An experiment is a test of an idea or a method. It is often used by scientists and engineers. An experiment is used to see how well the idea matches the real world. Experiments have been used for many years to help people understand the world around them. Experiments are part of scientific method. Many experiments are controlled experiments or even blind experiments. Many are done in a laboratory. But thought experiments are done in mind.

Experiments can tell us if a theory is false, or if something does not work. They cannot tell us if a theory is true. When Einstein said that gravity could affect light, it took a few years before astronomers could test it. General relativity predicts that the path of light is bent in a gravitational field; light passing a massive body is deflected towards that body. This effect has been confirmed by observing the light of stars or distant quasars being deflected as it passes the Sun.<ref>Shapiro S.S. et al 2004. Measurement of the solar gravitational deflection of radio waves using geodetic very-long-baseline interferometry data, 1979–1999. Phys. Rev. Lett'. 92 (12): 121101. </ref>

Now, a hundred years or so after Einstein published his ideas, there have been many tests, all of which have been consistent with Einstein's predictions. But, one day, we might find the theory has some limits beyond which it does not work. What we test are implications of the theory, because the theory itself is too large and complicated to test all at once.

"The universe does not tell us when we are right, only when we are wrong". – Karl Popper

Controlled experiments
A controlled experiment is a kind of comparison. It often compares the results from experimental samples against control samples. Control samples are the same as the experimental sample, except for one difference. This difference is the one thing whose effect is being tested (the independent variable). A good example would be a drug trial. The sample or group receiving the drug would be the experimental group (treatment group); and the one receiving the placebo or an older treatment would be the control group.

Difference with observational study
An observational study is used when an experiment would be difficult, unethical, or expensive. Observational studies are not experiments. Experiments can control for other variables, and it allows the researchers to change something. Observational studies often do not have random samples, and they often have many variables.

 Famous experiments
 Galileo Galilei did some experiments about free fall (1623)
 Benjamin Franklin showed that lightning is a form of electricity (1752)
 The Michelson–Morley experiment proved a flaw in old physics, and prompted Einstein's work (1887)
 Ivan Pavlov did some experiments about the classical conditioning of dogs (1927)
 The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment proved DNA was the molecule which caused heredity (1944)
 Stanley Milgram showed that people follow orders; this became known as the Milgram experiment (1961)

 References

 Shadish, William R; Cook, Thomas D. & Campbell, Donald T. 2002. Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Related pages
Experimental physics
Experimental psychology

Experiment


John Charles Ryle (10 May 1816 – 10 June 1900) was an English evangelical Anglican bishop. He was the first Anglican bishop of Liverpool.

Life
He was the eldest son of John Ryle, private banker, of Park House, Macclesfield, M.P. for Macclesfield 1833–7, and Susanna, daughter of Charles Hurt of Wirksworth, Derbyshire. He was born at Macclesfield on 10 May 1816.

He was educated at Eton and the University of Oxford, where his career was unusually distinguished. He was Fell exhibitioner at Christ Church, from which foundation he matriculated on 15 May 1834. He was Craven scholar in 1836, graduated B.A. in 1838, having been placed in the first-class in literæ humaniores in the preceding year, and proceeded M.A. in 1871. He was created D.D. by diploma on 4 May 1880.

Ryle left the university with the intention of standing for parliament on the first opportunity, but was unable to do so because of his father's bankruptcy. He took holy orders (1841–42) and became curate at Exbury, Hampshire. In 1843, he was preferred to the rectory of St Thomas, Winchester, which he exchanged in the following year for that of Helmingham, Suffolk. The latter living he retained until 1861, when he resigned it for the vicarage of Stradbroke in the same county. The restoration of Stradbroke church was due to his initiative. In 1869, he was made rural dean of Hoxne, and in 1872 honorary canon of Norwich. He was select preacher at Cambridge in 1873 and the following year, and at Oxford from 1874 to 1876, and in 1879 and the following year. In 1880, he was designated dean of Salisbury, and at once, 19 April, advanced to the newly created see of Liverpool, which he ably administered until his death at Lowestoft on 10 June 1900. He is buried at All Saints Church, Childwall, Liverpool.

Family
He married three times but his first two wives died young. The first marriage was on 29 October 1845, to Matilda Charlotte Louisa, daughter of John Pemberton Plumptre, of Fredville, Kent. The second, in March 1850, was to Jessy, daughter of John Walker of Crawfordton, Dumfriesshire. The third, on 24 October 1861, was to Henrietta, daughter of Lieutenant-colonel William Legh Clowes of Broughton Old Hall, Lancashire. He had a daughter by his first wife, and four other children by his second wife Jessy. His second son, Herbert Edward Ryle also a clergyman, became successively Bishop of Exeter, Bishop of Winchester and Dean of Westminster.

Legacy

Ryle was a strong supporter of the evangelical school and a critic of ritualism. He was a writer, pastor and an evangelical preacher. Among his longer works are Christian Leaders of the Eighteenth Century (1869), Expository Thoughts on the Gospels (7 vols, 1856–69), and Principles for Churchmen (1884). Ryle was described as having a commanding presence and vigorous in advocating his principles albeit with a warm disposition. He was also credited with having success in evangelizing the blue collar community. He was a strong believer in the return of the Jews to their own land as being prophesied in the Bible and thus was part of the movement that led to the Balfour Declaration.

Published works

The Cross: A Call to the Fundamentals of Religion (1852)
Expository Thoughts on Matthew, (HTM, LibriVox audio)
Expository Thoughts on Mark, (HTM, LibriVox audio)
Expository Thoughts on Luke, (HTM), Vol. 1, Vol. 2, LibriVox audio: Vol. 1, Vol. 2
Expository Thoughts on John, (HTM) Vol. 1, Vol. 2, Vol. 3, LibriVox audio: Vol. 1, Vol. 2, Vol. 3
Coming Events And Present Duties, and Prophecy, (1867) Now published as Are You Ready for the End of Time?
Shall We Know One Another, (1870)
Knots Untied, (1877)
Holiness: Its Nature, Hindrances, Difficulties and Roots, (1877, enlarged 1879), (HTM)
Practical Religion: Being Plain Papers on the Daily Duties, Experience, Dangers, and Privileges of Professing Christians, (1878)
Higher Criticism: Some Thoughts on Modern Theories about the Old Testament (1880)
Simplicity in Preaching, (1882)
Upper Room: Being a Few Truths for the Times, (1887)
The Duties of Parents, (1888)
From Old Times: or Protestant Facts And Men], (1890) (partially reprinted as [https://archive.org/details/fiveenglishrefor00ryle/page/n1/mode/2up Five English Reformers)
 Bible Inspiration: Its Reality And Nature (1877)Christian Leaders of the Last Century (1873)Tracts and Other WorksIndependently published:

 Warnings to the Churches'' (1967)

References

Attribution

External links

Biography, Tracts, and Articles on or by JC Ryle .

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 .  A famous Christmas sermon relating  to the question of who is a Christian.
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 .

1816 births
1900 deaths
Sportspeople from Macclesfield
People educated at Eton College
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Anglican bishops of Liverpool
Critics of the Catholic Church
19th-century English Anglican priests
English evangelicals
Evangelical Anglican bishops
English cricketers
Oxford University cricketers
Deans of Salisbury
English cricketers of 1826 to 1863
People from Stradbroke

J. C. Ryle


Knightdale is a town in Wake County, North Carolina, United States. As of the 2020 census, Knightdale has a population of 19,435.  That's up from 11,401 in 2010. The U.S. Census Bureau estimates the town's population to be 17,843, as of July 1, 2019. Knightdale's population grew 10.4% from 2010 to 2013, making it the second fastest-growing community in the Research Triangle region for that time period.

Named for Henry Haywood Knight, a local Wake County landowner who donated land to found a railroad depot, the town was incorporated in 1927.  By the 1960s, the economic center of town migrated from the area around the rail depot to U.S. Highway 64, which ran north of downtown Knightdale.  Since 1990, the community has experienced a significant population boom, getting its own high school in 2004, and a new freeway bypass in 2006.  Since 2010, several new shopping centers have sprung up along Business U.S. 64 (Knightdale Boulevard), the main thoroughfare through town.  A large destination park, Knightdale Station Park, opened in 2013 just to the east of the old downtown area as part of a revitalization effort, the park was expanded in 2018 to add an amphitheater. Interstate 540 passes directly through the town before its eastern terminus at Interstate 87, while Interstate 87 (in concurrency with US 64) travels along a southern freeway bypass.

History

Early history
In 1700, the Lords Proprietor of the Carolina Colony hired John Lawson to explore the area.  He began his  trek near present-day Charleston, South Carolina, and according to his diary, passed through the area sometime in February 1701. He wrote about a meeting with the Tuscarora Native American tribe on the banks of the Neuse River, and with the help of an interpreter, Lawson made peace with the Tuscarora.

After receiving the report from Lawson, the King of England began to apportion these lands to willing settlers. In 1730, John Hinton settled in what would one day be called Knightdale in an area near the Neuse River, not far from where Hodge Road and Old Faison Road now intersect.

As more settlers arrived, the colonial government appointed Hinton to be the Justice of the Peace for Craven County. Eventually, Johnston County was carved out of Craven County in the 1750s and Wake County carved out of Johnston County in 1771.

When the American Revolution began, Hinton switched his allegiance to the colonials. He became a military leader and played a key role in the first battle of the American Revolution fought on North Carolina soil, the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge. Hinton owned seven plantations in the Knightdale area, of which three are still intact: The Oaks, Midway, and Beaver Dam.

19th century

After independence, the population of the area began to increase, with farmers growing products such as tobacco and cotton. Slaves were used at Midway Plantation and Beaver Dam Plantation in Knightdale. There are unmarked grave plots for slaves throughout Knightdale. Although documentation of grave sites has been lost, the burials remain a significant part of the local landscape.

During the Civil War, the Confederate and Union armies were present in the area. The Clay Hill and Midway plantations saw the greatest damage, and after the war had ended, the residents began to rebuild. During this time, nearby Raleigh experienced a population boom. As a result, local leaders redrew the map of Wake County and divided it into townships. The area that became Knightdale was located in St. Matthew's Township, where it still is today.

For many years the Knightdale area was a crossroads served only by a post office. By the end of the 19th century, locals decided there was a need to establish a town. Henry Haywood Knight donated some of his land holdings in the area to the Norfolk and Southern Railroad Company in order to entice the company to build a railroad that would provide freight and passenger service. Although Knight did not live to see the railroad arrive in Knightdale, not long after his death in 1904, the railroad finally came to the community that would bear his name.

20th century
After the railroad and depot were built, the area began to develop quickly. Norfolk and Southern moved families into the community to take care of the railroad, and many of the older homes that exist today in Knightdale were built specifically for the use of railroad workers and their families. The first railroad stationmaster's house can still be seen along the tracks on Railroad Street.

As the community continued to grow, Knightdale received its articles of official incorporation from the North Carolina Legislature on March 9, 1927, with the first mayor being Bennett L. Wall.

On February 7, 1940, a fire broke out in the center of town. The townspeople turned out to help extinguish the fire, but the fire was not brought under control until firefighters arrived from Raleigh with an adequate water supply. Several businesses and homes were destroyed and the townspeople rebuilt the historic downtown area.

After World War II, the population of Knightdale grew at a steady pace, thanks to the Baby Boom. The corner drugstore, the bank, and the barber shop located on First Avenue served as places of business, as well as places for social gatherings. Movies were often shown on the wall of the old bank building, which is located at the intersection of First Avenue and Main Street. In 1952 a municipal water system was installed.

Beginning in the 1960s the majority of new businesses in Knightdale began locating along US 64. With the addition of the Mingo Creek sewer outfall in the late 1980s, development on the south side of US 64 began. Subdivisions such as Parkside, Planter's Walk and Mingo Creek subdivisions were built, rapidly increasing the town's population. Between 1990 and 2000 Knightdale's population increased from 1,700 to more than 6,000 residents, making it the seventh fastest-growing town in North Carolina.

Frankie Muniz, a popular television and film actor, grew up in Knightdale.  He started his acting career performing the role of Tiny Tim in "A Christmas Carol" for three years. Nominations for his performances include the Hollywood Reporter Young Star Award and the Young Artist of Hollywood Award. He currently resides in Scottsdale, Arizona.

21st century
In 2002, Knightdale's first female mayor, Jeanne Milliken Bonds, was elected.

There are multiple historic sites in Knightdale that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places including:
Beaver Dam, Henry H. and Bettie S. Knight Farm, and Midway Plantation House and Outbuildings.

Law and government
Knightdale has a Council-manager government. Under this system the citizens elect a mayor and five council members as the town's governing body. The council then appoints the Town Manager who serves at the discretion of the council. Council members are elected to four-year terms. Three of the members are elected in one year, and the two remaining members and the mayor are elected two years later. The mayor, as the principal elected official of the town, provides leadership to the governing body and the community, and presides over board meetings.

The current mayor is Jessica Day, and current town council members include Ben McDonald, (Mayor Pro Tem), Mark Swan, Stephen Morgan, Latatious Morris, and Steve Evans.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , all  land.

Knightdale is located in the northeast central region of North Carolina, where the North American Piedmont and Atlantic Coastal Plain regions meet. This area is known as the "Fall Line" because it marks the elevation inland at which waterfalls begin to appear in creeks and rivers. Its central Piedmont location and access to large highways places Knightdale a little over two hours northwest of Wrightsville Beach, NC by car and four hours east of the Great Smoky Mountains.

Climate
Knightdale has a moderate subtropical climate, with moderate temperatures in the spring, fall, and winter. Summers are typically hot with high humidity. Winter highs generally range in the low 50s°F (10 to 13 °C) with lows in the low-to-mid 30s°F (-2 to 2 °C), although an occasional 60 °F (15 °C) or warmer winter day is not uncommon. Spring and fall days usually reach the low-to-mid 70s°F (low 20s°C), with lows at night in the lower 50s°F (10 to 14 °C). Summer daytime highs often reach the upper 80s to low 90s°F (29 to 35 °C). The rainiest months are July and August.

Demographics

2020 census

As of the 2020 United States census, there were 19,435 people, 6,110 households, and 4,114 families residing in the town.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 11,406 people and 3,754 households in the town. The median value of owner-occupied homes in Knightdale was $174,300. The Homeownership Rate was 71.7%.

Median income for a household was $75,285 in 2011; by comparison, Median income in North Carolina for the same time period was $46,291. Per capita income for the town was $27,938. For the period 2007-2011, about 5.9% of the population lived below the poverty line; by comparison, 16.1% of North Carolina residents lived below the poverty line.

Among adults age 25 and older, 41.2% had at a bachelor's degree or higher; 93% had earned at least a high school degree.

The population density was 1,837 people per square mile. There were 2,352 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 50% White, 38.3%  African American, 11.4% Hispanic or Latino, 1.7% Asian, 0.6% Native American, 0.01% Pacific Islander, and 3.5% from two or more races.

There were 3,754 households, out of which the Census counted 2,760 as family households;  45.9% of households had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.0% were married couples living together, 7.3% had a female householder with no husband present. The average household size was 2.89 and the average family size was 3.47.

Knightdale's median age was 31.6 years. Largest brackets by age include 35–44 years (20.6%); 25–34 years (18.2%); 45–54 years (12.2%); 10–14 years (11.7%). Females made up 54.6% of the population, while men made up 45.4%.

Education

Public education
Knightdale's public schools are administered by the Wake County Public School System, the 19th largest school district in the country. Students in Knightdale attend the following schools, some of which are located in neighboring communities:

Elementary schools

Beaverdam Elementary
Forestville Elementary
Hodge Road Elementary
Knightdale Elementary
Lake Myra Elementary
Lockhart Elementary

Middle schools

Carnage Middle School
Neuse River Middle School
Wendell Middle School

High schools

Knightdale High School
East Wake High School

Higher education
Knightdale has no post-secondary schools.  Nearby institutions, all located in nearby Raleigh, include North Carolina State University, Meredith College, Shaw University, Saint Augustine's College and Wake Technical Community College.  The Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary is in Wake Forest, and the Southeastern Free Will Baptist College is located in nearby Wendell.

Library
The Wake County Public Library System operates a branch facility, the East Regional Library, in Knightdale.

Parks and recreation

Knightdale is served by two parks and two community centers. The Eugene F. Harper Memorial Park is located downtown next to the Harper Park Community Center. The Knightdale Recreation Center is attached to Forestville Elementary's gym. The Knightdale Environmental Park is a trail system that is located in the southern portion of Knightdale.

Knightdale Station Park
Knightdale Station Park, adjacent to a large housing development also named Knightdale Station, occupies a large tract of land on the east side of town, across First Avenue from many of the older businesses in the original central business district of Knightdale.  The park was opened in three phases, in 2013, 2014, and 2018 and currently features walking trails, a dog park, a large playground, a splash pad, several soccer fields, a covered exhibition area that hosts a weekly farmer's market and several craft fairs, an amphitheater for performances, and several large open fields and forested areas.

Mingo Creek Greenway
The Mingo Creek Greenway was completed in July, 2014. The 3.5 mile, 10-foot wide trail connects Mingo Creek Park in the east to the 33-mile City of Raleigh's Neuse River Trail in the west. The two trails connect over a newly opened pedestrian bridge that spans the Neuse River.

Transportation

Air
Commercial air service for Knightdale is served by Raleigh-Durham International Airport (RDU), which is located approximately 27.9 miles from town in northwestern Wake County.
A small general aviation known as Raleigh East Airport lies at the eastern edge of Knightdale.

Rail

 Knightdale Amtrak's closest passenger train service is approximately 12.8 miles west of town in Raleigh.

Bus

The Triangle Transit Authority operates the Knightdale-Raleigh Express (KRX) which connects Knightdale commuters to municipal bus systems in Raleigh, Durham and Chapel Hill.

Roads

Major routes through and near Knightdale include:
 , , and  run concurrently along the Knightdale Bypass south and east of town. Knightdale can be accessed via the Hodge Road (Exit 6), Smithfield Road (Exit 9), Wendell Falls Boulevard (Exit 11), and US 64 Business (Exit 13) interchanges.
  runs along the west side of town. Knightdale can be accessed via the US 64 Business interchange (Exit 24).
 , known locally as Knightdale Boulevard, is a former alignment of US 64/US 264 and forms the main commercial district in town.  It connects Knightdale to Raleigh and Wendell.

Notable people
 Ronnie Ash, track and field Olympic athlete specializing in hurdles
 Burkheart Ellis, track and field sprinter, represented Barbados at the 2016 Summer Olympics
 Jesse Ferguson, heavyweight professional boxer
 Rachelle Friedman, blogger
 Joe Lewis, kickboxer, point karate fighter, and actor
 Jeanne Milliken Bonds, politician who served as Mayor of Knightdale
 Frankie Muniz, actor, best known for playing the title character in Malcolm in the Middle (lived in Knightdale)
 Stan Okoye, professional basketball player
 Barbara Pierre, track and field sprinter, represented Haiti at the 2008 Summer Olympics

References

External links
 Town of Knightdale official website
 Knightdale Chamber of Commerce
 Eastern Wake News, local newspaper
 The Grey Area News, local newspaper

Towns in Wake County, North Carolina
Towns in North Carolina
Populated places established in 1730
1730 establishments in North Carolina

Knightdale, North Carolina


Gastropods, or univalves, are the largest and most successful class of molluscs. 60,000–75,000 known living species belong to it. Most of are marine, but many live in freshwater or on land. Their fossil record goes back to the later Cambrian.

Slugs and snails, abalones, limpets, cowries, conches, top shells, whelks, and sea slugs are all gastropods.
The gastropods are in origin sea-floor predators, though they did evolve into many other habitats.

Many lines living today evolved in the Mesozoic era, taking advantage of the huge supply of food on the sea floor's continental shelves.

General description
Snails have torsion, a process where the body coils to one side during development. The significance of this procedure is not yet clear.

They have a well-defined head with two or four sensory tentacles. They also have a head-foot, which it moves on. The eyes at the tip of the tentacles range from simple to more complex eyes.

Most members have a shell, which is in one piece and coiled or spiralled; it usually opens on the right hand side (viewed with the shell apex pointing up). Some species have an operculum, a lid or trapdoor to close the shell. In some, the slugs, the shell is absent, and the body is streamlined. The best-known gastropods are land slugs and snails, but more than half of all species live in a marine environment. Marine gastropods include herbivores, detritus feeders, carnivores and a few ciliary feeders, in which the radula is reduced or absent. The radula is usually adapted to the food that a species eats.

The simplest gastropods are the limpets and abalones, both herbivores that use their hard radulas to rasp at seaweeds on rocks. Many marine gastropods are burrowers and have siphons or tubes that extend from the mantle and sometimes the shell. These act as snorkels, enabling the animal to continue to draw in a water current containing oxygen and food into their bodies. The siphons are also used to detect prey from a distance. These gastropods breathe with gills. Some freshwater species and almost all terrestric species have developed lungs.

Gastropods from several different families are called sea slugs. They are often flamboyantly coloured. This may be either as a warning if they are poisonous or to camouflage them on the corals and seaweeds where many of them live. Their gills are often feathery plumes on their backs. This is what gives the name to the nudibranchs. Nudibranchs with smooth or warty backs have no visible gill mechanisms and respiration may take place directly through the skin. A few of the sea slugs are herbivores and some are carnivores. Many have distinct dietary preferences and regularly occur in association with certain species.

Classification
The taxonomy of the Gastropoda is under constant revision: two major revisions have been published in the last twenty years. There will certainly be other revisions using the data from DNA sequencing. At present, the taxonomy of the Gastropoda may differ from author to author.

According to modern cladism, the taxonomy of the Gastropoda should be written in terms of strictly monophyletic groups. That means only one lineage of gastropods in each group. It will be difficult to do this, and still have a practical taxonomy for working biologists. Classifying animals in practice means using morphology (what they look like). But there are differences between the older groupings got from morphology, and those based on genome sequences. Convergent evolution, which has occurred often in gastropods, may account for this.

This was the traditional classification into four subclasses:
 Prosobranchia: (gills in front of the heart).
 Opisthobranchia: (gills to the right and behind the heart).
 Gymnomorpha: (no shell)
 Pulmonata: (with lungs instead of gills)

Geological history

The first gastropods were exclusively marine. The first of the group appeared in the Upper Cambrian (Chippewaella, Strepsodiscus). By the Ordovician period the gastropods were a varied group present in a few aquatic habitats. Commonly, fossil gastropods from the rocks of the early Palaeozoic era are too poorly preserved for accurate identification. Still, the Silurian genus Poleumita contains fifteen identified species. Fossil gastropods are less common during the Palaeozoic era than bivalves.

Most of the gastropods of that era belong to primitive groups. A few of these groups still survive today. By the Carboniferous period many of the shapes seen in living gastropods can be matched in the fossil record. Despite these similarities in appearance, the majority of these older forms are not directly related to living forms. It was during the Mesozoic era that the ancestors of many of the living gastropods evolved. One of the earliest known terrestrial (land-dwelling) gastropods is Maturipupa which is found in the Coal measures of the Carboniferous period in Europe. In the case of the common fossil Bellerophon, from Carboniferous limestones in Europe, it is not known whether it is a gastropod or not.

Relatives of the modern land snails are rare before the Cretaceous period. The familiar Helix first appeared in that period.

In rocks of the Mesozoic era gastropods are more common as fossils and their shell is often well preserved. Their fossils occur in beds of both freshwater and marine environments. The Purbeck Marble of the Jurassic period and the Sussex Marble of the early Cretaceous, which both occur in southern England, are limestones containing the tightly packed remains of the pond snail Viviparus.

Rocks of the Cainozoic era have very large numbers of gastropod fossils in them. Many of these fossils are closely related to modern living forms. The diversity of the gastropods increased markedly at the beginning of this era, along with that of the bivalves.

Gastropods are one of the groups that record the changes in fauna caused by the advance and retreat of the ice sheets during the Pleistocene epoch.

Gastropod pages
These pages show the variety of gastropod forms:
abalone;
conch;
cowry;
limpet;
nudibranch;
sea slug;
slug;
snail;
whelk.

References

Other websites

Conchology.be consult over 2,100,000 figured gastropods and other shells
Taxonomy
Gastropod Classification compiled by Paul Jeffery
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature 4th edition, 2000
Gastropods in captivity
Reconstructions of fossil gastropods at www.emilydamstra.com

Gastropoda


A role (sometimes spelled rôle) or a social role can be described as an expected behaviour of an individual.

More precisely one could say it is a set of connected behaviours, rights and duties that a person has to follow in a social situation. It depends on social status.

Role confusion is a situation where an individual has trouble to decide which role he/she should play. For example, one could be a student who would attend a meeting of a particular recreational interest and find her teacher there. They would be in conflict between behaving as a student and as an enthusiast who shares the same interest as the teacher.

Sociology

Role


Alex Tchuimeni-Nimely (born 11 May 1991) is a Liberian former professional footballer who played as a forward. He is the elder brother of Liberia international Sylvanus Nimely.

A former England under-20 international, he accepted a call-up to play for Liberia in October 2016. He began his career with Mighty Barrolle (Liberia) and Coton de Garoua (Cameroon) before joining Manchester City in 2008. He spent six years at the club but only played one Premier League game, and instead spent time on loan at Middlesbrough, Coventry City, and Crystal Palace. He signed with Port Vale for a short and unhappy spell in November 2014. After a year away from the game, he signed with Romanian club Poli Timișoara in February 2016. He moved on to Viitorul Constanța in July 2016, before signing with Norwegian side Stabæk in April 2017. He moved to Finland in February 2018 to play for Honka. He returned to England to sign for Kettering Town in August 2019.

Club career

Manchester City
Born in Monrovia, Liberia, Nimely began his career at Liberian Premier League side Mighty Barrolle, who won the league title in 2006. He moved on to Cameroonian side Coton de Garoua, who won the Elite One title in 2006, 2007 and 2007–08 seasons.

He went on trial with Manchester City in December 2007 before going on to sign a four-year deal with the club in January 2008. He helped City win the FA Youth Cup in 2008. He made his Premier League debut during a 6–1 win over Burnley at Turf Moor on 3 April 2010. He signed a new four-year contract with the club the following month. He featured in a 1–1 draw with Juventus at the Stadio Olimpico Grande Torino on 16 December 2010 that ensured City won their UEFA Europa League group; he was taken off for Pablo Zabaleta on 61 minutes.

On 17 September 2011, he signed a three-month loan deal with Championship side Middlesbrough. His first appearance came in the League Cup three days later as "Boro" were beaten 2–1 by Crystal Palace at Selhurst Park. He went on to make nine league appearances at the club, though did not start another game. On 12 January 2012, he signed a loan deal with Coventry City until the end of the 2011–12 season after manager Andy Thorn described him as a "hot young prospect". He scored his first goal in the English Football League on his "Sky Blues" debut in a 3–1 victory over former club Middlesbrough at the Ricoh Arena.

On 10 January 2013, he signed on loan with Crystal Palace until the end of the 2012–13 season, with manager Ian Holloway stating that "I've admired him for a couple of years". He made his debut two days later, coming on as a substitute in a 1–0 defeat at Burnley. He played only one further game for the club before returning to the City of Manchester Stadium.

Port Vale
Nimely signed a contract with League One side Port Vale in November 2014 to keep him at Vale Park until the end of the 2014–15 season. He began training with Bolton Wanderers in January 2015. The next month he was disciplined by "Valiants" manager Rob Page after staying away from Vale Park without permission. In March, he again missed training without permission. Whilst still missing from training he offered to play for Coventry City for free but his offer was rejected by manager Tony Mowbray, who said the player did not perform well during his time at Middlesbrough when Mowbray was manager there. He was released in May 2015.

Romania
Nimely signed with Romanian Liga I club Poli Timișoara in February 2016. He scored three goals in ten games in the 2015–16 season. He signed with Viitorul Constanța in July 2016. He scored six goals in 21 matches in the 2016–17 season under the stewardship of manager Gheorghe Hagi.

Stabæk
Nimely signed a two-year contract with Norwegian Eliteserien club Stabæk on 1 April 2017 after the club purchased him for an undisclosed fee. However the form of Ohi Omoijuanfo kept Nimley on the bench, and limited him to just two goals from one league start and 12 league substitute appearances. Nimely subsequently requested the termination of his contract so that he could find regular football elsewhere, and the club agreed to release him just ten weeks after he arrived in Bærum.

FC Honka
After going on trial with Azerbaijan Premier League club Kapaz PFK, Nimely signed for Veikkausliiga club FC Honka on 7 February 2018. He made 25 appearances in the 2018 season, helping Honka to a fifth-place finish.

Kettering Town
Nimely returned to England and joined National League North side Kettering Town in August 2019.

International career
In May 2010, Nimely rejected a call-up from Liberia for 2010 World Cup qualifiers and declared to the press that he had chosen to play for England, as his father is English. He was called up to the under-20 squad for the 2009 U-20 World Cup in Egypt. He scored a goal in a 1–1 draw with Uzbekistan at the Mubarak International Stadium on 2 October. This was the only goal England scored in the tournament, and they were eliminated at the Group Stage. He received his first call up to the under-21 side in November 2011 but was forced to withdraw from the squad due to injury.

He accepted a call-up for Liberia in October 2016, and was an unused substitute in a friendly match against Kenya on 15 November 2016.

Personal life
Nimely was fined £600 and banned from driving for 18 months after admitting to driving with excess alcohol in January 2014; he had been charged after crashing his car in Manchester. He has a younger brother, Sylvanus, who plays in Liberia and has been capped for the senior Liberia squad.

Career statistics

References

External links

1991 births
Living people
Footballers from Monrovia
Liberian men's footballers
English men's footballers
England men's youth international footballers
English people of Liberian descent
Liberian people of English descent
Liberian expatriate sportspeople in England
Liberian expatriate men's footballers
English expatriate men's footballers
Black British sportsmen
Men's association football forwards
Expatriate men's footballers in Cameroon
Expatriate men's footballers in Romania
Expatriate men's footballers in Norway
Expatriate men's footballers in Finland
Mighty Barrolle players
Coton Sport FC de Garoua players
Manchester City F.C. players
Middlesbrough F.C. players
Coventry City F.C. players
Crystal Palace F.C. players
Port Vale F.C. players
ACS Poli Timișoara players
FC Viitorul Constanța players
FC Honka players
Kettering Town F.C. players
Stabæk Fotball players
Premier League players
English Football League players
Liga I players
Eliteserien players
Veikkausliiga players
National League (English football) players

Alex Nimely


Louis-Désiré Véron (1798 in Paris – September 27, 1867 in Paris) was a French opera manager and publisher.

Biography
Véron originally made his fortune from patent medicines. In 1829 he founded the literary magazine Revue de Paris, and from 1838 to 1852 was owner and director of Le Constitutionnel, in which he published Eugene Sue's novel based on the legend of the Wandering Jew. It was also during Véron's direction and at his suggestion that Sainte-Beuve contributed the Causeries du lundi, an early example of the regular newspaper column.

He is largely known to history for his direction, from 1831-1835, of the Paris Opera. The new government, after the July Revolution of 1830, wished to offload the costs and responsibilities of the Opera, which had been effectively state-controlled since its inception.  Véron saw the great potential of adapting the Opera to the bourgeois tastes of new audiences and applied for the franchise, which brought with it limited State subsidy. By bringing together the talents of designers (such as Duponchel), composers (such as Meyerbeer, Auber and Fromental Halévy), and librettists (such as Eugène Scribe and Casimir Delavigne), and developing great singers such as Adolphe Nourrit and Cornélie Falcon, he created the genre of Grand Opera. The first new production under Véron's management, Meyerbeer's Robert le diable (21 November 1831) began a new era in opera. When the government decided to further reduce subsidy of the Opera in 1835, Véron prudently withdrew, having made a substantial profit.

In 1852 Véron was elected to the Corps Législatif (the predecessor of the Chamber of Deputies). His Memoires d'un bourgeois de Paris (1853–1855) give a lively picture of his life and times.

Véron was eccentric in his appearance and behaviour. A contemporary, Philarete Chasles, describes him as follows:
Ruddy, with a pock-marked face, barely any nose, scrofulous, his neck enfolded in cloth that protected and hid his affliction, pot-bellied; [...] mouth smiling, lips thick, hair rare, eyebrows absent, dressed like a little lackey aping his master and with the affectations and the mincing airs of the salon (quoted in Kelly, 2004 – see below).

Notes

References
W. L. Crosten, 'French Grand Opera: an Art and a Business', New York, 1948
T. F. Kelly, 'First Nights at the Opera', New Haven, 2004

Bibliography
 Véron, Louis Désiré.  Mémoires d'un Bourgeois de Paris, 5 Vol. in French (, ISBN ?, , , )
 Véron, Louis Désiré.  L'Opéra de Paris. ()

External links

1798 births
1867 deaths
Writers from Paris
Politicians from Paris
Members of the 1st Corps législatif of the Second French Empire
Members of the 2nd Corps législatif of the Second French Empire
Opera managers
Directors of the Paris Opera
French magazine founders
French male non-fiction writers
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
19th-century French memoirists

Louis-Désiré Véron


The Chinese trumpetfish, Aulostomus chinensis, is a demersal marine fish belonging to the family Aulostomidae.

Description
Aulostomus chinensis is a medium-sized fish which grows up to 80 cm in length. Its body is elongated and compressed laterally, with a long, tubular snout which has a small barbel at its inferior extremity. The protrusible mouth can be extended forward to catch prey. On the top posterior part of the body, the dorsal fin is composed of two parts, the first anterior is a set of isolated spines and the second is a small ray fin. This latter fin is similar in shape to the anal fin which is just under. The pelvic fins are located in the middle of the body and are small, with one basal black spot.

The body coloration can be uniform or mottled in a range of grey, brown, or dark green. Some fish are uniformly bright yellow. The rear part of the body is normally black with white dots. Two black spots are present on the tail. The compound set of the long caudal peduncle and the caudal fin is yellowish, whatever the fish coloration. Caudal fin usually has two round black spots, at least one black spot occurs on the top and sometimes a second spot on the low part.

Distribution and habitat
This species is found in tropical and subtropical waters from the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, but not in the Red Sea.
It lives in clear and calm waters in rocky and coral reefs from the surface to 120 m deep.

Behaviour
The Chinese trumpetfish  is diurnal and solitary. It is a clever stealth hunter with two techniques to catch its prey. The first is the ambush, consisting of lying in wait for a potential prey close to hard coral, black coral bush, or gorgonian.  The second is the discrete tracking, where the trumpetfish stays close to some big fishes (groupers, carangids) or even hawksbill sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) until it has the opportunity to approach unsuspecting prey. The Chinese trumpetfish feeds on small fishes and crustaceans.

References

Marine Species

External links

Chinese trumpetfish
Fish of China
Chinese trumpetfish
Chinese trumpetfish

Chinese trumpetfish


The isle of Gatighan was a way station of the Armada de Molucca under Captain-General Ferdinand Magellan on their way to Cebu in Central Philippines. The location of Gatighan has not been conclusively determined.

Etymology
The word Gatighan comes from the Visayan katigan meaning a boat with outrigger or, as verb, to outfit a boat with outrigger.

Documentation in Armada de Molucca's logbook
The logbook states that the fleet left the west port of Mazaua early morning of Thursday, April 4, 1521. According to Pigafetta, they took a northwest track, however Albo claims they took at northern track. The ships sailed  to reach Gatighan at 10° N in 11–13 hours.

During the brief stop on the island, Pigafetta documented the island's fauna: "In this island of Gatighan are a kind of birds called Barbastigly (flying fox), who are as large as eagles. Of which we killed a single one, because it was late, which we ate, and it had the taste of a fowl. There are also in that island pigeons, doves, turtledoves, parrots, and certain black birds as large as a fowl, with a long tail. They lay eggs as large as those of a goose, which they bury a good cubit deep under the sand in the sun, and so they are hatched by the great heat made by the warm sand. And when those birds are hatched they emerge. And those eggs are good to eat."

On Pigafetta's map, Gatighan is the only island mass that straddles between two huge islands, Bohol and Ceylon/Seilani (Panaon Island, the south most end of Leyte). It is almost exactly at the 10° N latitude, reference point of Albo for Gatighan.

Attempts to locate the island
Despite many attempts to determine which island was referred to as Gatighan, opinions still vary on the issue. Theories include:
 F.H.H. Guillemard stated in 1890 that it is perhaps Jimuquitan or Apit Island". R.A. Skelton, Andrea da Mosto, Jean Denuce, Leonce Peillard and Theodore J. Cachey Jr. (who spelled the name "Himuguetan" support this theory.
 Samuel Eliot Morison states that Gatighan is one of the Camotes Islands. However, these islands are too small to sustain the varied fauna described in the logbook.

Amoretti switches Gatighan with Mazaua

Carlo Amoretti, the Augustinian encyclopedist, was director of a library in Milan. In 1797 he discovered the lost handwritten Ambrosiana manuscript of Pigafetta, one of four remaining manuscripts and the only one in Italian (the rest being French). Amoretti transcribed it and published his edition, complete with notes, in 1800. In one of his notes he said Pigafetta's Mazaua may be Bellin's Limasawa, unaware that Limasawa/Dimasawa was in fact a complete negation of what Amoretti is asserting.

Amoretti states that Limasawa and Mazaua are in the same latitude. It has been since determined that Limasawa is in 9° 56' N, whereas three different latitudes (Pigafetta's 9° 40' N, Albo's 9° 20' N, and the Genoese Pilot's 9° N) have been claimed for the location of Mazaua.

See also
Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas
First mass in the Philippines
Francisco Combés
Ginés de Mafra
Mazaua

Sources

Albo, Francisco. 1522. Log-Book of Francisco Alvo or Alvaro. In: The First Voyage Round the World. Lord Stanley of Alderley (ed. and trans.). Ser. I, Vol. II, London 1874, pp. 211–236.

Brand, Donald D. 1967. "Geographical explorations by the Spaniards." In: The Pacific Basin, A History of Its Geographical Explorations. Herman R. Friis (ed.). New York. pp. 109–144, 362-375.

Colín, Francisco. 1663. Labor evangelica de los obreros de la Compañia de Jesús, fundacióon y progresos de Islas Filipinas. Pablo Pastells (ed.), 3 vols. Barcelona 1900.

Combés, Francisco. 1667. Historia de las islas de Mindanao, Iolo y sus adyacentes. W.E. Retana (ed.) Madrid 1897.

de Jesus, Vicente C. (2002). Mazaua Historiography. Retrieved February 27, 2007, from MagellansPortMazaua mailing list: --

Denuce, Jean. 1911. La Question des Moluques et la Premiìre Circumnavigation du Globe. Brussels.

Genoese Pilot. 1519. Navegaçam e vyagem que fez Fernando de Magalhães de Seuilha pera Maluco no anno de 1519 annos. In: Collecção de noticias para a historia e geografia das nações ultramarinas, que vivem nos dominios Portuguezes, ou lhes sao visinhas. Lisboa 1826. pp. 151–176.

Guillemard, Francis Henry Hill. 1890. The Life of Ferdinand Magellan and the First Circumnavigation of the Globe: 1480-1521. New York.

Herrera, Antonio de. 1601. Historia general de los hechos de los Castellanos en las islas y tierrafirme del mar oceano, t. VI. Angel Gonzalez Palencia (ed.). Madrid 1947.

Morison, Samuel Eliot. 1974. The European Discovery of America: The Southern Voyages 1492-1616. New York.

Murillo, Pedro Velarde. 1752. Geografia historica de las islas Philippinas...t. VIII. Madrid.

Pigafetta, Antonio. 1524. Various editions and translations:

--1524a. Magellan's Voyage, Vol. II. R.A. Skelton (ed. and trans.) Nancy-Libri-Phillipps-Beinecke-Yale codex. New Haven 1969.

--1524b. Primo viaggio intorno al globo terracqueo, ossia ragguaglio della navigazione...fatta dal cavaliere Antonio Pigafetta...ora publicato per la prima volta, tratto da un codice MS. Della biblioteca Ambrosiana di Milano e corredato di note da Carlo Amoretti. Milan 1800.

--1524c. Il primo viaggio intorno al globo di Antonio Pigafetta. In: Raccolta di Documenti e Studi Publicati dalla. Commissione Colombiana. Andrea da Mosto (ed. and tr.). Rome 1894.

--1524d. Le premier tour du monde de Magellan. Léonce Peillard (ed. and transcription) Manuscript 5,650. France 1991.

--1524e. Magellan's Voyage, 3 vols. James Alexander Robertson (ed. and tr.) Ambrosiana Codex. Cleveland 1906.

--1524f. The First Voyage Round the World by Magellan. Lord Stanley of Alderley (ed. & tr.) Manuscript 5,650 collated with Ambrosiana and Nancy-Yale codices. London 1874.

--1524g. The First Voyage Around the World (1519-1522). Theodore J. Cachey Jr. (ed. Based on English text of J.A. Robertson) New York 1995.

--1524h. Pigafetta: Relation du premier voyage autour du monde...Edition du texte français d'après les manuscripts de Paris et de Cheltenham. Jean Denucé (ed. and transcription of Manuscript 5,650 collated with Mss. Ambrosiana, Nancy-Yale and 24,224) Anvers 1923.

--1524i. The First Voyage Round the World by Magellan. Lord Stanley of Alderley (ed. and tr. of Ms. fr. 5,650 collated with Ambrosiana Ms). London 1874, pp. 35–163.

Ramusio, Gian Battista. 1550. La Detta navigatione per messer Antonio Pigafetta Vecentino. In: Delle navigationi e viaggi... Venice: pp. 380–98.

History of the Philippines (1565–1898)
Magellan expedition

Gatighan


सरडे (इंग्लिश: Lizard , लिझर्ड;) हा सुमारे ३८०० प्रजाती असलेला खवले असलेल्या सरिसृपांचा एक मोठा गट आहे. अंटार्क्टिका व काही द्वीपसमूह वगळता पॄथ्वीवर अन्य सर्व खंडांमध्ये विविध प्रजातींचे सरडे आढळतात. प्राणिशास्त्रीय दृष्ट्या सरड्यांना लॅसर्टिलिया गोत्र मानले जाते. या गोत्रात साप वगळता लेपिडोसॉरिया प्रगोत्राचे सर्व प्राणी समाविष्ट होतात. सरडा विविध रंगांमध्ये आढळतो.

Lizards are a widespread group of squamate reptiles, with approximately 6,000 species,[1] ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most oceanic island chains. The group, traditionally recognized as the suborder Lacertilia, is defined as all extant members of the Lepidosauria (reptiles with overlapping scales) that are neither sphenodonts (i.e., tuatara) nor snakes – they form an evolutionary grade.[2] While the snakes are recognized as falling phylogenetically within the Toxicofera clade from which they evolved, the sphenodonts are the sister group to the squamates, the larger monophyletic group, which includes both the lizards and the snakes.
Lizards typically have feet and external ears, while snakes lack both of these characteristics. However, because they are defined negatively as excluding snakes, lizards have no unique distinguishing characteristic as a group. Lizards and snakes share a movable quadrate bone, distinguishing them from the sphenodonts, which have more primitive and solid diapsid skulls. Many lizards can detach their tails to escape from predators, an act called autotomy. Vision, including color vision, is particularly well developed in most lizards, and most communicate with body language or bright colors on their bodies, as well as with pheromones. Lizards are the most speciose among extant reptiles, comprising about 60% of all living species.
The adult length of species within the suborder ranges from a few centimeters for chameleons such as Brookesia micra and geckos such as Sphaerodactylus ariasae to nearly 3 m (9.8 ft) in the case of the largest living varanid lizard, the Komodo dragon. Some extinct varanids reached great size. The extinct aquatic mosasaurs reached 17 m (56 ft), and the giant monitor Megalania is estimated to have reached perhaps 7 m (23 ft).
The name Sauria was coined by James Macartney (1802); it was the Latinisation of the French name Sauriens, coined by Alexandre Brongniart (1800) for an order of reptiles in the classification proposed by the author, containing lizards and crocodilians, later discovered not to be each other's closest relatives. Later authors used the term "Sauria" in a more restricted sense, i.e. as a synonym of Lacertilia, a suborder of Squamata that includes all lizards but excludes snakes. This classification is rarely used today because Sauria so-defined is a paraphyletic group. It was defined as a clade by Jacques Gauthier, Arnold G. Kluge and Timothy Rowe (1988) as the group containing the most recent common ancestor of archosaurs and lepidosaurs (the groups containing crocodiles and lizards, as per Mcartney's original definition) and all its descendants. A different definition was formulated by Michael deBraga and Olivier Rieppel (1997) who defined Sauria as the clade containing the most recent common ancestor of Choristodera, Archosauromorpha and Lepidosauromorpha and all their descendants. However, neither of these uses have not gained wide acceptance among researchers specializing in lizards.

संदर्भ

बाह्य दुवे

सरपटणारे प्राणी

सरडा


Three Kingdoms is the name of a historical period in Ancient China. This period lasted from about 180 or 220, to about 280. During this period, China was split between the kingdoms of Wei, Shu Han and Wu. After the fall of the Han dynasty, there were three important successors. However, none of the three was strong enough to win against the two others. During the Han dynasty, China had an emperor. After the end of the Han dynasty, three kingdoms were left. Chinese historians were unable to decide if there was a legitimate sucessor to the last Han emperor.
The last Han emperor Xian left power in 220, and handed it to Xao Pi. Jin Wudi was able to unite China again in 280. Between the two years was the period of the three kingdoms.

In the year 189, the central government lost most of  its power. For this point on, it was unable to do much. For this reason, many people think that the time of the Three Kingdoms already started in 189.

History of China

Three Kingdoms


Fashion design is the art and profession of designing clothes, costume and related items like hats, purses, bags and shoes.

Fashion designers attempt to design clothes which are functional as well as attractive. They consider who is likely to wear a garment and the situations in which it will be worn. They have a range of materials to work with and a wide range of colors, patterns and styles to choose from.

Some clothes are made specifically for an individual, as in the case of haute couture or bespoke tailoring. Today, most clothing is designed for the mass market, especially casual and every-day wear.

History
Fashion design started in the 19th century with Charles Frederick Worth, who was the first designer to have his label sewn into the garments he created. Worth's success was such that he was able to dictate to his customers what they should wear, instead of following their lead as earlier dressmakers had done. The term couturier was in fact first created in order to describe him. While all articles of clothing from any time period are studied by academics as costume design, only clothing created after 1858 is considered fashion design.

During this period many design houses began to hire artists to sketch or paint designs for garments. The images were shown to clients, which was much cheaper than producing an actual sample garment in the workroom. If the client liked their design, they ordered it and the resulting garment made money for the house. Thus, the tradition of designers sketching out garment designs began as an economy.

Types of fashion
The garments produced by clothing manufacturers fall into three main categories, although these may be split up into additional, more specific categories

Haute couture

Until the 1950s, fashion clothing was predominately designed and manufactured on a made-to-measure or haute couture basis. Each garment was made for a specific client. A couture garment is made to order for an individual customer, and is usually made from high-quality, expensive fabric, sewn with extreme attention to detail and finish, often using time-consuming, hand-executed techniques. Look and fit take priority over the cost of materials and the time it takes to make. Due to the high cost of each garment, haute couture makes little direct profit for the fashion houses, but is important for prestige and publicity.

Ready-to-wear (pret-a-porter)
Ready-to-wear clothes have elements of haute couture and mass market. They are not made for individual customers, but great care is taken in the choice and cut of the fabric. Clothes are made in small quantities to guarantee exclusivity, so they are rather expensive. Ready-to-wear collections are usually presented by fashion houses each season during a period known as Fashion Week. This takes place on a city-wide basis and occurs twice a year. The main seasons of Fashion Week include, spring/summer, fall/winter, resort, swim, and bridal.

Mass market
Currently the fashion industry relies more on mass market sales. The mass market caters for a wide range of customers, producing ready-to-wear garments using trends set by the famous names in fashion. They often wait around a season to make sure a style is going to catch on before producing their own versions of the original look. In order to save money and time, they use cheaper fabrics and simpler production techniques which can easily be done by machine. The end product can therefore be sold much more cheaply.

References

Fashion
Design

Fashion design


Guillaume de Nangis (died 1300), also known as William of Nangis, was a French chronicler.

William was a monk in the Abbey of St.-Denis to the north of Paris. About 1285 he was placed in charge of the abbey library as custos cartarum, and he died in June or July 1300. Having doubtless done some work on the Latin manuscripts on which the Grandes Chroniques de France are based, William wrote a long Chronicon, dealing with the history of the world from the creation until 1300. For the period before 1113 this work  merely repeats that of Sigebert of Gembloux and others; but after this date it contains some new and valuable material. The chronicle had later continuations by other authors, though the so-called "second continuation",  by  Jean de Venette, which takes events up to 1368, was not a continuation of the Chronicon but rather an independent chronicle that happened to be bound into the same manuscript as the Nangis chronicle.

William's other writings are: Gesta Ludovici IX; Gesta Philippi  III, sive Audacis; Chronicon abbreviatum regum Francorum; and a French translation of the same work written for the laity. Making use of the large store of manuscripts at Saint Denis, William was a compiler rather than an author, and with the exception of the latter part of the Chronicon his writings do not add materially to our knowledge of the time. In his Gesta Ludovici IX he included a letter from Sempad the Constable to Henry I of Cyprus. Among his major sources for the reign of Louis IX was the lost Latin chronicle of Primat of Saint-Denis.

Both his chronicles, however, became very popular and found several continuators, Jean de Joinville being among those who made use of the Chronicon. This work from 1113 to 1300, with continuations to 1368, has been edited by H. Géraud for the Société de l'histoire de France (Paris, 1843), and practically all William's writings are found in the twentieth volume of Martin Bouquet's Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France (Paris, 1738–1876). A French translation of the Chronicon is in Guizot's Collection des mémoires relatifs à l'histoire de France (Paris, 1823–1835).

Notes

References
August Potthast, Bibliotheca historica (Berlin, 1896).
Auguste Molinier, Les sources de l'histoire de France, tome III (Paris, 1903).
Gabrielle M. Spiegel, The chronicle tradition of Saint-Denis (Brookline and Leiden, 1978), pp. 98–108.

External links
 Guillaume de Nangis (ed. H. Géraud, 1843), Chronicon , volume 1 (including the Chronicon, an introduction in French, and part of a continuation up to 1368) and 2 (including the rest of the continuation)
 Guillaume de Nangis, Chronique, online Guizot's 1825 edition published by J.L.J. Brière, on Gallica Or: contemporary electronic edition after Guizot's, on Wikisource
 Online volume 20 of Martin Bouquet's Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France on Gallica

French chroniclers
13th-century French historians
French Benedictines
1300 deaths
Philip IV of France
Year of birth unknown

Guillaume de Nangis


An air gap, air wall or air gapping is a network security measure employed on one or more computers to ensure that a secure computer network is physically isolated from unsecured networks, such as the public Internet or an unsecured local area network. Air gapped computers are commonly used in classified settings where network usage must be limited or cut off completely. In an air gapped setting a flash drive is used to transfer needed external data.

Computer networking

Air gap (networking)


Barikut ini adalah daptar kuta di Minnesota:

:

A
 Ada
 Adams
 Adrian
 Afton
 Aitkin
 Akeley
 Albany
 Alberta
 Albert Lea
 Albertville
 Alden
 Aldrich
 Alexandria
 Alpha
 Altura
 Alvarado
 Amboy
 Andover
 Annandale
 Anoka
 Appleton
 Apple Valley
 Arco
 Arden Hills
 Argyle
 Arlington
 Ashby
 Askov
 Atwater
 Audubon
 Aurora
 Austin
 Avoca
 Avon

B
 Babbitt
 Backus
 Badger
 Bagley
 Balaton
 Barnesville
 Barnum
 Barrett
 Barry
 Battle Lake
 Baudette
 Baxter
 Bayport
 Beardsley
 Beaver Bay
 Beaver Creek
 Becker
 Bejou
 Belgrade
 Bellechester
 Belle Plaine
 Bellingham
 Beltrami
 Belview
 Bemidji
 Bena
 Benson
 Bertha
 Bethel
 Bigelow
 Big Falls
 Bigfork
 Big Lake
 Bingham Lake
 Birchwood Village
 Bird Island
 Biscay
 Biwabik
 Blackduck
 Blaine
 Blomkest
 Blooming Prairie
 Bloomington
 Blue Earth
 Bluffton
 Bock
 Borup
 Bovey
 Bowlus
 Boyd
 Boy River
 Braham
 Brainerd
 Brandon
 Breckenridge
 Breezy Point
 Brewster
 Bricelyn
 Brooklyn Center
 Brooklyn Park
 Brook Park
 Brooks
 Brookston
 Brooten
 Browerville
 Brownsdale
 Browns Valley
 Brownsville
 Brownton
 Bruno
 Buckman
 Buffalo
 Buffalo Lake
 Buhl
 Burnsville
 Burtrum
 Butterfield
 Byron

C
 Caledonia
 Callaway
 Calumet
 Cambridge
 Campbell
 Canby
 Cannon Falls
 Canton
 Carlos
 Carlton
 Carver
 Cass Lake
 Cedar Mills
 Center City
 Centerville
 Ceylon
 Champlin
 Chandler
 Chanhassen
 Chaska
 Chatfield
 Chickamaw Beach
 Chisago City
 Chisholm
 Chokio
 Circle Pines
 Clara City
 Claremont
 Clarissa
 Clarkfield
 Clarks Grove
 Clearbrook
 Clear Lake
 Clearwater
 Clements
 Cleveland
 Climax
 Clinton
 Clitherall
 Clontarf
 Cloquet
 Coates
 Cobden
 Cohasset
 Cokato
 Cold Spring
 Coleraine
 Cologne
 Columbia Heights
 Columbus
 Comfrey
 Comstock
 Conger
 Cook
 Coon Rapids
 Corcoran
 Correll
 Cosmos
 Cottage Grove
 Cottonwood
 Courtland
 Cromwell
 Crookston
 Crosby
 Crosslake
 Crystal
 Currie
 Cuyuna
 Cyrus

D
 Dakota
 Dalton
 Danube
 Danvers
 Darfur
 Darwin
 Dassel
 Dawson
 Dayton
 Deephaven
 Deer Creek
 Deer River
 Deerwood
 De Graff
 Delano
 Delavan
 Delft
 Delhi
 Dellwood
 Denham
 Dennison
 Dent
 Detroit Lakes
 Dexter
 Dilworth
 Dodge Center
 Donaldson
 Donnelly
 Doran
 Dover
 Dovray
 Duluth
 Dumont
 Dundas
 Dundee
 Dunnell

E
 Eagan
 Eagle Bend
 Eagle Lake
 East Bethel
 East Grand Forks
 East Gull Lake
 East Pointe
 Easton
 Echo
 Eden Prairie
 Eden Valley
 Edgerton
 Edina
 Effie
 Eitzen
 Elba
 Elbow Lake
 Elgin
 Elizabeth
 Elko
 Elk River
 Elkton
 Ellendale
 Ellsworth
 Elmdale
 Elmore
 Elrosa
 Ely
 Elysian
 Emily
 Emmons
 Erhard
 Erskine
 Evan
 Evansville
 Eveleth
 Excelsior
 Eyota

F
 Fairfax
 Fairmont
 Falcon Heights
 Faribault
 Farmington
 Farwell
 Federal Dam
 Felton
 Fergus Falls
 Fertile
 Fifty Lakes
 Finlayson
 Fisher
 Flensburg
 Floodwood
 Florence
 Foley
 Forada
 Forest Lake
 Foreston
 Fort Ripley
 Fosston
 Fountain
 Foxhome
 Franklin
 Frazee
 Freeborn
 Freeport
 Fridley
 Frost
 Fulda
 Funkley

G
 Garfield
 Garrison
 Garvin
 Gary
 Gaylord
 Gem Lake
 Geneva
 Genola
 Georgetown
 Ghent
 Gibbon
 Gilbert
 Gilman
 Glencoe
 Glenville
 Glenwood
 Glyndon
 Golden Valley
 Gonvick
 Goodhue
 Goodridge
 Good Thunder
 Goodview
 Graceville
 Granada
 Grand Marais
 Grand Meadow
 Grand Rapids
 Granite Falls
 Grant
 Grasston
 Greenbush
 Greenfield
 Green Isle
 Greenwald
 Greenwood
 Grey Eagle
 Grove City
 Grygla
 Gully

H
 Hackensack
 Hadley
 Hallock
 Halma
 Halstad
 Hamburg
 Ham Lake
 Hammond
 Hampton
 Hancock
 Hanley Falls
 Hanover
 Hanska
 Harding
 Hardwick
 Harmony
 Harris
 Hartland
 Hastings
 Hatfield
 Hawley
 Hayfield
 Hayward
 Hazel Run
 Hector
 Heidelberg
 Henderson
 Hendricks
 Hendrum
 Henning
 Henriette
 Herman
 Hermantown
 Heron Lake
 Hewitt
 Hibbing
 Hill City
 Hillman
 Hills
 Hilltop
 Hinckley
 Hitterdal
 Hoffman
 Hokah
 Holdingford
 Holland
 Hollandale
 Holloway
 Holt
 Hopkins
 Houston
 Howard Lake
 Hoyt Lakes
 Hugo
 Humboldt
 Hutchinson

I
 Ihlen
 Independence
 International Falls
 Inver Grove Heights
 Iona
 Iron Junction
 Ironton
 Isanti
 Isle
 Ivanhoe

J
 Jackson
 Janesville
 Jasper
 Jeffers
 Jenkins
 Johnson
 Jordan

K
 Kandiyohi
 Karlstad
 Kasota
 Kasson
 Keewatin
 Kelliher
 Kellogg
 Kennedy
 Kenneth
 Kensington
 Kent
 Kenyon
 Kerkhoven
 Kerrick
 Kettle River
 Kiester
 Kilkenny
 Kimball
 Kinbrae
 Kingston
 Kinney

L
 La Crescent
 Lafayette
 Lake Benton
 Lake Bronson
 Lake City
 Lake Crystal
 Lake Elmo
 Lakefield
 Lake Henry
 Lakeland
 Lakeland Shores
 Lake Lillian
 Lake Park
 Lake St. Croix Beach
 Lake Shore
 Lakeville
 Lake Wilson
 Lamberton
 Lancaster
 Landfall
 Lanesboro
 Laporte
 La Prairie
 La Salle
 Lastrup
 Lauderdale
 Le Center
 Lengby
 Leonard
 Leonidas
 Le Roy
 Lester Prairie
 Le Sueur
 Lewiston
 Lewisville
 Lexington
 Lilydale
 Lindstrom
 Lino Lakes
 Lismore
 Litchfield
 Little Canada
 Little Falls
 Littlefork
 Long Beach
 Long Lake
 Long Prairie
 Longville
 Lonsdale
 Loretto
 Louisburg
 Lowry
 Lucan
 Luverne
 Lyle
 Lynd

M
 Mabel
 McGrath
 McGregor
 McIntosh
 McKinley
 Madelia
 Madison
 Madison Lake
 Magnolia
 Mahnomen
 Mahtomedi
 Manchester
 Manhattan Beach
 Mankato
 Mantorville
 Maple Grove
 Maple Lake
 Maple Plain
 Mapleton
 Mapleview
 Maplewood
 Marble
 Marietta
 Marine on St. Croix
 Marshall
 Mayer
 Maynard
 Mazeppa
 Meadowlands
 Medford
 Medicine Lake
 Medina
 Meire Grove
 Melrose
 Menahga
 Mendota
 Mendota Heights
 Mentor
 Middle River
 Miesville
 Milaca
 Milan
 Millerville
 Millville
 Milroy
 Miltona
 Minneapolis
 Minneiska
 Minneota
 Minnesota City
 Minnesota Lake
 Minnetonka
 Minnetonka Beach
 Minnetrista
 Mizpah
 Montevideo
 Montgomery
 Monticello
 Montrose
 Moorhead
 Moose Lake
 Mora
 Morgan
 Morris
 Morristown
 Morton
 Motley
 Mound
 Mounds View
 Mountain Iron
 Mountain Lake
 Murdock
 Myrtle

N
 Nashua
 Nashwauk
 Nassau
 Nelson
 Nerstrand
 Nevis
 New Auburn
 New Brighton
 Newfolden
 New Germany
 New Hope
 New London
 New Market
 New Munich
 Newport
 New Prague
 New Richland
 New Trier
 New Ulm
 New York Mills
 Nicollet
 Nickerson
 Nielsville
 Nimrod
 Nisswa
 Norcross
 North Branch
 Northfield
 North Mankato
 North Oaks
 Northome
 Northrop
 North St. Paul
 Norwood Young America

O
 Oakdale
 Oak Grove
 Oak Park Heights
 Odessa
 Odin
 Ogema
 Ogilvie
 Okabena
 Oklee
 Olivia
 Onamia
 Ormsby
 Orono
 Oronoco
 Orr
 Ortonville
 Osakis
 Oslo
 Osseo
 Ostrander
 Otsego
 Ottertail
 Owatonna

P
 Palisade
 Parkers Prairie
 Park Rapids
 Paynesville
 Pease
 Pelican Rapids
 Pemberton
 Pennock
 Pequot Lakes
 Perham
 Perley
 Peterson
 Pierz
 Pillager
 Pine City
 Pine Island
 Pine River
 Pine Springs
 Pipestone
 Plainview
 Plato
 Pleasant Lake
 Plummer
 Plymouth
 Porter
 Pratt
 Preston
 Princeton
 Prinsburg
 Prior Lake
 Proctor
 Puposky

Q
 Quamba

R
 Racine
 Ramsey
 Randall
 Randolph
 Ranier
 Raymond
 Red Lake Falls
 Red Wing
 Redwood Falls
 Regal
 Remer
 Renville
 Revere
 Rice
 Richfield
 Richmond
 Richville
 Riverton
 Robbinsdale
 Rochester
 Rock Creek
 Rockford
 Rockville
 Rogers
 Rollingstone
 Ronneby
 Roosevelt
 Roscoe
 Roseau
 Rose Creek
 Rosemount
 Roseville
 Rothsay
 Round Lake
 Royalton
 Rush City
 Rushford
 Rushford Village
 Rushmore
 Russell
 Ruthton
 Rutledge

S
 Sabin
 Sacred Heart
 St. Anthony
 St. Anthony Village
 St. Augusta
 St. Bonifacius
 St. Charles
 St. Clair
 St. Cloud
 St. Francis
 St. Hilaire
 St. James
 St. Joseph
 St. Leo
 St. Louis Park
 St. Martin
 St. Marys Point
 St. Michael
 St. Paul
 St. Paul Park
 St. Peter
 St. Rosa
 St. Stephen
 St. Vincent
 Sanborn
 Sandstone
 Sargeant
 Sartell
 Sauk Centre
 Sauk Rapids
 Savage
 Scandia
 Scanlon
 Seaforth
 Sebeka
 Sedan
 Shafer
 Shakopee
 Shelly
 Sherburn
 Shevlin
 Shoreview
 Shorewood
 Silver Bay
 Silver Lake
 Skyline
 Slayton
 Sleepy Eye
 Sobieski
 Solway
 South Haven
 South St. Paul
 Spicer
 Springfield
 Spring Grove
 Spring Hill
 Spring Lake Park
 Spring Park
 Spring Valley
 Squaw Lake
 Stacy
 Staples
 Starbuck
 Steen
 Stephen
 Stewart
 Stewartville
 Stillwater
 Stockton
 Storden
 Strandquist
 Strathcona
 Sturgeon Lake
 Sunburg
 Sunfish Lake
 Swanville

T
 Taconite
 Tamarack
 Taopi
 Taunton
 Taylors Falls
 Tenney
 Tenstrike
 Thief River Falls
 Thomson
 Tintah
 Tonka Bay
 Tower
 Tracy
 Trail
 Trimont
 Trommald
 Trosky
 Truman
 Turtle River
 Twin Lakes
 Twin Valley
 Two Harbors
 Tyler

U
 Ulen
 Underwood
 Upsala
 Urbank
 Utica

V
 Vadnais Heights
 Vergas
 Vermillion
 Verndale
 Vernon Center
 Vesta
 Victoria
 Viking
 Villard
 Vining
 Virginia

W
 Wabasha
 Wabasso
 Waconia
 Wadena
 Wahkon
 Waite Park
 Waldorf
 Walker
 Walnut Grove
 Walters
 Waltham
 Wanamingo
 Wanda
 Warba
 Warren
 Warroad
 Waseca
 Watertown
 Waterville
 Watkins
 Watson
 Waubun
 Waverly
 Wayzata
 Welcome
 Wells
 Wendell
 Westbrook
 West Concord
 Westport
 West St. Paul
 West Union
 Whalan
 Wheaton
 White Bear Lake
 Wilder
 Willernie
 Williams
 Willmar
 Willow River
 Wilmont
 Wilton
 Windom
 Winger
 Winnebago
 Winona
 Winsted
 Winthrop
 Winton
 Wolf Lake
 Wolverton
 Woodbury
 Wood Lake
 Woodland
 Woodstock
 Worthington
 Wrenshall
 Wright
 Wykoff
 Wyoming

Z
 Zemple
 Zimmerman
 Zumbro Falls
 Zumbrota

Referensi

 U.S. Census Bureau

Minnesota

Daptar kuta di Minnesota


Gerald Eaton (born November 22, 1971) is a Canadian R&B singer-songwriter and music producer, also known by his stage name Jarvis Church.

Career
Eaton is the lead singer for the R&B-pop group The Philosopher Kings, which reached its peak popularity in the 1990s. During the group's ten-year hiatus, Eaton began a solo career, releasing the album Shake It Off in 2002 under the stage name Jarvis Church, derived from two parallel streets in Toronto, Ontario. The Philosopher Kings subsequently reunited and released a new album in February 2006. In 2008 he released his second solo album called The Long Way Home. In 2012 he released his third solo album The Soul Station Vol 1: The Songs of Sam Cooke, A Tribute, and in 2015 continued with his second in a series of albums spotlighting the music of soul singers called The Soul Station Vol 2: The Songs of Curtis Mayfield, A Tribute.

As a producer, in 1999 he discovered Nelly Furtado at the Honey Jam showcase in Toronto, Ontario, Canada and in 2001 he co-produced Nelly Furtado's debut album Whoa, Nelly!  with his Philosopher Kings bandmate Brian West. In 2001 they were nominated for the producer of the year Grammy. Their production team is known as Track and Field, and they also appear on the production credits of Esthero's album Wikked Lil' Grrrls. Track and Field also produced Canadian rapper K'naan's albums The Dusty Foot Philosopher and Troubadour, and the title track from Stacie Orrico's 2006 album Beautiful Awakening. He appeared on the song "Saturdays" by Nelly Furtado on the album Folklore.

He scored the music for and appeared on the television series Da Kink in My Hair in 2007.

Awards and honors
1995 Juno award for best new group. The Philosopher Kings.
1996 Socan award for best urban music. The Philosopher Kings.
2001 Grammy nomination for producer of the year for Whoa Nelly, Nelly Furtado.
2002 Juno for producer of the year for Whoa Nelly, Nelly Furtado.
2005 Juno for best hip hop album, The Dusty Foot Philosopher, K'naan.
2005 Socan award for pop music, Powerless (say what you want), Folklore, Nelly Furtado.
2010 Socan number one award for Take a Minute, Troubadour, K'naan

Discography

Studio albums
2002: Shake It Off
2008: The Long Way Home
2012: The Soul Station Vol. 1 The Songs of Sam Cooke: A Tribute
2015: The Soul Station Vol. 2: The Songs of Curtis Mayfield: A Tribute

Singles
Shake It Off
Run For Your Life (ft. Esthero)
Who Will Be Your Man
Whole Day Long
So Beautiful
Lovers Kiss
Just Like That (ft. Rock Supreme)

References

External links

Official Website for the Philosopher Kings

Canadian rhythm and blues singers
20th-century Black Canadian male singers
Canadian hip hop record producers
21st-century Black Canadian male singers
Jamaican emigrants to Canada
Living people
Singers from Toronto
People from Thornhill, Ontario
Canadian soul singers
Jack Richardson Producer of the Year Award winners
1971 births

Gerald Eaton


The Château d'Alleuze is a ruined castle situated in the commune of Alleuze, in the Cantal département of France.

Built in the 13th century by the constables of Auvergne, it belonged to the bishops of Clermont. During the Hundred Years War it was seized for the English by Bernard de Garlan. For seven years, he sowed terror throughout the region, pillaging and holding to ransom. To avoid troubles from any Garlan successors, the inhabitants of Saint-Flour burned down the castle in 1405. Monseigneur De la Tour, owner of the castle, was very upset with this gesture, and obliged the Sanflorains to rebuild it on the original plan. It was taken by Huguenots in 1575. The towers were used as jails by the bishops of Clermont.

The castle is built on a square plan, with round towers in each corner, characteristic of the 14th century. It includes a chapel, Saint-Illide, built in the 13th and 15th centuries.

Today, the edifice is maintained as a ruin and has been listed, along with the chapel, since 1927 as a monument historique by the French Ministry of Culture.
According to the Michelin Green Guide to the Auvergne and Rhône Valley, which rates it as two stars ("worth a detour"), "There can scarcely be another beauty spot in the Auvergne as romantic as the site of this castle."

Gallery

See also
List of castles in France

References

External links

Houses completed in the 13th century
Houses completed in the 15th century
Ruined castles in Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes
Monuments historiques of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes
Cantal

Château d'Alleuze


Theodore Roosevelt (October 27, 1858 – Januar 6, 1919) wis the 26nt Preses o the Unitit States frae 1901 tae 1909. He previously served as the 25th vice preses o the Unitit States frae Mairch tae September 1901 an as the 33rd govrenor o New York frae 1899 tae 1900. As a leader o the Republican Pairty in this time, he becam a drivin force for the Progressive Era in the Unitit States in the early 20t century. His face is depictit on Munt Rushmore, alangside thae o George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, an Abraham Lincoln. In polls o historians an poleetical scientists, Roosevelt is generally rankit as ane o the five best preses.

Roosevelt wis born a pawie bairn wi debeelitatin asthma, but he owercam his pheesical heal problems bi embracin a strenuous lifestyle. He integratit his exuberant personality, vast range o interests, an warld-famous achievements intae a "cowboy" persona defined bi strang masculinity. Hame-schuiled, he begoud a lifelang naituralist avocation afore attendin Harvard College. His beuk, The Naval War of 1812 (1882), established his reputation as baith a leared historian an as a popular writer. Upon enterin politics, he becam the leader o the reform faction o Republicans in New York's state legislatur. Follaein the near-simultaneous daiths o his wife an mither, he escapit tae a kye ranch in the Dakotas. Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretar o the Navy unner Preses William McKinley, but resigned frae that post tae lead the Rough Riders in the Spaingie–American War. Returnin a war hero, he wis electit Govrenor o New York in 1898. Efter the daith o Vice Preses Garret Hobart, the New York state pairty leadership convinced McKinley tae accept Roosevelt as his runnin mate in the 1900 election. Roosevelt campaigned veegorously, an the McKinley-Roosevelt ticket wan a laundslide veectory based on a platform o peace, prosperity, an conservation.

Efter takkin office as Vice Preses in Mairch 1901, he becam Preses at age 42 follaein McKinley's assassination that September, an remeens the youngest person tae acome Preses o the Unitit States. As a leader o the Progressive muivement, he championed his "Square Deal" domestic policies, promisin the average ceetizen fairness, brakin o trusts, regulation o railweys, an pure fuid an drogs. Makkin conservation a tap priority, he established mony new naitional pairks, forests, an monuments intendit to preserve the naition's naitural resoorces. In furrin policy, he focused on Central Americae, whaur he begoud construction o the Panama Canaul. He expandit the Navy an sent the Great White Fleet on a warld tour tae project the Unitit States' naval pouer aroond the globe. His successfu efforts tae broker the end o the Russo-Japanese War wan him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize. He avoidit controversial tariff an money issues. Electit in 1904 tae a full term, Roosevelt conteena'd ae promote progressive policies, mony o that war passed in Congress. Roosevelt successfully prepared his close friend, William Howard Taft, an Taft wan the 1908 presidential election tae succeed him.

Frustrated wi Taft's conservatism, Roosevelt belatitly tried tae win the 1912 Republican nomination. He failed, walkit oot an foondit a third pairty, the Progressive, so-cried "Bull Moose" Pairty, that cried for wide-rangin progressive reforms. He ran in the 1912 election an the split alloued the Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson tae win the election. Follaein his defeat, Roosevelt led a twa-year expedeetion tae the Amazon basin, whaur he nearly dee'd o tropical disease. In Warld War I, he creeticised Preses Wilson for keepin the kintra oot o the war wi Germany, an his offer tae lead volunteers tae Fraunce wis rejectit. Tho he haed conseedert rinnin for preses again in 1920, Roosevelt's heal conteena'd to deteriorate, an he dee'd in 1919.

References

1858 births
1919 daiths
19t-century American politeecians
19t-century American writers
19t-century American historians
20t-century American politeecians
20t-century American writers
American autobiografers
American essayists
American explorers
American hunters
American fishers
American male judoka
American male writers
American militar personnel o the Spaingie–American War
American naval historians
American Nobel laureates
American poleetical writers
American politeecians wi pheesical disabilities
American shuitin survivors
Assassination attempt survivors
Bohemian Club members
Bulloch faimily
Buirials in New York
Columbia Varsity alumni
Commissioners o the New York Ceety Polis Depairtment
Cowboys
Explorers o Amazonia
Freemen o the Ceety o Lunnon
Govrenors o New York
Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees
Harvard Varsity alumni
History o the Unitit States (1865–1918)
Members o the American Filosofical Society
Members o the New York State Assembly
Militar personnel frae New York
National Rifle Association fowk
New York Progressives (1912)
New York Republicans
Nobel Peace Prize laureates
Fowk associatit wi the American Museum of Natural History
Fowk associatit wi the Boy Scouts of America
Fowk frae Oyster Bay, New York
Phi Beta Kappa members
Politeecians frae New York Ceety
Preses o the American Historical Association
Preses o the Unitit States
Progressive Era in the Unitit States
Ranchers frae North Dakota
Republican Pairty (Unitit States) presidential nominees
Republican Pairty (Unitit States) vice presidential nominees
Republican Pairty Preses o the Unitit States
Republican Pairty state govrenors o the Unitit States
Republican Pairty Vice Preses o the Unitit States
Theodore
Rough Riders
Schuyler faimily
Sons o the American Revolution
Spaingie–American War recipients o the Medal o Honour

Unitit States Airmy Medal o Honour recipients
Unitit States Airmy officers
Unitit States Assistant Secretaries o the Navy
Unitit States presidential candidates, 1904
Unitit States presidential candidates, 1912
Unitit States presidential candidates, 1916
Unitit States vice-presidential candidates, 1900
Vice Preses o the Unitit States
Writers frae New York

Theodore Roosevelt


Figsbury Ring () is an 11.2 hectare biological Site of Special Scientific Interest in Wiltshire, England, notified in 1975.  It is owned and managed by the National Trust.

Earthworks
Within the wider SSSI mentioned above, the earthworks of Figsbury Ring are sub-circular and enclose 6.4 hectares of grassland on a chalk ridge to the north east of Salisbury, in the parish of Firsdown, Wiltshire at NGR SU188338. It is yet to be fully investigated.

Small portions of the site were excavated in 1924 by Ben and Maud Cunnington as it was their belief that the site was the remains of an Iron Age Hill fort. Superficially this description of an earthwork with exterior ditch would seem appropriate, however the presence of an enigmatic inner ditch has led many archaeologists to doubt this interpretation. This ditch is separated from the outer rampart by a berm of up to 30 metres in width and, to many, it seems likely that the site actually began as a late neolithic Henge.

A small geophysical survey was carried out by Anthony Clark and John Gator in 1981 to determine whether or not an earth bank was ever associated with the inner ditch. The results of this survey were inconclusive.

In 1982 the finds from the Cunningtons' excavations were then reappraised by Margaret Guido and Isobel Smith. Several artefacts, notably Grooved Ware and Beaker pottery, established that there had been occupation at the site much earlier than the period proposed by the Cunningtons.

A further reappraisal of the artefacts was carried out in 2003/04 by Philip Dunn, a student at Bournemouth University. This confirmed Guido and Smith's findings and went on to identify a number of flint artefacts that were diagnostic of Neolithic occupation at the site. Following on from this study a large scale geophysical survey was conducted which covered 46% of the interior using a Fluxgate Gradiometer. The results of this survey were, again, inconclusive although no evidence was detected for the existence of an inner bank. Traces of possible structures were detected and it was proposed that the site may have particularly early origins.

When Figsbury was considered within the context of the wider landscape and a range of other nearby monuments it appeared possible that the site may have begun as a Causewayed enclosure. This may then have been modified into a Henge monument in the later Neolithic or Early Bronze Age. There is certainly sufficient evidence to state with some degree of confidence that the site was occupied (albeit temporarily or intermittently) towards the middle of the third millennium BC. Further modification of the site appears to have taken place during the late Bronze Age or early Iron Age.

In popular culture
Figsbury Ring features prominently in E. M. Forster's 1907 novel, The Longest Journey, renamed the Cadbury Rings (the surrounding area is called Cadford).  The narrator of the novel speculates as to whether the structure was British, Roman, Saxon, or Danish, and suggests it is a tomb concealing ancient dead soldiers and buried gold.  In the novel, the area between the rings is planted with mangel-wurzels and there is a tree growing in the centre of the inner ring.

References
 Natural England citation sheet for the site (accessed 31 March 2022)
 "Defining the Circle: A Multidisciplinary Evaluation of Figsbury Ring" – dissertation by Philip Dunn, submitted to Bournemouth University in 2004
 English Heritage listing of investigations

Further reading
 Collis J.  1977  "Iron Age Henges?" Archaeologia Atlantica, (2) p.55–63

 Darvill T. & Thomas J.  2001  "Neolithic Enclosures in Atlantic Northwest Europe: Some Recent Trends". In T. Darvill & J. Thomas (Eds) Neolithic Enclosures in Atlantic Northwest Europe: Neloithic Studies Group Seminar Papers 6. Oxford: Oxbow
 Gator J.A. & Clark A.J.  1981  Figsbury Rings: Geophysical Survey Autumn 1981, report available from English Heritage: Fort Cumberland, Fort Cumberland Road, Eastney, Portsmouth, PO4 9LD

 Hamilton M. and Whittle A.  1999  "Grooved Ware of the Avebury Area: Styles, Contexts and Meanings". In R. Cleal & A. MacSween (Eds), Grooved Ware in Britain and Ireland.  Oxford: Oxbow, p.36–47
 Harding A.F. with Lee G.E.  1987  Henge Monuments and Related Sites of Great Britain. Oxford: B.A.R.
 Oswald A., Dyer C. & Barber M.  2001  The Creation of Monuments: Neolithic Enclosures in the British Isles. Swindon: English Heritage
 Payne A.  1996  "The Use of Magnetic Prospection in the Exploration of Iron Age Hillfort Interiors in Southern England". Archaeological Prospection, (3) p.163–184

National Trust properties in Wiltshire
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Wiltshire
Sites of Special Scientific Interest notified in 1975
Iron Age sites in England
Archaeological sites in Wiltshire
Scheduled monuments in Wiltshire

Figsbury Ring


Two Figures is a bronze sculpture by the English sculptor Barbara Hepworth, which was cast in an edition of seven copies. One of these is located at Newfields, the campus that also houses the Indianapolis Museum of Art in Indianapolis, Indiana. Other casts are at Southampton University (on loan from the Hepworth Estate), the Fred Jones Jr. Museum of Art at the University of Oklahoma, Commonwealth Park in Canberra Australia, and the Hakone Open-Air Museum, Hakone, Japan.  The series were cast at the Morris Singer Foundry in London from 1968 onwards. Another cast of this work could also be found at the University of Birmingham Vale site, but is no longer present as of January 2, 2012.

Description
Upon the rectilinear base stand two highly stylized figures. Each figure is somewhat lozenge-shaped and rises vertically. Each has a frontal, symmetrical, flat surface that contrasts with the gentle curve of the surfaces on the other sides. These flat surfaces are not quite parallel to the front edge of the base but instead slightly angle in toward each other. Both figures have narrow bases compared to the widths higher up, and they terminate on top with a flat, horizontal panel perpendicular to the front. The front of each figure has deep, circular holes, characteristic of Hepworth's sculptures.

Generally the bronze is smooth, with texture in the form of low-lying patches (a difference in depth similar to a thick layer of paint). It is patinated a rich dark brown color. The sculpture is seated on a limestone base.

There are subtle differences between the two figures. The one on the proper right (PR) is slightly shorter than its partner on the proper left (PL). PR's shape bows outward just above the midpoint of the figure, more than doubling its base width before tapering in again toward the top to approximately the same width as the base. The figure is filled out on the back as though the silhouette of the front face were rotated on its vertical axis, so that any given horizontal cross section would be semicircular. There are two important circular holes cut into the front surface. The higher one, placed a little less than ¾ up the height of the figure, is diametrically larger and pierces cylindrically through the entire sculpture, creating a window to the other side. The inner surface of the hole was originally patinated a dusty light green. Below it, just below ½ the height of the figure, is a slightly smaller hole that only goes about halfway through the bronze in a cylindrical fashion. This hole is lined with a bright blue paint.

PL bows gently outward from its base and reaches a maximum width at approximately the height of PR's upper hole, two thirds of the height of PL. Its upper surface is similarly flat and horizontal but is much wider than the base (in contrast to PR). PL's back side is not a uniform semicircular curve; instead it has two curving sides that meet at an acute angle to provide the figure with an overall roughly triangular horizontal cross-section. PL has three circular, cylindrical holes instead of two. The lowest, at about 1/3 of its height, does not pierce the bronze. It does not appear to have been painted or patinated. The second, at a height approximately halfway between the two holes of PR, is another non-penetrating hole painted in the same bright blue paint. The third, just above the top of the upper hole of LR, goes through all the way to the point where the cylinder intersects the sides of the sculpture but not so far as to take out the angular edge opposite the front face. The effect is that though there is only one large, round hole on the front, there are two smaller oval holes on the back, one on each surface. The interior of this hole was likewise once patinated light green. On each back surface of PL there is etched a circle roughly corresponding to the height and size of the cylindrical holes. The circle on the proper left back panel corresponds to the lowest hole, and the one on the proper right back panel lines up with the middle hole.

The first instance on  record of Hepworth's Two Figures theme was a wooden artwork from 1947-1948.  Artworks done in this theme she considered to represent a relationship between two living things, as opposed to her solo figures which represent a human standing in a landscape.  Hepworth's bronze castings were often made from wooden originals, and even within large additions there was often intentional color variation.

Copy at Newfields

Identifying Marks
The signature on the back reads "Barbara Hepworth 1968 6/7."

Historical information
As indicated by the signature on the artwork, the IMA's version of Two Figures is the sixth of seven castings.  It was produced through the Morris Singer foundry in London. It was cast in 3 pieces that were then bolted together at the base. Two Figures has been on view since its arrival at the IMA.  The artwork has been featured in various locations in front of the museum's main entrance, and it is currently displayed on the Sutphin Mall, facing the Sutphin Fountain and the museum building.

Acquisition
Previous to its purchase by the IMA, Two Figures was kept in the artist's collection in London.  Marlborough Gallery in New York represented the Hepworth's work in the United States and sold the artwork to the IMA in 1980.   It was accessioned that same year through the Henry F. and Katherine DeBoest Fund in memory of Henry F. DeBoest.

Condition
The bronze sculpture is monitored, cleaned, and treated regularly by the IMA art conservation staff.  The surface of the bronze is protected from deterioration and corrosion by the yearly application of a fresh coat of hard wax.  This sculpture was surveyed in July 1993 of as part of the Smithsonian American Art Museum's Inventories of American Painting and Sculpture database, and it was considered to be well maintained.

See also
 List of Indianapolis Museum of Art artworks
 Save Outdoor Sculpture!

References

Outdoor sculptures in Indianapolis
Culture of Indianapolis
Sculptures in the Indianapolis Museum of Art
Bronze sculptures in the United Kingdom
1968 sculptures
Sculptures by Barbara Hepworth

Two Figures


Mangroves are trees or shrubs that grow in salty water in hot places like the tropics.

Mangroves make a special saltwater woodland or shrubland habitat, called a mangrove swamp, mangrove forest, mangrove or mangal. Mangroves grow on 1/3 of tropical shores. They are also found in sub-tropical Africa, Asia, and the southwest Pacific.

Their twisted, tangled roots collect sediment. Over time, the sediment may become islands, or extend the shoreline.

Description
Mangroves live right in the sea, or at the sea edge. Their seeds fall from the tree and grow roots as soon as they touch any kind of soil. During low tide, they may fall in soil rather than water and start growing where they fall. If the water level is high, they may be carried far away from where they fell.

Mangrove trees are often the beginning of what will one day be a small island. As soil and other things collect in their roots, little bodies of land are formed – just the right place for other island vegetation to grow. This is an example of seed dispersal by water.

Mangroves have special root-like structures. They are aerial roots or pneumatophores. These stick up out of the soil, and are covered in lenticels. They take in oxygen through their pores. These "breathing tubes" may reach heights of up to 30 cm, and in some species, over 3 m. Smaller roots with air passages move oxygen from the air to parts of the plant underwater.

Benefits
Mangrove roots give clear water to the coral reefs which often surround them. They trap dirt and clean water by filtering land runoff and removing pollutants. The tree also protects the shoreline (and the coral reefs) from being eroded by storm waves. Mangrove thickets are a good place for many coral-reef fish, shrimp, and crabs to grow.

References

Trees
Wetlands

Mangrove


"Sleeping Beauty" () is a fairy tale. There are several versions of it, including "The Sleeping Beauty in the Wood" by Charles Perrault and "Briar Rose" or "Little Briar Rose" () by the Brothers Grimm. The story is about a princess who falls into a deep sleep for one hundred years, and is awoken by a heroic prince.

Perrault's version first appeared in 1695 in a hand-written and illustrated manuscript called Tales of Mother Goose () along with "Little Red Riding Hood", "Bluebeard", "Puss in Boots", and "Diamonds and Toads". It was next published in the newspaper Mercure galant in 1696. It was revised, and published in Paris in 1697 by Claude Barbin in Histoires ou contes du temps passé (), a collection of eight fairy tales by Perrault. It has been adapted to various media including a pantomime by James Robinson Planché, a ballet, and a Disney animated movie.

The Grimms published their version in Children's and Household Tales () in 1812.

Versions
Tales similar to Perrault's include "Troylus and Zelladine" from the 14th-century French work Perceforest, the Catalan collection Frayre de Joy e Sor de Placer, the story of Brynhild from the Saga of the Volsungs, and "Sun, Moon, and Talia" from Giambattista Basile's Pentamerone (1636). Tchaikovsky's Ballet Sleeping Beauty is roughly based on Perrault's version; and Disney published 1959 their animatic Sleeping Beauty Version - a Mixture out of the former versions and mostly Tchaikovsky's Ballet.

There are slight differences between the Grimms's version of the sleeping princess tale and that of Perrault. The Grimms's Briar Rose is released from her sleep by a kiss from the prince while Perrault's princess wakes when the prince simply kneels beside her.

Maria Tatar writes, "The Grimms' "Sleeping Beauty" has a narrative integrity that has made it more appealing than [Basile and Perrault], at least in the United States." She explains that the version of the Grimms discards the post-marital conflicts of Basile and Perrault that were probably separate narratives at one time. Tatar believes Briar Rose is the stereotypical passive fairy tale heroine who simply waits for a man to come along to free her from a near catatonic state.

Story

A king and queen long for a child. A frog in the queen's bath foretells the future birth of a baby. The queen gives birth to a daughter. The king and queen host a celebration (a christening in the Perrault version). In the Perrault version, they invite seven good fairies; in the Grimms' version, they invite twelve "wise women". Another, evil woman (or fairy) appears who puts a curse on the infant princess. She says that the princess will one day prick her finger on a spindle and die. One of the good women softens the curse. Instead of dying, the princess will sleep for one hundred years.

The king orders all spindles to be burnt to protect his daughter. When she is about fifteen or sixteen, however, the princess finds an old woman spinning in a tower room. The princess handles the spindle and pricks her finger. She falls into a deep sleep. The good fairy puts everyone in the castle to sleep. A thorny forest or a hedge of roses springs up and surrounds the castle to protect the sleeping princess.

One hundred years pass. A prince has heard fabulous tales of the place and wants to find the princess. He arrives at the castle and finds the sleeping princess in the tower room. In the Grimms' version, he wakes her with a kiss; Perrault's princess wakes when the prince simply kneels beside her. The prince and the princess get married.

The Perrault version continues further. The prince and princess have two children. The prince goes off to war. His wife and children stay with his mother. She is an ogress. She wants to eat her guests. A servant saves them. The ogress is furious. She decides to put the princess and her children into a cauldron filled with toads and snakes. The prince arrives. His wife and children are saved. The ogress jumps head first into the cauldron and dies.

References
 Barchilon, Jacques and Henry Pettit. 1960. The Authentic Mother Goose Fairy Tales and Nursery Rhymes. Denver: Alan Swallow. pp. 12–3.
 Betts, Christopher. 2009. The Complete Fairy Tales. Oxford UP. pp. xiv-xv, 191.
 Opie, Iona and Peter. 1974. The Classic Fairy Tales. Oxford UP. pp. 81–3.
 Tatar, Maria. 2002. The Annotated Classic Fairy Tales. Norton. pp. 95–96.
 Zipes, Jack (Ed.) 2000. The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales. Oxford UP. pp. 467, 476.

Other websites
  Sleeping Beauty (Perrault's version), audio version

French literature
Works by Charles Perrault
Grimms' Fairy Tales

Sleeping Beauty


Catalysis is the process of change in rate (speed) of a chemical reaction due to the help of a catalyst. Unlike other chemicals which take part in the reaction, a catalyst is not consumed by the reaction itself. A catalyst may participate in many chemical reactions. Catalysts that speed the reaction are called positive catalysts. Catalysts that slow the reaction are called negative catalysts, or inhibitors. Substances that increase the activity of catalysts are called promoters, and substances that deactivate catalysts are called catalytic poisons.

in Chemistry
A catalyst is something which changes the rate of a chemical reaction. An example is when manganese oxide (MnO2) is added to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and the hydrogen peroxide starts to break up into water and oxygen. Catalysts are either of natural or synthetic origin. Catalysts are useful because they leave no residue in the solution they have sped up. A catalyst can also be used in a reaction again and again as it is not used up. There are many catalysts in our body which play an important part in many biochemical reactions. These are called enzymes. Most catalysts work by lowering the 'activation energy' of a reaction. This allows less energy to be used, thus speeding up the reaction. The opposite of a catalyst is an inhibitor. Inhibitors slow down reactions. Some of them are found in snake venom and are dangerous for our nervous system or heart.

Related pages
 Enzymes are biological catalysts

Catalysis