Science im a systematic enterprise wey builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.

The earliest roots of science fit be traced to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in around 3500 to 3000 BCE. Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine entered and shaped Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages but was preserved in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age. The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived "natural philosophy", which was later transformed by the Scientific Revolution wey began in the 16th century as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions. The scientific method soon played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the 19th century wey many of the institutional and professional features of science began to take shape;along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science."

Modern science is typically divided into three major branches wey consist of the natural sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, and physics), which study nature in the broadest sense; the social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies; and the formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which study abstract concepts. There is disagreement, however, on whether the formal sciences actually constitute a science as they do not rely on empirical evidence. Disciplines wey use existing scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine, are described as applied sciences.

Science im based on research, which is commonly conducted in academic and research institutions as well as in government agencies and companies. The practical impact of scientific research has led to the emergence of science policies wey seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritizing the development of commercial products, armaments, health care, and environmental protection.

Science


A necklace is a jewellery item worn round the neck. It is of ancient origin: all civilisations have worn them. They usually figure precious metals and jewels, but may be made of colourful beads.

The Indore necklace
The emeralds threaded onto the necklace were mined in Colombia. The diamonds were mined in India. The necklace's gemstones are believed to have been cut in India in the 17th century, but the early history of the necklace itself is unknown. The first recorded owner of the piece was Tukoji Rao III, Maharaja of Indore (a Princely State in India) in the early 20th century. On his abdication, the necklace was passed to his son, Yashvantrao II, who took up his father's throne. The necklace is sometimes called, though with no reason, the Spanish Inquisition necklace.

Gallery

References

Jewelry

Necklace


An NP-hard problem is a type of mathematical problem used in computer science. It is a yes/no problem where finding a solution for it is at least as hard as finding a solution for the hardest problem whose solution can quickly be checked as being true. Some NP-hard problems are ones where a working solution can be checked quickly (NP problems) and some are not. NP-hard problems that are also NP problems fit into a category called NP-complete.

Examples
An example of a problem that is at least as hard to solve as any other problem that we can quickly check solutions for, which is also quickly checkable (it is both NP-hard and NP):

A travelling salesman wants to visit 100 cities by driving, starting and ending his trip at home. He has a limited supply of gasoline, so he can only drive a total of 10,000 kilometers. He wants to know if he can visit all of the cities without running out of gasoline.

People don't know how to solve this problem faster than testing every possible answer, but if a solution is found that allows the salesman to do this, we can use an algorithm check that it is true. This problem is also known as Travelling salesman problem.

An example of a problem that is at least as hard to solve as any other problem that we can quickly check solutions for, but that can not be checked quickly (it is NP-hard, but it is not NP):

if someone starts a program that simply goes,
 while(true){ continue; }
and never stops it, will it run forever?

There is no known way to find a solution to all problems of this kind, and this also cannot be checked.

Theoretical computer science

NP-hardness


3rd Canadian Division Support Base Detachment Wainwright, commonly referred to as Canadian Forces Base Wainwright or CFB Wainwright, is a Canadian Forces Base located in Denwood, Alberta, adjacent to the town of Wainwright.

Military Camp Wainwright
The  Buffalo National Park was closed in 1940 and the property leased by the Government of Alberta to the Department of National Defence (DND) for the creation of an ammunition storage facility as well as an army training camp. DND owned an adjacent  property and used the facility for live-fire artillery, armoured and infantry training.

Called Wainwright Military Camp, or just Camp Wainwright, after the nearby Canadian National Railways division point, the facility saw use from January 29, 1945, to May 24, 1946, as a prisoner of war (POW) internment camp for 523 captured German officers, soldiers and civilians from its first day of operation to 1,100 POWs at its peak. During the 16 months the POW camp was in full operation, only two prisoners made a successful escape, although they were recaptured just over a month later, but not until they had reached Gary, Indiana.

Decommissioned as a POW internment camp in 1946, Camp Wainwright reverted to a Canadian Army training facility. The camp staff and guard company were reduced to nil strength a few weeks later, marking the end of this chapter of CFB/ASU Wainwright's history. Wainwright's infrastructure expanded significantly during the Korean War as buildings were constructed to house and train soldiers in three Canadian Army battalions, as well as units that would form British Commonwealth Forces Korea such as the 25th Canadian Infantry Brigade.

The February 1, 1968 merger of the Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Navy and Royal Canadian Air Force to form the Canadian Forces was predated by a number of major changes to Canada's military structure. One of these saw Camp Wainwright transferred on January 1, 1967, to become an auxiliary satellite training camp of CFB Calgary. This was reverted on August 1, 1967, due to command and control problems, and Camp Wainwright became Canadian Forces Base Wainwright (CFB Wainwright) as a separate entity within the establishment of CFB Calgary.

An airfield was opened at CFB Wainwright in October 1967 and at the time of official unification, CFB Wainwright became a component of Training Command as the facility was tasked as a training area. CFB Wainwright offered both officer and basic training courses, battalion-level unit operations and acted as a host for training foreign detachments. Wainwright also offered administrative support services for 1 Canadian Brigade Group units.

Subsequent changes to the force structure saw Wainwright's role as a training facility evolve, particularly as the garrisons at CFB Calgary and CFB Edmonton shifted some of their training to the newly established and much larger CFB Suffield.

On July 15, 1974, the 1 Combat Group Operational Training Detachment was formed at CFB Wainwright to conduct individual training for two or more units of Mobile Command's 1 Combat Group.

In 1980, to celebrate the 75th anniversary of the formation of Alberta, a small number of bison was transferred from Elk Island National Park to the grounds of the base. The herd remains on the base today.

In 1983, CFB Wainwright consisted of the training facilities, the 742 Communication Detachment and a British Army liaison detachment.

Defence cuts following the end of the Cold War during the 1990s resulted in the closure of CFB Calgary and consolidation of units at CFB Edmonton. CFB Wainwright was also impacted by defence cuts and was reduced to an Area Support Unit (ASU). ASU Wainwright, as the facility is also called, has 690 military personnel and 300 civilian workers. As part of 3rd Canadian Division Support Group (3 CDSG), it hosts the 3rd Canadian Division Training Centre (3 CDTC) and the Canadian Manoeuvre Training Centre (CMTC), as well as the following units:

 3rd Canadian Division Support Group Signal Squadron
 1 Field Ambulance Detachment
 1 Dental Detachment
 1 Garrison Military Police Company detachment
 1 Engineer Equipment Troop

The transient military population averages over 1,000 personnel at any given time, and in the summer it grows significantly when hundreds of primary reservists undertake annual training. As of 2009 it is the main training base of the 1 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group, including Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (PPCLI), and covers an area of , which includes 25 weapons ranges. Although primarily a training base for the Canadian Army it is also used by the Royal Canadian Air Force to train fighter bombers and search and rescue practice. The base also includes Wainwright/Wainwright (Field 21) Airport () located  west of Wainwright, approximately  west of CFB Wainright, with a  asphalt runway.

The Wainwright Military Family Resource Centre (MFRC), located on CFB Wainwright, provides resources and support for military families.

Since 1942, 140 Royal Canadian Sea Cadet Corps Cayuga has operated on CFB Wainwright. In 2015, 3003 Royal Canadian Army Cadet Corps Battle River (PPCLI) was relocated to CFB Wainwright from Edgerton, Alberta.

See also
 Wainwright Aerodrome
 Canadian Manoeuvre Training Centre

References

External links
Official website

Canadian Forces bases in Alberta
Heliports in Canada
Military airbases in Alberta
Cfb Wainwright

CFB Wainwright


James Morgan (1776? – 18 February 1856) was a British architect and engineer, notably associated with the construction of the Regent's Canal in London.

He is thought to have been born in Carmarthen, south Wales, where he became employed by noted architect and planner John Nash – an association which was to last some 40 years. As a master-planner, Nash often left the completion of projects to his assistants and Morgan was no exception. His 1811 masterplan for Regent's Park and the surrounding areas, for example, saw Morgan gainfully employed in supervising much of the park's layout.

That same year, Nash was approached by Thomas Homer to join a venture to construct a canal across north central London. Morgan, again, became responsible for the project's details, his plans formed the basis for the Regent's Canal Act passed by Parliament in 1812 and he was subsequently appointed the company's engineer.

Although not a civil engineer of anything like the stature of contemporaries such as Thomas Telford, Morgan rose to the challenge of designing and supervising bridges, tunnels, basins and docks. Perhaps his most notable achievements were the Maida Hill and Islington tunnels – the latter was the longest on the canal, and when Telford himself was invited to inspect it in 1818, he opined: "materials and workmanship excellent, and its direction perfectly straight". The tunnel opened in 1820 and Morgan retained his role with the company for a further 15 years.

Morgan's other projects included: proposals (never realised) to canalise a stretch of the River Stour to Canterbury in Kent, a terrace of houses in Leamington Spa (with Nash) in 1827, St George's Church, Wolverhampton (1828-1830), and alterations to Bushbury Church, to the north of Wolverhampton (also 1830).

He died in London, and is buried in Brompton Cemetery.

References

External links
 James Morgan, from London Canal Museum

1776 births
1856 deaths
British canal engineers
Burials at Brompton Cemetery
People from Carmarthen

James Morgan (engineer)


The Sri Lankan elephant (Elephas maximus maximus) is one of the three subspecies of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus).

The other two subspecies are the Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) and the Sumatran elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus).

The Sri Lankan elephant is the largest of the three subspecies. They are about  tall, and can weigh up to . They eat leaves, shrubs, grasses, and other plants.

This subspecies is the National animal of Sri Lanka and is native to the island country. It once lived over the entire island. They now live in the dry zones in the north, east, and southeast. These zones are mainly dry deciduous woodland, scrubland, grassland, and marshes. There is a small group in the rainforest.

Sri Lankan elephants are sometimes working animals. They carry timber, transport passengers, and participate in public events like the Procession of Buddha's Tooth. There were many of them in the past. They were aggressively hunted.

In modern times, these elephants can be seen in Sri Lanka's national parks and elephant orphanages. They have been declared an endangered species, and are protected by law. Killing one carries the death penalty.

Description

Asian elephants are usually smaller than African elephants. Females are usually smaller than males. Life span is about 60-70 years in the wild, and over 80 years in captivity. Elderly elephants may starve to death when their teeth wear out or fall out.

The Asian elephant's highest body point is on its head. The tip of their trunk is used like a finger. Their back is curved upward or level.

Their ears are smaller than those of the African elephant. Their feet have more nails than those of African elephants. They have five nails on each front foot, and four on each back foot. Few Sri Lankan male elephants develop tusks, and females have no tusks. Their skin color is darker than that of the two other Asian subspecies. They may have large patches of skin color loss (depigmentation) on ears, face, trunk, and tummy.

Sri Lankan elephants are the largest subspecies of the Asian elephant. Their shoulder height is between 6 and 11 ft. They weigh between 4,000 and 12,000 lb.

Like humans, apes, and dolphins, they have a large and well developed brain. They are very smart. Elephants have the largest brain of all land animals. They have very good memories. They can remember places, people, and events from long in the past.

Distribution

The Sri Lankan elephant was once widely distributed across Sri Lanka. Over the past two hundred years however, human land use and development has forced the elephant from the wet and fertile regions of the southwest to the drier regions of the north, east, and southeast. These drier areas are mainly deciduous woodland, scrub, grassland, and marshes.

Social lives

Like the two other subspecies of Asian elephants, Sri Lankan elephants live in groups of individuals that are related by blood. The group is led by a matriarch. She is usually the oldest and most experienced female in the group.

Sometimes a group will join another group to become a clan. The clan may then join another group or clan to become a herd. Groups are female-centered, and consist of grandmothers, mothers, daughters, sisters, and aunts.

Immature male elephants are members of the group, but once they reach sexual maturity, the females drive them out of the group. These males may then join bachelor groups or live on their own.

Family ties

A mature male elephant is a bull, and a mature female elephant is a cow. Their offspring are called calves. Calves suckle for 2 to 5 years, and develop close ties with their mothers. All cows in the group, clan, or herd will help in different ways to raise and protect the calves.

Male calves are more likely to leave their mothers to play. Play involves head sparring, mounting, charging, shoving, and chasing. Female calves play chasing and running games, throw sticks, and may attack imaginary foes. Both sexes play rough and tumble games with each other.

Male elephants

When males reach sexual maturity in their early teens, the matriarch and other female members of the group will chase him away. These males will not be able to mate with their relatives. The babies of such close unions will likely be inferior elephants.

Young males often form bachelor groups. Only a very few of Sri Lankan male elephants develop tusks. Female do not have tusks. Males become more solitary as they grow older. Adult males join females only for mating. Males do not help in raising the young.

Feeding

Sri Lankan elephants eat leaves, grasses, shrubs, and vines. They sometimes enter farm gardens and eat crop plants. Baby and young elephants feed mostly on different grasses.

Sri Lankan elephants are both browsers and grazers. They walk along and eat, but also stand still and eat what they can reach.

Adult elephants eat 300-400 lb. of food per day to support their bulk. These elephants will eat for up to 16 hours a day to meet their need for food. They drink from 25 to 50 gallons of water daily.

Defecation

The elephants use less than 50% of the food they eat. They produce huge amounts of manure. They defecate about 16–18 times a day, and produce about 220 lbs. of dung.

In the wild, this manure carries and spreads the undigested seeds in the elephant's diet. Their manure is a source of food for insects and birds.

Reproduction

Asian male elephants reach sexual maturity during their early teens. At that time, they enter an annual phase called "musth". This is a period when they become sexually aggressive. They will fight other males to mate with a female.

Once a male and female have successfully mated, a baby elephant called a calf develops in the mother's womb. The calf is born after an 18 to 22 month period. At birth, the calf weighs about 220 lb. Twins are rare.

Babies are weaned at 18 months to 3 years or longer. Female calves stay close to their mothers to strengthen their bonds; male calves venture away from their mothers to explore and play.

Once a mother gives birth, she usually does not breed again until the first calf is weaned. This results in a birth interval of 4 to 5 years. Mothers remain with their herd, but mature males are driven away.

Humans and elephants

See also: Crushing by elephant

In the distant past, Sri Lankan elephants numbered in the hundreds of thousands. They lived in all zones of the island. They were aggressively hunted by Sri Lankans, other Asians, and Europeans.

In the 19th century, a British officer was said to have killed 1,500 elephants. Other British officers held similar records. Between 1829 and 1855 alone, more than 6,000 elephants were captured and killed.

In 2014, there was an estimated 4,000 elephants living on Sri Lanka. The Sri Lankan elephant is protected under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance of Sri Lanka (FFPO), and killing it carries the death penalty.

Sri Lankan elephants are important to the economic and cultural life of Sri Lanka. Some are working elephants. They are used to carry timber. These elephants are losing their jobs because tractors are replacing them.

Elephants can be seen in protected areas and national parks. These elephants attract tourists. This trade improves the economy and the lives of Sri Lankans.

The elephant has always been held in great cultural esteem in Sri Lanka. Rajah, a Sri Lankan elephant with tusks that nearly touched the ground, was declared a national treasure in 1985.

Sri Lankan elephants participate in ceremonies, processions, and other public events. The Esala Perahera (the festival of Buddha's tooth) is held annually in Kandy, Sri Lanka. It is thought to date to the 3rd century BC. Elephants lead the procession, bearing the sacred tooth.

Endangered species

Sri Lankan elephants face the same threats to survival as other Asian elephant subspecies do: the clearing of forests to make way for farms and other human developments has destroyed their living areas.

Conflicts between elephants and humans have been the result. These conflicts have led to the death of both elephants and humans, and the destruction of property. The situation is complicated by the elephant's taste for crops grown by humans such as sugar cane, bananas, and other fruits.

In 1997, about 126 wild elephants were lost as a result of these conflicts. Conflict between government troops and a terrorist group called  the Tamil Tigers has also put elephants at risk.

References

Elephants
Mammals of Asia
National symbols of Sri Lanka

Sri Lankan elephant


Alnwick Garden is a complex of formal gardens adjacent to Alnwick Castle in the town of Alnwick, Northumberland, England. The gardens have a long history under the dukes of Northumberland, but fell into disrepair until revived at the turn of the 21st century. The garden now features various themed plantings designed around a central water cascade. The revival of the gardens led to several public disputes between the Duchess of Northumberland and various garden experts concerning preservation and the use of public funds.  The garden now belongs to a charitable trust, which is separate from Northumberland Estates, although the 12th Duke of Northumberland donated the 42-acre (17 ha) site and contributed £9 million towards redevelopment costs.

History
The first garden was laid down in 1750 by the 1st Duke of Northumberland, who employed Capability Brown, the celebrated Northumberland gardener, to landscape the parkland adjoining Alnwick Museum.

The 3rd Duke was a plant collector, and led a century of development at Alnwick – he brought seeds from over the world, and pineapples were raised in hothouses. In the middle of the 19th century, the 4th Duke created an Italianate garden featuring a large conservatory, and at the end of the century, the gardens were at their grandest, with yew topiary, avenues of limes and acres of flowers.

During the Second World War's "Dig for Victory" campaign, the garden was turned over and provided food, and soon afterwards the austerity of the 20th century saw the garden fall into disrepair. It was closed as a working garden in 1950.

Redevelopment
Redevelopment of the garden was instigated by Jane Percy, Duchess of Northumberland in 1997, and has been led by Belgian landscape designers Jacques and Peter Wirtz. It is the most ambitious new garden created in the United Kingdom since the Second World War, with a reported total development cost of £42 million.

The first phase of redevelopment, opened in October 2001, involved the creation of the cascade and initial planting of the gardens. On 22 December 2004 a large 6,000 sq ft (560 m2) tree house complex, including a cafe, was opened. A pavilion and visitor centre designed by Sir Michael Hopkins and Buro Happold opened in May 2006, with capacity for 1,000 people. The pavilion and visitor centre feature a barrel-vaulted gridshell roof. The gardens include several water features as well as architectural landscaping, topiary and decorative gates.

Poison Garden

A garden featuring intoxicating and poisonous plants was added in February 2005. The garden was thought of by the duchess herself, who wanted the garden to have something that was different from other gardens. Species of the Poison Garden include Strychnos nux-vomica (source of strychnine), hemlock, Ricinus communis (source of harmless castor oil but also deadly ricin), foxglove, Atropa belladonna (commonly called Deadly Nightshade), Brugmansia and Laburnum. The mission of the Poison Garden also includes drug education, with featured plantings of cannabis, coca and the opium poppy Papaver somniferum. The Poison Garden is now one of the main reasons that people visit the gardens.

See also
Orto botanico di Padova

References

External links

 Poison Garden website
 Guided tour of the Poison Garden by head gardener Trevor Jones, Youtube
 Why you should visit magical Lilidorei at Alnwick Garden, the largest play structure in the world

Alnwick
Gardens in Northumberland

Alnwick Garden


The Picolo trumpet is a smaller version of the trumpet, that is also tuned an octave higher than the regular trumpet. Since the 19th century, regular trumpets have three valves. The piccolo usually has four valves. Note also that the piccolo trumpet is different from the pocket trumpet. A pocket trumpet has the same tonal range as a regular trumpet; it is just built differently (to be smaller).

A piccolo trumpet has another characteristic tone, which can easily be distinguished from that of a regular trumpet.

The piccolo was developed in the first quarter of the 20th century, mostly by Julius Kosleck. Kosleck used it to make it easier to play baroque music. Note however, that at the time of Johann Sebastian Bach, the trumpets had no valves; these were added in the 19th century.

Piccolo trumpets could not establish themselves in Jazz music, but they are often used to play classical trumpet.

The trumpet is a "noble instrument"; it is often used to play high-pitched notes. Such notes are easier to play with a Piccolo. Because of its construction, the piccolo cannot play the first octave of the classical trumpet.

Like the regular trumpet, the piccolo is a transposing instrument.

References

Brass instruments

Piccolo trumpet


Heinrich Kaminski (4 July 1886 - 21 June 1946) was a German composer.

Life
Kaminski was born in Tiengen in the Schwarzwald, the son of an Old Catholic priest of Jewish parentage. After a short period working in a bank in Offenbach, he moved to Heidelberg, originally to study politics. However, a chance meeting with Martha Warburg changed his mind: she recognised his musical gift and became his patroness. In 1909 he went to Berlin and began studying music at the Stern Conservatoire, piano with Severin Eisenberger.

In 1914 he began work as a piano teacher in Benediktbeuern. His friends and contemporaries at this time included the painter Emil Nolde and also Franz Marc, whose wife was among his piano students.

In 1916 he married Friederike Mathilde Jopp the daughter of Karl and Marie Jopp (born Schad). Friederike or Elfriede as Kaminski called her, was a singer in Munich.

During World War I Kaminski was also active as a choirmaster and teacher of composition. Later he received a professorship at the Prussian Academy of Arts in Berlin, where he became director of a master class in composition (thus treading in the footsteps of Hans Pfitzner). His most significant pupils were Carl Orff, Heinz Schubert and Reinhard Schwarz-Schilling.

His contract was terminated in 1933 with no renewal on the grounds of his "political opinions" and he returned to Benediktbeuern. Various attempts to re-establish his career came to nothing for the same reason. A check of his ancestry - he had been categorised in 1938 as a "half-Jew", and in 1941 declared a "quarter-Jew" - led to an ongoing ban on the performance of his works. He found himself obliged to flee, to France and Switzerland among other places.

Between 1939 and 1945 he lost three children, and died himself in 1946 at Ried, Bavaria.

Works
His works includes chorales, concertos, songs, choral sonatas, motets and other choral works, as well as operas.

 Operas:
Das Spiel vom König Aphelius ("The Game of King Aphelius")
Choral sonatas:
Psalm 130
Der Tag ist hin ("The Day Is Ended")
Concerto grosso

References
This article is translated from that in the German Wikipedia.

External links

1886 births
1946 deaths
People from Waldshut-Tiengen
German composers
Pupils of Paul Juon
People from the Grand Duchy of Baden
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to Switzerland
Composers from Berlin
Academic staff of the Prussian Academy of Arts

Heinrich Kaminski


Kenneth Harry Clarke, Baron Clarke of Nottingham,  (born 2 July 1940), often known as Ken Clarke, is a British politician. He was the Justice Secretary in the coalition government. Clarke has had a long career in politics and has served in the cabinets of Margaret Thatcher and John Major. On February 26, 2017, Clarke became Father of the House after the death of Gerald Kaufman.

Early life and politics
Clarke was born in West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire, England and was educated at the University of Cambridge. He became the Member of Parliament for Rushcliffe at the 1970 general election and became a Queen's Counsel in 1980. He held a number of lower positions in government under Margaret Thatcher until she promoted him to Health Secretary in 1988. He became Education Secretary in 1990 and when Thatcher resigned as Prime Minister and was replaced with John Major he stayed on as Health Secretary until 1992 when he was promoted to Chancellor of the Exchequer. He stayed as Chancellor until 1997 when the Conservatives were defeated in the General Election.

In opposition
John Major resigned as leader of the Conservative Party soon after he was defeated in the general election and Clarke stood for election to replace him as leader and therefore become the Leader of the Opposition. However he was defeated by William Hague in this contest. When Hague himself resigned after losing the 2001 General Election Clarke again stood for leader but was defeated by Iain Duncan Smith. In 2005 he stood for the leadership for a third time but was defeated by David Cameron. It is thought that Clarke was unable to become leader because many in the Conservative Party do not wish to see the United Kingdom replace the pound with the Euro as the main currency whereas Clarke has always been very much in favour of this policy.

As Shadow Business Secretary
Clarke returned to the Conservative front bench in 2009 as the Shadow Business Secretary where he has the job of monitoring the performance of the current Business Secretary Peter Mandelson. When the coalition government was formed on 11 May 2010 Clarke was made the Justice Secretary.

References

1940 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Chancellors of the Exchequer
Conservative Party (UK) MPs
Lord Chancellors
Members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
Politicians from Nottinghamshire
UK MPs 1970–1974
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
UK MPs 2010–2015
UK MPs 2015–2017
UK MPs 2017–2019
British King's Counsel
Secretaries of State for Health and Social Care

Kenneth Clarke


Captain Tractor is a Canadian folk rock band, based in Edmonton, Alberta. They play a punk-influenced variant of Celtic folk music, similar to such bands as Great Big Sea, The Pogues or Spirit of the West. Their songs are often rich in local, cultural, and geographical references.

The band's most famous songs have been renditions of the folk music classics "The Log Driver's Waltz" and "Drunken Sailor", as well as a cover of the Arrogant Worms' "The Last Saskatchewan Pirate". They have also developed a following for their brand of Canadian rock, with singles such as "Up the Hill", "Frozen Puck to the Head", "This Is Not a Sad Song", "Another Drinking Song", and "The Bastard of Strathcona County".

In celebration of the release of the band's sixth album, 'North of the Yellowhead' (2005 Six Shooter Records), Alley Kat Brewing Company released "Captain Tractor's Yellowhead Wheat Ale".

Their seventh studio album, Famous Last Words, was released on May 3, 2011. A live record, Live at the Roxy, was released in 2015.

Band members
The band consists of five men, one woman, and their mascot, a deer named Bucky.  The band members are:
 Chris Wynters - vocals, guitar, songwriter
 Scott Peters - vocals, mandolin, guitar, bodhran, songwriter, driver
 Jules Mounteer - drums, percussion, driver
 Jon Nordstrom - bass, trumpet, guitar, vocals, songwriter. Joined before "Hat Trick".
 Jason Kodie - keyboards, vocals, musical restraint. Joined before "North of the Yellowhead".
 Shannon Johnson - Fiddle, Vocals

Former members include:
 Aimee Hill - flute, vocals. Left after "East of Edson".
 Jeff Smook - bass, vocals, songwriter. Left after "Bought the Farm".
 Brock Skywalker - accordion, flute, guitar, bodhran, penny whistle, harmonica, mandolin, keyboards, vocals, songwriter. Left just before "North of the Yellowhead".

Discography
Captain Tractor has released seven albums:
 Land (1994)
 East of Edson (1995)
 Bought the Farm (1997)
 Hat Trick (1998)
 Celebrity Traffic Jam (1999)
 Hoserista (2000)
 North of the Yellowhead (2005)
 Famous Last Words (2011)
 "Live at the Roxy" (2015)
 "25 Years On" (2018)

They have also released a video entitled Inconsequential Things in 1998, and an interactive CD-ROM, Bus Madness, in 1995.

Members' solo albums:
 Chris Wynters' Skywriting (Six Shooter Records, 2005) and 2010-1982 (Shameless Records, 2010).
 Jon Nordstrom's Brick and Stone (Independent, 2003) and Waiting for Summer (Independent 2005).
 Former member Brock Skywalker Cerebral Reruns (FrozenPuck, 2004).

References

Other websites
 Official site
 CanConRox entry  CanadianBands.com

Canadian musical groups
Musical groups established in 1993

Captain Tractor


Robert Mirabal (born October 6, 1966) is a Pueblo musician and Native American flute player and maker from Taos Pueblo, New Mexico.

His flutes are world-renowned and have been displayed at the Smithsonian Institution's Museum of the American Indian.  An award-winning musician and leading proponent of world music, Mirabal performs worldwide, sharing flute songs, tribal rock, dance, and storytelling.

Mirabal was twice named the Native American Music Awards' Artist of the Year, and received the Songwriter of the Year award three times. He was featured in Grammy Award winning album, Sacred Ground: A Tribute to Mother Earth in 2006 for Best Native American Music Album

Mirabal also published a book of storytelling poetry and prose in 1994 entitled Skeletons of a Bridge and is currently writing a second book, Running Alone in Photographs. Aside from his artistic talents, Mirabal is a father and a farmer, living in Taos Pueblo and participating in the traditional ways and rituals of his people.

Musical career
Raised traditionally by his mother and grandparents on the pueblo, and born in 1966, Mirabal spoke Tiwa at home and began making flutes at the age of 19. In school, he had learned how to play clarinet, saxophone, piano, and drums, but found his true musical voice in the traditional Native American flute. He met the renowned Native American flute player R. Carlos Nakai as a young man and was greatly inspired by him.

He moved to New York City, playing in a multicultural band made up of a Senegalese guitarist, a Cape Verdean drummer and Haitian keyboardist. There, Mirabal immersed himself in the sound of hip-hop, funk and R&B, which would inform his later trademark music.

He recorded an independent debut album in 1988, and went on to land a contract with Warner Western and later, Silver Wave Records. His first projects were generally focused on traditional music consisting of Native American flute and percussion. One of his early albums, entitled Land was originally  composed for two Japanese avant-garde modern dancers Eiko and Koma, who choreographed a dance production inspired by their impressions of the land around Taos. Cedar and clay flutes, percussion, rattles, and traditional vocals were used throughout the album. Reynaldo Lujan, a percussionist who would go on to collaborate with Mirabal for over a decade, played on the album along with Mark Andes. Each song told a different story about the land around Taos Mountain. The acclaimed performance toured Japan, Europe and the U.S. and in 1992, Mirabal was given New York's Dance and Performance Bessie Award for the score.

In 1996, Mirabal collaborated with Grammy Award-winning Native American singer-songwriter Bill Miller on an album Native Suite-Chants: Dances and the Remembered Earth. The project was both experimental and traditional, featuring flute and percussion as well as Mohican pow-wow singing.

All these disparate interests and experiences led to the band Mirabal in 1995. Bassist Mark Andes, from the '60s band Spirit and '80s rock group Heart, joined Robert along with Reynaldo Lujan. In 1997, they released the groundbreaking album Mirabal that fused rock, funk, and other contemporary forms of music with traditional music, drawing on the legacy of other Native American pop/rock musicians (such as Buffy Sainte-Marie) but creating a unique sound that would set Mirabal apart and gain further mainstream attention.

Mirabal came to greater national prominence during his performance in PBS' 1998 musical dance production, Spirit: A Journey in Dance, Drum, and Song, for which he composed the soundtrack with traditional flute and percussion. Due to the popularity of the program, the network went on to produce a music/dance program centered entirely on Mirabal and his traditional/rock fusion music in 2002, entitled Music from a Painted Cave.  The program and its corresponding CD release were enthusiastically received by mainstream audiences and became a benchmark world music album.  He also collaborated with John Tesh for the acclaimed PBS One World TV special for the millennium in 2000, which showcased music from around the world.

Mirabal's In the Blood CD (2007) on Star Road Records (www.starroadrecords.com) was featured in New Mexico Magazine for their October 2007 issue.  The reviewer wrote that "it is one of his finest to date."  His native state's tourism magazine lauded the CD's "lively danceable rhythms (that) should appeal to mainstream radio.... Mirabal (is) one of the trailblazers of tribal rock....

Mirabal was featured in a 2008 New Mexico Magazine story about Native American flute players, as well as another, 2014 story about the arts in Santa Fe, New Mexico.

In 2011 Mirabal joined the avant-garde string quartet ETHEL for a collaborative tour titled Music of the Sun. This is his second collaboration with the group, with whom he performed at BAM's Next Wave Festival in 2008.

Discography
 Nomad (1994) with Nomad and Mor Thiam
 Song Carrier (1995)
 Land (1995)
 Warrior Magician (1996)
 Native Suite (1996, with Bill Miller)
 Mirabal (1997)
 Native American Lullabies: Under The Green Corn Moon (1998)
 Taos Tales (1999)
 Music from a Painted Cave (2001)
 Indians, Indians (2003)
 Sacred Ground: A Tribute to Mother Earth (2005, compilation)
 Johnny Whitehorse (2005)
 Pueblo Christmas (2007, with Patrick Mirabal)
 In the Blood  (2007)
 Johnny Whitehorse: Totemic Flute Chants (2007)
 Johnny Whitehorse: Riders of the Healing Road (2007)
 The River (2016, with Ethel)

References

External links

1966 births
Living people
Warner Records artists
Native American flautists
New Mexico music artists
Musicians from New Mexico
People from Taos County, New Mexico
Pueblo people
Tiwa Puebloan people
Taos Pueblo
20th-century American musicians
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American musicians
21st-century American male musicians
20th-century Native Americans
21st-century Native Americans
20th-century flautists
21st-century flautists

Robert Mirabal


Atmospheric circulation is a large-scale movement of masses of air. The origin of these processes is the sun's radiation. The sun waves radiate the short-wave radiation. The earth absorbs only a part of this energy. The other part is radiated back to the atmosphere and to the universe. The back radiation is long-waved. The thermal energy is distributed thanks to the circulation of the air on the surface of the earth.

The demonstration of circulation varies from year to year, but the basic climatologic structure is almost constant. We recognize 3 cells: the Hadley cell, the Ferrel cell and the Polar cell. The movement of air masses is influenced by coriolis force. It means that the air diverts to the west.

Hadley cell
The earth and ocean are intensively radiated in the equatorial areas. The hot and usually moist air rises. It is called convection. This process creates a low pressure area along the equator. The area is also called the Intertropical Convergence Zone. The hot air goes to both south and north and gets colder. When the air is cold enough, it goes down to the surface again. This creates deserts and semi-deserts of the subtropics.  Reaching latitude 30 degrees, the masses of air return to the rainy equator.

Polar cell
The air on 60 degrees of latitude is colder and drier than the air on the equator. On the other hand, the rising movements are still possible. The character of processes is similar to the Hadley cell. The warmer air goes up, and falls down on the poles. This air comes back to the equator.

Ferrell cell
The movements between 30 and 60 degrees are more complex. Temperature is not the main reason of this circulation. The air in this temperate zone cell moves according to the differences between moving masses in Hadley and Polar cells. Prevailing winds are generally westerly.

Other websites
 Intertropical Convergence Zone

Atmosphere
Meteorology

Atmospheric circulation


Nahman Avigad  (Hebrew: נחמן אביגד, September 25, 1905 – January 28, 1992), born in Zawalow, Galicia (then Austria-Hungary, now Zavaliv, Ukraine), was an Israeli archaeologist.

Biography
Avigad studied architecture in what is now the town of Brno, Czech Republic. Avigad emigrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1926. He married Shulamit (née Levin) Avigad in 1928. He worked in the excavations of the Beth Alpha synagogue and the Hamat Gader synagogue.

Avigad earned his PhD in 1952, with a dissertation on the tombs of the Kidron Valley, Jerusalem. He taught at Hebrew University from 1949 and until his retirement in 1974.

He directed the dig at Beit She'arim beginning in 1953. Avigad also worked on the excavations of Masada, the mountaintop complex built by Herod the Great. He was involved in the exploration of caves in the Judean desert, and published one of the Dead Sea scrolls.

In 1969, Avigad was invited to undertake the excavation of the Jewish Quarter in the Old City of Jerusalem, devastated by the 1948 war and its aftermath. Among the finds were what was believed to be the earliest depiction of the menorah that once burned in the Second Temple, cut into a wall plastered 2,200 years ago, and the Burnt House, the remnant of a building destroyed when Titus, the future Roman Emperor, repressed the Jewish Revolt against Roman rule.  This was the first physical or archaeological evidence for the destruction described in the work of Flavius Josephus. The dig also unearthed lavish villas belonging to the Herodian upper classes, remains of the Byzantine Nea (new) Church and Jerusalem's Cardo, a fifth-century -wide  road connecting the Church of the Holy Sepulcher and Nea Church. Among the most exciting finds was the remnants of the Broad Wall twice mentioned in the Book of Nehemiah. Built to defend Jerusalem during the reign of King Hezekiah in the late 8th century BCE, there remains an  stretch of wall,  thick, rising from bedrock west of the Temple Mount. Nearby, Avigad also unearthed the Israelite Tower, a remnant of Jerusalem's Iron Age fortifications attesting to the Babylonian sack of Jerusalem in 586 BCE.

Avigad published on many topics, notably on Hebrew seals. One of the seals found by him in 1964 has been tentatively identified as belonging to Queen Jezebel, mentioned in the Bible: however, this identification is contested by others.
According to Bible scholar Frank Moore Cross, Avigad "was Israel's most distinguished epigraphist in his generation, and one of the great figures in the history of Hebrew and Jewish epigraphy."

Awards
 In 1954, Avigad was awarded the Bialik Prize for Jewish thought.
 In 1977, he was awarded the Israel Prize, for Land of Israel studies.
 In 1984, he received the Yakir Yerushalayim (Worthy Citizen of Jerusalem) award from the city of Jerusalem.

Bibliography
A complete bibliography and a biography can be found in the festschrift published in Avigad's honor: Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and  Geographical Studies.  Vol. 18, Nahman Avigad.  Eds. B. Mazar and Y. Yadin.  Jerusalem, The Israel Exploration Society and the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University 1985.

Popular books
"Discovering Jerusalem" (1983)

See also
List of Israel Prize recipients
List of Bialik Prize recipients

References

1905 births
1992 deaths
Israeli archaeologists
Biblical archaeologists
Polish emigrants to Mandatory Palestine
Jews from Galicia (Eastern Europe)
Austrian Jews
Jews from Mandatory Palestine
20th-century Israeli Jews
Israel Prize in archaeology recipients
Israel Prize in Land of Israel studies recipients
20th-century archaeologists
Burials at Har HaMenuchot

Nahman Avigad


County Armagh is one of six counties that together make up Northern Ireland. It is also one of the 32 counties of Ireland. County Armagh lies in the north-east of the island of Ireland. The county is 1,326 km² big. About 174,792 people live there.

The county is named after the city Armagh. The name "Armagh" comes from the Irish word Ard meaning "high place" and Macha. In stories, Macha is a goddess of Ireland. Armagh was the main town for the historic Ulaid kings of Ulster.

Landscape
The landscape has hills in the south. Slieve Gullion is the highest mountain. It goes down from there and becomes flatter with small hills called drumlins in the middle and the west. It is fairly flat in the north, and is at sea level at Lough Neagh. There are a few small islands in the lake.

History
Ancient Armagh was the territory of the Ulaid people before the year 400. The Red Branch ruled the county. Their capital was a fort called Emain Macha near Armagh. The Red Branch play an important role in the stories in the Ulster Cycle. They are also part of the story the "Cattle Raid of Cooley".

Armagh was the Roman Catholic home of Saint Patrick.

The Troubles
South Armagh is mostly nationalist. In the late 20th century, a significant minority of its inhabitants supported the IRA.

Main towns
 Newry (though part of the settlement is in County Down)
 Craigavon, includes:
 Lurgan
 Portadown
 Armagh (has city status)
 Bessbrook
 Keady
 Richhill
 Tandragee

Baronies
Baronies are old divisions of Ireland. Below is a list of the baronies in County Armagh.

 Armagh
 Fews Lower
 Fews Upper
 Oneilland East
 Oneilland West
 Orior Lower
 Orior Upper
 Tiranny

Transport

Two major highways run through County Armagh. The M1 links Belfast to Dungannon in the north of the county. The A1/N1 from Belfast to Dublin runs in the far south east. Armagh has lots of local roads connecting the towns and villages.

There used to be many railways in County Armagh, but at the moment there are only a few stations left.

Ulsterbus is the bus company that runs most public transport in the county. It includes buses from most towns to Belfast. Railway companies Northern Ireland Railways and Iarnród Éireann together run the Enterprise service. It has trains that go to Dublin (about an hour) and Belfast (about forty minutes) a few times daily. There are many more Northern Ireland Railways trains into Belfast and Bangor.

Inland waterways
The Ulster Canal and the Newry Canal run through County Armagh. The canals are not fully open for boats to use.

People associated with County Armagh
 Frank Aiken (1898–1983), born in County Armagh, Irish Republican, Irish Minister for External Affairs, Tánaiste
 Saint Benignus of Armagh, (d. 467), first rector of the Cathedral School of Armagh and Bishop of Armagh
 Brian Boru (941–1014), buried in Armagh City, victor of Clontarf, High King of Ireland
 Arthur Hunter Palmer (1819–1898), born in County Armagh, 5th Premier of Queensland
 Seamus Mallon (1936– ), born in County Armagh, first deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland
 Colin Morgan (1986– ), born in County Armagh, Actor
 Paul Muldoon (1951- ), born in County Armagh, Poet, winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry and the T. S. Eliot Prize
 Tomás Ó Fiaich (1923–1990), born in County Armagh, Cardinal (Catholicism), Catholic Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland 1977–90
 Eunan O'Neill (1982), born in County Armagh, journalist, Russia Today
 Sir William Olpherts (1822–1902), born in County Armagh, soldier and recipient of the Victoria Cross
 Ian Paisley (1926– ), born in County Armagh, clergyman, politician, second First Minister of Northern Ireland
 Saint Patrick (fifth century), first Bishop of Armagh
 George William Russell 'Æ' (1867–1919), born in County Armagh, author, critic and painter
 Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh (1759–1822), educated in The Royal School, Armagh. British Foreign Secretary, Secretary for War, Leader of the United Kingdom House of Commons and Chief Secretary for Ireland
 Colin Turkington (1982), born in Portadown, County Armagh, professional racing driver and 2009 British Touring Car champion.
 James Ussher (1581–1656), Church of Ireland Archbishop of Armagh and Primate of All Ireland 1625–1656
 Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley (1760–1842), educated in The Royal School, Armagh. Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and Governor General of India

Places of interest
 Armagh Observatory, founded in 1790 & Armagh Planetarium, a modern working astronomical research institute with a rich heritage
 Armagh Public Library on Abbey Street in Armagh City
 Navan Fort, now a tree ring mound. It once housed the rulers of Ulster. It now has a modern interactive visitor centre
 Saint Patrick's Church of Ireland Cathederal which was founded in 445.
 Saint Patrick's Roman Catholic Cathederal
 Gosford Castle, 19th-century castle with a lot of grounds
 Slieve Gullion, extinct volcano with crater lake. It has the highest burial cairn in Ireland. 9 counties can be seen from the top. There is also a visitor centre.

References

Other websites

 Armagh and Down tourism
 Armagh history
 Public Records Office of Northern Ireland – Irish Administrative Divisions
 Triskelle – County Armagh
 Notes on County Armagh
 Selected Monuments in County Armagh
 Poyntzpass Presbyterian Church, Armagh

County Armagh


Syngman Rhee or Lee Seungman (, March 26, 1875 – July 19, 1965) was a Korean independence activist and politician. He was the first president of South Korea. His presidency, from August 1948 to April 1960, remains controversial, affected by Cold War tensions on the Korean peninsula and elsewhere. Rhee was a strong anti-Communist, and led South Korea through the Korean War. His presidency ended in resignation following popular protests against a disputed election. He died in exile in Hawaii.

Early life
Rhee was born in Whanghai Province to Rhee Kyong-sun, a member of the aristocratic Yangban family. Rhee was descended from Prince Hyo-nyong, the second son of King Taejong of Joseon. He soon became active in Korea's struggle against Japanese control. He was arrested in 1897 for demonstrating against the monarchy.

After he was released in 1904 he went to the United States. He obtained several degrees, including a Ph.D. from Princeton University. He began writing his name in the Western manner, with the personal name before the family name. When President Theodore Roosevelt was helping negotiations for the Treaty of Portsmouth, Rhee asked him to put freedom for Korea in the treaty. This did not happen.
In 1910, he went back to Korea under Japanese rule. His political actions got him into trouble with the Japanese army, so he left for China in 1912. In 1919, all of the major pro-independence groups formed the provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai. Rhee was elected the president, a post he held until 1925 when he was removed by the Provisional Assembly for the misuse of his authority.

Presidency

President of South Korea
At the end of World War 2, Rhee returned to Seoul. This was before the other independence leaders, since he was the only one well known to the Allies. In 1945, he was chosen as head of a provisional (short term) government. With the unspoken agreement of the occupation authorities, Rhee conducted a number of actions to "remove Communism". This was actually a hidden plan to remove all possible opposition to him.

Rhee was elected the first president of South Korea on 10 May, 1948 by a parliamentary vote. He defeated Kim Koo, the last president of the Provisional Government by 180 votes to 16. All the left-wing parties refused to take part in the election. On 15 August 1948, he formally took over from the US military and became the legal power over the Korean people.

As president, Rhee took on dictatorial powers even before the Korean War started in 1950. He allowed the internal security force (headed by his right-hand man, Kim Chang-ryong) to put people in prison and torture them if they were thought to be Communists or North Korean agents. His government also directed several massacres, the most famous being on the island of Jeju. This was after an uprising by left-wing groups. While massacres did occur under governments that came after Rhee, there were not as many and less widespread.

Korean war
Rhee made himself unpopular by telling the people in Seoul to stay in the city when the Korean War started. He had already left. His decision to cut the bridges on the Han River stopped thousands of people from escaping from the Communists. The UN and South Korean forces fought back and drove the North Koreans north towards the Yalu River. After a Chinese counterattack the UN and South Korean were pushed back to the current DMZ. Rhee became unpopular with the US and the UN for refusing to agree to a number of peace plans that would have left Korea divided. He wanted to become the leader of a united Korea with UN assistance. He tried to stop any peace plan that would not remove the northern government completely. He also argued for stronger military action to be used against China. He was annoyed because the US would not bomb China.

On January 18, 1952, Rhee declared South Korean rule over the waters around the Korean peninsula. This was an idea the same as today's exclusive economic zones. The new border, which Rhee called the "Peace Line", included Tsushima Island and the uninhabited islands named Dokdo. This led to protests from the Japanese government. They claimed that the islands were Japanese territory. Minor clashes followed, but the islands have been under South Korean administration since then.

Throughout his rule, Rhee took extra steps to keep his control over the government. In May 1952 Rhee pushed through constitutional changes which made the presidency a directly elected position. To get this passed by parliament he declared martial law. He jailed the members of parliament he thought would vote against it. Rhee was soon elected by a big majority. He regained control of parliament in the 1954 elections. He pushed through an amendment to exempt himself from the eight-year limit on presidents.

Rhee's chances for reelection during the presidential campaign of 1956 seemed small. People did not think he should be allowed to be president three times. The main opposition candidate Shin Ik-hee drew large crowds during his campaign. Shin's sudden death during the campaign, however, allowed Rhee to win the presidency with ease. The runner-up of that election, Cho Bong-am of the Progressive Party, was later charged with spying and executed in 1959.

Resignation
By 1960, Rhee had already served three terms in office. His next victory was certain after the main opposition candidate, Cho Byeong-ok, died shortly before the March 15 elections. Rhee won with 90% of the vote. The real contest was in the race for vice president. This was held separately under the law of the time. Yi Gi-bung, who Rhee thought should take over after him, was declared the winner of an election that the opposition claimed was rigged. This created anger among groups of the Korean people. A student-led April 19 Movement forced Rhee to resign on April 26.

On April 28, a DC-4 belonging to the CIA operated Civil Air Transport took Rhee out of South Korea. This was to rescue him from the angry crowds. Kim Yong Kap, Rhee's Deputy Minister of Finance, revealed that President Rhee had taken $20 million in government money for himself. Rhee, his Austrian-born wife, Francisca Donner, and adopted son lived in exile in Honolulu, Hawaii. On July 19, 1965, Rhee died of a stroke. His body was returned to Seoul and buried in the National Cemetery on July 27, 1965.

Legacy
Rhee's legacy has been in considerable dispute. In general, conservative circles regard Rhee as the patriarch of the nation, while liberals tend to be critical of him.

Rhee's former residence in Seoul, Ihwajang, is currently used for the presidential memorial museum, and Woo-Nam Presidential Preservation Foundation has been set up to honour his legacy.

Book
 《Dogripjungsin》(독립정신)
 《Japan Inside Out》

Rhee in songs and movies
 Rhee is mentioned in Billy Joel's history themed song "We Didn't Start the Fire".
 Rhee is mentioned numerous times in Robert Altman's movie MASH (1970). This is a comedy about a team of American army medical officers during the Korean War.
 When the lights go out in the operating room during surgery and then come back on a short time later one of the doctors says "Syngman Rhee paid the electric bill."
 When Hawkeye (Donald Sutherland) takes the young Korean mess hall boy, and his friend, Ho-Jon, to get medical treatment, he tells the South Korean guards that "This is Syngman Rhee's son, he goes right in", so he does not have to wait.

Related pages
 Kim Gu
 Kim Kyusik
 Kim Seong-Su
 Yun Poson
 Yun Chi-Young
 Chang Myon
 Kim Won-bong
 Kim Il-Sung
 Park Hon-Yong
 Heo Jeong
 Yun Chi-Ho
 Park Chung-hee
 Philip Jaisohn

References

Other websites

 Syngman Rhee
 Syngman Rhee's FBI files hosted at the Internet Archive

1875 births
1965 deaths
Anti-communists
Deaths from stroke
Speakers of the National Assembly (South Korea)
People of the Korean War
Presidents of South Korea

Rhee Syng-man


Morris Ginsberg  (14 May 1889 – 31 August 1970) was a British sociologist, who played a key role in the development of the discipline. He served as editor of The Sociological Review in the 1930s and later became the founding chairman of the British Sociological Association in 1951 and its first President (1955–1957). He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1942 to 1943, and helped draft the UNESCO 1950 statement titled The Race Question.

Biography

He was born in Kelmė, a small town in the Province of Kaunas in Lithuania (at the time occupied by the Russian Empire). He was given an education considered good according to the standards adopted by a small, isolated and intensely religious little Jewish community. His knowledge of Hebrew and religious principles was adequate but of secular learning he was absolutely ignorant.

At the age of thirteen he was sent away from home to Telšiai and then to Vilijampolė, where were situated two of the well known Yeshivot or academies for the study of Talmud. There he remained until the age of 15 and studied rabbinical lore with great zeal.

About this time there was a revival of Hebrew literature and an attempt was made by many Jewish writers to introduce the learning of the Western peoples to the Jews of Russia. It was in this way that he was brought into contact with European ideas and inspired with a great desire for secular knowledge.

His father had previously emigrated to Liverpool, England and established a tobacco factory, and at the age of 15 he rejoined him together with his mother and sisters.  He made up his mind to study, but at the time he was ignorant of any European language except Yiddish and, although he knew a great deal about religious matters and Hebrew lore, he knew nothing whatever of even the rudiments of secular education.   He worked in his father's business and could only study in his spare time.  He succeeded, however, in preparing for the Matriculation Examination of the University of London which he passed in January 1907.  Unfortunately the stress of circumstances made it impossible for him to continue.   For some years he was employed as a clerk in a clothing factory, and later in an engineering shop.

Eventually he obtained a post as a teacher in a small college at Margate, where he remained until about 1910. While there, he prepared for the Inter BA examination which he passed in July of that year. As a result, he was awarded the Martin White Scholarship in Sociology which enabled him to study at University College London for two years. During these two years he took all the first-class prizes offered for Modern and Ancient Philosophy. In 1912 he passed the BA Honours examination with a First Class in Philosophy and Sociology. The professors under whom he had worked were Dawes Hicks of University College London, and Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse of the London School of Economics. Hobhouse invited him to do research work in sociology and in 1913 he became Hobhouse's assistant, the result of their joint investigations being published in 1915 (see below).

At the London School of Economics his work was largely on sociology and political science. At the same time he continued his work in philosophy. He won the John Stuart Mill studentship three times in succession. Ginsberg incidentally acquired a good working knowledge of French and German, and outside his main sphere of studies, he took courses in biology, chemistry and physics.  In 1914 he passed the MA examination with special distinction. His thesis consisted of a dissertation on the philosophy of Malebranche and was accompanied by a translation of his Discourses on Metaphysics (1923).

In the meantime he had been appointed Lecturer in Philosophy at University College London, where he gave courses on the history of modern philosophy, logic, and social philosophy. At the London School of Economics he lectured on sociology, ethics and the history of political ideas.  During World War I the London School of Economics requested that his military service be postponed as he was standing in to give the courses which had previously been given by R.H. Tawney, Clement Attlee and Charles Mostyn Lloyd.

In 1921 he was reappointed Assistant at the London School of Economics, and full Lecturer in 1923.  A year later he was appointed to the Readership in Sociology, being supported by recommendations from Bronisław Malinowski and C.G. Seligman as well as Dawes Hicks from University College London. He published The Psychology of Society in 1921 and by 1964 it had reached its ninth edition and had been translated into many languages ranging from Spanish to Japanese. In 1930 he succeeded Hobhouse to the Martin White Professorship of Sociology at the London School of Economics.

His Sociology, written in 1934, was described by The Guardian in their obituary as "probably the best introduction to the subject ever written". (Guardian, 1 September 1970).

Main ideas

In his thesis on Malebranche, Ginsberg mainly argued against Mario Novaro's criticisms of Malebranche's theory of occasionalism, claiming that Novaro "entirely ignored the main difference between Hume and Malebranche in regard to causality. Malebranche does not, in truth, deny a necessary connection between cause and effect."

Some of the major themes of his work were concerned with

1. The social responsibility of sociologists, which he saw as part of the more general problem of the ethics of knowledge. He believed that there was an urgent need to undertake fuller investigation of the relations between questions of fact and questions of value – particularly in the face of relativistic views that maintain that social conflicts have their origin in fundamental differences of moral outlook.

2.  The second main theme is the question of what he called "Reason and Unreason" in human nature and society. He criticised the traditional view, widely propagated from Aristotle through Hume to Bertrand Russell, that the main functions of reason in human affairs lie in the clarification, systematisation and control of impulse and feeling, and the discovery of means to their fulfilment. He contended that reason and feeling should not be held to be in opposition, or reason as the slave of the passions, but that reason could play a significant role in motivating action and directing feeling and conation.  He sums up his view as follows:
"We have not to choose between Hume's view of reason as the slave of the passions and Kant's view of it as independent and over-riding them.  We may conceive of it rather as that in our personality which strives for integration, deeper than conscious thought, but the more effective the more it uses thought, working within and through the basic impulses and interests and deriving its energy from them".~ from: "Is Reason the Slave of the Passions" – in The Plain View, Feb. 1955

Morris Ginsberg was continually preoccupied with examining the role of reason in ethics.   His position on this has sometimes been misunderstood – occasionally strategically misunderstood. He charted and analysed the diversity of morals among societies, and between groups and individuals, but made a clear distinction between that recognition and assumption that ethics must be entirely relative.  In consequence he was ready to take issue with those who propounded emotive theories of ethics, and those who were influenced, for example, by the work of cultural anthropologists to adopt the relativistic standpoint. Cultural relativism, however, does not entail moral relativism, as its opponents often claim in a straw-man argument.

Ginsberg manifested an 'objectivist' theory of ethics in the tradition of Plato, Aristotle, Mill, Sidgwick and Hobhouse.  This led him to maintain that 'value' and 'obligation', 'good' and 'bad' are terms not further reducible or analysable into each other or into terms not implying them.  He also deals positively with the notion of levels of moral development, and suggests criteria for assessing these.   Using these criteria it is possible to detect unmistakable differences of level between different societies in the modern world.   He saw clearly that there is no finality in these matters, and that conditions, circumstances and societies change, involving advances and regressions.

3.   He was inevitably also concerned with the nature of Justice and its relationship to equality, and the associated question of Law as an increasingly important agent of social change and reform.  The ethics of punishment and the complex nature of individual moral freedom and its involvement with legal compulsion is examined in "On Justice in Society" (1965), where he concludes as follows:-
'Three questions have to be asked (a) Is the use of force necessary or can the end aimed at be secured by suasion or voluntary agreement?
(b) Can the end in question be attained by compulsion or does its value depend on its being freely or spontaneously pursued?  These questions have to be faced in any effort to distinguish between the rights and duties which require and permit of legal reinforcement and rights and duties which are best assured by moral means;  that is, by inner conviction and free acceptance.'

4.  Another pervading theme in his work was the advocacy of the liberal disposition of mind as a desideratum.   He opposed this to fanaticism, impulsiveness, 'totalitarianism'.  He was for sanity, coolness, reflection and restraint in judgement.   His approach to problems was fundamentally Apollonian, and he mistrusted the Dionysian temperament, though understanding its nature and its potency.  As he said ("The Idea of Progress" 1953 pp 72–73) 'The liberal mind is characterised by an abhorrence of fanaticism, a greater readiness to count the cost in terms of human happiness and human lives, a profounder awareness of the effects of violence, both on those who employ it and those who suffer it.'

Works
 The material culture and social institutions of the simpler peoples (with L. T. Hobhouse, Wheeler), (1915)
 The Psychology of Society, (1920)
 L. T. Hobhouse (with J. A. Hobson), (1931)
 Studies in Sociology, (1932)
 Sociology, (1934)
 Reason and unreason in society, (1947)
 1923 Translation of Malebranche's Dialogues on Metaphysics and on Religion, The Macmillan Company
Essays in Sociology and Social Philosophy (in three volumes): 1. On the Diversity of Morals,  2. , Reason and Unreason in Society, 3. Evolution and Progress, (1956)

See also
 Moral objectivism
 Malebranche's occasionalism

Footnotes

References
 The above is adapted with permission from an address by E. M. Eppel given at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel in April 1991.

External links

 Catalogue of the Ginsberg papers at the Archives Division of the London School of Economics.

1889 births
1970 deaths
British sociologists
Jewish sociologists
British Jews
Lithuanian Jews
British people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent
Fellows of the British Academy
Alumni of University College London
Academics of University College London
Academics of the London School of Economics
Presidents of the British Sociological Association
People from Kelmė
Presidents of the Aristotelian Society

Morris Ginsberg


The Nanking Safety Zone (; , Nankin Anzenku, or , Nankin Anzenchitai) was a demilitarized zone for Chinese civilians set up on the eve of the Japanese breakthrough in the Battle of Nanking (December 13, 1937). Following the example of Jesuit Father Robert Jacquinot de Besange in Shanghai, the foreigners in Nanjing (also known as Nanking) created the Nanking Safety Zone, managed by the International Committee for the Nanjing Safety Zone led by German businessman and Nazi party member John Rabe. The zone and the activities of the International Committee were responsible for safely harboring 250,000 Chinese civilians from death and violence during the Nanjing Massacre.

Evacuation of Nanjing
Many Westerners were living in the city at that time, conducting trade or on missionary trips. As the Japanese army began to approach Nanjing, the Chinese government departed, moving to the transitional capital of Hankow. Most of the foreigners in Nanjing fled the city as well. However, a small number of Westerners chose to remain behind. It is not clear exactly how many Westerners stayed behind and who they were. The number reported ranges from 20 to 30. David Askew has analyzed various sources who provide differing numbers of foreigners remaining in the city on different dates. According to Askew, the best estimate seems to be that there were 27 foreigners in the city, five of whom were journalists who left the city on December 16, a few days after it fell to the Japanese army.

Other than these five journalists, the other Westerners who remained in Nanjing were businessmen, physicians and missionaries. Almost all of these were members of either the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone or the International Red Cross Committee of Nanking.

Establishment
The Westerners who remained behind established the Nanjing Safety Zone, which was composed of a score of refugee camps that occupied an area of about 3.4 miles2 (8.6 km2). The Safety Zone was bordered by roads on all four sides, and had an area of approximately 3.86 km2, with 25 refugee camps centered around the U.S. Embassy.

To coordinate their efforts, the Westerners formed a committee, called the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone. German businessman John Rabe was elected as its leader, partly because of his status as a member of the Nazi party and the existence of the German-Japanese bilateral Anti-Comintern Pact. The International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone was formed on November 22, 1937.

Recognition
The City of Nanjing affirmed the existence of the Safety Zone, sent cash and food, and staffed security personnel in the zone. On December 1, 1937, the mayor of Nanjing, Ma Chao-chun, ordered all Chinese citizens remaining in Nanjing to move into the "Safety Zone" and then fled the city.

The Japanese army did not recognize its existence, but they agreed not to attack parts of the city that did not contain Chinese military forces. The members of the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone managed to persuade the Chinese government to move all their troops out of the area.

According to Miner Searle Bates, one of the American missionaries, "The Chinese authorities agreed to the idea of the Zone, though the military were naturally reluctant to move out of the area before the very last minute." Bates described the Japanese position on the Safety Zone in this way, "The Japanese authorities never formally recognized the Zone, but did say that they would not attack an area which was not occupied by Chinese troops. On this narrow margin of agreement, the Chinese promise to evacuate the area and the Japanese statement that they would not intentionally attack an unoccupied place, the Safety Zone was finally put through."

The Japanese army did not subject the Safety Zone to concentrated air bombardment or shelling. Only a few shells landed in the Zone throughout the siege, which wounded about 40 refugees.

Atrocities committed by the Imperial Japanese Army

The Japanese did respect the Zone to an extent; no shells entered that part of the city leading up to the Japanese occupation except a few stray shots. During the chaos following the attack of the city, some were killed in the Safety Zone, but the atrocities in the rest of the city were far greater by all accounts.

Japanese soldiers committed atrocities in the Safety Zone that were part of the much larger Nanjing Massacre. The International Committee appealed a number of times to the Japanese army, with John Rabe using his credentials as a Nazi Party member, but to no avail. From time to time, the Japanese would forcefully enter the Safety Zone, carry off a few hundred men and women, and either summarily execute them or rape and then kill them. The Japanese army claimed that there were guerrillas in the Safety Zone due to the fact that anyone not wearing a uniform could enter.

End
In late January 1938, the Japanese army forced all refugees in the Safety Zone to return home, and claimed to have "restored order". On February 18, 1938, the Nanking Safety Zone International Committee was forcibly renamed "Nanking International Rescue Committee", and the Safety Zone effectively ceased to function. The last refugee camps were closed in May 1938. John Rabe and his International Committee were credited with saving 200,000–250,000 lives despite the ongoing massacre.

After George Ashmore Fitch departed, Hubert Lafayette Sone was elected Administrative Director of the Nanking International Relief Committee.

Legacy
Before the normalization of relations between China and the West, the Westerners who remained behind in Nanjing to run the Nanking Safety Zone were vigorously criticized by the Chinese government. For example, a group of researchers at Nanjing University in the 1960s condemned the members of the Western community in Nanjing for turning a blind eye to the Japanese atrocities in the city and misused the primary sources to suggest that the Westerners had cooperated in the Japanese slaughter of Chinese. As Chinese concerns about "American imperialism" diminished, and as Japan became the target of official vitriol (partly at least because of the highly politicized and contentious issue of Japanese textbooks), views in China dramatically changed. Westerners were now depicted as active resistors rather than active collaborators.

However, certain right-wing and nationalist Japanese authors and politicians claim that along with the Nanjing massacre, the Safety Zone never existed. The museum of the Yasukuni shrine omits any mention of the Nanjing massacre and proclaims that "The Japanese established a safety zone for Chinese civilians and made a special effort to protect historical and cultural sites. Inside the city, residents were once again able to live their lives in peace."

See also
 George Ashmore Fitch
 Minnie Vautrin
 Shanghai Ghetto
 Nanking (1937-1945)

Notes

Sources
 Rabe, John, The Good Man of Nanking: The Diaries of John Rabe, Vintage (Paper), 2000.
 Vautrin, Wilhemina, Minnie Vautrin Papers. Special Collection, Yale Divinity School Library, Record Group No. 8 and No. 11.
 Online Documentary – the Nanking Atrocities, 2000. <https://web.archive.org/web/20070928163836/http://www.nankingatrocities.net/Table/table.htm>

Further reading
 Timothy, Brooks, ed. Documents on the Rape of Nanking, The University of Michigan Press, 2002. (includes a reprint of "Hsu, Shuhsi, Documents of the Nanking Safety Zone, Kelly and Walsh, 1939".)
Zhang, Kaiyuan, ed. Eyewitnesses to Massacre, An East Gate Book, 2001. (includes documentation of American missionaries; M.S. Bates, George Ashmore Fitch, E.H. Foster, J.G. Magee, J.H. MaCallum, W.P. Mills, L.S.C. Smyth, A.N. Steward, Minnie Vautrin and R.O. Wilson.)  (Google Books version)

Nanjing Massacre
Rescue of Chinese in the Nanjing Massacre

Nanking Safety Zone


An oxygen mask is a mask that provides a method to transfer breathing oxygen gas from a storage tank to the lungs. Oxygen masks may cover only the nose and mouth (oral nasal mask) or the entire face (full-face mask). They may be made of plastic, silicone, or rubber.
In certain circumstances, oxygen may be delivered via a nasal cannula instead of a mask.

Medical plastic oxygen masks
Medical plastic oxygen masks are used primarily by medical care providers for oxygen therapy because they are disposable and so reduce cleaning costs and infection risks. Mask design can determine accuracy of oxygen delivered with many various medical situations requiring treatment with oxygen. Oxygen is naturally occurring in room air at 21% and higher percentages are often essential in medical treatment. Oxygen in these higher percentages is classified as a drug with too much oxygen being potentially harmful to a patient's health, resulting in oxygen dependence over time, and in extreme circumstances patient blindness. For these reasons oxygen therapy is closely monitored. Masks are light in weight and attached using an elasticated headband or ear loops. They are transparent for allowing the face to be visible for patient assessment by healthcare providers, and reducing a sensation of claustrophobia experienced by some patients when wearing an oxygen mask. The vast majority of patients having an operation will at some stage wear an oxygen mask; they may alternatively wear a nasal cannula but oxygen delivered in this way is less accurate and restricted in concentration.

The global disposable oxygen masks market, according to Altus Market Research, has the potential to grow by USD 1.1 billion between 2019 and 2023. The market's growth pace will also pick up speed throughout this time.

Silicone and rubber masks
Silicone and rubber oxygen masks are heavier than plastic masks. They are designed to provide a good seal for long-duration use by aviators, medical research subjects, and hyperbaric chamber and other patients who require administration of pure oxygen, such as carbon monoxide poisoning and decompression sickness victims. Dr. Arthur H. Bulbulian pioneered the first modern viable oxygen mask, worn by World War II pilots and used by hospitals. Valves inside these tight-fitting masks control the flow of gases into and out of the masks, so that rebreathing of exhaled gas is minimised.

Hoses and tubing and oxygen regulators
Hoses or tubing connect an oxygen mask to the oxygen supply. Hoses are larger in diameter than tubing and can allow greater oxygen flow. When a hose is used it may have a ribbed or corrugated design to allow bending of the hose while preventing twisting and cutting off the oxygen flow. The quantity of oxygen delivered from the storage tank to the oxygen mask is controlled by a valve called a regulator. Some types of oxygen masks have a breathing bag made of plastic or rubber attached to the mask or oxygen supply hose to store a supply of oxygen to allow deep breathing without waste of oxygen with use of simple fixed flow regulators.

Oxygen masks for aviators

History

An early 1919 high-altitude oxygen system used a vacuum flask of liquid oxygen to supply two people for one hour at . The liquid passed through several warming stages before use, as expansion when it evaporated, and absorbed latent heat of vaporization, would make the gasified oxygen so cold that it could cause instant frostbite of the lungs.

The first successful creation for the oxygen mask was by Armenian born Dr. Arthur Bulbulian, in the field of facial prosthetics, in 1941.

Many designs of aviator's oxygen masks contain a microphone to transmit speech to other crew members and to the aircraft's radio. Military aviators' oxygen masks have face pieces that partially cover the sides of the face and protect the face against flash burns, flying particles, and effects of a high speed air stream hitting the face during emergency evacuation from the aircraft by ejection seat or parachute. They are often part of a pressure suit or intended for use with a flight helmet.

Regulations

Three main kinds of oxygen masks are used by pilots and crews who fly at high altitudes: continuous flow, diluter demand, and pressure demand.

In a continuous-flow system, oxygen is provided to the user continuously. It does not matter if the user is exhaling or inhaling as oxygen is flowing from the time the system is activated. Below the oxygen mask is a rebreather bag that collects oxygen during exhalation and as a result allows a higher flow rate during the inhalation cycle.

Diluter-demand and pressure-demand masks supply oxygen only when the user inhales. They each require a good seal between the mask and the user's face.

In a diluter-demand system, as the altitude increases (ambient pressure, and therefore the partial pressure of ambient oxygen, decreases), the oxygen flow increases such that the partial pressure of oxygen is roughly constant. Diluter-demand oxygen systems can be used up to .

In a pressure-demand system, oxygen in the mask is above ambient pressure, permitting breathing above . Because the pressure inside the mask is greater than the pressure around the user's torso, inhalation is easy, but exhalation requires more effort. Aviators are trained in pressure-demand breathing in altitude chambers. Because they seal tightly, pressure-demand-type oxygen masks are also used in hyperbaric oxygen chambers and for oxygen breathing research projects with standard oxygen regulators.

Supplemental oxygen is needed for flying more than 30 minutes at cabin pressure altitudes of  or higher, pilots must use oxygen at all times above  and each occupant must be provided supplemental oxygen above .

Aviation passenger masks and emergency oxygen systems

Most commercial aircraft are fitted with oxygen masks for use when cabin pressurization fails. In general, commercial aircraft are pressurized so that the cabin air is at a pressure equivalent to no more than  altitude (usually somewhat lower altitude), where one can breathe normally without an oxygen mask. If the oxygen pressure in the cabin drops below a safe level, risking hypoxia, compartments containing the oxygen masks will open automatically, either above or in front of the passenger and crew seats, and in the lavatories.

In the early years of commercial flight, before pressurized cabins were invented, airliner passengers sometimes had to wear oxygen masks during routine flights.

Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)
Firefighters and emergency service workers use full face masks that provide breathing air as well as eye and face protection. These masks are typically attached to a tank carried upon the back of the wearer and are called self-contained breathing apparatuses (SCBA). Open circuit SCBAs do not normally supply oxygen, as it is not necessary and constitutes an easily avoidable fire hazard. Rebreather SCBAs usually supply oxygen as this is the lightest and most compact option, and uses a simpler mechanism than other types of rebreather.

Specialized masks for astronauts
Specialized full-face masks that supply oxygen or other breathing gases are used by astronauts to remove nitrogen from their blood before space walks (EVA).

Specialized masks for pets
Specialized snout masks which supply oxygen to revive family pets have been donated to fire departments.

Oxygen delivery to divers
Divers only use pure oxygen for accelerated decompression, or from oxygen rebreathers at shallow depths where the risk of acute oxygen toxicity is acceptable. Oxygen supply during in-water decompression is via rebreather, open circuit diving regulator, full-face mask or diving helmet which has been prepared for .

Built-in breathing system

Oxygen supply to divers in decompression chambers is preferably through a built-in breathing system, which uses an oxygen mask plumbed into supply and exhaust hoses which supply oxygen from outside the chamber, and discharge the exhaled oxygen-rich gas outside the chamber, using a system equivalent to two demand valves, one upstream of the diver, to supply oxygen on demand, and the other downstream, to exhaust exhaled gas on demand, so that the oxygen partial pressure in the chamber is limited to relatively safe levels. If oxygen masks are used that discharge into the chamber, the chamber air must be replaced frequently to keep the oxygen level within safe operating limits.

Anesthesia oxygen masks
Anesthesia masks are face masks that are designed to administer anesthetic gases to a patient through inhalation. Anesthesia masks are either made of anti-static silicone or rubber, as a static electricity spark may ignite some anesthetic gases. They are either black rubber or clear silicone. Anesthesia masks fit over the mouth and nose and have a double hose system. One hose carries inhaled anesthetic gas to the mask and the other brings exhaled anesthetic gas back to the machine. Anesthesia masks have 4 point head strap harnesses to securely fit on the head to hold the mask in place as the anaesthetist controls the gases and oxygen inhaled.

Masks for high-altitude climbers
Oxygen masks are used by climbers of high peaks such as Mount Everest. Because of the severe cold and harsh conditions oxygen masks for use at extreme altitude must be robust and effective. The oxygen storage tanks used with the masks (called oxygen bottles) are made of lightweight, high-strength metals and are covered in high-strength fiber such as kevlar. These special oxygen bottles are filled with oxygen at a very high pressure which provides a longer time duration of oxygen for breathing than standard pressure oxygen bottles. These systems are generally only used above .

In recent years oxygen mask systems for high-altitude climbing which pump oxygen constantly have been increasingly replaced by systems supplying oxygen on demand via nasal cannulas.

Oxygen helmets
Oxygen helmets are used in hyperbaric oxygen chambers for oxygen administration. They are transparent, lightweight plastic helmets with a seal that goes around the wearer's neck that looks like a space suit helmet. They offer a good visual field. Light weight plastic hoses provide oxygen to the helmet and remove exhaled gas to the outside of the chamber. Oxygen helmets are often preferred for oxygen administration in hyperbaric oxygen chambers for children and patients that are uncomfortable wearing an oxygen mask.

Mask retention systems
Medical oxygen masks are held in place by medical personnel or the user by hand, or they may be fitted with a lightweight elastic headband so the mask can be removed quickly. Full-face masks are secured by several straps. Tightly fitting oxygen masks are secured at four points by two head straps. Aviators' masks are often equipped with "quick don" harnesses that allow those in pressurized aircraft to rapidly don the masks in emergencies. Military aviators' oxygen masks are secured to flight helmets with quick-release systems.

See also

References

Dosage forms
Drug delivery devices
Medical masks
Oxygen
Safety equipment
Respiratory therapy
Ambulances
Armenian inventions

Oxygen mask


Dina matematika, aljabar σ (atawa widang σ) X pikeun sasét S hartina anggota subsét S nu katutup ku sét operasi-operasi nu bisa diitung; aljabar σ utamana dipaké pikeun nangtukeun ukuran S. Ieu konsép penting dina analisis matematika jeung téori probabilitas.

Sacara formal, X kaasup aljabar σ mun jeung ukur mun (jika dan hanya jika, if and only if) miboga pasipatan di handap ieu:

 The empty set is in X,
 If E is in X then so is the complement of E.
 If E1, E2, E3, ... is a sequence in X then their (countable) union is also in X.

From 1 and 2 it follows that S is in X; from 2 and 3 it follows that the σ-algebra is also closed under countable intersections (via De Morgan's laws).

An ordered pair (S, X), where S is a set and X is a σ-algebra over S, is called a méasurable space.

Conto
Mun S mangrupa sét naon baé, then the family consisting only of the empty set and S is a σ-algebra over S, the so-called trivial σ-algebra. Another σ-algebra over S is given by the full power set of S.

If {Xa} is a family of σ-algebras over S, then the intersection of all Xa is also a σ-algebra over S.

If U is an arbitrary family of subsets of S then we can form a special σ-algebra from U, called the σ-algebra generated by U. We denote it by σ(U) and define it as follows.
First note that there is a σ-algebra over S that contains U, namely the power set of S.
Let Φ be the family of all σ-algebras over S that contain U (that is, a σ-algebra X over S is in Φ if and only if U is a subset of X.)
Then we define σ(U) to be the intersection of all σ-algebras in Φ. σ(U) is then the smallest σ-algebra over S that contains U.

This léads to the most important example: the Borel algebra over any topological space is the σ-algebra generated by the open sets (or, equivalently, by the closed sets).
Note that this σ-algebra is not, in general, the whole power set.
For a non-trivial example, see the Vitali set.

On the Euclidean space Rn, another σ-algebra is of importance: that of all Lebesgue measurable sets. This σ-algebra contains more sets than the Borel algebra on Rn and is preferred in integration théory.

See also measurable function.

Aljabar

Aljabar sigma


An acrostic is a poem or other form of writing. In an acrostic, the first letter, syllable, or word of every line, paragraph, or other feature spells out a word or a message. It can be used to remember things. For example, Edgar Allan Poe wrote an acrostic poem in English:

Elizabeth it is in vain you say
"Love not" — thou sayest it in so sweet a way:
In vain those words from thee or L.E.L.
Zantippe's talents had enforced so well:
Ah! if that language from thy heart arise,
Breath it less gently forth — and veil thine eyes.
Endymion, recollect, when Luna tried
To cure his love — was cured of all beside —
His follie — pride — and passion — for he died.

The first letters of each line (E, L, I, Z, A, B, E, T, H) spell out Elizabeth.

References

Literary terms

Acrostic


Thees Uhlmann (born April 16, 1974 in Hemmoor, Lower Saxony) is a German musician and author. He is a founding member of the indie-pop band Tomte and also writes for the magazines Intro, Visions, Spex and Musikexpress.

1987-2011: Tomte, various projects
Singer-songwriter Thees Uhlmann helped form the Hamburg-based band Tomte in the late-eighties under a different name. The band spent most of the nineties recording demo songs and EPs, releasing their debut record in 1998. They did not receive major chart success until 2006's Buchstaben über der Stadt.

In 1999, he accompanied the indie-rock band Tocotronic on their K.O.O.K-tour and he wrote a tour diary called Wir könnten Freunde werden ("We could become friends"). With Marcus Wiebusch and Reimer Bustorff of Kettcar he founded the label Grand Hotel van Cleef in 2002 which presents an annual festival named "Fest van Cleef". In 2005 he shot the film Keine Lieder über Liebe () with the German actors Jürgen Vogel and Heike Makatsch. He played guitar in the fictional band "Hansen", which brought out an album also called Keine Lieder über Liebe.

2011-2013: Debut solo album
In the summer of 2011, striking out as a solo act for the first time since the incarnation of his rock band Tomte, Uhlmann featured on rapper Casper's 2011 album XOXO. One month later, his debut album was released. The record was composed almost entirely on the piano as opposed to his signature acoustic guitar. In an interview with Rolling Stone, Uhlmann stated that after a major performance with his band, each member went their own way to work on different projects: "It [the album] would certainly sell better if I could say that there were terrible fights, and then in six years there will be some a reunion special, but it wasn't like that. All of us had a lot going on in our lives at this time." The album, which also features Casper, was released to critical acclaim and chart success in Germany, peaking at #4 and remaining on the charts for two months. The album achieved minor success in Austria, where it broke the Top 20, but did not manage to chart in Switzerland. Uhlmann toured throughout 2011 to support the album.

2013-present: #2, Touring

In 2013, Uhlmann began playing new material that would end up comprising his second solo record. In an interview with Der Spiegel, Uhlmann stated that his music is not the most modern-sounding in the world, but that he prefers it that way, also stating later that he does want his music to be coded and inaccessible. His second album, #2, was released in August of that year and was promoted by constant touring throughout German-speaking Europe. It, appropriately, reached #2 on the German Album Charts and also reaching the Top 5 in Austria. The album was not as successful in Switzerland, where it only remained on the charts for one week. The record was heavily influenced by American singer-songwriter Bruce Springsteen, both in sound and visuals. The album jacket pays homage to Springsteen's 1975 landmark album Born to Run. The music video for single Am 07. März (On the 7th of March), parodies pop culture and major milestones in history including the fall of the Berlin Wall, the films of Spike Lee, and the recording of "We Are the World". Despite the album being released to positive reviews from music critics, neither the leading-single nor the follow-up Zugvögel (Migrant Birds) charted. Simon Langemann of Laut wrote of the album that Uhlmann & Band had matured and refocused their direction, stating that the end-result is, at times, more successful than the first record. In March 2015, Uhlmann announced the October release for a novel he had written that "has nothing to do with me or my music." Uhlmann also announced a book tour.

Discography
The official discography, including his work with Tomte, consists of nine studio albums, two compilation albums, thirteen singles and seventeen music videos.

Albums

Singles

Published works

References

External links
 Tomte Blog

German rock musicians
Living people
1974 births
Participants in the Bundesvision Song Contest

Thees Uhlmann