The Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813 was one of the many wars between the Persian Empire and Imperial Russia, and began like many of their wars as a territorial dispute. The new Persian king, Fath Ali Shah Qajar, wanted to consolidate the northernmost reaches of his kingdom—modern-day Georgia—which had been annexed by Tsar Paul I several years after the Russo-Persian War of 1796. Like his Persian counterpart, the Tsar Alexander I was also new to the throne and equally determined to control the disputed territories.

The war ended in 1813 with the Treaty of Gulistan which ceded the previously disputed territory of Georgia to Imperial Russia, and also the Iranian territories of Dagestan, most of what is nowadays Azerbaijan, and minor parts of Armenia.

Origins

The origins of the first full scale Russo-Persian War can be traced back to the decision of Tsar Paul to annex Georgia (December 1800) after Erekle II, who had been appointed as ruler of Kartli several years earlier by his ruler Nader Shah, made a plea to Christian Russia in the Treaty of Georgievsk of 1783 to be incorporated into the empire. After Paul's assassination (11 March 1801), the activist policy was continued by his son, Tsar Alexander, aimed at establishing Russian control over the khanates of the eastern Caucasus. In 1803, the newly appointed viceroy of the Caucasus, Paul Tsitsianov, attacked Ganja and captured its citadel on 15 January 1804. Ganja's governor, Javad Khan Qajar, was killed, and a large number of the inhabitants slaughtered. The Qajar ruler, Fath Ali Shah, saw the Russian threat to Armenia, Karabagh, and Azerbaijan not only as a source of instability on his northwestern frontier but as a direct challenge to Qajar authority.

Unequal forces

The Russians were unable to commit a large portion of their troops to the Caucasus region, because Alexander's attention was continually distracted by simultaneous wars with France, the Ottoman Empire, Sweden and Great Britain. Therefore, the Russians were forced to rely on superior technology, training, and strategy in the face of an overwhelming disparity in numbers. Some estimates put the Persian numerical advantage at five to one. Shah Fath Ali's heir, Abbas Mirza, tried to modernize the Persian army, seeking help from French experts through the Franco-Persian alliance, and then from British experts, in order to address the tactical disparity between the forces.

Outbreak of war
The war began when Russian commanders Ivan Gudovich and Paul Tsitsianov attacked the Persian settlement of Echmiadzin, the holiest town in Armenia. Gudovich, unsuccessful in the siege of Echmiadzin due to a lack of troops, withdrew to Yerevan, where his siege again failed. Despite these ineffective forays, the Russians held the advantage for the majority of the war, due to superior troops and strategy. Russia's inability, however, to dedicate anything more than 10,000 troops to the campaign allowed the Persians to mount a fairly respectable resistance effort. The Persian troops were of a low grade, mostly irregular cavalry.

Holy war and Persian defeat
The Persians scaled up their efforts late in the war, declaring jihad, or holy war, on Imperial Russia in 1810. Russia's superior technology and tactics ensured a series of strategic victories. Despite the Persian alliance with Napoleon, who was the ally of Persia's Abbas Mirza, France could provide little concrete direct help. Even when the French were in occupation of Moscow, Russian forces in the south were not recalled but continued their offensive against Persia, culminating in Pyotr Kotlyarevsky's victories at Aslanduz and Lankaran, after the setback in the Battle of Sultanabad, in 1812 and 1813 respectively. Upon the Persian surrender, the terms of the Treaty of Gulistan ceded the vast majority of the previously disputed territories to Imperial Russia. This led to the region's once-powerful khans being decimated and forced to pay homage to Russia.

War

During this period Russia was mainly dealing with the local khanates which were subject to Persia. Following the bloody capture of Ganja the khans could usually be bullied without too much fighting. The main Persian army intervened twice, once successfully and once unsuccessfully. Significant events include the 1804 capture of Ganja and failure to take Yerevan; the 1805 push east, almost to the Caspian; and the 1806 death of Tsitsianov, capture of the Caspian coast, and start of the Russo-Turkish War.

In late 1803 Pavel Tsitsianov demanded the submission of the Ganja Khanate southeast of Georgia, over which Georgia had some nominal claims. He was now no longer unifying Georgia or liberating Christians but moving against territory that was traditionally seen as Muslim and Persian. On 3 January 1804 Ganja was taken with significant slaughter. Abbas Mirza's army arrived too late and retired south. In June, Tsitsianov and 3,000 men marched south toward Echmiadzin in the Yerevan Khanate. They were driven back by Abbas Mirza and 18,000 Persians (?). The Russians then moved east and besieged Yerevan (July–September). The local khan held the citadel, the Russians held the town, and the Persians held the surrounding countryside. Weakened by disease and fighting on half-rations, the Russians withdrew to Georgia, losing more men along the way.

In early 1805 the Shoragel sultanate was taken by the Russians. This was a small area at the junction of Georgia, the Yerevan Khanate, and Turkey and included the militarily important town of Gyumri. On 14 May, the Karabakh Khanate submitted to the Russians, and on 21 May the Shaki Khanate did the same. In response to the loss of Karabakh, Abbas Mirza occupied the Askeran Fortress at the mouth of a valley leading from the plain southwest to Shusha, the capital of Karabakh. The Russians responded by sending Koryagin to take Shahbulag Castle. Abbas Mirza marched north and besieged the place. On hearing of the approach of another army under Fath Ali, Koryagin slipped out at night and headed for Shusha. He was caught at the Askeran gorge but not defeated. More Russian troops relieved the blockade of Koryagin and Shusha. Seeing that the main Russian force had pushed far to the southeast, Abbas Mirza made a wide swing north and besieged Ganja. On 27 July, 600 Russian infantry routed his camp at Shamkir.

In September, a naval attack on Baku failed. In November, Tsitsianov marched east toward Baku, en route to accepting the submission of the Shirvan Khanate (27 December). On 8 February 1806, he was murdered while accepting the surrender of Baku. Russian honor was restored by Glazenap, who marched from north of the mountains and took Derbent, Quba, and Baku (technically Baku surrendered to Bulgakov). Ivan Gudovich replaced Tsitsianov as viceroy. In December, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia.

Troops were moved west to deal with the Turks, a truce was made and Nibolshin was left to guard the frontier. Fighting resumed in 1808 when Russia took Echmiadzrin. Abbas Mirza was defeated south of Lake Shirvan; as a result, Nakhichevan, or some part of it, was occupied. In September 1808, Gudovich attacked Yerevan. The assault failed, withdrawal became necessary and 1,000 men, mostly sick and wounded, froze to death on the retreat. Escape was only possible because Nibolshin and Lissanevich defeated a "vast horde" of Persians. Gudovich resigned and was replaced by Alexander Tormasov. In 1809, Fath Ali was driven back from Gyumri and Abbas Mirza from Ganja. In 1810 Abbas Mirza tried to invade Karabakh but was defeated at Meghri on the Aras River.

In early 1812, Persia invaded Karabagh. They occupied Shahbulag Castle, which the Russians later recaptured. They attacked a Russian battalion at "Sultan-Buda" using European-style infantry and a few British officers. After a day of fighting the Russians surrendered. Russia responded to this unusual defeat by moving Pyotr Kotlyarevsky, the hero of Akhalkalaki, from the Turkish to the Persian front.

In the summer of 1812, just as Napoleon was preparing to invade Russia, the Russians made peace with the Ottoman Empire and Russian troops in Caucasia turned to Persia. On 19 October, Kotlyarevsky ignored the cautious Ritishchev's orders, crossed the Aras river and routed the Persians at the Battle of Aslanduz. He then crossed the snow-covered Mughan Plain and, after a five-day siege, stormed the newly-built fort of Lankaran. The Russians lost 1000 men, two-thirds of their force. Of the 4000-man Persian garrison, every survivor was bayonetted. Kotlyarevsky was found wounded among a heap of corpses. He was carried half-dead to Tiflis (now Tbilisi) and survived for 39 more years, unfit for further service. A victory at "Karabezouk" completed the discomfiture of the Persians (3 April 1813). News of Napoleon's defeat reached Persia in the spring of 1813. Peace negotiations were already underway and an armistice was made in October. In the Treaty of Gulistan, Persia recognized Russian possession of all the khanates it held and gave up all pretensions to Dagestan and Georgia. The border in the northern part of Talysh was left for later decision. Persia kept Meghri in southwest Karabakh, which the Russians had abandoned as unhealthy and inaccessible from the rest of Karabakh.

Thirteen years later, in another Russo-Persian War fought from 1826 to 1828, Persia tried to regain its territory. It was defeated and lost the khanates of Yerevan and Nakhichevan, roughly corresponding to modern Armenia.

Anglo-French diplomacy in Persia

Although this Russo-Persian War was in many respects a continuation of a struggle for supremacy in Transcaucasia dating back to the time of Peter the Great and Nader Shah, it differed from earlier conflicts between Persia and Russia in that its course came to be affected as much by the diplomatic maneuvering of European powers during the Napoleonic era as by developments on the battlefield. Following the Russian occupation of the various khanates, Fath Ali Shah, strapped for cash and anxious to find an ally, had made a request for British support as early as December 1804. In 1805, however, Russia and Britain allied in the Third Coalition against France, which meant that Britain was not in a position to cultivate its Persian connection at Russian expense and felt it necessary to evade repeated requests from the shah for assistance. As the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, Charles Arbuthnot, put it in August 1806, To please the Emperor [of Russia], we have thrown away all our influence in Persia This opened the door for France to use Persia to threaten both Russian and British interests. Hoping to forge a tripartite alliance of France, the Ottoman Empire, and Persia, Napoleon sent various envoys to Persia, notably Pierre Amédée Jaubert and Claude Matthieu, Count Gardane, whose diplomatic efforts culminated in the Treaty of Finckenstein, signed on 4 May 1807, under which France recognized Persian claims to Georgia and promised assistance in training and equipping the Persian army. Only two months later, however, Napoleon and Alexander I agreed to an armistice and signed the Treaty of Tilsit (7 July 1807), which effectively rendered the French commitments to Persia untenable, although the French mission did continue to provide some military assistance and tried to mediate a settlement with Russia. The French efforts failed, prompting Gudovich to resume the Siege of Erevan in 1808.

The rise of French influence in Persia, viewed as the prelude to an attack on India, had greatly alarmed the British, and the Franco-Russian rapprochement at Tilsit conveniently provided an opportunity for a now isolated Britain to resume its efforts in Persia, as reflected in the subsequent missions of John Malcolm (1807–8) and Harford Jones (1809). According to the preliminary treaty of Tehran arranged by Jones (15 March 1809), Britain agreed to train and equip 16,000 Persian infantry and pay a subsidy of £100,000 should Persia be invaded by a European power, or to mediate if that power should be at peace with Great Britain. Although Russia had been making peace overtures, and Jones had hoped the preliminary agreement would encourage a settlement, these developments strengthened Fath Ali Shah 's determination to continue the war. Anglo-Persian relations warmed even further with the visit of Abu'l-Hasan Khan to London in 1809 and his return to Persia with Gore Ouseley as ambassador and minister plenipotentiary in 1810. Under Ouseley's auspices, the preliminary treaty was converted into the Definitive Treaty of Friendship and Alliance in 1812, which confirmed the earlier promises of military assistance and increased the amount of the subsidy for that purpose to £150,000 .

Then, in the third and final twist to this story, Napoleon invaded Russia in June 1812, making Russia and Britain allies once again. Britain, like France after Tilsit, was thus obliged to steer a course between antagonizing Russia and violating its commitments to Persia, with its best option being to broker a settlement of the conflict between the two. The Russians had been periodically interested in finding a negotiated settlement since the setbacks of 1805–6 and as recently as 1810, when Alexander Tormasov, who had replaced Gudovich as commander after his unsuccessful siege of Erevan, and Mirza Bozorg Qaem-magham had sought to arrange an armistice . Yet the Russians were unwilling to make serious concessions in order to end the war, and the Persians were also less than eager to settle since from their point of view the war was not going all that badly. Ouseley, however, realized the awkwardness of having Britain's resources deployed against its Russian ally and that the situation for Persia was likely to worsen once Russia was freed from the struggle with Napoleon. He was thus receptive to Russian requests to act as an intermediary and sought ways to pressure the Qajars into accepting a settlement. He proposed revisions to the Definitive Treaty, scaled back British military involvement (leaving two officers, Charles Christie and Lindesay Bethune, and some drill sergeants with the Persian army), and threatened to withhold payment of the subsidy promised to the Qajars .

In February 1812, N. R. Ritischev assumed command of the Russian forces and opened peace negotiations with the Persians. Ouseley and his representative at the talks, James Morier, acted as intermediaries and made various proposals to Rtischev, but they were not accepted . In August, Abbas Mirza resumed hostilities and captured Lankaran. After news arrived that Napoleon had occupied Moscow, the negotiations were suspended (Ramażān 1227/September 1812). Then, on 24 Shawwal 1227/31 October 1812, while Ritischev was away in Tbilisi, the general Peter Kotliarevski launched a surprise night attack on the Persian encampment at Aslanduz, which resulted in the complete rout of the army of Abbas Mirza and the death of one of the British supporting officers (Christie). As it also became increasingly apparent that Napoleon's offensive in Russia had failed disastrously, the Russians were emboldened to pursue a more aggressive campaign in the Caucasus. In early 1813, the Persian fortress at Lankarān fell and its garrison was annihilated, enabling the Russians to occupy most of Talesh again . Although Fath Ali Shah and Abbas Mirza wanted to fight on after these setbacks, they eventually had to yield to Ouseley, who assured the Shah that either the Russians would make territorial concessions or the British would continue the subsidy they had promised.

1813: Treaty of Gulistan

Russia fought on two frontiers: against the Ottomans between 1806 and 1812; and against the Persians from 1804 to 1813. Both frontiers were concluded via treaties: the Treaty of Bucharest in 1812 with the Ottoman Empire; and the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813 that lasted until 1826 when Russian troops, acting outside of the control of Tsar Nicholas I, occupied Mirak. Under the Gulistan treaty, Russia was acknowledged as the power in control of the South Caucasus; western and eastern Georgia and the Muslim khanates until Baku and Quba were placed under Russian administration.

Assessment and aftermath

Although Russia was recognized as a dominant power over the Caucasus, the success of the Treaty of Gulistan was overshadowed by the threat of the Ottomans. The Treaty of Bucharest was in favor of the Ottoman Empire which had claimed the territories that Russia conquered during the war: Poti and Anapa, which were Black Sea port cities, as well as Akhalkalaki. Still, the conditions of sovereignty were comparatively stable in these years. In the complex political map of the South Caucasus, Russia had the means to control the region through defensive lines.

According to William Bayne Fisher (et al.):

See also
 Russo-Persian War (1826-1828)
 Khanates of the Caucasus

Notes

References
Muriel Aiken, Russia and Iran, 1780–1828, 1980

Sources
N. Dubrovin. История войны и владычества русских на Кавказе, volumes 4–6. SPb, 1886–88.

Further reading

Conflicts in 1804
Conflicts in 1805
Conflicts in 1806
Conflicts in 1807
Conflicts in 1808
Conflicts in 1809
Conflicts in 1810
Conflicts in 1811
Conflicts in 1812
Conflicts in 1813
1804 in the Russian Empire
1813 in the Russian Empire
1804 in Iran
1813 in Iran
19th century in Azerbaijan
19th century in Georgia (country)
19th-century military history of the Russian Empire
History of Dagestan
History of the Caspian Sea
Invasions by Russia
Invasions of Iran
Khanates of the South Caucasus
Khanates of the North Caucasus
Military history of Azerbaijan
Military history of Georgia (country)
Military history of Iran
Russo-Persian Wars
Napoleonic Wars
Wars involving Qajar Iran

Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)


John Paul Hammerschmidt (May 4, 1922 – April 1, 2015) was an American politician from the state of Arkansas. A Republican, Hammerschmidt served thirteen terms in the United States House of Representatives for Arkansas's 3rd congressional district, located in the northwestern quadrant of the state. He served from 1967 until his retirement in 1993.

In 1974, a nationally Democratic year, he secured his fifth term by defeating the then 28-year-old Bill Clinton. He was also the first Republican elected to the House of Representatives from Arkansas since Reconstruction. Coincidentally, Hammerschmidt left the House the same month in which Clinton became president.

Early life and business career
Born in Harrison in Boone County in northwestern Arkansas, Hammerschmidt was the fourth of five children of the former Junie Mildred Taylor and Arthur Paul Hammerschmidt. Both sets of grandparents migrated to Boone County in the early years of the 20th century and were of German descent. He graduated in 1938 from Harrison High School.

He attended The Citadel in Charleston, South Carolina, from 1938 to 1939 and the University of Arkansas in Fayetteville from 1940 to 1941.

Hammerschmidt served in the United States Army Air Corps during World War II. In 1942, he joined the 3rd Combat Cargo Group of the U.S. Army Air Corps and served in the China-Burma-India theater until the end of the war in 1945. Hammerschmidt received the Distinguished Flying Cross with three oak leaf clusters for his service in the war.

Hammerschmidt returned to the United States and attended Oklahoma A&M College (now Oklahoma State University) in Stillwater, Oklahoma, from 1945 to 1946, having received a Bachelor of Science degree. He then entered the lumber industry, working at the Hammerschmidt Lumber Company, which had been founded by his grandfather, and becoming its president. Hammerschmidt also was president of the Construction Products Company and the Arkansas Lumber Dealers Association and Southwestern Lumberman's Association.

Hammerschmidt continued his military service in the United States Air Force Reserves from 1945 to 1960, and later in the District of Columbia Army Reserves from 1977 to 1981.

Political career
Hammerschmidt was a delegate to the Republican National Conventions in 1964, 1968, 1972, 1976, 1980, 1984, and 1988. He was twice the state chairman of the Republican Party of Arkansas, serving from 1964 to 1966 and again from 2002 to 2004.

In the 1966 election, Hammerschmidt won the Republican nomination for the 3rd district and then defeated 11-term incumbent Democrat James William Trimble, by more than nine thousand votes. He became the first Republican to represent Arkansas in Congress since Reconstruction. Hammerschmidt was elected twelve more times, having served twenty-six years from January 3, 1967 to January 3, 1993, from the 90th Congress to the 102nd Congress. The 3rd district had begun shaking off its Solid South roots before the rest of Arkansas; it has only supported a Democrat for president twice since 1952, and its voters had begun splitting their tickets at the federal level as early as the 1930s.

Hammerschmidt became very popular in the 3rd district, even though most of its residents had never been represented by a Republican before; indeed, Democrats would hold most state and local offices well into the 1990s. He only faced one contest anywhere near as close as his initial bid for the seat. In the 1974 election, he defeated Bill Clinton (then a University of Arkansas law professor) by only 6,400 votes. Clinton had harshly criticized Hammerschmidt for being one of the few Republicans to stand by Richard Nixon in the wake of the Watergate scandal. This election was one of only four in which Democrats received more than one-third of the vote against Hammerschmidt, the others being Hardy Croxton in 1968, Donald Poe in 1970, and former Clinton associate James McDougal in 1982. The district reverted to form in 1976, when Hammerschmidt was reelected unopposed. In 1978, Hammerschmidt faced weak opposition from the Hot Springs real estate broker William C. Mears and instead had the resources to help the Republican gubernatorial nominee, A. Lynn Lowe, a farmer from Texarkana, win in Boone County. Lowe, who was also the state party chairman, lost to Hammerschmidt's former opponent, Bill Clinton, by an margin of 63-37.

Hammerschmidt was a member of the President's Commission on Aviation Security and Terrorism (PCAST) which was organized in September 1989 to review and report on aviation security policy in the light of the sabotage of Pan Am Flight 103 on December 21, 1988.

Hammerschmidt had a conservative voting record on foreign policy and social issues, but a slightly more moderate record on economic issues. He supported a constitutional amendment proposing to enact flag desecration laws.

Hammerschmidt was in the Air Force Reserve from 1945 to 1960 and the Army Reserve from 1977 to 1981. He was a Presbyterian and a member of the American Legion, Veterans of Foreign Wars, Freemasons, Shriners, Elks, Rotary International, and had alumni status at the Alpha Zeta chapter of the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity at the University of Arkansas at Fayetteville. From 1999 to 2004, he was a trustee of Arkansas State University at Jonesboro.  Hammerschmidt died at the age of 92 of heart and respiratory failure at a hospital in Springdale, Arkansas.

Legacy

A fellowship at the University of Arkansas at Fort Smith was created in his name to allow a university student to work in the 3rd congressional district office.

The John Paul Hammerschmidt Federal Building near the Fayetteville Historic Square is home to the Fayetteville office of the United States District Court for the Western District of Arkansas.

Interstate 49 in Arkansas is designated as the John Paul Hammerschmidt Highway in northwest Arkansas.

Hammerschmidt was inducted into the Arkansas Aviation Hall of Fame in 1990 by the Arkansas Aviation Historical Society.

References

External links

1922 births
2015 deaths
20th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American politicians
American construction businesspeople
American people of German descent
Arkansas Republican state chairmen
Businesspeople from Arkansas
Oklahoma State University alumni
People from Harrison, Arkansas
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
United States Air Force reservists
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
United States Army reservists
New Right (United States)
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Arkansas

John Paul Hammerschmidt


Thomas Hazlehurst (17 April 1816 – 14 July 1876) was known nationally as "the Chapel Builder" and more locally as "the Prince of Methodism" or "the Prince of the Wesleyans".
 He was given these titles because of his generosity in paying wholly or largely for the building of some 12 chapels and three schools in the area of Runcorn, Widnes and the villages in north Cheshire.  His father, also called Thomas, had founded a profitable soap and alkali manufacturing business, Hazlehurst & Sons, in Runcorn in 1816.

Wealth

His wealth was derived from two sources.  In 1851 Thomas' first wife Eliza died from tuberculosis on her 28th birthday leaving a fortune which was said to be of the order of £60,000. In addition he had a substantial income from the family business.  Between the years 1859 to 1875, when the partners in the business were the two youngest brothers Thomas and Charles, each took home around £6,000 each year.  During that time the business was run mainly by Charles, leaving Thomas to concentrate on religious matters.

Religion
Like his father, Thomas was a pious Methodist.  He held all the positions available to a layman in the church and was at one time the organist at Brunswick chapel.  He chaired many committees for religious and charitable groups.  During his life he wrote and distributed free a large number of sermons or "discourses".  But he is best known for his generous donations to the Wesleyan Methodist movement, in particular his paying for the building of chapels and schools. In addition he was frequently invited to lay the foundation stones for chapels and schools both locally and further afield.  On each occasion he was presented with a silver inscribed commemorative trowel or mallet.  In all he collected almost 100 of these tokens and displayed them with pride, mounted in a large wooden frame in the lounge of his home.

Chapel building
Thomas' first known gift of a complete chapel was in 1848 in Farnworth, then a village north of what is now the town of Widnes. At that time the ancient Anglican parish church of Runcorn was being demolished and rebuilt.  Thomas bought the pulpit from that church and donated it to the chapel at Farnworth. Some years later he donated an organ to Brunswick chapel. In 1857 he paid the greater part of the cost of a new chapel in the Appleton area of Widnes.

Then came the following for which he paid the complete cost, unless otherwise stated (the stated costs are approximate):
1858 Eden chapel at Five Crosses, a hamlet to the east of Frodsham.
1860 Hough Green (Ditton) chapel, Widnes costing £850.
1861 Halebank chapel, Widnes costing £900.
1862 Camden chapel and school, Runcorn.  It is not recorded that he paid the full cost for them but he certainly made a large donation towards them.
1864 Victoria Road chapel, Widnes.  The largest chapel yet, costing £3,350
1864 Widnes Dock chapel, towards which Thomas donated nearly £3,000,
1866 St Paul's chapel, Runcorn.  This was built on land donated by Thomas and his brother Charles on land adjacent to their factory in High Street, Runcorn.  It cost £8,000 and was considered to be the finest Wesleyan chapel in the Liverpool district.
1870 Camden school was enlarged, the cost being met by a donation from Thomas and public subscriptions.
1871 Halton Road chapel, Runcorn.  Another fine chapel costing about £8,000.

1871 Hurst chapel, Kingsley (a village east of Frodsham).  Thomas paid over half the cost and also wrote off the outstanding debt on the old chapel.
1872 Weston Point chapel, Runcorn.
1873 Trinity chapel, Frodsham.  Another fine chapel with a spire.  The chapel cost £7,000.
1873 Weston day school, Runcorn.
1875 Trinity chapel and day school, Halton.  This is the only one of Hazlehurst's chapels which is still in use as a chapel today.

In all, his donations to the Wesleyan movement are estimated to have totalled some £70,000.  He is buried next to two of his brothers in Runcorn cemetery.

References

Citations

Sources

Architects' drawings

These are reproductions of art work by architects for four of Thomas Hazlehurst's chapels.

External links
More detailed biography of Thomas Hazlehurst

English Methodists
English philanthropists
1816 births
1876 deaths
People from Runcorn
19th-century British philanthropists

Thomas Hazlehurst (chapel builder)


The Klickitat (also spelled Klikitat) are a Native American tribe of the Pacific Northwest.  A Shahaptian tribe, their neighbors to the east were the Yakama, who speak a closely related language. Their neighbors to the west are the Salishan and Chinookan tribes.  Their name has been used for naming places like Klickitat County, Washington, Klickitat, Washington, and the Klickitat River, a tributary of the Columbia River.

Native Americans

Klickitat


The Coat of Arms of Chile consist of a shield holding the national symbol of a star in a blue and red field.  This shield is supported by a condor and huemul.

At the top of the shield are three feather plumes in the colors of the national flag.  The center shield has the star found on the national flag on a blue and red background.  The blue represents the sky, and the red represents the blood of martyrs, as well as the Andes.  The condor and huemel are animals found in Chile.  The crowns they wear are naval crowns, and represent the rich naval history of Chile.

Related pages
 Chile

Other websites

Chile
National symbols of Chile

Coat of arms of Chile


People is a weekly American magazine of celebrity and human interest stories. It is published by Time Inc. As of 2006, it had a circulation of 3.75 million. It was named "Magazine of the Year" by Advertising Age in October 2005, for very good editorial, circulation and advertising. People ranked #6 on Advertising Age's annual "A-list" and #3 on Adweek's "Brand Blazers" list in October 2006.

American weekly magazines

People (magazine)


In physics, mechanical energy describes the potential energy and kinetic energy present in the components of a mechanical system.

When a given amount of mechanical energy is transferred (such as when throwing a ball, lifting a box, crushing a soda can, or stirring a beverage) it is said that this amount of mechanical work has been done. Both mechanical energy and mechanical work are measured in the same units as energy in general. It is usually said that a component of a system has a certain amount of "mechanical energy" (i.e. it is a state function), whereas "mechanical work" describes the amount of mechanical energy a component has gained or lost.

The conservation of mechanical energy is a principle that states that under certain conditions, the total mechanical energy of a system is constant. This rule does not hold when mechanical energy is converted to other forms, such as chemical, nuclear, or electromagnetic. However, the principle of general conservation of energy is so far an unbroken rule of physics - as far as we know, energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed in form.

Mechanics
Energy

Mechanical energy


Transit is a 2013 Filipino independent drama film written and directed by Hannah Espia. The film follows a story about a single father who is forced to hide his children from immigration police in Israel after the Israeli government decides to deport children of immigrant workers. It is Espia's full-length debut film. It was mostly shot in Israel. The film competed under the New Breed section of Cinemalaya 2013. The film won Best Film, directing, acting and other technical awards.

Espia said that the inspiration to do the film came after talking to an OFW who was bringing home his child from Israel. In 2009, the Israeli government enacted a law that deports the children of migrant workers unless they fulfill a certain criterion. Both Israeli and migrant workers rallied against the law that separates parents from their children.

The film competed in the 18th Busan International Film Festival in the "New Currents" section. The film was selected as the Philippine entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 86th Academy Awards, but it was not nominated.

Plot
The film begins and ends in an airport during a father and son's transit flight from Tel Aviv to Manila. It tells the story of Moises (Ping Medina), a Filipino single-dad working as a caregiver in Herzliya, Israel, who comes home to his apartment in Tel Aviv to celebrate his son Joshua (Marc Justine Alvarez)'s 4th birthday. It was on that day that Moises, together with their Filipino neighbors Janet (Irma Adlawan), and her daughter Yael (Jasmine Curtis), find out that the Israeli government is going to deport children of foreign workers. Afraid of the new law, Moises and Janet decide to hide their children from the immigration police by making them stay inside the house.

Cast
Ping Medina as Moises
Irma Adlawan as Janet
Jasmine Curtis-Smith as Yael
Marc Justine Alvarez as Joshua
Mercedes Cabral as Tina
Perla (Pnina) Bronstein as Rotem
Omer Juran as Omri
Toni Gonzaga as Joshua's Mother
Menahem Godick as Israeli policeman

Awards
2013 Cinemalaya Film Festival (New Breed)
 Best Film
 Audience Award
 Best Director – Hannah Espia
 Best Actress – Irma Adlawan
 Best Supporting Actress – Jasmine Curtis-Smith
 Special Jury Citation for Best Acting Ensemble – (Irma Adlawan, Marc Alvarez, Mercedes Cabral, Jasmine Curtis, Ping Medina)
 Best Cinematography – Ber Cruz and Lyle Nemenzo Sacris
 Best Editing –  Benjamin Tolentino and Hannah Espia
 Best Score – Mon Espia
2014 Gawad Urian Awards
 Best Director – Hannah Espia

References

External links

2013 films
2013 drama films
Philippine independent films
Philippine New Wave
Philippine drama films
2013 independent films

Transit (2013 film)


In mathematics, a lemma is a "mini-proof"; a small hypothesis which is proved and then provides a part of a more important theorem.

Popular Lemmas
A good small thing can lead to many big things. Some powerful results in mathematics are known as lemmas, such as Bézout's lemma, Dehn's lemma, Euclid's lemma, Farkas' lemma, Fatou's lemma, Gauss's lemma, Greendlinger's lemma, Itō's lemma, Jordan's lemma, Nakayama's lemma, Poincaré's lemma, Riesz's lemma, Schur's lemma, Schwarz's lemma, Urysohn's lemma, Yoneda's lemma and Zorn's lemma. While these results originally seemed too simple to get independent interest, they have turned out to be important to the theories in which they occur.

Mathematical theorems

Lemma (mathematics)


William Ambrose Cundiff (born March 30, 1980) is a former American football placekicker. He played college football for Drake University, and was signed by the Dallas Cowboys as an undrafted free agent in 2002.

College career
Cundiff played for the Drake Bulldogs football team of Drake University, where he broke five Pioneer Football League (PFL) career records including most points (284), field goals (49) and points after touchdown (137). He made eight field goals over 50 yards during his career with the Bulldogs, including a PFL-record 62-yarder as a junior in 2000 against San Diego. He also was part of the Drake University Men's Basketball team. He played sparingly, partly due to several members of the team being ruled academically ineligible. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in biology in 2003. He was presented the highest honor for a student-athlete at the university when he received the Drake Double D Award on February 12, 2012.

Professional career

Dallas Cowboys
Cundiff was brought to the 2002 training camp as an undrafted free agent, and won out over incumbent Tim Seder as the team's kicker. As a rookie, he won the NFC Special Teams Player of the Week award, after making a 48-yard field goal on the game's final play for a 13–10 victory against the St. Louis Rams.

He tied a then-record seven field goals in a game against the New York Giants on Monday Night Football on September 15, 2003. That year, he became the second player (Chris Boniol was first) in team history to win the NFC Special Teams Player of the Week two times in a season.

In 2005, which would have been his fourth season with the team, he was waived/injured during training camp following a quadriceps injury, and briefly replaced by kickoff specialist José Cortéz, who had not been expected to make the team. Cundiff was later re-signed on November 19, 2005 (directly following the mandatory period after an injury waiver) having recovered from his training camp injury. He replaced kicker Shaun Suisham, in the hope of providing greater consistency to the Cowboys' special teams. In his first game back with the Cowboys, Cundiff made a 56-yard field goal at the end of the first half to set a record for longest field goal in franchise history. Cundiff played six games that season before being released by the Cowboys on December 26, 2005 after missing two field goals in a critical game against the Carolina Panthers. The Cowboys re-signed Suisham to replace him for the season finale.

Tampa Bay Buccaneers
On February 15, 2006, the Tampa Bay Buccaneers signed Cundiff to a contract,  but he was released after kicker Matt Bryant was re-signed.

Green Bay Packers
Cundiff signed with the Green Bay Packers on March 28, 2006, and was expected to compete with Dave Rayner for the starting kicking position before being cut by Green Bay on August 17.

New Orleans Saints
On November 22, 2006, the New Orleans Saints signed Cundiff as a kickoff specialist, easing the workload of veteran John Carney.

Atlanta Falcons
After being released by the Saints, Cundiff signed with the Atlanta Falcons on May 4, 2007. He was released at the end of the preseason after losing the starting job to Matt Prater.

Kansas City Chiefs
In January 2008, Cundiff was signed by the Kansas City Chiefs to a two-year contract. He was released prior to the start of the regular season.

Detroit Lions
Cundiff was signed by the Detroit Lions on August 26, 2009 after an injury to placekicker Jason Hanson. He was cut by the team on September 5, 2009.

Cleveland Browns
Cundiff was signed by the Cleveland Browns on September 26, 2009 after an injury to placekicker Phil Dawson. Cundiff beat out Matt Bryant in a workout with the Browns and was signed after the Browns first choice of Matt Stover declined to sign with the team. In week 5 of the 2009 NFL season, Cundiff hit the game-winning field goal to help the Browns beat the Buffalo Bills, 6–3. He was waived by the team on November 3, 2009.

Baltimore Ravens
Cundiff was brought in by the Baltimore Ravens for a workout on November 10, 2009 and was signed on November 18, 2009 to replace Stephen Hauschka, who was waived on November 17.

Cundiff re-signed with the Ravens to return for the 2010 season. Cundiff was voted to the 2011 Pro Bowl as the AFC placekicker after successfully completing 26 of 29 field goal attempts and a league-high 40 touchbacks. On January 2, 2011, Cundiff recorded his league-leading 40th touchback, which tied the NFL record set by Mitch Berger. Cundiff played at home in the outdoor M&T Bank Stadium and set the record after the instatement of the K-ball rule. He averaged 71.1 yards per kickoff to lead the league and had touchbacks on 51.3% of his kickoffs.

Cundiff signed a five-year, $15 million contract to become Baltimore's long-term kicker on January 23, 2011.

On the most famous kick of Cundiff's career, in the closing seconds of the 2011 AFC Championship Game on January 22, 2012 against the New England Patriots, Cundiff missed a 32-yard field goal that would have tied the game, and the Ravens lost 23–20.

Cundiff was released by the Ravens on August 26, 2012; he was replaced by rookie kicker Justin Tucker.

Washington Redskins
Cundiff was signed by the Washington Redskins on August 28, 2012. In Week 2 against the St. Louis Rams, he attempted a 62-yard field goal on the last play of the game to put the game into overtime, but missed. Two weeks later against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, after being zero for three in his field goal attempts, which consisted of a 41-yard, 57-yard, and 31-yard attempts, Cundiff made a 41-yard field goal in the last play of the game allowing the Redskins to win 24–22.

On October 9, 2012, Kai Forbath was signed to replace Cundiff, who was subsequently released.

San Francisco 49ers
Cundiff signed with the San Francisco 49ers on January 1, 2013 to compete with struggling veteran David Akers.

However, Akers performed well enough to keep the starting job, and Cundiff was left off the postseason roster and released 17 days later on January 18, 2013.

New York Jets
Cundiff was signed by the New York Jets on July 23, 2013 to compete with incumbent Jets kicker Nick Folk. He was released by the Jets on August 27, 2013.

Cleveland Browns (second stint)
Cundiff returned to the Cleveland Browns on September 3, 2013 after the Browns made roster cuts and released all of their kickers, including Shayne Graham. On March 6, 2014, Cundiff was re-signed for the next year for just over $1 million after making 80 percent of his field goals and 100 percent of his extra points the previous year.  On September 14, 2014, Cundiff kicked a game-winning field goal against the New Orleans Saints with three seconds remaining. He did the same on November 23 against the Atlanta Falcons. After sustaining a knee injury on December 11, 2014, Cundiff was subsequently released on December 13, 2014, with an injury settlement. In the five games prior to his release, Cundiff missed at least one field goal in each game.

Buffalo Bills
Cundiff was signed by the Buffalo Bills on October 7, 2015. He was ostensibly signed as a kickoff specialist to replace Jordan Gay.
Cundiff was released by the Bills on October 13, 2015.

Personal life
Cundiff is married to his college sweetheart, Nicole. The couple has three children.

In July 2007, Cundiff enrolled in a full-time Master of Business Administration (MBA) program at Arizona State University's W. P. Carey School of Business.  He graduated with his MBA and MRED from ASU in May 2009.

References

 Game Recap from Record-Tying Game Retrieved October 21, 2007.
 Billy Cundiff NFL players profile Retrieved June 23, 2006.
 Cowboys release Cundiff, re-sign Suisham for finale, ESPN.com Retrieved June 23, 2006.
 Tampa Bay signs kicker Cundiff as insurance, ESPN.com Retrieved June 23, 2006.
 Billy Cundiff news on Yahoo! Sports Retrieved August 23, 2006.

External links
Official website

American football placekickers
1980 births
Living people
Players of American football from Arizona
People from Harlan, Iowa
People from Valley Center, California
Players of American football from San Diego County, California
Drake Bulldogs football players
Dallas Cowboys players
Tampa Bay Buccaneers players
Green Bay Packers players
New Orleans Saints players
Atlanta Falcons players
Kansas City Chiefs players
Detroit Lions players
Cleveland Browns players
Baltimore Ravens players
Washington Redskins players
San Francisco 49ers players
New York Jets players
Buffalo Bills players

Billy Cundiff


Gösta Stoltz (May 9, 1904 – July 25, 1963) was a Swedish chess grandmaster.

Biography

Stoltz played a few matches with strong chess masters. In 1926, he lost to Mikhail Botvinnik (+0 –1 =1) at a team match Stockholm – Leningrad in Stockholm. In 1927, he drew with Allan Nilsson (+2 –2 =1) in Göteborg (Swedish Chess Championship). In 1930, he won against Isaac Kashdan (+3 –2 =1) in Stockholm. In 1930, he lost to Rudolf Spielmann (+2–3=1) in Stockholm. In 1931, he won against Salo Flohr (+4 –3 =1) in Göteborg. In 1931, he lost to Flohr (+1 –4 =3) in Prague. In 1931, he drew with Gideon Ståhlberg (+2 –2 =2) in Göteborg. In 1934, he lost to Aron Nimzowitsch (+1 –2 =3) in Stockholm. In September 1935, he played at a match Sweden vs Germany (Scheveningen system), and took 2nd individual result, behind Ståhlberg, in Zoppot (Sopot).

Stoltz played for Sweden in nine Chess Olympiads (1927–1937, 1952,1954) and in 3rd unofficial Chess Olympiad at Munich 1936:
 at fourth board (+5 -5 =5) in the 1st Olympiad at London 1927;
 at first board (+6 -5 =5) in the 2nd Olympiad at The Hague 1928;
 at third board (+7 -4 =6) in the 3rd Olympiad at Hamburg 1930;
 won individual gold medal at second board (+10 -1 =7) in the 4th Olympiad at Prague 1931;
 won team bronze medal playing at second board (+5 -3 =6) at the 5th Olympiad at Folkestone 1933.
 won team silver medal and individual bronze medal playing at second board (+8 -3 =8) in the 6th Olympiad at Warsaw 1935;
 at third board (+8 -4 =7) at Munich 1936;
 at third board (+2 -7 =3) in the 7th Olympiad at Stockholm 1937;
 at second board (+3 -3 =4) at the 10th Olympiad at Helsinki 1952;
 at third board (+0 -0 =2) at the 11th Olympiad at Amsterdam 1954.

At the beginning of his international career, Stoltz tied for 11-13th in Berlin (BSG) in 1928. The event was won by Efim Bogoljubow. In 1930, he tied for 2nd-3rd with Bogoljubow, behind Kashdan, in Stockholm. In 1931, he tied for 4-7th in Bled (Alexander Alekhine won). In 1931/32, he tied for 5-8th in Hastings (Flohr won). In 1932, he won in Swinemünde. In 1933, he took 2nd, behind Nimzowitsch, in Copenhagen. In 1934, he took 3rd in Stockholm (Erik Lundin won). In 1935, he tied for 1st with Lindberg in Harnosand. In 1935, he took 4th in Örebro (Alekhine won). In 1935, he tied for 5-6th in Bad Nauheim (Bogoljubow won). In 1936, he tied for 2nd-3rd with Böök, behind Vladimirs Petrovs in Helsinki (Helsingfors). In 1936, he took 3rd in Helsinki (Lundin won). In 1937, he tied for 3rd-4th in Stockholm (Reuben Fine won). In 1938, he won in Stockholm (SWE-ch). In 1939, he took 5th in Stockholm (SWE-ch, Stahlberg won).

During World War II, Stoltz played in Sweden and Germany. In 1940, he tied for 4-5th in the Stockholm championship, which was won by Nils Bergqvist). In September 1941, he won, ahead of Lundin and Alekhine, in the Munich 1941 chess tournament (the 2nd Europaturnier). In June 1942, he took 6th in the Salzburg 1942 chess tournament (Alekhine won). In September 1942, he tied for 9-10th in Munich (München – Europameisterschaft, European Championship). The event was won by Alexander Alekhine. In 1943, he tied for 1st with Lundholm in Stockholm. In 1943/44, he took 4th in Stockholm (Folke Ekström won). In 1944, he took 3rd, behind Stig Lundholm, and Paul Keres, in Lidköping, (SWE-ch).

After the war, Stoltz played in a few international tournaments. In 1946, he took 2nd, behind Albéric O'Kelly de Galway in Beverwijk. In 1946, he took 4th in Zaandam (László Szabó won). In 1946, he tied for 8-9th in the Groningen 1946 chess tournament (Botvinnik won). In 1946, he tied for 2nd-3rd in Prague (Miguel Najdorf won). In 1947, he tied for 1st with Eero Böök in Helsinki (zonal), and drew a play-off match (+1 –1 =6). In 1948, he took 18th in Saltsjöbaden (interzonal). The event was won by David Bronstein. In 1948, he won in Stockholm. In 1948, he tied for 4-5th in Karlovy Vary (Karlsbad) – Mariánské Lázně (Marienbad). The event was won by Jan Foltys. In 1950, he tied for 9-13th in Bled (Najdorf won). In 1951, he tied for 8-9th in Dortmund (O'Kelly won). In 1951, he tied for 3rd-4th in Mariánské Lázně – Prague (zonal won by Luděk Pachman. In 1952, he took 16th in Stockholm (interzonal won by Alexander Kotov). In 1962, he took 12th in Belgrade (Hermann Pilnik won).

Stoltz won the Swedish championships at Halmstad 1951, Hålland 1952, and Örebro 1953. He was awarded the International Master title in 1950, and the Grandmaster title in 1954.

References

1904 births
1963 deaths
Chess grandmasters
Swedish chess players
Chess Olympiad competitors
20th-century chess players

Gösta Stoltz