mist comes in almost any color, but the most common color that is used is green. On a rare occasion, a wrestler will use a flammable substance (like alcohol for example).

The different kinds of Asian mist are:
Green Mist – The most common type of mist, which blinds the opponent's vision.
Red Mist – This type of mist is alleged to burn rather than blind the opponent.
Black Mist – An even more powerful type of mist which is alleged to severely blind an opponent for a lengthy period of time.
Blue Mist – This type of mist is used to send an opponent to sleep.
Yellow Mist – This type of mist is alleged to paralyze the opponent.

Biting
Biting is when a wrestler grabs their opponent and bites them with their teeth. The move is usually used as a desperation move when a wrestler is "trapped".

Eye poke
An eye poke or a thumb to the eye is when a wrestler pokes their thumb or finger(s) into the opponent's eye(s). The move is usually done by heel wrestlers to gain an advantage on their opponent.

Eye rake
An eye rake is where a wrestler moves his hand down an opponent's eye(s), to make it appear that the wrestler dragged their fingers across the opponent's eye(s). The move is usually done by heel wrestlers to gain an advantage on their opponent.

Fireball
A fireball is when the wrestler (using a concealed lighter) lights a piece of flash paper and throws it in the opponent's face which gives the impression that a supernatural ball of fire emerged from their hand.

Hangman
A hangman is a move where a wrestler on the other side of the ring ropes from an opponent, grabs the opponent by the head and drops down which forces their throat to land across the ropes. There is a common version where the wrestler perform a catapult to the opponent while the opponent is lying down in between both the bottom and second ropes. There is also a reverse hangman or "reverse" hotshot which is similar to the normal hangman but when the wrestler is standing outside either the ring or on the apron, they grab the back of either the opponent's head or neck.

Hair pull
A hair pull is when a wrestler pulls the opponent's long hair. It is usually used by female wrestlers. The wrestler is given a 5 count to let go or they will be disqualified.

Low blow
A low blow happens when a wrestler either kicks or strikes the opponent in the groin. It can cause a disqualification and is usually used by heel wrestlers or valets.

Testicular claw
A testicular claw is a clawhold where a wrestler grabs a hold of the opponent's testicles and squeezes. There is also version called Vaginal Claw which is rarely used in woman's wrestling.

Professional wrestling moves

Professional wrestling attacks


"The Moon Moth" is a science fiction short story by American author Jack Vance, first published in Galaxy Science Fiction (August 1961).

Plot summary
Edwer Thissell, the new consul from Earth to the planet Sirene, has trouble adjusting to the local culture.  The Sirenese cover their faces and heads with exquisitely crafted masks that indicate their social status (strakh) and mood. They also communicate by singing, accompanying themselves with one of a score of musical instruments, selected based on the social situation and feelings. Furthermore, errors of etiquette may prove fatal.  Thissell is a clumsy musician and lacks confidence in the alien society, so he is forced to wear a lowly Moon Moth mask.

One day, he receives an alert to arrest a notorious assassin named Haxo Angmark, who is due on the next starship. Thissell, however, gets the message too late. He races to the spaceport, but Angmark, thoroughly comfortable with Sirenese customs, has already landed and disappeared. Thissell commits a number of serious social blunders in his haste to reach the spaceport and in enquiring after Angmark.

The next morning, Thissell is shown the body of an offworlder. He concludes that, since the fugitive would be unable to pass himself off as a native, Angmark must have killed and taken the place of one of the other three expatriates on the planet. But since even they wear masks, how is Thissell to know which one?

Eventually, Thissell solves the mystery by borrowing a slave from each of the suspects and determining their masters' mask preferences before and after Angmark's arrival. He succeeds in identifying his quarry, but is captured and forced to walk unmasked in public (the ultimate humiliation to the natives), while Angmark masquerades as Thissell by wearing his Moon Moth mask. However, the Sirenese turn on Angmark and kill him for the perversion of unmasking another man and, ironically, for Thissell's previous gaffes.

Thinking quickly, Thissell cleverly represents his humiliation as an act of unsurpassed bravery, asking if any present would be willing to be so shamed in order to destroy his enemy. With his new-found confidence, Thissell receives offers of gifts (the acceptance of which would enhance the prestige of both the giver and the recipient). He first goes with a mask maker to procure a covering more befitting his lofty new strakh.

Adaptations
First Second Books published a graphic novel edition by Jack Vance and illustrated by Humayoun Ibrahim in May 2012.

Translations
La Luna Sfingo, translation into Esperanto under Creative Commons licence: EPub, Mobi, PDF and MP3

References

External links

StarShipSofa serialized a narration by fiction writer and voice artist Josh Roseman in two parts on January 16 and 23, 2013
Part 1
Part 2

1961 short stories
Science fiction short stories
Short stories by Jack Vance
Works originally published in Galaxy Science Fiction
Social reputation in fiction

The Moon Moth


Dili, spelled Díli in Portuguese, is the caipital an lairgest ceety o East Timor. It lies on the northren coast o Timor island, the eastrenmaist o the Lesser Sunda Islands. Dili is the chief port an commercial centre for East Timor, an haes approximately 150,000 indwallers. Thare is an' a' an airport in Comoro, Presidente Nicolau Lobato Internaitional Airport, renamed efter unthirldom leader Nicolau Lobato, which is uised for commercial an military flichts.

Admeenistration

Dili is the seat o the admeenistration o the destrict o Dili, which is the admeenistrative entity o the aurie an includes the island o Atauro an some ceeties close tae Dili ceety. The ceety is pairt o the subdistricts o Nain Feto, Vera Cruz, Dom Aleixo an Cristo Rei an is dividit intae several sucos, which are heidit bi an electit chefe de suco. 18 o the 26 sucos o the fower subdistricts are categorized as urban. Thare is nae ceety administration beside the destrict administrator, who wis appointit bi state gouvernment. The Timorese gouvernment stairtit tae plan in 2009 tae chynge the status o districts intae municipalities. These will hae an electit mayor an council.

History
Dili wis settled aboot 1520 bi the Portuguese, who made it the caipital o Portuguese Timor in 1769. Durin Warld War II, Dili wis occupied bi the Japanese (see Battle o Timor). East Timor unilaterally declared independence frae Portugal on November 28, 1975. Housomeivver, nine days later, on December 7, Indonesian forces invadit Dili. On Julie 17, 1976, Indonesia annext East Timor, which it designatit the 27th province o Indonesie, Timor Timur (Indonesian for East Timor), wi Dili as its ciapital.

A guerrilla war ensued frae 1975 tae 1999 atween Indonesian an pro-unthirldom forces, durin which tens o thoosans o East Timor's an some foreign civilians wur killed. Media coverage o the 1991 Dili Massacre helped revitalise internaitional support for the East Timorese independence movement. In 1999, East Timor wis placed unner UN supervision an on Mey 20, 2002, Dili became the caipital o the newly independent Democratic Republic o Timor-Leste. In Mey 2006, fechtin an riotin sparked bi conflict atween elements o the military caused significant damage tae the ceety an led tae foreign military intervention tae restore order.

Sister ceeties
  Coimbra (Portugal)
  Darwin (Australie)

References

Caipitals in Asie
Populatit places in East Timor
Populatit places established in 1520

Dili


Abba Hillel Silver (January 28, 1893 – November 28, 1963) was an American Rabbi and Zionist leader. He was a key figure in the mobilization of American support for the founding of the State of Israel, though he saw such a settlement as a means to protect Jewish heritage rather than having it serve as a main point of purpose for Jews.

Biography
Born Abraham Silver in Naumiestis, in the Suwałki Governorate of Congress Poland, a part of the Russian Empire (present-day Lithuania), son and grandson of Orthodox rabbis, he was brought to the US at the age of nine. A Zionist from his youth, he made his first speech at a Zionist meeting at age fourteen. Educated in the public schools and after-school Jewish schools of New York City's Lower East Side, he left after high school to attend the Hebrew Union College (HUC) and the University of Cincinnati. After graduation as valedictorian of his HUC class and ordination in 1915—and now known as Abba Hillel Silver—he served as rabbi of a small congregation, Leshem Shomayim, now Temple Shalom (Wheeling, West Virginia). In 1917, at age twenty-four, he became rabbi of The Temple - Tifereth Israel in Cleveland, Ohio, one of the nation's largest and best-known Reform congregations, where he served for forty-six years.

Abba Hillel Silver was an early champion of rights for labor, for worker's compensation and civil liberties, though his highest priorities were to advance respect for and support of Zionism. He canvassed first Reform Jewish congregations, then American Jewry, then the American public and politicians, and last the international community, the United Nations in particular. Silver was a keynote speaker in the Allied Jewish Campaign to raise funds jointly for Zionist projects in Palestine and for European Jewry.

At a meeting of the American Zionist Emergency Council in May 1944, Silver argued that 'our overemphasizing the refugee issue has enabled our opponents to state that, if it is rescue you are concerned about, why don't you concentrate on that and put the politics aside…It is possible for the Diaspora to undermine the Jewish state, because the urgency of the rescue issue could lead the world to accept a temporary solution…We should place increased emphasis on fundamental Zionist ideology'.

Silver was one of the chief Zionist spokesmen appearing before the United Nations in the Palestine hearings of 2 October 1947 in what the Israeli government says was the future nation's acceptance speech, two weeks before Moshe Shertok made the case for Israel on 17 October 1947.  Silver expressed reservations about the UN partition plan. A practical man, Silver did ultimately accept partition of Palestine as the best means to rapidly create a homeland for the Jewish people.

Abba Hillel Silver was a leading proponent of Zionism in America and met with President Truman several times to discuss his views until his uncompromising manner caused friction with the White House, leading to estrangement from the Truman White House, including Truman's appearance on national television to announce the formation of the State of Israel. The story of his pounding on Harry Truman's desk at the White House, however, after much research by Rafael Medoff, has been shown to be untrue.

By mobilizing Jewish and non-Jewish support and through a relationship with the Republican party that resulted in 1948 in a pro-Israel plank in their platform, Silver left Truman no choice but to support Israel and recognize it immediately after it declared its independence.

A nationally-known orator and author of many scholarly works, including important studies of the history of Jewish-Christian relations, Silver also served as head of many Jewish and Zionist organizations.

He died on November 28, 1963, and was interred at Mayfield Cemetery in Cleveland Heights, Ohio.

Works

See also
 Temple Tifereth-Israel, Beachwood, Ohio

References

1893 births
1963 deaths
People from Kudirkos Naumiestis
Lithuanian Jews
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States
American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent
American Reform rabbis
American Zionists
Hebrew Union College – Jewish Institute of Religion alumni
University of Cincinnati alumni
Burials at Mayfield Cemetery
Activists from New York (state)
Reform Zionists
20th-century American rabbis
Rabbis from Wheeling, West Virginia

Abba Hillel Silver


Jeffrey Wayne King (born  December 26, 1964) is a former professional baseball player who played for the Pittsburgh Pirates and Kansas City Royals.

Career
King graduated from Rampart High School in Colorado Springs in 1983. He was drafted first overall by Pittsburgh in the 1986 June Amateur Draft, after playing college ball at the University of Arkansas. He played his 1987–88 seasons with the Eastern Leagues Harrisburg Senators before being promoted to Pittsburgh.

King was a key part of the Pirates Division Championship teams of 1990, 1991, and 1992, batting 6th right after Barry Bonds, Andy Van Slyke and Bobby Bonilla. He was plagued by back injuries which forced Bonilla to play third base during the 1990 NLCS.

King was then traded after a career-best 1996 season to Kansas City with Jay Bell for Joe Randa. In two full seasons with the Royals, he hit 28 and 24 home runs. King was the Royals regular first baseman at the beginning of the 1999 season, but, bothered by back problems, he abruptly announced his retirement on May 23, 1999, two days after going 1–4 against the Texas Rangers. Sportswriter Joe Posnanski, who covered King when Posnanski worked for the Kansas City Star, reported that King disliked baseball so much that he retired the day after his pension from Major League Baseball fully vested.

King was the third player—the first two being Willie McCovey and Andre Dawson—to hit two home runs in the same inning twice during his career. On August 8, 1995, he hit two home runs in the second inning of the Pirates' 9–5 victory over the San Francisco Giants at Candlestick Park. On April 30, 1996, he repeated this feat, this time in the fourth inning of the Pirates' 10–7 victory over the Cincinnati Reds at Cinergy Field. Alex Rodriguez and Edwin Encarnación would later accomplish this feat.

King finished his career with a .256 batting average and 154 home runs in 1,201 games.

References

External links

The 100 Greatest Royals of All-Time- #69 Jeff King

Baseball players from Indiana
Pittsburgh Pirates players
Kansas City Royals players
1964 births
Living people
Major League Baseball first basemen
Major League Baseball second basemen
Major League Baseball third basemen
Arkansas Razorbacks baseball players
Sportspeople from Colorado Springs, Colorado
People from Marion, Indiana
Prince William Pirates players
Harrisburg Senators players
Salem Buccaneers players
Buffalo Bisons (minor league) players
All-American college baseball players
Mat-Su Miners players

Jeff King (baseball)


Merchant marine is a term used in many places to talk about commercial ships and crews. A country's merchant marine is made up of all the ships owned by companies or individuals in that country which are used to make money. Most of a country's merchant marine is usually made of ships that carry things from place to place, like oil tankers and freighters. Other ships, like cruise ships and ferries, are also included because they are used to make money. When a country is at peace, its merchant marine works independently. Some countries, though, require merchant ships to work for their armed forces in times of war.

In the United States, "Merchant Marine" has a different meaning. The United States Merchant Marine (USMM) is a part of the military which is controlled by the government in both peace and war. When the United States is at war, the USMM is used to carry military supplies. In World War II, nearly one out of every twenty-six American merchant mariners was killed, a higher portion of men than in the Army, Navy, or even the Marines.

References

Other websites
 The Marine Society
 International Merchant Marine Community
 United States Merchant Marine Academy
 Canadian Merchant Navy: Second World War
Official database of deceased Canadian Merchant Mariners
 SwissWorld: The Swiss Merchant Navy
Photos of the Merchant Marine Memorials in London

Naval transport

Merchant marine


Tin(II) chloride, also known as stannous chloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is SnCl2. It has tin and chloride ions in it. The tin is in its +2 oxidation state.

Properties
It is a colorless crystalline solid. It is a reducing agent. It is poisonous to mollusks like clams and oysters. It reacts with water to make tin(II) oxide hydrate, which is white, and hydrochloric acid. That is why tin(II) chloride is normally dissolved in hydrochloric acid. It reacts with oxygen in the air to make tin(IV) chloride and tin(IV) oxide. It reacts with silver and gold compounds to make silver and gold metal. It also reacts with ferric compounds to make ferrous compounds.

It reacts with bases to make tin(II) oxide hydrate, which is white; if more base is added, the tin(II) oxide hydrate dissolves to make a clear solution again.

Preparation
It is made when tin reacts with hydrochloric acid.

Uses
It is used to electroplate tin on steel. It is used in the coloring of textiles. It is used to make silvered mirrors. A certain plastic uses it as a catalyst. It was used as a test for mercury(II) ions. If it is added to a colorless solution of mercury(II), a white solid of mercury(I) would form. If more is added, a black solid of mercury metal would be made. It turns bright purple in a solution that has gold ions in it. It is used in organic chemistry as a reducing agent.

Related pages
Tin(II) fluoride
Tin(II) bromide
Tin(II) sulfate

Chlorine compounds
Tin compounds

Tin(II) chloride


Andromeda Chained to the Rocks (1630) is a  oil-on-panel painting by the Dutch Golden Age painter Rembrandt. It is now in the Mauritshuis,  The Hague, Netherlands. Andromeda represents Rembrandt's first full length mythological female nude history painting and is taken from a story in Ovid's Metamorphoses.

Mythology
In Metamorphoses, Andromeda (mythology) is the daughter of an Ethiopian king and queen, Cepheus and Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia was very boastful about her beauty, and asserted that she was more beautiful than Juno, the queen of the gods and the Nereids. Insulted by Cassiopeia's assertions, Neptune sent a sea monster to the Ethiopian coast. Neptune then could only be appeased upon the sacrifice of Andromeda, the king's beautiful virgin daughter, to the sea monster. Andromeda was chained naked to rocks by the coast, awaiting the sea monster. Perseus, passing by, noticed the beautiful girl and made a deal with her parents that he would save her, should he be allowed to have her hand in marriage. The king and queen agreed and Andromeda was spared.

Damsel in distress
This painting depicts a classic example of the damsel in distress. In this theme a beautiful young woman is placed in a perilous situation, usually involving a monster or being trapped in captivity. The damsel can then only be rescued by a hero, whom of which she usually ends up marrying. In this painting, Andromeda has a distressed look on her face as she is completely shackled and unable to move. Although Perseus does not make an appearance in this painting, in similar works we can see Perseus being portrayed in a heroic and graceful light, shown through the use of warm colors and heroic poses.

Depiction of beauty
Many artists such as Titian have depicted this story by showing Andromeda, her rescuer Perseus, and the sea monster all in the same composition. Her beauty as described in her source material can be seen in some of these other works, along with Perseus' role as her rescuer. In this work, Rembrandt shies away from classical conventions by showing her not as a glamorous beauty but as a frightened naturalistic looking girl.  No other figure is included, but her alarmed look out of the picture space to the right creates narrative tension.  The painting is an example of Rembrandt's rejection of idealized beauty. Since he did not believe true beauty existed naturally, he painted women as he saw them; naturally imperfect and flawed.

Rembrandt's subsequent nude mythological paintings from this period Diana Bathing and Danaë show his evolving portrayal of the nude.

See also
 List of paintings by Rembrandt

Notes

References
Ovid, Translated by A.D. Melville, Metamorphoses, Oxford University Press, 1998.
Clark, Kenneth, Rembrandt and the Italian Renaissance., New York University Press, 1966

Mythological paintings by Rembrandt
1631 paintings
Paintings in the Mauritshuis
Paintings of Andromeda
Water in art
Paintings based on Metamorphoses

Andromeda Chained to the Rocks


Queen + Paul Rodgers was a rock band formed by Brian May and Roger Taylor, formerly of Queen, and Paul Rodgers of Bad Company, Free and The Firm.

Because of the popularity of Freddie Mercury, it was made clear that Paul Rodgers would not be replacing the former Queen lead singer, who died in 1991 from complications due to AIDS. Rodgers would be called "featured with" along with the former Queen members. When in concert Brian May, Roger Taylor and Paul Rodgers would be helped by keyboard player Spike Edney, rhythm guitarist Jamie Moses and bassist Danny Miranda.

The band recorded an album called The Cosmos Rocks. It was released in 2008.

In May, 2009 Paul Rodgers announced that Queen + Paul Rodgers had come to an end. He said "It was fun but was never meant to be a permanent arrangement". He said it was always possible that the band would get together again.

Notes

English musical groups
Musical groups established in 2004
2004 establishments in England
Musical groups disestablished in 2009
2009 disestablishments in England

Queen + Paul Rodgers


Aspiration is a feature in languages where saying a consonant gives out a puff of air. For example, if you dangle a piece of paper in front of your mouth, you will see it move if you say an aspirated, or breathy, consonant. If the paper does not move, then it is unaspirated, or not breathy. In English, voiceless stops and fricatives that happen at the beginning of a word are aspirated, which are the sounds 'p', 't', 'k', and 'ch' (which are written as /p/, /t/, /k/, /t͡ʃ/ in IPA in the same order). In IPA, aspirated sounds can be written with an ʰ symbol afterwards, as in /pʰ/, /tʰ/, /kʰ/, and /t͡ʃʰ/. For example, the first sound in the words "pick", "tick", "kick", and "chick" are all aspirated. In IPA, they are written as /pʰɪk/, /tʰɪk/, /kʰɪk/, and /t͡ʃʰɪk/ in the same order. However, voiceless stops and fricatives that appear after the first sound are unaspirated. For example, while the /p/ in "pit" is aspirated, the /p/ in "spit" and the /p/ in "tip" are not, so they would not be marked with an ʰ symbol afterwards. Below are more examples of aspiration.

English has no aspirated voiced sounds, but Hindi does. They are normally written with an 'h' after the consonant letter. An example of this is the name Bhattacharya, in which 'bh' is an aspirated 'b' sound, so it would be written as /bʱ/ in IPA.

In Mandarin Chinese, there are no voiced stops, fricatives, or affricates, so the only way to tell them apart is by aspiration. In Pinyin, aspirated sounds are written like voiceless sounds in English, so the sounds /pʰ/, /tʰ/, and /kʰ/ are written as 'p', 't', and 'k' in the same order, but unaspirated sounds are written like voiced sounds in English, so the sounds /p/, /t/, and /k/ are written as 'b', 'd', and 'g' respectively. For example, the word "Gaokao" would be written in IPA as /kau̯.kʰau̯/. In Wade-Giles spelling, aspirated stops, fricatives, or affricates are written with an apostrophe after the letter instead of using a different letter like in Pinyin, so "Gaokao" would be written as "Kaok'ao" in Wade-Giles.
Linguistics

Aspiration


In statistics and computational geometry, the notion of  centerpoint is a generalization of the median to data in higher-dimensional Euclidean space.  Given a set of points in d-dimensional space, a centerpoint of the set is a point such that any hyperplane that goes through that point divides the set of points in two roughly equal subsets: the smaller part should have at least a 1/(d + 1) fraction of the points.  Like the median, a centerpoint need not be one of the data points.  Every non-empty set of points (with no duplicates) has at least one centerpoint.

Related concepts
Closely related concepts are the Tukey depth of a point (the minimum number of sample points on one side of a hyperplane through the point) and a Tukey median of a point set (a point maximizing the Tukey depth). A centerpoint is a point of depth at least n/(d + 1), and a Tukey median must be a centerpoint, but not every centerpoint is a Tukey median. Both terms are named after John Tukey.

For a different generalization of the median to higher dimensions, see geometric median.

Existence
A simple proof of the existence of a centerpoint may be obtained using Helly's theorem. Suppose there are n points, and consider the family of closed half-spaces that contain more than dn/(d + 1) of the points. Fewer than n/(d + 1) points are excluded from any one of these halfspaces, so the intersection of any subset of d + 1 of these halfspaces must be nonempty. By Helly's theorem, it follows that the intersection of all of these halfspaces must also be nonempty. Any point in this intersection is necessarily a centerpoint.

Algorithms
For points in the Euclidean plane, a centerpoint may be constructed in linear time. In any dimension d, a Tukey median (and therefore also a centerpoint) may be constructed in time O(nd − 1 + n log n).

A randomized algorithm that repeatedly replaces sets of d + 2 points by their Radon point can be used to compute an approximation to a centerpoint of any point set, in the sense that its Tukey depth is linear in the sample set size, in an amount of time that is polynomial in both the number of points and the dimension.

References

Citations

Sources
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .

Euclidean geometry
Multi-dimensional geometry
Means

Centerpoint (geometry)


James Simon Wallis Hunt (29 August 1947 – 15 June 1993) was a British racing driver. He was best known for winning the Formula One World Championship in 1976. He later became a commentator after retiring from racing in 1979.

Biography
Hunt was born in Belmont, Surrey. He was well known for lifestyle and behaviour on and off the track. He was married to Suzy Miller and later Sarah Lomax. The couple had two children, Tom and Freddie. He was also engaged to Helen Dyson before his death. He was also a close friend of Niki Lauda.

Hunt began his career in the 1973 season. He entered 93 F1 races. He won a total ten official F1 races. In 1976, he won the Formula One World Championship, winning six of the official races. He won the Dutch Grand Prix (1975, 1976), Spanish Grand Prix (1976), French Grand Prix (1976), German Grand Prix (1976), Italian Grand Prix (1976), Canadian Grand Prix (1976), United States Grand Prix (1976, 1977) and Japanese Grand Prix (1977) races. During his career, he raced for Hesketh (1973–1975), McLaren (1976–1978) and Wolf (1979). He retired in 1979.

Hunt later became a commentator. He was known for commentating on F1 races with Murray Walker. He was played by Australian actor Chris Hemsworth in the movie Rush (2013).

Hunt died from a heart attack on 15 June 1993 in Wimbledon, London, at the age of 45.

References

Other websites

 James Hunt on GP Encyclopedia

1947 births
1993 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
British Formula One drivers
Sportspeople from Surrey

James Hunt


Businesses benefit by having diversity in their work force. The business case for diversity stems from the progression of the models of diversity within the workplace since the 1960s. In the United States, the original model for diversity was situated around affirmative action drawing from equal opportunity employment objectives implemented in the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Equal employment opportunity was centered around the idea that any individual academically or physically qualified for a specific job could strive for (and possibly succeed) at obtaining the said job without being discriminated against based on identity.  These initiatives were met with accusations that tokenism was the reason an individual was hired into a company when they differed from the dominant group. Dissatisfaction from minority groups eventually altered and/or raised the desire to achieve perfect employment opportunities in every job.

The social justice model evolved next and extended the idea that individuals outside the dominant group should be given opportunities within the workplace, not only because it was instituted as a law,  but because it was the right thing to do. Kevin Sullivan an ex-vice president of Apple Inc. said that "diversity initiatives must be sold as business, not social work."

In the deficit model, it is believed that organizations that do not have a strong diversity inclusion culture will invite lower productivity, higher absenteeism, and higher turnover which will result in higher costs to the company. Establishments with more diversity are less likely to have successful unionization attempts.

Classification of workplaces

In a journal article entitled "The multicultural organization" by Taylor Cox Jr., Cox talks about three organization types that focus on the development of cultural diversity. The three types are: the monolithic organization, the plural organization, and the multicultural organization. In the monolithic organization, the amount of structural integration (the presence of persons from different cultural groups in a single organization) is minimal. This type of organization may have minority members within the workforce, but not in positions of leadership and power. Even though Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion are three interconnected concepts represented by the abbreviation DE&I, they are not interchangeable. Diversity without equity and inclusion is often perceived as "tokenism".

The plural organization has a more heterogeneous membership than the monolithic organization and takes steps to be more inclusive of persons from cultural backgrounds that differ from the dominant group. This type of organization seeks to empower those from a marginalized standpoint to encourage opportunities for promotion and positions of leadership.

The workplace diversity can be categorized into single-gender and mix genders. It focuses on mostly "identity-based differences among and between two or more people". The multicultural organization not only contains many different cultural groups or different genders, but it values this diversity. It encourages healthy conflict as a source of avoiding groupthink.

Benefits
Diversity is believed by many to bring substantial benefits such as better decision making and improved problem solving, greater creativity and innovation, which leads to enhanced product development, and more successful marketing to different types of customers. Diversity is also claimed to enhance organizations' abilities to compete in global markets. Simply recognizing diversity in a corporation helps link the variety of talents within the organization. DePree believes that the act of recognizing diversity also allows for employees to feel have a sense of belonging, which increases their commitment to the company and allow each of them to contribute in a unique way.

Standpoint theory suggests that marginalized groups bring a different perspective to an organization that challenges the status quo since their socially constructed world view will differ from that of the dominant group. Although the standpoint of the dominant group will often carry more weight, encouraging conflicting standpoints to coexist within an organization which will create a forum for sanctioned conflict to ensue. Standpoint theory gives a voice to those in a position to see patterns of behavior that those immersed in the culture have difficulty acknowledging. From this perspective, these unique and varying standpoints help to eradicate groupthink which can develop within a homogenous group.
Scott Page's (2007)
mathematical modeling research of team work reflects this view. His models demonstrated that heterogeneous teams consistently out-performed homogeneous teams on a variety of tasks.

Page points out, however, that diversity in teamwork is not always simple and that there are many challenges to fostering an inclusive environment in the workplace for diversity of thought and ideas. For example: "If we look at the evidence on whether identity diverse collections of people perform better than more homogeneous collections, we see mixed results at every level. At the country level, we find that in advanced economies, ethnic diversity proves beneficial. In poorer countries, it causes problems. In cities, we see similar effects. Diversity has the same pluses and minuses. Cognitive diversity increases innovation. Preference diversity leads to squabbles" (p. 14). Also, "We have no logical reason to think that identity diverse groups would perform better than more homogenous groups – unless we believe that mysterious collective cognitive capability emerges from the interactions of people with diverse identities" (p. 326).

In order to benefit from diversity, keep organizations competitive, and drive business success, comprehensive strategies are required that encompass all dimensions of diversity (race, gender, cognitive styles, beliefs, experience etc.).

Challenges
One of the greatest challenges an organization has when trying to adopt a more inclusive environment is assimilation for any member outside the dominant group. The interplay between power, ideology, and discursive acts which reinforce the hegemonic structure of organizations is the subject of much study. Everything from organizational symbols, rituals, and stories serve to maintain the position of power held by the dominant group.

When organizations hire or promote individuals that are not part of this dominant group into management positions, a tension develops between the socially constructed organizational norm and acceptance of cultural diversity. Some have claimed that cultural diversity in the workplace will increase interpersonal conflicts. Often these individuals are mentored and coached to adopt the necessary traits for inclusion into the privileged group as opposed to being embraced for their differences. According to the journal article "Cultural Diversity in the Workplace: The State of the Field", Marlene G. Fine explains that "those who assimilate are denied the ability to express their genuine selves in the workplace; they are forced to repress significant parts of their lives within a social context that frames a large part of their daily encounters with other people". Fine goes on to mention that "People who spend significant amounts of energy coping with an alien environment have less energy left to do their jobs. Assimilation does not just create a situation in which people who are different are likely to fail, it also decreases the productivity of organizations". That is, with a diverse workforce, management may have to work harder to reach the same level of productivity as with a less diverse workforce.

Another challenge faced by organizations striving to foster a more diverse workforce is the management of a diverse population. Managing diversity is more than simply acknowledging differences in people. A number of organizational theorists have suggested that work-teams which are highly diverse can be difficult to motivate and manage for a variety of reasons. A major challenge is miscommunication within an organization. Fine reported a study of "work groups that were culturally diverse and found that cross-cultural differences led to miscommunication". That is, a diverse workforce led to challenges for management. The meaning of a message can never be completely shared because no two individuals experience events in exactly the same way. Even when native and non-native speakers are exposed to the same messages, they may interpret the information differently. There are competencies, however, which help to develop effective communication in diverse organizational environments. These skills include self-monitoring, empathy, and strategic decision-making.

Maintaining a culture which supports the idea of employee voice (especially for marginalized group members) is another challenge for diverse organisation. When the organizational environment is not supportive of dissenting viewpoints, employees may choose to remain silent for fear of repercussions, or they may seek alternative safe avenues to express their concerns and frustrations such as on-line forums and affinity group meetings. By finding opportunities such as these to express dissent, individuals can begin to gather collective support and generate collective sense-making which creates a voice for the marginalized members so they can have a collective voice to trigger change.

Strategies to achieve diversity
Three approaches towards corporate diversity management can be distinguished: Liberal Change, Radical Change, and Transformational Change.

Liberal change
The liberal concept recognizes equality of opportunity in practice when all individuals are enabled freely and equally to compete for social rewards. The aim of the liberal change model is to have a fair labor market from which the best person is chosen for a job based solely on performance. To support this concept, a framework of formal rules has been created and policymakers are responsible for ensuring that these rules are enforced on all so none shall be discriminated against. The liberal-change approach centers on law, compliance, and legal penalties for non-compliance.

One weakness of the liberal view is that the formal rules cannot cover every aspect of work life, as there is almost always an informal aspect to work such as affinity groups, hidden transcripts, and alternative informal communication channels.

Radical changes
In contrast to the liberal approach, radical change seeks to intervene directly in the workplace practices in order to achieve balanced workforces, as well as a fair distribution of rewards among employees. The radical approach is thus more outcome focused than focused on the forming the rules to ensure equal treatment. One major tool of radical change is quotas which are set by companies or national institutions with the aim to regulate diversity of the workforce and equal opportunities.

Arguments for and against quota systems in companies or public institutions include contrasting ideas such as quotas
 compensating for actual barriers that prevent marginalized members from attaining their fair share of managerial positions
 being against equal opportunity for all and imply that a marginalized member only got the position to fill the quota. Sweden's quota system for parliamentary positions is a positive case for radical change through quota setting.
A quota system was introduced at the Swedish parliament with the aim of ensuring that women constitute at least a 'critical minority' of 30 or 40 percent of all parliament seats. Since the introduction of the system, women representation in parliament has risen dramatically even above the defined quota. Today, 47% of parliamentary representatives are women, a number which stands out compared to the global average of 19%.

Transformational change
Transformational change covers an equal opportunity agenda for both the immediate need as well as long-term solutions. For the short term it implements new measures to minimize bias in procedures such as recruitment, promotion, and communication. The long term, however, is seen as a project of transformation for organizations. This approach acknowledges the existence of power systems and seeks to challenge the existing hegemony through implementation of equality values.

One illustrative case for transformational change is ageing management; Younger employees are seen as more innovative and flexible, while older employees are associated with higher costs of salary, benefits, and healthcare needs. Therefore, companies may prefer young workers to older staff. Through application of the transformational concept an immediate intervention provides needed relief while a longer-term culture shift occurs.

For the short-term, an organization can set up legislation preventing discrimination based on age (e.g., Age Discrimination in Employment Act). However, for the long-term solution, negative stereotypes of older employees needs to be replaced with the positive realization that older employees can add value to the workplace through their experience and knowledge base. To balance this idea with the benefit of innovation and flexibility that comes with youth, a mixture of ages in the workforce is ideal. Through transformational change, the short-term solution affords the organization the time necessary to enact deep rooted culture changes leading to a more inclusive environment.

Movements
In 2017, PwC's U.S. chairman, Tim Ryan, amassed more than 175 c-suite executives (some belonging to the Fortune 500) to sign their CEO Action for Diversity & Inclusion™ pledge. The pledge is a business commitment to advance diversity in the workplace and is made by executives from notable companies such as Walmart, Staples, Dow Chemical, Cisco and Morgan Stanley. As of 2021, more than 2,000 CEOs have signed the pledge including James Murdoch, Tom Buttgenbach, Jeanne Crain, M. Patrick Carroll, James C. Foster and Wayne A.I. Frederic.

Implementation

Intentional "diversity programs" can assist organizations facing rapid demographic changes in their local consumer market and labor pool by helping people work and understand one another better.

Diversity inclusion initiatives must start with the commitment from the top. With a commitment from top leaders in an organization to change the existing culture to one of diversity inclusion, the diversity change management process can succeed. This process includes analyzing where the organization is currently at through a diversity audit, creating an action plan aligned with a diversity inclusion strategy, gaining support by seeking stakeholder input, and holding individuals accountable through measurable results.

See also

 Affirmative action
 Ageism
 Diversity (politics)
 Diversity, equity, and inclusion
 Ethnic penalty
 Functional diversity (organizational)
 Reverse discrimination
 Team composition
 Women in the workforce
 Stigma management

References

Affirmative action
Multiculturalism
Identity politics
Corporate social responsibility
Diversity (business)
Workplace

Diversity (business)


Robert Clayton (1695–1758) was an Irish Protestant bishop, now known for his Essay on Spirit. In his own lifetime, he was notorious for his unorthodox beliefs, which led his critics to question whether he could properly be called a Christian at all, and at the time of his death, he was facing charges of heresy.

Life
Clayton was born at Dublin in 1695, a descendant of the Claytons of Fulwood, Lancashire, whose estates came to him by inheritance. He was the eldest of seven children of Rev. John Clayton, minister of St. Michan's Church, Dublin, and dean of Kildare, and Juliana Edmundson. Zachary Pearce educated him privately, at Westminster School. He was the nephew of the Liverpool MP, William Clayton.

Clayton entered Trinity College, Dublin, became B.A. 1714, a fellow the same year, M.A. 1717, LL.D. 1722, and D.D. 1730. He made a tour of Italy and France, and on his father's death in 1728 came into possession of a good estate and married Katherine, daughter of Lord Chief Baron Nehemiah Donnellan and his second wife Martha Ussher. He gave his wife's fortune to her sister Anne (who used it to fund the Donnellan Memorial Lectures at Trinity College), and doubled the bequest, under his father's will, to his own three sisters. A wealthy man, he lived in Dublin in what is now Iveagh House. One of the two houses (No. 80) that make up the current Iveagh House was designed for Clayton by Richard Castle, and built in 1736–7.

A gift to a distressed scholar recommended to him by Samuel Clarke brought him Clarke's friendship. Clayton embraced Clarke's Arian doctrines and held to them through life. Queen Caroline, hearing from Clarke of Clayton, had him appointed bishop of Killala and Achonry in 1729–1730. In 1735 he was translated to the diocese of Cork and Ross, and in 1745 to the diocese of Clogher. In 1752 he was made Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, having some years before been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.

Last controversies and death

Clayton proposed, 2 February 1756, in the Irish House of Lords, that the Athanasian creed and Nicene creed should be removed from the liturgy of the Church of Ireland. Despite the controversy this aroused, no proceedings were taken against him until the publication of the third part of the 'Vindication of ... the Old and New Testament,' Dublin, 1757, when he renewed his attack on the Trinity and advanced doctrines contrary to the Thirty-nine Articles. Horace Walpole said caustically that his Vindication seemed calculated to destroy anyone's faith in the Testaments. The government, by now seriously alarmed by the heterodoxy of Clayton's opinions, ordered that he be prosecuted for heresy: a meeting of Irish prelates was called at the house of the Primate of Ireland, and Clayton was summoned to attend. Before the appointed time he died, on 26 February 1758.

Character

Horace Walpole, in a satirical sketch of the Bishop's life, attributes his death to panic at the thought of having to defend his religious notions, but acknowledges that he was at least sincere in his beliefs, even if nobody else was able to understand what they were. His wife Katherine Donnellan had a reputation for arrogance: the artist and letter-writer Mary Delaney described her as giving herself "the airs of a Queen" after her husband was made a bishop.

Works

His first publication was a letter in the Philosophical Transactions, August 1738. In 1739 he published 'The Bishop of Corke's Letter to his Clergy,' Dublin, and 'A Sermon preached before the Judges of Assize,' Cork, and in 1740 'The Religion of Labour,' Dublin, for the Society for Promoting English Protestant Schools in Ireland. In 1743 he published ' A Replication . . . with the History of Popery,' &c., Dublin, directed against the author of 'A Brief Historical Account of the Vaudois.' In 1747 appeared 'The Chronology of the Hebrew Bible vindicated ... to the Death of Moses,' London, pp. 494. In 1749 he published 'A Dissertation on Prophesy . . . with an explanation of the Revelations of St. John,' Dublin; reprinted London. This work aimed at reconciling the Book of Daniel and the Book of Revelation, and proving that the ruin of popery and the end of the dispersion of the Jews would take place in 2000. Two letters followed, printed separately, then together, 1751, London, 'An Impartial Enquiry into the Time of the Coming of the Messiah.'

In 1751 appeared the most notable work written by him (though often asserted to be that of a young clergyman of his diocese), 'Essay on Spirit . . . with some remarks on the Athanasian and Nicene Creeds,' London, 1751. This book, full of Arian doctrine, led to a long controversy. It was attacked by William Jones of Nayland, William Warburton (who described it as 'the rubbish of old heresies'), Nathaniel Lardner, and others. The Duke of Dorset, the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, refused on account of this work to appoint him to the vacant archbishopric of Tuam. Several editions appeared in (1752, 1753, and 1759). In 1752 a work appeared called 'A Sequel to the Essay on Spirit,' London; Clayton published 'The Genuine Sequel to the Essay,' &c., Dublin.

His next work was 'A Vindication of the Histories of the Old and New Testament, in answer to the Objections of . . . Bolingbroke,' pt. i., Dublin, 1752. In 1753 he published 'A Journey from Grand Cairo to Mount Sinai, and back again. In Company with some Missionaries de propaganda Fide,' &c., translated from a manuscript which had been mentioned by Edward Pococke in his 'Travels.' It included an account of the supposed inscriptions of the Israelites in the Gebel el Mokatab. The work was addressed to the Society of Antiquaries, and the author offered to assist an exploration in Mount Sinai, but the society took no steps in the matter. Edward Wortley Montagu, however, was induced to visit the spot and give an account of the inscriptions. The same year Clayton published 'A Defence of the Essay on Spirit,' London. His next work was 'Some Thoughts on Self-love, Innate Ideas, Freewill,' &c., occasioned by David Hume's works, London, 1754. The same year he brought out the second part of the 'Vindication of ... the Old and New Testament,' Dublin. This produced Alexander Catcott's attack on his theories of the earth's form and the deluge. In 1756 appeared 'Letters which passed between . . . the Bishop of Clogher and Mr. William Penn concerning Baptism,' London, in which he asserted the cessation of baptism by the Holy Ghost. Clayton's friend William Bowyer obtained a copy of the correspondence and published it.

Thomas Barnard, later bishop of Limerick, who married Clayton's niece, and was his executor, had several of his works in manuscript, but they were not published. He gave the copyright of all Clayton's works for England to the printer Bowyer, who issued the three parts of the 'Vindication' and the 'Essay on Spirit,' with additional notes and index to the scripture texts, London, 1759.

References

Further reading
Nigel Aston, "The Limits of Latitudinarianism: English Reactions to Bishop Clayton's An Essay on Spirit", The Journal of Ecclesiastical History (1998), 49: 407–433.

External links
Ricorso
Robert Clayton A Journal from Grand Cairo to Mount Sinai, and back again, Translated from a Manuscript, Written by the Prefetto of Egypt, in company with some Missionaries de propaganda fide at Grand Cairo .... London, 1753. PANDEKTIS (Institute of Neohellenic Research)

Attribution

1695 births
1758 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
Bishops of Clogher (Church of Ireland)
Bishops of Cork and Ross (Church of Ireland)
Bishops of Killala and Achonry
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
18th-century Anglican bishops in Ireland
Arian Christians
Burials at Donnybrook Cemetery

Robert Clayton (bishop)