Éléktromagnétisme, dina fisika, nyaéta fénoména di mana hiji médan ngeprakkeun hiji gaya kana partikel nu sifatna mibanda muatan listrik, sarta sabalikna kapangaruhan ku hadirna sarta gerak partikel dimaksud.

The magnetic field is produced by the motion of electric charges, i.e. electric current. The magnetic field causes the magnetic force associated with magnets.

While preparing for an evening lecture on 21 April 1820, Hans Christian Ørsted developed an experiment which provided evidence that surprised him. As he was setting up his materials, he noticed a compass needle deflected from magnetic north when the electric current from the battery he was using was switched on and off. This deflection convinced him that magnetic fields radiate from all sides of a wire carrying an electric current, just as light and héat do, and that it confirmed a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism.

At the time of discovery, Ørsted did not suggest any satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon, nor did he try to represent the phenomenon in a mathematical framework. However, three months later he began more intensive investigations. Soon theréafter he published his findings, proving that an electric current produces a magnetic field as it flows through a wire. The CGS unit of magnetic induction (oersted) is named in honor of his contributions to the field of electromagnetism.

His findings resulted in intensive reséarch throughout the scientific community in electrodynamics. They influenced French physicist André-Marie Ampére's developments of a single mathematical form to represent the magnetic forces between current-carrying conductors. Ørsted's discovery also represented a major step toward a unified concept of energy.

Ørsted was not the first person to examine the relation between electricity and magnetism. In 1802  Gian Domenico Romagnosi, an Italian legal scholar, deflected a magnetic needle by electrostatic charges. He interpreted his observations as The Relation between electricity and magnetism. Actually, no galvanic current existed in the setup and hence no electromagnetism was present. An account of the discovery was published in 1802 in an Italian newspaper, but it was largely overlooked by the contemporary scientific community.

A changing magnetic field produces an electric field (this is the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, the basis of operation for electrical generators, induction motors, and transformers). Similarly, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field. Because of this interdependence of the electric and magnetic fields, it makes sense to consider them as a single coherent entity—the electromagnetic field.

This unification, which was observed by Michael Faraday, extended by James Clerk Maxwell, and partially reformulated by Oliver Heaviside, is one of the triumphs of 19th century physics. It had far-réaching consequences, one of which was the understanding of the nature of light. As it turns out, what is thought of as "light" is actually a propagating oscillatory disturbance in the electromagnetic field, i.e., an electromagnetic wave. Different frequencies of oscillation give rise to the different forms of electromagnetic radiation, from radio waves at the lowest frequencies, to visible light at intermediate frequencies, to gamma rays at the highest frequencies.

The théoretical implications of electromagnetism led to the development of special relativity by Albert Einstein in 1905.

The electromagnetic force

The force that the electromagnetic field exerts on electrically charged particles, called the electromagnetic force, is one of the four fundamental forces. The other fundamental forces are the strong nuclear force (which holds atomic nuclei together), the weak nuclear force (which causes certain forms of radioactive decay), and the gravitational force. All other forces are ultimately derived from these fundamental forces.

As it turns out, the electromagnetic force is the one responsible for practically all the phenomena encountered in daily life, with the exception of gravity. Roughly spéaking, all the forces involved in interactions between atoms can be traced to the electromagnetic force acting on the electrically charged protons and electrons inside the atoms. This includes the forces we experience in "pushing" or "pulling" ordinary material objects, which come from the intermolecular forces between the individual molecules in our bodies and those in the objects. It also includes all forms of chemical phenomena, which arise from interactions between electron orbitals.

Classical electrodynamics
The scientist William Gilbert proposed, in his De Magnete (1600), that electricity and magnetism, while both capable of causing attraction and repulsion of objects, were distinct effects.  Mariners had noticed that lightning strikes had the ability to disturb needle, but the link between lightning and electricity was not confirmed until Benjamin Franklin's proposed experiments in 1752.  One of the first to discover and publish a link between man-made electric current and magnetism was Romagnosi, who in 1802 noticed that connecting a wire across a Voltaic pile deflected a néarby compass needle. However, the effect did not become widely known until 1820, when Ørsted performed a similar experiment. Ørsted's work influenced Ampére to produce a théory of electromagnetism that set the subject on a mathematical foundation.

An accurate théory of electromagnetism, known as classical electromagnetism, was developed by various physicists over the course of the 19th century, culminating in the work of James Clerk Maxwell, who unified the preceding developments into a single théory and discovered the electromagnetic nature of light. In classical electromagnetism, the electromagnetic field obeys a set of equations known as Maxwell's equations, and the electromagnetic force is given by the Lorentz force law.

One of the peculiarities of classical electromagnetism is that it is difficult to reconcile with classical mechanics, but it is compatible with special relativity. According to Maxwell's equations, the speed of light is a universal constant, dependent only on the electrical permittivity and magnetic permeability of the vacuum. This violates Galilean invariance, a long-standing cornerstone of classical mechanics. One way to reconcile the two théories is to assume the existence of a luminiferous aether through which the light propagates. However, subsequent experimental efforts failed to detect the presence of the aether. In 1905, Albert Einstein solved the problem with the introduction of special relativity, which replaces classical kinematics with a new théory of kinematics that is compatible with classical electromagnetism.

In addition, relativity théory shows that in moving frames of reference a magnetic field transforms to a field with a nonzero electric component and vice versa; thus firmly showing that they are two sides of the same coin, and thus the term "electromagnetism".

The photoelectric effect
In another paper published in that same yéar, Albert Einstein undermined the very foundations of classical electromagnetism. His théory of the photoelectric effect (for which he won the Nobel prize for physics) posited that light could exist in discrete particle-like quantities, which later came to be known as photons. Einstein's théory of the photoelectric effect extended the insights that appéared in the solution of the ultraviolet catastrophe presented by Max Planck in 1900. In his work, Planck showed that hot objects emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete packets, which léads to a finite total energy emitted as black body radiation. Both of these results were in direct contradiction with the classical view of light as a continuous wave. Planck's and Einstein's théories were progenitors of quantum mechanics, which, when formulated in 1925, necessitated the invention of a quantum théory of electromagnetism. This théory, completed in the 1940s, is known as quantum electrodynamics (or "QED"), and is one of the most accurate théories known to physics.

Definition
The term electrodynamics is sometimes used to refer to the combination of electromagnetism with mechanics, and déals with the effects of the electromagnetic field on the dynamic behavior of electrically charged particles.

Units
Electromagnetic units are part of a system of electrical units based primarily upon the magnetic properties of electric currents, the fundamental cgs unit being the abampere. The units are:

 ampere (current)
 coulomb (charge)
 farad (capacitance)
 henry (inductance)
 ohm (resistance)
 volt (electric potential)
 watt (power)

In the electromagnetic cgs system, electrical current is a fundamental quantity defined via Ampére's law and takes the permeability as a dimensionless quantity (relative perméability) whose value in a vacuum is unity. As a consequence, the square of the speed of light appéars explicitly in some of the equations interrelating quantities in this system.

See also
 Abraham-Lorentz force
 Classical electromagnetism
 Double-slit experiment
 Electricity
 Electromagnet
 Electromagnetic modeling
 Electromagnetic wave equation
 Electromechanics
 Electrostatics
 Formulation of Maxwell's equations in special relativity
 Gamma ray
 Lorentz force
 Maglev
 Magnetism
 Maxwell's equations in curved spacetime
 Microwave
 Optics
 Photon polarization
 Plasma (physics)
 Polarization
 Radio wave
 Waveguide
 X-ray

References

Web

Books

</div>

External links
 Electromagnetic Tutorials and Forums EM Talk
 MIT Video Lectures - Electricity and Magnetism from Spring 2002. Taught by Professor Walter Lewin.
 Electricity and Magnetism  - an online textbook (uses algebra, with optional calculus-based sections)
 Electromagnetic Field Theory - an online textbook (uses calculus)
 Classical Electromagnetism: An intermediate level course - an online intermediate level texbook downloadable as PDF file
 Science Aid: electromagnetism Electromagnetism, aimed at teens.
 Motion Mountain A modérn introduction to electromagnetism and its effects in everyday life.
 Books on Electromagnetism and RF field
 Dr. David C. Jenn's site - specializing in radar systems and electromagnetic scattering and radiation
 Gallery of Electromagnetic Personalities
 MSci Electromagnetic Theory Lecture Notes
 PHY2206 Electromagnetic Fields Course Handouts
 Dr. David Kagan Physics 204B Lecture Notes
 Sophocles J. Orfanidis' Electromagnetic Waves and Antennas
 MAS207 Electromagnetism Lecture Notes
 PHYS1002 - Electromagnetism, Optics, Relativity and Quantum Physics I
 Dr. Zbigniew Ficek's PHYS3050 Electromagnetic theory lecture notes
 University of Cambridge's Advanced Physics Electromagnetism
 ECEN4364 Principles of RF and Microwave Measurements lecture notes
 B7 Relativity and Electromagnetism
 NMJ Woodhouse's Special Relativity and Electromagnetism
 NMJ Woodhouse's General Relativity
 Maxwell, Mechanism and the Nature of Electricity
 Electromagnetism Mathematica notes
 "National Grid", electromagnetic sound art
 "Disinformation", electromagnetic sound art
 Differential Forms in Electromagnetic Theory
 The Life of James Clerk Maxwell - prepared by James C. Rautio of Sonnet Software, Inc.
 Classical Electrodynamics and Theory of Relativity - by Ruslan Sharipov
 Axial Vectors  - by Alain Bossavit

Konsép fisika dasar

Éléktromagnétisme


Peer Gynt is a dramatic poem by Henrik Ibsen, written in 1867. Ibsen based this work on Norse fairy tales written by Peter Christen Asbjørnsen.  Asbjørnsen had written these stories about 1848-1850. Ibsen wrote the poem to analyse and criticize the romantic nationalist movement that was present in Norway during that time.

Originally, Peer Gynt was a poem, but Ibsen later adapted it to be a stage play. Edvard Grieg composed the original music for the stage. The first performance was on 24 February 1876, in Christiania, modern-day Oslo. The musical score for the play is made of 26 pieces. In 1888 and 1891, Grieg took eight pieces, and comined them into two suites, of four pieces each. These are known as the Peer Gynt Suites today, and are widely known.

Many movies were made about the subject, the first in 1915.

19th-century plays
1860s poems
Norwegian literature

Peer Gynt


is a Japanese author and manga artist.

She made popular manga books such as Ranma ½ and InuYasha. She is the richest woman in Japan and her manga is loved all over the world.  She joined Gekiga Sonjuku college: a manga school run by Kazuo Koike, also a manga artist. With the school's help, she managed to make a "doujinshi" (self-published work mostly for beginners) manga artwork, for example, Bye-Bye Road and Star of Futile Dust.

Beginning of professional work (as a real job)
She first started with Those Selfish Aliens in 1978, followed by Time Warp Trouble, Shake Your Buddha, and The Golden Gods of Poverty, published in Shonen Sunday - this place was to become the publisher of her most important works. Later in this year, she tried to work on Urusei Yatsura (Lamu, the invader girl), her first full series of books. This had some publishing problems, but even so, it became the most loved manga comedy in Japan.

Major and important works
In 1980, she wrote a lot of books. The most important was Maison Ikkoku from 1980 to 1987. She finished both Urusei Yatsura (34 books) with Maison Ikkoku (15 books). After that she began a dark, story telling type of manga - the Mermaid Saga, finished at 1994, with the story Mermaid's mask. It is thought to be unfinished because it did not have a note to tell the reader it was ended. One-pound Gospel was her next book. It was nearly not finished because of the ending similar to Mermaid Saga, with the last story done in 2001.

At late 1987, she began another major manga called Ranma ½. It ended in 1996 with 38 books altogether. During 1990s, she began InuYasha. It was a magical story very similar to Mermaid Saga. Rumiko Takahashi had said that she would make it up to 500 chapters and 50 books. That would make it the longest she has ever made for now.

Anime based on her manga
In 1981, Urusei Yatsura was the first work to become an anime. This series began showing on October 14 at the Japanese television by a studio called Kitty Animation. This had many different directors during the making of this anime. The most well known director was Mamoru Oshii. He also directed the second Urusei Yatsura movie, Beautiful Dreamer. This is thought to be his best work for the anime. Kitty Animation also made the anime of Maison Ikkoku in 1986 (with 96 episodes and 4 Original Video Animation (OVA)s, which are animes made only on video but not on TV). It also made Ranma ½ in anime.  Kitty Animation stopped because of problems, and Ranma ½ anime also stopped during episode 161.

Sunrise was the next studio to make animes out of Rumiko Takahashi's mangas. They made 167 episodes of InuYasha animes, started on 2000 and ending in 2004. As with Ranma ½, InuYasha did not finish. This was because the manga InuYasha was too long to continue in anime. The Mermaid Saga anime was made in 2003 for 13 series of the manga.

The later animes are from her short mangas: The Tragedy of P, The Merchant of Romance, Middle-Aged Teen, Hidden In The Pottery, Aberrant Family F, As Long As You Are Here, One Hundred Years of Love, In Lieu of Thanks, Living Room Lovesong, House of Garbage, One Day Dream, Extra-Large Size Happiness and The Executive's Dog.

Effect of her works in Western world (outside Japan)
Takahashi is still popular in Europe, mostly in France. Viz Media is the studio that translated most of the animes in English. At early 1990s, they began to translate Urusei Yatsura the anime. Because it was difficult to translate the Japanese way of life/culture and the confusing puns and wordplay, they stopped the series. Mermaid Saga, Maison Ikkoku and Inuyasha could go on even so. Ranma ½ was popular for English-speakers. It was shown all over the world. Viz also showed InuYasha anime on Adult Swim, where it was very popular. InuYasha is the very popular even now. Even with many of her works having Japanese cultures that is difficult to understand in them, the believable characters in them and their feelings are easy to understand all over the world.

References

Other websites
Rumiko Takahashi , a fan-produced biography
Rumiko No Sekai  French website on Rumiko Takahashi manga
Rumiko Takahashi entry at Anime.com
Takahashi's Work

1975 births
Living people
Japanese manga artists
People from Niigata Prefecture

Rumiko Takahashi


Ronald Fournier (born August 3, 1949) is a Quebec-born radio host and sport journalist. He is also a retired professional hockey referee.

Early life
Fournier was raised in Montreal. In his youth he played baseball with teammates Maurice Jr. and Normand Richard (Maurice Richard's sons) with the Braves d'Ahuntsic. When winter came, he switched to a goalie outfit with which he would be drafted with the Drummondville Rangers in the beginnings of the LHJMQ.

He was never drafted by the National Hockey League but he had already thought of becoming a referee if he couldn't get in the league as a hockey player. At the age of 19, he called the city of Montreal and the day after he was scheduled to become a referee. He then went on to do four years in the World Hockey Association followed by 10 years in the National Hockey League which he retired from in 1987.

Radio & Journalism
In 1987 he became a radio host. It all started at CJMS, then switched to CKAC in 1994, a radio station based in Montreal where he hosts multiple call-in shows about sports in general, such as Bonsoir les sportifs (Good evening sportspeople) and Parlons hockey (Let's talk hockey). The first is the one he is most known for and racks up to 300,000 listeners, most of them Montreal Canadiens fans that await his prophetic words and his magnanimous phrase.

He also appears on other shows broadcast by Corus. On television, he was an intermission analyst on La Soirée du hockey (Hockey Night) on Radio-Canada. As a radio announcer he is mostly known for saying  Pas pire, pas pire, pas pire (Not bad, not bad, not bad) and some would nickname him the French-Canadian Don Cherry.

Other involvements
Ron Fournier also gives conferences on leadership and motivation.

He is the current president of an eponymous hockey referee school situated in the arena in Candiac, Quebec.

The band Les Cowboys Fringants have written a song that portraits him, Salut mon Ron, which was showcased on the album Break syndical in 2002.

References

1949 births
Living people
National Hockey League officials
National Hockey League broadcasters
Canadian sports announcers
Montreal Canadiens announcers

Ron Fournier (radio personality)


Gin is a spirit which derives its predominant flavour frae juneper berries (Juniperus communis). Frae its earliest origins in the Middle Ages, gin haes evolved frae a yerbal medicine tae an object o commerce in the spirits industry. Gin wis developed on the basis o the aulder jenever, an acame popular in Great Breetain when William o Orange, leader o the Dutch Republic, occupied the Inglis, Scots an Erse thrones wi his wife Mary. Gin is ane o the broadest categories o spirits, representit bi products o various origins, styles, an flavour profiles that aw revolve aroond juniper as a common ingredient.

References

Distilled drinks

Dutch inventions

Gin


Parsifal is an opera in three acts by Richard Wagner.  Wagner took most of the story from a medieval poem Parzival by the German poet Wolfram von Eschenbach.  It was the last opera that Wagner completed.  He started thinking about it in 1857 but did not do much work to it until after he had finished the cycle of four operas known as the Ring Cycle which was produced complete in 1876 in the special theatre (Festspielhaus) he had built in Bayreuth.  Wagner composed his opera Parsifal so that it would suit the sound of this new theatre.  It was first produced in 1882.  The story is related to the Arthurian legends.

The Musical background to the opera

Wagner did more than any other composer in the 19th century to change the way that people listened to opera.  In the 18th century people went to the opera house and sat in their boxes to chat to other people and be seen.  Composers wrote operas with big arias which allowed the singers to show off their skills and make the audience applaud.

Wagner changed all this.  He soon developed operas in which there is no difference between recitative (where the story is told) and arias (big songs for the soloists).  The music of his later operas, especially Parsifal, is like a long, continuous line with rich, Romantic harmony.  The music develops logically, with leitmotifs (very short pieces of music which represent particular people or ideas) which help the music and the story to develop.

The story of Parsifal

The story of Parsifal and the Holy Grail has survived in several forms that date from between 1170 and 1220.  Wagner, who always wrote the words of his operas himself, used a mixture of several of these versions of the story to fit his ideas for the opera.  Parsifal is a young man who is a "pure fool", which means that he is an  innocent, good man who slowly starts to understand the world.  The Holy Grail is the cup from which Jesus Christ is supposed to have drunk at the Last Supper.  The Holy Spear is the spear which is supposed to have been the one with which the Roman soldier pierced Jesus' side when he was put on the cross.  The Holy Grail and the Holy Spear are sacred relics (things from the past) which have been given to Titurel and his band of Christian knights to look after.  Titurel has built a castle, Montsalvat, high up on the forest rocks, to guard them.  In particular, he has to watch out for Klingsor who lives nearby.  Klingsor is a magician who has a garden full of beautiful flower-maidens.  These maidens are in his power.  One of them is Kundry.  She has already been made to  several young knights to Klingsor's power.  Even Titurel's son, Amfortas, could not resist the lure of Kundry.  His spear was taken from him and he was badly wounded before being rescued.  At the beginning of the opera he is lying in pain.  The only thing that could heal the wound would be the touch of the Holy Spear which Klingsor now has, and the only person who could get that spear back again is a "pure fool", a young man who knows nothing about the evil of the world and who can resist the beauty of the flower-maidens.

The story of the opera

Act I

The opera starts with an orchestral prelude (Wagner does not call it an "overture").  When the curtain rises Gurnemanz, one of the senior knights, wakes up two sleeping servants.  They kneel and pray as King Amfortas is brought down on his bed to the forest lake to bathe his wound.  Kundry arrives, dashing in on her horse, looking for something to heal the wound (when Kundry is away from Klingsor she is not in his power.  She feels that it was her fault that Amfortas was wounded.  When Kundry is not in Klingsor's power she is actually a faithful messenger of the Grail).

Suddenly a wounded swan (a bird that is sacred to the knights of the Grail) falls dead at Gurnemanz's feet.  The swan had been killed by Parsifal.  He did not know that it was a wrong thing to do, but when the knights capture him he realizes his guilt and he breaks the arrow.  The knights ask him his name, but Parsifal says he does not know his name or where he comes from.  Suddenly the knights realize that Parsifal is the pure fool they need who can capture the Holy Spear.

The scene changes.  The knights take communion.  Amfortas is in terrible pain but has to do his duty in the ceremony.  When the Holy Grail is shown it sparkles brightly in the hall.  The knights sink to their knees.  Only Parsifal does not seem to understand the meaning of it all.

Act II

The scene is Klingsor's magic garden by his castle. Kundry has been summoned by him is now quite different: she has no power of her own, and is controlled and tormented by Klingsor. Klingsor notices Parsifal, whom he is expecting, approach from the distance, and sends his magical knights to fight him, expecting them to be defeated by Parsifal. The flower-maidens, the wives of the knights, see Parsifal and call him by his name.  No one has ever called him by his name before.  When one of them kisses his lips he suddenly realizes what it is he has to do.  He now remembers everything that has happened in Act I and understands its meaning.  He throws the maiden to one side.  Klingsor appears and throws the spear at Parsifal, but magically it stops over Parsifal's head.  Parsifal grabs it and makes the sign of the cross.  The castle is destroyed, the gardens disappear, and he goes off back to the Grail.

Act III

After a journey which takes him many years Parsifal comes back to the Grail forest.  Gurnemanz is now very old.  Kundry works for the knights.  Parsifal himself is dressed as a black knight.  Kundry recognizes him, but Gurnemanz does not.  He is annoyed that an armed stranger should come on this holy day (it is Good Friday).  Parsifal throws the spear into the ground, puts down his weapons and takes off his helmet.  Gurnemanz realizes who it is.  He helps him to dress like a knight of the Grail.  Kundry washes his feet and dries them with her long hair.  Gurnemanz blesses Parsifal's head. Parsifal is now a knight of the Grail, and he baptizes Kundry.  Titurel has just died, and Amfortas, still in terrible pain, comes out to uncover the Grail.  Parsifal enters and touches the wound with the point of the spear.  Amfortas's pain changes to happiness, the shrine is opened, the Grail is surrounded by light.  The knights kneel down, Kundry dies peacefully.  All is forgiven.  The music finishes with a climax based on the leitmotifs of the Holy Grail and the Sacrament.

The performances of Parsifal

Until 1903, the Bayreuth Festspielhaus was the only place where Wagner's opera Parsifal was allowed to be performed.  In 1903, the opera was performed at the Metropolitan Opera in New York.  Soon, it was being performed in other places as well.

Wagner like to describe Parsifal as "ein Bühnenweihfestspiel"  ("A Festival Play for the Consecration of the Stage"). At Bayreuth, it has become tradition that there is to be no applause after the first act of the opera.

The conductor of the first performance was Hermann Levi, the court conductor at the Munich Opera. Wagner objected to Parsifal being conducted by a Jew (Levi's father was in fact a rabbi). Wagner first suggested that Levi should convert to Christianity, which Levi declined to do. Wagner then wrote to King Ludwig that he had decided to accept Levi. This despite the fact that (he alleged) he had received complaints that "of all pieces, this most Christian of works" should be conducted by a Jew. The King expressed his satisfaction at this. He said that "human beings are basically all brothers". Wagner wrote to the King that he "regard[ed] the Jewish race as the born enemy of pure humanity and everything noble about it".

References
Footnotes

Sources
Ernest Newman (1976) The Life of Richard Wagner: 1813-1848. Cambridge University Press. .
John Deathridge (2008) Wagner Beyond Good and Evil. University of California Press. .

Operas by Richard Wagner
Works based on the Arthurian legend
1880s operas

Parsifal


The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom is a book by Harvard Law School professor Yochai Benkler published by Yale University Press on April 3, 2006. The book has been recognized as one of the most influential works of its time concerning the rise and impact of the Internet on the society, particularly in the sphere of economics. It also helped popularize the term Benkler coined few years earlier, the  commons-based peer production (CBPP).

A PDF of the book is downloadable under a Creative Commons Noncommercial Sharealike license.  Benkler has said that his editable online book is "an experiment of how books might be in the future", demonstrating how authors and readers might connect instantly or even collaborate.

Summary

Part 1: The Networked Information Economy
Benkler describes the current epoch as a "moment of opportunity" due to the emergence of what he terms the Networked Information Economy (NIE), a "technological-economic feasibility space" that is the result of the means of producing media becoming more socially accessible.  Benkler states that his methodology in the text is to look at social relations using economics, liberal political theory, and focuses on individual actions in nonmarket relations.

Benkler sees communication and information as the most important cultural and economic outputs of advanced economies.  He traces the emergence and development of various communications (radio, newspapers, television) through the 19th and 20th centuries as functions of increasingly centralized control due to the high cost factor of production, and believes that media was thus produced on an industrial scale. Benkler's term for this is the Industrial information economy.

With the emergence of computers, networks, and increasingly affordable media production outlets, Benkler introduces the concept of the NIE, which sees media access as a form of power, and recognizes decentralized individual actions in said media as a result of the removal of physical and economic constraints to the creation of media. To Benkler, this is due to a new feasibility space: lowered costs of access via digital production and radical decentralization rather than centralized messaging ("coordinate coexistence", 30).

This results in emerging productions of information that use non-proprietary strategies (such as GNU licences and collaborative production formats).

Goods
The forms of cultural productions — music is an example Benkler uses frequently — are either rival or nonrival.  Rival products decrease as they are used (e.g. pounds of flour), the use of nonrival products (e.g. listening to a song) does not decrease their availability for further use.

Static vs. dynamic efficiency: one premise of exclusive rights has always been that only financial incentives can facilitate participation in information production.  Benkler argues that in an age where computers reduce the cost of production, that the equation of innovation-to-rights shifts as well.

The declining cost of communication means that in the networked society there are fewer barriers for individual cultural production that are "meaningful" to other users.  Thus, in network economy, "human capacity becomes primary scarce resource".

Peer production
To close this section, Benkler argues that the networked environment makes possible a new modality of organizing production: that of commons-based peer production.  He discusses the parameters of the commons and gives the example of Free/Libre/Open Source Software.  He discusses shared acts of communication (utterances, reviews, distribution of information) and goods (like server space). Lastly, he draws a contrast to the regulation and rival resource of radio spectrum bandwidth and the sharability of space in a digital commons.

The economics of social production
Benkler argues here that the networked society allows for the emergence of non-hierarchical groups that are committed to information production. Open software is one of the ways we can view the emergence of this new form of information production. "Commons-based" peer production eschews traditional rational choice models offered by economists. Benkler details some of the key components of this new economy based not on financial remuneration but on user-involvement, accreditation, and tools that promote collaboration between individuals.

In order to understand why people engage in production aside from financial incentives, Benkler argues that we can distinguish two types of motivation:
 Extrinsic motivation: motivation that comes from outside in the form of financial reward, punishment, etc.
 Intrinsic motivation: motivation that derives from within ourselves, such as the pleasure involved in completing a task.

Part 2: The Political Economy of Property and Commons
In this section, Benkler examines the relationship of individual access to participation in the dissemination and creation of information via communication systems, building on his earlier ideas of commons-based peer production.

He examines the historical emergence of the mass media, looking at the relationship between print and radio and ever-broadening, industrial broadcast models of production which became supported by advertising.  The criticisms of mass media which Benkler brings up include:
 its commercialism, because he sees that as supporting the development of programs that appeal to large audiences rather than specific interests, in the name of mass broadcasting;
 limited intake of information, due to the relatively small number of people gathering information;
 too much power assigned to too few people.

Benkler moves from this overview and criticism to exploring what this text describes as the potential for networked communications to do:
"Better access to knowledge and the emergence of less capital-dependent forms of productive social organization offer the possibility that the emergence of the networked information economy will offer up opportunities for improvement in economic justice, on scales both global and local."

From passive to active
For Benkler, another key component of the network society is that individuals are more active in producing their education and cultural production.  Online encyclopedias such as Wikipedia allow for users to create rather than just consume knowledge and information.

Part 3: Policies of Freedom at a Moment of Transformation
Benkler begins chapter 10 stating two early views on the anticipated social impact the internet would have on the users and their community:

Firstly, the internet removed the user from society and allowed the individual to lead a life that was no longer molded by the interactions and experiences of a physical tangible civilisation with others.  The second view was that using the internet would widen the field of a user's community by providing a novel system of communication and interaction.

He observes that users show enhanced relationships with their close contacts while increasing the numbers of less close contacts with relationships maintained through internet mediated interaction.  He believes this latter change stems from the shift from the one-to-many model of media distribution to a many-to-many model where it is more user centered and controlled.

Benkler remarks that the early views were made on the premise that internet communication would replace real world forms communication rather than co-exist alongside it.  He introduces the idea of the networked-individual who govern their own interactions and microcommunity roles in both real and virtual space and dynamically switch between when needed, eventually concluding that the early views were nostalgic and somewhat fatuous.

A definition is offered whereby cultural freedom occupies a position that relates to both political and individual autonomy, but is synonymous with neither.  Benkler then goes on to add that culture is significant because that is the context within which we exist – these are our shared understandings, frameworks, meanings and references.

Reception

Blogs
When Benkler's The Wealth of Networks was released in 2006, Lawrence Lessig announced the release of the book on his blog, stating: "This is—by far—the most important and powerful book written in the fields that matter most to me in the last ten years. If there is one book you read this year, it should be this."  The Wealth of Networks has been reviewed by many other blogs in addition to the Lessig blog, including Rough Type, Dreams in Digital, , and Reading Media Under The Tree.  Less than a month after its release in 2006, The Wealth of Networks became the focus of an intense read and review seminar on the political blog Crooked Timber.  After reading the book, six scholars (several of them founding members of crookedtimbre.org) posted their reactions to the book, and at the end of the seminar, Yochai Benkler was given the opportunity to respond to the comments.

Mass media
Book reviews of The Wealth of Networks have also been featured by several news publications, including Financial Times, The Times, and the New Statesman.

Academic journals
The book has been also reviewed in academic journals such as Global Media and Communication, Information Economics and Policy, Information Processing & Management, International Journal of Technology, Knowledge, and Society, Journal of Business and Technical Communication,  Journal of Media Economics,Journal on Telecommunications and High Technology Law, Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, Scandinavian Journal of Management, Social Science Computer Review, Rue Descartes, The Communication Review, The German Law Journal, The Independent Review, The University of Chicago Law Review, The Yale Law Journal, and Theory, Culture & Society.

Other
In addition to book reviews, interviews with Yochai Benkler about The Wealth of Networks have been conducted and published by openDemocracy.net, openBusiness.cc, and Public Knowledge, and Benkler was invited to give a lecture based on The Wealth of Networks at the Center for American Progress on May 31, 2006.

Criticism

Writing style

In terms of Benkler's writing style, criticism on Crooked Timber targeted two main points: 1) that the book is written in a style that is too dense for the average reader, and 2) that it attempts to cover too many topics.  As Dan Hunter points out in his review titled "A General Theory of Information Policy", The Wealth of Networks is an attempt to articulate an underlying, grander "whole" that ties together the myriad issues involved in information policy and the internet.  Hunter states: "Benkler provides something close to a General Theory of Information Policy for the networked age that begins to explain how we should think about topics as different as spectrum policy, copyright, user-generated content, network neutrality…well, the list pretty much encompasses all questions within internet law and policy."  Hunter's main criticism of the book is that it is too academically dense for the average reader, and too reliant on assuming the reader is familiar with several internet organizations and websites, such as Wikipedia, PayPal, and Slashdot.  As Hunter later states:
"I'm worried that too many of the peer-producers—the blog writers, the open source software gurus, the amateurs who create for the love of it; in short the people who this book is written about—will pick up this work in the hope of understanding how their creativity fits into the grand scheme of innovation, and what their role will be in the amateur production sphere that promises to change the way that we view information goods within society.  And they may not get past the introduction."

Physical hardware and infrastructure

Another criticism of Benkler's theory is that so much focus is given to the potential of peer-production and innovation in the networked information economy, but little to no attention spent addressing issues related to the physical hardware required to keep the network that Benkler's theories rely on up and running.  In a review of the book by Siva Vaidhyanathan, Benkler's "soft technological determinism" is brought under fire.  Vaidhyanathan states:
"This one issue remains underwritten in the text: the story of the technology itself. Throughout the text, there seems to be an almost givenness about the technology. TCP/IP is just there. Even Cisco's notorious discriminating servers, the source of so much tension over the end of network neutrality, just appear…. We get a sense that particular technologies are malleable, adaptable, contingent, and socially shaped. We get no account of developer's wishes or users' adaptions. We only get cursory accounts of the conflicts over the future of these technologies that have unleashed (to choose a loaded term) so much creativity."
Benkler addressed this criticism in his response to Vaidhyanathan's review, conceding that perhaps more attention to the physical elements of the networked information economy could have been given:
"His [Vaidhyanathan's] complaint ... is that I wrote a book about how the dynamics of technology, society, economy, and law intersect to fundamentally alter how information, knowledge, and culture are produced, rather than a book about the dynamics of how the technology component itself got to be as it is, and how it may or may not change given present pressures ... not every book can be about everything. Perhaps Vaidhyanathan is correct that a book that offers as broad a canvass as this on the networked information environment needs a chapter on the technology itself: where it originates and what are the dynamics and pressures, historically and today, that led to its past and that affect its future."
In a review of the book by Ben Peters, a similar sentiment to Vaidhyanathan's criticism is expressed: "It may also do very well to account for massive information infrastructure costs, the fiber optic cables, the wifi, and the laptops that the Benkler's optimism depends upon in the international development scene."  In The Independent Review: A Journal of Political Economy, Peter G. Klein stated:
"Although information itself cannot be "owned," the tangible media in which information is embedded and transmitted are scarce economic goods. Information may yearn to be "free," but cables, switches, routers, disk drives, microprocessors, and the like yearn to be owned. Such innovations do not spring from nowhere; they are the creations of profit-seeking entrepreneurs that consumers or other entrepreneurs purchase to use as they see fit."

Optimism

Derek Belt, who reviewed the book on his blog titled "Dreaming in Digital", targeted Benkler's optimism as his main point of criticism, suggesting that Benkler's optimism was too rooted in what was possible in the future, neglecting to take into consideration the position in which we as a society find ourselves in at the present time in relation to information policy. He states:
"His unwavering belief in the greater good offers hope for the future but fails to adequately address the present, leaving readers to wonder what he would have said about the prospects of another decade in which the industrial information economy, backed by powerful lobbyists and defiant legislative activity, holds all of the cards. Would our future look so cheery then?"
In contrast to these attacks on Benkler's optimism, a review by Debora Halbert suggested that:
"Although he is generally pro-technology, especially regarding the Internet, Benkler is not a techno-utopianist.  He argues that techno-utopianists who see the Internet as a perfect public platform are incorrect, but so are the technophobes who believe the Internet simply leads to increasing fragmentation and alienation.  He seeks to strike a middle ground, arguing that the industrial media model of central control over mass communication fits nicely with authoritarian structures."
Jack Balkin, a participant on in the Crooked Timber read and review took a similar stance in his interpretation of Benkler's optimism, stating:
"Benkler's book wavers between an optimistic description of what the digitally networked economy has produced and will produce and a warning that these bounties will be squandered if the legal regime goes in the wrong direction…as much as Benkler might wish that features of the digitally networked environment and information economics will lead us inevitably toward a blessed world of peer production, he well understands that the political economy of information production has repeatedly pushed the law along a different path. Benkler shows us a vibrant world that we are moving toward and might yet achieve; but it is up to us to realize it."

The Wealth of Networks has been criticized for technological determinism. David M. Berry contends that Benkler's work builds on "a rather shaky binary distinction between proprietary industrial forms of economic and technological structure and non-proprietary peer-production models". Berry challenges Benkler's assumptions that network fosters non-proprietary models and that the latter are sounder and ethically preferable to the former model. According to Berry, Benkler fails to recognize that should network forms of organization happen to be wealth generating, "they will be co-opted into mainstream 'industrial' ways of production. To paraphrase Steve Jobs, the corporate world may soon provide peer-production for the rest of us." Johan Söderberg links Benkler's optimism towards networked modes of production to a larger current of thought generated by the hacker community. Drawing on Serge Proulx' work, Söderberg asserts that such a narrative, neoliberal in origin, recomposes the discussion on information society in a problematic way: "The fantasy of a frictionless market in information is transformed into a vision of an information-sharing society".

Praise

The future of information policy and network development

Although The Wealth of Networks has been the target of pointed criticism, the vast majority of published reviews are very emphatic about the fact that despite certain criticisms, The Wealth of Networks is an incredibly important book, and brings to the table many issues that are pertinent to the future of information policy and network development.  Benkler is credited with bringing forth new perspectives related to social production, the role of the commons, how society is using and interacting with the internet, and how the internet is transforming the way people interact, create, and exchange goods and information.  As Siva Vaidhyanathan stated in the opening of his review, "there is no better place to turn for an account of the processes of creativity and commerce relating to digital networks and the work that people do with them."  More specifically, The Wealth of Networks is also hailed as an incredibly important piece of writing for those advocating for greater protection of the cultural commons and open access models on the Internet.  For the German Law Review, James Brink wrote:
"The Wealth of Networks is a worthwhile outward- and forward-looking manifesto for an information infrastructure that has come of age. At the same time, internet advocates would do well to take Benkler's lessons in the history of the industrial information economy to heart, and to work hard to fulfill his vision of a true commons-based and nonproprietary ecology within the networked information economy."

See also
 Information ecology
 Carr-Benkler wager
 Sharing economy

References

External links
 Wiki of the book, summaries, commentary, downloads
 Copies of the book: HTML, PDF
 Audio of Benkler's talk, "The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom," given at UC Berkeley's Boalt Hall School of Law on 27 April 2006.
 Netizens awake, Paul Duguid, The Times Literary Supplement, July 7, 2006.
  outsidethemarket.info (archived copy at https://web.archive.org/),—a remix of an essay which is based on the book
 Free digitally-voiced audiobook of The Wealth Of Networks at Babblebooks.com

2006 non-fiction books
Creative Commons-licensed books
Works about the information economy
Economics books
Yale University Press books
Economics of intellectual property
Articles containing video clips

The Wealth of Networks


Filippo Juvarra was an architect from Italy who lived from 1678 to 1736. He was born in Messina. He designed many famous buildings, especially churches and palaces.

Works
Here is a list of some buildings he designed:
 The Royal Palace of Madrid
 The front of the Royal Palace of La Granja de San Ildefonso, in Madrid
 Some parts of the Royal Palace of Aranjuez, in Madrid
 The gate of the Sanctuary of Oropa, in Biella
 The Basilica of Superga in Turin
 He finished the Santa Cristina, which is also in Turin
 He rebuilt the church of San Filippo Neri which is also in Turin
 He also designed the inside of the church of Santa Teresa (which is in Turin)
 The Palace of Stupinigi, which is six miles outside of Turin.
 The front of the Palazzo Madama which is in Central Turin.
 He also fixed the Palace of Venaria which had been damaged in the War of the Spanish Succesion. This building is located 8 km northwest of Turin.
 The Royal Palace of Turin. (Which is in Turin)

1678 births
1736 deaths
Italian architects
People from Messina

Filippo Juvarra


The Rankine scale is a thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale. It is based around absolute zero. Rankine is similar to the Kelvin scale in that it starts at absolute zero and 0 °Ra is the same as 0 K but is different as a change of 1 °Ra is the same as a change of 1 °F (Fahrenheit) and not 1 °C (Celsius). Note that the abbreviation °R is ambiguous, as it can also refer to the Réaumur scale.

The Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales are defined so that absolute zero is 0 kelvins (K) or 0 degrees Rankine (°R). The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are defined so that absolute zero is −273.15 °C or −459.67 °F.

The Rankine scale was originally used in the United States and France.

Units of temperature

Rankine scale


Vampyros Lesbos () is a 1971 West German-Spanish erotic horror film directed and co-written by Jesús Franco. The film stars Ewa Strömberg as Linda Westinghouse, an American who works in a Turkish legal firm. Westinghouse has a series of erotic dreams that involve a mysterious vampire woman who seduces her before feeding on her blood. When she travels to an island to settle an inheritance, Linda recognizes a woman as the vampire from her dreams.

The film was shot in 1970 in Turkey. It was a popular success in theaters in Europe on its release and was the first film to have a more psychedelic score for a Franco film and the first to have a lesbian theme as a prominent feature of the film. The film's score became popular in the mid-1990s when it was included on the compilation Vampyros Lesbos: Sexadelic Dance Party, an album that became a top ten hit on the British Alternative charts.

Plot
On a remote island, the beautiful vampire Countess Nadine Carody lures unwary victims with her seductive nightclub act and sets her sights on Linda. Linda begins dreaming about Nadine and seeks her home on an island. She is interrupted by Memmet, who warns her not to go to the island. Linda follows Memmet to his chamber, where she walks in on him torturing a young woman. She escapes this encounter and proceeds to the island where Linda meets Nadine. The two go swimming, and Nadine notes that the home they are staying at used to belong to Count Dracula. After Linda begins to feel dizzy from drinking wine, Nadine takes her to a room where the two have sex, and Nadine draws blood from Linda's neck. Linda later finds Nadine motionless in a swimming pool and faints.

The next day, Agra appears in mental distress at a hospital, where she claims to have visions of Nadine. She is under Dr. Seward's care, who then treats his new patient, Linda, who does not have any memory of what she encountered with Nadine. At Nadine's home, she appears alive and recounts to her servant Morpho how she became a vampire and her obsession with Linda, who she wishes to become a vampire. Nadine uses her powers to contact Linda to return to her island, where the two drink blood and have sex. On her return to the hospital, Dr. Seward informs Linda that to remove herself from the vampire's curse she must split the vampire's head with an axe or pierce it with a pole.

Memmet then kidnaps Linda, and her boyfriend Omar begins to search for her. Nadine later arrives at the asylum to have Linda return with her, where she meets Dr. Seward. Dr. Seward admits that he only attempted to help Linda to draw Nadine to him so he could become a vampire. Nadine refuses and has Morpho kill him. As Omar searches for Linda, she is told by Memmet that all women, including his wife Arga, who return from the island become insane, which has driven him to kill various women around the island. Linda manages to kill Memmet with a saw and escapes to find Nadine. She finds Nadine at her home near death, desperate for blood to survive. Linda ignores Nadine's plea, bites her neck, and stabs her with a pole through her left eye. Morpho commits suicide, and Linda is found by Omar, who tries to convince her that the whole experience was a dream.

Cast

Ewa Strömberg as Linda Westinghouse (as Ewa Stroemberg)
Soledad Miranda as Countess Nadine Carody (as Susann Korda)
Andrea Montchal as Omar (as Viktor Feldmann)
Dennis Price as Dr. Alwin Seward
Paul Müller as Dr. Steiner
Heidrun Kussin as Agra
Michael Berling as Dr. Seward's assistant
Beni Cardoso as Dead woman (uncredited)
Jesús Franco as Memmet (uncredited)
José Martínez Blanco as Morpho (uncredited) (as J. Martinez Blanco)

Production
Vampyros Lesbos was filmed in Turkey between June 1 and July 10, 1970.  Franco applied film devices that were used in his previous film such as long strip club sequences and female protagonists while the lesbian subtext was more prominent in this film than any previous work. The music score also differs from the jazz soundtracks of his previous films with a more psychedelic music influenced soundtrack. The soundtrack was composed by Manfred Hübler, Siegfried Schwab and Jesús Franco who credited himself under the alias of David Khune. The film went under several titles before being released as Vampyros Lesbos including 'Das Mal des Vampirs (Evil of the Vampires) and Im Zeichen der Vampire (Mark of the Vampire). Less than a month after finishing production on Vampyros Lesbos, Franco began working on his next film She Killed in Ecstasy (1971).

Release
Vampyros Lesbos was released in July 15, 1971, in Germany and in Spain in 1973 where it was a popular with audiences in Europe.  The film was released on DVD by Synapse Video on January 4, 2000. Image Entertainment released the film on December 27, 2000, on DVD. It was released as a set by Severin Films in 2015 containing a high definition blu ray and a DVD with a Spanish bootleg of the film.

A remake of Vampyros Lesbos directed by Matthew Saliba was released in 2008. The film follows the story of Franco's film.

Reception

Total Film gave the film three stars out of five, noting that "Despite (or perhaps because of) the hilariously leaden acting, dull script and amateurish direction, this film still exerts a certain fascination." Jonathan Rosenbaum of The Chicago Reader gave the film a negative review, comparing director Jesús Franco to Ed Wood. The website Slant Magazine gave the film a positive review of three and half stars out of four, finding the film "effortlessly dreamlike" as well as praising the soundtrack. Film 4 gave the film a mixed review, noting that "you never come to Franco's films (over 150 of them) for the plots, but his dreamy, unsettling direction does develop the central tragedy of Carody's love for Westinghouse." as well as praising the film's soundtrack. The Dissolve, an online magazine, gave the film a three out of five star rating, find that large portions of the film "lapse into tedium, whether they're extensive love scenes or, worse, the blatherings of serious men with "Dr." before their names" as well as that the film "gave exploitation audiences something different, a mesmeric vibe" which originated from the film's score and the presence of Soledad Miranda.

In his 2009 book The Pleasure and Pain of Cult Horror Films: An Historical Survey, Bartomiej Paszylk took umbrage with some of the high-brow critics of the film, though ultimately acquiescing to its shortcomings, "Truth be told, Franco's vampyros are far more interested in being lesbos than in drinking human blood, but the movie is so mesmerizing and so outright sexy that you really shouldn't mind that.

Soundtrack

The compilation album Vampyros Lesbos: Sexadelic Dance Party was released on compact disc in 1995 by Motel Records, consisting of music that was first released in 1969 on the albums Psychedelic Dance Party (released under the name The Vampires' Sound Incorporation) and Sexadelic (released under the name Sexadelic). Franco repurposed music from these albums as the soundtracks for three of his films: Vampyros Lesbos, She Killed in Ecstasy and The Devil Came from Akasava. The 1995 compilation was released during a period where there was a resurgence of interest in space age pop music, a style focused on easy listening music from the 1950s and 1960s. The track "The Lions and the Cucumber" from the album was later used again on the soundtrack of Jackie Brown by American director Quentin Tarantino. The album is dedicated to actress Soledad Miranda.

The soundtrack was a top 10 hit on the British Alternative charts on its release over 20 years after the film was released. On September 29, 1997, a remix album titled The Spirit of Vampyros Lesbos was released. The album was a collection of remixes from various electronic artists including Two Lone Swordsmen, Cristian Vogel and Alec Empire who released their own mixes of the film's soundtrack.

Allmusic gave the album a rating of three stars out of five, referring to the album's music as "excruciating", noting as well that a track on the album is "built on a shameless ripoff of the "Satisfaction" guitar riff". Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B+ rating, opining that it was "not for cheese lovers only."

Track listing

See also

 List of ghost films
List of horror films of 1971
List of German films: 1970s
List of Spanish films of 1971
Vampire films

Notes

References

External links

1971 films
1971 horror films
1971 LGBT-related films
1970s erotic films
1995 soundtrack albums
1995 compilation albums
Dracula films
Erotic horror films
Films directed by Jesús Franco
Films set in Istanbul
Films set in Turkey
Films shot in Turkey
German erotic films
1970s German-language films
German LGBT-related films
German vampire films
Lesbian-related films
LGBT-related horror films
Spanish erotic films
Spanish LGBT-related films
Spanish vampire films
West German films
1970s German films
1970s Spanish films

Vampyros Lesbos


In geometry, an isosceles triangle is a triangle that has two sides of equal length. Sometimes it is specified as having two and only two sides of equal length, and sometimes as having at least two sides of equal length, the latter version thus including the equilateral triangle as a special case.
Examples of isosceles triangles include the isosceles right triangle, the golden triangle, and the faces of bipyramids and certain Catalan solids.

The mathematical study of isosceles triangles dates back to ancient Egyptian mathematics and Babylonian mathematics. Isosceles triangles have been used as decoration from even earlier times, and appear frequently in architecture and design, for instance in the pediments and gables of buildings.

The two equal sides are called the legs and the third side is called the base of the triangle. The other dimensions of the triangle, such as its height, area, and perimeter, can be calculated by simple formulas from the lengths of the legs and base.
Every isosceles triangle has an axis of symmetry along the perpendicular bisector of its base. The two angles opposite the legs are equal and are always acute, so the classification of the triangle as acute, right, or obtuse depends only on the angle between its two legs.

Polygons

Isosceles triangle


Mirepoix is a city in the south of France. Today, about 3.000 people live there. It was founded as a bastide. Though it is not a bastide in the sense that it is a planned city. It was rebuilt following complete destruction after the local river overboarded. This reconstruction was done according to the 'bastide' idea.

Bastides
Communes in Ariège

Mirepoix (Ariège)


The Golden Girls was an American comedy television series. It ran from 1985 to 1992 on NBC. It was about a group of older women who lived in the same house in Miami, Florida. The series was produced by Paul Junger Witt.

Characters
The women were:
 Dorothy Zbornak (Bea Arthur) - She was born in Brooklyn, New York City. Her parents are Salvatore and Sophia, two Sicilian immigrants. She has a sister Gloria and a brother Phil. She was married with Stan Zbornak for 38 year long. With him she has two children: Kate and Michael Zbornak. After their divorce, she moved to the shared apartment with Blanche and Rose. Her mother Sophia criticized her love-life again and again. In the last episode was Dorothy and Blanche's uncle Lucas a pair. After her marriage she moved out of the house.
 Rose Nyland (Betty White) - she grew up with nine children on a farm in Sankt Olaf, Minnesota. She is the outcome of an affair. Her father was a monk and his mother died during Roses childbirth. Nevertheless, she had a happy childhood with their adoptive parents and her two stepsisters Lily and Holly. She was married with an insurance agent called Charlie Nylund, until his died in 1970. They have five children: three daughters called Kirsten, Bridget and Gunilla and two sons called Adam and Charlie jr. Also, she has grandchildren: Charlie and Charlene. She worked as a staff in a counseling center. Sometimes, she works as a volunteers in a hospital. She is an honest Person and loves animals. She tells always about her life in Sankt Olaf.
 Blanche Devereaux (Rue McClanahan) - she grew up in Atlanta, Georgia. She has four brothers and sisters. Her both sisters called Charmaine and Virginia. She doesn't like them, but she is nevertheless friendly to them. She has two brothers. Clayton is gay and Tad is a mentally handicapped person. Her father called Big Daddy. Until his death, she was the favourite daughter of him. She is the owner of this shared apartment. At that time, she lived with her husband George in this house. With him she had five children: two daughters called Rebecca and Janet and three sons called Biff, Doug and Skippy and she has four grandchildren: David, Sarah, Melissa and Aurora. She is obsessed with men and had many affairs with them. Blanche feels to old and she is not satisfied with her age.
 Sophia Petrillo (Estelle Getty)- is the mother of Dorothy and lived in a nursing home called The Shady Pines. She moved to the three Ladys, after it is burned down. She tells about her nursing home very bad things and she doesn't tell good things. 1906, she was born in sicily and wandered to the USA. She was to married with Salvatore. She has a sister Angela and a brother Angelo. If she tells about her life in Sicily, she begins with this sentence: "Just imagine, Sicily nineteen hundred...!"

Recurring characters
 Stanley "Stan" Zbornak (Herb Edelman)- was the classmate of Dorothy. After the High School, she was pregnant of him. Both were 17 years old and Dorothy had to marry him. The marriage was a disaster. He told his children many lies. For example, Christmas will delayed by two days. They were married for 38 years. Nevertheless, he loves them. Also, he is a seller of joke articles and wears a toupé.
 Miles Webber (Harold Gould)- is in a relationship with Rose.
 Salvatore "Sal" Petrillo (Sid Melton)- was the husband of Sophia. You don't see him in an episode, because he died before the action time.

1985 American television series debuts
1980s American comedy television series
1990s American sitcoms
1992 American television series endings
Emmy Award winning programs
Golden Globe Award winning programs
Miami in fiction
NBC network shows
Television series set in Florida
English-language television programs

The Golden Girls


Panamanian literature comprises the whole of literary works written in Panama. The first literature relating to Panama can be dated to 1535, with a modern literary movement appearing from the mid-19th century onwards

Early literature
Panamanian historian and essayist Rodrigo Miró (1912-1996) cites Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés as being the author of the first Panamanian literary work, the story of a character named Andrea de la Roca, which was published as part of the "Historia General y Natural de Las Indias" (1535).

The first literature from Panamanian born authors comes from the 17th century with the title of "Llanto de Panamá a la muerte de don Enrique Enríquez" (Crying from Panama at the Death of Don Enrique Enríquez). Although this anthology was formed during the Colony, most of the poems in it were written by authors born in Panama.

A modern literary movement appeared in Panama from the mid-19th century onwards.

Poetry

During the Colony
Rodrigo Miró in his "Itinerario de la Poesía en Panamá" (Poetry Itinerary in Panama) talks about various Spanish authors: Mateo Rosas de Oquendo, author of an autobiographic romance; Juan de Miramontes y Zuázola, author of "Armas Antárticas" (Antarctic Weapons); Juan de Páramo y Cepeda, author of "Alteraciones del Dariel" (Dariel Alterations); and others. Also, in this period arose the author of "La Política del Mundo" (World Politics), Víctor de la Guardia y Ayala. "La Política del Mundo" is a "stage play" that was performed for the first time in 1809. The importance of Víctor de la Guardia y Ayala is that he was born in Panama, contrary to others that came from Spain and, for this reason, for a while he was considered the "first Panamanian poet".

However, the discovery of some manuscripts which come from the 17th century caused the revision of this idea, because the first reference from this period which indicates a written production by Panamanian authors (in other words, born in Panama) dates from 1638 and it is an anthology called "Llanto de Panamá a la muerte de don Enrique Enríquez" (Crying from Panama at the Death of Don Enrique Enríquez). This anthology groups works written for the death of Enrique Enríquez, governor of Panama. It was edited for the first time in Madrid (1642) and its author was Mateo Ribera (Panamanian); also he wrote many poems in this work. Although most of "Llanto de Panamá"´s poems were written by Panamanians, it has many works written by Spanish authors.

This discovery was accomplished by the Spanish diplomat Antonio Serrano de Haro, who also studied these manuscripts. A new version of this anthology was published at 1984 in a combined job between the Universidad de Panamá and the "Instituto de Cultura Hispánica". This discovery confirms, in fact, that the first Panamanian literary manifestations (found until now) come from the 17th century.

Romanticism
Panama was not isolated from revolutionary movements which were seeking the independence of colonies from Spain. The drive for independence was accomplished with the Independence of Panama from Spain on November 28, 1821. As in other colonies, Panamanian Romanticism was related to, and influenced by, libertarian and nationalist notions.  Much of the literature of the period was produced by amateur authors; professional authors remained few.

Among the first romantic Panamanian poets were Manuel María Ayala (1785–1824) and Tomás Miró Rubini (1800–1881), followed by José María Alemán (1830–1887), Gil Colunje (1831–1899), Tomás Martín Feuillet (1832–1899), José Dolores Urriola (1834–1883), Amelia Denis de Icaza (1836–1911), Manuel José Pérez (1837–1895), Jeronimo de la Ossa (1847–1907), Federico Escobar (1861–1912) and Rodolfo Caicedo (1868–1905).

Romantic poetry, tinged with notions of nationalism, would be the main theme in Panamanian poetic works until the mid-20th century when avant-garde poetry arrived in Panama.

Modernism
In 1903, Panama separated from Colombia; this time saw the peak of modernism in Hispanic literature. The first modernist was Darío Herrera (1870–1914), friend and follower of Rubén Darío, whom he met in Buenos Aires. Another important poet was León Antonio Soto (1874–1902), who died at a young age when tortured by the police for having championed the cause of Panama.

Two literary magazines focused mainly on the dissemination of the modernist movement: El Heraldo del Istmo (1904–1906), directed by Guillermo Andreve (1879–1940), and Nuevos Ritos (1907), founded by Ricardo Miró (1883–1940). Ricardo Miró is perhaps the most prominent poet of Panamanian modernism. His poem "Patria" (1909) is also famous.

At this time, Gaspar Octavio Hernández (1893–1918), author of Melodías del pasado (1915) and La copa de amatista (1923), was also active. Other notable poets of the same generation were María Olimpia de Obaldía (1891–1985) and Demetrio Korsi (1899–1957).

1930 to present
Since 1930, coinciding with the "Communal Action" (Acción Comunal) youth revolution, a new generation of poets, grouped around the magazine Antena, distanced itself from modernist rhetoric, instead approaching the avant-garde. The main reference for this transformation was Rogelio Sinán (Taboga, 1902 – Panamá, 1994), an author who had traveled in Europe and visited the surrealists in Paris. Onda (1929) shows the influence of pure poetry; other major works by Sinan include Incendios (1944) and Semana Santa en la niebla (1949), in which dreamlike elements show his surrealist affiliation.

Surrealism is also evident in the work of Ricardo J. Bermúdez (1914), whose most famous work is Laurel de cenizas (1951). The work of Demetrio Herrera Sevillano (1902–1950) is also a part of this avant-garde movement; his work was greatly influenced by ultraísmo.

Another poet of this era, who was also a short-story writer and journalist, was Mario Augusto Rodríguez (1917). In 1957, he published his poetry collection Canto de amor para la Patría novia, a poetic history of the Panamanian nation.

Other major poets of this era include Stella Sierra, Roque Javier Laurenza, Ofelia Hooper, Tobías Díaz Blaitry (1919–2006), Tristán Solarte (1934), José de Jesús Martínez, Diana Morán (1932), Alvaro Menéndez Franco (1932), Luis Carlos Jiménez Varela, José Guillermo Ross-Zanet (1930), José Franco (1931), and Elsie Alvarado de Ricord (1928–2005).

Major poets of the next generation included Benjamín Ramón (1939), Bertalicia Peralta (1939), Ramón Oviero (1939–2008), Moravia Ochoa López (1941), Dimas Lidio Pitty (1941-2015), Roberto Fernández Iglesias (1941), Eric Arce (1942), Enrique Jaramillo Levi (1944), Jarl Ricardo Babot (1945), Giovanna Benedetti (1950), Manuel Orestes Nieto (1951), Moisés Pascual (1955), Consuelo Tomás (1957), Leoncio Obando (b. Lidice, 1959 - d. La Chorrera, 2023), Héctor M. Collado (1960), and Pablo Menacho (1960).

At the end of the 20th century emerged a new generation of poets, who began to publish after 1990. Major poets of this era include Javier Romero Hernández (Chorrera, 1983), Sofía Santim (Panamá, 1982), Javier Alvarado (Santiago de Veraguas, 1982), Salvador Medina Barahona (Mariabé de Pedasí, 1973), Eyra Harbar Gomez (Bocas del Toro, 1972), Ela Urriola (Panama, 1971), Aura Benjamín (Panamá, 1970), Porfirio Salazar (1970), Katia Chiari (Panamá, 1969), and Alexander Zanches (David, Chiriquí, 1968).

Narrative

Modernism and the first Panamanian books
The short story in Panama can be said to have begun formally in 1903, when Darío Herrera (1870–1914) published the first book of stories by a Panamanian author, Horas Lejanas, in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Since this time, the short story has been the most important literary genre in Panama.

Nearly all modernist and postmodernist poets in Panama published stories during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Of these, Salomón Ponce Aguilera (1868–1945), Guillermo Andreve, Gaspar Octavio Hernández (1883–1940), and Ricardo Miró (1883–1940) stand out as poets whose short stories, often scattered and unpublished, were picked up and commented on by writer Mario Augusto Rodríguez in 1956. Other important authors of this period include José María Núñez (1894–1990), Moisés Castillo (1899–1974), and Gil Blas Tejeira (1901–1975).

Themes of the countryside and the canal in narrative
One notable author of the next generation was Rogelio Sinán (1902-1994), author of the novel Plenilunio and the collections of stories A la orilla de las estatuas maduras (1946), La boina roja y cinco cuentos (1954), Cuentos de Rogelio Sinán (1971), and El candelabro de los malos ofidios (1982). Other authors of this generation included Lucas Bárcenas (1906–1992), César Candanedo (1906–1993), Renato Ozores (1910–2001), Alfredo Cantón (1910-1967), Ricardo Bermúdez (1914–2000), Mario Augusto Rodríguez (Santiago de Veraguas, 1917) (author of Campo Adentro (1947), Luna en Veraguas (1948), and Los ultrajados (1994)), José María Sánchez (1918–1973), Ramón H. Jurado (1922–1978), Joaquín Beleño (1921), Carlos Francisco Changmarín (1922), Jorge Turner (1922), Tristán Solarte (1924) and José Guillermo Ros-Zanet (1930). In this generation, authors cultivated nationalistic themes, either from the point of view of the cities at each end of the Panama Canal and their relation to the Canal Zone, or from rural point of view from the interior of the country.

Universal themes
The next generation is that of authors born since 1932. Many of these authors are still producing literary works. Major authors of this generation include Ernesto Endara (1932), Álvaro Menéndez Franco (1932), Enrique Chuez (1934), Justo Arroyo (1936), Rosa María Britton (1936), Victoria Jiménez Vélez (1937), Pedro Rivera (1939), Benajamín Ramón (1939), Beatríz Valdés (1940), Gloria Guardia (1940), Dimas Lidio Pitty (1941), Moravia Ochoa López (1941), Mireya Hernández (1942–2006), Enrique Jaramillo Levi (1944), Isabel Herrera de Taylor (1944), Raúl Leis (1947), Giovanna Benedetti (1949), Lupita Quirós Athanasiadis (1950), Rey Barría (1951), Ramón Fonseca Mora (1952), Herastro Reyes (1952–2005), Claudio de Castro (1957), Consuelo Tomás (1957), Yolanda Hackshaw (1958), Allen Patiño (1959), Rafael Alexis Álvarez (1959), Ariel Barría Alvarado (1959), Héctor Collado (1960), Gonzalo Menéndez González (1960), David Robinson Orobio (1960), Erika Harris (1963), and Rogelio Guerra Ávila (1963). This generation is notable for its abandonment of criollismo as a narrative theme in favor of universal themes, and in some cases, emphasizing dream and fantasy.

Twenty-first century narrative
Publishing for the first time in the 1990s, the newest generation of Panamanian storytellers has emerged. Among these writers are Carlos Fong (1967), Carlos Oriel Wynter Melo (1971), Javier Stanziola (1971), José Luis Rodríguez Pittí (1971), Melanie Taylor (1972), Lili Mendoza (1974), Lilian Guevara (1974), Roberto Pérez-Franco (1976), Gloria Melania Rodríguez (1981), and Annabel Miguelena (1984).
This generation is characterized by the use of short fiction, poetic and imaginative language, and human themes, in which the individual stands out above a chaotic, typically urban environment.

References

External links
 Noticias: literatura en Panamá—Weekly newsletter from the Asociación de Escritores de Panamá (in Spanish).
 miniTEXTOS.org—Very short stories, poems and essays by Panamanian writers (in Spanish).

Latin American literature by country
Spanish-language literature

Panamanian literature


Sidang video (juga dikenali sebagai telepersidangan video atau telekonferens video, singkatan "VTC") merupakan satu set teknologi telekomunikasi interaktif yang membenarkan orang di dua atau lebih lokasi berinteraksi melalui penghantaran video dan audio dua-hala secara serentak. Ia juga telah dirujuk sebagai kerjasama pandang dan merupakan sejenis perisian kumpulan. Ia berbeza dari videofon kerana ia direka untuk ditujukan kepada suatu persidangan dan bukan individu.

Sidang video menggunakan telekomunikasi audio dan video untuk menghubungkan orang di beberapa tempat untuk bermesyuarat. Ini boleh semudah perbualan di antara dua orang dalam pejabat persendirian (titik-ke-titik) atau melibatkan beberapa tempat (multi-titik) dengan lebih seorang dalam bilik besar di setiap tempat. Selain penghantaran audio dan visual aktiviti mesyuarat, sidang video boleh digunakan untuk berkongsi dokumen, maklumat paparan komputer, dan papan putih.

Sejarah

Sidang video analog ringkas telah wujud hampir seawal penciptaan televisyen. Sistem sidang video ini terdiri dari dua sistem televisyen litar tertutup yang disambungkan menggunakan kabel. Semasa penerbangan angkasa lepas dikendalikan manusia pertama, NASA menggunakan dua sambungan frekuensi radio (UHF atau VHF), satu untuk setiap arah. Saluran TV sering menggunakan sidang video seperti ini apabila melaporkan dari lokasi jauh. Kemudian sambungan bergerak ke satelit menggunakan lori yang dilengkapi peralatan khas menjadi lebih umum.

Teknik ini bagaimanapun amat mahal, dan tidak boleh diterapkan dalam kegunaan biasa, seperti teleperubatan, pendidikan jarak jauh, mesyuarat perniagaan, dan seterusnya, terutamanya apa-apa kegunaan jarak jauh. Percubaan untuk menggunakan rangkaian telefoni biasa untuk menghantar video imbasan perlahan, seperti sistem pertama yang dibangunkan oleh AT&T, selalunya gagal disebabkan oleh kualiti gambar yang teruk dan ketiadaan teknik pemampatan video yang cekap. Lebar jalur 1 MHz dan kadar Picturephone 6 Mbit/s bit yang lebih besar pada 1970-an juga gagal menjayakan perkhidmatan ini.

Cuma pada 1980-an barulah rangkaian penghantaran telefoni digital mampu disediakan, contohnya ISDN, menjamin kadar bit minimum (lazimnya 128 kilobit/s) untuk penghantaran video dan audio termampat. Sistem khusus yang pertama, seperti yang dibuat oleh firma pelopor seperti PictureTel, mula muncul di pasaran apabila rangkaian ISDN mula berkembang di seluruh dunia. Sistem telepersidangan video sepanjang 1990-an berkembang dengan pantas dari peralatan dan perisian proprietari mahal serta keperluan rangkaian yang tertentu, kepada teknologi piawai yang mudah didapati oleh masyarakat umum pada harga yang munasabah. Akhirnya, pada 1990-an, sidang video berasaskan IP (Internet Protocol) mula boleh digunakan, dan teknologi pemampatan video yang lebih cekap dibangunkan, membolehkan sidang video berasaskan komputer meja, atau komputer peribadi (PC). Pada 1992 CU-SeeMe dibangunkan di Cornell oleh Tim Dorcey et al., IVS pula direka di INRIA, membolehkan VTC digunakan ramai. Kini, perisian tertentu atau plugin web, sestengahnya boleh didapati percuma, seperti NetMeeting, MSN Messenger, Yahoo Messenger, SightSpeed dan Skype menyediakan perkhidmatan murah persidangan video, walaupun dengan kualiti agak rendah, kepada semua.

Teknologi

The core technology used in a videoteleconference (VTC) system is digital compression of audio and video streams in real time. The hardware or software that performs compression is called a codec (coder/decoder). Compression rates of up to 1:500 can be achieved. The resulting digital stream of 1s and 0s is subdivided into labelled packets, which are then transmitted through a digital network of some kind (usually ISDN or IP). The use of audio modems in the transmission line allow for the use of POTS, or the Plain Old Telephone System, in some low-speed applications, such as videotelephony, because they convert the digital pulses to/from analog waves in the audio spectrum range.

The other components required for a VTC system include:

 Video input : video camera or webcam
 Video output: computer monitor , television or projector
 Audio input: microphones
 Audio output: usually loudspeakers associated with the display device or telephone
 Data transfer: analog or digital telephone network, LAN or Internet

There are basically two kinds of VTC systems:

 Dedicated systems (manufactured by companies such as Sony, Tandberg, Polycom, and Radvision Ltd.) have all required components packaged into a single piece of equipment, usually a console with a high quality remote controlled video camera. These cameras can be controlled at a distance to pan left and right, tilt up and down, and zoom. They became known as PTZ cameras. The console contains all electrical interfaces, the control computer, and the software or hardware-based codec. Omnidirectional microphones are connected to the console, as well as a TV monitor with loudspeakers and/or a video projector. There are several types of dedicated VTC devices:
 Large group VTC are non-portable, large, more expensive devices used for large rooms and auditoriums.
 Small group VTC are non-portable or portable, smaller, less expensive devices used for small meeting rooms.
 Individual VTC are usually portable devices, meant for single users, have fixed cameras, microphones and loudspeakers integrated into the console.
 Desktop systems are add-ons (hardware boards, usually) to normal PCs, transforming them into VTC devices. A range of different cameras and microphones can be used with the board, which contains the necessary codec and transmission interfaces. Most of the desktops systems work with the H.323 standard. Videoconferences carried out via dispersed PCs are also known as e-meetings.

Echo cancellation
A fundamental feature of professional VTC systems is acoustic echo cancellation (AEC). AEC is an algorithm which is able to detect when sounds or utterances reenter the audio input of the VTC codec, which came from the audio output of the same system, after some time delay. If unchecked, this can lead to several problems including 1) the remote party hearing their own voice coming back at them (usually significantly delayed) 2) strong reverberation, rendering the voice channel useless as it becomes hard to understand and 3) howling created by feedback. Echo cancellation is a processor-intensive task that usually works over a narrow range of sound delays.

Multipoint videoconferencing
Simultaneous videoconferencing among three or more remote points is possible by means of a Multipoint Control Unit (MCU). This is a bridge that interconnects calls from several sources (in a similar way to the audio conference call). All parties call the MCU unit, or the MCU unit can also call the parties which are going to participate, in sequence. There are MCU bridges for IP and ISDN-based videoconferencing. There are MCUs which are pure software, and others which are a combination of hardware and software. An MCU is characterised according to the number of simultaneous calls it can handle, its ability to conduct transposing of data rates and protocols, and features such as Continuous Presence, in which multiple parties can be seen onscreen at once.

MCUs can be stand-alone hardware devices, or they can be embedded into dedicated VTC units.

Some systems are capable of multipoint conferencing with no MCU, stand-alone, embedded or otherwise. These use a standards-based H.323 technique known as "decentralized multipoint", where each station in a multipoint call exchanges video and audio directly with the other stations with no central "manager" or other bottleneck. The advantages of this technique are that the video and audio will generally be of higher quality because they don't have to be relayed through a central point. Also, users can make ad-hoc multipoint calls without any concern for the availability or control of an MCU. This added convenience and quality comes at the expense of some increased network bandwidth, because every station must transmit to every other station directly.

Isu

Some observers  argue that two outstanding issues are preventing videoconferencing from becoming a standard form of communication, despite the ubiquity of videoconferencing-capable
systems. These issues are:

 Eye Contact: It is known that eye contact plays a large role in conversational turn-taking, perceived attention and intent, and other aspects of group communication. While traditional telephone conversations give no eye contact cues, videoconferencing systems are arguably worse in that they provide an incorrect impression that the remote interlocutor is avoiding eye contact. This issue is being addressed through research that generates a synthetic image with eye contact using stereo reconstruction.
 Appearance Consciousness: A second problem with videoconferencing is that one is literally on camera, with the video stream possibly even being recorded. The burden of presenting an acceptable on-screen appearance is not present in audio-only communication. Early studies by Alphonse Chapanis found that the addition of video actually impaired communication, possibly because of the consciousness of being on camera.

The issue of eye-contact may be solved with advancing technology, and presumably the issue of appearance consciousness will fade as people become accustomed to videoconferencing.

Piawai

The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) (formerly: Consultative Committee on International Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT)) has three umbrellas of standards for VTC.

 ITU H.320 is known as the standard for public switched telephone networks (PSTN) or VTC over integrated services digital networks (ISDN) basic rate interface (BRI) or primary rate interface (PRI). H.320 is also used on dedicated networks such as T1 and satellite-based networks;
 ITU H.323 is known as a standard for transporting multimedia applications over LANs. This same standard also applies to older implementations of voice over IP VoIP. In recent years, the IETF's Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) has gained considerable momentum in practice for these two services.;
 ITU H.324 is the standard for transmission over POTS, or audio telephony networks. 3G-324M is a 3GPP implementation for video call on 3G mobile phones.

In recent years, IP based videoconferencing has emerged as a common communications interface and standard provided by VTC manufacturers in their traditional ISDN-based systems. Business, government and military organizations still predominantly use H.320 and ISDN VTC. Though, due to the price point and proliferation of the Internet, and broadband in particular, there has been a strong spurt of growth and use of H.323, IP VTC. H.323 has the advantage that it is accessible to anyone with a high speed Internet connection, such as DSL.

In addition, an attractive factor for IP VTC is that it is easier to set-up for use with a live VTC call along with web conferencing for use in data collaboration. These combined technologies enable users to have a much richer multimedia environment for live meetings, collaboration and presentations.

Rujukan

Lihat juga
 Telepresence
 Telesidang
 Mobile VoIP
 Telefon video untuk panggilan peribadi

Pautan luar
 ViDe Videoconferencing Cookbook

Telepersidangan
Perisian kumpulan

Sidang video


Evaporation is when a liquid becomes a gas without forming bubbles inside the liquid volume. If bubbles are formed we are talking instead about "boiling".

For example, water left in a bowl will slowly disappear. The water evaporates into water vapor, the gas phase of water. The water vapor mixes with the air.

The opposite of evaporation is condensation.

When the molecules in a liquid are heated, they move faster. This makes them full of energy and so the particles collide with each other, and eventually they become so far apart that they become a gas.

Differences between evaporation and boiling
During evaporation only the molecules near the liquid surface are changing from liquid to vapor. During boiling the molecules inside the volume of the liquid are also changing to vapor. For this reason during evaporation no bubbles are formed, instead they are formed during boiling.

Evaporation can happen at any temperature, while boiling happens only at a specified temperature called the "boiling point". Evaporation happens slowly, but boiling happens quickly.

Rate of evaporation
Some liquids evaporate more quickly than others. There are many factors that affect the evaporation rate.

The rate of evaporation depends on the liquid's exposed surface area (faster when increased), the humidity of surroundings (slower when increased), the presence of wind (faster when increased) and the temperature (faster when increased).

Liquid with high boiling points (those that boil at very high temperatures) tend to evaporate more slowly than those with lower boiling temperatures.

Evaporation is a very essential part of the water cycle.

Related pages
 Boiling

References

Materials science
Gases

Evaporation


Eve Eliot Sweetser is a professor of linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley. She received her Ph.D. in Linguistics from UC Berkeley in 1984, and has been a member of the Berkeley faculty since that time. She has served as Director of Berkeley's undergraduate Cognitive Science Program and is currently Director of the Celtic Studies Program.

Sweetser has published articles on topics including modality, polysemy, metaphor, conditional constructions, grammatical meaning, performativity, gesture, and Medieval Welsh poetics. Some of her more accessible work focuses on gesture, but her other research interests include historical linguistics, semantics, metaphor and iconicity, subjectivity and viewpoint, and the Celtic language family.

Partial bibliography
 (1990) From etymology to pragmatics: metaphorical and cultural aspects of semantic structure Eve Sweetser. Cambridge [England]; New York: Cambridge University Press.
 (1991) From Etymology to Pragmatics: Metaphorical and Cultural Aspects of Semantic Structure. Eve E. Sweetser. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Studies in Linguistics, reprint edition. .
 (1996a) Spaces, Worlds, and Grammar. Gilles Fauconnier & Eve Sweetser, editors. Chicago & London: The University of Chicago Press.  (paperback).
 (1996b) "Changes in figures and changes in grounds: A note on change predicates, mental spaces, and scalar norms." Cognitive Studies: Bulletin of the Japanese Cognitive Science Society, 3:3 (Sept. 1996 – Special Issue on Cognitive Linguistics), pp. 75–86. (Japanese journal title: Ninchi Kagaku – Tokushu: Ninchi Gengogaku)
 (1997a) A Celtic florilegium: studies in memory of Brendan O Hehir edited by Kathryn A. Klar, Eve E. Sweetser, and Claire Thomas.
 (1997b) Lexical and syntactical constructions and the construction of meaning edited by Marjolijn Verspoor, Kee Dong Lee, Eve Sweetser.
 (2005) Mental spaces in grammar: conditional constructions Barbara Dancygier and Eve Sweetser.
 (2006a) With the Future Behind Them: Convergent Evidence From Aymara Language and Gesture in the Crosslinguistic Comparison of Spatial Construals of Time Rafael E. Núñez, Eve Sweetser. Cognitive Science 30: 1–49.
 (2006b) "Looking at space to study mental spaces: Co-speech gesture as a crucial data source in cognitive linguistics". In Monica Gonzalez-Marquez, Irene Mittleberg, Seana Coulson and Michael Spivey (eds.), Methods in Cognitive Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 203–226.
 (2006c) "Putting the 'same' meaning together from different pieces". In S. Marmaridou and K. Nikiforidou (eds.), Reviewing Linguistic Thought: Perspectives into the 21st Century. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
 (2006d) "Negative spaces: Levels of negation and kinds of spaces". In Stéphanie Bonnefille & Sébastien Salbayre (eds.), Proceedings of the conference "Negation: Form, figure of speech, conceptualization". Publication du groupe de recherches Anglo-américaines de l'Université de Tours. Tours: Publications universitaires François Rabelais.
 (2006e) "Personal and interpersonal gesture spaces: Functional contrasts in language and gesture". In A. Tyler, Y. Kim, and M. Takada (Eds.), Language in the Context of Use: Cognitive and Discourse Approaches to Language and Language Learning. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
 (2008) Style and Patterns of Blending. Sweetser, Eve. Style and Patterns of Blending (October 19, 2008). 9th Conference on Conceptual Structure, Discourse, and Language (CSDL9). Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1293687
 (2009a) Myriam Bouveret and Eve Sweetser. 'Multi-frame semantics, metaphoric extensions and grammar". BLS 35.
 (2009b) Karen Sullivan and Eve Sweetser. 2009. "Is 'Generic is Specific' a Metaphor?" in Fey Parrill, Vera Tobin and Mark Turner (eds.), Meaning, Form and Body. (Selected papers from the 2008 CSDL meeting). Stanford CA: CSLI Publications.
 (2009c) "What does it mean to compare Language and Gesture? Modalities and Contrasts". In Jiansheng Guo et al. (eds.), Crosslinguistic approaches to the psychology of language: Studies in the tradition of Dan Isaac Slobin. New York: Psychology Press. 357–366.

References

External links
 University of California, Berkeley, department of Linguistics page on Eve Sweetser

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Linguists from the United States
American cognitive scientists
University of California, Berkeley faculty
Women linguists

Eve Sweetser


In statistics, a p-value is the probability that the null hypothesis (the idea that a theory being tested is false) gives for a specific experimental result to happen.  p-value is also called probability value.  If the p-value is low, the null hypothesis is unlikely, and the experiment has statistical significance as evidence for a different theory.

In many fields, an experiment must have a p-value of less than 0.05 for the experiment to be considered evidence of the alternative hypothesis. In short, a low p-value means a higher chance of the null hypothesis being false.

Statistics

P-value


Telecommunication Infrastructure Company (TIC) is responsible for telecommunication networks infrastructure in Iran, it is working as the governmental body of ICT Ministry with the aim of creating, developing, managing, organizing, supervising, maintaining and implementing the main communication backbone of the country and continues infrastructural activities.

The bandwidth providing and distribution (Internet, intranet, MPLS and VPLS), point-to-point services (inter-city, inter-provincial and international), cloud TDM service, international transit service (border to border), NIX and Peering services are only a few examples of the massive services provided by the Telecommunication Infrastructure Company.

Providing the internet services to mobile phone operators, ISPs, and scientific, cultural, economic and military centers are among other activities carried out by this company. The comprehensive development of telecommunication backbone network based on the modern technology to meet the present and future needs of the national and international users, effective presence in regional and international telecommunication communities and markets, and converting Iran into a strong communication hub in the Middle East are among the main goals of this company.

The Telecommunication Infrastructure Company believes that the way to increase domestic network strength and enhance the regional and international status of Iran in terms of telecommunications passes through cooperation and constructive interaction with all agents in this area.

References

External links

Telecommunications companies of Iran
Internet in Iran
Holding companies of Iran


A deaerator is a device used to remove dissolved gasses from water. The water will be used as feedwater to steam boilers. Dissolved gasses such as oxygen can cause heavy damage to the boiler system by creating rust on any metal inside the system. Dissolved carbon dioxide combined with water can cause further corrosion.

Types
 Tray-type deaerator
 Spray-type deaerator

Fluid mechanics
Tools

Deaerator


Nxai Pan National Park is a national park in north-eastern Botswana, consisting of Nxai Pan, which is one of the Makgadikgadi Pan salt flats. Nxai Pan National Park lies just north of the Maun-Nata main road and adjoins Makgadikgadi Pans National Park on its northern border. The pan itself is a fossil lakebed about 40 square km in size.

The National Park is also home to the cluster of millennia-old baobab trees, which owe their name to Thomas Baines, the man known to have discovered them. Baines' Baobabs, as they are known today, are a sight sought by many travelers venturing into this untamed terrain of Botswana.

Wildlife

This national park is home to elephant, giraffe, zebra, wildebeest, lion, leopard, cheetah,  kudu, springbok, impala, ostrich, Cape wild dog, jackal, hyena, bat-eared fox, aardwolf, and honey badger.

Conservation
This park is considered for inclusion in the 5 Nation Kavango - Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area.

Roads
The rainy season which is from November to April is the hot wet summer season and the time when the park is at its best. Game is abundant from December to April but if the rains have been heavy the roads may be difficult to negotiate. Road conditions can become difficult during times of heavy rains. The more accessible time to be in the park is in the dry season, which is from May to September.

References

External links

Nxai Pan National Park general information

Makgadikgadi Pan
National parks of Botswana
Salt flats of Botswana

Nxai Pan National Park