Robert Granville Lemon (September 22, 1920 – January 11, 2000) was an American right-handed pitcher and manager in Major League Baseball (MLB). Lemon was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1976.

Lemon was raised in California where he played high school baseball and was the state player of the year in 1938. At the age of 17, Lemon began his professional baseball career in the Cleveland Indians organization, with whom he played for his entire professional career. Lemon was called up to Cleveland's major league team as a utility player in 1941. He then joined the United States Navy during World War II and returned to the Indians in 1946. That season was the first Lemon would play at the pitcher position.

The Indians played in the 1948 World Series and were helped by Lemon's two pitching wins as they won the club's first championship since 1920. In the early 1950s, Cleveland had a starting pitching rotation which included Lemon, Bob Feller, Mike Garcia and Early Wynn. During the 1954 season, Lemon had a career-best 23–7 win–loss record and the Indians set a 154-game season AL-record win mark when they won 111 games before they won the American League (AL) pennant. He was an All-Star for seven consecutive seasons and recorded seven seasons of 20 or more pitching wins in a nine-year period from 1948 to 1956.

Lemon was a manager with the Kansas City Royals, Chicago White Sox and New York Yankees. He was named Manager of the Year with the White Sox and Yankees. In 1978, he was fired as manager of the White Sox. He was named Yankees manager one month later and he led the team to a 1978 World Series title and a 1981 American League Championship. Lemon became the first AL manager to win a World Series after assuming the managerial role in the middle of a season.

Early life
Bob Lemon was born in San Bernardino, California. Lemon's father, Earl Lemon, ran an ice business. The family later moved to Long Beach, California, where Lemon attended Wilson Classical High School and played shortstop on the school's baseball team. He was recognized as the state baseball player of the year by the California Interscholastic Federation (CIF) Southern Section in 1938.

Later that same year, at the age of 17, Lemon began his professional baseball career in the farm system of the Cleveland Indians as a member of the Oswego Netherlands of the Canadian–American League and later that year, the Middle Atlantic League's Springfield Indians. In 75 games with the Netherlands he recorded a .312 batting average. The following season he played 80 games with Springfield, and hit .293, and then joined the New Orleans Pelicans of the Southern Association, where Lemon hit .309. He spent the next two seasons at the Class A level with the Eastern League's Wilkes-Barre Barons as he hit .255 in 1940 and .301 in 1941. In his final stint in the minors, Lemon hit .268 with 21 home runs for the 1942 Baltimore Orioles of the International League.

Major League career

Making it as a utility player
Lemon's major league debut came as a third baseman as a late season call-up on September 9, 1941. He appeared in five games and collected one hit in five plate appearances. He was joined by catcher and fellow rookie Jim Hegan. He repeated the same number of games in the 1942 season and failed to record a hit. Lemon served in the United States Navy during World War II and missed the next three seasons. Before leaving for tour duty in 1943, Lemon married Jane McGee.

Lemon was the Indians' center fielder for Opening Day in 1946. On April 30, Indians pitcher Bob Feller no-hit the New York Yankees; Feller later wrote that Lemon's "daring catch" and "throwing to and doubling a man off second base" were key in "saving my" no-hitter. By season's end, however, Lemon had entered more games as a pitcher than a utility player. Before that season, Lemon had pitched only one inning while with Oswego and another while with Wilkes-Barre. Birdie Tebbetts of the Detroit Tigers and Johnny Pesky of the Boston Red Sox had played against Lemon in Navy baseball games, and they spoke to Indians player-manager Lou Boudreau about switching Lemon from the outfield to the pitching mound.

Boudreau discussed the potential move to pitcher with Yankees catcher Bill Dickey, who had also played in the Navy with Lemon. "I knew Lemon had a strong arm, and once I realized he was not going to hit with consistency as an outfielder, I thought it would be worthwhile to look at him as a pitcher," Boudreau later wrote. Lemon resisted the idea at first, but he agreed to the change after he learned that his salary could be higher as a pitcher. Lemon credited Indians coach Bill McKechnie with helping him to adjust to his new position. Indians pitching coach Mel Harder taught Lemon how to throw a slider, a key pitch in his repertoire. That same year, Indians owner Bill Veeck said that Lemon "some day will become the best pitcher in the American League". Lemon finished the 1946 season with a losing record (4–5), the only one he would have until 1957, and a career-low 2.49 ERA. He followed up his inaugural season as a pitcher with an 11–5 record. He appeared in 19 games before August, largely as a relief pitcher, but he made his first start in July against the Boston Red Sox. During the last two months of the season, Lemon went 9–3 and pitched six complete games, including two 11-inning outings.

Full-time pitcher to World Series champion
Before the 1948 season started, team president Bill Veeck doubled Lemon's contract amount. In what would be his first full season as a pitcher, Lemon was the Indians' number-two pitcher in the starting rotation, behind Bob Feller. On June 30, 1948, Lemon pitched a no-hitter against the Detroit Tigers in a 2–0 win, becoming the ninth Indians pitcher to record a no-hitter and earning his 11th win and fifth shutout of the season. He ended his breakout season with an AL-best 20 complete games. His ten shutouts on the season were the most in the majors. Lemon would go on to win the 1948 AL Pitcher of the Year Award. With three games remaining in the regular season, 20-game winner Lemon started the first game of their final series against Detroit. Lemon allowed three runs on seven hits and the Indians lost the game. Cleveland lost two games of the three-game series, forcing a one-game playoff with the Boston Red Sox. Speculation built up around which Indians pitcher Boudreau would send to the mound against the Red Sox on October 4; the choices were largely narrowed down to Lemon and Satchel Paige. Lemon was listed as Cleveland's "probable pitcher" by United Press International in morning newspapers the day of the game, even though he would be working on two days of rest. Instead, Boudreau went with Gene Bearden, who would be pitching on one day of rest, and the choice was solidified when veteran second baseman Joe Gordon spoke up in support of Boudreau at a team meeting. The Indians won the game at Fenway Park by a score of 8–3 and prepared to face the Boston Braves in the World Series.

Boudreau started Feller in game one, which Cleveland lost. Lemon was the starter in the second game. Lemon faced Warren Spahn, and Cleveland won 4–1. Lemon was named the starter for game six in Boston with the Indians leading the series 3–2. He allowed three earned runs on eight hits and Cleveland had the lead when Lemon was replaced by Bearden. The Braves scored two runs in the bottom of the eighth inning but the Indians won the game, 4–3, to clinch the franchise's first World Series title since 1920. Lemon was the only pitcher from either club to win two games in the Series. He finished the Series with a 1.65 ERA.

Lemon's hitting skills began to get attention as well. By August 1949, Lemon was batting .295 with 11 extra-base hits and six home runs, prompting Yankees manager Casey Stengel to comment: "Well, I see where the Indians have nine hitters in the lineup instead of eight." UPI sportswriter Milton Richman wrote, "Lemon's fine work at the plate has also conspired to tire him more. When the Indians get behind and Lemon is pitching, he rarely is yanked for a pinch hitter in the early innings. It's a tough price he's paying for batting fame." In 1950, Lemon led the major leagues in wins (23) for the first time and won his second AL Pitcher of the Year Award. He pitched a six-hit complete game over the Detroit Tigers in his last start of the season on September 29. When Lemon signed a new contract before the 1951 season, the Indians made him the highest paid pitcher in baseball. At the beginning of the 1951 season, UPI sportswriter Oscar Fraley pointed out that Lemon was one of only 12 active pitchers who had earned a winning record in four consecutive seasons. He finished the season with a 3.52 ERA, lower than the 1950 season mark of 3.84 when he led the majors with 23 wins, and a 17–14 record. The loss total was the most in the AL. He did not record his first shutout of the season until well into August, when he earned a three-hit win over the Chicago White Sox. In 1952, Lemon recorded the second-lowest ERA of his career, 2.50, and went 22–11. His 28 complete games were a career-high and led the AL. Along with teammates Early Wynn (23), and Mike Garcia (22), Lemon gave Cleveland's starting rotation three 20-game winners.

On Opening Day of the 1953 season, Lemon pitched a one-hitter against the Chicago White Sox and earned a win. He finished the season with a 21–15 record, 3.36 ERA and led the AL in innings pitched for the fourth and final time of his career.

Second World Series appearance

In  he was 23–7 and won his third AL Pitcher of the Year Award as Cleveland won the pennant. The Indians set an AL record with 111 wins. (The record stood until major league seasons were lengthened to 162 games, and it has been surpassed twice since then.) Lemon was named Cleveland's starter for game one of the 1954 World Series. After nine innings, the Indians and Giants were tied 2–2. Lemon stayed in the game to pitch the tenth and final inning, but he surrendered a three-run home run to pinch hitter Dusty Rhodes and the Indians lost, 5–2. Indians manager Al López went with Lemon again in the fourth game after only two days rest. "He hasn't worked that close together all year because we had a good bunch of other pitchers, but a year ago, he and Wynn and Garcia pitched every third day for practically a month. Bob will be all right," Lopez said. Lemon and the Indians lost the game, 7–4, as the Giants swept the Series four games to none. In his two appearances, he went 0–2 with a 6.75 ERA, allowed eight walks and recorded 11 strikeouts.

Lemon began the 1955 season with a 5–0 record in April, but he was the only Cleveland starting pitcher with a winning record that month. His 18 wins tied for the most in the AL that year. He recorded five complete games through May 30 but none after that date. Indians general manager Hank Greenberg got Lemon to agree to his first reduction in contract salary since joining the organization. Lemon earned his 200th career win against the Baltimore Orioles on September 11, 1956, and he also hit a home run that day. He finished the season with a 20–14 record, the last of his seven career 20-win seasons, and led the AL in complete games (21). On August 13, 1957, it was announced that Lemon would not finish the season due to continued irritation to his elbow after bone chips were found earlier in the season. Lemon ended the season with a record of 6–11, his first losing record since 1946.

In 1958, Lemon was the oldest Indian on the roster at age 37. Lemon pitched 3.1 innings over the span of two games before he was put on the Indians' disabled list and sent to the Triple-A San Diego Padres. There he continued physical conditioning and mentored the pitching staff of the Indians' top farm club. He appeared in 12 games with the Padres, going 2–5, with a 4.34 ERA, 22 walks, and 19 strikeouts. He returned to pitch for the Indians on May 25 in a relief role, but he appeared in only nine games that season. He earned just one decision that year, a loss, which brought his career pitching record to 207–128. The club put him on waivers in July.

Retirement
At 38, Lemon went to Tucson in 1959 to attend Indians' spring training camp. He told manager Joe Gordon that he was willing to become a relief pitcher, but he retired as a player on March 5, stating, "I just couldn't keep up with the young fellows anymore." He accepted a scouting role with the Indians.

Lemon retired in 1958 with 207 wins, all but ten of them occurring in a ten-year span. He recorded 274 hits in 1,183 at-bats (.232), and his 37 career home runs are second on the all-time career list for pitchers (behind Wes Ferrell's 38). In 1951, Ted Williams wrote of Lemon: "I have to rate Lemon as one of the very best pitchers I ever faced. His ball was always moving, hard, sinking, fast-breaking. You could never really uhmmmph with Lemon." The Indians retired Lemon's jersey number, 21, on June 20, 1998 (Mike Hargrove, the Indians Manager at the time who was Wearing #21 switched to #30). Lemon was the sixth Indian to receive the honor.

On January 22, 1976, Lemon was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame by the Baseball Writers' Association of America. It was the twelfth ballot on which he had appeared. He received 78.6% of the vote. On August 8, one day before his induction ceremony, Lemon said, "It's a great thrill. My mother is 83 but she is making the trip from California. She says she can die happy now that I've been elected to the Hall of Fame." Lemon's dominant slider has been cited as a key reason for his election to the Hall of Fame.

Post-playing career

Coaching
In 1959, Lemon became a scout and minor league pitching instructor for Cleveland. He spent part of 1959 season, and part of 1960, as a coach with the MLB Indians. In 1961, he joined the Philadelphia Phillies coaching staff. The California Angels hired him as their pitching coach for 1967–1968. In 1976, Lemon served as pitching coach for the AL champion New York Yankees. The Yankees were owned by Cleveland-area native George Steinbrenner and they had been the chief antagonists of the Cleveland Indians during Lemon's pitching years. In recognition of his election to the Hall of Fame, Lemon was named honorary captain of the AL team for the All-Star Game.

Managing
Lemon's first managerial role came in 1964 with the Triple-A Hawaii Islanders of the PCL, an affiliate of the California Angels. The team went 60–98. In 1965, the Angels switched their Triple-A affiliation to the Seattle Angels and Lemon moved with the team. He managed the team in 1965–1966 and won the 1966 championship. He was named the PCL's Manager of the Year by The Sporting News for the 1966 season. In 1969, Lemon returned to the PCL as manager of the Vancouver Mounties, affiliated with the expansion Seattle Pilots and Montreal Expos. Lemon said he used Indians manager Al López as a model for his managing style:

"Lopez always handled his players like I'd want to be handled. He treated men like men. He made them feel relaxed. That's the only way to play this game...by being relaxed. You can't be worried about the manager getting on you. All the time I was at Cleveland, I saw Lopez get mad only twice. He never showed anybody up. I don't do it either."

Tommy John, who played under both Lopez and Lemon, noticed this similarity. "Lemon was an outstanding manager who never got the credit he deserved," John wrote in 1991. "He was like Al Lopez; he let you alone and treated you like an adult." His approach to the game was to simplify it, trying to make it easier for everyone involved. Lemon frequently called his players "Meat."

Kansas City Royals
Lemon became pitching coach of the Kansas City Royals for the  season. He got his first major league managing job when Kansas City fired manager Charlie Metro on June 7, 1970. By August, Lemon received a one-year contract extension with the club:
"I know many major league owners are against hiring a former pitcher as manager and I've always wondered why. Pitching is 75 per cent of the game. If it's so important, why not have a former pitcher as manager? He can always have someone else run the other 25 per cent of the club."

In , Lemon guided the Royals to their first winning season since the franchise began as an expansion team in . Lemon finished second in the Associated Press AL Manager of the Year voting. Before the 1972 season, Lemon talked about the team's chances, saying "Five clubs could win it, including ourselves." However, the Royals finished 76–78. Royals owner Ewing Kauffman fired Lemon as manager, saying he wanted a younger manager and "did not want to lose Jack McKeon", who was named as Lemon's replacement (Lemon was 51 while McKeon was ten years younger). Royals outfielder Lou Piniella was one of several players who disagreed with Kauffman's decision, saying, "...Lemon deserved to manage the club next year."

Lemon returned to managing in the minor leagues. His third and final stint in the PCL was in 1974 with the Sacramento Solons, affiliated with the Milwaukee Brewers. His last minor league managerial position was in 1975 with the Atlanta Braves' International League affiliate, the Richmond Braves.

Chicago White Sox

Bill Veeck hired Lemon to succeed Paul Richards as the Chicago White Sox manager on November 16, 1976. Lemon took over a Chicago team that finished in last place in the AL West in 1976. "Bob is the type of manager we need at this stage of the game", Veeck said. During spring training of 1977, Lemon said, "I think we'll surprise a few people." White Sox shortstop Alan Bannister quickly noticed a difference. Comparing Richards to Lemon, Bannister said, "He'd post the lineups 10 minutes before the game, and only then we'd find out who was playing and where. Lemon's made it a serious operation." As late as August 14, the White Sox were in first place in the AL West. The White Sox finished with a 90–72 record, a 26-game improvement. The team finished third in AL West and Lemon won his second Manager of the Year Award. "The fans got behind us after about three weeks. They had a lot to do with our success", Lemon said after being winning the award.

Lemon was fired the following season on June 30, 1978, by Veeck after Chicago posted a 34–40 record in the first half of the 1978 season. He was replaced by former Indians' teammate Larry Doby. "This change is not meant as any commentary on Lemon's ability but rather was the result of unusual circumstances which seemed to make a change necessary", said Veeck.

New York Yankees
Yankees manager Billy Martin resigned on July 24, 1978, and team president Al Rosen called Lemon to offer him the vacant position. He was announced as the new manager the next day. At their 1978 Old Timers Day five days after the Martin–Lemon changeover, the Yankees divulged that Lemon would be moved in 1980 to general manager, and they said that Martin would then return as field manager. The announcement was made by public-address announcer Bob Sheppard after the Old Timers had been announced and it was accompanied by Martin's dramatic entrance from the Yankee dugout. Martin received a long standing ovation from fans. Lemon responded to his new job—and to the newspaper strike that helped calm down the atmosphere in the Yankees clubhouse—by guiding the Yankees to the  pennant. The Yankees, who trailed the Red Sox by 14 games at one point in July, pulled even with the Red Sox by defeating them in a four-game September series known as the "Boston Massacre". The Yankees pulled ahead by  games, but the Red Sox rallied to tie the Yanks by the final day of the season. A one-game playoff would determine the AL Eastern Division winner.

Ron Guidry was named the Yankees' starting pitcher for the October 2 playoff game at Fenway Park. Guidry was able to pitch "because of Lemon's good planning". The Yankees defeated Boston for the division title in the tie-breaker game, punctuated both by a dramatic three-run home run by Bucky Dent in the seventh inning, and an eighth-inning homer by Reggie Jackson that proved the game's winning run. Lemon became the third manager in MLB history to replace another mid-season and win the pennant. Lemon's Yankees then beat the Royals in the ALCS and defeated the Los Angeles Dodgers to win the World Series title. With the Series win, Lemon became the first AL manager and third MLB manager to take over a team mid-season and win a World Series. This was the second World Series championship for Lemon, who had won his last one in 1948; the thirty year gap between World championships set a record for longest gap between championships for a person that was not broken until 2022. Before the World Series, one columnist wrote, "...many observers feel that Lemon's low-keyed approach with the Yankees' temperamental millionaires as compared to the combativeness of Martin served to mold a spirit of togetherness among the Yankees that did not even exist last year when they won it all." Lemon and his handling of the season was described in The New York Times as "an island of calm in a stormy summer". Changes Lemon made during the season included returning Thurman Munson to the team's every day catcher (he had been playing in the outfield), putting Jackson in the clean-up spot in the batting order and becoming the regular right fielder, and pitching Ed Figueroa every fourth day (instead of fifth). In October, Lemon was named the Associated Press' AL Manager of the Year, the second time he received such an award.

Lemon's 26-year-old son, Jerry, was killed in an automobile accident in the fall of 1978, 10 days after Lemon won the World Series. Tommy John thought this was distracting him from fully focusing on baseball as the 1979 season began. In early June, several of the players got rowdy on a plane flight to Texas, blaring loud music from their cassette players. Lemon did nothing to intervene, which John thought might have prompted his dismissal. With the Yankees at 34–31, Lemon was fired in June by Steinbrenner and replaced by Martin, but he remained with the organization as he had a contract through the 1982 season. Speaking of Martin, Lemon said, "He's a very likeable guy, a free spirit. Where maybe I keep things inside, he lets them come out. There's nothing wrong with that." The Yankees finished in fourth place in the AL East (89–71). Lemon worked as a scout for the Yankees and received "several offers" from other teams to serve as manager. One offer came in 1979 from the Indians, but Lemon refused it as well as the others.

Second stint with Yankees
Steinbrenner named Lemon the team's field manager a second time on September 6, 1981, the sixth Yankees' manager change since 1978 after firing Gene Michael, who also had served as general manager and had won the first half of the split season. The Yankees moved on to the postseason and dispatched the Milwaukee Brewers and the Billy Martin-led Oakland Athletics, and won the first two games of the 1981 World Series against the Dodgers, only to lose four straight and the Series. Lemon survived just a few weeks into the 1982 season (the Yankees were 6–8) before Steinbrenner dismissed him one last time, despite a promise from Steinbrenner he would manage the season "no matter what". Lemon had considered resigning a week before because of Steinbrenner's constant criticisms, but coach Mike Ferraro talked him out of it. Of the agreement between Lemon and Steinbrenner, Steinbrenner said, "Lem and I talked. He said it was O.K. He said he didn't take it as a promise anyway." Tommy John thought Lemon "was relieved" at Steinbrenner's decision. Gene Michael succeeded Lemon as manager. All in all, Lemon had managed just over one full season of games (172) for the Yankees, winning 99 games for a .576 winning percentage.

Managerial record

Highlights and awards
 7× All-Star (1948, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1954)
 7× 20-plus wins in a season (1948–1950, 1952–1954, 1956)
 5× AL leader in complete games (1948, 1950, 1952, 1954, 1956)
 Led MLB in shutouts (10, 1948)
 5× led MLB or AL in putouts (1948–1949, 1952–1954)
 6× led MLB or AL in assists (1948–1949, 1951–1953, 1956)
 3× finished fifth in MVP voting (1948, 1950, 1954)
 World Series Champion, player (1948)
 Led AL in strikeouts (170, 1950)
 3x AL Pitcher of the Year Award (1948, 1950, 1954)
 2× MLB leader in wins (1950, 1954)
 Major league record for pitcher 15 double plays in one season (1953)
 Led AL in wins (1955)
 World Series Champion, manager (1978)
 #21 number retired by Cleveland Indians
 In 2013, the Bob Feller Act of Valor Award honored Lemon as one of 37 Baseball Hall of Fame members for his service in the United States Navy during World War II.

Death
Lemon suffered a stroke in his later years. Lemon died in 2000 in Long Beach, California, where he had been a permanent resident since his career as a player. Former teammate Bob Feller said, "Bob had a good curve, a good slider, and a vicious sinker pitch. He wasn't overly fast, but he always stayed ahead of the hitters and he didn't walk many batters, which is the key to success in the majors."

See also

List of Major League Baseball career wins leaders
List of Major League Baseball annual strikeout leaders
List of Major League Baseball annual wins leaders
List of Major League Baseball all-time leaders in home runs by pitchers
Major League Baseball titles leaders
List of Major League Baseball no-hitters
List of Major League Baseball players who spent their entire career with one franchise

References

External links

The Top 100 Greatest Indians Roster
1954 Cleveland Indians season
Bob Lemon Oral History Interview (1 of 2) - National Baseball Hall of Fame Digital Collection
Bob Lemon Oral History Interview (2 of 2) - National Baseball Hall of Fame Digital Collection

1920 births
2000 deaths
American League All-Stars
American League strikeout champions
American League wins champions
Atlanta Braves scouts
Baltimore Orioles (International League) players
Baseball players from Long Beach, California
California Angels coaches
Chicago White Sox managers
Cleveland Indians coaches
Cleveland Indians players
Cleveland Indians scouts
Hawaii Islanders managers
Kansas City Royals coaches
Kansas City Royals managers
Major League Baseball pitchers
Major League Baseball pitching coaches
Major League Baseball players with retired numbers
National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
New Orleans Pelicans (baseball) players
New York Yankees coaches
New York Yankees managers
New York Yankees scouts
Oswego Netherlands players
Philadelphia Phillies coaches
Sacramento Solons managers
San Diego Padres (minor league) players
Springfield Indians (baseball) players
Wilkes-Barre Barons (baseball) players
United States Navy personnel of World War II
Wilson Classical High School alumni
World Series-winning managers
Baseball coaches from California

Bob Lemon


Mike Connors (born Krekor J. Ohanian; August 15, 1925 – January 26, 2017) was an American actor.

Career
Born in Fresno, California, U.S., he began his career with the stage name Touch Connors, playing small roles in movies such as Sudden Fear (1951) with Joan Crawford and Island in the Sky (1953) with John Wayne. He then starred in four movies of filmmaker Roger Corman: Five Guns West (1955), Day the World Ended (1955), The Oklahoma Woman (1956), Swamp Women (1956). Connors also played the role of "Amalekite herder", in The Ten Commandments (1956). He also starred in some low-budget movies like Voodoo Woman (1957) and Suicide Battalion (1958), both directed by Edward L. Cahn. In 1966, Mike Connors starred in the western Stagecoach directed by Gordon Douglas. In the 1970s and 1980s, Connors was working exclusively for television, with the exceptions of movies Avalanche Express (1979) Nightkill (1980), and Too Scared to Scream (1985) directed by Toby Lo Bianco, Connors plays the role of Lt. Alex Dinardo, who must investigate a series of crimes that occurred in luxurious buildings in New York City. His last films were Downtown Heat (1994) and Gideon (1999)

Television
In 1959 Mike Connors starring in a new TV series called Tightrope, playing police agent Nick Stone, who must infiltrate organized crime. 37 episodes were filmed in black and white between 1959 and 1960. Mike Connors was the star of Mannix, one of the most famous TV detective series of all time. Connors played the role of detective Joe Mannix, who in the first episodes was accompanied by Joseph Campanella as Lew Wickersham. The second season featured Gail Fisher as Mannix's secretary Peggy, Ward Wood as Lt. Art Malcolm and Robert Reed as Lt. Adam Tobias. He played Mannix between 1967 and 1975. Connors was nominated four times for an Emmy Award, and was also nominated for six Golden Globes awards, winning one of them in 1970.

He also starred in films for television such as Revenge for a Rape (1976), he plays Travis Green a man seeking revenge for the rape of his wife, and High Midnight (1979), he is Capt. Lou Mikalich, a corrupt cop who makes a mistake in a raid and killed the family, decides to plant drugs on an innocent. He has been involved in episodes of television series like Cheyenne (1958), Lawman (1958), Mike Hammer (1959), The Untouchables (1962), Perry Mason (1964), Police Story (1977), Walker, Texas Ranger (1998) and Two and a Half Men (2007).

Personal life and death
Connors married Mary Lou Willey in 1949. Together they had a son, Matthew Gunner Ohanian, and a daughter, Dana Lou Connors.

Connors died from leukemia on January 26, 2017 in Tarzana, California. He was 91.

References

Eye on Science Fiction: 20 Interviews with Classic SF and Horror Filmmakers by Tom Weaver
Encyclopedia of Television Series, Pilots and Specials: 1974-1984, by Vincent Terrace

Other websites

1925 births
2017 deaths
Actors from Fresno, California
American movie actors
American television actors
Cancer deaths in Los Angeles County, California
Deaths from leukemia
Golden Globe Award winning actors

Mike Connors


Lawrence Townsend (August 13, 1860 – March 8, 1954) was an American diplomat and later in life, after his retirement from government service, a business executive in Washington, DC.

Born in Philadelphia, Lawrence Townsend was educated at Mantua Academy (1872–77) and entered the University of Pennsylvania in the class of 1881.  He withdrew from the university at the end of his junior year and went west to Plateau, Colorado, where he owned a large ranch (1881–1886).  Returning to Pennsylvania, he married composer Natalie Hannau of Philadelphia on March 8, 1886, and they had three children: Yvonne, Lawrence Jr., and Reginald.  In 1889, he went to Vienna to study law and the history of diplomacy, specializing in international law.  He published numerous translations of French and German articles in his area of specialization.

From Vienna, he launched his diplomatic career.  He served as First Secretary of the U.S. Legation in Vienna from 1893–97 and from there was promoted to the post of U.S. Minister to Portugal on June 9, 1897.  He served in Lisbon until his transfer to Brussels on April 15, 1899, where he served as U.S. Minister to Belgium until 1905.   In 1905 he moved to Washington, D.C., and joined the Washington Gas Light Company as its treasurer and later secretary.

He and his wife lived in Washington's fashionable Dupont Circle area, at 1416 20th Street, NW, and were prominent members of the Washington social and cultural scene.   Later in life, Townsend became active in the English-Speaking Union.  He died in 1954, in Florida.

References

Sources
U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian
The Twentieth Century Biographical Dictionary of Notable Americans.  Boston: The Biographical Society 1904

Businesspeople from Philadelphia
1860 births
1954 deaths
Ambassadors of the United States to Belgium
Ambassadors of the United States to Portugal
People from Dupont Circle
19th-century American diplomats

Lawrence Townsend


Stairs, staircase, stairway, stairwell, and flight of stairs are connected steps leading up or down. Stairways may be straight, round, or may consist of two or more straight pieces connected at angles.

Special stairways include escalators and ladders. Alternatives to stairways are elevators and inclined moving sidewalks.

Components and terminology

Step

The step is composed of the tread and riser.

 tread: The part of the step that is stepped on. It is constructed to the same specifications (thickness) as any other flooring. The tread "length" is measured from the outer edge of the step to the vertical "riser" between steps.
 riser: The vertical portion of the step between steps. This may be missing for an "open" stair effect.
 nosing: An edge part of the tread that protrudes from the riser beneath. If it is present, this means that horizontally, the total "run" length of the stairs is not simply the sum of the tread lengths, the treads actually overlap each other slightly
 bullnose: Where stairs are open on one or both sides, the first step above the lower floor may be wider than the other steps and rounded. The rounded portion of the step is called a "bullnose". A double bullnose can be used when both sides of the stairs are open.
 winders: Winders are steps that are narrower on one side than the other. They are used to change the direction of the stairs without landings. A series of winders form a circular or spiral stairway. When three steps are used to turn a 90° corner, the middle step is called a kite winder due to its similarity to a diamond-shaped kite.
 stringer, stringer board or sometimes just string: The structural member that supports the treads. There are typically two stringers, one on either side of the stairs; though the treads may be supported many other ways.
 trim: Trim (e.g. quarter-round or baseboard trim) is normally applied where walls meet floors. Within a flight of stairs there is no trim as the trim thickness will significantly eat into the tread width. Shoe moulding may be used between the lower floor and the first riser. Trimming a bullnose is a special challenge as the last riser above the lower floor is rounded. Today, special flexible, plastic trim is available for this purpose. Scotia is concave moulding that is underneath the nosing between the riser and the tread above it.

The railing system

The balustrade is the complete system of railings and pickets that prevents people from falling over the edge.

 banister, railing or handrail: The angled member for handholding, as distinguished from the vertical pickets which hold it up for stairs that are open on one side; there is often a railing on both sides, sometimes only on one side or not at all, on wide staircases there is sometimes also one in the middle, or even more. The term "banister" is sometimes used to mean just the handrail, or sometimes the handrail and the balusters or sometimes just the balusters  .
 volute: A handrail for the bullnose step that is shaped like a spiral. Volutes may be right or left-handed depending on which side of the stairs they occur when facing up the stairs.
 turnout: Instead of a complete spiral volute, a turnout is a quarter-turn rounded end to the handrail.
 gooseneck: The vertical handrail that joins a sloped handrail to a higher handrail on the balcony or landing is a gooseneck.
 rosette: Where the handrail ends in the wall and a half-newel is not used, it may be trimmed by a rosette.
 easings: Wall handrails are mounted directly onto the wall with wall brackets. At the bottom of the stairs such railings flare to a horizontal railing and this horizontal portion is called a "starting easing". At the top of the stairs, the horizontal portion of the railing is called a "over easing".
 core rail: Wood handrails often have a metal core to provide extra strength and stiffness, especially when the rail has to curve against the grain of the wood. The archaic term for the metal core is "core rail".
 baluster: A term for the vertical pickets that hold the handrail. Sometimes simply called guards or spindles. Treads often require two balusters. The second baluster is closer to the riser and is taller than the first. The extra height in the second baluster is typically in the middle between decorative elements on the baluster. That way the bottom decorative elements are aligned with the tread and the top elements are aligned with the railing angle. However, this means the first and second balusters are manufactured separately and cannot be interchanged. Balusters without decorative elements can be interchanged.
 newel: A large picket or post used to anchor the handrail. Since it is a structural element, it extends below the floor and subfloor to the bottom of the floor joists and is bolted right to the floor joist. A half-newel may be used where a railing ends in the wall. Visually, it looks like half the newel is embedded in the wall. For open landings, a newel may extend below the landing for a decorative newel drop.
 baserail or shoerail: For systems where the baluster does not start at the treads, they go to a baserail. This allows for identical balusters, avoiding the second baluster problem.
 fillet: A decorative filler piece on the floor between balusters on a balcony railing.

Handrails may be continuous (sometimes called over-the-post) or post-to-post (or more accurately ""newel-to-newel""). For continuous handrails on long balconies, there may be multiple newels and tandem caps to cover the newels. At corners, there are quarter-turn caps. For post-to-post systems, the newels project above the handrails.

Another, more classical, form of handrailing which is still in use is the Tangent method. A variant of the Cylindric method of layout, it allows for continuous climbing and twisting rails and easings. It was originally defined from principles set down by architect Peter Nicholson in the 18th century.

Other terminology
 balcony: For stairs with an open concept upper floor or landing, the upper floor is functionally a balcony.
 flight: A flight is an uninterrupted series of steps.
 floating stairs: A flight of stairs is said to be "floating" if there is nothing underneath. The risers are typically missing as well to emphasize the open effect. There may be only one stringer or the stringers otherwise minimized. Where building codes allow, there may not even be handrails.
 landing or platform: A landing is, structurally, an intermediate floor between flights of stairs. It is typically used to allow stairs to change directions, or to allow the user a rest. As landings consume floor space and are structurally floors, they can be quite expensive to build. However, changing the direction of the stairs allows stairs to fit where they would not otherwise, or provides privacy to the upper level as visitors downstairs cannot simply look up the stairs to the upper level due to the change in direction.
 runner: Carpeting that runs down the middle of the stairs. Runners may be directly stapled or nailed to the stairs, or may be secured by specialized bar that holds the carpet in place where the tread meets the riser.
 spandrel: If there is not another flight of stairs immediately underneath, the triangular space underneath the stairs is called a "spandrel". It is frequently used as a closet.
 stairwell: This is the space in the building where the stairs are constructed. This may need special structural design so that the floors around the stairwell do not require structural walls so that the stairs themselves are open to the floors.
 staircase: This term is often reserved for the stairs themselves: the steps, railings and landings; though often it is used interchangeably with "stairs" and "stairway".
 stairway: This term is often reserved for the entire stairwell and staircase in combination; though often it is used interchangeably with "stairs" and "staircase".

Measurements
Stair measurements:
 The rise height of each step is measured from the top of one tread to the next. It is not the physical height of the riser; the latter excludes the thickness of the tread.
 The tread depth or length is measured from the edge of the nosing to the vertical riser. It is sometimes called the going.
 The total run of the stairs is the horizontal distance from the first riser to the last riser. It is often not simply the sum of the individual tread lengths due to the nosing overlapping between treads.
 The total rise of the stairs is the height between floors (or landings) that the flight of stairs is spanning.
 The slope of the stairs is the total rise divided by the total run (not the individual riser and treads due to the nosing). It is sometimes called the rake or pitch of the stairs. The pitch line is the imaginary line along the tip of the nosing of the treads.
 Headroom is the height above the nosing of a tread to the ceiling above it.
 Walkline: For curved stairs, the inner radius of the curve may result in very narrow treads. The "walkline" is the imaginary line some distance away from the inner edge on which people are expected to walk. Building code will specify the distance. Building codes will then specify the minimum tread size at the walkline.
 To avoid confusion, the number of steps in a set of stairs is always the number of risers, not the number of treads.

Examples of notable stairways
 The longest stairway is listed by Guinness Book of Records as the service stairway for the Niesenbahn funicular railway near Spiez, Switzerland, with 11,674 steps and a height of 1669 m (5476 ft). The stairs are strictly employee-only.
 The Haiku Stairs, on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, are approximately 4,000 steps which climb nearly 1/2 of a mile. Originally used to access longwire radio antennas which were strung high above the Haiku Valley, between Honolulu and Kaneohe, they are currently closed to hikers.
 The Penrose stairs, devised by Lionel and Roger Penrose, are a famous impossible object. The image distorts perspective in such a manner that the stairs appear to be never-ending, a physical impossibility. The image was adopted by M. C. Escher in his iconic lithograph Ascending and Descending.

Related pages

 Fire escape

Architectural elements

Stairs


In architecture a corbel or console is a structural piece of stone, wood or metal sticking out from a wall to carry a superincumbent weight. It is a type of bracket. A corbel is a solid piece of material in the wall. A console, by comparison, is a piece applied to the structure. A piece of structural wood projecting in the same way was called a "tassel" or a "bragger" in the UK. The technique of corbelling, where rows of corbels support a projecting wall or parapet, has been used since Neolithic,  or New Stone Age, times.

The word "corbel" comes from Old French and derives from the Latin corbellus, a diminutive of corvus (a raven) which refers to the beak-like appearance. Similarly, the French refer to a bracket-corbel, usually a load-bearing internal feature, as a corbeau (a crow).

References

Architectural elements

Corbel


Absurdism is a type of philosophy. People who support and argue for absurdism are known as 'absurdists'. Absurdists think that the human condition is essentially absurd because humans are always looking for meaning, but are completely unable to find meaning because no such meaning exists. In philosophy, this is called 'the Absurd'. In this case absurd means that it is not possible to be done by humans.

Absurdists, most notably Albert Camus, believe that when human beings realize this fundamental absurdity they have different reactions. One reaction is suicide, but this is not generally considered to be a viable solution by Absurdists; suicide is in and of itself the most absurd action possible. Another reaction is to believe in something higher (Camus gave religion as an example of this, although he went on to criticize its merit as a solution to fundamental absurdity) when they see that there is no meaning they can find in the universe (which is what absurdism says is the basic state of human experience). The final reaction is to accept the absurd, and also to keep trying to overcome it. Camus believed that a human being could become happy by finding meaning in their relationship with the absurdity of their existence.

Perhaps the most notable absurdist philosopher is Albert Camus. Søren Kierkegaard's ideas contributed to the development of Absurdist philosophy, although he was himself an existentialist.

References

Related pages
Nihilism

Philosophical movements and positions

Absurdism


Shamarpa or more formally Kunzig Shamar Rinpoche is Tibetan Buddhis teacher. Together with Karmapa he is the second lineage holder of the Karma Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism. Shamarpa is regarded as manifestation of Amitabha Buddha. He also is the second lama who consciously incarnates in subsequent order of Buddhist teachers.
The first Shamar Rinpoche Khedrup Drakpa Senge (1284–1349) was the principal disciple of the 3rd Karmapa Rangjung Dorje.

Present Shamarpa
The present (14th) Shamarpa is Mipham Chokyi Lodro, born in Derge, Tibet in 1952.  At age four he was recognized by his uncle the 16th Karmapa.

Tibetan Buddhism

Shamarpa


A crest is the point on a wave with the greatest positive value or upward displacement in a cycle. A trough is the opposite of a crest.

When the crest and the trough of two waves of equal magnitude and frequency intersect or collide when in phase with each other the result is called constructive interference and the magnitudes double (above and below the line), when 180° out of phase the result is destructive interference with each other the resulting wave is the undisturbed line that is in the middle of the diagram having zero amplitude.

In other words, the wave crest is called a peak.

Related pages
 Ocean surface wave

References
, 704 pages.

Wave physics

Crest (physics)


Lando Calrissian is a major character in the Star Wars universe. He's played by Billy Dee Williams in Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back and Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi. He appears a lot in the Star Wars Expanded Universe, including a series of novels called The Adventures of Lando Calrissian.

Fictional characters introduced in 1980
Star Wars Anthology characters
Star Wars characters
Star Wars Skywalker Saga characters

Lando Calrissian


Budding is a method of asexual reproduction. With budding, a new organism grows on another one. It stays attached, while it grows. Only when it is fully grown does it detach from the parent organism. Since the reproduction is asexual, the newly created organism is a clone and is genetically identical to the parent organism. This method (asexual reproduction) is done in favourable conditions

Budding is very common in plants and fungi. Sometimes it can also be found with animals, for example with hydras or sponges.

Biological reproduction

Budding


In cryptography,  the so-called product ciphers are a certain kind of ciphers, where the decryption of data is done in "rounds". The general setup of each round is the same, except for some hard-coded parameters and a part of the cipher key, called a subkey. A key schedule is an algorithm that, given the key, calculates the subkeys for these rounds.

Some types of key schedules

Some ciphers have simple key schedules. For example, the block cipher TEA simply splits the 128-bit key into four 32-bit pieces and uses them repeatedly in successive rounds.

DES uses a key schedule where the 56 bit key is divided into two 28-bit halves then each half is treated separately. In successive rounds, both halves are rotated left by one or two bits (specified for each round), and then 48 subkey bits are selected by Permuted Choice 2 (PC-2) — 24 bits from the left half, and 24 from the right. The rotations mean that a different set of bits is used in each subkey; each bit is used in approximately 14 out of the 16 subkeys.

In an effort to avoid simple relationships between the cipher key and the subkeys, to resist such forms of cryptanalysis as related-key attacks and slide attacks, many modern ciphers use much more complex key schedules, such as algorithms that use a one-way function to generate an "expanded key" from which subkeys are drawn. Some ciphers, such as Rijndael (AES) and Blowfish, use parts of the cipher algorithm itself for this key expansion, sometimes initialized with some "nothing up my sleeve numbers". Other ciphers, such as RC5, expand keys with functions that are somewhat or completely different from the encryption functions.

Notes

Knudsen and Mathiassen (2004) give some experimental evidence that indicate that the key schedule plays a part in providing strength against linear and differential cryptanalysis. For toy Feistel ciphers, it was observed that those with complex and well-designed key schedules can reach a uniform distribution for the probabilities of differentials and linear hulls faster than those with poorly-designed key schedules.

References
 Lars R. Knudsen and John Erik Mathiassen, On the Role of Key Schedules in Attacks on Iterated Ciphers, ESORICS 2004, pp322–334.

Cryptography

Key schedule


Gordon Alexander Craig (November 13, 1913 – October 30, 2005) was a Scottish-American liberal historian of German history and of diplomatic history.

Early life
Craig was born in Glasgow. In 1925 he emigrated with his family to Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and then to Jersey City, New Jersey. Initially interested in studying the law, he switched to history after hearing the historian Walter "Buzzer" Hall lecture at Princeton University. In 1935, Craig visited and lived for several months in Germany, to research a thesis he was writing on the downfall of the Weimar Republic. This trip marked the beginning of lifelong interest with all things German. Craig did not enjoy the atmosphere of Nazi Germany, and throughout his life, he sought to find the answer to the question of how a people who, in his opinion, had made a disproportionately large contribution to Western civilization, allowed themselves to become entangled in what Craig saw as the corrupting embrace of Nazism.

Of Adolf Hitler, Craig once wrote,

Adolf Hitler was sui generis, a force without a real historical past ... dedicated to the acquisition of power for his own gratification and to the destruction of a people whose existence was an offense to him and whose annihilation would be his crowning triumph. Both the grandiose barbarism of his political vision and the moral emptiness of his character make it impossible to compare him in any meaningful way with any other German leader. He stands alone.

Education and career
Craig graduated in history from Princeton University, was a Rhodes Scholar at Balliol College, Oxford, from 1936 to 1938, and served in the U.S. Marine Corps as a captain and in the Office of Strategic Services during World War II. In 1941, he co-edited with Edward Mead Earle and Felix Gilbert, on behalf of the American War Department, the book Makers of Modern Strategy: Military Thought From Machiavelli to Hitler, which was intended to serve as a guide to strategic thinking for military leaders during the war.

After 1945, Craig worked as a consultant to the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, the State Department, the U.S. Air Force Academy and the Historical Division of the U.S. Marine Corps. He was a professor at Princeton University from 1950 to 1961 and at Stanford University from 1961 to 1979. In 1956–1957, he taught at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. In addition, he often held visiting professorships at the Free University of Berlin. In 1967, Craig was the only professor there to sign a petition asking for an investigation into charges of police brutality towards protesting students. Craig was chair of the history department at Stanford in 1972–1975 and 1978–1979. Between 1975 and 1985, he served as the vice-president of the Comité International des Sciences Historiques. In 1979, he became an emeritus professor and was awarded the title J. E. Wallace Sterling Professor of Humanities.

During his time at Stanford, Craig was considered to be a popular and innovative teacher who improved both undergraduate and graduate teaching, while remaining well liked by the students. After his retirement, he worked as a book reviewer for the New York Review of Books. Some of his reviews attracted controversy, most notably in April 1996, when he praised Daniel Goldhagen's book Hitler's Willing Executioners and later in September of the same year when he argued that David Irving's work was valuable because of what Craig saw as Irving's devil's advocate role. Craig argued that Irving was usually wrong, but that by promoting what Craig saw as a twisted and wrongheaded view of history with a great deal of élan, Irving forced other historians to fruitfully examine their beliefs about what is known about the Third Reich.

Craig was formerly President of the American Historical Association. He was also a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society. In 1953, together with his friend Felix Gilbert, he edited a prosopography of inter-war diplomats entitled The Diplomats, an important source for diplomatic history in the interwar period. He followed this book with studies on the Prussian Army, the Battle of Königgrätz and many aspects of European and German history. Craig was particularly noted for his contribution to the Oxford History of Modern Europe series entitled Germany, 1866–1945 and its companion volume, The Germans. The latter was a wide-ranging cultural history that explored aspects of being German, such as attitudes towards German-Jewish relations, money, students, women, and democracy, amongst others. The book was a best-seller in both the United States and Germany and Craig was awarded the Pour le Mérite medal for this book. Increasingly interested in cultural history in his later years, Craig subsequently wrote studies of several German writers, most notably Theodor Fontane. During this time, he also emerged as a celebrity in the German-speaking world, frequently appearing as a guest on German television talk shows. By his later years, Craig was widely regarded as the doyen of American historians of Germany, and his opinions carried much weight.

Craig died in 2005, and was survived by his widow Phyllis, four children and eight grandchildren.

Personal views
Craig saw modern German history as a struggle between the positive, as exemplified by the values of humanist intellectuals, and negative forces in German life, as exemplified by Nazism. In a broader sense, he viewed this conflict as between enlightened spirit and authoritarian power. He was highly critical of those who saw Nazism as the culmination of German national character, while at the same time criticizing those who argued that Nazi Germany was just a Betriebsunfall (industrial accident) of history. Craig felt that the particular way Otto von Bismarck created the German Empire in 1871 was a tragedy, as it entrenched the forces of authoritarianism in German life. Similarly, Craig viewed the autonomous role of the German Army as a "State-within-the-State" as highly adverse to the development of democracy.

Craig considered history not to be a social science, but rather a "human discipline". He censured those historians who saw their work as social science and frequently called for historians to return to the methods of former times by seeking to "interconnect" history and literature. Craig was noted for his sparse, highly elegant literary style, together with a tendency to keep an ironic distance from his subjects. He was very fond of German literature, and praised the novels of Theodor Fontane as the best portrayal of 19th century Germany, which he considered superior to many works produced by historians. Craig's last project, incomplete at the time of his death, was a survey of novels set in Berlin – Craig's favorite city – in the 20th century.

Works
 (published in revised edition, 1967)

 (published in revised edition, 1964)

 (published in revised edition, 1975)

 (a volume in the Oxford History of Modern Europe series)
 (New York: Free Press. pp. 21–42

References

External links
Stanford Report, November 4, 2005
Notice of death
Guardian obituary

Research resources
 Gordon Alexander Craig Papers, 1934–1992 (20 linear ft.) are housed in the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Stanford University Libraries

1913 births
2005 deaths
20th-century American historians
20th-century American male writers
American Rhodes Scholars
American male non-fiction writers
American military historians
Commanders Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Historians of Nazism
Writers from Glasgow
Presidents of the American Historical Association
Princeton University alumni
Princeton University faculty
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
British emigrants to the United States
Stanford University Department of History faculty
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy
American people of Scottish descent
Members of the American Philosophical Society

Gordon A. Craig


A mountain hut is a building located high in the mountains, generally accessible only by foot, intended to provide food and shelter to mountaineers, climbers and hikers. Mountain huts are usually operated by an Alpine Club or some organization dedicated to hiking or mountain recreation. They are known by many names, including alpine hut, mountain shelter, mountain refuge, mountain lodge, and mountain hostel. It may also be called a refuge hut, although these occur in lowland areas (e.g. lowland forests) too.

Mountain huts can provide a range of services, starting with shelter and simple sleeping berths. Some, particularly in remote areas, are not staffed, but others have staff which prepare meals and drinks and can provide other services, including providing lectures and selling clothing and small items.  Mountain huts usually allow anybody to access their facilities, although some require reservations.

While shelters have long existed in mountains, modern hut systems date back to the mid-19th century. The Swiss Alpine Club has built huts since 1863. In the United States, the Appalachian Mountain Club built its first hut at Madison Spring in New Hampshire in 1889.

Huts

The Alps
The construction of refuges and shelters in the Alps date back to ancient times, when Roman roads led across the mountain passes. In the High Middle Ages, hospitales were erected along the trade routes; cottages and sheds on the high mountain pastures served for Alpine transhumance. The long history of mountaineering from the 19th century onwards has led to a large number of Alpine club huts as well as private huts along the mountaineering paths. These huts are categorised according to their location and facilities. They may have beds or a mattress room (Matratzenlager) for overnight stays.

Just as the Margherita Hut in the Valais Alps is the highest alpine refuge at 4,554 m, the Rifugio Mario Premuda in Trieste owned by the Italian Alpine Association is the lowest refuge in the Alps at 82 m.

Britain
In the United Kingdom the tradition is of unwardened "climbing huts" providing fairly rudimentary accommodation (but superior to that of a bothy) close to a climbing ground; the huts are usually conversions (e.g. of former quarrymen's cottages, or of disused mine buildings), and are not open to passers-by except in emergency. Many climbing clubs in the UK have such huts in Snowdonia or in the Lake District. A well-known example is the Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut (the 'CIC Hut') - a purpose-built hut below the northern crags of Ben Nevis in Scotland.
In the past, some shelters in Scotland were built in exposed locations at high elevation, often as part of military training exercises. However, and particularly following the 1971 Cairngorm Plateau Disaster, these were deliberately demolished because they were thought to pose dangers exceeding their benefits.

Norway
The Norwegian Trekking Association operates about 460 cabins mostly in the mountains and in forested areas, of which about 400 have lodgings. Many cabins are unstaffed and open all year, while the staffed cabins often are just open during summer.

Poland
In Poland most mountain shelters and huts are run by the Polish Tourist and Sightseeing Society, with some being privately owned. In the Polish mountains, there are about 100 shelters. Most mountain shelters offer multi-person rooms and refreshments. Polish mountain huts are obliged by their own regulations to allow overnight anyone who is not able to find any other place before sunset, but conditions may be spartan (e.g. a mattress in a hall or warm basement).

Slovakia
In Slovakia there is a dense network of mountain huts ("chata") in most mountain and forest regions, serving a culture of hiking. In the past they were managed by the official tourist union, but now are mostly in private hands. Official mountain huts are similar to guest houses and are run by full-time managers. In winter, some refuges are closed.

United States
There are many huts in the United States, for example in the Rocky Mountains, the Appalachian Mountains and other ranges. The High Huts of the White Mountains in New Hampshire are generally "full service" (cooks serve food) through summer and early fall, while some are open the rest of the year as self-service huts, at which hikers bring and prepare their own food.

Canada
The Alpine Club of Canada operates what it calls the "largest network of backcountry huts in North America."

New Zealand
The New Zealand Department of Conservation "manages a network of over 950 huts of all shapes and sizes."

The Himalayas
The mountains of Asia do not have a well-developed system of public mountain huts, although hiking, trekking and mountain climbing are common. In 2015, a competition was launched to design huts that could be located along trekking trails of Nepal.

South Africa
Many places in Africa have hiking huts but they are usually privately owned and require payment and reservations. At least one hut is open for public use on Table Mountain in South Africa, part of Table Mountain National Park.

Gallery

Europe

Latin America

North America

Africa

Oceania, Australia, New Zealand

See also

 Adirondack lean-to
 bivouac shelter - a tent, or a permanent structure (e.g., a  in the Italian Alps).
 bothy
 Lean-to
 Log cabin - small house built from logs
 Vernacular architecture - traditional architecture in a particular area
 Wilderness hut - rent-free, open dwelling place for temporary accommodation

References

External links
 Informative website about European mountain huts

Mountain hut


The Fullerton Flyers were a professional baseball team based in Fullerton, California, in the United States. They were an independent franchise, not affiliated with either Major League Baseball or Minor League Baseball. The team played from 2005 to 2010 and their home stadium was at "The Station" at Goodwin Field, which is also the home field for the Cal State Fullerton Titans.

The Flyers were an original charter team of the Golden Baseball League.  After the collapse of that league, they were scheduled to join the new independent North American League, but sat out the 2011 season as they negotiated plans for a new stadium with the city of Fullerton. Those stadium plans never materialized.

In May 2012, they announced they were joining the American West Baseball League (AWBL) and would play in 2013, but they left the league before it was to start.

The team was original owned by the Golden Baseball League and its primary owners Diamond Sports & Entertainment.  They were then sold to the Orange County Group, led by investor and actor James Denton, in 2007 and renamed the Orange County Flyers.  They were then sold to Western Sports & Entertainment Group on November 23, 2011, and went back to the Fullerton Flyers.  Following the folding of the NAL, they were then sold on April 13, 2012, to Godfather Media, which also owned the Yuma Panthers (now the Yuma Desert Rats).    However, when Godfather Media owner Michael Cummings resigned as C.E.O. of the league, the team's franchise ownership reverted to the previous owners, Western Sports & Entertainment Group, based out of the Los Angeles area.

Team history
The Flyers were one of the original eight GBL charter teams that started in 2005 along with the Chico Outlaws, Long Beach Armada and San Diego Surf Dawgs in California; Mesa Miners, Surprise Fightin' Falcons and Yuma Scorpions in Arizona and the traveling Japan Samurai Bears (who played in the Arizona Division).

The team officially unveiled its name and logo on January 27, 2005, at Fullerton Train Station.  On the same day, they introduced their new general manager, Fullerton native Ed Hart.  Hart ran the team for the first three seasons.

The Flyers clinched their first playoff spot ever by winning the second-half division title in 2006.  However, they ultimately lost the GBL championship to the Reno Silver Sox, 3 games to 1.  First baseman Peanut Williams was named the 2006 GBL Most Valuable Player and hit a league record 20 home runs for the season.   RHP Chris Jakubauskas was named the league's Pitcher of the Year for the 2006 season.

Team sold and name changed
The Flyers were sold on March 21, 2007, to an investment group called the Orange County Group. One of the investors was James Denton, part of the cast of Desperate Housewives. The sale of the Flyers made them the first Golden Baseball League team to ever be sold to a private investment group.  On March 28, 2007, they changed their name to the Orange County Flyers, but kept their team colors (blue and orange).

Managers
Since their inception, the Fullerton Flyers/Orange County Flyers have been managed by hometown heroes, All-Stars and Hall of Famers.

Garry Templeton (2005-07)
Before the team had a logo or even a name, it had Jumpsteady.  Three-time National League All-Star Garry Templeton was named manager of the GBL franchise in Fullerton, Calif., on December 6, 2004.

As a player, Templeton was drafted by the St. Louis Cardinals in the 1st round of the 1974 draft.  He played sixteen seasons in the major leagues as a switch-hitting shortstop with the Cards, Padres, and Mets, reaching the World Series in 1984.  He was a three time major league All Star during his career, garnered a pair of Silver Slugger Awards, led the NL in triples a record three straight years, and was the first player ever to have more than 100 hits from each side of the plate as he led the league with 211 in 1979.

Garry began his managing career in the Anaheim Angels farm system in 1998 as he led the Cedar Rapids Class A team.  He stayed as a manager in the Angels systems for the next three years progressing to the Erie AA, Edmonton AAA, and Salt Lake City AAA clubs.  Sixteen members of the 2002 Anaheim Angels World Championship team played for Garry in the minors.  In 2003 and 2004 Garry led the Gary Railcats of the Northern League as their field manager.

Since leaving the Flyers after the club's first three seasons, Templeton has gone on to manage the Long Beach Armada (2009), Chico Outlaws (2010) and Na Koa Ikaika Maui (2011).

Gary Carter (2008)
The Flyers made Hall of Fame catcher Gary Carter the second manager in team history on December 5, 2007, during baseball's winter meetings.  Carter, who attended Sunny Hills High School in Fullerton, is an 11-time Major League All-Star who won 5 Silver Slugger and 3 Gold Glove awards during his Hall of Fame career.

Carter played a majority of his years with the Montreal Expos and New York Mets. He had one year stints with the San Francisco Giants and Los Angeles Dodgers. Carter was inducted into the Hall of Fame in 2003 along with slugger Eddie Murray, who was his teammate with the Dodgers in 1991.

Carter brought on board coaches Darrell Evans and Dan DiPace who had spent the previous three seasons in Long Beach.

They won the first-ever GBL South Division Championship by defeating Long Beach 3 games to 2 and, for the second time in franchise history, advanced to the GBL Championship Series.  The Flyers captured their first GBL Championship by beating the Calgary Vipers 3 games to 2 on September 14, 2008, capping off the best season in team history.  On October 14, 2008, GBL Safeway Player of the Year Patrick Breen was picked up by the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim of Major League Baseball. Carter was named Manager of the Year.

Since leaving the Flyers, Carter managed the Long Island Ducks in 2009, and he was named Head Baseball Coach for the NCAA Division II Palm Beach Atlantic University Sailfish in 2010. Carter died on February 16, 2012, of brain cancer.

Phil Nevin (2009)
In December 2008, the Flyers named Phil Nevin the third manager in team history.  Nevin, who won the Golden Spikes Award in 1992 as the best collegiate baseball player in the nation while with Cal State Fullerton, played 11 seasons in the major leagues for the Houston Astros (1995), Detroit Tigers (1995-97), Anaheim Angels (1998), San Diego Padres (1999-2005), Texas Rangers (2005-2006), Chicago Cubs (2006), and the Minnesota Twins (2006).

Nevin left the Flyers after the 2009 season when he was offered a job to manage the Detroit Tigers Double-A affiliate, the Toledo Mud Hens.

Paul Abbott (2010)
Former Sunny Hills high school stand out Paul Abbott became the fourth manager in team history in February 2010.  Abbott played 11 seasons in the Major Leagues, beginning his career with the Minnesota Twins in 1990, making his MLB debut on August 21.  In addition to his time with the Twins (1990-92), he also played in the Majors with the Indians (1993), Mariners (1998-2002), Royals (2003), Devil Rays (2004), and Phillies (2004).  In 162 big league games, Abbott made 112 starts, going 43-37 with a 4.92 ERA.

His best season came in 2001 when Abbot won a career-high 17 games, going 17-4 in 27 starts as the Mariners tied the mark for most victories in a season with 116 wins.  Abbot finished his playing career in 2005 as a member of the inaugural Fullerton Flyers team in the first year of the Golden League.  The Fullerton native made 9 starts for the Flyers, going 3-5 with a 2.87 ERA.

Abbott's coaching experience included working as an assistant coach for the Fullerton Junior College Hornets in addition to working with the Flyers as Pitching Coach last season.

Plans for new stadium
The Flyers announced on their website that they were working on plans to move from Goodwin Field (after six years) to Amerige Park, a former Pacific Coast League ballpark in downtown Fullerton, and were waiting for the city's decision.  Rumors circulated that if the Flyers were not accommodated by the city, they would have to relocate.

On January 14, 2011, it was announced that the city of Fullerton and the Flyers had entered into an exclusive negotiating period to discuss plans for the Amerige Park location while they sit out the 2011 season.

North American League
On November 23, 2011, team founder/president and chairman Alan Mintz initially announced that the team would return to action in the North American League for 2012 and would do so with their original identity, the Fullerton Flyers.  Mintz cited that "This is Fullerton's team".   However, on April 13, 2012, the Flyers were sold to Godfather Media, LLC, which also owned the Yuma Panthers and would stay as the Orange County Flyers.   The team was expected to play the 2012 season on the road as they could not come to an agreement with Cal State Fullerton to play at Goodwin Field.

The Flyers' new ownership decided to withdraw from the North American League in May 2012 because of uncertainty of the league's future and again sat out the season.

America West Baseball League
After being purchased by Godfather Media, LLC, the Flyers announced they would revert to the Fullerton Flyers and play in Cummings' new league, the American West Baseball League (AWBL). The Flyers along with the Long Beach Splash, North County Cannons (San Diego), Yuma Panthers, and another unannounced team from Mesa, Arizona, were to be the charter teams for the new league, which was to be based in Costa Mesa, California. Along with the new name, the Flyers also announced a new logo featuring blue, black, and white, and keeping a revised train logo.

The league was delayed however and due to discrepancies with the AWBL and Godfather Media, the franchise ownership reverted to its previous owners, Western Sports & Entertainment Group. The future of the team, if any, remains in doubt.

Team record

References

External links

Baseball teams established in 2005
Golden Baseball League teams
Professional baseball teams in California
Sports in Fullerton, California
Defunct baseball teams in California
2005 establishments in California
2010 disestablishments in California
Defunct independent baseball league teams
Baseball teams disestablished in 2010

Fullerton Flyers


Imaginary numbers are numbers that are made from combining a real number with the imaginary unit, called i, where i is defined as . They are defined separately from the negative real numbers in that they are a square root of a negative real number (instead of a positive real number). This is not possible with real numbers, as there is no real number that will multiply by itself to get a negative number (e.g.,  and ). The set of imaginary numbers are sometimes denoted by the letter .

One way of thinking about imaginary numbers is to say that they are to negative numbers what negative numbers are to positive numbers. If we say "go east by -1 mile", it is the same as if we had said "go west by 1 mile". If we say "go east by i miles", it means the same thing as if we had said "go north by 1 mile". Similarly, if we say "go east by -i mile", it means the same as if we had said "go south by 1 mile".

Adding is easy too. If we say "go east by 1 + i miles" it means the same as if we had said "go east by one mile and north by one mile".

Multiplying two imaginary numbers is a lot like multiplying a positive number with a negative number. If we say "go east by 2 × -3 miles", it means "rotate all of the way around (so that you are now facing west) and go 2×3 = 6 miles". Imaginary numbers work the same, except that you can rotate part way. If we say go "east by 2×3i miles", it means the same as if we had said "rotate until you are facing north, and then go 2×3 = 6 miles"

Subtractions such as 5 - 9 used to be impossible until negative numbers were invented, just as taking the square root of a negative number used to be impossible until imaginary numbers were invented. The square root of 9 is 3, but the square root of −9 is not −3. This is because −3 x −3 = +9, not −9. For a long time, it seemed as though there was no answer to the square root of −9.

This is why mathematicians invented the imaginary number, i, and said that it is the main square root of −1. The square root of −1 is not a real number, so this definition creates a new type of number, just like fractions create numbers like 2/3 that are not counting numbers like 4 or 10, and negative numbers create numbers that are less than 0. Sometimes, mathematicians seem rather comfortable using a number that is so unusual, but the name imaginary should not fool you because i is as valid a number as 3 or 145,379.

Many branches of science and engineering have found uses for this number. For example. electrical engineers need i to understand how an electric circuit will work when they are designing it (electrical engineers use j instead of i to avoid confusion with the symbol for the current). As another example. certain branches of physics such as quantum physics and high energy physics use i as often as they use any other regular number. Many of the equations in the world simply cannot be solved without i.

Imaginary numbers can be mixed with numbers we are more familiar with. For example, a real number such as 2 can be added to an imaginary number such as 3i to create 2+3i. These kinds of mixed numbers are known as complex numbers.

Related pages
 Complex plane
 Gerolamo Cardano

References

Complex analysis
Numbers

Imaginary number


The Galway hooker (Irish: húicéir) is a traditional fishing boat used in Galway Bay off the west coast of Ireland. The hooker was developed for the strong seas there. It is identified by its sharp, clean entry, bluff bow, marked tumblehome and raked transom. Its sail plan consists of a single mast with a main sail and two foresails. Traditionally, the boat is black (being coated in pitch) and the sails are a dark red-brown.

From the late 20th century, there has been a revival of and renewed interest in the Galway hooker, and the boats are still being constructed. The festival of Cruinniú na mBád is held each year, when boats race across Galway Bay from Connemara to Kinvara on the border between County Galway and County Clare.

Classes of Galway hooker

The hooker refers to four classes of boats. All are named in Irish. The Bád Mór (big boat) ranges in length from 10.5 to 13.5 metres (35 to 44 feet). The smaller Leathbhád (half-boat) is about 10 metres (28 feet) in length. Both the Bád Mór and Leathbhád are decked forward of the mast. These boats were used to carry turf to be used as fuel across Galway Bay from Connemara and County Mayo to the Aran Islands and the Burren. The boats often brought limestone on the return journeys, to neutralise the acid soils of Connemara and Mayo. The Gleoiteog ranges in length from 7 to 9 metres (24 to 28 feet), and has the same sails and rigging as the larger boats. They were used for fishing and carrying cargo. Another boat, the Púcán, is similar in size to the Gleoiteog but has a lug mainsail and a foresail. These smaller boats were entirely open.

There was also a class fitted with a cockpit floor over the ballast used for fishing. When the Irish settlers at Boston in North America needed fishing craft, they built the hooker that they knew from home. These boats became known as 'Boston Hookers', 'Irish Cutters' (in official reports), or 'Paddy Boats'.

While a utilitarian boat, suited for the shallow waters of Galway Bay and being capable of being beached where necessary, the Galway Hooker is prone to being swamped and sinking in a short time in the absence of a cabin and high freeboard. Eighty-two shipwrecks are recorded in the unpublished 'Shipwreck Inventory of Wrecks for Galway Bay'. These wrecks date to between 1750 and 1938; of them, 59 are from the 19th century. No records are known to exist for the period prior to the 18th century. Cargo throughout this period would usually be held in wooden casks varnished with fish oil for waterproofing.

Origins
The origins of the craft are not clear. A major spark in the revival of interest was the publication in 1983 of The Galway Hookers: Sailing work boats of Galway Bay (Richard J. Scott, d 24/01/08)—now in its fourth edition—in which for the first time detailed construction and sail plans were published.

In popular culture

 Sean Connery, playing the role of Irishman Michael McBride in Disney's 1959 film Darby O'Gill and the Little People, sings a song about "a pretty Irish girl" that includes the line "crimson sails of Galway Bay, the fishermen unfurl".
 The Solus operating system has a Galway hooker as its logo.

See also
 Currach
 Seoighe Inish Bearachain

References

External links

 Galway local history site (archived 2005)
 Galway Hooker Association
 James Miles Galway Hooker Collection

Sailing ships
Keelboats
Types of fishing vessels
Fishing in Ireland
Irish design

Galway hooker


Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels is a Mario video game made by Nintendo. It was released as Super Mario Bros. 2 in Japan in 1986 for the Famicom Disk System. Nintendo of America took another game, called Doki Doki Panic, and released that instead under the Super Mario Bros. 2 name.

The Lost Levels was not released in the United States since Nintendo of America felt that Americans would not be happy with the game because they felt it was too hard and too similar to Super Mario Bros.

Changes
The Lost Levels feature updated graphics from the original, new items, and new functions.

One item is the Poison Mushroom.  Normally, a mushroom will make Mario bigger (Super Mushroom) or give him an extra life (1up Mushroom), but this one will make Mario smaller or kill him. They are easily distinguishable by their skull cap designs and "angry" eyes. They are also purple in the All-Stars release.
Red piranha plants. The original green ones will not come up if Mario is near them or over them.  The red ones will come up even if Mario is on top of them.

Mario and Luigi now act differently. Luigi has a higher jump and skids more when coming to a stop.

Releases
The game was first released around the world in 1993 in Super Mario All-Stars for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System game console. That game had the other three Super Mario Bros. games with better graphics and a save function.

Since then, it has been re-released three more times.
In 1999, it was packaged in Super Mario Bros. Deluxe for the Game Boy Color. After the player earned 300,000 points, it was unlocked and subtitled For Super Players. This version uses the original Super Mario Bros. graphics, does not have wind, and does not have the differences between Mario and Luigi.
In 2004, it was released in Japan as Volume 21 in the Famicom Mini series for the Game Boy Advance. It was not released anywhere else.
In 2007, it was released on the Wii's Virtual Console service.

Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels


Ademola "George" Bankole (born 9 September 1969) is a Nigerian former footballer who played as a goalkeeper in the Football League. As a journeyman having played for 15 different clubs during his career, his most notable stint came with Crewe Alexandra, a club he played for on two occasions, registering over 50 league appearances. He was the goalkeeping coach at Colchester United for nine years.

Career

Born in Abeokuta, Bankole began his career with Shooting Stars in his native Nigeria. He moved to England in 1995, signing for Doncaster Rovers, spending a month with the club prior to signing with Leyton Orient. He left Orient in September 1996 having registered no games, joining Crewe Alexandra. He made six appearances for the club between 1996 and 1998. He played seven games in 1997 on loan at Hyde United, earning the man of the match award in the Cheshire Senior Cup final in a 3–0 victory over Macclesfield Town. In 1998, Bankole moved to Queens Park Rangers, making only one substitute appearance for the club. Bankole was sent out on loan to Bradford City while the club were in the Premier League, acting as cover.

Bankole returned to Crewe for a fee of £50,000 in the summer of 2000. Here, he had his greatest success as a player, featuring in 52 league games. While contracted to Crewe, Bankole was called up to the preliminary Nigeria squad prior to the 2002 FIFA World Cup but did not make the final squad. Towards the end of his stint with Crewe and being out of the first-team, Bankole joined Barnet in a three-month loan deal.

In the summer of 2004, Bankole was released by Crewe, temporarily joining Lewes, Windsor & Eton and Maidenhead United in non-league before being picked up by Brentford in February 2005. He spent a year-and-a-half with the Bees, before signing to Milton Keynes Dons in July 2006. He made six appearances for each club.

Bankole left MK Dons in early 2008, joining Nuneaton Borough before being signed by Colchester United as goalkeeper cover for Aidan Davison following Mark Cousins being taken ill with appendicitis, also signing as a temporary coach for the club. Bankole did not make an appearance for Colchester, but was named as permanent goalkeeping coach at the club following Davison's retirement and subsequent move to the United States.

Bankole spent nine years as Colchester's goalkeeping coach until he left in the summer of 2017 when the club had a restructuring of backroom staff. Since 2019 George has been a coach with the QPR under 18 and 23 squads.

Career statistics

A.  The "Other" column constitutes appearances and goals (including those as a substitute) in the Football League Trophy.

References

External links

1969 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Abeokuta
Nigerian men's footballers
Nigerian expatriate men's footballers
Men's association football goalkeepers
Shooting Stars S.C. players
Doncaster Rovers F.C. players
Leyton Orient F.C. players
Crewe Alexandra F.C. players
Hyde United F.C. players
Queens Park Rangers F.C. players
Bradford City A.F.C. players
Barnet F.C. players
Lewes F.C. players
Windsor & Eton F.C. players
Maidenhead United F.C. players
Brentford F.C. players
Milton Keynes Dons F.C. players
Nuneaton Borough F.C. players
Colchester United F.C. players
English Football League players
National League (English football) players
Northern Premier League players
Colchester United F.C. non-playing staff
Yoruba sportspeople
20th-century Nigerian people

Ademola Bankole


Chhatrapathi Shivaji Maharaj was the greatest ruler of the Maratha Empire. After Shivaji's death in 1680,the Mughal ruler Aurangzeb killed Shivaji's son Shambhaji and captured Shamabaji's infant son Shahu. Aurangazeb's successors released Shahu who occupied the Maratha throne.

The Peshwa is a (Prime minister) helped him rule his empire. Gradually, Peshwa became the real ruler of Marathas and his post became hereditary.

During Shahu's reign Satara was the Maratha capital. After his death, the capital was shifted to Pune. Under the Peshwas Marathas developed a very successful military campaign. Between 1720 and 1761 the Maratha empire expanded.

After raiding Delhi on 1737 the frontiers of Maratha domination expanded into Rajasthan, Punjab, Bengaluru and Odisha. But these military campaigns also made other rulers hostile towards the Marathas and as a result they did not support Marathas in the third battle of Panipat.

References

Dynasties in India

Maratha dynasty


External links
 Area Vesuvio
 Account of 1785 eruption  by Hester Thrale.
 Stromboli Online - Vesuvius & Campi Flegrei
 Bronze age settlement destroyed 3,500 years ago
 Three decades of Seismic Activity at Mt. Vesuvius 1972-2000 (Adobe PDF)
 Wall painting of Vesuvius found in Pompeii
 Translation of Pliny the Elder's Natural History
 Translation of Book V, Chapter 4 of the Roman historian Strabo's Geographica, which discusses Vesuvius and its volcanic history
 Translation of Book II of the Roman architect Vitruvius' De Architectura, which describes Vesuvius' volcanic past
 Suetonius' brief account of the earthquake in 64 in his biographies of the Caesars
 Tacitus' brief account of the earthquake in 64, see paragraph 15.34
 Greek, Carthaginian, and Roman Agricultural Writers (includes Pliny the Elder)
 Derivation of the name "Plinian" (UCSB Volcano Information Center)
 Translation of Pliny the Younger's letters describing the 79 eruption
 ERUPT Project - Vesuvius
 The eruption of Vesuvius of 79 AD and its impact on human environment in Pompei (Adobe PDF)
 Herculaneum: Destruction and Re-discovery
 Live Mount Vesuvius Webcams: from Casalnuovo, from Sorrento
 Official Vesuvius National Park website (in Italian)
 Vesuvius National Park brochure (Adobe PDF)
 Vesuvius National Park
 Summary of the emergency plan for the Vesuvius area (in Italian)
 National emergency plan for the Vesuvius area (in Italian)
 US Today article on Vesuvius emergency preparation
 Disaster preparedness page for the US Naval Support Actitivy Naples
 Early Warning of Volcanic eruptions and Earthquakes in the Neapolitan area, Campania Region, South Italy
 Guardian Newspaper article - "In the shadow of the volcano"
 Guardian Newspaper article "Italy ready to pay to clear slopes of volcano"
 Tango Diva article - "Mount Vesuvius, the sleeping giant"
 Explore Italian Volcanoes, at Dipartimento di Fisica "E. Amaldi" Universita' Roma Tre, Italy
 Image of Vesuvius at Volcano World
 Top volcanoes worldwide  (i.e. Famous and recent eruptions)
 Global volcanism program entry on Somma-Vesuvius
 Definition of a somma volcano
 Geotimes article - "Vesuvius' next eruption"
 Vesuvius Observatory

Vesuvius, Mount
Vesuvius, Bunduk
Vesuvius, Bulkang
Vesuvius, Mount
Vesuvius, Mount
Vesuvius, Mount
Vesuvius, Mount
Vesuvius, Mount
Eruption of Vesuvius, AD79

Bulkang Vesuvius