Sir Hamilton Harty (born Hillsborough, Co. Down, Ireland, 4 December 1879; died Brighton, 19 February 1941) was an Irish composer, conductor and accompanist.  He is particularly remembered for his work in Manchester with the orchestra called The Hallé.

Life and work

Harty was born in Northern Ireland, the fourth of ten children.  His father was a church organist.  He learned to play the viola, piano, and organ.  When he was twelve he was organist at Magheracoll Church, County Antrim.  He also had organist jobs at Belfast and Dublin.  In 1900 he went to London where he was soon known as a composer and an excellent piano accompanist.  In 1904 he married the singer Agnes Nicholls.  For her he wrote a piece for soprano and orchestra called Ode to a Nightingale.

He soon became known as a conductor, conducting the London Symphony Orchestra and, from 1920, The Hallé, which he made into one of the best orchestras in England.
He conducted works by many composers, some of whom were little known at the time: they included Bax, Sibelius, Berlioz, Moeran, Walton and Richard Strauss.  He gave the first performance in England of Mahler's Ninth Symphony.

Harty was knighted in 1925.  He resigned from The Hallé in 1933 after there had been a lot of arguments.  After that he mainly conducted in London, as well as in United States and Australia.

Harty composed many pieces during his early years, including An Irish Symphony, a tone poem With the Wild Geese, a Violin Concerto, and Ode to a Nightingale.

Harty was ill for the last five years of his life.  He had a brain tumour.  He was looked after by his secretary Olive Baguley, because he had separated from his wife.  He died in Hove near Brighton.

References

 The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; 1980;

1879 births
1941 deaths
Irish composers
Romantic composers
20th-century composers
Knights Bachelor

Hamilton Harty


Zubu  (, also referred to as Dada or Tatars) was confederation led by Khereid. It consisted of Khamag Mongol,  Naiman and Tatar tribes from the 10th to 12th centuries.  Little is known in detail about this group. The name "Zübü" might means "left" in Khitan language, or might be derived from Xiongnu's ruling tribe Xubu.

Relations with the Khitan

The Zubu began paying tribute to the Khitan Empire after a campaign in 924 when the Khitan subdued the Zubu and in the region of what is now Eastern and Central Mongolia and southeastern Russia.

Liao emperor Shengzong led an expeditionary force against the Zubu in 983 after the Zubu killed their own khan and began to act in defiance of the Khitan.  The Zubu khan was forced to submit to the Liao in 1003.  On this occasion, the Liao divided the Zubu into several divisions, each under a Liao ruler.

The Zubu once again rebelled against their Khitan masters in 1026 but suffered another defeat.  On this occasion, they were forced to pay an annual tribute of horses, camels, and furs.

In the 1090s, the Zubu once again defied the Khitan by invading the northeast borders of Liao territory.  In 1100, the Zubu were once again defeated, and their khan was taken prisoner and taken to the Liao capital of Shangjing.  Once in the Liao capital, he was hacked to pieces.

References

History of Mongolia
Khitans
Khitan history

Zubu


Die Toten Hosen are a German punk rock band from Düsseldorf. The name is taken from the German slang idiom tote Hose, which means "nothing happening"; "boring".

History
The current members of Die Toten Hosen are Campino (Andreas Frege), Kuddel (Andreas von Holst), Vom (Stephen Ritchie), Andi (Andreas Meurer) and Breiti (Michael Breitkopf). All members except one, Vom, who is English, are German, though Campino's mother, Jenny, was also English. Vom joined in 1999, after previous drummer Wölli sustained injuries in a car crash. Wölli had played from 1985 to 1999 and was an honorary member of the band until his death in 2016. The drummer until 1985 was Trini Trimpop, who became the band's manager when Wölli joined.

The band is reputed to have played for free at private birthday parties or similar events in their early years, so long as the host provided them with unlimited beer and covered all damage caused by the band.

1982–1987
Die Toten Hosen formed in 1982 at the Ratinger Hof, a Düsseldorf bar frequented by punk musicians. Its founder members were Campino and Andreas von Holst, both from local punk band ZK, with Andreas Meurer, Michael Breitkopf, Trini Trimpop and Walter November. According to their friend and one time promoter Andrea Berzen, they chose the name Die toten Hosen – which literally translates as "the dead trousers" but suggests the German idiom tote Hose, meaning "nothing going on", "it's boring" – over Die Pariser. According to Andrea Berzen, Campino preferred the former because it implied that their concerts might not be sold out, but there might be "tote Hose" on the nights.

At their first concert at the Bremer Schlachthof over Easter 1982, the compère mistakenly introduced them as Die Toten Hasen (The Dead Hares). The debut single "Wir sind bereit" ("We are ready") was released in 1982, and was followed by their first album, Opel-Gang, the next year.

Guitarist Walter November left the band in November 1983 due to his drug problems. One of the two A sides of the third single was the drinking song "Eisgekühlter Bommerlunder" ("ice-cold Bommerlunder" schnapps), which received considerable radio airplay and increased their fan base. The band released their first album titled Opel-Gang in early 1983 on their own label Totenkopf (skull).

In July 1983, the band signed to EMI, who financed a video for "Eisgekühlter Bommerlunder", directed by Wolfgang Büld. It depicts a chaotic wedding ceremony in a small Bavarian church, with Kurt Raab playing an alcoholic priest and Marianne Sägebrecht playing the bride. After the filming the congregation called for the church to be reconsecrated. German public television refused to screen the video for several years for fear of offending churchgoers.

At the end of 1983, they released "Hip Hop Bommi Bop", a hip-hop version of "Eisgekühlter Bommerlunder", featuring New York rapper Fab Five Freddy.

In 1984, the band played a session on the BBC's John Peel Show. EMI were displeased with the band's high travel costs and by Norbert Hähnel publicly parodying their million-selling artist Heino at a Toten Hosen concert. Heino successfully obtained a court order to cease and desist. Die Toten Hosen left EMI and signed to Virgin Records. Their second album Unter Falscher Flagge (Under False Colours), was released in 1984. The title explained the front cover of the LP, which carried a picture of the band members dressed as pirates aboard a ship. The original back cover featured the skeleton of a dog sitting in front of a gramophone, a caricature of the His Master's Voice artwork used by EMI. Legal action by EMI prompted the album cover to be changed to the skeleton of an eagle, which, along with the Jolly Roger, became a band logo.

In Spring 1985, the band toured France for the Goethe Institute and in Autumn they travelled to Hungary and Poland. In late 1985, Trini Trimpop moved from drumming for the band into their management, where he worked until 1992. Jakob Keusen briefly replaced him as the band's drummer before Wolfgang Rohde (Wölli) took over in January 1986. Rohde's first concert was also the band's first concert in front of a very large audience. Along with Herbert Grönemeyer, Udo Lindenberg, Marius Müller-Westernhagen, BAP, the Rodgau Monotones and many others, they performed at the Anti-WAAhnsinns-Festival in July 1986 to protest the construction of the nearby Nuclear reprocessing plant Wackersdorf.

In 1986, they recorded their third album, Damenwahl (Ladies' Choice). The Damenwahl tour was sponsored by the northern German condom manufacturer Fromms, who arranged for free samples to be scattered amongst the crowd. In 1987, the band celebrated its first chart success with the record Never Mind the Hosen, Here's Die Roten Rosen (Never mind the Trousers – Here's the Red Roses) using the pseudonym Die Roten Rosen (The Red Roses). The album contains rock versions of German 1960s pop songs. The name and cover art of the record are a parody of Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols by the Sex Pistols (1977).

In late 1987, Die Toten Hosen released their first live album Bis zum bitteren Ende (Till the Bitter End). It charted in the German and Austrian Top 30.

1988 to 1995: Recognition and early success
In 1988, the band released their commercial breakthrough, the album Ein kleines bisschen Horrorschau (A little bit of horrorshow). The album referenced the Anthony Burgess's novel A Clockwork Orange and Stanley Kubrick's film of the same name and was largely written for Bernd Schadewald's theatre adaption of A Clockwork Orange. For half a year the band played on stage at the Kammerspiele Bad Godesberg theatre in Bonn, alongside Ralf Richter, the play's lead actor. In September 1988, Die Toten Hosen performed at the Lituanika Festival in Vilnius and Kaunas, Lithuania. They were chosen by the jury as the best band of the event. The album included "Hier kommt Alex" ("Here comes Alex") was later re-recorded in an unplugged version in 2005, incorporating the opening piano phrase of Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata.

Their spring tour in 1989 included a sell-out performance at the huge Westfalenhallen in Dortmund. The band released  (3 Chords for a Hallelujah), a video documentary of their lives. In 1990, the Toten Hosen were invited to attend the New Music Seminar in New York and performed as support for The Rolling Stones in Cologne. That summer the band travelled to Italy to report on the FIFA World Cup for various newspapers and radio stations. For this purpose they recorded a rock cover version of  "Azzurro" by Adriano Celentano, accompanied by a video satirising the behaviour of German football fans when abroad. The double album Kreuzzug ins Glück (Crusade to happiness) was released in 1990 and sold over 150,000 copies in its first week.

In 1991 the Toten Hosen released their album Learning English Lesson One, a tribute to the band's musical influences, consisting mainly of cover versions of English punk rock classics. Each track featured at least one member of the original band that had recorded it. Several songs were recorded in Rio de Janeiro with Great Train Robber Ronald Biggs. The album also marked the beginning of the band's collaboration with T.V. Smith, songwriter and lead singer of The Adverts, which continues to the present day.

The band's 1992 'Menschen, Tiere, Sensationen' (People, Animals, Sensations) tour included concerts in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Denmark, Great Britain, Spain, France and a their first ever dates in Argentina.
The single "Sascha … ein aufrechter Deutscher" ("Sascha... an upstanding German") was released for Christmas 1992 as a vehement condemnation of right-wing radicalism. The proceeds of this song were donated to an anti-racist charity campaign in Düsseldorf. The right-wing Republikaner party failed in its attempt to have the song banned for defamation and thereby unintentionally contributed to the success of the single. The song grossed half a million Deutsche Mark.

In 1993, the album Kauf MICH! (Buy ME!) was released and reached number one in the German charts. Its songs express opinions on consumerism, advertisement and right-wing extremism. In the summer of 1993 Die Toten Hosen performed as the supporting act for U2 on their Zoo TV tour in Germany, with audiences of over 50,000 people at each concert. The video to the song "Kauf MICH!" showed footage of these concerts. In the same year, the band released Reich & Sexy (Rich & Sexy), their first best-of album. On the cover the members of the band are naked, portraying pretentious millionaires from the music industry surrounded by nude women. An international version of the best-of album was released in 1994 called Love, Peace & Money. For a period, Die Toten Hosen had three albums in the German charts at the same time.

In 1994 the band was on the road for almost the entire year in Germany and neighbouring countries. In November they gave four concerts in the US and in Canada as support act for Green Day. Starting in April 1995, the Toten Hosen got their own radio program on Fritz radio in Berlin, called Tausend Takte Tanzmusik ("a thousand beats of dance music"). The show aired every Sunday from 7 to 8 p.m. for a year. At the end of the year the band founded their own record label JKP.

1996 to 2020: JKP – beginnings with their own label
The first album under their own label was Opium fürs Volk (opium for the people), released in 1996. Its songs deal with faith and religion. The album went platinum, their third record to do so, after Kauf MICH! and Reich und sexy. The single "Zehn kleine Jägermeister" (ten little master huntsmen or rather: ten little Jägermeisters) went to number one of the German-speaking singles charts. Die Toten Hosen and Iggy Pop were a supporting act at the Ramones farewell concert in the River-Plate-Stadion of Buenos Aires in front of 75,000 people. An extended tour followed under the slogan "Ewig währt am längsten" (Eternity lasts longest) through Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Furthermore, they performed at the Gurtenfestival, the Forestglade Festival, the Berlin Waldbühne and at the Bizarre Festival in Cologne. In May 1996 they headlined the Rock am Ring festival. In the same year the band released their second live album Im Auftrag des Herrn (on the Lord's behalf).

Their 1000th concert was on 28 June 1997 in the Düsseldorfer Rheinstadium, and was attended by over 60,000 fans. Lack of effective crowd control resulted in a crowd collapse which injured a reported 70 people, and caused the death of Rieke Lax, a 16 year old Dutch girl. The band later released the song "Alles ist eins" (Everything is one) in her memory.

The 1998 Warped Tour took in New Zealand, Australia, Japan and Hawaii. Campino was twice hospitalised after concerts in Byron Bay and Geelong in Australia.

Die Toten Hosen have collaborated with numerous other musicians (like Bad Religion, AC/DC, U2, Rolling Stones); they are also one of the few German punk bands popular outside Germany, with a large following in South America, Australia and Eastern Europe.

The band's members are passionate fans of their local football team, Fortuna Düsseldorf, which they sponsored from 2001 to 2003. When a goal is scored at the club's ground, the Esprit Arena, the chorus of the band's song "Strom" is played. The band released a football-themed song named "Bayern" in 2000 in which they proclaim that they would not join Bayern Munich under any circumstances. Campino mentioned that the band lost significant CD sales in the southern Germany since the release of the song.

In August 2006, Campino starred as Mack the Knife in Brecht's The Threepenny Opera at Berlin's Admiralspalast, a short distance from the theatre where the play premiered in 1928. The director, famous actor Klaus Maria Brandauer, was criticised for the play's unadventurous staging, but Campino was cheered by the audience.

Artist Andreas Gursky produced Tote Hosen, a blown up photograph of the crowd from a Die Toten Hosen concert, depicting youths excitedly cheering for the band, many wearing the red Hosen shirt. It is in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art.

Faith No More bassist Billy Gould wore a Toten Hosen tee shirt on the cover of their greatest hits album, Midlife Crisis: The Very Best of Faith No More. Faith No More have covered the Toten Hosen song "Hofgarten" in live shows.

German rock group Samsas Traum covered "Hier kommt Alex" with a more gothic sound. Lead singer Alexander Kaschte changes the final lyric to "Hey! Ich bin Alex!" (Hey! I am Alex!) as a wry joke. British punk band UK Subs recorded an English-language cover of the song on their 1993 album Normal Service Resumed. '"Hier kommt Alex" is featured in video games Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock and Rock Band (European version). The song was also released as a downloadable track on the American version of Rock Band on 27 May 2008. Die Toten Hosen also have a special edition of SingStar for PlayStation 2, devoted exclusively to the band, featuring 24 tracks and videos from over the decades, which was released in 2007.

MC Frontalot, in collaboration with faux-German electronic musician KOMPRESSOR on the track "Rappers We Crush", rhymes "What did I do to deserve this?/What was my crime?/Was it because I sampled Die Toten Hosen that one time?"

In 2002 and 2005, the band played at Przystanek Woodstock, the biggest open air festival in Europe.  In 2010, the band played several dates in Central Asia and became the first foreign rock band to perform in Tajikistan since 1991. The band was criticised for accepting €68,000 of German government funding towards this tour. On 2 October 2010, the band played in Amman, Jordan, their first concert in the Middle East.

In 2012, Die Toten Hosen released their album Ballast der Republik. A special edition includes a bonus CD with cover versions of songs that influenced the band. On 26 April 2016, it was announced that former drummer Wolfgang Rohde had died of cancer.

In early 2018, members of Die Toten Hosen recorded backing vocals on Australian band The Living End's eighth studio album, Wunderbar, which was recorded in Germany.

On November 27, 2020, the single "You're No Good" was issued online.

Musical style
All band members are self-taught musicians. At the beginning of their musical career most of them were still at school. Their first album was recorded in a studio rented by the hour. The band kept to simple guitar chords and lyrics, in garage style. Die Toten Hosen were mainly influenced by punk bands from the 1970s, to whom they frequently pay tribute in recorded work and live performances. On occasion they have played songs by the Beatles and the Rolling Stones. Some of the band's songs have been described as "Schunkelpunk", a fusion of German schlager music and punk, exemplified by "Eisgekühlter Bommerlunder", numerous cover versions of German schlager songs and tracks such as "Azzurro". They can be seen as pioneers of "Volxmusic", which combines elements of German folk music with jazz, hip-hop or rock. In some of their songs Die Toten Hosen experiment with strings or wind instruments. A few songs have elements that are lifted from jazz (e.g. "Warum werde ich nicht satt"), reggae ("Zehn kleine Jägermeister") or Yugoslavian gypsy music ("Das Mädchen aus Rottweil").

For the most part, The Toten Hosen have not departed substantially from their original style of music, choosing power chords, straightforward lyrics, simple melodies and anthem-like choruses over long instrumental solos.  Other influences on the music of Die Toten Hosen include hardcore punk, punk blues, heavy metal, thrash metal, and hard rock.

The focus of the band's music has gradually shifted from funny and nonsensical to serious.  The songs from the band's first LP were mostly about having fun, but by the end of the 1980s they were focusing more on political and social issues such as racism.

Members
 Campino (Andreas Frege) - vocals (1982–present)
 Andi (Andreas Meurer) - bass (1982–present)
 Breiti (Michael Breitkopf) - guitars (1982–present)
 Kuddel (Andreas von Holst) - guitars (1982–present)
 Vom (Stephen George Ritchie) - drums (1999–present)

Former members
 Walter November (Walter Hartung) - guitars (1982–1983)
 Trini Trimpop (Klaus-Dieter Trimpop) - drums (1982–1985)
 Jakob Keusen - drums (1985–1986)
 Wölli (Wolfgang Rohde) - drums (1986–1999).

Discography

 1983: Opel-Gang
 1984: Unter falscher Flagge
 1986: Damenwahl
 1987: Never Mind the Hosen, Here's Die Roten Rosen
 1988: Ein kleines bisschen Horrorschau
 1990: Auf dem Kreuzzug ins Glück
 1991: Learning English Lesson 1
 1993: Kauf MICH!
 1996: Opium fürs Volk
 1998: Wir warten auf's Christkind...
 1999: Unsterblich
 2002: Auswärtsspiel
 2004: Zurück zum Glück
 2008: In aller Stille
 2012: Ballast der Republik
 2012: Tage wie diese
 2017: Laune der Natur
 2017: Learning English Lesson 2

Social involvement

Political activities
The band openly support political and social organizations in their music, interviews and by donations, but are not affiliated with any political party. They turned down a request from Germany's SPD (Social Democratic Party) to write a song for their European election campaign in 1994.

In 1991, their track "Fünf vor Zwölf" ("It is high time") was published on the sampler Nazis raus (Nazis get out) and in 2006 they supported the band ZSK's Kein Bock auf Nazis (can't stand Nazis) campaign. In 1992, the band participated in a demonstration against xenophobia in Bonn. They performed together with Herbert Grönemeyer, Nina Hagen and others for nearly 200,000 demonstrators. In 1995 they supported Greenpeace, IPPNW, Aktion Atomteststop (an initiative for a nuclear test ban), the BUND (German Friends of the Earth chapter) and they were featured on the track "Tout Pour Sauver L'Amour" ("Everything to save love") on the Stop Chirac compilation album.

In 2002, the band attracted publicity by posing undressed for posters of the animal rights group PETA under the slogan 'Lieber nackt als im Pelz' (Better naked than in fur). in 2005 they funded On the Run, a compilation album to raise funds for immigrants' rights organisation Pro Asyl, and contributed the song "Meine Stadt" ("My town").

From 1999 to 2004 their web site had a public discussion forum but this was terminated without explanation.

Ties to Düsseldorf
Over the course of the band's history, Die Toten Hosen have expressed their loyalty to their home town in various ways. In summer 1995, the band staged an ice hockey game called Powerplay des Wahnsinns (Power-play of insanity), playing in a team alongside professional players from Düsseldorfer EG against a team composed of Finnish rock band Leningrad Cowboys and Finnish national ice hockey players. The match took place in the stadium at the Brehmstrasse in Düsseldorf. Their team Knochenbrecher Düsseldorf (Düsseldorf Bonebreakers) lost 9:10. In 1996 they slipped into women's clothing, silk stockings and high heels and took part in the Düsseldorf Mardi Gras parade with their own float under the slogan "We bury good taste".

Die Toten Hosen are supporters of the football club Fortuna Düsseldorf. At the end of the 1980s, they helped the club by donating 200,000 DM towards signing the player Anthony Baffoe. From 2001 to 2003, they sponsored the club after it had experienced major financial difficulties. In 2002, the band signed an advertising contract with the Diebels Brewery, and donated the proceeds to the club's "Nachwuchs" (youth side), who wear the band's skull emblem on their shirts.

Die Toten Hosen have reserved space for 17 people at Düsseldorf's Südfriedhof cemetery, where they wish to be buried.

References

External links

 Official Argentine Site
 Unofficial Site

German punk rock groups
Deutschpunk
Musical groups established in 1982
Musical groups from Düsseldorf
Echo (music award) winners
1982 establishments in West Germany

Die Toten Hosen


Emily Wilding Davison (11 October 1872 – 8 June 1913) was born in Blackheath in southeast London on. She studied at Royal Holloway College and at Oxford University, although women were not allowed to take degrees at that time.

In 1906, she joined the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU), founded by Emmeline Pankhurst. Three years later she gave up her job as a teacher and went to work full-time for the suffragettes. She was frequently arrested for causing a public disturbance and burning post boxes. She spent a number of short periods in jail.

In 1909, she was sentenced to a month's hard labour in Strangeways Prison in Manchester after throwing rocks at the carriage of chancellor David Lloyd George. She attempted to starve herself, and resisted force-feeding. A prison guard, angered by Davison's blockading herself in her cell, forced a hose into the room and nearly filled it with water.  She sued the wardens of Strangeways, and was awarded 40 shillings.

By 1911, Davison was becoming increasingly militant. On 4 June 1913, she ran out in front of the king's horse as it was taking part in the Epsom Derby. Her purpose was unclear, but she was trampled on and died on 8 June – at the age of 40 – from her injuries.

References

1872 births
1913 deaths
Suffragettes
People from London

Emily Davison


A budget airline or low-cost carrier is an airline which tries to keep its prices and fares lower than competitors. It usually does this by not offering services like free food and drink on a flight and keeping fines from airports low by keeping on time. They also usually only use one type of aircraft. Budget airlines were made famous by Southwest Airlines in the USA which only use Boeing 737 aircraft.

Budget airline


Edmund "Ed" Pevensie, is a fictional character in C. S. Lewis's Chronicles of Narnia. He comes out in three of the seven books (The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, Prince Caspian, and The Voyage of the Dawn Treader), and a smaller character in two other books (The Horse and His Boy, and The Last Battle).

In the live-action films, The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe, Prince Caspian and  The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, Edmund is portrayed by actor Skandar Keynes. Actor Mark Wells portrays an older Edmund at the end of the first movie.

In The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, he betrays his siblings to Jadis, the White Witch while under her influence, but as the story goes on he accepts that he has done wrong. In the book, Edmund is described as having ash blonde hair, grey eyes and dimples like his siblings. He is the only one out of brother and sisters to have light hair which as Lewis states represents him being an outsider.

The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe

In The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, Edmund is one of the main characters, at the age of 10 years old, and the character who develops the most over the story.

It is said in the book that Edmund started his life as a likeable person, but then changed for the worse and began to act meanly after moving into a new school. However, in the 2005 movie adaptation of the book, it is said that he is upset that they are sent away from home, on account of their father forced to serve the war.

Edmund talks cruely to Lucy when she first finds the entrance to Narnia through a wardrobe, and is the second of the Pevensie children to go to Narnia, after following Lucy so he could tease her. While there, he meets Jadis, the White Witch (who introduces herself as the Queen of Narnia) and he gets to eat some magical Turkish delight, which causes an addiction in the person who eats it. After that, he promises the White Witch that he will bring his brother and sisters to her castle, not knowing that she was intending to kill them all to prove a Narnian prophecy. Lucy did mention the White Witch in a conversation and Edmund realizes that the witch was none other than the "Queen of Narnia", but the magic of the Turkish Delight was so strong that he decided to go to the castle for more.

When Edmund returns to the normal world, he refuses having been in Narnia, not wanting to admit that Lucy was speaking the truth.

When the four of the Pevensie children later go through the wardrobe he says that he has been in Narnia before. He and the other siblings are protected by Mr and Mrs Beaver. But when the Beavers and the other three Pevensie children are having a conversation about the arrival of Aslan, Edmund sneaks away to the White Witch's castle, where he hopes to be made a prince and later on a king.

However, his thoughts of the Witch changes when she berates him for coming without his siblings, and even more so when on their journey to the Stone Table they find a small group of creatures enjoying a feast made by Father Christmas. When the creatures continue to say that Father Christmas is their benefactor and has entered Narnia, a sign that her power is weakening, she turns them to stone.

Edmund now finds to his horror that the White Witch was evil, and would give anything to be with his brother and sisters. The White Witch's sledge eventually stops as the snow melts (another sign of the witch's crumbling power), so they have to continue their journey on foot. They stop in a wooded valley, where the Witch prepares to kill Edmund, on account of his betraying her. She ties Edmund to a tree and takes out a dagger, but a rescue party sent by Aslan arrives, frees him and brings him to his siblings and the rest of Aslan's troop. Edmund becomes fully sorry after a long talk with Aslan who afterward commands the Pevensies to agree the matter of their brother's misdeeds forgotten. The next day, the Witch claims that Edmund's life is hers. She and Aslan work out an agreement that Aslan will die in Edmund's place (though the other Narnians do not know this), but unknown to her, the magical nature of this agreement allows Aslan to be brought back to life. Susan and Lucy witnessed Aslan's resurrection.

While Aslan and Lucy and Susan race to free the stone prisoners in the Witch's castle, Edmund joins Peter's army in the battle, where he plays a role in breaking the White Witch's dangerous wand, and is wounded in the attempt. Then the Witch's army outnumbered very quickly, and she is soon killed by Aslan, while the leftover of the enemies either give themselves up or take to flight.

However, Edmund is saved from death by the arrival of Aslan, and of Lucy, who gives Edmund a few dropse of a magic cordial which can quickly heal any sickness.

Eventually, Edmund heals is crowned to the Great Western Wood by Aslan as King Edmund the Just, co-ruler of Narnia with Queen Lucy, Queen Susan and High King Peter, and is knighted as Duke of Lantern Waste, Count of the Western March, and Knight of the Noble Order of the Table.

15 years later, he and his siblings return to England, where they all appear as children again.

Prince Caspian

Edmund and his siblings return to Narnia to meet Caspian, rightful King of Narnia, against King Miraz. He convinces Trumpkin the dwarf that they are the Kings and Queens from the legend by defeating him in a sword-fighting practice. Later, he helps Peter and Trumpkin defend Caspian against Nikabrik (the black dwarf), the hag, and the were-wolf. Edmund is also there to see Peter's sword duel against King Miraz.

Edmund has since become more caring for Lucy, and is the first one to believe her when she "sees" Aslan, going on her side against the disbelief comments of Trumpkin and her other siblings. Edmund is shown in the book more nicer than in The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe.

In the movie, Edmund proves to be much more mature than Peter and Caspian both, but he stays out of their arguments. Also in the movie, he is able to stop the White Witch from being brought back from the dead by crashing the ice wall she is slipping out of.

The Voyage of the Dawn Treader

Edmund, Lucy and their cousin Eustace come back to Narnia again by a painting, and end up in the ocean. They are saved and brought on board the Dawn Treader by King Caspia who is on a journey to find the three Lords that disappeared. This was Edmund and Lucy's last adventure in Narnia, because Aslan told them they were getting too old to come back. By this point Edmund had matured a great deal which can be seen in the way he deals with Eustace (cousin) and in the fights with King Caspian. Also, Edmund has completely stopped insulting Lucy. When Eustace (cousin) changes his behavior after being changed back from a dragon, Edmund mentions his own betrayal and says that Eustace was not worse than he was with the words "You are an ass, but I was a traitor".

The Horse and His Boy

King Edmund, Queen Susan and Mr. Tumnus the Faun are visitors in the country of Calormen, where Prince Rabadash wants Susan to marry him. Thinking that Shasta is the missing Prince Corin of Archenland, Narnia's ally, Edmund scolds the boy for running off and making everybody worried sick of him. The Narnians escape, thanks to Tumnus' cloever plan, which leads Rabadash to make his father agree that they should take Narnia by invading Archenland.

Shasta meets Edmund once again in Anvard. Edmund reminds Shasta that he should not eavesdrop. Edmund and King Lune of Archenland lead the fight against the Calormene army and they manage to win.

The Last Battle

After dreaming of King Tirian in Narnia begging for their help in England, Peter and Edmund go to the Ketterleys' old home in London to dig up the magic rings that Professor Kirke buried in the yard as a boy in The Magician's Nephew to be used by Eustace and Jill to reach Narnia. They are waiting for the others on the train platform when an accident happens.

When King Tirian sees the Seven Friends of Narnia in his dream, he thinks that Edmund and Peter 'had already the face of a King and a warrior'.

Edmund joins everyone, except Susan, into Aslan's country. Like his Peter and Lucy, he is killed in the train crash and goes back to Aslan's country, where they can all live forever in a peaceful way.

Other websites
 NarniaWeb

References

The Chronicles of Narnia
Characters in written fiction
Fantasy movie characters

Edmund Pevensie


A prime lens is a lens which has a fixed "zoom" or focal length. It is easier to make fixed focal lenses than to include them in a variable focus lens. Therefore, fixed focal lenses usually have a larger opening, known as an aperture, than comparable variable focus lenses. They are usually also of a higher optical quality.

Camera lenses

Prime lens


Events
 January 14 – Third Battle of Panipat was fought between Marathas and Afghans
 January 16 – British capture Pondicherry, India from the French.
 February 8 – Earthquake in London breaks chimneys in Limehouse and Poplar
 March 8 – Second earthquake in North London, Hampstead and Highgate
 In Dutch Guayana a "state" formed by escaped slaves signs a treaty with the local governor
 Opening of Matthew Boulton's Soho Manufactory.
 Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star is published, in France.
 June 6 – Transit of Venus occurred, and was observed from 120 locations around the globe.
 The vizier Muhammad Abu al Kaylak, who had led the Funj army in wars, carries out a Sennar palace coup, relegating the sultan to a figurehead role. (History of Sudan (Coming of Islam to the Turkiyah))

1761


Marion Chesney (Marion McChesney) (born 10 Juin 1936; deed 30 December 2019) wis a popular an prolific author. She haes written numerous successfu historical romance novelles unner her awn name, includin the Travelling Matchmaker an Daughters of Mannerling series.  Uisin the pseudonym M. C. Beaton, she haes written mony popular mystery novelles an aw, maist notably the Agatha Raisin an Hamish Macbeth mystery series. She haes written unner the pseudonyms Sarah Chester, Helen Crampton, Ann Fairfax, Marion Gibbons, Jennie Tremaine an Charlotte Ward.

1936 births
2019 daiths
Fowk frae Glesga
Scots writers

Marion Chesney


Fort Tilden, also known as Fort Tilden Historic District, is a former United States Army installation on the coast in the New York City borough of Queens. Fort Tilden now forms part of the Gateway National Recreation Area, and is administered by the National Park Service.

Fort Tilden Historic District is located on the Rockaway Peninsula, between Jacob Riis Park to the east and Breezy Point Tip to the west.  All three of these sites are operated by the National Park Service.

Since its decommissioning, the former installation has largely become a natural area of beaches, dunes and maritime forest.  Most of the old military installations are abandoned, and military structures which formerly housed artillery (batteries) and ammunition (magazines) are covered in graffiti. A few buildings have been renovated and are used by local arts groups, and some large open areas are used as sports grounds. Atop one of the old batteries, Battery Harris East, a viewing platform has 360-degree views that include the city, New York Harbor, and the Atlantic Ocean. The wilder parts of Fort Tilden are popular with bird-watchers and other nature-lovers, and the beach areas are frequently used for fishing.

Military history
The fort first served as a coast artillery installation and ended its service as a Nike Hercules and Nike Ajax missile site. However, the historic gun batteries and other military fortifications remain closed to the public.  Some of these structures are very hazardous.

World War I
The fort was established as Camp Rockaway Beach shortly after the United States entered World War I in April 1917. Several temporary military installations had been built at or near the site since the War of 1812 against the British. It was named after Samuel J. Tilden, one-term Governor of New York State and Democratic Presidential candidate in 1876.

The first unit deployed to the fort was an unnamed battery from the United States Army Coast Artillery Corps. This battery, with four 12-inch coast defense mortars, was soon joined by two batteries of two 6-inch M1900 guns on pedestal mounts, Battery Kessler and Battery East (renamed Battery Fergusson in 1939). The mortars were taken from Battery Piper at Fort Hamilton in Brooklyn, and the six-inch guns were brought in from Battery Burke at Fort Hamilton and Battery Kinney at Fort Slocum on Davids' Island. However, as the mortars were sited adjacent to Naval Air Station Rockaway there were concerns that when fired they could potentially cause damage to the installation. In 1919–1920 the fixed mounts were replaced with railway mortars that could be moved away from the air station for firing. In 1918–1919 a battery of two 3-inch antiaircraft guns was installed at the fort.

The facility became part of the Harbor Defenses of Southern New York, joining Fort Hamilton and Fort Wadsworth on Staten Island. The railway mortars and their tracks were probably removed in 1921 to make room for Battery Harris.

Inter-war period
In March 1921, the city of New York would become one of the first locations in the United States to be defended by 16-inch M1919 guns; these were the most powerful weapon in the United States' arsenal when construction began on Battery Harris. The coastal artillery installation became operational in December 1924. Its two guns were originally mounted in the open; ammunition was delivered on a railway system. This had evolved from its initial design as one of the first dispersed batteries; the two unprotected guns were spaced at , about twice the  of earlier batteries for 12-inch guns.  As the dispersed battery concept was improved, the spacing at later works increased to  and finally  at Fort Story. The battery was named for Henry Leavenworth Harris, a career Army officer who died in 1920.

World War II
In 1941–1942, a massive concrete casemate was built to enclose the guns at Battery Harris. The bunker, which was constructed to provide protection against air attack, also contained ammunition magazines and the fire control system. Fort Tilden was supplemented during the war with another 16-inch gun battery at the Highlands Military Reservation near Navesink, New Jersey. As both batteries had 16-inch guns, all the older heavy guns defending New York were subsequently removed and scrapped in 1942–1944, except two pairs of long-range 12-inch guns at Fort Hancock on Sandy Hook in New Jersey. Additional 16-inch batteries were proposed for Fort Wadsworth and a location that is now part of JFK Airport, but these were never built.

Several smaller batteries were built in and near Fort Tilden during the war. Battery 220 was completed but not armed; it was primarily an ammunition bunker for two 6-inch guns that were never delivered. Four Anti-Motor Torpedo Boat (AMTB) batteries were built during the war, two each at Norton Point and Rockaway Point (aka Breezy Point). Norton Point had AMTB 18 with four 3-inch M1902 guns and AMTB 19 with four 90 mm dual-purpose guns. The 3-inch guns were all on pedestal mounts; the 90 mm AMTB batteries were authorized two fixed guns and two towed guns. Rockaway Point had AMTB 20 with two 3-inch M1902 guns and AMTB 21 with four 90 mm guns. All six 3-inch guns for these batteries came from Battery Catlin at Fort Wadsworth, and AMTB 18 was also called Battery New Catlin.

After the war it was determined that gun defenses were obsolete, and Fort Tilden was disarmed, with all guns removed for scrap in 1948.

Cold War
In 1950, as the fear of Soviet air attack grew, a battalion of sixteen 90 mm guns was deployed at Fort Tilden, which was renamed Site NY-43 as part of the United States' air defense system. The site remained active until 1954. An additional four-gun 90 mm battery was in the area 1951–54, and two four-gun batteries of 120 mm guns were at the fort 1952–55.

In 1955, the AA guns were replaced by a Nike–Ajax missile site called NY–49. A photograph shows at least two launch sites with six rails each were at Fort Tilden. These were converted to the nuclear-capable Nike-Hercules missile in 1958. The Nike–Hercules system was deactivated throughout the US in 1972.

Army Reserve post
From the late 1960s until at least 1978, Fort Tilden was an Army Reserve Post, housing a Signal Corps unit, the 411th Engineer Brigade, and an Army Reserve self-propelled 8" howitzer battalion, originally the 5/51st Field Artillery (FA) and renamed in the early 70's the 7/9th FA.  From the late 1960s until the 1980s, Fort Tilden served as a United States Army Reserve post, with the 187th Infantry Brigade's 5/5th FA; a towed 105 mm howitzer battalion stationed there until the 187th was deactivated in 1995. Fort Tilden was also the location of the 411th Engineer Brigade, which was headquartered there from 1968 to 1978.

Fort Tilden remained an Army installation until the late 1970s, when it was decommissioned and turned over to the National Park Service, and made part of the Gateway National Recreation Area. A number of structures are included in an historic district listed on the National Register of Historic Places, including the two concrete casemates for the 16"/50 caliber M1919 guns of Battery Harris.

Nature area

Fort Tilden is an important nesting area for the threatened Piping Plover, a species which NPS—as part of a large global effort—is working to protect. The eggs and chicks are very small and highly camouflaged, so they are extremely difficult to see.  It is very easy to step on the eggs and kill the unhatched chicks.  "Under New York and Federal laws persons may be arrested and fined for killing, harassing, teasing, or in any way disturbing birds nesting in this area." Keep out of areas delineated by string fences and signs.

Common terns and least terns also make their nests on the beach at Fort Tilden. These two species are threatened in New York State as well.

See also
 Seacoast defense in the United States

References

External links

Fort Tilden Visitor information
Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) documentation, filed under 169 Breezy Point Boulevard, Roxbury, Queens County, NY:

Military facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in New York City
Tilden, Fort
Parks in Queens, New York
Rockaway, Queens
Gateway National Recreation Area
Tilden
Beaches of Queens, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Queens, New York
Historic American Engineering Record in New York City
Historic districts in Queens, New York

Fort Tilden


Broadstairs East Kent College is a further education college (although also provides higher education courses) located in Broadstairs, Kent on the southeast coast of the United Kingdom.

The main campus is located on Ramsgate Road, Broadstairs. In September 2011 the college had hoped to move into purpose-built buildings at Millennium Way, Westwood on the outskirts of the town, but due to the LSC building program being overcommitted the planned move never occurred.  The college is currently refurbishing existing buildings to provide better facilities for students. In September 2012, Thanet College was renamed to East Kent College.

Campuses
The college has one main campus that has fifteen buildings, that were named after coastal bays in Thanet (such as Minnis, Pegwell, and Kingsgate) but have been renamed after the values of the newly named College (including Enterprise, Inspire, and Achieve). The building located at the front of the site is the exception, known as "Yarrow". The Yarrow building is no longer in use by the College. It was named after shipbuilder Sir Alfred Yarrow, who provided funds for the construction of the building as a children's convalescent home in 1895. Thanet Technical College took ownership of the site in the 1950s.

Over the years, East Kent College has had a number of satellite campuses and currently runs an external construction centre located at Hornet Close in Broadstairs where construction-based vocational courses are delivered, a Business site based at Invicta Way, Manston Business Park, Manston which provides training for employers, also small outreach sites, one based at Mill Lane House in Margate as part of the Community Education programme.

K College takeover

East Kent College took over the Folkestone and Dover campuses of K College on 1 August 2014.

Corporate links
East Kent College has close links with local companies across all 4 campuses.  These include companies such as Pfizer in Sandwich, P&O Ferries and Thorley Taverns (pubs, hotels and hospitality), The Port of Dover (various sectors and apprenticeship development, and Leaf Hotels.  The college has a dedicated department working closely with local employers and businesses to support the development of skills shortages across the area.

Notable alumni
Richard Davis (1966-2003), English cricketer who represented Kent, Warwickshire, Gloucestershire, Sussex, Leicestershire and Berkshire.
Gary Rhodes (1960-2019), TV chef and restaurateur, met his wife whilst a student at the College in the 1970s.

Notes and references

External links

Broadstairs
Further education colleges in Kent

East Kent College


Tryon County was a county in the colonial Province of New York in the British American colonies. It was created from Albany County on March 24, 1772, and was named for William Tryon, the last provincial governor of New York. The county's boundaries extended much further than any current county. Its eastern boundary with the also-new Charlotte County ran "from the Mohawk River to the Canada line, at a point near the old village of St. Regis and passing south to the Mohawk between Schenectady and Albany." It extended north to the St. Lawrence River; its western boundary was the Treaty of Fort Stanwix's Line of Property, following the Unadilla River, Oneida Lake, Onondaga River and Oswego River to Lake Ontario, as the Iroquois Confederacy still controlled locations further west in the Indian Reserve. Tryon County's seat was Johnstown, which is today the county seat of Fulton County.  The Tryon County Courthouse, built in 1772–1773, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972. The Tryon County Jail, also built in 1772–1773, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1981.

The county was divided into five districts: Mohawk, Palatine, Canajohorie, German Flatts, and Kingsland. The county court house and jail were erected in Johnstown in 1772 establishing Johnstown as the county seat.  Three of the seven  original judges were relatives of Sir William Johnson: Sir John Johnson (son), Guy Johnson (nephew), and Daniel Claus (son-in-law) with a fourth judge being close business associate and neighbour, Colonel John Butler. The remainder of the original seven judges were Peter Conyne, Jelles Fonda and John Wells. Guy Johnson, John Johnson, Daniel Claus and John Butler sided with Britain during the American Revolution while Fonda, Wells and Conyne supported the American cause.

Its members in the Province of New York assembly were Sir John Johnson and Hendrick Frey.

American Revolution
In August, 1774, shortly before the outbreak of the American Revolution, some members of the county formed the Tryon County Committee of Safety to harass their Loyalist neighbors, eventually causing many to flee to the safety of Canada. Guy Johnson and a large party of supporters left in May, 1775. Sir John Johnson and a large party of his supporters left in May, 1776. By 1776, most of the Loyalists in Tryon County had fled.

In December 1780, the results of a census stated that the number of uncultivated farms was 1200 and that 354 families had abandoned and had fled the county. In some places such as Cherry Valley, Springfield, and Harpersfield there was no one to conduct a census. This was out of a pre-war population of around 10,000. Schenectady came near to being the limit of civilization.

After the war
On April 2, 1784, the new state's legislature voted to change the name to Montgomery County, in honor of General Richard Montgomery, a Continental Army General slain during the Battle of Quebec. The Legislature stated, "From and after the passing of this act, the county of Tryon shall be called and known by the name of Montgomery, and the county of Charlotte by the name of Washington."

See also

 For the history of Tryon County prior to 1772 see Albany County, New York
 For the history of Tryon County after 1784 see Montgomery County, New York
List of New York counties
List of former United States counties

References

Bibliography

External links
History of Tryon County, NY
History of Tryon County, NY

Former counties of the United States
Pre-statehood history of New York (state)
History of the Thirteen Colonies
New York (state) counties

Tryon County, New York


Orbital revolution is the movement of a planet around a star, or a moon around a planet. For example, the Earth revolves around the Sun, and the Moon revolves about the Earth.

Planets and moons revolve in elliptical orbits. One orbital revolution of a planet takes one year, while a revolution of the Moon takes a month.

Astronomers usually use different words for the orbit of a planet around a star, and for the spin of a planet about its own axis. If an item is in orbit, it is "revolving", while the spin of a planet is called "rotating". The amount of time it takes for an object to revolve around the Sun is a year, and the amount of time it takes to revolve around its axis is one day. According to the Gregorian calendar, a year on Earth is equal to 365 days, with an extra day added every four years.

The amount of time it takes for an object to move around the sun is different for every object. For example, it takes the planet Mercury about 88 daya to revolve around the sun, but it takes the dwarf planet Pluto over 248 years to revolve around the sun.

Astronomy

Orbital revolution


Objectivity is a philosophical opinion or method that believes that reality exists outside of the human mind. People can separate their own ideas and opinions from the observations they make. Objective observations are true no matter who makes the observation. Being objective helps people focus on things that everyone can agree on.

The Scientific method claims objectivity but see epistemology, the philosophy of science and the work of Karl Popper.  The opposite of objectivity is subjectivity.

Philosophy
Reality

Objectivity (philosophy)


Eugène Ysaÿe (16 July 1858 – 12 May 1931) was a Belgian violinist, composer and conductor.  He was born in Liège. He was called "The King of the Violin", or, as Nathan Milstein put it, the "tzar". His brother was pianist and composer Théo Ysaÿe.

Biography
Ysaÿe began violin lessons at age five with his father.  At seven he entered the Conservatoire at Liège studying with Désiré Heynberg.  When he was twelve, Henri Vieuxtemps took an interest in his talent.  He arranged for Ysaÿe to study with Henryk Wieniawski.

After his graduation from the Royal Conservatory of Liège, Ysaÿe was the principal violin of the Benjamin Bilse beer-hall orchestra.  This orchestra later became the Berlin Philharmonic. Many musicians of note and influence came regularly to hear this orchestra and Ysaÿe in particular. Some of these musicians were Joseph Joachim, Franz Liszt, Clara Schumann, and Anton Rubinstein.  Rubinstein asked for Ysaÿe to be released from his contract to go with him on tour.

When Ysaÿe was twenty-seven years old, he was recommended as a soloist for one of the Concerts Colonne in Paris.  This was the start of his great success as a concert artist. The next year, Ysaÿe received a professorship at the Brussels Conservatoire. During his time as professor at the Conservatoire, Ysaÿe continued to tour the world.  This included all of Europe, Russia, and the United States.

He had physical problems that affected his hands.  As these grew worse, Ysaÿe turned more to teaching, conducting and an early love, composition. In 1918, he accepted the music director's position with the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra. He stayed until 1922.

In 1931, suffering from diabetes, Eugène Ysaÿe died in his house in Brussels.

Personal life

Ysaÿe was married twice.  His first marrriage, on 29 September 1886, was to Louise Bourdeau de Coutrai.  They had three sons.
After Louise's death in 1924 he married a pupil of his, Jeanette Dincin.  She was 44 years younger than him. Ysaÿe met her in 1922 while conductor of the Cincinnati Orchestra. She cared for him in his ailing years.

Eugène Ysaÿe was close friends with Queen Elisabeth of Belgium.  He taught her the violin. His widow took over the royal teaching after his death. The queen began a competition in his honor.

Ysaÿe was also a friend of Claude Debussy.  They would trade letters.

He had a relationship with Irma Sèthe.

References

1858 births
1931 deaths
Belgian composers
Belgian musicians
Conductors
Deaths from diabetes
People from Liège
Belgian violinists

Eugène Ysaÿe


Sampling could mean:

Sampling (signal processing), changing a continuous signal into a discrete signal
Sampling (music), re-using parts of sound recordings in a piece of music
Sample (statistics), selection of observations to get some knowledge of a statistical population
Sampling (case studies), selection of cases for single or multiple case studies
Sampling (for testing or analysis), taking a representative portion of a material or product to test (e.g. by phyisical measurements, chemical analysis, microbiological examination), typically for the purposes of identification, quality control, or regulatory assessment

Specific types of sampling include:
Chorionic villus sampling, a method of detecting fetal abnormalities
Food sampling, the process of taking a representative portion of a food for analysis, usually to test for quality, safety or compositional compliance. (Not to be confused with Food, free samples, a method of promoting food items to consumers)
Theoretical sampling, the process of selecting comparison cases or sites in qualitative research
Water sampling, the process of taking a portion of drinking water for analysis, e.g. to check that it complies with relevate water quality standards, or river water to check for pollutants, or bathing water to sheck that it is safe for bathing, or intrusive water in a building to identify its source.

Sampling


The printing press is a machine for printing. It makes many copies of identical pages. The printing press today is used to print books and newspapers. It had a great influence on society, especially western society. It was "one of the most potent agents... of western civilization in bringing together the scattered ideas of thinkers".

Woodcut printing has been done for several centuries. That was whole pages cut into wood, words and pictures. In the 15th century Johannes Gutenberg improved the process. He used separate alloy letters screwed into a frame. This way a large set of letters could make almost any page for printing. This process was called typesetting. Each letter was in a block of metal, fixed in a frame. He could then move paper and ink over it, much like a stamp. This method was called letterpress. The letters would leave ink on the paper in the shape of the letters, creating text or illustrations.

Bigger and much faster presses were invented in the industrial revolution. The main improvements were made in the 19th century. Two ideas altered the design of the printing press entirely. First was the use of steam power to run the machinery. Second was the replacement of the printing flatbed with the rotary motion of cylinders. Both were done by the German printer Friedrich Koenig between 1802 and 1818. Having moved to London in 1804, Koenig got financial support for his project in 1807.  In 1810, Koenig patented a steam press "much like a hand press connected to a steam engine".

Soon other inventions were added, such as the making of cheaper paper by using wood pulp instead of rags. Later in the 19th century came machines which speeded up typesetting, which was previously done by hand, letter by letter. A machine for hot metal typesetting was designed by Linotype Inc. It turned molten lead into type ready for printing.

Many further developments in printing happened in the 20th century. Today printing presses are controlled by special-purpose computers, and the material to be printed is prepared on computers. As a consequence of these inventions, the cost of printing has fallen significantly compared to other commodities. Now the price of a book or magazine is less determined by its  production, and more by other factors, such as marketing.

References

Machines
Printing

Printing press


Francisco IV de Benavides y Dávila, (1 November 1640, Madrid – 1716),  Viceroy of Sicily, 1678–1687,  Viceroy of Naples, 1687–1696,   9th Count of Santisteban del Puerto since March 1666, was the second son of Diego de Benavides, 8th Count of Santisteban (1607–1666).

Biography

His mother was Antonia Dávila y Corella, first wife out of three, totalling some 9 males/females, being 10th Countess of Cocentaina and  the daughter of : Spanish aristocrat Jerónimo Ruiz de Corella, between other things, General of the Artillery radicated in the Duchy of Milan, Italy while her mother, a "Manrique", came from a family holding several marquisates and counties in Spain.

The title of Count of Santisteban del Puerto was awarded by king Henry IV of Castile on 21 September 1473 to Diego Sánchez de Benavides while the Grandee of Spain, was awarded to this Francisco IV de Benavides y Dánila, 9th Count by king Charles II of Spain on 8 July 1696. Moreover,  on 20 August  1738 the 10th Count, Francisco IV son, Manuel de Benavides y Aragon, (1683–1748), the 14th child out of 18 males/females,  would be promoted to 1st Duke of Santisteban del Puerto, by king Philip V of Spain while being a Spanish Army Brigadier to reward his help in several battles and wars in Europe, including Italy and actions to "recuperate" the kingdoms of Sicily and Naples for Imperial Spain administration.

He married Francisca Josefa de Aragón y Sandoval, (Lucena, province of Córdoba, Spain, 23 August 1647 – 29 January 1697, aged 50) having some 18 males/females in their marriage. His wife, Francisca Josefa, was a daughter of Luis Ramón de Aragón- Folc de Cardona y Córdoba, 6th Duke of Segorbe, (1608–1670) and Mariana de Sandoval-Rojas y Enriquez de Cabrera, (1614–1651, aged 37), 3rd Duchess of Lerma, closely related to the then virtual Prime Minister of Spain under king Philip III of Spain, the promoter of the 12-year truce between Spain and the Protestant provinces of the Low Countries, united in the Dutch Republic, within the frame of the Eighty Years' War or Dutch-Spanish War.

Some references
http://www.fundacionmedinaceli.org/casaducal/fichaindividuo.aspx?id=302
http://www.fundacionmedinaceli.org/casaducal/fichaindividuo.aspx?id=303
http://www.grandesp.org.uk/historia/gzas/santisteban.htm

1640 births
1716 deaths
Nobility from Madrid
Viceroys of Naples
Viceroys of Sicily
Counts of Spain
17th-century Spanish people
18th-century Spanish people
Grandees of Spain

Francisco de Benavides


The Smurfs are fictional little blue beings created by Peyo, a Belgian cartoonist. They first appeared in 1958, and later in a cartoon television show created by Hanna-Barbera Productions in the 1980s. On September 12, 1981, they were featured on NBC on Saturday mornings as a cartoon series. The little blue creatures from Belgium became popular among all ages.

A feature movie called The Smurfs was released in 2011. The Smurfs 2 was a sequel released July 31, 2013.

Description

The smurfs are very small.  In cartoons in which they appear with humans, they are small enough to stand on a human hand.

Most Smurfs are male. There are only 3 females in the village: Smurfette, Sassette Smurfling, and Nanny Smurf.

Most Smurfs wear white pants and white Phrygian caps. Papa Smurf, Grandpa Smurf, and some of the Smurflings dress differently. Grandpa Smurf wears yellow clothes and Papa Smurf wears red clothes. The Smurflings are Sassette, Snappy, Slouchy, and Nat. Sassette and Nat do not dress like the other Smurfs at all, while Slouchy and Nat do dress like the others. In some comics, the Smurfs dress differently in color or clothing.

Smurfs live in mushroom-shaped houses in a village in a forest.

Characters
 Smurfette, one of the female Smurfs
 Papa Smurf, the village leader
 Brainy Smurf, an intellectual show-off
 Vanity Smurf, is a narcissist. He has a flower in his hat. He often holds a hand mirror, staring into his own reflection.  In the Hanna-Barbera cartoon series, Vanity speaks in a feminine voice.
 Grouchy Smurf, is a grouch
 Handy Smurf, is a mechanic and inventor.
 Hefty Smurf, strong Smurf
 Sassette Smurfling, the only female Smurfling
 Greedy Smurf, the village's baker
 Natural Smurf or Nat Smurfling, can communicate with animals.
 Grandpa Smurf, the former "Papa Smurf"
 Nanny Smurf, the oldest female Smurf
 Tailor Smurf, makes clothes
 Gustey a brave smurf
 Gargamel, a human, and the enemy of the Smurfs. Gargamel is an evil wizard who is absolutely obsessed with the Smurfs. His main goal changes. Sometimes he wants to catch Smurfs to eat them. Most of the time he tries to capture them for use in a potion to make gold. Sometimes it is simply getting revenge.
 Azrael, is Gargamel's cat and chases Smurfs.
 Scruple, is Gargamel's assistant who failed wizard school. He was introduced later in the series.

References

Other websites
 Muckno Mania festival breaks world record

The Smurfs


The Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) program compiles official data on crime in the United States, published by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). UCR is "a nationwide, cooperative statistical effort of nearly 18,000 city, university and college, county, state, tribal, and federal law enforcement agencies voluntarily reporting data on crimes brought to their attention".

Crime statistics are compiled from UCR data and published annually by the FBI in the Crime in the United States series. The FBI does not collect the data itself. Rather, law enforcement agencies across the United States provide the data to the FBI, which then compiles the Reports.

The Uniform Crime Reporting program began in 1929, and since then has become an important source of crime information for law enforcement, policymakers, scholars, and the media.

History
The UCR Program was based upon work by the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) and the Social Science Research Council (SSRC)  throughout the 1920s to create a uniform national set of crime statistics, reliable for analysis.  In 1927, the IACP created the Committee on Uniform Crime Reporting to determine statistics for national comparisons.  The committee determined seven crimes fundamental to comparing crime rates: murder and non-negligent manslaughter, forcible rape, burglary, aggravated assault, larceny and motor vehicle theft (the eighth, arson, was added under a congressional directive in 1979).  The early program was managed by the IACP, prior to FBI involvement, done through a monthly report.  The first report in January 1930 reported data from 400 cities throughout 43 states, covering more than 20 million individuals, approximately twenty percent of the total U.S. population.

On June 11, 1930, through IACP lobbying, the United States Congress passed legislation enacting 28 U.S.C. § 534, which granted the office of the Attorney General the ability to "acquire, collect, classify, and preserve identification, criminal identification, crime, and other records" with the ability to appoint officials to oversee this duty, including the subordinate members of the Bureau of Investigation.  The Attorney General, in turn, designated the FBI to serve as the national clearinghouse for the data collected, and the FBI assumed responsibility for managing the UCR Program in September 1930. The July 1930 issue of the IACP crime report announced the FBI's takeover of the program.  While the IACP discontinued oversight of the program, they continued to advise the FBI to better the UCR.

Since 1935, the FBI served as a data clearinghouse; organizing, collecting, and disseminating information voluntarily submitted by local, state, federal and tribal law enforcement agencies.  The UCR remained the primary tool for collection and analysis of data for the next half century.  Throughout the 1980s, a series of National UCR Conferences were with members from the IACP, Department of Justice, including the FBI, and newly formed Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS).  The purpose was to determine necessary system revisions and then implement them.  The result of these conferences was the release of a Blueprint for the Future of the Uniform Crime Reporting Program release in May 1985, detailing the necessary revisions.  The report proposed splitting reported data into two separate categories, the eight serious crimes (which later became known as "Part I index crimes") and 21 less commonly reported crimes (which later became known as "Part II index crimes").

In 2003, FBI UCR data were compiled from more than 16,000 agencies, representing 93 percent of the population in 46 states and the District of Columbia.  While nationally reporting is not mandated, many states have instituted laws requiring law enforcement within those states to provide UCR data.

Divisions
The UCR Program consists of four parts:
 Traditional Summary Reporting System (SRS) and the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) – Offense and arrest data
 Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted (LEOKA) Program
 Hate Crime Statistics Program – hate crimes
 Cargo Theft Reporting Program – cargo theft

The FBI publishes annual data from these collections in Crime in the United States, Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted, and Hate Crime Statistics.

Data collection
Each month, law enforcement agencies report the number of known index crimes in their jurisdiction to the FBI.  This mainly includes crimes reported to the police by the general public, but may also include crimes that police officers discover, and known through other sources.  Law enforcement agencies also report the number of crime cases cleared.

UCR crime categories

For reporting purposes, criminal offenses are divided into two major groups: Part I offenses and Part II offenses.

In Part I, the UCR indexes reported incidents of index crimes which are broken into two categories: violent and property crimes. Aggravated assault, forcible rape, murder, and robbery are classified as violent while arson, burglary, larceny-theft, and motor vehicle theft are classified as property crimes. These are reported via the document named Return A – Monthly Return of Offenses Known to the Police. Part 1 crimes are collectively known as Index crimes, this name is used because the crimes are considered quite serious, tend to be reported more reliably than others, and the reports are taken directly by the police and not a separate agency which aggregates the data and does not necessarily contribute to the UCR.

In Part II, the following categories are tracked: simple assault, curfew offenses and loitering, embezzlement, forgery and counterfeiting, disorderly conduct, driving under the influence, drug offenses, fraud, gambling, liquor offenses, offenses against the family, prostitution, public drunkenness, runaways, sex offenses, stolen property, vandalism, vagrancy, and weapons offenses.

Two property reports are also included in addition to the "Return A". The first is the Property Stolen by Classification report.  This report details the number of actual crimes of each type in the "Return A" and the monetary value of property stolen in conjunction with that crime.  Some offenses are reported in greater detail on this report than on the "Return A".  For example, on the "Report A", burglaries are divided into three categories: Forcible Entry, Unlawful Entry – No Force, and Attempted Forcible Entry.  On the Property Stolen by Classification report, burglaries are divided into six categories based on location, type (method and success of entry), and the time of the offense.  Offenses are counted in residences with offense times of 6 p.m. to 6 a.m., 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. and Unknown Time and Non-residences with the same three time groupings.

The second property report is the Property Stolen by Type (of Property) and Value report.  The monetary value of both stolen and recovered property are totaled and classified as one of eleven property types:

Clothing and Furs
Consumable goods
Currency, Notes, Etc.
Firearms
Household goods
Jewelry and Precious Metals
Livestock
Locally stolen motor vehicles
Office Equipment
Televisions, Radios, Stereos, Etc.
Miscellaneous

The FBI began recording arson rates, as part of the UCR, in 1979.  This report details arsons of the following property types:
Single Occupancy Residential (houses, townhouses, duplexes, etc.)
Other Residential (apartments, tenements, flats, hotels, motels, dormitories, etc.)
Storage (barns, garages, warehouses, etc.)
Industrial/Manufacturing
Other Commercial (stores, restaurants, offices, etc.)
Community/Public (churches, jails, schools, colleges, hospitals, etc.)
All Other Structures (out buildings, monuments, buildings under construction, etc.)
Motor Vehicles (automobiles, trucks, buses, motorcycles, etc.)
Other Mobile Property (trailers, recreational vehicles, airplanes, boats, etc.)
Other (crops, timber, fences, signs, etc.)

Advisory groups
The Criminal Justice Information Systems Committees of the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) and the National Sheriffs' Association (NSA) serve in an advisory capacity to the UCR Program and encourage local police departments and sheriff's departments to participate fully in the program.

In 1988, a Data Providers' Advisory Policy Board was established to provide input for UCR matters. The Board operated until 1993 when it combined with the National Crime Information Center Advisory Policy Board to form a single Advisory Policy Board (APB) to address all issues regarding the FBI's criminal justice information services. In addition, the Association of State UCR Programs (ASUCRP) focuses on UCR issues within individual state law enforcement associations and promotes interest in the UCR Program. These organizations foster widespread and responsible use of UCR statistics and assist data contributors when needed.

Limitations
The UCR itself warns that it reflects crime reports by police, not later adjudication. Because reporting quality, arrest likelihood, officers per capita, and funding vary by jurisdiction, the data should not be used to compare crime rates or frequencies between reporting agencies.

See also
 National Crime Victimization Survey
 Uniform Crime Reporting Handbook

References

Further reading
 Lynch, J. P., & Addington, L. A. (2007). Understanding crime statistics: revisiting the divergence of the NCVS and UCR. Cambridge studies in criminology. Cambridge University Press.
Kaplan, Jacob. 2021. Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program Data: A Practitioner's Guide.

External links
 Uniform Crime Reports, all years (official)
 Uniform Crime Report Statistics Graphed
 Uniform Crime Reporting Handbook (FBI)
 United States: Uniform Crime Report – State Statistics from 1960 to 2005
 Officer Survival Spotlight - Officer Perception and Assault Prevention FBI

Law enforcement databases in the United States
United States Department of Justice publications
Crime statistics
Academic works about criminology
1930 establishments in the United States
Publications established in 1930

Uniform Crime Reports


The Bond albedo is the fraction of power in the total electromagnetic radiation hitting an astronomical body which is scattered back out into space. It considers all wavelengths at all phase angles. It is necessary for estimating how much energy a planet or other body absorbs.

Astrophysics

Bond albedo


The Sir Frederick Mappin Building, or more familiarly the Mappin Building, is a Grade II listed building fronting onto Mappin Street, Sheffield, England, part of the University of Sheffield. The building and street (formerly Charlotte Street) are named after Sir Frederick Mappin (1821–1910), the so-called Father of Sheffield University.

Departments
The Mappin Building is in an area known as the St George's Complex (after the St George's Church building, also owned by the University), and houses much of the Faculty of Engineering. Departments based there are Mechanical Engineering, Civil and Structural Engineering, Electronic and Electrical Engineering and the division Aerospace Engineering. The building also houses St George's IT centre, an open-access computer centre available to all university students during office hours. To the rear of the building is the Sir Robert Hadfield Building, home to two other departments: Chemical and Biological Engineering, and Materials Science and Engineering.  The smaller Amy Johnson Building houses Automatic Control and Systems Engineering.  The south wing of the Mappin Street frontage of the main building also housed the Department Of Geology until the department's closure in 1990.

History

The oldest part of the building is the former Technical School, the earliest purpose-built building for what is now the University.  Designed by Flockton & Gibbs and completed in 1886, it now lies in the centre of the building.  The extensive Mappin Street frontage was also designed by Flockton & Gibbs, in a far more demonstrative style.  Work began on it in 1902 with the demolition of the former Grammar School on the site, but progressed in three phases and was finally completed in 1913.  This part of the building includes the main entrance, the John Carr Library and Mappin Hall, a large panelled room with stained glass windows and decorative plaster ceiling, used for various events.  It is connected to the Technical School by a bridge.  Part of the northern range along Broad Lane and a building behind the Technical School followed, then the connecting Engineering Building along Broad Lane, completed in 1955.  This gradual accretion has produced a complex plan and floor numbering scheme: the main entrance is on floor D, with floors A,B, C and C* existing at lower levels in various areas of the building, and floors E, F and G lying above.

Notes and references
Notes

Bibliography
Sheffield, Ruth Harman and John Minnis, Pevsner Architectural Guides

External links
University of Sheffield – Campus Map

Grade II listed buildings in Sheffield
Sheffield University buildings and structures
School buildings completed in 1886

Sir Frederick Mappin Building


SummerSlam (2016) was a wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) made by WWE. It happened on August 21, 2016 at the Barclay's Center in Brooklyn, New York. It was the twenty-ninth time a SummerSlam PPV was held, the second year in a row that it happened at the Barclay's Center and the first WWE PPV since the WWE brand extension started up again.

Twelve matches were performed at the event. In the most important match, Brock Lesnar beat Randy Orton by technical knockout while in another important match, Finn Balor beat Seth Rollins to become the first WWE Universal Champion.

Background

Dean Ambrose vs. Dolph Ziggler
This match was for the WWE World Championship. SmackDown wrestler Dean Ambrose won a match for the title at Battleground on July 25 against Raw wrestlers Roman Reigns and Seth Rollins. So SmackDown needed to find a challenger for Dean for SummerSlam and they had a six-pack challenge to find the challenger. The first five spots were given to John Cena, Bray Wyatt, AJ Styles, Baron Corbin and Dolph Ziggler. Apollo Crews took the sixth spot when he won a battle royal, but Dolph won the six-pack.

Finn Balor vs. Seth Rollins
Because the WWE World Championship was on SmackDown, Raw had to create their own world championship. They called it the WWE Universal Championship. Raw commissioner Stephanie McMahon felt that Seth had a chance to pin Dean Ambrose at Battleground and that would have brought the World Championship to Raw but Roman Reigns was selfish and broke up the pin. Because of that, Stephanie gave Seth the first spot in the first Universal Championship match. Then, Finn beat Cesaro, Kevin Owens and Rusev in a fatal 4-way match and Roman beat Chris Jericho, Sami Zayn and Sheamus in another fatal 4-way. Finally, Finn and Roman fought in a normal match where the winner would face Seth at SummerSlam and Finn won this match.

Matches
 On the pre-show, American Alpha (Chad Gable and Jason Jordan), The Hype Bros (Zack Ryder and Mojo Rawley), and The Usos (Jimmy Uso and Jey Uso) beat Breezango (Tyler Breeze and Fandango), The Ascension (Konnor and Viktor), and The Vaudevillains (Simon Gotch and Aiden English) in a 12-man tag team match.
 On the pre-show, Sami Zayn and Neville beat The Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray Dudley and D-Von Dudley) in a tag team match.
 On the pre-show, Sheamus beat Cesaro
 Chris Jericho and Kevin Owens beat Enzo Amore and Big Cass in a tag team match.
 Charlotte beat Sasha Banks (champion) for the WWE Women's Championship.
 The Miz (champion) (with Maryse) beat Apollo Crews for the WWE Intercontinental Championship.
 AJ Styles beat John Cena.
 Luke Gallows and Karl Anderson beat The New Day (Kofi Kingston and Xavier Woods) (champions) (with Jon Stewart) by disqualification for the WWE Tag Team Championship.
 Dean Ambrose (champion) beat Dolph Ziggler for the WWE World Championship.
 Natalya, Alexa Bliss, and Nikki Bella beat Becky Lynch, Naomi, and Carmella in a six-women tag team match.
 Finn Balor beat Seth Rollins to become the first WWE Universal Champion.
 Brock Lesnar (with Paul Heyman) beat Randy Orton.

2016 in the United States
Professional wrestling
SummerSlam
2010s in New York (state)

SummerSlam (2016)


The Welsh Hound (Welsh: Bytheiad or Ci Hela Cymreig) is a breed of hunting dog of the foxhound type, indigenous to Wales.

History
The Welsh Hound is a native breed to the British Isles. From medieval times through the early part of the 20th century, the bards, who had always held a special place in Welsh society, sang odes to the hounds, often naming individual hounds, and praising their qualities. "The ancient laws of Wales codified during the reign of Hywel Dda (942 – 948 AD) give the value of the Welsh Hound as 240 pence trained, 120 pence untrained. By comparison a sound pack horse was valued at the same time as 120 pence."

Temperament
The Welsh Hound has been kept as a hunting dog, living and hunting in packs. It is adapted to hunting in rocky and mountainous terrain in its native Wales. It has been bred to hunt amid the Welsh for its speed, stamina and vocalizations.  It is still used for drag hunting today. Welsh Hounds are expected to be immediately responsive to the huntsman's voice, but to learn commands from the responses and cues of the pack. They are known to 'talk' to the huntsman with various howls and barks signalling the progress of the hunt. While gentle, placid and friendly, they also make good house pets. They are hard to train and require consistency and firm guidance but are extremely loyal, gentle and tolerant with small children and other animals.

Breed recognition
The Welsh Hound is registered with The Welsh Hound Association, which has been keeping the breed's stud book since 1922, and maintaining the breed as purebred since 1928. The association was formed "for the purpose of preserving and promoting the Welsh Fox Hound as a specific British breed". The Welsh Hound was recognized by the United Kennel Club on 1 January 2006.

Since the outlawing of hunting with dogs in Great Britain, various clubs have been offering registration for the Welsh Hound as a rare breed pet.

Appearance
Coat is hard and wiry, red with white patches. Similar in appearance to the (English) Foxhound. Height : 24 in/61 cm Weight : 75 lb/34 kg.

See also
 Dogs portal
 List of dog breeds
 Foxhound

References

Rare dog breeds
Scent hounds
Dog breeds originating in Wales

Welsh Hound


British Rail Class D3/3 was a 0-6-0 shunting locomotive built by British Rail at their Derby Works in England. It was similar to the British Rail Class 08, except they were built with different engines and traction motors. They were all withdrawn and scrapped after only twelve years of service.

D3/3
C locomotives

British Rail Class D3/3


A vesicle is a bubble of liquid in a cell. More technically, a vesicle is a small membrane-enclosed sac that stores or transports substances in a cell. Vesicles form naturally because of the properties of lipid membranes. Vesicles can fuse with the plasma membrane, and release their contents outside the cell. Vesicles can also fuse with other organelles within the cell.

A vesicle is sometimes formed when the cell is doing endocytosis. Endocytosis is how a cell's membrane takes in a particle from the outside and brings it inside the cell with a vesicle around it. Vesicles are also more commonly known as nuclear membranes, because they're very similar to the cell membrane.

They can be found in animal cells.

Organelles

Vesicle


A transit of Venus across the Sun happens when the planet Venus goes between the Sun and Earth. It is a syzygy and a partial occultation of the Sun. When a transit happens, Venus can be seen as a small black dot going across the Sun. Transits of Venus usually take several hours.

Transits of Venus are among the rarest of predictable events which happen in astronomy. They occur in a pattern that repeats every 243 years, with pairs of transits eight years apart separated by long gaps of 121.5 years and 105.5 years.

The most recent transit of Venus happened on 5 and 6 June 2012. It was the last Venus transit this century. The one before took place on 8 June 2004. The next transits of Venus will be in December 2117 and December 2125.

The transit on 5 and 6 June 2012 was broadcast live on the Internet.

During the 18th century, astronomers tried to use transits of Venus to measure the astronomical unit, the distance from the Earth to the Sun. Many countries sent expeditions to distant lands to observe the transits from places as far apart as possible for maximum parallax.

One of the most famous expeditions was the voyage of Lieutenant James Cook in the HMS Endeavour.

References

Venus

Transit of Venus


In computing, a file shortcut is a handle in a user interface that allows the user to find a file or resource located in a different directory or folder from the place where the shortcut is located. Similarly, an Internet shortcut allows the user to open a page, file or resource located at a remote Internet location or Web site.

Shortcuts are typically implemented as a small file containing a target URI or GUID to an object, or the name of a target program file that the shortcut represents. The shortcut might additionally specify parameters to be passed to the target program when it is run. Each shortcut can have its own icon. Shortcuts are very commonly placed on a desktop, in an application launcher panel such as the Microsoft Windows Start menu, or in the main menu of a desktop environment. The functional equivalent in the Macintosh operating system is called an alias. Unix-like systems have symbolic links which point to a target file, and often support .desktop files which provide additional configuration details.

Implementations

Microsoft Windows

File shortcuts (also known as shell links) were introduced in Windows 95. Microsoft Windows uses .lnk as the filename extension for shortcuts to local files, and .URL for shortcuts to remote files, like web pages.  Commonly referred to as "shortcuts" or "link files", both are displayed with a curled arrow overlay icon by default, and no filename extension.  (The extension remains hidden in Windows Explorer even when "Hide extensions for known file types" is unchecked in File Type options, because it is controlled by the NeverShowExt option in HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT\lnkfile in the Registry.  The IsShortcut option causes the arrow to be displayed.) Shortcut files can be used to launch programs in minimized or maximized window states if the program supports it.

Microsoft Windows .lnk files operate as Windows Explorer extensions, rather than file system extensions. As a shell extension, .lnk files cannot be used in place of the file except in Windows Explorer, and have other uses in Windows Explorer in addition to use as a shortcut to a local file (or GUID). These files also begin with "L".

Although shortcuts, when created, point to specific files or folders, they may break if the target is moved to another location. When a shortcut file that points to a nonexistent target is opened, Explorer will attempt to repair the shortcut. Windows 9x-based versions of Windows use a simple search algorithm to fix broken shortcuts. On Windows NT-based operating systems and the NTFS file system, the target object's unique identifier is stored in the shortcut file and Windows can use the Distributed Link Tracking service for tracking the targets of shortcuts, so that the shortcut may be silently updated if the target moves to another hard drive. Windows Installer, introduced in Windows 2000, added another special type of shortcuts called "Advertised Shortcuts."

File shortcuts in Windows can store a working directory path besides the target path. Environment variables can be used. A hotkey can be defined in the shortcut's properties for shortcuts that are located in the Start Menu folders, pinned to the Taskbar or the Desktop. In Windows 2000 onwards, file shortcuts can store comments which are displayed as a tooltip when the mouse hovers over the shortcut.

Generally, the effect of double-clicking a shortcut is intended to be the same as double-clicking the application or document to which it refers, but Windows shortcuts contain separate properties for the target file and the "Start In" directory. If the latter parameter is not entered, attempting to use the shortcut for some programs may generate "missing DLL" errors not present when the application is accessed directly.

File system links can also be created on Windows systems (Vista and up). They serve a similar function, although they are a feature of the file system. Windows shortcuts are files and work independently of the file system, through Explorer.

Beginning with Windows 7, some shortcuts also store Application User Model IDs (AppUserModelIDs). Instead of the target command line, AppUserModelIDs may directly be used to launch applications. Shortcuts with AppUserModelIDs are used by some desktop programs and all WinRT Modern/Universal Windows Platform apps for launching.

Although Windows does not provide convenient tools to create it, Explorer supports a "folder link" or "shell link folder": a folder with the system attribute set, containing a hidden "desktop.ini" (folder customization) file which tells Explorer to look in that same folder for a "target.lnk" shortcut file pointing to another folder. When viewed in Explorer, the shell link folder then appears to have the contents of the target folder in it—that is, the customized folder becomes the effective shortcut. This technique is used by Microsoft Windows for items like WebDAV folders. The advent of file system links in Windows Vista and up has made shell link folders less useful.

There is another type of file that is similar to a .lnk file, but has the extension .cda. This is used to reference a track (song) on a CD (in standard CDDA / RedBook format).

Unix

On Unix-like systems such as Linux and BSD, a simple pointer to a target file or directory is implemented in the operating system as a symbolic link.

When the target is a program, many graphical user interfaces support .desktop and .directoryfiles. The format of these plain text files follows the 'desktop entry' specification by freedesktop.org, and besides the location of the program they can provide an icon, a tooltip and other details.

Mac

Macintosh does not have extensions for shortcuts. A file type called "alias" was introduced in Macintosh System 7; it tracks information like inode number to handle moves. Aliases in System 7 through Mac OS 9 were distinguished from other files by using names in italics. In Mac OS 8.5 and later, another distinguishing mark was added: an "alias arrow"a black arrow with a thin, white border  similar to that used for shortcuts in Microsoft Windows. In Mac OS X, the names of aliases are no longer italicized, but the arrow badge remains. Additionally, an alias retains its dynamic reference to an object and does not have to be specified even when calling files on remote servers.

In addition, symbolic links can be created within the Unix subsystem. The Safari browser has its own property list-based format, , for storing Internet URLs.

History
To execute an application or render a file in early graphical user interfaces, the user had to click on the representation of the actual file or executable in the location where the application or file was. The concept of disassociating the executable from the icon representing an instruction to perform a task associated with that file or executable so that they may be grouped by function or task rather than physical organisation in the file structure was first described in the research paper "A Task Oriented Front End For The Windows Graphical User Interface", by Mike Roberts, published in 1991 by Kingston University and presented to both Microsoft and Xerox EuroPARC that same year under an academia/business technology sharing agreement. A simplified form of this research was incorporated into System 7 in 1991, and four years later into Windows 95.

See also
 NTFS symbolic link
 Hard link
 Program information file

References

External links
Windows LNK
"MS-SHLLINK: Shell Link (.LNK) Binary File Format" from Microsoft
Windows Shortcut File format specification of Joachim Metz, combining Microsoft specification and observations across Windows versions – for example, some aspects of Windows 95 behavior are not mentioned in MS-SHELLINK
 IShellLink interface for accessing .lnk files in the Windows API
 "Shellify"  Shellify is a 100% managed .NET implementation of the Microsoft Shell Link (.LNK) Binary File Format for accessing .lnk files without the Windows API
 Win32::Shortcut - Perl Module to deal with Windows Shortcuts Perl library

.desktop files
"Howto desktop file", a guide for .desktop files

Executable file formats
Windows architecture

Shortcut (computing)


Rojava, or Western Kurdistan, or Syrian Kurdistan, is a part of divided Kurdistan in the Middle East. It consists of three areas called 'cantons' in Northern Syria but the Syrian government is not in control there. Instead, since a revolution which happened early on in the Syrian Civil War, it has had its own independent government, although it does not claim to be a new independent country, calling itself a 'federal autonomous region' inside of Syria instead.

Many people in Rojava are Kurds, but there are also many different ethnic groups living there, such as Turkmen,Arabs, Syriacs, Assyrians, and Yezidis. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group in Syria. Before the civil war, many human rights organizations such as Amnesty International said that the Syrian government treated the Kurds very poorly. Kurds in Syria are not allowed to officially use the Kurdish language, and also  not allowed to register children with Kurdish names, start businesses that do not have Arabic names, build Kurdish private schools, or publish any books or other materials written in Kurdish. But this is no longer enforced due to the civil war.

This gave the Kurds many reasons to support a revolution against the government. They also needed to organize an army to defend themselves from the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) which almost took control of Rojava because the government could not defend it due to the civil war. ISIL is still at war with Rojava. As of 2017, there is a truce between Rojava and the Syrian government. The United States have given money and weapons to Rojava to help  defeat ISIL but some say that they are supporting ISIL.

Rojava is claiming to be a democracy. It has a constitution which says that women's rights and the rights of ethnic and religious minorities have to be respected. In the Middle East this is very unusual. There are two military organisations one for men, the YPG, and an army for women, the YPJ.

Other websites

Syria

Rojava