Hotepsekhemwy is the Horus name of an early Egyptian king who was the founder of the Second Dynasty of Egypt. The exact length of his reign is not known; the Turin canon suggests an improbable 95 years while the ancient Egyptian historian Manetho reports that the reign of "Boëthôs" lasted for 38 years. Egyptologists consider both statements to be misinterpretations or exaggerations. They credit Hotepsekhemwy with either a 25- or a 29-year rule.<ref>Dietrich Wildung: Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewusstsein ihrer Nachwelt. Teil 1: Posthume Quellen über die Könige der ersten vier Dynastien; Münchener Ägyptologische Studien, Volume 17. Deutscher Kunstverlag, München/Berlin, 1969. page 31-33.</ref>

 Name sources

Hotepsekhemwy's name has been identified by archaeologists at Sakkara, Giza, Badari and Abydos from clay seal impressions, stone vessels and bone cylinders. Several stone vessel inscriptions mention Hotepsekhemwy along with the name of his successor Raneb.Guy Brunton: Qau and Badari I, with chapters by Alan Gardiner and Flinders Petrie, British School of Archaeology in Egypt 44, London 1927: Bernard Quaritch, Tafel XIX, 25Eva-Maria Engel: Die Siegelabrollungen von Hetepsechmui und Raneb aus Saqqara. In: Ernst Czerny, Irmgard Hein, Hermann Hunger, Dagmar Melman, Angela Schwab: Timelines: Studies in Honour of Manfred Bietak. Peeters, Leuven 2006, , page 28–29.

The Horus name of Hotepsekhemwy is the subject of particular interest to Egyptologists and historians, as it may hint at the turbulent politics of the time. The Egyptian word "Hotep" means "peaceful" and "to be pleased" though it can also mean "conciliation" or "to be reconciled", too. So Hotepsekhemwy's full name may be read as "the two powers are reconciled" or "pleasing in powers", which suggests a significant political meaning. In this sense, "the two powers" could be a reference to Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt as well as to the major deities Horus and Seth.

From the reign of Hotepsekhemwy onward it became a tradition to write the Horus name and the Nebty name in the same way. It is thought that some kind of philosophic background affected that choice, since the Horus name reveals a clearly defined, symbolic meaning in its translation. Horus- and nebty names being the same might also indicate, that the Horus name was adopted after ascending the throne.

 Family
The name of Hotepsekhemwy's wife is unknown. A "son of the king" and "priest of Sopdu" named Perneb might have been his son, but since the clay seals providing his name and titles were found in a gallery tomb which is attributed to two kings equally (Hotepsekhemwy and his successor, Raneb), it is uncertain whose son Perneb really was.Peter Kaplony: Inschriften der Ägyptischen Frühzeit. Band 3, (= Ägyptologische Abhandlungen Bd. 8). Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1963, , page 96 as Obj. 367.

 Identity

Hotepsekhemwy is commonly identified with the Ramesside cartouche names Bedjau from the Abydos king list, Bedjatau from Giza, Netjer-Bau from the Sakkara king list and the name Bau-hetepju from the royal canon of Turin. Egyptologist Wolfgang Helck points to the similar name Bedjatau, which appears in a short king list found on a writing board from the mastaba tomb G1001 of the high official Mesdjeru. "Bedjatau" means "the foundryman" and is thought to be a misreading of the name "Hotepsekhemwy", since the hieroglyphic signs used to write "Hotep" in its full form are very similar to the signs of a pottery kiln and a chick in hieratic writings. The signs of two Sekhem sceptres were misread as a leg and a drill. A similar phenomenon might have occurred in the case of King Khasekhemwy, where the two sceptres in the Horus name were misread as two leg-symbols or two drill-signs. The Abydos king list imitates this Old Kingdom name form of "Bedjatau". The names "Netjerbau" and "Bau-hetepju" are problematic, since Egyptologists can't find any name source from Hotepsekhemwy's time that could have been used to form them.Edward Brovarski: Two Old Kingdom writing boards from Giza. In: Annales du Service des Antiquités de l´Egypte, Vol.71, 1987, Table 1

 Reign
Little is known about Hotepsekhemwy's reign. Contemporary sources show that he may have gained the throne after a period of political strife, including ephemeral rulers such as Horus Bird and Sneferka (the latter is also thought to be an alternate name used by king Qaa for a short time). As evidence of this, Egyptologists Wolfgang Helck, Dietrich Wildung and George Reisner point to the tomb of king Qaa, which was plundered at the end of 1st Dynasty and was restored during the reign of Hotepsekhemwy. The plundering of the cemetery and the unusually conciliatory meaning of the name Hotepsekhemwy may be clues of a dynastic struggle. Additionally, Helck assumes that the kings Sneferka and Horus Bird were omitted from later king lists because their struggles for the Egyptian throne were factors in the collapse of the first dynasty.Peter Kaplony: "Er ist ein Liebling der Frauen" – Ein "neuer" König und eine neue Theorie zu den Kronprinzen sowie zu den Staatsgöttinnen (Kronengöttinnen) der 1./2. Dynastie. In: Manfred Bietak: Ägypten und Levante. Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien 2006 ; page 126–127.

Seal impressions provide evidence of a new royal residence called "Horus the shining star" that was constructed by Hotepsekhemwy. He also built a temple near Buto for the little-known deity Netjer-Achty and founded the "Chapel of the White Crown". The white crown is a symbol of Upper Egypt. This is thought to be another clue to the origin of Hotepsekhemwy's dynasty, indicating a likely source of political power.Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London 1999, , page 285 & 286. Egyptologists such as Nabil Swelim point out that there is no inscription from Hotepsekhemwy's reign mentioning a Sed festival, indicating the ruler cannot have ruled longer than 30 years (the Sed festival was celebrated as the anniversary marking a reign of 30 years).

The ancient Egyptian historian Manetho called Hotepsekhemwy Boëthôs (apparently altered from the name Bedjau) and reported that during this ruler's reign "a chasm opened near Bubastis and many perished". Although Manetho wrote in the 3rd century BC – over two millennia after the king's actual reign – some Egyptologists think it possible that this anecdote may have been based on fact, since the region near Bubastis is known to be seismically active.

 Tomb
The location of Hotepsekhemwy's tomb is unknown. Egyptologists such as Flinders Petrie, Alessandro Barsanti and Toby Wilkinson believe it could be the giant underground Gallery Tomb A beneath the funeral passage of the Unas-necropolis at Saqqara. Many seal impressions of king Hotepsekhemwy have been found in these galleries.

Egyptologists such as Wolfgang Helck and Peter Munro are not convinced and think that Gallery Tomb B'' is instead the burial site of king Raneb, as several seal impressions of this ruler were also found there.

The more accepted theory is that Hotepsekhemwy and his son Raneb shared Tomb A.

References

External links
 Francesco Raffaele: Hotepsekhemwy - Hotep

29th-century BC Pharaohs
Pharaohs of the Second Dynasty of Egypt
3rd-millennium BC births
3rd-millennium BC deaths

Hotepsekhemwy


Kiddus I (born Frank Dowding Jr, December 1944) is a reggae singer and musician, best known for his appearance in the film Rockers.

Biography
Dowding was born in 1944 in Saint Mary Parish, Jamaica. His mother, Maria Cathcart Dowding a home maker and his father, Frank Dowding, a bookkeeper. He adopted the stage name Kiddus, which is Amharic for "blessed one", after becoming a Rastafarian. In 1971, he set up a Rastafarian commune and craft centre located between uptown and downtown Kingston, which became a unique feature of a city generally divided by social class.

Dowding was a member of Ras Michael's Sons Of Negus from 1971 to 1978, singing and playing funde drums. He recorded several self-productions in 1972 with Aston Barrett at Joe Gibbs' studio, but these were not released due to lack of funds. Rockers director Theodoros Bafaloukos had seen Kiddus recording "Graduation In Zion" in 1976, two years before the film was made, and decided to film Kiddus recording the track as part of the movie.

Kiddus had by then released a few singles on his own Shepherd label, including "Security In The Streets" which was recorded with Lee Perry at his Black Ark studio.  Dowding was a prominent member of the Peace Movement, and "Security in the Streets" was one of the first of several songs recorded in appreciation of the Peace Treaty of 1978 between rival political gang-leaders Claudie Massop and Bucky Marshall.

After releasing a handful of further singles, and recording an album that was not released due to the master tapes getting lost, little was heard of Kiddus I until French label Makasound issued Inna De Yard in 2005, one of a series of albums recorded acoustically by vintage reggae artists in Jamaica.  Japanese label Dub Store Records then reissued some of the 1970s singles, followed by the anthology Graduation In Zion: 1978-1980 in 2007. In June 2009, Kiddus I released Green Fa Life (Naya Records), remarkably his first full-length electric instrumentation album of his 30+ year career. Green Fa Life sees Kiddus I team up with roots reggae legends Earl "Chinna" Smith and Leroy 'Horsemouth' Wallace, although that is naming just a few of the very respected heavy weight artists who also play on the album. Kiddus I also appears on the first two "Grass Yard Productions" albums [Naya Records] released 2009 with the tracks "Merry Chase" and "Shine Your Light". Both Grass Yard Productions: Vol1 & Vol2 has Kiddus I sharing studio time with other stella Jamaican musicians such as Ken Bob, Johnny "Dizzy" Moore, Jamel, Don I, Ken Boothe, Israel Voice, Jahmali and Michh "Shemaiah" Abrahams.

Around 2009 he set up the Green Fa Life project, promoting planting of the Moringa tree and products derived from it.

In 2007, a copy of his album tapes from 1981 were discovered, and his debut album was finally released in 2009 as Rocking Rebel Volumes 1&2.

In 2014 he staged the first Rastaman Vibration concert in Cheapside, St. Elizabeth, with the intention of expanding it into a festival in future years.

Albums
 Inna De Yard (2005), Makasound
 Graduation In Zion: 1978-1980 (2007), Dub Store
 Green Fa Life (2009), Naya
 Rocking Rebel Volumes 1&2 (2009)
 Topsy Turvy World (2013)
 Take A Trip (2015)

References

External links
 Kiddus I at reggae-reviews.com
 Kiddus I at Roots Archives
 Review of Graduation In Zion at Roots Archives
 Interview by Peter I from reggae-vibes.com

Living people
1944 births
People from Saint Mary Parish, Jamaica
Jamaican reggae musicians
Jamaican Rastafarians
Converts to the Rastafari movement

Kiddus I


General elections were held in British India between 28 October and late November 1926 to elect members of the Imperial Legislative Council and the Provincial Legislative Councils.

The Swaraj Party were victorious in Provincial Council elections in Bengal and Madras, and also made gains in Bihar and Orissa. However, at the national level the party saw their number of seats reduced.

Results

Central Legislative Assembly

Members of Central Legislative Assembly

Officials
Government of India: Sir James Crerar (Home Member), Alexander Muddiman (Home Member), Sir George Rainy (Railways, Commerce & Ecclesiastical Member), George Ernest Schuster (Finance Member), Sir Brojendra Mitter (Law Member), Bhupendra Nath Mitra (Industries & Labour Member), Evelyn Berkeley Howell, Alfred Alen Lethbridge Parsons, Hubert Arthur Sams, Gerard Macworth Young, Kodikal Sanjiva Row, Clement Wansbrough Gwynne, John Coatman, Sir Frank Noyce, Hattiangadi Shankar Rau
Provinces: Samuel Henry Slater (Madras), A. Upendra Pai (Madras), John Monteath (Bombay), Vyvyan Macleod Ferrers (Bombay), Joseph Charles French (Bengal), Rajnarayan Banarji (Bengal), J. T. Donovan (Bengal), Nasiruddin Ahmad (Bengal), Hugh Stuart Crosthwaite (United Provinces), M. Keane (United Provinces), Khan Bahadur Mian Abdul Aziz (Punjab), Ram Prasad Narayan Sahi (Bihar & Orissa), Shyam Narayan Singh (Bihar & Orissa), Kismet Leland Brewer Hamilton (Central Provinces), H. C. Greenfield (Central Provinces), William Alexander Cosgrave (Assam), Ernest Frederick Baum (Burma), H. Tonkinson (Burma)

Nominated Non-Officials
Provinces: Rai Bahadur Satya Charan Mukherjee (Bengal), Keshab Chandra Roy (Bengal), Dr. Ratanji Dinshah Dalal (Bombay), Muhammad Yamin Khan (United Provinces), Sardar Bahadur Jawahar Singh (Punjab), Sardar Bahadur Captain Hira Singh Brar (Punjab), Hony. Captain Rao Bahadur Ch. Lal Chand (Punjab), Sir Zulfikar Ali Khan (Punjab), Madhav Shrihari Aney (Berar), Mariadas Ruthnaswamy (Madras), R. Srinivasa Sarma (Bihar & Orissa)
Special Interests: Henry Gidney (Anglo-Indian), Rev. Jotish Chandra Chatterjee (Indian Christians), Sir James Simpson (Associated Chambers of Commerce), L. V. Heathcote (Associated Chambers of Commerce), G. W. Chambers (Associated Chambers of Commerce), Narayan Malhar Joshi (Labour Interests), M. C. Rajah (Depressed Classes)

Elected Non-Officials
Ajmer-Merwara: Harbilas Sarda
Assam: Tarun Ram Phookan (Assam Valley General), Srischandra Dutta (Surma Valley cum Shillong General), Maulvi Abdul Matin Chaudhury (Muslim), T. A. Chalmers (Europeans)
Bengal: T. C. Goswami (Calcutta Suburbs General), Bhabendra Chandra Roy (Presidency General), Amar Nath Dutt (Burdwan General), K. C. Neogy (Dacca General), Satyendra Chandra Mitra (Chittagong & Rajshahi General), Mohamed Rafique (Calcutta & Suburbs Muslim), Abdullah Al-Mamun Suhrawardy (Burdwan & Presidency Muslim), Sir Abdul Halim Ghaznavi (Dacca), Haji Choudhary Mohamad Ismail Khan (Dacca Muslim), Muhammad Anwar-ul-Azim (Chittagong Muslim), Khabeeruddin Ahmed (Rajshahi), Sir Darcy Lindsay (Europeans), Arthur Moore (Europeans), Col. J. D. Crawford (Europeans), Dhirendra Kanta Lahiri Chaudhury (Landholders), Rai Bahadur Tarit Bhushan Roy (Marwari Association), J. F. Fyfe (Bengal Chamber of Commerce)
Bihar & Orissa: Nilakantha Das (Orissa General), Bhabananda Das (Orissa General), Rajivarandan P. Sinha (Patna-cum-Shahabad General), Anugrah Narayan Sinha (Patna-cum-Shahabad General), Siddheswar Prasad Singh (Gaya-cum-Monghyr General), Ganganand Sinha (Bhagalpur, Purnea & Santhal Parganas), Ramnarayan Singh (Chota Nagpur General), Khan Bahadur Sarfaraz Hussain Khan (Patna & Chota Nagpur cum Orissa Muslim), Moulvi Badl-us-zaman (Bhagalpur Muslim), Maulvi Muhammad Shafee (Tirhut Muslim), Raja Raghunandan Parshad Singh (Landholders), Gaya Prasad Singh (Muzaffarpur-cum-Champaran General), Hari Prasad Lal
Bombay: M. R. Jayakar (Bombay City General), Jamnadas Mehta (Bombay City General), Lalchand Navalrai (Sind Rural General), Seth Harchandrai Vishandas (Sindh General), Vithalbhai Patel (Bombay Northern General), N. C. Kelkar (Bombay Central General), Sarabhai Nemchand Haji (Bombay Central General), Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Bombay City Muslim), Fazal I Rahimtoola (Bombay Central Muslim), Abdullah Haroon (Sindh Muslim), Shah Nawaz Bhutto(Sindh Muslim), Wadero Mohomed Panah Ghulam Kadirkhan Dakhan (Sind Muslim), Sir Hugh Cocke (Europeans), E. F. Sykes (Europeans), Homi Mody (Bombay Millowners Association), Purushottamdas Thakurdas (Indian Merchants' Chamber and Bureau), Wahid Baksh Bhutto (Sindh Jagirdars & Zamindars), Joseph Baptista, Sir Jehangir Cowasji, Kikabhai Premchand
Burma: Jehangir K. Munshi (General), U. Tok Kyi (General), U. Hla Tun Pru (General), W. Stenhouse Lamb (European)
Central Provinces: B. S. Moonje (Nagpur General), Hari Singh Gour (Hindi Divisions General), Dwarka Prasad Misra (Hindi Divisions General), Dr. Abdul Qadir Siddiq (Muslim), Seth Jamnadass (Landholders)
Delhi: Lala Rang Behari Lal
Madras: S. Srinivasa Iyengar (Madras City General), Tanguturi Prakasam (East and West Godavari cum Krishna General), Battena Perumalla Nayudu (Guntur-cum-Nellore General), Chetluru Doraiswamy Ayyangar (Madras ceded districts & Chittoor General), R. K. Shanmukham Chetty (Salem and Coimbatore cum North Arcot General), M. K. Acharya (South Arcot General), A. Rangaswami Iyengar (Tanjore cum Trichinopoly General), M. R. Ry. Mudumbi Srinivasachariar Seshayyangar (Madura and Ramnad-cum-Tinnevelly General), M. R. Ry. G. Sarvothama Rao Avargal (West Coast & Nilgiris General), Abdul Latif Sahib Farookhi (North Madras Muslim), Maulvi Syed Murtuza Sahab Bahadur (South Madras Muslim), Khan Bahadur Haji Abdullah Haji Kassim (West Coast & Nilgiris Muslim), William Alexander (European), K. V. Rangaswami Ayyangar (Landholders), Vidya Sagar Pandya (Madras Indian Commerce), T. Rangachari, Rama Iyengar, P. S. Sivaswami Iyer, T. N. Ramakrishna Reddi, Bhupatiraju Venkatapatiraju
NWFP: Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum
Punjab: Pandit Thakur Das Bhargava (Ambala General), Lala Lajpat Rai (Jullundur General), Diwan Chaman Lall (West Punjab General), Abdul Haye (East Punjab Muslim), Sir Zulfiqar Ali Khan (East Central Punjab Muslim), Mian Sir Muhammad Shah Nawaz (West Central Punjab Muslim), Ghazanfar Ali Khan (North Punjab Muslim), Sayyed Hussain Shah (North-West Punjab Muslim), Makhdum Syed Rajan Baksh Shah (South-West Punjab Muslim), Sardar Gulab Singh (West Punjab Sikh), Sardar Kartar Singh (East Punjab Sikh)
United Provinces: Motilal Nehru (UP Cities General), Chaudhri Mukhtar Singh (Meerut General), Pandit Shamlal Nehru (Meerut General), H. N. Kunzru (Agra General), Lala Girdharilal Agarwala (Agra General), C. S. Ranga Iyer (Rohilkhand & Kumaon General), Madan Mohan Malaviya (Allahabad & Jhanshi General), Ghanshyam Das Birla (Benares and Gorakpur General), Pandit Krishna Kant Malaviya (Benares and Gorakpur General), Munshi Iswar Saran (Lucknow General), Sankata Prasad Bajpai (Lucknow General), Kuar Rananjay Singh (Fyzabad General), Tasadduq Ahmad Khan Sherwani (UP Cities General), Dr. L. K. Hyder (Agra Rural Muslim), Sir Muhammad Yakub (Rohilkhand & Kumaon Muslim), Lala Tirloki Nath (Landholders), Tracey Gavin Jones (European), J. Ramsay Scott (European), Rafi Ahmed Kidwai

Elected Members of Council of State

 John William Anderson Bell (Bengal Chamber of Commerce)
 Mahmood Suhrawardy (West Bengal : Muhammadan)
 Maulvi Abdul Karim (East Bengal: Muhammadan)
 Lokenath Mukherjee (West Bengal: Non-Muhammadan), Swaraj
 Rai Bahadur Nalini Nath Sett (West Bengal  : Non-Muhammadan)
 Sir Arthur Froom (Bombay Chamber of Commerce)
 Mian Ali Baksh Muhammad Hussain (Sind : Muhammadan)
 Ebrahim Haroon Jaffer (Bombay Presidency : Muhammadan)
 Manmohandas Ramji Vora (Bombay : Non-Muhammadan)
 Pheroze Sethna (Bombay: Non-Muhammadan)
 Ratansi D. Morarji (Bombay: Non-Muhamaddan)
 Maneckji Dadabhoy (Bombay: Non-Muhamaddan)
 Nawab Sahibzada Sayad Mohammad Mehr Shah (East and West Punjab: Muhammadan)
 Lala Ram Saran Das (Punjab: Non-Muhammadan)
 Saiyed Mohamad Padshah Sahib Bahadur (Madras : Muhammadan)
 Dr. U. Rama Rao (Madras: Non-Muhammadan), Swaraj
 V. Ramadas Pantulu (Madras: Non-Muhammadan)
 Sir C. Sankaran Nair (Madras: Non-Muhammadan)
 Pundi Chetlur Desika Chari (Burma: General)
 Sir Edgar Holberton (Burma Chamber of Commerce)
 Maulvi Golam Mostafa Chaudhury (Assam : Muhammadan)
 Seth Govind Das (Central Provinces: General)
 Shah Muhammad Zubair (Bihar and Orissa: Muhammadan)
 Anugrah Narayan Sinha (Bihar and Orissa: Non-Muhammadan)
 Mahendra Prasad (Bihar and Orissa: Non-Muhammadan)
 Saiyid Alay Nabi (United Provinces West: Muhammadan)
 Raja Moti Chand (United Provinces Southern: Non-Muhammadan)
 Raja Sir Rampal Singh (United Provinces Central : Non-Muhamrnudan)

References

1926 elections in India
General elections in Bangladesh
General elections in India
General elections in Pakistan
Central Legislative Assembly of India
October 1926 events
November 1926 events
Elections in Myanmar
Provincial Assembly elections in British India
India

1926 Indian general election


Pamela Zoline (or Pamela Lifton-Zoline; born 1941) is an American writer and painter, born in Chicago, living in the United States in Telluride, Colorado.

Background
Among science fiction fans, she is known for her controversial short story "The Heat Death of the Universe", published in 1967 in New Worlds. Although she went on to publish further stories in magazines including The New SF, Likely Stories, and Interzone, Zoline remains best known for "Heat Death", which has been frequently reprinted since its original publication. Zoline is admired for her experimental approach to both the form of the short story and the genre of science fiction, especially for using the language of science to interrogate the scientific world view. "Heat Death" is structured in a loosely encyclopedic style, with 54 numbered paragraphs narrated in a deliberately matter-of-fact third-person voice. It centers on a day in the life of middle-class housewife Sarah Boyle as she goes about preparing her children's breakfast and organizing a birthday party. Boyle's domestic sphere is presented as a possibly closed system analogous to the universe itself, and Boyle as subject to the ravages of literal and metaphorical entropy. As the narrative veers back and forth among scientific explanations, descriptions of household events, and philosophical speculation, the cumulative effect is of a mind and a culture on the verge of collapse.

Zoline has also written a children's book (Annika and the Wolves), libretti for two operas (Harry Houdini and the False and True Occult, The Forbidden Experiment), and original science fiction radio plays for the Telluride Science Fiction Project.

Zoline lived in the United Kingdom, especially London, for the first two decades of her life. She later moved to the United States, where in 1984 she co-founded the Telluride Institute with her husband John Lifton and others.

Works
 The Heat Death of the Universe and Other Stories, 1988 (short story collection).
 Annika and the Wolves. Coffee House Press, 1985.

Notes

Further reading
 Aldiss, Brian W. "Foreword" to "The Heat Death of the Universe". In Robert Silverberg (ed.), The Mirror of Infinity: A Critics' Anthology of Science Fiction. New York: Harper & Row, 1973, pp. 267–273.
 Merril, Judith (ed.), "P. A. Zoline . . ." In England Swings SF. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1968, pp. 329–330.
 Page, Alison. "'The Heat Death of the Universe' by Pamela Zoline: An Appreciation by Alison Page". On the Ellen Datlow/SCI FICTION Project blog.
  Hewitt, Elizabeth: "Generic Exhaustion and the 'Heat Death' of Science Fiction". SFS 64:3, 1994.
 "Zoline, Pamela A." In Curtis C. Smith (ed.), Twentieth-Century Science-Fiction Writers, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981.

External links
  (short story)
 Telluride Institute
  Photo of Pamela Zoline

1941 births
Living people
American expatriates in England
20th-century American painters
21st-century American painters
Writers from Chicago
21st-century American writers
21st-century American women writers
20th-century American women writers
American women painters
20th-century American women artists
21st-century American women artists

Pamela Zoline


Simon Dark is a fictional comic book character in the DC Comics universe, with an ongoing eponymous series beginning in October 2007 and ending in 2009.

While ostensibly set in Gotham City, the comic focused exclusively on Simon Dark and his narrative, with no cross-overs and only a few casual comments to indicate he and Batman were active in the same city.

His name is also the name of a nursery rhyme in the city which he lives:
"Lurks in shadows, hides in the park.
Simon. Simon.
Simon Dark.
If you're good, he'll stay away
If you're bad, he'll make you pay
Lurks in shadows. Hides in the park.
Simon. Simon.
Simon Dark".
- The nursery rhyme of "What Simon (Dark) Does".

Fictional character biography
When he initially appears, Simon Dark has amnesia. He exhibits some super-human abilities such as enhanced speed and agility, as well as extraordinary strength. He acts as a protector of a neighborhood called "the Village" in Gotham City; for its part the neighborhood is happy for their odd protector's presence.

As the comic progresses it is revealed that Simon Dark was created from the bodies of 20 boys by a desperate medical genius who turned to a dark cult for assistance. Simon, and several other characters in the comic, were created using science and magic but only Simon was created with a purpose; to stop the dark cult that created him.

Eventually Simon transforms from a scared and confused creature with a childlike mentality into a powerful and confident supernatural being with a laundry list of vaguely defined occult superpowers, many of which are only used once. He is resistant to damage (bullets hurt but don't seem to seriously impair him), extremely strong, can read minds, pasts and futures by touching people and can change his appearance (or at least his face) to hide his scarred face. He can cast magical rituals that allow him to see far away places and the future, and transport himself and other people to other dimensions. Once, he uses a magical rock like a floating high speed weapon, slamming through enemies like a bullet under his mental direction. He also has three shapechanging servants he calls his 'familiars', who he liberates from the evil cult; they are physically very powerful.

Apparently, he can also bring dead people back to life by sacrificing some of the 20 souls that constitute him.

He also becomes the magical overseer of Gotham (confusingly called The Mayor), who controls the flow of supernatural creatures into the city.

Collected editions
The series was collected into trade paperbacks:
 What Simon Does (collects Simon Dark #1-6, 144 pages, August 2008, )
 Ashes (collects Simon Dark #7-12, 144 pages, February 2009, )
 The Game of Life (collects Simon Dark #13-18, 144 pages, December 2009, )

References

External links

Presenting Simon Dark, excerpt from a Comic Book Resources article.
 Review of issue #1 and #2, Comics Bulletin

2007 comics debuts
Comics characters introduced in 2007
DC Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
DC Comics characters with accelerated healing
DC Comics characters with superhuman strength
DC Comics titles
DC Comics undead characters
Horror comics
Undead superheroes
Comics by Steve Niles
Vigilante characters in comics

Simon Dark


Antonio Vivaldi (born Venice, 4 March 1678; died Vienna, 28 July 1741) was an Italian composer. He was the most important composer in Italy at the end of the Baroque period.

Vivaldi wrote more than 400 concertos for various instruments, especially for the violin. The scores of 21 of his operas, including his first and last, are still intact. His most popular work is the group of four violin concertos called "The Four Seasons".  Each concerto describes a season: Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter. He is believed to be the inventor of the ritornello form.

Early life

Vivaldi probably was taught to play the violin by his father, who was professional musician. He trained to be a priest, and because of his red hair, he became known as il Prete Rosso, which means "the red priest". He did not work as a priest for very long, and in 1703, he began teaching violin to girls at an orphanage in Venice, the Pio Ospedale della Pietà. The name means "Devout Hospital of Mercy". The girls were chosen because they showed exceptional musical abilities. They gave regular concerts, so as part of his duties Vivaldi wrote music for them to play. He lost the job between 1709 and 1711, when he was reappointed. He also took on the extra job of writing sacred music for the girls' choir. He continued teaching until 1716 when he was put in charge of all the music events.

Composing

Vivaldi's music was becoming well known. During his break from teaching between 1709 and 1711 he wrote a large number of works including violin sonatas and concertos. In 1711 he wrote a collection of 12 concertos, L'estro armonico op.3, for one, two and four solo violins was published by Etienne Roger in Amsterdam. This made him famous throughout Europe, and musicians coming to Venice would visit Vivaldi for lessons. Further new publications of his music made him even more famous. The first of his many operas, Ottone in villa, was performed in 1713. His first oratorio, Juditha Triumphans devicta Holofernis barbaric, was performed by the girls from the Pietà in 1716.

Travels
In 1718 Vivaldi left Venice and moved to Mantua, where he became the director of music for the governor, Prince Philip of Hesse-Darmstadt. He composed his famous "Four Seasons" as well as several operas during this time. He went to Rome in about 1721, where he performed on several occasions for the Pope. While he was travelling, he continued to write music for the girls at the Pietà, over the years he sent them about 140 concertos. He went to a number of cities in Europe to have his operas performed including Vienna, Verona, and Prague. He often went back to Venice to rehearse his music with the girls.

Even though his music was popular, Vivaldi did not make a lot of money from his music. As newer musicians, and more modern styles became popular, he found it more difficult to earn a living. He moved to Austria to play for royalty but when the king died, he became poor and had no way to return home. He died, a poor man, in Vienna, on 28 July 1741.

References

1678 births
1741 deaths
18th-century Italian composers
Baroque composers
People from Venice
Italian violinists

Antonio Vivaldi


École normale supérieure is the name for a number of French higher education bodies grand écoles, comparable to universities. In France, universities have to accept all students with a baccalaureat. This is different for the so-called Grandes Ecoles, which includes the Ecoles normales supérieures. These schools do not have the obligation to accept anyone, and only a select few can attend studies at these institutions, most of whom will become part of the elite in various areas. Universities have faculties, and each faculty is responsible for one branch of studies. the ENS usually group similar subjects at one school, and do not have faculties.

Notable Alumni
 Louis Althusser
 Michel Foucault
 Jean-Charles Darmon (1982), French literary critic.
 Jacques Derrida
 Jean-Paul Sartre

Colleges and universities in France
Grandes Ecoles

École normale supérieure


Nagykálló () is a small town in Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg county, in the Northern Great Plain region of eastern Hungary. Before World War II it belonged to Szabolcs county.

Location
 from county seat Nyíregyháza.

History
Nagykálló was already an oppidum (market town) in the 14th century. Its name probably comes from the old word kálló meaning "gathering place". Nagy means "large"; this prefix was used to differentiate between Nagykálló and the nearby Kiskálló ("small Kálló"), which later became a part of Nagykálló.

In 1315 King Charles Robert granted the town rights to hold a market, later the county councils were held here, thus the town became the centre of the region. After the Ottomans burnt the town in 1556, the citizens built a stone castle for defence. In 1603 István Bocskai settled Hajdúk in the town. After his death they moved to Hajdúböszörmény, but Nagykálló remained an important industrial centre. It was the property of the Kállay de Nagy-Kálló family.

In 1630 George II Rákóczi occupied the town and issued the Proclamation of Independence here. Francis II Rákóczi attacked the castle on July 29, 1703 (first battle of the war for freedom) and occupied it the following day. In 1704 he ordered the castle to be destroyed (it was destroyed only later, in 1709). In 1747 the town became the county seat of Szabolcs county, but this role was taken over by Nyíregyháza in 1867. Nagykálló was granted town status again in 1989.

Tourist sights
 Main square with Protestant church, old county hall and Freedom
 Millennium Memorial (1896)
 Protestant church, built around 1710: its belfry, The Rákóczi Tower (60 m, one of the tallest buildings on the Great Hungarian Plain) was built of the stones from the destroyed castle
 Roman Catholic church (18th century, late Baroque)
 Greek Catholic church (18th century, oldest building of the town)
 Jewish cemeteries
 Tomb of Grand Rebbe Itzhak Isaac of Kaliv, a shrine visited by Orthodox Jews
 Town Museum
 Frigyes Korányi Memorial House
 Harangod: a farmstead near Nagykálló. According to a local legend during the Mongol invasion of Hungary (mid-13th century) the villagers fled Nagykálló to escape the Mongol hordes, and at the urging of their priest they took the church bell with them, so that it won't b destroyed when the Mongols burn the village, but accidentally dropped it into the swamps outside the town. They couldn't save it, but later, when they went back to the town, it is said that sometimes they heard the sound of the bell coming from afar. (The name Harangod means "your bell" in Hungarian; in the legend the people told the priest when they heard the sound of the bell from the swamps: "listen, Father, there's your bell".)
 Hunger Hill: a 12 m high hill with a lookout tower on its top. According to a local legend it was built in 1780, when the people, suffering from a famine, asked their landlord Ferenc Kállay to give them food, and he said he will if they build this hill for him as an interest.
 Spa of Nagykálló

People
 Benjamin von Kallay
 Miklós Kállay
 Imre Ámos, twentieth century Hungarian Jewish painter.
 Frigyes Korányi, physician
 Yitzchak Isaac Taub, famous Hassidic Rebbe

Twin towns – sister cities

Nagykálló is twinned with:
 Borša, Slovakia
 Limanowa, Poland
 Metzingen, Germany
 Miguelturra, Spain
 Tășnad, Romania
 Tiachiv, Ukraine

References

External links

 in Hungarian

Populated places in Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg County
Jewish communities in Hungary

Jewish communities destroyed in the Holocaust

Nagykálló


The Juno Awards of 1996, representing Canadian music industry achievements of the previous year, were awarded on 10 March 1996 in Hamilton, Ontario at a ceremony in the Copps Coliseum. Anne Murray was the host for the ceremonies, which were broadcast on CBC Television.

Quebec-based independent classical label Analekta Records boycotted the Junos after failing to receive a Juno nomination after attempts for five years. Analekta claimed its sales were twice that of CBC Records.

Several record stores such as CD Plus, HMV, Sunrise and Music World also intended to boycott the Junos because competing music retailer Columbia House had signed on as a Juno advertiser.

Nominations were announced 31 January 1996. Prominent nominees were Alanis Morissette and Shania Twain who had recent internationally successful albums who both won Grammy Awards on 28 February 1996. Alanis Morissette won in five Juno categories, becoming this year's major winner.

Nominees and winners

Levi's Entertainer of the Year
Presented by David Clayton-Thomas, Denny Doherty, John Kay, Domenic Troiano and Zal Yanovsky, this award was chosen by a national poll rather than by Juno organisers CARAS.

Winner: Shania Twain

Other Nominees:
 Bryan Adams
 Jann Arden
 Alanis Morissette
 The Tragically Hip

Best Female Vocalist
Presented by Russell DeCarle and Buffy Sainte-Marie.

Winner: Alanis Morissette

Other Nominees:
 Susan Aglukark
 Celine Dion
 Rita MacNeil
 Shania Twain

Best Male Vocalist
Presented by Susan Aglukark and Kim Mitchell.

Winner: Colin James

Other Nominees:
 Tom Cochrane
 Charlie Major
 Mario Pelchat
 Neil Young

Best New Solo Artist
Winner: Ashley MacIsaac

Other Nominees:
 Lara Fabian
 Amanda Marshall
 Laura Smith
 Kim Stockwood

Group of the Year
This award was presented by Canadian Music Hall of Fame inductees The Diamonds and The Crew Cuts

Winner: Blue Rodeo

Other Nominees:
 The Headstones
 Odds
 The Rankin Family
 The Tea Party

Best New Group
Winner: Philosopher Kings

Other Nominees:
 Hemingway Corner
 Rainbow Butt Monkeys
 Rymes with Orange
 Sandbox

Songwriter of the Year
Winner: Alanis Morissette

Other Nominees:
 Bryan Adams
 Anne Loree
 Odds
 Shania Twain

Best Country Female Vocalist
Presented by George Fox and Charlie Major, this award was accepted on Twain's behalf by her sister Carrie-Anne because she was too sick to attend.

Winner: Shania Twain

Other Nominees:
 Lisa Brokop
 Cindy Church
 Patricia Conroy
 Michelle Wright

Best Country Male Vocalist
Winner: Charlie Major

Other Nominees:
 George Fox
 Jason McCoy
 Don Neilson
 Calvin Wiggett

Best Country Group or Duo
Winner: Prairie Oyster

Other Nominees:
 Farmer's Daughter
 Quartette
 The Johner Brothers
 The Rankin Family

Best Instrumental Artist
Winner: Liona Boyd

Other Nominees:
 Richard Abel
 George Amatino
 Hennie Bekker
 André Gagnon

Best Producer
Winner: Michael Phillip Wojewoda, "End of the World" by The Waltons; "Beaton's Delight" by Ashley MacIsaac

Other Nominees:
 Bryan Adams with co-producer Robert John "Mutt" Lange, "Have You Ever Really Loved a Woman" by Bryan Adams
 David Foster (with co-producer Madonna), "You'll See (Something to Remember)" by Madonna; "I Can Love You Like That (And the Music Speaks)" by All-4-One
 Chad Irschick, "O Siem" by Susan Aglukark
 David Tyson, "Beautiful Goodbye" and "Birmingham" by Amanda Marshall

Best Recording Engineer
Winner: Chad Irschick, "O Siem" by Susan Aglukark

Other Nominees:
 Lenny DeRose, "Faith" and "Their Lights" by Crash Vegas
 Kevin Doyle, "Here, There and Everywhere" by John McDermott
 Rob Heany, "Alegria" by Cirque du Soleil
 Ian Terry, "The Way You Look Tonight" by Oliver Jones and "Canon" by D.D. Jackson

Canadian Music Hall of Fame
Winners: David Clayton-Thomas, Denny Doherty, John Kay, Domenic Troiano, Zal Yanovsky

Walt Grealis Special Achievement Award
Winner: Ronnie Hawkins

Nominated and winning albums

Best Album
Presented by Deborah Cox and Robbie Robertson.

Winner: Jagged Little Pill, Alanis Morissette

Other Nominees:
 D'eux, Celine Dion
 Ragged Ass Road, Tom Cochrane
 The Woman in Me, Shania Twain
 This Child, Susan Aglukark

Best Children's Album
Winner: Celery Stalks At Midnight, Al Simmons

Other Nominees:
 Hallelujah Handel!, Susan Hammond, Classical Kids
 The Keeper, Will Millar
 Philharmonic Fool, Rick Scott
 Raffi Radio, Raffi

Best Classical Album (Solo or Chamber Ensemble)
Winner: Alkan: Grande Sonate/Sonatine/ Le Festin d'Esope, piano Marc-Andre Hamelin

Other Nominees:
 Bach: Violin Concertos, Jeanne Lamon, Tafelmusik
 Debussy: Preludes, Livres 1 and 2, piano Francine Kay
 Quartet for the End of Time, Amici Ensemble with violin Shmuel Askenasi
 Suite hébraïque, violin Jacques Israelievitch, piano John Greer

Best Classical Album (Large Ensemble)
Winner: Shostakovich: Symphonies 5 & 9, Orchestre symphonique de Montreal, conductor Charles Dutoit

Other Nominees:
 Debussy: Children's Corner, Orchestre symphonique de Montreal
 Mendelssohn: Symphonies 1 and 5, Hebrides Overture, Calgary Philharmonic Orchestra
 Purcell: Ayres for the Theatre, Tafelmusik
 Tchaikovsky and Sibelius: Violin Concertos, Leila Josefowicz, The Academy of St. Martin in the Fields

Best Classical Album (Vocal or Choral Performance)
Winner: Ben Heppner Sings Richard Strauss, tenor Ben Heppner, The Toronto Symphony Orchestra, conductor Andrew Davis

Other Nominees:
 Great Tenor Arias, Ben Heppner, Munich Radio Orchestra
 Healey Willan: An Apostrophe to the Heavenly Hosts, Vancouver Chamber Choir
 J.S. Bach: Secular Cantatas, Vol. 1, Dorothea Röschmann, Hugues Saint-Gelais, Kevin McMillan, Les Violons du Roy
 Ravel: L'enfant et les sortileges, Sheherazade, Orchestre symphonique de Montreal and Choir

Best Album Design
Winner: Tom Wilson and Alex Wittholz, Birthday Boy

Other Nominees:
 David Andoff, Derek Shapton, Hi, How Are You Today? by Ashley MacIsaac
 David Andoff, Paul van Dongen, Tara McVicar, Bootsauce by Bootsauce
 Steven R. Gilmore, Anthony Artiaga, Good Weird Feeling, Odds
 Kathi Prosser, Peter Horvath, Dragonfly by Mae Moore

Best Selling Album (Foreign or Domestic)
Winner: No Need to Argue, The Cranberries

Other Nominees:
 D'eux, Celine Dion
 Dangerous Minds
 Hell Freezes Over, Eagles
 The Woman in Me, Shania Twain

Best Blues/Gospel Album
Winner: That River, Jim Byrnes

Other Nominees:
 Big City Blues, Sue Foley
 Rites of Passage, Georgette Fry
 Urban Blues re: Newell, King Biscuit Boy
 When the Sun Goes Down, The Sidemen

Best Mainstream Jazz Album
Winner: Vernal Fields, Ingrid Jensen

Other Nominees:
 A Timeless Place, Jeri Brown
 Basso Continuo, Normand Guilbeault Ensemble
 From Lush to Lively, Oliver Jones
 Peace Song, D.D. Jackson

Best Contemporary Jazz Album
Winner: NOJO, Neufeld-Occhipinti Jazz Orchestra

Other Nominees:
 Frontier Tunes, The Merlin Factor
 Lucky to be Me, Carol Welsman
 Rendez-vous Brazil Cuba, Jane Bunnett
 Touch, Rich Shadrach Lazar and Montuno Police

Best Selling Francophone Album
Winner: D'eux, Celine Dion

Other Nominees:
 Beau dommage, Beau Dommage
 Bohemienne, Marjo
 Carpe diem, Lara Fabian
 C'est la vie, Mario Pelchat

Rock Album of the Year
Presented by Burton Cummings and Alannah Myles.

Winner: Jagged Little Pill, Alanis Morissette

Other Nominees:
 The Edges of Twilight, The Tea Party
 Good Weird Feeling, Odds
 Mirror Ball, Neil Young
 Teeth and Tissue, Headstones

Best Roots or Traditional Album - Group
Winner: Gypsies & Lovers, The Irish Descendants

Other Nominees:
 Inside the Dreaming, The Wyrd Sisters
 Late As Usual, The Paperboys
 Night Visions, Orealis
 Up, Great Big Sea

Best Roots or Traditional Album - Solo
Winner: Ashley MacIsaac, Hi™ How Are You Today?

Other Nominees:
Susan Crowe, This Far From Home
James Keelaghan, A Recent Future
Danielle Martineau, Autrement
Laura Smith, B'tween the Earth and My Soul

Best Alternative Album
Winner: What Fresh Hell is This?, Art Bergmann

Other Nominees:
 Fluke, Rusty
 Kombinator, The Inbreds
 Mock Up, Scale Down, The Super Friendz
 Somebody Spoke, Hardship Post

Nominated and winning releases

Single of the Year
Winner: "You Oughta Know", Alanis Morissette

Other Nominees:
 "Any Man of Mine", Shania Twain
 "Have You Ever Really Loved a Woman", Bryan Adams
 "Insensitive", Jann Arden
 "O Siem", Susan Aglukark

Best Classical Composition
Winner: Concerto For Violin And Orchestra, Andrew P. MacDonald, David Stewart, Manitoba Chamber Orchestra

Other Nominees:
 "I Think That I Shall Never See...", Chan Ka Nin for Amici
 "Music for Heaven and Earth", Alexina Louie for Esprit Orchestra
 "Piano Concerto", Glenn Buhr for Christina Petrowksa, Winnipeg Symphony Orchestra
 "Touchings", Harry Freedman for Nexus, The Esprit Orchestra

Best Music of Aboriginal Canada Recording
Winner: ETSI Shon "Grandfather Song", Jerry Alfred and the Medicine Beat

Other Nominees:
 Dancing Around the World, Red Bull
 Message, Wapistan
 Sacred Ground, Jess Lee
 This Child, Susan Aglukark

Best Rap Recording
Winner: "E-Z On Tha Motion", Ghetto Concept

Other Nominees:
 "Drama", Da Grassroots with Elemental
 "The Legacy", UBAD
 "Still Caught Up", Saukrates
 "360 Degrees", Cipher

Best R&B/Soul Recording
Presented by Ronnie Hawkins and Colin James.

Winner: Deborah Cox, Deborah Cox

Other Nominees:
 Absolute, jacksoul
 Feel the Good Times, Charlene Smith
 Memories of the SoulShack Survivors, Bass is Base
 Philosopher Kings, Philosopher Kings

Best Reggae Recording
Winner: "Now and Forever", Sattalites

Other Nominees:
 "Real Personal", Tanya Mullings
 "Si Wi Dem Nuh Know We", Snow
 "Something Real", Lazo
 "Waking Up the Dream", Errol Blackwood

Best Global Album
Winner: Music From Africa, Takadja

Other Nominees:
 Alegria, Cirque du Soleil
 Jmpn For Joy, Punjabi by Nature
 Vamo a Pambicha, Papo Ross and Orquesta Pambiche
 When Ahab Met Moishe, The Angstones

Best Dance Recording
Winner: "A Deeper Shade Of Love (Extended Mix)", Camille

Other Nominees:
 "Come Into My Life (Extended Mix)", JLM
 "Get Away (Stonebridge and Nick Nice Club Mix)", Shauna Davis
 "Never Let You Go (Tempered Club Mix)", Temperance
 "Take Control (Matrix Airplay Edit)", BKS

Best Video
Presented by Amanda Marshall and The Odds.

Winner: Jeth Weinrich, "Good Mother" by Jann Arden

Other Nominees:
 Alain DesRochers, "O Siem" by Susan Aglukark
 Tim Hamilton, "The Ballad of Peter Pumpkinhead" by Crash Test Dummies
 Stephen Scott, "Freedom" by Colin James
 Curtis Wehrfritz, "Sister Awake" by The Tea Party

References

External links
Juno Awards site

1996
1996 music awards
1996 in Canadian music
Culture of Hamilton, Ontario

Juno Awards of 1996


was a province of Japan in the area of Japan that is today Gunma Prefecture. Kōzuke bordered by Echigo, Shinano, Musashi and Shimotsuke Provinces. Its abbreviated form name was . Under the Engishiki classification system, Kōzuke was ranked as one of the 13 "great countries" (大国) in terms of importance, and one of the 30 "far countries" (遠国) in terms of distance from the capital.  The provincial capital is located in what is now the city of Maebashi; however, its exact location remains uncertain. The ichinomiya of the province is located in what is now the city of Tomioka.

History
During the 4th century AD, (Kofun period) the area of modern Gunma and Tochigi prefectures were known as , literally "hairy field", but used as ateji for  or "food field" in reference to an imperial agricultural area. At some unknown point in the 5th century, the area was divided at the Kinugawa River into  ("Upper Keno") and  ("Lower Keno"). Per the Nara period Taihō Code, these provinces became  and . At some point, the no meaning "field" was reanalyzed as the possessive particle no, resulting in shortened names (without the  or "province" portion) of Kamitsuke and Shimotsuke. In 713, with the standardization of province names into two kanji, these names became  and . Later regular sound changes caused Kamitsuke to shift to Kaudzuke, and then to modern Kōzuke.

During the Heian period, from the year 811, Kōzuke (along with Hitachi and Kazusa) was one of the three provinces where an Imperial Prince was designated as nominal ruler. The area was noted for its production of horses. The original capital of the province was located in what is now Maebashi, along with the kokubun-ji and the sōja of the province. The ichinomiya was located in what is now the city of Tomioka.

During the Sengoku period, Kōzuke was contested between the later Hōjō clan, the Takeda and the Uesugi clans. After the establishment of the Tokugawa Shogunate, much of the province was assigned to several feudal domains. The Nakasendō and the Mikuni Kaidō highways passed through the province, and numerous post stations were established.

Following the Meiji restoration, the various domains became prefectures with the abolition of the han system in 1871. These various prefectures merged to form Gunma Prefecture in 1876. The area subsequently prospered with the development of sericulture and silk spinning industries.

Historical districts
 Gunma Prefecture
 Agatsuma District (吾妻郡)
 Gunma District (群馬郡)
 Higashigunma District (東群馬郡) - merged with Minamiseta District to become the 2nd incarnation of Seta District (勢多郡) on April 1, 1896
 Nishigunma District (西群馬郡) - merged with Kataoka District to become the 2nd incarnation of Gunma District (群馬郡) on April 1, 1896
 Kanra District (甘楽郡)
 Kitakanra District (北甘楽郡) - renamed as Kanra District (甘楽郡) on April 1, 1950
 Minamikanra District (南甘楽郡) - merged with Midono and Tago Districts to become Tano District (多野郡) on April 1, 1896
 Kataoka District (片岡郡) - merged with Nishigunma District to become the 2nd incarnation of Gunma District on April 1, 1896
 Kitagunma District (北群馬郡) - split off from Gunma District on October 1, 1949
 Midono District (緑野郡) - merged with Minamikanra and Tago Districts to become Tano District on April 1, 1896
 Nawa District (佐波郡) - merged with Sai District to become Sawa District (佐波郡) on April 1, 1896
 Nitta District (新田郡) - dissolved
 Ōra District (邑楽郡)
 Sai District (佐波郡) - merged with Nawa District to become Sawa District on April 1, 1896
 Seta District (勢多郡)
 Kitaseta District (北勢多郡) - merged into Tone District on April 1, 1896
 Minamiseta District (南勢多郡) - merged with Higashigunma District to become the 2nd incarnation of Seta District on April 1, 1896
 Tago District (多胡郡) - merged with Minamikanra and Midono Districts to become Tano District on April 1, 1896
 Tone District (利根郡) - absorbed Kitaseta District on April 1, 1896
 Usui District (碓氷郡) - dissolved
 Yamada District (山田郡) – dissolved

Bakumatsu period domains

Notes

References
 Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005).  Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ;
 Papinot, Edmond. (1910). Historical and Geographic Dictionary of Japan. Tokyo: Librarie Sansaisha. OCLC 77691250
 Kōzuke on "Edo 300 HTML"

External links

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

Former provinces of Japan
History of Gunma Prefecture
1871 disestablishments in Japan
States and territories disestablished in 1871

Kōzuke Province


Birger Brosa  Old Norse: Birgir Brósa  (died 9 January 1202) was jarl of Sweden from 1174 to 1202.

Biography
He was a son of Bengt Snivil and a member of the powerful House of Bjälbo. In the medieval texts he is either called the jarl of the Swedes or the jarl of the Swedes and the Geats. Birger was appointed to the position of jarl during the reign of Knut Eriksson. He maintained the position during Knut's successor Sverker II until his death in 1202.

Before 1170, Birger was married to Brigida Haraldsdotter, the daughter of Norwegian King Harald Gille. She had formerly been married to the Danish pretender Magnus Henriksson, who had briefly ruled in Uppsala 1160–1161.

Birger appears to have maintained peace in Sweden during the civil wars that ravaged Denmark and Norway. Many of the pretenders in these kingdoms sought refuge with Birger. Among them were the Birkebeiner chieftains Eystein Meyla and Sverre Sigurdsson who were kinsmen of Brigida Haraldsdotter. Birger's son Philippus was in the service of King Sverre and died as his jarl in 1200. Birger owned estates in Östergötland, Närke, Värmland and Södermanland. He was a great donor to Riseberga Abbey in Närke, where his widow Brigida  spent her last years after Birger's death.  As soon as he was dead, a civil war broke out.

Children
 Philippus Birgersson (d. 1200), Jarl of Norway in the service of King Sverre of Norway and one of his most staunch supporters.
 Knut Birgersson, Riksjarl of Sweden, jarl of Sweden. According to one source, Knut was married to king Knut Eriksson's daughter, named Sigrid in that source. He was killed in 1208 at the Battle of Lena (1208) or the Battle of Gestilren (1210).
 Folke Birgersson, jarl of Sweden, killed 1210 at the Battle of Gestilren
Magnus Birgersson, Snorre names (in order) "Earl Philip, Earl Knut, Folke and Magnus" as the four sons of "Earl Birger Brose" & his wife.
Ingegerd Birgersdotter, married to King Sverker II and became the mother of King John I of Sweden.
Kristina Birgersdotter
Margareta Birgersdotter

Portrayal in popular culture
Birger Brosa was portrayed by Stellan Skarsgård in the Swedish 2007 film Arn – The Knight Templar and 2008 sequel Arn – The Kingdom at Road's End.

References

12th-century births
1202 deaths
Year of birth unknown

Swedish politicians
13th-century Swedish people
House of Bjelbo
Swedish jarls

Birger Brosa


The Taung Child is a fossil of a skull. The skull also has an imprint of the brain. It belongs to an Australopithecus africanus. It was discovered in 1924 by a quarryman working for the Northern Lime Company in Taung, South Africa. Raymond Dart, an anatomist at the University of Witwatersrand, looked at the fossil, and saw its importance. Dart published his account in the journal Nature in 1925, describing it as a new species.

British anthropologists at the time believed in the Piltdown Man. This hoax had a large brain and ape-like teeth – the exact opposite of the Taung Child – so Dart's finding was not appreciated for decades.

Description
The fossil consists of most of the skull, face and mandible with teeth. It also has a natural endocast (imprint) of the braincase. It is about 2.5 million years old.

Taung Child is believed to have been about three years old at the time of its death. It was a creature standing 3' 6" (105 cm) at approximately 20-24 pounds. Taung Child had a cranial capacity of 340 cc, living mainly in a savanna habitat. Examinations of Taung Child compared to that of an equivalent 9-year-old child suggest that A. africanus had a growth rate to adolescence which is about the same as that found in modern apes like chimpanzees rather than that of modern Homo sapiens. However, later species such as Homo ergaster/Homo erectus went through growth at rates between modern humans and apes. The evidence has mostly been based on that of Turkana boy discovered in 1984.

In early 2006 it was announced  that the Taung Child was likely killed by an eagle (or similar large predatory bird). This conclusion was reached by noting similarities in the damage to the skull and eye sockets of the Taung Child to the skulls of primates known to have been killed by modern eagles.

The left hand side of the endocast of the Taung child is covered in beautiful calcium carbonate crystals.

History
Its significance lies in the fact that this was the first of the fossils which had been found in the twenties and thirties to provide evidence that humans indeed have a 'natural history' all of their own – just as Darwin had predicted.

The skull is now in repository at the University of Witwatersrand.

References

Other websites
 Radiolab "The Skull" podcast

Hominins
Fossils
Prehistoric Africa

Taung Child


Grid may mean:

Meaning an array of squares or rectangles:

 Grid plan, a city plan in which streets run at right angles to form a grid
 Grid reference, a standard method for the location of a point on a map.
 Grid view or datagrid, a graphical user interface element that presents a tabular view of data
 Grid graph, in graph theory
 Grid in typography and page layout: planning a page using a grid of different-sized and -shaped rectangles on computer software
 Grid (spatial index), a method for organizing information, e.g. in a database

In science, mathematics and technology:

 Electrical grid:
 Electric power transmission, a long-distance high-voltage network for power transmission
 Off-the-grid, living without public utility
 Grid computing, computing model that provides the ability to perform higher throughput computing
 Mesh (mathematics) or a regular grid or unstructured grid .

Places:

 Grid, a village in Pârâu Commune, Braşov County, Romania
 Grid, a village in the town of Călan, Hunedoara County, Romania

In popular culture:

 The Grid, a late eighties/early nineties electronic dance group
 The Grid (arcade game), an arcade game released in 2001.
 The Grid (TV series), a television series produced in 2004
 Grid (album), the eighth original album by the Japanese band M.O.V.E

Other:

 Grid (computer manufacturer), a laptop manufacturer in the 1980s
 Grid (Jotun), a giantess in Norse mythology
Grid (metaphysics) That which binds all of the metaverses and their contents together

GRID may stand for:

 BioGRID, a database of biological interactions hosted at Mount Sinai Hospital in Toronto, Canada
 Gay related immune deficiency (GRID), a name for AIDS until 1982
 Global Release Identifier (GRid)
 Group for Rural India Development (GRID)
 GRID, the short-hand name for an ESRI GRID file

Grid


Laura Ingalls Wilder (February 7, 1867 - February 10, 1957) was an American writer. She was born in Wisconsin and spent her childhood in Missouri and Kansas. She became a teacher in South Dakota at age 16.

Wilder is best known as the author of the Little House on the Prairie series of books. A TV series, Little House On the Prairie, was inspired by the story of her life as told in her books. The series starred Melissa Gilbert as Laura and Michael Landon as Charles 'Pa' Ingalls.

Other websites

Little House Wiki: Laura Ingalls Wilder

1867 births
1957 deaths
Writers from Wisconsin

Laura Ingalls Wilder


The Federal Judicial Center is the education and research agency of the United States federal courts. It was established by  in 1967, at the recommendation of the Judicial Conference of the United States.

According to , the main areas of responsibility for the Center include:
conducting and promoting "research and study of the operation of the courts of the United States," and to act to encourage and coordinate the same by others;
developing "recommendations for improvement of the administration and management of [U.S.] courts," and presenting these to the Judicial Conference of the U.S.; and
 through all means available, see to conducting programs for the "continuing education and training for personnel" of the U.S. judiciary, for all employees in the justice system, from judges through probation officers and mediators.

In addition to these major provisions, §620 (b)(4)(5)(6) sets forth the additional provisions that the FJC will (i) provide staff and assistance to the Judicial Conference and component bodies, (ii) coordinate programs and research on the administration of justice with the State Justice Institute, and (iii) cooperatively assist other government agencies in providing advice, and receiving advice, regarding judicial administration in foreign countries, in each of these cases, to the extent it is "consistent with the performance of the other functions set forth" earlier.

The Code also states (§621) that the Chief Justice of the United States is the permanent Chair of the Center's board, and that it includes the director of the Administrative Office of the United States Courts and seven federal judges elected by the Judicial Conference. The Board appoints the Center's director and deputy director; the director appoints the Center's staff. Since its founding in 1967, the Center has had eleven directors. The current director is John S. Cooke. The deputy director is Clara Altman.

History
The Federal Judicial Center was established by Congress on the recommendation of Chief Justice Earl Warren and other members of the judiciary who hoped that regular programs of research and education would improve the efficiency of the federal courts and help to relieve the backlog of cases in the lower courts. Governed by its own board, the Federal Judicial Center offered the courts the benefits of independent social science research and educational programs designed to improve judicial administration.

In the 1950s and early 1960s, the Judicial Conference and the Administrative Office increasingly commissioned research projects to examine problems of judicial administration and organized educational programs to help judges manage growing and complicated caseloads. These research and educational programs had no permanent staff or funding. Support for an institutionalized program of judicial research and education increased after the establishment of 60 new district judgeships in 1961 demonstrated that the number of judges alone would not solve all of the problems of overworked courts. A growing number of judges and members of the bar urged the judiciary to establish a formal means to bring improved research and education to the courts.

At the suggestion of Chief Justice Warren, the Judicial Conference in 1966 authorized a committee to examine the research and education requirements of the judiciary. Former Justice Stanley Reed agreed to Warren's request to chair the committee. As the Reed committee formulated its recommendation for establishment of a Federal Judicial Center, President Johnson, at Warren's request, included the proposal in his highly publicized message on crime in February 1967. The Judicial Committee adopted the recommendation. Bills to create the Center were soon submitted in both houses of Congress. With broad support for the concept of a research and education center for the judiciary, discussion in the House and Senate hearings centered on questions about the proper institutional form and leadership for the Center.

The Reed Committee and the director of the Administrative Office, among others, advocated an independent agency with its own governing board to which the Center director would report. The goal was to protect the research and education resources from being absorbed into strictly administrative duties and to insure the objectivity of research. The Federal Judicial Center's board consists of the Chief Justice, a rotating group of judges selected by the Judicial Conference, and the director of the Administrative Office; no member of the Judicial Conference was to serve on the Center's board. The statute authorizes the Center to conduct and support research on the operation of the courts, to offer education and training for judges and court personnel, and to assist and advise the Judicial Conference on matters related to the administration and management of the courts. Later legislation expanded the Center's mandate to include  programs related to the history of the federal judiciary.

A. Leo Levin was the Director of the Federal Judicial Center from 1977 to 1987.

Organization

The Center includes several offices and divisions.

The Director's Office is responsible for the Center's overall management and its relations with other organizations. Its Office of Systems Innovation and Development (OSID) provides technical support for Center education and research. Communications Policy and Design (CPD) edits, produces, and distributes all Center print and electronic publications, operates the Federal Judicial Television Network, and through the Information Services Office maintains a specialized library collection of materials on judicial administration.

The Research Division undertakes empirical and exploratory research on federal judicial processes, judicial resources, court administration and case management, federal-state jurisdiction and cooperation, and sentencing and its consequences, often at the request of the Judicial Conference and its committees, the courts themselves, or other groups in the federal system. Elizabeth Wiggins is the current director of the research division. She is the third research division director in the history of the Federal Judicial Center.

The Federal Judicial History Office develops programs relating to the history of the judicial branch and assists courts with their own judicial history program.

The Education Division plans and organizes educational sessions for federal judges and court staff.

The International Judicial Relations Office carries out the Center's statutory mission to provide information about federal courts to officials of foreign judicial systems and to acquire information about foreign judicial systems that will help the Center perform its other missions.  The office administers the Center's International Visitor briefing program and the Visiting Foreign Judicial Fellows Program.

Board and funding
As of February 2021 the Center's board consists of:

John G. Roberts Jr., Chief Justice of the United States, chair (Sept. 2005–present)
Judge Duane Benton, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit (Mar. 2018–present)
Judge Thomas Hardiman, U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit (Mar. 2020–present)
Judge Raymond Alvin Jackson, U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia (Mar. 2019–present)
Judge Nancy D. Freudenthal, U.S. District Court for the District of Wyoming (Mar. 2019–present)
Senior Judge Carol Amon, U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of New York (Mar. 2020–present)
Chief Bankruptcy Judge Mildred Cabán, U.S. Bankruptcy Court for the District of Puerto Rico
Magistrate Judge Tim Baker, U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Indiana (Mar. 2017–present)
Judge Roslynn R. Mauskopf, Director of the Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts (Feb. 2021–present)

A nonprofit organization, the Federal Judicial Center Foundation, solicits support for the Center.

References

External links

Federal Judicial Center Foundation

Center
Legal education in the United States
Government agencies established in 1967
1967 establishments in Washington, D.C.

Federal Judicial Center


Nucleic acids are large molecules where genetic information is stored. There are two types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid, better known as DNA and ribonucleic acid, better known as RNA.

The nucleic acids are made of nucleotides. A nucleotide is made of a nitrogenous base, sugar with five carbon atoms and a  phosphate group.

Nucleic acids allow organisms to transfer genetic information from one generation to the next. When a cell divides, its DNA is copied and passed from one cell generation to the next generation.

DNA is organized into chromosomes and found within the nucleus of our cells. Its function in any cell is to carry the sequence of bases which will be transcribed into RNA. The function of RNA is much more difficult to explain. One well-known function is for messenger RNA to be translated into proteins, mainly enzymes. But there are other types of RNA, and these are called non-coding RNAs.

Molecular biology

Nucleic acid


Peer Steinbrück (born 10 January 1947) is a German politician.

Steinbrück was born in Hamburg. From 1968 to 1969 he was training as a reserve officer of the Bundeswehr (German army). From 1970 to 1974 he studied national economy in Kiel. After that he worked in different ministries.

In 1969 he joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). In 1993 he became Secretary for Economy and Infrastructure in the State of Schleswig-Holstein. In 1998 he changed to the State of North Rhine-Westphalia and became Secretary for Infrastructure, up from 2000 Secretary of Finance. In 2000 he was elected into the State Parliament of North Rhine-Westphalia.

He was Minister President (Ministerpräsident) of North Rhine-Westphalia from November 2002 to June 2005.

On the state election on 22 May 2005 Steinbrück failed to be reelected as Minister President of North Rhine-Westphalia. His successor was Jürgen Rüttgers (CDU).

Since November 2005 he has been finance minister of Germany and Vice chief of SPD.

1947 births
Living people
Ministers-President of North Rhine-Westphalia
Politicians from Hamburg
Politicians of the Social Democratic Party of Germany

Peer Steinbrück


Degenerate art () was the term used by the Nazi regime in Germany to describe nearly all modern art. The Nazis banned the art because they said it was un-German or was Jewish or Bolshevist in nature. Artists who were labeled as degenerate were punished by the laws. They were not allowed to teach, they could not show or sell their art, and some were even forbidden from creating any art at all.

Degenerate Art was also used as the name for an exhibition put on by the Nazis in Munich in 1937. The exhibition was made up of modern artworks, displayed badly, with text labels making fun of the art. This was meant to make people hate modernism. The show traveled to several other cities in Germany and Austria.

While modern styles of art were not allowed, the Nazis liked paintings and sculptures that were very traditional and old fashioned. They thought art should glorify Nazi ideas of the "blood and soil" values of racial purity, militarism, and obedience. Music was also expected to be tonal and free of any jazz influences; movies and plays were censored.  The censorship was done by the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda.

Nazism
Art

Degenerate art


A Daguerreotype is a method of creating photographs that is no longer in general use. A man called Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre invented the daguerreotype process in France in 1839.

The new type of photography became very popular very quickly as it was capable of capturing a "truthful likeness." By 1850, there were over seventy daguerreotype studios in New York alone.

However the popularity of the daguerreotype was short lived as other cheaper processes were invented. By the late 1850s faster and less expensive processes such as the ambrotype, became available. A drawback of the Daguerreotype was that there was no negative from which to produce lots of images. Each picture was therefore unique, the only way to get a copy was to rephotograph the image.

Photographic film formats

Daguerreotype


Asbarez Newspaper began its publication in August 1908 in Fresno as a weekly. After several successful decades the offices and publishing headquarters moved to Los Angeles in the early 1970s. Today it is still active.

Asbarez is the official publisher of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation Western United States Central Committee, and mainly serves the more than 500,000 strong Armenian-American community in the Western states.

On May 1, 1970 when Asbarez began publishing its English section. Today, that section, which became a daily publication in January 1993, is the voice of the community and a source of information within the halls of Congress, in libraries around the country and newsrooms of major media outlets.

Newspapers in California
Companies based in Los Angeles
1908 establishments in California
Fresno, California

Asbarez


Teewurst () is a German sausage made from two parts raw pork (and sometimes beef) and one part bacon; they are minced, seasoned and packed in casings (mostly porous artificial casings) before being smoked over beech wood. The sausage then has to mature for seven to ten days in order to develop its typical taste. Teewurst contains 30 to 40 percent fat, which makes it particularly easy to spread.

Teewurst was invented in Pomerania, probably in the small Baltic town of Rügenwalde (now Darłowo, Poland), in the middle of the 19th century. The name, which means tea sausage, is said to derive from the habit of serving it in sandwiches at teatime.

Up to 1945, the sausage industry in Rügenwalde was well established, and Teewurst was its best-known product. In 1927, the term Rügenwalder Teewurst was declared a protected designation of origin. After World War II, sausage makers from Rügenwalde fled or were expelled to the Federal Republic of Germany, where they established new companies and resumed the production of Teewurst. They established an association of former Rügenwald sausage makers, which registered the trademark Rügenwalder Teewurst in 1957. Teewurst was also made in East Germany, but the brand Rügenwalder Teewurst was never used there. Today, only companies that once had their headquarters in Rügenwalde are allowed to use the term Rügenwalder Teewurst. All others use the terms Teewurst or Rügenwalde-style Teewurst.

See also
 Ham sausage
 List of smoked foods

References

Bibliography

German sausages
Smoked meat
Raw sausages

Teewurst


Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats is a book of poems about cats. The cats in these poems act like humans. It is by T. S. Eliot. It was first sold in 1939. Andrew Lloyd Webber used most of the poems in his musical Cats.

Contents of Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats by T. S. Eliot:
 The Naming of Cats
 The Old Gumbie Cat
 Growltiger's Last Stand
 The Rum Tum Tugger
 Mungojerrie and Rumpelteazer
 Old Deuteronomy
 The Pekes and the Pollicles
 Mr. Mistoffelees
 Macavity: The Mystery Cat
 Gus: The Theatre Cat
 Bustopher Jones: The Cat about Town
 Skimbleshanks: The Railway Cat
 The Ad-dressing of Cats
 Cat Morgan Introduces Himself (added in the 1962 edition and not included in the musical)

References
Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats

1939 books
20th-century British poems

Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats


The central nervous system is made of two types of tissue: white matter and grey matter. Grey matter contains nerve cell bodies, and white matter is made of the  nerve fibres.

When a sample is freshly cut, it usually slightly pink in appearance (for both types). When preserved in formaldehyde, white matter appears to be almost white. White matter consists mostly of myelinated axons:. Myelin is a lipid tissue (a fat) with capillaries. It helps to keep the electrical in the nerve fibre. This is important for fast and accurate sending of signals. In the brain white matter is surrounded by grey matter most of the time. In the spine, white matter is outside, and grey matter inside: the myelin sourrounds the nerve cells, and helps the transmission of nerve signals.

White matter is used to connect different areas of grey matter. If a section of white matter is damaged, the brain may be able to find a different route to replace the lost connection. The brain contains a third kind of tissue, which appears darker. It is called substantia nigra, a part of the brain that is involved in pleasure & reward, addiction and movement.

Anatomy of the nervous system
Animal tissues

White matter


Fingering means: choosing which finger to use for each note when playing a piece on a musical instrument.  When learning to play a piece it is important to try to find a good fingering.  Once a good fingering has been found it should always be used so that the piece is always played in the same way and the fingers learn "where to go".  Sometimes printed music has some fingering printed above the notes.  This can be helpful to the player, but it is not always necessary to use the printed fingering.  People's hands are different and a fingering that is good for one player may not be good for another.

Fingering on keyboard instruments
When playing keyboard instruments the fingers are numbered from 1 to 5 on each hand: the thumb is 1, the index finger is 2, the middle finger is 3, the ring finger is 4 and the little finger is 5.  The fingers were not always numbered like that.  In Britain in the 19th century the thumb was shown by a cross (+) and the fingers were numbered from 1 to 4.  This was known as "English fingering" while the other way (from 1 to 5) was known as "Continental fingering".  However, from the beginning of the 20th century the British used the normal 1 to 5 (Continental) fingering.

Ideas about fingering have changed during the history of music.  In the Baroque times (17th and early 18th centuries) French composers writing for the harpsichord often fingered scale passages 2 3 2 3 etc. so that the notes were grouped (slurred) in twos.  Later this idea went out of fashion.  In the early 19th century  Carl Czerny wrote lots of studies for piano  which helped to exercise all the fingers equally.  This is how we learn to play the piano today.

Fingering for the organ is similar to fingering for the piano.  However, organists use a lot of "finger substitution" which means: changing to a different finger while a note is held down.  This is useful in music such as hymn tunes which have lots of chords.  It helps to make the music legato (smooth):  (a pianist can use the right pedal to make chords legato.)  An organist playing on the pedals also needs to decide which foot to use for each note.  This is called "footing".  A v sign means: play with the toe, a square u sign means: play with the heel.  When these signs are placed above the note it means the right foot, below means for the left foot.

Fingering on string instruments
Fingering on string instruments will show which position to play in (i.e. how far down the fingerboard the hand is held).  The fingers are numbered from 1 to 4 because the thumb is behind the neck of the instrument.  The number 0 means: play an open string (not using the finger).  It is only the left hand which fingers the notes because the right hand is either plucking or bowing.  Bowed instruments like the violin have no markings on the fingerboard, so the player has to get used to the exact place to put the fingers, otherwise it will not be in tune.  Plucked instruments such as guitars and banjos have frets (little bumps on the fingerboard) which show where to put the fingers.

Sometimes the fingering printed or written in the music may also need to show which string to play on.  A tune that could be played in first position on a D string on the violin could also be played on the G string in fifth position (with the hand much higher up the fingerboard). This is harder to do, but a good player can make it sound particularly warm and beautiful.  Sometimes notes can be fingered as harmonics instead of as ordinary stopped notes.  This makes them sound very light and airy.

Cellists can also play in "thumb position" if they have several notes which are high and quite near one another.  This means putting the thumb high up on the fingerboard, often across two strings.

The double bass is so big that the distances between the notes are very big too.  To go up from one note to the next (in semitones) they use finger 1, then 2, then 4.  Finger 3 is just helping finger 4 to press down on the string.  There are a few players who use a different fingering system: using fingers 1, 2, 3, 4.  This means that the hand has to stretch a lot.  It is difficult to play in tune like this, although it saves having to change the hand position so much.

Harp fingering
Harp music looks like piano music: there are two staves, one which usually has a treble clef for the right hand, the other with a bass clef for the left hand.  Some piano music can be played on the harp, but the piano fingering will not work.  On a piano, starting with the thumb and going along the fingers to the little finger means going to higher notes in the right hand and to lower notes in the left hand.  On the harp it is the other way round (the harpist sits with the high notes nearest to his body).  The thumb is numbered 1 and the fingers are 2, 3 and 4.  The little finger is not used in harp playing.

Woodwind fingering
In woodwind instruments there is normally one basic fingering, each note is a particular combination of fingers. However at more advanced levels different fingerings can be used in order to create different effects.  Beginners' books may have a fingering chart to show how to get the different notes.  A low F sharp on a descant recorder will be fingered 1 2 3 0 2 3.  This means: fingers 1, 2 and 3 of the left hand and fingers 2 and 3 of the right hand.  The first hole of the right hand position is left open.

On the recorder some of the notes, especially sharps and flats, have complicated fingering.  This is called "cross fingering".  The flute, oboe, clarinet and bassoon all have metal keys to help reach the low holes and to make it easier to play the sharps and flats.  The usual system for these keys was invented in the 19th century by Theobald Böhm.

Sometimes there is an "alternative fingering" for some notes.  This can be used to make it easier to play fast trills, but the usual fingering will sound better for normal notes.

Using good fingering
Good fingering is fingering which avoids moving the hand up and down unnecessarily.  It should also help the music to sound good e.g. legato music for smooth tunes, clear music for fast repeated notes.

Musical performance techniques

Fingering


The Ford Granada wis a mid-size caur biggit an marketit bi Ford Motor Company in North Americae frae 1975-1982, alang wi its sister models, the Mercury Monarch, an Lincoln Versailles. The Granada wis toutit bi Ford as a rival tae the similarly sized Mercedes-Benz 280 o the time. The Granada an Monarch wur available as a 2-door coupe or a 4-door sedan. A tot o 2,066,336 Granadas wur produced.

The Granada replaced the Torino as Ford's mid-size model. Thay wur assembled in Wayne, Michigan an Mahwah, New Jersey. Thay an aa overlapt wi the Maverick/Comet's ultimate successors, the Ford Fairmont an the Mercury Zephyr, which wur released in 1978. The first-generation Granada an Monarch wur based on the platform o the Maverick/Comet fower-door. It shared muckle o its design wi earlier Ford compacts an intermediates, datin back tae the 1960 Ford Falcon. Pouertrain options includit the base 200 CID sax-cylinder, a 250 CID sax, a 302 CID V8, an a 351 CID "Windsor" V8. Available transmissions includit a standard three-speed manual, a fower-speed manual wi owerdrive, an a three-speed automatic (standard on 351-pouered caurs). The 1980 model year addit a 49-state optional 255 CID V8, which wis the ae V8 affered in Californie-spec caurs that year.

Ghia versions o baith the Granada an Monarch includit hichter-level interior an exterior trim an addit soond insulation. The 1975-76 Grand Monarch Ghia   wis a tap-o-the line version. The Granada Sports Coupe   wis produced in 1976-1977; Mercury affered a seemilar treatment wi its 1976-77 Monarch S.  A 1977–1/2   variation on the Granada Sports Coupe, produced frae Mey '77 throu the end o the model year, featurt blackt-oot moldin, modified trim, taillichts, an colour selections. Documentation o this hauf-year model exists in Ford advertisin frae Ware 1977. This caur is aiblins the "rarest" o Granada production.

The 1976–77 Sports Coupe an S packages includit standard hivy-duty suspension, styled steel wheels, stripin unique tae this option an unique interior trim wi standard bucket seats. The Granada's front spindles interchanged wi the Pinto (an the badge ingineered Mercury Bobcat) an Mustang II, but war lairger, at 11 in (280 mm) compared tae 9.5 in (240 mm), an uised a "5 on 4½" (five lug, 4.5 in (110 mm) bolt circle) pattern. The 1978-80 ESS (European Sport Sedan) replaced the Sports Coupe an S models. Sports Coupes, an ESS models equipped wi bucket seats, can be identified bi trim codes beginnin wi "P" on the caur's data sticker on the edge o the driver's door. The Granada an Monarch ESS models featurt "blackt-oot" chrome, an a standard-equipment bucket seat interior wi a floor-mountit shifter, awtho a bench seat wis optional. Ford Motor Company's design chief at the time, Stephen Estrada, mentioned later that "The Granada wis my favorite design an the ane that A'm maist prood o". The ESS option includit standard colour-keyed wheelcovers (styled-steel wheels wur optional) an unique opera-windae louvres.

The 1978 model year brocht a minor restylin includin rectangular heidlamps an revised taillichts, features which continued throu the end o first-generation Granada/Monarch production in 1980.

1981–82
The range wis moved tae Ford's newer Fox platform (introduced as the 1978 Ford Fairmont an Mercury Zephyr) for the 1981 model year an wis sauld throu the 1982 model year. The Granada name wis retained, but the Monarch name wis replaced bi Cougar in Mercury's lineup. Stylin o thir caurs resembled a slichtly bigger an mair formal version o the Fairmont, wi upgradit interior trim. Base pouer for the Fox-body Granada wis a 2.3 L Lima I4, wi an optional 200 cid straucht sax an 255 CID V8.

A wagon jynt the line-up for the 1982 model year, replacin the Fairmont an Zephyr wagons, available in "L" an "GL" forms. The 1982 model an aa saw the return o the Blue Oval logo on a Ford vehicle for the first time syne the Great Depression. Awtho maist ither Ford models saw the logo arrive in 1983 (Except for the Fairmont, which wis aboot tae be replaced wi the Ford Tempo for 1984, an the Ford Thunderbird, which rarely haed ony mention o Ford on the vehicle itself for maist o its existence.), the Granada saw it arrive a year early, lairgely as a test. While Ford haed quit uisin the logo on its vehicles durin the Depression, it haed remained ower the years as its logo in aw ither uises (corporate logo, sales literature, advertisements, awner manuals, dealership signs, etc.) an decidit tae uise it again on its vehicles.

For 1983 the Granada name an stylin wis retired in the North American mercat, but the model wis replaced bi a seemilar Fox-platform-derived model that uised the traditional big-caur name LTD. Mercury affered this caur as the Marquis.

Freemit airtins
Four Eyed Pride  - A resoorce for aw early Tods

References

Mid-size caurs
Granada (North Americae)
Rear wheel drive vehicles
1970s automobiles
1980s automobiles
Motor vehicles manufactured in the Unitit States

Ford Granada (North Americae)


San Michele in Borgo is a Roman Catholic church in Pisa, region of Tuscany, Italy.

History
The church, together with monastery (which first belonged to the Benedictines, and, from the 12th century, the Camaldolese) was built in the late 10th to early 11th century outside the walls of the city, over an ancient temple dedicated to Mars.  Both were restored several times in the following ages.

The façade is from the 14th century. The upper part has three order of typically Pisane Gothic loggias. There are three portals, also in Gothic style and withlunettes; the main one is surmounted by a tabernacle with "Madonna and Child" by Lupo di Francesco (the original is in the National Museum of San Matteo in Pisa).

The solemn interior, with a nave and two aisles, houses a Crucifix attributed to Nino Pisano (14th century), paintings by Matteo Rosselli, Baccio Lomi, Aurelio Lomi and Giuseppe Melani, as well as remains of frescoes from the 13th century. Under the pavement is the crypt, probably what remains of a former church.

References

Notes

External links
Official Website of the church of San Michele in Borgo

Michele in Borgo
11th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy
14th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy
Romanesque architecture in Pisa

San Michele in Borgo


A tunnel is an underground passage. Some tunnels are used for cars, and others are used for trains. Sometimes, a tunnel is used for movement of ships. Some tunnels are built for communication cables and some are built for electricity cables. Other tunnels are built for animals.

Tunnels are dug in different kinds of grounds, from soft sand to hard rock. The way of digging is chosen by the type of ground. There are two additional ways of digging : quarry and 'cut and cover'. In quarry, the tunnel path is drilled in a horizontal way.
This system requires a deep tunnel that's built in a firm rock. In the 'cut and cover' system, a tunnel is dug in the ground and, afterwards, a roof is built above the tunnel. This system fits tunnels that are close to the ground like road tunnels and infrastructure.

Building tunnels is a large civil engineering project that could cost very high sums of money. The planning and building of a long tunnel may take many years.

The Channel Tunnel between France and England is one of the longest tunnels in the world. It is 50 kilometers long. The longest tunnel in the world, the Gotthard Base Tunnel, is being dug in Switzerland.

Reasons to build a tunnel
 A subway is based on a network of tunnels that are dug underground so the trains will not disturb and will not be disturbed by the local transport.
 On the path of a railroad track or a road a tunnel is dug when the lane encounters an obstacle such as a mountain to avoid bypassing the obstacle.
 A tunnel is built sometimes to overcome a water obstacle as a replacement for building a bridge above it.
 A tunnel is built to connect between military posts so the movement between them will not be visible for the enemy.
 A tunnel is built for infrastructure like electricity cables, water, communication and sewerage to avoid damage and disruption above ground.
 Some tunnels are used by prisoners to escape jail.
 Sometimes tunnels are used by criminals to do a bank robbery (e.g. in Brazil, Summer 2005).

Cut-and-cover

Cut-and-cover is a simple way of making hollow tunnels where a trench is hollowed out and roofed over with an overhead support system strong enough to carry the load of what is to be built above the tunnel.
Two basic forms of cut-and-cover tunneling are available:
 Bottom-up method: A trench is hollowed out, with ground support when needed, and the tunnel is built in it. In earliest days bricks were used. The trench is then carefully filled and the surface is reinstated.
 Top-down method: Side support walls and capping beams are made from ground level by such methods as slurry walling or neighbouring bored piling. Only a hollowed out excavation is needed to construct the tunnel roof using beams or in situ concrete sitting on the walls. The surface is then remade except for access openings. This allows early recreation of roadways, services, and other surface features. Excavation then takes place under the permanent tunnel roof, and the base slab is made.

Notes

Books

 Railway Tunnels in Queensland by Brian Webber, 1997, .
 Sullivan, Walter. Progress In Technology Revives Interest In Great Tunnels, New York Times, 24 June 1986. Retrieved 15 August 2010.

Tunnel


In organic chemistry, an epoxide is a molecule that has a ring with at least three atoms in total, two carbon atoms and one oxygen atom. These three atoms are bonded, or stuck together, in a small ring. The ring of atoms is shaped like a triangle, with all edges of the same length. Because of this small ring, an epoxide is very reactive.

Epoxides can be made by oxidation of alkenes. There are many ways to do this. Usually, a peroxide is used. Some ways can even make only one enantiomer of the epoxide.

Epoxides like to react with nucleophiles. Usually, when an epoxide reacts with a nucleophile, the first thing it does is break one of its chemical bonds between the oxygen atom and the carbon atom. This makes the triangular ring pop open. With the ring open, the nucleophile gets stuck onto one of the carbon atoms. On the other carbon, the left over oxygen attaches to a hydrogen atom, turning into an alcohol. This is very useful, because it is easy to change an alcohol into many other functional groups.

Epoxides are useful because with them very complicated molecules can be made quickly. Epoxides are extremely useful for making many other compounds. That is because oxygen, which is in an epoxide, is such a great functional group. Once you have made an epoxide, you can make alcohols, ethers, and halohydrins, among other things.

Functional groups

Epoxide


The Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax is an ancient Greek periplus (περίπλους períplous, 'circumnavigation') describing the sea route around the Mediterranean and Black Sea. It probably dates from the mid-4th century BC, specifically the 330s, and was probably written at or near Athens. Its author is often included among the ranks of 'minor' Greek geographers. There is only one manuscript available, which postdates the original work by over 1500 years.

The author's name is written Pseudo-Scylax or Pseudo-Skylax, often abbreviated as Ps.-Scylax or Ps.-Skylax.

Author
The only extant, medieval manuscript names the author as "Scylax"' (or "Skylax"), but scholars have proven that this attribution is to be treated as a so-called "pseudepigraphical appeal to authority": Herodotus mentions a Scylax of Caryanda, a Greek  navigator who in the late sixth century BC explored the coast of the Indian Ocean on behalf of the Persians. Many details in the work, however, reflect fourth-century BC knowledge of the world; since it cannot be by the sixth-century Scylax, its author is habitually referred to as Pseudo-Scylax.

Text

Manuscript
There remains one primary manuscript, Parisinus suppl. gr. (Supplément grec) 443 (also known as the Pithou MS after its 16th-century owner, Pierre Pithou); it  dates to the thirteenth century AD and is the original of those upon which the first printed edition of 1600 was based. Two later copies of this manuscript, which is notoriously corrupt, add nothing of substance. The principal manuscript was inaccessible to scholars for over two centuries until the 1830s, when it was bought by the Bibliothèque Nationale of France.

Content
The narrative attributed to this "Pseudo-Scylax" simulates a clockwise circumnavigation of the Mediterranean and Black Sea, starting in Iberia and ending in West Africa, beyond the Pillars of Hercules, that mark the Straits of Gibraltar.

The NW African section is sometimes claimed to have been derived from the earlier Periplus of Hanno the Navigator, but a close comparison makes the differences between the two texts apparent. Rather than the record of a voyage like Hanno's, or a compilation of eye-witness accounts of voyages, the Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax is probably an attempt at a quasi-scientific geographical account of the parts of the world accessible to Greeks in the 4th century BC. It can plausibly be associated with philosophical and scientific activities at Athens under Plato's successors in the Academy; the author was perhaps directly in contact with Plato's successors and with Aristotle and Theophrastos, in the years leading up to the foundation of Aristotle's school, the Peripatos or Lyceum. One of the aims of the work seems to be to calculate a total sailing length for the coasts of the Mediterranean and Black Sea, a geographical undertaking in which Aristotle's pupil Dikaiarchos of Messana went further, perhaps explicitly building upon the work of our unknown author.

Early printing history
The Periplus of Scylax, along with other minor ancient Greek geographers, was first published in Augsburg in 1600 by David Hoeschel. In Amsterdam, the Periplus was published by Gerardus Vossius in 1639 and then by John Hudson in his Geographi Graeci Minores. In Paris, the Periplus was published in 1826 by Jean François Gail and in Berlin it was published in 1831 by Rudolf Heinrich Klausen.

Modern editions
The Greek texts of Karl Müller (1855) and B. Fabricius (pseudonym of Heinrich Theodor Dittrich, 2nd edition 1878) have been superseded by P. Counillon Pseudo-Skylax: le périple du Pont-Euxin: texte, traduction, commentaire philologique et historique. (Bordeaux, 2004) and G. Shipley, Pseudo-Scylax's Periplus: Text, Translation, and Commentary (Exeter, 2011).

References

External links
 Wikisource - The original Greek text, based on Müller, Paris 1855–61 – Περίπλους τῆς θαλάσσης τῆς οἰκουμένης Εὐρώπης καὶ Ἀσίας καὶ Λιβύης
 English translation by Brady Kiesling from the 1878 Greek edition of B. Fabricius.
Geographica antiqua, Johann Friedrich Gronovius (ed.), Lugduni Batavorum, apud Jordanum Luchtmans, 1697, pp. 1–132.
Geographi graeci minores, Karl Müller, Paris, editoribus Firmin-Didot et sociis, 1882, vol. 1 pp. 15–96.
Hecataei Milesii fragmenta. Scylacis caryandensis periplus, Rudolf Heinrich Klausen (ed.), Berolini, impensis G. Reimeri, 1831, pp. 1–132.
Fragments des poemes géographiques de Scymnus de Chio et du faux Dicéarque, M. Letronne (ed.), Paris, Librairie de Gide, 1840
Anonymi vulgo Scylacis Caryandensis periplum maris interni, B. Fabricius (pseudonym of H. T. Dittrich), Lipsiae, typis et sumtibus B. G. Teubneri, 1878.
Patrick Counillon, Pseudo-Skylax, Le Périple du Pont-Euxin (Bordeaux, 2004).
Graham Shipley, Pseudo-Skylax's Periplous: The Circumnavigation of the Inhabited World. Text, Translation and Commentary (Exeter: Bristol Phoenix Press/The Exeter Press), 2011.  hardback, 978-1-904675-83-9 paperback. For details see http://www.liverpooluniversitypress.co.uk/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=11&AS1=shipley
D. Graham J. Shipley, 'Pseudo-Skylax and the natural philosophers', Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 132 (2012). Pre-print published in FirstView by Cambridge University Press on 6 Sept. 2012.

History of navigation
Peripluses in Greek
Ancient Greek pseudepigrapha
4th-century BC books

Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax


Iron Man is a fictional superhero who wears a suit of armor. His alter ego is Tony Stark. He was created by Stan Lee, Jack Kirby and Larry Lieber for Marvel Comics in Tales of Suspense #39 in the year 1963 and appears in their comic books. He is also one of the main protagonists in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Iron Man is played by Robert Downey, Jr. in the movies Iron Man, Iron Man 2, The Avengers, Iron Man 3, Avengers: Age of Ultron, Captain America: Civil War, Spider-Man: Homecoming, Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame.

Powers
In the movies and the earlier comic books, Tony Stark is a human. Outside the suit, he does not have any superpowers, however he is very intelligent. He made the suit himself. Iron Man can fly and shoot beams from his hands using special technology called "repulsors" in his boots and gloves. He is not hurt by most weapons like guns and cannons because of his armor. There are many versions of the Iron Man suit, because Stark keeps making improvements.

In the later comic books, Stark took an experimental virus called "Extremis" which allowed him to control his suit with his mind and summon it wherever he was.  Stark would eventually develop an armor that he could store in his body. This armor was known as the "Bleeding Edge Model 37".

Origin story
Stark inherited a large American company called "Stark Industries" when his father died. He was badly injured by a bomb in an attack planned by people who did not like him running his company. Shrapnel from the explosion was moving towards his heart. This would have killed him, but a scientist called Yinsen who was with him made a magnet for his chest which would keep the shrapnel away. In the movies, he makes an "arc reactor" which is put into his chest to stop the shrapnel.

Yinsen and Stark secretly build a heavy suit of armor which they plan to use to escape. However, during the escape, Yinsen dies so that the kidnappers will be distracted from Stark escaping. Stark escapes safely and goes back to America. He makes a better suit and uses it to fight evil.

Personality
Tony Stark is charismatic and eccentric, he is also very proud, but also very altruist and heroic. He did not have a good childhood, and this affects how he acts.

Stark is very smart, and a very talented inventor. His technology is always very advanced, and Iron Man is his greatest piece of work. In both the comics and the movies, he uses the arc reactor (or "repulsor technology") as a form of sustainable energy to help the world.

Stark has very few close friends. Two of them are Pepper Potts, his personal assistant who becomes his girlfriend, and James Rhodes, an American soldier who operates the War Machine armor.

References

Other websites

Fictional characters introduced in 1963
Marvel Comics adapted into movies
Avengers (comics) characters
Marvel vs. Capcom fighters
Tony Hawk's (series) guest characters

Iron Man