Science education is the teaching and learning of science to school children, college students, or adults within the general public. The field of science education includes work in science content, science process (the scientific method), some social science, and some teaching pedagogy. The standards for science education provide expectations for the development of understanding for students through the entire course of their K-12 education and beyond. The traditional subjects included in the standards are physical, life, earth, space, and human sciences.

Historical background

The first person credited with being employed as a science teacher in a British public school was William Sharp, who left the job at Rugby School in 1850 after establishing science to the curriculum. Sharp is said to have established a model for science to be taught throughout the British public school system.

The British Academy for the Advancement of Science (BAAS) published a report in 1867 calling for the teaching of "pure science" and training of the "scientific habit of mind." The progressive education movement supported the ideology of mental training through the sciences. BAAS emphasized separate pre-professional training in secondary science education. In this way, future BAAS members could be prepared.

The initial development of science teaching was slowed by the lack of qualified teachers. One key development was the founding of the first London School Board in 1870, which discussed the school curriculum; another was the initiation of courses to supply the country with trained science teachers. In both cases the influence of Thomas Henry Huxley. John Tyndall was also influential in the teaching of physical science.

In the United States, science education was a scatter of subjects prior to its standardization in the 1890s. The development of a science curriculum emerged gradually after extended debate between two ideologies, citizen science and pre-professional training. As a result of a conference of thirty leading secondary and college educators in Florida, the National Education Association appointed a Committee of Ten in 1892, which had authority to organize future meetings and appoint subject matter committees of the major subjects taught in secondary schools. The committee was composed of ten educators and chaired by Charles Eliot of Harvard University. The Committee of Ten appointed nine conferences committees: Latin; Greek; English; Other Modern Languages; Mathematics; History; Civil Government and Political Economy; physics, astronomy, and chemistry; natural history; and geography. Each committee was composed of ten leading specialists from colleges, normal schools, and secondary schools. Committee reports were submitted to the Committee of Ten, which met for four days in New York City, to create a comprehensive report. In 1894, the NEA published the results of the work of these conference committees.

According to the Committee of Ten, the goal of high school was to prepare all students to do well in life, contributing to their well-being and the good of society. Another goal was to prepare some students to succeed in college.

This committee supported the citizen science approach focused on mental training and withheld performance in science studies from consideration for college entrance. The BAAS encouraged their longer standing model in the UK. The US adopted a curriculum was characterized as follows:

 Elementary science should focus on simple natural phenomena (nature study) by means of experiments carried out "in-the-field."
 Secondary science should focus on laboratory work and the committee's prepared lists of specific experiments
 Teaching of facts and principles
 College preparation

The format of shared mental training and pre-professional training consistently dominated the curriculum from its inception to now. However, the movement to incorporate a humanistic approach, such as inclusion of the arts (S.T.E.A.M.), science, technology, society and environment education is growing and being implemented more broadly in the late 20th century. Reports by the American Academy for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), including Project 2061, and by the National Committee on Science Education Standards and Assessment detail goals for science education that link classroom science to practical applications and societal implications.

Fields of science education

Science is a universal subject that spans the branch of knowledge that examines the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment. Science education is most commonly broken down into the following three fields: Biology, chemistry, and physics.  Additionally there is a large body of scientific literature that advocates the inclusion of teaching the Nature of Science, which is slowly being adopted into the national curricula.

Physics education

Physics education is characterized by the study of science that deals with matter and energy, and their interactions.

Physics First, a program endorsed by the American Association of Physics Teachers, is a curriculum in which 9th grade students take an introductory physics course. The purpose is to enrich students' understanding of physics, and allow for more detail to be taught in subsequent high school biology and chemistry classes. It also aims to increase the number of students who go on to take 12th grade physics or AP Physics, which are generally elective courses in American high schools.[22]

Physics education in high schools in the United States has suffered the last twenty years because many states now only require three sciences, which can be satisfied by earth/physical science, chemistry, and biology. The fact that many students do not take physics in high school makes it more difficult for those students to take scientific courses in college.

At the university/college level, using appropriate technology-related projects to spark non-physics majors' interest in learning physics has been shown to be successful.[23] This is a potential opportunity to forge the connection between physics and social benefit.

Chemistry education

Chemistry education is characterized by the study of science that deals with the composition, structure, and properties of substances and the transformations that they undergo.

Chemistry is the study of chemicals and the elements and their effects and attributes. Students in chemistry learn the periodic table. The branch of science education known as "chemistry must be taught in a relevant context in order to promote full understanding of current sustainability issues." As this source states chemistry is a very important subject in school as it teaches students to understand issues in the world. As children are interested by the world around them chemistry teachers can attract interest in turn educating the students further. The subject of chemistry is a very practical based subject meaning most of class time is spent working or completing experiments.

Biology education
Biology education is characterized by the study of structure, function, heredity, and evolution of all living organisms. Biology itself is the study of living organisms, through different fields including morphology, physiology, anatomy, behavior, origin, and distribution.

Depending on the country and education level, there are many approaches to teaching biology. In the United States, there is a growing emphasis on the ability to investigate and analyze biology related questions over an extended period of time. Current biological education standards are based on decisions made by the Committee of Ten, who aimed to standardize pre-college learning in 1892. The Committee emphasized the importance of learning natural history (biology) first, focusing on observation through laboratory work.

Nature of Science education
Nature of Science education refers to the study of how science is a human initiative, how it interacts with society, what scientists do, how scientific knowledge is built up and exchanged, how it evolves, how it is used. It stresses the empirical nature and the different methods used in science. The goals of Nature of Science education are stated to be to help students evaluate scientific and pseudo scientific statements, to motivate them to study science and to better prepare them for a career in science or in a field that interacts with science.

Pedagogy
While the public image of science education may be one of simply learning facts by rote, science education in recent history also generally concentrates on the teaching of science concepts and addressing misconceptions that learners may hold regarding science concepts or other content. Thomas Kuhn, whose 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions greatly influenced the post-positivist philosophy of science, argued that the traditional method of teaching in the natural sciences tends to produce a rigid mindset.

Since the 1980s, science education has been strongly influenced by constructivist thinking. Constructivism in science education has been informed by an extensive research programme into student thinking and learning in science, and in particular exploring how teachers can facilitate conceptual change towards canonical scientific thinking. Constructivism emphasises the active role of the learner, and the significance of current knowledge and understanding in mediating learning, and the importance of teaching that provides an optimal level of guidance to learners.

According to a 2004 Policy Forum in Science magazine, "scientific teaching involves active learning strategies to engage students in the process of science and teaching methods that have been systematically tested and shown to reach diverse students."

The 2007 volume Scientific Teaching  lists three major tenets of scientific teaching:
Active learning: A process in which students are actively engaged in learning.  It may include inquiry-based learning, cooperative learning, or student-centered learning.
Assessment: Tools for measuring progress toward and achievement of the learning goals.
Diversity:  The breadth of differences that make each student unique, each cohort of students unique, and each teaching experience unique.  Diversity includes everything in the classroom: the students, the instructors, the content, the teaching methods, and the context.

These elements should underlie educational and pedagogical decisions in the classroom. The "SCALE-UP" learning environment is an example of applying the scientific teaching approach.  In practice, scientific teaching employs a "backward design" approach.  The instructor first decides what the students should know and be able to do (learning goals), then determines what would be evidence of student achievement of the learning goals, then designs assessments to measure this achievement.  Finally, the instructor plans the learning activities, which should facilitate student learning through scientific discovery.

Guided-discovery approach
Along with John Dewey, Jerome Bruner, and many others, Arthur Koestler offers a critique of contemporary science education and proposes its replacement with the guided-discovery approach: To derive pleasure from the art of discovery, as from the other arts, the consumer—in this case the student—must be made to re-live, to some extent, the creative process. In other words, he must be induced, with proper aid and guidance, to make some of the fundamental discoveries of science by himself, to experience in his own mind some of those flashes of insight which have lightened its path. . . . The traditional method of confronting the student not with the problem but with the finished solution, means depriving him of all excitement, [shutting] off the creative impulse, [reducing] the adventure of mankind to a dusty heap of theorems.Specific hands-on illustrations of this approach are available.

Research
The practice of science education has been increasingly informed by research into science teaching and learning.  Research in science education relies on a wide variety of methodologies, borrowed from many branches of science and engineering such as computer science, cognitive science, cognitive psychology and anthropology. Science education research aims to define or characterize what constitutes learning in science and how it is brought about.

John D. Bransford, et al., summarized massive research into student thinking as having three key findings:

 Preconceptions  Prior ideas about how things work are remarkably tenacious and an educator must explicitly address a students' specific misconceptions if the student is to reconfigure his misconception in favour of another explanation. Therefore, it is essential that educators know how to learn about student preconceptions and make this a regular part of their planning.
 Knowledge organization In order to become truly literate in an area of science, students must, "(a) have a deep foundation of factual knowledge, (b) understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework, and (c) organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application."
 Metacognition  Students will benefit from thinking about their thinking and their learning. They must be taught ways of evaluating their knowledge and what they do not know, evaluating their methods of thinking, and evaluating their conclusions. Some educators and others have practiced and advocated for discussions of pseudoscience as a way to understand what it is to think scientifically and to address the problems introduced by pseudoscience.

Educational technologies are being refined to meet the specific needs of science teachers.  One research study examining how cellphones are being used in post-secondary science teaching settings showed that mobile technologies can increase student engagement and motivation in the science classroom.

According to a bibliography on constructivist-oriented research on teaching and learning science in 2005, about 64 percent of studies documented are carried out in the domain of physics, 21 percent in the domain of biology, and 15 percent in chemistry. The major reason for this dominance of physics in the research on teaching and learning appears to be that understanding physics includes difficulties due to the particular nature of physics.
Research on students' conceptions has shown that most pre-instructional (everyday) ideas that students bring to physics instruction are in stark contrast to the physics concepts and principles to be achieved – from kindergarten to the tertiary level.  Quite often students' ideas are incompatible with physics views. This also holds true for students' more general patterns of thinking and reasoning.

By country

Australia
As in England and Wales, science education in Australia is compulsory up until year 11, where students can choose to study one or more of the branches mentioned above. If they wish to no longer study science, they can choose none of the branches. The science stream is one course up until year 11, meaning students learn in all of the branches giving them a broad idea of what science is all about. The National Curriculum Board of Australia (2009) stated that "The science curriculum will be organised around three interrelated strands: science understanding; science inquiry skills; and science as a human endeavour." These strands give teachers and educators the framework of how they should be instructing their students.

In 2011, it was reported that a major problem that has befallen science education in Australia over the last decade is a falling interest in science. Fewer year 10 students are choosing to study science for year 11, which is problematic as these are the years where students form attitudes to pursue science careers. This issue is not unique in Australia, but is happening in countries all over the world.

China
Educational quality in China suffers because a typical classroom contains 50 to 70 students. With over 200 million students, China has the largest educational system in the world.  However, only 20% percent of students complete the rigorous ten-year program of formal schooling.

As in many other countries, the science curriculum includes sequenced courses in physics, chemistry, and biology.  Science education is given high priority and is driven by textbooks composed by committees of scientists and teachers.  Science education in China places great emphasis on memorization, and gives far less attention to problem solving, application of principles to novel situations, interpretations, and predictions.

United Kingdom

In English and Welsh schools, science is a compulsory subject in the National Curriculum. All pupils from 5 to 16 years of age must study science. It is generally taught as a single subject science until sixth form, then splits into subject-specific A levels (physics, chemistry and biology). However, the government has since expressed its desire that those pupils who achieve well at the age of 14 should be offered the opportunity to study the three separate sciences from September 2008. In Scotland the subjects split into chemistry, physics and biology at the age of 13–15 for National 4/5s in these subjects, and there is also a combined science standard grade qualification which students can sit, provided their school offers it.

In September 2006 a new science program of study known as 21st Century Science was introduced as a GCSE option in UK schools, designed to "give all 14 to 16-year-old's a worthwhile and inspiring experience of science". In November 2013, Ofsted's survey of science in schools revealed that practical science teaching was not considered important enough. At the majority of English schools, students have the opportunity to study a separate science program as part of their GCSEs, which results in them taking 6 papers at the end of Year 11; this usually fills one of their option 'blocks' and requires more science lessons than those who choose not to partake in separate science or are not invited. Other students who choose not to follow the compulsory additional science course, which results in them taking 4 papers resulting in 2 GCSEs, opposed to the 3 GCSEs given by taking separate science.

United States

In many U.S. states, K-12 educators must adhere to rigid standards or frameworks of what content is to be taught to which age groups. This often leads teachers to rush to "cover" the material, without truly "teaching" it. In addition, the process of science, including such elements as the scientific method and critical thinking, is often overlooked. This emphasis can produce students who pass standardized tests without having developed complex problem solving skills. Although at the college level American science education tends to be less regulated, it is actually more rigorous, with teachers and professors fitting more content into the same time period.

In 1996, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences of the U.S. National Academies produced the National Science Education Standards, which is available online for free in multiple forms. Its focus on inquiry-based science, based on the theory of constructivism rather than on direct instruction of facts and methods, remains controversial. Some research suggests that it is more effective as a model for teaching science. "The Standards call for more than 'science as process,' in which students learn such skills as observing, inferring, and experimenting. Inquiry is central to science learning. When engaging in inquiry, students describe objects and events, ask questions, construct explanations, test those explanations against current scientific knowledge, and communicate their ideas to others. They identify their assumptions, use critical and logical thinking, and consider alternative explanations. In this way, students actively develop their understanding of science by combining scientific knowledge with reasoning and thinking skills."Concern about science education and science standards has often been driven by worries that American students, and even teachers, lag behind their peers in international rankings. One notable example was the wave of education reforms implemented after the Soviet Union launched its Sputnik satellite in 1957. The first and most prominent of these reforms was led by the Physical Science Study Committee at MIT. In recent years, business leaders such as Microsoft Chairman Bill Gates have called for more emphasis on science education, saying the United States risks losing its economic edge. To this end, Tapping America's Potential is an organization aimed at getting more students to graduate with science, technology, engineering and mathematics degrees. Public opinion surveys, however, indicate most U.S. parents are complacent about science education and that their level of concern has actually declined in recent years.

Furthermore, in the recent National Curriculum Survey conducted by ACT, researchers uncovered a possible disconnect among science educators.  "Both middle school/junior high school teachers and post secondary science instructors rate(d) process/inquiry skills as more important than advanced science content topics; high school teachers rate them in exactly the opposite order." Perhaps more communication among educators at the different grade levels in necessary to ensure common goals for students.

2012 science education framework

According to a report from the National Academy of Sciences, the fields of science, technology, and education hold a paramount place in the modern world, but there are not enough workers in the United States entering the science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) professions. In 2012 the National Academy of Sciences Committee on a Conceptual Framework for New K-12 Science Education Standards developed a guiding framework to standardize K-12 science education with the goal of organizing science education systematically across the K-12 years. Titled A Framework for K-12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas, the publication promotes standardizing K-12 science education in the United States. It emphasizes science educators to focus on a "limited number of disciplinary core ideas and crosscutting concepts, be designed so that students continually build on and revise their knowledge and abilities over multiple years, and support the integration of such knowledge and abilities with the practices needed to engage in scientific inquiry and engineering design."

The report says that in the 21st century Americans need science education in order to engage in and "systematically investigate issues related to their personal and community priorities," as well as to reason scientifically and know how to apply science knowledge. The committee that designed this new framework sees this imperative as a matter of educational equity to the diverse set of schoolchildren. Getting more diverse students into STEM education is a matter of social justice as seen by the committee.

2013 Next Generation Science Standards

In 2013 a new standards for science education were released that update the national standards released in 1996. Developed by 26 state governments and national organizations of scientists and science teachers, the guidelines, called the Next Generation Science Standards, are intended to "combat widespread scientific ignorance, to standardize teaching among states, and to raise the number of high school graduates who choose scientific and technical majors in college...." Included are guidelines for teaching students about topics such as climate change and evolution. An emphasis is teaching the scientific process so that students have a better understanding of the methods of science and can critically evaluate scientific evidence. Organizations that contributed to developing the standards include the National Science Teachers Association, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the National Research Council, and Achieve, a nonprofit organization that was also involved in developing math and English standards.

Next Generation Science Standards
Science education curriculum in the United States is outlined by the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) which were released in April 2013. The purpose of the NGSS is to establish a standardized Kindergarten to 12th Grade science curriculum. These standards were instituted in hopes that they would reform the past science education system, and foster higher student achievement through improved curriculum and teacher development. The Next Generation Science Standards are made up of three components listed as follows: disciplinary core ideas, science and engineering practices, and crosscutting concepts.These are referred to as the three dimensions of the Next Generation Science Standards. Within these standards, there is emphasis on alignment with K-12 Common Core state standards. The dimension entitled "science and engineering practices" focuses on students' learning of the scientific method. This means that this dimension centers around practicing science in a hands-on manner, giving students the opportunity to observe scientific processes, hypothesize, and observe results. This dimension highlights the empirical methods of science. The dimension entitled "crosscutting concepts" emphasizes the understanding of key themes within the field of science. The "crosscutting concepts" are themes that are consistently relevant throughout many different scientific disciplines, such as the flow of energy/matter, cause/effect, systems/system practices, patterns, the relationship between structure and function, and stability/change. The purpose of outlining these key themes relates to generalized learning, meaning that the effectiveness of these themes could lie in the fact that these concepts are important throughout all of the scientific disciplines. The intention is that by learning them, students will create a broad understanding of science. The dimension entitled "disciplinary core ideas" outlines a set of key ideas for each scientific field. For example, physical science has a certain set of core ideas laid out by the framework.

Science Education and Common Core
Common Core education standards emphasize on reading, writing, and communication skills. The purpose of these standards for English and Mathematics was to create measurable goals for student learning that are aligned with the standards in place in other nations, such that students in the United States become prepared to succeed at a global level. It is meant to set standards for academics that are rigorous in nature and prepare students for higher education. It is also outlined that students with disabilities must be properly accommodated for under Common Core standards via an Individualized Education Plan (IEP). Under these standards, the comprehension of scientific writing has become an important skill for students to learn through textbooks.

Science Education Strategies

Evidence suggests, however, that students learn science more effectively under hands-on, activity and inquiry based learning, rather than learning from a textbook. It has been seen that students, in particular those with learning disabilities, perform better on unit tests after learning science through activities, rather than textbook-based learning. Thus, it is argued that science is better learned through experiential activities. Additionally, it has reported that students, specifically those with learning disabilities, prefer and feel that they learn more effectively through activity-based learning. Information like this can help inform the way science is taught and how it can be taught most effectively for students of all abilities. The laboratory is a foundational example of hands-on, activity-based learning. In the laboratory, students use materials to observe scientific concepts and phenomena. The laboratory in science education can include multiple different phases. These phases include planning and design, performance, and analysis and interpretation. It is believed by many educators that laboratory work promotes their students' scientific thinking, problem solving skills, and cognitive development. Since 1960, instructional strategies for science education have taken into account Jean Piaget's developmental model, and therefore started introducing concrete materials and laboratory settings, which required students to actively participate in their learning.

In addition to the importance of the laboratory in learning and teaching science, there has been an increase in the importance of learning using computational tools. The use of computational tools, which have become extremely prevalent in STEM fields as a result of the advancement of technology, has been shown to support science learning. The learning of computational science in the classroom is becoming foundational to students' learning of modern science concepts. In fact, the Next Generation Science Standards specifically reference the use of computational tools and simulations. Through the use of computational tools, students participate in computational thinking, a cognitive process in which interacting with computational tools such as computers is a key aspect. As computational thinking becomes increasingly relevant in science, it becomes an increasingly important aspect of learning for science educators to act on.

Another strategy, that may include both hands-on activities and using computational tools, is creating authentic science learning experiences. Several perspectives of authentic science education have been suggested, including: canonical perspective - making science education as similar as possible to the way science is practiced in the real world; youth-centered - solving problems that are of interest to young students; contextual - a combination of the canonical and youth-centered perspectives. Although activities involving hands-on inquiry and computational tools may be authentic, some have contended that inquiry tasks commonly used in schools are not authentic enough, but often rely on simple "cookbook" experiments.  Authentic science learning experiences can be implemented in various forms.  For example: hand on inquiry, preferably involving an open ended investigation; student-teacher-scientist partnership (STSP) or citizen science projects; design-based learning (DBL); using web-based environments used by scientists (using bioinformatics tools like genes or proteins databases, alignment tools etc.), and; learning with adapted primary literature (APL), which exposes students also to the way the scientific community communicates knowledge. These examples and more can be applied to various domains of science taught in schools (as well as undergraduate education), and comply with the calls to include scientific practices in science curricula.

Informal science education

Informal science education is the science teaching and learning that occurs outside of the formal school curriculum in places such as museums, the media, and community-based programs. The National Science Teachers Association has created a position statement on Informal Science Education to define and encourage science learning in many contexts and throughout the lifespan. Research in informal science education is funded in the United States by the National Science Foundation. The Center for Advancement of Informal Science Education (CAISE) provides resources for the informal science education community.

Examples of informal science education include science centers, science museums, and new digital learning environments (e.g. Global Challenge Award), many of which are members of the Association of Science and Technology Centers (ASTC). The Franklin Institute in Philadelphia and the Museum of Science (Boston) are the oldest of this type of museum in the United States.  Media include TV programs such as NOVA, Newton's Apple, "Bill Nye the Science Guy","Beakman's World", The Magic School Bus, and Dragonfly TV. Early examples of science education on American television included programs by Daniel Q. Posin, such as "Dr. Posin's Universe", "The Universe Around Us", "On the Shoulders of Giants", and "Out of This World".  Examples of community-based programs are 4-H Youth Development programs, Hands On Science Outreach, NASA and After school Programs and Girls at the Center. Home education is encouraged through educational products such as the former (1940-1989) Things of Science subscription service.

In 2010, the National Academies released Surrounded by Science: Learning Science in Informal Environments, based on the National Research Council study, Learning Science in Informal Environments: People, Places, and Pursuits. Surrounded by Science is a resource book that shows how current research on learning science across informal science settings can guide the thinking, the work, and the discussions among informal science practitioners. This book makes valuable research accessible to those working in informal science: educators, museum professionals, university faculty, youth leaders, media specialists, publishers, broadcast journalists, and many others.

See also
 Center for Informal Learning and Schools
 Controversial science
 Constructivism in science education
 Discipline-based education research
 Discovery learning
 Educational research
 Environmental groups and resources serving K–12 schools
 Epistemology (the study of knowledge and how we know things)
 Graduate school
 Inquiry-based Science
 National Science Education Standards
 National Science Teachers Association
 Pedagogy
 Physics education
 Mathematics education
 Engineering education
 Public awareness of science
 School science technicians
 Science education in England
 Science, Technology, Society and Environment Education
 Scientific literacy
 Science outreach
 Scientific modelling
Science education on YouTube

References

Further reading

External links

 ERIC: Education related articles online
 National Science Education Standards
 The importance of scientific education
 Electronic Journal of Science Education
 National Institute for Science Education
 Benchmarks for Science Literacy
 The Association for Science Teacher Education
 Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education
 Science videos for use in Science Education
 The European Learning Laboratory for the Life Sciences (ELLS)
 Science Class Back in the Day – slideshow by Life magazine
 Making Scientific Practices Matter in the Classroom...and Beyond!
 XVIVO (Scientific Animation)
Science Communication Observatory
 Scientix: portal on science and maths education in Europe
 National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS)
 Blossoms (MIT)—free science education videos
 Inter-Divisional Teaching Commission (IDTC) of the International Union for the History and Philosophy of Science (IUHPS)
 International History, Philosophy and Science Teaching Group
 Center for Scientific Teaching at Yale University
 Wisconsin Program for Scientific Teaching
 Scientific Teaching by Handelsman, Miller, and Pfund
 Science Policy Forum by Handelsman et al. (2004)
 National Academies Summer Institute on Undergraduate Education in Biology
Pathways to Scientific Teaching by Ebert-May and Hodder
CBE Life Science Education interview with Jo Handlesman (2009)
Science Education Forum by Miller et al. (2008)

Science education


People often see hidden faces in things. Depending on the circumstances, this is referred to as pareidolia, the perception or recognition of a specific pattern or form in something essentially different. It is thus also a kind of optical illusion. When an artist notices that two different things have a similar appearance, and draws or paints a picture making this similarity evident, they make images with double meanings. Many of these images are hidden faces or hidden skulls.

These illusionistic pictures present the viewer with a mental choice of two interpretations: head or landscape, head or objects, head or architecture, etc. Both of them are valid, but the viewer sees only one of them, and very often they cannot see both interpretations simultaneously.

Chance images

There are everyday examples of hidden faces, they are "chance images" including faces in the clouds, figures of the Rorschach Test and the Man in the Moon. Leonardo da Vinci wrote about them in his notebook: "If you look at walls that are stained or made of different kinds of stones you can think you see in them certain picturesque views of mountains, rivers, rocks, trees, plains, broad valleys, and hills of different shapes. You can also find in them battles and rapidly moving figures, strange faces and costumes, as well as an infinite number of things." Francois and Jean Robert collected and published a lot of photos of "chance faces".

Hidden faces created by artists

The Mannerist master at the 16th-century imperial Habsburg courts of Vienna and Prague, Giuseppe Arcimboldo of Milan was probably the best known artist for creating extraordinary hidden faces. He arranged flowers, vegetables, fruits, shells, scallops and other animals, books and different things on the canvas in such a way that the whole collection of objects formed a portrait. His series of The Four Seasons seems to be the first use of this approach and technique. Arcimboldo's composite heads were celebrated and imitated by his contemporaries but they were relatively forgotten until participants in the twentieth-century art movements rediscovered them, bringing them to the attention of art historians. He is considered as forerunner of Dada and Surrealism.

Some other famous Renaissance and Baroque artists created hidden faces:
Tobias Stimmer
Hans Holbein the Younger
Matthäus Merian
Maria Sibylla Merian
Marcus Gheeraerts the Elder
Wenzel Hollar
Josse de Momper

Salvador Dalí was fascinated by the technique of Arcimboldo and his paranoia-critical method was influenced by the Mannerist painter. For Dalí the Arcimboldo effect was a form of self concealment as well as this exhibitionist painter seemed, all throughout his life of constant posturing, to hide his real self behind the gaudy externals of his behaviour. Larvatus prodeo, "I wear a mask," he could have said with Descartes and he used this quotation from the French philosopher for the epigraph of his novel Hidden Faces. Probably his most famous "hidden face" is Voltaire in his oil painting: "Slave Market with the Disappearing Bust of Voltaire". Other Surrealist painters rediscovered the technique of hidden faces in the first part of 20th century:
Max Ernst
René Magritte

Istvan Orosz tries to combine the technique of anamorphosis with the hidden faces.
Anamorphosis is used for those works of art that were made as distorted and unrecognizable through clever geometrical constructions. But when viewed from a certain point, or through a reflecting object placed upon it, the hidden image appears in its true shape, that is, it goes through retransformation. Orosz made experiments with anamorphoses not only in resurrecting the old technique but to improve and develop it. Instead of having a meaningless distorted image, his intent is to bring sense to the basic anamorphic picture, giving it meaning in itself with its second reading being revealed by viewing it from a different viewpoint such as looking at it through a special mirror.
The ambiguous layers coming up by this approach make use of the connection or contrast of the two images within the same picture being independent from each other.

There are many other contemporary works using hidden faces:
Shigeo Fukuda
Octavio Ocampo
Sandro del Prete

See also
Anamorphosis
Anthropomorphism
Face perception
Hide and Seek painting
Rubin vase
Utisz

Literature
The pioneering study on the matter is an academic dissertation, unpublished to this day: Anita Joplin, The Anthropomorphic Landscape: A Study in 16th Century Imagery (unpublished thesis, Reed College), 1974.

On anthropomorphic landscapes
 Fernand Hallyn, "Le paysage anthropomorphe", Yves Giraud (ed.), Le Paysage à la Renaissance, Fribourg: Editions universitaires de Fribourg, 1988, pp. 43 ss.
 Michel Weemans & Jean-Hubert Martin (eds.), Le paysage anthropomorphe à la Renaissance (international conference proceedings, 2009), Paris: Réunion des musées nationaux, (awatiting publication).
 Michel Weemans, "Herri met de Bles's sleeping peddler: an exegetical and anthropomorphic landscape", The Art Bulletin, Vol. 88, Iss. 3, pp. 459–481.
 Andreas Hauser, « Andrea Mantegnas 'Wolkenreiter': Manifestationen von kunstloser Natur oder Ursprung von vexierbildhafter Kunst ? », Gerhart von Graevenitz, Stefan Rieger, Felix Thürlemann (eds.), Die Unvermeidlichkeit der Bilder, Tübingen, 2001, pp. 147-172.
 Omar Calabrese (2006): Artists' Self-Portraits,  (The book has a chapter on artists who hide self-portraits in their pictures: e.g. Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Rembrandt, van Gogh, Munch, Dalí, Albrecht Dürer, Velàzquez, Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun, Ingres, Degas, Toulouse-Lautrec, Gainsborough, Matisse, James Ensor, Egon Schiele, Frida Kahlo, Man Ray, Henry Moore, Robert Rauschenberg, Norman Rockwell, and Roy Lichtenstein.)

On crypto-images more broadly
 Walter Melion, Bret Rothstein, Michel Weemans (eds.), The Anthropomorphic Lens: Anthropomorphism, Microcosmism and Analogy in Early Modern Thought and Visual Arts, Leiden: Brill, 2015.
 Jean-Hubert Martin (ed.), Une image peut en cacher une autre - Arcimboldo, Dalí, Raetz (exhibition catalogue), Paris: Galeries nationales du Grand Palais, 2009.
 Jean-Hubert Martin, Stephan Andreae (eds.), Das endlose Rätsel. Dalí und die Magier der Mehrdeutigkeit (exhibition catalogue, Düsseldorf, Museum Kunst Palast), Ostfildern-Ruit, 2003.
 Dario Gamboni, Potential images: ambiguity and indeterminacy in modern art, London: Reaktion, 2002.
 Jean-Claude Lebensztejn, L'art de la tache: Introduction à la Nouvelle methode d'Alexander Cozens, Paris: Éditions du Limon, 1990.
 Jean-Didier Urbain, "La crypto-image ou le palimpseste iconique", Eidos, 5, 1991, p. 1-16, et

On chance images

 Horst W. Janson, "The 'Image made by Chance' in Renaissance Thought", Millard Meiss (ed.), De Artibus opuscula XL. Essays in Honor of Erwin Panofsky, New York, 1961, I, pp. 254– 266, II, pp. 87–88.
 Horst Woldemar: "Chance Images", in: Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas, ed. Philip P. Wiener, vol. 1, New York 1973, pp. 340-353.

Notes

Optical illusions
Optical phenomena
Artistic techniques

Hidden face


Sir Ivone Augustine Kirkpatrick,  (3 February 1897  – 25 May 1964) was a British diplomat who served as the British High Commissioner in Germany after World War II, and as the Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, the highest-ranking civil servant in the Foreign Office.

Early life and family

Kirkpatrick was born on 3 February 1897 in Wellington, India, the elder son of Colonel Ivone Kirkpatrick (1860–1936) of the South Staffordshire Regiment, and his wife, Mary Hardinge (d. 1931), daughter of General Sir Arthur Edward Hardinge, later Commander-in-Chief, Bombay Army, and Governor of Gibraltar.

His father was a descendant of a Scottish family that settled in Ireland during the eighteenth century. His mother was former Maid of Honour to Queen Victoria, and her grandfather Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge, served in the cabinets of Wellington and Peel, and was later governor-general of India in 1844–1848. Her first cousin Charles Hardinge, 1st Baron Hardinge of Penshurst was Permanent Under-Secretary of the Foreign Office in 1906–1910 and 1916–1920, and Viceroy of India in 1910–1916.

Being a Roman Catholic, Kirkpatrick was sent to Downside School to be educated between 1907 and 1914. Kirkpatrick volunteered for active service on the outbreak of the First World War and was commissioned in November 1914 in the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers. Severely wounded in action against the Turks in August 1915, he was accepted by Balliol College, Oxford, in October, but chose to resume his war service early in 1916 when he was employed in propaganda and intelligence activities for the GHQ intelligence service Wallinger London. During the last year of the war he was stationed in Rotterdam in the Netherlands as replacement for Sigismund Payne Best. From there he worked as a spy master, running a network of Belgian resistance agents operating in German-occupied Belgium.

Early career in the Foreign Office
He entered the diplomatic service in July 1919. He was firstly posted to Brazil for one year, returning to London in August 1920 to take up a post in the Western Department of the Foreign Office. He was promoted second secretary in December 1920 and first secretary in October 1928. On 10 January 1929 he married Violet Caulfield, daughter of Colonel Reginald James Cope Cottell, army surgeon, of 7 Phillimore Terrace, London; they had one son, Ivone Peter (1930–2013), and one daughter, Cecilia Sybil (1932–Unknown).

Kirkpatrick was then posted to the British Embassy at Rome from 1930 to 1932; chargé d'affaires at the Vatican in 1932–33; and first secretary at the British Embassy at Berlin from 1933 to 1938. It was during this time that he got firsthand experience of dealing with the emerging European dictatorships.

Second World War
During the Second World War Kirkpatrick was once again employed in the propaganda and information work which he had so relished twenty-five years earlier. Appointed Director of the Foreign Division of the Ministry of Information in April 1940, he became Controller of the European services of the BBC in October 1941. During this time, he made a major contribution which included the task of interviewing Hitler's deputy, Rudolf Hess, following Hess's flight to Scotland in May 1941. His report on Hess was shown only to the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, Lord Privy Seal Clement Attlee and Minister of Aircraft Production Lord Beaverbrook. In September 1944 Kirkpatrick was appointed to organize the British element of the Allied Control Commission for Germany, and following the end of the war he served at Supreme Allied Headquarters as British political adviser to U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower until that organization's disbandment. After the war, he became Permanent Under-Secretary for the German Section at the Foreign Office in 1949.

British High Commissioner for Germany

In June 1950, Kirkpatrick was appointed by King George VI as British High Commissioner for Germany. As one of the three joint sovereigns of western Germany, Kirkpatrick carried immense responsibility particularly with respect to the negotiation of the Bonn conventions during 1951–52, which terminated the occupation regime and (in parallel) prepared the way for the rearmament of West Germany. In November 1953, Kirkpatrick was brought back to London to succeed Sir William Strang as Permanent Under-Secretary.

One of the things that Kirkpatrick is most famous for during this time, was his January 1953 decision ordering the arrest of what he described as "high-level cabal of neo-Nazis intent on undermining German democracy".

Permanent Under-Secretary
Sir Ivone Kirkpatrick succeeded Sir William Strang as Permanent Under-Secretary (PUS) in 1953. In his memoirs, Kirkpatrick later recalled his thoughts on taking up his new position:

Kirkpatrick was related to a former PUS, his mother being first cousin to Charles Hardinge. He joined the Office in February 1919 after spending the previous three years in wartime intelligence and propaganda work, an activity to which he returned when in 1941 he became foreign adviser to the BBC. Serving as head of Chancery in Berlin during 1933–1938, he made clear his detestation of the Nazis. His views seem not, however, to have made any great impression on the British Ambassador, Sir Neville Henderson. After 1945 he was again very much involved with German affairs, serving for a year in the Office's Germany Section and then, during 1950–1953, as High Commissioner in Bonn. Kirkpatrick had a reputation as a combative, even aggressive, Irishman, who had little time for discussion. He was not, according to some of his former colleagues, the easiest of men to work with, and in Lord Gladwyn's opinion he would have made 'an excellent general'.

Suez Crisis
Kirkpatrick's difficult period as PUS culminated in the Suez Crisis of 1956, an event that was little referred to in his memoirs, The Inner Circle (London, 1959). Convinced that the nation's survival was dependent upon the exercise of great power responsibilities, he encouraged the Prime Minister, Anthony Eden, in his dangerous fixation with Nasser as a Middle Eastern Hitler. The experience of the 1930s had led both men to oppose any 'appeasement' of Nasser. Kirkpatrick's closeness to Eden was reinforced by the Prime Minister's dissatisfaction with what he perceived as a pro-Arab stance held by his Foreign Office subordinates during the last Churchill administration. As a result, Eden increasingly used Kirkpatrick as an intermediary between himself and other senior officials in the Office. This close relationship took an ominous turn when the PUS found himself obliged to exclude the Foreign Office from the decision-making process during the final crisis. For Kirkpatrick, the Suez debacle was a test of Britain's great power status, leading him later to reflect that:

No country [in the Western world] can any longer pursue an independent foreign policy. The liberty of action of each is in varying degrees restricted by the need to obtain the concurrence of one or more members of the alliance.

As Permanent Under-Secretary during the Suez Crisis Kirkpatrick was in favour of a strong line against Colonel Nasser. In a letter to the British Ambassador on 10 September 1956, Kirkpatrick said:

If we sit back while Nasser consolidates his position and gradually acquires control of the oil-bearing countries, he can and is, according to our information, resolved to wreck us. If Middle Eastern oil is denied to us for a year or two, our gold reserves will disappear. If our gold reserves disappear, the sterling area disintegrates. If the sterling area disintegrates and we have no reserves, we shall not be able to maintain a force in Germany, or indeed, anywhere else. I doubt whether we shall be able to pay for the bare minimum necessary for our defence. And a country that cannot provide for its defence is finished.

Sir Evelyn Shuckburgh said of Kirkpatrick: "He was so sharp that he cut". However, Suez sullied Kirkpatrick's reputation as PUS, though he may have been guilty of no more than fulfilling a civil servant's duty of loyalty to his political chiefs..

Retirement and death

After retiring from the Foreign Office in February 1957 Kirkpatrick served for five years as chairman of the Independent Television Authority. In addition to his memoirs he wrote Mussolini: Study of a Demagogue (published posthumously in 1964). He was appointed Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) in 1939, Knight Commander (KCMG) in 1948, Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) in 1951, Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) in 1953, and Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB) in 1956. He died at his home, Donacomper, Celbridge, County Kildare, Ireland, on 25 May 1964. He was survived by his wife and two children.

Notes

Publications
The Inner Circle: The Memoirs of Ivone Kirkpatrick (London: Macmillan, 1959).
Mussolini: Study of a Demagogue (London: Odhams, 1964).

External links

1897 births
1964 deaths
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to the Holy See
British Army personnel of World War I
Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers officers
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Members of HM Diplomatic Service
People from Celbridge
Permanent Under-Secretaries of State for Foreign Affairs
Recipients of the Croix de guerre (Belgium)
Spymasters
Foreign Office personnel of World War II
20th-century British diplomats

Ivone Kirkpatrick


Rottumerplaat is an uninhabited small island of the province of Groningen, the Netherlands. It belongs to the municipality of Het Hogeland. It covers an area of 7.8 km².

Rottumerplaat makes part of the West Frisian Islands (Dutch: Waddeneilanden).

It lies west of the small island of Rottumeroog and east of the island of Schiermonnikoog.

West Frisian Islands
Het Hogeland

Rottumerplaat


In physical geography, tundra is where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons. The term "tundra" comes from tūndâr which means 'uplands, tundra, treeless mountains.

There are three types of tundra: Arctic tundra, Antarctic tundra, and alpine tundra. In all of these types, the plants are mostly grass, moss, and lichens. Trees grow in some of the tundra. The boundary between the tundra and the forest is known as the tree line or timberline.The area itself encircles the Arctic Ocean of the Northern Hemisphere. The climate in a tundra biome consists of freezing cold and dryness in the winter and cold summers. The tundra ground is a barren place, often covered with rocks.

Most water on the tundra is frozen within the soil. The permanent frozen soil is called permafrost. Permafrost and fierce winds prevent large trees from growing deep roots. Plants in the tundra are small and grow close to the ground. Plants called cushions grow in tight clumps in the tundra, but lichens are the dominant plants. Lichens cover the rocks. The few trees that do grow on the tundra are dwarf willows and birch.

The deep and cold snow makes life in the tundra very difficult. Every animal must adapt in order to survive. Some have thick fur that turns white during the winter. Others find places to hibernate during the winter months. Some examples of animals that live in the tundra are: rodents, hares, sables, caribou, wolves, arctic foxes, bears, walruses, seals, and snowy owls.

References

Other websites

WWF Tundra Ecoregions
The Arctic biome at Classroom of the Future
British Antarctica Survey
Antarctica: West of the Transantarctic Mountains
Tundra Food Chain | How The Tundra Food Chain Works?

Biomes

Tundra


Regulation is the management of complex systems. It is based on a set of rules and trends. In systems theory, these types of rules exist in many parts of biology and society, but the term has slightly different meanings. For example:
 in biology, gene regulation and metabolic regulation allow living organisms to adapt to their environment and keep homeostasis;
 in government, typically regulation means delegated legislation which is created by an expert
 in business,  industry self-regulation happens through self-regulatory organizations and trade associations which allow industries to set and enforce rules with less government involvement; and,
 in psychology, self-regulation theory is the study of how individuals regulate their thoughts and behaviors to reach goals.

The opposite of regulation is deregulation.

References

Economic policy

Regulation


Restoration may refer to:

 In art, returning something to a better state, see art conservation
 In history, a restoration is a historical episode under which a previous government of an area is reinstated
 The Restoration: a period in the history of the British Isles when the House of Stuart returned to power in England, Scotland, and Ireland in 1660.
 A period in the History of France, the Bourbon Restoration after 1814
 The Spanish Restoration
 The Swiss Restoration known as the Restauration (Switzerland) after the fall of Napoleon in 1814
 The Restoration period in Germany after the failed revolution of 1848
 Meiji Restoration, a period in Japanese history after 1866
 In literature and media:' Restoration (Tremain novel), a 1989 novel by Rose Tremain set during the English Revolution
 Restoration (novel), a 2002 novel by Carol Berg
 The Restoration (movie), a 1909 movie by D.W. Griffith, based on the novel by Fyodor Dostoevsky
 Restoration (movie), a 1995 movie set after the English Revolution starring Robert Downey Jr
 Restoration (TV series), a BBC TV show in the UK highlighting buildings at risk
 Restoration (newspaper)'', a Catholic newspaper published by the Madonna House Apostolate
 In Christianity:
 Restoration of a person. An example of this can be found in John 21:15-19 where Peter is restored by Christ
 Restorationism was a religious movement in 19th century eastern United States and Canada
 In architecture, building restoration consists of work performed on a building in order to return it to a previous state of conservation, from which...
 In ecology, restoration represents the return of a landscape, ecosystem, or other ecological entity to a predefined historical state. See Restoration Ecology
 In criminal justice, restoration is another term for restorative justice
 In telecommunications, circuit restoration,  action taken to repair and return to service one or more telecommunications services
 In dentistry Dental restoration, the shaped replacement material for lost tooth structure
 Restoration of vehicles, furniture, appliances, equipment, etc.
 Restoration Branches, independent organizations that have left the Community of Christ

Restoration


Ian Wallace (born 10 July 1919; died 12 October 2009 in London) was a British bass-baritone opera and concert singer, actor and entertainer.

Wallace was born in London and went to school at Charterhouse.  He soon became known at school as someone who was good at making people laugh.  He learned to sing lots of songs and accompanied himself on the banjolele.

When he wanted to study at university he applied for a choral scholarship at King's College, Cambridge, but he was not offered a place there, so he went to Trinity Hall.  There he studied law and was known for the jokes that he played on people.  He also had singing lessons.

Wallace wanted to go into music theatre, but the war broke out and he joined the army.  Then he was ill with tuberculosis, but it did not stop him from singing to the people in the hospital.

He took a long time to get better.  Gradually he started working in music theatre and then he got a chance to sing in opera.  His voice was a bass baritone.  He sang with the New London Opera Company in operas such as La bohème and The Barber of Seville.  From 1948 to 1961, he regularly sang at Glyndebourne.  He usually sang comic parts (known as "buffo roles).

In 1948 he married Patricia Black.  It was a long and happy marriage.  The couple adopted two children.

The Glyndebourne season took place in the summer, so he had plenty of time to do other things the rest of the year.  He sang in operas in the BBC studios and often appeared in pantomimes.  Then he started to take part in a radio programme called "My Music".  Together with Frank Muir, Dennis Norden, David Franklin and Steve Race  he made this programme extremely popular.  It was a kind of lighthearted quiz programme with lots of stories and laughter.  Wallace was particularly known for singing a song called "The Hippopotamus" by Flanders and Swann.

Wallace continued to sing in opera in the mid-1960s.  He sang the roles of Leporello (in Don Giovanni) and Pistol (in Verdi's Falstaff).   He acted on television and in films and appeared at many charity events.  He was always very cheerful and friendly and he was liked by a lot of people.

He wrote two autobiographies: Promise Me You'll Sing Mud and Nothing Quite Like It.

References
Ian Wallace- Obituary: The Independent 15 October 2009 p.38

1919 births
2009 deaths
Actors from London
Bass-baritones
British autobiographers
English stage actors
Singers from London

Ian Wallace


In cryptography, the key space of an algorithm refers to the set of all possible keys that can be used to initialize the cryptographic algorithm. For example, if an algorithm works using a key that is a string of 10 bits, then its key space is the set of all binary strings of length 10 bits; i.e. we have key space of size 210 = 1024.

To avoid attackers from guessing the key using a brute-force attack, the key space is usually designed to be very large. Another needed attribute is that the key space designed to be flat, having no or very few weak keys.

Examples
The block cipher Rijndael/AES uses a key of up to 256 bits, resulting in a key space containing about 2256 which is over 1.1579 × 1077 keys.  This makes it computationally infeasible to check each possible key by brute force.

In the DES block cipher, a 56-bit key is used, resulting in a relatively small key space of size 256.

The ROT13 cipher is only designed to prevent people from accidentally reading messages (e.g. movie plot details). As there is no key, the key space is therefore empty.

References

Cryptography

Key space


Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas is a mid-sized city in northern Tamaulipas, Mexico established in the year 1847. Nuevo Laredo has a population of 355,827. Nuevo Laredo is a border city which is part of the bi-national metropolitan area of Laredo, Texas, United States - Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas, Mexico with a total population of 575,585. The main sources of income for Nuevo Laredo is international trade, followed by retail sales.

History
Laredo, Texas was founded by Don Tomas Sanchez under the name of Villa de San Agustin de Laredo in 1755 in a colony called Nuevo Santander in  New Spain. Today, most of Nuevo Santander is part of Texas. Laredo was named after a village in Spain also called Laredo in Cantabria. In 1847, when Texas became part of the United States, 17 families decided to remain Mexican and crossed the Rio Grande into Mexico and established Ciudad Nuevo Laredo.

Cities in Mexico
Tamaulipas
1847 establishments in North America
19th-century establishments in Mexico

Nuevo Laredo


The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was a student activist movement in the United States in the 1960s (1960 to 1969).

A new SDS group was also begun in 2006.

History 1960-1969
SDS held its first meeting in 1960 at Ann Arbor, Michigan. They had their first convention in 1962, and criticized the political system of the United States for not bringing international peace or fixing problems in society at home. It also called for non-violent civil disobedience so that student youth could bring forth a "participatory democracy."

In the school year 1962-1963, the President of SDS was Tom Hayden, who later became famous. There were nine chapters around the country with at most, about 1000 members. The national office (NO) in New York City had only a few desks, some broken chairs, a couple of filing cabinets, and a few typewriters.

On October 1, 1964, the University of California, Berkeley exploded into the free speech movement. Led by a Friends of SNCC student activist named Mario Savio, more than three thousand students surrounded a police car where a student, arrested for setting up a card table against a ban by the university, was being taken away. The sit-down stopped the police car from moving for 36 hours. The demonstrations, meetings and strikes all but shut the university down. Hundreds of students were arrested. SDS leaders watched and learned from this lesson.

In February 1965, US President Lyndon Johnson made the war in Vietnam much bigger by bombing North Vietnam and putting ground troops right into fighting against the Viet Cong in the South. The draft became a very real issue in the lives of students in America. Campus chapters of SDS all over the country started to lead small, local demonstrations against the war and the NO became the main group that organized the March against the war in Washington DC on April 17.

The first teach-in against the war was held in the University of Michigan. Soon hundreds more, all over the country, were held. The demonstration in Washington, DC attracted about 25,000 anti-war protesters and SDS became the leading student group against the war on most U.S. campuses.

The 1965 summer convention was held at Kewadin, Northern Michigan. and the National Office, moved from Manhattan to Chicago at about the same time. This brought more changes.

"For the first time at an SDS meeting people smoked marijuana; Pancho Villa mustaches... blue workshirts, denim jackets, and boots were worn by both men and women. These were people generally raised outside of the East, many from the Midwest and Southwest

The Winter and Spring of 1967 saw more militancy of the protests at many campuses. Harassment by the authorities was also on the rise. The hippie movement really began to take hold. The 1967 convention spoke on the draft and resisting within the Army itself, and made a call for immediate withdrawal from Vietnam. Also, a women's liberation vote was passed for the first time.

That Fall saw more anti-war actions. The school year started with a large demonstration against the University of Wisconsin in Madison, Wisconsin on October 17 for letting Dow recruiters on campus. Peaceful at first, the demonstrations turned to a sit-in that was violently broken up by the Madison police and riot squad, causing many injuries and arrests. A rally and a student strike then closed the university for several days. Demonstrations against the draft led by members of the Resistance, the War Resisters League, and SDS added fuel to the fire of resistance. After regular civil rights tactics of peaceful pickets, the Oakland California Stop the Draft Week ended in mass hit and run fights with the police. The huge (100,000 people) October 21 March on the Pentagon saw hundreds arrested and hurt. Night-time raids on draft offices began to spread.

In the spring of 1968, National SDS activists led an effort on the campuses called "Ten Days of Resistance" and local chapters held rallies, marches, sit-ins and teach-ins, ending in a one-day strike on April 26. About a million students stayed away from classes that day, the largest ever student strike in the history of the United States. It was mostly ignored by the New York City-based national media, which was more focused on the student shutdown of Columbia University in NYC, led by an inter-racial alliance of Columbia SDS chapter activists and Student Afro Society activists. Because of the Columbia Student Revolt, "SDS" became a household name in the United States for a few years; and membership in SDS chapters around the United States grew greatly during the 1968-69 school year.

In the summer of 1969, the ninth SDS national convention was held at the Chicago Coliseum with some 2000 people attending. Many groups of the movement were there, even Communists, and set up their tables all around the edges of the hall, together with undercover spies, creating an air of excitement.

Each of the delegates was given a paper saying "You don't need a Weatherman to know which way the wind blows" (a lyric from a Bob Dylan song, "Subterranean Homesick Blues"). This was written by a group who later became called the Weathermen and were involved in more violent protests. They took over by voting out another large group, the convention quickly fell apart, and so did SDS.

2006: The New SDS

Beginning January 2006, there is a movement to start a new SDS. A small group of old SDS members joined with a Connecticut high school student to call for a new SDS fighting for civil rights and against war. Several chapters at various colleges were later started. On Martin Luther King Day of 2006, these chapters called for the first national convention since 1969 to be held in the summer of 2006

Lately SDS has been in actions against war. The Pace University chapter of SDS protested against a speech by Bill Clinton held at the campus, causing the university to hand over two students to the United States Secret Service. When the school was going to kick these two students out of school, Pace SDS began a movement in March 2006 protesting the university's actions.

On March 19 2006, SDS marched in New York City against the war in Iraq. Seventeen people were arrested at the Times Square Recruitment Center, including several SDS members. Beginning in March and continuing into April and May, SDS chapters across the country participated in the Immigrant Rights Movement. On April 29 2006 SDS was in the march for Peace, Justice and Democracy in Manhattan, NY. As of July 2006, there are 150 SDS chapters around the country and over 1000 members.

The newly formed SDS held its first national convention from August 4 to August 7, 2006 at the University of Chicago.

Further reading
 Students for a Democratic Society (S.D.S.), Records, 1965-74. May 4 Collection—Box 107. Kent State University Libraries and Media Services. Department of Special Collections and Archives. Online guide retrieved April 12, 2005.
 Students for a Democratic Society Period : 1962-1970. Period : 1962-1970. Total Size : 0.5 m. International Institute of Social History. Online guide retrieved April 12, 2005 .

Articles
 Alper, Mark. The Legacy of S.D.S. and Its Relevance to Today's Activists . Electronic Worker. Direct Action Tendency, Socialist Party USA. Retrieved April 12, 2005.
 Bookchin, Murray. Anarchy and Organization: A Letter To The Left. Reprinted from New Left Notes. January 15, 1969. Retrieved April 12, 2005. "The essay originally was written in reply to an attack by Huey Newton on anarchist forms of organization."

"New SDS"

 Knight, Alexander. The Rebirth of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). Monthly Review: MRZine. August 9, 2006.

Books and references

 Adelson, Alan. SDS. New York, Charles Scribener's Sons, 1972. ()
 Heath, G. Louis, ed. Vandals in the Bomb Factory: The History and Literature of the Students for a Democratic Society. Metuchin, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1976.
 Halstead, Fred. Out Now!: A Participant's Account of the Movement in the United States Against the Vietnam War. 759 pages. Hardcover edition. Publisher: Anchor Foundation; Reprint edition. June 1, 1978. .
 Klatch, Rebecca E.. A Generation Divided: The New Left, the New Right, and the 1960s. Berkeley : University of California Press, 1999.

SDS Publications
 Davidson, Carl. Toward a Student Syndicalist Movement or University Reform Revisited. Chicago: Students for a Democratic Society. ca. 1967. Mimeographed. 7 p.
 Gilbert, David and David Loud. U. S. Imperialism. Chicago: Students for a Democratic Society, 1968. Wraps. 33 p.
 Haber, Al and Dick Flacks. Peace, Power and the University: Prepared for Students for a Democratic Society and the Peace Research and Education Project.Ann Arbor: Peace Research and Education Project, 1963. Mimeographed. 12 p..
 James, Mike. Getting Ready for the Firing Line: Join Community Union. Chicago: Students for a Democratic Society, March 1968. Stapled softcover. 8p. Photos by Nancy Hollander, Tom Malear of the Chicago Film Coop, Todd Gitlin & Les Jordan, SCEF. Reprinted from "The Activist," Spring 1967. Introduction for this pamphlet by Mike James.
 Lemisch, Jessie. Towards a Democratic History. Ann Arbor & Chicago: Radical Education Project/Students for a Democratic Society, (1967). Radical Education Project Occasional Paper. 8 p.
 Lynd, Staughton. The New Radicals and "Participatory Democracy". Chicago: Students for a Democratic Society, 1965. 10 p.
 Oglesby, Carl. The Speech Given by Carl Oglesby, President, Students for a Democratic Society, at the Nov. 27, 1965 March on Washington to End the War in Vietnam. Chicago: Students for a Democratic Society, ca. 1965. 8 1/2 x 11 in. Mimeographed. 8 p.
 Olinick, Michael. The Campus Press. Distributed by Students for a Democratic Society for the Liberal Study Group, National Student Association, 1962. 13 p.
 Oppenheimer, Martin. Alienation or Participation: The Sociology of Participatory Democracy. n.p.: Students of a Democratic Society (S.D.S.), 1966. 7 pages. 1st edition. Stapled booklet.
 Students For A Democratic Society [S.D.S.]. Fight Racism! Boston: Students for a Democratic Society, n.d. [1969]. 28pp. 1st edition. Stapled softcover.
 Students for a Democratic Society. New Left Notes. Chicago. [?] Vol. 1 # 1 1965 [?] - Vol. 4 # 31 October 2, 1969.
 Students for a Democratic Society [Progressive Labor]. SDS New Left Notes, Vol. 5, No. 15, July 6, 1970 - [?]. Boston, 1970.

U.S. Government Publications
 U.S. House of Representatives. Investigation of Students for a Democratic Society, Part 2 (Kent State University): Hearings Before the Committee on Internal Security, House of Representatives; 91st Congress, 2nd Session, June 24 and 25, 1969. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969.
 U.S. House of Representatives. Investigation of Students for a Democratic Society, Part 3-A (George Washington University); Hearings Before the Committee on Internal Security, House of Representatives; 91st Congress, 2nd Session, July 22, 1969. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969.
 U.S. House of Representatives. Student Views Toward U.S. Policy in Southeast Asia; Hearings Before an Ad Hoc Committee of Members of the House of Representatives; 91st Congress, 2nd Session, July 22, 1969. Washington: U.S. Government Printng Office, 1969.
 U.S. president. Commission on Campus Unrest. Report. This publication is often referred to as the Scranton Report, issued in 1970.

Other websites
 SDS Historical Documents and other links
 "Shut It Down!"  Includes Port Huron Statement, "SDS: The Last Hurrah" (an account of Chicago 1969 written by an undercover federal agent), and the Revolutionary Youth Movement mission statement.
 University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections - Vietnam Era Ephemera This collection contains leaflets and newspapers that were distributed on the University of Washington campus during the decades of the 1960s and 1970s. They reflect the social environment and political activities of the youth movement in Seattle during that period.

"New SDS"
 National SDS home page
 "The Organizer" - National SDS Blog
 National SDS Web Forum
 List of SDS Chapters (US)
 Pace SDS home page
 University of Central Florida SDS home page
 University of Arizona Tucson SDS home page

1960s in the United States
American culture
1960 establishments in the United States
Youth organizations
Political movements
Political organizations based in the United States

Students for a Democratic Society


Iron Monkey is a 1993 Hong Kong martial arts film written and produced by Tsui Hark and directed by Yuen Woo-ping, starring Donnie Yen, Yu Rongguang, Jean Wang, Angie Tsang and Yuen Shun-yi. It is not related to the 1977 Hong Kong film of the same title.

The film is a fictionalised account of an episode in the childhood of the Chinese folk hero Wong Fei-hung and his father Wong Kei-ying, and their encounter with the "Iron Monkey". In 1996, a separate film titled Iron Monkey 2 was released, but it is unrelated to the 1993 film.

Plot
The plot centers on a masked martial artist known as Iron Monkey. Iron Monkey is actually the alter ego of a traditional Chinese medicine physician called Yang Tianchun. During the day, Yang runs his clinic and provides free medical treatment for the poor, which he subsidises by charging his rich patients. At night, he dresses in black and travels around town to rob the rich and help the poor. Once, he breaks into the governor's residence and makes off with a hoard of gold. The guards and four Shaolin monks are unable to stop him. The governor orders the chief constable, Fox, to hunt down Iron Monkey and to arrest anyone who is linked to him in any way. Fox appears to be a bungler who is not aware that Iron Monkey is actually the physician treating his injured men who fought with Iron Monkey the previous night.

In the meantime, Wong Kei-ying, also a physician and martial artist from Foshan, arrives in town with his young son, Wong Fei-hung. Wong Kei-ying fights with street thugs who attempt to rob him. Some soldiers who have been observing the fight nearby suspect that Wong is Iron Monkey, and they arrest him and his son. During the trial, the governor orders Wong Fei-hung to be branded for defiance, but Iron Monkey shows up and disrupts the proceedings. Wong Kei-ying is eager to prove his innocence, and he fights with Iron Monkey. Neither of them is able to defeat his opponent, and Iron Monkey escapes. The governor is impressed by Wong Kei-ying's skill, and he holds Wong Fei-hung hostage to force Wong Kei-ying to help him capture Iron Monkey within seven days.

The locals despise Wong Kei-ying for assisting the governor in capturing their hero, so they refuse to sell him food or provide him with shelter. Wong eventually arrives at Yang's clinic and is taken in by Yang and Miss Orchid, while he is still unaware of Yang's true identity. With help from Fox, Yang manages to bring Wong Fei-hung, who has fallen sick, out of prison and keeps him in his clinic. Wong Fei-hung learns new martial arts from Yang and Miss Orchid during his stay with them.

Meanwhile, a Shaolin traitor named Hin-hung, who has become an imperial official, arrives in town with his followers. Hin-hung takes over as the new governor. Iron Monkey and Wong Kei-ying run into Hin-hung and his men in two separate encounters, and they are severely wounded by him. They retreat back to the clinic, where Wong is surprised to discover that Yang is actually Iron Monkey. They assist each other and recover from their wounds quickly. Concurrently, Hin-hung orders his men to search the town for Iron Monkey and Wong Kei-ying, but Fox gets to the clinic first to warn Orchid. It turns out that Fox has known Iron Monkey's true identity all along, and he has been secretly helping Iron Monkey.

Hin-hung's monks eventually find their way to the clinic, and they engage Orchid in a fight. When Orchid proves far too skillful for the monks, they drug her and attempt to rape her. She is saved by Wong Fei-hung, who continues the battle with the monks using the staff movements he learn from Yang and Orchid. Although Wong Fei-hung is able to defeat the Hin-hung's best monks, he is captured and tortured. Orchid escapes to warn Wong Kei-ying and Iron Monkey.

Iron Monkey and Wong Kei-ying (also wearing the Iron Monkey costume) break into the governor's residence to rescue Wong Fei-hung and defeat Hin-hung's men and monks. They have a final confrontation with Hin-hung on top of burning wooden poles. After an intense fight, Iron Monkey and Wong Kei-ying defeat Hin-hung and knock him down into the inferno below. At the end of the film, the protagonists learn that a new governor has taken office, and they hope that he will be a good official. The Wongs leave town for Foshan while Yang and Orchid see them off. Fox says that he would like to visit the Wongs, but that he is too busy "trying to catch that Iron Monkey". After the film, screen captions inform viewers that Yang and Orchid are married, and that Wong Fei-hung, inspired by his father and the Iron Monkey, later becomes a hero among the Chinese and restores honor to the Shaolin Monastery.

Cast
 Donnie Yen as Wong Kei-ying
 Yu Rongguang as Yang Tianchun / Iron Monkey
 Jean Wang as Miss Orchid
 Angie Tsang as Wong Fei-hung
 Yen Shi-kwan as Hin-hung
 James Wong as Governor Cheng
 Yuen Shun-yi as Fox
 Lee Fai as White Eagle (Hin-hung's student)
 Hsiao Ho as Disfigured Swordsman (Hin-hung's student)
 Chun Kwai-bo as Shaolin monk
 Chan Siu-wah as Shaolin monk
 Chan Chi-man as Shaolin monk
 Yip Choi-nam as Shaolin monk
 Cheung Fung-lei as Governor Cheng's mistress
 Shut Mei-yee as Governor Cheng's advisor
 Duen Wai-lun as Rich patient
 Dang Tai-who as Chief of thieves' gang
 Wong Kim-ban as Member of thieves' gang
 Ling Chi-hung as Constable
 Lam Chi-tai (extra)
 Dion Lam (extra)

Reception
The film's domestic release was delayed due to producer Tsui Hark's insistence on filming some additional comedic scenes after Yuen Woo-ping had finished the film. According to an interview with Tsui on the Iron Monkey DVD release, this delay may have had a negative effect on the film's box office earnings.

The film was given a wide release in the United States by Miramax Films, backed by director Quentin Tarantino. It opened in October 2001 on 1,225 screens, earning just over $6 million in its opening weekend and more than $14 million overall. It received good reviews in America and became the 11th highest-grossing foreign language film in the United States. The film received favorable reviews from critics and holds a 90% rating on the film review website Rotten Tomatoes. The film was ranked #99 in Empire magazine's "The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema" in 2010.

Changes in the United States release
In its release in 2001, numerous controversial edits and changes were made to the film for the United States release, to the dismay of Hong Kong cinema fans. Miramax made several changes that the company felt would make the film more marketable to American audiences:

 As most Americans are unfamiliar with the story of Wong Fei-hung, his name was removed from the original Chinese title.
 The subtitles were tailored to diminish the political context of the story.
 Some scenes were trimmed to tone down the violence.
 Originally, some fight scenes had been sped up in places through undercranking. The United States release slowed these scenes down to a more normal pace.
 Several comedic scenes, particularly ones interspersed in the fight scenes, were removed to give the fights a more serious feel. Although such comedic devices are common in Hong Kong cinema, the editors felt that they might appear odd to American audiences.
 A new soundtrack was composed that emulated the classical score to Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, and in doing so, the Wong Fei-hung theme song was eliminated.
 New sound effects were dubbed for the fighting to make them more realistic (as opposed to the more traditional exaggerated Hong Kong sounds).

Home media
In Hong Kong, the film was initially released by Megastar (later Deltamac) in a basic version. This version was released in the United States by Tai Seng. Later, it was re-released in Hong Kong by IVL in a digitally remastered edition in the Donnie Yen & Yuen Woo Ping Action Collection.

On 26 March 2001, the DVD was released by Hong Kong Legends in the United Kingdom in region 2. On 1 March 2004, the DVD for the film was released in a two-disc platinum edition. One year later, the Epic Action Collection DVD was released on 26 December 2005 in a four-disc set, which includes two other martial arts films - Wing Chun and Tai Chi Boxer - also directed by Yuen Woo-ping. Five months later, The Donnie Yen Collection DVD was released on 29 May 2006 in a four-disc set, which includes another two martial arts films - New Dragon Gate Inn and Once Upon a Time in China II. Miramax (with assistance from Lionsgate on some versions) released their version on DVD in the United States and also on Blu-ray on 15 September 2009, with the English audio in DTS-HD Master Audio 5.1 and the Chinese audio in Dolby Digital 5.1.

See also
Donnie Yen filmography

References

External links

 HKMDB

1993 films
1990s Cantonese-language films
1993 action films
1990s adventure films
1993 martial arts films
Films directed by Yuen Woo-ping
Hong Kong martial arts films
Kung fu films
1990s Hong Kong films

Iron Monkey (1993 film)


Great Petition is a sculpture located in Burston Reserve, near the Victorian State Parliament Building, in Melbourne, Australia. The sculpture was commissioned by the State Government of Victoria and the City of Melbourne, designed by artists Susan Hewitt and Penelope Lee, and constructed by brecknock Consulting.

The sculpture refers to the "Monster Petition" calling for women to be granted the right to vote, which was signed by 30,000 Victorian women over a period of six weeks in 1891. The original petition, which consists of sheets of paper glued onto lengths of calico fabric, is 260 metres long and is held by the state's Public Record Office. The petition was tabled in Parliament in September 1891 but the ensuing Women's Franchise Bill was rejected by the Upper House. It was another 19 years before the Adult Suffrage Bill was passed by the Victorian government, however the petition is considered an important point in the state's suffrage campaign.

The sculpture is a 20-metre-long scroll which folds onto itself and appears to submerge itself underground before reappearing again on the other side of a pathway.

It was unveiled on 3 December 2008 to commemorate the centenary of women's suffrage in Victoria.

See also
 List of monuments and memorials to women's suffrage

References

External links

Monuments and memorials to women's suffrage
Monuments and memorials in Melbourne
Sculptures in Australia
2008 sculptures
History of Victoria (state)
Buildings and structures in the City of Melbourne (LGA)
Tourist attractions in Melbourne
East Melbourne, Victoria
2008 establishments in Australia

Great Petition (sculpture)


Emiliano Zapata Salazar (August 8, 1879 – April 10, 1919) was a leader in the Mexican Revolution, which started in 1910.

Zapata was ambushed and shot by Mexican troops in 1919. He is a folk hero in Mexico to this day.

Emiliano Zapata was born to Gabriel Zapata and Cleofas Jertrudiz Salazar of Anenecuilco, Morelos. Zapata's family were Mexicans of Nahua and Spanish ancestry. He was the ninth of ten children.

1879 births
1919 deaths
Mexican generals

Emiliano Zapata


The Milk Marketing Board was an agency of the British government.

The Board bought all of the milk in England and Wales from  dairy farmers and passed it on to be processed and sold.  This way small farmers always got a fair price, because no big producer could sell their milk more cheaply.

The Board was first set up in 1933.  In 1933 and 1934 three other boards were set up for Scotland and one for Northern Ireland in 1955.

From 1958 until it was abolished the Milk Marketing Board paid money for the Tour of Britain bicycle race, which was called "The Milk Race".

Other websites

uk/foodrin/milk/pdf/historyofmmbs.pdf History of the Milk Marketing Boards

Government agencies of the United Kingdom
Agricultural organizations
Milk

Milk Marketing Board