The 2006 European heat wave was a period of exceptionally hot weather that arrived at the end of June 2006 in certain European countries. The United Kingdom, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy, Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Germany and western parts of Russia were most affected.

Several records were broken. In the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Ireland and the United Kingdom, July 2006 was the warmest month since official measurements began.

Country-by-country

Belgium
Belgium experienced two heat waves in July 2006. Before 1990, a heat wave occurred about once every 8 years. Currently, the country averages one heat wave per year. On 19 July 2006, temperatures throughout the entire country rose to , causing it, at that moment, to be the hottest July day since 1947. The highest temperatures were recorded at the stations of Kleine Brogel and Genk, which measured  and , respectively.

In some regions, more particularly Limburg, 36 consecutive days of temperatures above  have been measured in one continuous local heat wave instead of two separate periods of hot weather (according to the official Belgian rules for registering a heat wave). In most other parts of the country, the second heat wave lasted for 17 days.

July 2006 became the warmest month in Belgian history, with an all-time high mean temperature of .

United Kingdom

At 14:32 BST on Wednesday, 19 July 2006,  was recorded at Wisley, Surrey.  This broke the UK's previous July record by 0.5 °C set in July 1911, although it fell 2.0 °C short of the  all-time record of the time set in August 2003.

Whilst a disputed  was recorded at Wisley Airfield on 18 July, this figure has never been accepted and the figure of  from 19 July is the highest acceptable value. This figure is generally deemed to be erroneous and it has been suggested that the recorded temperature was in fact . Another theory is that the  record on 18 July 2006 was recorded in the sunshine, not in standard 'shaded' areas. In July 2022, another heatwave brought extremely high temperatures to the UK, and on 19 July, the 16th anniversary of the 2006  July record, temperatures in excess of  were officially recorded for the first time in British history, and the highest recorded temperature of  in Coningsby, Lincolnshire is now accepted as the all-time record.

Similar temperatures were recorded in the sunshine during a brief heatwave at Wimbledon on 1 July 2015. The heatwave even warmed the normally cool and wet Scottish summer, with Glasgow having a July high of  and low of , which made it the warmest month on record. Because of the northerly location and marine nature, it was not a heat wave in a general sense, but rather unusually warm weather.

Drought was an issue in many parts of the United Kingdom after a very dry winter. There was warning of drought occurring from the early months of 2006. Following the dry winter, with extreme temperatures occurring in the country and little rain, increasing strain  was put on water supplies, and hose-pipe bans were issued in many counties. The Environment Agency claimed that the UK may have had the most severe drought in 100 years.

Some power cuts occurred, after lightning strikes and some due to large amounts of electricity used by air conditioners. In Central London on 27 July 2006 a series of power cuts hit Piccadilly Circus, Regent Street, Turner Broadcasting UK and Oxford Circus causing the closure of shops and businesses, when pre-existing faults were worsened by heavy demand.

The Met Office confirmed that July 2006 was the warmest July, as well as the warmest single month, overall, across the UK, and a number of regional records were also broken.

The tarmac on some roads melted in England, requiring application of crushed rock dust.

Germany
In Germany most of the July temperature average records were broken. In Mannheim/Ludwigshafen a July average of  was recorded, which means a temperature anomaly of , which is a new record for a monthly average in Germany (in the same cities high temperatures reached over ). In Berlin an average temperature of  was recorded ( above normal). Such numbers were recorded all over Germany. The biggest problem was the precipitation, which mostly fell in intense thunderstorms. At least 20 people died in this heatwave.

Denmark
Denmark experienced the warmest July ever with an average temperature (day and night) of , breaking a record of  set in 1994. It was the second-warmest month ever, behind August 1997 at . It was also the sunniest July ever, and the second-sunniest ever, at 321 hours. In fact, the previous July record was 290 hours. Since Denmark escaped the extremes seen further south, it is now known as one of the best summer months in history.
On 25 June, the temperature reached  in Odense.

France
High temperatures in France destroyed many crops, just days before the harvest period, while French officials said at least 40 people were confirmed to have been killed by the heat wave directly. Temperatures as high as  were recorded in Paris during the heatwave. July 2006 was in many regions the warmest July ever recorded (and often the second warmest month after August 2003). In many regions weather was particularly stormy. In Nice, the all-time high temperature record was beaten with a  recorded on 1 August.

Ireland
Ireland was affected from the heat wave from the start of June, and the warm weather continued until the end of July.

Temperatures were well above average for both months. The highest recorded in June was  at Ardfert, County Kerry on 9 June. In Kilkenny, County Kilkenny, there were 29 consecutive days in July with temperatures over , and nine of these days had temperatures over . July 2006 was the warmest July in Ireland since records began. By the end of July, temperatures returned to average figures.

On 18 July, a temperature of  was recorded in Birr, County Offaly; the same day,  was recorded at Kilkenny Castle, County Kilkenny and Shannon Airport, County Clare. However, temperatures again rose to  at Casement Aerodrome, Dublin; and  at Elphin, County Roscommon on the 19 July – this is the warmest temperature recorded in Ireland since 1976. Temperatures over  are rare in Ireland, being recorded about once or twice every decade – 1976, 1983, 1989, 1995, 2003 and now 2006 are the most recent times of such high temperatures. The highest ever recorded in Ireland was  at Kilkenny Castle, County Kilkenny on 26 June 1887.

The highest mean temperatures during the heatwave were recorded at Merrion Square in Dublin city centre both months –  in June (average ) and  in July (average ).

To put this into context, average daily maxima in Ireland in only vary from  in June; and  in July.

Despite the high daytime temperatures, night time temperatures were sometimes below average ( in June;  in July). Grass temperatures as low as  were recorded at Birr, County Offaly on 23 June; however, the lowest air temperature recorded was  at Straide, County Mayo on 14 June. The cool night time temperatures are thought to have made the heat wave more bearable there.

Sunshine levels were very high all over the country, with 257 hours (~8.6 hours a day) of sunshine recorded at Cork Airport, County Cork in June (making it the sunniest June since records began) and 283 hours (~9.1 hours a day) of sunshine at Rosslare, County Wexford in July (sunniest July since 1990). The sunniest day during the two months (and indeed, the year) was on 25 June, when Malin Head, County Donegal, recorded 15.8 hours of sunshine.

Rainfall levels were quite low, with only  of rain at Derrygreenagh, County Offaly and Fermoy, County Cork in June and  of rain recorded at Merrion Square, Dublin in July. Parts of Munster and Leinster also recorded 21 days between 28 May and 17 June where no rainfall was recorded. There was also a period between 9 July and 27 July when no rainfall was recorded in Greater Dublin. Despite the low rainfall, drought was not an issue in Ireland.

In Ireland, May 2006 was the warmest for 20 years and sunniest since 2000. June 2006 was the sunniest on record, driest since 1995 and also one of the warmest. July 2006 was the warmest on record, sunniest in 15 years and also driest since 1989. August 2006 was average.

September 2006 was the warmest on record. October 2006 was the warmest in many places since 2001 and sunniest since 2000. November 2006 was warmer and sunnier than usual. Overall, Summer 2006 (June, July and August) was the sunniest, driest and warmest summer since 1995 and one of the sunniest, driest and warmest on record. Autumn 2006 (September, October, November) was the warmest on record in many places, and sunshine levels were well above normal. Rainfall levels were also above average.

The months of June and July 2006 are regarded as one of the best summers ever due to the high levels of sunshine, warm temperatures and low rainfall. Drought and health problems were not an issue in Ireland, unlike many parts of Europe – mostly because the heat was not as severe there.

Netherlands
July 2006

With a monthly average of , KNMI statistics show July 2006 was the warmest-ever month on record for the Netherlands.KNMI Klimaatdata en Advies - Informatie over verleden weer Around 500 or 1,000 more people than usual died in July 2006.CBS - 500 extra doden in warme juliweken - Webmagazine

The Four Day Marches of Nijmegen were cancelled after only one day as hundreds of people collapsed the first day, two of them eventually dying due to fatal heat stroke. The walking people had to walk on open roads without any shade and there was not enough water for everyone. Paramedics had their hands full with hundreds of people who fainted due to the heat. The walking people had to deal with temperatures in the sun of . The air-temperatures on the first day of the four-day march was about . Forecasts showed even higher temperatures of  for the next day, causing the organisation to cancel the remainder of the event. Vierdaagse

The highest temperature was recorded on 19 July, when temperatures reached the mid- to upper 30s °C (mid- to upper 90s °F) for most of the country, especially in the south-east. The all-time record for the month of July was broken. Temperatures soared to . A few hundred meters across the border into Germany, at the weather station Kalkar, located at the airport in Weeze, near Nijmegen, a maximum of  was recorded on 19 July.

At some places especially in the south-east of the Netherlands temperatures passed  for 15 or 16 days. The average daytime temperature for the month was  again in the south-east of the Netherlands. The lowest daytime temperature was at some locations  for the whole month of July. For two days the daytime temperatures were below , making 29 days with temperatures of  and higher.

During days when temperatures reached  or higher, and on days without wind, the smog level was very high. Warnings were broadcast on television and radio, advising people to stay indoors as much as possible because the air pollution was very unhealthy, the smog was very strong and it was dangerously hot.

The Netherlands also had to deal with extreme drought in June and July. The rainfall in June was at some locations as low as , July was also extremely dry. Because of the extreme heat and drought vegetation was very dry, and the humidity levels were very low, causing brushfires.

On 30 January 2007, the United Nations published a report of all countries in the world with the most deaths related to natural disasters for 2006. The Netherlands appeared fourth place, with 1,000 heat-related deaths.
On 19 July, the temperature reached 37.1°C in Westdorpe.

Poland
July 2006 was the warmest in Poland since the beginning of the meteorological measurements (i.e. 1779). For most of the month, the maximum temperature exceeded  – even at night it rarely fell below . The average temperature was more than  higher than normal, for example in Warsaw the average temperature in July 2006 is usually , in Wrocław , and in Poznań . The highest temperature was recorded in Słubice, near the German border . After the hot days, the temperature at night dropped very slowly. On 16 July in Słubice the temperature at night was  and it was the warmest night in the entire history of meteorological measurements.

July 2006 was also extremely dry. In many regions it did not rain for 3–4 weeks. The river water levels were the lowest ever reported in Polish history and in the absence of rain, many crops dried up.

July 2006 in most Polish cities saw 300–350 sunshine hours (normally 220–240 sunshine hours): the highest number being in Poznań (373 sunshine hours) and in Warsaw (355 sunshine hours).

Post 2006:

July 2007 was AGAIN normal month in Poland. Temperature rarely exceed  and it was warm, wet and wild. In many regions, including Elblag rained and it was stormy. Many crops returned to normal business, temperature rarely at night exceed  and it was Cloudy, and sunny.

Sweden
According to the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI), the city of Lund in Skåne in southern Sweden had the highest average temperatures (day and night: ) for the month of July since records began in 1859. The rest of Sweden has however not broken the daily average temperatures from the record year 1994.

The highest temperature in Sweden in July 2006 was recorded in Målilla in Småland, where a temperature of  was recorded on 6 July. This is the highest temperature recorded in the country since July 1994 when Kalmar and Söderhamn had .
Målilla and Ultuna are the places where the highest temperature ever in Sweden was recorded, , in 1947 and 1933 respectively.

Målilla was the warmest location during daytime, averaging , but with average lows being normal at  fell a whole degree short of Lund's aforementioned value, where the average high was  and low . The summer was warmer than usual in all of Sweden, but north of Stockholm and the Mälar valley the temperatures fell quickly, with the exception of the usual hotspot of Falun where the average high was  in spite of its location a bit north of 60 degrees latitude.

Russia
Absolute maxima of July 2006 have been broken in
 Pskov +
 Saint Petersburg +

The warmest July in
 Kaliningrad +

Period after the heat wave
Due to the extreme heat in July 2006, the ocean water reached a temperature normally reached in September. This increase in water temperature led to faster evaporation of ocean waters, making August one of the cloudiest and wettest months in recorded history in various western European countries. Many weather experts report this to be a direct consequence of the heat wave, as the high evaporation rate caused the atmosphere to generate many low pressure areas.

Despite this, September 2006 was again the warmest September on record, in the UK and elsewhere, due to high ocean temperatures, altered atmospheric pressure zones, and consequent different wind directions over Europe. The pressure zone changes were a consequence of the extra-tropical remnants of Atlantic hurricanes settling over the British Isles.

The Met Office announced on 16 October 2006 that the extended summer of May to September 2006 was the hottest summer ever recorded, the Central England temperature mean temperature of  for this summer was  warmer than the average temperatures of 1961–1990.

In the Netherlands
Just two months after July 2006, September 2006 became the warmest September since official measurements started. Additionally, October 2006 and November 2006 broke several temperature records. October was one of the warmest Octobers since measurements began, and November went into the record books as the second warmest November since official measurements started three hundred years prior. With temperatures from the north of the Netherlands to the south of Belgium ranging between  at the end of November, previous records were shattered. The autumn of 2006 was the warmest autumn in history, breaking the old record of just one year prior (2005) by . The winter of 2006/2007 was the warmest in three hundred years as well, and so was the following spring.

With the exception of August 2006, every month from April 2006 to June 2007 saw temperatures above average, the most bizarre months being January 2007, which noted an average temperature of  rather than , and April 2007, with  as opposed to . Temperatures reached a record-breaking  as early as 15 April. The average April daytime maximum in the Netherlands is around .

Such a sequence of events is unheard of in the Netherlands meteorological history, estimated to happen every 8,000 years when not taking global warming into account. It's been a result of a unique mixture of the hot summer increasing marine temperatures and Northern Atlantic hurricanes settling as depressions off the coast of Scotland, giving the European continent a constant stream of southern, fast winds rendering it unable to cool down from the Mediterranean through to northern Europe.

In Belgium
After the record-breaking month of July, August broke records on the opposite end. August 2006 was extremely rainy. Some places registered more than  of rain and received a total sunshine amount of only 90 hours, which is less than half the expected sunshine for a typical August month and a record low for any summer month in Uccle. The average temperature was about .

September 2006 has been the warmest autumn month in Belgian history, with an average temperature of , while the normal temperature is  (1971-2000 normals), exceptionally preceding a much colder August month. October 2006 has been the second warmest in history with an average temperature of  (normal average for 1971-2000: ). November 2006 has been the 4th warmest month in history, with an average temperature of  (normal average for 1971-2000: ). December 2006 continued the warm trend.

The autumn of 2006, at that moment, had been the warmest autumn season in recorded history with an average temperature of , which was  above the normal average for the climatological period 1971-2000. As of 2021, this record still stands firmly.

2007 has broken many records as well. January 2007 broke every temperature record (minimum, maximum and average). The average temperature was , while the normal was just . February 2007 set some daily records and was 2 °C warmer than normal.

The winter of 2007, just like the previous autumn season, has also been the warmest in recorded history.

March 2007 was the 6th warmest month in history, just 0.8 °C less than the record at that time. April 2007 broke the all-time temperature records once again, as the average temperature had been 5 °C warmer than normal. Kleine Brogel had two tropical days on 15 and 16 April 2007 ( and ), which have been the earliest dates any place in Belgium had ever seen temperatures at or over 30°C. May started warmer than normal, but a 9-month warmth streak eventually came to an end when June returned to average temperatures around normal.

In Finland
The summer of 2006 was around 2 °C warmer than the 1971–2000 average. While the heat was not record breaking, the drought was: less than half of the average summer rainfall was received in large areas, and almost all of the country received less than 75% of the usual rain. In many localities (such as Jokioinen, Kajaani and Rovaniemi, it was the driest summer on record.  Autumn 2006 was also  warmer than the average. While this didn't break any records, an unprecedented period of mild weather began around the middle of November.

December 2006 was the warmest December ever recorded in Finland. In Helsinki, the December mean temperature was , beating the previous record of  set in 1929. Similar records were broken across the southern and central parts of the country, while in the north the old records narrowly remained in place. On 6 December, an all time December high of  was recorded at Salo.

The mild weather continued well into January 2007. On January 10, many places in southern Finland observed record highs for January. These included Helsinki-Vantaa at , Turku at , and Lappeenranta at . (The national record high for January,  set at Mariehamn in 1973, remained in place.) As a whole, the two months leading to 16 January were the mildest such period ever recorded in Finland. In Helsinki, the mean temperature for this period was , beating the previous record of  set in 1982–83. In Sodankylä, it was  (previous record  set in 1972/73). In the second half of January, temperatures plunged  and February 2007 was well below the average over 1971 to 2000.

In France
After the unusually hot July, August brought a big contrast with cool weather, cloudy skies and pretty wet weather patterns all around the country, with the exception of the Mediterranean coast.

September however turned to be very warm and sunny and in many parts of France it was the warmest in 50 years. October too was very warm and so was November, triggering in many regions the warmest autumn in recorded history. A very rare föhn-like warm spell affected northern and western France on 25 November and brought temperature as high as  at 7 in the morning in Paris.

December, January and February also brought extremely mild weather making the winter of 2006/2007 the warmest in recorded history.

March was relatively uneventful with average temperatures and precipitations. However April broke the record for the warmest April on record. In many regions it was also the sunniest (with almost uninterrupted sunshine for the whole 30 days) and the driest April on record. In northern and north-eastern France the departure from the normal of the average temperature was as high as 5 °C (9 °F). May was too very warm making the spring 2007 the warmest in recorded history for some regions.

In the United Kingdom
Like the rest of Western Europe, August 2006 saw a dramatic turnaround, being a cloudy and wet month in many parts with daytime maxima below average – although the Central England Temperature (CET) was close to the long-term average, due to the cloud keeping night minima higher than normal. The month was notable for its lack of heat waves, being the first August since 1993 when ) was not recorded anywhere in the country.   However, August 2008, which followed a much cooler July, was even duller and wetter. August 2010 again followed a similar pattern.

September 2006 was just as record-breaking as July, being the warmest on record and just as exceptionally, warmer than August had been. October and November, although not beating the records for the warmest set in 2001 and 1994 respectively, were also much warmer than average.

Winter 2006/07 was exceptionally mild, the warmest since 1868/69.

April 2007 was another record-breaker, with a CET of  the warmest in over 300 years of temperature records and by a large margin (10.6c being previous record). This record was broken 4 years later in 2011 with a CET of . Temperatures were widely above , with over 200 hours of sunshine for much of the country. Parts of south-eastern Britain had no rain all month.

In Poland
After a hot and dry July, August 2006 was cold and very rainy. The average temperature hovered slightly below the long-term standards. At the beginning of the month in the west of the country experienced torrential rains and violent storms. In Wrocław decreased  of water; that is 4 times more than usual. As a result of heavy rains came the floods, which affected mainly Lower Silesia.

For a change September 2006 was warm and dry. In the west, that month was more than  warmer than the norm. In Słubice the average temperature was until . Early September brought gusty winds in Poland, near Bydgoszcz in Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship tornado passed, which escaped with the roots of several hundred trees.

October 2006 is also inscribed as one of the warmer in the history of meteorological measurements, as well as very dry. For many days the temperature exceeded  degrees, reaching up to  at the south of the country. It was also very sunny month, because reported about 150 sunshine hours.

November 2006 in Poland was the warmest from 10 years. The daily temperature reached up to  and at night rarely dropped below . November was very wet, usually dropped  of water, and the standard is approximately . Like in October the wind was blowing strongly, particularly on the coast of the Baltic Sea. At the end of the month, thick fog blocked airports in Warsaw, Kraków and Wrocław to 3 days.

Winter 2006/2007 was extremely warm and rainy, in many cities, the snow lay only a few days, and rain fell for MANY days. At night the temperature increased up to  degrees, which at this time of year, it was an unprecedented phenomenon. In January 2007, the maximum temperature increased to , especially in the south, where often blow halny – a foehn wind, and in Elblag during the day , and at night . The average temperature in winter 2006/2007 in eastern Poland was about , normally  and in western Poland , normally .

This conclusion was the warmest winter since the measurements. In March 2007, in Elblag this month was snow-less, but it rained and the temperature reached up to , and at night of 22nd of March . Summer 2007 was not that dry. It rained a lot, temperatures reached down to  in the Polish-Czech/Tatra hills, temps reached up to , but it lasted for only 2-3 days, and temperature fell down.

In Russia
December 2006 and January 2007 were the warmest months in Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Kazan and other cities of European Russia.

March 2007 was the warmest month in Moscow (+) with a record maximum +

In May 2007 the absolute maximum of month in many cities has been established:
 Tambov +
 Rostov-on-Don +
 Kazan +
 Moscow +

2007 and 2008 became the warmest years in Moscow history with average year temperatures + (2nd) and + (1st).

Highest temperature per country

See also
 1995 Chicago heat wave
 2003 European heat wave
 2006 North American heat wave
 The Northern Hemisphere Summer heat wave of 2010
 2015 European heat waves
 2018 European heat wave

References

External links
  German site
  Dutch Site (KNMI)
 British site
 Heat wave in UK (Philip Eden)
 RMI website
 RTÉ News Irish news article
 CNN article on heat wave
  Belgian Site (VRT News)
 Humidex graph for British weather forecasts !Updates!
  Swedish news site (DN)
  Climate statistics of the Finnish Meteorological Institute

European heat wave
European heat wave
Heat waves in Europe
European Heat Wave, 2006
2000s heat waves
Heat Wave
Heat Wave
Climate change in Europe

2006 European heatwave


Satellite cities are smaller cities that are near to a large city that is the center of a metropolitan area. They are different from suburbs, subdivisions and bedroom communities because they have their own center. Satellite cities could be separate cities outside of the larger metropolitan areas. However, working as part of a metropolis, a satellite city gets "cross-commuting" (people living in the city working outside of the city and people from other places working in the city). For example, London has several satellite cities, like Brentwood, Crawley and Chelmsford. New Haven and Bridgeport are among the satellite cities of New York City. Ipswich, Queensland, is a satellite city of Brisbane, Australia, and Kitchener and Guelph are satellite cities of Toronto, Canada.

Satellite cities are almost self sufficient in terms of amenities and facilities. They usually have all of the things to categorize them as a separate city, but they rely on the parent city or the nearby larger metropolitan area for some of their needs like education or employment.

Urban geography

Satellite city


Aboriginal title is a common law doctrine that the  rights of indigenous peoples to own their traditional land persist after sovereignty has been taken by colonial settlers. When granted, it is usually inalienable, meaning it can not be sold, traded or given away. The title may be held by individuals or groups of people, and is inherited indefinitely (without end) by those people's descendants. What proof is required for aboriginal title to be recognised depends on the country's laws that govern the doctrine. It usually must include some evidence of historical inhabitance (living on the land for a long time, usually since before colonial settlement).

The majority of court cases granting aboriginal title have been in Australia,  Canada, Malaysia, New Zealand and the United States. Aboriginal title is also referred to as indigenous title, native title and customary title. It is related to the subject of indigenous rights.

References

Indigenous Australian politics
Colonialism
Indigenous land rights

Aboriginal title


Compost is a type of fertilizer that is made from rotting plants. It is easy and cheap to make, as all it really requires is vegetable waste. The vegetable waste is broken down by bacteria (germs), and made into compost.

Making a compost heap
To make a compost heap, you need some space fairly far from anyone who might have a problem with the smell. The bottom corner of a garden, or some other place a distance from the house is a good place. Compost heaps should also be placed on soil, or grass: a paved yard or concrete are bad places.
The compost heap should not be in a dark or closed corner.

The best base for a compost heap is a layer of sand, bricks or gravel about 1m long by 1m wide. This is not needed, but it can be a good idea. If using bricks, leave spaces to allow the air to move through. It also allows for the water to run away. The best compost heaps have lots of little spaces inside, to allow air to move around.

Once the first layer is down, one can begin adding the waste.

Some good types of waste are:

Vegetable/fruit peels and scraps
Spoiled, rotten or moldy fruit
Cut grass
Leaves
Straw
Sawdust
Eggshells

Adding meat scraps is a bad idea, as they rot slowly, smell bad and attract rats and other vermin. Human or pet feces is also a very bad idea, as this can transmit disease. Waste from plants that have died of disease is also bad. The disease can spread to the plants that the compost is used with.

When making a compost heap, different types of waste should be layered. A layer of cut grass can be followed by a layer of vegetable waste and table scraps.

Watering the compost heap is a good idea, especially in dry areas. The water helps encourage the waste to rot and turn into compost.

In anywhere from 3 to 6 months, the compost will be ready. The compost is ready when it smells like thick earth, with no smell of decay or rot. Of course, if you have been adding waste all this time, the compost will all be at the bottom of the heap, and will have to be dug out.

The stuff that has not rotted can be used as part of a new compost heap.

Other websites
The Look of Compost
Cré, the Irish Composting Association Contains information on composting in Ireland.
Composting Basics  Canadian Gardening Magazine
An automatic composter

Fertilizers

Compost


Bernhard Gillam (April 28, 1856 – January 19, 1896) was an English-born American political cartoonist.

Gillam was born in Banbury, Oxfordshire. He arrived in New York with his parents in 1866. He worked as a copyist in a lawyer's office, but switched to the study of engraving, and later, after some of his cartoons had appeared in the New York Graphic, turned to cartooning. His work appeared in Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper, Harper's Weekly, where he worked with Thomas Nast during James A. Garfield's campaign of 1880, and Puck magazine where he came under the influence of Joseph Keppler. Gillam also produced work for Judge, a magazine of which he became director-in-chief in 1886.

Gillam's cartoons on James G. Blaine during the 1884 US presidential campaign played a large part in Grover Cleveland's election to office. "Phryne before the Chicago Tribunal", also known as "The Tattooed Man", which appeared in the Puck issue of June 4, 1884, showed Blaine's body covered in tattoos detailing corruption charges from his political past. Blaine threatened legal action, but backed down on the advice of his political friends. According to Blaine biographer David Saville Muzzey, "it is doubtful if any cartoon in our history ever had the vogue and influence of Gillam's Tattooed Man." Oddly, Gillam was a Republican who voted for Blaine in 1884.

During the presidential campaigns of 1888 and 1892, Gillam's cartoons depicted the dangers of the free-trade policy of the Democrats and the benefits of Republican protectionism.

Bernhard Gillam died in Canajoharie, New York, of typhoid fever in 1896.

References

External links

Harper's Weekly
art.com

1856 births
1896 deaths
Deaths from typhoid fever
American caricaturists
American editorial cartoonists
People from Banbury
Artists from New York (state)

Bernhard Gillam


Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) is a way of making Internet communications more secure and private.

IPsec is a collection of protocols for securing Internet Protocol (IP) communications by authenticating (and optionally encrypting) each IP packet of a data stream. IPsec also includes protocols for establishing mutual authentication between agents at the beginning of the session and negotiation of cryptographic keys to be used during the session. IPsec can be used to protect data flows between a pair of hosts (e.g. computer users or servers), between a pair of security gateways (e.g. routers or firewalls), or between a security gateway and a host. RFC 2406

IPsec is an end-to-end security solution and operates at the Internet Layer of the Internet Protocol Suite, comparable to Layer 3 in the OSI model. Other Internet security protocols in widespread use, such as SSL, TLS and SSH, operate in the upper layers of these models. This makes IPsec more flexible, as it can be used for protecting all the higher level protocols, because applications do not need to be designed to use IPsec, whereas the use of TLS/SSL or other higher-layer protocols must be built-in the application.

The term "IPsec" is officially defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). This definition includes the form of capitalization used for the term; it is often incorrectly spelled IPSec.

Related pages
 Virtual private network

Other websites
 IP Security Protocol Official Charter, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 IPsec WG still has important active drafts
 All IETF active security WGs
 IETF BTNS WG (chartered to work on unauthenticated IPsec, IPsec APIs, connection latching)
 Securing Data in Transit with IPsec
 IPsec at the Open Directory Project
 Microsoft IPsec Diagnostic Tool
 An Illustrated Guide to IPsec
 Data Communication Lectures of Manfred Lindner - Part IPsec

Standards
 RFC 2367: PF_KEY Interface
 RFC 2401: Security Architecture for the Internet Protocol (IPsec overview)
 RFC 2403: The Use of HMAC-MD5-96 within ESP and AH
 RFC 2404: The Use of HMAC-SHA-1-96 within ESP and AH* RFC 2367: PF_KEY Interface
 RFC 2405: The ESP DES-CBC Cipher Algorithm With Explicit IV
 RFC 2409: The Internet Key Exchange
 RFC 2410: The NULL Encryption Algorithm and Its Use With IPsec
 RFC 2411: IP Security Document Roadmap
 RFC 2412: The OAKLEY Key Determination Protocol
 RFC 2451: The ESP CBC-Mode Cipher Algorithms
 RFC 2857: The Use of HMAC-RIPEMD-160-96 within ESP and AH
 RFC 3526: More Modular Exponential (MODP) Diffie-Hellman groups for Internet Key Exchange (IKE)
 RFC 3706: A Traffic-Based Method of Detecting Dead Internet Key Exchange (IKE) Peers
 RFC 3715: IPsec-Network Address Translation (NAT) Compatibility Requirements
 RFC 3947: Negotiation of NAT-Traversal in the IKE
 RFC 3948: UDP Encapsulation of IPsec ESP Packets
 RFC 4106: The Use of Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) in IPsec Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
 RFC 4301: Security Architecture for the Internet Protocol
 RFC 4302: IP Authentication Header
 RFC 4303: IP Encapsulating Security Payload
 RFC 4304: Extended Sequence Number (ESN) Addendum to IPsec Domain of Interpretation (DOI) for Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP)
 RFC 4306: Internet Key Exchange (IKEv2) Protocol
 RFC 4307: Cryptographic Algorithms for Use in the Internet Key Exchange Version 2 (IKEv2)
 RFC 4308: Cryptographic Suites for IPsec
 RFC 4309: Using Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) CCM Mode with IPsec Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
 RFC 4478: Repeated Authentication in Internet Key Exchange (IKEv2) Protocol
 RFC 4543: The Use of Galois Message Authentication Code (GMAC) in IPsec ESP and AH
 RFC 4555: IKEv2 Mobility and Multihoming Protocol (MOBIKE)
 RFC 4621: Design of the IKEv2 Mobility and Multihoming (MOBIKE) Protocol
 RFC 4718: IKEv2 Clarifications and Implementation Guidelines
 RFC 4806: Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP) Extensions to IKEv2
 RFC 4809: Requirements for an IPsec Certificate Management Profile
 RFC 4835: Cryptographic Algorithm Implementation Requirements for Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) and Authentication Header (AH)
 RFC 4945: The Internet IP Security PKI Profile of IKEv1/ISAKMP, IKEv2, and PKIX

Internet protocols
Cryptography

IPsec


Pantomime (often called panto) is a kind of theatre entertainment usually performed around Christmas and the New Year in Britain and a few other English-speaking countries.  It must not be confused with mime (acting with gestures but no speech). It is known for its comedy and audience participation. Pantomimes are usually meant for children-however they can be directed at adults.

History

A pantomimos in Ancient Greece used to be an entertainment performed by a solo dancer.  In the Middle Ages a form of theatre developed called Commedia dell'arte.  This was similar to a pantomime.  They told a story which had certain fixed characters: the lovers, the father, the servants etc.

The pantomime first arrived in England as a short entertainment (entr'acte) between opera pieces.  Eventually it became a separate show.

The pantomime today

Today the pantomime is traditionally performed at Christmas.  It is a show for children, but grownups like it as well.  Usually a well-known story is told, e.g. Cinderella, Jack and the Beanstalk, Pinocchio, The Three Little Pigs, Puss in Boots, The Musicians of Bremen, Little Red Riding Hood and Goldilocks and the Three Bears and Snow White etc.  There is a lot of spoken dialogue but there are also songs, and sometimes the audience join in.  There are many traditions in pantomime.  These are some of the main ones:

The main young man in the play (the principal boy) may be played by a young woman, and usually in tight-fitting male clothes (such as breeches).
An older woman (the pantomime dame – often the hero's mother) is usually played by a man dressed as a woman.
Risqué (double entendre) jokes, meaning that perfectly ordinary words make people think of a naughty (sexy) meaning. Often the children do not understand these jokes. The jokes are intended for adults.
The audience take part (audience participation).  For example, they call "look behind you!" (or "he's behind you!"), and "Oh, yes it is!" or "Oh, no it is not!" The audience is always encouraged to "Boo" the villain, and "Awwwww" the poor victims, such as the rejected dame, who usually fancies the prince.
A song combining a well-known tune with different words.
The animal, played by an actor in "animal skin" or animal costume. It is often a pantomime horse or cow, played by two actors in a single costume, one as the head and front legs, the other as the body and back legs.
The good fairy always enters from stage right and the evil villain enters from stage left. In Commedia dell'arte the right side of the stage symbolized Heaven and the left side symbolized Hell.
The members of the cast throw out sweets to the children in the audience, or choose a few to come on stage and ask them questions.
Sometimes the story villain will squirt members of the audience with water guns or pretend to throw a bucket of "water" at the audience that is actually full of something harmless such as streamers.
Sometimes the comedy is slapstick, e.g. the actors throw custard pies in one another's faces.
Sometimes there is a celebrity guest star.

Related pages
Mime

Mimes
Comedy

Pantomime


Tsing Hua University or THU (simplified Chinese: 清华大学; traditional Chinese: 清華大學; pinyin: Qīng Huá Dà Xué), is a university in Beijing, People's Republic of China. It is regarded as one of the best and most selective universities in China. It was established in 1911 as a school for Chinese graduates wanting to go further with their studies at universities in other countries, especially the United States and the UK.

History

Tsing Hua University was opened in Beijing, China in 1911 on the site of a former royal garden belonging to a prince. It was first a preparatory school, a school for preparation, for students to be later sent by the government to study in America. The people who graduated were transferred directly to American schools as juniors upon graduation.

In 1925, the school established its College Department and started its research institute on Chinese Study. In 1928, the name officially changed to National Tsing Hua University (NTHU).

During the Second World War in 1937, Tsing Hua University, along with Peking University and Nankai University, merged to form Chang Sha Temporary University in Chang Sha, which later became National Southwestern Associated University in Kunming of Yunnan province. After the war, Tsing Hua moved back to Beijing and resumed its operation.

The communist victory at the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949 led to the creation of the People's Republic of China (PRC), so the university's President Mei Yi Qi and some professors went to Taiwan where they established the National Tsing Hua Institute of Nuclear Technology in 1955, which later became National Tsing Hua University.

In 1952, the communist government regrouped the country's higher education institutions in an attempt to build a Soviet style system, with individual institutions tending to specialise in a certain field of study.  TsingHua University was disassembled, losing its law school, school of agriculture, school of sciences and humanities, and became a polytechnic engineering university. Even so, the University remained in the top tier schools in China (Many Chinese scholars regards that its only rival is Peking University). In many years following this regroup, the school was often referred to as the "MIT of China" . But since the 1980s, the university began to incorporate a multidisciplinary system. As a result, a lot of schools were built and rebuilt. These included the School of Science, School of Economics and Management, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, School of Law, School of Public Administration, and the School of Art.  Only two colleges charge tuition to its graduate students; the law school and the Academy of Arts and Design.

During the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976, the university became a battlefield between different sects of Mao's Red Guards (China) and a stronghold of the radicals. It did not resume its normal operation until 1977 when the Cultural Revolution was officially put to an end.

Since 1977, the university has enjoyed rich government funding and policy support which greatly improved its facilities. Since 1978, it has flourished with the re-establishment of the departments in sciences, economics and management, and the humanities. Its graduate school has been recognized nationally, ranking first in the National Evaluation of Graduate Schools. The School of Continuing Education uses modern information technologies, as well as the advanced educational resources at Tsing Hua.

Present
Most Chinese university rankings place TsingHua first in China. It attracts the most talented students of the nation and enjoys the best engineering and applied sciences programs in China, occupying a position similar to MIT, Stanford, and Princeton in the US. Peking Union Medical College of Tsinghua University   is likewise regarded as the best medical school in the country. Tsinghua's longtime rival Peking University is better known for natural sciences, social sciences, law, and liberal arts, somewhat similar to the Ivy League schools of Yale, Harvard, and the University of Pennsylvania.

Admission to Tsinghua is highly competitive. The majority of selected students are national scholars and among the brightest high school graduates in the country. Many of China's top scientists, engineers, politicians and business leaders are among Tsinghua alumni. The former Chinese leader (2002-2012), Hu Jintao, is a former Tsinghua student who graduated with a degree in hydraulic engineering in 1964. The current General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (since 2012), Xi Jinping, is a former Tsinghua student who graduated with a degree in chemical engineering in 1979.

As of 2003, Tsinghua University had 12 colleges and 48 departments, 41 research institutes, 35 research centers, and 167 laboratories, including 15 national key laboratories. In September 2006, Peking Union Medical College was renamed to Peking Union Medical College, Tsinghua University  . The university offers 51 bachelor's degree programs, 139 master's degree programs and 107 Ph.D. programs. Recently, Tsinghua has become the first Chinese university to offer a Master of Laws program in American law, through a cooperative venture with the Temple University Beasley School of Law. The university is a member of LAOTSE, an international network of leading universities in Europe and Asia. Each year, the University celebrates the Intellectual Property Summer Institute in cooperation with Franklin Pierce Law Center of Concord, New Hampshire.

On April 12, 2007, Tsinghua University's School of Economics and Management became the first business school in the Chinese mainland to earn AACSB accreditation. Former Premier Zhu Rongji was the founding dean of the school.

The University's Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology is on a separate campus in a northern suburb of Beijing.

Tsinghua is where former United States Vice President Al Gore lectured at in his documentary, An Inconvenient Truth.  Viewers can see the university lecture hall, with its well-known purple seats.

Campus
The campus of Tsinghua University is in northwest Beijing, in the Haidian district which was designated for universities.

It is located on the former site of Qing Dynasty royal gardens and retains some Chinese-style landscaping as well as some traditional buildings, but many of its buildings are Western-style reflecting the American influence in its history. It is known throughout China for having one of the most beautiful campuses.

The university's architect T. Chuang, a 1914 graduate of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, modeled his designs for the quadrangle and auditorium of Tsinghua on the Illinois campus, specifically imitating Foellinger Auditorium, located on the quad at the University of Illinois.

University Traditions

Tsinghua Alma Mater
Tsinghua's early alma mater (school anthem) was composed by an American instructor Miss Katherine E. Seelye:

In 1923, another version of the school alma mater with lyrics in Chinese (by Prof. Wang Luan Xiang, a Chinese language professor of Tsinghua) was composed by Mrs. Zhang Hui Zhen and was well received by the students and faculty. The song was then adopted as the school's official Alma Mater.

Anniversary and Homecoming
The last Sunday of April is Tsinghua's anniversary and Homecoming (Xiao-Qing) Day.

School Flowers
Redbud and Lilac

School Colors
Purple and White

Tsinghua Fight Song
Cheer for old Tsinghua
Tsinghua  must win.
Fight to the finish,
never give in.
You do your best, boys,
we'll do the rest, boys.
Fight for the victory, Rha, Rha, Rha!

The school cheer goes: Ri-ri-ri, Rah-rah-rah! Tsinghua, Tsinghua, Tsinghua ! Rah-rah-rah!

Global Partnership
Tsinghua University has signed agreements with ACCA (Association of Chartered Certified Accountants), the renowned international accountancy body that offers Chartered Certified Accountant qualification worldwide, to train the new generation of professional accountants in China. Under the agreement, Tsinghua will develop the programme that under ACCA's syllabus for enabling China's young accounting students to join the ACCA professional exam scheme at a higher level. Tsinghua will also recognise the Oxford Brookes University BSc Applied Accounting degree, which has been successfully developed in conjunction with ACCA and which enables students who have completed two parts of the ACCA qualification to apply for the Oxford Brookes degree.(Please click:  )

Alumni associations
 Tsinghua Alumni Association in Beijing
 Tsinghua Alumni Association of Northern California
 Tsinghua Alumni Association of Greater New York
 Tsinghua Alumni Association of Boston
 Tsinghua Alumni Association of Georgia (USA)
 The Nashville Tsinghua Club
 Silicon Valley Tsinghua Network (SVTN)
 Tsinghua Alumni Association in Germany
 Tsinghua Alumni Association in Singapore

References

Other websites

 Home Page
 Home Page
 Tsinghua University Library
 Tsinghua University News
 Tsinghua University News
 Tsinghua Alumni Association in Beijing
Inter-University Program for Chinese Language Studies at Tsinghua University

Colleges and universities in Beijing
Technical colleges and universities in Asia
1911 establishments

Tsing Hua University


In number theory, a natural number is called semiprime if it can be written as the product of two prime numbers. The two numbers do not need to be different. A semiprime can also be the square of a prime number. Such numbers are very useful for cryptography.

Number theory

Semiprime number


Bluegrass music is a form of American roots music. It has its own roots in Irish, Scottish and English traditional music. It is usually played using acoustic musical instruments, and electronic musical instruments are rarely used in bluegrass music.  Traditional instruments used include the banjo, mandolin, fiddle, guitar and bass.  Other instruments such as the dobro are also used.

There are many accomplished bluegrass artists including Bela Fleck, Tony Rice, Alison Krauss, Laurie Lewis, Sam Bush, Bill Monroe, and Earl Scruggs. There are many organizations devoted to this music such as the International Bluegrass Music Association (IBMA).

Many festivals are held around the country where professionals perform, amateurs gather to play, and workshops are given.

Bluegrass music


Lycée Janson-de-Sailly is a lycée located in the 16th arrondissement of Paris, France. The lycéens of Janson are called les jansoniens and they usually refer to their high school as Janson, or JdS. It is the biggest academic institution in the region: 3,200 boys and girls from 11 to 20 attend classes ranging from junior high school to Classes Préparatoires.

History
Monsieur Janson de Sailly was a wealthy Parisian lawyer, who found out that his wife had a lover. Therefore, he decided to disinherit her and to bequeath all of his fortune to the State, under the condition that it be used to establish a modern high school that would offer an excellent education and in which no women would be allowed.

The lycée was built in the 1880s. Victor Hugo who lived nearby made a speech for the inauguration. A decade later it was opened to girls as well. The lycée Janson-de-Sailly was the first Republican lycée of France (the others started as royal or imperial establishments); it aimed at training the future French scientific, literary, military, industrial, diplomatic and political male élites of the young Third Republic.

It gained a national reputation, and attracted students from around the country. It also became one of the lycées of Parisian high society. The motto of the lycée was Pour la Patrie, par le livre et par l'épée (For the Homeland, by the book and by the sword). Many alumni joined the military, and participated in the conquest of the French Colonial Empire, especially in Africa.

In 1944, a few hundred Jansonians managed to leave the lycée and joined the French Free Forces (the 1st Army of Jean de Lattre de Tassigny): they founded le 2ème Bataillon de Choc, also known as Bataillon Janson-de-Sailly. They faced the German divisions in Alsace (especially in the battles of Masevaux and Colmar) during the counter-attack of Ardennes, and entered Germany with General Patton's forces in 1945.

Commemorative plaques near the entrances of several classrooms and halls in the school buildings honor the memories of its alumni - including the war hero Roland Garros.

Teaching
Nowadays, the 3,200 students are equally divided into the three traditional formations of the French Education System : collège (30 classes with collégiens from 11 to 14), lycée (30 classes with lycéens from 14 to 18) and Classes Préparatoires aux Grandes écoles or prépas (30 classes with students from 18 to 20).

In France, students must study two foreign or regional languages. The first choice at Janson is English or German. The second choice foreign language is: English, German, Spanish, Italian, Chinese or Russian. In classes préparatoires, there is even more choice with German, English, Arabic, Spanish, Italian, Russian as first language and all the aforementioned languages plus Japanese and Chinese as a second language. A student in Classes préparatoires can also take another second language not amongst those above. But those languages are available only through a partnership (the "Langues Inter-établissement") with other lycées with a wilder range of languages. The student would then study at Janson but go to another lycée to attend its foreign language class. For instance, the lycée Montaigne provides Portuguese and Polish and the lycée Buffon offers Hebrew and Swedish.

The Lycée offers an AbiBac section, with German history classes taught by a native speaker. The students taking part in the section will take the Abitur and the Baccalauréat exams at the end of 12th grade.

Ranking
Due to its geographical location, and to the number of its important alumni, Janson de Sailly has a high reputation. Its scholastic ranking puts it at or above the median for area schools. According to the sociologists Michel Pinçon and Monique Pinçon-Charlot the school is predominantly attended by children from the upper class or from the aristocracy because of its location (the prestigious 16th arrondissement of Paris).

Notable alumni

Politics and government
 Jacques Attali (born 1943), political adviser
 Robert Badinter (born 1928), French Minister of Justice
 Jean-Louis Bianco (born 1943), French Minister of Transport
 Édouard Bonnefous (1907-2007), French Minister of Commerce
 Jean-Louis Borloo (born 1951), French Minister of Ecology
 Élisabeth Borne (born 1961), Prime Minister of France
 Pierre Brossolette (1903-1944), member of the French Resistance
 Olivier Dassault (born 1951), French MP
 Bernard Debré (born 1944), French Minister of Development
 Laurent Fabius (born 1946), Prime Minister of France
 Edgar Faure (1908-1988), Prime Minister of France
 Olivier Giscard d'Estaing (born 1927), French MP
 Valéry Giscard d'Estaing (born 1926), President of France
 Bruno Gollnisch (born 1950), MEP
 Prince Peter of Greece and Denmark (1908-1980)
 Jean-Marcel Jeanneney (1910-2010), French Minister of Justice
 Lionel Jospin (born 1937), Prime Minister of France
 Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta (born 1945), President of Mali
 Patrick Leclercq (born 1938), Minister of State of Monaco
 Philippe Malaud (1925-2007), French Minister of Information
 Martin Malvy (born 1936), French Minister of Budget
 Lennart Meri (1929-2001), President of Estonia
 Frédéric Mitterrand (born 1947), French Minister of Culture
 Édouard Philippe (born 1970), Prime Minister of France
 Jean Sainteny (1907-1978), French Minister of Veteran Affairs
 Maurice Schumann (1911-1998), French Minister of Foreign Affairs
 Jean-Jacques Servan Schreiber (1924-2006), French Minister of Reform
 Mohammed Zahir Shah (1914-2007), King of Afghanistan

Military
 François d'Astier de la Vigerie (1886–1956), French General
 Henri Honoré d'Estienne d'Orves (1901-1941), member of the French Resistance
 Pierre Marie Gallois (1911-2010), French General
 Roland Garros (1888-1918), military aviator
 Jacques Lanxade (born 1934), French admiral

Science
 Élie Cartan (1869-1951), mathematician
 Jean Favard (1902-1965), mathematician
 Jean Baptiste Perrin (1870-1942), physicist, Nobel Prize in Physics laureate
 Laurent Schwartz (1915-2002), mathematician, Fields Medalist
 Jean-Claude Sikorav (born 1957), mathematician
 Hervé This (born 1955), chemist

Humanities
 Philippe Ariès  (1914-1984), historian
 Pierre Assouline (born 1953), essayist
 Claude Aveline (1901-1992), essayist
Jacques Barzun (1907-2012), historian
 Alain Bernheim (1931–2022), essayist
 Pierre Bertaux (1907-1986), scholar
 Laurent-Emmanuel Calvet (born 1969), economist
 Jean Daujat (1906-1998), philosopher
 Régis Debray (born 1940), philosopher
 Alain Decaux (1925-2016), historian
 Charles Du Bos (1882-1939), essayist
 Émile Faguet (1947-1916), essayist
 François Furet (1927-1997), historian
 Bertrand Gille (1920-1980), historian
 Paul Guth (1910-1997), essayist
 Henri Lepage (born 1941), economist
 Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-2009), anthropologist
 Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908-1961), philosopher
 Matthieu Ricard (born 1946), buddhist monk
 George Steiner (born 1929), essayist
 Benjamin Stora (born 1950), historian
 Jean Wahl (1888-1974), philosopher

Arts
 Richard Anthony (1920-2006), singer
 Gilbert Amy (born 1936), composer and conductor
 Claude Autant-Lara (1901-2000), film director
 Christian Bérard (1902-1949), designer
 Richard Berry (born 1950), actor
 Sinclair (born 1970), singer
 Carla Bruni-Sarkozy (born 1967), singer and model
 Alejo Carpentier (1904-1980), writer
 Emmanuel Carrère (born 1957), writer
 Roger Chastel (1897-1981), painter
 René Crevel (1900-1935), writer
 Jean-Loup Dabadie (born 1938), writer
 Pierre Daninos (1913-2005), writer
 Michel Déon (1919-2016), writer
 Jean Dutourd (1920-2011), writer
 Franc-Nohain (1872-1934), writer
 Jean Gabin (1904-1976), actor
 José Giovanni (1923-2004), film director
 Julien Green (1900-1998), writer
 Sacha Guitry (1885-1957), film director
 Georges Hugnet (1906-1974), graphic artist
 Sébastien Izambard (born 1973), singer
 Pierre Klossowski (1905-2001), writer
 Philippe Labro (born 1936), writer
 Jacques de Lacretelle (1888-1985), writer
 Georges Lautner (1926-2013), film director
 Michel Leiris (1901-1990), writer
 Roger Martin du Gard (1881-1958), writer, Nobel Prize in Literature laureate
 Robert Merle (1908-2004), writer
 Oscar Milosz (1877-1939), writer
 Henry de Montherlant (1895-1972), writer
 Philippe Noiret (1930-2006), actor
 Germain Nouveau (1851-1920), writer
 Gérard Oury (1919-2006), film director
 Jean Piat (born 1924), actor
 Charles Picart Le Doux (1881-1959), painter
 Raymond Roussel (1877-1933), writer
 Jean-Christophe Rufin (born 1952), writer
 Preston Sturges (1898-1959), film director
 Paul Vaillant-Couturier (1892-1937), writer
 Ray Ventura (1908-1979), jazzman
 Pierre Wiazemsky (1949 - ), press caricaturist (signing as 'Wiaz')

Business
 Bernard Attali (born 1943), CEO of Air France
 François-Marie Banier (born 1947), Liliane Bettencourt's adviser
 Vincent Bolloré (born 1952), billionaire, CEO of Bolloré
 Cyril Bourlon de Rouvre (born 1945), businessman
 Martin Bouygues (born 1952), billionaire, CEO of Bouygues
 Serge Dassault (born 1925), billionaire, CEO of Dassault Group
 Arnaud Lagardère (born 1961), CEO of Lagardère Group
 Robert Louis-Dreyfus (1946-2009), owner of the Olympique de Marseille
 Raoul Nordling (1881-1962), businessman
 Ernest-Antoine Seillière (born 1930), head of the MEDEF
 J. R. D. Tata (1904–1993), chairman of Tata Group
 Léon Zitrone (1914-1995), TV host

Sports
 Robert Abdesselam (1920-2006), tennis player
 William Grover-Williams (1903-1945), racing driver

Sister schools
 Hangzhou Foreign Language School

Yeouido Girls Highschool

References

External links

Buildings and structures in the 16th arrondissement of Paris
1880s establishments in France

Lycée Janson-de-Sailly


Penny Colman is an author of books, essays, stories, and articles for all ages. In 2005, her social history, Corpses, Coffins, and Crypts: A History of Burial, was named one of the 100 Best of the Best Books for the 21st Century by members of the Young Adult Library Services Association (YALSA), a division of the American Library Association (ALA).

Early life
Penny Colman was born Penelope Granger Morgan on September 2, 1944, in Denver, Colorado, to her father, Norman Charles Morgan, and her mother, Marija (known as Maritza) Leskovar Morgan.  She lived in Seattle, Washington, Portland, Oregon, and Lexington, Kentucky, before her parents settled in north Warren, Pennsylvania, in 1949.  Here, Colman, her parents, and her three brothers, all lived on the grounds of Warren State Hospital, a mental hospital where her father worked as a psychiatrist.
In 1953, when Colman was nine years old, her parents bought a farm  from the hospital.  This same year, Colman's mother joined the staff of the local newspaper as a photographer and journalist and her father began writing a weekly column, "Everyday Psychology," for several newspapers.
In 1962, Colman graduated from high school and in the fall she attended Western College for Women in Oxford, Ohio.  After two years of college, Colman dropped out of college and decided to hitchhike through Europe.  After she returned from Europe, her older brother Jon died from viral pneumonia at the age of twenty and her father died three years later from terminal cancer.
Despite hardship, Colman graduated from The University of Michigan; earned a master of arts in teaching from Johns Hopkins University.  Then she married Robert "Bob" Colman and had three sons, Jonathan, and twins; David and Stephen.  After twenty-five years, Colman and her husband were divorced.  She now lives and writes in Englewood, New Jersey.

Non-fiction writing genre

Colman writes predominantly in the genre of nonfiction and most often about women. She attributes her interest in the genre to parental influence. During Penny Colman's youth, her mother worked as a newspaper photo-journalist and Colman accompanied her on various assignments. Colman's father, a psychiatrist, wrote a weekly column that appeared in several newspapers. Immersed in these experiences during her formative years, she developed a belief "that nonfiction is a valuable vehicle for sharing true stories and discussing issues and ideas". Throughout her childhood, Colman enjoyed family visits to museums, historical sites, and landmarks igniting an interest in history that continues today. She recognized the void in the historical record of women's accomplishments and their subsequent impact on the nation (USA). She has written twelve nonfiction books concerning women's struggles, achievements and contributions beginning to fill that void. Her latest book, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony: A Friendship that Changed History due for release March 2011, continues the effort. In her book, Adventurous Women: Eight True Stories about Women Who Made a Difference, Colman defines her objective in this manner, "My intent is not to replace men but to add women (4). All of her books require extensive and meticulous research conducted solely by Colman and often includes "shoe leather research". Colman explains her motivations for becoming a writer, "I became a writer because there are things that I have to say. Things that I have to write. Things that I feel passionate about, such as the importance of thinking and learning, of equality and justice, and of sharing and caring".

Rosie the Riveter: Women Working on the Home Front in World War II received the Orbis Pictus Honor Award for Outstanding Nonfiction from the NCTE and an International Reading Association's Teachers' Choice and Young Adult Choice.

Her book of essays, Adventurous Women: Eight True Stories About Women Who Made A Difference, was named a Notable Trade Book.
Since 2003, Colman has been a distinguished lecture at Queens College, the City University of New York. Her academic writings include, "A New Way to Look at Literature: A Visual Model for Analyzing Fiction and Nonfiction Texts," Language Arts, 2007.
She was honored by the New Jersey State Legislature for books and public appearances that have "contributed to the advancement of women."

Selected bibliography
 Spies: Women in the Civil War, 1992.
 Breaking the Chains: The Crusade of Dorothea Lynde Dix, 1992.
 Fannie Lou Hamer and the Fight for the Vote, 1993.
 A Woman Unafraid: The Achievements of Frances Perkins, 1993.
 Madam C. J. Walker: Building a Business Empire, 1994.
 Toilets, Bathtubs, Sinks, and Sewers: A History of the Bathroom, 1994.
 Mother Jones and the March of the Mill Children, 1994.
 Strike: The Bitter Struggle of American Workers from Colonial Times to the Present, 1995.
 Rosie The Riveter; Women Working on the Home Front in World War II, 1995.
 Corpses, Coffins, and Crypts: A History of Burial, 1997.
 Girls: A History of Growing Up Female in America, 2000.
 Where the Action Was: Women War Correspondents in World War II, 2002.
 Adventurous Women: Eight True Stories about Women Who Made a Difference, 2006.
 Thanksgiving: The True Story, 2008.

Notable works
Adventurous Women: Eight True Stories about Women Who Made a Difference, is a collection of eight enriching and inspirational stories of pioneering 19th century women. The book provides a rich and compelling look at the heroic lives of eight American women from racially and ethically diverse backgrounds who defied the odds to become historic figures. Adventurous Women profiles are Louise Boyd, Arctic explorer; Mary Gibson Henry, botanist; Juana Briones, Hispanic landowner;  Alice Hamilton, medicine pioneer; Mary McLeod Bethune, educator, Katherine Wormeley, Civil War nurse, and Peggy Hull, reporter. The book details how all eight women rose above the gender stereotypes and social limitations of their time to achieve immeasurable success in their respective fields.

The book is a favorite among critics for young readers because of its easy to read style and focus on little known women history. Adventurous Women is listed on several independent and library reading lists for school age readers.

Corpses, Coffins, and Crypts: A History of Burial is an illustrated social history of the subjects of death and burial across cultures written by Penny Colman. The comprehensive text, enriched with true stories both humorous and poignant, includes a list of burial sites of famous people, images in the arts associated with death, fascinating epitaphs and gravestone carvings, a chronology and a glossary, and over a hundred black-and-white photographs, most of which were taken by the author.. It was named one of the 100 Best of the Best Books for the 21st Century.

Rosie the Riveter: Women Working on The Home Front In World War II is an illustrated social history of the lives and contributions of women workers during World War II written by Penny Colman. There are more than sixty archival black-and-white photographs (including one of Norma Jeane Baker Dougherty, who later changed her name to Marilyn Monroe), famous posters, advertisements, and cartoons. The author explains the origins of the phrase "Rosie the Riveter." There are a Select List of Women's Wartime Jobs, Facts & Figures about Women War Workers, Chronology, and an extensive bibliography. Rosie the Riveter received the Orbis Pictus Honor Award for Outstanding Nonfiction and an International Reading Association's Teachers' Choice and Young Adult Choice.

Awards
Awards for Rosie the Riveter: Women Working on the Home Front in World War II
 A School Library Journal Best Book of the Year
 A Junior Library Guild Selection
 An IRA Teachers' Choice
 An IRA Young Adult Choice
 An NCTE Orbis Pictus Honor Book for Outstanding Nonfiction
 An ALA Best Book for Young Adults
 An ALA Notable Children's Book
 A Bulletin Blue Ribbon Book
 A New York Public Library Book for the Teen Age.

Awards for Girls: A History of Growing up Female in America
 Honored by the Women of the New Jersey State Legislature
 Parents' Choice Awards, 2000
 Book of the Month Club selection, 2000
 Best Book for the Teen Age List, New York Public Library, 2001

Awards for Where the Action Was: Women War Correspondents in World War II
 ALA Notable Children's Book citation, American Library Association, 2003
 Notable Children's Trade Book in the Social Studies, CSC/CBC

Awards for Toilets, Bathtubs, Sinks and Sewers: A History of the Bathroom
 Children's Book of the Year Awards
 Child Study Association and Bank Street College of Education Recommended Book for Reluctant Readers citation

Award for A Woman Un-afraid: The Achievements of Frances Perkins
 Notable Children's Trade Book in the Social Studies, CSC/CBC

Award for Mother Jones and the March of the Mill Children
 Notable Children's Trade Book in the Social Studies, CSC/CBC

Award for Strike!: The Bitter Struggle of American Workers from Colonial Times to the Present
 Notable Children's Trade Book in the Social Studies, CSC/CBC

Additional Honors
 Lidman Prize Competition, Silver Award, 1990, for Stamps
 Paula A. Witty Short Story Award nomination, International Reading Association for But Not Ms. Anderson
 Best Book of the Year citation, Publishers Weekly, for Corpses, Coffins, and Crypts: A History of Burial
 The American Library Association Best of the Best for the Twenty-first Century
 International Reading Association Teacher's Choice and Young Readers' Choice
 Publishers Weekly and School Library Journal Best Book of the Year
 National Council of English Teacher's Orbis Pictures Honor Award for Outstanding Nonfiction

References

Bibliography
Colman, Penny. Adventurous Women: Eight True Stories about Women Who Made a Difference. New York: Henry Holt, 2006. Print.

External links

Macmillan.com
Scholastic.com
Answers.com

1944 births
Living people
American non-fiction writers
Children's non-fiction writers
Western College for Women alumni
University of Michigan alumni
Johns Hopkins University alumni
American women non-fiction writers
21st-century American women

Penny Colman


Hyman Howard Taubman (July 4, 1907 – January 8, 1996) was an American music critic, theater critic, and author.

Biography
Born in Manhattan, Taubman attended DeWitt Clinton High School and then won a four-year  scholarship to Cornell University, from which he graduated, as a Phi Beta Kappa member, in 1929.

He then returned to New York and began working for The New York Times. He joined the Music Department there in 1930. In 1935, he was named Music Editor. For about a year, from 1944 to 1945, Taubman served in the Army and worked in Italy as a writer for Stars and Stripes.

In 1955, he became the chief music critic at the Times, replacing Olin Downes upon Downes' death. Also in the 1950s, Taubman acted as the ghostwriter for opera singer Marian Anderson's autobiography My Lord, What a Morning.

In 1960, he took the post of Chief Drama Critic for the Times after Brooks Atkinson retired from that position. Taubman remained in that role until 1965.

In 1961, Taubman, along with six other theater critics, was the victim of a famous hoax when Broadway producer David Merrick placed a newspaper ad for his show Subways Are for Sleeping. The ad quoted Howard Taubman, Walter Kerr, and other prominent New York critics singing praises for Merrick's commercially faltering musical. The individuals quoted, however, were not the renowned theater critics themselves, but like-named New Yorkers hired by Merrick to provide positive quotes.  (The trick kept the show going.)

From 1966 until he retired in 1972, Taubman was a critic-at-large for the Times writing about cultural events from around the globe.  After retiring from the Times, Taubman worked as a consultant to Exxon Corporation for the PBS series Great Performances.

Taubman was the author of several books, primarily related to music. He was the recipient of  honorary degrees from the Philadelphia Academy of Music, Oberlin College and Temple University.

Taubman was twice married and the father of two sons, William and Philip.  Taubman died in Sarasota, Florida, at the age of 88.

Works

 The Pleasure of Their Company (Amadeus Press, 1994)
 The Making of the American Theatre (Coward McCann, 1965)
 How to Bring up your Child to Enjoy Music (1958)
 How to Build a Record Library (1953)
 The Maestro: The Life of Arturo Toscanini (Simon and Schuster, 1951)
 Music on My Beat: An Intimate Volume of Shop Talk (1943)
 Music as a Profession (C. Scribner's Sons, 1939)
 Opera: Front and Back (C. Scribner's Sons, 1938)

Quotes
"It is the destiny of the theater nearly everywhere and in every period to struggle even when it is flourishing."  ~Howard Taubman, 1964

References

Sources
"Howard Taubman, 88, a Times Music Critic", The New York Times, January 9, 1996
Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, Centennial Edition. Nicolas Slonimsky, Editor. Schirmer, 2001

Further reading

1907 births
1996 deaths
American music critics
American theater critics
Cornell University alumni
DeWitt Clinton High School alumni
Opera critics
People from Manhattan
Critics employed by The New York Times
20th-century American non-fiction writers

Howard Taubman


Jefferson Park is one of the 77 community areas of Chicago, located on the Northwest Side of the city. The neighborhood of Jefferson Park occupies a larger swath of territory.

Jefferson Park is bordered by the community areas of Norwood Park to the northwest, Forest Glen to the northeast, Portage Park to the south, and the suburb of Harwood Heights to the south. A large blue line station is in the neighborhood.

Although the official community area map draws the boundary between Jefferson Park and Portage Park at Gunnison Street and Lawrence Avenue, the Jefferson Park neighborhood extends to Montrose Avenue farther south.

The neighborhood is named after President Thomas Jefferson.

The Taste of Polonia has brought some of the nation's most known political figures to Jefferson Park to win the support of Chicago's Polish community. President George H. W. Bush hosted the festival in 1992 and in 2000, future Vice President Dick Cheney as well as Tipper Gore, and Hadassah Lieberman made an appearance.

References

Community areas of Chicago

Jefferson Park, Chicago


Year 1613 (MDCXIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Friday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar.

Events
 January – Galileo observes Neptune, but mistakes it for a star and so is not credited with its discovery.
 February 7 – An Assembly of the Russian Empire elects Mikhail Romanov to be Tsar of Russia, and establishes the Romanov Dynasty.
 June 29 – Fire destroys London's Globe Theatre
 Francesco Andreini's L'Adamo is published.
 King James I of England successfully mediates the Peace of Knäred treaty between Denmark and Sweden.
 The New River was opened, to supply London with drinking water from Hertfordshire
 Adriaen Block's ship Tyger is destroyed by fire, forcing him and his crew to spend the winter on Manhattan
 James I of England comdemns duels in his proclamation Against Private Challenges and Combats
 Ottoman Empire invades Hungary
 Locust swarm destroys La Camarque, France
 Sultan Agung takes the throne of the kingdom of Mataram on Java.
 December 6 death of Anton Praetorius

1613


Walters is an unincorporated community in Isle of Wight County in the Hampton Roads region of southeastern Virginia in the United States. The elevation is .

Walters was located on a now-abandoned portion of the Virginian Railway (VGN), built by industrialist Henry Huttleston Rogers to ship coal from West Virginia to port at Sewell's Point, near Norfolk. Completed in 1909, the VGN was merged into the Norfolk and Western Railway in 1959. The former railroad right-of-way now carries an important pipeline which transports fresh water to communities in South Hampton Roads.
Walters was named after a resident, Walter Joyner. A nearby community in Southampton County was already named Joyners, so that name was abandoned.
The community at one time was a bustling area, with several stores, a bank and post office.  However, it is still home to some local businesses, including one that sells lawn & garden equipment, golf carts, and lawn tractors.

References

Unincorporated communities in Isle of Wight County, Virginia
Unincorporated communities in Virginia

Walters, Virginia


Bag of Bones or Stephen King's Bag of Bones,  is an American horror television miniseries adaptation of Stephen King's 1998 novel of the same name. Directed by Mick Garris from Matt Venne's screenplay, it  was first aired in 2011 on the A&E Network in two parts. When shown on British Channel 5 on 29 December 2012, it was however shown as a single -hour (162 min) film.

Plot
Best-selling novelist Mike Noonan and his wife, Jo, are unable to conceive children; Mike conceals that he has a low sperm count. Jo is killed by a bus while crossing a street. As she dies in his arms, Mike notices she bought a pregnancy test, and assumes that she may have been having an affair. Overcome by grief from her death, Mike develops a case of writer's block. He suffers a series of nightmares about his wife and their summer home on Dark Score Lake in Maine. On advice from his brother, Sid, Mike takes a trip to the summer house.

Once there, he meets a young widow named Mattie Devore and her 6-year-old daughter, Kyra. Befriending them, he earns the ire of Mattie's estranged father-in-law Max Devore. Max has been trying to get custody of Kyra since Mattie shot his son Lance (Lance was trying to drown the child). Despite the turmoil, Mike begins to write again, but visions and nightmares lead him to believe he isn't alone. He finds that his wife's spirit is with him. He also detects the spirit of a 1930s singer named Sara Tidwell who plays records of her music. Sara also appears in dreams that Mike has of her last day alive in 1939. During his stay at the lake, Mike learns about "Dark Score Crazy," an apparent form of madness that caused several men in the town to murder their daughters by drowning them.

Max and his assistant attack Mike while he is in the lake. Afterwards, Max gives Mike an offer that he will stop the custody battle for Kyra if Mike agrees to leave them alone and not press charges. Mike agrees to it, and Max after that commits suicide. At the funeral, Mike meets Edgar White, an old friend of his grandfather. Edgar confesses to Mike that Edgar, Mike's grandfather, and two other men assisted Max with the rape and murder of Sara Tidwell and the drowning of her daughter, Keisha. With her dying breath, Sara cursed the boys' descendants to drown their own daughters in retribution for drowning Keisha. The boys buried Sara with her daughter in the woods.

Mike tells Mattie the story. Mattie concludes that since Jo was pregnant, she returned to Dark Score and spent time investigating the curse on Mike's bloodline, not cheating on him as he hypothesized. Mattie is suddenly shot and killed in a manner that Mike saw in a dream, but before she dies she begs him to take care of Kyra. Mike is chased back to his home by Mattie's killers who turn out to be descendants of Sara's attackers obsessed with fulfilling the curse, but he escapes when they are caught by surprise and killed by a falling sign during a storm. Mike tries to console Kyra and puts her to bed. Max's spirit angrily compels Mike to drown Kyra in fulfillment of the curse, but Mattie's spirit struggles to thwart him. Mike takes refuge in his office, where he finds clues left by Jo in the story he had been writing, directing him to douse Sara and Keisha's remains with lye to end the curse.

A tree that had been transformed into the figure of a woman marks the burial site. Mike returns to this tree to recover the remains, but the tree haunted by Sara's spirit attempts to deter him. Jo appears and distracts Sara, allowing Mike time to use the lye to dissolve the bones. Sara's spirit is appeased and the tree returns to normal. Mike says a final goodbye to Jo. He returns home to find Kyra in the bathtub, and he is attacked by Max's assistant who tries to kill them both. Mike kills her, and Mattie's spirit appears before them. Mattie tells Kyra that she is safe and that Mike will take care of her. The next morning, Mike announces that he intends to adopt Kyra as his own daughter.

Cast

Production
The project started when Mark Sennet of Sennet Entertainment and Stewart Mackinnon of Headline Pictures secured the rights to the novel and contracted Mick Garris to direct the project, Matt Venne to write the screenplay and attached Pierce Brosnan in the leading role. Filming started August 2011 in Nova Scotia. Singer Kelly Rowland was originally cast as the role of Sara Tidwell but was replaced by Anika Noni Rose.

Critical and popular reception
Entertainment Weeklys Ken Tucker thought the miniseries was "occasionally hokey, and Brosnan [overworked] his mad cackling, but the production [was] never less than creepily engaging." Troy Patterson of Slate called it "too campy," adding: "Bag of Bones attempts to say something about care-giving and leave-taking. But, much of the time ... it's busy trying to scare the pants off you and failing in the attempt." CraveOnline's Blair Marnell gave the miniseries a 6 out of 10 rating, commenting: "The greatest weakness of Bag of Bones is that it seems to be too intent upon maintaining the pace of King's novel to the detriment of the onscreen story."

Part One was watched by 3.37 million viewers and had a 1.1 with the 18-49 age range, Part Two dropped slightly to 2.99 million with a 0.9 rating.

References

External links

 Interview with Bag of Bones Director Mick Garris

Television shows based on works by Stephen King
Ghosts in television
2010s American drama television miniseries
A&E (TV network) original programming

Bag of Bones (miniseries)


The Beatitudes (from Latin beatus, meaning "blessed" or "happy") are a list of traits that Christians should follow told by Gospel of Matthew and Gospel of Luke. Some of these include humbleness, meekness, and making peace.

Jesus Christ taught these ideas as part of a three lesson sermon; the Sermon on the Mount.

References

Gospels

Beatitudes


Clark's nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana), sometimes referred to as Clark's crow or woodpecker crow, is a passerine bird in the family Corvidae, native to the mountains of western North America. The nutcracker is an omnivore, but subsists mainly on pine nuts, burying seeds in the ground in the summer and then retrieving them in the winter by memory.

Etymology and history
The bird was described by the Lewis and Clark Expedition, with William Clark first observing it in 1805 along the banks of the Salmon River, a tributary of the Columbia River. Its scientific name literally means "nutcracker of the Columbia." Lewis recorded a more detailed description in 1806. A skin collected by the expedition was obtained by the ornithologist Alexander Wilson, who used it to produce an  engraving for his monumental American Ornithology.

Taxonomy
Originally placed in the genus Corvus by Lewis, Clark's nutcracker was later included in Nucifraga by Wilson, which also includes two Old World species with similar lifestyles and habitats.

Distribution and habitat
This species is present in western North America from British Columbia and western Alberta in the north to Baja California and central New Mexico in the south. There is also a small isolated population on the peak of Cerro Potosí, elevation 3,700 metres (12,200 ft), in Nuevo León, northeast Mexico. It is mainly found in mountains at altitudes of 900–3,900 metres (3,000–12,900 ft) in conifer forest. It is not migratory except in the sense of moving back and forth locally between areas of higher and lower elevation. Outside the breeding season, it may wander extensively to lower altitudes and also further east as far as Illinois (and exceptionally, Pennsylvania), particularly following any cone crop failure in its normal areas.

Description
Nucifraga columbiana can reach an average length of . It is slightly smaller than its Eurasian relative the spotted nutcracker (N. caryocatactes). Most of its body has feathers that are ashy-grey and loose in texture. The wings and tail are black and white. The central tail feathers are black and the outer ones white. The bill, legs and feet are also black. The bill is long, stout, and cone-shaped.

Measurements
 Length:
 Weight:
 Wingspan:

Food

The most important food resources for this species are the seeds of pines (Pinus sp.), principally the two cold-climate (high altitude) species of white pine (Pinus subgenus Strobus) with large seeds P. albicaulis and P. flexilis, but also using other high-altitude species like P. balfouriana, P. longaeva and P. monticola. During migrations to lower altitudes, it also extensively uses the seeds of pinyon pines. The isolated Cerro Potosí population is strongly associated with the local endemic Potosi pinyon (Pinus culminicola). All Clark's nutcrackers have a sublingual pouch capable of holding around 50–150 seeds, depending on the size of the seeds; the pouch greatly enhances the birds' ability to transport and store seeds.

Clark's nutcrackers store seeds, usually in the ground for later consumption, in caches of 1–15 seeds (average of 3–4 seeds). Depending on the cone crop as well as the tree species, a single Clark's nutcracker can cache as many as 98,000 seeds per season. The birds regularly store more than they actually need as insurance against seed theft by other animals (squirrels, etc.), as well as low availability of alternative foods; this surplus seed is left in the cache, and may be able to germinate and grow into new trees, if the conditions are right. Through this activity of caching and over-storing, the bird is perpetuating its own habitat. Closely tied in with this storage behavior is the bird's remarkable long-term spatial memory; they are able to relocate caches of seeds with great accuracy, even nine months later, and even when the cache sites are buried under up to a meter (3 ft) of snow. Its powers of memory exemplify the high intelligence of the Corvidae.  Clark's nutcrackers are known for storing and recovering large numbers of seed caches that are critical for winter survival. Short-term memory tasks reveal that nutcrackers can remember spatial information better than visual information. It was demonstrated that the cache recovery ability of Clarks nutcracker is derived from a memory system that has evolved differently for storing spatial information.

The diet also includes a wide range of insect prey, berries and other fruits, small mammals and occasionally flesh from carcasses. Eggs and nestlings are sometimes devoured, and peanuts and suet have become a favorite at bird tables. Food is taken both from the ground and from trees, where the nutcrackers are very agile among the branches. The birds are able to extract food by clasping pine cones in such a way that the cones are held between one or both feet. The birds then hack the cones open with their strong bills. Rotten logs are also hacked into in order to locate large beetle grubs, and animal dung may be flipped over in search of insects. Clark's nutcrackers can also be opportunistic feeders in developed areas, and are known to some as "camp robbers".

Nesting

The species usually nests in pines or other types of conifers during early spring. Two to four eggs are laid, incubation usually occurring in 16–18 days. Incubation is performed by both the male and female parents, and both the male and the female develop brood patches. The young are typically fledged by around the 22nd day. The fledglings follow their parents around for several months, possibly in order to learn the complex seed storage behavior.

Whitebark pine mutualism
Clark's nutcracker is the primary seed disperser for whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis). Whitebark pine is in decline throughout its range, due to infection by white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola), widespread outbreaks of mountain pine beetle, and the long-term effects of fire suppression. Clark's nutcracker is an integral part of the whitebark pine restoration process: Clark's nutcracker must remain in whitebark pine forests and cache the seeds in excess, so that healthy trees will continue to grow. If whitebark pine declines into extinction, Clark's nutcracker will lose an important source of food and may no longer be seen in areas where the tree is the primary source of seed, such as Glacier National Park.

Vocalization
The voice of this bird is extremely varied and produces many different sounds. However, the most frequent call is commonly described as .

References

 Lanner, R. M. (1996). Made for each other: a symbiosis of birds and pines. OUP.
 Balda R., Kamil C., Linking Life Zones, Life History Traits, Ecology, and Spatial Cognition in Four Allopatric Southwestern Seed Caching Corvids, 2006
NatureServe report

External links

Clark's nutcracker photo gallery VIREO
 Clark's nutcracker on the Internet Bird Collection
Clark's nutcracker at All About Birds
Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Foundation

Clark's nutcracker
Native birds of Western Canada
Native birds of the Western United States
Birds of the Sierra Nevada (United States)
Birds of the Rio Grande valleys
Fauna of the Chihuahuan Desert
Clark's nutcracker
Taxa named by Alexander Wilson (ornithologist)

Clark's nutcracker


Annie Hall is a 1977 American romantic comedy film directit bi Woody Allen frae a screenplay he co-wrote wi Marshall Brickman.

References

1977 films
1970s romantic comedy films
American romantic comedy films
American films
Best Pictur Academy Awaird winners
Inglis-leid films
Films directit bi Woody Allen
Films featurin a Best Actress Academy Awaird-winnin performance
Films featurin a Best Muisical or Comedy Actress Gowden Globe-winnin performance
Films set in Brooklyn
Films set in Manhattan
Films set in New York
Films set in Los Angeles
Films set in the 1940s
Films set in the 1960s
Films set in 1975
Films shot in New York Ceety
Films that's director wan the Best Directin Academy Awaird
Films that's writer wan the Best Oreeginal Screenplay Academy Awaird
Unitit States Naitional Film Registry films
Films aboot Jews an Judaism
United Artists films
Hall, Annie
Screenplays bi Woody Allen
Sel-reflexive films
Films aboot psychoanalysis
Postmodren films
Films wi live action an animation
Screenplays bi Marshall Brickman
Best Film BAFTA Awaird winners
Films produced bi Charles H. Joffe
Films that's director wan the Best Direction BAFTA Awaird
Films that's writer wan the Best Screenplay BAFTA Awaird

Annie Hall


Tempo Beer Industries (Tempo) is Israel's largest brewer and the country's second-largest beverage company.

Products

Beers

Tempo produces three brands of pale lager:

Goldstar, which was acquired in a 1985 merger
Maccabee, also marketed in the United States and Europe
Nesher Malt, brewed in both alcoholic and non-alcoholic versions

Goldstar () is a 4.9% ABV pale lager which has been produced since the 1950s. It is marketed as a dark lager beer (""), though it is pale golden in appearance. In January 2007, Tempo introduced 4% Goldstar Light with a commercial starring Moshe Datz, from the Israeli duet Duo Datz. The beer is certified kosher by the Chief Rabbi of Netanya, Israel.

Maccabee () is a 4.9% ABV pale lager that was first brewed in 1968. It is distributed in Israel and is also marketed in the United States and Europe.

Nesher Malt was the first commercial beer to be brewed in Israel. It is produced in both alcoholic and non-alcoholic styles, and has been brewed since 1935.

Soft drinks
Tempo produces juice-based drinks under the Jump brand and is also the local bottler of PepsiCo soft drinks.

Distribution

Since 1992, Tempo has been an importer of Heineken lager, and in 2005 they became the sole distributor in Israel for Samuel Adams lager.
Heineken International owns a 40% share of Tempo, which has its main office in Netanya.

Barkan Wine Cellars
In September 2004, Tempo acquired a 39% controlling interest in Barkan Wine Cellars, which is Israel's second-largest winery. Barkan produces the Segal brand of wine.

Popular culture
Goldstar beer was referred to in the song "Tel Aviv" by Duran Duran in their 1981 album Duran Duran.
For some reason, at many American Reform Jewish summer camps an old Tempo commercial jingle is often sung. Tempo was once one of Israel's largest soft drink brands, with a line of drinks called Tempo Kan-Kan (טמפו קן-קן), which featured several flavors, such as orange and cola. Today, Tempo is Pepsi's Israeli bottler.

See also
 Beer in Israel
 Malt beer

References

External links

 Company web page

Beer in Israel
Drink companies of Israel
Companies based in Netanya
1952 establishments in Israel
Israeli brands

Tempo Beer Industries


Influenza, better known as the flu and sometimes called the grippe, is a common childhood illness, but is not as common among adults. It is not limited to humans, most mammals and many birds can also catch influenza. It is caused by several different viruses, termed influenza viruses A, B, C, and D.

Flu transmission and symptoms
Human influenza can pass from one person to another very easily. It is most commonly spread by the microscopic droplets of mucus and fluid that are sent into the air when the sick person coughs or sneezes. Symptoms include cough, sore throat, muscle aches and pains, fever, headache, and rarely vomiting and diarrhea.  Influenza can also lead to other diseases, such as pneumonia. This makes it especially dangerous to young children and elderly people.

Although there is no cure for influenza, antiviral drugs can be used to treat the illness so it is not as severe and does not last as long. Influenza vaccines are available worldwide, and are quite effective. They are changed each year as the virus changes.

The  influenza  season runs from late fall to spring because most people catch it in the winter months. When there are more cases of influenza than expected, it will sometimes be called an epidemic. When there are a large number of cases of the same type of influenza all over the world, it is often called a pandemic.

History
The virus is ancient. It has infected humans for centuries.

Changes in the influenza virus
Small changes that happen as flu is passed from one person to another is the most common way flu viruses change. This is the main reason that people can catch the flu every year.

The CDC keeps track of the different flu viruses that are circulating, and gives this information to the companies that make flu "shots". Since the flu changes so much from year to year, flu shots have to be given each new flu season.

Flu shots only protect against the most common flu viruses, and every now and then a slightly different type spreads more than expected. Usually when this happens, the existing flu shot gives some protection so that even if a person who had a flu shot catches it, they do not get as sick.

Some flu viruses are caught from animals. Bird flu, for example, is usually only caught by people in contact with sick birds (usually chickens). These types of flu virus are usually very limited, and while they can make a person very ill, usually other people do not catch the virus from the sick person.

Another way that the flu can change is when a person or animal catches two different flu viruses. The two viruses can exchange some of their genetic information, which can create a brand new flu that nobody has ever caught before.

If an animal flu virus changes in this way to one that can easily pass from human to human, many people become ill because nobody has any immunity to the new virus. Often, a brand new virus is more severe and kills more people.

New types of flu virus are usually what causes pandemics, and that is the reason many scientists have been following bird flu so closely—it kills six people out of every ten who catch it. This would be a very serious problem if it changes enough to spread easily between people.

Swine flu (March/April 2009)
This new flu virus got its name because it contains genetic parts that are commonly found in flu viruses that infect pigs. It is not spread by pigs or by eating pork—this is a new human virus being spread by humans. The name was the 2009 flu pandemic.

References

Other websites
 CDC info on influenza
 World Health Organization Fact Sheet Overview of influenza.
 NHS Direct Health encyclopedia entry
 Both overview and technical details on influenza viruses with emphasis on the potential H5N1 pandemic Includes details of various nonhuman influenza viruses. Extensive and well done.
 Another overview of influenza

Pulmonology
Diseases caused by viruses

Influenza


Fructification () are the generative parts of the plant (flower and fruit) (as opposed to its vegetative parts: trunk, roots and leaves). Sometimes it is applied more broadly to the generative parts of gymnosperms, ferns, horsetails, and lycophytes, though they produce neither fruit nor flower.

Since the works of Andrea Caesalpino (1519–1603) the characters of fructification have been extensively used as a basis for the scientific classification of plants. Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) raised the description of the parts of fructification to an unprecedented level of precision. He insisted that genera and the higher groups of plants must be characterised in terms of the fructification alone without using vegetative parts (which can be used only to characterise the species within genera). At that time it was believed that all plants have flowers and fruits. It was not until the nineteenth century that the important difference between seeds and spores was recognised and the use of terms flower and fruit was restricted to the flowering plants (angiosperms).

Later plant taxonomists used a more balanced approach and re-introduced the use of the vegetative parts of the plant as a basis for characters at different levels of taxonomic hierarchy.

See also
 Scientific classification

Plant morphology

Fructification