Correlation attacks are a class of cryptographic known-plaintext attacks for breaking stream ciphers whose keystreams are generated by combining the output of several linear-feedback shift registers (LFSRs) using a Boolean function. Correlation attacks exploit a statistical weakness that arises from the specific Boolean function chosen for the keystream. While some Boolean functions are vulnerable to correlation attacks, stream ciphers generated using such functions are not inherently insecure.

Explanation

Correlation attacks become possible when a significant correlation exists between the output state of an individual LFSR in the keystream generator and the output of the Boolean function that combines the output states of all the LFSRs. These attacks are employed in combination with partial knowledge of the keystream, which is derived from partial knowledge of the plaintext. The two are then compared using an XOR logic gate. This vulnerability allows an attacker to brute-force the key for the individual LFSR and the rest of the system separately. For instance, in a keystream generator where four 8-bit LFSRs are combined to produce the keystream, and if one of the registers is correlated to the Boolean function output, it becomes possible to brute force it first, followed by the remaining three LFSRs. As a result, the total attack complexity becomes 28 + 224.

Compared to the cost of launching a brute-force attack on the entire system, with complexity 232, this represents an attack effort saving factor of just under 256. If a second register is correlated with the function, the process may be repeated and decrease the attack complexity down to 28 + 28 + 216 for an effort saving factor of just under 65028.

Example

Geffe generator

One example is the Geffe generator, which consists of three LFSRs: LFSR-1, LFSR-2, and LFSR-3. Let these registers be denoted as: , , and , respectively. Then, the Boolean function combining the three registers to provide the generator output is given by  (i.e. ( AND ) XOR (NOT  AND )). There are 23 = 8 possible values for the outputs of the three registers, and the value of this combining function for each of them is shown in the table below:

Consider the output of the third register, . The table above shows that of the 8 possible outputs of , 6 are equal to the corresponding value of the generator output, . In 75% of all possible cases, . Thus LFSR-3 is 'correlated' with the generator. This is a weakness that may be exploited as follows:

An interception can be made on the cipher text  of a plain text  which has been encrypted by a stream cipher using a Geffe generator as its keystream generator, i.e.  for , where  is the output of LFSR-1 at time , etc. It's also possible that part of the plain text, e.g. , the first 32 bits of the plaintext (corresponding to 4 ASCII characters of text). This is not entirely improbable considering plain text is a valid XML file, for instance, the first 4 ASCII characters must be "<xml". Similarly, many file formats or network protocols have very standard headers or footers. Given the intercepted  and our known/guessed , we may easily find  for  by XOR-ing the two together. This makes the 32 consecutive bits of the generator output easy to determine.

This enables a brute-force search of the space of possible keys (initial values) for LFSR-3 (assuming we know the tapped bits of LFSR-3, an assumption which is in line with Kerckhoffs' principle). For any given key in the key space, we may quickly generate the first 32 bits of LFSR-3's output and compare these to our recovered 32 bits of the entire generator's output. Because we have established earlier that there is a 75% correlation between the output of LFSR-3 and the generator, we know we have correctly guessed the key for LFSR-3 if approximately 24 of the first 32 bits of LFSR-3 output will match up with the corresponding bits of generator output. If we have guessed incorrectly, we should expect roughly half, or 16, of the first 32 bits of these two sequences to match. Thus we may recover the key for LFSR-3 independently of the keys of LFSR-1 and LFSR-2. At this stage we have reduced the problem of brute forcing a system of 3 LFSRs to the problem of brute forcing a single LFSR and then a system of 2 LFSRs. The amount of effort saved here depends on the length of the LFSRs. For realistic values, it is a very substantial saving and can make brute-force attacks very practical.

Observe in the table above that  also agrees with the generator output 6 times out of 8, again a correlation of 75% correlation between  and the generator output. We may begin a brute force attack against LFSR-2 independently of the keys of LFSR-1 and LFSR-3, leaving only LFSR-1 unbroken. Thus, we are able to break the Geffe generator with as much effort as required to brute force 3 entirely independent LFSRs. This means the Geffe generator is a very weak generator and should never be used to generate stream cipher keystreams.

Note from the table above that  agrees with the generator output 4 times out of 8—a 50% correlation. We cannot use this to brute force LFSR-1 independently of the others: the correct key will yield output that agrees with the generator output 50% of the time, but on average so will an incorrect key. This represents the ideal situation from a security perspective—the combining function  should be chosen so the correlation between each variable and the combining function's output is as close as possible to 50%. In practice, it may be difficult to find a function that achieves this without sacrificing other design criteria, e.g., period length, so a compromise may be necessary.

Clarifying the statistical nature of the attack

While the above example illustrates well the relatively simple concepts behind correlation attacks, it perhaps simplifies the explanation of precisely how the brute forcing of individual LFSRs proceeds. Incorrectly guessed keys will generate LFSR output that agrees with the generator output roughly 50% of the time because, given two random bit sequences of a given length, the probability of agreement between the sequences at any particular bit is 0.5. However, specific individual incorrect keys may well generate LFSR output that agrees with the generator output more or less often than exactly 50% of the time. This is particularly salient in the case of LFSRs whose correlation with the generator is not especially strong; for small enough correlations, it is certainly not outside the realm of possibility that an incorrectly guessed key will also lead to LFSR output that agrees with the desired number of bits of the generator output. Thus, it may not be possible to identify the unique key to that LFSR. It may be possible to identify a number of potential keys, however, which is still a significant breach of the cipher's security. Moreover, given a megabyte of known plain text, the situation would be substantially different. An incorrect key may generate LFSR output that agrees with more than 512 kilobytes of the generator output but is not likely to generate output that agrees with as much as 768 kilobytes of the generator output as a correctly guessed key would. As a rule, the weaker the correlation between an individual register and the generator output, the more known plain text is required to find that register's key with a high degree of confidence. Estimates of the length of known plain text required for a given correlation can be calculated using the binomial distribution.

Higher order correlations

Definition

The correlations which were exploited in the example attack on the Geoff generator are examples of what are called first order correlations: they are correlations between the value of the generator output and an individual LFSR. It is possible to define higher-order correlations in addition to these. For instance, it may be possible that while a given Boolean function has no strong correlations with any of the individual registers it combines, a significant correlation may exist between some Boolean function of two of the registers, e.g., . This would be an example of a second order correlation. Third order correlations and higher can be defined in this way.

Higher-order correlation attacks can be more powerful than single-order correlation attacks, however, this effect is subject to a "law of limiting returns". The table below shows a measure of the computational cost for various attacks on a keystream generator consisting of eight 8-bit LFSRs combined by a single Boolean function. Understanding the calculation of cost is relatively straightforward: the leftmost term of the sum represents the size of the key space for the correlated generators, and the rightmost term represents the size of the key space for the remaining generators.

While higher-order correlations lead to more powerful attacks, they are also more difficult to find, as the space of available Boolean functions to correlate against the generator output increases as the number of arguments to the function does.

Terminology

A Boolean function  of  variables is said to be "-th order correlation immune", or to have "th order correlation immunity" for some integer , if no significant correlation exists between the function's output and any Boolean function of  of its inputs. For example, a Boolean function that has no first-order or second-order correlations, but which does have a third-order correlation exhibits 2nd order correlation immunity. Obviously, higher correlation immunity makes a function more suitable for use in a keystream generator (although this is not the only thing that needs to be considered).

Siegenthaler showed that the correlation immunity  of a Boolean function of algebraic degree  of  variables satisfies ; for a given set of input variables, this means that a high algebraic degree will restrict the maximum possible correlation immunity. Furthermore, if the function is balanced then .

It follows that it is impossible for a function of  variables to be th order correlation immune. This also follows from the fact that any such function can be written using a Reed-Muller basis as a combination of XORs of the input functions.

Cipher design implications

Given the probable extreme severity of a correlation attack's impact on a stream cipher's security, it should be essential to test a candidate Boolean combination function for correlation immunity before deciding to use it in a stream cipher. However, it is important to note that high correlation immunity is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for a Boolean function to be appropriate for use in a keystream generator. There are other issues to consider, for example, whether or not the function is balanced - whether it outputs as many or roughly as many 1's as it does 0's when all possible inputs are considered.

Research has been conducted into methods for easily generating Boolean functions of a given size which are guaranteed to have at least some particular order of correlation immunity. This research has uncovered links between correlation immune Boolean functions and error correcting codes.

See also
 Topics in cryptography

References
 Bruce Schneier. Applied Cryptography: Protocols, Algorithms and Source Code in C, Second Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1996. . Page 382 of section 16.4: Stream Ciphers Using LFSRs.

External links
 The Online Database of Boolean Functions allows visitors to search a database of Boolean factors in several ways, including by correlation immunity.

Cryptographic attacks

Correlation attack


Neglect is a kind of abuse where a person harms another person by not giving them the things they need to live. For example, a parent or caregiver may neglect a child by not giving them enough food, clothing, hygiene, medical care, affection or education; this is a form of child abuse. Victims of neglect are those that need looking after, like children, physically or mentally disabled adults, elderly people, medical patients, animals or plants.

Abuse

ro:Abuz asupra copilului#Categoria 3: neglijarea

Neglect


Mu can be:

Mu, Μ or μ, a letter in the Greek alphabet.
μ is used as a symbol for:
The SI prefix micro, meaning a factor of 10-6 (one millionth).
μ by itself is often used as the "unit" of strain, though in this context it retains its SI prefix meaning, which is interchangeable with "x 10-6" or "ppm" (parts per million).
μ by itself is an abbreviation for the unit micron. Both the term and the abbreviation should not be used. The preferred terms are µm and micrometre
In mathematics,
The arithmetic mean of a statistical population
The Möbius function
The least-fixed-point-operator
A degree of membership from a fuzzy set.
In chemistry,
The chemical potential
In physics,
The coefficient of friction
The mobility coefficient
The permeability (electromagnetism) coefficient
The muon, an elementary particle
The standard gravitational parameter
The magnetic dipole moment
The linear density
Viscosity
Reduced mass
µTorrent, a freeware BitTorrent client for Microsoft Windows written in C++.
μZiq, An alias of Mike Paradinas.

In Asian languages:
Mù, (穆), a Chinese surname
Mu (unit of area) (亩/畝), a Chinese unit of area
Mu (kana), represented by the Japanese kana む or ム
Mu (negative) (無), a Japanese word important in Zen koan practice

Mu may also refer to:
Muonium's atomic symbol
Mu-metal, an alloy used for screening magnetic fields
Mu (lost continent), a mythical continent in the Pacific Ocean subsequently appearing in several books, films, and games
Mu (rocket), a Japanese rocket
Mu Dan, Chinese poet and translator
Mu Online, an online role-playing game
Mu La Flaga, a character from the anime Mobile Suit Gundam SEED
Aries Mu, a character from the cartoon Saint Seiya
Groupe Mu, an interdisciplinary Belgian group focusing on linguistics and rhetoric
Lemuria, a hypothetical lost continent

MU may stand for:
Mauritius' ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code
China Eastern Airlines's IATA code
Manchester United Football club
The Mothers' Union, global Anglican women's organisation
Monitor unit, a unit used in radiation therapy
Centimorgan or "map unit", a unit of recombinant frequency in genetics
Multiple unit, such as a rail diesel car
MU puzzle, a puzzle in Gödel, Escher, Bach
University of Mumbai, formerly called the University of Bombay
Marquette University
Marshall University
Miami University, a public university in Oxford, Ohio
Millersville University of Pennsylvania
Miskatonic University
University of Missouri, a public university in Columbia, Missouri
Mahidol University, a University in Thailand
Manipal University, a university in Karnataka, India
MU (70's band), an early 1970s psychedelic group led by Merrell Fankhauser and Jeff Cotton
MU (00's band), a 00's electro-punk group made up of producer Maurice Fulton and his wife Mutsumi Kanamori.
Mirror Universe (Star Trek), fictional parallel universe in which the plots of several Star Trek television episodes take place
Magic-User, a class type in D&D, HackMaster, and many fantasy RPGs
 Musician, an enlisted rating in the United States Navy
 Isuzu MU Wizard
 Micron Technology

Mu


The viol (rhymes with "mile") is a string instrument that is played with a bow. The viol was a popular instrument from the 15th to the 18th century. Small viols are held on the lap, and the larger ones are held between the knees, which gave them the name of "viol da gamba", meaning a leg viol. The bow is held with the palm of the hand facing upwards: the other way round from today's bowhold for violins, violas or cellos. The viol is a gentle-sounding instrument.  When the violin family became popular in the 17th century and people started to go to concerts in large concert halls, and to operas, the viols became less important.

Description
Viols are made of wood, and are similar to the violin family. Most viols have six strings, although this number did vary during the centuries. The strings were made of gut, and are not as tight as on a violin. The fingerboard has frets like a guitar, except that they were also made of gut. They were tied around the fingerboard, and could be moved for tuning.  These frets help the player to find the exact place to put their fingers.  Sometimes the top of the scrolls on the fingerboard were beautifully decorated. The instruments have sloped shoulders and a flat back. The viol, like the vihuela, from which it developed, has a bridge that is flatter than the bridge of a modern violin.  This makes it easier to play chords. The bow was convex in shape, where a violin bow is concave.

Sizes
Viols were made in different sizes. A set of viols of different sizes - perhaps four or five instruments - were sometimes kept together in a chest (large box) which is why they were called a "chest of viols". When they were played together people talked of a "consort of viols". A consort would normally have at least one treble, tenor and bass instrument. A "broken consort" meant a mixture of different instruments: viols, recorders etc. Lute and bass viol were often played together. They were tuned in fourths, with a major third in the middle.

The strings of a bass viol (equivalent to the cello in the modern violin family) are tuned (from the lowest note, nearly two octaves below middle C, upwards) to D - G - C - E - A -D. The tenor viol was often called a viola da gamba (literally: "viol of the leg"). It was the most popular size for solo music and many composers wrote sonatas for the viola da gamba. The biggest viol is called the violone. It developed into the modern double bass. This is why the double bass is a little different in shape from the violin, viola and cello. Some double bass players today hold the bow with the palm (inside) of the hand facing upwards, like viol players.

History

The viol was popular in the houses of rich people, and in the royal court. During the reign of Elizabeth I and, later, King Charles I composers such as William Byrd, John Dowland, Orlando Gibbons, John Jenkins and William Lawes wrote viol music.  Solo sonatas were written by many composers including Marin Marais, Johann Sebastian Bach, and Karl Friedrich Abel.  Some of the last and greatest fantasies for viol consort were written by Henry Purcell.

After the mid-18th century people forgot about the viol until the 20th century when there was a new interest in early music and people like Arnold Dolmetsch started making them again so that Renaissance and Baroque viol music could be played.  Today there are many societies for people who are interested in playing the viol.

There are now many societies for people with an interest in the viol. One of these, The Viola da Gamba Society has a worldwide membership. Some modern composers have also written for the viol e.g. John Tavener, Sally Beamish, Thea Musgrave, Tan Dun and Poul Ruders.  There is a group called Fretwork which perform viol music.

References

Other websites
 The Viola da Gamba Society

String instruments
Early musical instruments

Viol


In business, a takeover or acquisition happens when one company buys another company. The company that is the one buying is called the "acquirer" or the "bidder" and the one that is being bought is called the "target".

There are four types of takeovers: friendly, hostile, reverse, or back-flip takeovers. Friendly takeovers happen when the people in charge of the company agree with being taken over. Hostile takeovers happen when they don't agree. Reverse takeovers are when a private company takes over a .. Back-flip takeovers happen when the acquiring company becomes a part of the target company.

Business

Takeover


Ponsonby is a village and civil parish in the Borough of Copeland of the county of Cumbria, England. Ponsonby has a church which was constructed in 1840 and had further additions in 1874. Ponsonby is located along and just off the A595. It has a population of 205 according to the 2011 Census Data.

Location
Ponsonby is located along the A595 in the heart of the Copeland district in Cumbria and is on the edge of the Lake District National Park. Ponsonby is 2.5 miles away from the next large village of Gosforth and 10.9 miles away from Whitehaven which is Ponsonby's nearest town.

History
In the 1870s Ponsonby was described as

"PONSONBY, a parish in Whitehaven district, Cumberland; on the river Calder, at Calder-Bridge. The manor was held, at the Norman Conquest, by the Ponsonbys, ancestors of the Earl of Bessborough, and, with P. Hall, belongs now to W. Stanley, Esq. The hall was built about 1786; containsmany old curiosities, brought from Dalegarth; and stands in a finely wooded park, with picturesque features, and commanding extensive views. A Roman camp is at P. Fell. The living is a p. curacy in the diocese of Carlisle. Value, £113.* Patron, W. Stanley, Esq. The church is ancient; and has some old stained glass, and a tower and spire; and contains monuments of the Stanleys."

Just outside the village of Ponsonby is Calder Bridge, within which lies the Grade II listed Pelham House (named after Herbert Pelham, 3rd bishop of Barrow-in-Furness) but formerly known as Ponsonby Hall. It was built in 1774 and was designed by James Paine for Edward Stanley. This is currently used as offices for the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA), and before this was used as a School for Boys.

Ponsonby Church
The church is located between the Village of Ponsonby and Calder Bridge and is a Grade 2 listed building. The church has many links to the Stanley Family who were part of the village of Ponsonby and lived in the Calderbridge during the 14th Century and the church has a number of different memorials to the family. The church can be accessed by passing the dry moat, the moat is there due to the time the Church was built. From the Church you can see Sellafield (West) and the Lakeland Fells (North-East)

Population

The village's population has increased since 1801 to a figure of 205 in 2011, in 106 households, all identifying as White. 165 people living in Ponsonby state that they are Christian, with 1 person Buddhist, and the remainder stating no religion or did not answer the section in the Census. The village is made up of 106 households, 7 do not have central heating.

Employment

The Employment graph of 1881 shows there are many more men employed in the village than women. Women were often 'Home Workers' meaning that they would do domestic duties around the home. The sector that employed the most women is the Domestic Indoor Servant, essentially meaning that they were doing domestic duties in wealthy households within the community. The male population of Ponsonby were largely employed in the agricultural sector, either being a farmer, a farmer's son or male relative or an agricultural worker. The graph shows that there are very few people employed in high paying jobs, this could be due to the lack of education within the area.

The employment graph of 2001 shows there has been an increase in the number of women employed in Ponsonby and an increase in the different sectors that people are employed in. There are a lot more people employed in 'office' jobs now compared to 1881, however agriculture is still the biggest employer. There is an increase in women working in Agriculture and Manufacturing, but males still dominate this area of work. From the graph it is apparent that there is more people travelling away from the village to work in cities where the 'office' jobs are located. There has also been an increase in the variety of Jobs that people from Ponsonby are working in, during 1881 many of the jobs were practical jobs and manual jobs, however there has now been a switch and the majority of people are working in  'office' jobs or terrestrial jobs.

See also

Listed buildings in Ponsonby, Cumbria

References

External links
 Cumbria County History Trust: Ponsonby (nb: provisional research only – see Talk page)

 Listed buildings in Ponsonby

Villages in Cumbria
Civil parishes in Cumbria
Borough of Copeland

Ponsonby, Cumbria


Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, cried Leibnitz or von Leibniz as weel (1 Julie (21 Juin Auld Style) 1646 – 14 November 1716) wis a German scientist that scrieved maistly in French an Latin.

He wis educate in law an philosophy. He wrocht as factotum tae twa muckle German noble hooses (ane becomin the British ryal faimlie at the time he wis wirkin for it). Leibniz haed a muckle role in the European politics an diplomacy o his day. He haes juist as big a place baith in the history o philosophy an in the history o mathematics. He inventit calculus at the same time as Newton, an his notation is the ane in general uiss syne. He inventit the binary seestem forby, the foonds o juist aboot aw modren computers.

In philosophy, he is best mynt for optimism. His thocht wis that the universe is, in ae sense, the best possible that God coud hae made. He wis ane o the great 17th century rationalists. Mony fowk sees René Descartes an Baruch Spinoza as the ither twa. His philosophy leuks back on the Scholastic tradeetion an leuks forrit on modren logic an analysis.

Leibniz made unco contreibutions tae pheesics an technology forby, an anteecipatit concepts that surfaced lang efter in biology, medicine, geology, probability theory, psychology, an information science. He wrate on politics, law, ethics, theology, history, an philology, an aw. Whiles he e'en wrate in verse. His contreebutions tae this muckle array o subjects is scattered in jurnals, in tens o thoosands o letters, an in unpublished manuscripts. As o 2006, thare isna ony complete edeetion o Leibniz's writins, sae a full accoont o his accomplishments isna yet possible.

References

Soorces
 Richard T. W. Arthur, 2014. Leibniz. John Wiley & Sons.

1646 births
1716 daiths
17t-century German writers
18t-century German writers
17t-century Laitin-leid writers
17t-century mathematicians
18t-century Laitin-leid writers
18t-century German mathematicians
18t-century philosophers
17t-century philosophers
Deist philosophers
Early modren philosophers
Enlichtenment philosophers
German Christians
German leebrarians
German logicians
German mathematicians
German philosophers
German physicists
German scientists

History o calculus
Idealists
Leid creators
Mathematical analysts
Members o the Proushie Academy o Sciences
Ontologists
Rationalists
Fowk frae Leipzig
Fowk frae the Electorate o Saxony
Philosophers o law
Philosophers o mynd
Poleetical theorists
Varsity o Altdorf alumni
Leipzig Varsity alumni
Fellaes o the Ryal Society
German muisic theorists
Mathematics o infinitesimals

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz


Faraday's laws of electrolysis are a set of scientific laws used in chemistry. They are used to express magnitudes of electrolytic effects. They were first described by Michael Faraday in 1834.

The first law states that the mass of a substance produced by electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of the electricity that passes through the cell.

The second law says: since Q, F, and z are constants, the larger the value of M/z (equivalent weight) the larger m will be.

Mathematical form

Faraday's laws can be summarized by

where:
 m is the mass of the substance liberated at an electrode in gms
 Q is the total electric charge passed through the substance in coulombs
 F = 96485.33289(59) C mol−1 is the Faraday constant
 M is the molar mass of the substance in grams per mol
 z is the valency number of ions of the substance (electrons transferred per ion).

M/z is the same as the equivalent weight of the substance altered.

Electricity
Physical chemistry

Faraday's laws of electrolysis


Logistic regression, also known as logit regression or logit model, is a mathematical model used in statistics to estimate (guess) the probability of an event occurring having been given some previous data. Logistic regression works with binary data, where either the event happens (1) or the event does not happen (0). So given some feature x it tries to find out whether some event y happens or not. So y can either be 0 or 1. In the case where the event happens, y is given the value 1. If the event does not happen, then y is given the value of 0. For example, if y represents whether a sports team wins a match, then y will be 1 if they win the match or y will be 0 if they do not. This is known as binomial logistic regression. There is also another form of logistic regression which uses multiple values for the variable y. This form of logistic regression is known as multinomial logistic regression.

Logistic regression uses the logistic function to find a model that fits with the data points. The function gives an 'S' shaped curve to model the data. The curve is restricted between 0 and 1, so it is easy to apply when y is binary. Logistic regression can then model events better than linear regression, as it shows the probability for y being 1 for a given x value. Logistic regression is used in statistics and machine learning to predict values of an input from previous test data.

Basics
Logistic regression is an alternative method to use other than the simpler linear regression. Linear regression tries to predict the data by finding a linear – straight line – equation to model or predict future data points. Logistic regression does not look at the relationship between the two variables as a straight line. Instead, Logistic regression uses the natural logarithm function to find the relationship between the variables and uses test data to find the coefficients. The function can then predict the future results using these coefficients in the logistic equation.

Logistic regression uses the concept of odds ratios to calculate the probability. This is defined as the ratio of the odds of an event happening to its not happening. For example, the probability of a sports team to win a certain match might be 0.75. The probability for that team to lose would be 1 – 0.75 = 0.25. The odds for that team winning would be 0.75/0.25 = 3. This can be said as the odds of the team winning are 3 to 1.

The odds can be defined as:

The natural logarithm of the odds ratio is then taken in order to create the logistic equation. The new equation is known as the logit:

In Logistic regression the logit of the probability is said to be linear with respect to x, so the logit becomes:

Using the two equations together then gives the following:

This then leads to the probability:

This final equation is the logistic curve for Logistic regression. It models the non-linear relationship between x and y with an 'S'-like curve for the probabilities that y =1 - that event the y occurs. In this example a and b represent the gradients for the logistic function just like in linear regression. The logit equation can then be expanded to handle multiple gradients. This gives more freedom with how the logistic curve matches the data. The multiplication of two vectors can then be used to model more gradient values and give the following equation:

In this equation w = [ w0 , w1 , w2 , ... , wn ] and represents the n gradients for the equation. The powers of x are given by the vector  x = [ 1 , x , x2 , .. , xn ] . These two vectors give the new logit equation with multiple gradients. The logistic equation then can then be changed to show this:

This is then a more general logistic equation allowing for more gradient values.

References

Other websites
 http://faculty.cas.usf.edu/mbrannick/regression/Logistic.html
 https://www.strath.ac.uk/aer/materials/5furtherquantitativeresearchdesignandanalysis/unit6/whatislogisticregression/

Statistics

Logistic regression


The Safeguard Program was a U.S. Army anti-ballistic missile (ABM) system designed to protect the U.S. Air Force's Minuteman ICBM silos from attack, thus preserving the US's nuclear deterrent fleet. It was intended primarily to protect against the very small Chinese ICBM fleet, limited Soviet attacks and various other limited-launch scenarios. A full-scale attack by the Soviets would easily overwhelm it. It was designed to allow gradual upgrades to provide similar lightweight coverage over the entire United States over time.

Safeguard was the ultimate development of an ever-changing series of designs produced by Bell Labs that started in the 1950s with the LIM-49 Nike Zeus. By 1960 it was clear that Zeus offered almost no protection against a sophisticated attack using decoys. A new design emerged, Nike-X, with the ability to defend against attacks with hundreds of warheads and thousands of decoys, but the cost of the system was enormous. Looking for alternatives, the Sentinel program offered a lightweight cover that would protect against limited attacks. Sentinel began construction in 1968 but ran into a firestorm of protest over its bases being placed in suburban areas. In March 1969, incoming President Richard M. Nixon announced that Sentinel would be cancelled and redirected to protect the missile farms, and that its bases would be placed well away from any civilian areas.

The debate about ABM protection of US ICBMs had been going on for over a decade when Safeguard was announced, and the arguments against such a system were well known both in the military and civilian circles. In military circles, the most basic argument against Safeguard was that adding an ABM requires the Soviets to build another ICBM to counter it, but the same is true if the US builds another ICBM instead. The Air Force was far more interested in building more of their own ICBMs than Army ABMs, and lobbied against the Army continually. In the public sphere, opinion by the late 1960s was anti-military in general, and in an era of ongoing Strategic Arms Limitation Talks the entire concept was derided as sabre rattling. Safeguard had been developed to calm opposition but found itself just as heavily opposed. Nixon pressed ahead in spite of objections and complaints about limited performance, and the reasons for his strong support remains a subject of debate among historians and political commentators.

Through the Safeguard era, talks between the US and Soviet Union originally started by President Lyndon B. Johnson were continuing. The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty of 1972 limited the US and Soviet Union to two ABM sites each. Safeguard was scaled back to sites in North Dakota and Montana, abandoning initial work at a site in Missouri, and cancelling all other planned bases. Construction on the two remaining bases continued until 1974, when an additional agreement limited both countries to a single ABM site. The Montana site was abandoned with the main radar partially completed. The remaining base in North Dakota, the Stanley R. Mickelsen Safeguard Complex, became active on 1 April 1975 and fully operational on 1 October 1975. By that time the House Appropriations Committee had already voted to deactivate it. The base was shut down on 10 February 1976.

History

Nike Zeus

An anti-ICBM defensive ABM system was first considered by the US Army in 1955 under the name Nike II. This was essentially an upgraded version of their Nike B surface-to-air missile (SAM) along with dramatically improved radars and computers able to detect the incoming reentry vehicles (RVs) and develop tracking information while still leaving enough time for the interceptor missile to climb to its altitude. Zeus had limited traffic handling capabilities, designed to deal with a small number of attacking missiles arriving over a period of as long as an hour. It was calculated that an attack of only four missiles arriving within one minute would allow one of the warheads to pass by while the system was busy attacking others, making it relatively easy to attack the Zeus base. However, in an era when ICBMs cost about the same as a strategic bomber, such an attack would cost an enormous amount.

Through the late 1950s a new generation of much lighter thermonuclear bombs cut warhead weight from  in the case of the original Soviet R-7 Semyorka ICBM to perhaps , and further reductions were known to be possible - the US's W47 of the UGM-27 Polaris weighed only . This meant that much smaller rockets could carry these new warheads to the same range, greatly reducing the cost of the missile, making them far cheaper than bombers or any other delivery system. When Nikita Khrushchev angrily boasted that the Soviet Union was producing new missiles "like sausages", the US responded by building more ICBMs of their own, rather than attempting to defend against them with Zeus. Adding to the problems, as the warhead weight dropped, existing missiles had leftover throw weight that could be used for various radar decoys, which Zeus proved unable to distinguish from the actual RV. The Army calculated that as many as twenty Zeus' would have to be fired to ensure a single incoming missile was destroyed.

Nike-X

Faced with these problems, both the Eisenhower and Kennedy administrations turned to the newly created ARPA to suggest solutions. ARPA noted that because the decoys were lighter than the actual warhead, they would slow down more rapidly as they reentered the lower atmosphere. They proposed a system using a short range missile that could wait until the warhead was below  altitude, at which point the decoys would have been decluttered. Desiring to destroy the missile before it was below  altitude, combined with the  per second terminal speed of the RV meant there were only 2 to 3 seconds to develop a track and shoot the interceptor. This would demand extremely fast missiles, high-performance radars and advanced computers.

In 1963, Robert McNamara cancelled the upcoming deployment of Zeus and announced that money would instead be provided for research into this new system, now known as Nike-X. Construction on the new phased array radar and its associated computer systems began at the MAR-I site in White Sands Missile Range. MAR could track hundreds of warheads and the interceptor missiles sent to attack them, meaning the Soviets would have to launch hundreds of missiles if they wanted to overwhelm it. And now that decoys were no longer an issue, the cost-exchange ratio fell back to reasonable levels.

The Nike-X developed the same sort of trouble as the Zeus before it. In this case it was ironically due to the Soviet's own ABM system which was very similar to Zeus. To ensure they could defeat it, the US Air Force began equipping their own ICBMs with decoys, which would defeat the Soviet's Zeus-like system. However, concerned that the Soviets would upgrade their system to Nike-X like performance, they instead began replacing their warheads with lighter ones, and carrying three of them. This meant that every US missile would require three (or six accounting for redundancy) interceptors.

When the same calculations were run for Nike-X, it was calculated that they would have to deploy 7,000 Sprint missiles, and the cost-exchange ratio was 20-to-1 in favor of the Soviets. When presented with these numbers, McNamara concluded that deploying Nike-X would prompt to Soviets to build more ICBMs, increasing the risk of an accidental war. From this point on, he opposed building a "heavy" ABM system like Nike-X.

Sentinel

In spite of all of these problems, which McNamara repeatedly made public in a series of talks, the Johnson administration was under intense pressure to deploy an ABM system. In 1966 Congress voted to provide deployment funding for Nike-X, although McNamara refused to use it. As the 1967 elections approached, it became clear that this was going to be a major election issue. McNamara proposed arms limitations talks with the Soviets to put upper limits on the numbers of ABMs and warheads, but the Glassboro Summit Conference ultimately came to nothing.

By late 1967 it was clear the Soviets were not seriously considering limitations, and were continuing deployment of their own ABM system. In September, the Chinese tested their first H-bomb. McNamara and Johnson seized on this as a solution to the problem; a defense against the tiny Chinese fleet was both technically possible and relatively low-cost. Deploying this system would mute the ongoing debate, even over the long term if the option was open to expand the system to Nike-X coverage levels in the future. On 18 September 1967, McNamara announced the Sentinel program, with 17 bases covering all of the US, along with a total of just under 700 missiles, about  the number in a baseline Nike-X.

Nixon, having campaigned that the Democrats were deliberately dragging their feet on the ABM, inherited the system with his election win. He also inherited a massive NIMBY backlash that blew up in late 1968 when the Army chose to deploy the missiles in suburban locations to allow future expansion to be easier. City-dwellers could tolerate the idea of an armed rocket attack against bombers going on over their heads. They were less comfortable with the concept of nuclear anti-missiles detonating against incoming missiles at low altitudes.

The issue came to a head at a meeting outside Boston, when an estimated 1,000 to 2,000 people showed up to express their displeasure in spite of a raging blizzard. Congressmen were flooded by letters from constituents demanding the sites be moved, and Congress was soon threatening to freeze all additional funds for the system. Nixon announced construction would be delayed while the system underwent a review.

Safeguard
The review was completed on 14 March 1969 and announced in a lengthy speech made by Nixon and various DoD advisers. The entire concept was reviewed and all possibilities considered fresh. Among these, the idea of a heavyweight Nike-X-like system was considered, but Defense Secretary Melvin Laird apparently came to the same conclusion as McNamara before him, stating that the protection the system offered simply didn't justify the cost;

However, they disagreed with the concept of a light city defense as well. There was no reason to deploy a system that only worked under contrived circumstances, especially as accepting them as possibilities meant that the enemy was ignoring your deterrent. If that was the case, why have missiles at all? The real issue becomes ensuring they cannot ignore your deterrent, and it was this concept that Nixon chose. Instead of deploying the ABM system to protect cities, the new deployment would protect the missile bases themselves, ensuring that no limited attack could be contemplated. This did not have to be perfect, or even close to it;

Operation

Safeguard was a two-layer defense system. The long-range Spartan missile would attempt interception outside the Earth's atmosphere. The missile's long range allowed protection of a large geographic area. If the Spartan failed to intercept the incoming offensive missile, the high performance and high speed but short ranged Sprint missile would attempt an interception within the atmosphere. Both missiles used nuclear warheads, and they relied on destroying or damaging the incoming warhead with radiation rather than heat or blast. The Spartan carried a weapon with a  yield; the Sprint in the  range.

The envisioned sequence was as follows:

 Enemy launch detected by Defense Support Program satellites, sensing the hot infrared exhaust of the ICBM booster.
 While in the mid-course phase, the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System radars in the far north would detect the incoming warheads.
 As the warheads approached (but while still in outer space) the Safeguard long-range Perimeter Acquisition Radar (PAR) would detect them, providing filtered information to the shorter-range and more precise Missile Site Radar (MSR).
 While the incoming warhead came within range of the MSR, the associated computer systems would calculate intercept trajectories and launch times.

Original deployment plan
Plans were made in the late 1960s to deploy Safeguard systems in three locations, Whiteman AFB, Missouri, Malmstrom AFB, Montana, and Grand Forks AFB, North Dakota, to protect important strategic weapons assets. However the Whiteman AFB location was canceled despite the fact that specific missile and radar site locations had already been selected. Construction was actually commenced at the North Dakota and Montana sites, but only the North Dakota site was completed. Remnants of the incomplete PAR system still remain in rural Montana.

Components
The Safeguard system consisted of several primary components, the Perimeter Acquisition Radar, the Missile Site Radar, the Spartan missile launchers, co-located Sprint missile launchers, and Remote Sprint missile launchers.

Perimeter Acquisition Radar (PAR)

The PAR was a large passive electronically scanned array radar that was intended to detect incoming ballistic missile warheads as they crossed over the North Pole region.  Potential targets detected by the PAR would be sent to the Missile Site Radar (MSR) and to North American Aerospace Defense Command.  Two radar sites were intended to be constructed on the northern border of the United States, one in Montana and one in North Dakota.  Construction was begun at both locations, but because of the ratification of the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, only the site at North Dakota was completed.  That site, near Cavalier, North Dakota, is now operated by the United States Space Force as Cavalier Space Force Station.

Remnants of the Montana PAR site are located east of Conrad, Montana, at .

Missile Site Radar (MSR)
The Missile Site Radar was the control of the Safeguard system. It housed the computers and a phased array radar necessary to track and hit back at incoming ICBM warheads. The radar building itself is a pyramid structure several stories tall. Construction was begun in both Montana and North Dakota, but only the North Dakota site remains standing. The MSR complex included 30 Spartan missile launchers and 16 Sprint missile launchers.

Remnants of the Montana MSR site  were dismantled and buried.

Remote Sprint Launchers (RSL)
Remote Sprint Launchers were established around the MSR main complex in order to place missile launchers closer to their intended targets, and thus reduce the flight range to the targets. Four sites were completed, and they still remain there,  around the MSR complex in Nekoma, North Dakota.

 RSL-1
 RSL-2
 RSL-3  on the National Register of Historic Places, museum
 RSL-4

Photo gallery

Footnotes

See also
 Sharpner's Pond Anti-Ballistic Missile Site, an incomplete radar for the Sentinel program
 Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), successor to Safeguard

External links

 Unofficial website of the Stanley R. Mickelsen Safeguard complex
 FAS - Safeguard system
 Global Security - Malstrom ABM site
 The MSR is listed in the Historic American Engineering Record, survey ND-9-B.
 The PAR site is listed in the Historic American Engineering Record, survey ND-9-P.

Anti-ballistic missiles of the United States
Space weapons
Missile defense
United States Army projects

Safeguard Program


A halo is a ring of light that surrounds an object. Also, in much religious art, it may be seen surrounding the heads of saintly people such as Jesus.

It is believed by some Hindus that the halo shown around the heads of holy people is a depiction of their  "activated" crown chakra.

Halos are visual phenomena that appear near or around the Sun or Moon, and sometimes near other strong light sources such as street lights. There are many types of optical halos, but they are mostly caused by ice crystals in certain types of clouds. The shape of the crystals changes the type of halo seen. Light is reflected by the ice and may split into colors, similar to the rainbow.

Other websites

 Halo explanations and image galleries  at Atmospheric Optics

Optics

Halo


(Nog pabumöl)

a — (with time words) present
ä — (with time words) previous, last
i — (with time words) two (days, etc.) ago
o — (with time words) next
be — (transitivizes intransitive verbs)
da — intensifier/enhancer (is used to make abstract synonyms of verbs)
dä — breaking down, becoming nonfunctional, going out of order
dei — causing death, resulting in death
do — lowering, bringing down, going down
du — movement through
fa — absence
fäi — closing
fe — complete consumption, using up completely
fea — trans-
fi — completion of action
hi — masculine
ho — castrated male
ji — feminine
jo — neutered female
ke — togetherness (co-)
ki — (forms interrogative words)
la — raising, taking up
lai — continuance of action
läx — former (ex-)
le — greater, better, super (also makes abstract synonyms (cf. da))
lu — smaller, worse (also step-)
lü — in-law
mai — opening
ne — opposite, not
ni — inner
nü — movement into
plö — outer
ru — of great antiquity, primal (cf. German Ur-)
sä — reverse, undo
si — related to celestial objects or heavenly beings
sö — imitate, copy
vi — vice-
ze — middle, mid-

Poyümot

Gramat
Volapükagramat
Yegeds no pefipenöls

Foyümot


A scientific model is a simplified abstract view of a complex reality. Scientific models are used as a basis for scientific work. They can be used to explain, predict, and test, or to develop computer programs or mathematical equations.

An example of a complex model is the software used for weather forecasts. The program is based on equations for the variables which affect weather. Meteorological data is fed in, and the program produces predictions (graphs and data) of future weather patterns.

A scientific model represents complex objects, events, and physical processes in a logical way.

They are an image of an original, which can be a model itself.
Scientific models only have those details of the object or image modeled that are relevant.
There is no strict mapping between a model, and the original object it models. Models may be valid only for a given  time interval, for a given object,  or for a given purpose.

Examples
For instance, models of our universe are part of astrophysics - the biggest things in nature - and physics - the smallest. This is not usually what we mean by nature, however. We mean the models studied in biology, ecology, economics, environmental health and healing. Most models of nature are of things that humans really affect directly, and which affect humans back:

Toxic waste
For instance, to dump toxic waste in a river will harm others down the river. But without models of nature we do not know who, and cannot say how much is harmed or harmful.

Effects
Models of nature affect human decision-making. They are very important to human health, wellness and economics. They also matter in ethics, since most people wish to reduce harm done by their decisions. They matter in law because harms can be proven to have been done in a court.

Forests
A forest is very hard to bring back to life, once it is degraded. Smaller models of bits of nature help to understand how much must be left, so future generations can use nature too.

Effects on nature
In many ways humans and nature can be said to be in conflict. Natural capital like soil and large healthy trees, which nature needs to make more of itself, is also useful to humans as natural resources. To know how much can be drawn out of nature, before it dies, is important. This is another reason for a model:

There are three main ways in which models of nature affect human life:

The environment
 Environment and wellness are about human health and healing and nutrition. These focus on 'what goes in' the human body or senses, and on how to extend lifespan and increase vitality. Human happiness depends on being part of something alive outside them, according to this view. Gardening for instance can make them happy, just by focusing them on growing and putting themselves outside.

Economics
 Ecology and economics study resources, waste, energy, food and diet and how choices affect nature in many other places. These ideas say to focus on how to buy local, conserve energy, and to reduce, re-use, recycle goods, to reduce competition between humans. Human bodies are part of nature, according to this view, and must be seen as part of ecology - for instance the urban ecology of cities.

Ecology
 Deep ecology and animal rights say nature should exist only for itself. Human morality should be about leaving it alone. This ideology says to focus only on working to conserve habitat, increase biodiversity, and buy moral to not help damage things. It says to do all this without any measurable direct benefit to humans, even themselves. Humans are more like caretakers in this view which is often part of religion. It puts ethical limits on the actions of scientists, for instance it argues against animal experiments or genetically modified food. It usually is seen as opposed to science, not part of it. Its models of nature are not usually accepted by most scientists, but they matter in politics.

Preservation
To preserve nature, ecology movement activists now cooperate in a global power network. It includes not just parties in politics but also NGOs like Greenpeace, Earth First or World Wide Fund for Nature.

Effects on maps
One model of nature they have agreed on is a map that shows ecoregions, which are the natural borders of ecology maps. According to this map, there are 867 regions divided into 8 ecozones - plus others which are in the ocean.

Effects on language
Most anthropologists agree that aboriginal languages have a small model of local nature in them. For instance, there will be more words to describe snow in an Arctic language, and more words to describe shades of green in a rainforest. This is part of the reason to use ecology borders in politics, since people who do not live inside the border do not see or make the same distinctions about nature.

Effects on humans
A very small number of people think that humans do not need nature at all, and can replace everything that it does. To prove them wrong, some economists made another model of nature:

Economists study nature's services to see how hard it would be to replace what nature does for humans. They showed in 1995 that the services nature performed for humans were more valuable than all services humans perform for each other all over the world. The value of Earth as a living thing was much more than we could ever afford to replace with our own technology. There has been no real disagreement about any of this.

Pricing all the value of Earth to humans gives a huge number - which proves the pricing is right, since, we must put a high price on anything we have no way to replace.

References

Interdisciplinary fields
Reality

Scientific model


The Pilgrimage of Grace was a revolt in York, Yorkshire in 1536. People  protested against England's break with Rome and the Dissolution of the Monasteries. There were also other specific political, social and economic issues they did not like. Technically the term Pilgrimage of Grace only refers to the uprising around York, but sometimes it is used in relation to the risings in general which took place around Northern England; first from Lincolnshire, twelve days before the actual Pilgrimage of Grace.

The revolt was caused by Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries, which caused problems with around 500,000 monks and nuns.

16th century in England
1536
Rebellions in Europe
1530s in Europe

Pilgrimage of Grace


League of Legends (LoL) is a multiplayer online battle arena video game. It was created by Riot Games. People can play the game on Microsoft Windows and macOS. The game is free-to-play, meaning people do not need to pay money to play the game. The game uses a freemium way to make money. League of Legends was inspired by Defense of the Ancients (DotA).

As of 2013, it is the most played computer game in the world with over 32 million active users per month. It is currently the most played game in the world by active users per month. The game is very popular  for professional competitions.

Gameplay
In League of Legends, the player who is called a "summoner" selects a "champion" from a pool of 157 (As of September 2021) possible choices, each with their own set of unique abilities. Each player plays in a team with 4 other summoners against another 5 person team. The goal of the team is to make it to the opposite team's base, called a nexus, and destroy it in one of 3 battle arenas, called maps. However, to accomplish this, teams must first destroy 3 towers and an inhibitor in at least one lane. The Nexus also spawns AI-controlled minions for each team, that move forward and attack the first enemy champion, minion, or turret they see. The most popular map, Summoner's Rift, is split into three lanes that each have three turrets and an inhibitor.  Players can kill minions, or other enemy players to gain gold which can be spent on items to make their champion stronger.

Between each lane are paths where neutral monsters spawn, called the jungle. Either side can kill these monsters to gain gold, experience and buffs.

Each champion has three normal abilities and an ultimate ability. Killing minions, jungle monsters and enemy champions gives experience and when a certain amount is reached the champion 'levels up' and the player can spend a point to improve one of their abilities. There are 18 levels and points can be spent in any order. However, these points can only be used to buy a champion's ultimate ability and it's improvements at levels 6, 11 and 16.

Player experience and intelligence points are earned by playing matches over time. Player accounts begin at level one. There is no level cap, but some of the game modes are not unlocked until level 30. Some players create secondary accounts, known as smurf accounts, to play at lower levels or against less experienced players. They also unlock abilities called summoner spells that can be used in game, as well as Runes. These provide small bonuses during the game.

References

Other websites

2009 video games
Online games

League of Legends


The Gurmukhi alphabet is used to write the Punjabi language. Gurmukhi is primarily used in Punjab, India. It is the official script in Punjab.

There are 35 native characters in Gurmukhi, In the 18th-19th century a new character family called Naveen Toli was added. This helps to pronounce and write Persian words with proper tone.

The word Gurmukhi literally means "from the mouth of Guru".

Alphabets
Punjabi language

Gurmukhi alphabet


The Pegnitz is a small river in Upper Franconia, Bavaria, Germany.

The Pegnitz has its source in the city of the same name at an altitude of 425 m and meets the Rednitz at 283 m northwest of Fürth. From that point on the river is called Regnitz.

The Pegnitz is about 115 km long.

Animal life
The river is inhabited by numerous ducks, swans, and gulls.

Affluences
 Högenbach (creek) (left affluence from the Pommelsbrunn direction)
 Röthenbach (creek)

Cities on the Pegnitz

From source to mouth:

 Pegnitz
 Neuhaus on the Pegnitz
 Hersbruck
 Lauf an der Pegnitz
 Röthenbach an der Pegnitz
 Nuremberg: Within city limits (about 14 km), the river forms secondary arms. Numerous bridges and footbridges cross the river, such as the iron suspension bridge Kettensteg, dating from 1824. To the west of the Maxbrücke there is a weir.

History

After the big flood in February 1909 the river was shortened by four kilometers within the Nuremberg city limits. Since 1996 planning and actions are progressing trying to lengthen the course of the river between Nuremberg and Fürth again and to shape it in a nature-oriented way.

Other websites
 http://www.bayern.de/wwa-n/stadtamfluss.htm - Wasserwirtschaftsamt Nürnberg: "Die Umgestaltung der Pegnitz in Nürnberg" (in German)

Geography of Bavaria
Rivers of Germany

Pegnitz River


CANopen is a communication protocol and device profile specification for embedded systems used in automation. In terms of the OSI model, CANopen implements the layers above and including the network layer. The CANopen standard consists of an addressing scheme, several small communication protocols and an application layer defined by a device profile.  The communication protocols have support for network management, device monitoring and communication between nodes, including a simple transport layer for message segmentation/desegmentation. The lower level protocol implementing the data link and physical layers is usually Controller Area Network (CAN), although devices using some other means of communication (such as Ethernet Powerlink, EtherCAT) can also implement the CANopen device profile.

The basic CANopen device and communication profiles are given in the CiA 301 specification released by CAN in Automation. Profiles for more specialized devices are built on top of this basic profile, and are specified in numerous other standards released by CAN in Automation, such as CiA 401 for I/O-modules and CiA 402 for motion control.

Device model
Every CANopen device has to implement certain standard features in its controlling software.

 A communication unit implements the protocols for messaging with the other nodes in the network.
 Starting and resetting the device is controlled via a state machine. It must contain the states Initialization, Pre-operational, Operational and Stopped. The transitions between states are made by issuing a network management (NMT) communication object to the device.
 The object dictionary is an array of variables with a 16-bit index. Additionally, each variable can have an 8-bit subindex. The variables can be used to configure the device and reflect its environment, i.e. contain measurement data.
 The application part of the device actually performs the desired function of the device, after the state machine is set to the operational state. The application is configured by variables in the object dictionary and the data are sent and received through the communication layer.

Object dictionary
CANopen devices must have an object dictionary, which is used for configuration and communication with the device. An entry in the object dictionary is defined by:
 Index, the 16-bit address of the object in the dictionary
 Object name (Object Type/Size), a symbolic type of the object in the entry, such as an array, record, or simple variable
 Name, a string describing the entry
 Type, gives the datatype of the variable (or the datatype of all variables of an array)
 Attribute, which gives information on the access rights for this entry, this can be read/write, read-only or write-only
 The Mandatory/Optional field (M/O) defines whether a device conforming to the device specification has to implement this object or not

The basic datatypes for object dictionary values such as booleans, integers and floats are defined in the standard (their size in bits is optionally stored in the related type definition, index range 0x0001–0x001F), as well as composite datatypes such as strings, arrays and records (defined in index range 0x0040–0x025F). The composite datatypes can be subindexed with an 8-bit index; the value in subindex 0 of an array or record indicates the number of elements in the data structure, and is of type UNSIGNED8.

For example, the device communication parameters, standardized in the basic device profile CiA 301 are mapped in the index range 0x1000–0x1FFF ("communication profile area"). The first few entries in this area are as follows:

Given suitable tools, the content of the object dictionary of a device, based on an electronic data sheet (EDS), can be customized to a device configuration file (DCF) to integrate the device into a specific CANopen network. According to CiA 306, the format of the EDS-file is the INI file format. There is an upcoming XML-style format, that is described in CiA 311.

Communication

Communication objects
CAN bus, the data link layer of CANopen, can only transmit short packages consisting of an 11-bit id, a remote transmission request (RTR) bit and 0 to 8 bytes of data. The CANopen standard divides the 11-bit CAN frame id into a 4-bit function code and 7-bit CANopen node ID. This limits the number of devices in a CANopen network to 127 (0 being reserved for broadcast). An extension to the CAN bus standard (CAN 2.0 B) allows extended frame ids of 29 bits, but in practice CANopen networks big enough to need the extended id range are rarely seen.

In CANopen the 11-bit id of a CAN-frame is known as communication object identifier, or COB-ID. In case of a transmission collision, the bus arbitration used in the CAN bus allows the frame with the smallest id to be transmitted first and without a delay. Using a low code number for time critical functions ensures the lowest possible delay.

Contents of a CANopen frame:

The data frame with an 11-bit identifier is also called "base frame format".

The default CAN-ID mapping sorts frames by attributing a function code (NMT, SYNC, EMCY, PDO, SDO...) to the first 4 bits, so that critical functions are given priority. This mapping can however be customized for special purposes (except for NMT and SDO, required for basic communication).

The standard reserves certain CAN-IDs to network management and SDO transfers. Some function codes and CAN-IDs have to be mapped to standard functionality after device initialization, but can be configured for other uses later.

Predefined Connection Set
For simple network structures, CANopen supports a predefined allocation of message identifiers.

The transmit and receive directions are from the device's point of view. So a query to a device on the network would send a 0x600+nodeid and get back a 0x580+nodeid.

Communication models
Different kinds of communication models are used in the messaging between CANopen nodes.

In a master/slave relationship, one CANopen node is designated as the master, which sends or requests data from the slaves. The NMT protocol is an example of a master/slave communication model.

A client/server relationship is implemented in the SDO protocol, where the SDO client sends data (the object dictionary index and subindex) to an SDO server, which replies with one or more SDO packages containing the requested data (the contents of the object dictionary at the given index).

A producer/consumer model is used in the Heartbeat and Node Guarding protocols. In the push-model of producer/consumer, the producer sends data to the consumer without a specific request, whereas in the pull model, the consumer has to request the data from the producer.

Protocols

Network management (NMT) protocols
The NMT protocols are used to issue state machine change commands (e.g. to start and stop the devices), detect remote device bootups and error conditions.

The Module control protocol is used by the NMT master to change the state of the devices. The CAN-frame COB-ID of this protocol is always 0, meaning that it has a function code 0 and node ID 0, which means that every node in the network will process this message. The actual node ID, to which the command is meant to, is given in the data part of the message (at the second byte). This can also be 0, meaning that all the devices on the bus should go to the indicated state.

The Heartbeat protocol is used to monitor the nodes in the network and verify that they are alive. A heartbeat producer (usually a slave device) periodically sends a message with the binary function code of 1110 and its node ID (COB-ID19 = 0x700 + node ID). The data part of the frame contains a byte indicating the node status. The heartbeat consumer reads these messages. If the messages fail to arrive within a certain time limit (defined in the object dictionary of the devices) the consumer can take action to, for example, reset the device or indicate an error.
The frame format is:

CANopen devices are required to make the transition from the state Initializing to Pre-operational automatically during bootup. When this transition is made, a single heartbeat message is sent to the bus. This is the bootup protocol.

A response/reply-style (pull model) protocol, called node guarding, exists for slave monitoring.

Service Data Object (SDO) protocol

The SDO protocol is used for setting and for reading values from the object dictionary of a remote device. The device whose object dictionary is accessed is the SDO server and the device accessing the remote device is the SDO client. The communication is always initiated by the SDO client. In CANopen terminology, communication is viewed from the SDO server, so that a read from an object dictionary results in an SDO upload and a write to a dictionary entry is an SDO download.

Because the object dictionary values can be larger than the eight bytes limit of a CAN frame, the SDO protocol implements segmentation and desegmentation of longer messages. Actually, there are two of these protocols: SDO download/upload and SDO Block download/upload. The SDO block transfer is a newer addition to standard, which allows large amounts of data to be transferred with slightly less protocol overhead.

The COB-IDs of the respective SDO transfer messages from client to server and server to client can be set in the object dictionary. Up to 128 SDO servers can be set up in the object dictionary at addresses 0x1200 - 0x127F. Similarly, the SDO client connections of the device can be configured with variables at 0x1280 - 0x12FF. However the pre-defined connection set defines an SDO channel which can be used even just after bootup (in the Pre-operational state) to configure the device. The COB-IDs of this channel are 0x600 + node ID for receiving and 0x580 + node ID for transmitting.

To initiate a download, the SDO client sends the following data in a CAN message with the 'receive' COB-ID of the SDO channel.

 ccs is the client command specifier of the SDO transfer, this is 0 for SDO segment download, 1 for initiating download, 2 for initiating upload, 3 for SDO segment upload, 4 for aborting an SDO transfer, 5 for SDO block upload and 6 for SDO block download
 n is the number of bytes in the data part of the message which do not contain data, only valid if e and s are set
 e, if set, indicates an expedited transfer, i.e. all data exchanged are contained within the message. If this bit is cleared then the message is a segmented transfer where the data does not fit into one message and multiple messages are used.
 s, if set, indicates that the data size is specified in n (if e is set) or in the data part of the message
 index is the object dictionary index of the data to be accessed
 subindex is the subindex of the object dictionary variable
 data contains the data to be uploaded in the case of an expedited transfer (e is set), or the size of the data to be uploaded (s is set, e is not set)

Process Data Object (PDO) protocol
The Process Data Object protocol is used to process real time data among various nodes. You can transfer up to 8 bytes (64 bits) of data per one PDO either from or to the device. One PDO can contain multiple object dictionary entries and the objects within one PDO are configurable using the mapping and parameter object dictionary entries.

There are two kinds of PDOs: transmit and receive PDOs (TPDO and RPDO). The former is for data coming from the device (the device is a data producer) and the latter is for data going to the device (the device is a data consumer); that is, with RPDO you can send data to the device and with TPDO you can read data from the device. In the pre-defined connection set there are identifiers for four TPDOs and four RPDOs available. With configuration, 512 PDOs are possible.

PDOs can be sent synchronously or asynchronously. Synchronous PDOs are sent after the SYNC message whereas asynchronous messages are sent after internal or external trigger. For example, you can make a request to a device to transmit TPDO that contains data you need by sending an empty TPDO with the RTR flag (if the device is configured to accept TPDO requests).

With RPDOs you can, for example, start two devices simultaneously. You only need to map the same RPDO into two or more different devices and make sure those RPDOs are mapped with the same COB-ID.

Synchronization Object (SYNC) protocol
The Sync-Producer provides the synchronization-signal for the Sync-Consumer. When the Sync-Consumer receive the signal they start carrying out their synchronous tasks.

In general, the fixing of the transmission time of synchronous PDO messages coupled with the periodicity of transmission of the Sync Object guarantees that sensor devices may arrange to sample process variables and that actuator devices may apply their actuation in a coordinated fashion.

The identifier of the Sync Object is available at index 1005h.

Time Stamp Object (TIME) protocol
Usually the Time-Stamp object represents a time as a 6-byte field: a count of milliseconds after midnight (at most 27 bits, stored in a 32-bit field), and an unsigned 16-bit number of days since January 1, 1984.  (This will overflow on 7 June 2163.)

Some time critical applications especially in large networks with reduced transmission rates require very accurate synchronization; it may be necessary to synchronize the local clocks with an accuracy in the order of microseconds. This is achieved by using the optional high resolution synchronization protocol which employs a special form of timestamp message to adjust the inevitable drift of the local clocks.

The high-resolution timestamp is encoded as unsigned32 with a resolution of 1 microsecond which means that the time counter restarts every 72 minutes. It is configured by mapping the high resolution time-stamp (object 1013h) into a PDO.

Emergency Object (EMCY) protocol
Emergency messages are triggered by the occurrence of a device internal fatal error situation and are transmitted from the concerned application device to the other devices with high priority. This makes them suitable for interrupt type error alerts. An Emergency Telegram may be sent only once per 'error event', i.e. the emergency messages must not be repeated. As long as no new errors occur on a device no further emergency message must be sent.
By means of CANopen Communication Profile defined emergency error codes, the error register and device specific additional information are specified in the device profiles.

Initialization
Sample trace of communications between a master and two pressure transducer slaves configured for id 1 and node ID 2.

Electronic Data Sheet
Electronic Data Sheet (EDS) is a file format, defined in CiA306, that describes the communication behaviour and the object dictionary entries of a device. This allows tools such as service tools, configuration tools, development tools, and others to handle the devices properly.

Those EDS files are mandatory for passing the CiA CANopen conformance test.

Since end of 2007 a new XML based format called XDD is defined in CiA311. XDD is conformant to ISO standard 15745.

Glossary of CANopen terms

PDO: Process Data Object - Inputs and outputs. Values of type rotational speed, voltage, frequency, electric current, etc.
SDO: Service Data Object - Configuration settings, possibly node ID, baud rate, offset, gain, etc.
COB-ID: Communication object identifier
CAN ID: CAN Identifier. This is the 11-bit CAN message identifier which is at the beginning of every CAN message on the bus.
EDS: Electronic Data Sheet. This is an INI style or XML style formatted file.
DCF: Device Configuration File. This is a modified EDS file with settings for node ID and baud rate.

See also
 Controller area network is an article on the CAN bus.
 J1939
 DeviceNet
 IEEE 1451
 TransducerML

References
 CiA 301 CANopen application layer specification, free downloadable from CAN in Automation
 CiA 306 CANopen Electronic Data Sheet (EDS) specification
 CiA 311 CANopen XML-EDS specification
 Predefined Connection Set from CANopen Basics
 CiA 401 CANopen device profile specification for generic I/O modules, free downloadable from CAN in Automation
 CiA 402 CANopen device profile for motion controllers and drives (same as IEC 61800-7-201/301)

External links
CANopen Origins - Esprit project ASPIC 1993 (Bosch, Newcastle University, University of Applied Science in Reutlingen)
About CANopen (canopensolutions.com)
Identifier usage in CANopen networks
CanFestival - An open source CANopen multiplatform framework
CanOpenNode - An open source CANopen framework for microcontrollers and Linux
Lely CANopen - An open source CANopen library for masters and slaves
openCANopen - An open source CANopen master
CANopen Stack Project - A flexible open source CANopen stack for microcontroller
CANopen for Python
CANnewsletter-Information on CAN, CANopen and J1939
CANopen educational pages
Introduction to CANopen Fundamentals (in www.canopen-solutions.com)
Wiki of the CANopen-Lift Community
CANeds: Free editor EDA and XDD files
Online portal by CAN in Automation
CANopen - Application layer and general communication profile

CAN bus
Network protocols
Industrial automation

CANopen


The Andafiavaratra Palace, located on the highest hilltop of the capital city of Antananarivo, was the residence of Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony of Madagascar, who governed the island kingdom in the late 19th century. The building currently serves as a museum and the estimated 1,466 objects of historical importance to the Kingdom of Madagascar that were rescued from the 1995 fire at the Rova of Antananarivo are housed here.

References

Buildings and structures in Antananarivo
Palaces in Madagascar
Museums in Madagascar

Andafiavaratra Palace


The National Medal of Technology and Innovation (formerly the National Medal of Technology) is an honor granted by the President of the United States to American inventors and innovators who have made significant contributions to the development of new and important technology. The award may be granted to a specific person, to a group of people or to an entire organization or corporation. It is the highest honor the United States can confer to a US citizen for achievements related to technological progress.

History
The National Medal of Technology was created in 1980 by the United States Congress under the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act. It was a bipartisan effort to foster technological innovation and the technological competitiveness of the United States in the international arena. The first National Medals of Technology were issued in 1985 by then-U.S. President Ronald Reagan to 12 individuals and one company. Among the first recipients were Steve Jobs and Stephen Wozniak, founders of Apple Computer. The medal has been awarded annually until 2015.

On August 9, 2007, President George Bush signed the America COMPETES (Creating Opportunities to Meaningfully Promote Excellence in Technology, Education, and Science) Act of 2007. The Act amended Section 16 of the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980, changing the name of the Medal to the "National Medal of Technology and Innovation".

Award process

Each year the Technology Administration under the U.S. Department of Commerce calls for the nomination of new candidates for the National Medal of Technology. Candidates are nominated by their peers who have direct, first-hand knowledge of the candidates achievements. Candidates may be individuals, teams of individuals (up to 4), organizations or corporations. Individuals and all members of teams nominated must be U.S. citizens and organizations and corporations must be U.S.-owned (i.e. 50% of their assets or shares must be currently held by U.S. citizens).

All nominations are referred to the National Medal of Technology Evaluation Committee, which issues recommendations to the U.S. Secretary of Commerce. All nominees selected as finalists through the merit review process will be subject to an FBI security check. Information collected through the security check may be considered in the final selection of winners. The Secretary of Commerce is then able to advise the President of the United States as to which candidates ought to receive the National Medal of Technology. The new National Medal of Technology laureates are then announced by the U.S. president once the final selections have been made.

Laureates
, there have been more than 135 individuals and 12 companies recognized. Summarized here is a list of notable laureates and a summary of their accomplishments.

See also
 :Category:National Medal of Technology recipients
 List of general science and technology awards
 National Humanities Medal
 National Medal of Arts
 National Medal of Science

References

External links
 National Medal of Technology and Innovation official page
 National Science & Technology Medals Foundation
 List of all medal recipients

Science and technology awards
Technology and Innovation, National Medal of
Awards established in 1980
1980 establishments in the United States


America's Space Prize was a US$50 million space competition in orbital spaceflight established and funded in 2004 by hotel entrepreneur Robert Bigelow. The prize would have been awarded to the first US-based privately funded team to design and build a reusable crewed capsule capable of flying 5 astronauts to a Bigelow Aerospace inflatable space module. The criteria also required the capsule be recovered and flown again in 60 days. The prize expired January 10, 2010, without a winner or any test flights attempted. The teams were required to have been based in the United States.

History
The prize was announced by Bigelow on 17 December 2003—the 100th anniversary of the Wright brothers first powered aircraft flight.

Prize rules
A set of ten criteria were set up in order for a contestant to win the prize.
 The spacecraft must reach  a minimum altitude of 400 kilometers (approximately 250 miles);
 The spacecraft must reach a minimum velocity sufficient to complete two (2) full orbits at altitude before returning to Earth;
 The spacecraft must carry no less than a crew of five (5) people;
 The spacecraft must dock or demonstrate its ability to dock with a Bigelow Aerospace inflatable space habitat, and be capable of remaining on station at least six (6) months;
 The spacecraft must perform two (2) consecutive, safe and successful orbital missions within a period of sixty (60) calendar days, subject to Government regulations;
 No more than twenty percent (20%) of the spacecraft may be composed of expendable hardware;
 The contestant must be domiciled in the United States of America.
 The contestant must have its principal place of business in the United States of America;
 The Competitor must not accept or utilize government development funding related to this contest of any kind, nor shall there be any government ownership of the competitor. Use in government test facilities shall be permitted; and
 The spacecraft must complete its two (2) missions safely and successfully, with all five (5) crew members aboard for the second qualifying flight, before the competition's deadline of Jan. 10, 2010

Contestants
Since the launch of the prize, 40 companies had expressed interest, but either did not have the money which would apparently be needed, or, in the case of SpaceX, were ineligible due to having accepted government funding. Despite the lack of interest, Bigelow did not revise the prize rules, planning instead to seek transportation to space other ways.

A few contestants have been:

 Interorbital Systems
 JP Aerospace
 SpaceDev
 SpaceX

See also
 Orteig Prize
 Ansari X Prize
 Mprize
 N-prize
 List of space technology awards

References

External links

 America's Space Prize in Encyclopedia Astronautica
 Exclusive: Rules Set for $50 Million 'America's Space Prize' SPACE.COM (November 8, 2004)

Space organizations
Space-related awards
Challenge awards
Private spaceflight
2004 establishments in the United States
2010 disestablishments in the United States

America's Space Prize


ಹೊಸ್ಪೆಟ್, ಭಾರತಚಾ ಮಂಗ್ಳೂರ್ ದಿಯೆಸೆಜಿಚಿ ಏಕ್ ಮಾಲ್ಘಡಿ ಫಿರ್ಗಜ್ ಜಾವ್ನ್ ಆಸಾ. ಹ್ಯಾ ಫಿರ್ಗಜೆಕ್ ಹೊಸಬೆಟ್ಟು ಮ್ಹುಳ್ಯಾ ನಾಂವಾಂತ್ ಯೀ ಆಪಾಯ್ತಾತ್. ಆಟ್ರಾವ್ಯಾ ಶೆಕ್ಡ್ಯಾಚಾ ಅಂತಿಮ್ ವರ್ಸಾನಿಂ ಟಿಪ್ಪು ಸುಲ್ತಾನಾನ್ ಕೆನಾರ ಕಥೊಲಿಕಾಂಚೊ ಸಕ್ಕಡೀ ಇಗರ್ಜೊ ನಾಸ್ ಕೆಲ್ಯಾರೀ, ಹೊಸ್ಪೆಟ್ ತಾಚ್ಯಾ ದಾವ್ಲೆಂತ್ ಥಾವ್ನ್ ಚುಕ್ ಲ್ಲಿ ಏಕ್ ಮಾತ್ರ್ ಇಗರ್ಜ್.

ಲೊಕಾಸಂಖ್ಯಾಹಿಸೊಬ್
This church is situated at a distance of 41 kms north east of Mangalore, and 6 kms from Moodbidri Town. Kuppepadav and Moodbidri parishes surround this church. The Hospet Church comes under village Hosabettu. Since Canara Catholics are the major dominant community in Hosabettu ,sometimes parish is also referred as " Hosabettu Church" . As of 2001 India census, Hosabettu had Males constitute 48% of the population and females 52%. It has an average literacy rate of 79%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 82%, and female literacy is 76%.The church is covered with a dense forest. The place is just 18 KM far from Mangalore International Airport.

ಇತಿಹಾಸ್
This church existed well before 17 century. According to official documents available to Mangalore Diocese claims that this church was established on 1761. Hospet was under the rule of Jain kings for many centuries. Some documents in the ancient Jain literature shows existence of this church even before 1648.At the time of the general demolition of churches by Tippu Sultan, this was the only church that escaped destruction owing to the friendly offices of the Chauta Raja of Moodbidri.

Church of the Holy Cross, formerly known as Bidrem church. The name Hospet came after the death of Tippu Sultan (1799). The old church was repaired by Fr Jerome Paul Carvalho in 1865. Under the jurisdiction of Goa, 11 vicars had served this church. Fr Jacob Sequeira (1901-1904) was the first diocesan vicar and he was succeeded by Fr Cajetan M. Pereira. The foundation stone for the present church, designed by Fr A. Diamanti sj, was laid on October 1, 1905 by V. Rev. Frachetti sj, the Vicar General. Fr Cajetan M. Pereira (1904-1907) began the construction of the church and Fr Rosario P.B. Lewis (1908-1919) completed it and it was blessed on February 7, 1909 by Bishop A. Cavadini sj. This church is one of the first in the diocese built in Cruciform and gothic in style.

The earlier presbytery was built in 1854. Moodbidri, Shirthady, Ferar, Paladka and Taccode parishes are carved out of this parish. The present presbytery was built by Fr Cyprian Coelho in 2000. There are 9 wards in Hospet parish. Around 285 catholic families are living in this parish and total Catholic population is at around 1500. Currently around 40 % of populations is migrated to the city of Mumbai and Middle East counties.

Fr Alban is the 20th diocesan vicar of the parish. Mr. Wilfred Mendonca is servings as vice president of the church.

ಸಂಬಂಧಿತ್ ಇತರ್ ವಿಷಯ್

 Mangalorean Catholics
 कोंकणी लोक

ಉಲ್ಲೇಖ್

ಭಾಯ್ಲೆ ಅಂಕ್ಡೆ
 ICYM Hospet Blog
 Official website of Mangalore Diocese

ಮಂಗ್ಳುರ್ ದಿಯೆಸೆಜಿಂತ್ಲ್ಯೊ ಫಿರ್ಗಜೊ
ಫಿರ್ಗಜಾಂಚಿ ಚರಿತ್ರಾ
ಕನ್ನಡ್ ಪಾನಾಂ

ಹೊಸ್ಪೆಟ್ ಫಿರ್ಗಜ್


Susuga Malietoa Laupepa (1841 – 22 August 1898) was the ruler (Malietoa) of Samoa in the late 19th century.

Personal life
Laupepa was born in 1841 in Sapapali'i, Savai'i, Samoa. His father was Malietoa Mōli and mother was Fa'alaitaua Fuatino Su'apa'ia. He was raised in Malie, received a religious education at Malua Seminary and was well known as a devout Christian. He was the recognized leader of the Sā Mōlī which was based primarily in northern Tuamasaga.  Laupepa cemented ties with Palauli (the only significant Sā Mōlī support base on Savai'i) through his marriage to Sisavai'i Malupo, a daughter of Niuva'ai of Palauli, Savaii. The children of this marriage were two sons named Tanumafili and Siliva'ai, and daughter Fa'amuleuatoivao.

When about 20, he became Malietoa Tanumafili I and had other marriages. One he had a daughter by the name of Saitaua who married Leota Laiafi of Solosolo. From his marriage to Fuaolemalo Faumuina Fiame Leitutua Johnson of Lepea and Lefaga he had two daughters; Ta'ase and Faamusami. Faamusami married Mata'afa Fiame Faumuina Mulinu'u I and Ta'ase married Ainu'u Maualaivao Tasi Tupou of Malie and Sapapali'i, Savai'i. and  Laupepa later married a Rarotongan woman named Tui Ariki of a chiefly Cook Islands family. In May 1892 laupepa made a visitation to the founding house of Feigla in Western Samoa, Upolu.

In June 1894, both Laupepa and his son Mōlī II visited with the Latter-day Saint missionaries at Lalovi, Mulifanua with an army regiment of about 1,000 men. The missionaries described Laupepa to be "a very pleasant old gentleman," about 5'9" and 180 pounds who spoke in a "deep bass voice". Laupepa  underwent the rituals to receive the pe'a traditional tattoo when he was in his forties.

Military and political campaigns
Laupepa maintained his devout profession of Christianity throughout his life, although he became increasingly aggressive as he was thrust into the power struggle against his warlike uncle Talavou. Laupepa did not enjoy universal support from his fellow Samoans and his warfare record was dismal; he did, however, win some battles and managed to have himself crowned and subsequently deposed as Joint-King, Deputy-King (under Talavou), and sole King of Samoa in 1881.

Churchward (84) recorded that the "Ellice group", now known as the Tuvalu islands, were "formally annexed to Samoa in the name of Malietoa" by one of Laupepa's colleagues from Malua Theological College.  Before his death on August 22, 1898, Laupepa managed to gain the support of the foreign consuls but he had suffered great losses of prestige and confidence in the eyes of many Samoans after being continually routed in battle and eventually exiled to the Marshall Islands.

Laupepa owned a "prized Samoan war club" – probably a Malietoa family anava heirloom – which he gave to the American consul William Churchill. This club was sought by the Bernice P. Bishop Museum in 1897 but was not relinquished by Churchill (Sorenson & Theroux 2005).

Laupepa, the Sā Tupua and foreign governments
Laupepa was crowned King of Samoa by the German Empire, American, and British consuls in March 1881.  Curiously, the Tumua polities of Ātua and A'ana did not accept Laupepa as king (even though they previously supported him against Malietoa Talavou Tonumaipe'a) and they subsequently set up their own government in Leulumoega with Tuiātua Tupua Tamasese Titimaea as their declared King of Samoa. War between Tamasese and Laupepa was declared but the Lackawanna Agreement, signed on July 12, 1881, maintained an uneasy peace. This treaty, mediated by US Navy Captain J.H. Gillis, upheld Laupepa's claim to the throne and named Titimaea as vice-king and Matā'afa Iosefo as premier (Keesing 1934:68). King Laupepa protested the increasing German interference in Samoan politics and the Samoan government by petitioning Queen Victoria of Great Britain for protection in 1883 and again (twice) in November 1884. When German consul Weber learned of the petitions he banished Laupepa and his chiefs from Apia. The German consul Stuebel asserted his dominance over Laupepa's kingship in December 1885 when he ordered the removal of the national flag from Laupepa's base in Apia (Gilson 1970). The German consul placed Tuiātua Tupua Tamasese Titimaea in Laupepa's office  and yet another war between the Sā Malietoa and Sā Tupua began in 1887. Districts and families were very often divided or remained neutral since so many leading chiefs were related to both clans.

Laupepa received a delegation from King Kalākaua of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 7, 1887.
It was headed by John Edward Bush, and awarded the honorary decoration Grand Cross of the Royal Order of the Star of Oceania the same day. The order had just been created for the heads of state for the proposed Polynesian empire.
On February 17, 1887, Laupepa signed the Deed of Federation allying his government to that of the Kingdom of Hawaii. The Hawaiians seemed to understand Samoan politics better than the Europeans since they also sought the signatures of the other tama'āiga but the Germans prevented Matā'afa and Tupua Tamasese from attesting the document. Laupepa did not appreciate the rowdiness of the Hawaiian delegation, but he hoped that the Polynesian Confederation would provide more than lip service to the Samoan cause. Support from the Hawaiian Kingdom never materialized and Laupepa was ultimately driven into hiding by the German-backed Sā Tupua army in August. Laupepa and some of his leading chiefs avoided capture for several weeks before turning themselves into the German authorities. German Captain Eugen Brandeis coerced Laupepa and others to formally recognize Titimaea as King of Samoa on September 15, 1887 (Gray 78–79) and then Laupepa was exiled on September 17, 1887.

The Germans, along with the Ta'imua and Faipule, declared Tupua Tamasese Titimaea King of Samoa and by August 1888 Tamasese was calling himself both Malietoa and Tafa'ifā. He gravely offended the Malietoa families because he did not in fact hold the Malietoa title. He added further insult by amassing Malietoa family fine-mats for himself.  Matā'afa Iosefo, who was the actual  and , likewise took offense to Tamasese's audacious claim.  With Laupepa in exile the Sā Malietoa was divided once again as to who should rightfully represent the Malietoa families. Some believed Tamasese's claim to the Malietoa was legitimate; others felt that Fa'alataitaua (Talavou's son) was the rightful sa'o;  others saw Matā'afa Iosefo as the legitimate contender. Mata'afa Iosefo [Faife'au] eventually came to the forefront of the Malietoa title struggle and he seems to have obtained the Malietoa title in 1888 or 1889.

Matā'afa – who was supported by Fa'alataitaua and the Sā Talavou faction – managed to reconsolidate the Malietoa allies and led them against Tamasese Titimaea in August 1888. Matā'afa's people refused to recognize Tamasese as king, especially Manono and Apolima. In response, the German gunship SMS Adler attacked Manono and Apolima on September 5, 1888 (Sorenson & Theroux 2005), three days before Matā'afa Iosefo was declared King of Samoa at Fale'ula. In mid-September, Matā'afa's forces drove Tamasese's Ātua forces from Vaiala to Matafagatele (Vaimauga, Tuamasaga) and won the battle around 10 o'clock at night (Tuvale 45). Malietoa allies from Satupa'itea on Savaii island, raided and razed Leulumoega, the capital of A'ana, on September 20 and Matā'afa's militias burned villages and plantations in Satapuala, Faleasiu, Fasito'o Uta, and other areas of A'ana within a month of the Leulumoega victory. The people of Atua experienced the same fate when the newly refurbished Matā'afa-Malietoa fleets from Manono and Fa'asaleleaga invaded the coastal villages of Tamasese's allies in Falefā, Faleapuna, Lufilufi and Sāluafata.  By February 1889 Matā'afa's personal army had swelled to about 6,000 warriors.

Malietoa Laupepa and Mata'afa Iosefo
At first, Germany refused to recognize Mata'afa Iosefo as ruler even though the Samoans in general recognized him as their king, and a leader of the itūmālō. Instead, Germany, Britain, and the United States signed the General Act of Berlin on June 14, 1889, which declared Laupepa king once again even though he was still in exile (Bevans 118).

When Laupepa returned to Samoa on November 8, 1889, he acknowledged Matā'afa's right to the title and office which had both been acquired through war and the consent of the people.  Peace existed for a time and both men were acknowledged as Malietoa titleholders and national leaders. However Laupepa was soon convinced by his chiefly colleagues to reclaim the kingship which the foreign powers and the Berlin Treaty had allotted him. On December 4, 1889, a fono (traditional council of Samoan leaders) was held in Lepea, Faleata and Laupepa's supporters (including several Tutuila chiefs) declared him King of Samoa. This declaration led to another division of the Sā Malietoa, this time between Laupepa-Sā Mōlī and Matā'afa-Sā Talavou.

Under Sā Talavou sanction, Matā'afa challenged Laupepa and the Sā Mōlī by establishing himself in Malie, the traditional government seat of the Malietoa chiefs, on May 31, 1891. Laupepa and his supporters moved in to occupy Mulinu'u where Laupepa's government had been headquartered. Latter-day Saint missionary journals reveal that support from eastern 'Upolu (Ātua) had rallied behind Matā'afa (who was by this time the Tuiātua) in Malie and hundreds were arriving to offer their assistance.  A similar show of support for Laupepa was witnessed on October 28, 1892 when "a hundred boats" arrived at Mulinu'u bearing military support and provisions. Malietoa Laupepa eventually succeeded in ousting Matā'afa from Malie toward the end of April 1893. Matā'afa then "set up house" in Manono where he was designated "Tama Sā" through the title To'oā, not to be confused with the  title of the Malietoa (Tamasese 1995b:71).

The subsequent War of 1893 was won by Malietoa Laupepa in July of that year and Matā'afa and other notable leaders were deported to Jaluit, Marshall Islands on July 26 of that year (Keesing 1934:72). Even though Matā'afa had been deported, the factions that favored him over Laupepa continued in their opposition of King Laupepa. Malietoa Fa'alataitaua assumed full leadership of the Sā Talavou in the absence of his ally, Matā'afa. Matā'afa's sanction as Malietoa was "washed out" through a desanctification ritual and the title then fell into dispute between the Sā Talavou (behind Malietoa Fa'alataitaua) and the Sā Moli (led by Malietoa Laupepa).

Charles Morris Woodford was Acting British Consul and Deputy Commissioner in Apia from December 1894 to September 1895.  His goal was for Samoa to be annexed by Great Britain, although the American Consul, J. A. Mulligan, was supporting Tupua Tamasese Lealofio-a'ana (Tupua Tamasese Lealofi I).  Woodford arranged a reconciliation meeting between Laupepa and Lealofi-o-a'ana in 1895.

Malietoa Laupepa –  and  – died at 10 o'clock in the morning of August 22, 1898 and was succeeded by his son Malietoa Tanumafili I. The situation in Samoa further deteriorated after the death of Laupepa, which lead to the Second Samoan Civil War.

References

External links

Malietoa
1841 births
1898 deaths
Recipients of the Royal Order of the Star of Oceania
People from Fa'asaleleaga
First Samoan Civil War
1880s in Samoa
1890s in Samoa

Malietoa Laupepa