The 1910 Chalmers Award scandal was an incident in which a Major League Baseball team, the St. Louis Browns, allegedly tried but failed to give Nap Lajoie the batting title over Ty Cobb.

Background

Before the 1910 Major League Baseball season, Hugh Chalmers of the Chalmers Automobile Company announced a promotion in which a Chalmers Model 30 automobile would be given to the batting champions for Major League Baseball's American and National Leagues.

At the start of the final day of the season, Ty Cobb of the Detroit Tigers held a slim lead in the race for the American League batting title, just a few percentage points ahead of the Cleveland Naps' Nap Lajoie. Cobb was generally disliked by opponents, whereas Lajoie was more popular.

Controversy
Cobb did not play in the Tigers' final two games of the season, and he finished with a batting average of .385.

Lajoie played in a doubleheader on the last day of the season against the St. Louis Browns. Browns manager Jack O'Connor allegedly ordered rookie third baseman Red Corriden to play on the outfield grass.  This all but conceded a hit for any ball Lajoie bunted. Lajoie had eight hits in eight at bats and finished the season with a .384 batting average (227 hits in 591 at-bats). His final at-bat resulted in a wild throw to first base, which was scored as an error. Under baseball rules, when a player reaches base on an error, it is treated as a hitless at-bat, thus lowering his batting average.

Aftermath
After news broke of the scandal, a writer for the St. Louis Post claimed: "All St. Louis is up in arms over the deplorable spectacle, conceived in stupidity and executed in jealousy."  The issue was brought to American League president Ban Johnson, who declared all batting averages official, and Cobb the champion (.385069 to .384095).  Chalmers, however, awarded automobiles to both Cobb and Lajoie (essentially declaring a tie). O'Connor and coach Harry Howell, who tried to bribe the official scorer to change the error to a hit, were banned from baseball for their role in the affair.

Chalmers gave an award to the league's most valuable player the following season instead of the player with the highest batting average. Cobb won the Chalmers Award in 1911 in his best year, hitting .420. Chalmers continued the award through the 1914 season, after which it was discontinued. Chalmers ceased to exist in 1923, although it was a predecessor to the modern company Chrysler. Cobb and Lajoie were eventually elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame.

Modern revision
In 1978, sports statistician Pete Palmer discovered a 1910 discrepancy in Cobb's career hit total, and the story was broken by The Sporting News in April 1981. Cobb is credited with 4,191-lifetime hits (still the total on MLB.com), but researchers say that a 1910 Detroit Tigers box score was counted twice in the season-ending calculations. The mistake caused the statisticians to give Cobb an extra 2-for-3, which credited Cobb with two non-existent hits and erroneously raised his 1910 batting average from .383 to .385.  As Lajoie had a .384 average for the season, the revised figure would have cost Cobb one of his 12 batting titles, reduced his career average to .366, and given the 1910 batting championship to Lajoie. The mathematical mistake was described by one writer as follows: "It could be said that 1910 produced two bogus leading batting averages and one questionable champion."

References

Chalmers Award, 1910
Major League Baseball controversies
Chalmers
Sports betting scandals
Ty Cobb

1910 Chalmers Award


Beaivi, cried Beiwe, Bievve, Beivve an Biejje an aw, is the Sami name o the Sun or might refer tae the Sami Sun-deity. The Sami Sun-deity is maistly depicted as female but whiles as male an aw. In Sápmi, north o the Polar circle, whaur the Sun during the winter-period, daes nae even reach the horizon, it is nae haurd tae believe, that the Sun wis appreciated an played a major role in the cultic coherence. Buorre beaivi means guid day in Northren Sámi but disna hae tae associate wi the Sun-deity.

Beaivi is the ware an sun goddess o growthiness an sanity wis worshippit bi the Sami, ane o the indigenous fowks o Fennoscandie.

At Winter solstice a white female reindeer wis sacrificit in honour o Beivve, tae ensure that she returned tae the Warld an pit an end tae the lang winter season. At the time o the year whan the Sun wis returnin, butter (whilk melts in the sunshine) wis smeared on the doorposts, as a sacrifice tae Beivve, sae that she coud gain strenth throu her convalescence an gang heicher an heicher in the sky. At Simmer solstice, fowk made sun-rings oot o leaves an pinned thaim up in her honour. At thir occasions, thay ett butter as a sacral meal an aw.

Beivve wis aften accompanee'd bi her dochter, Beaivi-nieida (the sun maiden) in an enclosur o reindeer antlers.

Beivve brocht growthiness back tae the Arctic region, she made the plants grow, sae that the reindeer flourisht an reproducit, an brocht walth an prosperity tae the humans.

At the time o the year whan Beivve returned, prayers wis made for the fowk wha wis mentally ill.  The Sami considered - correct lik - that madness in the shape o psychoses an depressions wis provokit bi the lack o sunshine an licht in the dark winter-saison.

In Sami meeth, she traivels wi her dochter Beaivi-nieida throu the sky in an enclosur covered bi reindeer bones, bringin green plants back tae the winter yird for the reindeer tae eat. She wis cried upon tae restore the mental halth o those who went insane acause o the continual darkness o the lang winter.

Worshippers o Beaivi uised tae sacrifice white female ainimals, an thread the meat ontae sticks whilk thay bend intae rings an tee wi bricht ribbons. Thay kiver thair doorposts wi butter sae Beaivi can eat it an begin her journey ance again an aw. This is cried the Festival o Beaivi.

She is associate wi the growthiness o plants an ainimals, in pairticular reindeer.

See an aw
Sami shamanism

References

Freemit airtins
December 2003 Holidays- School of Seasons

Sami meethologie
Sami goddesses
Halth goddesses
Growthiness goddesses
Sky an wather goddesses
Solar goddesses
Ware (saison)

Beaivi


Françoise Dolto (; November 6, 1908 – August 25, 1988) was a French pediatrician and psychoanalyst.

Biography
Born as Françoise Marette, she was the daughter of an affluent far-right royalist family of traditional Catholics in Paris. Her Alsatian mother, Suzanne Demmler, was the daughter of an engineer, and Henri Marette, her father, was also a Polytechnic engineer who became an industrialist. She was the fourth child of a family of seven. Her brother Jacques Marette (1922-1984), was French Postmaster (minister of Posts and Telecommunications) from 1962 to 1967.

An Irish nurse frequently took care of her when she was a baby; her parents then had to learn to speak English to get her to smile. Her parents fired the nurse when she was 8 months old. Dolto's very traditional upbringing, which Élisabeth Roudinesco described as "very Catholic, extreme right-wing", reflected the values of Charles Maurras.

Her personal tutor was trained in the methods of Friedrich Fröbel. When she was eight her uncle and godfather Pierre Demmler died in World War I. When she was twelve, she was very affected by the death of her older sister Jacqueline, her mother's favorite child. Her mother sank into a depression and accused her of not praying hard enough for her sister's life. Dolto's mother felt that a girl had no other prospects than marriage and therefore forbade her to pursue her studies. At sixteen she had to confront her mother, who did not want her to pass her baccalaureate because she would then not be able to get married. Nevertheless, Dolto attended the Lycée Molière in Paris where she graduated in philosophy in 1924–1925. In 1930 she obtained a nursing degree. A year later, she began her medical studies with her brother Philip, "paying for her studies with the money she earns".

Dolto was named by Michel Foucault as one of the prominent signatories of the 1977 French petition against age of consent laws.

Françoise Dolto was the mother of Carlos (1943–2008), a singer, Grégoire (1944-), an engineer, and Catherine (1946-).

Psychoanalysis
In 1932,  introduced Dolto to psychoanalyst René Laforgue, who had already begun to treat her brother Philip a year earlier. She participated thereby in the beginnings of French Freudianism. At the end of February 1934, she began a three-year analysis with Laforgue, which had a major impact on her life, helping to free her of her neurosis - of her education, her origin, and her depressive mother. Laforgue found that Dolto had an aptitude for analysis, and advised her to become a psychoanalyst, something which she at first rejected in favor of devoting herself to medicine.

During her medical training, working under Dr. Georges Heuyer, she met Sophie Morgenstern, who was the first to practice psychoanalysis with children in France, and who would subsequently be a mentor for her. She listened to the sick children who came to her for treatment, Dolto began (with the encouragement of Edouard Pichon) to specialise in child psychology, as a psychoanalytic pediatrician.  Her patients were mostly children with psychoses, with whom she began to develop her own idiosyncratic kind of treatment.

Her speciality was learning about the early mental stages of babies and children, notably their first experiences and methods of communication through their body. She emphasized the physical aspects of the mother-baby dyad, and stressed the importance of observation and understanding of the means of communication used by children with psychological problems, or learning and social disabilities. Her work on the unconscious body image – on the way children have a body-language before actual language – has been especially influential, being developed by, among others, Maud Mannoni. In 2013 her work was translated into English by Francoise Hivernel.

Dolto was a close friend and ally of Jacques Lacan, who she accompanied into the "École Freudienne de Paris".  She considered that "it was among those analysed by Lacan that I found those best able to understand children and...ready to understand the needs of a child, even a very young one, as a subject with a desire to express".

Death

Dolto contracted pulmonary fibrosis in 1984. She died on 25 August 1988 and was buried in the cemetery at Bourg-la-Reine alongside her husband Boris Dolto. This is also the burial place of their son, the singer Carlos, who died in 2008. On her tomb stone is inscribed: "Have no fear! I am the Path, the Truth and the Life"

Bibliography
 Psychanalyse et pédiatrie, medical thesis, 1971
 Le Cas Dominique, Éditions du Seuil (éd. du Seuil), Paris, 1971; engl. Dominique: Analysis of an Adolescent, Souvenir Press, 1974
 L'Évangile au risque de la psychanalyse (interviewed by Gérard Sévérin, philosopher, theologian, psychoanalyst), éd. , 1977
 Au jeu du désir, éd. du Seuil, Paris, 1981
 Séminaire de psychanalyse d'enfants (coop. Louis Caldaguès), éd. du Seuil, Paris, 1982,
 Sexualité féminine, éd. Scarabée/A. M. Métailié, 1982
 L'image inconsciente du corps, éd. du Seuil, Paris, 1984.
 Séminaire de psychanalyse d'enfants (coop. Jean-François de Sauverzac), éd. du Seuil, Paris, 1985,
 Solitude, éd. Vertiges, Paris, 1985,
 La Cause des enfants, éd. Robert Laffont, Paris, 1985,
 Enfances, Paris, 1986
 Libido féminine, éd. Carrère, Paris, 1987
 L'Enfant du miroir (with Juan David Nasio), éd. Rivages, Paris, 1987,
 La Cause des adolescents, éd. Robert Laffont, Paris, 1988
 Quand les parents se séparent (coop. Inès de Angelino), éd. du Seuil, Paris, 1988, ; engl. When Parents Separate, David R Godine Pub, 1997
 L'Échec scolaire, éd. Vertiges du Nord, 1989
 Autoportrait d'une psychanalyste, éd. du Seuil, Paris, 1989
 Paroles pour adolescents ou le complexe du homard, éd. Hattier, 1989
 Lorsque l'enfant paraît, éd. du Seuil, Paris, 1990
 Les Étapes majeures de l'enfance, éd. Gallimard, Paris, 1994
 Les Chemins de l'éducation, éd. Gallimard, Paris, 1994
 La Difficulté de vivre, éd. Gallimard, Paris, 1995
 Tout est langage, éd. Gallimard, Paris, 1995
 Le sentiment de soi : aux sources de l'image et du corps, éd. Gallimard, Paris, 1997
 Le Féminin, éd. Gallimard, Paris, 1998
 La vague et l'océan : séminaire sur les pulsions de mort (1970-1971), éd. Gallimard, Paris, 2003
 Lettres de jeunesse : correspondance, 1913-1938, éd. Gallimard, Paris; revized and augmented in 2003,
 Une vie de correspondances : 1938-1988, éd. Gallimard, Paris, 2005,
 Une psychanalyste dans la cité. L'aventure de la Maison verte, éd. Gallimard, Paris, 2009,

Secondary literature
 Jean-François de Sauverzac, Françoise Dolto itinéraire d'une psychanalyste, éd. Aubier, 1993, pocket edition: Flammarion 2008,
 Jean-Claude Liaudet, Dolto expliquée aux parents, éd. L'Archipel, Paris, 1998. Traductions : A criança explicada aos pais [Segundo Dolto], éd. Pergaminho, Cascais (Portugal), 2000 ; Dolto para padres, Plaza & Janès editores, Barcelona (Espagne), 2000
 Bernard Martino, Le bébé est une personne, éd. Balland, Paris, 1985
 Françoise Dolto, aujourd'hui présente, in Actes du colloque de l'Unesco, pp. 14–17 janvier 1999, éd. Gallimard, Paris, 2000
 Catherine Dolto, Il y a 10 ans la psychanalyste des enfants disparaissait Catherine Dolto-Tolitch parle de l'après Dolto, Ed. Lien social, Numéro 467, 17 décembre 1998.
  Theory and Practise in Child Psychoanalysis: An Introduction to Francoise Dolto's Work, ed. by Guy Hall, Francoise Hivernel, Sian Morgan, Karnac Books, 2009,
 René-Jean Bouyer: Les Mémoires d'un bébé : Un siècle d'éducation de l'enfant de Pasteur à Dolto, Jean-Claude Gawsewitch, 2010,

Critical literature
Guy Baret, Comment rater l'éducation de son enfant avec Françoise Dolto. Éd. Ramsay, 2003
Le livre noir de la psychanalyse. Vivre, penser et aller mieux sans Freud. direction by Catherine Meyer, édition Les Arènes, Paris, 2005
 Daniela Lumbroso, Françoise Dolto, la vie d'une femme libre, édition Plon, Paris, 2007
 Didier Pleux :
Génération Dolto, éditions Odile Jacob, Paris, 2008
Françoise Dolto, la déraison pure., Preface by Michel Onfray. Éditions Autrement, Collection « Universités populaires et Cie », 2013
La Révolution du divan: Pour une psychologie existentielle. Éditions Odile Jacob, 2015
Sabine Gritt Un foetus mal léché. Trois ans avec Dolto., éditions sciences humaines, 2015

See also
 Juliette Favez-Boutonnier

References

1908 births
1988 deaths
French psychoanalysts
French medical writers
Writers from Paris
Analysands of René Laforgue
Women medical writers
French pediatricians
Women pediatricians
20th-century French physicians
20th-century French non-fiction writers
20th-century French women writers
20th-century women physicians
20th-century French psychologists

Françoise Dolto


Pustý hrad () is a castle whose ruins are located on a forested hill in the southern part of Zvolen in central Slovakia. With an area of 76,000 m² it is arguably one of the largest medieval castles in Europe. The original name was Zvolen Castle or Old Zvolen (); Pustý hrad (meaning "deserted castle") is a much later name used to distinguish the ruin from the present-day Zvolen Castle. Pustý hrad consists of two parts, the Upper Castle and the Lower Castle.

The strategic hill site upon the river Hron attracted settlers as early as the late Stone Age (Baden culture). A stone-earth wall discovered in 2009 under the western line of medieval fortification included shreds of pottery from the late Stone Age inside its filling. Research carried out at the Upper Castle in 1992–2008 by Václav Hanuliak also identified stone walls built during the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Excavations have unearthed many precious prehistoric artifacts, including several big bronze treasures of the Lusatian culture, fragments from the Kyjatice culture, and even pottery imported from the Roman Empire. The subsequent Slavic medieval castle was founded in the 9th century.

As a regional center, Pustý hrad was incorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary and it became a seat of Zólyom County. The oldest stone buildings (for example the keep) are attributed to King Béla III of Hungary. The keep from the 12th century is located at the highest point of the hill - at an elevation of 571 m above sea level - and was once 50 meters high. In the 13th century, an exceptionally large area of the present castle was fully fortified by the royal stonemason master Bertold in order to protect eventual refugees from Zvolen in case of a Mongol invasion. Both the Upper (3.5 ha) and the Lower (0.65 ha) Castle were surrounded by massive fortifications and a 206 metre long defense wall was erected in the saddle below the Lower Castle. In addition to an older keep, another one was built around the same time. Its dimensions of 20 by 20 meters made it one of the largest residential buildings in Central Europe at that time. Pustý hrad was first mentioned in written sources at the beginning of the 13th century, in the chronicle Gesta Hungarorum.

Subsequent development was connected with counts Demetrius and Doncs from the Balassa family. Magister Knight Doncs was a noble warrior and diplomat serving to Charles I of Hungary. Under the influence of his journey to France, Doncs built a significant extension in the Lower Castle and ordered a Gothic modernization. During that phase a four-storey tower was added to the entrance gate of the Upper Castle. A palace, a water tank, a terraced courtyard and other newly constructed buildings in the northern panhandle of Pustý hrad formed what is now known as Doncs' Castle.

The castle lost its importance in the 15th century, the period of military conflicts between John Hunyadi and John Jiskra of Brandýs. Pustý hrad was ruined by fire during a siege in 1452, probably burnt down by John Hunyadi's troops. The last building constructed on the site was a watchtower erected in the second half of the 16th century.

Systematic excavations have been conducted since 1992. Some parts of the castle have been recently reconstructed and the site is easily accessible from Zvolen.

Gallery

External links
*Short description and access
Satellite view of Pustý hrad
History of the castle
Information about history and archaeology, new picture

Castles in Slovakia
Ruined castles in Slovakia
Archaeological sites in Slovakia
Former populated places in Slovakia
Buildings and structures in Zvolen

Pustý hrad


Confessions (Latin: Confessiones) is an autobiographical work by Saint Augustine, consisting of 13 books written in Latin between AD 397 and 400. The work outlines Saint Augustine's sinful youth and his conversion to Christianity. Modern English translations of it are sometimes published under the title The Confessions of Saint Augustine in order to distinguish the book from other books with similar titles. Its original title was Confessions in Thirteen Books, and it was composed to be read out loud with each book being a complete unit.

Confessions is generally considered one of Augustine's most important texts. It is widely seen as the first Western autobiography ever written (Ovid had invented the genre at the start of the first century AD with his Tristia) and was an influential model for Christian writers throughout the Middle Ages. Henry Chadwick wrote that Confessions will "always rank among the great masterpieces of western literature".

Summary
The work is not a complete autobiography, as it was written during Saint Augustine's early 40s and he lived long afterwards, producing another important work, The City of God. Nonetheless, it does provide an unbroken record of his development of thought and is the most complete record of any single person from the 4th and 5th centuries. It is a significant theological work, featuring spiritual meditations and insights.

In the work, Augustine writes about how he regrets having led a sinful and immoral life. He discusses his regrets for following the Manichaean religion and believing in astrology. He writes about his friend Nebridius's role in helping to persuade him that astrology was not only incorrect but evil, and Saint Ambrose's role in his conversion to Christianity. The first nine books are autobiographical and the last four are commentary and significantly more philosophical. He shows intense sorrow for his sexual sins and writes on the importance of sexual morality. The books were written as prayers to God, thus the title, based on the Psalms of David; and it begins with "For Thou hast made us for Thyself and our hearts are restless till they rest in Thee." The work is thought to be divisible into books which symbolize various aspects of the Trinity and trinitarian belief.

Outline (by book)

  His infancy, and boyhood up to age 14. Starting with his infancy, Saint Augustine reflects on his personal childhood in order to draw universal conclusions about the nature of infancy: the child is inherently violent if left to its own devices because of Original Sin. Later, he reflects on choosing pleasure and reading secular literature over studying Scripture, choices which he later comes to understand as ones for which he deserved the punishment of his teachers, although he did not recognize that during his childhood.
 Augustine continues to reflect on his adolescence during which he recounts two examples of his grave sins that he committed as a sixteen-year-old: the development of his God-less lust and the theft of a pear from his neighbor's orchard, despite never wanting for food. In this book, he explores the question of why he and his friends stole pears when he had many better pears of his own. He explains the feelings he experienced as he ate the pears and threw the rest away to the pigs. Augustine argues that he most likely would not have stolen anything had he not been in the company of others who could share in his sin.
 He begins the study of rhetoric at Carthage, where he develops a love of wisdom through his exposure to Cicero's Hortensius. He blames his pride for lacking faith in Scripture, so he finds a way to seek truth regarding good and evil through Manichaeism. At the end of this book, his mother, Monica, dreams about her son's re-conversion to Catholic doctrine.
 Between the ages of 19 and 28, Augustine forms a relationship with an unnamed woman who, though faithful, is not his lawfully wedded wife, with whom he has a son, Adeodatus. At the same time that he returned to Tagaste, his hometown, to teach, a friend fell sick, was baptized in the Catholic Church, recovered slightly, then died. The death of his friend depresses Augustine, who then reflects on the meaning of love of a friend in a mortal sense versus love of a friend in God; he concludes that his friend's death affected him severely because of his lack of love in God. Things he used to love become hateful to him because everything reminds him of what was lost. Augustine then suggests that he began to love his life of sorrow more than his fallen friend. He closes this book with his reflection that he had attempted to find truth through the Manicheans and astrology, yet devout Church members, who he claims are far less intellectual and prideful, have found truth through greater faith in God.
 While Saint Augustine is aged 29, he begins to lose faith in Manichean teachings, a process that starts when the Manichean bishop Faustus visits Carthage. Augustine is unimpressed with the substance of Manichaeism, but he has not yet found something to replace it. He feels a sense of resigned acceptance to these fables as he has not yet formed a spiritual core to prove their falsity. He moves to teach in Rome where the education system is more disciplined. He does not stay in Rome for long because his teaching is requested in Milan, where he encounters the bishop Ambrose (Saint Ambrose). He appreciates Ambrose's style and attitude, and Ambrose exposes him to a more spiritual, figurative perspective of God, which leads him into a position as catechumen of the Church.
 The sermons of Saint Ambrose draw Augustine closer to Catholicism, which he begins to favor over other philosophical options. In this section his personal troubles, including ambition, continue, at which point he compares a beggar, whose drunkenness is "temporal happiness," with his hitherto failure at discovering happiness. Augustine highlights the contribution of his friends Alypius and Nebridius in his discovery of religious truth. Monica returns at the end of this book and arranges a marriage for Augustine, who separates from his previous concubine, finds a new mistress, and deems himself to be a "slave of lust."
 In his mission to discover the truth behind good and evil, Augustine is exposed to the Neoplatonist view of God. He finds fault with this thought, however, because he thinks that they understand the nature of God without accepting Christ as a mediator between humans and God. He reinforces his opinion of the Neoplatonists through the likeness of a mountain top: "It is one thing to see, from a wooded mountain top, the land of peace, and not to find the way to it… it is quite another thing to keep to the way which leads there, which is made safe by the care of the heavenly Commander, where they who have deserted the heavenly army may not commit their robberies, for they avoid it as a punishment." From this point, he picks up the works of the apostle Paul which "seized [him] with wonder."
 He further describes his inner turmoil on whether to convert to Christianity. Two of his friends, Simplicianus and Ponticianus, tell Augustine stories about the conversions of Marius Victorinus and Saint Anthony. While reflecting in a garden, Augustine hears a child's voice chanting "take up and read." Augustine picks up a book of St. Paul's writings (codex apostoli, 8.12.29) and reads the passage it opens to, Romans 13:13–14: "Not in revelry and drunkenness, not in debauchery and wantonness, not in strife and jealousy; but put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and as for the flesh, take no thought for its lusts." This action confirms his conversion to Catholicism. His friend Alypius follows his example.
 In preparation for his baptism, Augustine concludes his teaching of rhetoric. Saint Ambrose baptizes Augustine along with Adeodatus and Alypius. Augustine then recounts how the church at Milan, with his mother in a leading role, defends Ambrose against the persecution of Justina. Upon his return with his mother to Africa, they share in a religious vision in Ostia. Soon after, Saint Monica dies, followed soon after by his friends Nebridius and Verecundus. By the end of this book, Augustine remembers these deaths through the prayer of his newly adopted faith: "May they remember with holy feeling my parents in this transitory light, and my brethren under Thee, O Father, in our Catholic Mother [the Church], and my fellow citizens in the eternal Jerusalem, for which the pilgrimage of Thy people sighs from the start until the return. In this way, her last request of me will be more abundantly granted her in the prayers of many through these my confessions than through my own prayers."
 Augustine shifts from personal memories to introspective evaluation of the memories themselves and of the self, as he continues to reflect on the values of confessions, the significance of prayer, and the means through which individuals can reach God. It is through both this last point and his reflection on the body and the soul that he arrives at a justification for the existence of Christ.
 Augustine analyzes the nature of creation and of time as well as its relationship with God. He explores issues surrounding presentism. He considers that there are three kinds of time in the mind: the present with respect to things that are past, which is the memory; the present with respect to things that are present, which is contemplation; and the present with respect to things that are in the future, which is expectation. He relies on Genesis, especially the texts concerning the creation of the sky and the earth, throughout this book to support his thinking.
 Through his discussion of creation, Augustine relates the nature of the divine and the earthly as part of a thorough analysis of both the rhetoric of Genesis and the plurality of interpretations that one might use to analyze Genesis. Comparing the scriptures to a spring with streams of water spreading over an immense landscape, he considers that there could be more than one true interpretation and each person can draw whatever true conclusions from the texts.
 He concludes the text by exploring an allegorical interpretation of Genesis, through which he discovers the Trinity and the significance of God's creation of man. Based on his interpretation, he espouses the significance of rest as well as the divinity of Creation: "For, then shalt Thou rest in us, in the same way that Thou workest in us now So, we see these things which Thou hast made, because they exist, but they exist because Thou seest them. We see, externally, that they exist, but internally, that they are good; Thou hast seen them made, in the same place where Thou didst see them as yet to be made."

Purpose
Confessions was not only meant to encourage conversion, but it offered guidelines for how to convert. Saint Augustine extrapolates from his own experiences to fit others' journeys. Augustine recognizes that God has always protected and guided him. This is reflected in the structure of the work. Augustine begins each book within Confessions with a prayer to God. For example, both books VIII and IX begin with "you have broken the chains that bound me; I will sacrifice in your honor". Because Augustine begins each book with a prayer, Albert C. Outler, a professor of theology at Southern Methodist University, argues that Confessions is a "pilgrimage of grace… [a] retrac[ing] [of] the crucial turnings of the way by which [Augustine] had come. And since he was sure that it was God's grace that had been his prime mover in that way, it was a spontaneous expression of his heart that cast his self-recollection into the form of a sustained prayer to God." Not only does Confessions glorify God but it also suggests God's help in Augustine's path to redemption.

Written after the legalization of Christianity, Confessions dated from an era where martyrdom was no longer a threat to most Christians as was the case two centuries earlier. Instead, a Christian's struggles were usually internal. Augustine clearly presents his struggle with worldly desires such as lust. Augustine's conversion was quickly followed by his ordination as a priest in 391 AD and then appointment as bishop in 395 AD. Such rapid ascension certainly raised criticism of Augustine. Confessions was written between 397–398 AD, suggesting self-justification as a possible motivation for the work. With the words "I wish to act in truth, making my confession both in my heart before you and in this book before the many who will read it" in Book X Chapter 1, Augustine both confesses his sins and glorifies God through humility in His grace, the two meanings that define "confessions", in order to reconcile his imperfections not only to his critics but also to God.

Hermeneutics
St. Augustine suggested a method to improve the Biblical exegesis in presence of particularly difficult passages. Readers shall believe all the Scripture is inspired by God and that each author wrote nothing in which he didn't believe personally, or that he believed to be false. Readers must distinguish philologically, and keep separate, their own interpretations, the written message and the originally intended meaning of the messenger and author (in Latin: intentio).

Disagreements may arise "either as to the truth of the message itself or as to the messenger's meaning" (XII.23). The truthfulness of the message itself is granted by God who inspired it to the extensor and who made possible the transmission and spread of the content across centuries and among believers.

In principle, the reader isn't capable of ascertaining what the author had in mind when he wrote a biblical book, but he has the duty to do his best to approach that original meaning and intention without contradicting the letter of the written text. The interpretation must stay "within the truth" (XII.25) and not outside it.

Audience
Much of the information about Augustine comes directly from his own writing. Augustine's Confessions provide significant insight into the first thirty-three years of his life. Augustine does not paint himself as a holy man, but as a sinner. The sins that Augustine confesses are of many different severities and of many different natures, such as lust/adultery, stealing, and lies. For example, in the second chapter of Book IX Augustine references his choice to wait three weeks until the autumn break to leave his position of teaching without causing a disruption. He wrote that some "may say it was sinful of me to allow myself to occupy a chair of lies even for one hour". In the introduction to the 1961 translation by R. S. Pine-Coffin he suggests that this harsh interpretation of Augustine's own past is intentional so that his audience sees him as a sinner blessed with God's mercy instead of as a holy figurehead. Considering the fact that the sins Augustine describes are of a rather common nature (e.g. the theft of pears when a young boy), these examples might also enable the reader to identify with the author and thus make it easier to follow in Augustine's footsteps on his personal road to conversion. This identification is an element of the protreptic and paraenetic character of the Confessions.

Due to the nature of Confessions, it is clear that Augustine was not only writing for himself but that the work was intended for public consumption. Augustine's potential audience included baptized Christians, catechumens, and those of other faiths. Peter Brown, in his book The Body and Society, writes that Confessions targeted "those with similar experience to Augustine's own." Furthermore, with his background in Manichean practices, Augustine had a unique connection to those of the Manichean faith. Confessions thus constitutes an appeal to encourage conversion.

Legacy
Confessions is one of the most influential works in not only the history of Christian theology, but philosophy in general.

Kierkegaard and his Existentialist philosophy were substantially influenced by Augustine's contemplation of the nature of his soul. Wittgenstein considered the book to be possibly "the most serious book ever written".

Editions
 The Confessions of St. Augustine, transl. Edward Bouverie Pusey, 1909.

 Maria Boulding, Saint Augustine: The Confessions, Hyde Park NY: New City Press (The Works of Saint Augustine I/1), 2002
 F. J. Sheed, Confessions, ed. Michael P. Foley.  2nd ed., Hackett Publishing Co., 2006.
 Carolyn Hammond, Augustine: Confessions Vol. I Books 1–8, MA: Harvard University Press (Loeb Classical Library), 2014.
 Carolyn Hammond, Augustine: Confessions Vol. II Books 9–13, MA: Harvard University Press (Loeb Classical Library), 2016.
 Sarah Ruden, Augustine: Confessions, Modern Library (Penguin Random House), 2018.

See also
 Imitation of Christ
 Hermeneutic circle
 Faith and reason
 Soliloquies of Augustine
 The City of God

References

Sources
  eBook Collection (EBSCOhost). Web. 18 Feb. 2016.
  Print.
  (Translation into English.)
 Carolyn Hammond, Augustine: Confessions Vol. I Books 1-8, MA: Harvard University Press (Loeb Classical Library), 2014.
 Carolyn Hammond, Augustine: Confessions Vol. II Books 9-13, MA: Harvard University Press (Loeb Classical Library), 2016.
  (Translation into English.)

Further reading

  Print. Collection des Universités de France.

External links

 Augustine: Texts and translations

English translations
 Image Books, trans. John K. Ryan (New York: Image Books, 1960).
 Christian Classics, trans. Albert C. Outler (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1955).
 New Advent, trans. J.G. Pilkington (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1886).
 Georgetown, trans. E.B. Pusey (Oxford : J.H. Parker; London: J.G. and F. Rivington, 1838).
 E.B. Pusey's 1838 Translation: Revised 'you' version (2012) by Cormac Burke .
 New City Press, trans. Maria Boulding, O.S.B.; ed. John E. Rotelle, O.S.A. (Hyde Park, NY: New City Press, 1997).
 Confessions: St Augustine; trans. Fr Benignus O'Rourke O.S.A, foreword by Martin Laird (London: DLT Books, 2013)
 Saint Augustine of Hippo. Confessions, translated by R.S. Pine–Coffin. Harmondsworth Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, 1961.
 Augustine. Confessions: A New Translation by Sarah Ruden. New York: Modern Library, 2017.

Commentaries
 "An Introduction to Augustine's Confessions", by James J. O'Donnell.
 In Latin with commentary by James J. O'Donnell

4th-century Latin books
Religious autobiographies
Prose texts in Latin
Theodosian dynasty
4th-century Christian texts
Works by Augustine of Hippo
Christian theology books

Confessions (Augustine)


General elections were held in British India in September 1930. They were boycotted by the Indian National Congress and marked by public apathy. The newly elected Central Legislative Assembly met for the first time on 14 January 1931.

Results

Central Legislative Assembly

Members of Central Legislative Assembly

Officials
Government of India: P. J. Grigg, Sir Nripendra Nath Sircar, J. W. Bhore, Harry Graham Haig, Sir Frank Noyce, P Raghavendra Rau, Lancelot Graham, Girija Shankar Bajpai, G. R. F. Tottenham, H. A. F. Metcalfe, S. P. Varma, K. Sanjiva Row, T. Rayan, A. G. Clow, C. W. Gwynne, J. C. Nixon, Tin Tut, N. R. Pillai, J. W. L. Megaw, S. N. Roy, T. Sloan, A. F. R. Lumby, A. J. Raisman, E. W. Perry, W. L. Scott
Berar: S. G. Jog
Nominated from Provinces: S. G. Grantham (Bihar), Shams-ul-Ulama Kamaluddin Ahmad, Aboo Abdullah Md. Zakaullah Khan, Mian Abdul Aziz, P. P. Sinha, D. J. N. Lee

Nominated Non-Officials
 Special Interests: N. M. Joshi (Labour Interests), M. C. Rajah (Depressed Classes), Henry Gidney (Anglo-Indian), Dr. Francis Xavier DeSouza (Indian Christians), R. T. H. Mackenzie (Associated Chambers of Commerce)
 Provinces: Satya Charan Mukherjee (Bengal), R. D. Dalal (Bombay), R. Srinivasa Sarma (Bihar & Orissa), Sardar Sir Jawahar Singh (Punjab), Captain Rao Bahadur Lal Chand (Punjab), Captain Sher Mohammad Khan (Punjab), Malik Allah Baksh Khan Tiwana (Punjab), Major Nawab Ahmad Nawaz Khan (NWFP), Maulvi Rafiuddin Ahmed (United Provinces), L. C. Bass

Elected Non-Officials
 Ajmer-Merwara: Harbilas Sarda
Assam: Abdul Matin Chaudhury (Muslim)
Bengal: Charu Chandra Biswas (Calcutta Urban General), Naba Kumar Singh Dudhoria (Calcutta Suburbs Urban General), Amar Nath Dutt (Burdwan General), Satyendranath Sen (Presidency General), K. C. Neogy (Dacca General), S. C. Mitra (Chittagong & Rajshahi General), Sir Abdur Rahim (Calcutta & Suburbs Muslim), Abdullah Al-Mamun Suhrawardy (Burdwan & Presidency Muslim), A. H. Ghuznavi (Dacca cum Mymensingh Muslim), Haji Choudhury Mohamed Ismail Khan (Bakergunj cum Faridpur Muslim), Anwarul Azim (Chittagong Muslim), Kabiruddin Ahmed (Rajshahi Muslim), D. K. Lahiri Chaudhury (Landholders), Satish Chandra Sen (Bengal National Chamber of Commerce), Darcy Lindsay (European), E. Studd (European), G. Morgan (European)
Bihar & Orissa: Babu Gaya Prasad Singh (Muzaffarpur cum Champaran General), Sitakanta Mahapatra (Orissa General), Bhabananda Das (Orissa General), Babu Badri Lal Rastogi (Patna cum Shahabad General), Gupteshwar Prasad Singh (Gaya cum Monghyr General), Pandit Ram Krishna Jha (Darbhanga cum Saran General), Sukhraj Roy (Bhagalpur, Purnea & Santhal Pargana General), Thakur Mohendra Nath Shah Deo (Chota Nagpur General), M. Maswood Ahmad (Patna & Chota Nagpur cum Orissa Muslim), Moulvi Badl-us-Zaman (Bhagalpur Muslim), Moulvi Muhammad Shafee Daoodi (Tirhut Muslim), Bhupat Singh (Landhol
Bombay: Naoroji Dumasia (Bombay City General), Sir Cowasji Jehangir (Bombay City General), B. L. Patil (Bombay Southern General), Bhaskarrao Jadhav (Bombay General), N. R. Gunjal (Bombay Central General), N. N. Anklesaria (Bombay Northern General), Lalchand Navalrai (Sind General), Rahimtoola Chinoy (Bombay City General), Fazal I Rahimtoola (Bombay Central Muslim), Abdullah Haroon (Sind Muslim), Nawab Naharsing Iswar Singh (Sind Landholders), Purushottamdas Thakurdas (Indian Merchants' Chamber of Bombay), Sardar G. N. Majumdar (Gujarat & Deccan Sardars & Inamdars Landholders), Homi Mody (Bombay Millowners' Association), D. N. O'Sullivan (European), Sir Leslie Sewell Hudson (European)
Burma: U Kyaw Myint, U Ba Maung, E. S. Millar (European), W. J. C. Richards (European)
Central Provinces: S. R. Pandit (Nagpur General), Hari Singh Gour (Hindi Divisions General), Seth Liladhar Choudhury (Hindi Divisions General), H. M. Wilayatullah, Goswami M. R. Puri
Delhi: Bhagat Chandi Mal Gola
Madras: Arcot Ramasamy Mudaliar (Madras City General), B. Sitarama Raju (Ganjam cum Vizagapatam General), T. N. Ramakrishna Reddi (Madras ceded districts & Chittoor General), R. K. Shanmukham Chetty (Salem & Coimbatore cum North Arcot General), Mothay Narasimha Rao (Godavari cum Kistna General), Ponaka Govindu Reddy Garu (Guntur cum Nellore General), T. Rangachari (South Arcot cum Chingleput General), G. Krishnamachariar (Tanjore cum Trichinopoly General), B. Rajaram Pandian (Madura and Ramnad cum Tinnevelly General), Mahomed Muazzam Sahib Bahadur (North Madras Muslim), Moulvi Sayyid Murtuza Saheb Bahadur (South Madras Muslim), Kottal Uppi Saheb Bahadur (Nilgiris & West Coast Muslim), F. E. James (European), Raja Sir Vasudeva Rajah of Kollengode (Landholders), Vidya Sagar Pandya (Madras Indian Commerce), K. P. Thamban (Landholders)
Punjab: Bhai Parmanand (Ambala General), Jagannath Agarwal (Jullundur General), B. R. Puri (West Punjab General), Nawab Muhammad Ibrahim Ali Khan (East Punjab Muslim), Shaikh Sadiq Khan (East Central Punjab), Mian Mohammad Shah Nawaz (West Central Punjab), Major Nawab Malik Talib Mehdi Khan (North Punjab Muslim), Makhdum Sayad Rajan Baksh Shah (South West Punjab Muslim), Shaikh Fazal-i-Haq Piracha (North West Punjab Muslim), Sardar Harbans Singh Brar (East Punjab Sikh), Sardar Sant Singh (West Punjab Sikh), Sardar Sohan Singh (Landholders)
United Provinces: Lala Rameshwar Prasad Bagla (UP Cities General), A. Das (Benares and Gorakpur General), L. Brij Kishore (Lucknow General), Sardar Nihal Singh (Fyzabad General), Haji Wajihuddin (UP Cities Muslim), Kunwar Hajee Ismail Alikhan (Meerut Muslim), J. R. Scott (European), Lala Hari Raj Swarup (Landholders), C. S. Ranga Iyer, Chaudhri Isra, Madan Mohan Malaviya, Sir Mohammad Yakub, Ziauddin Ahmad, Mohamed Azhar Ali, Kunwar Raghubir Singh (Landholders)

References

1930 elections in India
India
General elections in Bangladesh
General elections in India
General elections in Pakistan
Central Legislative Assembly of India
India
Elections in Myanmar
Provincial Assembly elections in British India

1930 Indian general election


Kiskunság National Park () is a national park located in Danube–Tisza Interfluve mainly in Bács-Kiskun county, Hungary. It was created in 1975 and declared a biosphere reserve by the UNESCO. The park covers an area of 570 km2 and stretches across the Little Cumania (Kiskunság) region of the Great Hungarian Plain.

Features
It is not a single territory, but comprises seven disjoint units, scattered throughout the area.

One of these is the Kiskunság's Puszta where annual events are held reviving the old pastoral life and cattle breeding customs.

Another is Lake Kolon near the town of Izsák. It is famous for its marsh tortoises, herons, expanses of untouched reeds and nine species of orchids which grow in the vicinity. An interesting natural phenomenon is the sand dunes in the vicinity of Fülöpháza. They are said to move under favourable wind conditions.

Geography
The alkali lakes of the Little Cumania are found near Fülöpszállás and Szabadszállás. Their unique flora and fauna are of special value. Avocets, geese and black-winged stilts nest in the area. The lakes provide a temporary home for tens of thousands of migratory birds. This ornithologist paradise is also a UNESCO biosphere reserve. Lake Szelid near Kalocsa, Lake Vadkert by Soltvadkert, Lake Kunfehér and Lake Sós at Kiskunhalas are ideal spots for bathing and camping.

There are many tourist trails, study trails and lookouts, within the national park; all contributing to a unique experience of the Kiskunság. The main visitor's center of the Kiskunság National Park, called the 'House of Nature', is situated in Kecskemét.

Gallery

See also
 List of national parks of Hungary
 Puszta

References

National parks of Hungary
Tourist attractions in Bács-Kiskun County
Protected areas established in 1975
Geography of Bács-Kiskun County
1975 establishments in Hungary
Danube-Tisza Interfluve
Ramsar sites in Hungary

Kiskunság National Park


The  'ndrina (, plural: ; ,  plural: ) is the basic unit of the 'Ndrangheta of Calabria, made up of blood relatives, and is the equivalent of the Sicilian Mafia's "family" or cosca. The word derives from the Greek, meaning "a man who does not bend". Each  'ndrina is "autonomous on its territory and no formal authority stands above the  'ndrina boss." The  'ndrina is usually in control of a small town or a neighbourhood in larger cities, even outside Calabria, in cities and towns in the industrial North of Italy in and around Turin and Milan.

If more than one  'ndrina operates in the same town, they form a locale, the main local organizational unit of the 'Ndrangheta with jurisdiction over an entire town or an area in a large urban center. In some cases, sub- 'ndrine have been established. The  'ndrine enjoy a high degree of autonomy – they have a leader (the capobastone) and independent staff. In some contexts the  'ndrine have become more powerful than the locale on which they formally depend.

Blood family and membership of the crime family overlap to a great extent within the 'Ndrangheta. By and large, the  'ndrine consist of men belonging to the same family lineage under the command of the capobastone. Salvatore Boemi, Anti-mafia prosecutor in Reggio Calabria, told the Italian Antimafia Commission that "one becomes a member for the simple fact of being born in a mafia family," although other reasons might attract a young man to seek membership, and non-kin have also been admitted. Marriages help cement relations within each  'ndrina and to expand membership. As a result, a few blood families constitute each group, hence "a high number of people with the same last name often end up being prosecuted for membership of a given  'ndrina." Indeed, since there is no limit to the membership of a single unit, bosses try to maximize descendants.

References

External links
  Gratteri, Nicola & Antonio Nicaso (2006). Fratelli di sangue, Cosenza: Pellegrini Editore,
 Nicaso, Antonio & Marcel Danesi (2013). Made Men: Mafia Culture and the Power of Symbols, Rituals, and Myth, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers,
 Paoli, Letizia (2003). Mafia Brotherhoods: Organized Crime, Italian Style, New York: Oxford University Press  (Review by Klaus Von Lampe) (Review by Alexandra V. Orlova)
 Varese, Federico. How Mafias Migrate: The Case of the 'Ndrangheta in Northern Italy, Discussion Papers in Economic and Social History, Number 59, University of Oxford, July 2005

History of the 'Ndrangheta
Organized crime terminology
Italian words and phrases

'Ndrina


The Amanda Show is a sketch comedy television series starring Amanda Bynes, formerly of All That. It is a spin-off of All That. The series starred Amanda as almost every major recurring character, including herself, Penelope, Courtney, and Judge Trudy (a parody of Judge Judy.) The series aired on Saturday nights on the Nickelodeon television network in the United States.  It still shows the show in reruns. Three of the show's stars (Drake Bell, Josh Peck, and Nancy Cartwright) Were on the very popular Drake and Josh.

Penelope Taynt
Penelope Taynt is a fictional character played by Amanda Bynes "Number One Fan, Please" on The Amanda Show. She never once met Amanda, but often came very close. She is known for saying "please" and "actual" often. She does not know the names of any cast member that is not Amanda. On the show, she had a website called "www.amandaplease.com." Eventually, it was made into the show's official site.

Comedy television series
Nickelodeon television series
1999 American television series debuts
Television spin-offs
English-language television programs

The Amanda Show


Preveza is a Greek town. It is in the west of Greece in the district of Ipirus. Preveza is the capital of Preveza prefecture.  Preveza is a coastal town and it has a big port. Its ports connect Preveza with Ionian islands such as Leukada and Paxoi. Near Preveza is the Arta town.

Cities in Greece

Preveza


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London, iguta guru reUnited Kingdom.

Nhoroondo

Nhoroondo yeLondon, guta guru reEngland neUnited Kingdom, inowedzera kupfuura makore 2000.

Moto mukuru, 1666
Moto wakapfuura nepakati penzvimbo dzeLondon kubva Svondo, 2 Gunyana kusvika China, 6 Gunyana 1666.

Mabhuku uye zvinyorwa

Nhoroondo yeLondon
 Ackroyd, Peter. London: A Biography (2009) (First chapter.)
 Ball, Michael, and David T. Sunderland. Economic history of London, 1800–1914 (Routledge, 2002)
 Bucholz, Robert O., and Joseph P. Ward. London: A Social and Cultural History, 1550–1750 (Cambridge University Press; 2012) 526 pages
 Clark, Greg. The Making of a World City: London 1991 to 2021 (John Wiley & Sons, 2014)
 Emerson, Charles. 1913: In Search of the World Before the Great War (2013) compares London to 20 major world cities on the eve of World War I; pp 15 to 36, 431–49.
 Jones, Robert Wynn. The Flower of All Cities: The History of London from Earliest Times to the Great Fire (Amberley Publishing, 2019).

 Mort, Frank, and Miles Ogborn. "Transforming Metropolitan London, 1750–1960." Journal of British Studies (2004) 43#1 pp: 1-14.
 Weightman, Gavin, and Stephen Humphries. The Making of Modern London, 1914–1939 (Sidgwick & Jackson, 1984)
 White, Jerry. London in the 20th Century: A City and Its People (2001) 544 pages; Social history of people, neighborhoods, work, culture, power. Excerpts
 White, Jerry. London in the 19th Century: 'A Human Awful Wonder of God''' (2008); Social history of people, neighborhoods, work, culture, power. Excerpt and text search
 White, Jerry. London in the Eighteenth Century: A Great and Monstrous Thing'' (2013) 624 pages; Excerpt and text search 480pp; Social history of people, neighborhoods, work, culture, power.

References

United Kingdom
Makuta mu England
London

London


A Transistor radio is a radio receiver which uses transistors to amplify the sound. Transistor radios can be cheap and small and some use very little electric power. Some can amplify the weak radio waves that are usually not picked up by weaker vacuum tube radios. Transistor radio broadcasting receivers for portable use were sold in great numbers starting in the late 1950s. Soon, vacuum tube radios became rare.

Radio receivers
Audio technology

Transistor radio


A tombolo is a line of sand that connects an island to the main land or to another island. They are often shaped like a hammer as they have been created by a complex process, called longshore drift. The word 'tombolo' translates to mound. It is a shaped piece of sand that is attached to something called a spit or bar.

Landforms

Tombolo


Fortaleza is a city in Brazil. It is the capital of the state of Ceará. The city has a population of about 3 million people. It has an area of . The people who live in the city are known as Fortalezenses. The current mayor is José Sarto.

The Pinto Martins International Airport connects Fortaleza with the major Brazilian cities. It also operates international flights. The Federal University of Ceará is located in Fortaleza.

Location
Fortaleza is located in the northeastern part of Brazil. It borders the Atlantic Ocean to the north and the east. To the south of the city are the cities of Pacatuba, Eusébio, Maracanaú and Itaitinga. To the east is the county of Aquiraz and the Atlantic Ocean. The city of Caucaia is west of Fortaleza.

Entertainment
Things to do in Fortaleza includes bars, discos and restaurants. The area also has comedy shows with nationally famous people. An off-season carnival, Fortal, happens in Fortaleza, in July. Changes were made to the carnival in 2008. It now has parking lots, bleachers, and a food court. The event lasts four days. About 1.5 million people enjoy the nationally famous axé music bands. Fortaleza also has music festivals, for example Ceará Music. This event happens every year and lasts for three days. It includes local musicians and international pop rock musicians. Around twenty-five thousand people enjoy the concerts, electronic music tents, and fashion shows.

Capitals of Brazilian states

Fortaleza


An entablature (IPA [ɛnˈtæblətʃə]; Latin, and tabula, a tablet) is a major piece of classical architecture. It is the big part of the building made of moldings and bands that sits flat above the columns, resting on their capitals (tops).

An entablature is made of three parts:
 the architrave - the bottom part which runs right above the wall or columns below
 the frieze – an unmolded strip that may or may not be decorated
 the cornice - the top part which sticks out below the pediment.

The entabulature is an improvement on the older and less advanced lintel, which also sits between two posts and holds up roof rafters.

Related pages
 Frieze

References

Architectural elements

Entablature


Lieutenant-General George FitzRoy, Duke of Northumberland, KG, PC (28 December 1665 – 28 June 1716) was the third and youngest illegitimate son of King Charles II of England ('Charles the Black') by Barbara Villiers, Countess of Castlemaine (also known as Barbara Villiers, Duchess of Cleveland); he was the fifth of Charles's eight illegitimate sons. On 1 October 1674, he was created Earl of Northumberland, Baron of Pontefract (Yorkshire) and Viscount Falmouth (Cornwall). On 6 April 1683, he was created Duke of Northumberland. He was described as a most worthy man and as "...a tall Black Man like his father the King."

The first Duke of Northumberland was born at Merton College, Oxford. In 1682, he was employed on secret service in Venice. Upon his return to England in 1684, he was elected (10 January) and installed (8 April) Knight of the Garter. That summer, he served as a volunteer on the side of the French at the Siege of Luxembourg. In 1687, Northumberland commanded the 2nd Troop of Horse Guards. A year later, he was appointed a lord of His Majesty's bedchamber. In 1701, he was appointed Constable of Windsor Castle, in 1710 Lord Lieutenant of Surrey, and in 1712, he became Lord Lieutenant of Berkshire as well. In 1703, he succeeded the Earl of Oxford as Colonel of the Royal Regiment of Horse. Seven years later, on 10 January 1710, he became Lieutenant-General. On 7 April 1713, he was sworn into the Privy Council and as Chief Butler of England.

In March 1686, Northumberland married Catherine Wheatley, the daughter of a poulterer, Robert Wheatley of Bracknell in Berkshire. Catherine was the widow of Thomas Lucy of Charlecote Park, a captain in the Royal Horse Guards. Soon after the marriage, Northumberland and his brother, Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton, allegedly attempted to privately convey her abroad to an English convent in Ghent, Belgium. After the death of Catherine in 1714, Northumberland remarried to Mary Dutton, the sister of Captain Mark Dutton.

The Duke lived at Frogmore House at Windsor in Berkshire, but died suddenly aged 50 at Epsom on 28 June 1716. He had no legitimate offspring. Mary died at Frogmore House in 1738.

References

1665 births
1716 deaths
Military personnel from Oxfordshire
17th-century English nobility
18th-century English people
British Army lieutenant generals
British Life Guards officers
201
George
Illegitimate children of Charles II of England
Knights of the Garter
Lord-Lieutenants of Berkshire
Lord-Lieutenants of Surrey
Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain
Military personnel from Windsor, Berkshire
Royal Horse Guards officers
Peers of England created by Charles II
Younger sons of dukes
Sons of kings

George FitzRoy, Duke of Northumberland


The Appomattoc (also spelled Appamatuck, Apamatic, and numerous other variants) were a historic tribe of Virginia Indians speaking an Algonquian language, and residing along the lower Appomattox River, in the area of what is now Petersburg, Colonial Heights, Chesterfield and Dinwiddie Counties in present-day southeast Virginia.

The Appomattoc were affiliated with the estimated 30 tribes of the Powhatan Confederacy, who controlled the area then known as Tenakomakah, present-day Tidewater Virginia. According to William Strachey, the Appomattoc were one of four subtribes within the original inheritance of Chief Powhatan, before he incorporated the other tribes into his Confederacy, and were said to be closely connected with the Powhatan royal line.

History
The Appomattoc first encountered English explorers on May 8, 1607, when a party led by Christopher Newport reached one of their villages at the mouth of the Appomattox River (it was shown as "Mattica" on the 1608 Tindall map). The English recorded that the foremost warrior among the Virginia Indians was bearing a bow and arrow in one hand, and a pipe with tobacco in the other, to signify the choice of war or peace. The English party soon settled some 30–40 miles downstream from there, on Jamestown Island.

On May 26, Newport led a second party of 24 English colonists to Mattica. They were welcomed with food and tobacco. He noted the village was surrounded by cornfields, which the Indians cultivated. A weroansqua (female chieftain), Oppussoquionuske, led the village. Despite welcoming the colonists, some Appomattoc warriors took part in the sporadic raids on their fort until June 13, after which the paramount Chief Powhatan called a ceasefire. John Smith saw the weroansqua of Appomattoc again at Werowocomoco (the main residence of Chief Powhatan) during his capture in December 1607, where she was appointed to wash his hands; as well as on another expedition to Werowocomoco in February 1608, when Powhatan commanded her to serve him water, turkey and flatbread.

Desperate for corn, Smith and Ralph Waldo visited the Appomattoc village in late fall 1608, and bought corn in exchange for copper. Smith reported in this year that the tribe had 60 warriors (some historians estimated the total population might be 220 based on that.) Their larger village nearby on the north bank of Wighwhippoc Creek, now called Swift Creek, was ruled by the weroance Coquonasum, brother of Oppussoquionuske.

Anglo-Native relations deteriorated in 1609, culminating in the First Anglo-Powhatan War by 1610. Around Christmas 1611, in reprisal for an Appomattoc ambush on a group of English colonists a year before, Sir Thomas Dale seized Oppussoquionuske's village and the surrounding cultivated land. He renamed it "New Bermudas" (the settlement was incorporated in 1614 as the town of Bermuda Hundred).

Following the resumption of hostilities in 1622, the colonists, led by Captain Nathaniel West, destroyed Coquonasum's village and drove off the residents in August 1623. The remnants of the tribe moved their settlement farther up Swift Creek, and slightly southward to Old Town Creek in present-day Colonial Heights, Virginia. Colonists attacked them again in 1627.

In 1635 the Appomattoc were driven from the upper Swift Creek Valley by Captain Henry Fleet. He had spent four years with Indians at Nacotchtank, the present site of Washington DC, and spoke Algonquian Powhatan fluently. Fleet built a small fort on the large hill overlooking the falls on the north bank. The site is now occupied by the campus of Virginia State University in Ettrick.

After the Powhatan Confederacy was finally defeated by the English during the second major Anglo-Powhatan War (1644–46), the Confederacy was dissolved, and all the subtribes, including the Appomattoc, individually became tributary to the King of England, rather than to the former Pamunkey Emperor. The Appomattoc by then were located mainly at Ronhorak (or Rohowicke; modern Rohoic Creek, running near the modern border between Petersburg and Dinwiddie) and Matoks, on the opposite bank north of the Appomattox (now Randolph Farm at VSU). This was at the northern end of the "Occaneechi Trail", a long-used Native American trail that ran all the way to South Carolina.

In 1645, the Virginia Colony built Fort Henry at the falls, a short distance east of Ronhorak. Following the treaty of 1646, and until 1691, this fort marked the legal frontier of white settlement, which ran in a straight line from the "head of Yapin" (modern Franklin, Virginia) to the Monacan town on the James River (west of where Richmond is now). The Appomattoc and other southern Powhatan tribes (Weyanoke, Nansemond) were thus separated from the more northerly ones by a substantial enclave of English settlement. During all those years, Fort Henry was to be the only point in Virginia at which the Indians could be authorized to cross eastward into white territory, or whites westward into Indian territory. At first the Virginia Indians had to wear a badge made of striped cloth while in white territory to show they were authorized, or they could be murdered on the spot. In 1662, this law was changed to require them to display a copper badge or else be subject to arrest. In the early 20th century, such a 17th-century copper badge, inscribed with "Appomattock", was excavated in eastern Dinwiddie County.

Fort Henry also served as a starting point for subsequent English westward exploration. In 1650, an Appomattoc guide called Pyancha took a party led by Abraham Wood beyond the headwaters of the river. In 1671, their weroance Peracuta led Thomas Batts and Robert Fallam on an expedition within the borders of present-day West Virginia. A 1669 census shows that the Appomattoc had 50 bowmen around this time, which means their total population may have been about 150.

Although beyond the allowed treaty limits, Batts in 1674 patented land just west of Matoks. Settlers destroyed the Appomattoc village during Bacon's Rebellion in 1676. The nearby Matoaca, Virginia was named after the native village. Peracuta and his tribe were excluded from the 1677 Treaty of Middle Plantation. He was among those who signed the 1680 addendum to the treaty. Wood patented land at Ronhorak in 1680, indicating some further retreat of the Appomattoc from their lands.

Although the colony had prohibited Indian slavery by law, Nathaniel Bacon re-introduced the practice in 1676. It was violently opposed by the Indians and caused much suffering to the people. Tribes raided their enemies to sell captives as slaves to the colonists in Virginia and further north. But, the colonial legislature took 15 years until it abolished Indian slavery in 1691.

As the Appomattoc population began to dwindle, the people were vulnerable to attack from traditional western enemy tribes. On April 24, 1691, the weroansqua who succeeded Peracuta petitioned the colony for permission for her people to live among the English colonists for protection. In 1705, Robert Beverley, Jr. noted that the Appomattoc consisted of no more than seven families, living on the pasture of William Byrd II at Westover Plantation. This was the last known mention of them as a distinct tribe in historic records and they were estimated to be extinct by 1722. Their descendants likely assimilated into Virginia colonial society or merged with other tribes.

The names "Appomattox" and "Mattox" were sometimes applied to the Matchotic, a Virginia Indian group made up of the Onawmanient and other remnant tribes of the Powhatan Confederacy, but located principally in the Northern Neck region between the Potomac and Rappahannock rivers. There were historic villages named Matchotic in Northumberland and King George's counties.

Notes

References
 Chapter 4, A Study of Virginia Indians and Jamestown: The First Century, National Park Service
 Richard L. Jones, Dinwiddie County: Carrefour of the Commonwealth

Powhatan Confederacy
Extinct Native American tribes
Native American tribes in Virginia
Pre-statehood history of Virginia

Appomattoc


is a deity of kami who was a child of the seven divine generations in Japanese mythology and Shintoism, and is also referred to in the roughly translated Kojiki as "male who invites", or Izanagi-no-mikoto.

He and his wife Izanami created many islands, deities, and forefathers of Japan. When Izanami died while giving birth to a child, Izanagi tried (but failed) to retrieve her from Yomi (the underworld). In the cleansing rite after his return, he created Amaterasu (the sun goddess) from his left eye, Tsukuyomi (the moon god) from his right eye, and Susanoo (tempest or storm god) from his nose.
When Izanagi looks at his wife in Yomi, he sees her monstrous and hellish state and she is ashamed and angry. She chases him in order to kill him. She fails, but promises to kill a thousand of his people every day. Izanagi says that he will create a thousand and five hundred every day.

Gods and goddesses of Japan
Creation myths
Amatsukami

Izanagi


Lucius Seth Huntington,  (May 26, 1827–May 19, 1886) was a Canadian lawyer, journalist and political figure. He was a Liberal member of the House of Commons of Canada representing Shefford from 1867 to 1882. He also served as President of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada and Postmaster General.

He was born in Compton, Lower Canada in 1827. The families of his parents had come to the Eastern Townships from New England. He studied law with John Sewell Sanborn and was called to the bar in 1853. There was a surplus of lawyers at the time, so he became a merchant to provide himself with additional income. He also established a newspaper in Knowlton, later moving it to Waterloo after he was hired as secretary for a railroad company based there. He ran for the Shefford seat in the Legislative Assembly in 1860, but the election was not settled before parliament was dissolved; he was elected in the election that followed in 1861. In 1863, he was appointed solicitor general for Canada East. During the American Civil War, he profited from his ownership of a copper mine; later, the market in copper collapsed and so did Huntington's profits.

In 1873, he exposed the Pacific Scandal which led to the fall of Sir John A. Macdonald's Conservatives. He then became part of a syndicate formed to continue construction of the railway. He intended to resign from his government post to enter this business venture, but was persuaded to remain in office when the Conservatives alleged wrongdoing in his sale of his interests in copper mines, since his resignation might be interpreted as a sign of guilt. In 1875, Huntington was heavily criticized for a speech where he advised English Protestants in Quebec to vote Liberal to protect their own interests versus those of French Catholics. He fell ill later in his parliamentary career and, after his defeat in 1882, moved to New York City to seek medical treatment.

He died in New York in 1886.

External links

1827 births
1886 deaths
People from Estrie
Canadian people of American descent
Anglophone Quebec people
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Members of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada from Canada East
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Quebec
Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada
Postmasters General of Canada

Lucius Seth Huntington


Alphonso "Al" Campbell (born 31 August 1954) is a Jamaican reggae singer active since the late 1960s.

Biography
Born in Kingston, Jamaica, Campbell's singing career began in church, where his father was a preacher, and Al would sing to raise funds. He went to school with Lloyd James (aka Prince Jammy) and formed a vocal group with friends as a teenager, called The Thrillers, who recorded in the late 1960s for Studio One. After briefly joining up with Freddie McGregor and Ernest Wilson, he went on to work with Prince Lincoln Thompson's Royal Rasses, and the Mighty Cloud band.  Campbell then embarked on a solo career (also contributing vocals to two Heptones albums), and was a popular roots reggae singer during the 1970s, recording for producers such as Phil Pratt, Bunny Lee, and Joe Gibbs, and recorded at Lee Perry's Black Ark studio.

His "Gee Baby" was a big hit in 1975 in both Jamaica and the United Kingdom. He adapted successfully to the early dancehall and lovers rock styles in the late 1970s and 1980s, working with producers such as Linval Thompson. Campbell's recording of "Late Night Blues" (1980) became a staple of blues parties. Campbell performed with the Stur-Gav sound system in the early 1980s. More recently he has recorded for King Jammy, Philip "Fatis" Burrell, and Mafia & Fluxy.

In 1997, he joined Cornell Campbell and Jimmy Riley in a new version of The Uniques, the group releasing a self-titled album in 1999.

Campbell has not performed in Jamaica since a stageshow held by Jack Ruby shortly before the latter's death. He continues to tour Europe and North America

Albums
Gee Baby (1977) Phil Pratt/Sunshot
Ain't That Loving You (1978) Jamaica Sound (reissued 1994 as Sly & Robbie Presents The Soulful Al Campbell)
Loving Moods of Al Campbell (1978) Ital
Mr. Music Man (1978) Manic
No More Running (1978) Terminal
Showcase (1978) DEB
Rainy Days (1978) Hawkeye
Diamonds (1979) Burning Sounds
More Al Campbell Showcase (197?) Ethnic
Mr. Lovers Rock (1980) Sonic Sounds
Late Night Blues (1980) JB
The Other Side of Love (1981) Greensleeves
Dance Hall Stylee (1982) Narrows Enterprise
Bad Boy (1984) CSA
Freedom Street (1984) Londisc
Forward Natty (1985) Move
Shaggy Raggy (1985) Sampalu
Reggae '85 (1985) Blue Mountain
Fence Too Tall (1987) Live & Love
Ain't Too Proud To Beg - LP (1987) Live & Love
Bounce Back (1990) Reggae Road
The Soulful Al Campbell (1994) Rhino
Road Block (1997) Exterminator
Revival Selection (1998) Kickin'
22 Karat Solid Gold (1998) Reggae Road
22 Karat Gold Volume 2 (1998) Reggae Road
Rock On (1998) Charm
Hit Me With Music (1998) Hot Shot
Roots & Culture (1999) Jet Star
Today, Tomorrow, Forever (2000) Reggae Road
Deeper Roots (2001) Reggae Road
Always In My Heart (2001) Artists Only
Higher Heights (2002) Reggae Road
Love From a Distance (2003) Cousins
Tribute to Clement Coxsone Dodd (2004) Reggae Road
24/7 (2006) Reggae Road
Rasta Time - Lagoon
Talk About Love - Sonic Sounds
It's Magic - free world music

References

External links
 Al Campbell at Roots Archives
 Al Campbell discography at ReggaeID

AllMusic
Jamaican reggae musicians
Musicians from Kingston, Jamaica
1954 births
Living people
The Uniques (Jamaican group) members
Greensleeves Records artists
Rhino Records artists

Al Campbell


Haynes-Apperson Company was a manufacturer of Brass Era automobiles in Kokomo, Indiana, from 1896 to 1905. It was the first automobile manufacturer in Indiana, and among the first in the United States. Elwood Haynes, one of the founders, worked on early types of stainless steel and was the inventor of stellite, and many of the early advances in automobile technology were first invented by the company.

History

The company was founded by Elwood Haynes and brothers Elmer and Edgar Apperson.  In 1894, the trio built one of the first gasoline powered vehicles in the United States, at Apperson's Riverside Machine Works. By 1898 the company was producing one new car every two to three weeks, and selling early models for $2,000 (USD). At the end of that year, they relocated the company to a large factory where they designed two additional models. They brought on a larger workforce and increased the production rate to between two and three new cars each (year). From there business began to boom, five cars in 1898, thirty  1899, 192 in 1900 and 240 in 1901. Production increases kept the factory open 24 hours a day, and two shifts of workers were needed to keep the factory running at capacity.

Haynes-Apperson automobiles were known for their "long distance running" capability. The company regularly competed their cars in endurance races.  A Haynes-Apperson was among the cars entered in the first automobile race in America, the Chicago Times-Herald race from Chicago and Evanston, Illinois, in 1895. The last model designed by the company had a three-speed transmission and was capable of 24 mph on pneumatic tires. In 1902, the brothers had turned a large profit from the enterprise and they decided to split up to form their own companies. The Apperson automobile company was formed that year, and in 1905, Haynes-Apperson was renamed the Haynes Automobile Company.

The 1904 Haynes-Apperson Light Car was a runabout seating two passengers, selling for $1,550. The horizontal-mounted water-cooled flat twin, situated at the rear of the car, produced 11 hp (8.2 kW). A 3-speed transmission was fitted, and the car used an angle iron frame. The Tonneau had a similar flat-twin of 17 hp (12.7 kW), situated at the front of the car, and three-speed transmission was fitted. The angle iron-framed car weighed 2300 lb (1043 kg), seated five, and sold for $2,500.

An 1894 Haynes is in the permanent collection of the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History.

Commemorative festival
Since 1977 a race in Kokomo, Indiana, for runners and walkers has been held during the "Haynes-Apperson Festival" in commemoration of the pioneer auto company.

See also
Duryea brothers, makers of the first American automobile
Ransom Olds, maker of early production American automobile

Notes

External links
 Haynes-Apperson Festival

References

 Frank Leslie's Popular Monthly (January, 1904)
 National Museum of American History:  America on the Move

Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Indiana
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
1890s cars
1900s cars
Companies based in Kokomo, Indiana
Defunct companies based in Indiana
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1896
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1905
1896 establishments in Indiana
1905 disestablishments in Indiana
Veteran vehicles
Brass Era vehicles
Highwheeler

Haynes-Apperson


Labyrinth is an archaeological mystery English-language novel written by Kate Mosse set both in the Middle Ages and present-day France. It was published in 2005.

It divides into two main storylines that follow two protagonists, Alaïs (from the year 1209) and Alice (in the year 2005).  The two stories occur in a shared geography and intertwine. The novel relies heavily on historical events such as the massacre at Béziers and the Crusade against the Cathars in Occitania, now the South of France, from around 1200. The text itself features many Occitan and French quotes.  Ultimately the story becomes a quest for the Holy Grail.

In the 2006 British Book Awards, Labyrinth was awarded Best Read of the Year. According to The Sunday Times, it was the second best selling book in the United Kingdom in 2006, after The Da Vinci Code, selling about 865,400 copies in paperback. The Guardian ranked it the number one bestseller for 2006. An extract from the novel was used in the Scottish Qualifications Authority's 2009 Standard Grade English General close reading paper.

Plot
When Dr Alice Tanner, who works as a volunteer at the archaeological site of Pic de Soularac, in France, discovers two skeletons in a long-hidden cave in the hillside, she unearths a link with an horrific and brutal  past. However, it is not just the sight of the shattered bones that makes her uneasy; there is an overwhelming sense of evil in the tomb that Alice finds hard to shake off, even in the bright French sunshine. Puzzled by the words carved inside the chamber and the representation of a labyrinth, she finds an exact representation of it on the underside of the ring she found in the cave.

Alice has an uneasy feeling that she has disturbed something that was meant to remain hidden. She finds a connection to the nightmares she had been having since childhood and discovers that the cave was related to her past.

Eight hundred years ago, on the night before a brutal civil war ripped apart Languedoc, three books were entrusted to Alaïs, a young herbalist and healer, the daughter of the steward of Carcassona. Although she cannot understand the symbols and diagrams the books contain, Alaïs knows her destiny lies in protecting their secret at all costs. The books contain the secrets to the Holy Grail. Alice later discovers that she is Alaïs's descendant.

Television adaptation
A television adaptation of the novel adapted by Adrian Hodges and directed by Christopher Smith was released in 2012.

References

Novels by Kate Mosse
British Book Award-winning works
2005 British novels
Novels set during the Crusades
Fiction set in the 1200s
Novels set in the 13th century
Orion Books books

Labyrinth (novel)


The St. Louis Brown Stockings were a professional baseball club based in St. Louis, Missouri, from 1875 to 1877, which competed on the cusps of the existences of two all-professional leagues—the National Association (NA) and the National League (NL). The team is the forerunner of, but not directly connected with, the current St. Louis Cardinals Major League Baseball team.  After the conclusion of the 1877 season, a game-fixing scandal involving two players the Brown Stockings had acquired led the team to resign its membership in the NL.  The club then declared bankruptcy and folded.

The Brown Stockings did not meet a complete demise, however. Organized by outfielder Ned Cuthbert, a few members of the former club continued to play the following year, though not now bound to any league. They played whomever they could, wherever they could, and still managed to draw crowds and make a profit, leading to play again the following two years. The Brown Stockings regained some of their former success—enough of it that, despite the recent scandal, fans of the team seemed to exhibit a short memory and began to show interest in recreating another professional St. Louis baseball team. In 1881, when German immigrant Chris von der Ahe—owner of a grocery store and saloon who was initially ignorant about baseball—saw the popularity of the club, he bought them out and soon became interested in having the team compete in a professional league. Together with beer magnates in five other cities, the American Association was formed in late 1881, and professional baseball flourished in St. Louis—this time, with the resurrected Brown Stockings the next year.

Year in the National Association (1875)

Joining the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (NAPBBP), or National Association (NA), in that league's final season, the Brown Stockings were the first of two teams to represent St. Louis in a professional baseball association in 1875 (Spink 1911). Grand Avenue Grounds – the Brown Stockings' home field – was later the site of Sportsman's Park.  Outfielder Lip Pike, the previous three-time home run champion in the NA (1871, 1872, 1873), was again a top hitter, leading the league with a league-adjusted OPS of 203.  Eighteen-year-old Pud Galvin is credited with leading the league in ERA (1.16) despite pitching just 62 innings, a very small total compared to the league leader in innings pitched (Al Spalding with 570.2). The Brown Stockings finished 39–29 and in fourth place in their only season in the NA.

Like the White Stockings in Chicago (established 1871), the Brown Stockings adopted uniforms and acquired a nickname by descent with variation from the famous Red Stockings of Cincinnati (est. 1869), the self-proclaimed "original" professional baseball team, who garnered much public interest due to an undefeated streak during a barnstorming tour in 1869 and 1870.

National League entrant (1876–77)

"Champions of the West"
The St. Louis Brown Stockings entered the National League (NL) as a founding team the following season along with five other former NA teams and two new professional league entrants. George Bradley pitched the first no-hitter in Major League history on July 15, 1876, when the Brown Stockings defeated the Hartford Dark Blues, 2–0. It was one of Bradley's 16 league-leading and record-setting shutouts that season and his 1.23 ERA also led the league.  Bradley and Pike (.323 batting average) led the Brown Stockings to a 45–19 record and a third-place finish.

Although the Chicago White Stockings finished with the best regular-season record – making them the default NL champions as no playoff existed – due in part to their already feverish rivalry, the White Stockings and Brown Stockings faced off in an unofficial five-game playoff for the title "Champions of the West." The Brown Stockings won the series.

Expulsion
With Bradley losing his effectiveness due to an arm injury in 1877 (his ERA increased to 3.31), the Brown Stockings slipped to 28–32 in 1877. The team signed stars Jim Devlin and George Hall from the Louisville Grays, only to become embroiled in a game-fixing scandal that resulted in the permanent expulsion of Devlin and Hall (and two other Grays players) from the league.  The Grays and Brown Stockings both filed for bankruptcy in the aftermath of the scandal.  However, the Brown Stockings continued to play as an independent barnstorming team on a semi-professional basis from 1878 to 1881.

Aftermath of the scandal and the resurrection of the Brown Stockings (1878–1881)
Despite the team disbanding after the 1877 season, five members of that team – second baseman/manager Mike McGeary, outfielder Ned Cuthbert, shortstop Dickey Pearce, third baseman Joe Battin and pitcher Joe Blong all comprised a team, also called the Brown Stockings, to informally play in 1878. However, at this time, popularity for baseball was low, and St. Louis Republican sportswriter Al Spink sought ways to bring back popularity for baseball in St. Louis.

The 1879 team started off by winning 24 of their first 25 games. However, the team encountered a different kind of problem. The Brown Stockings could not match their 1875 attendance average of around 2,300 per game due to their complete domination of the local amateur clubs; they averaged well under one thousand in that year after attendance fall offs between those two years. To avert the issue, they played more competitive teams from out of town. In spite of narrowing the competitive gap, St. Louis kept winning, and, as a result, more and more fans started showing up later in the year.

The 1880 season was another polar season mixed with antipathy and surging fever. August Solari, who leased Grand Avenue Park, was on the last year of the lease and the gate receipts did little to dissuade him from forgoing resigning the lease. In fact, he threatened to dismantle the ballpark. Cuthbert, who also worked for Von der Ahe at his Golden Lion Saloon, urged him to promote the team more. At this time, Von der Ahe still had not made the full realization of baseball's popularity. For months, it was Cuthbert talking about baseball with Von der Ahe, who understood very little about the actual game, that he began to realize its significance because of its profitability.

The formation of the Sportsman's Park and Club Association
Von der Ahe purchased the remainder of the lease on Grand Avenue Park, sold minority stock and raised enough money to renovate the dilapidated park. John W. Peckington, another local saloon owner, became a minority owner, creating The Sportsman's Park and Club Association. Spink, who himself had not stopped lobbying for more interest in baseball during the sport's relative dormancy in St. Louis, became the secretary and business manager. More fans began attend games and Spink arranged for out-of-town teams to play there, the first being a makeshift team from Cincinnati playing under the traditional name "Redlegs." Profitability increased, and thus, more extensive renovations were completed, further increasing attendance, and again, profitability.

The formation of a new all-professional league
Again led by Cuthbert, the Brown Stockings continued to win in convincing fashion in 1881, finishing with a 35–15 record. Notable opponents included the Brooklyn Atlantics, the Philadelphia Athletics, the Akrons, and the Louisville Eclipse. The club also continued to prosper at the gate. An evolving baseball renaissance that flourished in St. Louis coincided (and possibly spilled over into) the rising enthusiasm of beer magnates over baseball in five other major cities—Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Louisville, and Pittsburgh. Proprietors who saw the Brown Stockings' unprecedented success and profitability after disenfranchisement began spirited dialogue with Von der Ahe about constructing a new league that could rival, and compete, with the National League. Further, the parties involved chiefly represented cities the NL had excluded. NL-imposed restrictions upon Sunday play and alcohol consumption at their parks was prohibitive to the very means these owners made their fortune. Ultimately, owners of the expansion teams announced the establishment of a new all-professional league called the American Association from the Hotel Gibson in Cincinnati on November 2, 1881. With that act, the St. Louis newspapers lauded Von der Ahe for resurrecting a "corpse" and transforming it "into the liveliest being imaginable."

Notable alumni

George Washington Bradley, pitched the first no-hitter in Major League history in 1876.
Lip Pike, Major League Baseball four-time home run champion

Baseball Hall of Famers

Season-by-season results
 1875 St. Louis Brown Stockings season
 1876 St. Louis Brown Stockings season
 1877 St. Louis Brown Stockings season

See also
 History of the St. Louis Cardinals (1875–1919)

Footnotes
The Finish, Wins, and Losses columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play. Regular and postseason records are combined only at the bottom of the list.
The GB column lists "Games Back" from the team that finished in first place that season. It is determined by finding the difference in wins plus the difference in losses divided by two.
The Brown Stockings participated in a best-of-five post-season exhibition with the Chicago White Stockings for the unofficial title of "Champions of the West." Despite the White Stockings winning the NL pennant by finishing with the best regular-season record, they challenged the Brown Stockings to this series because St. Louis won the regular-season series and St. Louis finished second in the NL in terms of winning percentage (45–19, .703 winning percentage) although they were virtually tied for third place with the Hartford Dark Blues (47–21, .691). All five games were played because the Series proved highly profitable.
Because the Brown Stockings had resigned from the National League after the 1877 season and did not enter another professional league or play as an all-professional team again until the 1882 season in the American Association, games played between 1878 and 1881 were exhibition games only and therefore do not count as official games.
Major League Baseball considers this to be the Brown Stockings' official all-time Major League record. MLB does not count the years played in the National Association, post-season games, exhibition or semi-professional (amateur) games towards the official record.

References

Further reading

External links
 Team index page at Baseball-Reference (1875)
 Team index page at Baseball-Reference (1876–77)

St. Louis Browns
Baseball teams established in 1875
Sports clubs and teams disestablished in 1877
Defunct Major League Baseball teams
Defunct National Association of Professional Base Ball Players teams
Defunct baseball teams in Missouri
Professional baseball teams in Missouri
Baseball teams disestablished in 1877

St. Louis Brown Stockings


Quatuor pour la fin du temps is a piece of chamber music by the French composer Olivier Messiaen.  In English -speaking countries it is often called by the English title Quartet for the End of Time.  The piece is written for an unusual combination of four instruments: clarinet (in B-flat), violin, cello, and piano.  There are 8 movements.  It takes about 50 minutes to perform.  The work was first performed in unusual circumstances in 1941.  It is a very important work in the history of 20th century classical music.

Composition and first performance
There was a special reason why Messiaen wrote this work for an unusual combination of instruments.  In 1940, when World War II was being fought, Germany invaded France.  Messiaen was captured by the German army and he was held as a prisoner of war. While being taken to the prisoner of war camp, Messiaen talked to another prisoner, Henri Akoka, who was a clarinettist.  Messiaen showed him the sketches for a clarinet piece he was writing called  Abîme des oiseaux. Two other professional musicians were also among the prisoners: Jean le Boulaire, a violinist and Étienne Pasquier, a cellist.   Messiaen composed the Quatuor for these three musicians with himself at the piano. The combination of these four instruments is unusual,  although Paul Hindemith had written a work for the same combination in 1938.

The quartet was given its first performance in Görlitz, Germany (now called  Zgorzelec in Poland) on 15 January 1941.   The audience consisted of about four hundred  prisoners of war.  There were German prison officers sitting in front.  The music must have seemed strange to the audience, but they all listened politely.  Shortly after this Messiaen was released from prison and went back to France.

Inspiration
Messiaen was inspired by the words in the Bible where the angel says "There shall be time no longer".  These words have another meaning in relation to the music, because Messiaen does not write music with a regular number of beats in a bar.  Like The Rite of Spring, the length of the bars keep changing.  Messiaen had heard enough of soldiers marching to a regular one-two-three-four-one-two-three-four during the war.  His rhythms in this music develop from little tiny rhythmic patterns.

Structure
The work is in eight movements.

The first movement is called "Liturgie de cristal" ("Chyrstal liturgy") and describes the birds waking up.  All four instruments play this movement.

The second movement is "Vocalise, pour l'Ange qui annonce la fin du Temps
"Song for the Angel who announces the end of time".  It is played by the full quartet, although the clarinet does not play in the central section.

The third movement is called "Abîme des oiseaux" ("Abyss of birds") and is just played by the clarinet.  It is extremely slow and the clarinettist needs a lot of breath control.

The fourth movement is "Intermède"  ("Interlude") and is played by the violin, cello, and clarinet.).  It is fast and lively.

The fifth movement is "Louange à l'Éternité de Jésus ("Praise to the eternity of Jesus").  It is played by the cello accompanied by the piano who just plays chords.  It is again extremely slow and the cellist needs good bow control.

The sixth movement is called "Danse de la fureur, pour les sept trompettes" ("Dance of the Fury, for the seven trumpets"), played on all four instruments.  They play in unison (the same notes) nearly all the way through.

The seventh movement is called "Fouillis d'arcs-en-ciel, pour l'Ange qui annonce la fin du Temps" ("Tangle of rainbows, for the Angel who announces the end of time"),  played by the full quartet.  Some of the music from the second movement is repeated.  We hear the angel being covered by the rainbow.

The eighth movement is "Louange à l'Immortalité de Jésus" ("Praise to the immortality of Jesus"), for violin and piano.  We hear the ascent of man to his god.  The violin finishes on a very high harmonic note.

In the long preface at the front of the score Messiaen writes a short introduction to the music theory theory of his music.  He describes the rhythms he uses and how they relate to one another.  However, at the end, he says that it is not necessary to read all about his theory in order to perform the piece.

References

Chamber music compositions

Quatour pour la fin du temps


Bandwidth is used to measure electronic and other types of communication. This includes radio, electronics, and other forms of electromagnetic radiation, Bandwidth is the difference between the electronic signal having highest-frequency and the signal having the lowest-frequency.

In computer networks, bandwidth is often used as a term for the data transfer bit rate.  More easily, the amount of data that is carried or passed from one point to another in a network, in a given time period (usually a second).

Frequency
Many systems work by means of continuous movements, or oscillations. Each complete "back and forth" it makes is called a cycle. The number of cycles every second is its frequency. Frequency is measured in cycles per second, most often called "Hertz", or "Hz" for short.

Systems have at least one frequency, and usually many different frequencies.  For example, sound waves travel as vibrations.  People can hear sound frequencies low as 20 Hz, and high as 20,000 Hz. A band of frequencies is a continuous range of frequencies; the band of frequencies people can hear is from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.

Bandwidth is the width of a frequency band; The width is the highest frequency minus the lowest frequency.  In the hearing example, the bandwidth of a person's ears is about 20,000 Hz - 20 Hz = 19,980 Hz.

Usage
Bandwidth is used with electromagnetic spectrum (for example, radio waves, light waves and X-rays). Such waves are oscillations of electric and magnetic fields. For example, the lowest United States AM radio channel has the band of frequencies from 535,000 Hz to 545,000 Hz.  It has a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (545,000 - 535,000 = 10,000).  All United States AM radio broadcasting stations have this bandwidth (But, the location of each band is distinct).  The lowest United States FM radio channel has the band from 88,000,000 Hz (88 MHz) to 88,200,000 Hz (88.2 MHz).  It has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. You can see that the width of an FM band is 20 times the width of an AM band.

The word "bandwidth" has been used incorrectly in digital data communication to mean "data carrying capacity". There is no such thing as "digital bandwidth"; the proper term for the data carrying capacity of a communication channel is channel capacity.

In general, the channel capacity of a system increases with the bandwidth used for communication. However, many other parts are also important. Therefore, in most systems, the channel capacity is different from the channel bandwidth.

References

Internet
Mechanical vibrations
Radio technology
Electronics

Bandwidth (signal processing)


Comet Borrelly is a periodic comet. Periodic comets can only be seen from earth once every few years or decades. It was visited by the spacecraft Deep Space 1. Comet Borrelly was last seen from earth in September 2001 and will likely be seen again in July 2008.

References

Comets

19P/Borrelly