The Unification of Germany occurred in the 19th century. Until then, there had been many states in Central Europe. Some of them were very small, possibly no more than  from one border to the other. Many Germans wanted a nation that would be united, powerful and influential. The leaders of Germany believed that they are part of the German Empire dynasty which led to the strategic battles and alliances which united Germany.

The unification took place on January 18, 1871. After the Franco-Prussian War, the German princes proclaimed the German nation in Versailles, France, at the Hall of Mirrors. The unification joined many independent German states, which became the German Empire. Otto von Bismarck, Prime Minister of Prussia, became Chancellor of the Empire.

The unification of Germany had begun many years earlier, during the Napoleonic Wars. At the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, which is also called the Battle of Nations, many of the German states joined Russia, Sweden and Austria to defeat Napoleon's army. In 1815, the Congress of Vienna ended the Napoleonic Wars. Austria remained the most politically powerful German state. Prussia emerged as Austria's political and diplomatic rival.

There were many problems in unifying the German states. Not all politicians wanted unification. Some feared that it would give Austria and Prussia too much power among the many states. There were also problems in deciding who would collect taxes and how much was be paid.

Background
Before the creation of the modern German State, there were hundreds of small duchies and kingdoms. Many of these kingdoms were a part of the Holy Roman Empire. In 800 AD, Pope Leo III made the Frankish King, Charlemagne, the Holy Roman Emperor.

In the 18th century the hundreds of rulers of parts of the Holy Roman Empire were practically independent; they seldom had to obey the Emperor, and often made war against each other or against the Emperor. During the Napoleonic Wars the empire was abolished. Napoleon made a new satellite state, the Confederation of the Rhine. He was soon defeated and the Congress of Vienna reorganized the German states into a new German Confederation. Bismarck's North German Confederation replaced that, until he converted it into the German Empire.

References

19th century in Germany
Nationalism

Unification of Germany


The geometric mean is a number, which is used to represent a set of numbers. It is calculated by taking the n-th root of the product of these numbers. In symbols, if we have  numbers , the geometric mean is

What most people refer to when they talk about mean or average is the arithmetic mean. The geometric mean is almost always smaller than the arithmetic mean. In some cases, it is equal. The geometric mean is often used in finance and in statistics.

Because there's a product, it does not make sense to calculate the geometric mean if one of the numbers is zero. It generally also does not make much sense to calculate it when one of them is a negative number. It isn't used for complex numbers, because calculating the root of a complex number has more than one result.

Arithmetics
Statistics

Geometric mean


An illegal prime is a special prime number.  Such prime numbers are called illegal, because there is a way to change them, so that they yield something illegal: a program to circumvent the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. One of the first people to find such a prime was Phil Carmody. In 2001, he found a prime that contains the gzip compressed source code for a program that can circumvent the Content Scrambling System.  The Content Scrambling System is used as a way to prevent DVDs from being copied. Later, other primes were found that resulted in directly runnable programs.

The United States and other countries made it illegal to publish or circulate computer programs that can circumvent copy protection. Since prime numbers are a concept from mathematics, their knowledge cannot be made illegal easily.

Any information that can be represented in binary form can be represented as a number.

Prime numbers
IT law

Illegal prime


Crash (born John Matos; October 11, 1961, in Bronx, New York) is a graffiti artist.

Early life
As early as 13, John Matos was spray painting New York City trains, the full image art as opposed to simpler tagging soon transferred to silk screened canvas.

Recognition
Crash was first noticed through his murals on subway cars and dilapidated buildings and is now regarded as a pioneer of the Graffiti art movement.

His work is said to convey a "visual link between street life and established society". and in 1980, Crash curated the now iconic exhibition:"Graffiti Art Success for America" at Fashion MODA, launching the graffiti movement that has remained very active through today.

During the 1980s, Crash had exhibits across the United States and abroad. Galerie Yaki Kornblit was the first instrumental gallery in Amsterdam that helped launch his career in Europe.  In 1981, Crash, along with 10 other artists were chosen by The Public Art Fund to design animated imagery for The Spectacolor Billboard in Times Square.

In 1983, Crash was given his first gallery showing by Sidney Janis at the Sidney Janis Gallery, Chase Manhattan, N.A., as well as CITIBANK, N.A., and other collections came calling.

In 1988, he sprayed Notes in the Wind measuring 178 x 178 centimeters to be exhibited and eventually to be owned by the Peter Stuyvesant Foundation in Zevenaar, Netherlands.

Eric Clapton Graffiti Guitars
In 1996, Crash painted an Eric Clapton Signature Stratocaster and gave it to the artist as a gift. Clapton went on to use the specially designed guitar through his 2001 tour and later appeared with another. In total Crash has created 5 guitars for Clapton, though only three of them have made public appearances. One of Clapton's "Crashocasters" (nicknamed by Eric's former guitar tech, Lee Dickson) auctioned for $321,100 (USD) by the name of "Crash-3" and was used extensively during the first Crossroads Guitar Festival in 2004. Soon after Fender Musical Instruments commissioned the creation of 50 such graffiti designed guitars from Crash and named the line "Crashocasters." Crash went on to also design a line of custom painted Telecasters with matching Fender amps. Other artists such as John Mayer and Ed Sheeran have used the custom painted Crashocaster guitars. Crash painted another Crashocaster which Clapton played at the Crossroads Guitar Festival 2019 held at American Airlines Center of Dallas (Texas) on September 20 and 21, 2019.

Crash x Teddy M Stratocaster for Ed Sheeran
In 2015, musician Ed Sheeran commissioned a collaboration between Crash and British artist Teddy M to create the 'Crash x Teddy M' Stratocaster.  The guitar features Crash's famous eye design and the Teddy M Heart and was debuted by Sheeran during his sold out Wembley Stadium, London shows in July 2015.

Keith Haring Collaborations
In 1984, Crash along with Keith Haring painted mural installations for the 5/5 Figuration Libre France/USA at the Musée d'art Moderne de la Ville de Paris and in 1995, Crash was commissioned by British American Tobacco to create a commission for Lucky Strike brand cigarette, joining fellow artist Keith Haring to create a special work for this company and their collection.

Notable Exhibitions
In July 2006, the pieces titled "Aeroplane 1" (1983) and "A-U-T-O-matic",(1985), along with other paintings from their permanent collection were displayed in the Brooklyn Museum of Art in a featured exhibit titled "Graffiti."
In 2009, Crash held his first exhibition of painted guitars and guitar related artwork in NYC.

In 2016, a new series of canvas spray paintings were displayed at JoAnne Artman Gallery in Chelsea for his solo exhibition entitled, "Breaking Ground: Redefining the Urban Experience." In 2018, Crash showed at JoAnne Artman Gallery again for another show, "Concrete Jungle."

30 Year Retrospective
In 2010, Crash held a 30-year retrospective at Fairfield University's Walsh Gallery.
Crash was asked by Sanrio to create a series of paintings to be shown at Art Basel, Miami Beach, FL, featuring Hello Kitty and other characters from Sanrio's catalogue.

Notable Projects
Also, in 2010, Crash was commissioned to create a special limited edition luggage for TUMI, Inc.  A painting was created and used for the design, which was released worldwide in 2011.  Same day releases were coordinated in Tokyo, Hong Kong, New York, Germany, Paris and London.
Crash is one of the New York artist featured at MOCA, The David Geffen Building, Los Angeles' "Art in the Streets", April–August 2011.

In 2011, Crash held his first print survey exhibition in Southport, Ct., at Southport Galleries.

In 2012, Crash was asked to participate in painting on Paris' Le M.U.R.

In 2014, Crash was asked to create a series of murals for The Little Italy Street Art ( L.I.S.A. ) Project as well for T.A.G.
Project, The Bronx, NY.  He was also asked to participate on painting at The Bushwick Collective, Brooklyn, NY.
Crash also created a line of shoe wear for ASH Footwear.
In 2014, Crash along with partner Robert Kantor, opened WALLWORKSNY, in the South Bronx, to showcase both young, emerging local artists as well as established artist both local and international.

In 2015, Crash continued his long standing association with the TATSCRU by painting a series of murals, as well with The L.I.S.A. Project.
Also in 2015, he was commissioned to participate and install a mural in Coney Island for Coney Art Walls in cooperation with Thor Equities and Jeffrey Deitch, Brooklyn, NY. He created a site specific mural at Villa Tamaris, La Seyne sur Mer, France, as wall as a retrospective exhibition of his work, spanning 30 years.
The end of 2015 found Crash creating his last installation for the year at Wynwood Walls, Wynwood, Miami for Goldman Properties.

In 2016, Crash was commissioned to create a 200-foot mural at the new wing of The Jewish General Hospital in Montreal, Canada, as well as accepting a mural commission at Sun Life Stadium, Miami, Florida, and new installations for The L.I.S.A. Project and a new mural for Coney Art Walls in cooperation with Thor Equities and Jeffrey Deitch, Brooklyn, NY. (Houston/Bowery Wall, NYC)

In 2019, Crash participated in the New York City's "Beyond the Streets," bringing a massive new showcase of the evolution of graffiti and street art to the city that helped it become a global phenomenon.

Public Collections
Boca Raton Museum of Art
Museum of Modern Art, NYC
Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn, NY
New Orleans Museum of Art, New Orleans, LA
Scottsdale Museum of Contemporary Art, AZ
Museum of the City of New York, NYC
Flint Institute, Flint, MI
Groniger Museum, Groningen, The Netherlands
Museum Boymans-van Beuninger, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Aachen, Nue Galerie-Sammlung Ludwig, Germany
Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Ft. Wayne Museum, Ft. Wayne, Indiana
Cedar Rapids Museum, Cedar Rapids, Iowa
Vero Beach Museum, Vero Beach, FL
Vieques Museum, Vieques, Puerto Rico
Naples Museum of Art, Naples, FL
Orlando Museum of Art, Orlando, FL

References

External links
Crash Homepage
Crash Journal -  Pad
Crash - Blog
Crashocasters
An interview with John Matos
 Exhibition in Addict Galerie, Paris, 2010

1961 births
Living people
American graffiti artists
Artists from the Bronx

John Matos


In sports, a Most Valuable Player award is an honour given to the player or players of a team that performed better than the other players throughout a league or contest. It was first used in professional sports, but is now used a lot in amateur sports and other things unrelated to sports, such as business and music awards. A similar award used in sports, often in soccer, is man of the match.

More reading

Sports words

Most Valuable Player


The Re-Mission games for young cancer patients were conceived by Pam Omidyar and designed based research by the nonprofit HopeLab Foundation, with direct input from young cancer patients and oncology doctors and nurses, and game developer Realtime Associates, among others. The games engage young cancer patients through entertaining game play while impacting specific psychological and behavioral outcomes associated with successful cancer treatment. HopeLab has made Re-Mission games available at no charge to young people with cancer and their families, as well as oncology healthcare workers and institutions around the world.

Re-Mission
The original Re-Mission game was released in 2006 as a Microsoft Windows based third-person shooter based in the serious games genre. In Re-Mission, the player controls an RX5-E ("Roxxi") nanobot who is designed to be injected into the human body and fight particular types of cancer and related infections such as non-Hodgkin lymphoma and leukemia, at a cellular level. The player must also monitor patient health and report any symptoms back to Dr. West (the in-game doctor and project leader). Each of the 20 levels is designed to inform the patient on a variety of treatments, how they function, and the importance of maintaining strict adherence to those treatments. Various "weapons" are used, such as the Chemoblaster, Radiation Gun, and antibiotic rocket.

Copies of Re-Mission were distributed at no charge to others, though donations were accepted. As of 2012, more than 200,000 copies of Re-Mission had been distributed in 81 countries, placing it among the most successful serious games to date. HopeLab engaged organizations and individuals worldwide to facilitate distribution of the game to teens and young adults with cancer. On May 30, 2007, Cigna HealthCare announced a partnership with HopeLab in which Cigna distributes copies of Re-Mission to its members at no cost. HopeLab has also partnered with Starlight Children's Foundation and the ESA Foundation to distribute Re-Mission.

Re-Mission 2
Re-Mission 2 is the 2013 follow-up to the original game. A collection of free online games, Re-Mission 2 is designed to improve psychological and behavioral outcomes associated with cancer treatment adherence.  Each game puts players inside the body to fight cancer with weapons like chemotherapy, antibiotics and the body's natural defenses. Game play parallels real-world strategies used to fight cancer and win. More than 120 young people with cancer participated in the research and development of the games.

Re-Mission 2 applies insights from a brain-imaging study published in 2012 by HopeLab and Stanford University researchers, showing that the Re-Mission video game strongly activates brain circuits involved in positive motivation.  This reward-related activation is associated with a shift in attitudes and emotions that helped boost players' adherence to prescribed chemotherapy and antibiotic treatments in a previous study.  As a result, each Re-Mission 2 game is designed to boost positive emotion, increase self-efficacy, and shift attitudes toward chemotherapy.

Each Re-Mission 2 game puts players inside the body to defeat cancer, using weapons like chemotherapy, antibiotics and the body's immune cells. The games are designed specifically for teens and young adults who are at risk of adverse cancer outcomes due to poor treatment adherence.  Research on Re-Mission 2 shows that the new games are as effective as the original Re-Mission game in increasing players' self-efficacy, boosting positive emotions and shifting attitudes about chemotherapy.
Re-Mission 2 games are free to play online at re-mission2.org, and Re-Mission 2: Nanobot's Revenge is available for download as a mobile app for iOS and Android devices. The browser-based games and mobile app offer a variety of game play styles for young cancer patients who spend time online and on mobile devices.

Research
HopeLab conducted an international, multicenter randomized controlled trial to gauge the efficacy of Re-Mission as it relates to compliance with prescribed chemotherapy and antibiotic treatments, cancer-related knowledge, and self-efficacy. The study enrolled 375 cancer patients aged 13–29 at 34 medical centers in the United States, Canada and Australia. Subjects received either computers pre-loaded with a popular commercial video game (the control group) or computers preloaded with the same control game plus Re-Mission. Study results indicated that playing Re-Mission led to more consistent treatment adherence, faster rate of increase in cancer knowledge, and faster rate of increase in self-efficacy in young cancer patients. These findings were published in August 2008 in the peer-reviewed medical journal Pediatrics. Notably, to ascertain treatment compliance, researches used objective blood tests to measure levels of prescribed chemotherapy in the bodies of study participants rather than subjective self-report questionnaires, and electronic pill-cap monitors were used to determine utilization of prescribed antibiotics. Researchers concluded that a carefully designed video game can have a positive impact on health behavior in young people with chronic illness and that video-game–based interventions may constitute a component of a broader integrative approach to healthcare that synergistically combines rationally targeted biological and behavioral interventions to aid patients in the prevention, detection, treatment, and recovery from disease. HopeLab conducted additional research to understand the mechanisms of action that make Re-Mission effective.  Results of an fMRI study of Re-Mission showing the impact of the game on neurological processes were presented in August 2008 at the 10th International Congress of the Society of Behavioral Medicine. This research informed HopeLab's development of Re-Mission 2.

References

External links
 HopeLab main site
 Re-Mission main site supporting game orders and online community
 Re-Mission 2 main site supporting online game play
 Ruckus Nation idea competition main site

Articles and videos
 Using a Mobile App to Fight Cancer, HUFFPOST Live, November 5, 2013
 "Games for Health Keynote Speaker Steve W. Cole on ReMission" by Erin Hoffman, Serious Games Source (November, 2006)
 "Video Games Aim to Hook Children on Better Health" by Christopher Lee, The Washington Post (October 21, 2006)
 "Re-Mission: game sequel lets you blast cancer cells," USA Today (September 19, 2013)
 "HopeLab: Providing Help Through Video Games," Gaming Illustrated (September 30, 2013)
 "Learning to Game Your Way to Better Health," The Huffington Post Blog (May 20, 2013)
 "HopeLab's Playful Approach to Overcoming Childhood Obesity" Smart Planet (October 30, 2009)
 "Silicon Valley Nonprofit in Spotlight After Trip to White House" San Jose Mercury News (July 15, 2009)
 "A Video Game Helping Kids With Cancer" CTV Toronto (August 7, 2008)
 "Video Game Helps Young Cancer Patients Take Meds" Reuters (August 5, 2008)
 "Startup Uses Video Games to Heal Young People" San Francisco Chronicle (August 4, 2008)
 "Video Game Helps Kids Blast at Their Cancer" Toronto Star (August 4, 2008)
 "Study Shows Video Games Can Change Behavior, Biology" Press Release (August 4, 2008)
 "A Video Game Improves Behavioral Outcomes in Adolescents and Young Adults With Cancer: A Randomized Trial" Pediatrics (August 2008)
 "OMG! Denver Girls Txt It! Game Is Winner" Denver Post (March 30, 2008)
 "Winners Announced in HopeLab's Global Competition to Get Kids Moving!" Press Release (March 17, 2008)
 "F as in Fat: How Obesity Policies are Failing in America" Trust for America's Health (August 2007)
 "2005-2006 President's Cancer Panel report"

2006 video games
Educational video games
Oncology
Third-person shooters
Video games developed in the United States
Windows games
Windows-only games
Realtime Associates games
Medical video games

Re-Mission


Dong Zhuo (; 139 – 192) was a general in ancient China. He took control over the imperial court of Han in 189. He was later killed by his own foster son, Lu Bu.

Dong Zhuo had been a successful warrior and general since his youth. However, he was defeated by Yellow Scarves rebels in 184 and was demoted. After the death of Emperor Ling, the eunuchs kidnapped the young follower Liu Bian and his brother Liu Xie. Dong Zhuo freed them and intimidated the kidnappers so they committed suicide by drowning in the Yellow River. Dong then brought the emperor and his brother back to the capital Luoyang and seized control over the court. Because Liu Bian seemed too stupid to him, Dong deposed him and made his brother Liu Xie emperor instead (Emperor Xian). In 190 he poisoned Liu Bian.

Dong Zhuo became arrogant and violent. He even forced the emperor to move to the city Chang'an as capital instead and burned Luoyang. Because of that, many warlords and Han generals all over the country formed an alliance to destroy Dong's reign. After some fierce battles, Lü Bu knew that his position was lost, and killed his foster father Dong in 192.

Dong's associates Guo Si and Li Jue continued to control the emperor, but they started struggles and the emperor escaped. He was rescued by Cao Cao in 196.

139 births
192 deaths

Three Kingdoms generals

Dong Zhuo


Hill 60 was a man-made hill created in the 1860s from what was dug out from a nearby railway line. It had a height of 150 feet and was situated to the south-east of Ypres. It had been captured by the Germans in December 1914, giving them a strategic advantage due to its height.
Naturally the British wanted to take it back and so in April 1915 they began tunnelling. This use of offensive mining involved digging tunnels into and under the hill in order to place 5 mines beneath the hill. When they were detonated they literally blew the top off Hill 60 allowing the British to retake the crucial position.

All the men who joined the Tunnelling Companies were experienced miners; they came from the coal mines in Northumberland, from the sewers in Manchester and the tubes in London. Most of them had been digging since they were 10 years old, with generations of mining history and were often shorter than regular soldiers.
In the barbaric, secret wars below ground; it was these men who experienced one of the highest death rates.

Unfortunately almost as soon as the battle for Hill 60 was finished, the Second Battle of Ypres began. In these significant battles, the Germans used chlorine gas for the first time. And by the end of the battle, the Germans had moved two miles closer to Ypres, on the eastern side of the salient.

Battles of the Western Front (World War I)
1910s in Belgium
1915 in Europe

Battle of Hill 60 (Western Front)


The Rucker's Bottom site (9EB91) is an archaeological site in located on the upper Savannah River in Elbert County, Georgia.

Site information
Excavated and surveyed by a team of archaeologists from Commonwealth Associates, Inc., under contract from the Atlanta Interagency Archaeological Services Division of the National Park Service, the Rucker's Bottom site was occupied from the Paleoindian and Early Archaic periods through to the Mississippian Period. The original survey took place in 1970 and was followed by three field seasons of excavation from 1980 to 1982. The site was destroyed by the construction of the Russell reservoir.

The site spans 60,000 m².

Archaic occupation
Paleoindian and Early Archaic deposits were examined through the excavation of a 160 square meter block, in 1x1m units. A Clovis point, and Hardaway Dalton, and some 28 side and corner-notched Early Archaic points were found.

Mississippian occupation
The Mississippian period occupation lasted continuously from 1200 to 1500 CE, although the structure of the village changed substantially over time. The excavation showed a large number of structures as well as a plaza at the center of the town and a stockade surrounding the area. There was one large public house fourteen meters in diameter, the building shows similarities to historical accounts of public buildings that featured  fire pits at their center. Excavation showed several rock pits in the plaza that could have been used as trophy pits or as the basis for a game.

The stockade encircled the houses as well as the public spaces. On the North end of the site the stockade showed a row of posts 50 to 120 centimeters deep, a ditch was also uncovered around the stockade. Stockades are often used to defend areas from attacks during warfare.

The town would have been in a swampy area, possibly ox-bow lake, this would have given the residents access to both swamp and riverine resources. Adding these resources to agriculture would have provided a varied diet.

Over the three hundred year occupation the site changed significantly in structure. By the end of the occupation the residences were laid in a rectangular layout around the public square.

See also
 List of Mississippian sites
 Dyar site
 Joe Bell site
 Pisgah phase
 Summerour Mound site

References

Further reading
 Early Archaic Settlement on the Southeastern Atlantic Slope: A View from the Rucker's Bottom Site, Elbert County, Georgia 1983. (David G. Anderson and Joseph Schuldenrein). North American Archaeologist 4(3):177–210.
 Prehistoric Human Ecology Along the Upper Savannah River: Excavations at the Rucker's Bottom, Abbeville and Bullard Site Groups. 1985 (David G. Anderson and Joseph Schuldenrein, assemblers). National Park Service, Interagency Archaeological Services–Atlanta, Russell Papers.
 Prehistory and History Along the Upper Savannah River: Technical Synthesis of Cultural Resource Investigations, Richard B. Russell Multiple Resource Area. 1988 (David G. Anderson and J. W. Joseph). National Park Service, Interagency Archeological Services–Atlanta, Russell Papers.

South Appalachian Mississippian culture
Archaeological sites in Georgia (U.S. state)

Rucker's Bottom site


Play therapy is a kind of therapy counseling with playing activities which makes children overcome their psychological difficulties by themselves and helps them to achieve optimum level of development. Young children are usually hard to express their emotion, needs, and thoughts by language, but it can be possible through their play activities. So, play can be children's language to show their state. Also, they can release stress, and have self-confidence by playing freely what they want and getting good words from therapists.

For therapists, they should know about human development including child development. Also, they need to know to apply different kinds of playing activities for children. But, the most important thing is to have good relationship with the children.

There are many kinds of play therapy. There are psychoanalytic play therapy, children-based play therapy, filial play therapy, cognitive behavioral play therapy, developmental play therapy, Adlerian play therapy, sand play, and group play therapy. Those kinds of play therapy can be used successfully for the children between 4 and 6 years old.
Psychology
Therapy

Play therapy


The Acanthocephala (Greek akanthos, thorn + kephale, head) are a group of parasitic worms. They are modified rotifers.

They may be known as acanthocephales, thorny-headed worms, or spiny-headed worms. They have an evertable proboscis, armed with spines, which they use to pierce and hold the gut wall of the host. Acanthocephalans have no gut and absorb nutrients directly from the host's gut.

Acanthocephalans have complex life cycles, with various hosts, including invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, birds, and mammals. The juveniles are parasitic in crustaceans and insects. Adults live in the digestive tract of vertebrates, especially fish. About 1150 species have been described.

The Acanthocephala were thought to be a separate phylum. Recent genome analysis has shown that they are closely related to rotifers. Since all parasites are derived from free-living forms, the Acanthocephalans are modified rotifers. This is an example of molecular phylogenetics. In due course, spiny-headed worms will probably be placed in a taxonomic rank below phylum, such as sub-phylum or class.

References

Rotifers
Parasites
Animal phyla

Acanthocephala


A comic book archive or comic book reader file (also called sequential image file) is a type of archive file for the purpose of sequential viewing of images, commonly for comic books. The idea was made popular by the CDisplay sequential image viewer; since then, many viewers for different platforms have been created.

Design
Comic book archive is not a distinct file format. It is a filename extension naming convention.

The filename extension indicates the archive type used:
 .cb7 → 7z
 .cba → ACE
 .cbr → RAR
 .cbt → TAR
 .cbz → ZIP

Comic book archive files mainly consist of a series of image files with specific naming, typically PNG (lossless compression) or JPEG (lossy compression, not JPEG-LS or JPEG XT) files, stored as a single archive file. Occasionally GIF, BMP, and TIFF files are seen. Folders may be used to group images in a more logical layout within the archive, like book chapters.

Comic book archive viewers typically offer various dedicated functions to read the content, like one page forward/backwards, go to first/last page, zoom or print. Some applications support additional tag information in the form of embedded XML files in the archive or use of the ZIP comment to store additional information. These files can include additional information like artists, story information, table of contents or even a separate text layer for comic book translations.

Adoption

Windows
 Calibre e-book reader can view and convert comic archives to different formats
 CDisplay was the first application to support the CBR format.
 CDisplayEx, inspired by CDisplay with additional viewing features.
 Comic Seer (Desktop) is a comic book archive viewer and organizer for the desktop.
 Gonvisor is a comic reader simple to use with some features to improve image quality.
 STDU Viewer
 SumatraPDF

Mac
 Calibre can view, library manage and convert to different formats.

Android
 FBReader supports CBZ/CBR files on Android via the ComicBook plugin available from its website.
 Tachiyomi, a manga reader, supports CBZ/CBR files, but does not support CBR files using the RAR5 format.

Unix-like
 Calibre can view and convert to different formats.
 Comic Seer (Desktop) is a comic book archive viewer and organizer for the desktop.
 Evince, a document viewer, includes support for the format.
 Okular can view many formats, including PDF and CBR, and is included in the KDE Software Compilation.
 MuPDF is a cross-platform lightweight PDF, XPS, and E-book viewer.
 Zathura supports this format (as well as PDF, PostScript and others).

See also
 Comparison of image viewers

References

External links

Archive formats
Ebooks
Comics formats

Comic book archive


Skagerrak is a sea in the northern part of Europe between Norway and Denmark. Skagerrak is a part of the North Sea. To the east is Kattegat.

Close to the Norwegian coast is a deep trench (700 m), the rest of the sea is shallow. Oil and gas are produced from rigs in the Skagerrak.

Seas of the Atlantic Ocean

Skagerrak


Bamberg Cathedral is one of the most famous cathedrals of Germany. It can be seen from a long distance near the top of the hill. It has a very rich history. Its official name is Bamberg Cathedral of St. Peter and St. George. It is also called the Kaiserdom ("Imperial Cathedral"). The cathedral is under the administration of the Roman Catholic Church and is the seat of the Archbishop of Bamberg.

Construction of the cathedral

The cathedral was founded in 1004 by the emperor Henry II, and was consecrated in 1012. During the next two centuries it was burnt down twice. The building now is a late Romanesque building with four big towers. It has a choir at both ends. The east chancel is dedicated to St. George. This symbolizes the Holy Roman Empire. The west chancel is dedicated to St. Peter symbolizing the Pope.

It took a long time for the cathedral to be built, and during that time tastes in architecture changed. This is why we can see several styles in different parts of the cathedral, particularly Romaneque and Gothic styles. Between these two styles is the Transitional style, and this is the way the nave was built.

Sculptures and carvings

The cathedral is about 94 m long, 28 m broad, 26 m high, and the four towers are each about 81 m high. There are lots of sculptures in the cathedral. One of the most magnificent ones is the marble tomb of Henry II, the founder of the cathedral, and his wife, the empress Cunigunde. It took the famous sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider 14 years to carve: between 1499 and 1513. The tomb is slightly higher than floor level because below there is a crypt. The carvings round the side tell of various episodes in the lives of the imperial couple.

There is a beautiful Nativity altar in the south transept made in limewood by the famous artist Veit Stoss. He made it when he was about 80 years old. His son asked him to build it. His son was a Carmelite prior in the nearby city of Nürnberg. He was expelled from Nürnberg because he was against the Protestants at the time of the Reformation. This meant that his father was never paid for his beautiful work, which was soon moved to Bamberg.

The Bamberger Reiter

Another treasure of the cathedral is an equestrian statue called the Bamberg Horseman (Bamberger Reiter). People have tried to guess for years who this knight on horseback really was. During the cathedral's history people have often made up stories about who he was. The Romantics thought he was a German emperor from the Hohenstaufen family. The Nazis thought he was a knight who symbolized German perfection, looking towards the east for new lands to conquer. This was Nazi propaganda. The knight on the statue does not, in fact, look east at all. It is now thought that he was probably the 13th century Hungarian king Stephen I.. Modern technology has made it possible for us to know what the original colours were, and this has helped scientists to identify him. The sculptor did not carve the name on the statue. Instead, he carved his mask at the bottom right hand corner. This does not tell us who he was.

Papal grave

Bamberg Cathedral is the only place in Germany where a pope is buried. He was Pope Clement II. He was the local bishop before he became Pope, but he died in 1047 after having been pope for only twelve months.

The organ

The cathedral first had an organ in 1415. The one that was built in 1868 gave many problems and had to be rebuilt five years later, but it was kept until 1940 because it made a nice sound. The organ that we see in the cathedral today was built in 1976 by the organ builder Rieger. There are four angel figures in the corners of the organ case. The organ has four manuals and pedalboard. All the organs during the cathedral's history were built against the north wall because the sound was best there.

Every year about 40 concerts are given in the cathedral.

Buildings and structures in Bamberg
Cathedrals in Germany
Roman Catholic cathedrals
Religious buildings and structures in Bavaria
12th-century buildings and structures

Bamberg Cathedral


Gonzalo López de Haro (bef. 1788 in Puebla – 1823) was a Spanish naval officer and explorer, notable for his expeditions in the Pacific Northwest in the late 18th century.

Background
In 1788 two ships were sent north to investigate Russian activity in Alaska. First Pilot Esteban José Martínez was the expedition commander and captained the sloop Princesa Real. Haro, also a pilot, was given command of the packet ship San Carlos (el Filipino). Second Pilot José María Narváez sailed with Haro. The ships arrived at Prince William Sound in May. Haro sailed San Carlos (el Filipino) west to Kodiak Island and on June 30 found the Russian post at Three Saints Bay. The Russian commander, Evstrat Delarov, provided a map of the Alaskan coast and indicated the locations of seven Russian posts containing nearly 500 men. Delarov also told Narváez that the Russians intended to occupy the port of Nootka Sound, on the west coast of Vancouver Island. Narváez returned to San Carlos (el Filipino) and Haro returned east, rejoining Martínez at Sitkinak Island. Haro and Martínez then sailed southwest to investigate Unalaska Island, where there was a large Russian post under the command of Potap Kuzmich Zaikov. Martínez arrived on July 29, Haro on August 4.

In 1790 and 1791 he was a primer piloto (first pilot) in the expedition commanded by Francisco de Eliza. Haro is reputedly the first European to discover the San Juan Islands.

In 1821, after the Mexican War of Independence, Haro was jailed in Puebla, Mexico. He died in Puebla in 1823.

Haro Strait and Lopez Island are both named after him.

See also
Juan Carrasco (explorer)

References

Spanish explorers of North America
Explorers of Alaska
Explorers of British Columbia
People from New Spain
Year of birth uncertain
1823 deaths
People from Puebla
18th-century explorers
18th-century Spanish people
Spanish history in the Pacific Northwest
Gonzalo
Prisoners and detainees of Mexico

Gonzalo López de Haro


The State Emblem o Pakistan wis adoptit in 1954. The emblem's green colour an the starn an crescent at the tap are seembols o Islam, the releegion maist Pakistani ceetizens identeefy wi. In the center is a quartert shield, wi ilka quarter containin a major crop o Pakistan at the time o its adoption: cotton, jute, tea, an wheat. The floral wreath aroond the shield is Poet's Jasmine (the naitional flouer) an represents the Mughal cultural heritage o Pakistan. The scroll at the bottom contains the naitional motto in Urdu, coined bi Muhammad Ali Jinnah, that reads frae richt tae left: () Iman, Ittehad, Nazm translated as "Faith, Unity, Discipline".

See an aa

 Banner o Pakistan
 Naitional Anthem o Pakistan

Govrenment o Pakistan
Pakistan
Emblem

State emblem o Pakistan


Directive 2001/42/EC is a European Union Directive in the field of environmental protection, evaluating all those plans and programmes which can produce environmental effects. The environmental assessment procedure will be finalised to indicate, to describe and to evaluate all those effects which can happen on the environment when plans and programmes are implemented and as a consequence all the alternative solutions which can be realised on the basis of objectives and the environmental plans and programmes areas.

According to the European Directive, the assessment can be applied to all those plans and programmes edited in the areas of "agriculture, forestry, fisheries, energy, industry, transport, waste management, water management, telecommunications, tourism, town and country planning or land use" and which define the referee scene/panel for authorising the projects listed in the directive 85/337/EC enclosure I and II or for which, considering their effects, it is necessary an evaluation made according to the articles 6 and 7 of Directive 92/43/EEC (Article 3 of Directive 2001/42/EC). Besides, the Directive establishes that it will be necessary an environmental report at the end of the evaluation phases.
The European SEA Directive will be generally integrate by the EU member States procedures or it will be merged in specific and established procedures. Each State has to consider that all the evaluations will be done at a different hierarchical level so that it will be possible to avoid doubles.

Objectives
The Directive wants "to provide for a high level of protection of the environment" and, at the same time, it wants to integrate environmental observations with the elaboration and adoption of plans and programmes in order to promote a sustainable development. In this way it shall be possible to evaluate, according to the Directive, plans and programmes with significant effects on the environment.

Definitions
The Directive provides the definitions of some terms:
plans and programmes refers to plans and programmes (even those one co-financed by the European Commission) made, modified, elaborated and/or adopted by national, regional or local council. It generally refers even to plans and programmes done by an authority in order to be approved "through a legislative procedure by Parliament or Government and which are required by legislative, regulatory or administrative provisions";
environmental assessment refers to the environmental report editing, to the consultations development, to the environmental report evaluation and to the results consultation assessment according to the decision-making process and "the provision of information on the decision in accordance with Articles 4 to 9";
environmental report  refers to all the plans and programmes documents which contain all the Article 5 and Annex I information;
the public refers to one or more "natural or legal persons", according to the national set of rules and "their associations, organizations or groups".

Scope
All the plans and programmes with relevant environmental effects need an environmental evaluation. Generally, it is necessary an environmental evaluation for:
all those plans and programmes concerning "agriculture, forestry, fisheries, energy, industry, transport, waste management, water management, telecommunications, tourism, town and country planning or land use and which set the framework for future development consent of projects listed in Annex I and II to Directive 85/337/EEC";
all those plans and programmes with effects on sites (in this case it will be necessary an assessment according to the articles 6 and 7 of the European Directive 92/43/CEE).
All those plans and programmes, different from the listed ones, will be classified by the Member States according to their level of significant environmental effects and, as a result, it will be possible to determine whether they need an environmental evaluation or not. All the conclusions adopted by the Member States will be public.
The following plans and programmes are excluded by the Directive:
plans and programmes of national defence or civil emergency;
financial or budget plans and programmes;
"plans and programmes co-financed under the current respective programming period for Council Regulations (EC) n. 1260/199 and (EC) n. 1257/1999".

General obligations
The environmental assessment shall be realised during the first phases, this means during the preparation of plans and programmes and before their adoption or their submission to the legislative procedure.

Environmental report
An environmental report shall be done at the end of the evaluation phases: it shall identify, describe and evaluate all the significant effects the plans or programmes implementation could have on the environment and all the alternatives according to the objectives and the plans and programmes environmental scope. The environmental report shall give the following information:
a picture of contents, of the main objectives of plans and programmes and of linked other plans and programmes;
the relevant aspects of the present environmental situation and its probable evolution without the plan or programme execution;
the environmental aspects of the areas which could have a significant interest;
all the existing environmental problems, related to the plan or programme, including all those on areas of particular environmental relevance (all the areas defined according to the European Directives 79/409/EEC and 92/43/EEC);
the environmental protection objectives, established at an international, community or Member States level and the way these objectives and all the environmental considerations influenced the plans and programmes editing;
the possible significant effects on the environment, even biodiversity, population, human health, flora and fauna, soil, water, air, climate, material asset, cultural heritage (including architectural and archaeological heritage), landscape and the relationship among all those factors;
the measures to prevent, reduce and offset the negative effects (of plans and programmes adoption) on the environment;
a synthesis of the alternative choices reasons and a description of the way the assessment has been done, including the difficulties in collecting the necessary information(i.e. technical lacks or know-how absence);
the description of the foreseen measures according to the monitoring;
a synthesis (done in a non technical way) of all the previous information.

Consultations
The draft plan or programme and the environmental report shall be available to the authorities and the public, who shall have the opportunity to express in a rapid way their opinion on the draft proposal and on the environmental report. Member States define the authorities and the portion of public interested by the plan and programme to be discussed.

Decision-making process
During the plan or programme editing and before its adoption or the legislative procedure starting-up, the environmental report and the consultations' opinions are taken into consideration. When a plan or a programme is adopted the State Members shall inform all the consulted authorities, public and Member States.

Monitoring
Member States shall control the relevant environmental effects produced by the plans and programmes execution in order to identify immediately the negative and unexpected effects and to adopt remedial actions.

Information, reporting and review
Member States and the Commission normally exchange information on the Directive 2001/42/EC application.

Legislative references
European SEA Directive 2001/42/EC;
European Directive 92/43/EEC;
European Directive 85/337/EEC;
European Directive 79/409/EEC.

See also
Strategic Environmental Assessment
Environmental Impact Assessment
 Assessment wiki in Italian
Evaluation
European Union Directive

European Union directives
Environmental impact assessment
Sustainability in Europe
2001 in law
2001 in the European Union

Directive 2001/42/EC


The 2010s (pronounced "twenty-tens", "two thousand (and) tens", or simply "the Tens" or "Teens") was a decade in the Anno Domini and Common Era in the Gregorian calendar. It began on January 1, 2010 and ended on December 31, 2019. It is distinct from the decade known as the 202nd decade which began on January 1, 2011 and ended on December 31, 2020.

Events

2010
 January 4 – The world's tallest-ever structure to-date, the Burj Khalifa, is opened in Dubai.
 January 12 – A major Earthquake of magnitude 7, devastates Haiti.
 February 27 – A magnitude 8.8 earthquake hits Chile. It is believed to have been powerful enough to have affected the Earth's axis.
 April 10 – A plane crash in Smolensk, western Russia kills many people who were important in Poland, including President Lech Kaczynski.
 April 14 – A major earthquake hits Qinghai province in China.
 April 14 – A Volcano erupts in southern Iceland. The ash cloud coming from this eruption disrupts air travel.
 from April 20 – Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, the worst oil spill in US history.
 May 7: Human Genome Project concluded
 May 31 – Israel raids a Gaza-bound aid flotilla, killing 9 Turkish activists.
 July/August – Major flooding disaster in Pakistan, affecting more than 15 million people
 October 10 – The Netherlands Antilles are dissolved and split up into new constitutional status.
 October 13 – Thirty-three miners are rescued from the San Jose mine near Copiapo in Chile, after being trapped for 69 days.
 October 25 onwards – In Indonesia, the eruption of the Merapi volcano on Java, and an earthquake in Sumatra kill hundreds of people.
 November 13 – Burmese pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi is released from house arrest.
 December 2 – The FIFA World Cups for 2018 and 2022 are announced as being held in Russia and Qatar respectively.

2011
 January 1 – Estonia starts to use the euro currency.
 January 14 – Amidst anti-government demonstrations, Tunisia's President Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali dissolves the government, declares a state of emergency, and resigns from office.
 February 11 – 2011 Egyptian protests: After more than two weeks of anti-government protests, President of Egypt, Hosni Mubarak resigns from office after more than 29 years in power.
 March 11 – A magnitude 9.1 earthquake strikes off the east coast of the Japanese island of Honshu, causing damage to buildings, as tsunamis are triggered, causing thousands of deaths. The quake also triggers fears over radiation levels at two nuclear power plants.
 March 19 – 2011 Libyan protests: UN-authorised military intervention begins in Libya.
 May 1 – Leader of al-Qaeda Osama bin Laden is killed in Pakistan by US Forces.
 July 9 – South Sudan declares independence from Sudan.
 July 21 – With the landing of the Space Shuttle Atlantis the Space Shuttle programme comes to an end.
 July 22 – 2011 Norway attacks: In Norway, a bomb explosion in central Oslo kills 8 people, and a shooting at a youth camp on the island of Utoya kills 77.
 August 22 – 2011 Libyan civil war: Troops from the National Transitional Council enter Tripoli.
 September 7 – A plane carrying the Lokomotiv Yaroslavl ice hockey team crashes shortly after take-off, killing the entire team, including one who dies five days later.
 October 20 – 2011 Libyan civil war: Muammar al-Gaddafi is killed, as the National Transitional Council takes control of Sirte.
 October 23 – An earthquake in eastern Turkey kills more than 500 people.
 November 12 – Silvio Berlusconi resigns as Prime Minister of Italy.
 December 15 – US troops withdraw from Iraq.
 December 17 – Kim Jong-il, supreme leader of North Korea, dies. His death leads to fear for stability of the Asian region. He is succeeded by his son Kim Jong-un.
 December 30 – Samoa and Tokelau skip this day as the International Date Line is shifted.

2012
January 14 – The Italian cruise liner Costa Concordia runs aground and sinks off the island of Giglio (off Italy's west coast), killing at least 11 people.
July 27 - August 12 - The 2012 Summer Olympics are held in London.
August 6 - NASA's Curiosity rover lands on Mars.
October 22-October 30 - Hurricane Sandy causes damage, and over 200 deaths in Jamaica, Haiti, Cuba, Bahamas, Eastern United States and parts of Canada.
November 6 – Barack Obama is elected to a second term as President of the United States, defeating Mitt Romney.
November 14 – 21 - A week-long war occurs between Israel and Gaza, before a ceasefire is agreed.
November 15 – Xi Jinping becomes the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (paramount leader).

2013
 January 3 – The cable television channel Current TV is bought by Al Jazeera America. Current TV became Al Jazeera America on August 20, 2013.
 January 16 – U.S. President Barack Obama's administration sets up a plan for gun control to limit guns up to 10 rounds in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, as well as shootings that have happened in the past.
 January 21 – Barack Obama is sworn is for a second term as President of the United States.
 January 30 – Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands announces her abdication as Monarch of the Netherlands on Queen's Day, which is April 30, 2013. She is succeeded by her son King Willem-Alexander.
 February 11 – Pope Benedict XVI announces his resignation due to advanced age. He is succeed by Pope Francis on March 13, 2013.
 February 24 – Shortly after being elected President of Cuba for another five-year term, Raul Castro announced that he would not run in the 2018 election.
 March 5 – President of Venezuela, Hugo Chávez, dies.
 March 13 – Pope Francis becomes Pope of the Roman Catholic church.
 July 3 – Albert II of Belgium announces his abdication as Monarch of Belgium on King's Day which is July 21, 2013 due to health problems. He is succeeded by his son, Philippe.
 July 3 – Adly Mansour becomes acting President of Egypt after Mohamed Morsi was thrown by a coup.
 August 21 – A chemical weapons attack happened in Syria.
 August 30 – United States Secretary of State John Kerry makes his remarks about the chemical weapon attack in Syria.
 September 7 – The International Olympic Committee awarded the 2020 Summer Olympics to Tokyo, Japan.
 September 10 – Thomas Bach becomes President of the International Olympic Committee.
 October 1-October 17 – A federal government shutdown occurs in the United States, which closed all the things owned by the government (like National Parks). U.S. President Barack Obama signed a bill which ended the shutdown on October 17, 2013.
 December 5 – Former President of South Africa and anti-apartheid activist Nelson Mandela, dies.

2014
January 1 – Latvia starts to use the Euro currency.
February 7 - February 23 – The 2014 Winter Olympics were held in Sochi, Russia.
February 13 – Belgium becomes the first country in the world to legalise euthanasia for terminally ill patients of any age.
February 23 – The Ukrainian parliament votes to remove President Viktor Yanukovych from office, replacing him with Oleksandr Turchynov, after days of civil unrest left around 100 people dead in Kiev.
March 8 – Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 disappears in the Gulf of Thailand with 239 people on board. The aircraft possibly crashed in the Indian Ocean.
March 16 – A referendum status on Crimea is held.
March 21 – Russia formally annexes Crimea after President Vladimir Putin signed a bill finalizing the annexation process.
March 24 – During an emergency meeting, the United Kingdom, the United States, Italy, Germany, France, Japan, and Canada temporarily suspend Russia from the G8.
April 14 – An estimated 276 girls and women are abducted and held hostage from a school in Nigeria.
April 27 – The Catholic Church canonizes Popes John XXIII and John Paul II on Divine Mercy Sunday.
May 5 – The World Health Organization identifies the spread of poliomyelitis in at least 10 countries as a major worldwide health emergency
May 5 – Boko Haram militants kill approximately 300 people in a night attack on Gamboru Ngala.
May 20 – Terrorists in Nigeria detonate bombs at Jos, killing 118 people.
May 22 – The Royal Thai Army overthrows the caretaker government of Niwatthamrong Boonsongpaisan after a failure to resolve the political unrest in Thailand.
June 2 – King Juan Carlos announces his abdication as Monarch of Spain. He is succeeded by his son, Felipe VI.
June 4 – G7 Summit was held in Brussels, Belgium. It was originally going to be held in Sochi, Russia. It did not due to the Crimean crisis.
June 19 – Felipe VI became the Monarch of Spain.
July 17 – After a five-hour humanitarian ceasefire, Israel confirms the beginning of a ground offensive in Gaza.
July 17 – Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 (Boeing 777) crashes in Ukraine, after being shot down by a missile. 298 people die, including 15 crew members.
July 21 – The United Nations Security Council adopts Resolution 2166 in response to the shootdown of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17.
July 24 – Air Algérie Flight 5017 crashes in Mali, killing all 116 people on board.
October 28 – Guy Scott became the acting President of Zambia after Michael Sata died. He became the first White leader in Sub Saharan Africa since 1994, when F. W. de Klerk resigned.

2015
January 1 – Lithuania starts to use the Euro currency.

2016
June 24 – A referendum took place whether the United Kingdom would stay in the European Union or leave the European Union. The result of the referendum was 51% of votes in favour of leaving the European Union.
November 8 – Donald Trump was elected the 45th President of the United States, defeating Hillary Clinton.

2017
January 20 – Donald Trump is sworn in as the 45th President of the United States

2018
February 10 – Israeli F-16 shot down by Syria Air defense force.

2019

 December: A COVID-19 pandemic started in Wuhan, China and spread to the world.

Significant political changes
 March 11, 2010 – Sebastián Piñera becomes President of Chile, succeeding Michelle Bachelet.
 April 10, 2010 – Lech Kaczyński, President of Poland dies in a plane crash. He is succeeded by Bronisław Komorowski.
 May 5, 2010 – Umaru Musa Yar'Adua, President of Nigeria dies of illness. He is succeeded by Goodluck Jonathan.
 May 8, 2010 – Laura Chinchilla succeeds Oscar Arias as President of Costa Rica.
 May 11, 2010 – David Cameron, leading a Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition, becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, replacing Gordon Brown of the Labour Party.
 June 2, 2010 – Yukio Hatoyama resigns as Prime Minister of Japan, and is replaced by Naoto Kan.
 June 8, 2010 – Naoto Kan becomes Prime Minister of Japan succeeding Yukio Hatoyama.
 June 24, 2010 – Julia Gillard succeeds Kevin Rudd as Prime Minister of Australia.
 June 30, 2010 – Benigno Aquino III becomes President of the Philippines, succeeding Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo.
 July 2, 2010 – Christian Wulff becomes President of Germany, succeeding Horst Koehler, who had resigned after making controversial comments over the war in Afghanistan.
 January 1, 2011 – Dilma Rousseff becomes President of Brazil, succeeding Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva.
 January 14, 2011 – After protests President Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali resigns, leaving the Prime Minister to be acting president.
 February 11, 2011 – After pro-democracy protests President Hosni Mubarak of Egypt resigns, leaving the military in control.
 July 9, 2011 – South Sudan becomes a country. Salva Kiir Mayardit becomes its President.
 August 26, 2011 – Naoto Kan resigns as Prime Minister of Japan, being succeeded by Yoshihiko Noda.
 October 20, 2011 – The National Transitional Council takes control of the whole of Libya on the death of Muammar al-Gaddafi.
 November 11, 2011 – Michael D. Higgins becomes President of Ireland, succeeding Mary McAleese.
 November 12, 2011 – Silvio Berlusconi resigns as Prime Minister of Italy. He is succeeded by Mario Monti.
 December 6, 2011 – Elio di Rupo becomes Prime Minister of Belgium, succeeding Yves Leterme.
 December 17, 2011 – Kim Jong-il, Supreme Leader of North Korea dies. He is succeeded by his son, Kim Jong-un.
 February 17, 2012 – Christian Wulff resigns as President of Germany. Joachim Gauck succeeds him on March 18, 2012.
 February 27, 2012 − Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi becomes President of Yemen, replacing Ali Abdullah Saleh, who had resigned after protests.
 March 1, 2012 – Sauli Niinistö becomes President of Finland, succeeding Tarja Halonen.
 March 18, 2012 – Joachim Gauck becomes President of Germany, succeeding Christian Wulff.
 April 5, 2012 – Bingu wa Mutharika, President of Malawi dies. He is succeeded by Vice President of Malawi, Joyce Banda.
 May 15, 2012 – Francois Hollande becomes President of France, succeeding Nicolas Sarkozy.
 June 30, 2012 – Mohamed Morsi becomes President of Egypt.
 July 24, 2012 – John Atta Mills, President of Ghana dies. He is succeeded by Vice President of Ghana, John Dramani Mahama.
 November 15, 2012 – Xi Jinping becomes the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, succeeding Hu Jintao.
 December 1, 2012 – Enrique Peña Nieto becomes President of Mexico, succeeding Felipe Calderon.
 December 26, 2012 – Shinzo Abe becomes Prime Minister of Japan, succeeding Yoshihiko Noda.
 February 25, 2013 – Park Geunhye becomes President of South Korea, succeeding Lee Myung Bak.
 March 5, 2013 – Hugo Chávez, President of Venezuela, dies of cancer. Vice President of Venezuela Nicolas Maduro becomes acting president until elections were held on April 14, 2013.
 March 20, 2013 – Zillur Rahman, President of Bangladesh died. Bangladesh parliament speaker Abdul Hamid was appointed acting president until he was sworn in on April 22, 2013.
 April 14, 2013 – In Venezuela, elections were held to fill the term of Hugo Chávez, who died on March 5, 2013. Nicolas Maduro was elected.
 April 28, 2013 – Enrico Letta becomes Prime Minister of Italy, succeeding Mario Monti.
 June 27, 2013 – Kevin Rudd becomes Prime Minister of Australia, succeeding Julia Gillard.
 July 3, 2013 – President Mohamed Morsi of Egypt is thrown by a coup, leaving Adly Mansour, the Egyptian supreme court judge as the Acting President.
 September 18, 2013 – Tony Abbott becomes Prime Minister of Australia, succeeding Kevin Rudd.
 January 27, 2014 – Juan Orlando Hernández becomes President of Honduras, succeeding Porfirio Lobo Sosa.
 March 11, 2014 – Michelle Bachelet becomes President of Chile, succeeding Sebastián Piñera.
 May 8, 2014 – Luis Guillermo Solís becomes President of Costa Rica, succeeding Laura Chinchilla.
 May 31, 2014 – Peter Mutharika becomes President of Malawi, succeeding Joyce Banda.
 June 1, 2014 – Salvador Sánchez Cerén becomes President of El Salvador, succeeding Mauricio Funes.
 June 7, 2014 – Petro Poroshenko becomes President of Ukraine.
 June 8, 2014 – Abdel Fattah el-Sisi becomes President of Egypt.
 July 1, 2014 – Juan Carlos Varela becomes President of Panama, succeeding Ricardo Martinelli.
 July 24, 2014 – Reuven Rivlin becomes President of Israel, succeeding Shimon Peres.
 September 29, 2014 – Ashraf Ghani becomes President of Afghanistan, succeeding Hamid Karzai.
 October 11, 2014 – Charles Michel becomes Prime Minister of Belgium, succeeding Elio Di Rupo.
 October 20, 2014 – Joko Widodo becomes President of Indonesia, succeeding Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.
 October 31, 2014 – Blaise Compaoré resigned as President of Burkina Faso.
 December 21, 2014 – Klaus Iohannis becomes President of Romania, succeeding Traian Băsescu.
 November 4, 2015 – Justin Trudeau becomes Prime Minister of Canada, succeeding Stephen Harper.
 December 10, 2015 – Mauricio Macri becomes President of Argentina, succeeding Cristina Fernández de Kirchner.
 June 30, 2016 – Rodrigo Duterte becomes President of the Philippines, succeeding Benigno Aquino III.
 July 13, 2016 – Theresa May becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, succeeding David Cameron.
 January 20, 2017 – Donald Trump becomes President of the United States, succeeding Barack Obama.
 November 21, 2017 – Robert Mugabe resigned as President of Zimbabwe.
 December 1, 2018 - Andrés Manuel López Obrador becomes President of Mexico, succeeding Enrique Peña Nieto.

Sporting events
 Different Olympic games:
 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and Whistler, British Columbia
 2010 Summer Youth Olympics in Singapore
 2012 Summer Olympics in London
 2012 Winter Youth Olympics
 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, southern Russia
 2014 Summer Youth Olympics
 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro
 2016 Winter Youth Olympics
 2018 Winter Olympics in South Korea
 2018 Summer Youth Olympics
 Different World Cup games:
 2010 FIFA World Cup was held in South Africa, won by the Spain
 2011 Cricket World Cup was held in India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, won by India
 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup was held in Germany, won by Japan
 2011 Rugby World Cup was held in New Zealand, won by New Zealand
 2014 FIFA World Cup was held in Brazil, won by the Germany
 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup to be held in Canada
 2015 Cricket World Cup to be held in Australia and New Zealand
 2015 Rugby World Cup to be held in England
 2018 FIFA World Cup to be held in Russia
 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup
 2019 Cricket World Cup to be held in England and Wales
 2019 Rugby World Cup to be held in Japan, Hong Kong and Singapore

References

2010s


The Service Sector, also called tertiary sector, is the third of the three traditional economic sectors. The other two are the primary sector, which covers areas such as farming, mining and fishing; and the secondary sector which covers manufacturing and making things. The service sector provides services, rather than producing material commodities. Activities in the service sector include retail, banks, hotels, real estate, education, health, social work, computer services, recreation, media, communications, electricity, gas and water supply.

The service sector is an important part of the economy. For example, in Australia in 2007, 85% of all businesses were in the service sector. In 2009 there were more than nine million people employed in the service sector in Australia, which was 86% of all jobs. In India, there has been a huge growth in service sector businesses which made up 55% of India's GDP in 2006—2007. Computer software businesses in India are increasing at a rate of 35% per year.

Many sector businesses focus on what is called the "knowledge  economy". They need to keep ahead of other businesses by understanding what their customers want and being ready to give it to them quickly and at low cost.

One good example of this are banks which went through big changes in the late 20th century. Using information and communication technology, banks have vastly reduced the number of people they need to employ, and lowered the cost of providing bank service. For example, an automated teller machine is able to provide basic banking services 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, in many different places. Before this, banking services were only available from the bank when it was open. Many banks and building societies have joined together to form much lower cost businesses that can make more money from a wider customer base. The key to this process is gaining information about their customers and constantly coming up with new services for them.

References

Economics

Service sector


Thomas Hickey (1741–1824) was an Irish painter.

Born in Dublin, Hickey was the son of Noah, a confectioner in Capel Street, and Anne Hickey. A younger brother was John Hickey, the sculptor. He was trained at the Royal Dublin Society schools under Robert West.

Hickey painted primarily portraits and genre scenes.  He traveled widely, working in India, Portugal, Italy and England, residing in Bath between 1776 and 1780.  On his voyage to India, the vessel in which he was travelling was captured by French and Spanish fleets which led him to Lisbon, where, after receiving a number of commissions, he remained for several years. He eventually reached Bengal and stayed there until 1791 when he returned to England. He then traveled as far as Peking, China with George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney as the expedition's official portrait painter.

He returned to Ireland shortly after the death of his brother John in January 1796. In 1797, he was commissioned by Dr. Robert Emmet, State Physician for Ireland, to paint a portrait of the doctor's son, Robert, and daughter, Mary. By 1798 he had returned to India where he landed just in time for the start of the Fourth Mysore War, which kept him engaged in painting. In Mysore he was commissioned to make a number of sketches depicting family members of Mysore's ruler Tipu Sultan. Portraits of Tipu's sons, uncle and subaider are amongst these sketches. These portrait sketches were drawn between 1799 and 1801 in Srirangapatna and Vellore. He resided in Madras until his death in 1824.

In addition to his artistic talents, he is reputed to have been a sparkling conversationalist who rarely failed to charm his sitters.  The Courtauld Institute of Art (London), the Honolulu Museum of Art, the National Gallery of Ireland, the Tate and the Victoria Art Gallery (Bath, England) are among the public collections having paintings by Thomas Hickey.
A number of his sketches can still be seen in Srirangapattana at Daria Daulat Bagh.

References

Gallery

External links
ArtCyclopedia

1741 births
1824 deaths
18th-century Irish painters
19th-century Irish painters
Irish male painters
Painters from Dublin (city)
19th-century Irish male artists

Thomas Hickey (painter)


Steve Baer (born 1938) is an American inventor and pioneer of passive solar technology. Baer pioneered and helped popularize the use of zomes. He took a number of solar power patents, wrote a number of books and publicized his work. Baer served on the board of directors of the U.S. Section of the International Solar Energy Society, and on the board of the New Mexico Solar Energy Association. He was the founder, chairman of the board, president, and director of research at Zomeworks Corporation.

Early life

Steve Baer was born in Los Angeles. In his teens while a student at Midland School, he read Lewis Mumford and decided technology needn't necessarily degrade or complicate people's lives. In the latter 1950s, Baer worked at various jobs and attended Amherst College and UCLA. In 1960, he joined the U.S. Army, being stationed in Germany for three years. He also was married in 1960. After discharge from the Army, he and his wife, Holly settled in Zurich, Switzerland, where he worked as a welder and attended Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, studying mathematics. Here he became interested in the possibilities of building innovative structures using polyhedra (non-rectangular polyhedrons).

Baer and his wife moved back to the United States, settling in Albuquerque, New Mexico, where Baer initially worked as a welder of trailer frames for the Fruehauf Trailer Services company. He founded the company Zomeworks with Barry Hickman and Ed Heinz.

Zomes
Bear and Ed Heinz experimented with constructing buildings of unusual geometries that they came to call "zomes," often using heavy sheet metal as the main exterior material. Some of the earliest experiments were carried out in cooperation with members of the intentional communities Drop City and Manara Nueva.

Baer had also become interested in using solar energy for direct heating of buildings, inspired by reading Farrington Daniels' Direct Use of the Sun's Energy. He began to experiment with practical methods, always seeking to simplify his approach as the experiments proceeded.  Steve Baer was a key organizer of an important grassroots Western-American conference, Alloy, focusing on these matters. Because the conference was spotlighted in the Whole Earth Catalog, Baer and Zomeworks became better known among solar enthusiasts in the U.S. Baer also was known as the author of Dome Cookbook and Zome Primer.

In the early years at Zomeworks, Baer was able to work with other innovators and idea people, such as the solar designers Day Chahroudi, Dave Harrison, and Dick Henry. In 1975, Zomeworks published an illustrated book, Sunspots, written by Baer and illustrated by Criss-Cross; focusing on solar-design principles.

One of Zomeworks' inventions was the now-expired patented Beadwall, which consists of two sheets of glass with small styrofoam beads blown in the space between them by an air pump at night to insulate the window areas of the building (the beads being removed by vacuum action in the morning). The design is somewhat similar to the drum wall.

Baer's approach has been to develop strategies and products that simplify rather than complicate; things that add to, rather than detract from, the self-sufficiency of a building and its occupants. The "Track Rack" solar tracker which Baer and Zomeworks staff developed is a metal-framed passive-solar dynamic mounting for photovoltaic (PV) modules. With an arrangement of cylinders, pistons, and tubing, the device uses the differential pressure and movement of entrapped liquid to enable gravity to turn the rack and follow the sun. Depending on heat and hydraulics, and without motors, gears, or computerized controls, the rack enables the PV module to face the sun ("sunflower-wise") for maximum efficiency. To fit into the developing solar energy industry, Zomeworks has designed and builds several Track Racks to fit all common photovoltaic modules.

Another invention, the Skylight Tracker, has a dual purpose: it shades a skylight for indirect daytime lighting while making electricity from PV panels built into the shading slats.

Besides designing, testing, and fabricating solar-energy equipment, Baer and his company have provided consulting services to architects. Baer's design work was included in the Contemporary Developments in Design Science exhibit at St. John the Divine Cathedral, New York City, in 1995.

Baer's unconventional "zome" building-design approach, with its multi-faceted geometric lines, has been taken up by French builders in the Pyrenees. A 2004 book, Home Work edited by Lloyd Kahn, has a section featuring these buildings.

While Zomeworks has been known mainly for exploring passive solar strategies and equipment, some of the equipment the company has developed more recently, for solar-driven space cooling, has used active-solar principles.

Books

Awards

 2010 Global Award for Sustainable Architecture

Notes

References

 "The Plowboy Interview: Steve and Holly Baer", in The Mother Earth News, issue # 22 - July/August 1973

External links

20th-century American architects
American inventors
Modernist architects
20th-century American mathematicians
21st-century American mathematicians
Solar building designers
1938 births
Living people
Amherst College alumni
University of California, Los Angeles alumni

Steve Baer


An ore is a mineral which has a valuable metal inside it. Ores are usually extracted by being mined. They can sometimes be found on the Earth's surface. Most ores are chemical compounds such as oxides or sulfides.  There are different ways to get the metal out of the ore, which is called smelting.  Iron ore, for example, is smelted in a blast furnace.

Metals

Ore


Yuri () is a genre about relationships between women in manga, anime, light novel, dōjinshi, webcomics, and other Japanese media. Yuri can be either about spirit, sex, friendship or emotions in such relationship.

"Yuri" is a jargon word and it normally means "lily" in Japanese. The terms "S-class", "Girls Love" and "shoujo-ai" are also used to describe this genre.

Anime and manga terms
Anime and manga genres

Yuri (manga)


Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon (16 November 1725 – 4 March 1793) was the son of Louis Alexandre de Bourbon and his wife Marie Victoire de Noailles. He was therefore a grandson of Louis XIV of France and his mistress, Madame de Montespan. From birth he was known as the  Duke of Penthièvre. He also possessed the following titles: Prince of Lamballe (given later as a courtesy title to the duke's only surviving son); Prince of Carignano; Duke of Rambouillet; Duke of Aumale (1775); Duke of Gisors; Duke of Châteauvillain; Duke of Arc-en-Barrois; Duke of Amboise; Count of Eu; Count of Guingamp. He was the father in law of Philippe Égalité.

Life
Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon was born at the Château de Rambouillet, the son of Louis XIV's youngest legitimised son with Madame de Montespan, the Count of Toulouse, and his wife, Marie Victoire de Noailles, one of the daughters of Anne Jules de Noailles, Duke of Noailles. Since his mother acted as a surrogate parent to the young, orphaned Louis XV, the duke formed a close relationship with the young monarch, who was his godfather.

At the age of twelve, upon his father's death, he succeeded to his father's military posts and titles:
Admiral of France
Grand Master of France
Grand Huntsman of France
Marshal of France
Governor of Brittany

On 2 July 1733 at the age of eight, he was made a maréchal de camp (field marshal) and the next year, a lieutenant général (lieutenant general). In 1740, he received the Ordre de la Toison d'or from his Bourbon cousin, the King of Spain. In 1742, King Louis XV conferred upon him the Order of the Holy Spirit. He served in the military under his maternal uncle, the maréchal-duc de Noailles, and fought brilliantly at Dettingen in 1743 and Fontenoy in 1745.

As the possessor of one of the largest fortunes in Europe, Louis Jean Marie was a very attractive marriage candidate, especially considering his close links with the French royal family.

A suggestion was made that he marry his cousin, Louise Henriette de Bourbon, the eldest granddaughter of his paternal aunt, Louise-Françoise de Bourbon. This idea, however, was abandoned as Louise Henriette's mother wished her daughter to marry Louis Philippe d'Orléans, the heir of the House of Orléans.

In 1744, at the age of nineteen, Penthièvre married Princess Maria Teresa d'Este (1726-1754), the daughter of Francesco III d'Este, the sovereign Duke of Modena and Reggio, and his first cousin, Charlotte Aglaé d'Orléans. The young couple occupied a suite of apartments at Versailles which had previously been occupied by their joint ancestor Madame de Montespan. These apartments were used by the duke and his family until the reign of Louis XVI of France when the space was given to Mesdames, the new king's spinster aunts, Louis XV's unmarried daughters.

The couple had seven children, only two of whom survived infancy:
Louis Marie de Bourbon, duc de Rambouillet (Palace of Versailles, 2 January 1746 – Palace of Versailles, 13 November 1749).
Louis Alexandre Joseph Stanislas de Bourbon, prince de Lamballe (Hôtel de Toulouse, Paris, 6 September 1747 – Château de Louveciennes, 6 May 1768), married Princess Marie Louise of Savoy and had no issue.
Jean Marie de Bourbon, duc de Châteauvillain (Hôtel de Toulouse, Paris, 17 July 1748 – Hôtel de Toulouse, Paris, 19 May 1755).
Vincent Marie Louis de Bourbon, comte de Guingamp (Hôtel de Toulouse, Paris, 22 June 1750 – Palace of Versailles, 14 March 1752).
Marie Louise de Bourbon, Mademoiselle de Penthièvre (Hôtel de Toulouse, Paris, 18 October 1751 – Palace of Versailles, 26 September 1753).
Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon, Mademoiselle d'Ivoy and later Mademoiselle de Penthièvre (Hôtel de Toulouse, Paris, 13 March 1753 – Château d'Ivry-sur-Seine, 23 June 1821), married Philippe d'Orléans and had issue.
 Louis Marie Félicité de Bourbon (Château de Rambouillet, 29 April 1754 – Château de Rambouillet, 30 April 1754).

The Duchess of Penthièvre died in childbirth in 1754, at the age of 27, her last child surviving her only a few hours. His mother-in-law tried to arrange a marriage between the duke and Maria Theresa Felicitas's younger sister Matilde. Inconsolable at the loss of his loved wife, the grieving duke declined the offer and never married again.

After his wife's death, the duke lived increasingly away from the court at Versailles, dividing his time between two of his many country residences, the Château de Rambouillet and the Château de Sceaux. He devoted the majority of the rest of his life to dispensing charity. During the French Revolution, he gave refuge in Sceaux to the poet Jean Pierre Claris de Florian, who had formerly been one of his pages and his secretary at the Château d'Anet and the Hôtel de Toulouse (seat of the Banque de France since 1811) in Paris.

In 1791, he moved to the Château de Bizy, at Vernon in Normandy, where his daughter joined him in April of that year after leaving her husband, the Duke of Orléans (Philippe Égalité during the French Revolution). Respected by the people because of his philanthropy, the duke was never bothered by the radicals as the French Revolution progressed. Others of his immediate family, however, were not spared. On 3 September 1792, his daughter-in-law, the princesse de Lamballe, was savagely murdered, and on 21 January 1793, his cousin Louis XVI was executed. He never saw the arrest of his daughter in April 1793, as he died on 4 March 1793 at Bizy.  On the night of 6 to 7 March, his body was brought clandestinely to Dreux, where it was buried in the family crypt at the Collégiale Saint-Étienne. Nine months later, on the afternoon of 21 November 1793 a group of Jacobin radicals and their workmen broke into the chapel, with the excuse of searching for lead and destroying feudal symbols, which had recently been outlawed. They smashed the armorial decorations, uprooted the coffins, and treated the remains of the royally-connected Penthievre family to a common pauper's burial, in a quicklime-coated pit in the nearby canons' cemetery. Similar treatment had recently been given to the remains of the duc's executed cousin King Louis XVI in Paris, and to their ancestors at the royal necropolis of St.Denis. The raid had yielded 1,252 pounds of lead for reuse as ammunition "to fire at the enemies of the Revolution". In 1798 the remains of the chapel were put up for auction, and demolished as recyclable building materials by the successful bidder, a timber merchant from Chartres.

During his lifetime, the duc de Penthièvre had had one passion, that of collecting watches.

Legacy
Penthièvre was one of the wealthiest men of his day and probably the richest in France. He was known to be very charitable. Most of his vast riches derived from the fortune of La Grande Mademoiselle, the first cousin of King Louis XIV.

In 1681, Louis XIV had given his consent that his cousin marry the duc de Lauzun, the only man she ever loved, on the condition she make the Duke of Maine, the newly legitimised son of the king and Mme de Montespan, her heir. All she could be made to accept, against her will, was to give the young duke the county of Eu and the principality of Dombes. Upon which, untrue to his word, Louis XIV refused to let her marry Lauzun.

Du Maine's fortune was enlarged with many expensive gifts from his adoring father. His two sons inherited his fortune and when they both died childless, the duc de Penthièvre was the sole heir to du Maine's wealth. The châteaux at Sceaux, Anet, Aumale, Dreux and Gisors were part of this huge inheritance.

In addition, being his only child, the duc de Penthièvre was the only heir of the comte de Toulouse from whom he inherited the Hôtel de Toulouse in Paris, and the château de Rambouillet surrounded by the game-rich Rambouillet forest. The Hôtel de Toulouse was the family's residence in Paris. The duc de Penthièvre willed it to his daughter, Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon. It was located opposite the Palais-Royal.

Over the years, the duc de Penthièvre also acquired other estates:

Château de Chanteloup, a vast château situated in the Touraine province of France. He received this after the death of the duc de Choiseul, in 1785.
Château d'Amboise, a castle in the Loire Valley
Château at Châteauneuf-sur-Loire
Château de La Ferté-Vidame, this château was home to the sharp-penned memorialist, Saint-Simon, who had especially loathed the duc de Penthièvre's father and uncle.

Because his male heir, the prince de Lamballe, predeceased him in 1768, his only surviving child, his daughter, became the sole heir to his fortune. In 1769, she had married the Duke of Chartres, future duc d'Orléans, known to history as Philippe Égalité. As a result, what she managed (after the Bourbon Restoration) to recuperate of her fortune confiscated during the French Revolution, passed, upon her death in 1821, into the possession of the House of Orléans.

The lands of the  Comté de Dreux (County of Dreux), had been given to the duc de Penthièvre by his cousin Louis XVI. In November 1783, after having sold to Louis XVI the château de Rambouillet and the immense rich-game forest attached to the estate - the latter being the main reason of the sale - Penthièvre transferred the nine bodies of his family (his parents, his wife and six of his seven children) from the 12th century Saint-Lubin church in the village of Rambouillet to the Collégiale Saint-Étienne de Dreux, where he himself was buried in March 1793. In November 1793, a revolutionary mob desecrated the family crypt and threw the ten bodies in a mass grave in the Collégiale cemetery (cimetière des Chanoines). In 1816, his daughter, Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon, duchesse douairière d'Orléans, had a new chapel built on the site of that grave, as the final resting place for the members of the House of Bourbon-Toulouse-Penthièvre. After the accession to the throne of her son, Louis-Philippe, King of the French, the chapel was named Chapelle royale de Dreux, and became the necropolis of the royal Orléans family. It contains the remains of 75 members of the Bourbon and Orléans families.

A street in Paris near the Avenue des Champs Élysées is named for the duc de Penthièvre. At the site of n° 11 rue de Penthièvre, an hôtel particulier of the First French Empire period with a large garden, is believed to have once been the residence of the duc de Penthièvre's grandson, the future King of the French, Louis-Philippe, in his youth. In the late 19th century, n° 11 housed the American Embassy. This address became famous in the early 20th century as the salon de couture of the British designer, "Lucile".

Ancestry

References

1725 births
1793 deaths
People from Rambouillet
Admirals of France
House of Bourbon
Princes of Lamballe
Dukes of Penthièvre
Dukes of Aumale
Dukes of Rambouillet
Dukes of Gisors
Dukes of Châteauvillain
Dukes of Amboise
Dukes of Carignan
Dukes of Arc-en-Barrois
Counts of Eu
Counts of Dreux
Counts of Guingamp
Burials at the Chapelle royale de Dreux
Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain
Grand Huntsmen of France

Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, Duke of Penthièvre


A robber is a person who steals or takes something belonging to someone else. Robbers use force or threats to take what they want. A bank robber is someone who steals money from a bank. When the robber takes something, this is called a robbery. One famous robbery was the Great Train Robbery in England. Armed robbery means that the robber used a weapon such as a gun in the robbery. Many robbers have become infamous, such as Jesse James in America and Ben Hall in Australia. Australian robbers used to be called bushrangers.

The word "rob" comes from a Latin word, deraubare. This word came from a German word raub which means clothes. Before clothes were made in factories and became cheap, robbers often took a person's clothes.

Related pages
 Robbery
 Bushranger

Robber


Saint Patrick's Seminary and University in Menlo Park, California is a Roman Catholic post-graduate seminary whose primary mission is the formation of clergy for Western and Pacific Rim dioceses. It is located on a historic, beautifully landscaped 40 acre campus in Menlo Park, California, 35 miles south of San Francisco, in the heart of Silicon Valley. Since its founding, on September 20, 1898, by San Francisco Archbishop Patrick William Riordan, with a faculty from the Sulpician order and thirty-four young men, the seminary and university has grown considerably. In over 100-years, it has formed more than 2,000 priests. This school is governed by the Archdiocese of San Francisco in association with its other sponsoring western and Pacific Rim dioceses.

The Archbishop of San Francisco, Most Reverend Salvatore J. Cordileone, serves as the President and Chancellor of the Seminary and University. The  President-Rector is Very Rev. Mark D. Doherty. The seminary and university is fully accredited as a graduate educational institution by the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada, the Western Association of Schools and Colleges, and the Congregation for Catholic Education in Rome. In the Spring 2022 semester, the seminary had an enrollment of 62 men, representing 11 dioceses and religious orders.

History

The second Archbishop of San Francisco, Archbishop Patrick William Riordan established St Patrick's Seminary in Menlo Park in 1898, in cooperation with the Society of Saint Sulpice—a French-based order of priests dedicated to educating (forming) future priests. To thank the generous Irish laypersons and clergy who helped to fund and support the Seminary, Riordan named it in honor of Saint Patrick of Armagh, the Apostle of Ireland. By this time, the Sulpician order had committed five priests, three Frenchmen and two Americans to staff the seminary. The first rector was Rev. Father Jean-Baptiste Vuibert, S.S. On August 24, 1898, the seminary was solemnly dedicated by Riordan, joined by Bishops George Montgomery of Los Angeles and Thomas Grace of Sacramento, along with more than 100 clergy. On September 20, 1898 the seminary received 31 high school students and 3 college-level students. The first annual commencement exercises took place on May 31, 1899 and were presided over by Riordan. As the seminary continued to develop, a Department of Philosophy was established with six students. In 1903, the Little Sisters of the Holy Family arrived from Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada, to take care of the domestic services such as cooking, laundry and cleaning.  They have since returned to Canada due to a lack of religious vocations, but currently working in their stead are the Oblates of Jesus the Priest.

The Society of Saint Sulpice withdrew completely from St. Patrick's Seminary & University on June 30, 2017.

Clerical formation

Students are admitted to Saint Patrick Seminary on the recommendation of their diocesan bishop after intensive psychological testing and rigorous interviews. The program consists of four years of spiritual, academic and pastoral formation in residence. Following the second year of studies, a candidate undergoes a year of intensively supervised pastoral experience. Normally, a candidate is called to the diaconate by his bishop in the fall semester of his last year, to serve in a local parish for the remainder of that year before being called to the presbyterate.

All candidates undergo formation which includes daily participation in the Liturgy of the Hours and the Eucharist, as well as spiritual exercises and special devotions. For continued studies at Saint Patrick's, all candidates must conform to the standards of moral and academic fitness required by the seminary in accordance with its directives and prescriptions for its program of priestly formation. Candidates deemed unsuitable for seminary life or for the priesthood are either put on probation or dismissed outright from the seminary community.

Notable alumni or staff

Notable alumni and staff include:

References

External links
 Seminary rector wants priests who can dialogue, evangelize (February 3, 2005).
St. Patrick Seminary official website

Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Francisco
Catholic seminaries in the United States
Seminaries and theological colleges in California
Universities and colleges in San Mateo County, California
Universities and colleges established in 1898
1898 establishments in California
Menlo Park, California
Society of the Priests of Saint Sulpice

Saint Patrick's Seminary and University


Alberto y Lost Trios Paranoias  were an English comedy rock band, formed in Manchester, England in 1973. Their story is told in CP Lee's book When We Were Thin (published 2007 by Hotun Press). The name of the band is a corruption of the Latin American band Alberto y Los Trios Paraguayos.

Career
Created in 1972 by former member of Greasy Bear, Chris "C.P." Lee, with Jimmy Hibbert (vocals, bass) (ex Jacko Ogg and the Head People) and Bob Harding (vocals, guitar, bass), the comedy sketch outfit became a musical group in 1974 and was joined by former Greasy Bear (1968–1972) drummer Bruce Mitchell (drums), with Les Prior (vocals),  Simon White (steel guitar, guitar), Tony Bowers (bass, guitar) and Ray "Mighty Mongo" Hughes (second drummer). They became a popular support act, supporting Hawkwind on their 1974 tour. The group mercilessly parodied the major rock names of the 1970s – "Anadin" (the trade name for an over-the-counter headache remedy) was a reworking of Lou Reed's "Heroin" / "Sweet Jane". By 1975 they were topping the bill in their own right and were supported by such acts as The Police, The Stranglers, Devo, Ian Dury and The Blockheads, The Clash, Joy Division, Robyn Hitchcock, Split Enz, Dr. Feelgood, The Buzzcocks, John Dowie, The Smirks, Steve Gibbons Band, Gonzalez, Dr. Hook, The Slits, Richard Hell and The Voidoids, The Dictators, The Jam, Siouxsie and The Banshees, Tonight and Blondie. As with many comedy ensembles, the Albertos belied their comic aspirations by their exemplary musicianship, and they released three albums and a variety of spoof discs, culminating in the musical play, Snuff Rock.

Sleak (aka Snuff Rock), inspired by the then recent film, Snuff, and the concept of snuff movies, but carrying the idea to a band who killed themselves for entertainment, was their musical play presented at London's Royal Court Theatre and Round House and was famous for the role of the comic disc jockey played by Les Prior. The accompanying EP, "Snuff Rock", released on Stiff Records, poked fun at the punk rock phenomenon, targeting the Sex Pistols ("Gobbing On Life"), The Damned ("Kill") and The Clash ("Snuffin' Like That") as well as myriad reggae bands in "Snuffin' In A Babylon". They reached the UK Singles Chart with the Status Quo spoof, "Heads Down No Nonsense Mindless Boogie" in 1978. Les Prior died in January 1980 from leukaemia, which left a large gap in the group.

After their nationally networked TV show Teach Yourself Gibberish, and a crack at America with Sleak, the Albertos disbanded in 1982.

The band's brand of spoof rock has been said to be in the same English tradition as that of the Barron Knights and the Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band, but a better comparison might be the American bluegrass/country parody band the Austin Lounge Lizards, whom C.P. Lee described as their "American doppelgängers".

Discography

Albums
Alberto Y Lost Trios Paranoias – Transatlantic Records, 1976
Italians From Outer Space – Transatlantic Records, 1977
Skite – Logo Records, 1978
TV Sweat - Fiction Records, 1981 (Credited as 'CP Lee and Alberto Y Los Trios Paranoias')

Compilation albums
The Worst of the Berts – Logo, 1980
Snuff Rock – the Best of the Albertos – Mau Mau, 1991
Radio Sweat – Overground Records, 1996
Mandrax Sunset Variations – Castle Records, 2001

Singles
"Dread Jaws"/"De Version"* (1976) Transatlantic
Snuff Rock EP  – "Kill", "Gobbing On Life", "Snuffin' Like That", "Snuffin' In A Babylon" (1977) Stiff
"Old Trust"/"Neville"/"Teenager in Shtuck" (1977) Logo
"Heads Down No Nonsense Mindless Boogie"/"Thank You"/F*** You"*/"Dead Meat Part II"* (1978) Logo (UK #47)
"F**k You"*/"Dead Meat Part II"* (1978) Logo
"Juan Lopez"/"Teenage Paradise"/"Dead Meat part III"* (1978) Logo
"Cruisin' With Santa"*/"Eye and Eye"* (1982) New Hormones
(* Non-album tracks)

References

External links

English rock music groups
Musical groups from Manchester
Comedy rock musical groups
Transatlantic Records artists
Stiff Records artists

Alberto y Lost Trios Paranoias


The Cité du Train  (English: City of the Train or Train City), situated in Mulhouse, France, is one of the ten largest railway museums in the world. It is the successor to the Musée Français du Chemin de Fer (French National Railway Museum), the organisation responsible for the conservation of major historical SNCF railway equipment.

History
In 1961, Mulhouse City Council offered land in Dornach to allow the SNCF to present their historical rolling stock, representative of the company's history. In 1971, the first locomotives were provisionally placed in the old engine shed, Mulhouse-Nord. A second site nearby was opened to the public in 1983 at which stage the museum received 240,000 visitors a year.

As attendance declined, it was decided to transfer the collection to the group Culture Espaces, which was already in charge of the Cité de l'automobile (French national automobile museum) since 1999. The French national, regional and departmental governments, as well as the City of Mulhouse, financed a renovation at a total cost of 8.6 million euros.

The architect François Seigneur designed an exhibition display named Le siècle d'or du chemin de fer (The golden century of railway), tracing historical events from 1860 to 1940, in a new hall nearly 6,000 square metres with 25 additional exhibits, bringing the total number in the museum to 103. In semi-darkness, the visitor may discover several sections of similar technology in display cabinets, with mannequins that light up as the visitor approaches, including poorer and richer aspects of railway life.

In the old renovated building, the emphasis is mostly placed on the instructional aspect of technology, explaining the mechanisms powering steam, diesel and electric locomotives and their development. It is possible to go inside a locomotive to admire its inner workings.  Between the two buildings is an outdoor court complete with a restaurant which railway elements throughout as well as a themed rooms to complete the experience. It currently receives 200,000 visitors annually on a site covering 15,000 m² (this compares with the more than 717,000 visitors received annually by Britain's National Railway Museum ("NRM")  on a site in York that covers more than 85,000 m²; the Cité du Train receives a similar number of visitors as annually attend Britain's much smaller Locomotion Museum in Shildon, Durham, an out-post of the NRM).

References

External links

 City of Mulhouse – Museum Information
Photographic tour

Chemin de Fer
National railway museums
Museums in Haut-Rhin
Buildings and structures in Mulhouse
Railway museums in France

Cité du Train


Jean Noël Hallé (2 January 1754 – 11 February 1822) was a French physician born in Paris. He was the son of painter Noël Hallé (1711–1781).

He was a professor of physical medicine and health at the École de Santé, and afterwards a professor at the Collège de France. He was a member of the French Académie Nationale de Médecine, and in 1795 was elected to the Académie des sciences, becoming its president in 1813. He also served as "first-physician" to Napoleon Bonaparte.

Hallé was a pioneer of hygienic reform in France, and was a catalyst towards educating others as to its importance. He created distinctions between public and individual hygiene, and initiated studies and awareness involving the multiple issues that involve hygiene, such as contagious diseases, health in the workplace, and problems associated with living in a high density urban environment, to name a few.

He was co-editor of the 1813 "Code des médicaments" (a work involving French pharmacopoeia), and made contributions to the "Dictionnaire des Sciences médicales" (Dictionary of Medical Sciences). He also carried out investigations of breast cancer, conducted research on the effects of camphor, and was a major advocate of vaccination.

In 1794 he came to the defense of Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794), when the latter was tried for treason before the National Convention.

References
 This article is based on a translation of an equivalent article at the French Wikipedia.
 Diseases of civilisation by John Powles

1754 births
1822 deaths
Hygienists
Physicians from Paris
19th-century French physicians
18th-century French physicians
Academic staff of the Collège de France
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery

Jean Noël Hallé


Norodom Sihanouk (; 31 October 192215 October 2012) wis the Keeng o Cambodie frae 1941 tae 1955 an again frae 1993 til 2004. He wis the effective ruler o Cambodie fae 1953 tae 1970. Efter his seicont abdication in 2004, he wis kent as The King-Faither o Cambodie (), a poseetion in which he retained mony o his umwhile responsibilities as constitutional monarch. He an aa servit mony terms as Prime meenister o Cambodie. He diet in Beijing in 2012, 16 days afore his 90t birthday.

20t century in Cambodie
20t-century Cambodie monarchs
21st-century Cambodie monarchs
1922 births
2012 daiths
Bandung Conference attendees
Buddhist monarchs
Cambodian collaborators wi Imperial Japan
Cambodian film directors
Cambodian Theravada Buddhists
Sangkum politeecians
Funcinpec Pairty politeecians
Heids o state o Cambodie
Hoose o Norodom
Monarchs that abdicatit
Fowk o the Vietnam War
Fowk sentenced tae daith in absentia
Prime Meenisters o Cambodie
Warld War II poleetical leaders
Unthirldom activists

Norodom Sihanouk