Matthew  Frederick Christopher (August 16, 1917 – September 20, 1997) was an American writer of children's books. He wrote more than 100 novels and 300 short stories, mainly featuring sports. After Christopher's death, his family oversaw production of books under Christopher's name created by various writers and illustrators, treating the name as a trademark.

Early life and education
Matthew Christopher was born in Bath, Pennsylvania, the oldest of nine children. He was a gifted athlete as a child, excelling in nearly every sport he attempted, especially baseball and football, which he played in high school when the family moved to Ludlowville, New York.

After graduating from high school in 1935, Christopher maintained his involvement in baseball, playing first in a semi-professional league in the mid-1930s before moving up to professional ball, playing third base for the Smith Falls Beavers of Ontario, Canada (an affiliate of the Class C Can-Am League).  Despite having two hits and two RBIs in four at-bats in his first game, Christopher soon found that he could not hit minor-league pitching consistently and was cut from the team. Although he was offered a spot on the Brockport Blues in the same league, he decided that he was not good enough to play at that level and declined their offer. Christopher returned home to New York, where he played semi-professional ball until a knee injury shortly thereafter ended his career.

Christopher and Catherine M. Krupa (Cay) married on July 13, 1940 (five weeks before his 23rd birthday). Their son Martin, the first of four children, was born in 1942 or 1943. Two works by Christopher were published in 1941, a one-act play and a detective story, for which he earned $5 and $50. He then worked full-time for National Cash Register in Ithaca, New York, and he retained a full-time job until he was financially able to retire and write full-time in 1963.

Career
Christopher recalled at age 77 he won a prize in a short-story writing contest at 17. Of 200 winners, he ranked 191st. He wrote "a detective story a week for 40 weeks," among other activities at about age 20.

"I became interested in writing when I was 14, a freshman in high school," Christopher reflected in 1992. "I was selling magazines such as the Saturday Evening Post, Country Gentleman, and Liberty, and I would read the stories, particularly the adventure and mystery stories, and think how wonderful it would be to be able to write stories and make a living at it. I also read detective, horror, aviation, and sports stories and decided I would try writing them myself. Determined to sell, I wrote a detective story a week for 40 weeks, finding the time to marry, work, and play baseball and basketball before I sold my first story in 1941, 'The Missing Finger Points', for $50 to Detective Story magazine.""About the Author" . Matt Christopher: The #1 Sports Series for Kids (mattchristopher.com). Retrieved 2014-04-07. —published by Fiction House.

For the next 20 years, Christopher wrote novels in several genres including science fiction, mystery, adventure, and romance, but he was unable to get a single one published, even as his short stories continued to sell.

In 1953, he finally sold his first book, Look for the Body, a 60,000-word detective novel, to Phoenix Press of New York City for $150 ($1,665 in 2022 dollars).

But his true success came in 1954 with the publication of The Lucky Baseball Bat. "I decided to write a baseball book for children", said Christopher. "I was living in Syracuse, New York at the time, working at General Electric. I spoke about my idea to the branch librarian. She was immediately interested and told me that they needed sports stories badly." His conversation with the librarian, along with a rejection letter from a publisher (who recommended that Christopher concentrate on writing stories for kids since he seemed to "have a talent for writing about children"), inspired Christopher to sit down over Thanksgiving in 1952 and write The Lucky Baseball Bat, whose publication by Little, Brown, and Company earned him $250 net. Thanks to that success he continued writing and his second children's sports novel, Baseball Pals, was published in 1956. Both those first two books were about 120 pages long and were published by Little, Brown with illustrations by Robert Henneberger.

By 1963, Matt had 15 novels published, most of them by Little, Brown.  He was finally able to retire and concentrate solely on writing.

Though Christopher wrote about many sports, his most frequent subject was baseball. His best baseball books are considered to be Wild Pitch, Catcher with a Glass Arm, and The Kid Who Only Hit Homers. He also wrote many books about football, including  Tough to Tackle, Crackerjack Halfback, and Football Nightmare, and soccer, including Soccer Scoop, Soccer Halfback, and Top Wing, basketball and hockey. He has written books centered on snowboarding, dirt bike racing, volleyball, golf and many other sports, in addition to a number of biographies of sportsmen and women. His first children's sports book published was The Lucky Baseball Bat, a 123-page novel published with illustrations by Robert Henneberger by Little, Brown and Company in Boston in 1954.

When asked why he wrote sports books for children, Christopher once responded, "Sports have made it possible for me to meet many new people with all sorts of life stories, on and off the field, and these are grist for this writer's mill."

In 1993, he won the annual Milner Award as "the author whose books are most liked by the children of Atlanta, Georgia".

Death and legacy
Christopher died September 20, 1997, in Charlotte, North Carolina from surgical complications for a non-malignant brain tumor.

Christopher's son Dale later wrote a biography of his father "in the tradition of the Matt Christopher Biography Bookshelf, with exclusive photos, original letters, and memorabilia."

Posthumous Matt Christopher books

New books credited to Matt Christopher continue to be published, over 20 years after his death. Regarding On the field—with Terrell Davis (Little, Brown dog, 2000), nonfiction written by Catherine M. Christopher with  the American football star Terrell Davis, the Library of Congress (LC) ascertained May 8, 2000, that the writer was Matt Christopher's widow and that his name was a trademark. LC now instructs libraries in a general Note:
The name Matt Christopher continues to appear on title pages of new works after his death. The name is considered by the family as a "trademark." Catalogers should consider whether the name should be treated as a statement of responsibility, part of a series statement (e.g., "Matt Christopher the #1 sports series for kids"), or an "at head of title" note. The author of the text is usually given on the t.p. verso [ title page verso ] and may be considered the creator of these posthumous works.

For instance, there are seven LC online catalog records for Matt Christopher books published during 2002:
 Dive right in, text by Robert Hirschfeld
 On the ice with—Mario Lemieux, text by Glenn Stout
 Run for it, by Hirschfeld
 All keyed up, text by Stephanie Peters, illustrated by Daniel Vasconcellos
 You lucky dog, by Peters and Vasconcellos
 On the field with—Alex Rodriguez, by Stout
 On the field with—Venus and Serena Williams, by Stout

Stephanie True Peters of Beverly, Massachusetts is the series editor (2014) and the writer of about fifteen Matt Christopher books since 2000.

References

Further reading
 "Making Memories Writer Gives Young Readers a Wealth of Stories", Joe Posnanski, The York Observer (York, SC), November 27, 1988
 Behind the Desk with Matt Christopher: The #1 Sportswriter for Kids, Dale Christopher, (Little, Brown, 2004),

External links

  from 1999—inclg Matt Christopher from 2000

1917 births
1997 deaths
20th-century American male writers
American children's writers
Deaths from brain cancer in the United States
Writers from Northampton County, Pennsylvania

Matt Christopher


Susannah is an opera in two acts by the American composer Carlisle Floyd, who wrote the libretto and music while a member of the piano faculty at Florida State University. Floyd adapted the story from the Apocryphal tale of Susannah and the Elders, though the latter story has a more positive ending. The story focuses on 18-year-old Susannah Polk, an innocent girl who is targeted as a sinner in the small mountain town of New Hope Valley, in the Southern American state of Tennessee.

The opera was awarded the New York Music Critics Circle Award for Best New Opera in 1956 and was chosen to represent American music and culture at the World's Fair at Brussels in 1958, with a production (by Frank Corsaro) that featured Phyllis Curtin and Norman Treigle. It received its Metropolitan Opera premiere in 1999, with Renée Fleming singing the title role, Jerry Hadley singing Sam and Samuel Ramey singing Blitch. Ramey also recorded the complete opera with Cheryl Studer as Susannah and Jerry Hadley as Sam.  Other well-known sopranos who have portrayed the heroine have included Lee Venora, Joy Clements, Faith Esham, Maralin Niska, Nancy Shade, Diana Soviero, Karan Armstrong, Kelly Kaduce and Phyllis Treigle (opposite Michael Devlin as Blitch).

Susannah is one of the most performed American operas, second to Porgy and Bess, and celebrated its 50th anniversary with a performance on the very stage where it premiered February 24, 1955, in Ruby Diamond Auditorium at Florida State University. At the first performance, Carlisle Floyd was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Florida State.

It has been speculated that the opera was inspired by McCarthyism, and threat of institutional Hollywood communist invasion of America during the early 1950s. The opera also contains many feminist themes that had not been widely explored in popular culture at the time of the opera's writing. Floyd said this opera was meant to be different from a traditional opera.

The music is largely characterized by Appalachian folk melodies. Also included are some Protestant hymns and some traditional classical music. A particularly prominent part of the opera is Susannah's soaring and melancholy aria in Act II, "The Trees on the Mountain", which is similar to Appalachian folk tunes but in fact Floyd's own composition. In 2019, Rhiannon Giddens released a vernacular version of "Trees on the Mountains" on her album, There Is No Other.

Synopsis
Written during the McCarthy era, Susannah is based loosely on the Apocryphal tale of Susannah and the Elders. In New Hope Valley, Tennessee, Susannah – a pretty and well-mannered young woman of humble origins – is faced with hostility from her church community. The opera opens at a square dance given by her church; a group of wives, jealous of Susannah's beauty and the attention it brings from their husbands, are gossiping about her. Mrs. McLean, one of the wives, states that you can't expect more from someone who was raised by her drunken brother, Sam. Finally, the Reverend Olin Blitch, newly arrived to lead the congregation, enters and asks Susannah to dance despite the gossip. Later that evening, Susannah tells her admirer Little Bat – son of Mrs. McLean and her husband, an elder of the church – about the dance; Little Bat leaves abruptly once her brother Sam returns from hunting.

The next morning Susannah is innocently bathing naked in the creek near her home; she is discovered by the elders, who are searching for a baptismal stream. They conceal their lust with outrage and tell the community of her wickedness. Susannah arrives at a church dinner that evening and is sent away, much to her confusion. Later, as she is pondering why she has been shunned, Little Bat tells her that the elders have denounced her for bathing in the nude, and admits that he was coerced into saying she seduced him.

Little Bat informs Susannah that she must make a public confession in order to be absolved. Though she claims she has nothing to confess, she goes to the service where Olin Blitch is preaching. When she is singled out to come forward, she runs away. Once the service has ended, Reverend Blitch goes to Susannah's house and offers to pray for her soul. Upon discovering that her brother is away, Blitch rapes her.

The next day Blitch, having discovered that Susannah was a virgin, comes to her and begs for forgiveness. He throws himself on Susannah's mercy, but she refuses to forgive him. Blitch preaches a sermon to the congregation, in which he claims that God revealed to him in a vision that Susannah has been judged unjustly, but the congregation doesn't believe him.  When Susannah tells Sam the story, he threatens to kill Blitch and leaves for the baptismal service carrying his shotgun.  He shoots Blitch. Convinced that Susannah led her brother to murder, the community heads to her house to drive her out of the valley. However, Little Bat has warned her in advance, and when the vigilantes arrive she is waiting with a shotgun. They retreat, but she has effectively severed her ties with the community and her world.

Main roles and world-premiere cast
Susannah Polk – soprano (Phyllis Curtin)
Sam Polk – tenor (Walter James)
Olin Blitch – bass-baritone (Mack Harrell)
Little Bat McLean – tenor (Eb Thomas)
Elder McLean – baritone (Harrison Fisher)
Elder Gleaton – tenor (Kenneth Nelson)
Elder Hayes – tenor (Dayton Smith)
Elder Ott – baritone (Lee Liming)
Mrs. McLean – mezzo-soprano (Martha Kay Willis)
Mrs. Gleaton – soprano (Catherine Murphy)
Mrs. Hayes – soprano (Joan Nichy)
Mrs. Ott – contralto (Bette Jo Armstrong)

Production history
The German premiere was in 1959 at the Theater Oberhausen. In 1965 and 1966, the Metropolitan Opera National Company performed the opera in 72 cities throughout North America during a nine month tour. This production was directed by José Quintero, used sets designed by Beni Montresor, and starred Maralin Niska in the title role.

Rossini's The Kammeroper in Vienna produced the opera in 1996 with Canadian Desmond Byrne as Blitch. Deutsche Oper Berlin premiered their production in 1997 with Dean Petersen in that role.

The first performances in the U.K. were given by Kentish Opera in Orpington in July 1961, and were reviewed in The Times.
The opera was performed by John Lewis Opera in 1968, and these performances were incorrectly stated in the 1979 edition of the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Opera to be the first stage performances in England

In 1996, the opera was performed as a community project directed by John La Bouchardiere at mac (Birmingham) in 1996. In November 2001 AAC presents Opera for All put on four performances of Susannah at the Sir Richard Eyre Theatre in Willesden, London NW10. The first fully professional production in the UK was by English Touring Opera in 2008.

The opera had its New York Metropolitan Opera premiere in 1999 with Renée Fleming in the title role, and Samuel Ramey.

The Theater Hagen mounted a production in the spring of 2012. In 2010, with a cast including Latonia Moore as Susannah and James Morris as Blitch, the Opera of Bilbao, Spain produced Susannah conducted by John Mauceri with the Robert Falls production premiered in Chicago but also produced at the Metropolitan Opera New York.

Discography
 Studer, Hadley, Ramey; Nagano, 1993–94 (Virgin Classics) – Grammy Award for Best Opera Recording of 1995
 Niska, Treigle, Bittner, Leuders, Theyard, Hall, Yule, Lankston, Fitch, 1971 [live] (Private Recording)
 Curtin, Cassilly, Treigle; Andersson, 1962 [live] (VAI)

Videography
 Treigle; Yestadt, Treigle, 1958 [live] (Bel Canto Society) [Revival Scene]
 Hellman Spatafora, Wright Webb, Donovan; Sforzini, Unger, 2014 [live] (Naxos)

References

Operas by Carlisle Floyd
Operas
1955 operas
English-language operas
Operas set in the United States
Rape in fiction
Plays set in Tennessee
Operas based on the Bible

Susannah


Hyndland is an affluent residential area in the West End of the city of Glasgow, Scotland.

Description
Bordering Broomhill, Dowanhill, Kelvinside and Partickhill, it is a wealthy neighbourhood populated mainly by businessmen, lawyers, GPs, professionals (many employed at the nearby University of Glasgow) and a number of noted authors, poets, actors, comedians and footballers. Average property prices in the area are considerably higher than the Glasgow or Scottish averages.

The area is defined by quiet streets and red sandstone tenements, many of which are fronted by communal city gardens, often embellished with ornate doorway carvings and stained glass windows, built in the late Victorian and Edwardian eras. One of the most expensive hotels in Scotland, Devonshire Gardens is located in the area along with several other fine dining options. There are also a number of townhouses built during these periods which contribute significantly to the area's character. While many of these townhouses have been split into multiple apartments to cater to modern urban living, some remain individual properties. This division of property types accounts for the area's unusual demographic. The district is also characterised by its large population of domestic cats.

There are a number of retail outlets in the area including high-quality delicatessens, cafés, hair and beauty salons, photographers, and local service shops. The Glasgow and Hillhead-Jordanhill rugby teams play in the area at Hughenden Stadium. There is also a lawn bowling club (Hyndland Bowling club) which was founded in 1904. There is a local school, Hyndland Secondary School.

The area includes several churches, including Hyndland Parish Church (Church of Scotland) and St. Bride's Church (Scottish Episcopal Church), and there is a Marist House on Partickhill Road. The Church of Christ, Scientist on Hyndland Road was recently demolished, and the former United Presbyterian Church on Hyndland Street is now a theatre, called Cottier's.

Hyndland railway station is on the North Clyde and Argyle lines, offering a direct link to central Glasgow in under ten minutes, and by a number of bus routes. The nearest Subway stations are Hillhead, Partick and Kelvinhall.

Formerly, the area was also served by the huge electric tramway network of the City of Glasgow. Services 1, 5 and 5A provided pollution-free transport on Great Western Road, Byres Road, Hyndland Road and Clarence Drive.

Conservation Area

The Glasgow Corporation designated the "West End Conservation Area" in 1972 and "Hyndland Conservation Area" in 1975. Planning authorities are obliged to "protect and enhance the character and appearance" of such areas, which is why Hyndland has retained so many original architectural features.

Various local buildings including the two churches, the school, the terraces of Kingsborough Gardens, and the one-time Royal Bank of Scotland building have listed building statuses.

Unfortunately there have been numerous breaches of the conservation area status  in Hyndland with replacement uPVC windows , particularly in the tenements in Novar , Dudley and Clarence Drives and Airlie Street which have destroyed the visual appeal of these streets.

History

Prior to development, Hyndland was an area of farmland called 'Hind Land' and belonged to the Bishops of Glasgow. The first tenements were built in 1885.

On 13 March 1941, a parachute mine was dropped on Hyndland by the Luftwaffe, destroying three tenement buildings on Dudley Drive. Also, during the war a number of refugee children from Germany and Poland were educated at Hyndland School, many of whom achieved a higher in English.

Notable residents
 Frankie Boyle, comedian and writer
 Kevin Bridges, comedian
 John Burns Brooksby, renowned veterinarian
 David Calder, actor
 Andrew Cranston Artist
 Robert Carlyle, actor
 John Curtice, psephologist
 Greg Hemphill, actor and comedian
 Douglas Henshall, actor
 Sanjeev Kohli, comedian, writer and actor
 Liz Lochhead, poet and dramatist
 Kelly Macdonald, actress
 Aidan Moffat, musician
 Dougie Payne, musician
 Roddy Woomble, musician

References

External links
Hyndland Local History.
Hyndland Residents' Association.
Glasgow Digital Library: Hyndland Images.
Hyndland Parish Church.

Areas of Glasgow
Partick

Hyndland


Ernest the Iron (; 1377 – 10 June 1424), a member of the House of Habsburg, ruled over the Inner Austrian duchies of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola from 1406 until his death. He was head of the Habsburg Leopoldian line from 1411.

Biography
Ernest was born in Bruck an der Mur in Styria, the third son of Duke Leopold III of Austria (1351–1386) and his consort Viridis Visconti (d. 1414), a daughter of Bernabò Visconti, Lord of Milan. Shortly after his birth, his father and his uncle Albert III divided the Habsburg lands by the 1379 Treaty of Neuberg: while Albert and his Albertinian descendants would rule over the Duchy of Austria proper, the Leopoldian line received the Inner Austrian states of Styria, Carinthia and Carniola with the remaining March of Istria, as well as Tyrol and the Further Austrian possessions. After Leopold's death in the 1386 Battle of Sempach, young Ernest and his brothers William, Leopold IV and Frederick IV remained under the guardianship of their uncle Albert III.

In 1401 Ernest accompanied King Rupert of Germany on his campaign to Italy. When their elder brother William died in 1406, the remaining three sons of Leopold III agreed about the partition of their patrimony: In the separation agreement of 1406, Ernest received Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, and jointly with his elder brother Leopold IV (the current head of the Leopoldian line) held the guardianship over their minor nephew Albert V of Austria, grandson of Duke Albert III. Tyrol and Further Austria passed to the youngest brother Frederick IV.

In 1407, however, conflicts between Leopold and Ernest resulted in a civil war that lasted until May 1409. When Leopold died without male heirs in 1411, Ernest finally became the uncontested head of the Leopoldian branch. In 1414, he became the last Duke to be enthroned according to Carantanian traditional rite at the Prince's Stone in Carinthia, and from that time on called himself 'archduke'. He was the first Habsburg to actually use this title, which had been invented by his uncle Duke Rudolf IV.

Ernest was made a member of the Order of the Dragon and of the Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem in 1414, however, he became bitter with the Luxembourg king Sigismund from 1412 onwards. When his brother Frederick IV, a supporter of Antipope John XXIII at the Council of Constance, was banned by the king in 1417, Ernest first attempted to gain control over Frederick's territories himself, but then came to an agreement with him and successfully defended Tyrol against Sigismund's pretensions. Ernest turned out to be a capable ruler of the Inner Austrian lands; his eldest son Frederick V would become sole heir of all Habsburg lines, elected King of the Romans in 1440 and crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1452.

Ernest died at Bruck an der Mur, and was buried in the Cistercian monastery of Rein near Graz. His nickname the Iron only came into use after his death.

Family and children

On 14 January 1392, Ernest married his first wife, Margaret of Pomerania. She was a daughter of the Griffin duke Bogislaw V of Pomerania and his second wife, Adelheid of Brunswick-Grubenhagen. They had no children. She died in either 1407 or 1410, according to contradictory necrologies.

On 25 January 1412, Ernest married his second wife, the Piast princess Cymburgis of Masovia. They had:
 Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor (21 September 1415 – 19 August 1493)
 Margaret of Austria (1416/17 – 12 February 1486), married on 3 June 1431 to Frederick II, Elector of Saxony
 Albert VI, Archduke of Austria (18 December 1418 – 2 December 1463)
 Alexander of Austria (died 1420)
 Rudolf of Austria (died before 1424)
 Catherine of Austria (1420 – 11 September 1493), married on 15 July 1447 to Charles I, Margrave of Baden-Baden
 Leopold of Austria (died before 1424)
 Anna of Austria (died 11 November 1429)
 Ernest of Austria (died 10 August 1432)
As the ruler of Inner Austria and founder of the older Styrian line of the Habsburgs, which, by their son, Frederick III survived the Albertinian (Austrian) and Tyrolean lines, Ernest and Cymburgis became the ancestors of all later emperors of the Habsburg monarchy.

Ancestors

Male-line family tree

References

Sources

External links

Entry in Aeiou Encyclopedia

1377 births
1424 deaths
15th-century dukes of Austria
Dukes of Styria
Dukes of Carinthia
People from Bruck an der Mur
Burials at Rein Abbey, Austria
Austrian people of Italian descent
Austrian people of German descent
Medieval Knights of the Holy Sepulchre

Ernest, Duke of Austria


The English penny (plural "pence"), originally a coin of  pure silver, was introduced  by King Offa of Mercia. These coins were similar in size and weight to the continental deniers of the period and to the Anglo-Saxon sceats which had preceded it.

Throughout the period of the Kingdom of England, from its beginnings in the 9th century, the penny was produced in silver. Pennies of the same nominal value,  of a pound sterling, were in circulation continuously until the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707.

Etymology
The name "penny" comes from the Old English pennige (), sharing the same root as the German Pfennig. Its abbreviation d. comes from the Roman denarius and was used until decimalisation in 1971.

Idioms
Due to their ubiquity pennies have accumulated a great number of idioms to their name usually recognizing them for their commonality and minuscule value.
These might include:
cut (one) off without a penny
mean enough to steal a penny off a dead man's eyes
not have two pennies to rub together
penny-pincher
penny-wise and pound-foolish
spend a penny
worth every penny

History

Anglo-Saxon silver pennies were the currency used to pay the Danegeld, essentially protection money paid to the Vikings so that they would go away and not ravage the land. As an illustration of how heavy a burden the Danegeld was, more Anglo-Saxon pennies from the decades around the first millennium have been found in Denmark than in England. In the reign of Ethelred the Unready (978–1016), some 40 million pennies were paid to the Danes, while King Canute (Knut) (1016–1035) paid off his invasion army with another 20 million pennies. This adds up to about  of silver, equivalent to £250,000 at the time, and worth about £10 million in  money (its purchasing power at that time may have exceeded £100 million and may have been as high as £1 billion in 2005).

The penny initially weighed 20 to 22.5 modern grains (1.3 to 1.5 g). It was standardized to 32 Tower grains,  of a Tower pound (approx. 350 g). The alloy was set to sterling silver of .925 fineness in 1158 under King Henry II. The weight standard was changed to the Troy pound (373.242 g) in 1527 under Henry VIII, i.e. a pennyweight became about 1.555 grams. As the purity and weight of the coin was critical, the name of the moneyer who manufactured the coin, and at which mint, often appeared on the reverse side of the coin.

From the time of King Offa, the penny was the only denomination of coin minted in England for 500 years, until the attempted gold coinage issue of King Henry III in 1257 and a few halfpennies and farthings in 1222, the introduction of the groat by King Edward I in 1279, under whom the halfpenny and farthing were also reintroduced, and the later issues of King Edward III.

At the time of the 1702 London Mint Assay by Sir Isaac Newton, the silver content of British coinage was defined to be one troy ounce of sterling silver for 62 pence, or  per penny. Therefore, the value of the monetary pound sterling was equivalent to only  of sterling silver. This was the standard from 1601 to 1816.

Pennies by period
History of the English penny (c. 600-1066)
History of the English penny (1066-1154) (The Early Normans and the Anarchy, 1066–1154)
History of the English penny (1154-1485) (The Plantagenets, 1154–1485)
History of the English penny (1485-1603) (The Tudors, 1485–1603)
History of the English penny (1603–1707) (The Stuarts and the Commonwealth)
History of the British penny (1714-1901) (The Hanoverians)
History of the British penny (1901-1970) (The twentieth century penny, 1901–1970)
Decimal Day, 1971
Penny (British decimal coin) (Post-decimalisation, 1971–present)

See also

Coins of the pound sterling
Sixpence

Notes

References
Coincraft's Standard Catalogue English & UK Coins 1066 to Date, Richard Lobel, Coincraft.

Coins of England
Pennies
Silver coins

no:Old penny sterling
pt:Penny antigo

Penny (English coin)


Tights are a kind of cloth garment, most often sheathing the body from the waist to the toe tips with a tight fit, hence the name. They come in absolute opaque, opaque, sheer and fishnet styles — or a combination, such as the original concept of the American term pantyhose with sheer legs and opaque panty.

Terminology and related clothing

When made of fine silk, this hosiery was considered to be a stocking.  When nylon fibers were developed and introduced in the 1940s, these stockings were referred to as nylons.  When the separate legs were woven together with a panty that covered the lower torso up to the waist in a single, integrated format, the term pantyhose was coined, since it was a one piece construction of a panty with a pair of separate hose, one for each leg.  This joining together eliminated any need for garters for holding up each separate leg covering.

In American English, the difference between pantyhose and tights is determined in the weight of the yarn used and the density or tightness of weaving to which the garment is knitted. Generally, anything up to forty denier in the leg or overall is known as pantyhose and anything over that can be classified as tights, as for example 'running tights' and 'cycling tights'. Tights can be sheer yet solid in colour, whereas leggings are practically or absolutely opaque, not sheer. Thus, the almost-opaque tights are sometimes labelled as semi-opaque and are not considered suitable as pants due to being too revealing or immodest. In the United Kingdom, the word "tights" is used for footed garments, which would always be worn under another item of clothing such as shorts or a skirt, while "leggings" refers to footless leg-wear of any denier, the exception being ballet tights which may have an opening under the sole allowing them to be rolled up to expose the foot without removing the garment. The word 'pantyhose' is not used in British English.

There are many sub-classifications of tights or pantyhose that describe the precise construction (such as control top, seamless, support and sheer). Although most tights are mainly nylon or cotton, lycra is normally included in modern blends to improve fit. Athletic tights are absolute opaque and often footless, although they may have a "stirrup" that goes under the foot to hold the cuff down near the ankle.

Historical background

Originally, leggings covered only the legs (not the lower torso); were two separate pieces; and did not contain elastic fibres, so were cut close fitting (to use less fabric) and were loose, not tight.

Originally derived from the hose worn by European men several centuries ago, tights were made as close fitting as possible for practical reasons when riding horseback. For men of nobility, the material would be made of silk or fine wool rather than the coarser fabrics used by the lower classes. At the time of King Henry VIII of England, such was the male fashion for displaying a well turned leg that even the king padded the calf area under his hose. Portrait paintings of him and other nobility often portray the wearing of a cod piece covering the groin.

In both historic and modern times, the wearing of tight hosiery by males has been associated with an accompanying garment fitted at the groin over the male genitalia. In the 15th century, some men wore an elaborate and decorative cod piece to accentuate their endowment. In modern times, tights intended for dancers are usually opaque, althouth their form-fitting nature can still reveal the exact contours of the anatomy underneath. Male ballet dancers generally wear a dance belt beneath their tights both to provide support to the genitalia and to promote a smooth, regular appearance. Wearing two pairs of tights is also a common practice among male dancers, as it guards against the combination of stretched fabric and bright stage lights making them appear translucent.

The wearing of tights has a history going back several centuries, when they were worn by both men and women. Today, they are worn primarily by women and girls. In recent years, however, they have been offered as men's fashion.

Current use

Tights are most commonly worn with a skirt or dress by women. They are also most commonly worn under trousers or shorts by men.

In the world of theater tights are also common, especially in Renaissance-era costumes, and dance, particularly in ballet.

The term "tights" has been used to try to ridicule certain traditional British uniform. Most famously the Serjeants-at-Arms at the Palace of Westminster, after a protester got past the security, were described in the media as "middle aged men in tights."

Athletic use

For horseback riding, "tights" in some equestrian circles can refer to tightly fitting riding pants of light material that extend all the way down to the rider's ankle and worn with a 'paddock' style (ankle height) boot. Such pants are worn in summer or as an undergarment in winter. In warm climates they can be worn all year round. These "riding tights" are cheaper to buy than jodhpurs or breeches which are a type of riding pant made of heavier material and which extends only to mid calf length and are intended to be worn with tall riding boots.

Tights can also describe the leg coverings worn in bicycling in cold weather and in other athletic activities, especially by runners. These tights are usually a thicker spandex-blend, and are usually footless. It has also been advocated by some sport scientists that the wearing of tights can reduce muscle tissue vibration.

Athletic tights received some publicity during the 2005–2006 basketball season, when players started wearing the ankle-length tights under their uniform shorts. A prominent NBA player, Kobe Bryant, was one of the first to wear tights, and the style was subsequently adopted by several other NBA players, as well as some college and high school players. The style sparked controversy, leading to proposals to prohibit wearing tights with basketball uniforms.

In colder temperatures outdoors, American football players sometimes wear spandex tights next to their skin beneath their normal padded stretchy, tightly fitted pants.  In British English such garments are referred to as 'skins'. Athletic tights are considered unisex.

Health and beauty use

Because the fabric used in tights is made of interwoven fabric such as nylon or cotton, there are pores in the fabric where modern manufacturers have been able to place other items which benefit the skin. They can use microencapsulation techniques to place substances such as moisturizers and other skin creams in the tights.

Design features

Tights are manufactured in many different varieties for stylistic and comfort reasons. Certain leg wear designs include a darker brief or no visible brief at all, the former being used to create extra support or a shaping effect.

One area where design is vastly different from model to model is in the toe area. There are several varieties of toe type, such as sandal toes, open toes and reinforced, all offering different effects. Whilst some descriptions of the difference between open toe and sandal toe can cause confusion, the industry standard is that a sandal toe covers the whole foot but without a seam that would be visible in an open shoe, and open toe tights use either a silicone band or toe loops to anchor the garment whilst leaving the toes uncovered.

Gallery

See also

 Compression garment
 Leggings
 Stocking
 Pantyhose
 Underwear fetishism

References

External links

Dancewear
History of clothing
Hosiery
Undergarments

Tights


A busk (spelt busque) is the rigid element o a corset placit at the centre front.

In stays, the corsets worn atween the fifteent an aichteent centuries, the busk wis intendit tae keep the front o the corset straicht an upricht. It wis made o firth, ivory, or bane slippit intae a pocket an teed in place wi a lace cried the busk point. These busks wur aften carvit an decoratit, or inscribit wi messages, an wur popular gifts frae men tae thair sweetherts.

In the middle o the nineteent century, a new form o busk appeared. It wis made o twa lang pieces o steel, ane wi loops an the ither wi posts, that functioned in the same wey as hook an eye fastenins on a garment  . This made corsets considerably easier tae put on an tak aff, as the laces did no hae tae be loosened as hintle as when the corset haed tae go ower the wearer's heid an shoulders. The seicont hauf o the nineteent century saw the invention o the spoon busk an aw.

Corsetry
History o cleidin (Europe)

Busk


A city is a place where many people live close together.

A city has many buildings and streets. It has houses, hotels, condominiums, and apartments for many people to live in, shops where they may buy things, places for people to work, and a government to run the city and keep law and order in the city. People live in cities because it is easy for them to find and do everything they want there. A city usually has a "city center" where government and business occur and suburbs where people live outside the center.

Definition

No rule is used worldwide to decide why some places are called "city," and other places are called "town."

Some things that make a city are :
 A long history. Although many cities today have only been around for tens or hundreds of years, there are a few which have been so for thousands of years. For example, Athens, Greece was founded in 1000 BC and Rome, Italy has existed since 700 BC.
 A large population. Cities can have millions of people living in and around them. Among them are Tokyo, Japan, and the Tokyo Metropolis around it, which includes Yokohama and Chiba.
 In Japan, the population of a city ( 市 ) is at least over 50,000 people. and among cities, there are various grades according to laws, which the central government of Japan governs.
 A center where business and government takes place. The first case is often described as the financial capital, such as Frankfurt in Germany. The second case is true for different levels of government, whether they are local or part of a larger region (for example, Atlanta, Georgia, or the capital of the United States Washington, D.C.) Cities that contain the government of the region it is in are called capitals. Almost every country has its own capital.
 Special powers called town privileges which have been given by the government of the country or its ruler. Europe during the Middle Ages was a great example of having town privileges.
 Having a cathedral or a university. This rule is found in the United Kingdom. The smallest "cathedral cities" are St. David's and St. Asaph's which are both in Wales, Ripon and Wells which are in England.

In American English, people often call all places where many people live cities. (See below: Size of cities )

Size of cities

The sizes of cities can be very different. This depends on the type of city. Cities built hundreds of years ago and which have not changed much are much smaller than modern cities. There are two main reasons. One reason is that old cities often have a city wall, and most of the city is inside it. Another important reason is that the streets in old cities are often narrow. If the city got too big, it was hard for a cart carrying food to get to the marketplace. People in cities need food, and the food always has to come from outside the city.

Cities that were on a river like London could grow much bigger than cities that were on a mountain like Sienna in Italy, because the river made a transport route for carrying food and other goods, as well as for transporting people. London has been changing continually for hundreds of years, while Sienna, a significant city in the 1300s, has changed very little in 700 years.

Modern cities with modern transport systems can grow very large, because the streets are wide enough for cars, buses, and trucks, and there are often railway lines.

In the US, the word city is often used for towns that are not very big. When the first European people went to America, they named " city " to new places. They hoped the places would be great cities in the future. For example, Salt Lake City was the name given to a village of 148 people. When they started building the town, they made street plans and called it Great Salt Lake City (for the nearby Great Salt Lake).

Now, 150 years later, it really is a big city.

In modern times many cities have grown bigger and bigger. The whole area is often called a  "metropolis"  and can sometimes include several small ancient towns and villages. The metropolis of London includes London, Westminster, and many old villages such as Notting Hill, Southwark, Richmond, Greenwich, etc. The part that is officially known as the " City of London " only takes up one square mile. The rest is known as "Greater London. " Many other cities have grown in the same way.

These giant cities can be exciting places to live, and many people can find good jobs there, but modern cities also have many problems. Many people cannot find jobs in the cities and have to get money by begging or by crime. Automobiles, factories, and waste create a lot of pollution that makes people sick.

Urban history

Urban history is history of civilization. The first cities were made in ancient times, as soon as people began to create civilization . The oldest city on Earth is probably Catal Huyuk, which existed from 7500BCE to 6500bce, although mainstream historians consider Catal Huyuk to be a proto-city.Famous ancient cities which fell to ruins included Babylon, Troy, Mycenae and Mohenjo-daro.

Benares in northern India is one among the ancient cities which has a history of more than 3000 years. Other cities that have existed since ancient times are Athens in Greece, Rome and Volterra in Italy, Alexandria in Egypt and York in England.

In Europe, in the Middle Ages, being a city was a special privilege, granted by nobility. Cities that fall into this category, usually had (or still have) city walls. The people who lived in the city were privileged over those who did not. Medieval cities that still have walls include Carcassonne in France, Tehran in Iran, Toledo in Spain and Canterbury in England.

Features

Infrastructure

People in a city live close together, so they cannot grow all their own food or gather their own water or energy. People also create waste and need a place to put it. Modern cities have infrastructure to solve these problems. Pipes carry running water, and power lines carry electricity. Sewers take away the dirty water and human waste. Most cities collect garbage to take it to a landfill, burn it, or recycle it.

Transport is any way of getting from one place to another. Cities have roads which are used by automobiles (including trucks), buses, motorcycles, bicycles, and pedestrians (people walking). Some cities have trains and larger cities have airports. Many people in cities travel to work each day, which is called commuting.

Buildings and design
Houses and apartments are common places to live in cities. Great numbers of people in developing countries (and developed countries, in the past) live in slums. A slum is poorly built housing, without clean water, where people live very close together. Buildings are usually taller in the city center, and some cities have skyscrapers.

City streets can be shaped like a grid, or as a "wheel and spokes": a set of rings and lines coming out from the center. Streets in some older cities like London are arranged at random, without a pattern. The design of cities is a subject called urban planning. One area of the city might have only shops, and another area might have only factories. Cities have parks, and other public areas like city squares.

United States politics

Cities in the US are usually very-left leaning. The best examples of these would be New York, New York, and Washington, D.C. For example, in Louisiana, the only Democratic delegate in US Congress who is a Democrat was elected from a district comprising in New Orleans. Below is a list of states and the major city/cities that provide much of the liberal support in them :

 Atlanta, Georgia: 5 of the 16 delegates representing Georgia in the US Congress are Democrats. All hail from districts in Atlanta.
 New Orleans, Louisiana: the only Democratic delegate from Louisiana in the US Congress was elected from a New Orleans district.
 Kansas City, Kansas: the only Democratic congressman from Kansas was elected from a district in Kansas City.
 Las Vegas, Nevada: all of the Democrats in the US House who represent Nevada are from Las Vegas.
 Salt Lake City, Utah: the only Democrat representing Utah in the US Congress was elected from a Salt Lake City district.
 Chicago, Illinois: if it weren't for Chicago, the state of Illinois would be as conservative as Indiana.
 Louisville, Kentucky: the only Democrat representing Kentucky in the US Congress was elected from a Louisville district.

World's largest cities

These cities have more than 10 million people and can be called megacities:
 Tokyo, Japan - 37 million
 Delhi, India - 29 million
 Shanghai, China - 26 million
 São Paulo, Brazil - 22 million
 Mexico City, Mexico - 22 million
 Cairo, Egypt - 20 million
 Mumbai, India - 20 million
 Beijing, China - 20 million
 Dhaka, Bangladesh - 20 million
 Osaka, Japan - 19 million
 New York, United States - 19 million
 Karachi, Pakistan - 15 million
 Buenos Aires, Argentina - 15 million
 Chongqing, China - 15 million
 Istanbul, Turkey - 15 million
 Kolkata, India - 15 million
 Manila, Philippines - 13 million
 Lagos, Nigeria - 13 million
 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil - 13 million
 Tianjin, China - 13 million
 Kinshasa, DR Congo - 13 million
 Guangzhou, China - 13 million
 Los Angeles, United States - 12 million
 Moscow, Russia - 12 million
 Shenzhen, China - 12 million
 Lahore, Pakistan - 12 million
 Bangalore, India - 11 million
 Paris, France - 11 million
 Bogotá, Colombia - 11 million
 Jakarta, Indonesia - 11 million
 Chennai, India - 10 million
 Lima, Peru - 10 million
 Bangkok, Thailand - 10 million

Gallery of cities

References

City


Fermat's primality test is an algorithm. It can test if a given number p is probably prime. There is a flaw however: There are numbers that pass the test, and that are not prime. These numbers are called Carmichael numbers.

Concept
Fermat's little theorem states that if p is prime and , then

.

If we want to test if n is prime, then we can pick random a'''s in the interval and see if the equation above holds.  If the equality does not hold for a value of a, then n is composite (not prime).  If the equality does hold for many values of a, then we can say that n is probably prime, or a pseudoprime.

It may be in our tests that we do not pick any value for a such that the equality fails.  Any a such that

when n is composite is known as a Fermat liar.  If we do pick an a such that

then a is known as a Fermat witness for the compositeness of n.'' is the modulo operation. Its result is what remains, if p is divided by n. As an example,

.

What this test is used for
The RSA algorithm for public-key encryption can be done in such a way that it uses this test. This is useful in cryptography.

Computer science
Prime numbers

Fermat's primality test


A battleship is a kind of large warship. It has metal armour and has large (heavy caliber) guns. Battleships are larger, better armed and armored than cruisers and destroyers. Battleships were mainly around from about 1880 to the 1940s, though some were still used as late as the Gulf War in 1991. For most of this time, battleships were the most powerful and most expensive kind of warship. Today some battleships are still around but these are museums.

In the 19th century, different countries tried to build bigger and better warships. One of the first ships with iron armor was called Gloire, from 1859. This ship had both sails and a steam engine which drove a propellor, as well as guns the fired explosive shells. This was a kind of ship called an ironclad. A few years later, ironclads were used in the American Civil War.

Britain and France kept trying to build warships that were better than each other. Later in the 19th century other countries like Germany, Russia, Japan, Italy and the United States also built many battleships. Different countries used new inventions to make their ships more powerful, with things like steel armour, rifled guns, and better kinds of steam engine. By around 1890 people started to call their best ships 'battleships' instead of 'ironclads'. Many people, including many Admirals and politicians, thought battleships were very important. If there was a war, the country with the best battleships would win, by sinking the other side's navy and stopping them bringing food and goods into their country (called a blockade). But battleships were also very expensive, and other people thought it was better to spend the money on a better army, or things like pensions for old people.

In 1906, Britain made a new kind of battleship called HMS Dreadnought. Though this ship was not much bigger, it had steam turbine engines which made it faster. All of its guns were also very large, which meant it could damage other battleships more from further away. People claimed one ship like Dreadnought could beat two earlier battleships, even battleships made just a few years before. Soon many countries were building ships like this, and calling them 'Dreadnoughts'.

Many battleships were used in the First World War. However, battleships were so important and expensive that neither side wanted to take a chance of losing a battle with them. There were several battles with battleships. The biggest one was the Battle of Jutland which involved dozens of battleships and hundreds of smaller ships. But none of the battles made much difference. Submarines made a bigger difference to the war, even though less people had expected them to. At the end of the War, Germany was made to hand over all their battleships to Britain. However, the German navy sank ("scuttled") their own battleships rather than give them to the British. In 1922, most countries which had big navies signed a treaty called the Washington Naval Treaty which meant no-one would build new battleships for at least 10 years.

Battleships were also important at the start of World War II. But by the middle of World War II, battleships had become less important than aircraft carriers. Aircraft carriers had dozens of airplanes which could drop bombs or torpedos. Even though battleships had thicker armour than ever, several hits from bombs or torpedos would still sink a battleship. The planes could fly much further than a battleship's guns could shoot. There were some important battles between battleships in World War II, but more often battleships were less important than aircraft carriers. At battles like the Battle of Taranto and the Battle of Pearl Harbour many battleships were sunk by planes.

After World War II there was not much point to a battleship. Aircraft carriers had become even better, because of jet aircraft and missiles. Also, even a heavily armored battleship could be sunk by a nuclear bomb. Even so the United States Navy kept a few battleships during the Cold War. The very big guns on a battleship were still useful to shoot at shore targets if there was an invasion from the sea. American battleships were also given new weapons like guided missiles to make them more useful if there was a war with Russia. However, only the United States could afford to keep battleships like this. No-one else did. Some American battleships shot at Iraq in the Gulf War. This was the last time when any battleships fought. The United States kept battleships until 2004, when the last ones were made into museums.

References

Warships

Battleship


Farrell Dobbs (July 25, 1907 – October 31, 1983) was an American Trotskyist, trade unionist, politician, and historian.

Early years
Dobbs was born in Queen City, Missouri, where his father was a worker in a coal company garage. The family moved to Minneapolis, and he graduated from North High School in 1925. In 1926, he left for North Dakota to find work, but returned the following fall. At this point, young Farrell Dobbs was a Republican, and supported Herbert Hoover for president in 1928.

Moves leftward, connects with Teamsters
However, his political viewpoint was changed during the Great Depression in the 1930s. Seeing the plight of workers in that situation (including himself), he became politically radicalized to the left.

In 1933, while working for the Pittsburgh Coal Company in Minneapolis, Dobbs joined the Teamsters. After getting to know the three Trotskyist Dunne brothers, (Miles, Vincent and Grant) and Swedish socialist Carl Skoglund, he joined the Communist League of America. Dobbs was one of the initiators of a general strike in Minneapolis, and for a while worked full-time as a union organizer.

He was influential in the Teamsters' shift from emphasis on local delivery work to over-the-road traffic, which keyed their great expansion towards becoming the largest union in the United States.

Dobbs quit in 1939 to work for the new Socialist Workers Party (SWP). Dobbs met the Russian revolutionary leader Leon Trotsky when he visited Mexico shortly before Trotsky's death in 1940.

Mentors Hoffa
Dobbs served as mentor and advisor to a young Jimmy Hoffa, while Hoffa was making his rise within the Teamsters, eventually becoming its president in 1957. Dobbs primarily inspired Hoffa with his view that the capitalist system was a Darwinian struggle, where power, rather than morality, was the primary factor determining the eventual outcome.

Jailed under Smith Act
For opposing World War II, he and other leaders of the SWP and the Minneapolis Teamsters were convicted of violating the Smith Act, which made it illegal to "conspire to advocate the violent overthrow of the United States Government". He served over a year of a 16-month sentence in Federal Correctional Institution, Sandstone, from 1944 to 1945.

Presidential candidate, supports Fidel Castro
After his release, he became the editor of the SWP's newspaper, The Militant. From 1948 to 1960 he was the SWP's candidate for President of the United States, running in four elections. He succeeded James P. Cannon as national secretary of the party in 1953, serving until 1972.

In 1960, Farrell Dobbs and Joseph Hansen, Trotsky's former secretary in Mexico, went to Cuba to experience the revolutionary movement there. The two American Trotskyists decided to fully support the Cuban Revolution and the leadership of Fidel Castro and Che Guevara.

Later life
Farrell Dobbs retired in 1972, but remained in the party until his death in 1983. He devoted the later part of his life to historical documentation of the American leftist movement and the Minnesota Teamsters. Dobbs was the author of a four-volume history / memoir of the Minneapolis struggles: Teamster Rebellion, Teamster Power, Teamster Politics and Teamster Bureaucracy. He had completed two volumes of a planned history of the Marxist movement in the United States at the time of his death, titled: Revolutionary Continuity: The Early Years, 1848-1917 and Birth of the Communist Movement, 1918-1922.

Major works
 Trade union problems, New York, Pioneer Publishers, 1941
 The Voice of socialism: radio speeches by the Socialist Workers Party candidates in the 1948 election (with Grace Carlson and James Cannon), New York, Pioneer Publishers, 1948
 Recent trends in the labor movement, New York, National Education Dept., Socialist Workers Party, 1967
 The structure and organizational principals of the party, New York, National Education Dept., Socialist Workers Party, 1971
 Teamster rebellion, New York, Pathfinder Press, 1972
 Teamster power, New York, Pathfinder Press, 1973
 Teamster politics, New York, Pathfinder Press, 1975
 Teamster bureaucracy, New York, Pathfinder Press, 1977
 Counter-mobilization: a strategy to fight racist and fascist attacks, New York, National Education Dept., Socialist Workers Party, 1976
 Revolutionary continuity: Marxist leadership in the U.S., Vol. 1: The early years, 1848–1917, New York, Monad Press, Distributed by Pathfinder Press, 1980
 Revolutionary continuity: Marxist leadership in the U.S., Vol. 2: Birth of the Communist movement, 1918–1922, New York, Monad Press, Distributed by Pathfinder Press, 1983
 A political biography of Walter Reuther: the record of an opportunist, by Beatrice Hansen, New York, Pathfinder Press, 1987 2nd ed. (contains Dobbs's essay Meany vs. Reuther)

See also
 Minneapolis Teamsters Strike of 1934
 1948 United States presidential election
 1952 United States presidential election
 1956 United States presidential election
 1960 United States presidential election

References

External links
The Militant, the newspaper of the Socialist Workers Party
Pathfinder Books, the bookstore of the Socialist Workers Party
Trotskyist Work in the Trade Unions, by Chris Knox

1907 births
1983 deaths
People from Schuyler County, Missouri
Members of the Communist League of America
Socialist Workers Party (United States) politicians
American anti–World War II activists
American trade union leaders
American male non-fiction writers
People convicted under the Smith Act
Candidates in the 1948 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1952 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1956 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1960 United States presidential election
20th-century American politicians
Historians from Missouri
20th-century American historians
Minnesota socialists
Politicians from Minneapolis
20th-century American male writers
North Community High School alumni
Trade unionists from Minnesota

Farrell Dobbs


"Firework" is a 2010 song by Katy Perry from her second major-label album, Teenage Dream. It was released on October 26, 2010. The song received a good review by music critics and claimed the top spot on Billboard Hot 100. The single hit top 5 on twenty charts worldwide.  It reached the top three in most of the countries where it charted, including Australia and the UK.  It topped charts in the US, Canada, and New Zealand.  In the US, it was Perry's fourth number-one song altogether and the third in a streak of five number-ones.  At the 2012 Grammy Awards, "Firework" was nominated for Record of the Year and Best Pop Solo Performance.

The song was certified Diamond in the US for shipments of over 10 million copies in that country alone.

Background

"Firework" was written by Perry, Mikkel S. Eriksen, Tor Erik Hermansen, Sandy Wilhelm, and Ester Dean while produced by Stargate and Sandy Vee at Soapbox Studios in Atlanta, Georgia. It was recorded at Roc the Mic Studios in New York City. It was mixed at The Bunker Studios by Vee. Audio engineering was done by Carlos Oyandel and Damien Lewis. All instruments were done by Stargate and Vee. Lead and background vocals were provided by Perry. Perry said that "Firework" is her favorite song on Teenage Dream.

Music video
The video for the song features people in different situations that show their bravery.  For example, there is a young child battling cancer, a woman who is at first shy of wearing a bathing suit, and a man who is unsure of his sexuality.  Perry sings that they are all "fireworks" and are brave for fighting through their issues.  The video has received over 1.077 billion views on YouTube as of January 2018.

References

Other websites

2010 songs
Katy Perry songs

Firework (song)


Little Nemo is the main fictional character in a series of weekly comic strips by Winsor McCay. These comic strips appeared in the New York Herald and New York American newspapers from October 15, 1905 – July 23, 1911 and September 3, 1911 – July 26, 1914. The strip was first called Little Nemo in Slumberland and then In the Land of Wonderful Dreams. Little Nemo in Slumberland came back for a short time from 1924-1927.

The comic was about the dreams of a little boy named Nemo. His name means "nobody" in Latin. In the first strips he tried to go to Slumberland. That was the land of King Morpheus. The King wanted Nemo as a friend for his daughter, the Princess. The last picture in each strip always was Nemo waking up, in or near his bed. Then the grownups were angry with him, because he had waken them up. Or they comforted him because he was sad.

In the earliest strips, the dream would end because of a disaster that could hurt or kill Nemo. These events would be something like falling from a bridge, becoming a monkey, or becoming 90 years older. Later on Nemo reached Slumberland. Then Flip always woke him up. Flip wore a hat that had 'Wake Up' written on it. Other characters in the strip were Dr. Pill, The Imp, the Candy Kid, and Santa Claus.

The strip was not a very big success from 1905 to 1927. Most comics readers liked the slapstick actions of the Katzenjammer Kids, Happy Hooligan, and Buster Brown (other comic strips) more than the surreal (not real) fantasy of Nemo. From the 1970s until now, people like the strip more. Many of the original strips were found at a comic strip studio in 1966. They were shown at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Very special of Nemo was that the pictures were very difficult, had many details and beautiful colours. Also the story was special, because it was a fast story and had many strange characters and places.

American comic strips

Little Nemo


Son of the Shadows is a historical fantasy novel by Juliet Marillier and the second book in the Sevenwaters Trilogy first published in 2000. It follows the path of Sorcha and Red's third child, Liadan, a girl who lives outside the pattern of the 'Fair Folk', also known as Túatha Dé Danann. Son of the Shadows won the 2001 Aurealis Awards for Fantasy Novel.

Plot summary

In this novel, Liadan grows up in Sevenwaters with her twin brother Sean and her older sister Niamh. They are the offspring of Sorcha and Iubdan (formerly Hugh of Harrowfield). Liadan follows in her mothers tradition in learning the healing arts. Niamh has great beauty and is 'expected' to wed Eamonn, a neighbouring chieftain. Eamonn actually asks for the hand of Liadan, she says that she will give him an answer in one year. While staying at Sevenwaters, Eamonn tells a tale of a recent attack by a band of mercenaries.  Upon this attack, all his men were killed, and his life was spared by a man called the Painted Man. He swears that he will kill him. During the festival of Imbolc, a young druid named Ciarán tells the tale of Aengus Óg and Caer Ibormeith and catches the fancy of Niamh, they are soon having a secret love affair. Liadan discovers their secret during a walk in the forest. When the truth comes out, Ciarán leaves the Druids and Sevenwaters and Niamh is forced to marry the Uí Néill chieftain, Fionn.

Liadan goes with her sister on the trip to her new home and on the way back she is kidnapped by an outlaw and brought to the camp of "The Painted Man."  In order to attempt to save the life of their smith who was injured in an accident. She accepts the task and eventually falls in love with Bran, their leader. When Bran finds out that she is actually daughter of Hugh of Horrowfield, he sends her back home. When she returns to Sevenwaters, she finds she is pregnant with Bran's child. The Tuatha Dé Danann demand that she and her son remain in the forest, but she refuses to comply. With the help of Finbar she realises that she has his gift of sight and the ability to read and heal the minds of others.

Sean, Liadan's brother and heir to Sevenwaters, wants to purchase the Painted Man's fighting force in their long battle for the sacred islands. All of the leaders go to a counsel to discuss the feud with the Britons. Liadan and her sister visit Sean's future bride and Eamonn's sister at his estate called Sídhe Dubh. During this visit Liadan discovers that her sisters husband has been beating and abusing her, she uses her mind gifts to help Niamh. With the help of Bran they plan on secretly taking Niamh out of Sídhe Dubh and take her to a Christian nunnery where she can be safe. At the last moment Eamonn and Fionn return and attack Bran and Gull as they escape with Niamh. Eamonn returns from the chase and tells the tale of how Niamh slips on the rocks and fell into the bog and died, all that remained was a cord that Liadan made for Niamh that held a white stone given to her by Ciarán.

Liadan finally gives birth to her son and her mother and father realise when the child is born that his father (Bran) must have been the son of John and Margery, kinsman of Iubdan when he was Lord of Horrowfield. Liadan names the child Johnny. Shortly after the birth of Johnny, Sorcha dies. But before her death Liadan tells Sorcha, Iubdan and Finbar the story of Niamh's abuse by her husband; the escape from Sídhe Dubh with the help of Bran; and her belief that Niamh is not dead. On her deathbed Sorcha tells Iubdin that he must return to Harrowfield and learn the truth about John and Margery's son. Ciarán returned in hiding as a tinker during the ceremony for Sorcha.  He tells Liadan that Niamh is indeed alive and safe. He also tells her the truth of why they could not wed. Ciarán is the son of Lord Colum and the Lady Oonagh, he is half brother to Niamh's mother. So their union was forbidden by blood. This was why they were not allowed to wed and that he could never be a druid since he carried the blood of the sorceress Lady Oonagh. Ciarán gives Liadan a gift for helping rescue Niamh for her abusive husband and returning her to Ciarán, a mysterious raven Liadan names Fiacha.

Bran comes to Sevenwaters in secret to meet with Sean and meets Liadan, she tells him of his son. After Bran leaves, Liadan has a vision of her Uncle Liam's death; a vision of Eamonn telling Aisling that she could not marry Sean and then her suicide. They then learn that Fionn was recently strangled in his sleep. Liam was indeed killed by a Britons arrow and his nephew Sean takes control of Sevenwaters. Sean fearful for Aisling convinces Liadan to go to Sídhe Dubh to bring Aisling back so they can be married. Liadan has had visions of Eamonn torturing Bran. When she arrives at Sídhe Dubh she learns from Eamonn that he indeed has Bran held prisoner. She makes a deal with Eamonn, in exchange for not revealing that Eamonn betrayed his kinsman Liam and sacrificed his life in exchange for the Painted Man capture. Aisling will be allowed to go Sevenwaters and Liadan can leaves with Bran and Gull if she can find them and leave before dusk.  With the help of some magic and Fiacha they make it safely through the bog that surrounds Sídhe Dubh. Liadan learns Bran's hidden truth about his childhood during her fight to bring him back from the torture inflicted on him. She reveals this to her father Iubdan and she convinces Bran that his future might lie in returning to his roots at Harrowfield in Briton, while his men talk of setting up a school for warriors.

Character list

 Liadan: Youngest child of Red and Sorcha, with the gift of Sight and the ability to resist the Fair Folk.
 Niamh: Sorcha and Red's oldest child.
 Sean: Brother to Niamh, twin of Liadan. Only heir to Sevenwaters. He and Liadan can speak directly mind to mind.
 Liam: Eldest brother of Sorcha. Liam is the current Lord of Sevenwaters.
 Conor: Brother to Sorcha, now leader of the Druids.
 Finbar: Brother to Sorcha, he was left with a swans wing as an arm at the end of Daughter of the Forest.
 Painted Man aka Bran: Mercenary for hire with a dedicated band of followers. In actuality, son of John and Margery of Harrowfield, originally named John
 Sorcha: Sister to Liam, Diarmid, twins Cormack and Conor, Finbar and Padriac and daughter of Lord Colum of Sevenwaters. Wife to Iubdan
 Iubdan: Husband of Sorcha, formerly Hugh of Harrowfield, British lord and ruler of Harrowfield. Goes by "Red" or "the Big Man."
 Ciarán: A young druid, in actuality the son of Lord Colum and the Lady Oonagh, he falls in love with Niamh.
 Fionn: A chieftain's son of the Uí Néill, he weds Niamh and abuses her.
 Eamonn: Grandson of Seamus Redbeard, Lord of Sídhe Dubh. Pursues Liadan as a wife, even after learning of Johnny's conception.
 Aisling: Eamonn's younger sister, betrothed to Sean.
 Janis: The kitchen woman, a tinker woman who settled at Severwaters. Known as "Fat Janis" in Daughter of the Forest. One of the few characters to appear in all three books of the trilogy
 Evan: The smith in the Band of the Painted Man, Liadan with the help of the Chief removed his injured arm and attempts to save his life.
 Gull: Member of the Band of the Painted Man, second in command and Bran's best friend, brings Liadan into the camp of the Painted Man to attempt to save the Evan the smith
 Snake: Member of the Band of the Painted Man, third in command
 Dog: Member of the Band of the Painted Man, Liadan mercifully ends his life after Eamonn's men leave him mortally wounded on the road
 Spider: Member of the Band of the Painted Man
 Otter: Member of the Band of the Painted Man
 Rat: Member of the Band of the Painted Man, he takes care of Johnny when Liadan and Johnny are with the band of the Painted Man
 Padriac: Sorcha's youngest brother. He became a seaman and travelled the world.
 Johnny: Liadan and Bran's son
 Fiacha: A raven given to Laidan by Ciarán who follows her everywhere.
 Danny Walker: A tinker (relative of Janis) from Kerry, he plays the pipes at Sorcha's funeral
 Margery: Bran's mother who is killed by bandits and leaves little Johnny hidden under the floorboards
 Rory: The man who finds Bran as a 3-year-old hidden under the floorboards, he abuses him and Bran kills him at the age of 9.

Literary significance and reception

Publishers Weekly said that "The story, though a bit light on the magic and heavy on the romantic, is reminiscent of Jennifer Roberson's Cheysuli series. Fantasy addicts should love it".

Jackie Cassada in The Library Journal said "Marillier blends old legends with original storytelling to produce an epic fantasy that belongs in most libraries".

Booklist in 2001 said that "Marillier's virtuosic pacing and vivid, filmic style make this an engaging continuation of one of the last year's best fantasies".

Allusions and references

Characters of Irish mythology mentioned

Spellings shown below are the one used in the novel

 Túatha Dé Danann: The "Fair Folk"
 Fomhóire: The "Old Ones"
 Brighid
 Dana: mother goddess
 Morrígan
 Lugh
 Dadga: "The Good God"
 Díancécht: healing god
 Manannán mac Lir: god of the Sea
 Eithne: The Sight is said to have come from her.

Celtic Seasonal Festivals mentioned

 Samhain: 1 November
 Imbolc: 1 February
 Beltaine: 1 May
 Lugnasad: 1 August
 Meán Geimhridh: winter solstice
 Meán Earraigh: spring equinox
 Meán Samhraidh: summer solstice
 Meán Fómhair: autumn equinox

Allusions to actual geography

 Tirconnell: Fionn of the Uí Néill lives here
 Isle of Man: Conor tells the story of the first guardian of Sevenwaters, Fergus and his trip to the sacred islands south of the Isle of Man.
 Cumbria: Northwoods, the Briton who took control of the sacred islands is from Cumbria.
 Ulster: Sevenwaters and Sídhe Dubh is within Uslter.
 Kerry: Dan Walker the tinker is from Kerry and Ciarán is returning there with him.
 Elvington: The village where little Johnny (Bran) loses his mother and taken in and abused by Rory.

Publication history

 2000, Australia, Pan Macmillan , Pub Date 01 Sept 2000, Trade Paperback
 2001, Australia, Pan Macmillan , Pub Date 1 July 2001, Paperback
 2001, UK, Voyager Books,  Pub Date 5 Feb 2001, Hardcover
 2002, UK, Voyager Books,  Pub Date 2 Jan 2002, Paperback
 2001, USA, Tor Books,  Pub date 18 May 2001, Hardcover
 2002, USA, Tor Books,  Pub Date 6 March 2002, Trade Paperback

Awards and nominations

Son of the Shadows won the 2001 Aurealis Awards for Fantasy Novel

Sources, references, external links, quotations
 Son of the Shadows entry on official Juliet Marillier website
 Son of the Shadows entry on US publishers (Tor and Forge Books) web site
 In-depth interview with Juliet Marillier at Writer Unboxed, where Juliet also blogs.
 Review of Son of the Shadows by fantasy author Victoria Strauss

Notes

2000 novels
2000 fantasy novels
Australian fantasy novels
Aurealis Award-winning works
Macmillan Publishers books

Son of the Shadows


Jürgen Ovens (1623 – 9 December 1678), also known as Georg, or Jurriaen Ovens whilst in the Netherlands, was a portrait painter and art-dealer from North Frisia and, according to Arnold Houbraken, a pupil of Rembrandt. He is best known for his painting in the city hall of Amsterdam and paintings for the Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp for whom he worked for more than 30 years, also as an art dealer.

Life
Ovens was born and grew up in Tönning, Duchy of Schleswig, the son of Frisian farmer and alderman Ove Broders and Agneta Ovens (also called Broders).  Although that duchy was formally a Danish fief, Ovens is often counted among German painters. Since 1640 he worked for Hendrick van Uylenburgh with Govaert Flinck in the Sint Antoniesbreestraat. It has been suggested he went to Italy between 1643 and 1649, but there is no evidence. Until 1651, he lived in Amsterdam, then from May 1651 he went back to Schleswig-Holstein, claimed by Frederick III, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp. In 1652 he married Maria Jens Martens (daughter of a rich Tönning alderman) in Friedrichstadt. His father-in-law gave him 60,000 Thaler, but demanded that he settle down nearby.

In 1654 Ovens spent a few weeks in Stockholm to paint the marriage between Charles X Gustav and Hedwig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp. In 1655 Gerrit van Uylenburgh came to visit him. In 1657 Ovens travelled to Amsterdam because of a war between the Swedish and the Danish. He cooperated with Govert Flinck. Ovens became a citizen of Amsterdam in order to start a business or to get a job, as the rules of guilds were very strict. He also sent statues by Artus Quellinus the Elder to Gottorf.

Ovens was living in the Jordaan in a canalhouse with a large studio under the roof. He rented out the cellar as a public house, just like Flinck did, who used to own it and died the year before. The art-dealer Gerrit van Uylenburgh bought the house next door owned by Flinck. Johannes Lingelbach was a friend and a witness when his children were baptized in the Lutheran church. In 1661 Ovens was asked to finish a painting begun by Flinck. The painting had to be placed in the town hall, within a few days, when Rembrandt's painting The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis was rejected. Ovens was paid 48 guilders, very little compared to the others, but still a good salary in those days.

In 1663 Ovens returned to Friedrichstadt at the instruction of Christian Albert, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, as one of the richest inhabitants. He invited Johannes Voorhout to work for him, but the painter declined the offer. From 1674 to 1675, he lived again in Holland and painted Michiel de Ruyter and Joan Huydecoper van Maarsseveen. After returning to Schleswig he painted the altarpiece of St. Christopher's in Friedrichstadt, painting himself in its top right section. His grave is also in the church.

Ovens owned six painting by Anthony van Dyck and three by Jacob Jordaens, Rubens, etc.

Works

Ovens was appreciated for his portraits and painted Nicolaes Tulp twice, his daughter Margaretha Tulp, her brother Dirk and his wife Anna Burgh. He also painted a portrait of the parents of Godert de Ginkell, 1st Earl of Athlone, Comenius, Maarten Tromp, Charles II of England, Colonel John Hutchinson, Adam Olearius, three times Christina of Sweden, Queen Sophie Amalie of Denmark, Jacob Backer, Jacques Specx, Lucia Wijbrants, Dirck Kerckring and twice Giuseppe Francesco Borri, an eye doctor, charlatan and alchemist.

Ovens' best-known work is the Blue Madonna in Schleswig Cathedral. A self-portrait may be seen in the Laurentius-Kirche in Tönning. Further works by Ovens can be found in the collections of the Schleswig-Holsteinischen Landesmuseums at the Schloss Gottorf. He made 45 paintings for the Amalienburg in Gottorf. The Earl of Arundel (or his grandmother Aletheia Talbot?) owned seventeen paintings by Ovens, belonging to a collection of 78 paintings which were sold on September 26, 1684 in Amsterdam. According to Schmidt there is nothing German in his paintings and he belongs to the Dutch School of painting.

References
Citations

Works cited

Further reading
 Ulrich Schulte-Wülwer: Malerei in Schleswig-Holstein, Katalog der Gemäldesammlung des Städtischen Museums Flensburg, Heide 1989.

External links

Works and literature at PubHist
Works by Jürgen Ovens
Rijksmuseum on Jürgen Ovens
Unfinished Claudius Civilis by Ovens
Amsterdam City Archives: records on his two children and wife
 Biography in German with links to a novel by Theodor Storm
 A painting of a young woman as Flora (goddess)
 Portrait of a young lady
 Painting by Ovens of John Hutchinson. Colonel Hutchinson was one of the major figures in the English Civil War. He was based in Nottingham.

1623 births
1678 deaths
People from Tönning

Danish Baroque painters
Danish male painters
Dutch Golden Age painters
Dutch male painters
German Baroque painters
German people of Danish descent
People from the Duchy of Schleswig
North Frisians
Frisian painters
Pupils of Rembrandt

Jürgen Ovens


Weight training is a common type of strength training. It uses the force of gravity in the form of weighted bars, dumbbells or weight stacks to oppose the force generated by muscles. Weight training uses many different special things to help certain areas of muscle and different kinds of body motions.

"Weight training" is not bodybuilding, Olympic weightlifting, or power-lifting; these are sports and not training. Weight training is a part of these sports' training.

Reps, sets, tempo and rest

Weight training has many similarities with other kinds of strength training. Each uses the ideas of "repetitions" (or "reps"), "sets", "tempo", and "rest" in different kinds of body motions to increase strength.

For a certain body motion or exercise, "reps" are doing the motion again and again with no rest between.

A "set" is a number of reps and a time of rest. 3 sets of 10 reps would be doing the motion 10 times, resting, doing it again 10 times, resting, and doing it ten more times, then resting.

The "tempo" of an exercise means the speed one motion is done. A particular exercise may require you to move down then up, but one person may go down and come up in 2 seconds, while someone else may move slower and take 10 seconds. So 10 reps will take 20 seconds for the first person, but 100 seconds for the second. Most times slower motion is more difficult.

Rest has a no different meaning for weight training, but it is very important. During rest no motion is necessary. Different kinds of weight training use different rest times between sets. Some use as little as 30 seconds and others can use as much as 8 minutes.

Weight training and bodybuilding
Weight training has a similarity to bodybuilding, but they have different objectives. Bodybuilding uses weight training to help make muscles larger and good looking, without care for more strength. They train to make their muscles larger and get low levels of body fat. Many weight trainers train differently and for the result of being strong and doing difficult things for a long time while not thinking about dropping body fat far under normal.

Safety
Weight training is a safe kind of exercise when the motion is slow, controlled, and careful. In similarity to many things, doing it wrong or without care can result in hurting oneself.

Good Form
Each different weight training exercise is used only for a certain muscle area or group of muscles. This muscle area is the "primary" muscle area for that certain exercise or motion. After several reps in a set, the motion will become difficult. People will then sometimes try to use other muscle areas to help the primary muscle area with the motion by jerking or making a small change in the motion. This is bad form. The reason this may hurt somebody is that these other areas may not be strong enough to move the same weight as the primary area, and they may be strained if used.

An example: in the squat exercise the person may sometimes use the back muscles if they are bent too far forward at the bottom of the motion. The squat exercise will use only the leg muscles if the person carefully keeps his back straight.

Stretching

Many people who use weight training spend 5 minutes stretching their muscles using special stretching motions and body positions. There is scientific work that says stretching helps make the chance of hurting oneself smaller.

Warm Up
"Warming up" is also used to make the chance of hurting oneself smaller. A "warm-up" is a few sets of an exercise done before other exercises that are done at the much easier weight. These sets help move blood into the muscles and make lifting higher weight safer.

Breathing
Good use of breath is another thing to think about. There is a very small chance of blackout or stroke if the person exercising is straining too much and they hold their breath while doing the motion of an exercise. This is why many advise breathing out during the difficult part of the motion (for example, when lifting breath out and breath in when coming down for many exercises).

Drinking Water
As with many kinds of exercise, weight training people should drink enough water. Some say a weight training person should drink about 200ml of water every 15 minutes. Drinking a "sports drink" similar to Gatorade does not help more than water for water needs but may help with some kinds of salts that you may need after exercise. If a very large amount of water is used it is possible to drink too much water, so the use of care is important.

"Spotting" or Helpers
Some kinds of weight training exercise need a helper or "spotter" to help make the motion safe. For example the bench press.  Because the weight is directly above the body, a "spotter" or helper is used by many people in this exercise. The helper will stand behind the head of the person doing the exercise. If after doing some of the exercises the person doing the exercise cannot move the weight, the "spotter" will help the person move the weight back up to the starting position by taking hold of the bar and lifting together with the person.

It is safe to do many exercises without a spotter. Many exercise machines are made to be safe for use alone. But it is always safer to do weight training exercise with other people near who can help if you get hurt.

Pain
If an exercise causes sudden very sharp pain, with similarity to being cut with a knife, that is bad pain and you should stop the exercise. But all weight training exercises will slowly cause muscles to be tired and cause small strain in the muscle area they use. When some people say "no pain no gain" they mean the tired feeling and small strain will help make you stronger. But sharp sudden pain is bad and may mean someone was hurt (this will not help you be stronger).

Being hurt this way may mean no "warm-up" was done.

Other
Many people will get medical advice before starting weight training to make certain they are healthy enough to do the exercises. People who are old or who have needed medical help in the past should get medical advice before weight training.

Kinds of Weight Training

Plyometric vs Isotonic
Most people mean isotonic weight training when they talk about weight training. Isotonic lifting is done with a smooth tempo during the reps.

Plyometric weight training uses sudden motions to help people do things like jump higher or strike with more power. These are motions which must be done quickly and with power. Because these types of exercise may use jerking motion, it is more important to do a long warm-up and stretch before attempting these exercises.

Isolation vs. Compound
An "isolation" exercise is made to use only one muscle or a small muscle area. A compound exercise is made to use a larger muscle area that uses more muscles. It is still good form to do a compound exercise that uses more than one muscle area if the exercise is made to use the other areas.

For example, a pull-up uses the muscles on top of the arm to help the back muscles in this exercise. It is a compound. A bicep curl uses only the muscles on the top of the arm. This is an isolation exercise.

Most isolation exercises are very special and need a special apparatus to help them. Compound exercises are more natural. An isolation exercise may be used when one muscle is less strong than others it is used within a compound motion. Also bodybuilders use isolation exercises to make good looking muscles.

Health benefits
Weight training strengthens bones, helping to prevent bone loss and osteoporosis. By increasing muscular strength and improving balance, weight training can reduce falls by elderly persons as well.

Weight training also is important to keep muscle strong when on a diet to drop fat. Without weight training or other strength training a person on a diet may lose muscle with the fat when they go down in weight.

Related pages
Weightlifting

References

Sources
 Johnson-Cane, Deidre; Cane, Jonathan; Glickman, Joe (2000). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Weight Training. Indianapolis: Alpha Books. pp. 169.
 Weerapong, Pornratshanee, Patria A. Hume, and Gregory S. Kolt. "Stretching: Mechanisms and Benefits for Sports Performance and Injury Prevention." Physical Therapy Reviews 9.4(2004): 189-206.

Fitness

Weight training


Carl Nielsen (born in Sortelung, near Nørre Lyndelse on Funen, June 9, 1865; died in Copenhagen, October 3, 1931) was a Danish composer.  He is the most famous composer from Denmark and one of the most important composers of symphonies from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Life
Carl Nielsen was the seventh in a family of twelve children.  His father's name was Niels Jørgensen.  It was Danish tradition for a child to get his father's given name as part of his name, so Carl became Carl Nielsen ("son of Niels").

The family was very poor and Carl had to help in the home.  During the school holidays he looked after the geese.  His father, who was a simple painter, played the violin and cornet in the village band.  Carl soon learned to play the violin and joined in with his father's band.  He listened to music by Haydn and Mozart and became very interested in general knowledge.  All his life he tried to learn new languages and was interested in literature, art and philosophy.  He loved animals and the nature around him.

When he was 14, he had a job in the military orchestra in the nearby town of Odense.  He played the horn and trombone.  In 1884 some rich people in Odense paid for him to go to the Conservatory in Copenhagen.  He studied music there and did quite well, but there was nothing yet to show that he would be a brilliant composer.  He got a job as violinist in the Royal Chapel, a good orchestra which was conducted by Johan Svendsen.  He got to know the music of Wagner, and he went to Germany to study it.  Later he was not so keen on Wagner's music, and he was not much influenced by it.

In 1891, he married Anne Marie Brodersen who was a sculptress.  They travelled together to Italy where they saw lots of great art.  When they returned to Denmark Nielsen started composing some of the music that was to make him famous.  In 1901 the Danish government paid him money every year so that he did not have to teach and could spend his time composing.  He also conducted the Royal Theatre when Svendsen retired.  He often travelled to other countries and, later, did some teaching and examining at the Copenhagen Conservatoire.  He was made director of the conservatoire in 1931, shortly before he died.

Nielsen suffered for several years from heart trouble.  He died from this disease on October 3, 1931.

His music

Carl Nielsen wrote nearly every kind of music: opera, chamber music, symphony, concerto, songs.  His music was different from the Romantic music that other composers were writing at that time.  Nielsen liked the music of the Classical period, especially Haydn and Mozart.  He learned from them, but also used a lot of  chromaticism and interesting orchestral sounds which made his music much more modern.

He wrote a serious opera called Saul og David and a comic opera Maskarade.  He wrote a lot of Danish songs which are very popular in Denmark.

By far the most important of his works internationally are his six symphonies and three concertos.  The Fourth and Fifth Symphonies, especially, are performed very often by orchestras all over the world.

He wrote a very large work for organ called Commotio.

Nielsen always said how important his simple village background was for his music.  This can be heard clearly in his popular cantata Fynsk Foraar (Springtime in Funen) which shows his love of the countryside where he grew up.

Other websites

1865 births
1931 deaths
20th-century composers
Danish composers

Carl Nielsen


Clay tablets were a medium used for writing. They were common in the Fertile Crescent, from about the 5th millennium BC.

A clay tablet is a more or less flat surface made of clay. Using a stylus, symbols were pressed into the soft clay. It is possible to correct errors on the tablet. The tablet was then baked until dry and hard, either by leaving it out in the sun, or in a fire. Sun-baked tablets could be moistened and recycled. The ones that survived thousands of years were baked in fire.
They were used by the Sumerian civilisation in Mesopotamia.

Cuneiform was the first writing used on clay tablets. The system was used by several civilizations who spoke several different languages.

Writing media

Clay tablet


Circadian rhythm sleep disorders happen when the circadian rhythm is not working correctly. They make people sleep and wake at times that are not normal, but these people usually have 8 hours of good sleep. These disorders affect other systems in the body, too, and not just sleep. Circadian rhythms also control appetite, body temperature rhythm and hormone cycles.

Extrinsic category
"Extrinsic" means something which comes from outside rather than from within a system or an organism. There are two circadian rhythm sleep disorders of the extrinsic type:

 Jet Lag
Jet Lag often affects people who have travelled several hours east or west, through several time zones. It may take many days for the body to adjust. The name "jet lag" comes from travelling by jet aircraft.

 Shift work syndrome
Many people have health problems when they work a shift during the times when their circadian rhythms say that they should be asleep.  Most people who work later than midnight find it difficult to stay awake.

Intrinsic category
"Intrinsic" means something which happens or comes from within a system or an organism. There are four circadian rhythm sleep disorders of the intrinsic type. Unless they are caused by a head injury, they are usually genetic, that is, people are born with them. They are generally chronic; they do not go away, but they may sometimes be treated.

 Advanced sleep-phase syndrome
Advanced sleep-phase syndrome (ASPS) is very rare. People with this syndrome are sleepy very early in the evening and they sleep from about 19:00-20:00 in the evening to about 03:00-04:00 in the early morning. Often several people in the same family have ASPS.

 Delayed sleep-phase syndrome
Delayed sleep-phase syndrome (DSPS) is more common than ASPS and it affects about 0.15% of adults. It usually starts in early childhood or at puberty. Some cases that start at puberty go away when the person is about 20 or 21 years old. DSPS is much more common in teenagers than in adults. DSPS in people older than about 20 usually will have it all their lives, that is, it is chronic.

People with DSPS cannot go to sleep before 03:00-06:00 in the morning, or even later. They cannot wake up in time for school or a job which starts in the morning. They can go to sleep at the same time every night and get up at the same time each day. This means that they are entrained (adjusted, synchronized) to the daily light/dark cycle. Even when they try to sleep at "normal" times, they feel most awake late at night.

 Non-24-hour sleep-wake syndrome
Non-24-hour sleep-wake syndrome (Non-24) is quite rare. People with Non-24 have very unusual sleep timing. Their sleep and wake times are not regulated by daylight; they are not entrained (adjusted, synchronized) to the daily light/dark cycle. This is called freerunning sleep.

The worst circadian rhythm sleep disorder in people who can see is Non-24; their "daily" rhythm lasts 25 hours or more so they sleep and wake up one or more hours later each day. Appetite, body temperature rhythm and hormone cycles all keep moving around the clock, coming back to the same time after a few weeks.

About half of totally blind people, who can see no light at all, have Non-24. Their daily rhythm is not exactly 24 hours and it does not adjust to the light/dark cycle in nature because they can not see light. This can often be treated.

 Irregular sleep-wake disorder
Irregular sleep-wake disorder is rare, and it is often possible to find out what causes it, for example, a head injury, a mental handicap, dementia or some other sicknesses. People with this disorder sleep and wake several times a day, but not at the same times every day. They sleep about 8 hours a day but never 8 hours together.

Treatment
Treatment for these disorders often does not work well. In addition, it can be difficult to find a doctor who knows much about circadian rhythms, as the field of study is quite new.

 Bright light
Treatment with bright light is also called phototherapy or light therapy. People with ASPS need a lot of light in the evening and they should avoid bright light in the morning. People with DSPS need bright light as soon as they wake up and should try to avoid bright light before bedtime.

 Melatonin
Melatonin is a hormone produced in the pineal gland in the brain. It is normally only produced in the evening and at night. People with ASPS can take melatonin by mouth in the morning. People with DSPS can take melatonin in the afternoon or evening, and this treatment works also for some people with Non-24.

One can buy melatonin in the shops in the USA and Canada. In most other countries one must get it from a doctor or it might not be legal at all.

Sleep disorders
Disability

Circadian rhythm sleep disorder


Finn Martin Vallersnes (born 27 December 1945 in Haugesund) is a Norwegian politician for the Conservative Party.

He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament from Rogaland in 2001, and has been re-elected on one occasion. He had previously served in the position of deputy representative during the terms 1985–1989 and 1989–1993.

Vallersnes was a member of Haugesund municipality council from 1979 to 1991, and served as mayor from 1995 to 2001.

References

1945 births
Living people
Conservative Party (Norway) politicians
Members of the Storting
21st-century Norwegian politicians

Finn Martin Vallersnes