Ancient Egypt, or the Kingdom of Kemet, was a society that began about 3150 BC, and lasted until 30 BC when it was invaded by the Roman Empire.

Egypt grew along the River Nile and was at its most powerful in the second millennium BC. Its land went from the Nile delta to Nubia, a kingdom which today is mostly in the Sudan.

For most of its history, Egypt was doing well, since the water from the Nile made sure that the Egyptians would have good crops.  Crops were grown after the Nile flood water went down.

The Egyptians created a way of writing using hieroglyphs, built huge temples and tombs, traded with other areas, and had a powerful army. Their religion had many gods, and its priests were powerful and rich. Their Egyptians rulers, called Pharaohs, were thought to be close to the gods.

History
Archaeologists, who study objects left by ancient people, have found that people have lived along the Nile for a very long time. The fertile flood plains of the Nile allowed people to begin farming. By the 10th millennium BC, the people in Egypt had begun growing cereal grains like wheat and barley. Because they were farming, they stayed in one place, and because they were settled, their society became more complex. This was an important step in the history of human civilization.

This period in Egyptian history is called predynastic, as it happened before the large dynastic kingdoms were formed.
By about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures. Each had begun farming crops and animals. Each had their own types of pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. In Upper Egypt, the south part of the country, the Badarian was one of the earliest cultures. It is known for its high quality pottery, stone tools, and its use of copper. They were followed by the Amratian and Gerzian cultures.

The different periods of ancient Egyptian history are:
 Predynastic Period (5500 – 3000 BC)
 Early Dynastic Period (1st & 2nd Dynasties, 3000 – 2700 BC)
 Old Kingdom (3rd to 6th Dynasties, 2700 – 2180 BC)
 First Intermediate Period (7th to 11th Dynasties, 2180 – 2050 BC)
 Middle Kingdom (11th to 14th Dynasties, 2080 – 1640 BC)
 Second Intermediate Period (15th to 17th Dynasties, 1640 – 1560 BC; the Hyksos)
 New Kingdom (18th to 20th Dynasties, 1560 – 1070 BC)
 Third Intermediate Period (21st to 25th Dynasties, 1070 – 664 BC)
 Late Period (26th to 31st Dynasties, 664 – 323 BC; the Persians)
 Greco-Roman Egypt (323 – 30 BC; Ptolemaic to Roman)

The Intermediate periods included times when the traditional system broke down, the country was split, or invaded by foreign rulers. Egypt's culture and climate was relatively stable, compared to other parts of the Middle East. Nevertheless, they had some periods when their government was challenged and sometimes overthrown.

Government

Ancient Egypt was split up into many different districts called sepats. The first divisions were created during the Predynastic Period, but then, they were small city-states that ruled themselves. When the first pharaoh came to power, the sepats remained and were much like the counties in many countries today. They stayed basically the same for a long time – there were 42 of them, and each was ruled by a governor chosen by the pharaoh. In later years the districts were called nomes and the governor was called a nomarch.

Ancient Egypt had a lot of different taxes, but there was no real money, so people paid each other with goods or work. The person who watched the tax collection was a scribe, and every tax collector in Egypt had to tell him every day how many taxes they had collected. Each person paid different taxes based on the work that they did: craftsmen paid in goods, hunters and fishermen paid with food, and every single household in the country had to pay a labour tax every year by helping with work for the country like mining or for canals. A lot of rich Egyptians paid poorer people to do this for them.

Language and writing

Language
The language can be divided into six time periods:
Archaic Egyptian (before 3000 BC). This language was found on carvings on pottery.
Old Egyptian (3000 BC to 2000 BC). This language was used during the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period. It was found in pyramids, or Egyptian tombs, and was the first version of the language that had plural tense, which shows that there was more than one object being talked about.
Middle Egyptian (2000 BC to 1300 BC).  This language is called Classic Egyptian.  It is found all over objects and tombs in Egypt, including Egyptian coffins.  Books on science and society were written during this time, and a lot of the things we know about religion of the time are written in Classic Egyptian. Even after people stopped speaking this kind of Egyptian, writers still used it when they wrote books.
Late Egyptian (1300 BC to 700 BC). This is the language of the New Kingdom, which was the best time in Egypt's history. There was a lot of knowledge being shared during this time, so we have a lot of very old books that were written in Late Egyptian. Many people believe that this version of the language was much like what Egyptians spoke.
Demotic Egyptian (700 BC to 400 AD)
Coptic Egyptian (300 AD to 1700 AD)

Writing

Hieroglyphics
Egypt had writing called hieroglyphics, which is one of the two oldest written languages (the other is Sumerian cuneiform).
Hieroglyphic writing dates to c. 3200 BC, and is composed of some 500 symbols. A hieroglyph represents a word, a sound, or a symbol to show what the sign means. The same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs on stone monuments and in tombs were for public purposes. It was art, and often it was propaganda.

Hieratic script
The script used by priests for everyday writing on "papyrus", wood or cloth.
In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows.

Demotic script
The script used by ordinary people. A new form of writing, Demotic, became the main writing style. It is this form of writing  and formal hieroglyphs  which accompanies the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone.

Coptic script
The Coptic script is a modified Greek alphabet. The Coptic language is the last stage of the Egyptian language (modern Egyptians speak a dialect of Arabic).

Literature
Some ancient Egyptian literature has survived to the present day. There are teaching texts, such as the Maxims of Ptahhotep, the Instructions of Amenemope, and the Ebers papyrus. The Ebers papyrus is one of the earliest medical texts ever found.
There are also poems and stories.
 The story of Sinuhe
An Ancient Egyptian murder mystery written around 1800 BC.
 Ipuwer papyrus
A poem about the ruin of Egyptian society--some think it is about the story in Exodus, a book in the Jewish/Christian Bible.
 Westcar papyrus
A series of stories about the Pharaoh Khufu told by his sons.
 Papyrus Harris I
The longest papyrus ever found in Egypt.
 Story of Wenamun
An ancient adventure story about a priest who goes to collect gifts from a king.

Religion

Religion was very important to Ancient Egyptians. To Egyptians, animals were holy and were worshipped. Because of this, Egyptians domesticated, or made pets of, animals very early and took very good care of them. The centre of any Egyptian town was the temple, and this building was used for everything from the town hall to a university in addition to its religious services.

Because they were so religious, Egyptians created a lot of art of their gods. This art shows all different kinds of divine, or holy, creatures including the pharaoh, who was thought to be a god.

The afterlife was also very important to Egyptians and they are known for mummifying their dead. These mummies are important to scientists today because they tell them about how the Egyptians lived.

All the gods were important but some were more important than others. An example of a goddess is Isis who is the goddess of the sky. Another example of a major god is Ra who was the god of the sun. The less well known god of The Nile and the crocodiles was named Sobek, which is a rather unusual name. Bastet was the goddess of cats, so the Ancient Egyptians mummified cats in honour of her, she was also the goddess of protection, joy and families.

Agriculture

The rich fertile soil came from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits. In ancient Egypt taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.

Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops.p514 From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their crops, which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain. Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.p506

Flax plants were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.p577; 630

Most animals were kept as food. Some animals were kept as pets. All kinds of animals were important to Egypt. Ancient Egyptians understood the animals. Animals they kept were goats, pigs, ducks, cows and geese.

Medicine
Ancient Egyptians had some advanced medical knowledge for their time. They performed surgery, set broken bones and even knew about medicines. Some medicines the Ancient Egyptians used are honey and breast milk or gazelle's milk. Not only did they have medicinal values, they also are believed to have been used to ward off evil spirits and demons. The easiest way to see how good they were at medicine is to look at the medical papyri which have survived to the present day. The Edwin Smith papyrus is the world's oldest surviving surgical document, from about 1600 B.C. The text describes anatomy, and the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of 48 types of medical problems in detail.

Pyramids
Ancient Egyptian pyramids are shaped stone masonry structures. They are the best known pyramid structures, and are some of the largest ever buildings. Over 130 pyramids have been discovered in Egypt. Most were built on the western side of the River Nile in desert areas. Egyptian pyramids are often contain chambers and passages. The pyramids were built as the burial places of the Egyptian kings before the start of the old kingdom until the end of the middle kingdom. Because the Egyptians kept written records, we know about the building of some pyramids.

The Great Pyramid at Giza is the largest and most famous pyramid. It was built for Pharaoh Khufu. It is over 140 metres high and took 20 years to build. It is listed as one of the seven wonders of the world. The step pyramid at Saqqara is the earliest pyramid which is still standing today. This was built in 2630 BC. It was a burial place of the Pharaoh Djoser. The architect of the step pyramid was Imhotep.

Other achievements
Engineering was an important activity in Egypt. Engineers were able to measure and survey the distance between two points. They designed and made the pyramids, which are nearly perfect geometrically. They could make cement, and developed large irrigation networks.

Science was also important. Mathematics was used in Egypt, and the golden ratio was used in the construction of the Pyramids.

Another ability of the Egyptians was glass making. Archaeologists have found many pieces of beads, jars, figures and ornaments in tombs across the nation. In 2005, the remains of an ancient glassmaking factory was found.

Timeline

Predynastic
 3500 BC: Senet, a board game, is invented
 3500 BC: Egyptian faience, the world's oldest earthenware, or pottery, is created. It is not the same as modern faience pottery.

Dynastic
 3300 BC: Bronze works are first created
 3200 BC: Hieroglyphs are developed
 3100 BC: Decimal system in use
 3100 BC: Mining occurs on Mount Sinai
 3100 BC: Ships are built in Abydos, an Egyptian city
 3000 BC: Trading takes place between Egypt and Palestine
 3000 BC: Copper plumbing in use
 3000 BC: Papyrus, or ancient paper, is first used
 3000 BC: First documented use of medicine
 2900 BC: Perhaps the first steel use in the ancient world
 2700 BC: First surgery performed
 2700 BC: Surveying used by engineers
 2700 BC: Hieroglyphs no longer just show little pictures of words, but become based on sounds
 2600 BC: The Great Pyramids of Giza created
 2600 BC: Shipping expeditions occur
 2600 BC: First use of barges
 2600 BC: Pyramid of Djoser created
 2600 BC: Menkaure's Pyramid and the Red Pyramid created
 2200 BC: Government in Egypt collapsed, meaning many different people tried to become King
 1900 BC: Possible Nile to Red Sea canal created
 1650 BC: The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus is written, which shows knowledge of geometry, arithmetic and algebra
 1600 BC: The Edwin Smith Papyrus is written, which shows knowledge of advanced medical techniques
 1550 BC: The Ebers Medical Papyrus is written, the first document on the topic of tumours
 1500 BC: Glassmaking
 1258 BC: First known peace treaty (Ramesses II)
 1160 BC: The Turin Papyrus is written, the first geologic and topographic map

Related pages
 Old Kingdom of Egypt
 Middle Kingdom of Egypt
 New Kingdom
 Hatshepsut
 Ramesses II
 Cleopatra VII

References

Ancient Egypt


Murderer, the Hope of Women is a short Expressionist play written by the painter Oskar Kokoschka. It focuses more on the actions and appearances of its characters than on their dialogue. Its performance was received with much criticism, as it was a break from classical drama and part of the modernist avant-garde movement in German culture.

Plot
Murderer, the Hope of Women is set in the past, at night in front of a large tower. Action is focused on the characters of "The Man," with his band of Warriors, and "The Woman," with her group of Maidens.

The play begins with the Man riding to the Woman's tower. The Maidens and Woman see him approaching. The Woman and Man both question each other as to who looked at the other, while the Maidens and Warriors compare the Man to a conqueror and the Woman to a dangerous beast. The Woman feels consumed by the Man's gaze and says she is devoured by his light. The Man then orders that the Woman be branded with his mark. In response, the Woman stabs the Man. The Warriors deny any knowledge of the Man and run off with the Maidens, locking the Man in the tower. While the Man makes faint movements, the Woman demands to see him again. As the Man slowly recovers, the Woman reciprocally loses her strength. The Woman desperately demands to be set free from the Man's chains. The Man rises, tears open the door, and kills the Woman with a touch. He kills the Warriors and Maidens in a similar way and then exits through a passage of fire.

Biographical context
Murderer, the Hope of Women has often been called the first Expressionist drama due to its symbolic use of colours, innovative lighting, and the movements of the actors. It was first performed at the Kunstschau Theatre in Vienna in 1909 and caused much controversy on its première. On the night of its first performance, soldiers from a nearby barracks watched the play from the edge of the garden and, upon the Man's branding of the Woman, rushed through the barrier. Things quickly escalated and a riot soon broke out, for which the police were sent. By means of a connection between the Chief of Police and Kokoschka's friends and fellow writers Adolf Loos and Karl Kraus, Kokoschka got off with only a warning, rather than being arrested for disturbing the peace. Such strong emotional reaction is characteristic of such work as Kokoschka's.

The play is characteristic of the internal and external struggle consistent with the artistic and literary works of Vienna at this time, as is evident through the plot. Many of this period's artistic works pertained to the shortcoming of language in its ability to express emotion. In his biography, Kokoschka describes his battle to come to terms with the "existential malaise" that he felt had gripped the world and the disbelief of the "possibility of individual action or the control of one's own future." Ultimately, he found solace in the instinct of self-preservation. Still, Kokoschka claimed that an inner voice tormented him with imaginings of the female sex and said that this was the key to Murderer.

Critical responses

When Kokoschka's play was first performed in 1909, it met with considerable criticism and controversy. Its extreme visual aspects, with its dramatic and disturbing costumes and violent imagery, made it the first Expressionist drama for many critics. The playwright Paul Kornfeld praised the revolutionary drama as a breakthrough art form, calling it a "verbally supported pantomime.".

Many contemporary critics found Murderer, the Hope of Women to be highly disturbing and altogether ineffective. In the 1917 edition of the Frankfurter Zeitung, Bernhard Diebold condemned the play as nothing but a collection of "screaming images" and a "pretentious Decoration Drama.". It was utterly devoid of any character development, language, and purpose, he argued. Though disagreeing with Diebold on the uselessness of the play's aesthetic ornament, the critic Robert Breuer also complained about the low importance of language in the play, writing that "the words, which were simultaneously spoken, are remembered only as the subtitles under the extremely powerful images.

The drama critic Walter Sokel has admired the play's departure from realism and its exploration into the surrealism underlying its biblical and mythical allusions. Many interpret the play as an effective theatrical portrayal of Otto Weininger's idea of gender relations as a battle between man and woman. According to Weininger, sexuality was a conflict between superior male spirituality and debased female bestiality. Such criticism views the defeat of the Woman as the ultimate victory of the spirit over lust. Regardless of the many varying appraisals of its stylistic methods, the play may be read as embodying a clash between aesthetic modernity and masculinity.

Adaptations
Paul Hindemith's expressionist opera in one act Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen used a 1917 version of the play, revised by Kokoschka himself, as libretto.

The audio collection 'Fantastic Imaginings' produced by Stefan Rudnicki at Skyboat Media and published by Blackstone Audio contains a cast reading of Murderer, the Hope of Women.

References

Sources

 Albright, Daniel. 2000. Untwisting the Serpent: Modernism in Music, Literature, and Other Arts. University of Chicago Press.
 Berghaus, Günter. 2005. Theatre, Performance, and the Historical Avant-Garde. Palgrave Studies in Theatre and Performance History ser. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. .
 Kokoschka, Oskar. 1971. My Life. New York: Macmillan. .
Hamburger, Michael, trans. 1997. Murderer, the Women's Hope. By Oskar Kososchka. In Schürer (1997a, 1-5).
 Kuhns, David F. 1997. German Expressionist Theatre: The Actor and the Stage. New ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2006. .
 Ritchie, J[ames] M[cPherson], ed. 1968a. Seven Expressionist Plays. Trans. J. M. Ritchie and H. F. Garten. German Expressionism ser. London: John Calder. .
 ---. 1968b. Introduction. In Ritchie (1968a, 7-22).
 ---, trans. 1968c. Murderer Hope of Womankind. By Oskar Kokoschka. In Ritchie (1968a, 25-32).
 Schürer, Ernst, ed. 1997a. German Expressionist Plays. The German Library ser. vol. 66. New York: Continuum. .
 ---. 1997b. Introduction. In Schürer (1997a, vii-xxi).
 Schvey, Henry I. 1982. Oskar Kokoschka: The Painter as Playwright. Detroit: Wayne State UP. .
 Spreizer, Christa. 2005. "The Spirit of Expressionism: Ex Machina." A Companion to the Literature of German Expressionism. Ed. Neil H. Donahue. Rochester, NY: Camden House. .
 Styan, J[ohn]. L[ouis]. 1981. Expressionism and Epic Theatre. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge UP. . Vol. 3 of Modern Drama in Theory and Practice. 3 vols.

External links
 The Illustrated Book: Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen (Murderer, Hope of Women), Oskar Kokoschka (Austrian, 1886-1980). Electronic book edition. Museum of Modern Art, New York. Contains full text of the play.

1909 plays
Expressionist plays
German plays
Plays adapted into operas

Murderer, the Hope of Women


The eastern marsh harrier (Circus spilonotus) is a bird of prey belonging to the marsh harrier group of harriers. It was previously considered to be conspecific with the western marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) but is now usually classified as a separate species. It has two subspecies: C. s. spilonotus in eastern Asia and C. s. spilothorax (Papuan harrier, perhaps a separate species) in New Guinea.

Description
It is 48 to 58 cm long with a wingspan of 113 to 137 cm; like most birds of prey, the female is usually larger than the male. The male's plumage is variable; typically the head, breast, back and wing-coverts are blackish with pale streaks. The rest of the wing is grey with black wingtips and a white front edge. The tail is grey, the rump is white and the underparts are mostly white. The female is dark brown with buff streaking on the head and underparts. The rump is often whitish and the tail has dark bars. Young birds are dark brown with buff on the head and a pale patch on the underwing.

It is usually silent but has a mewing call which is most often uttered at roost sites.

Distribution and habitat
Eastern marsh harriers are generally migratory apart from the Papuan harrier which is sedentary. The breeding range covers north-east China, Mongolia and south-east Siberia (as far west as Lake Baikal) with small numbers in northern Japan (Hokkaidō and northern Honshū). There is some overlap with western marsh harrier around Lake Baikal and interbreeding has taken place.

The wintering range includes southern China, Taiwan, Korea, southern Japan, northeast India, Bangladesh and Southeast Asia as far south as the Philippines, Borneo and Sumatra. Large numbers of birds migrate along the Chinese coast with thousands passing through sites like Beidaihe during the autumn.

Its preferred habitat is open country including marshland, paddy fields and grassland.

Diet and reproduction
While hunting it flies low over the ground with the wings held in a shallow V-shape. Its prey includes small mammals, birds and frogs.

The breeding season begins in April. The nest is made of sticks and built on the ground, usually in a reedbed. Four to seven eggs are laid which are incubated for 33 to 48 days. The young birds fledge after 35 to 40 days.

References

Mark A. Brazil (1991) The Birds of Japan, Christopher Helm, London
Roger Clarke (1995) The Marsh Harrier, Hamlyn, London.
John MacKinnon & Karen Phillipps (2000) A Field Guide to the Birds of China. Oxford University Press.
Craig Robson (2002) A Field Guide to the Birds of South-East Asia. New Holland, London.

eastern marsh harrier
Birds of prey of Asia
Birds of Manchuria
Birds of Mongolia
eastern marsh harrier

Eastern marsh harrier


Maurice Barrès (19 August 1862 – 4 December 1923) wis a French novelist,  journalist, an socialist politeecian an agitator kent for his naitionalist an antisemitic views.

In his youth a Boulangist deputy, he progressively developed a theory close tae Romantic naitionalism an shiftit tae the traditionalist richt durin the Dreyfus Affair, leadin the Anti-Dreyfusards alangside Charles Maurras. In 1906, he wis electit baith tae the Académie française an as deputy o the Seine, an till his daith he sat wi the conservative Entente républicaine démocratique. A strang supporter o the Union sacrée (Haly Union) durin Warld War I, Barrès remained a major influence on generations o French writers, as well as on monarchists, altho he wis no a monarchist hissel.

1862 births
1923 daiths
Fowk frae Vosges
French fowk o Warld War I
Members o the Académie française
Poleetical theorists
French novelists
Politeecians o the French Third Republic
French Roman Catholics

Maurice Barrès


Freak the Mighty is a young adult fiction novel by Rodman Philbrick. Published in 1993, it was followed by the novel Max the Mighty in 1998. The primary characters are friends Maxwell Kane, a large, very slow, but kind-hearted kid and his friend Kevin Avery, nicknamed "Freak," who is physically crippled but very intelligent. (In the Book, Kevin's last name is Avery. However, in the movie, his last name was changed to Dillon. Kevin is diagnosed with Morquio syndrome.)

The novel was adapted for the screen by Charles Leavitt; the movie was shot in Toronto, Canada and Cincinnati, Ohio, and directed by Peter Chelsom, and released in 1998.

Summary
In the beginning of the book, Maxwell "Max" Kane is a boy with low self-esteem, like his father; they are both "slow".  He lives with his grandparents Grim and Gram. Max thinks of himself as stupid and he is in a disabled class. People are afraid of him because he looks like his father, "Killer Kane," a convicted murderer.  Max sets the stage for the story by reminiscing about his time in daycare, when he was known as Kicker and Kevin, the other major character, was known as Freak.  Kevin was always different because he was small and needed crutches and then leg braces to walk. But Max respected him even back then for his death glare and thought the crutches and leg braces were cool.  Many years later when Max is in middle school, the real story begins.

Max finds out that people are moving into the house next door.  The new neighbors turn out to be Freak and his mother Gwen, who Freak calls "The Fair Gwen" after King Arthur's wife.  The boys make friends.  They go to the Fourth of July fireworks together, and puts Freak on his shoulders so he can see. The local tough guy, Tony D. "Blade", chases the two with his gang because Freak called him a cretin. With Max's size and speed and Freak's directions and master plan of running into the pond, they keep themselves safe until they are rescued by the police.  After this incident, Freak starts riding on Max's shoulders. They call their combined form "Freak the Mighty". The friendship is good for them both; they stick up for each other and Kevin even teaches Max to read and learn properly. They go on adventures such as going to the hospital which Freak claims has a secret department called the "Bionics Department" which has had his brain cat scanned to be fitted into an artificial body. On one adventure they find a woman's purse in the sewer.  They return it to the woman who is called Loretta Lee.  Loretta is the wife of Iggy Lee, boss of the Panheads, a motorcycle gang who "struck fear in everyone, even the cops", as Max puts it. She loved to eat weird things like cowpie and a lot of disgusting things because that's how her gang was. Iggy says that the two of them once knew Max's  father.  They want to "have some fun" with the boys but  change their minds because they are afraid that Max's father will get angry. They are afraid of Max's father even though he's serving a life sentence. They also reveal that Kevin's father left once he heard his son had a birth defect.

At school, Freak nearly dies when he chokes after eating American chop suey. Max alerts the nurse.  Freak is taken to the hospital.  Later, Grim reveals to Max that his father has been let out on parole.  Throughout the story, it has been slowly revealed that Max's father killed his mother by strangling her, and that Grim and Gram hate him and are afraid of Max ending up like him. Max is shocked and scared by the news of his father's parole. Freak returns from the hospital and the two celebrate Christmas Eve together. After Christmas Eve, Max is woken up by his father, Killer Kane, who has come to kidnap him.  After Max is kidnapped by his father, the two drive to Iggy Lee's apartment in the "New Testaments" (really tenements).  Killer Kane is even bigger than Max and acts in a very threatening, intimidating manner towards everyone, including his son, who he keeps tied up.  Killer Kane swears on the Bible that he did not murder Max's mother. He also reveals that he plans to head to "warmer weather" and be a con man.  At night he leaves Max alone, tied up in a room in the apartment of an old lady on vacation. Loretta, shocked that Kane would do something like that to his own child, tries to help him escape. Killer Kane catches her and starts to strangle her.  Max attempts to stop him and reveals that he witnessed his father kill his mother in the same fashion.  Kane gives up on training Max to be his obedient assistant and tries to kill him, but Freak arrives just in time and saves Max by squirting Kane with a squirt gun he claims is filled with sulfuric acid when in fact, it is filled with soap, vinegar, and curry powder.  The police are waiting outside, and Killer Kane goes back to prison, this time until he's an old man.

In the spring after the attack, Kevin celebrates his and Freak the Mighty's  birthday. Soon after, Freak dies in the hospital after telling Max to record all of their adventures. Max goes crazy when he hears the news and is furious at the doctors for promising Kevin a robotic body to save him.  The doctor explains that that was just a story Kevin told himself, and he always knew he was going to die young. He looked up his condition in a medical dictionary (Freak loved words and carried a dictionary around all the time).  Max mourns Freak for weeks and won't stop.  With Loretta Lee's encouragement, Max eventually starts to heal and writes a book about the adventures of Freak the Mighty, in accordance with Freak's final wishes.

References

1993 books

Freak the Mighty


The Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade (FACT) Act of 1990 — P.L. 101-624 (November 28, 1990) was a 5-year omnibus farm bill that passed Congress and was signed into law.

This bill, also known as the 1990 farm bill, continued to move agriculture in a market-oriented direction by freezing target prices and allowing more planting flexibility.

Initial program
New titles included rural development, forestry, organic certification (Title 21), and commodity promotion programs.  The law established a Rural Development Administration (RDA) in the USDA to administer programs relating to rural and small community development.  It extended and modified the Food Stamp Program and other domestic nutrition programs and made major changes in the operation of P.L. 480.  It revised existing law involving agricultural trade credits and guarantees. It also established that Forest Stewardship Program (FSP), the Forest Land Enhancement Program (FLEP), the Forest Legacy Program (FLP), and the Urban and Community Forestry Program (UCF).

Changes
The 1990 farm bill was soon altered by the Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act Amendments of 1991 (P.L. 102-237) to correct errors and alleviate problems in implementing the law.  The amendments allowed the Farm Credit Bank for Cooperatives to make loans for agricultural exports and established a new regulatory scheme and capital standards for the Federal Agricultural Mortgage Corporation (Farmer Mac).  The law also established new handling requirements for eggs to help prevent food-borne illness.

Further changes
More policy changes were made by the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA) of 1993 (P.L. 103-66).  This law intended to reduce federal farm spending by $3 billion over 5 years by eliminating USDA's authority to waive minimum acreage set-aside requirements for wheat and corn, reducing deficiency payments to farmers participating in the 0/92 and 50/92 programs from 92% to 85% of the normal payment level, reducing the acreage to be enrolled in the Conservation Reserve Program and Wetlands Reserve Program, and requiring improvement in the actuarial soundness of the federal crop insurance program.  The measure provided for a temporary moratorium on sales of synthetic bovine growth hormone and reduced the loan rate for soybeans.  It reduced Market Promotion Program (MPP) funding through fiscal 1997 and provided for a series of significant MPP operational reforms.  It also provided for the designation of a series of rural (and urban) empowerment and enterprise zones, eligible for special federal aid and tax credits.

See also
Dairy Export Incentive Program
Integrated Farm Management Program

References

External links
 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990 (PDF/details) as amended in the GPO Statute Compilations collection

United States federal agriculture legislation


Monotheism (fae the Greek mono "single" an theos "god") is a releegious concept o thare bein juist the ae god as agin Polytheism (mony gods) an atheism (nae gods).The best kent three kenspeckle monotheistic releegions is Christianity, Islam an Judaism, awso ca'd "Abrahamic reeligions". Forby thon there's Zoroastrians (a releegion that oreeginatit in Auncient Persie, but haes mair follaers nouadays in Indie an ithergates) an aiblins some affshuits o the ither main three sic as the Bahá'í Faith.
 O'er three billions o fowks are monotheists or declared as, in the hale warld.

Releegion

Monotheism


Aavur is a small town situated in Tiruvannamalai District, Tamil Nadu, India.  Previously it was part of the North Arcot district. For administrative purposes it comes under the Kilpennathur Revenue Union. The town has existed since the Cheran and Pandian dynasties and was then ruled by the Arcot Nawabs.

Aavur shares the border with Vettavalam on the east, Karippur on the west, and Nadupattu on the north. It is situated on the Tamil Nadu state highway 135 which connects Villupuram and Tiruvannamalai.  Two lakes, Periyeri (Larger Lake) and Chitteri (Smaller Lake), serve as the main sources of water.  The nearest train station is Tiruvannamalai which is about  from the village center, the nearest airport is Chennai International Airport which is about  away.

The population is 65% Muslim and they are specialized manufacturers in mat weaving. The only source of income to the people here is especially from mat weaving. Since everybody is working in same field of mat weaving and there are more than 200 heavy duty machines are available. It is also similar to cottage industry. Two masjids (Mosques), two temples and 4 churches are here. Around four schools are working.

Total voters are 3501 (male voters are 1734 and female voters are 1767).

References

Villages in Tiruvannamalai district
Tiruvannamalai district
Cities and towns in Tiruvannamalai district

Avur, India


is an interbank network in Japan, owned and operated by the postal savings division of Japan Post Bank.  It counts some 26,519 ATMs, of which 23,500 are at post offices and 2,869 are away from post offices.  The number of ATMs correspond to about one for every post office in Japan, excluding a few post offices that are too small to support ATMs.  It is one of the first interbank networks, having been set up in 1979.

Some 130 banks in Japan have access to the Yucho network and vice versa.  However, rather than being members of Yucho, they are affiliates of the network.  The network was set up primarily for Japan Post's postal finance systems, which include its savings accounts.  Yucho ATMs are also linked internationally to the Cirrus, China UnionPay and PLUS interbank networks, and also accept Visa, MasterCard, American Express, Diners Club, Japan Credit Bureau and China UnionPay credit cards through those networks.

Yucho ATMs are categorized into two kinds: actual ATMs, which can accept passbooks to make deposits or withdrawals in addition to ATM cards, and cash dispensers, which only accept ATM cards.  Unlike most interbank networks, Yucho ATMs do not operate 24 hours a day.  Some ATMs close as early as 5:00 pm JST and as late as 11:00 pm JST.

References

External links
Yucho ATMs and cash dispensers
Yucho International ATM Service

Banks established in 1979
Banking in Japan
Interbank networks
Postal savings system

Yucho


János Kass (December 26, 1927 – March 29, 2010) was a Hungarian illustrator, printmaker, graphic designer, postage stamp designer, animated film director and teacher. Born in Szeged, he was the storyboard artist for the first fully digital animated film and died March 29 in Budapest.

Career
Beginning his artistic studies at the Applied Art Academy, Kass finished in 1951 at the Academy of Fine Arts, a student of Gyula Hincz, György Kádár and György Konecsni. From 1956 to 1959 he held the Derkovits scholarship.

From 1961 to 1962, he was assistant professor at the Book-Art Academy in Leipzig, Germany.

Kass regularly took part in every major national exhibition at home and abroad. He had one-man shows in Italy (1963), Australia (1970) and Switzerland (1976). He participated in the Venice Biennial (1960), the Youth Biennial in Paris (1961), and Biennials in Lugano, Tokyo, Ljubljana, São Paulo and Buenos Aires, along with "Intergrafik" exhibitions in Berlin.

He made many friends within the British graphic art fraternity while spending some months in London during 1980, working on one of the earliest, fully digitised computer-animated films, Dilemma, with John Halas. He had already won recognition with his illustrations and book designs. At the 1973 Leipzig Book Fair, his work was awarded the title of best illustrated book at the fair. This accolade was repeated at the Frankfurt Book Fair in 1999.

The 11-minute Dilemma was nominated at that year's Cannes Film Festival for the Golden Palm for Best Short Film, and is considered the first fully digital animated film. Kass was also a background artist for the  So Beautiful and So Dangerous segment of Ivan Reitman Productions' 1981 animated feature film Heavy Metal.

Kass' drawings, etchings and silk-screen prints were exhibited in the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge in 1989 and in 1990 at London Olympia. He later held a one-man show in Edinburgh.

Personal life
Eszter Kass, his daughter from a first marriage to the artist Gabriella Hajnal, also became an artist. His second wife, Vera Bánki, is a translator of English historical studies. They survive him.

References

External links

1927 births
2010 deaths
People from Szeged
Hungarian painters
Hungarian illustrators
Hungarian animators
Hungarian animated film directors
Modern artists
Hungarian printmakers
20th-century Hungarian male artists
21st-century Hungarian male artists
20th-century printmakers

János Kass


Thomas Patrick Malone (September 2, 1875 – December 10, 1926) was a politician in Alberta, Canada.  He served as an alderman on the Edmonton Town Council from 1921 until 1923.  He committed suicide December 10, 1926.

Early life
Malone was born in Ontario and came west to Alberta in 1901. He owned a store in Cochrane before moving to Edmonton in 1905. There, he bought a mercantile business on Whyte Avenue and later purchased the entire block. There he built Malone Limited, which became one of the city's leading department stores, and which Malone owned and operated until 1926. He also served as president of the South Side Community League and of the Federation of Community Leagues, and was involved with the Liberal Party.

Politics
Malone first ran for office in the February 1912 municipal election, when, due to the recent amalgamation of Edmonton and Strathcona, an entire new Edmonton City Council was being elected (usually only half of the council was elected each year, to staggered two year terms). Malone finished fifteenth out of eighteen candidates in the aldermanic race and was defeated.

Thereafter, he stayed out of politics until the 1919 election, when he was acclaimed to the city's separate (Roman Catholic) school board. He did not seek election at the conclusion of his term, the 1921 election, preferring to run again for city council. Between his last run and this one, party politics had come to Edmonton municipal politics, and Malone aligned himself with the Citizens Committee, which had nearly swept the last election. He finished third of nineteen candidates and was elected to a two-year term. He completed it, but did not seek re-election at its conclusion.

Later life and death
In February, 1926, Malone was taken ill. He sold his store and went to Rochester, Minnesota for medical treatment.  Later that year he suffered a mental breakdown. He died in Vancouver's St. Paul's Hospital on December 10 of a self-inflicted gunshot wound from a .22 calibre revolver. He was survived by his wife, two sons, and two daughters.

References
 Edmonton Public Library biography of Thomas Malone
 City of Edmonton biography of Thomas Malone

1926 deaths
Edmonton city councillors
Businesspeople from Edmonton
Businesspeople from Ontario
Canadian Roman Catholics
Canadian politicians who committed suicide
Suicides by firearm in British Columbia
1875 births

Thomas Malone (politician)


Thowadra Monastery is a cliffside Tibetan Buddhist monastery in the Tang Valley of Bumthang District, Bhutan. Thowadra means "high rock", given its location and altitude of .

History
The site was blessed by Padmasambhava, who came here to meditate during the 8th century. He is said to have left behind a wooden bird which he used to expel an evil king from the beyul "hidden land" of Khenpajong. The monastery itself was founded in 1238 by Lorepa (1187-1250), the lama of the Drukpa Lineage of the Kagyu school who established Choedrak Monastery.

The site was originally a hermitage, once sanctified by the presence of both Longchenpa and Dorje Lingpa. A Nyingma community was established later in the 18th century by Changchub Gyeltsen (Jigme Kundrel), a disciple of Dzogchen master Jigme Lingpa (1730-1798). A noted nun plagued with leprosy, Gelongma Pelmo, also meditated here.

Since the 18th century it has been occupied by followers of Jigme Lingpa, who was one of the most important tertöns of Tibet, and Jigme Kundrol of the Longchen Nyingthig tradition. Thowadra marks the entrance to Khenpajong east of Lhedam in north Bumthang and Lhuntse Districts.

Footnotes

References
 Dorje, Gyurme (1999). Tibet Handbook with Bhutan. Footprint Handbooks. Bath, England. .
 Pommaret, Francoise. (2006) Bhutan: Himalayan Mountain Kingdom, Fifth Edition (Odyssey Illustrated Guides) (Paperback). .

Buddhist monasteries in Bhutan
1238 establishments in Asia
Tibetan Buddhism in Bhutan

Thowadra Monastery


Leon Dewitt Washington Sr. (born August 29, 1982) is an American professional football coach and former player who is the assistant special teams coach for the New York Jets of the National Football League (NFL). He played in the NFL as a running back and return specialist

Washington played college football for the Florida State Seminoles. He was selected by the New York Jets in the fourth round of the 2006 NFL Draft. He also played for the Seattle Seahawks and New England Patriots.

Early football career

High school football
Washington attended Andrew Jackson High School where he proved himself an exceptional all-around athlete, dominating in football as running back, cornerback, and wide receiver. In his senior year, he rushed for 2,437 yards and 28 touchdowns, was a threat on kick and punt returns, returning three punts and one kickoff for touch-downs, and defensively had 88 tackles (52 unassisted) and three interceptions. After this superlative season, in 2002, he was named "Mr. Florida" in football, and earned the Florida Times-Union Player of the Year honor. The Orlando Sentinel named him the No. 3 prospect overall in the state of Florida, and Alliance Sports named him the No. 7 prospect overall in the nation. He was named to the PrepStar Dream Team, rated by Rivals100.com as the No. 1 cornerback in the country and the No. 9 player overall, and rated by TheInsiders.com as the No. 7 cornerback in the country. He was named the Florida Kids' No. 28 prospect from the state of Florida, named to Bill Buchalter's Florida Super 26, was recognized on the Athlon Sports Top 100 High School Seniors, SuperPrep's Top 100 nationally, and Max Emfinger's Top 200.

He selected Florida State over the universities of Florida, South Carolina, Oklahoma, and Maryland.

Florida State University football
Washington received an athletic scholarship to attend Florida State University, where he played for the Florida State Seminoles football team from 2002 to 2005. As a freshman in 2002, he changed positions from cornerback to running back. That year, he played in all 14 games and ranked fourth on the team with 273 yards rushing while catching six passes for 30 yards. He led  the team with 273 total return yards and also in punt return average (11.5 yards per return) and kickoff return average (28.3 yards per return). He became the first true freshman at FSU to record a 100-yard rushing game since Travis Minor in 1997. He was named ACC Specialist of the Week twice for his performances against Clemson and Duke, he led the Seminoles in rushing in the Sugar Bowl vs. Georgia with 48 yards on 10 carries, he returned a kickoff 97 yards for a score against Clemson, he recovered a blocked punt in the endzone for a touchdown against Duke, and finished the year with 11 tackles on special teams with two forced fumbles and one fumble recovery.

In his sophomore year (2003), Washington played in nine of Florida State's 13 games including the Orange Bowl. He was the second leading rusher with 387 yards and a 5.2 yards per carry average despite missing four games after dislocating his right elbow in the first quarter of the season opener against North Carolina. Washington's punt return for a touchdown against Wake Forest was the first by a Seminole since Peter Warrick's 59-yard return against Virginia Tech in the 2000 Sugar Bowl. He rushed for a season-high 121 yards on 17 carries against NC State, the highest total by a Florida State running back during the season. He scored the game-winning touchdown in the second overtime against the North Carolina Wolfpack on a 12-yard run to clinch the Seminole's 11th ACC Championship in 12 years as a league member. Washington rushed for 69 yards on 13 carries in Florida State's victory over Virginia and 65 yards on 15 carries in the Seminoles' victory over Florida.

During his junior year in 2004, Washington earned the Gator Bowl Most Valuable Player honors with 12 rushes for a career-high 195 yards in the Seminoles' victory over West Virginia. His 16.3 yards per rush is a single-game Florida State record while his 195 yards is the second most by a Seminole player in a bowl game. He earned All-ACC second-team honors and was named as the Seminoles' offensive Most Valuable Player by the coaching staff at the team banquet. He played in 10 of 12 games while earning 10 starting assignments, leading the ACC in rushing yards per game with an average of 95.1. In addition, he finished second in the ACC with 112.5 total offensive yards per game, while leading the team with 951 total yards of offense and seven rushing touchdowns. He ranked second nationally in average yards per carry at 6.89. His season totals included 14 receptions for 98 yards and four kickoff returns for a total of 81 total yards. He scored a total of 42 points to rank second on the team behind only kicker Xavier Beitia.

In his senior year season in 2005, Washington played in 11 games and started in 10, missing two games because of an ankle injury he suffered in the Maryland game. Washington became the only player in the Bobby Bowden era to score touchdowns in five different ways—by run, reception, punt return, kick off return and fumble recovery. He ranked second on the team in rushing yards (430) with a 4.4 yards per carry average, and averaged 10.7 yards per catch. He was the 10th player in FSU history in career rushing with 2,041 yards. He had a season-high 179 all-purpose yards when he rushed for 87 yards and had 92 yards receiving in the Wake Forest game, including a career-long 61-yard touchdown reception. Washington returned six punts for 51 yards in the 2005 season and returned four kickoffs for 63 yards. He led the team in rushing in the Orange Bowl (against Penn State) with 30 yards on six carries, and added six catches for 24 yards in that game. Washington played in 43 games over his FSU career, and was named the Seminoles' most dependable running back in spring practice in 2005 by the coaching staff.

Professional football career

New York Jets
Washington was selected in the fourth round (117th overall) of the 2006 NFL Draft. The pick used was obtained by the Jets from the Kansas City Chiefs, as compensation for the release of former Jets head coach Herman Edwards.

Washington gained some attention in his second preseason game, returning a kickoff 87 yards for a touchdown against the Washington Redskins. Nonetheless, he did not immediately get many carries in the first few weeks of the regular season. However, as the Jets running game struggled in the first few weeks, his role in the offense increased. He first showcased his ability on a 47-yard reception Week 3 in Buffalo. Two weeks later in Jacksonville, he recorded his first 100-yard rushing game, running for 101 yards in a Jets 41–0 loss.

On October 22 at home against Detroit, Leon ran for 129 yards for two touchdowns and led the Jets' to a 31–24 win. In a game in Miami on Christmas night, Washington had 108 receiving yards including a 64-yard reception to set up the game-winning field goal in a 13–10 win. He helped the Jets clinch the fifth playoff spot in the AFC on New Year's Eve 2006 with a touchdown run that helped to seal a win against the Oakland Raiders in the final game of the 2006 regular season. He finished the regular season with 650 yards rushing and four touchdowns on 151 attempts. He averaged 4.3 yards-per-carry. In an AFC East game, he returned a kick 92 yards for a touchdown against the New England Patriots in 2008. Washington gained 2,317 all-purpose yards in 2008, more than any other running back in the NFL.

In a Week 9 game against the Buffalo Bills on November 2, 2008, Washington made a play as a kick returner when he noticed a kickoff was headed out of bounds at the 8-yard line. When he saw the ball would stay in bounds, Washington straddled the sideline and then put his hand on the ball. The officials initially spotted the ball at the 8-yard line before Washington reminded them that, according to the rulebook, the ball is out of bounds when a player standing out of bounds touches it, meaning the correct call was Illegal procedure. This gave the Jets the ball at the 40-yard line, a 32-yard gain in field position.

Washington was selected as AFC Special teams Player of the Week for Week 11 of the 2008 season, the first such award in his career. His 92-yard touchdown was the fourth kick return touchdown of his career, surpassing Justin Miller for the club record. He led the league in all-purpose yards in 2008 with 1606 yards.

Washington was out for the 2009 season with a compound fracture to his fibula that he suffered in Week 7 in a 38–0 shutout win versus the Oakland Raiders. Prior to his season-ending injury, Washington had rushed for 331 yards on 72 carries, with a 4.6 yards/carry average. Washington had yet to score in 2009 prior to his injury. The Jets call their wildcat formation "Seminole" because Washington lined up at quarterback, and was a Florida State Seminole.

On April 15, 2010 (the NFL free agent deadline), Washington signed his tendered contract with the Jets for one year, worth $1.759 million.

Seattle Seahawks
On April 24, 2010, Washington was traded to the Seattle Seahawks for a fifth-round draft pick in the 2010 NFL Draft. He was assigned the number 33 on his new team;  29 went to first-round draft pick Earl Thomas. During the September 26, 2010, game against the San Diego Chargers, Washington set a Seahawks record with 2 kickoff return touchdowns. He returned the opening kickoff of the 2nd half for a team record 101 yards, then in the 4th quarter he ran 99 yards for his second kickoff touchdown of the game. On March 1, 2011, Washington signed a four-year deal worth $12.5 million to stay with the Seattle Seahawks. Due to the signing of wide receiver Percy Harvin, Leon Washington was released by the Seahawks on March 12, 2013.

New England Patriots
On March 14, 2013, Washington signed with the New England Patriots. On September 1, 2013, Patriots released Leon Washington during final roster cuts. On September 7, the Patriots re-signed Washington. On November 23, 2013, he was released.

Tennessee Titans
On November 26, 2013, Washington signed with the Tennessee Titans.

Washington re-signed with the Titans to another one-year deal on March 12, 2014.

Post-playing career
On March 11, 2019, the Lions hired Washington as WCF minority coaching assistantship/offense and special teams coach.

On February 10, 2021, the Jets hired Washington as special teams assistant coach.

Records

NFL records
 Most kickoff return touchdowns in a single game: 2 (2010 vs San Diego Chargers) (tied with 9 others)

NY Jets franchise records
 Most career kickoff return touchdowns (4)
 Most kickoff return touchdowns in a single season: 3 (2007)
 Most all-purpose yards in a single season: 2,337 (2008)

Seahawks franchise records
 Most career kickoff return touchdowns (4)
 Second longest kickoff return touchdown: 101 (2010 vs San Diego Chargers)
 Most kickoff return touchdowns in a single game: 2 (2010)

Personal

Washington's 2006 Bowman "Signs of the Future" card with the Jets caused a great deal of controversy during the third week of November 2006, in which it appears that he is making an obscene gesture. The card sold on eBay during that time for more than four times its book value. Washington insists his gesture is a popular hand gesture among his friends in his hometown.

Leon Washington Foundation

Washington established a charitable organization called the Leon Washington Foundation whose mission it is to assist low-income families in the Jacksonville, Florida area with education, sports, and life skills. The Foundation provides programs intended to enlighten, inspire, and educate underprivileged youths to live stronger, healthier, and more productive lives. A major annual event is the Leon Washington Football Camp, which provides a one-day, non-contact football clinic run by current and former NFL players and local volunteers free of charge to youth from Jacksonville and the surrounding region.

References

External links
 Seattle Seahawks bio
New England Patriots bio
Tennessee Titans bio

1982 births
Living people
American Conference Pro Bowl players
American football return specialists
American football running backs
Florida State Seminoles football players
National Conference Pro Bowl players
New England Patriots players
New York Jets players
Players of American football from Jacksonville, Florida
Seattle Seahawks players
Andrew Jackson High School (Jacksonville) alumni
Tennessee Titans players
African-American coaches of American football
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American sportspeople
New York Jets coaches

Leon Washington


A clergyman is an ordained minister of the Anglican Church, or of some other Protestant churches. 'Vicar' and 'pastor' are other possibilities. 'Rector' is used in some Scottish Presbyterian churches. 'The clergy' is often used as a group term. The word 'cleric', meaning a clerk, is the root term. It comes from the fact that all clerics could read and write, at a time when this was a rare skill.

By general use and convention, Anglican ministers are not called priests. This is because the unqualified term 'priest' or 'father' is widely used as referring to the Catholic Church. Of course, in modern times an Anglican minister may be female, in which case the term 'reverend' or 'minister' may be used.

Related pages

 Clergy

Christian religious occupations

Clergyman


The Research Institute of Petroleum Industry, also known as NIOC-RIPI, often shortened to RIPI () is a governmental research institute founded in 1959 in Tehran, Iran and is affiliated with National Iranian Oil Company.

The institute is a major research institute in Iran and is the largest of its kind in the Middle East. RIPI has become a major technology provider for Iran's petroleum industry. In 2002, it developed a technology that converts heavy crude oil into the more desirable, a new generation of GTL technology.

History
Research Institute of Petroleum Industry was initially established under the title of "Iran Petroleum Industry Research Development Office" in 1959. ( ) Its primary aim was carrying out research on application of petroleum materials. After revolution of Islamic Republic of Iran, the office was changed into a center for "Research and Scientific Services"( ) and it has continued its activities in order to achieve the objectives. In 1989, upon the formal agreement of the development council of Department of Culture and Higher Education, the center was called "Research Institute of Petroleum Industry" and with the aim of carrying out fundamental, applied, and developmental researchers has continued doing its activities.

Strategy of PIRI is creating added value via production and commercialization of technology, with the approach of carrying out research for development of new technologies and indigenization of new technologies.

55-year history of this center in research and development and also its many extra organizational projects and effective activities in the industry have resulted in its growth over the time.  Regarding its record and history, now PIRI is known as a pioneer of developing the technologies required by the industry.

Production of valuable products such as technical knowledge, patents, and presentation of papers in reputable magazines are other brilliant activities besides its main mission; and PIRI has had excellent performance in all of them. Of course among these activities, technical knowledge and patents are more important and PIRI has done very well in these fields, too.

Existence of huge investments such as human resources, equipment and unique capabilities of  PIRI have resulted in success and high income of PIRI in activities of  technology development (industrial and semi-industrial); among unique capabilities of  PIRI  we can refer to : technical development, transfer & indigenization of refinery technologies, advisory services for optimizing and solving the industries problems (petroleum industry, in particular),  giving license and designing the units which are under the license of oil and gas condensates refineries, comprehensive reservoir studies and presentation of  the field development plan, development of new technologies for solving the problem of  water, air and soil pollution, and protecting the oil facilities.  It should be mentioned that for the fourth consecutive year, PIRI has won the award on technical and engineering field.

In proclamation of supreme leader of Iran on general policies of resistive economy, there are two clauses which relate to enhancement in strategic reservoirs of oil and gas and increase in added value through completion of the value chain of gas and oil industry. PIRI is the key element in realization of these objectives. PIRI believes that the main factors in realization of these objectives are creation, development, and indigenization of required technologies in oil recovery and completion of the cycle of "science up to wealth"; thus one of the ways for reaching these goals is establishment of science-based companies.

In line with the goals of vision2025 document in which Iran is considered as a developed country occupying the first economic, scientific and technological place in the region; and by establishing an effective interaction in its international affairs, PIRI tries to reach the first scientific rank in the region. So, PIRI plays an outstanding role in realization of the vision document and even aims to realize science-based economy and international interactions.  The role of energy in Iran's economy and increase of its consumption in the country, made PIRI develop a complete and comprehensive plan for optimization of energy consumption.

PIRI, enjoying  from efficient and expert staff and also modern technologies and equipment, mostly has aimed to produce more added value  in order to achieve macro policies of the country in realization of science-based economy as the pivotal  pillar of the resistive economy,

Relying on new management, PIRI believes that with support and cooperation of managers, universities, scientific research centers, science-based companies and experienced contractors in the area of oil and gas industry, we can take big steps towards realization of high objectives of policyholders and planners of the country. Among those high objectives, we can refer to production and optimum use of reservoirs, offer and development of new technologies and consistent progress with protecting the production resources. Therefore, PIRI warmly welcomes all powerful and capable companies' cooperation in industrialization of domestic technologies which we have referred to some of them in this booklet.

In line with macro policies of the oil industry and employing  a new approach,  PIRI  has classified its major activities into three sections of "production and optimum use of strategic oil and gas reserves", " offer and development of  new technologies in industries", and " consistent development   and protection of resources" and they have been publicized in 19th exhibition .

The research activities of RIPI are divided into three main sections, namely "Research and development of upstream petroleum industry Research Center", "research and development of downstream petroleum industry Research Center" and "research and development of energy and environment Research Center".

Staff
RIPI has 1628 staff including 145 Ph.Ds, 458 M.Scs and 281 B.Scs.

Sections
RIPI has three campuses:
 Upstream Petroleum Industry - studies are in association with geology, hydrocarbon reservoir, exploration, production and petroleum engineering and field management and development are performed.
 Downstream Petroleum Industry - studies on refinery and petrochemical processes especially catalysts synthesis and characterization, nanotechnology, gas processing and distribution and polymer synthesis.
 Energy and Environment - deals with renewable energy such as fuel cell technology and the environmental issues regarding energy conversions.

Sub-sections and faculties are included in each campus, which in turn are hosts to research groups in the fields of oil and gas.

See also
Petroleum University of Technology
Higher education in Iran
Science and technology in Iran
National Iranian Oil Company

References

 RIPI Wikipedia's article in Persian language

External links

Research institutes in Iran
Universities in Iran
Education in Tehran
Research institutes established in 1959
1959 establishments in Iran
Energy research institutes
Energy in Iran


The Three Kingdoms of Korea were Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. They existed between the 1st century BC and 7th century CE. There were some smaller kingdoms like Gaya, Dongye, Okjeo, Buyeo, Usan, Tamna, etc.

Baekje helped spread Chinese characters, Chinese culture, Han Buddhism, and other technology to Japan.

The Three Kingdoms period ended in 668: Silla allied with the Tang Dynasty to conquer Baekje and then Goguryeo. Korea unified under Later Silla. The Tang occupied the northern parts of Korea. After this Korea split during the North and South States period.

Besides Chinese records, the books Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa also record the history of the era. "Samguk" (Hangul: 삼국, Hanja: 三國) means "Three Kingdoms".

Sources

History of Korea

Three Kingdoms of Korea


The Keihan Main Line (京阪本線, -honsen?) is a railway line of Keihan Electric Railway. The line starts from Sanjo Station in Kyoto, and ends at Yodoyabashi Station in Osaka, and travels a distance of about 51 km. The line is not "the Main Line" but "the Keihan Main Line". Trains go direct to the Oto Line.

Stations
 ●: stop, ↓: pass
 ▲: K-Limited Express trains bound for Yodoyabashi stop at Hirakata-shi in the morning. Express trains pass through Hirakata-koen and Moriguchi-shi from the first train until 8:00 a.m. (JST) and at midnight, and Express trains for Demachiyanagi stop at Yodo. Some express trains stop at Yodo during horse racing events. Sub express trains pass through Moriguchishi from the first train until 8:00 a.m. (JST).
 Local trains (普通) stop at all stations.

Japanese railways

Keihan Main Line


Mercury(II) sulfate, also known as mercuric sulfate, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is HgSO4. It has mercury and sulfate ions in it. The mercury is in its +2 oxidation state.

Properties
Mercury(II) sulfate is a colorless solid. It reacts with hot water to make sulfuric acid and a mercury oxysulfate that does not dissolve. It is an oxidizing agent.

Preparation
Mercury(II) sulfate is made by dissolving a small amount of mercury metal in concentrated sulfuric acid. It can also be made by reacting mercury(II) oxide with sulfuric acid.

Uses
Mercury(II) sulfate is used as a catalyst in making acetaldehyde. Some byproducts of this reaction that have mercury in them are thought to have poisoned many people in Japan (Minamata disease).

Related pages
Mercury(I) sulfate
Mercury(II) chloride

Mercury compounds
Sulfur compounds

Mercury(II) sulfate


Sir William Wilfred Sullivan (December 6, 1839 – September 30, 1920) was a Prince Edward Island journalist, politician and jurist, the fourth premier of Prince Edward Island.

A native of Hope River, Sullivan had a career as an assistant editor at the Charlottetown Herald as well as a lawyer before being elected to the provincial legislature in 1872 as a Liberal MLA.

A staunch Catholic, Sullivan became leader of the opposition in 1877 to the Protestant coalition government of Louis Henry Davies which had been formed to implement a public, secular school system that denied funding to Roman Catholic separate schools. Sullivan reorganised the Conservative Party and was asked by the lieutenant governor to become premier once Davies' coalition broke up and became unable to command a majority in the assembly.

Sullivan served as premier for ten years and fought for PEI's rights in Canada. He protested the federal government's failure to fulfill the terms of confederation on which the island had joined the dominion in 1873. In 1886, he petitioned the Imperial government in London protesting Canada's delinquency in respect to promises to ensure communication lines between the island and the rest of the country but the problem remained unresolved until the 1900s.

In 1889, Sullivan was appointed Chief Justice of PEI and served in that position until his retirement in 1917. In 1914 he was made a Knight Bachelor by King George V.

External links
Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online

1839 births
1920 deaths
People from Queens County, Prince Edward Island
Canadian Knights Bachelor
Canadian Roman Catholics
Premiers of Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island Liberal Party MLAs
Progressive Conservative Party of Prince Edward Island leaders

William Wilfred Sullivan


Charles Glen King (October 22, 1896 – January 23, 1988) was an American biochemist who was a pioneer in the field of nutrition research and who isolated vitamin C at the same time as Albert Szent-Györgyi. A biography of King states that many feel he deserves equal credit with Szent-Györgyi for the discovery of this vitamin.

Early life and education
King was born in Entiat, Washington to Charles Clement King and Mary Jane Bookwalter. He entered Washington State University early, as his local one-room school did not have a twelfth grade. He was a Member of Lambda Chi Alpha. World War I interrupted his college studies, where he served in the 12th Infantry, a machine gun company. He did not receive his B.S. in chemistry until 1918. He immediately departed for the University of Pittsburgh, earning his M.S. in 1920 and Ph.D. in 1923. From the outset of his graduate studies, the nascent field of vitamins interested him. He remained in Pittsburgh as a professor until 1942 when he left to become the first scientific director of the Nutrition Foundation, Inc., which worked to promote scientific and public health research, both in the U.S. and internationally.

Career
King's contribution to the science of nutrition revolves around his isolation of vitamin C in 1931-1932 by studying the antiscorbic activities of guinea pigs with preparations from lemon juice. Albert Szent-Györgyi was conducting similar research at the University of Szeged in Hungary, focusing on hexuronic acid. The chemical identity of King's active substance was almost identical to Szent-Györgyi's hexuronic acid, but the research of S.S. Silva had declared the hexuronic acid was not vitamin C. However, within two weeks of each other in the spring of 1932, King first, and then Szent-Györgyi, published articles declaring that vitamin C and hexuronic acid were indeed the same compound. Szent-Györgyi would later win a Nobel Prize for his part in the discovery, and controversy remains over whether both men deserve equal credit. King later established the important functional role of vitamin B, and throughout his 40-year research career made many significant contributions in the areas of fats, enzymes and vitamins. King  authored over 200 articles on good nutritional practices and the positive effects of vitamins.

Apart from his work with the Nutrition Foundation, King's public service activities involved creation of the USDA's Plant, Soil, and Nutrition Laboratory in Ithaca, New York. He helped establish the Food and Nutrition Board, dealing with food and nutrition problems in military and civilian populations, beginning in World War II and continuing through 1970. He also helped create the Food Protection Committee, the Recommended Dietary Allowances, the Protein Advisory Group, and the International Union of Nutritional Sciences. He also served on the advisory council to the National Institute of Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases. King officially retired from the Nutrition Foundation in 1963, only to begin a second career as associate director of the Institute of Nutrition Sciences and a consultant to the Rockefeller Foundation.

References

External links
US National Library of Medicine Collection of Charles Glen King's papers and biography. Accessed January 2007
 Nobel Prize website The Nobel Prize and the Discovery of Vitamins by Kenneth J. Carpenter, June 22, 2004, see Section on Szent-Györgyi and Vitamin C. Accessed January 2007
 Charles Glen King, 1896 – 1988 A Biographical Memoir by John E Halver and Nevins Scrimshaw, National Academy Of Sciences Biographical Memoirs, Volume 88, Published 2006 (pdf) Accessed January 2007

1896 births
1988 deaths
20th-century American biochemists
University of Pittsburgh alumni
Washington State University alumni
People from Chelan County, Washington
Vitamin researchers

Charles Glen King


The underworld is the place in Greek mythology where people go when they die. The underworld is controlled by Hades, one of the three main gods. The underworld's gates are guarded by the three-headed dog, Cerberus.  The underworld was surrounded by five rivers.  The Acheron was the river of woe, the Cocytus was the river of lamentation, the Phlegethon the river of fire, the Styx, the river of the unbreakable oath by which the gods took their vows, and the Lethe the river of forgetfulness.  When entering the underworld, Charon would take those with gold coins to the underworld.  Not everyone could enter, because not everyone had golden coins to pay the fare.

Three judges, by the names of Rhadamanthus, Minos, and Aeacus, would then decide where you would go.  People that lived normal lives would go to The Fields of Asphodel.  Heroes would go to The Fields of Elysium.  People who did horrible things would go the Fields of Punishment.  If you were put into Elysium, you could choose to be reborn or stay.  If you went to Elysium three times, then you went to the Isle of the Blessed.  This was like the ultimate heaven. Tartaros () was another place in the underworld, where immortal enemies of the current Twelve Olympians are eternally punished, for example Kronos and the other Titans. Tartaros overlaps with the fields of punishment.

Other websites

Underworld
Afterlife

Greek underworld


Ferenc Fejtő (31 August 1909 – 2 June 2008), also known as François Fejtő, was a Hungarian-born French journalist and political scientist specializing in Eastern Europe.

Biography
He was born in Nagykanizsa to a well-off Jewish Hungarian family of booksellers and publishers. He was raised as a Roman Catholic. Following the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, several members of his family became Yugoslavian, Italian, Czechoslovak and Romanian citizens.

He studied literature at Pécs and Budapest universities, alongside Slavic, German and Italian students. In 1932, he was condemned to a year in prison for organizing a Marxist study group. In 1934, he enrolled in the Social Democratic Party, where he contributed to the Népszava daily and to the Szocializmus journal. In 1935, together with the poet Attila József and the publicist Pál Ignotus, he founded the anti-fascist and anti-Stalinist literary journal Szép Szó. He published Sartre, Mounier, and Maritain. In 1938, following a sentence of six months in prison for an article criticizing the pro-German stance of the government, he left Hungary for France. During the Second World War, he took part in the French Resistance.

In 1945, François Fejtő headed the press department of the Hungarian embassy in Paris. He resigned his position in protest against the condemnation of his longtime friend László Rajk, and cut all links with Hungary. He returned to his native country only once, for Imre Nagy's national funeral in 1989.

After the war, Fejtő attended the Congrès des intellectuels pour la liberté, alongside Raymond Aron, François Bondy, and David Rousset. The publication in 1952 of his book A History of the People's Democracies (translated in seventeen languages and re-edited several times) earned him suspicion on the part of several intellectual figures close to the French Communist Party.

Between 1944 and 1979 he worked at the Agence France-Presse as a journalist commenting on Eastern European events. He acquired French citizenship in 1955. Between 1972 and 1984, he taught at the Institut d'études politiques de Paris. In 1973, a jury presided over by Raymond Aron granted him the title of Docteur ès lettres for his literary output.

François Fejtő devoted most of his journalistic and literary career to the study of Eastern European regimes. In his lifetime, he observed their birth, growth, decline and fall.

He also contributed to numerous French and non-French journals and newspapers, including Esprit, Arguments, Contre-Point, Commentaire, Le Monde, Le Figaro, La Croix, Il Giornale, La Vanguardia, Magyar Hírlap and The European Journal of International Affairs.

François Fejtő remains one of the great European intellectual figures of the 20th century. Close friends with Nizan, Mounier and Camus, critical interlocutor of Malraux and Sartre, he met with leaders of the Comintern and the Communist movement, talked to the masters of the Kremlin, to Tito, Castro and Willy Brandt, and both admired and criticized Charles de Gaulle and François Mitterrand. On his death, Hungary declared a period of national mourning.

Bibliography
Translated into English:
 A History of the People's Democracies: Eastern Europe since Stalin, 1971
 The French Communist Party and the Crisis of International Communism, 1970
 Behind the Rape of Hungary, 1957
 The Opening of an Era, 1848: An Historical Symposium, 1948
 Heine, 1946

References
 Le passager du siècle, François Fejtő, 1999 (in French)

References

French political scientists
Members of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
Hungarian emigrants to France
Naturalized citizens of France
20th-century Hungarian Jews
People from Nagykanizsa
1909 births
2008 deaths
Burials at Kerepesi Cemetery
French male non-fiction writers
20th-century French journalists
20th-century French male writers
20th-century political scientists

Ferenc Fejtő


Ro Alifereti Raivalita Doviverata (born 14 June 1976 in Suva) is a Fijian rugby union footballer.  He plays as a Flanker or a No. 8. His nickname is Dovi.

He is from a chiefly background and his father is one of the chiefs of Rewa. He first played for Fiji in Sevens.  A Fiji schoolboy rep in 1993 and 1995, he first played for the Fiji sevens team in 1996 before spending one season with Redruth in England. He played in the opening two IRB sevens tournaments of the 2000-01 season. He made his debut for Fiji against Spain in 1999. He missed out on the 2001 Rugby World Cup Sevens in Argentina but was picked by the former Italy and at that time coach of Fiji Brad Johnstone to be part of the 1999 Rugby World Cup Fiji team that year. He then earned a regular starting place in the loose forwards under late coach Greg Smith in 2000-01. He took over as national 15s skipper for the November 2001 tour of Europe. Under Mac McCallion, Dovi cemented his place as No. 8, and was named the captain against Tonga in July 2003 and shortly after that he was made captain of the Fiji team to the 2003 Rugby World Cup. He played for and co-captained the Pacific Islanders in their inaugural tour to New Zealand and Australia.

In May 2007, he was chosen to skipper the Fiji team for the 2007 Pacific Nations Cup.

Fiji team
 35 caps 5 tries 25 points (43 games 5 tries)
 Pacific Islanders
 2 caps (4 games)

External links

1976 births
Living people
Rugby union players from Suva
Fijian rugby union players
Rugby union flankers
Fiji international rugby union players
Fijian chiefs
Commonwealth Games medallists in rugby sevens
Rugby sevens players at the 1998 Commonwealth Games
Commonwealth Games silver medallists for Fiji
Male rugby sevens players
Commonwealth Games rugby sevens players for Fiji
Medallists at the 1998 Commonwealth Games
1999 Rugby World Cup players
2003 Rugby World Cup players

Alifereti Doviverata


Lady Janet Helen of Mar (b. 31 Januar 1946), (née Lady Janet Helen Anderson, is the sister o Margaret of Mar, 31st Coontess o Mar.

Lady Janet wis born Janet Helen Lane in Kenyae, the yunger dochhter o James Clifton Lane (later Master o Mar and Earl o Mar) an his first wife, Millicent Mary Salton, who frae the time o her marriage till her daith wis aaways kent as Mrs Mary Lane an niver, as haes sometimes been statit, as the Mistress o Mar, a substantive title that can be uised ae bi the senior heiress presumptive.

In 1959, the Master o Mar (succeedit as Earl o Mar in 1965) wis offeecially recognized bi the Lord Lyon in the surname of Mar. His son David (Lord Garioch), an his dochhters Margaret an Janet wur an aa of Mar frae that time onwards. Lord Garioch dee'd in 1967, an Lady Margaret, the elder co-heiress presumptive o her faither, eventually succeeded as the 31st haulder o the Earldom in 1975.

Lady Janet, the yunger co-heiress presumptive, married Lt-Cdr Laurence of Mar, RN (umwhile Laurence Duncan McDiarmid Anderson) on Mairch 22, 1969, an wis kent as Lady Janet Anderson for ae a few months; frae October 1969 she an her husband wur offeecially recognized bi warrant o the Lord Lyon in the style of Mar, the surname Anderson being formally abandoned. Laurence bears the Mar airms, differenced, bi the Feudal Courtesy o
Scotland. The style of Mar is a "name o nobility" an shoud no be confused wi Scots territorial designations.

They hae twa dochters:

 Elizabeth of Mar (b. 1970)
 Catherine of Mar (b. 13 Mey 1971), marriet tae Stuart Kelly, haed issue.

References

Mar, Janet o
Mar, Janet o
Mar, Lady Janet o
Mar, Janet o

Lady Janet o Mar


In mechanical engineering, a fillet is a rounding of an interior or exterior corner of a part designed in CAD. An interior or exterior corner, with an angle or type of bevel, is called a "chamfer". Fillet geometry, when on an interior corner is a line of concave function, whereas a fillet on an exterior corner is a line of convex function (in these cases, fillets are typically referred to as rounds). Fillets commonly appear on welded, soldered, or brazed joints.

Depending on a geometric modelling kernel different CAD software products may provide different fillet functionality.  Usually fillets can be quickly designed onto parts using 3D solid modeling engineering by picking edges of interest and invoking the function. Smooth edges connecting two simple flat features are generally simple for a computer to create and fast for a human user to specify. It is pronounced as "fill-et" similarly like the Fillet in picture framing. Once these features are included in the CAD design of a part, they are often manufactured automatically using computer-numerical control.

Applications
 Stress concentration is a problem of load-bearing mechanical parts which is reduced by employing fillets on points and lines of expected high stress. The fillets distribute the stress over a broader area and effectively make the parts more durable and capable of bearing larger loads.
 For considerations in aerodynamics, fillets are employed to reduce interference drag where aircraft components such as wings, struts, and other surfaces meet one another.
 For manufacturing, concave corners are sometimes filleted to allow the use of round-tipped end mills to cut out an area of a material. This has a cycle time benefit if the round mill is simultaneously being used to mill complex curved surfaces.
 Radii are used to eliminate sharp edges that can be easily damaged or that can cause injury when the part is handled.

Terminology
Different design packages use different names for the same operations.
 Autodesk Inventor, AutoCAD, Rhino3D, CATIA, FreeCAD, Solidworks and Vectorworks refer to both concave and convex rounded edges as fillets, while referring to angled cuts of edges and concave corners as chamfers.
 CADKEY and Unigraphics refer to concave and convex rounded edges as blends.
 PTC Creo Elements/Pro (formerly Pro/Engineer) refers to rounded edges simply as rounds.

Other 3D solid modeling software programs outside of engineering, such as gameSpace, have similar functions.

See also
Welding

Notes

External links
 Welding fillets Link missing

Mechanical engineering

Fillet (mechanics)


Firefighting is the act of trying to prevent the spread of and put out unwanted fires. The fires can be in buildings, vehicles, woodlands, and other places. A firefighter puts out fires to protect property, people and the environment.

Firefighters usually go through a lot of technical training. This includes fighting fires in buildings, cars and the woods.

One of the major hazards with firefighting is the poisonous environment made by things burning. Four major risks are smoke, oxygen deficiency, high temperatures and poisons in the air. To protect themselves from smoke, firefighters will wear a device called a breathing apparatus.

One way to put out fires is to spray them with water. The water does two things: it vaporizes when it comes in contact with fire. The water vapor leaves the fire with less oxygen, which it needs to keep burning. The other thing water does is make things cooler. That can keep the fire from burning because things will not burn if they are not hot enough.

References

Firefighting


Lord of War is a crime thriller movie released in September 2005. It is directed by Andrew Nicole and starred Nicolas Cage, Ethan Hawke, Jared Leto and Bridget Moynahan. It deals with a story of gunrunner, named Yuri, who deals in arms trafficking. It is based on a real person named Victor Bout who was a notorious arms dealer.

The movie describes a person who deals in firearms as a "Merchant of Death", since by selling guns to people, Yuri is selling and bringing them death. At the end of the movie, an additional credit title points out the irony in that the five biggest arms exporting countries, the U.S., UK, Russia, France and China, are also the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.

Story
The main character Yuri Orlov (played by Nicolas Cage) is a Ukrainian-American. He persuaded his brother Vitaly (Jared Leto) to be his partner in his arms trafficking business. They made a great success. Another important character, Jack Valentine (Ethan Hawke), is an Interpol agent. Jack finds out that Yuri is a gunrunner. From the first moment Jack met Yuri until the ending, he tried to arrest Yuri but every time Yuri escaped capture. At the last moment when Yuri finally got caught by Jack, Yuri said to Jack that he would never be sent to jail because he himself was a "necessary evil". He also told Jack that the U.S. government, which Jack was working for, also knew that and they needed arms dealers just like Yuri. In the end, Yuri got freed from capture and kept his business for the purpose of arming people in the world.

Other websites
Lord of War on Rottentomatoes

2005 crime thriller movies
American crime thriller movies
2000s English-language movies
Lionsgate movies

Lord of War