Louis Malesherbes Goldsborough (February 18, 1805 – February 20, 1877) was a rear admiral in the United States Navy during the American Civil War.  He held several sea commands during the Civil War, including that of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron. He was also noted for contributions to nautical scientific research.

His younger brother, John R. Goldsborough, was also a U.S. Navy officer who served during the Civil War and who later became a commodore.

Biography
Louis Malesherbes Goldsborough was born in Washington, D.C., in 1805, the son of a chief clerk at the United States Department of the Navy. He was appointed midshipman in the United States Navy by Secretary of the Navy Paul Hamilton on June 28, 1812. At the time of his appointment, he was seven years old, and Goldsborough did not actually begin serving until February 13, 1816, when he reported for duty at the Washington Navy Yard.

In 1831 Goldsborough married Elizabeth Wirt, daughter of William Wirt, U.S. Attorney General from 1817 to 1829. Together, they had three children: William, Louis, and Elizabeth.

In 1833, after helping lead German emigrants to Wirt's Estates near Monticello, Florida, Goldsborough took leave from the Navy to command a steamboat expedition, and later mounted volunteers in the Seminole War.

Naval service
During the Aegean Anti-Piracy Campaign, Goldsborough led a four-boat night expedition from Porpoise in October 1827 to rescue British merchant brig Comet from Mediterranean pirates. In 1830 he was appointed first officer in charge of the newly created Depot of Charts and Instruments at Washington, the crude beginning of the United States Hydrographic Office. Goldsborough suggested creation of the depot and initiated the collection and centralization of the instruments, books and charts that were scattered among several Navy yards. After two years he was relieved by Lieutenant Charles Wilkes.

After cruising the Pacific in the frigate United States, he participated in the bombardment of Veracruz in Ohio during the Mexican–American War. He served consecutively as: commander of a detachment in the expedition against Tuxpan; senior officer of a commission which explored California and Oregon (1849–1850); superintendent of the United States Naval Academy (1853–1857); and commander of the Brazil Squadron (1859–1861).

Civil War service
Goldsborough was given command of the Atlantic Blockading Squadron in September 1861, relieving Flag Officer Silas H. Stringham. In October of that year the Atlantic squadron was split into the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron and South Atlantic Blockading Squadron; Goldsborough took command of the North squadron, and Flag Officer Samuel Francis DuPont assumed command of the South squadron.  On January 3, 1862, both officers were promoted to the newly created rank of Flag Officer (equivalent to the rank of Commodore which would be created 5 months later).  During his command of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, which he commanded from its inception to  September 1862, he led his fleet off North Carolina, where in cooperation with troops under General Ambrose Burnside, he captured Roanoke Island and destroyed a small Confederate fleet.

Peninsula Campaign
After aiding the capture of Roanoke Island, Goldsborough and his command were sent to Hampton Roads at the request of Major General George B. McClellan to help protect Union forces landing on the Virginia Peninsula at the start of the Peninsula Campaign. Goldsborough refused to be placed under McClellan's direct command, telling Assistant Secretary of the Navy Gustavus Vasa Fox that he would instead cooperate with McClellan. After sending six of his vessels to attack the Gloucester Point batteries, Goldsborough withdrew them, saying the area was too dangerous for his ships—even though none of them sustained any damage—and fearful of a return appearance by CSS Virginia, which had laid waste to a Union naval force in Hampton Roads while Goldsborough was at Roanoke Island.

At the start of the Seven Days Battles, Goldsborough was asked again, this time by President Abraham Lincoln, to come to McClellan's aid. Goldsborough continued to hold back his fleet, forcing Lincoln to accept a recommendation by Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles to detach ships under Goldsborough's command and place them under Commodore Charles Wilkes, who as a lieutenant had relieved Goldsborough at the Depot of Charts and Instruments (see above), and who would report directly to Welles. This move, coupled with newspaper accounts critical of the Navy, so seriously hurt Goldsborough that he requested that he be relieved. He was promoted to rear admiral in August 1862, and in September passed command of the squadron to Acting Rear Admiral Samuel Phillips Lee. Goldsborough would finish the war performing administrative duties in Washington, D.C.

Post-Civil War service and death
In June 1865, Goldsborough became the first commander of the European Squadron, formerly the Mediterranean Squadron. In 1868, Goldsborough returned to Washington and took command of the Washington Navy Yard, a position he held until he retired in 1873.

Rear Admiral Louis M. Goldsborough died in Washington, D.C., on February 20, 1877.

Dates of rank
Midshipman – June 18, 1812
Lieutenant – January 13, 1825
Commander – September 8, 1841
Captain – September 14, 1855
Flag Officer – January 3, 1862
Rear Admiral – July 16, 1862
Retired List – October 6, 1873
Died – February 20, 1877

Namesakes
The United States Navy has named three ships USS Goldsborough in honor of Admiral Goldsborough.

See also

 List of Superintendents of the United States Naval Academy

References

1805 births
1877 deaths
Union Navy admirals
United States Navy rear admirals
Superintendents of the United States Naval Academy
United States Navy personnel of the Mexican–American War
People of Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War

Louis M. Goldsborough


Before the popularization of the Internet in the 1990s, Internet slang defined a luser (sometimes expanded to local user; also luzer or luzzer) as a painfully annoying, stupid, or irritating computer user.
The word is a blend of "loser" and "user". Among hackers, the word luser takes on a broad meaning, referring to any normal user (in other words, not a "guru"), with the implication the person is also a loser. The term is partially interchangeable with the hacker term lamer.

The term can also signify a layman with only user account privileges, as opposed to a power user or administrator, who has knowledge of, and access to, superuser accounts; for example, an end luser who cannot be trusted with a root account for system administration. It is popular with technical support staff who have to deal with lusers as part of their job, often metaphorically employing a LART (Luser Attitude Readjustment Tool, also known as a clue-by-four, cluestick, or cluebat), meaning turning off the user's access to computer resources and the like.

History

The Jargon File states that the word was coined around 1975 at MIT, although LUSER is visible in CTSS source code circa 1969 in subroutines involving spying on and killing users and deleting their files and directories. Under ITS, when a user first walked up to a terminal at MIT and typed control-Z to get the computer's attention, it printed out some status information, including how many people were already using the computer. A patch to the system was then written to print "14 losers" instead of "14 users", as a joke. For a while, several hackers who disagreed on the appropriateness of the change struggled covertly, each changing the message behind the backs of the others; any time a user logged into the computer it was equally probable that a user would see, say, "users" or "losers". Finally, someone tried the compromise "lusers", and it stuck. Later, ITS also had the command "luser", which attempted to summon assistance from a list of designated helpers.

Although ITS ceased to be used in the mid-1990s,  use of the term continued to spread, partly because in Unix-style computer operating systems, "user" designates all unprivileged accounts, while the superuser, or root, is the special user account used for system administration. "root" is the conventional name of the user who has all rights or permissions (to all files and programs) in all modes (single- or multi-user). The usage lives on, however, and the term "luser" is often seen in program comments and on Usenet.

On IRC, /lusers (which abbreviates "list users") is a common command to get the number of users connected to a server or network.

See also
 Any key
 Banhammer
 BOFH
 id10t
 Lamer
 Layer 8
 Newbie
 PEBKAC
 Power user

Notes and references

External links

Internet slang
Internet Relay Chat
Pejorative terms for people
Internet culture
Hacker culture

Luser


Chalkidiki, also known as Halkidiki or Chalcidice, is one of 51 prefectures of Greece in the region of Macedonia. It is the area of the ending of Central Macedonia which accesses deeply in the Aegean Sea forming three small peninsulas. The capital of Chalcidice is the Polygyros.

Official links
Official website

Prefectures of Greece

Chalkidiki


Anne Jacqueline Hathaway (born November 12, 1982) is an American actress. Her brakthrou debut film role wis as Mia Thermopolis in the Disney comedy The Princess Diaries (2001). Hathaway made a transeetion tae adult roles in box office an creetically acclaimed films sic as Brokeback Mountain (2005), The Devil Wears Prada (2006), as Jane Austen in Becoming Jane (2007), Rachel Getting Married (2008), Bride Wars (2009), Valentine's Day (2010), as the White Queen in Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland (2010), Love & Other Drugs (2010), as DC Comics femme fatale Catwoman in Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight Rises (2012), as Fantine in Tom Hooper's Les Misérables (2012), Interstellar (2014), The Intern (2015) an Alice Through the Looking Glass (2016).

1982 births
20t-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses frae New Jersey
Actresses frae New York Ceety
American film actresses
American fowk o French strynd
American fowk o German strynd
American fowk o Erse strynd
American fowk o Native American strynd
American stage actresses
American televeesion actresses
American vyce actresses
Best Supportin Actress BAFTA Awaird winners
Best Supportin Actress Gowden Globe (film) winners
Umwhile Roman Catholics
LGBT richts activists frae the Unitit States
Livin fowk
Fowk frae Brooklyn
Fowk frae Millburn, New Jersey
Primetime Emmy Awaird winners
Ootstaundin Performance bi a Female Actor in a Supportin Role Screen Actors Guild Awaird winners
Best Supportin Actress Academy Awaird winners
American female sangsters
Vassar College alumni
New York Varsity alumni
American sopranos
American Academy of Dramatic Arts alumni
American bairn actresses
American bairn sangsters
Seton Hall Preparatory Schuil alumni

Anne Hathaway


Soghomon Gevorki Soghomonyan - Komitas Vardepet (also Gomidas Vartabed) (September 26 1869 in Kütahya, Ottoman Empire - October 22 1935, Paris, France), was an Armenian priest, composer, choir leader, singer, music ethnologist, music teacher and musicologist, known as the founder of modern Armenian classical music.

He was born into a family whose members were deeply involved in music and were monolingual in Turkish. His mother died when he was one and ten years later his father died. In 1895 he became a priest and obtained the title Vardapet (or Vartabed), meaning a priest or a church scholar.

He established and conducted the monastery choir till 1896 when he went to Berlin, to the Kaiser Friedrich Wilhelm University. Here he studied music at the private conservatory of Prof. Richard Schmidt. In 1899 he acquired the title doctor of musicology and returned to Echmiadzin. He traveled extensively around the country, listening and recording details about Armenian folk songs and dances performed in various villages. This way he collected and published some 3000 songs, many of them adapted to choir singing.

His major work is Badarak (Divine Liturgy), still used today as one of the two most popular musical settings of the Armenian Church liturgy.

He was the first non-European to be admitted into the International Music Society of which he was a co-founder.

On April 24, 1915, said to be the day when Armenian Genocide officially began, he was arrested. The next day he was put on a train with 180 other Armenian notables and sent to the city of Çankırı in northern Central Anatolia, at a distance of some 300 miles. His good friend, Turkish nationalist poet Emin Yurdakul, the authoress Halide Edip, and the U.S. ambassador Henry Morgenthau intervened with the government and, by special orders from Talat Pasha, Komitas was sent back to the capital. In autumn 1916, he was taken to a Turkish military hospital and he moved to Paris in 1919 where he died in a psychiatric clinic Villejuif in 1935. Next year his ashes were transferred to Yerevan and buried in the Pantheon.

The Yerevan State Musical Conservatory is named after Komitas. There also a world famous string quartet named after Komitas.

Other websites
 Virtual Museum of Komitas Vardapet
 Biography #1
 Some songs in .rm format
 New release of 36 Komitas-songs on SACD by the German independent label AUDITE
 Rita Soulahian Kuyumjian, Archeology of Madness: Komitas, Portrait of an Armenian Icon

References

1869 births
1935 deaths
Armenian composers
Musicologists
Ethnologists

Komitas Vardapet


God save the Queen es l'imne nacional del Reialme Unit.
I.	God save our gracious Queen,
Long live our noble Queen,
God save the Queen !
Send her victorious,
Happy and glorious,
Long to reign over us ;
God save the Queen !

II.	O Lord, our God, arise,
Scatter her enemies,
And make them fall !
Confound their politics,
Frustrate their knavish tricks,
On Thee our hopes we fix,
God save us all !

III.	Thy choicest gifts in store
On her be pleased to pour ;
Long may she reign ;
May she defend our laws,
And ever give us cause
To sing with heart and voice :
God save the Queen !

IV.	Not in this land alone,
But be God's mercies known,
From shore to shore !
Lord, make the nations see,
That men should brothers be,
And form one family,
The wide world over.

V.	From every latent foe,
From the assassins blow,
God save the Queen !
O'er her Thine arm extend,
For Britain's sake defend,
Our mother, prince and friend,
God save the Queen !

VI.	Lord, grant that Marshall Wade
May, by Thy mighty aid,
Victory bring.
May he sedition hush,
And like a torrent rush,
Rebellious Scots to crush.
God save the Queen !

God save the Queen

God Save the Queen


In the context of computers and computer systems, a backup is a copy of some data. This copy can be used when the original data is changed, or lost. Losing data is common: A 2008 survey found that two thirds of respondents had lost files on their home PC. Another purpose of backing up data is to have a copy that represents an earlier state of the data, before it was changed. Organisations may have rules which state how long data should be kept, and what kinds of data these rules apply to. In many countries there are rules that specify that certain kinds of data need to be kept for a given time. An example of this is the data used for accounting.

Backups are a simple form of disaster recovery. Even though they are commonly seen as disaster recovery, they should be part of a disaster recovery plan. A disaster recovery plan is a documented set of procedures and tasks to perform to protect the consistency and integrity of a corporate IT system.

Different backup media
There are different types of backup systems that use different kinds of media. Common backup media includes:
Different kinds of tapes, for example Digital Audio Tape, or LTO
Hard drives and SSDs
Memory cards and USB flash drives
Optical disks like CDs and DVDs
Magneto-Optical Discs

Some of the backup media are portable, and can easily be stored in  a safe location. The problem with storing tapes in a bank safe, for example is that they are only available during the opening hours of the bank.

Another issue has commonly been the speed of the backup. Media such as digital tapes can store a lot of data, but accessing them is relatively slow. Tapes can only be read or written in sequence, while media such as hard disks or optical drives are basically random access. When data is backed up, its encoding is often changed. This makes it possible to use codes such as Cyclic redundancy checks, which can detect, and sometimes repair an error.

Reasons for doing a backup
Backups are usually done for one of the following reasons:
Prevent data loss if there is a disaster (like a fire or hardware failure, or an intentional or unintentional deletion)
Computer viruses or other programs make data unusable
There is a logical error in the data
Sudden computer shutdown which can be caused by power shortage.

Different types of backup

Full backup
A full backup copies all of the data.  This means that if the main copy of the data is lost, we can bring it all back simply by copying the data back from the backup.

Differential backup
A differential backup only copies the data that has changed since the last full backup.  The reason we do this is that sometimes only a small amount of data has changed since the last full backup; this means we can do a differential backup much more quickly.

If someone loses their data, and needs to get it back from a differential backup, they need to use the last full backup, to bring back all of their data.  They then need to use the last differential backup to bring back everything that was changed between the full backup and the differential backup.

Incremental backup
An incremental backup only copies the data that has changed since the last incremental backup.  This makes each backup quicker, because we are only copying what has changed since the last backup.  To bring the data back, if the main copy of the data is lost, we need the last full backup, as well as all of the incremental backups that have been done since then.  This means that bringing data back from an incremental backup is slower and more risky than differential or full backups.

How long to keep a backup

Grandfather-father-son
The Grandfather-father-son system means that we keep different types of backup for different amounts of time.  For example, we might do a backup every day, and keep a week's worth of backups.  We might then keep one backup for each week for a month, and one backup from each month for a year.  This means that we have a backup of our data from a year ago, so that if we realise we need some data from a long time ago, we have that data available.  We also have several copies of our recent data, in case one of them doesn't work.

References

Computing

Backup


Abalone (from Spanish Abulón) are shellfish, a genus of gastropods.

Abalone are known by their colorful "pearlescent" inside shell. This is also called ear-shell, ormer in Guernsey, abalone in South Africa, and pāua in New Zealand.

The meat of this shellfish is considered to be a delicacy in some parts of Latin America (especially Chile), South East Asia, and East Asia (especially in China, Japan, and Korea).

Description
Abalones live all over the world. They can be seen along the waters of every continent, except the Atlantic coast of South America, the Caribbean, and the East Coast of the United States. Most abalones are found in cold waters, along the coasts of New Zealand, South Africa and Australia, and Western North America and Japan in the Northern Hemisphere. On the Chilean Pacific coast, the species called loco ("Concholepas concholepas") has a hard, black shell and is eaten by many people.

Abalone have unique features: the shell is round, with two to three spirals. The last spiral is grown into a large "ear"-like shape, which explains the name 'ear-shell'. The inside of the shell is shiny, from silvery white to green-red mother-of-pearl.

Abalones can start to give birth at a small size. Their fertility is high and increases with size (from 10,000 to 11 million eggs at a time).

Young abalones, called larvae, feed on plankton. The adults eat plants and feed on algae. They like to eat red algae. Their size can be as small as 20mm to as big as 200mm.

Abalone shell
The shell of the abalone is known for being very strong. It is made of very tiny calcium carbonate tiles stacked like bricks. Between the layers of tiles is a sticky protein substance. Allergic skin reactions and asthma attacks can happen when breathing the dust made when these tiles are broken down.

The colorful inside part of the abalone shell can be used for decorative inlays, in guitars, for example.

Abalone trade

California

Sport harvesting of red abalone is allowed with a California fishing license and an abalone stamp card. Abalone may only be taken using breath-hold techniques: freediving or shore picking. SCUBA diving for abalone is strictly not allowed. Abalone harvesting is not allowed south of the mouth of the San Francisco Bay. There is a size minimum of seven inches measured across the shell and a limit of three per day and 24 per year that can be taken. Abalone may only be taken in April, May, June, August, September, October, and November, but they may not be taken in July, December, January, February, or March. Transportation of abalone is only legal while the abalone is still attached to the shell. The sale of sport-caught abalone is illegal, including the shell. Only red abalone may be taken; black, white, pink, and flat abalone are protected by law.

Abalone divers normally wear a thick wetsuit, including a hood, booties, and gloves. They also wear a mask, snorkel, weight belt, abalone iron, and abalone gauge. It is common to take abalone in the water a few inches up to 10 m/28' deep. Fewer freedivers can work deeper than that.   Abalone is usually found on rocks near food sources (kelp). An abalone iron is used to pry the abalone from the stone before it can fully clamp down. Visibility usually is five to ten feet. Divers commonly dive out of boats, kayaks, tube floats, or directly off the shore. An eight-inch abalone is considered a good catch, a nine-inch would be very good, and a ten-inch plus (250mm) abalone would be an excellent catch. Rock- or shore-picking is different from diving, where the rock picker feels below rocks during low tides for abalone.

There has been a trade-in diving to catch abalones off parts of the United States coast before 1939. In World War II, many of these abalone divers were recruited into the United States armed forces and trained as divers who can perform military combat and operations underwater. There are also known as frogman.

Black market
There is a worldwide black market in abalone meat collection and export. In New Zealand, where abalone is called pāua in the Māori language, this can be a particular problem. The right to harvest pāua can be granted legally under Māori customary rights. When such permits are overused, it is difficult to police. The legal daily limit is ten pāua per diver with a minimum shell length of 125 mm. Many Ministry of Fisheries officers strictly enforce the limit with the help of the police. Pāua' poaching' is a major industry in New Zealand, with many thousands of abalones being stolen, mostly undersized. Convictions have caused the removal of diving gear, boats, and motor vehicles, fines, and, in rare cases, imprisonment. The Ministry of Fisheries expects in the year 2004/05, nearly 1000 tons of pāua will be poached, with 75% of that being undersized.

Highly polished New Zealand pāua shells are extremely popular as gifts with their striking blue, green and purple iridescence. Transporting unprocessed abalone shells out of New Zealand is illegal.

South Africa
The largest abalone in South Africa, "Haliotis midae," can be found along about two-thirds of the country's coastline. Abalone-diving has been a recreational activity for many years, but stocks are currently being threatened by illegal commercial harvesting.

Channel Islands, Europe
Ormers ("Haliotis tuberculata") are considered a delicacy in the Channel Islands and are looked after with great eagerness by the locals. Unfortunately, this has led to a huge decrease in numbers since the second half of the 19th century, and 'ormering' is now strictly regulated to keep stocks. The taking of ormers is now restricted to many 'ormering tides,' from January 1 to April 30, which happen on the full or new moon two days after. No ormers may be taken from the beach under 8 cm in shell length. Gatherers are not allowed to wear wetsuits or even put their heads underwater. Any breach of these laws is illegal and can lead to a large fine. The demand for ormers is so big that it started the world's first underwater arrest when Mr. Kempthorne-Leigh of Guernsey was arrested by a police officer in full diving gear while illegally diving for ormers.

White Abalone is going extinct because of its delicious tender meat, jewelry, and beautiful shell.

Farming

There have been a number of attempts to artificially grow (farm) abalone for the purpose of consumption.

Notes

Other websites

California Red Abalone
 Specimen shells; many pictures.
 Imagemap of worldwide abalone distribution

Gastropods
Seafood

Abalone


The American Old West, or the Wild West means the history, geography, people, and culture of life in the Western United States. This often referring to the period of the later half of the 19th century, between the American Civil War and the end of the century.

This time is often shown in films like The Searchers, High Noon and Shane, in TV series like Bonanza and in fiction like Little House on the Prairie. Like other popular historical themes such as pirates and ninjas, the relationship between fact and fiction is complex.

American Old West


Irrunytju (also called Wingellina) is a small Aboriginal community  in Western Australia. It is located in the Goldfields-Esperance region, about  southwest of the Surveyor Generals Corner (where the borders of Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory meet). There are about 150 people living in the community, most of whom are Ngaanyatjarra.

The town is surrounded by the Wingellina Hills, a set of large granite hills with mulga and mallee growth. The name of the community, , comes from the name of a sacred site located in the hills to the south.

History
The area was part of the Central Australia Aboriginal Reserve when the reserve was created in 1922. In 1955, however, the borders of the reserve were moved to allow for mining and prospecting, mostly of nickel. Mining camps were set up in the area around what is now Irrunytju. In response, Aboriginal families moved to settle around these camps. Some got jobs with the miners and were paid in food rations; others were simply there to protect places of spiritual importance from outsiders. Some companies took steps to make sure their miners respected these sites; other companies did not, and several sacred sites were damaged during this period. The area was made part of the reserve again in 1972.

Once the miners left, the Aboriginal families stayed and built a permanent settlement using what was left from the mining camps (shelters, bores, etc.). The community was also given money from the federal government to help establish a permanent settlement. The community became incorporated in 1976. It became a member of the Ngaanyatjarra Council in 1981.

Irrunytju has remained on Aboriginal land since 1972. Economic activities in the area are governed under the Ngaanyatjarra Indigenous Land Use Agreement, formed in 2006. The community maintains many traditional activities, such as hunting and gathering bush tucker. The community has had its own art centre, Irrunytju Arts, since 2001.

References

Other websites
Irrunytju Community Resource Centre
Profile  from the Ngaanyatjarra Council website

Towns in Western Australia
Indigenous Australian communities

Irrunytju, Western Australia


Saint François d'Assise is an opera in three acts and eight scenes. The music and libretto were written by Olivier Messiaen. The opera was written from 1975 to 1983. The first performance was given by the Paris Opéra at the Palais Garnier on November 28, 1983.

20th-century operas
1983 works

Saint Francis of Assisi (opera)


Metroid is a series of video games made by Nintendo. The series started in Japan in 1986. Its main character in the game is Samus Aran. Almost all of the games in the series have a certain kind of fictional creature called a "Metroid". This is where the name of the series comes from. Metroids look a lot like jellyfish except they can fly. They also have teeth instead of tentacles. They attack creatures and people by charging quickly towards them and sucking out all their life force.

Characters
The main character in the series is Samus Aran.  She always wears a very powerful space suit. This suit lets her do things that normal humans cannot do, such as jump very high and fall long ways without being hurt. The right arm on Samus' suit has a large gun built into it. She is seen in this space suit almost all of the time. In many of the games, if the player finishes the game fast enough or collects enough items, they can see her without the suit on. When this happens, she is either wearing a tight jumpsuit, or something resembling a bikini.

The main enemies of the Metroid games are the Space Pirates. They are tall creatures who look like lizards that walk on two legs. The Space Pirate commander is a dragon named Ridley, who is Samus' worst enemy.

Gameplay
In most Metroid games, the player explores far away planets or space stations. The player, as Samus, starts the game with very few powers, and not many places to go. The player must explore to find items and powers that let him or her get to new areas. In the first Metroid; Samus had to defeat Ridley; a giant monster named Kraid; and then destroy the Space Pirate's computer, Mother Brain. In all Metroid games, there are different goals to achieve, but nearly all of them involve looking for items and exploring.

Other websites
Official English website
Wikitroid, the Metroid wiki

Metroid (series)


Stephen Glenn Martin (born August 14, 1945) is an American comedian, actor, writer, producer, and musician.

Early years
Martin was born in Waco, Texas to Glenn Vernon Martin, a real estate salesman and aspiring actor, and Mary Lee Stewart, a housewife. Martin was raised in Inglewood, California and Garden Grove, California. He is of English, French, German, Irish and Scottish descent.

As a teenager, Martin started out working at the Magic Shop at Disneyland. There he developed his talents for magic, juggling, playing the banjo and creating balloon animals. He teamed up with friend and Garden Grove High School classmate Kathy Westmoreland to do a musical comedy routine. They performed at local coffee houses and at the Bird Cage Theater in Knott's Berry Farm. Martin attended Santa Ana College at the same time as actress Diane Keaton.

Martin majored in philosophy at California State University, Long Beach, but dropped out. His time there changed his life:

"It changed what I believe and what I think about everything. I majored in philosophy. Something about non-sequiturs appealed to me. In philosophy, I started studying logic, and they were talking about cause and effect, and you start to realize, 'Hey, there is no cause and effect! There is no logic! There is no anything!' Then it gets real easy to write this stuff, because all you have to do is twist everything hard—you twist the punch line, you twist the non-sequitur so hard away from the things that set it up, that it's easy... and it's thrilling."

Martin's girlfriend in 1967 was a dancer on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour. She helped Martin get a writing job with the show by submitting his work to head writer Mason Williams. Williams initially paid Martin out of his own pocket. Along with the other writers for the show, Martin won an Emmy Award in 1969. Martin also wrote for John Denver (a neighbor of his in Aspen, Colorado at one point), The Glen Campbell Goodtime Hour, and The Sonny and Cher Comedy Hour. He also appeared on these shows and several others, in various comedy skits.

Martin also performed his own material, sometimes as an opening act for groups such as The Nitty Gritty Dirt Band and The Carpenters. He appeared at San Francisco's The Boarding House among other places. He continued to write, earning an Emmy nomination for his work on Van Dyke and Company in 1976.

Influences
Martin stated comedians like Smothers Brothers, George Carlin, Jerry Lewis, Redd Foxx, Woody Allen, George Burns, Jack Benny, Monty Python and Richard Pryor as influences.

Fame
In the mid-1970s, he made appearances as a stand-up comedian on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. That exposure, together with appearances on HBO's On Location and NBC's Saturday Night Live (SNL) led to his first of four comedy albums, Let's Get Small. The album was a huge success.

His next album, A Wild and Crazy Guy, was a bigger success. It reached the #2 spot on the sales chart in the United States. It created a catch phrase (the album's title). It was based on an SNL skit in which Martin and Dan Aykroyd played a couple of bumbling Czechoslovakian playboys. The album was a million seller.

Both albums won Grammys for Best Comedy Recording in 1977 and 1978 respectively.

Movie career

Martin's first movie was a short, The Absent-Minded Waiter (1977). The seven-minute long movie, also featuring Buck Henry and Teri Garr, was written by and starred Martin. The movie was nominated for an Academy Award as Best Short Film, Live Action. His first feature movie appearance was in the musical Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. He sang the Beatles' Maxwell's Silver Hammer.

In 1979, Martin wrote and starred in his first full-length movie, The Jerk, directed by Carl Reiner. The movie was a huge success, grossing over $73 million. Martin was in three more Reiner-directed comedies after The Jerk: Dead Men Don't Wear Plaid in 1982, The Man with Two Brains in 1983 and All of Me in 1984. In 1986, Martin joined fellow Saturday Night Live veterans Martin Short and Chevy Chase in ¡Three Amigos!, directed by John Landis.

In 1986, Martin was in the musical movie version of the hit off-Broadway play Little Shop of Horrors as a sadistic dentist, Orin Scrivello.

In 1987, Martin joined comedian John Candy in the John Hughes movie, Planes, Trains and Automobiles. That same year, the Cyrano de Bergerac adaptation Roxanne won him a Writers Guild of America award. In 1988, he did Dirty Rotten Scoundrels with Michael Caine and directed by Frank Oz.

In 2005, Martin wrote and starred in Shopgirl. Martin played a wealthy businessman who strikes up a romance with a Saks 5th Avenue counter girl (Claire Danes). He also starred in Cheaper by the Dozen 2 that year. Martin's latest work was in the 2006 remake of The Pink Panther.

Other websites

1945 births
Living people
Actors from Los Angeles County, California
Actors from Texas
American movie actors
Movie directors from Los Angeles County, California
Movie directors from Texas
Movie producers from Los Angeles County, California
Movie producers from Texas
American screenwriters
American television actors
Comedians from Los Angeles County, California
Comedians from Texas
Emmy Award winners
Grammy Award winners
Mark Twain Prize recipients
Actors from Orange County, California
People from Waco, Texas
Writers from Los Angeles County, California
Writers from Texas

Steve Martin


Guillermo Galván Galván (born January 19, 1943) is a Mexican general. He formerly served as  secretary of National Defense for the government of Felipe Calderon. He was succeeded 1 December 2012 by Salvador Cienfuegos Zepeda.

He holds a master's degree in security and national defense at the College of National Defense, has obtained a BA in military administration at the School of War and holds a master's degree in electronic engineering from the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education.

Galván served as military and air defense attaché at the Mexican embassy in Madrid, Spain.  He served as commander of various military zones in the country, including the fifth zone in the state of Chihuahua, the 30th in Tabasco, the 21st in Tabasco and the 17th in Querétaro. Galván has served as assistant operating staff director, as head of the Center for the Coordination of Air Operations of the National Defense Staff, and head of the Fifth Section of the National Defense Staff.  The general also was director and dean of the University of the Mexican Army and Air Force in the Federal District and director of the Military School of Weapons Classes in the state of Puebla.  Galván served as undersecretary of National Defense from March 2004 until his appointment as National Defense Secretary.

See also
Mexican Executive Cabinet

References

External links

 Mexico - Presidency of the Republic Website

1943 births
Living people
Mexican Secretaries of Defense
Mexican generals
21st-century Mexican politicians
Military personnel from Mexico City

Guillermo Galván Galván


Ultratop 40 Singles, often called Ultratop 40, is the weekly chart of best-selling singles in Wallonia, Belgium. Its equivalent covering the Flanders region is Ultratop 50.  Both charts are made and published by the Ultratop organization.  Like the UK Singles Chart, Ultratop creates charts based on retail record sales of around 500 retail outlets and legal digital downloads.  Currently GfK is the market observer of the charts. The chart broadcasts on Radio Contact on Saturdays from 12:00 to 14:00. The combined number of Ultratop chart listeners on radio or TV stations exceeds two million each week.  To celebrate the 10th anniversary of the charts in 2005 a jubilee book was published.  It covered all the 15,282 singles from 5,882 artists thus far.

Related pages
Ultratop 50

References

Record charts

Ultratop 40 Singles


Demosthenes (384–322 BC, , Dēmosthénēs) was a well-known Greek statesman and orator from ancient Athens. His speeches show the height of classical Athenian skill at speaking. They also show us lots about the politics and culture of ancient Greece during the 4th century BC. Demosthenes learned rhetoric by studying the speeches of previous great orators.  He delivered his first law court speeches when he was twenty. He argued effectively to gain from his guardians what was left of his inheritance. For a time, Demosthenes made his living as a professional speech-writer and a lawyer, writing speeches for use in private legal suits.

At the age of 21, Demosthenes took the job of the commander of warships in Athens.

Demosthenes grew interested in politics during the time he wrote speeches for others. In 354 BC he gave his first public political speeches. He went on to devote his most productive years to opposing Macedon's expansion. He idealized his city and tried throughout his life to restore Athens' supremacy and motivate the rest of the Athenians against Philip II of Macedon. He sought to preserve his city's freedom and to establish an alliance against Macedon, in an unsuccessful attempt to impede Philip's plans to expand his influence southwards by conquering all the Greek states. After Philip's death, Demosthenes played a leading part in his city's uprising against the new King of Macedon, Alexander the Great. However, his efforts failed and the revolt was met with a harsh Macedonian reaction. To prevent a similar revolt against his own rule, Alexander's successor, Antipater, sent his men to track Demosthenes down. Demosthenes took his own life, in order to avoid being arrested by Archias, Antipater's confidant.

The Alexandrian Canon compiled by Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace recognized Demosthenes as one of the ten greatest Attic orators and speech writers. According to Longinus, Demosthenes "perfected to the utmost the tone of lofty speech, living passions, copiousness, readiness, speed". Cicero acclaimed him as "the perfect orator" who lacked nothing, and Quintilian extolled him as "lex orandi" ("the standard of oratory") and that "inter omnes unus excellat" ("he stands alone among all the orators").

References

384 BC births
322 BC deaths
Ancient Greek politicians
Ancient Greek philosophers

Demosthenes


The Prince William Railway Company (German: Prinz-Wilhelm-Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft, PWE) was an early horse-drawn railway in Germany. It was founded as the Deil Valley Railway Company (Deilthaler Eisenbahn Aktiengesellschaft) in 1828 and renamed in 1831.  It built a  narrow gauge line that ran for a Prussian mile () along the Deilbach valley from a point near Kupferdreh Old Station in Hinsbeck, a suburb of Kupferdreh (now part of Essen), to Nierenhof near Langenberg (now part of Velbert).  This route is now part of the Wuppertal-Vohwinkel–Essen-Überruhr railway and served by Rhine-Ruhr S-Bahn line S9 trains.

On 20 September 1831 the railway was opened by Prince William, the brother of the King of Prussia at the time, and renamed in honour of the prince. It operated as a horse-drawn railway carrying coal until 1844, but from 1833 it also carried passengers.  In 1847, it was converted to , extended north to Steele Süd and south to Vohwinkel (in Wuppertal), converted to steam operation and renamed the Steele-Vohwinkler Eisenbahn.

Background
Friedrich Harkort had an early interest in improving the transportation of coal from the Ruhr in the Bergisches Land to Wuppertal. He therefore visited England to study the first railway projects and wrote in 1825 in the journal Hermann an article on "Railways". He sought the interest of donors to realise such a project. He finally found interest mainly in the mining trades in the Ruhr. In 1826 he had built a small test track, as a monorail following a design of the Englishman Henry Robinson Palmer. This was a precursor to the Wuppertal Schwebebahn finally built 74 years later.  On 9 September 1826 he advised the Elberfeld Council two routes for the construction of such a railway from Elberfeld via Uellendahl, Horath and Herzkamp to Hinsbeck or from Elberfeld via Horath to Langenberg. In 1826 and 1827 surveying were carried out in these districts.

Another railway pioneer, school teacher Peter Nikolaus Caspar Egen, however, favoured the construction of a normal rail railway. While Egen and Harkort fought out their differences, and even before an application for a concession was made, opposition began to surface from carters and horse drivers engaged in coal transportation. Meanwhile, the neighboring city of Barmen was also active with its own plans, as it felt disadvantaged by Elberfeld's plans.

The time was not ripe for such a project using completely new technology. People were reluctant to invest their money in it. Even the king of Prussia who ultimately had to approve any plans, did not understand the proposals.

Deil Valley Railway Company
But in order just to make a start, Harkort then proposed a "stripped down" version. He founded the Deil Valley Railway Company, the first German railway joint stock company in 1828 with his brother, the industrialist Ludwig Mohl, Peter Nikolaus Caspar Egen, Dr. Voss (a physician and miner from Steele, now part of Essen) and Reichmann and Meyberg (merchants from Langenberg).
In 1830 and 1831 the Deil Valley Railway was built up the Deilbach valley from Hinsbeck, a suburb of Kupferdreh (now part of Essen), to Nierenhof near Langenberg (now part of Velbert). This line was already called a "railway" because it had iron wheels on iron rails. It was built on oak sleepers, on which two  long planks called Straßbäume, ("street trees") were secured with wooden nails. The Straßbäume were covered with a running surface of  thick iron, known, using British terminology as a plateway. The line ran for a Prussian mile (), and its gauge was  narrow-gauge.

The railway was built to be operated by relay. The route was divided into three 700 Prussian rod () long ( in total) relay sections and four 25 rod () long transitional sections. The transitional sections were at the beginning and end of the line, at "Kupperdrehe" and Eisenhammer in Deilmannhof im Deilbachtal. At these passing places the horses were changed so that the horses that had pulled up the full wagons were unhitched and attached to empty wagons for their return. A total of seven horses were required. On the flat track next to the Ruhr only one or two horses were needed for the coal train. On the uphill route to Nierenhof, in contrast, three or four horses were required.

Prince William Railway
On 20 September 1831 Prince William of Prussia, the youngest brother of King Frederick William III, officially opened the railway. On this day the prince and his family travelled on coal wagons lined with carpets. The railway was allowed to call itself the Prince William Railway afterwards.

Until 1844, the Prince William railway was operated by horse-drawn wagons to transport coal. After one year of operation passengers were also transported, in particular on the return journey from Nierenhof to Hinsbeck, for which no cargo was available. By 1833 there were some coaches available for "pleasure".

Steele-Vohwinkel Railway
As the operation of the railway satisfied its shareholders, it was decided to extend it in 1840. On 23 August the company wrote to the district administration to request a concession for the extension. On 29 June 1844 the Treasury gave permission for the company to build an extension in the north to Steele and in the south to Vohwinkel.

To get the necessary funds, it needed to issue new shares. It offered purchasers of shares the guarantee of favourable freight rates, but the mining companies rejected this. Eventually it procured sufficient capital and on 29 July 1844 construction started.
The line was rebuilt as  and extended in both directions. The  railway line opened as the "Steele-Vohwinkel Railway" on 1 December 1847 as a steam railway from Überruhr (south of the Ruhr, opposite Steele) to Vohwinkel via Kupferdreh, Langenberg and Neviges.

Between Neviges and Vohwinkel the trains had to climb a slope, which at this time could only be climbed with the aid of a zig zag. At the terminal station (German: Kopfstation, literally head station) built in 1847 in the Siebeneick Valley trains had run into the station before reversing on to the other line out of the station. This arrangement was eliminated in 1862 when a new alignment was built, but the whole area still bears the name Kopfstation.

Bergisch-Märkische Railway Company's acquisition of the company
On 13 March 1854 the Bergisch-Märkische Railway Company (German: Bergisch-Märkische Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft, BME) took over the operation of the route. Under an agreement of 6 December 1862 the BME legally acquired the Prince William Railway Company on 1 January 1863. The BME connected the line to its network and extended it over the Ruhr to Steele (now Essen-Steele-Ost). After the BME was taken over by the Prussian state railways in 1882 trains stopped serving the old station at Kupferdreh.

References

Defunct railway companies of Germany
Railway companies established in 1828
Railway lines opened in 1831
Horse-drawn railways
820 mm gauge railways in Germany

Prince William Railway Company


The castle Croy is a castle in the Dutch province North Brabant, near the village Aarle-Rixtel which is part of the municipality of Laarbeek. From 1642 until 1968 Croy belonged to the municipality Stiphout (currently part of the municipality of Helmond).

The castle is currently no longer inhabited but in use as an office.
Since 1795 beer is brewed near the castle. Since 2004 the Croy beer is itself had been brewed in Belgium but the ingredients are grown on the Croy estate. The destruction of the restaurant by fire in 2006 brought with it the opportunity to restore the tradition of brewing beer on the Croy estate. With the renovation of the nearby restaurant "de Croyse Hoeve" the microbrewery was built and with it the production has returned to Aarle-Rixtel. Due to environmental restrictions the beer is still bottled and packaged in Belgium.  Also there is a herd of Rambouillet-Merino sheep on the Croy estate.

History

The oldest parts of the Croy castle were probably built in the 15th century. There is not much known about the history of the castle. , Bishop of Cambrai was in 1477 owner of the land, but a house is not mentioned. In the 16th century villages in the neighbourhood were many times demolished, probably also the castle (but this is not recorded).

The last inhabitant was Freule (Lady) Constance van der Brugghen. Her uncle bought Croy in 1772, In 1773 he died and left the castle to his half brother Johan Karel Gideon. He married Margaretha Gertuda Falck and they had three sons and a daughter. In 1820, 1826 and 1864 the sons died. Freule (Lady) Constance van der Brugghen died in 1873 (78 years old) and left the building to municipality of Stiphout with the obligation to use the building for the help of poor elderly people. This was led by the sisters of Geloof, Hoop en Liefde (Faith, Hope and Love). In 1977 the house was disapproved as being a house for elderly people because of safety regulations.

Research of the castle points that the size was more or less the same all those years. The building history seems complex but not much is known from written sources. It seems that the original building has been severely damaged. The cellar, the right wing and the round tower are probably from the beginning of the construction. The last changes e.g. the entrance and the Crow-stepped gable were built in the 18th century.

Many noble families have lived in the castle.

See also
House of Croy
List of castles in the Netherlands

References
Kransber, D. & H. Mils, Kastelengids van Nederland, middeleeuwen, Bussem 1979 ()
Kalkwiek, K.A., A.I.J.M. Schellart, H.P.H. Jansen & P.W. Geudeke, Atlas van de Nederlandse kastelen, Alphen aan den Rijn 1980 ()
Helsdingen, H.W. van, Gids voor de Nederlandse kastelen en buitenplaatsen, Amsterdam 1966
Tromp, H.M.J., Kijk op kastelen Amsterdam 1979 ()

External links

 Croy castle (Dutch)

Castles in North Brabant
Rijksmonuments in North Brabant
Laarbeek

Croy Castle


Mevaseret Zion () is a suburb o Jerusalem, Israel. Mevaseret Zion is composed o twa distinct tounships, Maoz Zion an Mevaseret Yerushalayim—unner the jurisdiction o ane local cooncil. The newer neighborhuids o Mevaseret Zion wur no pairt o either settlement.
Mevaseret Zion is locatit on a muntain ridge 750 meters abuin sea level, on the ootskirts o Jerusalem. It is ten kilometers frae the ceety, straddlin baith sides o the Jerusalem–Tel Aviv heich-gate. It haes a population o 22,800 residents distributit ower 15 neighborhuids. It is the walthiest municipality per caipita in the Jerusalem Destrict. Mevaseret Zion's current Mayor is Yoram Shimon.

History
Due tae its strategic location, settlement in the aurie o Mevaseret Zion goes back tae antiquity. The Romans built a fortress there, kent as Castellum. On the ruins o this fortress, the Crusaders built a castle, Castellum Belveer, which still staunds the day. An Arab veelage, Coloniya, grew up aroond this spot. The muhktar's hoose wis built on the hilltop, on the ruins o the Crusader castle.

Durin the Breetish Mandate o Palestine, the Breetish referred tae this destrict as "The Castle", droppin the "t" as is customary in Inglis. The Arabs cried it al-Qastal, pronooncin the "t." The Jews cried it "Hacastel" ("the Castel").

In Israel's War o Unthirldom in 1948, fierce battles that claimed mony lives teuk place here as Arabs an Jews fought for control o the Castel, which owerleukit the main Tel Aviv-Jerusalem heich-gate. The Castel exchyngit haunds several times in the course o the fechtin. The tides turned when the revered Arab commander, Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni, wis killed. Mony o the Arabs left their positions tae attend al-Husayni's funeral at the Al-Aqsa Mosque on Friday, Aprile 9. That same day, the Castel fell tae the Israeli forces, virtually unopposed.

Maoz Zion ("Stranghauld o Zion") wis established in 1951 tae hoose new immigrants frae Iraq, Kurdistan, North Africae an Iran who haed been livin in a ma'abara, or transit camp, at the fuit o the Castel. Mony were employed at the nearby Solel Boneh stane quarry.

Mevaseret Yerushalayim wis established east o Ma'oz Zion in 1956 bi Jewish immigrants frae North Africae. It wis locatit on a ridge near the airmistice line, north o Motza. The residents wirked in the fruit orchards in the Arazim Valley.

In 1963, Maoz Zion and Mevaseret Yerushalayim formed a joint local council, which was called Mevaseret Zion. The source of the name comes from the Book of Isaiah:  "על הר גבוה עלי לך מבשרת ציון" ("Ascend a lofty mountain, O herald of joy to Zion") (Isaiah 40:9).

Institutions an landmarks
The embassies o Paraguay an Bolivie are locatit in Mevaseret Zion. Mevaseret Zion haes 3 grade schuils, a junior-heich schuil an a heich schuil, "Tichon Har'el. Kanyon Harel is a lairge shoppin mall in Mevaseret.
Yeshivat Sha'arei Mevaseret Zion is locatit in Mevaseret Zion.

Airchaeology
In April-Mey 2003, an aircheological salvage dig carried oot on Nahal Sorek Street in Mevaseret Zion unearthed an auncient burial cave datin frae the mid-Seicont Temple Period.

Notable residents
Rachel Adato
Aharon Appelfeld
Ran Cohen
David Grossman
Matan Vilnai

Sister ceeties
 White Plains, New York, (2004)
 Sankt Augustin, Germany

References

Freemit airtins
 Municipality wabsteid
 Harel Heich Schuil wabsteid

Local cooncils in Israel

Mevaseret Zion


Class D3/6 were diesel shunters built in 1935 by English Electric for the London, Midland and Scottish Railway. They were the first of a new design of diesel shunters based on the English Electric 6K of 350 hp diesel engine. One demonstrator and ten production locomotives were built, numbered 7079 and 7069-7078 by the LMS. Three of these later became British Rail numbers 12000–12002 (previously 7074/76/79 respectively). The remainder were sold to the British War Department in 1940 and were shipped to France during World War II. Of these the first production locomotive, no. 7069, survived the war and was used in industrial service in France. It was later repatriated for preservation and is now based at the Gloucestershire Warwickshire Railway.

London, Midland and Scottish Railway locomotives
D3/6
C locomotives

British Rail Class D3/6


Symphony No. 7 in C major, Op. 60 is a symphony by Dmitri Shostakovich. It is also called the Leningrad symphony. It was composed in 1941. It is a very long work, lasting about 75 minutes. The symphony was first performed by the Bolshoi Theatre Orchestra on 5 March 1942. Shostakovich was awarded a Stalin Prize by the Soviet government for the symphony.

History of its composition

Shostakovich gave the symphony its title because it is about what was happening in Leningrad in 1941. It was during the World War II and the German army had invaded the Soviet Union and blocked communication between the city of Leningrad (now called St Petersburg) and the rest of the world. Conditions were terrible: the people hardly had any food to eat and they were very cold in the winter. About a million people died during the siege.

Shostakovich lived in fear most of his life because if Josef Stalin, the Soviet dictator, did not like his music he could have been sent to prison or put to death. Sometimes Shostakovich was made a hero by the government and sometimes he was told that his music was not good because it was not in the style that the government thought he should write it in. The symphony was very popular at first in countries that fought on the same side as Russia in World War II, as well as in Russia. It was performed many times in the United States and the United Kingdom. Many people in these countries liked the symphony because it seemed to show the Russians as heroes fighting to save their city from the Germans. Later, during the Cold War, many people in these same countries did not like the work very much, because the Russians were now their enemies and they thought that music written there was propaganda meant to show Russia and its leaders as better than other countries and their leaders. In more recent years, people have once more changed their minds about the meaning of the music. The music is now thought by some people who study music to show how cruel Stalin was as well as the terror of the Nazi invasion. Other people still think it was meant to support the Russian government and army as they fought the Germans, and to remember the people who died fighting.

One of the reasons it is so hard to know what the symphony means is that people disagree about when Shostakovich started writing it. If he started it before the war began, it is probably at least partly about the Soviet government, but if he started it during the war, it might be only about the war.

After the first performance on 5 March 1942 in Kuybïshev (now called Samara), it was soon performed in Moscow, and then in Leningrad, which was still surrounded by the German army at the time. A copy of the music was smuggled out to the West on microfilm. It was performed by Sir Henry Wood in London at the BBC studios on 22 June and the next week at a Promenade Concert. On 19 July it was played in New York by the NBC Symphony Orchestra conducted by Arturo Toscanini in a studio concert played on the radio throughout the United States.

The Music
The work has four movements:
1 Allegretto
2 Moderato (poco allegretto)
3 Adagio
4 Allegro non troppo

The first movement is a long, dramatic movement. The middle part of this movement is a march, with a repeated rhythm on the snare drum, starting very softly, with the tune first heard in the strings who are playing "pizzicato" (plucking the string instead of playing with the bow). Each time the tune is played it becomes louder. People used to think that this theme was about the invading German Nazi army, but now some people think it might instead be about the way the Soviet government changed the city of Leningrad, or about both of these things. The second movement is called a scherzo. It is a more light-hearted movement after the tension of the first movement. The third movement is slow and full of strong emotions. The composer said that it was supposed to show the city of Leningrad at sunset. The last movement is faster again, and brings back parts of the music from earlier in the piece, but it is not clear whether the ending is serious or not.

The orchestra is very large and has parts for the flute, piccolo, oboe, cor anglais, clarinet, bass clarinet, bassoon, contrabassoon, French horn, trumpet, trombone, tuba, piano, harp, violin, viola, cello, and double bass, as well as many percussion instruments.

Symphony No. 7 (Shostakovich)
Shostakovich: Symphony No. 7 "Leningrad"

Symphony No. 7 (Shostakovich)


The AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat is a modernized variant of the British helicopter Westland Lynx. Its first flight was in November 2009. It is built by AgustaWestland in Yeovil, Somerset. South Korea will in 2016 be the first foreign country to use the helicopter. In the UK it will be used by British Army and Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm.

Helicopters
AgustaWestland

AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat


The Quadrivium is the medieval education which led to the Master of Arts (MA) degree. The Quadrivium follows the Trivium in a liberal arts education.

The quadrivium consisted of four disciplines which were related to mathematics:
Arithmetic (numbers)
Geometry (space)
Music (time: harmonics)
Astronomy (time and space)

These four studies compose the secondary part of the curriculum outlined by Plato in The Republic.

All the education was done in Latin, which educated pupils learnt at school, or from a private tutor. Latin was the lingua franca (universal language) of mediaeval Europe: even the Bible could only be read in Latin. Since the quadrivium was taught in universities, only boys could take it (because only males took part in universities). The teaching was done by priests. If girls wanted education, it had to be done in their homes. In the modern form of liberal arts in the United States, both sexes are taught, although there are still a few single-sex institutions.

References

Liberal arts
Cultural history

Quadrivium


Charles Julian Humphrey Mitchell, FRSL (born 1 May 1935) is an English playwright, screenwriter and occasional novelist. He is best known as the writer of the play and film Another Country, and as a screenwriter for TV, producing many original plays and series episodes, including at least ten for Inspector Morse.

Mitchell was born in Epping, Essex, and educated at Winchester College, where he won the English Verse and Duncan Reading Prizes. He did his national service in submarines 1953-55 as a Sub Lt RNVR. He then went to Wadham College, Oxford and received a BA with first class honours in 1958.  This was followed by a period as a Harkness Fellow in the USA (1959–61). He earned an M.A. in 1962 at St. Antony's College, Oxford. Since 1962 he has been a freelance writer.

In the late 1960s, Mitchell co-wrote the teleplay Arthur (Or the Decline and Fall of the British Empire) with Ray Davies of The Kinks. It was never produced, though it gave rise to the band's concept album. He recently recalled the aborted project: "Arthur had a most unhappy history. It was originally meant to be a ... sort of rock opera, and we got as far as casting (excellent director and actors) and finding locations and were about to go when the producer went to a production meeting without a proper budget, tried to flannel his way through it, was immediately sussed and the production pulled. I have never been able to forgive the man."

Mitchell has written nine produced plays, including Another Country, which won the SWET (now Olivier) Award for best play of the year (1981), and After Aida (1985), a play-with-music about composer Giuseppe Verdi.

Mitchell has screenplay credits for five feature films. The earliest was Arabesque (1966), which was directed by Stanley Donen. Another Country (1984) is based on Mitchell's own play, and directed by Marek Kanievska. Vincent & Theo (1990) is a biographical film about the famed painter Vincent van Gogh and his brother Theo, and was directed by Robert Altman. August (1996) was directed and starred Anthony Hopkins, and was adapted from Anton Chekhov's classic play Uncle Vanya. Wilde (1997) is based on the life of Oscar Wilde, and was directed by Brian Gilbert.

In 2007 he wrote the BBC4 drama Consenting Adults about Sir John Wolfenden and his celebrated 1957 report.

Novels

Imaginary Toys (1961)
A Disturbing Influence (1962)
As Far as You Can Go (1963)
The White Father (1964) (winner of the Somerset Maugham Award)
A Circle of Friends (1966)
The Undiscovered Country (1968)

References

External links

1935 births
Living people
Alumni of St Antony's College, Oxford
English dramatists and playwrights
English television writers
English screenwriters
English male screenwriters
John Llewellyn Rhys Prize winners
Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
People educated at Winchester College
People from Epping
Harkness Fellows
English male dramatists and playwrights
British male television writers

Julian Mitchell


Mir of Hunza was the title of rulers in the Hunza Valley in the Northern Areas, Pakistan.

Etymology
The Mir used to have the Burushaski title of Thum (also Tham or Thom), later changed to Mir, a Persian form of the Arabic title Emir.

Timeline
 Mir Salim Khan I
 Mir Shah Sultan Khan
 Mir Shahbaz Khan (1710 - Unknown)
 Mir Shahbeg Khan
 Mir Shah Khisrow Khan (1750 - 1790)
 Mir Mirza Khan (1790)
 Mir Salim Khan II (1790 - 1825)
 Mir Ghazanfar Ali Khan I (1825 - 1864)
 Mir Muhammad Ghazan Khan I (1864 - 1886)
 Mir Safdar Ali Khan (1886 - 1891)
 Mir Safdar fled to China after conquest of Hunza and Nagar States by British Forces in December 1891.Prince Muhammad Nafis Khan was the main contender of Mir-ship of Hunza on the grounds that he was the elder son of Mir Muhammad Ghazan Khan-I and has the legitimate right to be appointed as Mir of Hunza but His younger brother Nazim Khan was placed in his position by British Raj in September 1892.
 Mir Muhammad Nazim Khan (1892 - 1938)
 Mir Muhammad Ghazan Khan II (1938 - 1945)
 Mir Muhammad Jamal Khan (1945 - 1976)
 Jamal Khan was last ruling Mir of Hunza. His powers were abolished in the dissolution of Hunza state by Z.A. Bhutto on 25 September 1974.
 Mir Ghazanfar Ali Khan II (title in pretense, 1976 – present)

Abolishment
In 1974 the state became a part of Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan under the Pakistani Federal Government. The last Mir of Hunza was Mir Muhammad Jamal Khan.

Current Situation
In the years to follow, the title of Mir was used as symbol of respect for the former Mirs of Hunza. Consequently, Mir Mohammad Jamal Khan's eldest son, Mir Ghazanfar Ali Khan (born 31 December 1945), uses the title of Mir on his official documents. Amongst other benefits to the former rulers, the federal Government also pays a privy purse or a monthly stipend to the current Mir Ghazanfar Ali Khan. The family is also allowed to retain the former vehicle number plates bearing 'Hunza'.

After the abolition of Hunza State, the Northern Areas, now known as Gilgit-Baltistan region, fell under the jurisdiction of the federal government. Mir Ghazanfar Ali Khan contested the elections several times from his hometown of Karimabad and served as a member of the Gilgit-Baltistan Assembly. His last position of prominence was as Leader of the House and the first Chief Minister of Gilgit-Baltistan under the rule of President Musharraf.

In the general election of 2009, Mir Ghazanfar's son Prince Shehryar Khan (born 5 June 1977) contested the election in place of his father but did not succeed in securing the majority votes from the region; however, he won by a majority in his hometown of Karimabad.

See also
Hunza (princely state)

References

External links
The Changing Northern Areas
Pakistan's Northern Areas dilemma
Northern Areas Development Gateway
Pakistan's Northern Areas
Northern Pakistan's Karakoram & Hindukush Mountains
The Mountain Areas Conservancy Project
Not 'Mir of Hunza' An anti-Mir letter to the editor: one man's opinion, and of undetermined significance.
Welcome To Hunza Valley Heaven On The Earth In Northern Areas Of Pakistan. Enjoy Burushaski Music Songs, Shinaki Music Songs online with The http://www.hunza.20m.com

Hunza

Mir of Hunza


Icing in ice hockey is a rule the happens when a player shoots the puck across at least two red lines, the other team's goal line being the last, and the puck remains untouched but it is not icing if the player shoots the puck from behind the halfway line of the ice into the goal. If the goal went into the net it would be counted as a goal. There is also automatic or no-touch icing which is used mostly in lower-level professional hockey leagues like the ECHL and Central Hockey League, It was enforced in 1990 after Luděk Čajka, a Czech player rushed to get to the puck in an icing situation, he crashed into the boards, suffered severe spinal injuries, and died a few weeks later. Sometimes the goaltender will raise his hand for icing also.

If icing is waved off by a referee it is either because:

The team committing the icing is shorthanded, (penalty killing).
The linesman believes that a player on the other team (other than the goalkeeper) could have played the puck before it crossed the goal line.
In the NHL, the linesman deems the icing is the result of an attempted receivable pass.

Ice hockey words

Icing (ice hockey)


Akinchi, also written as Ekinchi ( / اکينچي) was an Azerbaijan newspaper.  It was made in Baku It was the first newspaper fully printed in the Azerbaijani language. It was also the first newspaper in Russia printed in a Turkic language.  The name means "The Ploughman".

History
Hasan bey Zardabi started the newspaper.  He was a journalist, teacher and scientist. Akinchi was thought to be almost revolutionary because of the language it was made in and that so many people could read it. Zardabi used a simpler form of the Azeri language so more people could read the paper.

The Russian governor of the Caucasus Dmitry Staroselsky liked Zardabi's plans. Staroselsky supported him in starting Akinchi. He was also the one to name the newspaper.  He thought the name would make the authorities think that Akinchi was non-political and about agriculture. In addition to agriculture articles Zardabi wrote about medicine and biology.  There were also stories about the social and cultural state of Muslims in the Caucasus. The first issue of Akinchi was printed on 22 July 1875.

Partly because Staroselsky left, the paper ended on 29 September 1877. There was also little money and few readers. There were only 300 constant readers. The paper helped there be more journalism in Azerbaijan.

References

Other websites
 Several articles from Akinchi

Newspapers published in Azerbaijan
Azerbaijani-language newspapers
1875 establishments
1877 disestablishments

Akinchi


The 8-day Blackpool Dance Festival is the world's first and most famous annual ballroom dance competition of international significance. It has been held in the Winter Gardens, Blackpool, England since 1920 (except for war-time). It is also the largest regular ballroom competition: in 2003, 1539 couples from 54 countries took part in the festival.

As of the early 21st century the festival is held in May. It covers Ballroom dance, including Latin dances. The Festival includes the British Open Championships in categories of adult amateur and professional couples and formation teams. In 2005 two new categories were introduced: the British Rising Star Amateur Ballroom and Latin Competitions. Two invitation events, the Professional Team Match and the Exhibition Competition, create much interest.

The Junior Dance Festival, Blackpool Sequence Dance Festival, and British National Dance Festival are also held annually in Blackpool.

The annual World Professional Championship in either Ballroom or Latin dance is often held in Blackpool (4 times between 1989 and 2005), but is not connected with the Dance Festival.

References

Other websites
 Blackpool Dance Festival official website
 Blackpool Dance home page at danceplaza
 The History of the Blackpool Dance Festival

Dance

Blackpool Dance Festival


The Kinsey Reports are two books, published in 1948 and 1953 by Alfred Kinsey and his co-workers. The books Sexual Behaviour in the Human Male and Sexual Behaviour in the Human Female, were based on thousands of interviews by Kinsey and his team.

The books were shocking when they came out, as they talked about subjects that were taboo. It also questioned widely-held beliefs about sexuality. They were controversial.

Findings of the reports
Kinsey found the following, amongst other things:
There are different sexual orientations: about 46% of men have reacted to both sexes; this means they are not completely heterosexual. 37% had at least one homosexual experience. About 10% were more or less openly homosexual. With women these numbers are lower. About 7% of single women, and about 4% of the women had been married  were about halfway on the scale (3 out of 6), more or less equally homosexual, and heterosexual. 2%-6% of married women, and 1-3% of unmarried women were more or less exclusively homosexual.
Masturbation is common: about 62% of women, and about 92% of men have used masturbation at least once.
How often they have sex: women reported to have had sex 2.8 times a week (in the late teens), 2.2 times a week by age 30, and once a week by age 50.
Sadomasochism: 12% of women, and 22% of men said they were sexually aroused by a sadomasochistic story. 55% of women, and 50% of men have had an erotic reaction when they were bitten.

Criticism
People said that the selection of the sample (those asked) was not well done. One in four were prisoners, and 5% were male prostitutes. The institute, or location Kinsey did these tests, then did another such tests, without asking prisoners or prostitutes, and the findings were more or less the same. People also say that child abuse may have been involved when collecting the data.

Kinsey scale
The Kinsey scale attempts to describe a person's sexual history or episodes of their sexual activity at a given time. It uses a scale from 0 to 6. 0 means the person tested is exclusively heterosexual. A person scoring 6 is exclusively homosexual. In the Kinsey Reports, an extra grade was used for asexuality. The scale  was first published in Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948). It was also  important in the complementary work Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953).

Kinsey introduced the scale:
"Males do not represent two discrete populations, heterosexual and homosexual. The world is not to be divided into sheep and goats. It is a fundamental of taxonomy that nature rarely deals with discrete categories... The living world is a continuum in each and every one of its aspects.

"While emphasising the continuity of the gradations between exclusively heterosexual and exclusively homosexual histories, it has seemed desirable to develop some sort of classification which could be based on the relative amounts of heterosexual and homosexual experience or response in each history... An individual may be assigned a position on this scale, for each period in his life.... A seven-point scale comes nearer to showing the many gradations that actually exist." (Kinsey et al 1948. pp. 639, 656)

The scale is as follows:

 Men: 11.6% of white males aged 20–35 were given a rating of 3 for this period of their lives.
 Women: 7% of single females aged 20–35 and 4% of previously married females aged 20–35 were given a rating of 3 for this period of their lives. 2 to 6% of females, aged 20–35, were given a rating of 5, and 1 to 3% of unmarried females aged 20–35 were rated as 6.

References

Other websites
The Kinsey Institute Website

Books about sexuality
Science books
1948 books
1953 works

Kinsey Reports


The zenaida dove (Zenaida aurita) is a member of the bird family Columbidae, which includes doves and pigeons. It is the national bird of Anguilla, where it is locally referred to as "turtle dove".

Description
The Zenaida dove is approximately  in length. It looks very similar to the mourning dove, but is smaller in size, has a shorter, more rounded tail, and is a bit more darkly colored.   It is also distinguished from the mourning dove by showing white on the trailing edge of its wings while in flight. The mourning dove does not have the white trailing edge.

Breeding
It lays two white eggs on a flimsy platform, built on a tree or shrub. It also nests in rock crevices, and on grassy vegetation if no predators are present. It has been recorded that some birds have up to 4 broods per year.  Eggs take approximately two weeks to hatch, and the young chicks typically fledge after only two weeks in the nest. Parents feed the young pigeon's milk, a nutrient rich substance regurgitated from its crop.

Range, habitat and behaviour
The Zenaida dove breeds throughout the Caribbean and the tip of the Yucatán Peninsula, an example habitat being in the Petenes mangroves. It was reported by John James Audubon to breed in the Florida Keys, but there are only three verifiable records from Florida. It is found in a variety of open and semi-open habitats. Its mournful  call is similar to the call of a mourning dove, but faster in pace.

The bird is resident and abundant over much of its range. Zenaida doves are commonly hunted as a game bird.

Diet
These birds forage on the ground, mainly eating grains and seeds, sometimes also on insects. Zenaida doves frequently feed close to water. They often swallow fine gravel to assist with digestion, and will also ingest salt from mineral rich soils or livestock salt licks. It is thought the salt aids in egg formation and/or production of pigeon milk.

References

 "National Geographic"  Field Guide to the Birds of North America
Handbook of the Birds of the World Vol 4,  Josep del Hoyo editor,
 World Wildlife Fund. 2010. Petenes mangroves. eds. Mark McGinley, C.Michael Hogan & C. Cleveland. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC

External links

zenaida dove
Birds of the Caribbean
Birds of the Dominican Republic
Birds of Haiti
Birds of the Yucatán Peninsula
National symbols of Anguilla
zenaida dove
Taxa named by Coenraad Jacob Temminck

Zenaida dove


Chukchi Sea is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean.  It is bounded on the west by the De Long Strait, off Wrangel Island, and in the east by Point Barrow, Alaska, beyond which is the Beaufort Sea. The Bering Strait forms its southernmost limit and connects it to the Bering Sea and the Pacific Ocean. The main port on the Chukchi Sea is Uelen in Russia. The International Date Line crosses the Chukchi Sea. It is moved east to avoid Wrangel Island as well as the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug on the Russian mainland.

The sea has an area of about 595,000 km² (230,000 mi²).  It can only be travelled about four months of the year. The Chukchi Sea has very few islands compared to other seas of the Arctic. Wrangel Island is at the northwestern limit of the sea, Herald Island is near its northern limit, and a few small islands are along the Siberian and Alaskan coasts.

The sea is named after the Chukchi people.  The live on its shores and on the Chukotka Peninsula. The Chukchi worked at fishing, whaling and the hunting of walrus in this cold sea.

In Siberia places along the coast are: Cape Billings, Cape Schmidt,  Amguyema River, Cape Vankarem, the large Kolyuchinskaya Bay, Neskynpil'gyn Lagoon, Cape Serdtse-Kamen, Enurmino, Chegitun River, Inchoun, Uelen and Cape Dezhnev.

In Alaska, the rivers flowing into the Chukchi Sea are the Kivalina, the Kobuk, the Kokolik, the Kukpowruk, the Kukpuk, the Noatak, the Utukok, the Pitmegea, and the Wulik, among others. The most important rivers flowing in from its Siberian side are the Amguyema, Ioniveyem, and the Chegitun.

Other websites

Geography of Alaska
Seas of Russia
Seas of the Arctic Ocean

Chukchi Sea


Elio Vittorini (; 23 July 1908 – 12 February 1966) was an Italian writer and novelist. He was a contemporary of Cesare Pavese and an influential voice in the modernist school of novel writing. His best-known work is the anti-fascist novel Conversations in Sicily, for which he was jailed when it was published in 1941. The first U.S. edition of the novel, published in 1949, included an introduction from Ernest Hemingway, whose style influenced Vittorini and that novel in particular.

Life
Vittorini was born in Syracuse, Sicily, and throughout his childhood moved around Sicily with his father, a railroad worker.  Several times he ran away from home, culminating in his leaving Sicily for good in 1924.  For a brief period, he found employment as a construction worker in the Julian March, after which he moved to Florence to work as a type corrector (a line of work he abandoned in 1934 due to lead poisoning).  Around 1927 his work began to be published in literary journals.  In many cases, separate editions of his novels and short stories from this period, such as The Red Carnation were not published until after World War II, due to fascist censorship.  In 1937, he was expelled from the National Fascist Party for writing in support of the Republican side in the Spanish Civil War.

In 1939 he moved, this time to Milan. An anthology of American literature which he edited was, once more, delayed by censorship. Remaining an outspoken critic of Benito Mussolini's regime, Vittorini was arrested and jailed in 1942. He joined the Italian Communist Party and began taking an active role in the Resistance, which provided the basis for his 1945 novel Men and not Men. Also in 1945, he briefly became the editor of the Italian Communist daily L'Unita  and weekly Il Politecnico .

After the war, Vittorini chiefly concentrated on his work as editor, helping publish work by young Italians such as Calvino and Fenoglio.  His last major published work of fiction during his lifetime was 1956's Erica and her Sisters.  The news of the events of the Hungarian Uprising deeply shook his convictions in Communism and made him decide to largely abandon writing, leaving unfinished work which was to be published in unedited form posthumously.  For the remainder of his life, Vittorini continued in his post as an editor. In 1959, he co-founded with Calvino Il Menabò, a cultural journal devoted to literature in the modern industrial age. He also ran as a candidate on an Italian Socialist Party list. He died in Milan in 1966. He was an atheist.

Partial bibliography
Racconti di piccola borghesia (1931)
Il garofano rosso (Translated as The Red Carnation, 1933)
Conversazione in Sicilia (Translated as Conversations in Sicily, 1941)
Uomini e no (Translated as Men and not Men, 1945)
Le donne di Messina (1949) (Translated by Frances Frenaye, Women of Messina, 1973)
Erica e suoi fratelli (Translated as Erica, 1956)

He also translated the works of Defoe, Poe, Steinbeck, Faulkner, Lawrence, Maugham and others into Italian.

References

Sources
Biographies
Un padre e un figlio. Biografia famigliare di Elio Vittorini by Demetrio Vittorini. Bellinzona [Switzerland]: Salvioni, 2000. (Demetrio Vittorini is Elio Vittorini's son.)

1908 births
1966 deaths
Writers from Sicily
People from Syracuse, Sicily
People of Emilian descent
Italian resistance movement members
Italian anti-fascists
Italian Communist Party politicians
20th-century Italian politicians
20th-century Italian translators
20th-century Italian novelists
20th-century Italian male writers
Italian newspaper editors
Italian male journalists
Italian magazine founders

Elio Vittorini


A collision course, also known as a kamikaze run, is the deliberate maneuver by the operator of a moving object (or often in Sci-Fi a spaceship) to collide with another object. It is a desperate maneuver since it often damages or destroys both.

Uses in history
Ancient Greek Triremes were reinforced and equipped with bronze rammers, so they could collide with enemy ships to sink them
Admiral Nelson used a similar tactic to attack the French fleet at Trafalgar, to the horror of Captain Hardy, when he ordered the British ships to 'run aboard' (crash into, or just ahead of the ships).
PT-109, a torpedo boat commanded by the future U.S. President, then Lieutenant junior grade John F. Kennedy, was believed to have been rammed intentionally by the Japanese destroyer Amagiri (1930). The destroyer cut the PT boat in half, killing two men and badly injuring another two.
Kamikaze pilots from Japan used collision course tactics to take out naval vessels or large Bombers in the latter days of World War II.  Such tactics even extended to the construction of dedicated kamikaze aircraft, such as the Ohka.

Fictional uses

 In Space Battleship Yamato (2010 film) the titular ship rams an enemy vessel to destroy it.
 In Star Trek: Nemesis the Enterprise E rams the Scimitar.
 In Star Trek: Deep Space Nine the Jem'Hadar use a kamikaze run to stop large Federation ships, notably the USS Odyssey (NCC-71832) destroyed circa stardate 47990.
 In Star Trek: Voyager episode "Year of Hell" Captain Janeway used USS Voyager to destroy the Krenim weapon ship.
 In J.J. Abrams Star Trek reboot, George Kirk rams the U.S.S. Kelvin into the Narada in order for the shuttlecraft to escape destruction by the Romulans. Spock also rams the Vulcan ship Jellyfish into the Narada in order to detonate the red matter that is on board.
 In Galaxy Quest (a spoof of Star Trek) the NSEA Protector flies at Sarris' ship dragging space mines, feigning a suicidal attack.
 In the Babylon 5 episode "Severed Dreams", the critically damaged EAS Churchill rams the loyalist ship EAS Roanoke, destroying both.
 In the Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series) episode "Exodus Part 2" the Battlestar Pegasus is rammed into a Basestar. Both ships are destroyed, with a second basestar being destroyed by debris.
 In Stargate SG-1, Jaffa Ha'tak vessels ram Ori battlecruisers on at least two occasions, but are unable to defeat the superior Ori shields, resulting in the destruction of only the Ha'taks.
 In Stargate Atlantis, two darts destroy the Ancient weapons platform that was going to be used to destroy the ZPM powered Hive Ship.
 In Stargate Universe, Destiny's shields were modified to take a lesser amount of damage from the drones' weapons, but the drones used Kamikaze Runs to penetrate Destiny's shields and damage the ship.
 In Return of the Jedi an A-Wing pilot crashes his damaged fighter into the bridge of a Super Star Destroyer causing it to fall into the Death Star.
 In Independence Day the final air battle which takes place over Area 51, pilot Russell Casse crashes his jet into the spacecraft core which in turn destroys it.
 In Killzone 2, Colonel Jan Templar after being mortally wounded reprograms his flagship New Sun to crash into the Helghan defense grid.
 In Prometheus (2012 film) Captain Janek uses the Prometheus to stop the Engineer ship from escaping and delivering its payload to Earth.
 In the Thunderbirds episode "Sun Probe", the Sun Probe rocket and Thunderbird 3 were both heading nearly straight for the Sun.
 In the Captain Scarlet episode "White as Snow", a reconstructed TVR-17 was on target for Cloudbase.

Use in media
 Collision Course, the 2004 Linkin Park/Jay-Z mashup EP that contained the hit single Numb/Encore
 Collision Course, a 1989 action-comedy film

See also
 Self-destruct
 International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea
 Last Resort

Mechanics
Ideological rivalry

Collision course


The Voyager Golden Records are records that contain sounds and images chosen to show the life and culture on Earth. They show photographs of life on earth, including nature, cities, people and animals. They also have greetings recorded in 55 languages, songs from around the world, and non-musical sounds. The record gives specific instructions and distance measurements that can be used to pinpoint Earth's location as well. The record was designed by a team headed by Carl Sagan to communicate with extraterrestrial life.

These records which were sent in the Voyager spacecraft in 1977, are for alien life forms to see. The outside of the record is designed so that aliens could understand, with instructions about how to play the record next to images. However, the records can be seen as a symbol rather than a serious attempt to contact alien life forms.

Related pages
Carl Sagan
Fermi paradox
Contents of the Voyage Golden Records

Voyager program
Extraterrestrial life

Voyager Golden Record


Clyde Robert Cameron,  (11 February 191314 March 2008), was an Australian politician. He was a member of the Australian Labor Party (ALP) and served in the House of Representatives from 1949 to 1980, representing the Division of Hindmarsh. He was a leading figure in the Australian labour movement and held ministerial office in the Whitlam government as Minister for Labour (1972–1974), Labor and Immigration (1974–1975), and Science and Consumer Affairs (1975).

Early life
Cameron was born in Murray Bridge, South Australia, the son of a shearer of Scottish descent. He was educated at Gawler but left school at 14 to work as a shearer. During the very worst years of the Great Depression, he was unemployed, and the experience of joblessness was one that he never forgot or forgave. When he finally got work, later in the 1930s, he ended up having to travel to every Australian state and also to New Zealand. He was active in the Australian Workers' Union and the Australian Labor Party from an early age, becoming an AWU organiser and then South Australian State President and a federal vice-president of the union in 1941. From 1943 to 1948, he was the union's industrial advocate and taught himself industrial law. In 1946, he became State President of the Labor Party.

In 1939, Cameron married Ruby Krahe (always called "Cherie") with whom he had three children (twins Warren and Tania, and a second son Noel). In 1949, he suffered a personal crisis when all three children were affected by poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis). He also learned that his youngest son had an intellectual disability. Although they all eventually recovered from polio, the ordeal permanently affected Cameron and contributed to the breakup of his marriage. In 1966, the Camerons were divorced and in 1967, he remarried, now to Dorothy Bradbury.

He was the uncle of Terry Cameron.

Early political career

Cameron was the most powerful figure in the South Australian labour movement in the years immediately after World War II. At the 1949 election, he was elected to the House of Representatives for the safe Labor seat of Hindmarsh and left his brother Don (later a senator) in charge of the South Australian AWU. He rapidly made his mark as one of the most aggressive and uncompromising Labor members ever to enter the Australian Parliament. Cameron regarded the conservatives with a deep and personal hatred and made no secret of it. He rapidly emerged as one of the leaders of the left wing of the Caucus, led at that time by Eddie Ward, who became Cameron's mentor. Nonetheless, he was an intelligent and able parliamentarian.

It was the tragedy of Labor politicians of Cameron's generation that Labor spent almost a quarter of a century in Opposition, from 1949 to 1972, with the result that Cameron, like many others, spent his best years out of office. During the Labor Split of the 1950s, Cameron became a leading supporter of federal Labor Leader Dr H.V. Evatt and an opponent of the right-wing Catholic faction. He was among those who insisted for all the "Groupers" to be expelled from the party. He also conducted a long feud with the right-wing (but anti-Grouper) federal leadership of the AWU led by Tom Dougherty, one of a long list of people whom Cameron detested.

By the 1960s, Cameron realised Labor would never win a federal election again unless it could find both a leader and a set of policies acceptable to an increasingly middle-class electorate. Ward's death in 1963 marked the end of the old Depression-era leftism in the federal Caucus. The younger leftist leaders such as Cameron, Jim Cairns and Tom Uren were sober enough to adapt to the changed circumstances. Cameron became increasingly critical of Arthur Calwell's leadership but supported Calwell in his passionately opposing the Vietnam War.

Calwell retired in 1967 and was succeeded by Gough Whitlam. Although he disagreed with Whitlam on many issues, after 1968, Cameron became a supporter of Whitlam's leadership. In 1969, Whitlam made Cameron Shadow Minister for Employment. Cameron's decisive influence helped Whitlam gain control of the Federal Executive. In 1970 he supported Whitlam's intervention in the Labor Party's Victorian branch which was controlled by the extreme left.

Cabinet minister
At the December 1972 election Labor came to office under Whitlam, and Cameron became Minister for Labour at the age of 59. He created a sensation by dismissing the permanent head of his department, Sir Halford Cook and bringing in an outsider; he was always deeply suspicious of senior public servants. However, he greatly improved the pay and conditions of other public servants by using the public sector to set new benchmarks, which he hoped would be extended to the private sector. Revealing himself to be an unsuspected feminist, he hired Mary Gaudron (later the first woman on the High Court bench) to argue before the Arbitration Commission for equal pay for women workers. His senior advisor was John Bannon, later Premier of South Australia. Following Al Grassby's defeat at the 1974 election, Cameron became Minister for Labour and Immigration.

The unions had high hopes that Cameron would bring greatly improved benefits for industrial workers. Unfortunately for Cameron, the Australian economy began to deteriorate rapidly in 1974, as a result of the inflation caused by the oil shock, and the government came under increasing pressure to hold back wage increases, which were seen by orthodox economists to be fuelling inflation. Cameron resisted that pressure, and his relations with Whitlam deteriorated. At the same time, he became increasingly critical of the more irresponsible union leaders, who, he believed, blindly pursued wage rises without regard to the state of the economy or to the incomes policy of their own Labor government. Still, in the twelve months from September 1973, Cameron claimed to have presided over "the greatest redistribution in the favour of wage earners ever to be recorded in any one year by any country in the world."

By 1975 the Whitlam government was in crisis and Whitlam reshuffled the cabinet by bringing in Bill Hayden as Treasurer and Jim McClelland as Minister for Labour and Immigration. Cameron refused to resign as Labour and Immigration Minister, and Whitlam was forced to ask the Governor-General, Sir John Kerr, to withdraw his commission. He was eventually persuaded to accept the position of Minister for Science and Consumer Affairs.

Cameron thus became once again Whitlam's implacable enemy, but with the dismissal of Whitlam's government in November, there was little he could do. He withdrew to the backbench, where he remained for the next five years until he retired from Parliament, after the 1980 election.

After politics
Cameron was involved in the Georgist movement and wrote for the Georgist Education Association.

In the 1982 Australia Day Honours, he was appointed an Officer of the Order of Australia.

Clyde Cameron College was run by the Australian Trade Union Training Authority from 1977 until its abolition in 1996.

Well into his last years, he remained a frequent contributor to public debate, uttering various remarks showing a surprisingly respectful attitude towards his contemporary and former antagonist B. A. Santamaria. The two men never met, but when Santamaria died in 1998, Cameron (as reported by the Santamaria-founded magazine News Weekly) paid him a warm tribute by saying that "his soul was not for sale." Inspired by his marathon interview with Ashforth, Cameron contacted Santamaria and the two sat for dozens of hours of taped discussions. Cameron went on to interview other colleagues and rivals, adding to the extraordinary archive for which he will ultimately be best remembered.

He was awarded the Centenary Medal in 2001.

Cameron died at his home on Sunlake Place in Tennyson, South Australia, at age 95. He was survived by three children, six grandchildren, 11 great-grandchildren and one great-great-grandchild.

Bibliography
Daniel Connell, The Confessions of Clyde Cameron 1913-1990, ABC Enterprises 1990
Bill Guy, A Life on the Left: A Biography of Clyde Cameron, Wakefield Press 1999

References

1913 births
2008 deaths
1975 Australian constitutional crisis
Australian Labor Party members of the Parliament of Australia
Members of the Cabinet of Australia
Members of the Australian House of Representatives for Hindmarsh
Members of the Australian House of Representatives
Officers of the Order of Australia
Labor Left politicians
People from Murray Bridge, South Australia
20th-century Australian politicians

Clyde Cameron


Xylem is a tissue in vascular plants. Its cells have thick, hard walls. Xylem tissue dies soon after it is formed and is the wood in the middle of a tree. The dead cells are like pipes, hollow and rigid.

Xylem is one of two tissues in the plant which transport substances that plants need to live. Substances that xylem transports include water and minerals obtained through the plant's roots, as xylem runs from the roots to the stems and leaves. The other transport tissue is the phloem, which transports energy in the form of sugar (as well as any other chemicals) from the leaves to the rest of the plant.

Xylem cells are present in all parts of a plant, in stems, roots, and leaves. Water is carried against gravity by the negative pressure that builds up through the process of transpiration, which is the evaporation of moisture in leaves.

Xylem consists of four types of cells:

 Xylem parenchyma which are living cells with thin walls
 Xylem fibres
 Tracheids
 Xylem vessels

Most of these cells are dead cells and have thick walls.

Related pages
 Medullary ray

Vascular tissue
Plant physiology

Xylem


White phosphorus  is an incendiary weapon. It makes a bright light and smoke. Its main ingredient is one of the allotropes of the chemical element phosphorus. White phosphorus is toxic to humans. It can burn deep into soft tissue, it can be breathed in, or it can be ingested (eaten). Over time, these can cause death.

The use of incendiary weapons against civilians is forbidden since 1949. They were used by U.S. forces in Iraq in 2004.
White phosphorous was also used for smoke cover by the Israeli Army during Operation Cast Lead in the Gaza Strip during the 2008-2009 war between Israel and Hamas.

Incendiary weapons

White phosphorus


Gene silencing is a general term describing epigenetic processes of gene regulation. It is used to describe the "switching off" of a gene by a mechanism other than genetic engineering. That is, a gene which would be expressed ("turned on") under normal circumstances is switched off by machinery in the cell. When a gene is silenced, it means that its RNA is unable to make a protein.

Genes are regulated at either the transcriptional stage, or later, before translation.

Transcriptional gene silencing is done by histone modifications, which put heterochromatin around a gene. This means the transcriptional machinery (RNA polymerase, transcription factors, etc.) cannot get at the gene. Genes may be silenced by DNA methylation. This happens regularly during development, when genes are turned on and off at different stages.

Post-transcriptional gene silencing is done by blocking or destroying the mRNA of a particular gene. The destruction of the mRNA prevents translation to form an active gene product (in most cases, a protein). A common way mRNA gets silenced is by RNAi.

Both transcriptional and post-transcriptional gene silencing are used to regulate genes. Methods of gene silencing also protect the organism's genome from transposons and viruses. Gene silencing thus may be part of an ancient immune system protecting cells from such infectious DNA and RNA.

Cell biology
Molecular biology

Gene silencing