PDF/A is an ISO-standardized version of the Portable Document Format (PDF) specialized for use in the archiving and long-term preservation of electronic documents. PDF/A differs from PDF by prohibiting features unsuitable for long-term archiving, such as font linking (as opposed to font embedding) and encryption. The ISO requirements for PDF/A file viewers include color management guidelines, support for embedded fonts, and a user interface for reading embedded annotations.

Standards

Background
PDF is a standard for encoding documents in an "as printed" form that is portable between systems. However, the suitability of a PDF file for archival preservation depends on options chosen when the PDF is created: most notably, whether to embed the necessary fonts for rendering the document; whether to use encryption; and whether to preserve additional information from the original document beyond what is needed to print it.

PDF/A was originally a new joint activity between the Association for Suppliers of Printing, Publishing and Converting Technologies (NPES) and the Association for Information and Image Management AIIM in conjunction with Adobe to develop an international standard defining the use of the Portable Document Format (PDF) for archiving documents. The goal was to address the growing need to electronically archive documents in a way that would ensure preservation of their contents over an extended period of time and ensure that those documents would be able to be retrieved and rendered with a consistent and predictable result in the future. This need exists in a wide variety of government, industry and academic areas worldwide, including legal systems, libraries, newspapers, and regulated industries.

Description
The PDF/A standard does not define an archiving strategy or the goals of an archiving system. It identifies a "profile" for electronic documents that ensures the documents can be reproduced exactly the same way using various software in years to come. A key element to this reproducibility is the requirement for PDF/A documents to be 100% self-contained. All of the information necessary for displaying the document in the same manner is embedded in the file. This includes, but is not limited to, all content (text, raster images and vector graphics), fonts, and color information. A PDF/A document is not permitted to be reliant on information from external sources (e.g., font programs and data streams), but may include annotations (e.g., hypertext links) that link to external documents.

Other key elements to PDF/A conformance include:
 Audio and video content are forbidden.
 JavaScript and executable file launches are forbidden.
 All fonts must be embedded and also must be legally embeddable for unlimited, universal rendering. This also applies to the so-called PostScript standard fonts such as Times or Helvetica.
 Colorspaces specified in a device-independent manner.
 Encryption is forbidden.
 Use of standards-based metadata is required.
 External content references are forbidden.
 LZW is forbidden due to intellectual property constraints. JPEG 2000 image compression models are not allowed in PDF/A-1 (based on PDF 1.4), as it was first introduced in PDF 1.5. JPEG 2000 compression is allowed in PDF/A-2 and PDF/A-3.
 Transparent objects and layers (Optional Content Groups) are forbidden in PDF/A-1 but are allowed in PDF/A-2.
 Provisions for digital signatures in accordance with the PAdES (PDF advanced electronic signatures) standard are supported in PDF/A-2.
 Embedded files are forbidden in PDF/A-1, but PDF/A-2 allows embedding of PDF/A files, facilitating the archiving of sets of PDF/A documents in a single file. PDF/A-3 allows embedding of any file format such as XML, CAD and others into PDF/A documents.
 The use of XML-based XML Forms Architecture (XFA) forms is forbidden in PDF/A. (XFA form data may be preserved in a PDF/A-2 file by moving from XFA key to the Names tree that itself is the value of the XFAResources key of the Names dictionary of the document catalog dictionary.)
 Interactive PDF form fields must have an appearance dictionary associated with the field's data. The appearance dictionary shall be used when rendering the field.

Conformance levels and versions

PDF/A-1
Part 1 of the standard was first published on September 28, 2005, and specifies two levels of conformance for PDF files:

 PDF/A-1b – Level B (basic) conformance
 PDF/A-1a – Level A (accessible) conformance

Level B conformance requires only that standards necessary for the reliable reproduction of a document's visual appearance be followed, while Level A conformance includes all Level B requirements in addition to features intended to improve a document's accessibility.

Additional Level A requirements:
 Language specification
 Hierarchical document structure
 Tagged text spans and descriptive text for images and symbols
 Character mappings to Unicode

Level A conformance was intended to increase the accessibility of conforming files for physically impaired users by allowing assistive software, such as screen readers, to more precisely extract and interpret a file's contents. A later standard, PDF/UA, was developed to eliminate what became considered some of PDF/A's shortcomings, replacing many of its general guidelines with more detailed technical specifications.

PDF/A-2
Part 2 of the standard, published on June 20, 2011, addresses some of the new features added with versions 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7 of the PDF Reference. PDF/A-1 files will not necessarily conform to PDF/A-2, and PDF/A-2 compliant files will not necessarily conform to PDF/A-1.

Part 2 of the PDF/A Standard is based on a PDF 1.7 (ISO 32000-1), rather than PDF 1.4 and offers several new features:
 JPEG 2000 image compression.
 support for transparency effects and layers.
 embedding of OpenType fonts.
 provisions for digital signatures in accordance with the PDF Advanced Electronic Signatures – PAdES standard.
 the option of embedding PDF/A files to facilitate archiving of sets of documents with a single file.

Part 2 defines three conformance levels. PDF/A-2a and PDF/A-2b correspond to conformance levels a and b in PDF/A-1. A new conformance level, PDF/A-2u, represents Level B conformance (PDF/A-2b) with the additional requirement that all text in the document have Unicode mapping.

PDF/A-3
Part 3 of the standard, published on October 15, 2012, differs from PDF/A-2 in only one regard: it allows embedding of arbitrary file formats (such as XML, CSV, CAD, word-processing documents, spreadsheet documents, and others) into PDF/A conforming documents.

PDF/A-4
Part 4 of the standard, based on PDF 2.0, was published in late 2020.

How to create a PDF/A File
Archives sometimes request from their users to submit PDF/A Files. They thus provide their users with information how to convert their files to PDF/A. There are several methods using standard software that differ in computation time as well as preservation of links, equations, vectorgraphs and special characters.

When documents are converted to PDF/A visual inspection is needed since errors in the visual content are common. In a test sample 11 percent of the produced PDF/A-1b document contained visual artefacts. These reproducibility errors included vector graphics issues (transparent objects), loss of links, loss of other document content (unreadable characters, missing text, document part missing), updated fields (reflecting time or folder of conversion) and spelling errors. Archives thus usually do not convert to PDF/A themselves. Instead, some archives ask their users to provide a PDF/A document. Typical computer setups provide several methods for the conversion of documents to PDF/A with different pros and cons.

Converting a simple PDF (up to version 1.4) into a PDF/A-2 usually works as expected, except for problems with glyphs. According to the PDF Association, "Problems can occur before and/or during the generation of PDFs. A PDF/A file can be formally correct yet still have incorrect glyphs. Only a careful visual check can uncover this problem. Because generation problems also affect Unicode mapping, the problem attracts the attention when a visual check is carried out on the extracted text.
In PDF/A, text/font usage is specified uniquely enough to ensure that it cannot be incorrect.
If viewers or printers do not offer complete support for encoding systems, this can result in problems with regard to PDF/A." Meaning that for a document to be completely compliant with the standard, it will be correct internally, while the system used for viewing or printing the document may produce undesired results.

A document produced with optical character recognition (OCR) conversion into PDF/A-2 or PDF/A-3 doesn't support the notdefglyph flag. Therefore, this type of conversion can result in unrendered content.

PDF/A standard documents can be created with the following software: SoftMaker Office 2021, MS Word 2010 and newer, Adobe Acrobat Distiller, PDF Creator, OpenOffice or LibreOffice since release 3.0, LaTeX with pdfx or pdfTeX addons, or by using a virtual PDF printer (Adobe Acrobat Pro, PDF24, FreePDF + Ghostscript).

Identification
A PDF/A document can be identified as such through PDF/A-specific metadata located in the "http://www.aiim.org/pdfa/ns/id/" namespace. This metadata represents a claim of conformance; in itself it does not ensure conformance:

 a PDF document can be PDF/A-compliant, except for its lack of PDF/A metadata. This may happen for instance with documents that were generated before the definition of the PDF/A standard, by authors aware of features that present long-term preservation issues.
 a PDF document can be identified as PDF/A, but may incorrectly contain PDF features not allowed in PDF/A; hence, documents which claim to be PDF/A-compliant should be tested for PDF/A compliance.

Validation
Validation of PDF/A documents is attempted to reveal whether a produced file really is a PDF/A file or not. Unfortunately, PDF/A validators quite often disagree, since the interpretation of the PDF/A standards is not always clear.

Isartor Test Suite
Industry collaboration in the original PDF/A Competence Center led to the development of the Isartor Test Suite in 2007 and 2008. The test suite consists of 204 PDF files intentionally constructed to systematically fail each of the requirements for PDF/A-1b conformance, allowing developers to test the ability of their software to validate against the standard's most basic level of conformance. By mid-2009 the test suite had already made an appreciable difference in the general quality of PDF/A validation software.

veraPDF
The veraPDF consortium, led by the Open Preservation Foundation and the PDF Association, was created in response to the EU Commission's PREFORMA challenge to develop an open-source validator for the PDF/A format. The PDF Association launched the PDF Validation Technical Working Group in November 2014 to articulate a plan for developing an industry-supported PDF/A validator.

The veraPDF consortium subsequently won phase 2 of the PREFORMA contract in April 2015. Development continued throughout 2016, with Phase 2 completed on-schedule by December 2016. The Phase 3 testing and acceptance period concluded in July, 2017. veraPDF now covers all parts (1, 2 and 3) and conformance levels (a, b, u) of PDF/A.

veraPDF is available for installation on Windows, macOS, or Linux using a PDFBox-based or "Greenfields" PDF parser.

PDF/A viewers
The PDF/A specification also states some requirements for a conforming PDF/A viewer, which must
 ignore any data that are not described by the PDF and PDF/A standards;
 ignore any linearization information provided by the file;
 only use the embedded fonts (rather than any locally available, substituted or simulated fonts);
 only display using the embedded color profile;
 ensure that form fields do not change the rendered presentation and are rendered without regard to the form data;
 ensure that annotations are rendered consistently.

When encountering a file that claims conformance with PDF/A, some PDF viewers will default to a special "PDF/A viewing mode" to fulfill conforming reader requirements. To take one example, Adobe Acrobat and Adobe Reader 9 include an alert to advise the user that PDF/A viewing mode has been activated. Some PDF viewers allow users to disable the PDF/A viewing mode or to remove the PDF/A information from a file.

Reception
A PDF/A document must embed all fonts in use; accordingly, a PDF/A file will often be larger than an equivalent PDF file that does not include embedded fonts.

The use of transparency is forbidden in PDF/A-1. The majority of PDF generation tools that allow for PDF/A document compliance, such as the PDF export in OpenOffice.org or PDF export tool in Microsoft Office 2007 suites, will also make any transparent images in a given document non-transparent. That restriction was removed in PDF/A-2.

Some archivists have voiced concerns that PDF/A-3, which allows arbitrary files to be embedded in PDF/A documents, could result in circumvention of memory institution procedures and restrictions on archived formats.

The PDF Association had addressed various misconceptions regarding PDF/A in its publication "PDF/A in a Nutshell 2.0".

See also
 Digital dark age
 PDF/E – for engineering and technical documentation
PDF/X – another subset of the PDF standard, optimized for print production
PDF/VT – for variable and transactional printing

Further reading
 PDF/A in a Nutshell 2.0 – published by PDF Association (2013)
 PDF/A 101: An Introduction – presentation from the First International PDF/A Conference (2008)
 White Paper: PDF/A – The Basics – from PDF Tools AG (2009)
 Format description for PDF/A-1 – at digitalpreservation.gov

References

External links
 PDF Association
 PDF/A Competence Center
 veraPDF – PDF/A validation software

Archive formats
Computer file formats
Digital preservation
ISO standards
Page description languages
PDF standards

PDF/A


Luge is a Winter Olympics sport. It is similar to the bobsleigh, but faster and more dangerous. At the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, a Georgian athlete was killed in practice after several complaints that the track was too fast.

Winter Olympic sports
Winter sports

Luge


A papal judge delegate was a type of judicial appointment created during the 12th century by the medieval papacy where the pope would designate a local judge, often an ecclesiastic, to decide a case that had been appealed to the papal court.

History
The system began during the pontificate of Pope Pascal II (1099–1118), when the first records appear of the papacy delegating some of its judicial authority to others for the resolution of cases. At first, it was used in order to expedite the discovery of local knowledge of cases, rather than to reduce the papal court's workload. Examples of this early stage include a case from Wales, during the pontificate of Pope Innocent II. This was a dispute between Bernard, the Bishop of St Davids, and Urban, the Bishop of Llandaff, and was apparently delegated to acquire local knowledge of the dispute. It is only later, during the pontificate of Pope Alexander III that the papal courts appears to have recognized that the delegation system could also reduce the volume of cases that had to be decided at Rome.

An important factor in the growth of the papal judges-delegate system was the corresponding growth of the papal judicial system during the 12th century. Often, cases referred to a judge-delegate were those that were particularly complex, and where the local knowledge of the appointee would be helpful. The appointment ended with the resolution of the case he had been appointed to decide.

The numbers of judges-delegate increased greatly during the 1160s and 1170s. English records for this time are particularly abundant, with a number of English bishops – including Gilbert Foliot, Bartholomew Iscanus, Roger of Worcester – serving over 60 times as judge-delegate for the papacy. Conflicts often arose between papal legates and judges-delegate, and Pope Celestine III ruled that a papal legate could not change the decision of a judge-delegate but was allowed to confirm or implement the decision. Celestine did indicate that the legate was higher in rank than the judge, although he was sovereign in matters relating to his appointed case. Alexander III's decrees on the judicial delegation system form the basis for the description of the system in Pope Gregory IX's Decretales which were published in 1234. Of the 43 items dealing with papal judges-delegate in the Decretales, 18 are Alexander's and a further 15 are from Pope Innocent III.

Papal documents referred to the delegates as iudices delegati. A further development was the grant of exemptions from appointment as judge-delegate, with such exemptions first appearing around 1140. By the end of the 12th century, such exemptions were sought after by local ecclesiastics.

Citations

References

Ecclesiastical courts
Tribunals of the Catholic Church
Canon law history

Papal judge-delegate


Lefkada is a Greek island. It is in the west of Greece in the Ionian Sea. It is the fourth largest island of the Ionian Sea after Kefalonia, Corfu and Zakynthos. Its total area is 303 square kilometers. Its population is 23,845 residents according to 2001 Greek census. The largest town of Lefkada is Lefkada (city). Its population is 10,875 people.

Sights - Tourism

Lefkada is famous for its beautiful beaches. The island is surrounded by many beautiful beaches with azure-green color. The most impressive beaches are Porto Katsiki, Kathisma and Egremni. All of these beaches are in the west of the island. According to Guardian newspaper the Porto Katsiki beach is one of the most beautiful beaches in Europe.

Every year many tourists visit Lefkada. Tourists come from western European countries, most from Italy. The most touristic village on the island is Nidri which is in the east of the island. Opposite Nidri there are many small green islets. Among them is the islet Scorpios which belonged to millionaire Aristotle Onassis.

History
The German archaeologist Wilhelm Dörpfeld, believed that Lefkada was the real country of Odysseus. In Classic period, Lefkada was a colony of Corinth. Later it passed under the Roman rule and Byzantine rule. In medieval era many conquerors passed from the island. In the thirteenth century Venice took the island from Byzantium. The Venetians remained in island for many years. The Turks conquered the island for a brief period but the Venetians took the island back and held it until 1797. Then the Napoleon's France took the island and after the island passed in England. In 1864, the English gave Lefkada to Greece, along with the other Ionian islands.

References

Islands of Greece

Lefkada


Dead Prez (stylized in lowercase) is an American hip hop duo composed of stic.man and M-1, formed in 1996 in New York City. They are known for their confrontational style, combined with lyrics focused on both militant social justice, self-determination, and Pan-Africanism. The duo maintains an ethical stance against corporate control over the media, especially hip hop record labels.

Career

Background (1990–2000)
In 1990, M-1 headed to Tallahassee, Florida, to attend Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University where he and stic.man met and formed a relationship due to their mutual love of music and similar leftist political ideology. While there, their views solidified, M-1 becoming particularly interested in the Black Panther Party.

M-1 joined the International People's Democratic Uhuru Movement in Chicago for three years, while stic.man remained in Florida. Burned out by the arduous labor of Uhuru, M-1 and stic.man chose to focus on music. Brand Nubian's Lord Jamar discovered them in New York City and signed them a deal with Loud Records. Although dead prez was not always Loud's top priority, they built a fan base due to their over-the-top performances (they have been known to ignite dollar bills and toss apples into the audiences, declaring that they must eat healthily).

They had begun contributing songs to film soundtracks and made featurings on high-profile albums. Their first recorded song, "The Game of Life (Score)" appeared on the 1997 soundtrack to the film Soul in the Hole.  In 1998 their song "D.O.P.E. (Drugs Oppress People Everyday)" was featured in the movie Slam.  Also in 1998, they were featured on the skit "The Rain and the Sun" off Big Pun's album Capital Punishment, and in 1999 were featured on The Beatnuts' song "Look Around" off their album Musical Massacre.

Releases (2000–present)

The duo's debut album was 2000's Let's Get Free, with their most popular single to date "Hip-Hop". The album was well received by critics, and included intense political monologues featuring prominent black activist Omali Yeshitela, as well as "Animal in Man" – a retelling of George Orwell's Animal Farm. The instrumental version of their song "Hip Hop" was used as Dave Chappelle's entrance music for his show on Comedy Central, and can be heard on every episode. "Hip Hop" has also been featured on the soundtrack of the video game skate. as well as underground graffiti art documentaries of the era. The song is also used in the introduction of Hip Hop Evolution, a show which is currently on Netflix. In 2001 they collaborated with The Coup, another politically active hip hop outfit, to release Get Up.

In 2002, dead prez contributed to Red Hot + Riot, a compilation album created by the Red Hot Organization in tribute to the music and work of Nigerian musician Fela Kuti. The money raised by the CD was used for various charities devoted to raising AIDS awareness and fighting the disease. They collaborated with fellow hip-hop artists Talib Kweli and Bilal and Brazilian singer Jorge Ben to remake the famous Fela Kuti song "Shuffering and Shmiling" for the album. Also in 2002, dead prez released the independent mix tape Turn off the Radio: The Mixtape Vol. 1, followed by the release of Turn off the Radio: The Mixtape Vol. 2: Get Free or Die Tryin in 2003. Also in 2003, their song "Hell Yeah" was featured in the 2 Fast 2 Furious soundtrack. In 2004, Columbia Records finally released Revolutionary But Gangsta. They were featured in the film Dave Chappelle's Block Party, in 2006.

In 2006, they and former 2Pac collaborators, the Outlawz, jointly released two new albums: Can't Sell Dope Forever and Soldier 2 Soldier. In 2006, M1 also recorded a solo album titled Confidential. From the album, the song "'Til We Get There" was on the EA Sports video game NBA Live 07. In 2007, stic.man released his own solo record named Manhood with Boss Up Inc. / Traffic records. M-1 further appeared with ProfessorD.us, of the politically charged Hip Hop group The Dope Poet Society, on the track "Everything's Political" off the 2008 album THIRD WORLD WARriors Vol. 1. On the track, M-1 and ProfessorD.us trade verses in response to the question "why is your music always so political?". That same year, Stic.Man appeared on "Changing Weather", the first single from Marcel Cartier's album Revolutionary Minded 2.

Dead prez released a mixtape entitled Pulse of the People: Turn Off Your Radio Vol. 3 on June 23, 2009. The mixtape is hosted by DJ Green Lantern. On Mother's Day 2010, dead prez released "The Beauty Within", a remix of B.o.B and Bruno Mars' #1 single "Nothin' On You." Additionally in 2010, dead prez released a mixtape with DJ Drama entitled Turn Off the Radio Vol. 4: Revolutionary but Gangsta Grillz. The album is available for free download on their website, and they announced this release was their ten year commemoration of their most well known and commercially successful album Let's Get Free. The new album Information Age was released on October 16, 2012.

Documentary (2006)

In June 2006, the cable movie network Starz InBlack began airing an original documentary called Dead Prez: It's Bigger Than Hip Hop directed by John Threat. The hour-long documentary featured live footage and interviews with dead prez, along with interviews from Kamel Bell, owner of Ankh Marketing and son of incarcerated Black Panther member Herman Bell; Fred Hampton Jr., son of Black Panther Deputy Chairman of the Illinois Chapter Fred Hampton; Bay Area rapper and poet Ise Lyfe, and hip hop activist and radio personality Davey D. Among the topics discussed in the documentary are the inadequacies of the public education system, Black entrepreneurship and social revolution.

M1 stated:
We've never had the opportunity to express ourselves on this level of magnitude. Starz InBlack taking a chance on us lets us know that the work we are doing is not in vain. That our message is penetrating, it's getting through.

DiscographyStudio albums2000: Let's Get Free
2004: Revolutionary But Gangsta
2012: Information AgeLive albums2008: Live in San FranciscoCollaboration albums2006: Can't Sell Dope Forever (with Outlawz)Mixtapes'''
2002: Turn Off the Radio: The Mixtape Vol. 1 (as dpz)
2003: Turn Off the Radio: The Mixtape Vol. 2: Get Free or Die Tryin'2009: Pulse of the People: Turn Off the Radio Vol. 3 (hosted by DJ Green Lantern)
2010: Turn Off the Radio Vol. 4: Revolutionary but Gangsta Grillz'' (hosted by DJ Drama)

References

External links

African-American musical groups
American hip hop groups
American socialists
Musical duos from New York (state)
American Maoists
Far-left politics in the United States
Hip hop duos
Musical groups established in 1996
Musical groups from Tallahassee, Florida
Underground hip hop groups
Political music groups
Male musical duos
1996 establishments in Florida
American anti-fascists
New York (state) socialists
Florida socialists
African-American communists

Dead Prez


Theodbert (also Theodebert, Theudebert, Theotpert, and Theodo) ( 685 – c. 719) was the duke of Bavaria in some capacity or other from 702 to his death. He was the eldest son of Duke Theodo of Bavaria and Folchaid. He was first associated with his father as duke in 702, ruling from Salzburg. In 711, his younger brother Theobald was co-ruling as well and his father was making plans for a fourfold division of the duchy on his death. Sometime before 715, the division was given, but whether territorial or coregent is not known. If the former, the dioceses set up by Theodo probably corresponded to the duchies of his sons. In that scenario, Theodbert probably had his seat at Salzburg, as since 702.

His father did have him swear to always defend Rupert of Salzburg when he transferred the government to Theodbert. Theodbert also provided military help to Ansprand and Liutprand in their reconquest of Italy in 712.

After Theodo's death, the four brothers warred with each other, but all were dead by 719 save Grimoald, who thereafter ruled alone until his own death. Theodbert had married Regintrude and had a son and a daughter: Hugbert, the only grandson of Theodo II, who inherited the duchy united after Grimoald's death, and Guntrude, who married Liutprand.

680s births
710s deaths
8th-century dukes of Bavaria
Agilolfings
Baiuvarii

Theodbert of Bavaria


Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a way of writing computer programs using "objects" to stand for data and methods. Often, computer programs that are not object-oriented are a list of instructions for the computer, telling it to do certain things in a certain way. This is called procedural programming. However, in object-oriented programming, computer programs use objects that talk to one another to change the data in those objects and to work in a way that the user wants. Because of the way object-oriented programming is designed, it helps the developer by allowing for code to be easily reused by other parts of the program or even by other people.

Most programming languages are a mix of different ways of writing computer programs (called programming paradigms). For example, Python allows for computer programs to be written both in object-oriented programming and in procedural programming. There are many programming languages that allow you to write computer programs in object-oriented programming. Some of these programming languages are:  C++, Java, Ruby, Perl, Emarald, Sapphire, PHP, Python, C#, etc.

Features
The main idea of object-oriented programming is that everything is an object. However, the object can be of different types:
 Variables can hold different types of information that are supported by the programming language. Examples are the integer data type and the lists data structure. Variables also exist in procedural programming languages. In object-oriented programming, variables are mainly known as attributes, particularly when it belongs (or is contained in) an object.
 Procedures are lists of instructions telling the computer to take input, do some calculations or change data, and return the output to the user. Procedures also exist in procedural programming languages. In object-oriented programming, procedures are mainly known as methods.
 Classes are collections of different variables and procedures. Classes usually talk to one another to make changes to data in order to work in a way that the user wants.

Objects is a term used to refer to instances of classes.

Examples
In the examples below, we create a class called Human. This class contains the attributes name (for the name of the person) and friend (for the name of the friend). Each of the methods in the Human class contains a list of instructions that makes use of both the name and friend attributes.

Python
This code is in Python.

class Human(object):
    def __init__(self, name, friend=None):
        self.name = name
        self.friend = friend
    def say_name(self):
        print(f"My name is {self.name}")
    def say_goodnight(self):
        if self.friend is None:
            print("Good night nobody.")
        else:
            print(f"Good night {self.friend.name}")

# Create a new Human object named stephen with name "Stephen"
stephen = Human("Stephen")
# Create a new Human object named joe with name "Joe" and stephen as a friend
joe = Human("Joe", stephen)

stephen.say_name() # Shows 'My name is Stephen'
stephen.say_goodnight() # Shows 'Good night nobody.'
joe.say_name() # Shows 'My name is Joe'
joe.say_goodnight() # Shows 'Good night Stephen'

Java
This code is in Java.

 The Human class
public class Human {
    private String name; // the name of this Human
    private Human friend; // the Human's friend

    // This constructor creates a new Human object when given the name and friend
    public Human(String name, Human friend) {
        this.name = name;
        this.friend = friend;
    }

    // This constructor creates a new Human object when only given the name
    public Human(String name) {
        this(name, null);
    }

    public void sayName() {
        System.out.println("My name is " + this.name);
    }

    public void sayGoodnight() {
        if (friend == null) {
            System.out.println("Good night nobody.");
        } else {
            System.out.println("Good night " + friend.name);
        }
    }
}

 A method for talking to the Human class above
public class Main {
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        // Create a new Human object stephen with name "Stephen"
        Human stephen = new Human("Stephen");

        // Create a new Human object joe with name "Joe" and stephen as a friend
        Human joe = new Human("Joe", stephen);

        stephen.sayName(); // Shows 'My name is Stephen'
        stephen.sayGoodnight(); // Shows 'Good night nobody.'
        joe.sayName(); // Shows 'My name is Joe'
        joe.sayGoodnight(); // Shows 'Good night Stephen'
    }
}

Criticism
Even though object-oriented programming is popular, some people think that it is bad and criticize it.
 Luca Cardelli wrote a paper titled 'Bad Engineering Properties of Object-Oriented Languages'.
 Richard Stallman wrote in 1995, "Adding OOP to Emacs is not clearly an improvement; I used OOP when working on the Lisp Machine window systems, and I disagree with the usual view that it is a superior way to program."
 A study by Potok et al. tells us that there is very little difference in productivity between OOP and procedural approaches.
 Christopher J. Date said that comparing OOP to other things, especially how OOP and the other things are related, is difficult because people don't agree on the meaning of OOP.
 Alexander Stepanov suggested that OOP gives a point of view that is limited as far as math, and called it, "almost as much of a hoax as Artificial Intelligence"
 Paul Graham has suggested that the purpose of OOP is to act as a herding mechanism which keeps average programmers in average organizations from "doing too much damage". This also slows down faster, better programmers who know how to do things in a more powerful and more compact way.

References

Object-oriented programming


William Wright (17 January 1830 – 22 May 1889) was a famous English Orientalist, and Professor of Arabic in the University of Cambridge.  Many of his works on Syriac literature are still in print and of considerable scholarly value, especially the catalogues of the holdings of the British Library and Cambridge University Library. A Grammar of The Arabic Language, often simply known as Wright's Grammar, continues to be a popular book with students of Arabic. Wright is also remembered for the Short history of Syriac literature.

Life

Wright was born in Bengal to Alexander Wright and Johanna Leonora Christina Overbeek, daughter of the last resident of Dutch Bengal, Daniel Anthony Overbeek. He was educated at St Andrew's University, Halle and Leiden. He was Professor of Arabic at University College London from 1855 to 1856, and Professor of Arabic at Trinity College, Dublin from 1856 to 1861.

From 1861 to 1869 he was an Assistant in the Department of Manuscripts at the British Museum, and from 1869 to 1870 Assistant Keeper at the museum. In 1870 he was appointed Sir Thomas Adams's Professor of Arabic at Cambridge University, and he held the chair there until his death in 1889.

On death he was returned to St Andrews for burial. His grave lies against the eastern wall of St Andrew's Cathedral churchyard, backing onto the Eastern Cemetery.

Works

His early publications of Syriac material appeared in the Journal of Sacred Literature in the 1860s. These included the publication of the Syriac text of An ancient Syrian martyrology in the October 1865 issue.

He then went on to publish texts and translations of various works listed below.  He also translated and edited Caspari's Grammar of the Arabic Language (2 vols., London, 1859–62); collected and edited Opuscula Arabica (Leyden, 1859).

His main achievement was as a cataloguer of manuscript collections. The rich Syriac holdings of the British Museum (now in the British Library) were mainly obtained in the 1840s from the monastery of Deir al'Syriani in the Nitrian desert in Egypt and contained a large number of previously unknown texts.  Wright's catalogue included excerpts from unpublished texts, and is still a valuable reference even today. He also compiled a similarly valuable catalogue of the Cambridge University Library collection. The manuscripts in this collection came mainly from Anglican Missionaries based at Urmiah.

His Short history of Syriac literature was written originally as an encyclopedia article, and so has no proper sub-divisions. It was republished after his death in book form, and has remained a basic handbook for the student of Syriac.  The material in it comes from various sources, but much of it from the Chronicum Ecclesiasticum of Bar Hebraeus, of which no English translation exists.

A bibliography of his work can be found by R. L. Benaly, in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1889, pp. 708 and following. There is also an entry in the Dictionary of National Biography.

Publications
 The book of Jonah in four semitic versions : Chaldee, Syriac, Aethiopic and Arabic.  London, (1857).
 Contributions to the apocryphal literature of the New Testament / collected and edited from Syriac manuscripts in the British Museum, with an English translation and notes, by W. Wright. (1865).
 The departure of my Lady Mary from this world / edited from two Syriac MSS. in the British Museum, and translated by W. Wright. (1865) (Journal of sacred literature and Biblical record for January and April, 1865).

 The homilies of Aphraates, the Persian sage / [by] Aphraates, the Persian sage. (1869) Syriac text only.
 A Grammar of The Arabic Language. (London), Simon Wallenberg Press, Vol-1 & Vol-2 .
 Catalogue of Syriac Manuscripts in The British Museum acquired since the year 1838 (1870), 3 vols: vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3.
 Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles / edited from Syriac manuscripts in the British Museum and other libraries by William Wright. (1871).  In 2 vols, Syriac and English.

 Fragments of the Curetonian Gospels [in Syriac] / ed. by W. Wright. (1872).
 Fragments of the Homilies of Cyril of Alexandria on the Gospel of S. Luke (1874).
 The chronicle of Joshua the stylite : composed in Syriac A.D. 507. With a translation into English and notes by W. Wright (1882).
 S. Ignatius. Revised texts with introductions, notes, dissertations, and translations. Gr., Lat., Eng.-Syriac remains of S. Ignatius. (1885).
 Some apocryphal Psalms in Syriac. Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, June 1887.
 The book of Kalilah and Dimnah / translated from Arabic into Syriac (1884)  Syriac only.
 Lectures on the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages (Cambridge, 1890)* A short history of Syriac literature (1894).
 Epistolae Pilati et Herodis graece. (W. Wright's translation of the Syriac version.) Gr. & Eng. (1897).
 Ecclesiastical history of Eusebius in Syriac / edited from the manuscripts by William Wright and Norman McLean, with a collation of the ancient Armenian version by Adalbert Merx ; translated from the Greek by C.F.Crusé. (1898) Syriac text only.
 A Catalogue of the Syriac manuscripts preserved in the library of the University of Cambridge. By William Wright & Stanley Arthur Cook. (1901).

Literature
 Bernhard Maier: Semitic Studies in Victorian Britain. A portrait of William Wright and his world through his letters. Würzburg 2011.
 Pierre Larcher, « L'étrange destin d'un livre : la soi-disant Grammaire arabe de William Wright (1830-1889) », Historiographia Linguistica 41/1, p. 109-126, 2014.

Notes

External links

 Biography from Schaff's Encyclopedia

1830 births
1889 deaths
Syriacists
Fellows of Queens' College, Cambridge
British orientalists
Sir Thomas Adams's Professors of Arabic
Alumni of the University of St Andrews
Academics of University College London
Academics of Trinity College Dublin
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)

William Wright (orientalist)


Unsaturated fat is a kind of fat. It is different from saturated fat in that it is liquid at room temperature while saturated fat is more solid. Its molecules contains double bonds whose  carbon atoms that are not fully saturated with hydrogen. There are two types:
 Monounsaturated; or those with one double bond
 Polyunsaturated; or with more than one double bond
In cellular metabolism, an unsaturated fat molecule contains somewhat less energy (that is fewer calories) than the saturated fat molecule of the same length.

Examples of unsaturated fats are palmitoleic acid, oleic acid, myristoleic acid, linoleic acid, and arachidonic acid. Foods containing unsaturated fats include avocado, nuts, and vegetable oils such as canola and olive oils. Meat products contain both saturated and unsaturated fats.

Health
Unsaturated fat is better for people than saturated fat. Some testing has shown that it can raise a person's HDL ("good" cholesterol) levels.
Unsaturated fat is also very important for a healthy brain.

People think that unsaturated fats are 'healthier' than saturated fats. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommended that the amount of unsaturated fat consumed should not exceed 30% of one's daily caloric intake (or 67 grams given a 2000 Calorie diet). The new dietary guidelines have got rid of this recommendation at the request of the meat and dairy industries.

Most foods contain both unsaturated and saturated fats. Food packages promote only one or the other, depending on which is the largest share in the product. Various unsaturated fat vegetable oils, such as olive oils, also contain saturated fat.

References

Lipids

Unsaturated fat


Greyshirts or Gryshemde is the common short-form name given to the South African Gentile National Socialist Movement, a South African Nazi movement that existed during the 1930s and 1940s. Initially referring only to a paramilitary group, it soon became shorthand for the movement as a whole.

The NSDAP/AO arrived in South Africa in 1932 and as a result a number of groups sympathetic to Nazism emerged. The most notable of these was the South African Gentile National Socialist Movement (also known as the South African Christian National Socialist Movement), formed by Louis Weichardt the following year. A fiercely anti-Semitic group, it organised the Gryshemde as its equivalent of the Sturmabteilung, although the grey shirt became so associated with the group that it was applied to the movement as a whole. In contrast to some extremist groups the Greyshirts did not split along linguistic lines, but rather sought to work with both the Afrikaans and the English-speaking populations.

The Greyshirts struggled to maintain unity and spawned a number of minor splinter groups, such as Johannes von Moltke's South African Fascists. Most of these groups united under Daniel François Malan's aegis when he formed his 'Purified' National Party, although the Greyshirts did not take part and contested the 1938 election alone. The decision proved unwise, however, as the Greyshirts failed to make any impact. The group was roundly attacked by the National Party, with an article appearing in Die Burger in October 1934 stating that: 'We believe that this party, generally known as the Greyshirts, under the cloak of an anti-Jewish movement, strives for a dangerous form of government in South Africa. The Greyshirts have as their aim to set up a dictator in South Africa.'

Jewish immigration from Nazi Germany to South Africa grew significantly during the 1930s and the Greyshirts launched a campaign calling for an end to the practice. A ship was chartered by the Council for German Jewry, a UK-based group, to bring as many Jews as possible to Cape Town, leading to the Greyshirts organising a mass protest against the move. The scale of opposition was such that Sarah Millin appealed to Jan Smuts to deal with the Greyshirts, although her request was ignored. Indeed, relations between the National Party and the Greyshirts actually improved, initially as a result of a 1937 letter from Frans Erasmus, at the time Secretary of the National Party, praising the Greyshirts for bringing the "Jewish problem" to the fore and culminating in a number of leading Greyshirts also holding National Party membership.

Activities were monitored during the Second World War, although the Greyshirts continued to exist and renamed themselves the White Workers Party in 1949. However, by this time most of the membership had been lost to the Ossewa-Brandwag or Oswald Pirow's proto-fascist New Order, both of which were marginalised and lost their supporters to the Herenigde Nasionale Party, which went on to win the general election and rule the country for 46 years. After this point the Greyshirts/WWP became a wholly marginal phenomenon.

See also
Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging
British Union of Fascists, whose party nickname was "Blackshirts"
Conservative Workers' Party

References

Antisemitism in South Africa
Clothing in politics
Defunct political parties in South Africa
Nazi parties
Political parties established in 1933
Neo-Nazism in South Africa


Adrian Batten (c. 1591 – c. 1637) was an English organist and Anglican church composer. He was active during an important period of English church music, between the Reformation and the Civil War in the 1640s. During this period the liturgical music of the first generations of Anglicans began to diverge significantly from music on the continent.  Among the genres developed during this period by Batten and other Anglican composers was the 'verse anthem', in which sections alternate between the full choir and soloists, underlain and unified by an independent organ accompaniment.

Batten was born in Salisbury, and was a chorister and subsequently an organ scholar at Winchester Cathedral, where he studied under John Holmes. (The date of his birth is uncertain, but since Holmes, Batten's organ instructor, left that post in 1602 when his chorister pupil would have been about twelve years of age, Batten must have been born in about 1590. Most sources give the year as 1591.) Batten remained with the cathedral choir after his voice had changed, as evidenced by graffiti carved into the wall of Bishop Gardiner's chantry that reads " Adrian Battin: 1608". In 1614, Batten moved to London to become a Vicar Choral of Westminster Abbey, and was apparently still at Westminster in 1625; The Lord Chamberlain's Records for 1625 show that at the funeral of James I (at which Orlando Gibbons was organist and master of the music) Batten is described as a "singingman of Westminster". In 1626, Batten became a Vicar Choral of the cathedral choir at St. Paul's Cathedral, and also played the organ there. As far as is known, he stayed at this position until his death. Letters of administration for the disposal of his estate were granted to John Gilbert of Salisbury (with the consent of Batten's three brothers) on 22 July 1637, so it can be inferred that he died during the middle of that year at the age of approximately 46.

To augment his income while at Westminster Abbey, Batten worked as a music copyist, and the Abbey's account books record payments to Batten for copying works of Weelkes, Tallis and Tomkins. Batten is credited with the preservation of many pieces of church music of the time, compiled in the Batten Organbook (now in the Bodleian Library), a 498-page quarto in his handwriting.  Containing many popular works of that time, which Batten scored for the organ, the Batten Organbook is the only surviving source for many pieces of the time.

The Organbook has few of Batten's own works, so ironically much of Batten's own music has been lost. Accordingly, Batten is less well known than some of his contemporaries. He was, however, a prolific composer. A number of works exist only in manuscript at various British libraries and cathedrals, having never been published.

His music has been described as follows: "It is serious and somewhat sad, but not altogether devoid of more joyous touches. His artistic sense was perhaps in excess of his technical powers, and his self-restraint makes of his work something very suitable to certain occasions. His counterpoint is skilful, and the atmosphere created by his music is a pure and devotional one… There is one virtue in Batten's sacred music which was possessed by only a few composers; and that is his constant endeavour to think of music as the servant of divine worship and not as the central figure of that service."

Notes

References
Andrew Ashbee, and Peter Holman, eds., Studies in English Consort Music Studies in English Consort Music (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1996).
David Henry, "Notes on Out of the Deep by Adrian Batten," The Church of the Transfiguration, <https://web.archive.org/web/20070928120924/http://www.littlechurch.org/mn020317.html> 3/17/2002).
Jeffrey Pulver, A Biographical Dictionary of Old English Music (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1927).
S. Sadie and George Grove, eds., The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians.  (Oxford Univ. Press, 2000).

External links

Free access to high-resolution images of manuscripts containing works by this composer from Digital Image Archive of Medieval Music

1590s births
1630s deaths
English Baroque composers
English classical composers
English classical organists
British male organists
Cathedral organists
Classical composers of church music
17th-century scholars
17th-century English composers
17th-century classical composers
English dramatists and playwrights
17th-century male musicians
Male classical organists

Adrian Batten