Zhang Dali (sinogrammes simplifiés : 张大力 ; hanyu pinyin : zhāng dà lì ; littéralement "Zhang la grande force") est un artiste chinois contemporain né en 1963 à Harbin.

Biographie
Il est diplômé de l'École nationale des beaux-arts de Pékin (1987) et vit actuellement à Pékin.

Exposé à travers le monde dans les plus grandes institutions, il a par exemple été invité en 2010 aux Rencontres d'Arles, France.

Zhang Dali est un artiste chinois né en 1963 à Harbin qui vit et travaille à Pékin. Après y avoir terminé ses études à l'Académie d'Art et de Design, il voyage en Italie où il découvre l'art du graffiti. À son retour, il est le seul artiste graffeur de Pékin. Aujourd'hui il est considéré comme l'un des pionniers du graffiti chinois. Zhang Dali devient célèbre pour les 2 000 profils géants de lui-même qu'il place un peu partout dans la capitale chinoise entre 1995 et 1998, à côté des caractères chai peints par les autorités de la ville pour indiquer une démolition. Ses graffitis sont comme une révolte contre la démolition du vieux Pékin. À cette série de profils intitulée Dialogue, Zhang Dali travaille aussi sur la série Démolition : il enlève la surface du mur à l'intérieur des lignes de contour de ses graffitis, montrant ce qui se trouve derrière. L'un des plus connus étant Démolition-Cité interdite (1998) qui laisse voir les toits de la Cité Interdite, dénonçant ainsi le contraste entre le palais éternel et la démolition de la vieille ville au profit du progrès. Zhang Dali est le premier à réaliser une intervention artistique durable dans l'espace public en Chine. Il utilise pour pseudonymes AK-47 et 18K, ses signatures figuratives peuvent être considérées comme l'endoctrinement graphique des affiches qui exhortent les citoyens chinois à mieux se comporter dans la vie quotidienne. Avec AK-47 - qui est le nom d'une arme à feu soviétique - Zhang Dali fait référence au haut niveau de violence de la société ; tandis que 18K signifie 18 carats pour une nouvelle prospérité de la Chine. Son installation Chinese Offspring de 100 sculptures en résine à taille humaine représentant des travailleurs immigrés dans différentes postures poursuit son travail de dénoncer la façon dont la Chine se modernise sans se soucier de ses habitants. Suspendues la tête en bas, ces œuvres soulignent le manque de pouvoir de ces travailleurs immigrés, dont le travail a permis la rapide modernisation des villes, sur leur vie, et le traitement sans ménagement que leur inflige la Chine. La mise en lumière de ceux qui ont perdu face aux bouleversements historiques est le thème principal du travail de Zhang Dali. Sa série photographique, A Second History, associe des photos de presse retouchées avec leurs originaux à l'époque de la Révolution culturelle, Zhang Dali fait disparaître les camarades du parti de Mao Zedong qui sont tombés en disgrâce et change les arrière-plans. Il crée ainsi une nouvelle histoire pour les victimes.

"I believe that humans are the product of their environment. I am concerned about the changes in our living environment that have been imposed by money and power. " Zhang Dali

En France et en Chine Zhang Dali est représenté par la Galerie Magda Danysz

Expositions
2016

"Permanence and Impermanence - New Works by Zhang Dali," Beijing Minsheng Art Museum, Beijing,China

2015

"Under the Sky," Pekin Fine Arts, Hong Kong

"World's Shadow," Kunstverein Ludwigsburg, Ludwigsburg, Germany

"From Reality to Extreme Reality: Zhang Dali Retrospective," United Art Museum, Wuhan, China

"A Second History," Museo de Arte Contempoáneo de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina

2014

"Square," Klein Sun Gallery, New York, NY

2013

"Zhang Dali - Second History," Luxun Academy of Fine Arts Museum, Shenyang, China

2012

"Zhang Dali Retrospective," Eli Klein Fine Art, New York, NY

2011

"World's Shadows," Pékin Fine Arts, Beijing, China

"Demolition: Second History," The Charles Shain Library, Connecticut College, New London, CT

"New Slogan," Eli Klein Fine Art, New York, NY

2010

"Extreme Reality," Tank Loft, Chongqing Contemporary Art Center, Chonqing, China

"Zhang Dali: A Second History," Guangdong Museum of Art, Guangzhou, China

"Zhang Dali Solo Show," Bund 18 Gallery, Shanghai, China

2009

"Pervasion: Works by Zhang Dali (1995-2008)," He Xiangning Art Museum, Shenzhen, China

"Il Sogno Proibito della Nuova Cina," Palazzo Inghilterra, Turin, Italy

2008

"Slogans," Kiang Gallery, Atlanta, GA

"The Road to Freedom," Red Star Gallery, Beijing, China

2007

"Chinese Offspring," Chinese Contemporary Gallery, New York, NY

2006

"Zhang Dali: Image and Revision in New Chinese Photography," Janet Wallace Fine Arts Center, Macalester College, St. Paul, MN

"A Second History," Ferst Center for the Arts, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA ; Walsh Gallery, Chicago, IL

2005

"Sublimation," Beijing Commune Gallery, Beijing, China

2004

"New Works by Zhang Dali," Chinese Contemporary Gallery, London, UK

2003

"AK-47," Galleria Il Traghetto, Venice, Italy; Galleria Gariboldi, Milan, Italy

2002

"Beijing's Face," Base Gallery, Tokyo, Japan

"Headlines," Chinese Contemporary Gallery, London, UK

2000

"AK-47," The Courtyard Gallery, Beijing, China

1999

"Dialogue," Chinese Contemporary Gallery, London, UK

"Dialogue and Demolition," The Courtyard Gallery, Beijing, China

1994

"Rivoluzione e Violenza," Galleria Studio 5, Bologna, Italy

1993

"Zhang Dali: Pitture a Inchiostro," Galleria Studio 5, Bologna, Italy

1989

"Wash Painting Exhibition by Zhang Dali," CAFA Art Museum, Beijing, China

2016

"Chinascape: From Rural to Urban," Spazioborgogno, Milan, Italy

"Linda Gallery Beijing 10th Anniversary," Linda Gallery, Beijing, China

"Art From The Streets," CAFA Art Museum, Beijing, China

"The Shadow Never Lies," Shanghai 21st Century Minsheng Art Museum, Shanghai, China

"Utopias and Heterotopias: Wuzhen International Contemporary Art Exhibition," North Silk Factory and West Scenic Zone, Wuzhen, China

"Audacious: Contemporary Artist Speak Out," Denver Art Museum, Denver, CO

Busan Biennale, Busan, South Korea

"Vile Bodies," White Rabbit Gallery, Sydney, Australia

"Enduring Magnetism - Huang Rui, Gao Brothers, Zhang Dali," 1x3 Gallery, Beijing, China

2015

"Agitprop!," Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn, NY

"Beyond the Earth- The First Xi'an Contemporary Photography Exhibition," Xi'an Art Museum, Xi'an, China

"A Touch of Classics: 100 Chinese Contemporary Works - Charles Jing Collection of Original Photo Prints," China Millennium Monument Art Museum, Beijing, China

"Community Implant Plan," Chengdu Jinjiang Museum, Chengdu, China

"Transgression," Peking Hotel, Beijing, China

"A New Dynasty – Created in China," ARoS Aarhus Art Museum, Aarhus, Denmark

"Grain to Pixel: A Story of Photography in China," Shanghai Center of Photography, Shanghai, China

"Paradi$e Bitch," White Rabbit Gallery, Sydney, Australia

"Unfamiliar Asia: The Second Beijing Photo Biennial," CAFA Art Museum, Beijing, China

"The Civil Power," Beijing Minsheng Art Museum, Beijing, China

"Suddenly Enlightened," United Art Museum, Wuhan, China

"Getting Close to Art," Chengdu Dujiangyan City Cultural Center, Chengdu, China

"Plan to Enter the Neighborhood," Chengdu Jinjiang Museum, Chengdu, China

"State of Play," White Rabbit Collection, Sydney, Australia

Krakow Photomonth 2015, Foundation for Visual Arts, Krakow, Poland

"DE/CONSTRUCTING CHINA: Selections from the Asia Society Museum Collection," Asia Society Museum, New York, NY

"We are Together – 2015 Chengdu Public Art Season," Chengdu Central Square, Chengdu, China

"The Persistence of Images: 2x6," Redtory, Guangzhou, China

2014

"Focus Beijing: Des Heus-Zomer Collection of Chinese Contemporary Art," Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

"Echo: Study on Presentation of Multidimensional Tradition in Chinese Contemporary Art," United Art Museum, Wuhan, China

4th Singapore International Photography Festival, ArtScience Museum, Singapore

"From Granulation to Pixel: Chinese Contemporary Photography," MoCA, Shanghai, China

"Chinese Contemporary Photography 2009 – 2014," Minsheng Art Museum, Shanghai, China

2013

"FUCK OFF 2," The Groninger Museum, Groningen, The Netherlands

The 55th International Art Exhibition of the Venice Biennale, Venice, Italy

"Hot Pot: A Taste of Contemporary Chinese Art," Brattleboro Museum and Art Center, Brattleboro, VT

"RE-INK: Invitational Exhibition of Contemporary Ink and Wash Painting 2000-2012," Hubei Museum of Art, Wuhan, Hubei, China; Today Art Museum, Beijing, China

"Individual Growth – Momentum of Contemporary Art," Tianjin Art Museum, Tianjin, China

"Incarnations," Institut Confucius des Pays de la Loire d'Angers, Angers, France

The First Beijing Photography Biennale, China Millennium Monument, Beijing, China

"World's Shadows," Photo Phnom Penh 2013, Royal University of Phnom Penh, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

"Spectacle Reconstruction – Chinese Contemporary Art," MODEM, Debrecen, Hungary

"Aftermath: Witnessing War, Countenancing Compassion," 21c Museum, Louisville, KY

2012

"OMEN 2012 – Chinese New Art," Shanghai Art Museum, Shanghai, China

"Raze," Pekin Fine Arts, Beijing, China

"Faking It: Manipulated Photography Before Photoshop," The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY

The 4th Guangzhou Triennial, Guangdong Museum of Art, Guangzhou, China

"Body Double: The Figure in Contemporary Sculpture," The Meijer Gardens and Sculpture Park, Grand Rapids, MI

2011

"Start from the Horizon- Chinese Contemporary Sculpture Since 1978," Sishang Art Museum, Beijing, China

"Guanxi: Contemporary Chinese Art," Today Art Museum, Beijing, China; Guangdong Museum of Art, Guangzhou, China

"New Photography 2011," Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY

The 54th International Art Exhibition of the Venice Biennale, Venice, Italy

"Scenes from Within: Contemporary Art from China," Blackbridge Hall Gallery, Georgia College, Milledgeville, GA

"Black and White," Zero Art Museum, Beijing, China

"The Life and Death of Buildings," Princeton University Art Museum, Princeton, NJ

Changwon Asia Art Festival, Seongsan Art Hall, Changwon, South Korea

"The Evolving Art," Academy of Arts and Design at Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

2010

6th Lianzhou International Photo Festival, Lianzhou, China

"The Original Copy: Photography of a Sculpture, 1839 to Today," Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY

"Exhibition, Exhibition," Castello di Rivoli Museo d'Arte Contemporanea, Turin, Italy

Hong Kong Photo Festival, Hong Kong

"Zhang Dali: A Second History," 41st Les Rencontres d'Arles, Espace Van Gogh, Arles, France

"A Decade-Long Exposure," CAFA Art Museum, Beijing, China

"Dimensionality," Red Star Gallery, Beijing, China

"Great Performance," Pace Beijing, Beijing, China

"Ame de Chine," Magda Danysz Gallery, Paris, France

"From New York to Beijing: Graffiti - Blogging in the Street - Blade and Zhang Dali," C-Space, Beijing, China

"Re-Visioning History," OV Gallery, Shanghai, China

"Reshaping History - Chinart from 2000-2009," National Conference Center, Beijing, China

"China's Soul," Magda Danysz Gallery, Paris, France

2009

"Chasing Flames," Eli Klein Fine Art, New York, NY

"Quadrilogy: Conflicting Tales: Subjectivity," DAAD Gallery, Berlin, Germany

"Calligraffiti: 'Writing in Contemporary Chinese and Chicano Art," USC Pacific Asia Museum, Pasadena, CA

"Re-imaging Asia," The New Art Gallery, Walsall, UK

"Stairway to Heaven: From Chinese Streets to Monuments and Skyscrapers," Kansas City Art Institute, Kansas City, MO

"Contemporary Chinese Prints," Pace Prints, New York, NY

"The Very Condition," Wall Art Museum, Beijing, China

"Images from History," Shenzhen Art Museum, Shenzhen, China

"Collision," CAFA Art Museum, Beijing, China

"Transforming Traditions," Victoria H. Myhren Gallery, University of Denver, Denver, CO

"From Style Writing to Art – Street Art Group Show," 18 Gallery, Shanghai, China

2008

"Stairway to Heaven: From Chinese Streets to Monuments and Skyscrapers," Bates College Museum of Art, Lewiston, ME

"Five Years of Duolun –Chinese Contemporary Art Retrospective Exhibition," Shanghai Duolun Museum of Modern Art, Shanghai, China

"The Revolution Continues: New Art From China," Saatchi Museum, London, UK

"Logan Collection," San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, CA

"China Gold," Musee Maillol, Paris, France

"Zhang Dali and Shen Shaomin," Eli Klein Fine Art, New York, NY

"The Avant-garde in the '80s and '90s of the Last Century in China," Groninger Museum, Groningen, Netherlands

"Guang Hua Road," Michael Schultz Gallery, Beijing, China

"Exquisite Corpse: China Surreal," M97 Gallery, Shanghai, China

"Go China! –Writing on the Wall" Groninger Museum, Groningen, Netherlands

"Re-Imagining Asia: Asian Coordinates," House of World Cultures, Berlin, Germany

2007

"All of our Tomorrows: The Culture of Camouflage," Kunstraum der Universität, Lünenburg, Germany

"Unexpected: Out of Control," Ku Art Center, Beijing, China

"China Now," Cobra Museum of Modern Art, Amsterdam, Netherlands

"Red Hot," Houston Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX

"Three Unitary," DDM, Shanghai, China

"La Cina e' vicina," Mediterranea Gallery, Palermo, Italy

"Past Forward," Oriental Vista Art Collections, Shanghai, China

2006

"Radar: Selections from the Collection of Kent and Vicki Logan," Denver Art Museum, Denver, CO

"China Now," Essl Museum, Vienna, Austria

6th Gwangju Biennale, Gwangju, South Korea

"Red Star," Red Star Gallery, Beijing, China

"Great Performance," Max Protetch, New York, NY

2005

"Wall," Millennium Museum, Beijing, China

"Mayfly," Beijing Commune Gallery, Beijing, China

"The Game of Realism," Beijing Commune Gallery, Beijing, China

"Chinese Contemporary Sculpture Exhibition," Museum Beelden aan Zee, Scheveningen, Netherlands

2004

"Between Past and Future: New Photography and Video from China," International Center of Photography, New York, NY; Asia Society, New York, NY; Smart Museum of Art, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL; Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, IL; Victoria & Albert Museum, London, UK; Seattle Art Museum, Seattle, WA; Haus der Kulturen der Welt, Berlin, Germany; Santa Barbara Museum of Art, Santa Barbara, CA; The Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University, Durham, NC

"Critical Mass," Chinese Contemporary Gallery, Beijing, China

"Me! Me! Me!" The Courtyard Gallery, Beijing, China

2003

"The Logan Collection," Denver Art Museum, Denver, CO

"China-Germany Art," Factory 798, Beijing, China

"Festival Internazionale di Roma," L'Officina-Arte del Borghetto, Rome, Italy

2002

"New Photography from China," The Courtyard Gallery, Beijing, China

1st Guangzhou Triennial, Guangdong Museum of Art, Guangzhou, China

International Photography Festival, Pingyao International Photography Museum, Pingyao, China

2001

"Courtyard Gallery August Group Show," The Courtyard Gallery, Beijing, China

"China Art Now," Singapore Art Museum, Singapore

"Contemporary Chinese Photography," Oulu Art Museum, Oulu, Finland; Finland Museum of Photography, Helsinki, Finland

"Hot Pot: Chinese Contemporary Art," Kunstnernes Hus, Oslo, Norway

2000

"Fuck Off," Eastlink Gallery, Shanghai, China

"Artistes Contemporains Chinois," Musee des Tapisseries, Aix-en-Provence, France

"Thought Brand Meat Mincer," Dongsi 8 Tiao, Beijing, China

"Food as Art," Club Vogue, Beijing, China

"Serendipity," The Japan Foundation Asia Center, Tokyo, Japan

1999

"Transparence Opacite? Touming bu touming," Maison de la Villette, Paris, France

"Food for Thought," DAE, Eindhoven, Netherlands

"Beijing in London," Institute of Contemporary Art, London, UK

"HSIN: a visible spirit," Cypress College Art Gallery, Cypress, CA; BC Space Gallery, Laguna Beach, CA

"The World Is Yours!" Design Museum, Beijing, China

"Unveiled Reality-Chinese Contemporary Photography," Chulalongkom University Museum, Bangkok, Thailand

"Chinese Contemporary Photography," Bard College, Red Hook, NY

1998

"Chinese Artists Group Show," Chinese Contemporary Gallery, London, UK

"Chinese Contemporary Photography," Lehman College, New York, NY

"11th Tallinn Triennial," Tallinn, Estonia

"Urbanity," Wang Shou Temple Art Museum, Beijing, China

1997

"W ²+ Z ²- Multi-media and video Exhibition," Gallery of the National Academy of Fine Arts, Beijing, China

1995

"La Formazione della Terra," Goethe Institute Gallery, Turin, Italy

1993

"Arte Deperibile," Spazio Cultura Navile, Bologna, Italy

"Zona Internazionale," Neon Gallery, Bologna, Italy

1992

"Collettiva di artisti cinesi," Il Sigillo Gallery, Padova, Italy

1991

"Pittura su Carta," Galleria Communale, Ferrara, Italy

1989

"Wash Painting Salon in Peking," Capital Museum (Confucius Temple), Beijing, China

1987

"Three Men Show," Sun Yat Sen Park, Beijing, China

Selected Public Collections

21c Museum, Louisville, KY

Asia Society, New York, NY

AW Asia Foundation, New York, NY

The Brooklyn Museum, New York, NY

Denver Art Museum, Denver, CO

Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA

Fukuoka Art Museum, Fukuoka, Japan

International Center of Photography, New York, NY

Lowe Art Museum, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL

Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY

Nasher Museum of Art, Durham, SC

The Saatchi Gallery, London, UK

Smart Museum, Chicago, IL

White Rabbit Collection, Sydney, Australia

The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX

Notes et références

Artiste contemporain chinois
Naissance en 1963
Naissance à Harbin

Zhang Dali


Chrysanthemums ( ), sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus Chrysanthemum in the family Asteraceae. They are native to East Asia and northeastern Europe. Most species originate from East Asia and the center of diversity is in China. Countless horticultural varieties and cultivars exist.

Description

The genus Chrysanthemum are perennial herbaceous flowering plants, sometimes subshrubs. The leaves are alternate, divided into leaflets and may be pinnatisect, lobed, or serrate (toothed) but rarely entire; they are connected to stalks with hairy bases.

The compound inflorescence is an array of several flower heads, or sometimes a solitary head. The head has a base covered in layers of phyllaries. The simple row of ray florets is white, yellow, or red. The disc florets are yellow. Pollen grains are approximately 34 microns.

The fruit is a ribbed achene.

Etymology
The name "chrysanthemum" is derived from the  chrysos (gold) and  anthemon (flower).

Taxonomy
The genus Chrysanthemum was first formally described by Linnaeus in 1753, with 14 species, and hence bears his name (L.) as the botanical authority. The genus once included more species, but was split several decades ago into several genera, putting the economically important florist's chrysanthemums in the genus Dendranthema. The naming of these genera has been contentious, but a ruling of the International Botanical Congress in 1999 changed the defining species of the genus to Chrysanthemum indicum, restoring the florist's chrysanthemums to the genus Chrysanthemum.

Genera now separated from Chrysanthemum include Argyranthemum, Glebionis, Leucanthemopsis, Leucanthemum, Rhodanthemum, and Tanacetum.

Species
, Plants of the World Online accepted the following species:

 Chrysanthemum aphrodite Kitam.
 Chrysanthemum arcticum L.
 Chrysanthemum argyrophyllum Ling
 Chrysanthemum arisanense Hayata
 Chrysanthemum chalchingolicum Grubov
 Chrysanthemum chanetii H.Lév.
 Chrysanthemum crassum (Kitam.) Kitam.
 Chrysanthemum cuneifolium Kitam.
 Chrysanthemum daucifolium Pers.
 Chrysanthemum dichrum (C.Shih) H.Ohashi & Yonek.
 Chrysanthemum foliaceum (G.F.Peng, C.Shih & S.Q.Zhang) J.M.Wang & Y.T.Hou
 Chrysanthemum glabriusculum (W.W.Sm.) Hand.-Mazz.
 Chrysanthemum horaimontanum Masam.
 Chrysanthemum hypargyreum Diels
 Chrysanthemum indicum L.
 Chrysanthemum integrifolium Richardson
 Chrysanthemum japonense (Makino) Nakai
 Chrysanthemum × konoanum Makino
 Chrysanthemum lavandulifolium Makino
 Chrysanthemum leucanthum (Makino) Makino
 Chrysanthemum longibracteatum (C.Shih, G.F.Peng & S.Y.Jin) J.M.Wang & Y.T.Hou
 Chrysanthemum maximoviczii Kom.
 Chrysanthemum miyatojimense Kitam.
 Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl.
 Chrysanthemum morii Hayata
 Chrysanthemum naktongense Nakai
 Chrysanthemum ogawae Kitam.
 Chrysanthemum okiense Kitam.
 Chrysanthemum oreastrum Hance
 Chrysanthemum ornatum Hemsl.
 Chrysanthemum parvifolium C.C.Chang
 Chrysanthemum potentilloides Hand.-Mazz.
 Chrysanthemum rhombifolium (Y.Ling & C.Shih) H.Ohashi & Yonek.
 Chrysanthemum × rubellum Sealy
 Chrysanthemum × shimotomaii Makino
 Chrysanthemum sinuatum Ledeb.
 Chrysanthemum vestitum (Hemsl.) Kitam.
 Chrysanthemum yantaiense M.Sun & J.T.Chen
 Chrysanthemum yoshinaganthum Makino
 Chrysanthemum zawadskii Herbich
 Chrysanthemum zhuozishanense L.Q.Zhao & Jie Yang

Former species include:
 Chrysanthemum carinatum = Ismelia carinata
 Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium = Tanacetum cinerariifolium
 Chrysanthemum coccineum = Tanacetum coccineum
 Chrysanthemum coronarium = Glebionis coronaria
 Chrysanthemum frutescens = Argyranthemum frutescens
 Chrysanthemum maximum = Leucanthemum maximum
 Chrysanthemum pacificum = Ajania pacifica
 Chrysanthemum segetum = Glebionis segetum

Ecology

Chrysanthemums start blooming in early autumn. This is also known as the favorite flower for the month of November.

History
Chrysanthemums () were first cultivated in China as a flowering herb as far back as the 15th century BC. Over 500 cultivars had been recorded by 1630. By 2014 it was estimated that there were over 20,000 cultivars in the world and about 7,000 cultivars in China. The plant is renowned as one of the Four Gentlemen () in Chinese and East Asian Art. The plant is particularly significant during the Double Ninth Festival.

Chrysanthemum cultivation in Japan began during the Nara and Heian periods (early 8th to late 12th centuries), and gained popularity in the Edo period (early 17th to late 19th century). Many flower shapes, colours, and varieties were created. The way the flowers were grown and shaped also developed, and chrysanthemum culture flourished. Various cultivars of chrysanthemums created in the Edo period were characterized by a remarkable variety of flower shapes, and were exported to China from the end of the Edo period, changing the way Chinese chrysanthemum cultivars were grown and their popularity. In addition, from the Meiji period (late 19th to early 20th century), many cultivars with flowers over 20 cm (7.87 in) in diameter, called the Ogiku (lit., great chrysanthemum) style were created, which influenced the subsequent trend of chrysanthemums. The Imperial Seal of Japan is a chrysanthemum and the institution of the monarchy is also called the Chrysanthemum Throne. A number of festivals and shows take place throughout Japan in autumn when the flowers bloom.  is one of the five ancient sacred festivals. It is celebrated on the 9th day of the 9th month. It was started in 910, when the imperial court held its first chrysanthemum show.

Chrysanthemums entered American horticulture in 1798 when Colonel John Stevens imported a cultivated variety known as 'Dark Purple' from England. The introduction was part of an effort to grow attractions within Elysian Fields in Hoboken, New Jersey.

Economic uses

Ornamental uses

Modern cultivated chrysanthemums are showier than their wild relatives. Many horticultural specimens have been bred to bear many rows of ray florets in a great variety of colors. The flower heads occur in various forms, and can be daisy-like or decorative, like pompons or buttons. This genus contains many hybrids and thousands of cultivars developed for horticultural purposes. In addition to the traditional yellow, other colors are available, such as white, purple, and red. The most important hybrid is Chrysanthemum × morifolium (syn. C. × grandiflorum), derived primarily from C. indicum, but also involving other species.

Over 140 cultivars of chrysanthemum have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017).

In Japan, a form of bonsai chrysanthemum was developed over the centuries. The cultivated flower has a lifespan of about 5 years and can be kept in miniature size. Another method is to use pieces of dead wood and the flower grows over the back along the wood to give the illusion from the front that the miniature tree blooms.

Culinary uses
Yellow or white chrysanthemum flowers of the species C. morifolium are boiled to make a tea in some parts of East Asia. The resulting beverage is known simply as chrysanthemum tea (菊 花 茶, pinyin: júhuā chá, in Chinese). In Korea, a rice wine flavored with chrysanthemum flowers is called gukhwaju (국화주).

Chrysanthemum leaves are steamed or boiled and used as greens, especially in Chinese cuisine. The flowers may be added to dishes such as mixian in broth, or thick snakemeat soup (蛇羹) to enhance the aroma. They are commonly used in hot pot and stir fries. Japanese cuisine sashimi uses small chrysanthemums as garnish.

Insecticidal uses
Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum [or Tanacetum] cinerariaefolium) is economically important as a natural source of insecticide. The flowers are pulverized, and the active components, called pyrethrins, which occur in the achenes, are extracted and sold in the form of an oleoresin. This is applied as a suspension in water or oil, or as a powder. Pyrethrins attack the nervous systems of all insects, and inhibit female mosquitoes from biting. In sublethal doses, they have an insect repellent effect. They are harmful to fish, but are far less toxic to mammals and birds than many synthetic insecticides. They are not persistent, being biodegradable, and also decompose easily on exposure to light. Pyrethroids such as permethrin are synthetic insecticides based on natural pyrethrum. Despite this, chrysanthemum leaves are still a major host for destructive pests, such as leafminer flies including L. trifolii.

Persian powder is an example of industrial product of chrysanthemum insecticide.

Environmental uses
Chrysanthemum plants have been shown to reduce indoor air pollution by the NASA Clean Air Study.

Cultural significance and symbolism
In some European countries (e.g., France, Belgium, Italy, Spain, Poland, Hungary, Croatia), incurve chrysanthemums symbolize death and are used only for funerals or on graves, while other types carry no such symbolism; similarly, in China, Japan, and Korea of East Asia, white chrysanthemums symbolize adversity, lamentation, and/or grief. In some other countries, they represent honesty. In the United States, the flower is usually regarded as positive and cheerful, with New Orleans as a notable exception.

In the Victorian language of flowers, the chrysanthemum had several meanings. The Chinese chrysanthemum meant cheerfulness, whereas the red chrysanthemum stood for "I Love", while the yellow chrysanthemum symbolized slighted love. The chrysanthemum is also the flower of November.

East Asia

China

 The chrysanthemum is the city flower of Beijing and Kaifeng. The tradition of cultivating different varieties of chrysanthemums stretches back 1600 years, and the scale reached a phenomenal level during the Song dynasty until its loss to the Jürchens in 1126. The city has held the Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival since 1983 (renamed China Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival in 1994). The event is the largest chrysanthemum festival in China; it has been a yearly feature since, taking place between 18 October and 18 November every year.
 The chrysanthemum is one of the "Four Gentlemen" () of China (the others being the plum blossom, the orchid, and bamboo). The chrysanthemum is said to have been favored by Tao Qian, an influential Chinese poet, and is symbolic of nobility. It is also one of the four symbolic seasonal flowers.
 A chrysanthemum festival is held each year in Tongxiang, near Hangzhou, China.
 Chrysanthemums are the topic in hundreds of poems of China.
 The "golden flower" referred to in the 2006 movie Curse of the Golden Flower is a chrysanthemum.
 "Chrysanthemum Gate" (jú huā mén ), often abbreviated as Chrysanthemum (菊花), is taboo slang meaning "anus" (with sexual connotations).
 An ancient Chinese city (Xiaolan Town of Zhongshan City) was named Ju-Xian, meaning "chrysanthemum city".
 The plant is particularly significant during the Chinese Double Ninth Festival.
 In Chinese culture, the chrysanthemum is a symbol of autumn and the flower of the ninth moon. People even drank chrysanthemum wine on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month to prolong their lives during the Han dynasty. It is a symbol of longevity because of its health-giving properties. Because of all of this, the flower was often worn on funeral attire.
 Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China listed two kinds of chrysanthemum for medical use, Yejuhua and Juhua. Historically Yejuhua is said to treat carbuncle, furuncle, conjunctivitis, headache, and vertigo. Juhua is said to treat cold, headache, vertigo, and conjunctivitis.

Japan

Chrysanthemums first arrived in Japan by way of China in the 5th century. The chrysanthemum has been used as a theme of waka (Japanese traditional poetry) since around the 10th century in the Heian period, and Kokin Wakashū is the most famous of them. In the 12th century, during the Kamakura period, when the Retired Emperor Go-Toba adopted it as the mon (family crest) of the Imperial family, it became a flower that symbolized autumn in Japan. During the Edo period from the 17th century to the 19th century, due to the development of economy and culture, the cultivation of chrysanthemums, cherry blossoms, Japanese iris, morning glory, etc. became popular, many cultivars were created and many chrysanthemum exhibitions were held. From the Meiji period in the latter half of the 19th century, due to the growing importance of the chrysanthemum, which symbolized the Imperial family, the creation of ogiku style cultivars with a diameter of 20 cm or more became popular.

In the present day, each autumn there are chrysanthemum exhibitions at the Shinjuku Gyo-en, Meiji Shrine and Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo. The Yasukuni Shrine, formerly a state-endowed shrine (官国弊社, kankokuheisha) has adopted the chrysanthemum crest. Culinary-grade chrysanthemums are used to decorate food, and they remain a common motif for traditional Japanese arts like porcelain, lacquerware and kimono.

Chrysanthemum growing is still practised actively as a hobby by many Japanese people who enter prize plants in contests. Chrysanthemum "dolls", often depicting fictional characters from both traditional sources like kabuki and contemporary sources like Disney, are displayed throughout the fall months, and the city of Nihonmatsu hosts the "Nihonmatsu Chrysanthemum Dolls Exhibition" every autumn in historical ruin of Nihonmatsu Castle. They are also grown into chrysanthemum bonsai forms.
 In Japan, the chrysanthemum is a symbol of the Emperor and the Imperial family. In particular, a "chrysanthemum crest" (菊花紋章, kikukamonshō or kikkamonshō), i.e. a mon of chrysanthemum blossom design, indicates a link to the Emperor; there are more than 150 patterns of this design. Notable uses of and reference to the Imperial chrysanthemum include:
 The Imperial Seal of Japan is used by members of the Japanese imperial family. In 1869, a two-layered, 16-petal design was designated as the symbol of the emperor. Princes used a simpler, single-layer pattern.
 The Chrysanthemum Throne is the name given to the position of Japanese Emperor and the throne.
 The Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum is a Japanese honor awarded by the emperor on the advice of the Japanese government.
 In Imperial Japan, small arms were required to be stamped with the imperial chrysanthemum, as they were considered the personal property of the emperor.
 The Nagoya Castle Chrysanthemum Competition started after the end of the Pacific War. The event at the castle has become a tradition for the city. With three categories, it is one of the largest events of its kind in the region by both scale and content. The first category is the exhibition of cultivated flowers. The second category is for bonsai flowers, which are combined with dead pieces of wood to give the illusion of miniature trees. The third category is the creation of miniature landscapes.

Korea
Korea has a number of flower shows that exhibit the chrysanthemum, such as the Masan Gagopa Chrysanthemum Festival.

West Asia

Iran
In Iran, chrysanthemums are associated with the Zoroastrian spiritual being Ashi Vanghuhi (lit. 'good blessings, rewards'), a female Yazad (angel) presiding over blessings.

Israel
In 2017, Israel named a new fast-growing Chrysanthemum flower after Narendra Modi, the Prime Minister of India, in a special gesture to mark the first visit of an Indian prime minister to the Jewish nation.

Oceania

Australia
In Australia, on Mother's Day, which falls in May when the flower is in season, people traditionally wear a white chrysanthemum, or a similar white flower to honour their mothers. Chrysanthemums are often given as Mother's Day presents.

North America

United States
 On 5 and 6 November 1883, in Philadelphia, the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society (PHS), at the request of the Florists and Growers Society, held its first Chrysanthemum Show in Horticultural Hall. This would be the first of several chrysanthemum events presented by PHS to the public.
 The founding of the chrysanthemum industry dates back to 1884, when the Enomoto brothers of Redwood City, California grew the first chrysanthemums cultivated in America.
 In 1913, Sadakasu Enomoto (of San Mateo County) astounded the flower world by successfully shipping a carload of Turner chrysanthemums to New Orleans for the All Saints Day Celebration.
 The chrysanthemum was recognized as the official flower of the city of Chicago by Mayor Richard J. Daley in 1966.
 The chrysanthemum is the official flower of the city of Salinas, California.
 The chrysanthemum is the official flower of several fraternities and sororities including Chi Phi, Phi Kappa Sigma, Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia, Lambda Kappa Sigma, Sigma Alpha and Triangle Fraternity.

Europe

Italy
Italian composer Giacomo Puccini wrote Crisantemi (1890), a movement for string quartet, in memory of his friend Amedeo di Savoia Duca d'Aosta. In Italy (and other European countries) the chrysanthemum is the flower that people traditionally bring to their deceased loved ones at the cemetery and is generally associated with mourning. A probable reason for this is the fact that the plant flowers between the end of October and the beginning of November, coinciding with the Day of the Dead (2 November).

Poland
Chrysanthemums are placed on graves to honor the dead during All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day in Poland.

United Kingdom
The UK National Collection of hardy chrysanthemums is at Hill Close Gardens near Warwick.

Gallery

See also
 Photoperiodism

References

Bibliography

Books

 , see also Species Plantarum

Articles

External links

 Germplasm Resources Information Network: Chrysanthemum
 About.com page on Chrysanthemums
 United States National Chrysanthemum Society website
 ICBN: List of conserved genera (scroll down for Chrysanthemum)
 Auburn University (College of Agriculture) web page on Chrysanthemums
 University of California web page on aphid management

Asteraceae genera
Garden plants
Leaf vegetables
Medicinal plants
National symbols of Japan
Plants used in bonsai

Chrysanthemum


Gary Ray Kerkorian (January 14, 1930 – May 22, 2000) was an Armenian-American football quarterback who played four seasons in the National Football League (NFL).

College career
Born into an Armenian family, Kerkorian attended Inglewood High School in Los Angeles County, and then was a quarterback at Stanford University, where he was a three-year starter. At the end of his senior season of 1951, he held every Stanford passing record and was named a first-team All-American, leading the Indians to a 9-1 record, the Pac-8 championship, and a Rose Bowl berth. He is a member of the Stanford Athletic Hall of Fame.

NFL career
He was drafted by the Pittsburgh Steelers in the 1952 NFL Draft, and saw duty as both a quarterback and placekicker.

He was traded to the Baltimore Colts and emerged as the starting quarterback for the 1954 season, though the Colts' record was a dismal 3-9. The Colts won the lottery bonus pick for the 1955 NFL Draft, giving them the first overall draft pick. They selected George Shaw, a quarterback from the University of Oregon, and Kerkorian was soon relegated to backup duty. (Coincidentally, Shaw was the younger brother of Tom Shaw, whom Kerkorian had replaced as starting Stanford quarterback in 1949.) The following year, the Colts acquired rookie Johnny Unitas, and Kerkorian slipped to third string.

Rugby
Between the 1952 and 1953 NFL seasons, Kerkorian toured with the United States national rugby league team to Australia, where he played the 5/8 position and kicked many goals.

After football
Kerkorian left football after the 1955 season to attend law school at Georgetown University. After an injury to Unitas in 1958, the Colts called Kerkorian back from law school as a possible replacement, but he did not play.

Kerkorian worked as an attorney in California, and was named a Superior Court Judge in Fresno, California in 1990. He retired in January 2000, and died a few months later.

References

1930 births
2000 deaths
American football placekickers
American football quarterbacks
American rugby league players
Baltimore Colts players
Ethnic Armenian sportspeople
American people of Armenian descent
Georgetown University Law Center alumni
Inglewood High School (California) alumni
Pittsburgh Steelers players
Players of American football from Los Angeles
Stanford Cardinal football players
United States national rugby league team players

Gary Kerkorian


Fr. José Ignacio Cienfuegos Arteaga (October 1, 1762 – November 8, 1847) was a Chilean priest, Roman Catholic bishop of Concepción and political figure. He served twice as President of the Senate of Chile.

Cienfuegos was born in Santiago, the son of Francisco Cienfuegos and of Josefa Arteaga Martínez. He studied Theology at the Universidad Real de San Felipe and was later ordained as a priest in 1778. Cienfuegos became a Dominican friar and in 1790 was named priest of Talca, where he worked for 23 years. As such, he actively participated in the independence movement in Chile.

On October 9, 1813, he became a member of the Government Junta. During his term the junta adopted the national flag, founded the National institute of science and numerous primary schools throughout the country. In March 1814, Cienfuegos was elected titular member of the Consultive Senate of Chile. In 1814, after the battle of Rancagua, General Mariano Osorio deported him to the Juan Fernández Islands, where he remained for two years. He was allowed to return after the battle of Chacabuco in 1817. He was named administrator of the Santiago Cathedral in 1818 and participated in the formulation of the 1818 constitution. He was a member and President of the Conservative Senate of Chile between 1818 and 1820.

In 1821, Cienfuegos was sent to Rome as ambassador to try to negotiate the recognition of the Chilean independence. He returned to Chile in 1824 and became the Apostolic Administrator of the Santiago diocese while at the same time being one of the principal promoters of the Federalist attempt in Chile. In 1825 he became the President of the Provincial Assembly of Santiago and in 1826 participated in the constitutional congress as a deputy for Talca. Cienfuegos was returned as ambassador to the Holy See, where he was named titular Titular bishop of Retimo on December 15, 1828. He was elected Senator for Concepción on 1831, and again became President of the Conservative Senate of Chile between 1831 and 1834. On December 17, 1832, was named Bishop of Concepción.

On 1839 he resigned his bishopric and retired to the city of Talca, where he continue to work as a priest until his death on November 8, 1847, at the age of 85.

1762 births
1847 deaths
Clergy from Santiago
Chilean people of Asturian descent
Chilean people of Basque descent
Roman Catholic bishops of Concepción
Presidents of the Senate of Chile
Members of the Chamber of Deputies of Chile
Senators of the III Legislative Period of the National Congress of Chile
19th-century Roman Catholic bishops in Chile

José Ignacio Cienfuegos


Scene is a British television anthology drama/documentary series made by the BBC for teenagers, broadcast from 1968 to 2002. It comprised dramas and documentaries on topical issues, sometimes of a controversial nature, by leading contemporary playwrights including included Willy Russell, Fay Weldon, Tom Stoppard, Alan Plater etc.  programmes were originally broadcast to a school audience as part of the BBC Schools strand. Dramas from the series were also regularly broadcast for a wider adult audience.

Scene was originally conceived as a series of 30 minute dramas and documentaries suitable for showing to teenage schoolchildren as part of the English and Humanities curriculum. It was envisaged that the dramas shown would stimulate discussion in the classroom about various contemporary issues relevant to teenagers (such as race, drugs, sex, disability etc.).

Award winners and nominees
Terry (1969) – BAFTA Flame of Knowledge Award.
A Collier's Friday Night (1976) – BAFTA Flame of Knowledge Award.
Loved Up (1996) – BAFTA for best schools drama. Series Ass.Producer Andy Rowley
Alison (1996) – BAFTA nomination for best schools drama. Series Producer Andy Rowley
United (1998) – BAFTA for best schools drama. Produced and directed by Michael McGowan.
Junk (1999) – BAFTA for best schools drama.
Offside (2002) – BAFTA for best schools drama.
Split game (2005) – BAFTA nomination for best schools drama.
Stone Cold BAFTA nomination 1998 Producer Andy Rowley Director Stephen Whittaker

Selected episodes
Terraces (1993). The residents of a street of terraced houses decide to paint them all in the colours of their local football team – all except one man who refuses to conform to mob rule. Written by Willy Russell.

Loved Up (1995). A young woman leaves home to live with her boyfriend and discovers the rave scene and ecstasy. Series producer Andy Rowley. A 2 x 30 minute abridged version of a BAFTA-winning drama.

Alison (1996): BAFTA-nominated Comedy-drama. Terry Kennett decides to return to his home town after a ten-year absence. He bumps into old mates and his former girlfriend Alison who shows him around their old haunts. They reminisce about their teenage romance, first sexual experience and the reasons for their eventual breakup. Terry is shocked to find that Alison is now a young single mother, but decides to rekindle their relationship in the hope that former mistakes are behind them. Written and directed by Al Hunter Ashton and produced by Andy Rowley. Starring Sarah Jane Potts and Jack Deam.

Teaching Matthew written by Al Hunter Ashton. A satire on Willy Russell's Educating Rita. Ashton acted in the film, playing Sergeant Conway. Adrian Lester played the eponymous lead character.

Stone Cold (1997) Starring Peter Howitt. Threat to runaway boy Link who becomes homeless after abuse at home and is prey to a street killer. Directed by Stephen Whittaker and produced by Andy Rowley. BAFTA nominated

Junk (1999): Bafta-winning drama. Following difficulties with her parents, teenager Gemma Brogan leaves home. She falls under the spell of a young woman who introduces her to the world of alternative youth culture and drugs. Initially her new life seems glamorous and exciting but she soon discovers its dark side as she slides uncontrollably into heroin addiction. Starring Jemima Rooper.

Reception and legacy
Critical reaction was positive with praise for the high production standards. The series was nominated for five awards in 1996–1997 and won a Prix Jeunesse in 1998 under series producer Andy Rowley
Some of the actors featured in Scene went on to achieve varying degrees of mainstream success. e.g.: Jemima Rooper (Junk, 1999), Sarah Jane Potts, Jack Deam, Lucy Davis (Alison, 1996), Adrian Lester (Teaching Matthew, 1993), Sean Maguire (A Man of Letters, 1997), Peter Howitt (Stone Cold).

References

External links
Scene at BroadcastForschools.co.uk
Scene at the BFI Film and Television Database

BBC children's television shows
British television shows for schools
British drama television series
1968 British television series debuts
2002 British television series endings
1960s British television series
1970s British television series
1980s British television series
1990s British television series

Scene (TV series)


An emergency telephone is a special telephone that can be used in an emergency situation. Such telephones can usually  be found on highways, and other big roads. They can also be found in places where people feel unsafe, such as big parks or the campuses of universities. Emergency telephones are also placed at spots where many people commit suicide, like bridges or cliffs.

Emergency phones are usually connected directly, there is no need to dial a telephone number. Lifting the receiver, or pushing a button will make the call. Very often emergency telephones will also tell the other side where they are. This is because people may not know where they are or  they may be in shock because of an accident that just happened.

There are many special rules that apply to emergency telephones. They need to be in special colors, because color-blind people may not be able to tell the difference between certain colors. They also need to be easy to use. In an emergency situation, many people do not have time to think about how to operate them.

Telephone
Emergency services

Emergency telephone


Clandestine chemistry is chemistry carried out in secret, and particularly in illegal drug laboratories. Larger labs are usually run by gangs or organized crime intending to produce for distribution on the black market. Smaller labs can be run by individual chemists working clandestinely in order to synthesize smaller amounts of controlled substances or simply out of a hobbyist interest in chemistry, often because of the difficulty in ascertaining the purity of other, illegally synthesized drugs obtained on the black market. The term clandestine lab is generally used in any situation involving the production of illicit compounds, regardless of whether the facilities being used qualify as a true laboratory.

History
Ancient forms of clandestine chemistry included the manufacturing of explosives.

Another old form of clandestine chemistry is the illegal brewing and distillation of alcohol. This is frequently done to avoid taxation on spirits.

From 1919 to 1933, the United States prohibited the sale, manufacture, or transportation of alcoholic beverages. This opened a door for brewers to supply their own town with alcohol. Just like modern-day drug labs, distilleries were placed in rural areas. The term moonshine generally referred to "corn whiskey", that is, a whiskey-like liquor made from corn. Today, American-made corn whiskey can be labeled or sold under that name, or as Bourbon or Tennessee whiskey, depending on the details of the production process.

Psychoactive substances

Precursor chemicals
Prepared substances (as opposed to those that occur naturally in a consumable form, such as cannabis and psilocybin mushrooms) require reagents. Some drugs, like cocaine and morphine, are extracted from plant sources and refined with the aid of chemicals. Semi-synthetic drugs such as heroin are made starting from alkaloids extracted from plant sources which are the precursors for further synthesis. In the case of heroin, a mixture of alkaloids is extracted from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) by incising its seed capsule, whereupon a milky fluid (the opium 'latex') bleeds out of the incisions which is then left to dry out and scraped off the bulbs, yielding raw opium. Morphine, one of many alkaloids in opium, is then extracted out of the opium by acid-base extraction and turned into heroin by reacting it with acetic anhydride. Other drugs (such as methamphetamine and MDMA) are normally made from commercially available chemicals, though both can also be made from naturally occurring precursors. Methamphetamine can also be made from ephedrine, one of the naturally occurring alkaloids in ephedra (Ephedra sinica). MDMA can be made from safrole, the major constituent of several etheric oils like sassafras. Governments have adopted a strategy of chemical control as part of their overall drug control and enforcement plans. Chemical control offers a means of attacking illicit drug production and disrupting the process before the drugs have entered the market.

Because many legitimate industrial chemicals such as anhydrous ammonia and iodine are also necessary in the processing and synthesis of most illicitly produced drugs, preventing the diversion of these chemicals from legitimate commerce to illicit drug manufacturing is a difficult job. Governments often place restrictions on the purchase of large quantities of chemicals that can be used in the production of illicit drugs, usually requiring licenses or permits to ensure that the purchaser has a legitimate need for them.

Suppliers of precursor chemicals
Chemicals critical to the production of cocaine, heroin, and synthetic drugs are produced in many countries throughout the world. Many manufacturers and suppliers exist in Europe, China, India, the United States, and many other countries.

Historically, chemicals critical to the synthesis or manufacture of illicit drugs are introduced into various venues via legitimate purchases by companies that are registered and licensed to do business as chemical importers or handlers. Once in a country or state, the chemicals are diverted by rogue importers or chemical companies, by criminal organizations and individual violators, or acquired as a result of coercion and/or theft on the part of drug traffickers. In response to stricter international controls, drug traffickers have increasingly been forced to divert chemicals by mislabeling the containers, forging documents, establishing front companies, using circuitous routing, hijacking shipments, bribing officials, or smuggling products across international borders.

Enforcement of controls on precursor chemicals

General
The Multilateral Chemical Reporting Initiative encourages governments to exchange information on a voluntary basis in order to monitor international chemical shipments. Over the past decade, key international bodies like the Commission on Narcotic Drugs and the U.N. General Assembly's Special Session (UNGASS) have addressed the issue of chemical diversion in conjunction with U.S. efforts. These organizations raised specific concerns about potassium permanganate and acetic anhydride.

To facilitate the international flow of information about precursor chemicals, the United States, through its relationship with the Inter-American Drug Control Abuse Commission (CICAD), continues to evaluate the use of precursor chemicals and assist countries in strengthening controls. Many nations still lack the capacity to determine whether the import or export of precursor chemicals is related to legitimate needs or illicit drugs. The problem is complicated by the fact that many chemical shipments are either brokered or transshipped through third countries in an attempt to disguise their purpose or destination.

Beginning in July 2001, the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) has opted to organize an international conference with the goal of devising a specific action plan to counter the traffic in MDMA precursor chemicals. They hope to prevent the diversion of chemicals used in the production of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS), including MDMA (ecstasy) and methamphetamine.

In June 2015, the European Commission approved Regulation (EU) 2015/1013 which outlined for the monitoring of drug precursors traded between the Union and third countries. The Regulation also establishes uniform procedures for licensing and registration of operators and users who are listed in a European database tracking drug precursors.

Despite this long history of law enforcement actions, restrictions of chemicals, and even covert military actions, many illicit drugs are still widely available all over the world.

Cocaine
Operation Purple is a U.S. DEA driven international chemical control initiative designed to reduce the illicit manufacture of cocaine in the Andean Region, identifying rogue firms and suspect individuals; gathering intelligence on diversion methods, trafficking trends, and shipping routes; and taking administrative, civil and/or criminal action as appropriate. Critical to the success of this operation is the communication network that gives notification of shipments and provides the government of the importer sufficient time to verify the legitimacy of the transaction and take appropriate action. The effects of this initiative have been dramatic and far-reaching. Operation Purple has exposed a significant vulnerability among traffickers, and has grown to include almost thirty nations. According to the DEA, Operation Purple has been highly effective at interfering with cocaine production. However, illicit chemists always find new methods to evade the DEA's scrutiny.

In countries where strict chemical controls have been put in place, illicit drug production has been seriously affected. For example, few of the chemicals needed to process coca leaf into cocaine are manufactured in Bolivia or Peru. Most are smuggled in from neighbouring countries with advanced chemical industries or diverted from a smaller number of licit handlers. Increased interdiction of chemicals in Peru and Bolivia has contributed to final product cocaine from those countries being of lower, minimally oxidized quality.

As a result, Bolivian lab operators are now using inferior substitutes such as cement instead of lime and sodium bicarbonate instead of ammonia and recycled solvents like ether. Some non-solvent fuels such as gasoline, kerosene and diesel fuel are even used in place of solvents.
Manufacturers are attempting to streamline a production process that virtually eliminates oxidation to produce cocaine base. Some laboratories are not using sulfuric acid during the maceration state; consequently, less cocaine alkaloid is extracted from the leaf, producing less cocaine hydrochloride, the powdered cocaine marketed for overseas consumption.

Heroin
Similarly, heroin-producing countries depend on supplies of acetic anhydride (AA) from the international market. This heroin precursor continues to account for the largest volume of internationally seized chemicals, according to the International Narcotics Control Board. Since July 1999, there have been several notable seizures of acetic anhydride in Turkey (amounting to nearly seventeen metric tons) and Turkmenistan (totaling seventy-three metric tons).

Acetic anhydride, the most commonly used chemical agent in heroin processing, is virtually irreplaceable. According to the DEA, Mexico remains the only heroin source route to heroin laboratories in Afghanistan. Authorities in Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan routinely seize ton-quantity shipments of diverted acetic anhydride.

The lack of acetic anhydride has caused clandestine chemists in some countries to substitute it for lower quality precursors such as acetic acid and results in the formation of impure black tar heroin that contains a mixture of drugs not found in heroin made with pure chemicals.

DEA's Operation Topaz is a coordinated international strategy targeting acetic anhydride. In place since March 2001, a total of thirty-one countries are currently organized participants in the program in addition to regional participants. The DEA reports that as of June 2001, some 125 consignments of acetic anhydride had been tracked totaling 618,902,223 kilograms. As of July 2001, there has been approximately 20 shipments of AA totaling 185,000 kilograms either stopped or seized.

Amphetamines

The practice of clandestine chemistry to synthesize controlled substance analogues and circumvent drug laws was first noticed in the late 1960s, as types of drugs became controlled substances in many countries. With the Title 21 United States Code (USC) Controlled Substances Act (CSA) of October 27, 1970 amphetamines became controlled substances in the United States. Prior to this, amphetamine sulfate first became widely available as an over-the-counter (OTC) nasal decongestant inhaler in 1933, marketed by SKF under the brand name Benzedrine. Shortly afterward, physicians began documenting amphetamine's general stimulant properties and subsequently its potential for treating narcolepsy, which prompted SKF in 1938 to begin also manufacturing amphetamine sulfate as tablets. Initially, the frequency of amphetamine use was negligible; however, by 1959 its popularity as a therapeutic agent and also an illicit drug had skyrocketed nationwide, causing the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) to reclassify amphetamine from OTC to prescription-only.

As of the early 1990s, methamphetamine use was concentrated among young white males in California and nearby states. Since then its use has spread both demographically and geographically.  Methamphetamine has been a favorite among various populations including motorcycle gangs, truckers, laborers, soldiers, and ravers. Known as a "club drug", the National Institute on Drug Abuse tracks its incidence of use in children as young as twelve, and the prevalence of users increases with age.

In the 1980s and early 1990s, most methamphetamine production in the United States occurred in small independent laboratories. Phenylacetone, one precursor of methamphetamine, became a Schedule II controlled immediate precursor in 1979.  Underground chemists searched for alternative methods for producing methamphetamine. The two predominant methods which appeared both involve the reduction of ephedrine or pseudoephedrine to methamphetamine. At the time, neither was a watched chemical, and pills containing the substance could be bought by the thousands without raising any kind of suspicion.

In the 1990s, the DEA recognized that legally imported precursors were being diverted to the production of methamphetamine.  Changes to federal regulations in 1988 and throughout the 1990s enabled the DEA to more closely track the  ephedrine and pseudoephedrine precursors. Many individual States have enacted precursor control laws which limit the sale of over-the-counter cold medications which contain ephedrine or pseudoephedrine. This made it somewhat more difficult for underground chemists to produce methamphetamine.  In May 1995, the DEA shut down two major suppliers of precursors in the United States, seizing 25 metric tons of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine from Clifton Pharmaceuticals and 500 cases of pseudoephedrine from X-Pressive Looks, Inc. (XLI).  The immediate market impact suggests that they had been providing more than 50 percent of the precursors used nationally to produce methamphetamine. However, the market rapidly rebounded.

The methamphetamine situation also changed in the mid-1990s as Mexican organized crime became a major player in its production and distribution, operating "super-labs" which produced a substantial percentage of the drugs being sold. According to the DEA, the seizure of 3.5 metric tons of pseudoephedrine in Texas in 1994 revealed that Mexican trafficking groups were producing methamphetamine on an unprecedented scale. More recent reports indicate an ongoing presence of Mexican trafficking.

Although the prevalence of domestic meth labs continues to be high in western states, they have spread throughout the United States. It has been suggested that "do-it-yourself" meth production in rural areas is reflective of a broader DIY approach that includes activities such as hunting, fishing, and fixing one's cars, trucks, equipment, and house. Toxic chemicals resulting from methamphetamine production may be hoarded or clandestinely dumped, damaging land, water, plant life and wild life, and posing a risk to humans.  Waste from methamphetamine labs is frequently dumped on federal, public, and tribal lands. The chemicals involved can explode and clandestine chemistry has been implicated in both house and wild land fires.

In Oregon, Brett Sherry of the Oregon Clandestine Drug Lab Cleanup Program has been quoted as stating that only 10–20% of drug labs are discovered by police.
Statistics reporting the prevalence of meth labs and arrest of meth producers can vary greatly from county to county and state to state. Factors affecting policing and reporting include funding, specialized training, support from local residents, willingness to make the issue a priority in policing. How information is categorized and tracked may also inflate or minimize the apparent results. Missouri, which has tended to report some of the highest numbers of meth-lab arrests in the country, has pursued an aggressive and highly publicized policing policy, resulting in as many as 205 cases a year in one county. In contrast, West Virginia tends to report and prosecute very few cases, possibly because there the agency that reports a meth lab is held responsible for paying for its cleanup. Cleanup of toxic and hazardous materials at a single site may cost tens of thousands of dollars. This is a disincentive for agencies with limited budgets. Michigan reported an increase in incidents in 2016, following the formation of the Midland County Methamphetamine Protocol Team in 2015. Many of the cases reported involved meth users who were making small amounts of the drug in a simple "one-pot method" for both personal use and sale to others.

DEA El Paso Intelligence Center data is showing a downward trend in the number of clandestine drug labs seized for the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine down from a high of 15,196 in 2010. Drug seizure quantities, on the other hand, are steadily increasing since 2007, according to data from the DEA's System to Retrieve Information from Drug Evidence (STRIDE) (see table to the right).

Cleanup
Clean up processes were regulated by the EPA as of 2007. The Methamphetamine Remediation Research Act of 2007 required EPA to develop guidelines for remediation of former methamphetamine labs. This creates guidelines for States and local agencies to improve "our national understanding of identifying the point at which former methamphetamine laboratories become clean enough to inhabit again." The legislation also required that EPA periodically update the guidelines, as appropriate, to reflect the best available knowledge and research.

Making a former meth lab site safer for habitation requires two basic efforts:

 Gross chemical removal: This is the process in which law enforcement or a Drug Enforcement Administration contractors removes the obvious dangers from the site. Obvious dangers include containers of chemicals, equipment, and apparatus that could be used to make illegal drugs, drug paraphernalia, and other illegal items. This process does not cleanup or remove chemical spills, stains or residue that could be harmful to inhabitants. A property that has had only a gross chemical removal is not fit for habitation.

 Clandestine remediation: The cleaning of interior structures and, if applicable, the surrounding land, surface waters and groundwater by an EPA approved or National Crime Scene Cleanup Association certified company. This is the process of removing the residue and waste from the site after the gross chemical removal is done. A property that has been remediated should present minimal to no health risk to occupants.

Contamination

Alcoholic drinks
Alcoholic drinks that are known to be contaminated.

 Diethylene glycol, used dangerously by some winemakers in sweet wines

Moonshine
 Moonshine from various countries:
 Changaa (Kenya)
 Guaro (Latin America)
 Jamaica ginger (United States)
 Kumi Kumi (Kenya)
 Lotoko (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
 Tharra (Indian subcontinent)

Black tar heroin
Black tar heroin is a free base form of heroin that is sticky like tar or hard like coal. Its dark color is the result of crude processing methods that leave behind impurities.

Black tar as a type holds a variable admixture morphine derivatives—predominantly 6-MAM (6-monoacetylmorphine) which is another result of crude acetylation. The lack of proper reflux during acetylation fails to remove much of the moisture retained in the acetylating agent, glacial acetic acid.

Cocaine paste

Oxi
Oxi (abbr. from Portuguese oxidado) is a stimulant drug based on cocaine paste originally developed in the Brazilian Amazon forest region. It is reportedly a mixture of cocaine paste, gasoline, kerosene and quicklime (calcium oxide).

Krokodil
Illicitly produced desomorphine is typically far from pure and often contains large amounts of toxic substances and contaminants as a result of being "cooked" and used without any significant effort to remove the byproducts and leftovers from synthesis. Injecting any such mixture can cause serious damage to the skin, blood vessels, bone and muscles, sometimes requiring limb amputation in long-term users. Its melting point is 189 °C.

Causes of this damage are from iodine, phosphorus and other toxic substances that are present after synthesis.

Methamphetamine

A common adulterant is dimethyl sulfone, a solvent and cosmetic base without known effect on the nervous system; other adulterants include dimethylamphetamine HCl, ephedrine HCl, sodium thiosulfate, sodium chloride, sodium glutamate, and a mixture of caffeine with sodium benzoate.

MPPP
MPTP may be accidentally produced during the manufacture of MPPP. 1-Methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+), a metabolite of MPTP, causes rapid onset of irreversible symptoms similar to Parkinson's disease.

PCP
Embalming fluid has been found as a by-product of PCP manufacture. Marijuana cigarettes dipped in embalming fluid, sometimes also laced with PCP are known as fry or fry sticks.

Explosives
Clandestine chemistry is not limited to drugs; it is also associated with explosives, and other illegal chemicals. Of the explosives manufactured illegally, nitroglycerin and acetone peroxide are easiest to produce due to the ease with which the precursors can be acquired.

Uncle Fester is a writer who commonly writes about different aspects of clandestine chemistry. Secrets of Methamphetamine Manufacture is among his most popular books, and is considered required reading for DEA agents. More of his books deal with other aspects of clandestine chemistry, including explosives, and poisons. Fester is, however, considered by many to be a faulty and unreliable source for information in regard to the clandestine manufacture of chemicals.

See also

 The Hive (website)
 Owsley Stanley
 William Leonard Pickard
 Nicholas Sand
 Casey William Hardison
 Uncle Fester (author)
 Rolling meth lab
 Cold water extraction
 DEA list of chemicals
 Breaking Bad

Notes

External links
 Clandestine labs FAQ at Erowid
 New 'shake-and-bake' method for making crystal meth gets around drug laws but is no less dangerous

Chemistry
Illegal drug trade
Science and law
Adulteration

Clandestine chemistry


Tungsten (sometimes named wolfram) is a chemical element on the periodic table. It has the chemical symbol W and it has the atomic number 74. It is a steel-gray to white colored metal.  Tungsten's electron shell formula is: 2, 8, 18, 32, 12, 2. In chemistry, it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. Tungsten is found in several ores, including wolframite and scheelite.

Tungsten has a higher melting point than any other non-alloy that exists. The pure form (only tungsten) is mainly used in electrical equipment. Its compounds and alloys are used for many things, the most well known being its use in electrical filaments for light bulbs.  It is also used in the filament and target in most X-ray tubes, superalloys, and in glass-to-metal seals.

Tungsten's density and hardness have many uses. In the military, for example, tungsten has been used in armor-piercing artillery. It is also used in machine tools.

Tungsten's density is almost the same as gold. Gold-plated tungsten ingots have been fraudulently passed off as solid gold.

Transition metals

Tungsten


A tackle in football is a defensive move in various types of football. It aims to stop an opponent who is running with the ball.

In English style rugby football it means bringing down an opponent running with the ball. It is done by diving and catching the runners' legs. Outlawed as dangerous are tackles round the neck, and less effective tackles are round the runner's body. In practice there are variations, such as shoving an opponent running with the ball into touch (out of the field of play). There are some differences between Rugby Union and Rugby League as to the events after the tackle.

In soccer, tackles are done with the feet around or against the opponent's feet. To be legal the opponent must have control of the ball at the time. Since soccer is a high-speed game, various rules protect the player running with the ball. However, from 2017, tackles from any direction that endanger an opponent's safety may result in the offender being sent-off. This includes "scissoring" which is likely to be punished with a send-off (red card), as it poses a high risk of severe knee injury to the player being tackled. A "studs up" tackle may be dangerous. Referees may caution (yellow card) players who commit such challenges.

In American and Canadian  football to tackle is to obstruct (physically interfere) the forward progress of a player in possession of the ball. In any such case, the ball becomes dead, the down is over, and play ceases until the beginning of the next play.

References

Sports words

Tackle (football)


The Teleki Library (, ), also known as Teleki-Bolyai Library and Bibliotheca Telekiana, is a historic public library and current museum in Târgu-Mureş, Romania. One of the richest Transylvanian collections of cultural artefacts, it was founded by the Hungarian Count Sámuel Teleki in 1802, at the time when Transylvania was part of the Habsburg monarchy, and has been open to the reading public ever since. It was among the first institutions of its kind in the Kingdom of Hungary.

It houses over 200,000 volumes, of which many are rarities, constituting a comprehensive scientific database. The book collection is divided into several smaller libraries, of which the two main donations are the original 40,000-volume Teleki Library and the 80,000-volume Bolyai Library; the rest, grouped as the Miscellaneous Collection, is made up of several private libraries, volumes previously held by religious schools and those of a Franciscan monastery. Overall, the library constitutes a collection of most traditional types of Transylvanian book.

History
Its founder, Count Sámuel Teleki de Szék (1739–1822) was one of the most learned book collectors of the time. From the very beginning, he intended his collection as a public library, and developed it throughout his life; he remained a committed and active bibliophile despite his time-consuming administrative career — he was Chancellor of Transylvania from 1791 until his death — building on his relations with all important European printing and publishing houses, and purchasing all important works published between the invention of the movable type and the early 19th century.

In order to publicize his library, Teleki compiled and published a four-volume catalogue (Vienna, 1796–1819), divided according to general topics. Teleki's own instructions concerning the operation of the library are also presented in the catalogue (Volume II).

Teleki inherited the 17-18th century Baroque building in which the library is housed from the Wesselényi family. Inside the wing built between the years 1799 and 1802, books are still stored in accordance to the original guidelines.

According to the surviving accounts of the librarians, which contain the names and professions of the readers, as well as the authors and titles of the books read, the facility was attended by a sizable portion of the 6,000-7,000 citizens Târgu-Mureş had at the time. It provided them access to European scientific life and to Age of Enlightenment ideas.

Upon his death, Sámuel Teleki left the library to his heirs as an entailed property; they were bound to keep the library open and running and were supervised by the High Board of the Reformed Church. Nevertheless, book acquisition became unsystematic soon after his death. For the following century, the Bibliotheca Telekiana was more of a book museum than a library. It was only towards the end of the 19th century that systematic research was initiated.

In 1951, the Library was nationalized by the Communist regime, and, in 1955, the Teachers' Library of the Protestant College (now known as the Bolyai Library) was moved into the building (the two collections merged under the name of Teleki-Bolyai Library). In 1974, the unified collection has become a branch of the Mureș County Library.

Today, the continuously growing book collection is focused on scientific subjects, specialising in history, local history, cultural history, and social sciences. On an average, 100 – 150 people use the Reading Room and the museum is visited by thousands of tourists a year.

References and Bibliography
 Deé Nagy Anikó: A könyvtáralapító Teleki Sámuel. In: KSz, 1973/2, 75–79.
Spielmann József, Deé Nagy Anikó, Spielmann Mihály: Servetus's Christianismi Restitutio and Transylvania. In: Harvard Library Bulletin. Cambridge, Massachusetts. 31. (1983) 1. sz. 52–63.

External links

 Official Webpage of the Teleki-Bolyai Library
 Selected bibliography (in Hungarian)

Buildings and structures in Târgu Mureș
Museums in Mureș County
Historic monuments in Mureș County
Libraries in Romania
Teleki family
Libraries established in 1802
1802 establishments in the Habsburg monarchy
19th-century establishments in Hungary
1802 establishments in Romania

Teleki Library


James Myers Thompson (September 27, 1906 – April 7, 1977) was an American prose writer and screenwriter, known for his hardboiled crime fiction.

Thompson wrote more than thirty novels, the majority of which were original paperback publications, published from the late-1940s through mid-1950s. Despite some positive critical notice—notably by Anthony Boucher in The New York Times—he was little-recognized in his lifetime. Only after death did Thompson's literary stature grow. In the late 1980s, several of his novels were re-published in the Black Lizard series of re-discovered crime fiction.

His best-regarded works include The Killer Inside Me, Savage Night, A Hell of a Woman and Pop. 1280. In these works, Thompson turned the derided crime genre into literature and art, featuring unreliable narrators, odd structure, and the quasi-surrealistic inner narratives of the last thoughts of his dying or dead characters. A number of Thompson's books were adapted as popular films, including The Getaway and The Grifters.

The writer R.V. Cassill has suggested that of all crime fiction, Thompson's was the rawest and most harrowing; that neither Dashiell Hammett nor Raymond Chandler nor Horace McCoy ever "wrote a book within miles of Thompson". Similarly, in the introduction to Now and on Earth, Stephen King says he most admires Thompson's work because "The guy was over the top. The guy was absolutely over the top. Big Jim didn't know the meaning of the word stop. There are three brave 'lets' inherent in the foregoing: He let himself see everything, he let himself write it down, then he let himself publish it."

Thompson was called a "Dimestore Dostoevsky" by writer Geoffrey O'Brien. Film director Stephen Frears, who directed an adaptation of Thompson's The Grifters in 1990, also identified elements of Greek tragedy in his themes.

Life and career
Thompson's life was nearly as colorful as his fiction. His novels were considered semi-autobiographical, or, at least, inspired by his experiences. (The theme of a once-prominent family overtaken by ill-fortune was featured in some of Thompson's works.)

Thompson's father, known as "Big Jim" Thompson, was a teacher for a decade in Burwell, Nebraska before his son's birth; his wife and Jim's mother, Birdie Myers, was a former student. He moved the family to Anadarko, Oklahoma Territory, and was elected sheriff of Caddo County. He ran for the state legislature in 1906, but was defeated. Jim Thompson was born in 1906 in an apartment over the county jail. In 1907, Big Jim was accused of embezzlement and fled to Mexico on horseback. The rest of the family moved back to Birdie's family farm in Burwell. In 1910, they reunited in Oklahoma City, and eventually moved again to Fort Worth, Texas, where Big Jim worked in the oil industry, making and losing a fortune.

Thompson's father would inspire several characters in his later fiction, including Lou Ford of The Killer Inside Me. Thompson's complicated feelings toward his father were expressed in his writing; biographer Robert Polito noted that the books which expressly name and chronicle Thompson's father, Bad Boy and King Blood, were "respectful to the point of idolatry," whereas The Killer Inside Me and Pop. 1280 "roil with Oedipal anger" and ridicule him as a psychopathic killer.

Early work
Thompson began writing early, and he published a few short pieces while still in his mid-teens. He was intelligent and well-read, but had little interest in or inclination towards formal education. For about two years during prohibition in Fort Worth, Texas, Thompson worked long and often wild nights as a bellboy while attending school in the day. He worked at the Hotel Texas. One biographical profile reports that "Thompson quickly adapted to the needs of the hotel's guests, busily catering to tastes ranging from questionable morality to directly and undeniably illegal." Bootleg liquor was ubiquitous, and Thompson's brief trips to procure heroin and marijuana for hotel patrons were not uncommon. He was soon earning up to $300 per week more than his official $15 monthly wage.

He smoked and drank heavily, and at 19, he suffered a nervous breakdown. In 1926, Thompson began working as an oilfield laborer. In the oil fields, he met Harry McClintock, a musician, as well as a member and organizer for Industrial Workers of the World, who recruited him into the union. With his father he began an independent oil drilling operation that was ultimately unsuccessful. Thompson returned to Fort Worth, intending to attend school and to write professionally.

Thompson's autobiographical "Oil Field Vignettes" was published in 1929 (found in March 2010 by history recovery specialist Lee Roy Chapman). He began attending the University of Nebraska the same year as part of a program for gifted students with "untraditional educational backgrounds." By 1931, however, he dropped out of school.

For several years, Thompson occasionally wrote short stories for various true crime magazines. Generally, he wrote about murder cases about which he had read in newspapers, but using a first person voice. In this era, he wrote other pieces for various newspapers and magazines, usually as a freelancer, but occasionally as a full-time staff writer. His 1936 "Ditch of Doom," published in Master Detective magazine, was selected by the Library of America in the early 21st century for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of American writing for true crime.

In the early 1930s, Thompson worked as the head of the Oklahoma Federal Writers Project, one of several New Deal programs intended to provide work for Americans during the Great Depression. Louis L'Amour, among others, worked under Thompson's direction in this project. Thompson joined the Communist Party in 1935 but left the group by 1938.

First novels
In the early stages of World War II, Thompson worked at an aircraft factory. He was investigated by the FBI because of his early Communist Party affiliation. These events were fodder for his semi-autobiographical debut novel Now and on Earth (1942). It established his bleak, pessimistic tone, and it was positively reviewed but sold poorly. It featured little of the violence and crime that later permeated his writing. In his second novel Heed the Thunder (1946), Thompson centered it on crime. It explores a warped and violent Nebraska family, partly modeled on his own extended clan.

Gaining little attention, Thompson gravitated to the less-prestigious but more lucrative crime fiction genre with Nothing More Than Murder. He afterwards moved to Lion Books, a small paperback publisher. Lion's Arnold Hano was his ideal editor, offering the writer essentially free rein about content, yet expecting him to be productive and reliable. Lion published most of Thompson's best-regarded works.

To support his family while writing novels, Thompson took a job as a reporter with the Los Angeles Mirror, a tabloid newspaper owned by the Los Angeles Times, shortly after the Mirror was founded in 1948. He wrote for the Mirror until 1949.

Fifties maturity and The Killer Inside Me

In 1952, Thompson published The Killer Inside Me. The narrator, Lou Ford, is a small-town deputy sheriff who appears amiable, pleasant and slightly dull-minded. Ford is actually very intelligent and fighting a nearly-constant urge to act violently; Ford describes his urge as the sickness (always italicised). Lion Books tried to have The Killer Inside Me nominated for a National Book Award. It was eponymously adapted for the cinema in 1976 (by director Burt Kennedy, with Stacy Keach as Lou Ford) and again in 2010 (by director Michael Winterbottom, with Casey Affleck as Ford and co-starring Kate Hudson and Jessica Alba). After The Killer Inside Me was published, Thompson began producing novels at a furious pace. He published another novel in 1952, then five novels a year in 1953 and 1954.

Savage Night, published in 1953, is generally ranked as one of his best novels. It is also one of his oddest literary offerings. Its narrator, Charlie "Little" Bigger (also known as Carl Bigelow), is a small, tubercular hitman whose mind is deteriorating with his body. In reviewing Savage Night, Boucher said it was "written with vigor and bite, but sheering off from realism into a peculiar surrealist ending of sheer Guignol horror. Odd that a mass-consumption paperback should contain the most experimental writing I've seen in a suspense novel of late". Savage Night contains an interlude—whether or not it is fantasy or dream, hallucination or flashback is unclear—when Bigger meets a poor, verbose writer who, much like Thompson, has a penchant for booze and makes a living writing pulp fiction to be sold alongside pornography. The writer also claims to operate a "farm" where he grows vaginas as a metaphor for the material he writes.

Film work with Stanley Kubrick
In 1955, Thompson moved to Hollywood, California, where Stanley Kubrick commissioned him to write the screenplay adaptation of Lionel White's novel Clean Break.  This was filmed as The Killing, Kubrick's first studio-financed movie. Thompson wrote most of the script, but Kubrick credited himself as screenplay writer, giving Thompson only a "dialogue" writer credit. They collaborated again on Paths of Glory (with Calder Willingham) and in the criminal story titled Lunatic at Large that never materialized despite Thompson's having completed and submitted the screen treatment. Although pleased with the work, Kubrick was side-tracked by Spartacus; when Kubrick returned to Lunatic at Large, the sole copy of Thompson's manuscript had been lost. Kubrick was quoted by family and friends as regretting the lost opportunity.

Although films would later be made based on Thompson's novels, The Killing and Paths of Glory would be the only produced films on which Thompson received on-screen writing credit for either dialogue or screenplay.

Later novels, television work and novelizations
After his film work, Thompson remained a resident of California for the rest of his life. From the mid-1950s through the late 1960s, Thompson continued to write fiction, although not at the same torrid pace of 1952 to 1954. During this era, Thompson usually completed one novel a year, but he gradually drifted away from writing his increasingly unpopular novels, abandoning the medium completely by the end of the 1960s. In 1967, he published South of Heaven, about a young migrant laborer working on an oil pipeline in Texas.

With his novels providing scant income, Thompson turned to other forms of writing to pay the bills. Beginning in 1959, and continuing through the mid-1960s, Thompson also began writing television programs, including episodes of the action/adventure shows Mackenzie's Raiders (1959), Cain's Hundred (1961) and Convoy (1965). TV work seemingly dried up for Thompson after this point, so he turned to writing tie-in novels based on produced TV shows and screenplays: this work paid a flat fee, and could be completed quickly. Thompson's tie-ins include an original novel based on the television series Ironside (1967), as well as screenplay novelizations of the films The Undefeated (1969) and Nothing But a Man (1970).

In the late 1960s, Thompson wrote his two final original books, King Blood and Child of Rage (its provisional title was White Mother, Black Son), neither of which were published until the early 1970s, the latter in the UK.

Later life and death
In 1970, Thompson was flown to Robert Redford's Utah residence. Redford hired him to write a motion picture script about the life of a hobo during the Great Depression. Thompson was paid $10,000 for his script Bo, though it never was produced.

Motion picture writer/director Sam Fuller expressed an interest in adapting The Getaway for the screen, and Thompson's biographer Robert Polito, in the biography Savage Art, notes that Fuller so admired the novel that he quipped, half-seriously, that he could use the novel as a shooting script. Eventually, Sam Peckinpah was slated to direct The Getaway.

In many regards, The Getaway was a frustrating repeat of his earlier experience collaborating with director Stanley Kubrick on the screenplay of the 1956 film The Killing. Thompson wrote a script, but Steve McQueen (who was cast in the movie's lead role of Doc McCoy) rejected it as too reliant on dialogue, with not enough action. Though Walter Hill was given the sole script credit, Thompson insisted that much of his script ended up in the film. Thompson sought Writers Guild arbitration but the Guild ultimately ruled against him. In the end, the film was heavily bowdlerized from Thompson's original vision and as Stephen King writes, "if you have seen only the film version of The Getaway, you have no idea of the existential horrors awaiting Doc and Carol McCoy at the point where Sam Peckinpah ended the story."

Thompson actually appeared in the 1975 movie Farewell, My Lovely, starring Robert Mitchum. He played the character Judge Baxter Wilson Grayle. When Thompson's fortunes were fading, he made the acquaintance of writer Harlan Ellison who had long admired Thompson's books. Though Thompson still drank heavily (preferring to meet at the famed writer's haunt, the Musso & Frank Grill) and Ellison was a teetotaler (preferring fast food restaurants), they often met for meals and conversation.

Though Thompson's books were falling out of print in the United States, the French had discovered his works. Though they were not runaway bestsellers in France, his books did sell well enough in that country to keep a trickle of royalties flowing towards Thompson. Incidentally, Polito also debunks the myth that Thompson was not paid well for his works: Thompson's pay, he notes, was roughly in line with what writers of similar works received during that era.

Thompson died in Los Angeles, aged 70, after a series of strokes aggravated by his long-term alcoholism. He refused to eat for some time before his death, and this self-inflicted starvation contributed greatly to his demise. At the time of his death, none of his novels were in print in his home country.

Thompson's papers from 1955-1958, including typescripts and original drafts of about a dozen novels, are archived at UCLA's Charles E. Young Research Library.

Style
Thompson's stories are about grifters, losers, sociopaths and psychopaths—some at the fringe of society, some at its heart—their nihilistic world-view being best-served by first-person narratives revealing a frighteningly deep understanding of the warped mind. There are few good guys in Thompson's literature: most of his characters are abusive or simply biding time until an opportunity presents itself, though many also have decent impulses.

Despite some positive critical notice, only after his best years as a writer did Thompson achieve a measure of fame. Yet that neglect might stem from his style: the crime novels are fast-moving and compelling but sometimes sloppy and uneven. Thompson wrote quickly (many novels were written in a month); using his newspaper experience to write concise, evocative prose with little editing.

Yet at his best his novels were among the most effectively and memorably written genre pieces. He also managed unusual and highly successful literary tricks: halfway through A Hell of a Woman, the first-person narrator Frank "Dolly" Dillon has a mental breakdown; the sides of his personality then take turns narrating the chapters, alternately violently psychotic (telling the sordid tale that happened) or sweet-natured and patient (telling the idealized fantasy that did not happen). In the final page of the original manuscript the two sides of Dillon's broken personality appear together as two columns of text. The publisher disliked that and instead alternated the two narrations in a long paragraph, alternating standard Roman type and italicized type. Thompson disliked the change, thinking it confusing and difficult for the reader.

For most of his life Thompson drank heavily; the effects of alcoholism often featured in his works, most prominently in The Alcoholics (1953) which is set in a detoxification clinic. Donald E. Westlake, who adapted The Grifters for the screen, observed that alcoholism had a great role in Thompson's literature, but it tended to be tacit and subtle. Westlake described typical personal relationships in Thompson novels as pleasant in the morning, argumentative in the afternoon and abusive at night—behavior common to the alcoholic Thompson's style of life but which he elided from the stories.

Films and adaptations

Book adaptations
Two of Thompson's books (The Getaway and The Killer Inside Me) were adapted as Hollywood motion pictures during his lifetime receiving relatively poor reviews. However, Polito argues that neither adaptation was ultimately true to Thompson's spirit. A second, more faithful adaptation of The Killer Inside Me was released in 2010, starring Casey Affleck and directed by Michael Winterbottom.

French director Bertrand Tavernier adapted Pop. 1280 for his 1981 film Coup de Torchon, changing the setting from the American South to a French colony in West Africa of the 1930s. Aside from shift in setting, Polito argues that Coup de Torchon was remarkably faithful to the plot and the spirit of the novel, and -- along with the 1990 film The Grifters -- remains arguably the most authentic adaptation of any of Thompson's work.

A Hell of a Woman was adapted in French as Série noire (1979) by Alain Corneau, with dialogue by French Oulipo writer Georges Pérec. This noir masterpiece set in the grim Paris outskirts features a 16-year-old Marie Trintignant's debut performance as well as what is generally agreed to be Patrick Dewaere's finest performance. Dewaere conveys a tragic dimension to his manic portrayal of a mediocre door-to-door salesman, at one point repeatedly bashing his head against a car in an effort to exorcise his angst and guilt.

In the early 1990s, Hollywood resumed its interest in Thompson's writing and several of his novels were re-published. Three novels were adapted for new film treatments during that period: The Kill-Off; After Dark, My Sweet; and The Grifters, which garnered four Academy Award nominations.

The Getaway was remade in 1994 with Alec Baldwin and Kim Basinger in the lead roles; the film retained the happy ending of the earlier film and received comparably poor reviews.

In 1996, A Swell-Looking Babe was released as Hit Me, and 1997 saw the release of This World, Then the Fireworks from Thompson's short story of that name. The latter film starred Billy Zane and Gina Gershon as a pair of twisted siblings.

Cultural references
 Thompson was a major influence on the songwriting style of Mark Sandman, the singer for Morphine and Treat Her Right; see Sandman songs like "Murder for the Money" and "A Good Woman Is Hard to Find".
 There is a reference to Thompson's book The Killer Inside Me in the song "Sri Lanka Sex Hotel" on the Dead Milkmen's Beelzebubba album, and in the song "Killer Inside Me" on MC 900 Ft. Jesus' album Welcome to My Dream.
 David Thomas, lead singer of Pere Ubu, says of the band's album Why I Hate Women: "the back story for this album was the Jim Thompson novel he never wrote."
 Songwriter, guitarist, and singer John Wesley Harding, in an introduction to his song "The Truth" during the WXRT-FM Twilight Concert at the World Music Theatre in Tinley Park, Ill., on Sep 12, 1992, said the song was for anyone who had seen the 1950 American film Sunset Boulevard or "read a Jim Thompson novel."
 Donald Westlake, who adapted The Grifters for film in 1990, satirized Thompson later that year in his own novel Drowned Hopes. This book features a character named Tom Jimson who is hard-boiled to the point of absurdity.
 In the 1997 film Cop Land, which takes place partly in (fictitious) Garrison, New Jersey, the "Welcome to Garrison" sign pictured 16 minutes into the film indicates that the population of the town is 1,280, as a possible reference to Thompson's novel Pop. 1280.
 Jim Thompson has been cited by Norwegian crime novelist Jo Nesbø as being a major influence on his style of writing, particularly because of the way in which he described the human mind and nature.
 Musician Mark E. Smith suggested Pop. 1280 as "one book every teenager should read".

Major works
 Now and on Earth (1942)
 Heed the Thunder (aka Sins of the Fathers) (1946)
 Nothing More Than Murder (1949)
 The Killer Inside Me (1952)
 Cropper's Cabin (1952)
 Recoil (1953)
 The Alcoholics (1953)
 Savage Night (1953)
 Bad Boy (1953)
 The Criminal (1953)
 The Nothing Man (1954)
 The Golden Gizmo (1954)
 Roughneck (1954)
 A Swell-Looking Babe (1954)
 A Hell of a Woman (1954)
 After Dark, My Sweet (1955)
 The Kill-Off (1957)
 Wild Town (1957)
 The Getaway (1958)
 The Transgressors (1961)
 The Grifters (1963)
 Pop. 1280 (1964)
 Texas by the Tail (1965)
 South of Heaven (1967)
 Ironside (1967), original novel based on the TV series
 The Undefeated (1969), novelization of the screenplay by James Lee Barrett
 Nothing But a Man (1970), novelization of the screenplay by Michael Roemer and Robert M. Young
 Child of Rage (1972)
 King Blood (1973)
 The Rip-Off (1985)
 Fireworks: The Lost Writings of Jim Thompson (1988)

Omnibus
 Jim Thompson Omnibus (1983) (republished in 1995)
 Jim Thompson Omnibus 2 (1985) (republished in 1997)

References

External links

 The Killer Beside Me
 Jim Thompson on Film: Survey of his works adapted into films.
 Cigarettes and Alcohol: The Extraordinary Life of Jim Thompson

 Jim Thompson's Oklahoma: The Darkest Guidebook Ever?
 encyc:Heed the Thunder

1906 births
1977 deaths
American crime fiction writers
Industrial Workers of the World members
Members of the Communist Party USA
Writers from Fort Worth, Texas
People from Anadarko, Oklahoma
Pulp fiction writers
20th-century American novelists
American male novelists
20th-century American male writers
Novelists from Oklahoma
American short story writers
American male short story writers
20th-century short story writers
Novelists from Texas
American Noir writers
Federal Writers' Project people

Jim Thompson (writer)