Rope, retitled Rope's End for its American release, is a 1929 English play by Patrick Hamilton. It was said to be inspired by the real-life murder of 14-year-old Bobby Franks in 1924 by University of Chicago students Nathan Leopold and Richard Loeb.

In formal terms, it is a well-made play with a three-act dramatic structure that adheres to the classical unities. Its action is continuous, punctuated only by the curtain fall at the end of each act. It may also be considered a thriller. Samuel French published the play in 1929.

Plot and setting

The play is set on the first floor of a house in Mayfair, London in 1929. The story concerns two young university students, Wyndham Brandon and Charles Granillo (whom Brandon calls "Granno"), who have murdered fellow student Ronald Kentley as an expression of their supposed intellectual superiority. At the beginning of the play, they hide Kentley's body in a chest. They proceed to host a party for his friends and family at which the locked chest containing his corpse is used to serve a buffet. Suspicion arises among the guests as to the content of the chest. After the party, one guest, a former professor of the murderers, returns and contrives to open the chest. He is shocked and ashamed that they have acted in response to his own declarations of amorality. The play ends with this quandary unresolved.

Production history

Rope was first presented by The Repertory Players in a Sunday night try-out production at the Strand Theatre, London, on 3 March 1929. The following month the play opened in the West End at the Ambassadors Theatre on 25 April 1929. The production ran for six months. Retitled Rope's End, the first Broadway production opened at the John Golden Theatre (then called the Theatre Masque) on 13 September 1929. On 16 December 2009, a revival of Rope began at the Almeida Theatre in London, in a production directed by Roger Michell.

The 1929 London productions

Strand Theatre
 Wyndham Brandon - Sebastian Shaw
 Charles Granillo - Anthony Ireland
 Sabot - Frederick Burtwell
 Kenneth Raglan - Hugh Dempster
 Leila Arden - Betty Schuster
 Sir Johnstone Kentley - Daniel Roe
 Mrs Debenham - Ruth Taylor
 Rupert Cadell - Robert Holmes

Ambassadors' Theatre
 Wyndham Brandon - Brian Aherne
 Charles Granillo - Anthony Ireland
 Sabot - Stafford Hilliard
 Kenneth Raglan - Patrick Waddington
 Leila Arden - Lilian Oldland
 Sir Johnstone Kentley - Paul Gill
 Mrs Debenham - Alix Frizell
 Rupert Cadell - Ernest Milton

Directed by Reginald Denham.

The 1929 Broadway production
 Charles Granillo - Ivan Brandt
 Leila Arden - Margaret Delamere
 Kenneth Raglan - Hugh Dempster
 Sir Johnstone Kentley - Samuels Lysons
 Rupert Cadell - Ernest Milton
 Mrs. Debenham - Nora Nicholson
 Wyndham Brandon - Sebastian Shaw
 Sabot - John Trevor

Directed by Reginald Denham

Film and TV adaptations
The play was first broadcast on experimental live television by the BBC, on 8 March 1939. It was adapted by Hamilton, produced by Dallas Bower, and used long takes. Director Alfred Hitchcock later said he saw (or heard about) the long takes of this television production and was inspired to attempt a feature film version. Another version was broadcast on the British commercial network ITV in 1957. In different roles, Dennis Price appeared in both versions. A version was made for Australian television in 1959, and aired as part of the series Shell Presents. A different version for Australian television aired in 1957.

In Alfred Hitchcock's 1948 film version, Rope, Hitchcock, Hume Cronyn, and Arthur Laurents made some changes to the original stage play. The setting is relocated to the 1940s New York City and the names of all of the characters, with the exception of Rupert Cadell, are altered. Quiet Mrs. Debenham became cheerful Mrs. Atwater. The murder victim is renamed David Kentley. In the original play, Rupert Cadell is a 29-year-old First World War veteran, who walks with a stick. He was a teacher of Brandon and Granillo when they were at school. In the film, Cadell is played by James Stewart, who was forty at the time. In this version, Cadell had been the teacher of Brandon Shaw, Philip Morgan, Kenneth Lawrence, and David Kentley, and is currently a publisher. Hitchcock's is the only feature film version of the play to-date.

In 1983, Rope was dramatised as a BBC Radio 4 Drama for Saturday Night Theatre, starring Alan Rickman as Cadell.

References

External links

 1939 BBC TV version at IMDB
1952 Best Plays radio adaptation of play at Internet Archive
 1957 ITV version at IMDB
 discusses differences between play and Hitchcock's film
1929 plays
Plays by Patrick Hamilton
Plays set in London
Plays based on real people
British plays adapted into films
Cultural depictions of Leopold and Loeb
West End plays

Rope (play)


Nadezhda Filaretovna von Meck () ( - ) was a rich Russian businesswoman.  She is remembered today for her strange relationship with the famous composer  Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky.  For many years she paid him a lot of money each month so that he could compose.  They wrote passionate love letters to one another, yet they never actually met one another.

She also gave financial support to other people in the arts and music, especially to the composers Nikolai Rubinstein and Claude Debussy.

Life

Childhood
She was born Nadezhda Filaretovna Frolovskaya.  Her family owned a lot of land.  Her father loved music.  Her mother was a very determined business woman.

Nadezhda learned to play the piano and she read many books, learned foreign languages and learned about paintings.

Marriage
When she was 16 it was arranged for her to marry Karl von Meck, a 28-year-old engineer.  Together they had 18 children, of whom 11 grew up to be adults.

Her husband worked for the government.  He did not earn much money and the family was growing quickly.  Nadezhda wanted her husband to be rich.  At this time the steam engine had recently been invented, and railways were just starting to be built in Russia.  Nadezhda thought her husband could earn a lot of money building railways.  She was right.  As an engineer he became responsible for buildings thousands of miles of railroad tracks.  The new railways allowed grain to be transported from Central Russia to places like Moscow.
He soon became a multi-millionaire.

Karl died suddenly in 1873.  Nadezhda took over his business matters.  She sold one railway and controlled the other one with the help of her brother.  She kept away from other people, living a solitary life with her children.  She was very strict indeed with them, telling them exactly what to do all the time.  She did not like the idea of marriage, but realized her children would need to marry.  She tried to get them to marry quickly, probably for financial reasons.

Support for arts and music
Nadezhda von Meck was very rich and loved music, so she became an important person in Russian performing arts.  Several musicians were employed by her in her house.  Claude Debussy lived with the family for a time as a music teacher to her daughters.  Debussy was a young man at the time, and not yet famous.

The only concerts she went to were those given by the Russian Musical Society in Moscow. She sat alone where nobody would notice her.  She met Nikolai Rubinstein.  She thought he had great talent, but she disagreed with him a lot of the time.

Relationship with Tchaikovsky

In 1877 she came into contact with Tchaikovsky, although she never met him.  She asked him to compose some pieces for violin and piano to play at her home. Tchaikovsky knew she was a rich lady who paid well, so he quickly composed some music.  They wrote letters to one another, exchanged photographs of one another, but they came to an agreement that they would never meet.  She paid him 6,000 rubles a year.  This was a lot of money: about twenty times the salary of an ordinary government worker.  He was able to stop teaching at the Moscow Conservatory and spend his time composing.  Between 1877 and 1890 they wrote about 1,200 letters to one another.  Her encouragement was very important to him, and helped him to keep happy when he felt depressed.

In 1876 Tchaikovsky had decided to marry.  He was then a composer aged 36.  He was gay, and this was something terrible in Russia at that time.  He was very frightened that people would find out and that he would be bullied.  So he decided to marry.  He did not care who it was he married, so long as it would make him look respectable.   The next year he found a young girl called Antonina to marry.  He told Nadezhda.  She wrote to congratulate him and told him she hoped he would be happy.  A week later, Tchaikovsky wrote to Nadezhda to ask for more money because the marriage had put him into debt.  A few weeks later he was writing again to her saying that he hated his wife.  He soon separated from her.  Writing to Nadezhda was a great support to him at this time.  It is impossible to know whether Nadezhda knew he was gay or whether that would have made a difference to her feelings.  At any rate, she continued to write that she loved him.

Her relationship with Tchaikovsky was also a good thing for her.  She hated anything to do with sex, so it was good that she could express her emotions to someone whom she did not have to face in person.  Tchaikovsky dedicated his Fourth Symphony to her.

On one occasion they met one another by accident.  Nadezhda had invited Tchaikovsky to stay at her home.  This was a huge house in enormous grounds, so it was easy to arrange that they should not meet.  They agreed that they would not go out at the same time.  However, one day he came home late and she went out early.  She was in a horse carriage and he was walking.  When they saw one another they looked away quickly.

In October 1890, von Meck sent Tchaikovsky  a year's money in advance, saying that it was the last time she would be able to send him money.  She said she was bankrupt.  She may have worried that she probably would be bankrupt in a year's time.

Some people think that she did this because she found out about Tchaikovsky's homosexuality.  Others disagree with this.  After all, in her last letter to him she asked him never to forget her.

Death
Nadezhda von Meck died from tuberculosis on 13 January 1894 in Nice, France, two months after Tchaikovsky had died.

Russian businesspeople
1831 births
1894 deaths

Nadezhda von Meck


Queen Anne's War (1702–1713) was the second in a series of French and Indian Wars fought in North America involving the colonial empires of Great Britain, France, and Spain; it took place during the reign of Anne, Queen of Great Britain. In the United States, it is regarded as a standalone conflict under this name. Elsewhere it is usually viewed as the American theater of the War of the Spanish Succession. It is also known as the Third Indian War. In France it was known as the Second Intercolonial War.

Summary of the war
The war broke out in 1701 and was primarily a conflict between French, Spanish and English colonists for control of the North American continent while the War of the Spanish Succession was being fought in Europe. Each side was allied with various Indigenous communities. It was fought on four fronts:

 In the south, Spanish Florida and the English Province of Carolina attacked one another, and English colonists engaged French colonists based at Fort Louis de la Louisiane (near present-day Mobile, Alabama), with Indigenous bands allied on each side. The southern war did not result in significant territorial changes, but it resulted in seriously decimating the Indigenous population of Spanish Florida and parts of southern Georgia, with destruction of the network of Spanish missions in Florida.
 In New England, English colonists and Indigenous allies fought against French colonists and their Indigenous forces, especially in Acadia and unsettled border frontier with Canada. Quebec City was repeatedly targeted by British colonial expeditions, and the British captured in 1710 the Acadian capital Port Royal. French colonists and the Wabanaki Confederacy sought to thwart British expansion into Acadia, whose border New France defined as the Kennebec River in what is now southern Maine. They executed raids in the Province of Massachusetts Bay (including Maine), most famously the Raid on Deerfield in 1704 and one on Groton in 1707, in both cases taking numerous captives to Montreal and Kahnawake (a Mohawk mission village) for ransom or adoption by Mohawk families.
 In Newfoundland, English colonists based at St. John's disputed control of the island with the French colonists of Plaisance. Most of the conflict consisted of economically destructive raids on settlements. The French colonists successfully captured St. John's in 1709, but the British colonists quickly reoccupied it after the French abandoned it.
 French privateers based in Acadia and Placentia captured many ships from New England's fishing and shipping industries. Privateers took 102 prizes into Placentia, second only to Martinique in France's American colonies. The naval conflict ended with the British  capture of Acadia (Nova Scotia).

The Treaty of Utrecht ended the war in 1713, following a preliminary peace in 1712. France ceded the territories of Hudson Bay, Acadia, and Newfoundland to Britain while retaining Cape Breton Island and other islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Some terms were ambiguous in the treaty, and the concerns of various Indigenous communities were not included, thereby setting the stage for future conflicts.

Background

When war broke out in Europe in 1701 following the death of King Charles II concerning who should succeed him to the Spanish throne, it was initially restricted to a few powers in Europe, but it widened in May 1702 when England declared war on Spain and France. Both the British and French wanted to keep their American colonies neutral, but they did not reach an agreement. The American colonists had their own tensions which had been growing along the borders separating the French and English colonies. They were concerned about boundaries and governing authority in the northern and southwestern frontiers of the English colonies, which stretched from the Province of Carolina in the south to the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the north, with additional colonial settlements or trading outposts on Newfoundland and at Hudson Bay.

The total population of the English colonies was about 250,000, with Virginia and New England dominating. The colonists were concentrated along the coast, with small settlements inland, sometimes reaching as far as the Appalachian Mountains. Colonists knew little of the interior of the continent to the west of the Appalachians and south of the Great Lakes. This area was dominated by numerous historic Indigenous communities, although French and English traders had penetrated it. Spanish missionaries in La Florida had established a network of missions in an effort to convert the Indigenous to Roman Catholicism and focus their labor. The Spanish population was relatively small (about 1,500), and the Indigenous population to whom they ministered has been estimated at 20,000.

French explorers had located the mouth of the Mississippi River, and they established a small colonial presence at Fort Maurepas near Biloxi, Mississippi, in 1699. From there, they began to build trade routes into the interior, establishing friendly relations with the Choctaw, a large community whose enemies included the British-allied Chickasaw. All of these populations had suffered to some degree from the introduction of infectious diseases such as smallpox, endemic among early explorers and traders. The Native Americans had no immunity and suffered high mortality.

The arrival of French colonists in the south threatened existing trade links that Carolina colonists had established into the interior, creating tension among all three powers. France and Spain, allies in this conflict, had been on opposite sides of the recently ended Nine Years' War. Conflicting territorial claims between Carolina and Florida south of the Savannah River were overlaid by animosity over religious divisions between the Roman Catholic colonists of New Spain and the Protestant English colonists along the coast.

To the north, the conflict held a strong economic component in addition to territorial disputes. Newfoundland was the site of a British colony at St. John's and a French colony at Plaisance, with both sides also holding a number of smaller permanent settlements. The island also had many seasonal settlements used by fishermen from Europe. These colonists numbered fewer than 2,000 English and 1,000 French permanent settlers (and many more seasonal visitors), who competed with one another for the fisheries of the Grand Banks, which were also harvested by fishermen from Acadia (then encompassing all of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) and Massachusetts.

The borders and boundaries remained uncertain between Acadia and New England despite battles along the border throughout King William's War. New France defined the border of Acadia as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. There were Catholic missions at Norridgewock and Penobscot and a French settlement in Penobscot Bay near Castine, Maine, which had all been bases for attacks on New England settlers migrating toward Acadia during King William's War. The frontier areas between the Saint Lawrence River and the primarily coastal settlements of Massachusetts and New York were still dominated by Indigenous peoples, primarily Abenaki in the east and Iroquois west of the Hudson River. The Hudson River–Lake Champlain corridor had also been used for raiding expeditions in both directions in earlier conflicts. The threat of Indigenous peoples had receded somewhat because of reductions in the population as a result of disease and the last war, but they still posed a potent threat to outlying settlements.

The Hudson Bay territories (also known as Prince Rupert's Land) were not significantly fought over in this war. They had been a scene of much dispute by competing French and English companies starting in the 1680s, but the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick left France in control of all but one outpost on the bay. The only incident of note was a French attack on the outpost of Fort Albany in 1709. The Hudson's Bay Company was unhappy that Ryswick had not returned its territories, and it successfully lobbied for their return in the negotiations that ended this war.

Technology and organization
The colonial military technology used in North America was not as developed as in Europe. Only a few colonial settlements had stone fortifications at the start of the war, such as St. Augustine, Florida, Boston, Quebec City, and St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, although Port Royal's fortifications were completed early in the war. Some villages and settlements were protected by wooden palisades, but many had little more than fortified wooden houses with gun ports through which defenders could fire, and overhanging second floors from which they might fire down on attackers trying to break in below.

Europeans and colonists were typically armed with smooth-bore muskets that had a maximum range of about  but were inaccurate at ranges beyond half that distance. Some colonists also carried pikes, while Indigenous warriors either carried arms supplied by the colonists or were armed with weapons such as primitive tomahawks and bows. A small number of colonists had training in the operation of cannon and other types of artillery, which were the only effective weapons for attacking significant stone or wooden defenses.

English colonists were generally organized into militia companies, and their colonies had no regular military presence beyond a small number in some of the communities of Newfoundland. The French colonists were also organized into militias, but they also had a standing defense force called the troupes de la marine. This force consisted of some experienced officers and was manned by recruits sent over from France, numbering between 500 and 1,200. They were spread throughout the territories of New France, with concentrations in the major population centers. Spanish Florida was defended by a few hundred regular troops; Spanish policy was to pacify the Indigenous peoples in their territory and not to provide them with weapons. Florida held an estimated 8,000 Indigenous peoples before the war, but this was reduced to 200 after English colonist raids made early in the war.

Course of the war

Carolina and Florida

Prominent French and English colonists understood at the turn of the 18th century that control of the Mississippi River would have a significant role in future development and trade, and each developed visionary plans to thwart the other's activities. French Canadian explorer Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville had developed a "Project sur la Caroline" in the aftermath of the previous war which called for establishing relationships with Indigenous peoples in the Mississippi watershed and then leveraging those relationships to push the English colonists off the continent, or at least limit them to coastal areas. In pursuit of this grand strategy, he rediscovered the mouth of the Mississippi (which had first been found by La Salle in 1670) and established Fort Maurepas in 1699. From this base and Fort Louis de la Mobile (founded in 1702), he began to establish relationships with the local Choctaw, Chickasaw, Natchez people, and other communities.

English colonial traders and explorers from Carolina had established a substantial trading network across the southeastern part of the continent that extended all the way to the Mississippi. Its leaders had little respect for the Spanish in Florida, but they understood the threat posed by the French arrival on the coast. Both Carolina governor Joseph Blake and his successor James Moore articulated visions of expansion to the south and west at the expense of French and Spanish interests.

Iberville had approached the Spanish in January 1702 before the war broke out in Europe, recommending that the Apalachee warriors be armed and sent against the English colonists and their allies. The Spanish organized an expedition under Francisco Romo de Uriza; it left Pensacola, Florida in August for the trading centers of the Carolina back country. The English colonists had advance warning of the expedition and organized a defense at the head of the Flint River, where they routed the Spanish-led force, and captured or killed some 500 Spanish-led Indigenous peoples.

Carolina's Governor Moore received notification concerning the hostilities, and he organized and led a force against Spanish Florida. 500 English colonial soldiers and militia and 300 Indigenous peoples captured and burned the town of St. Augustine, Florida in the Siege of St. Augustine (1702). The English were unable to take the main fortress and withdrew when a Spanish fleet arrived from Havana. In 1706, Carolina successfully repulsed an attack on Charles Town by a combined Spanish and French amphibious force sent from Havana.

The Apalachee and Timucua of Spanish Florida were virtually wiped out in a raiding expedition by Moore that became known as the Apalachee massacre of 1704. Many of the survivors of these raids were relocated to the Savannah River where they were confined to reservations. Raids continued in the following years consisting of large Indigenous forces, sometimes including a small number of white men; this included major expeditions directed at Pensacola in 1707 and Mobile in 1709. The Muscogee (Creek), Yamasee, and Chickasaw were armed and led by English colonists, and they dominated these conflicts at the expense of the Choctaw, Timucua, and Apalachee.

Acadia and New England

Throughout the war, New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy thwarted New England expansion into Acadia, whose border New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. In 1703, Michel Leneuf de la Vallière de Beaubassin commanded a few French Canadians and 500 Indigenous peoples of the Wabanaki Confederacy, and they led attacks against New England settlements from Wells to Falmouth (Portland, Maine) in the Northeast Coast Campaign. They killed or captured more than 300 settlers.

There were also a series of raids deep into New England by French and Indigenous forces aimed at securing captives. There was an active trade in captives, as families and communities struggled to raise ransoms to reclaim them. In February 1704, Jean-Baptiste Hertel de Rouville led 250 Abenaki and Caughnawaga Indians (mostly Mohawk) and 50 French Canadians in a raid on Deerfield in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. They destroyed the settlement, killing many and capturing more than 100 captives. These were taken on an overland journey hundreds of miles north to the Caughnawaga mission village south of Montreal. Most of the children who survived the journey were adopted by Mohawk families. Several adults were later redeemed (ransomed) or released in negotiated prisoner exchanges, including the minister, John Williams, who tried for years without success to ransom his daughter Eunice. She became fully assimilated, marrying a Mohawk man. Likewise in August 1704, there was a raid in  Marlborough (in the part of town to later become Westborough), from which captives were also taken to Caughnawaga.  There was an active slave trade of the captive colonists during these years, and communities raised funds to ransom their citizens from Indigenous captivity. For instance a captured boy, Ashur Rice, was returned to Marlborough after he was ransomed in 1708 by his father Thomas Rice.

New England colonists were unable to effectively combat these raids, so they retaliated by launching an expedition against Acadia led by the famous Indigenous fighter Benjamin Church. The expedition raided Grand Pré, Chignecto, and other settlements. French accounts claim that Church attempted an attack on Acadia's capital of Port Royal, but Church's account of the expedition describes a war council in which the expedition decided against making an attack.

Father Sébastien Rale was widely suspected of inciting the Norridgewock community against the New Englanders, and Massachusetts Governor Joseph Dudley put a price on his head. In the winter of 1705, Massachusetts dispatched 275 militiamen under the command of Colonel Winthrop Hilton to seize Rale and sack the village. The priest was warned in time, however, and escaped into the woods with his papers, but the militia burned the village and church.

French and Wabanaki Confederacy continued making raids in northern Massachusetts in 1705, against which the New England colonists were unable to mount an effective defense. The raids happened too quickly for defensive forces to organize, and reprisal raids usually found tribal camps and settlements empty. There was a lull in the raiding while leaders from New France and New England negotiated the exchange of prisoners, with only limited success. Raids by Indigenous peoples persisted until the end of the war, sometimes with French participation.

In May 1707, Governor Dudley organized an expedition to take Port Royal led by John March. However, 1,600 men failed to take the fort by siege, and a follow-up expedition in August was also repulsed. In response, the French developed an ambitious plan to raid most of the New Hampshire settlements on the Piscataqua River. However, much of the Indigenous support needed never materialized, and the Massachusetts town of Haverhill was raided instead. In 1709, New France governor Philippe de Rigaud Vaudreuil reported that two-thirds of the fields north of Boston were untended because of French and Indigenous raids. French–Indigenous war parties were returning without prisoners because the New England colonists stayed in their forts and would not come out.

In October 1710, 3,600 British and colonial forces led by Francis Nicholson finally captured Port Royal after a siege of one week. This ended official French control of the peninsular portion of Acadia (present-day mainland Nova Scotia), although resistance continued until the end of the war.  Resistance by the Wabanaki Confederation continued in the 1711 Battle of Bloody Creek and raids along the Maine frontier.  The remainder of Acadia (present-day eastern Maine and New Brunswick) remained disputed territory between New England and New France.

New France
The French in New France's heartland of Canada opposed attacking the Province of New York. They were reluctant to arouse the Iroquois, whom they feared more than they did the British colonists and with whom they had made the Great Peace of Montreal in 1701. New York merchants were opposed to attacking New France because it would interrupt the lucrative Indigenous fur trade, much of which came through New France.  The Iroquois maintained their neutrality throughout the conflict, despite Peter Schuyler's efforts to interest them in the war. (Schuyler was Albany's commissioner of Indians.)

Francis Nicholson and Samuel Vetch organized an ambitious assault against New France in 1709, with some financial and logistical support from the queen. The plan involved an overland assault on Montreal via Lake Champlain and a sea-based assault by naval forces against Quebec. The land expedition reached the southern end of Lake Champlain, but it was called off when the promised naval support never materialized for the attack on Quebec. (Those forces were diverted to support Portugal.) The Iroquois had made vague promises of support for this effort, but successfully delayed sending support until it seemed clear that the expedition was going to fail. After this failure, Nicholson and Schuyler traveled to London accompanied by King Hendrick and other sachems to arouse interest in the North American frontier war. The Indigenous delegation caused a sensation in London, and Queen Anne granted them an audience. Nicholson and Schuyler were successful in their endeavor: the queen gave support for Nicholson's successful capture of Port Royal in 1710. With that success under his belt, Nicholson again returned to England and gained support for a renewed attempt on Quebec in 1711.

The plan for 1711 again called for land and sea-based attacks, but its execution was a disaster. A fleet of 15 ships of the line and transports carrying 5,000 troops led by Admiral Hovenden Walker arrived at Boston in June, doubling the town's population and greatly straining the colony's ability to provide necessary provisions. The expedition sailed for Quebec at the end of July, but a number of its ships foundered on the rocky shores near the mouth of the Saint Lawrence in the fog. More than 700 troops were lost, and Walker called off the expedition. In the meantime, Nicholson had departed for Montreal overland but had only reached Lake George when word reached him of Walker's disaster, and he also turned back. In this expedition, the Iroquois provided several hundred warriors to fight with the English colonists, but they simultaneously sent warnings to the French about the expedition, effectively playing both sides of the conflict.

Newfoundland

Newfoundland's coast was dotted with small French and English communities, with some fishing stations occupied seasonally by fishermen from Europe. Both sides had fortified their principal towns, the French at Plaisance on the western side of the Avalon Peninsula, the English at St. John's and in Conception Bay (see Carbonear Island). During King William's War, d'Iberville had destroyed most of the English communities in 1696–97, and the island again became a battleground in 1702. In August of that year, an English fleet under the command of Commodore John Leake descended on the outlying French communities but made no attempts on Plaisance. During the winter of 1705, Plaisance's French governor Daniel d'Auger de Subercase retaliated, leading a combined French and Mi'kmaq expedition that destroyed several English settlements and unsuccessfully besieged Fort William at St. John's. The French and their Indigenous allies continued to harass the English throughout the summer and did damages to the English establishments claimed at £188,000. The English sent a fleet in 1706 that destroyed French fishing outposts on the island's northern coasts. In December 1708, a combined force of French, Canadian, and Mi'kmaq volunteers captured St. John's and destroyed the fortifications. They lacked the resources to hold the prize, however, so they abandoned it, and St. John's was reoccupied and refortified by the English in 1709. (The same French expedition also tried to take Ferryland, but it successfully resisted.)

English fleet commanders contemplated attacks on Plaisance in 1703 and 1711 but did not make them, the latter by Admiral Walker in the aftermath of the disaster at the mouth of the St. Lawrence.

Peace

In 1712, Britain and France declared an armistice, and a final peace agreement was signed the following year. Under terms of the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, Britain gained Acadia (which they renamed Nova Scotia), sovereignty over Newfoundland, the Hudson Bay region, and the Caribbean island of St. Kitts. France recognized British suzerainty over the Iroquois and agreed that commerce with Indigenous peoples farther inland would be open to all nations. It retained all of the islands in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, including Cape Breton Island, and retained fishing rights in the area, including rights to dry fish on the northern shore of Newfoundland.

By the later years of the war, many Abenakis had tired of the conflict despite French pressures to continue raids against New England targets. The peace of Utrecht, however, had ignored Indigenous interests, and some Abenaki expressed willingness to negotiate a peace with the New Englanders. Governor Dudley organized a major peace conference at Portsmouth, New Hampshire (of which he was also governor). In negotiations there and at Casco Bay, the Abenakis objected to British assertions that the French had ceded to Britain the territory of eastern Maine and New Brunswick, but they agreed to a confirmation of boundaries at the Kennebec River and the establishment of government-run trading posts in their territory. The Treaty of Portsmouth was ratified on July 13, 1713, by eight representatives of some of the communities of the Wabanaki Confederacy; however, it included language asserting British sovereignty over their territory. Over the next year, other Abenaki tribal leaders also signed the treaty, but no Mi'kmaq ever signed it or any other treaty until 1726.

Consequences

Acadia and Newfoundland

The loss of Newfoundland and Acadia restricted the French presence on the Atlantic to Cape Breton Island. French were resettled there from Newfoundland, creating the colony of Île-Royale, and France constructed the Fortress of Louisbourg in the following years. This presence plus the rights to use the Newfoundland shore resulted in continued friction between French and British fishing interests, which was not fully resolved until late in the 18th century. The economic effects of the war were severe in Newfoundland, with the fishing fleets significantly reduced. The British fishing fleet began to recover immediately after the peace was finalized, and they attempted to prevent Spanish ships from fishing in Newfoundland waters, as they previously had. However, many Spanish ships were simply reflagged with English straw owners to evade British controls.

The British capture of Acadia had long-term consequences for the Acadians and Mi'kmaq living there. Britain's hold on Nova Scotia was initially quite tenuous, a situation on which French and Mi'kmaq resistance leaders capitalized. British relations with the Mi'kmaq after the war developed in the context of British expansion in Nova Scotia and also along the Maine coast, where New Englanders began moving into Abenaki lands, often in violation of previous treaties. Neither the Abenakis nor the Mi'kmaq were recognized in the Treaty of Utrecht, and the 1713 Portsmouth treaty was interpreted differently by them than by the New England signatories, so the Mi'kmaq and Abenakis resisted these incursions into their lands. This conflict was increased by French intriguers such as Sébastien Rale, and eventually they developed into Father Rale's War (1722–1727).

British relations were also difficult with the nominally conquered Acadians. They resisted repeated British demands to swear oaths to the British crown, and eventually this sparked an exodus by the Acadians to Île-Royale and Île-Saint-Jean (present-day Prince Edward Island). By the 1740s, French leaders such as Father Jean-Louis Le Loutre orchestrated a guerrilla war with their Mi'kmaq allies against British attempts to expand Protestant settlements in peninsular Nova Scotia.

Friction also persisted between France and Britain over Acadia's borders. The boundaries were unclear as laid out by the treaty, which even the French had never formally described. France insisted that only the Acadian peninsula was included in the treaty (modern Nova Scotia except Cape Breton Island) and that they retained the rights to modern New Brunswick. The disputes over Acadia flared into open conflict during King George's War in the 1740s and were not resolved until the British conquest of all French North American territories in the Seven Years' War.

New England
Massachusetts and New Hampshire were on the front line of the war, yet the New England colonies suffered less economic damage than other areas. Some of the costs of the war were offset by the importance of Boston as a center of shipbuilding and trade, combined with a financial windfall caused by the crown's military spending on the 1711 Quebec expedition.

Southern colonies
Spanish Florida never really recovered its economy or population from the effects of the war, and it was ceded to Britain in the 1763 Treaty of Paris following the Seven Years' War. Indigenous peoples who had been resettled along the Atlantic coast chafed under British rule, as did those allied to the British in this war. This discontentment flared into the 1715 Yamasee War that posed a major threat to South Carolina's viability. The loss of population in the Spanish territories contributed to the 1732 founding of the Province of Georgia, which was granted on territory that Spain had originally claimed, as was also the case with Carolina. James Moore took military action against the Tuscaroras of North Carolina in the Tuscarora War which began in 1711, and many of them fled north as refugees to join their linguistic cousins the Iroquois.

The economic costs of the war were high in some of the southern English colonies, including those that saw little military activity. Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania to a lesser extent, were hit hard by the cost of shipping their export products (primarily tobacco) to European markets, and they also suffered because of several particularly bad harvests. South Carolina accumulated a significant debt burden to finance military operations.

Trade
The French did not fully comply with the commerce provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht. They attempted to prevent English trade with remote Indigenous communities, and they erected Fort Niagara in Iroquois territory. French settlements continued to grow on the Gulf Coast, with the settlement of New Orleans in 1718 and other (unsuccessful) attempts to expand into Spanish-controlled Texas and Florida. French trading networks penetrated the continent along the waterways feeding the Gulf of Mexico, renewing conflicts with both the British and the Spanish. Trading networks established in the Mississippi River watershed, including the Ohio River valley, also brought the French into more contact with British trading networks and colonial settlements that crossed the Appalachian Mountains. Conflicting claims over that territory eventually led to war in 1754, when the French and Indian War broke out.

Notes

Sources

 Greene, Evarts Boutell. Provincial America, 1690–1740 (1905)  ch 9 online pp. 136–153.

 Owen, John Hely. War at sea under Queen Anne 1702–1708 (Cambridge UP, 2010).

 Scouller, Raibeart E. The Armies of Queen Anne (Clarendon Press, 1966).

 Sylvester, Herbert Milton. Indian Wars of New England: Queen Anne's war. Lovewell's war. Governor Shirley's war. French and Indian war(1910) online.

 Waller, George M. "New York's Role in Queen Anne's War, 1702–1713." New York History 33.1 (1952): 40–53. online

External links

Military history of Acadia
Military history of Nova Scotia
Military history of New England
Military history of Canada
Colonial American and Indian wars
War of the Spanish Succession
18th century in North America
Wars involving Spain
Wars involving France
Wars involving England
Wars involving Great Britain
Wars involving the indigenous peoples of North America
18th century in Canada
18th century in the Thirteen Colonies
18th century in the British Empire
18th-century conflicts
Conflicts in 1702
Conflicts in 1703
Conflicts in 1704
Conflicts in 1705
Conflicts in 1706
Conflicts in 1707
Conflicts in 1708
Conflicts in 1709
Conflicts in 1710
Conflicts in 1711
Conflicts in 1712
Conflicts in 1713
Conflicts in Canada
Conflicts in Nova Scotia
Colonization history of the United States
New France
New Spain
History of the Thirteen Colonies
Spanish Florida
Wabanaki Confederacy
Indigenous conflicts in Canada
1702 in New France
1702 in New Spain
1702 in the Thirteen Colonies
1713 in New France
1713 in New Spain
1713 in the Thirteen Colonies
1702 in the British Empire
1713 in the British Empire
Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Europe
Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of North America

Queen Anne's War


The Addeitional Member Seestem (AMS) is a votin seestem whaur some representatives is waled frae geographic constituencies an ithers is waled bi proportional representation frae pairty leets. The constituency representatives is for normal waled unner the first-past-the-post votin seestem. The pairty leet representatives is waled bi a saicont vote, whaur the electors vote for a political pairty, no directly for onie ae chiel. This pairty vote determines the nummer o representatives that the pairty haes in the assembly. The parteicular individuals waled comes frae leets drawn up bi the political pairties afore the walin, at a naitional or regional level.

Variations o the AMS haes unalike weys o determinin hou monie pairty leet representatives ilka pairty is enteitelt tae. The chief differ atween seestems is whither the constituency representatives is coontit whan leet representatives is allocate tae ilka pairty.
 Unner the Mixt Member Proportional (MMP) or Tap-up seestem, the ettle is for the pairty's tot o representatives, includin constituency representatives, tae be proportional tae its percentage o the pairty vote.
 Unner the parallel votin  or Supplementary Member (SUP) seestem, the pairty leet saets is allocate proportionally, an onie constituency saets the pairty micht hae wan is eikit on.

Parallel votin is the mair common variation amang votin seestems o the warld, but MMP is the seestem descreived here. Smaa pairties will for ordinar wun mair saets unner MMP nor SUP.

Uiss

The AMS is uised tae wale members tae sindry representative bodies aroond the warld.
 Germany
 Bundestag (Federal laicher hoose)
 some state pairlaments
 New Zealand, whaur the seestem is kent as MMP (Mixt Member Proportional) juist, no as AMS
 Hoose o Representatives (ae-chaumer Pairlament)
 Unitit Kinrick
 Lunnon Assembly
 Scots Pairlament
 Welsh Assembly

It wad hae been uised for the proponed Regional Assemblies in England an aa.

AMS is uised forbye in Bolivia, Italy (laicher hoose, syne 1994), Lesotho, Mexico and Venezuela.

Hungary haes a complicate votin seestem that ends up wi a less proportional representation nor AMS but mair proportional nor parallel votin.

Recommends for Breitish walins

In 1976, the Hansard Society recommendit that the Addeitional Member Seestem shuid be uised for UK pairlamentary walins, but insteid o uisin closed pairty leets, it propones that saets shuid be filled bi defeatit candidates, on a 'best losser' basis.
A seimilar seestem wis proponed bi the Unthirlt Commission in 1999, kent as Alternative Vote Plus (AV+). This wad involve the uise o the Alternative Vote for walin members frae ae-member constituencies, an regional pairty leets. Houaniver, contrair tae the Labour Pairty's aerlier manifesto promises, the wisna a referendum afore the 2001 walin and the statement wisna repeatit.

Procedures

The voter casts twa votes: ane for a constituency representative an ane for a pairty. In a lesser-uised variant, uised bi some of the sindry Länder in Germany, baith votes is combined intae wan, sae that votin for a representative autaematically means votin for thair pairty an aa.

In ilka constituency, the representative is chuist uisin first-past-the-post (that is, the candidate wi the maist votes, bi plurality, wuns).

On the district or naitional level (i.e. abuin the constituency level),  the hail nummer o saets in the assembly is allocate tae pairties proportional tae the nummer o votes the pairty got in the pairty portion o the ballot.  The nummer of constituency saets a pairty wan is subtractit frae its allocation.  The nummer o saets bydin allocate tae that pairty is filled uisin the pairty's leet.  If a candidate is on the pairty leet, but wuns a constituency saet, thay dinna get twa saets; insteid, thay are delete frae the pairty leet an replaced wi the neist candidate doun.

Owerhang saets

Acause a pairty can gain less saets bi the pairty vote nor thay need tae justifee the constituency saets thay wan, owerhang saets can come aboot. The'r different wey o dealin wi owerhang saets. In the Scots Pairlament the nummer o owerhang saets is taen frae the nummer o proportional saets o the ither pairties, in Germany's Bundestag an the New Zealand Hoose o Representatives the owerhang saets bydes. In some seestems the ither pairties receive mair saets tae restore proportionality.

Thrashel

For tae be eligible for leet saets in the New Zealand an German, a pairty maun either earn at laest 5% o the hail pairty vote or wun at laest ane constituency saet (three constituency saets in Germany). If nane o the twa condeitions is met, the pairty isna representit. Haein a member wi a 'sauf' constituency saet is syne a grand asset tae a minor pairty in sic a seestem.

Potential for tactical votin

In terms o tactical votin, the first vote for the district representative is aften muckle less important (nor the saicont pairty leet vote) in determinin the oweraa ootcome o a walin; in ither cases a pairty micht be sae siccar that it'll wun saets in the district walin that it expects nae mair saets in the proportional tap-up.  Some voters micht syne ettle tae get dooble representation bi votin tactically an splittin thair votes, tho this rins the risk o unintendit eftercomes.

In seestems wi a thrashel, tactical votin for a minor pairty that's predictit tae be juist ablo the thrashel is relatively common, specially bi voters that's feart that the minor pairty missin the thrashel wad weaken the lairger political camp that the minor party belangs. For exemplar, the German moderate-richt Free Democratic Pairty (FDP) haes aften received votes frae voters that wad liefer the lairger Christian Democratic Union (CDU) pairty, acause thay fear that gin the FDP received less nor five percent o the votes, the conservative camp wad be sic weakened that the CDU cuidna form a guvrenment.

Wyle-leets
Political pairties can abuise the seestem: in the 2001 Italian walins, the twa chief coalitions (the Hoose o Freedoms an the Olive Tree) linkit monie o thair constituency candidates tae wyle-leets (liste civetta) in the proportional pairts, uner the names Abolizione Scorporo an Paese Nuovo respectively, sae that gin thay wun constituencies than thay wadna reduce the nummer o proportional saets received bi the coalitions. Atween thaim, the twa wyle-leets wan 360 o the 475 constituency saets, mair nor hauf o the 630 tot o saets, mauger wunnin a tot aathegither o less nor 0.2% o the naitional proportional pairt o the vote.  In the case o Forza Italia (pairt o the Hoose o Freedoms), the tactic wis that successfu that it didna hae eneuch candidates in the proportional pairt tae receive as monie saets as it in fact wan, missin oot on 12 saets.

Wyle-leets isna uised in maist kintras uisin AMS, whaur maist voters vote for candidates frae pairties wi lang-staundin names.

Semi-proportional electoral seestems

Addeetional Member Seestem


For the first beuk in the series see: The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency (novelle) For the televeesion series see: The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency (TV series)

The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency is a series o ten novelles by British author Alexander McCall Smith. The agency is locatit in Gaborone, the caipital o Botswana. Its foonder is a Motswana wumman, Mma Precious Ramotswe, wha featurs as the stories' protagonist an main detective. The episodic novelles are as muckle aboot the adventurs an foibles o different chairacters as thay are aboot reddin up meesteries. Ilka beuk in the series follaes on frae the foregane. Thay hae been adaptit for radio an telly.

The

Bibliography
 The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency (1998)
 Tears Of The Giraffe (2000)
 Morality for Beautiful Girls (2001)
 The Kalahari Typing School for Men (2002)
 The Full Cupboard of Life (2004)
 In The Company of Cheerful Ladies (2004 - also known as The Night-Time Dancer)
 Blue Shoes and Happiness (2006)
 The Good Husband of Zebra Drive (2007)
 The Miracle at Speedy Motors (2008)
 Tea Time for the Traditionally Built (2009)
 The Double Comfort Safari Club (2010)
 Precious and the Puggies (2010 - novella for younger readers, first published in a Scots owerset by James Robertson.)

Novelles
Meestery beuks

The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency


Anime (アニメ) is Japanese for 'animation'. In Japan, anime is the word used for all animation. Outside of Japan, the term anime refers to Japanese animation, which this article is about.

Some anime is drawn by hand, but anime can also be made with CGI computer animation. There are many types of anime; you can find anime about sports, magic, or romance. These are just some examples. Anime are shown on television, on DVD, VHS, and the Internet, and are used in video games. Also, some anime cartoons are just movies, but they have cartoon characters and animation instead of real people and places. Anime is often based on Japanese comics that are called manga and graphic novels. Sometimes live action (not animation) movies and television series are based on anime.

Over the years, anime has evolved both in terms of artistic techniques and storytelling. From traditional hand-drawn animation to the advent of computer-generated imagery (CGI), anime has embraced technological advancements to enhance its visual appeal. This evolution has broadened the scope of storytelling and allowed for more immersive and visually stunning experiences.

The history of anime begins around 1900, when Japanese filmmakers tried out ways of animation at the same time as the United States, Russia, Germany and France.

The filmmakers in Japan did not have a lot of money to make their movies and not a lot of places where they could film their movies. The people that the filmmakers could use as actors in their movies was also a problem for making Japanese movies. Japanese people look different from people in other places in the world (e.g. If the movie's theme were about Vikings, Ancient Rome or the Black Death pandemic in Medieval Europe, for example), and it was hard for filmmakers to make a movie about places other than Japan with Japanese actors. Movie makers liked animation because then they could have animator draw other places and people that could not be filmed in a normal movie, and the animators could be very creative with the cartoons they made.

During the 1970s, more and more people started to like manga. At the same time, manga were used as the starting point to make anime with the same characters and stories. Animators would take the drawings done by a manga artist and the stories the manga artist wrote, and turn them into the stories and characters of a similar anime. At that time Osamu Tezuka became very popular. Now he is called a "legend" and the "god of manga". Tezuka and other pioneers of anime made a lot of types of stories and styles that are common to anime today. The giant robot genre (known as "mecha" outside Japan) began with manga and anime from Tezuka's ideas. Robot anime like Gundam and Macross became classics in the 1980s. Today, the robot genre is still very popular in Japan and worldwide. In the 1980s, anime became very popular in Japan, and saw an increase in production. (Manga is much more popular than anime in Japan.) There are a lot of different kinds of anime that many different kinds of people like besides Mecha, and there are types of anime based on the age of the people (e.g. seinen or shōnen) who might like it or the subject of the anime.

Very popular stories in anime and manga are often translated into other languages, and the words used in the anime or manga will be put into another language where they mean the same thing. That way, people who live outside of Japan and who do not understand Japanese (the language used for dialogue in anime and manga in Japan) can also understand the stories. If a manga or anime is not translated by a company in another country, sometimes people in that country will translate the story to share with other people for free before a company translates it for the general public. This is good because it allows more people to watch anime, but some companies think it is stealing.

Forms
 Kodomo (aimed at children)
 Shōnen (young teen boys)
Pyua (aimed at Christians and other religious groups)
 Shōjo (young teen girls)
 Seinen (young adult men)
 Josei (young adult women)
 Harem (boy surrounded by girls)
 Reverse Harem (girl surrounded by boys)
 Hentai (Anime with erotic and pornographic themes. This type of anime is generally about sex and sexual arousal, and depicts scenes of explicit sexual intercourse and nudity.)
 Romance (anime about people falling in love)
 Horror (Anime intended to invoke fear, anxiety or dread in its viewers. The most common elements in horror-themed animes are ghosts (yūrei), yōkai, demons, demonic possession, graphic violence, monsters, curses, etc.)
 Comedy
 Fantasy
 Ecchi (Sexual content, but not as much as hentai. Things that either look sexual like girls in bikinis, girls winking, boys with no shirt on who have six packs, or things that can feel awkwardly sexual like tickling.)
 Mecha (Anime about robots, usually ones big enough for people to sit inside them and control them like people drive cars. Mecha anime often have wars where the robots are used to fight between countries like tanks and planes are used today.)
 Isekai (protagonist transported to a different world)
 Yaoi or shounen-ai (anime about boys who are in love with other boys)
 Yuri or shojo-ai (anime about girls who are in love with other girls)
 Drama
 Supernatural (anime about witches, magic, ghosts, deities, or other things that we do not normally see in everyday life)
 Thriller
 Slice of life (anime that contains moe, but usually about things people do every day, like going to school, or playing sports, or going to cultural festivals, generic life)
 Adventure (anime that explores a person going different places)
 OVA, also known as Original Video Anime (Anime is about talks to 1993-2005 VHS tapes and the 1998-2021 DVDs of VeggieTales from Big Idea Studios from 20th Century Fox owned by Paramount.)

In the late 1980s, lots of people in countries other than Japan started to like anime too. In the United States, giant robot anime became popular. In Europe, anime for children became popular. Today, many different kinds of anime are popular all around the world. Anime helped spread in popularity thanks to the internet.

Anime Expo
Anime Expo is a convention all about anime. It has mostly cosplay but attendees can also meet anime creators and voice actors.

Related pages
 Manga
 Otaku
 Cosplay
 Hentai
 Anime convention

Sources

Other websites
Anime News Network
 Funimation
 Animenonton
Kyotoanimation

Entertainment in Japan

Anime


Electrolysis is a scientific way of 'splitting'  substances. Electrolysis means 'electric-splitting'  and involves the separation of substances through an electric current.

Metals above carbon in the reactivity series (potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium and aluminium) are extracted by electrolysis.

Uses
Electrolysis is used in the mining industry to split reactive metals from their ores after they are taken from the ground. Electroplating is also used to plate (cover) things with metal because it costs less than using, for example, solid gold to make jewellery.

Many beauty shops use electrolysis or electrology to remove hair. This is done by "electrocuting" the hair so it splits along its root.

Electrolysis makes the anions (negative ions) go to the anode (positive electrode) and the cations (positive ions) go to the cathode (negative electrode). So, for example, oxygen would go to the anode and iron would go to the cathode.

Chemistry
Electricity

Electrolysis


Prince Ernst Heinrich of Saxony, Duke of Saxony (Ernst Heinrich Ferdinand Franz Joseph Otto Maria Melchiades; 9 December 1896 – 14 June 1971) was a member of the Saxon Royal Family. Ernst Heinrich was the youngest son of the last King of Saxony, Frederick Augustus III, and his wife Archduchess Luise of Austria, Princess of Tuscany. From 1923 through 1945, Ernst Heinrich was Administrative Chief of the association "Haus Wettin – Albertinische Linie e.V.".

Life

Prince Ernst Heinrich of Saxony spent his childhood in Dresden, Pillnitz, and Moritzburg under the parenting of his father. The loss of his mother, who left the family permanently in 1902, affected his father and siblings very deeply, according to their own statements. Ernst Heinrich, who was only six at the time, was possibly the child who felt this loss most.

World War I

When World War I broke out, Ernest Heinrich was first lieutenant in the 1st Royal Saxon Leib-Grenadier-Regiment Nr. 100.  In September 1914, he became batman in the General Kommando of XIX (2nd Royal Saxon) Corps at Reims and Lille. He did his Abitur during a four-month leave in 1916, then took part in the Battle of the Somme as a member of the staff of the 24th Reserve Division. On 30 August 1916, Ernst Heinrich received the Military Order of St. Henry for merit.

In the spring of 1917, he took over the leadership of the 9th Company of Reserve-Infantry Regiment No. 104 in Berezhany (in eastern Galicia). He was in the hospital for two months in 1917, after which he commanded the 9th Battery of Artillery Regiment No. 115 in the area around Ypres.

Beginning in May 1918, he led the 1st Squadron of Mounted Guard Regiments in Stary Bychow at Dnieper in Russia and, in August of the same year, he was in charge of the Saxon troops in Dorpat, Reval and Finland. In November and December 1918, Ernst Heinrich oversaw the return of Saxon troops to Germany.

1920s
In 1919 and 1920, Ernst Heinrich learned to administer a manor in Silesia. During the Kapp Putsch in March 1920, he acted as a liaison between the putschists in Berlin and the Reichswehr in Wrocław. After the failure of the putsch, he moved to Munich, where he joined the circle around the former Crown Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria.  He married on 12 April 1921 in the Nymphenburg Palace to Sophie (14 February 1902 – 24 May 1941), the youngest sister of Charlotte, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg and of Rupprecht's wife Princess Antonia of Luxembourg. This was considered a happy marriage; they had three sons.

Ernst Heinrich did not participate in the Beer Hall Putsch on 8 and 9 November 1923 in Munich.  He rejected the Nazi ideology consistently and distanced himself from Hitler and Ludendorff. At his father's request, he took over the function of head of the administration of the association House of Wettin — Albertinische Linie e.V. His father also gave him power of attorney to negotiate with the Free State of Saxony about the future use of the manors owned by the Wettin family and their art collection. On 25 June 1925, a treaty was signed between the Free State and its former ruling dynasty, regulating the relation between the House of Wettin and the Free State, within the context of the law on the subject of 9 July 1924.

In subsequent years, Ernst Heinrich, who was an avid art lover, made several trips to Egypt with his wife and children. In 1928/29, he was approached by Gustav Stresemann of the DVP (the German People's Party), who wanted Ernst Heinrich to stand as a candidate for the federal presidency. Ernst Heinrich considered this a hopeless undertaking and declined.

Nazi era
Ernst Heinrich opposed the Nazis after they formed a government on 30 January 1933. However, he failed to read the political situation correctly. He believed that Hitler could be stopped by the conservative political opposition and, in the spring of 1933, he joined Der Stahlhelm, hoping he could escape the influence of the Nazis. On 1 July 1934, during the Night of the Long Knives, he was arrested. He was interned in the concentration camp in Hohnstein for five days.

After his release, Ernst Heinrich retired to Moritzburg Castle in Saxony. He was an avid hunter and had to keep in touch with Nazi leaders such as Hermann Göring, who, as Master of the Hunt, was interested in the forests owned by the Wettins, and Martin Mutschmann, the Nazi governor of Saxony.  In 1938, he received King Carol II of Romania in his castle, and in 1939 he had extensive political discussions with Carl Friedrich Goerdeler, who had been mayor of Leipzig and was later active in the German resistance. A few weeks before the outbreak of World War II, Ernst Heinrich was drafted into the Abwehr group IV in Dresden.

In 1943, he openly expressed doubts that the death of his brother Georg, Crown Prince of Saxony had been an accident. The Gestapo then arrested and questioned him. However, there were no further personal consequences, as the Nazis were still reluctant to confront a member of a former royal family.

Ernst Heinrich was an admirer of the art of Käthe Kollwitz. After she lost her home when Berlin was bombed in 1943, he invited her to move to Moritzburg, where she lived and worked at the Rudenhof, a mansion in the immediate vicinity of the castle, until she died in April 1945.

In February 1945, nearby Dresden was bombed. In March 1945, Ernst Heinrich fled to Sigmaringen to escape the advancing Red Army. Before he left, Ernst Heinrich and his sons buried most of their valuables in 40 crates in the Königswald forest. Most of this treasure was found by the Red Army and carried off to the Soviet Union. However, three crates full of treasure were rediscovered in 1995.

After the war
In 1947, Ernst Heinrich married the actress Virginia Dulon (1910–2002), who styled herself Princess Virginia of Saxony after her marriage. Later that year, he purchased the Coolamber estate in Lismacaffrey (County Westmeath) in Ireland and moved there with his second wife and his sons from his first marriage.

He died in Neckarhausen while visiting West Germany in 1971, without ever having returned to his native Saxony after the war.

Marriages and issue
Ernst Heinrich was first married to Princess Sophie of Luxembourg, sixth and youngest daughter of William IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg and his wife Infanta Marie Anne of Portugal, on 12 April 1921 at Schloss Hohenburg. Ernst Heinrich and Sophie had three sons:

Prince Albrecht Friedrich August Johannes Gregor Dedo of Saxony (born 9 May 1922 in Munich; died 6 December 2009 in Radebeul, Germany). He never married nor had issue.
Prince Georg Timo Michael Nikolaus Maria of Saxony (born 22 December 1923 in Munich; died 22 April 1982 in Emden). He married three times:
1st to Margrit Lucas (1923-1957) on 7 August 1952, by whom he had two children, Rüdiger Karl Ernst Timo Aldi (born 23 December 1953, pretender to the headship of the House of Saxony since 2012) and Iris Hildegard Sophie Margit Gisela (born 21 September 1955);
2nd to Charlotte Schwindack (born 1919) in 1966 and divorced in 1973;
3rd to Erina Eilts (1921-2010) in 1974;
Before his marriages, he also had a son by Erika Montanus: Hubertus von Sachsen (born 25 May 1950).
Prince Rupprecht Hubertus Gero Maria of Saxony (born 12 September 1925 in Munich; died 10 April 2003 in Picton, Ontario, Canada). He never married nor had issue.

Sophie died on 24 May 1941 in Munich of pneumonia. Following her death, Ernst Heinrich married morganatically Virginia Dulon (1910-2002) on 28 June 1947 in Paris. This marriage was without issue.

Honours
 : Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle
 : Knight of the Order of the Rue Crown

Ancestry

Publications
 Prinz Ernst Heinrich von Sachsen: Mein Lebensweg vom Königsschloss zum Bauernhof, 4th ed, Verlag der Kunst Dresden, Husum, 2010,

References

External links

1896 births
1971 deaths
House of Wettin
Saxon princes
Nobility from Dresden
German emigrants to Ireland
German Roman Catholics
Albertine branch
German Army personnel of World War I
Sons of kings

Prince Ernst Heinrich of Saxony


Iron-deficiency anemia (or iron-deficiency anaemia) is a common type of anemia. It is caused by not having enough iron in food, not absorbing the iron in food, and/or losing iron because of bleeding.

Iron deficiency causes approximately half of all anemia cases worldwide, and affects women more often than men. This is partly because most women have periods (menstruate). There are probably more than one billion people who have anemia.

Anemia is most common in areas like Brazil or Central Africa. Asia, Central America and Eastern Europe are affected too, with North America least affected.

Symptoms include pale skin, tiredness, and weakness.

Anemia can be diagnosed with a blood test by finding out if there is little enough hemoglobin in the blood.

References

Blood disorders

Iron deficiency anemia


The Cat and the Canary is a 1927 American silent comedy horror film directed by the German Expressionist filmmaker Paul Leni. An adaptation of John Willard's 1922 black-comedy play of the same name, the film stars Laura La Plante as Annabelle West, Forrest Stanley as Charlie Wilder, and Creighton Hale as Paul Jones. The plot revolves around the death of Cyrus West, who is Annabelle, Charlie, and Paul's uncle, and the reading of his will twenty years later. Annabelle inherits her uncle's fortune, but when she and her family spend the night in his haunted mansion, they are stalked by a mysterious figure. Meanwhile, a lunatic mainly known as the Cat escapes from an asylum and hides in the mansion.

The film is part of the genre of comedy horror films inspired by 1920s Broadway stage plays. Leni's adaptation of Willard's play blended expressionism with humor, a style for which Leni was notable and recognized by critics as unique. His directing style made The Cat and the Canary influential in the "old dark house" genre of films popular from the 1930s through the 1950s. The film was one of Universal's early horror productions and is considered "the cornerstone of Universal's school of horror". The play has been filmed five other times, most notably in 1939, starring Bob Hope and Paulette Goddard.

Plot

In a decaying mansion overlooking the Hudson River, millionaire Cyrus West approaches death. His greedy family descends upon him like "cats around a canary", causing him to become insane. West orders that his last will and testament remain locked in a safe and go unread until the 20th anniversary of his death. As the appointed time arrives, West's lawyer, Roger Crosby (Tully Marshall), discovers that a second will mysteriously appeared in the safe. The second will may only be opened if the terms of the first will are not fulfilled. The caretaker of the West mansion, Mammy Pleasant (Martha Mattox), blames the manifestation of the second will on the ghost of Cyrus West, a notion that the astonished Crosby quickly rejects.

As midnight approaches, West's relatives arrive at the mansion: nephews Harry Blythe (Arthur Edmund Carewe), Charles "Charlie" Wilder (Forrest Stanley), Paul Jones (Creighton Hale), his sister Susan Sillsby (Flora Finch) and her niece Cecily Young (Gertrude Astor), and niece Annabelle West (Laura La Plante). Cyrus West's fortune is bequeathed to the most distant relative bearing the name "West": Annabelle. The will, however, stipulates that to inherit the fortune, she must be judged sane by a doctor, Ira Lazar (Lucien Littlefield). If she is deemed insane, the fortune is passed to the person named in the second will. The fortune includes the West diamonds which her uncle hid years ago. Annabelle realizes that she is now like her uncle, "in a cage surrounded by cats."

While the family prepares for dinner, a guard (George Siegmann) barges in and announces that an escaped lunatic called the Cat is either in the house or on the grounds. The guard tells Cecily, "He's a maniac who thinks he's a cat, and tears his victims like they were canaries!" Meanwhile, Crosby suspects someone in the family might try to harm Annabelle and decides to inform her of her successor. Before he speaks the person's name, a hairy hand with long nails emerges from a secret passage in a bookshelf and pulls him in, terrifying Annabelle. When she explains what happened to Crosby, the family immediately concludes that she is insane.

Alone in her assigned room, Annabelle examines a note slipped to her which reveals the location of the family jewels, fashioned into an elaborate necklace. She follows the note's instructions and soon discovers the hiding place, in a secret panel above the fireplace. She retires for the night, wearing the diamond-encrusted necklace.

While Annabelle sleeps, the same mysterious hand emerges from the wall behind her bed and snatches the diamonds from her neck. Once again, her sanity is questioned, but as Harry and Annabelle search the room, they discover a hidden passage in the wall and in it the corpse of Roger Crosby. Mammy Pleasant leaves to call the police, while Harry searches for the guard; Susan runs away in hysterics and hitches a ride with a milkman (Joe Murphy). Paul and Annabelle return to her room to search for the missing envelope, and discover that Crosby's body is missing. Paul vanishes as the secret passage closes behind him. Wandering in the hidden passages, Paul is attacked by the Cat and left for dead. He regains consciousness in time to rescue Annabelle. The police arrive and arrest the Cat, who is actually Charlie Wilder in disguise; the guard is his accomplice. Wilder is the person named in the second will; he had hoped to drive Annabelle insane so that he could receive the inheritance.

Cast

Production
The Cat and the Canary is the product of early 20th-century German Expressionism. According to art historian Joan Weinstein, expressionism includes the art styles of Die Brücke and Der Blaue Reiter, cubism, futurism, and abstraction. The key element that connects these styles is the concern for the expression of inner feelings over verisimilitude to nature. Film historian Richard Peterson notes that "German cinema became famous for stories of psychological horror and for uncanny moods generated through lighting, set design and camera angles." Such filmmaking techniques drew on expressionist themes. Influential examples of German expressionist film include Robert Wiene's The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920) about a deranged doctor and Paul Leni's Waxworks (1925) about a wax figure display at a fair.

Waxworks impressed Carl Laemmle, the German-born president of Universal Pictures. Laemmle was struck by Leni's departure from expressionism by the inclusion of humor and playfulness during grotesque scenes. Meanwhile, in the United States, D. W. Griffith's One Exciting Night (1922) began a Gothic horror film trend that Laemmle wanted to capitalize on; subsequent films in the genre like Alfred E. Green's now lost The Ghost Breaker (1922), Frank Tuttle's Puritan Passions (1923), Roland West's The Monster (1925) and The Bat (1926), and Alfred Santell's The Gorilla (1927)—all comedy horror film adaptations of Broadway stage plays—proved successful.

Laemmle turned to John Willard's popular play The Cat and the Canary, which centered on an heiress whose family tries to drive her insane to steal her inheritance. Willard hesitated in permitting Laemmle to film his play because, as historian Douglas Brode explains, "that would have exposed to virtually everyone the trick ending, ... destroying the play's potential as an ongoing moneymaker." Nevertheless, Willard was convinced and the play was adapted into a screenplay by Alfred A. Cohn and Robert F. Hill.

Casting
The Cat and the Canary features veteran silent film stars Laura La Plante, Creighton Hale, and Forrest Stanley. According to film historian Gary Don Rhodes, La Plante's part in The Cat and the Canary was typical for women in horror and mystery films: "The female in the horror film ... becomes the hunted, the quarry. She has little to do, and so the question becomes 'What will be done with her?'" Rhodes adds, "The heroines are young and beautiful, but represent more a prize to be possessed—whether "stolen" by a villain or "owned" by a young hero at the films' conclusions." Following The Cat and the Canary, La Plante maintained a career with Universal, but she is described as a "victim of talkies." She received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame before her death in 1996 from Alzheimer's disease.

Universal chose Irish actor Creighton Hale to play hero Paul Jones, Annabelle's cousin. Hale had appeared in 64 silent films before The Cat and the Canary, notably the 1914 serial The Exploits of Elaine and D. W. Griffith's Way Down East (1920) and Orphans of the Storm (1921). Hale's role in The Cat and the Canary was to provide comic relief. According to critic John Howard Reid, "He is forever backing into furniture or finding himself in a risqué position under a bed or wrestling with stray objects like falling books or enormous bed-springs." Hale had trouble finding a solid career in sound film. Many of his parts were minor and uncredited.

The villain Charles Wilder was played by Forrest Stanley, an actor who had been cast in films such as When Knighthood Was in Flower (1922), Bavu (1923), Through the Dark (1924) and Shadow of the Law (1926). After his performance in The Cat and the Canary, Stanley played lesser roles in films such as Show Boat (1936) and Curse of the Undead (1959) and the television series Alfred Hitchcock Presents, Studio 57, and Gunsmoke.

The film contained a supporting cast referred to by one film historian as "second-rate" and "excellent" by another. Tully Marshall played the suspicious lawyer Roger Crosby, Martha Mattox was cast as the sinister and superstitious housekeeper Mammy Pleasant, and Gertrude Astor and Flora Finch played greedy relatives Cecily Young and Aunt Susan Sillsby, respectively. Lucien Littlefield was cast as deranged psychiatrist Dr. Ira Lazar who bore an eerie resemblance to Werner Krauss's title character in The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari.

Directing
As Universal anticipated, director Paul Leni turned Willard's play into an expressionist film suited to an American audience. Historian Bernard F. Dick observes that "Leni reduced German expressionism, with its weird chiaroscuro, asymmetric sets, and excessive stylization, to a format compatible with American film practice." Jenn Dlugos argues that "many stage play movie adaptations [of the 1920s] fall into the trap of looking like 'a stage play taped for the big screen' with minimal emphasis on the environment and plenty of stage play overacting." This, however, was not the case for Leni's film. Richard Scheib notes that "Leni's style is something that lifts The Cat and the Canary up and away from being merely a filmed stage play and gives it an amazing visual dynamism."

Leni used similar camera effects found in German expressionist films such as The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari to set the atmosphere of The Cat and the Canary. The film opens with a hand wiping cobwebs away to reveal the title credits. Other effects include "dramatic shadows, portentous superimpositions and moody sequences in which the camera glides through corridors with billowing curtains." Film historian Jan-Christopher Horak explains that a "matched dissolve from an image of the mansion and its oddly shaped towers to the oversized bottles of medicine that the dearly departed has been forced to consume functions as a double image of a prison, dwarfing the old man who sits alive with his will in a corner of the frame." Leni worked with the cast to add to the mood created by lighting and camera angles. Cinematographer Gilbert Warrenton recalled that Leni used a gong to startle the actors. Warrenton mused, "He beat that thing worse than the Salvation Army beat a drum."

While the film contains elements of horror, according to film historian Dennis L. White it "is structured with an end other than horror in mind. Some scenes may achieve horror, and some characters dramatically experience horror, but for these films conventional clues and a logical explanation, at least an explanation plausible in hindsight, are usually crucial, and are of necessity their makers' first concern."

Besides directing, Leni was a painter and set designer. The sets of the film were designed by Leni and fabricated by Charles D. Hall, who later designed the sets of Dracula (1931) and Frankenstein (1931). Leni hoped to eschew realism for visual designs that reflected the emotions of characters. He wrote, "It is not extreme reality that the camera perceives, but the reality of the inner event, which is more profound, effective and moving than what we see through everyday eyes ...." Leni went on to direct the Charlie Chan film The Chinese Parrot (1927), The Man Who Laughs (1928), and The Last Warning (1929) before his death in 1929 from blood poisoning.

Reception and influence

The Cat and the Canary debuted in New York City's Colony Theatre on September 9, 1927, and was a "box office success". Variety opined, "What distinguishes Universal's film version of the ... play is Paul Leni's intelligent handling of a weird theme, introducing some of his novel settings and ideas with which he became identified .... The film runs a bit overlong .... Otherwise it's a more than average satisfying feature ...." A New York Times review expounded, "This is a film which ought to be exhibited before many other directors to show them how a story should be told, for in all that he does Mr. Leni does not seem to strain at a point. He does it as naturally as a man twisting the ends of his mustache in thought." Nonetheless, as film historian Bernard F. Dick points out, "[e]xponents of Caligarisme, expressionism in the extreme ... naturally thought Leni had vulgarized the conventions [of expressionism]". Dick, however, notes that Leni had only "lighten[ed] [expressionist themes] so they could enter American cinema without the baggage of a movement that had spiraled out of control."

Modern critics address the film's impact and influence. Michael Atkinson of The Village Voice remarks, "[Leni's] adroitly atmospheric film is virtually an ideogram of narrative suspension and impact"; Chris Dashiell states that "[e]verything is so exaggerated, so lacking in subtlety, that we soon stop caring what happens, despite a few mildly scary effects", although he admits that the film "had a great effect on the horror genre, and even Hitchcock cited it as an influence." Tony Rayns has called the film "the definitive 'haunted house' movie .... Leni wisely plays it mainly for laughs, but his prowling, Murnau-like camera work generates a frisson or two along the way. It is, in fact, hugely entertaining ...." John Calhoun feels that what makes the film both "important and influential" was "Leni's uncanny ability to bring out the period's slapstick elements in the story's hackneyed conventions: the sliding panels and disappearing acts are so fast paced and expertly timed that the picture looks like a first-rate door-slamming farce .... At the same time, Leni didn't short-circuit the horrific aspects ...."

Although not the first film set in a supposed haunted house, The Cat and the Canary started the pattern for the "old dark house" genre. The term is derived from English director James Whale's The Old Dark House (1932), which was heavily influenced by Leni's film, and refers to "films in which murders are committed by masked killers in old mansions." Supernatural events in the film are all explained at the film's conclusion as the work of a criminal. Other films in this genre influenced by The Cat and the Canary include The Last Warning, House on Haunted Hill (1959), and the monster films of Abbott and Costello and Laurel and Hardy.

In 2001, the American Film Institute nominated this film for AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 93% based on 41 reviews with the consensus: "Bringing its sturdy setup thrillingly to life, The Cat and the Canary proves Paul Leni a director with a deft hand for suspenseful stories and expertly assembled ensembles."

Other film versions
The Cat and the Canary has been filmed five other times. Rupert Julian's The Cat Creeps (1930) and the Spanish language La Voluntad del muerto (The Will of the Dead Man) directed by George Melford and Enrique Tovar Ávalos were the first "talkie" versions of the play; they were produced and distributed by Universal Pictures in 1930. Although the first sound films produced by Universal, neither was as influential on the genre as the first film and The Cat Creeps is lost.

The plot had become too familiar, as film historian Douglas Brode notes, and it "seemed likely the play would be put away in a drawer [indefinitely]." Yet Elliott Nugent's film, The Cat and the Canary (1939), proved successful. Nugent "had the inspired idea to openly play the piece for laughs." The film was produced by Paramount and stars comedic actor Bob Hope. Hope plays Wally Campbell, a character based on Creighton Hale's performance as Paul Jones. One critic suggests that Hope developed the character better than Hale and was funnier and more engaging.

Other film adaptations include Katten och kanariefågeln (The Cat and the Canary), a 1961 Swedish television film directed by Jan Molander and The Cat and the Canary (1978), a British film directed by Radley Metzger. The 1978 version was produced by Richard Gordon, who explained "Well, it hadn't been done since the Bob Hope version, it had never been done in colour, it was a well-known title, had a certain reputation, and it was something that logically could or in fact should be made in England."

References

Further reading

 Bock, Hans-Michael (Ed.) Paul Leni: Grafik, Theater, Film. Frankfurt am Main: Deutsches Filmmuseum, 1986.
 Everson, William K. American Silent Film. New York: Da Capo Press, 1998. .
 Hogan, David. Dark Romance: Sexuality in the Horror Film. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1997. .
 MacCaffrey, Donald W., and Christopher P. Jacobs. Guide to the Silent Years of American Cinema. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999. .
 Prawer, S. S. Caligari's Children: The Film as Tale of Terror. New York: Da Capo Press, 1989. .
 Worland, Rick. The Horror Film: A Brief Introduction. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. .

External links

 Stills at www.silentfilmstillarchive.com

1927 films
1927 horror films
1920s comedy horror films
1920s mystery films
American silent feature films
American black-and-white films
American comedy horror films
American films based on plays
American haunted house films
American mystery films
Comedy mystery films
Films about inheritances
Films directed by Paul Leni
Films set in country houses
Films set in New York (state)
German Expressionist films
Universal Pictures films
Articles containing video clips
1927 comedy films
1920s English-language films
1920s American films
Silent comedy-drama films
Silent mystery films
Silent horror films
Silent American drama films
Silent American comedy films

The Cat and the Canary (1927 film)


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George Grenville (14 October 1712–13 November 1770) was Prime Minister of Great Britain. He was a member of the Whig Party. He was one of the few prime ministers who never was given a title of nobility.

Grenville was the second son of Richard Grenville and Hester Temple. His older brother was Richard Grenville-Temple.  Grenville went to school at Eton College and at Christ Church College, Oxford.  He entered Parliament in 1741 as member for Buckingham, and represented Buckingham until his death.

As Treasurer of the Navy in 1758 he introduced and carried a bill which established a fairer system of paying the wages of sailors. He stayed in office in 1761, when Pitt resigned, and in the administration of Lord Bute acted as Leader of the House of Commons. In May 1762 he became Secretary of State for the Northern Department, and in October First Lord of the Admiralty; and in April 1763 he became First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer.

While Prime Minister, his government oversaw the prosecution of John Wilkes and the passing of the American Stamp Act 1765, which led to the first disagreements between American colonies and Great Britain that led to the American Revolutionary War.

After many years of being Prime Minister, he began to have disagreements with young king George III.  The king started to think that the Prime Minister was using him as a puppet.  The king convinced Rockingham to become the new Prime Minister and Grenville never held an office again.

Grenville was called the "gentile shepherd" because he bored the House by asking over and over again, during the debate on the Cider Bill of 1763, that somebody should tell him "where" to lay the new tax if it was not to be put on cider. Pitt whistled the air of the popular tune Gentle Shepherd, tell me where, and the House laughed. Though few excelled him in a knowledge of the forms of the House or in mastery of administrative details, he lacked tact in dealing with people and with affairs.

In 1749 Grenville married Elizabeth Wyndham (before 1731-5 December 1769), daughter of Sir William Wyndham. They had seven children.

1712 births
1770 deaths
Politicians from London
Whig party (UK) politicians
Prime Ministers of Great Britain

George Grenville


The Amish are a group of people who live according to the Anabaptist tradition. They have a common history with other Baptist movements, such as the Mennonites.

The Amish are known for simple lifestyle, plain dress, and reluctance to adopt many conveniences of modern technology. The history of the Amish church began with a schism in Switzerland within a group of Swiss and Alsatian Anabaptists in 1693 led by Jakob Ammann. Those who followed Ammann became known as Amish. In the second half of the 19th century, the Amish divided into Old Order Amish and Amish Mennonites. During the 20th century, the Amish Mennonites assimilated, and took several of the conveniences modern technology has to offer. The Old Order Amish on the other hand, kept much of their traditional culture. When people speak of Amish today, they usually mean the Old Order Amish. There were other smaller splits as well. At the end of the 20th century, there were  about 18 bigger groups of Amish.

Many of them emigrated to the United States. Today, most of the Amish live in Pennsylvania (Lancaster County), Indiana and Ohio, in the United States.  This can still be seen with family names. In Lancaster County, almost 25 percent of the Amish have the name Stoltzfus (or Stoltzfoos), other common Amish names are  Byler, Fisher, Petersheim, Lapp and King. In LaGrange, Indiana, most are named Borntrager, Miller or Schrock. In Allen County, Adams County, Indiana  the names Graber, Grabill/Kraybill and Schwartz are common.

Many Amish people prefer simple lifestyles. They are usually farmers. Many of the old order Amish saw that between the two world wars, cars became more common. This automatic mobility weakened the sense of belonging together, and owning a car was a means to stand out from the community.  For this reason, many groups forbid car ownership, they are less sceptical about using a car. Amish often live alongside other English settlers. In areas, where there are many Amish, there is also a number of taxi services, who will drive Amish people around.

Many Amish settlements are not connected to the electricity network. When they need electricity, they usually produce it themselves, often with diesel-powered engines. Many Amish do not allow posing for photographs; they say it is against their sense of humility and not standing out from the others. They are usually less strict about appearing on a photograph, where the person is not the subject of the picture).

Generally, they are friendly people in that they will wave to someone passing by. However, they live in rural Amish communities which are separate from mainstream American society. It is against their religion to pose for photographs. Often they will turn their head down and to the side if someone aims a camera in their direction.

Married men are not allowed to shave their beards, but they are also not allowed to have moustaches. Only unmarried men shave their faces.

Amish characters are in the movie Witness, starring Harrison Ford and Kelly McGillis.

Amish education and language
Many of the people who emigrated kept their language, which is a dialect of German and known as Pennsylvania German or Pennsylvania Dutch. In 2012, it was estimated that there were between 350.000 and 420.000 speakers of Pennsilvania German. Pennsylvania German was relatively common until the time before the Second World War, with an estimate of about 800.000 speakers. During the war, people frowned upon German speakers, so many speakers did not teach the language to their children. Only conservative Baptists, such as Amish and Mennonites withstood the pressure, and sill taught the language to their children.

After the Second World War, the Amish started to run  their own schools, where they teach their children, how to read, write, and calculate. Very often, they also learn German, to be able to read the religious texts. Subjects such as natural sciences, such as biology are not taught at school.

Related pages
Amish friendship bread

References

Bibliography
 .
 Kraybill, Donald B., Karen M. Johnson-Weiner, and Steven M. Nolt, The Amish (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013), 500 pp.
 .
 .
 .
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 Mackall, Joe: Plain Secrets: An Outsider among the Amish, Boston, Mass. 2007.
 .
 .

Anabaptism
Ethnic groups in the United States
Ohio
Pennsylvania

Simple living

Amish


The term English literature means literature written in the English language.

English literature began in Old English with the epic poem Beowulf, which dates from sometime between the 8th to the 11th centuries. It is not written in language people can understand today, but there are several good translations into modern English. It is the most famous work in Old English, despite being set in Scandinavia. The poem is written with no rhymes but with alliteration. The next important landmark is the works of the poet Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343–1400), especially The Canterbury Tales. That is in Middle English 1066 to the middle/late 1400s. Chaucer introduced into English poetry rhyme royal that is a seven-line stanza rhymed ababbcc.

Modern English literature began in 16th century. Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey wrote first English sonnets. The last-mentioned invented also blank verse. Edmund Spenser wrote The Faerie Queene, a long epic poem while Philip Sidney wrote a sequence of sonnets Astrophel and Stella.
The next stage is Thomas Kyd, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, Shakespeare and John Milton, sometimes described as Early Modern English (1470 to 1650).
William Shakespeare is the author of the most famous sentence written in English: To be, or not to be, that is the question:. It is the first line of prince Hamlet's monologue from drama The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark that was published in 1603.
King James Version of Bible was published in 1611. John Bunyan wrote The Pilgrim's Progress which is one of the most popular books ever published.
In 18th century first modern novels were written by Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Swift, Laurence Sterne and Horace Walpole.
William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats,Jane Austen, Emily Brontë, Charles Dickens,Robert Browning, George Eliot, Thomas Hardy, D.H. Lawrence, Virginia Woolf and Ted Hughes are all important English writers in modern English.

T.S. Eliot was perhaps the most important poet in 20th century who wrote in English. His best known work is the poem The Waste Land that was published in 1922. Another book by him was The Four Ouarters. The poet himself regarded it as his best work.

Not all English literature was written by writers born in England. Joseph Conrad was Polish, Robert Burns was Scottish, James Joyce was Irish, Dylan Thomas was Welsh, Edgar Allan Poe was American, Hilaire Belloc was French, Emma Lazarus was Jewish, Salman Rushdie is Indian, V. S. Naipaul is Trinidadian, and Vladimir Nabokov was Russian. The greatest Portuguese poet of 20th century, Fernando Pessoa wrote some poems in English, too. In other words, English literature includes all the varieties and dialects of English spoken around the world.

English is a language known by many million people. They can read literary works from any country in English translation.

References

Bibliography
Hippolyte Adolphe Taine, Introduction to the History of English Literature (1863).

Other websites
 A Website of the Romantic Movement in English Literature
 Luminarium: Anthology of Middle English Literature (1350-1485)
 Luminarium: 16th Century Renaissance English Literature (1485-1603)
 Luminarium: Seventeenth Century English Literature (1603-1660)
 BritishLit.com
 Norton Anthology of English Literature
 A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology Ed. José Ángel García Landa, (University of Zaragoza, Spain)
 Groves of Academe A literary theory and criticism discussion board

English literature


In computer networking and telecommunications, a gateway is a component that is part of two networks, which use different protocols.  The gateway will translate one protocol into the other. A router is a special case of a gateway.

Gateways, also called protocol converters, can operate at any network layer. The activities of a gateway are more complex than that of the router or switch as it communicates using more than one protocol.

Both the computers of internet users  that serve pages to users are host nodes. The nodes that connect the networks in between are gateways. These are gateway nodes:
the computers that control traffic between company networks
the computers used by internet service providers (ISPs) to connect users to the internet
gateway must be implied on larger networks to interconnect them.

References

Computer networking

Gateway (telecommunications)


A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that stores carbon-containing chemical compounds for a long period. Carbon sinks absorb more carbon than they release.

A forest, ocean, or other natural environments produce surplus carbon. Carbon sinks are very important in our environment. They can be natural or man-made. Soil, ocean, forest and the atmosphere all store carbon and this carbon moves in a continuous cycle. The largest carbon sinks become swamps, bogs, and eventually coal measures.

In the regular carbon cycle, CO2 comes from the atmosphere and then is taken by plants and uses it in the process of photosynthesis.

Carbon
Geochemistry

Carbon sink