Robert R. Fowler  (born 18 August 1944) is a Canadian diplomat and was the special envoy of UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon to Niger from mid-2008 to 2009, to find a solution to the conflict in Agadez region.

On 14 December 2008 he was reported missing and was last seen about  northwest of the capital Niamey. Fowler was, along with several Westerners, eventually freed on 21 April 2009.

Career

Born in Ottawa, Fowler attended Selwyn House School in Montreal and Bishop's College School in Sherbrooke. He began his post-secondary education at McGill University where he was a member of The Kappa Alpha Society, before transferring and eventually earning a B.A. from Queen's University in 1968. He taught English at the National University of Rwanda and served as an Administrative Trainee in the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). In 1969, he began his diplomatic career as a Foreign Service Officer in the Department of External Affairs. Throughout the 1970s he held various postings in Ottawa (1969–71), Paris (1971–73), and at UN Headquarters in New York (1967-1978), where he served as a member of the Security Council Team during Canada's term on the council.

In 1978, he was appointed Executive Assistant to the Under Secretary of State for External Affairs, Allan Gotlieb. Starting in May 1980, he worked as Assistant Secretary to the Cabinet (Foreign and Defence Policy) in the Privy Council Office, a position from which he advised Prime Ministers Trudeau, Turner and Mulroney on foreign policy, defence, and development issues. In 1986, Fowler was appointed Assistant Deputy Minister for Policy in the Department of National Defence, and then as Deputy Minister of National Defence in May 1989.

In January 1995, Fowler was appointed Canada's Permanent Representative to the United Nations, a position he retained until August 2000, making him Canada's longest-serving Ambassador and Permanent Representative. While at the UN, he represented Canada on the Security Council in 1999 and 2000 and issued two ground-breaking reports on sanctions-busting in Angola, which cut off UNITA's access to the arms bazaar and led to the end of the civil war which had ravaged Angola for 25 years.

He was also Ambassador to Italy and the three Rome-based UN food agencies; Sherpa for the Kananaskis G8 Summit (for which he chaired the creation of the Africa Action Plan, a response to the New Partnership for Africa's Development); and the personal representative for Africa of Prime Ministers Chrétien, Martin and Harper.

Robert Fowler retired from the federal public service in the fall of 2006, and is now a Senior Fellow at the University of Ottawa's Graduate School of Public and International Affairs and sits on the Advisory Council of Canadian Defence and Foreign Affairs Institute. Fowler is also a member of the Research Steering Committee for the Will to Intervene (W2I) Project.

As ambassador and foreign policy adviser, he encouraged sophisticated sanctions regimes to discipline the global diamond markets. In 2000, he was responsible for producing the "Fowler Report", which led ultimately to the establishment of the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme. He was also instrumental in bringing the 25-year-old war in Angola to an end.

In a March 2010 meeting of the Liberal Party, Fowler was a guest speaker who took the opportunity to condemn the Liberals, saying, "I believe the Liberal party has, to a significant extent, lost its way, at least in policy terms, and of course I mean, in particular, my area of foreign policy terms, and is in danger of losing its soul...To this observer, it seems that Liberals today don't stand for much in the way of principles...I have the impression that they will endorse anything and everything which might return them to power and nothing which won't, whatever the merits of either. It's all about getting to power, and it shows...I believe Liberals seem prepared to embrace an infinite array of special interests in order to shill for votes rather than forging a broad-based principled alliance founded in deep Liberal traditions, one with a distinct social contract and an independent Canadian character, which would protect, project and defend core Liberal values at home and abroad..." and on the Conservatives, he said, "In a short period of time we've established unique credentials in Africa", Fowler said. "I fear, however, that we are in the process of squandering a hard-won and important asset.". Fowler did briefly praise the Harper government, "I owe a debt to Mr. Harper and I am all too aware that such criticism is a rather churlish way of repaying it....(however) after four consecutive Conservative budgets, it is clear that the current government has failed to live up to its 2006 election promise to move Canadian aid performance toward the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) average donor spending levels." Fowler stated that both major parties have been enticed by the allure of political gains within the Jewish community. He said it is a strategy that leads to an unproductive support for Israel and undermines Canada's reputation as a trusted mediator in the Middle East. "The scramble to lock up the Jewish vote in Canada meant selling out our widely admired and long-established reputation for fairness and justice", Fowler said.

During an acceptance speech for an honorary doctorate, on 31 October 2010, from the University of Ottawa, Fowler called out young Canadians for being apathetic and stating that they lose their "bitching rights" and "Your age group's involvement in the political process, at all levels of government, stretches any reasonable definition of apathy.".

Disappearance
On 21 July 2008, the Secretary General of the United Nations, Ban Ki-moon, appointed Fowler to be his Special Envoy to Niger, with the rank of Under-Secretary-General in the Secretariat of the UN.

While acquitting his UN mission, Fowler and his colleague Louis Guay were captured by al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) on 14 December 2008, and held hostage in the Sahara Desert for 130 days.

Fowler was reported missing along with Guay, deputy director of the Sudan task force in Ottawa, and their Niger-based driver, Soumana Moukaila, after their car was found on the evening of 14 December 2008 about  northwest of Niamey, after visiting the Canadian-owned Samira Hill Gold Mine. On 16 December, the Front des Forces de Redressement (FFR) claimed on its website that its members kidnapped Fowler and three others, saying that they targeted diplomats who support the Niger government led by President Mamadou Tandja. However, Seydou Maiga Kaocen, speaking for the organization, stated that the "FFR formally denies any involvement in the abduction of Mr. Robert Fowler, UN envoy to Niger. ... We hope that Mr Fowler and his delegation will be released as soon as possible", he followed.

In February 2009, Al-Qaeda Organization in the Islamic Maghreb claimed responsibility for Fowler's kidnapping.

In 2003, 32 Europeans had been taken hostage in the Sahara in a series of abductions run by El Para, an agent of the Algerian intelligence service, the DRS. In February 2008 two Austrians were captured in Tunisia and taken via Algeria to Mali and freed later that year. All these kidnappings were attributed to Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb previously known as the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC).

Release

Moukaila was released in March 2009. Fowler, Guay, and two of the four European tourists kidnapped a month later were released on 21 April 2009, following extensive negotiations.  German tourist Marianne Petzold and Swiss Gabriella Greitner were released but Greitner's husband and a Briton were held back. Fowler and Guay arrived in Mali's capital Bamako 22 April to meet Mali's President Amadou Toumani Toure before returning to Canada. Mali, Canada, Germany and Switzerland gave no details on the conditions of the negotiated release. Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper stated that no ransom had been paid, and thanked the governments of Mali and Burkina Faso for negotiating the release. One of the two remaining hostages, British tourist Edwin Dyer, was killed by his captors in June 2009. The other tourist, Werner Greiner, was released a month later.

The governments of Niger and Mali, both involved in a two-year-long insurgency in the desert north, as well as Tuareg rebel groups, came under unusual international pressure over the taking of these seven hostages under mysterious circumstances, even prior to the acknowledged involvement of the AQIM. The original two abduction incidents (two Canadian diplomats, their driver, and four European tourists seized weeks later) were blamed by Niger on rebels, and by the MNJ on the Niger government. Western news sources quoted a variety of observers who believed the hostages were taken by Tuareg smugglers, perhaps associated with rebel groups, who then sold them to the AQIM. In May 2009 Malian President Amadou Toumani Toure agreed, after talks between Mali's defense minister and Algerian President Abdelaziz Bouteflika, to a military cooperative agreement to secure the Saharan borders where Tuareg rebels, AQIM militants, as well as smugglers and criminal gangs, operated.  Discussions with the governments of Niger and Mauritania were proposed.  Under the agreement, states would receive arms from Algeria and engage in joint operations against AQIM and other threats.

Who could it be?

The day after his arrival in Niamey in December 2008, Fowler met with Interior Minister Albadé Abouba. In September 2009 Fowler stated that somebody who knew his itinerary "shopped" him to the militants:Who could it be? It could be the government of Niger. Could have been an al-Qaeda sympathiser in the UN office in Niger. In the UN office in West Africa. In the secretariat building in New York.
It was clear from the first time I met him in August that he [Mr Tandja] was offended, annoyed and embarrassed by the fact that the secretary general of the UN [Ban Ki-moon] had seen fit to appoint a special envoy for his country.

On war in Afghanistan

Fowler reviewed the book The Unexpected War: Canada in Kandahar by Janice Gross Stein and Eugene Lang in Literary Review of Canada (January/February 2008 issue). .

Honours
In 2011, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada "for his contributions as a public servant, diplomat and representative of Canada". He holds Honorary doctorates from the University of Ottawa and the Queen's University in Kingston.

Publication
In November 2011, Fowler published his biographical account of his kidnapping ordeal in A Season in Hell: My 130 Days in the Sahara with al Qaeda, which was long-listed for Canada's most prestigious literary award, the Charles Taylor prize for non-fiction. It was also recognized as one of four 2013 Award Finalists of British Columbia's National Award for Canadian Non-Fiction.

See also
 Albadé Abouba (Minister of the Interior of Niger since March 2007)
 List of solved missing person cases
 Ministry of Interior, Public Safety and Decentralization (Niger)
 Moussa Kaka
 Movement of Nigeriens for Justice
 Regions of Niger
 United Nations Security Council Resolution 1173

References

1944 births
Ambassadors of Canada to Albania
Ambassadors of Canada to Italy
Bishop's College School alumni
Blood diamonds
Canadian people taken hostage
High Commissioners of Canada to Malta
Historians of al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb
Missing person cases in Africa
Kidnapped diplomats
Living people
Officers of the Order of Canada
Permanent Representatives of Canada to the United Nations
People from Ottawa
Queen's University at Kingston alumni
Special Envoys of the Secretary-General of the United Nations

Robert Fowler (diplomat)


Almazán is a city in Castilla y León, in Spain. The city name comes from Arabic. There it means The fortified place. It is located about 32 km south of the capital of the province (Valladolid), and about 192 km from Madrid. Today, about 5.700 people live there.

The city has a long history. In it, the Pedro IV of Aragon and Enrique II of Castilla signed the truce between Castillla and Aragon. Juan Hurtado de Mendoza was the majordomo of king Enrique III. The king Enrique IV of Castilla gave the city to him. He also got to supervise the city. Later the duchy was divided into two different parts.

The city itself was governed by the Alcalde Mayor. He was helped by a committee of people from the city (3 noblemen, and 3 from the Hidalgo class).

The city belonged to the county of Altamira. The counts descended from Hernando de Mendoza.

Diego Laínez was a Jesuit monk who was born in the city. He was a companion to San Ignacio de Loyola. He also succeeded him as head of the Society of Jesus, a Catholic religious order. Laínez later had a large influence in the Council of Trent.

Most of the city is built in a Romanesque style. There are also some examples of Baroque, Renaissance and Gothic art styles.

Some of the notable buildings are:

St. Michael's church, an example of Romanesque architecture
St. Vincent's church, as an example of Romanesque architecture. It has been converted. It is a culture hall today.
The hermit's place of Jesus of Nazareth

Other websites
 El Románico de la ribera del Duero
 Recorrido fotográfico por San Miguel de Almazán

Municipalities in Castile and León
Settlements in Soria

Almazán


John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury PC, FRS (30 April 1834 – 28 May 1913), known as Sir John Lubbock, 4th Bt from 1865 until 1900, was an English banker, biologist, archaeologist and Liberal politician.

Life
Lubbock was the son of Sir John Lubbock, 3rd Baronet, and was brought up in the family home of High Elms, near Downe in Kent. In 1842 his father brought home a "great piece of news". Young John Lubbock thought it might be a new pony, and was disappointed that the news was that Charles Darwin was moving to Down House in the village. He was soon a frequent visitor to Down House, and became the closest of Darwin's younger friends.

Lubbock was educated at Eton College from 1845 and afterwards was taken into his father's bank, where he became a partner at the age of twenty-two. In 1865 he succeeded to the baronetcy.

In 1870, 1874, and 1880 he was elected to Parliament, where he promoted a number of laws. Lubbock was elected the first president of the Institute of Bankers in 1879; in 1881 he was president of the British Association, and from 1881 to 1886 president of the Linnean Society of London. In March 1883 he founded the Bank Clerks Orphanage, which in 1986 became the Bankers Benevolent Fund – a charity for bank employees, past and present and their dependants. In January 1884 he founded the Proportional Representation Society, later to become the Electoral Reform Society.

Lubbock received honorary degrees from the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Edinburgh, Dublin and Würzburg; and in 1878 was appointed a trustee of the British Museum. From 1888 to 1892 he was president of the London Chamber of Commerce; from 1889 to 1890 vice-chairman and from 1890 to 1892 chairman of the London County Council.

In February 1890 he was appointed a Privy Councillor, and was chairman of the committee of design on the new coinage in 1891. In January 1900 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Avebury, his title commemorating the largest Neolithic site in Europe.

Lubbock in biology and archaeology

In 1865 Lubbock published what was possibly the most influential archaeological text book of the 19th Century, Pre-historic times, as illustrated by ancient remains, and the manners and customs of modern savages. He invented the terms Palaeolithic and Neolithic to denote the Old and New Stone Ages respectively, but more notable was his introduction of a Darwinian view of human nature.
"What was new was Lubbock's... insistence that, as a result of natural selection, human groups had become different from each other, not only culturally, but also in their biological capacities to utilize culture".

Lubbock was also an amateur biologist of some distinction, writing books on hymenoptera, on insect sense organs and development, on the intelligence of animals, and on other natural history topics. As a politician, one of his successes was in the passing of the Importation of Plumage Prohibition Act 1908. He was a member of the famous X Club founded by T.H. Huxley to promote the growth of science in Britain. He discovered that ants were sensitive to the ultraviolet range of the spectrum. The Punch verse of 1882 captured him perfectly:

How doth the Banking Busy Bee
Improve his shining Hours?
By studying on Bank Holidays
Strange insects and Wild Flowers!

He carried out extensive correspondence with Charles Darwin, who lived nearby in Downe. In addition to their shared interest in natural history, both men were active advocates of spelling reform, and members of the Spelling Reform Association. When Darwin died in 1882, Lubbock suggested the honour of burial in Westminster Abbey, and was one of the pallbearers.

References

 Hutchinson H.G. 1914. Life of Sir John Lubbock, Lord Avebury. London.
 Grant Duff U. 1924. The life-work of Lord Avebury. London: Watts & Co.
 Sir John.Lubbock in The Columbia Encyclopedia 6th ed, 2001.
 Lubbock J. 1865. Pre-historic times, as illustrated by ancient remains, and the manners and customs of modern savages. London: Williams and Norgate.
 Lubbock J. 1887-89. The pleasures of life
 Patton M. 1997. Science, politics & business in the work of Sir John Lubbock - a man of universal mind. London, Ashgate.

1834 births
1913 deaths
English biologists
English politicians
English Barons
Baronets
English archaeologists
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom

John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury


The Requiem in D minor, K. 626, is a Requiem Mass by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791). Mozart composed part of the Requiem in Vienna in late 1791, but it was unfinished at his death on 5 December the same year. A completed version dated 1792 by Franz Xaver Süssmayr was delivered to Count Franz von Walsegg, who had commissioned the piece for a requiem service on 14 February 1792 to commemorate the first anniversary of the death of his wife Anna at the age of 20 on 14 February 1791.

The autograph manuscript shows the finished and orchestrated Introit in Mozart's hand, and detailed drafts of the Kyrie and the sequence Dies irae as far as the first eight bars of the Lacrymosa movement, and the Offertory. It cannot be shown to what extent Süssmayr may have depended on now lost "scraps of paper" for the remainder; he later claimed the Sanctus and Benedictus and the Agnus Dei as his own.

Walsegg probably intended to pass the Requiem off as his own composition, as he is known to have done with other works. This plan was frustrated by a public benefit performance for Mozart's widow Constanze. She was responsible for a number of stories surrounding the composition of the work, including the claims that Mozart received the commission from a mysterious messenger who did not reveal the commissioner's identity, and that Mozart came to believe that he was writing the Requiem for his own funeral.

In addition to the Süssmayr version, a number of alternative completions have been developed by composers and musicologists in the 20th and 21st centuries.

Instrumentation
The Requiem is scored for 2 basset horns in F, 2 bassoons, 2 trumpets in D, 3 trombones (alto, tenor, and bass), timpani (2 drums), violins, viola, and basso continuo (cello, double bass, and organ). The basset horn parts are sometimes played on conventional clarinets, even though this changes the sonority.

The vocal forces consist of soprano, contralto, tenor, and bass soloists and an SATB mixed choir.

Structure
Süssmayr's completion divides the Requiem into eight sections:

All sections from the Sanctus onwards are not present in Mozart's manuscript fragment. Mozart may have intended to include the Amen fugue at the end of the Sequentia, but Süssmayr did not do so in his completion.

The following table shows for the eight sections in Süssmayr's completion with their subdivisions: the title, vocal parts (solo soprano (S), alto (A), tenor (T) and bass (B) [in bold] and four-part choir SATB), tempo, key, and meter.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
!style="background: Silver" |Section
!style="background: Silver" |Title
!style="background: Silver" |Vocal Forces
!style="background: Silver" |Tempo
!style="background: Silver" |Key
!style="background: Silver" |Meter
|-
|I. Introitus
|Requiem aeternam
|S solo + Chorus (SATB)
|Adagio
|D minor
|align="center" |
|- style="background: Gainsboro;"
|II. Kyrie
|Kyrie eleison
|Chorus (SATB)
|Allegro
|D minor
|align="center" |
|-
| rowspan="6" |III. Sequentia
|Dies irae
|Chorus (SATB)
|Allegro assai
|D minor
|align="center" |
|-
|Tuba mirum
|SATB soli
|Andante
|B major
|align="center" |
|-
|Rex tremendae
|Chorus (SATB)
|–
|G minor – D minor
|align="center" |
|-
|Recordare
|SATB soli
|–
|F major
|align="center" |
|-
|Confutatis
|Chorus (SATB)
|Andante
|A minor – F major
|align="center" |
|-
|Lacrymosa
|Chorus (SATB)
|Larghetto
|D minor
|align="center" |
|- style="background: Gainsboro;"
| rowspan="2" |IV. Offertorium
|Domine Jesu
|SATB soli + Chorus (SATB)
|Andante con moto
|G minor
|align="center" |
|- style="background: Gainsboro;"
|Hostias
|Chorus (SATB)
|Andante – Andante con moto
|E major – G minor
|align="center" | –
|-
| rowspan="2" |V. Sanctus
|Sanctus
| rowspan="2" |Chorus (SATB)
|Adagio
| rowspan="2" |D major
|align="center" |
|-
|Hosanna
|Allegro
|align="center" |
|- style="background: Gainsboro;"
| rowspan="2" |VI. Benedictus
|Benedictus
|SATB soli
|Andante
| rowspan="2" |B major
| rowspan="2" align="center" |
|- style="background: Gainsboro;"
|Hosanna
|Chorus (SATB)
|Allegro
|-
|VII. Agnus Dei
|Agnus Dei
|Chorus (SATB)
|
|D minor – B major
|align="center" |
|- style="background: Gainsboro;"
| rowspan="2" |VIII. Communio
|Lux aeterna
|S solo + Chorus (SATB)
|–
| rowspan="2" |B major – D minor
| rowspan="2" align="center" |
|- style="background: Gainsboro;"
|Cum sanctis tuis
|Chorus (SATB)
|Allegro
|}

Music

I. Introitus

The Requiem begins with a seven-measure instrumental introduction, in which the woodwinds (first bassoons, then basset horns) present the principal theme of the work in imitative counterpoint. The first five measures of this passage (without the accompaniment) are shown below.

This theme is modeled after Handel's The ways of Zion do mourn, HWV 264. Many parts of the work make reference to this passage, notably in the coloratura in the Kyrie fugue and in the conclusion of the Lacrymosa.

The trombones then announce the entry of the choir, which breaks into the theme, with the basses alone for the first measure, followed by imitation by the other parts. The chords play off syncopated and staggered structures in the accompaniment, thus underlining the solemn and steady nature of the music. A soprano solo is sung to the Te decet hymnus text in the tonus peregrinus. The choir continues, repeating the psalmtone while singing the Exaudi orationem meam section. Then, the principal theme is treated by the choir and the orchestra in downward-gliding sixteenth-notes. The courses of the melodies, whether held up or moving down, change and interlace amongst themselves, while passages in counterpoint and in unison (e.g., Et lux perpetua) alternate; all this creates the charm of this movement, which finishes with a half cadence on the dominant.

II. Kyrie

The Kyrie follows without pause (attacca). It is a double fugue also on a Handelian theme: the subject is based on "And with his stripes we are healed" from Messiah, HWV 56 (with which Mozart was familiar given his work on a German-language version) and the counter-subject comes from the final chorus of the Dettingen Anthem, HWV 265. The first three measures of the altos and basses are shown below.

The contrapuntal motifs of the theme of this fugue include variations on the two themes of the Introit. At first, upward diatonic series of sixteenth-notes are replaced by chromatic series, which has the effect of augmenting the intensity. This passage shows itself to be a bit demanding in the upper voices, particularly for the soprano voice. A final portion in a slower (Adagio) tempo ends on an "empty" fifth, a construction which had during the classical period become archaic, lending the piece an ancient air.

III. Sequentia

a. Dies irae

The Dies irae ("Day of Wrath") opens with a show of orchestral and choral might with tremolo strings, syncopated figures and repeated chords in the brass. A rising chromatic scurry of sixteenth-notes leads into a chromatically rising harmonic progression with the chorus singing "Quantus tremor est futurus" ("what trembling there will be"  in reference to the Last Judgment). This material is repeated with harmonic development before the texture suddenly drops to a trembling unison figure with more tremolo strings evocatively painting the "Quantus tremor" text.

b. Tuba mirum

Mozart's textual inspiration is again apparent in the Tuba mirum ("Hark, the trumpet") movement, which is introduced with a sequence of three notes in arpeggio, played in B major by a solo tenor trombone, unaccompanied, in accordance with the usual German translation of the Latin tuba, Posaune (trombone). Two measures later, the bass soloist enters, imitating the same theme. At  7, there is a fermata, the only point in all the work at which a solo cadenza occurs. The final quarter notes of the bass soloist herald the arrival of the tenor, followed by the alto and soprano in dramatic fashion.

On the text Cum vix justus sit securus ("When only barely may the just one be secure"), there is a switch to a homophonic segment sung by the quartet at the same time, articulating, without accompaniment, the cum and vix on the "strong" (1st and 3rd), then on the "weak" (2nd and 4th) beats, with the violins and continuo responding each time; this "interruption" (which one may interpret as the interruption preceding the Last Judgment) is heard sotto voce, forte and then piano to bring the movement finally into a crescendo into a perfect cadence.

c. Rex tremendae

A descending melody composed of dotted notes is played by the orchestra to announce the Rex tremendae majestatis ("King of tremendous majesty", i.e., God), who is called by powerful cries from the choir on the syllable Rex during the orchestra's pauses. For a surprising effect, the Rex syllables of the choir fall on the second beats of the measures, even though this is the "weak" beat. The choir then adopts the dotted rhythm of the orchestra, forming what Wolff calls baroque music's form of "topos of the homage to the sovereign", or, more simply put, that this musical style is a standard form of salute to royalty, or, in this case, divinity. This movement consists of only 22 measures, but this short stretch is rich in variation: homophonic writing and contrapuntal choral passages alternate many times and finish on a quasi-unaccompanied choral cadence, landing on an open D chord (as seen previously in the Kyrie).

d. Recordare

At 130 measures, the Recordare ("Remember") is the work's longest movement, as well as the first in triple meter (); the movement is a setting of no fewer than seven stanzas of the Dies irae. The form of this piece is somewhat similar to sonata form, with an exposition around two themes ( 1–37), a development of two themes (mm. 38–92) and a recapitulation (mm. 93–98).

In the first 13 measures, the basset horns are the first to present the first theme, clearly inspired by Wilhelm Friedemann Bach's Sinfonia in D Minor, the theme is enriched by a magnificent counterpoint by cellos in descending scales that are reprised throughout the movement. This counterpoint of the first theme prolongs the orchestral introduction with chords, recalling the beginning of the work and its rhythmic and melodic shiftings (the first basset horn begins a measure after the second but a tone higher, the first violins are likewise in sync with the second violins but a quarter note shifted, etc.). The introduction is followed by the vocal soloists; their first theme is sung by the alto and bass (from  14), followed by the soprano and tenor (from m. 20). Each time, the theme concludes with a hemiola (mm. 18–19 and 24–25). The second theme arrives on Ne me perdas, in which the accompaniment contrasts with that of the first theme. Instead of descending scales, the accompaniment is limited to repeated chords. This exposition concludes with four orchestral measures based on the counter-melody of the first theme (mm. 34–37).

The development of these two themes begins in  38 on Quaerens me; the second theme is not recognizable except by the structure of its accompaniment. At m. 46, it is the first theme that is developed beginning from Tantus labor and concludes with two measures of hemiola at mm. 50–51. After two orchestral bars (mm. 52–53), the first theme is heard again on the text Juste Judex and ends on a hemiola in mm. 66–67. Then, the second theme is reused on ante diem rationis; after the four measures of orchestra from 68 to 71, the first theme is developed alone.

The recapitulation intervenes in  93. The initial structure reproduces itself with the first theme on the text Preces meae and then in m. 99 on Sed tu bonus. The second theme reappears one final time on m. 106 on Sed tu bonus and concludes with three hemiolas. The final measures of the movement recede to simple orchestral descending contrapuntal scales.

e. Confutatis

The Confutatis ("From the accursed") begins with a rhythmic and dynamic sequence of strong contrasts and surprising harmonic turns. Accompanied by the basso continuo, the tenors and basses burst into a forte vision of the infernal, on a dotted rhythm. The accompaniment then ceases alongside the tenors and basses, and the sopranos and altos enter softly and sotto voce, singing Voca me cum benedictis ("Call upon me with the blessed") with an arpeggiated accompaniment in strings.

Finally, in the following stanza (Oro supplex et acclinis), there is a striking modulation from A minor to A minor.

This spectacular descent from the opening key is repeated, now modulating to the key of F major. A final dominant seventh chord leads to the Lacrymosa.

f. Lacrymosa

The chords begin piano on a rocking rhythm in , intercut with quarter rests, which will be reprised by the choir after two measures, on Lacrimosa dies illa ("This tearful day"). Then, after two measures, the sopranos begin a diatonic progression, in disjointed eighth-notes on the text resurget ("will be reborn"), then legato and chromatic on a powerful crescendo. The choir is forte by  8, at which point Mozart's contribution to the movement is interrupted by his death.

Süssmayr brings the choir to a reference of the Introit and ends on an Amen cadence. Discovery of a fragmentary Amen fugue in Mozart's hand has led to speculation that it may have been intended for the Requiem. Indeed, many modern completions (such as Levin's) complete Mozart's fragment. Some sections of this movement are quoted in the Requiem Mass of Franz von Suppé, who was a great admirer of Mozart. Ray Robinson, the music scholar and president (from 1969 to 1987) of the Westminster Choir College, suggests that Süssmayr used materials from Credo of one of Mozart's earlier Masses, Mass in C major, K. 220 "Sparrow" in completing this movement.

IV. Offertorium

a. Domine Jesu

The first movement of the Offertorium, the Domine Jesu, begins on a piano theme consisting of an ascending progression on a G minor triad. This theme will later be varied in various keys, before returning to G minor when the four soloists enter a canon on Sed signifer sanctus Michael, switching between minor (in ascent) and major (in descent). Between these thematic passages are forte phrases where the choir enters, often in unison and dotted rhythm, such as on Rex gloriae ("King of glory") or de ore leonis ("[Deliver them] from the mouth of the lion"). Two choral fugues follow, on ne absorbeat eas tartarus, ne cadant in obscurum ("may Tartarus not absorb them, nor may they fall into darkness") and Quam olim Abrahae promisisti et semini eius ("What once to Abraham you promised and to his seed"). The movement concludes homophonically in G major.

b. Hostias

The Hostias opens in E major in , with fluid vocals. After 20 measures, the movement switches to an alternation of forte and piano exclamations of the choir, while progressing from B major towards B minor, then F major, D major, A major, F minor, C minor and E major. An overtaking chromatic melody on Fac eas, Domine, de morte transire ad vitam ("Make them, O Lord, cross over from death to life") finally carries the movement into the dominant of G minor, followed by a reprise of the Quam olim Abrahae promisisti et semini eius fugue.

The words "Quam olim da capo" are likely to have been the last Mozart wrote; this portion of the manuscript has been missing since it was stolen at 1958 World's Fair in Brussels by a person whose identity remains unknown.

Süssmayr's additions

V. Sanctus

The Sanctus is the first movement written entirely by Süssmayr, and the only movement of the Requiem to have a key signature with sharps: D major, generally used for the entry of trumpets in the Baroque era. After a succinct glorification of the Lord follows a short fugue in  on Hosanna in excelsis ("Glory [to God] in the highest"), noted for its syncopated rhythm, and for its motivic similarity to the Quam olim Abrahae fugue.

VI. Benedictus

The Benedictus, a quartet, adopts the key of the submediant, B major (which can also be considered the relative of the subdominant of the key of D minor). The Sanctus's ending on a D major cadence necessitates a mediant jump to this new key.

The Benedictus is constructed on three types of phrases: the (A) theme, which is first presented by the orchestra and reprised from  4 by the alto and from m. 6 by the soprano. The word benedictus is held, which stands in opposition with the (B) phrase, which is first seen at m. 10, also on the word benedictus but with a quick and chopped-up rhythm. The phrase develops and rebounds at m. 15 with a broken cadence. The third phrase, (C), is a solemn ringing where the winds respond to the chords with a staggering harmony, as shown in a Mozartian cadence at mm. 21 and 22, where the counterpoint of the basset horns mixes with the line of the cello. The rest of the movement consists of variations on this writing. At m. 23, phrase (A) is reprised on a F pedal and introduces a recapitulation of the primary theme from the bass and tenor from mm. 28 and 30, respectively. Phrase (B) follows at m. 33, although without the broken cadence, then repeats at m. 38 with the broken cadence once more. This carries the movement to a new Mozartian cadence in mm. 47 to 49 and concludes on phrase (C), which reintroduces the Hosanna fugue from the Sanctus movement, in the new key of the Benedictus.

VII. Agnus Dei

Homophony dominates the Agnus Dei. The text is repeated three times, always with chromatic melodies and harmonic reversals, going from D minor to F major, C major, and finally B major. According to the musicologist Simon P. Keefe, Süssmayr likely referenced one of Mozart's earlier Masses, Mass in C major, K. 220 "Sparrow" in completing this movement.

VIII. Communio
Süssmayr here reuses Mozart's first two movements, almost exactly note for note, with wording corresponding to this part of the liturgy.

Liturgical lyrics

I. Introitus

Requiem aeternam:

Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine,

et lux perpetua luceat eis.

Te decet hymnus, Deus, in Sion,

et tibi reddetur votum in Jerusalem.

Exaudi orationem meam,

ad te omnis care veniet.

Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine,

et lux perpetua luceat eis.

II. Kyrie

Kyrie eleison:

Kyrie, eleison.

Christe, eleison.

Kyrie, eleison.

III. Sequentia

Dies irae:

Dies irae, dies illa

Solvet saeclum in favilla,

teste David cum Sibylla.

Quantus tremor est futurus,

quando judex est venturus,

cuncta stricte discussurus!

Tuba mirum:

Tuba mirum spargens sonum per sepulcra regionum,

coget omnes ante thronum.

Mors stupebit et natura, cum resurget creatura,

judicanti responsura.

Liber scriptus proferetur, in quo totum continetur,

unde mundus judicetur.

Judex ergo cum sedebit, quidquid latet, apparebit,

nil inultum remanebit.

Quid sum miser tunc dicturus?

quem patronum rogaturus,

um vix justus sit securus?

Rex tremendae:

Rex tremendae majestatis,

qui salvandos savas gratis,

salve me, fons pietatis.

Recordare:

Recordare, Jesu pie, quod sum causa tuae viae;

ne me perdas illa die.

Quaerens me, sedisti lassus,

redemisti crucem passus; tantus labor non sit cassus.

Juste judex ultionis,

donum fac remissionis ante diem rationis.

Ingemisco, tamquam reus:

culpa rubet vultus meus; supplicanti parce, Deus.

Qui Mariam absolvisti,et latronem exaudisti,

mihi quoque spem dedisti.

Preces meae non sunt dignae, sed tu,

bonus, fac benigne, ne perenni cremer igne.

Inter oves locum praesta,

Et ab haedis me sequestra,

Statuens in parte dextra.

Confutatis:

Confutatis maledictis,

flammis acribus addictis,

voca me cum benedictus.

Oro supplex et acclinis,

cor contritum quasi cinis,

gere curam mei finis.

Lacyimosa:

Lacrimosa dies illa,

qua resurget ex favilla judicandus homo reus.

Huic ergo parce, Deus, pie Jesu Domine,

dona eis requiem.

Amen.

IV. Offertorium

Domine Jesu:

Domine Jesu Christe, Rex gloriae,

libera animas omnium fidelium defunctorum de poenis inferni

et de profundo lacu.

Libera eas de ore leonis,

ne absorbeat eas Tartarus,

ne cadant in obscurum.

Sed signifer Sanctus Michael,

repraesentet eas in lucem sanctam.

Quam olim Abrahae promisisti et semini ejus.

Hostias:

Hostias et preces tibi, Domine, laudis offerimus.

Tu sucipe pro animabus illis,

quaram hodie memoriam facimus. Fac eas, Domine,

de morte transire ad vitam,

Quam olim Abrahae promisisti et semini ejus.

V. Sanctus

Sanctus:

Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus

Dominus Deus Sabaoth!

Pleni sunt coeli et terra gloria tua

Hosanna in excelsis!

VI. Benedictus

Benedictus:

Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini.

Hosanna in excelsis!

VII. Agnus Dei

Agnus Dei:

Agnus Dei qui tollis peccata mundi,

dona eis requiem.

Agnus Dei qui tollis peccata mundi,

dona eis requiem sempiternam.

VIII. Communio

Lux aeterna:

Lux aeterna luceat eis, Domine,

cum sanctis tuis in aeternum, quia pius es.

Requiem aeternum dona eis, Domine,

et Lux perpetua luceat eis,

cum Sanctus tuis in aeternum, quia pius es.

History

Composition

At the time of Mozart's death on 5 December 1791, only the first movement, Introitus (Requiem aeternam) was completed in all of the orchestral and vocal parts. The Kyrie, Sequence and Offertorium were completed in skeleton, with the exception of the Lacrymosa, which breaks off after the first eight bars. The vocal parts and continuo were fully notated. Occasionally, some of the prominent orchestral parts were briefly indicated, such as the first violin part of the Rex tremendae and Confutatis, the musical bridges in the Recordare, and the trombone solos of the Tuba Mirum.

What remained to be completed for these sections were mostly accompanimental figures, inner harmonies, and orchestral doublings to the vocal parts.

Completion by Mozart's contemporaries
The eccentric count Franz von Walsegg commissioned the Requiem from Mozart anonymously through intermediaries. The count, an amateur chamber musician who routinely commissioned works by composers and passed them off as his own, wanted a Requiem Mass he could claim he composed to memorialize the recent passing of his wife. Mozart received only half of the payment in advance, so upon his death his widow Constanze was keen to have the work completed secretly by someone else, submit it to the count as having been completed by Mozart and collect the final payment. Joseph von Eybler was one of the first composers to be asked to complete the score, and had worked on the movements from the Dies irae up until the Lacrymosa. In addition, a striking similarity between the openings of the Domine Jesu Christe movements in the requiems of the two composers suggests that Eybler at least looked at later sections. After this work, he felt unable to complete the remainder and gave the manuscript back to Constanze Mozart.

The task was then given to another composer, Franz Xaver Süssmayr. Süssmayr borrowed some of Eybler's work in making his completion, and added his own orchestration to the movements from the Kyrie onward, completed the Lacrymosa, and added several new movements which a Requiem would normally comprise: Sanctus, Benedictus, and Agnus Dei. He then added a final section, Lux aeterna by adapting the opening two movements which Mozart had written to the different words which finish the Requiem Mass, which according to both Süssmayr and Mozart's wife was done according to Mozart's directions. Some people consider it unlikely, however, that Mozart would have repeated the opening two sections if he had survived to finish the work.

Other composers may have helped Süssmayr. The Agnus Dei is suspected by some scholars to have been based on instruction or sketches from Mozart because of its similarity to a section from the Gloria of a previous Mass (Sparrow Mass, K. 220) by Mozart, as was first pointed out by Richard Maunder. Others have pointed out that at the beginning of the Agnus Dei, the choral bass quotes the main theme from the Introitus. Many of the arguments dealing with this matter, though, center on the perception that if part of the work is of high quality, it must have been written by Mozart (or from sketches), and if part of the work contains errors and faults, it must have been all Süssmayr's doing.

Another controversy is the suggestion (originating from a letter written by Constanze) that Mozart left explicit instructions for the completion of the Requiem on "a few scraps of paper with music on them... found on Mozart's desk after his death." The extent to which Süssmayr's work may have been influenced by these "scraps", if they existed at all, remains a subject of speculation amongst musicologists to this day.

The completed score, started by Mozart but largely finished by Süssmayr, was then dispatched to Count Walsegg complete with a counterfeited signature of Mozart and dated 1792. The various complete and incomplete manuscripts eventually turned up in the 19th century, but many of the figures involved left ambiguous statements on record as to how they were involved in the affair. Despite the controversy over how much of the music is actually Mozart's, the commonly performed Süssmayr version has become widely accepted by the public. This acceptance is quite strong, even when alternative completions provide logical and compelling solutions for the work.

Promotion by Constanze Mozart
The confusion surrounding the circumstances of the Requiem's composition was created in a large part by Mozart's wife, Constanze.

Constanze had a difficult task in front of her: she had to keep secret the fact that the Requiem was unfinished at Mozart's death, so she could collect the final payment from the commission. For a period of time, she also needed to keep secret the fact that Süssmayr had anything to do with the composition of the Requiem at all, in order to allow Count Walsegg the impression that Mozart wrote the work entirely himself. Once she received the commission, she needed to carefully promote the work as Mozart's so that she could continue to receive revenue from the work's publication and performance. During this phase of the Requiem's history, it was still important that the public accept that Mozart wrote the whole piece, as it would fetch larger sums from publishers and the public if it were completely by Mozart.

It is Constanze's efforts that created the flurry of half-truths and myths almost instantly after Mozart's death. According to Constanze, Mozart declared that he was composing the Requiem for himself and that he had been poisoned. His symptoms worsened, and he began to complain about the painful swelling of his body and high fever. Nevertheless, Mozart continued his work on the Requiem, and even on the last day of his life, he was explaining to his assistant how he intended to finish the Requiem.

With multiple levels of deception surrounding the Requiem's completion, a natural outcome is the mythologizing which subsequently occurred. One series of myths surrounding the Requiem involves the role Antonio Salieri played in the commissioning and completion of the Requiem (and in Mozart's death generally). While the most recent retelling of this myth is Peter Shaffer's play Amadeus and the movie made from it, it is important to note that the source of misinformation was actually a 19th-century play by Alexander Pushkin, Mozart and Salieri, which was turned into an opera by Rimsky-Korsakov and subsequently used as the framework for the play Amadeus.

Conflicting accounts
Source materials written soon after Mozart's death contain serious discrepancies, which leave a level of subjectivity when assembling the "facts" about Mozart's composition of the Requiem. For example, at least three of the conflicting sources, all dated within two decades following Mozart's death, cite Constanze as their primary source of interview information.

Friedrich Rochlitz
In 1798, Friedrich Rochlitz, a German biographical author and amateur composer, published a set of Mozart anecdotes that he claimed to have collected during his meeting with Constanze in 1796. The Rochlitz publication makes the following statements:
 Mozart was unaware of his commissioner's identity at the time he accepted the project.
 He was not bound to any date of completion of the work.
 He stated that it would take him around four weeks to complete.
 He requested, and received, 100 ducats at the time of the first commissioning message.
 He began the project immediately after receiving the commission.
 His health was poor from the outset; he fainted multiple times while working.
 He took a break from writing the work to visit the Prater with his wife.
 He shared the thought with his wife that he was writing this piece for his own funeral.
 He spoke of "very strange thoughts" regarding the unpredicted appearance and commission of this unknown man.
 He noted that the departure of Leopold II to Prague for the coronation was approaching.

The most highly disputed of these claims is the last one, the chronology of this setting. According to Rochlitz, the messenger arrives quite some time before the departure of Leopold for the coronation, yet there is a record of his departure occurring in mid-July 1791. However, as Constanze was in Baden during all of June to mid-July, she would not have been present for the commission or the drive they were said to have taken together. Furthermore, The Magic Flute (except for the Overture and March of the Priests) was completed by mid-July. La clemenza di Tito was commissioned by mid-July. There was no time for Mozart to work on the Requiem on the large scale indicated by the Rochlitz publication in the time frame provided.

Franz Xaver Niemetschek

Also in 1798, Constanze is noted to have given another interview to Franz Xaver Niemetschek, another biographer looking to publish a compendium of Mozart's life. He published his biography in 1808, containing a number of claims about Mozart's receipt of the Requiem commission:
 Mozart received the commission very shortly before the Coronation of Emperor Leopold II and before he received the commission to go to Prague.
 He did not accept the messenger's request immediately; he wrote the commissioner and agreed to the project stating his fee but urging that he could not predict the time required to complete the work.
 The same messenger appeared later, paying Mozart the sum requested plus a note promising a bonus at the work's completion.
 He started composing the work upon his return from Prague.
 He fell ill while writing the work
 He told Constanze "I am only too conscious... my end will not be long in coming: for sure, someone has poisoned me! I cannot rid my mind of this thought."
 Constanze thought that the Requiem was overstraining him; she called the doctor and took away the score.
 On the day of his death, he had the score brought to his bed.
 The messenger took the unfinished Requiem soon after Mozart's death.
 Constanze never learned the commissioner's name.

This account, too, has fallen under scrutiny and criticism of its accuracy. According to letters, Constanze most certainly knew the name of the commissioner by the time this interview was released in 1800. Additionally, the Requiem was not given to the messenger until some time after Mozart's death. This interview contains the only account from Constanze herself of the claim that she took the Requiem away from Wolfgang for a significant duration during his composition of it. Otherwise, the timeline provided in this account is historically probable.

Georg Nikolaus von Nissen
However, the most highly accepted text attributed to Constanze is the interview to her second husband, Georg Nikolaus von Nissen. After Nissen's death in 1826, Constanze released the biography of Wolfgang (1828) that Nissen had compiled, which included this interview. Nissen states:
 Mozart received the commission shortly before the coronation of Emperor Leopold and before he received the commission to go to Prague.
 He did not accept the messenger's request immediately; he wrote the commissioner and agreed to the project stating his fee but urging that he could not predict the time required to complete the work.
 The same messenger appeared later, paying Mozart the sum requested plus a note promising a bonus at the work's completion.
 He started composing the work upon his return from Prague.

The Nissen publication lacks information following Mozart's return from Prague.

Influences

Mozart esteemed Handel and in 1789 he was commissioned by Baron Gottfried van Swieten to rearrange Messiah (HWV 56). This work likely influenced the composition of Mozart's Requiem; the Kyrie is based on the "And with His stripes we are healed" chorus from Handel's Messiah, since the subject of the fugato is the same with only slight variations by adding ornaments on melismata. However, the same four-note theme is also found in the finale of Joseph Haydn's String Quartet in F minor (Op. 20 No. 5) and in the first measure of the A minor fugue from Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier Book 2 (BWV 889b) as part of the subject of Bach's fugue, and it is thought that Mozart transcribed some of the fugues of the Well-Tempered Clavier for string ensemble (K. 404a Nos. 1–3 and K. 405 Nos. 1–5), but the attribution of these transcriptions to Mozart is not certain.

Some musicologists believe that the Introitus was inspired by Handel's Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline, HWV 264. Another influence was Michael Haydn's Requiem in C minor; Mozart and his father were viola and violin players respectively at its first three performances in January 1772. Some have noted that Michael Haydn's Introitus sounds rather similar to Mozart's, and the theme for Mozart's "Quam olim Abrahae" fugue is a direct quote of the fugue theme from Haydn's Offertorium and Versus from his aforementioned requiem. In Introitus m. 21, the soprano sings "Te decet hymnus Deus in Zion". It is quoting the Lutheran hymn "". The melody is used by many composers e.g. in Bach's cantata Meine Seel erhebt den Herren, BWV 10 but also in Michael Haydn's Requiem.

Felicia Hemans' poem "Mozart's Requiem" was first published in The New Monthly Magazine in 1828.

Timeline

Modern completions

In the 1960s, a sketch for an Amen Fugue was discovered, which some musicologists (Levin, Maunder) believe belongs to the Requiem at the conclusion of the sequence after the Lacrymosa. H. C. Robbins Landon argues that this Amen Fugue was not intended for the Requiem, rather that it "may have been for a separate unfinished mass in D minor" to which the Kyrie K. 341 also belonged.

There is, however, compelling evidence placing the Amen Fugue in the Requiem based on current Mozart scholarship. First, the principal subject is the main theme of the Requiem (stated at the beginning, and throughout the work) in strict inversion. Second, it is found on the same page as a sketch for the Rex tremendae (together with a sketch for the overture of his last opera The Magic Flute), and thus surely dates from late 1791. The only place where the word 'Amen' occurs in anything that Mozart wrote in late 1791 is in the sequence of the Requiem. Third, as Levin points out in the foreword to his completion of the Requiem, the addition of the Amen Fugue at the end of the sequence results in an overall design that ends each large section with a fugue.

Since the 1970s several composers and musicologists, dissatisfied with the traditional "Süssmayr" completion, have attempted alternative completions of the Requiem.

Autograph at the 1958 World's Fair

The autograph of the Requiem was placed on display at the World's Fair in 1958 in Brussels. At some point during the fair, someone was able to gain access to the manuscript, tearing off the bottom right-hand corner of the second to last page (folio 99r/45r), containing the words "Quam olim d: C:" (an instruction that the "Quam olim" fugue of the Domine Jesu was to be repeated da capo, at the end of the Hostias). The perpetrator has not been identified and the fragment has not been recovered.

If the most common authorship theory is true, then "Quam olim d: C:" were the last words Mozart wrote before he died.

Recordings

Arrangements
The Requiem and its individual movements have been repeatedly arranged for various instruments. The keyboard arrangements notably demonstrate the variety of approaches taken to translating the Requiem, particularly the Confutatis and Lacrymosa movements, in order to balance preserving the Requiem's character while also being physically playable. Karl Klindworth's piano solo (c.1900), Muzio Clementi's organ solo, and Renaud de Vilbac's harmonium solo (c.1875) are liberal in their approach to achieve this. In contrast, Carl Czerny wrote his piano transcription for two players, enabling him to retain the extent of the score, if sacrificing timbral character. Franz Liszt's piano solo (c.1865) departs the most in terms of fidelity and character of the Requiem, through its inclusion of composition devices used to showcase pianistic technique.

References

Cited sources

Further reading

External links

 Article on the Requiem at h2g2
 Michael Lorenz: "Freystädtler's Supposed Copying in the Autograph of K. 626: A Case of Mistaken Identity", Vienna 2013
 Mozart's Requiem, new completion of the score by musicologist Robert D. Levin, live concert

Masses by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Mozart
1791 compositions
Compositions in D minor
Unfinished musical compositions
Musical compositions completed by others
Compositions by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart published posthumously

Requiem (Mozart)


David Soul (born August 28, 1943) in Chicago, Illinois, U.S., is an American actor, director, and singer.

Career

His career began with small roles in television series such as Flipper (1967), I Dream of Jeannie (1967), and Star Trek (1967) as Makora.

In 1968 he played the role of Joshua Bolt on the television comedy Here Come the Brides.
In the early '70s he continued to work as a guest actor in shows and series for television such as
The Young Rebels (1970), Dan August (1971), Ironside (1971), All in the Family (1972), The Streets of San Francisco (1972), The F.B.I. (1972), Ghost Story (1973), Cannon (1973).

He also got two small roles in the films Johnny Got His Gun (1971), and Magnum Force (1974, with Clint Eastwood), Soul plays of role Officer John Davis one of the members of the death squad.

In 1974 he co-starred with Glenn Ford in the television film The Disappearance of Flight 412 directed by Jud Taylor. In 1979, Soul starred in Salem's Lot, a horror movie about vampires

The decade of the 1980s brought a lot of work television to Soul. He got starring roles in Swan Song (1980), Rage! (1980), Homeward Bound (1981), World War III (1982), and Through Naked Eyes (1983).

One of his best films was In the Line of Duty: The F.B.I. Murders (1988), directed by Dick Lowry. He plays a criminal who, with an accomplice, committed a long string of crimes in the state of Florida. they meet in a bloody shootout with FBI members.

In the 1990s Soul worked on the big screen with Dolph Lundgren in Pentathlon (1994), directed by Bruce Malmuth.

Some years ago Soul worked on British television, has participated in such films as The Dark Lantern (2004), Jerry Springer: The Opera (2005).

Hutch
Soul shot to stardom in 1975 as star of the detective series Starsky and Hutch. He played Detective Sergeant Ken Hutchinson who, along with Dave Starsky Paul Michael Glaser, had to stop all kinds of criminals. The stories deal with simple cases of theft to serial killings. Soul played the character of Ken Hutchinson in 82 episodes between 1975 and 1979.

Singer
Soul also had a successful career as a singer. He had hits like "Don't Give Up On Us" and "Silver Lady", which peaked at number one on the charts in Britain in 1977. Soul recorded five albums: David Soul (1976), Playing To An Audience Of One (1977), Band Of Friends (1979), The Best Days Of My Life (1982), and Leave A Light On (1997).

References
 David Soul Message Board
 David Soul Official Website
 Unofficial website

 New Album - Looking Back

American movie actors
American television actors
musicians from Chicago
actors from Chicago
1943 births
living people

David Soul


Layla and Majnun (), also spelled as Leili-o-Majnun or Laili-o-Majnoon, is a 1937 Iranian romance film produced in 1937 by Abdolhossein Sepanta by the East India Film Studios.

History
The film was based on the dramatic poem by Nizami (c. 1192), and was Sepanta's fifth produced film that had sound. The complete script for Laila and Majnun is available, as are Sepanta's other manuscripts. The script contain detailed information regarding exterior and interior scenes, dialogues, and actors' movements, settings, costumes, lighting, sound effects and camera movements. The explanatory notes on editing and film processing are offered and scene descriptions are mostly accompanied by carefully worked-out drawings. This film was produced in conjunction with the Iranian diaspora community of Calcutta, which included notables Abed Basravi of the Basravi Masjid, which was a cultural centre for the community at the British Indian capital.

Sepanta commented on the failure of this final film: "In September 1936, I arrived in Bushehr with a print of Laila and Majnun. Due to bu-reaucratic complications, the film print could not be immediately released, and we had to leave for Tehran without it. Government officials' attitude was inexplicably hostile from the beginning and I almost was sorry that I returned home. The authorities did not value cinema as an art form or even as a means of mass communication, and I soon realized that I had to forget about my dream of establishing a film studio. I even had difficulty getting permission to screen my film, and in the end the machinations of the movie theater owners forced us to turn over the film to them almost for nothing".

References

External links

1937 romantic drama films
Films directed by Abdolhossein Sepanta
Iranian black-and-white films
Iranian romantic drama films

Layla and Majnun (1937 film)


Asphyxia or asphyxiation is a condition when a living body does not get enough oxygen. If this condition lasts long enough it can lead to unconsciousness, brain damage and death.

Asphyxia can injure or kill people. This sometimes happens during suicide, torture, and in warfare. It can also be used as a capital punishment. It is also sometimes used nonfatally in martial arts, combat sports, and in some types of sex play. Because the need to breathe is controlled by the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood, some victims may not experience an urgent need to breathe and may remain unaware of the shortage of oxygen in their body.

Medical emergencies
Breathing problems

Asphyxia


The 3rd millennium BC spans the Early to Middle Bronze Age.

This was a period of time in which the desire to conquer was common. Expansion occurred throughout the Middle East and throughout Eurasia, with Indo-European expansion to Anatolia, Europe and Central Asia. The civilization of Ancient Egypt rose to a peak with the Old Kingdom. World population is estimated to have doubled in the course of the millennium to 30 million people.

3rd millennium BC


Echo was a nymph in Greek mythology, and an Oread (a mountain nymph).  She was very beautiful, but loved her own voice.

Hera
According to Ovid, Echo once had the job of distracting Hera from Zeus having relationships with other women. She did this by leading Hera away and flattering her. When Hera found out she was very angry with Echo. She put a curse on her that meant that she could only speak the last words of other people after she had heard them. It is due to this story that we get the meaning behind the word echo.

Narcissus
After she was cursed, Echo fell in love with Narcissus.  Narcissus was very handsome and anybody who saw him always fell in love with him.  However, Narcissus had no heart and could not fall in love with anybody.  Echo could not speak to Narcissus but wanted to be able to see him.  She therefore followed him everywhere, but made sure that he could not see her.

Narcissus got lost and called out "Is anyone here?".  Echo said back "Here, here, here."  Narcissus then asked Echo to come out of her hiding place.  Echo did so and then told Narcissus that she loved him by hand movements. Narcissus, who was angry that so many people loved him, told Echo that he did not love her.

Echo was very upset and prayed to Aphrodite for death.  Aphrodite granted Echo's wish, but she liked Echo's voice so much she kept it alive.

Narcissus also rejected Echo and broke her heart. She then went and haunted valleys and mountainous areas where echoes are able to be heard in all hollow places of the earth.

Pan
This is a different story about Echo's death.  Echo was a talented dancer and singer, but did not like the love of any man.  This caused another god, called Pan, to become angry.  He had Echo killed and split into pieces.  These pieces were spread about the world, but were collected up by Gaia.  Echo's voice was not collected, so it remains all over the world and still says the last words that other people have said.  In some versions of the story, Echo and Pan have a child who was called Iambe.

Nymphs

Echo (mythology)


The Central Pacific Hurricane Center of the United States National Weather Service is the main body responsible for tracking and giving out tropical cyclone warnings, watches, advisories, discussions, and statements for the Central North Pacific Basin.  The Central North Pacific Basin is the region of the Pacific Ocean that is north of the equator between 140 degrees west longitude and the International Date Line.  In this area, the hurricane season lasts from June 1 through November 30.

Other websites
 Central Pacific Hurricane Center

Tropical cyclones

Central Pacific Hurricane Center


John Joseph Amalfitano (born January 23, 1934) is a former utility infielder, manager and coach in Major League Baseball (MLB). He played a combined ten seasons with the New York and San Francisco Giants (1954–55; 1960–61; 1963), Houston Colt .45s (1962) and Chicago Cubs (1964–67), and managed the Cubs from 1979–81.

Amalfitano was the Los Angeles Dodgers' third-base coach for sixteen years (1983–98), which included the 1988 World Series championship. After serving as a special assistant for player development for the Giants, primarily working in the club's farm system, the team announced in January 2021 that Amalfitano would retire just shy of his 87th birthday on January 23 after 30 years and five different terms.

Playing career
A native of San Pedro, California, Amalfitano attended Saint Anthony High School in Long Beach, Loyola University of Los Angeles, and the University of Southern California. Because he signed a "bonus contract" when he became a professional player in , Amalfitano spent the first two years of his pro career sitting on the bench of the New York Giants under the terms of the rule then in force. But after four years in the minor leagues, he returned to the National League in  and played through the middle of  for the Giants, Houston Colt .45s and Chicago Cubs. Amalfitano, a right-handed hitter and thrower, stood  tall and weighed .  In 642 MLB games played, he batted .244 in 1,715 at bats with 418 hits and nine home runs.

Managerial/coaching career
After playing his final game on June 27, 1967, Amalfitano became a coach for the Cubs, serving under his first-ever manager, Leo Durocher. He moved back to the Giants as a coach in , then to the San Diego Padres from –77, before rejoining the Cubs as a member of Herman Franks' staff in –79.

Amalfitano served as Chicago's interim manager after Franks' resignation in September 1979, compiling a record of 2–5 to finish the season. That autumn, the Cubs appointed Preston Gómez manager, with Amalfitano retained as a coach. But when Chicago started the  campaign poorly under Gómez, winning only 38 of its first 90 games, he was fired July 25 and Amalfitano was named his permanent successor. The Cubs won only 26 games, losing 46, to remain in the basement of the National League East Division, but Amalfitano was allowed to return for . During that strike-shortened, split-season campaign, his team won a total of 38 games, losing 65, finishing last and next-to-last with the worst overall record in the division. At season's end, he was fired during a general housecleaning of the Chicago front office. Amalfitano's career record as a manager, over all or parts of three seasons with the Cubs, was 66–116 (.363).

He remained active in baseball, returning to coaching with the Cincinnati Reds () and then spending 16 seasons as the third base coach for the Los Angeles Dodgers (1983–98). He then was a consultant with the Dodgers' baseball operations department and worked with minor league infielders in his original organization, the Giants, before assuming his current position with them. His primary role has been to instruct the Giants' minor leaguers on baseball fundamentals, especially bunting.

References

External links

1934 births
Living people
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
American people of Italian descent
Baseball coaches from California
Baseball players from Los Angeles
Chicago Cubs coaches
Chicago Cubs managers
Chicago Cubs players
Cincinnati Reds coaches
Dallas Eagles players
Houston Colt .45s players
Johnstown Johnnies players
Los Angeles Dodgers coaches
Loyola Marymount Lions baseball players
Major League Baseball first base coaches
Major League Baseball second basemen
Major League Baseball third base coaches
Minneapolis Millers (baseball) players
New York Giants (NL) players
People from San Pedro, Los Angeles
Phoenix Giants players
San Diego Padres coaches
San Francisco Giants coaches
San Francisco Giants players
Tacoma Cubs players
Tacoma Giants players
Toronto Maple Leafs (International League) players

Joey Amalfitano


Energy conservation is reducing the amount of energy used for different purposes. This may result in an increase of financial capital, environmental value, national and personal security, and human comfort.

Individuals and organizations that consume energy may conserve energy to reduce costs and promote economic, political and environmental sustainability.  Industrial and commercial users may want to increase efficiency and thus maximize profit.

On a larger scale, energy conservation is an energy policy.  In general, energy conservation  reduces the energy consumption and energy demand per capita.  This reduces the rise in energy costs, and can reduce the need for new power plants, and energy imports.  The reduced energy demand can provide more flexibility in choosing the methods of energy production.

By reducing emissions, energy conservation helps to prevent climate change.  Energy conservation makes it easier to replace non-renewable resources with renewable energy.  Energy conservation is often the most economical solution to energy shortages.

Energy efficiency trends in the United States
The U.S. is the largest consumer of energy, although at current levels of growth, China may become the leading energy consumer. The U.S. Department of Energy categorizes national energy use in four broad sectors: transportation, residential, commercial, and industrial.

Energy usage in the transportation and residential sectors (about half of U.S. energy consumption) is largely controlled by individual domestic consumers.  Commercial and industrial energy usage are controlled by businesses.  National energy policy has a significant effect on energy usage across all four sectors.

Transportation sector
The transportation sector includes all vehicles used for personal or freight transportation. Of the energy used in this sector, about 65% is used by gasoline-powered vehicles, mostly personally owned. Diesel-powered transport (trains, merchant ships, heavy trucks, etc.) consumes about 20%, and air traffic consumes most of the remaining 15%.

The oil supply crises of the 1970s spurred the creation, in 1975, of the federal Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) program, which required auto manufacturers to meet progressively higher fleet fuel economy targets.  The next decade saw dramatic improvements in fuel economy, mostly the result of reductions in vehicle size and weight. These gains eroded somewhat after 1990 due to the growing popularity of sport utility vehicles, pickup trucks and minivans, which fall under the more lenient "light truck" CAFE standard.

In addition to the CAFE program, the U.S. government has tried to encourage better vehicle efficiency through tax policy.  Since 2002, taxpayers have been eligible for income tax credits for gas/electric hybrid vehicles. A "gas-guzzler" tax has been assessed on manufacturers since 1978 for cars with exceptionally poor fuel economy.  While this tax remains in effect, it currently generates very little revenue as overall fuel economy has improved.

Another focus in gasoline conservation is reducing the number of miles driven. An estimated 40% of American automobile use is associated with daily commuting. Many urban areas offer subsidized public transportation to reduce commuting traffic, and encourage carpooling by providing designated high-occupancy vehicle lanes and lower tolls for cars with multiple riders. In recent years telecommuting has also become a viable alternative to commuting for some jobs.

A vehicle's gas mileage normally decreases rapidly at speeds above 55 miles per hour.  A car or truck moving at 55 miles an hour can get about 15 percent better fuel economy than the same car going 65 mph. According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), as a rule of thumb, each 5 mph you drive over 60 mph is similar to paying an additional $1.20 per gallon for gas (at $3.10 per gallon).

Residential sector
The residential sector refers to all private residences, including single-family homes, apartments, manufactured homes and dormitories.  Energy use in this sector varies significantly across the country, due to regional climate differences and different regulation.  On average, about half of the energy used in the U.S. homes is expended on space conditioning (i.e. heating and cooling).

The efficiency of furnaces and air conditioners has increased steadily since the energy crises of the 1970s. The 1987 National Appliance Energy Conservation Act authorized the Department of Energy to set minimum efficiency standards for space conditioning equipment and other appliances each year, based on what is "technologically feasible and economically justified".

Despite technological improvements, many American lifestyle changes have put higher demands on heating and cooling resources.  The average size of homes built in the United States has increased significantly, from 1500 ft² in 1970 to 2300 ft² in 2005.  The single-person household has become more common, as has central air conditioning: 23% of households had central air conditioning in 1978, that figure rose to 55% by 2001.

As a cheaper alternative to the purchase of a new furnace or air conditioner, most public utilities encourage smaller changes the consumer can make.  Consumers have also been asked to adopt a wider indoor temperature range (e.g. 65 °F in the winter, 80 °F in the summer).

Home energy consumption averages:

 space conditioning (includes both heating and air conditioning) 44%
 water heating, 13%
 lighting, 12%
 refrigeration, 8%
 home electronics, 6%
 laundry appliances, 5%
 kitchen appliances, 4%
 other uses, 8%

Energy usage in some homes may vary widely from these averages. In most residences no single appliance dominates, and any conservation efforts must be directed to numerous areas in order to achieve substantial energy savings.  However, ground source heat pump systems are the more energy efficient, environmentally clean, and cost-effective space conditioning systems available (Environmental Protection Agency). They can achieve reductions in energy consumptions of up to 70%.

Best building practices

Current best practices in building design and construction result in homes that are much more energy conserving than average new homes.  See Passive house, Superinsulation, Self-sufficient homes, Zero energy building, Earthship, Straw-bale construction, MIT Design Advisor, Energy Conservation Code for Indian Commercial Buildings.

Smart ways to construct homes such that minimal resources are used to cooling and heating the house in summer and winter respectively can significantly reduce energy costs!

Commercial sector
The commercial sector consists of retail stores, offices (business and government), restaurants, schools and other workplaces.  Energy in this sector has the same basic end uses as the residential sector, in slightly different proportions. Space conditioning is again the single biggest consumption area, but it represents only about 30% of the energy use of commercial buildings.  Lighting, at 25%, plays a much larger role than it does in the residential sector.  Lighting is also generally the most wasteful component of commercial use.  A number of case studies indicate that more efficient lighting and elimination of over-illumination can reduce lighting energy by approximately fifty percent in many commercial buildings.

Commercial buildings can greatly increase energy efficiency by thoughtful design, with today's building stock being very poor examples of the potential of systematic (not expensive) energy efficient design (Steffy, 1997).  Commercial buildings often have professional management, allowing centralized control and coordination of energy conservation efforts.

Solar heat loading through standard window designs usually leads to high demand for air conditioning in summer months.  An example of building design overcoming this excessive heat loading is the Dakin Building in Brisbane, California, where fenestration was designed to achieve an angle with respect to sun incidence to allow maximum reflection of solar heat; this design also assisted in reducing interior over-illumination to enhance worker efficiency and comfort.

Industrial sector
The industrial sector represents all production and processing of goods, including manufacturing, construction, farming, water management and mining.  Increasing costs have forced energy-intensive industries to make substantial efficiency improvements in the past 30 years.  For example, the energy used to produce steel and paper products has been cut 40% in that time frame, while petroleum/aluminum refining and cement production have reduced their usage by about 25%.  These reductions are largely the result of recycling waste material and the use of cogeneration equipment for electricity and heating.

The energy required for delivery and treatment of fresh water often constitutes a significant percentage of a region's electricity and natural gas usage (an estimated 20% of California's total energy use is water-related.)  In light of this, some local governments have worked toward a more integrated approach to energy and water conservation efforts.

Unlike the other sectors, total energy use in the industrial sector has declined in the last decade.  While this is partly due to conservation efforts, it's also a reflection of the growing trend for U.S. companies to move manufacturing operations offshore.

The usage of telecommuting by major corporations is a significant opportunity to conserve energy, as many Americans now work in service jobs that enable them to work from home instead of commuting to work each day.

Related pages
 Energy efficiency
 Light pollution
 List of renewable energy topics

References

 Bain, A.,  "The Hindenburg Disaster: A Compelling Theory of Probable Cause and Effect," Procs. NatL Hydr. Assn. 8th Ann. Hydrogen Meeting, Alexandria, Va., March 11-13, pp 125–128 (1997)
 Gary Steffy, Architectural Lighting Design,  John Wiley and Sons (2001)
 Lumina Technologies, Analysis of energy consumption in a San Francisco Bay Area research office complex, for (confidential) owner, Santa Rosa, Ca. May 17, 1996
 GSA paves way for IT-based buildings

Other websites
Resources for homes
 Conserving energy with plants
 Energy Savings Tips for Your Home
 Energy conservation tips for apartments
 Energy Saving Resources for the Home

Government and international websites
 U.S. Energy Information Administration
 Buildings Energy Data Book  - commercial/residential building consumption patterns
UNEP- Energy Branch.
IEA Energy Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems Programme.

Engineering

Energy conservation


Rathafandhoo (Dhivehi: ރަތަފަންދޫ) is ane o the inhabitit islands o Gaafu Dhaalu Atoll, Maldives. The island is locatit at the sooth wast o Sooth Huvadhu Atoll.

Education
The main facility which affers the primary an seicontary education in the island is the schuil namely Rathafandhoo Schuil in the island. There are pre-schuils which provide the pre-schuil education the childer o the island. The data providit bi island office shows that total o 154 students study in the Rathafandhoo Schuil. Total o 21 teachers wirk in the schuil tae provide education.

Health care
Health Centre provide the basic health needs tae the islanders such as minor injuries, cuts an common cauld an flu. If the serious health issue is thare, islanders hae tae go tae the nearest Regional hospital locatit in the atoll caipital Thinadhoo, which will tak aboot 45 minutes in a speed boat.

Economy
Maist common source o inconomical wirks o the residents are sea cucumber fishin, mat weavin, agricultur, reef fishin an carpentry etc.

Polis
In late 2008, the residents wur providit the security service frae the Maldives Polis Service bi openin a polis station in the island. The three polis personal based station gave satisfaction tae the residents as the there are drogs cases, gang fechts, robbery an theft in the island.

NGOs
The maist active NGO in the island is READY (Rathafandhoo Eminent Association for Dynamic youth). READY conducts various activities tae islanders for their benefit an the development. Such activities include the Trainin Programs an Capacity Biggin programs on Various fields including Information Technology, Quran recitation Competitions, READY Fitbaa an Futsal Competition an ither various awareness campaigns Targetit on Topic such as Health an Education.

Migration
Due tae poor quality an limitations o some o basic services such as Healthcare, Education an Lack o Economical an job opportunities mair nor hauf o the registered residents o the island live in the caipital Malé.

History
Accordin tae the history o the Maldives, the islanders are famous for its handicrafts an makkin nets (kunaa) frae local plant cried Hau. Some islanders still dae met weavin wirk which is famous suvanier for the tourists who visits Maldives.

References

Islands o the Maldives
Populatit places in the Maldives

Rathafandhoo


Human science is the science of humans:  what makes them different from animals, and their limits, which tend to be the same as those of other animals.  Because human bodies are animal bodies, human science is part of biology which leads to Life Science.  However human behaviour includes the use of words, measures, numbers, knowing time and having memory, and such habits as trade - thus economics and psychology are considered to be part of human science.  A general human science is anthropology which studies only the differences between humans and near relatives.

One important debate in human science is whether the exchange of culture (or in economics instructional capital), is only among humans or if it also goes on among our Great Ape near relatives.  If so, then culture is part of primatology and there is no clear line between human science and life sciences.

However, life science also deals with humans as objects of study (notably in medicine), while hard science such as chemistry deals with humans as the observer who does the study - sets the scale at which observation can happen, incurs observer effects - as studied in philosophy of science.

Often sciences have different names based on whether they study humans or not.  For instance economics is the study of how humans make a living, while ecology is the study of how non-humans make a living.  Medicine is normally restricted to humans while veterinary medicine refers to the same techniques made on other species.  One relies more on ethics and less on economics when dealing with humans, at least according to any ethical tradition.

The living, social, and sensory observing aspects of humans are probably all part of the human sciences to the degree they affect how humans view themselves.

Specific human sciences are (in addition to anthropology and ethics and economics) include psychology, sociology and linguistics.  There is debate as to whether mathematics is something human or if it is universal - see philosophy of mathematics on this.

Related pages
humanities
sense
ecology

Social sciences

Human science


Yerevan Vernissage ( Vernisazh) is a large open-air market in Yerevan, Armenia. The name of the market is the derived from the French word vernissage. The market lies along Aram Street and Buzand Street   at a length of , connecting the Hanrapetutyun street with the Khanjyan street. The market mainly features a collection of different types of traditional Armenian art works.

Overview
The Yerevan Vernissage is an open-air exhibition-market functioning every day. It was formed during the 1980s by Armenian artists who started to display their art works in the square next to the Artists' Union of Armenia (the current Charles Aznavour Square). Others have used the park next to Komitas State Conservatory to show their works. Later, the Vernissage was moved to Martiros Saryan garden in front of the Opera House. The exhibition-market was gradually enlarged and finally moved to Aram and Buzand streets, starting with the Republic square metro station and ending up with the statue of Vardan Mamikonyan. However, painters are still using the Saryan park to show their painting works.

In addition to carved wood and art works, traditional carpets, old collections of coins and medallions, books, jewellery, musical instruments, electronics and even pets are found in the market.

Gallery

References

Yerevan
Retail markets in Armenia
Tourist attractions in Yerevan
Pedestrian streets in Armenia

Yerevan Vernissage


Sayyid Sirajuddin, commonly known as Siraj Aurangabadi (1715 - 1763), was an Indian mystic poet who initially wrote in Persian and later started writing in Urdu.

Work and Life
The anthology of his poems, Kulliyat-e-Siraj, contains his ghazals along with his masnavi Nazm-i-Siraj. He was influenced by Persian poet Hafiz.

He had also compiled and edited a selection of Persian poets under the title "Muntakhib Diwan". The anthology of his poems, entitled Siraj-e-Sukhan, was included in Kulliyat-e-Siraj.

He stopped writing poetry at the age of 24.

In his later life, Aurangabadi renounced the world and became a Sufi ascetic. He lived a life of isolation, though a number of younger poets and admirers used to gather at his place for poetic instruction and religious edification.

His ghazal Khabar-e-Tahayyur-e-Ishq has been sung by Abida Parveen and Ali Sethi paid a tribute to the singer by singing the same ghazal in 2020.

See also

 Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah
Wali Dakhni
Azad Bilgrami
Sikandar Ali Wajd
Urdu poetry
List of Urdu Poets

References

Further reading
 The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature – Volume 5
 Encyclopedic Dictionary of Urdu Literature

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External links
Kulliyaat-e-Siraj
History of Urdu poetry

Urdu-language poets from India
Indian male poets
Persian-language poets
History of Aurangabad, Maharashtra
1763 deaths
1715 births
People from Marathwada
18th-century Indian poets
Poets from Maharashtra
18th-century male writers
People from Aurangabad, Maharashtra

Siraj Aurangabadi