Pamplona (;   or  ), historically also known as Pampeluna in English, is the capital city of the Chartered Community of Navarre, in Basque Country.

Lying at near  above sea level, the city (and the wider Cuenca de Pamplona) is located on the flood plain of the Arga river, a second-order tributary of the Ebro. Precipitation-wise, it is located in a transitional location between the rainy Atlantic northern façade of the Iberian Peninsula and its drier inland. Early population in the settlement traces back to the late Bronze to early Iron Age, even if the traditional inception date refers to the foundation of  by Pompey during the Sertorian Wars circa 75 BC. During Visigothic rule Pamplona became an episcopal see, serving as a staging ground for the Christianization of the area. It later became one of the capitals of the Kingdom of Pamplona/Navarre.

The city is famous worldwide for the running of the bulls during the San Fermín festival, which is held annually from July 6 to July 14. This festival was brought to literary renown with the 1926 publication of Ernest Hemingway's novel The Sun Also Rises. It is also home to Osasuna, the only Navarrese football club to have ever played in the Spanish top division.

History

Foundation and Roman times
In the winter of 75–74 BC, the area served as a camp for the Roman general Pompey in the war against Sertorius. He is considered to be the founder of Pompaelo, "as if Pompeiopolis" in Strabo's words, which became Pamplona, in modern Spanish. However, in later times, it has been discovered to be the chief town of the Vascones. They called it Iruña, translating to 'the city'. Roman Pompaelo was located in the province of Hispania Tarraconensis, on the Ab Asturica Burdigalam, the road from Burdigala (modern Bordeaux) to Asturica (modern Astorga); it was a civitas stipendiaria in the jurisdiction of the conventus of Caesaraugusta (modern Zaragoza).

Early Middle Ages

During the Germanic invasions of 409 and later as a result of Rechiar's ravaging, Pamplona went through much disruption and destruction, starting a cycle of general decline along with other towns across the Basque territory, but managing to keep some sort of urban life. During the Visigothic period (fifth to eighth centuries), Pamplona alternated between self-rule, Visigoth domination or Frankish suzerainty in the Duchy of Vasconia (Councils of Toledo unattended by several Pamplonese bishops between 589 and 684). In 466 to 472, Pamplona was conquered by the Visigoth count Gauteric, but they seemed to abandon the restless position soon, struggling as the Visigoth kingdom was to survive and rearrange its lands after their defeats in Gaul. During the beginning of the sixth century, Pamplona probably stuck to an unstable self-rule, but in 541, Pamplona, along with other northern Iberian cities, was raided by the Franks.

Around 581, the Visigoth king Liuvigild overcame the Basques, seized Pamplona, and founded in the town of Victoriacum. Despite the legend citing Saint Fermin as the first bishop of Pamplona and his baptising of 40,000 pagan inhabitants in just three days, the first reliable accounts of a bishop date from 589, when bishop Liliolus attended the Third Council of Toledo. After 684 and 693, a bishop called Opilano is mentioned again in 829, followed by Wiliesind and a certain Jimenez from 880 to 890. Even in the 10th century, important gaps are found in bishop succession, which is recorded unbroken only after 1005.

At the time of the Umayyad invasion in 711, the Visigothic king Roderic was fighting the Basques in Pamplona and had to turn his attention to the new enemy coming from the south. By 714–16, the Umayyad troops had reached the Basque-held Pamplona, with the town submitting apparently after a treaty was brokered between the inhabitants and the Arab military commanders. The position was then garrisoned by Berbers, who were stationed on the outside of the actual fortress, and established the cemetery unearthed not long ago at the Castle Square (Plaza del Castillo). During the following years, the Basques south of the Pyrenees do not seem to have shown much resistance to the Moorish thrust, and Pamplona may even have flourished as a launching point and centre of assembly for their expeditions into Gascony. In 740, the Wali (governor) Uqba ibn al-Hajjaj imposed direct central Cordovan discipline on the city. In 755, though, the last governor of Al-Andalus, Yusuf al Fihri, sent an expedition north to quash Basque unrest near Pamplona, resulting in the defeat of the Arab army.

From 755 until 781, Pamplona remained autonomous, probably relying on regional alliances. Although sources are not clear, it seems apparent that in 778, the town was in hands of a Basque local or a Muslim rebel faction loyal to the Franks at the moment of Charlemagne's crossing of the Pyrenees to the south. However, on his way back from the failed expedition to Saragossa in August, the walls and probably the town were destroyed by Charlemagne (ahead of the Frankish defeat in the famous Battle of Roncevaux), out of fear that the anti-Frankish party strong in the town might use the position against him. After Abd al-Rahman I's conquest, Pamplona and its hinterland remained in a state of shaky balance between Franks, regional Andalusian lords and central Cordovan rule, all of whom proved unable to permanently secure dominance over the Basque region. To a considerable extent, that alternation reflected the internal struggles of the Basque warrior nobility.

After the Frankish defeat at Roncevaux (778), Pamplona switched again to Cordovan rule, after Abd-al-Rahman's expedition captured the stronghold in 781. A wali or governor was imposed, Mutarrif ibn-Musa (a Banu-Qasi) up to the 799 rebellion. In that year, the Pamplonese—possibly led by a certain Velasko—stirred against their governor, but later the inhabitants provided some support for the Banu Qasi Fortun ibn-Musa's uprising. This regional revolt was shortly after suppressed by the Cordovan emir Hisham I, who re-established order, but failed to retain his grip on the town, since the Pamplonese returned to Frankish suzerainty in 806. A Muslim cemetery containing about 200 human remains mingled with Christian tombs was unearthed in 2003 at the Castle Square, bearing witness to an important Muslim presence in the city during this period, but further research was stopped by the destruction of this and other historic evidence as decided by the city council, headed by mayor Yolanda Barcina.

Following a failed expedition to the town led by Louis the Pious around 812, allegiance to the Franks collapsed after Enecco Arista rose to prominence. Moreover, he was crowned as king of Pamplona in 824, when the Banu Qasi and he gained momentum in the wake of their victorious second battle of Roncevaux. The new kingdom, inextricably linked to the Banu Qasi of Tudela, strengthened its independence from the weakened Frankish empire and Cordoban emirate.

During this period, Pamplona was not properly a town, but just a kind of fortress. In 924, Cordovan sources describe Pamplona as "not being especially gifted by nature", with its inhabitants being poor, not eating enough, and dedicated to banditry. They are reported to speak Basque for the most part, which "makes them incomprehensible". On the 24 July, after Christian troops and citizens fled, troops from Cordova sacked Pamplona, destroying houses and buildings including its celebrated church.

The town only regained its urban and human shape after the end of raids by Vikings and Andalusians on the province. Especially after 1083, traffic on the Way of St James brought prosperity and new cultures via travelers from north of the Pyrenees.

Three boroughs and one city

From the 11th century, reviving economic development allowed Pamplona to recover its urban life. The bishops of Pamplona recovered their ecclesiastical leading role; during the previous centuries, isolated monasteries, especially Leyre, had actually held the religious authority. The pilgrimages to Santiago de Compostela contributed to the revival of the commercial and cultural exchanges with Christian Europe beyond the Pyrenees. In the 12th century, the city enlarged with two new separate burgos (independent boroughs): San Cernín (Saint Saturnin) and San Nicolás; the population of local Navarrese mainly confined to the original urban nucleus, the Navarrería, was swelled by Occitan merchants and artisans.

The boroughs showed very distinct features both socially and culturally, and were almost always engaged in quarrels among themselves. The most dramatic episode was the burning of the borough San Nicolás in 1258 and the destruction of the Navarrería by the other two boroughs and the massacre of its population in 1276. The site was abandoned for nearly 50 years. With regards to the outer defence walls of the city, the southern side was the weakest flank of the city, and the Navarrese king Louis I built a castle in the early 14th century in the site known today as Plaza del Castillo (Castle Square).

Eventually, King Charles III decreed the unification of the boroughs in a single city in 1423. The feuds between boroughs had been partly ignited by disputes over the use of the gulf dividing the three boroughs, so after Charles III's unification, the gulf was filled and on its site a common space laid out on the present-day city hall. The walls dividing the boroughs were demolished.

During the late 15th century, Pamplona bore witness to power struggles between the Beaumont and Agramont confederacies and external military interventions. Several times, the stronghold was taken over by different factions and foreign forces, like the ones sent by Ferdinand II of Aragon. Queen Catherine I was a minor and often absent from Pamplona, but eventually she married John III in 1494, an event celebrated with joy in the city. However, Navarre continued divided.

A fortress-city
After the 1512 conquest and annexation of Navarre to Spain, Pamplona remained as capital of the semiautonomous kingdom of Navarre, which preserved its own (reformed) institutions and laws. Pamplona became a Castilian-Spanish outpost at the foot of the western Pyrenees. After the Castilian conquest, king Ferdinand V ordered in 1513 the demolition and removal of the medieval castle and the city's monasteries, as well as the building of a new castle in a very close place. In 1530, with Navarre under Spanish military occupation, the Castilian viceroy was still expecting a "French invasion", and in fear of a possible revolt of the city dwellers, he requested an additional 1,000-strong force from what he called "healthy land", i.e. Castile, besides the 1,000 stationed already in Navarre.

The progress of artillery demanded a complete renewal of the fortified system. Starting in 1569, King Philip II built the fortifications at Pamplona, to designs by Giovan Giacomo Paleari and Vespasiano Gonzaga. The citadel in the south of the town is a pentagonal star fort. Phillip had the city bounded by walls that made it almost a regular pentagon. The modernization of the walls was intended mainly to keep locals in check and strengthen the outpost Pamplona had become on the border with independent Navarre, a close ally of France. The walls that exist today date from the late 16th to 18th centuries.

During the 18th century, Pamplona was considerably beautified and its urban services improved. A continuous water supply was established and the streets were paved, among many other enhancements. Rich aristocrats and businessmen also built their mansions. In the 19th century, this fortress-city played a key role in several wars in which Spain was involved.

During the Peninsular War of the Napoleonic Wars, French troops occupied the city - by launching a coup de main (surprise attack) and seized the city in 1808, and remained in it until the French forces were compelled to surrender on 31 October 1813 due to starvation, having been blockaded in the town for four months by the Spanish army under Enrique José O'Donnell.

During the Carlist Wars (1833–1839 and 1872–1876) Pamplona was each time controlled by the liberals, not just because the few liberals that lived in Navarre were mainly Pamplonese, but also because of the governmental control over the fortified city. Although Carlist rebels easily ruled the countryside, the government army had no problem in dominating the walled capital of Navarre. Nevertheless, during the last Carlist war, modern artillery operated by Carlists from surrounding mountains showed that the old walls would not be enough in the face of a stronger enemy. Thus, the government decided to build a fort on the top of mount San Cristóbal, just  north of Pamplona.

Due to its military role, the city could not grow outside its walled belt. Furthermore, building in the closest area to the walls was banned to avoid any advantage for a besieger; thus the city could only grow by increasing its housing density. Higher and narrower houses were built and courtyards gradually disappeared. During the 19th century, road transportation improved, and the railway came in 1860. Nevertheless, industry in Pamplona and Navarre as a whole was weak during the century of the Industrial Revolution. Basically, no industrial development was feasible in such a constrained fortress-city.

After a slight modification of the star fort allowed an expansion of just six blocks in 1888, the First World War demonstrated that the fortified system of Pamplona was already obsolete. In 1915, the Army allowed the destruction of the walls and abolished the building ban in the city's surroundings. The southern side of the walls was destroyed and the other three remained as they did not hinder urban growth. The star fort continued to serve as a military facility until 1964, but just as a garrison.

Pamplona has in recent years taken great care to integrate and preserve its fortifications for modern use. In October 2014, working with the city of Bayonne, Pamplona hosts an international conference 'Fortified Heritage: Management and Sustainable Development', the website is in English, French, and Spanish.

Available on a growing website are two free e-books, with copious colour photographs, on Pamplona's fortifications. Published in 2011 is 'Five living centuries of an impregnable fortress' about the city citadel and 'A walk round the Pamplona fortifications'.

Industrialization and modernization

Freed from its military function, Pamplona could lead the process of industrialization and modernization in which Navarre was involved during the 20th century, especially during its second half. The urban growth  has been accompanied by the development of industry and services. Population growth has been the effect of an intense immigration process during the 1960s and 1970s: from the Navarrese countryside and from other less developed regions of Spain, mainly Castile and León and Andalusia. Since the 1990s the immigration is coming mainly from abroad.

Pamplona is listed as a city with one of the highest standards of living and quality of life in Spain. Its industry rate is higher than the national average, although it is threatened by delocalization. Crime statistics are lower than the national average but cost of living, especially housing, is considerably higher. Thanks to its small size and an acceptable public transport service, there are no major transport problems.

Geography
Pamplona is located in the middle of Navarre in a rounded valley, known as the Basin of Pamplona, that links the mountainous north with the Ebro valley. It is  from the city of San Sebastián,  from Bilbao,  from Paris, and  from Madrid. The climate and landscape of the basin is a transition between those two main Navarrese geographical regions. Its central position at crossroads has served as a commercial link between those very different natural parts of Navarre. The historical centre of the city is on the left bank of the Arga River, a tributary of the Ebro. The city has developed on both sides of the river.

Climate
The climate of Pamplona is classified as an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb) with influences of a semicontinental Mediterranean climate. Due to global warming and stronger summer heat waves in the 21st century, it is also on the boundary with a humid subtropical climate. Precipitation patterns do not vary much over the course of the year, as is typical of marine climates, but both classifications are possible due to the Mediterranean patterns of somewhat drier summer months. Sunshine hours are typical for a location in Northern Spain, thus more similar to the oceanic coastal climate in nearby Basque locations than typical Spanish Mediterranean areas are, but rainfall is significantly lower than in Bilbao and especially San Sebastián, as well as the climate is harsher than in the northern coastal areas (colder winter lows, warmer summer highs) because of the altitude of  and its inland location.

Urbanism
Like many other European cities, it is very easy to distinguish what is so called the "old city" and the new neighborhoods. The oldest part of the old city is Navarrería, which corresponds with the Roman city. During the 12th century, the boroughs of Saint Sernin (San Saturnino or San Cernin) and Saint Nicholas (San Nicolás) were established. Charles III decreed the unification of the three places under a single municipality in 1423.

The city did not expand until the late 19th century. In 1888, a modest modification of the star fort was allowed, but it just permitted the building of six blocks. It was called the I Ensanche (literally, "first widening"). The southern walls were destroyed in 1915 and the II Ensanche ("second widening") was planned. Its plan followed the grid pattern model designed by Ildefons Cerdà for Barcelona. Its blocks were built between the 1920s and the 1950s. The prevailing housing model is apartment buildings of five to eight floors.

After the Civil War, three new zones of Pamplona began to grow: Rochapea, Milagrosa, and Chantrea. Only the last one was a planned neighborhood, the other two being disorderly growths. In 1957, the municipality designed the first general ordination plan for the city, which established the guidelines for further urban development. According to this, during the 1960s and 1970s saw the creation of new neighborhoods like San Juan, Iturrama, San Jorge, Etxabakoitz, and Orvina.

The urban expansion of Pamplona exceeded the administrative limits of the city and involved municipalities like Barañáin, Burlada, Villava, Ansoain, Berriozar, Noain or Huarte in a larger metropolitan area. During the 1980s and 1990s, new neighborhoods were born: Azpilagaña, Mendebaldea, and Mendillorri. Rochapea was profoundly renewed. The urban development of those new neighborhoods is very similar to other Spanish provincial capitals that experienced a similar aggressive economic development during the sixties and seventies. The urbanization of Pamplona, being from anterior designs, is not constrained by the grid plan. The apartment buildings are taller: never less than five floors and many taller than ten. Industry, which previously coexisted with housing, was moved to industrial parks (the oldest and the only one within municipal limits of Pamplona is Landaben).

In recent years, single-family house-predominant neighborhoods have grown in the metropolitan area: Zizur Mayor, Cizur Menor, Mutilva Alta, Mutilva Baja, Olaz, Esquíroz, , Alzuza, Artiberri and Sarriguren. And new districts emerged like Buztintxuri, Lezkairu and Ripagaina, the latter two being still under construction. These new suburbs have more room for green areas and recreative parks.

Economy

Pamplona has shifted in a few decades from a little administrative and even rural town to a medium-size city of industry and services. The industry sector is diversified although the most important activity is related to automobile industry. Volkswagen manufactures Polo model in its factory of Landaben and there are many auxiliary industries that work for Volkswagen and other companies. Other remarkable industries are building materials, metalworking and food processing. Renewable energy technologies are also an increasing economic sector (wind turbine manufacturing and generation) and neighboring Sarriguren is the seat of the Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energy, National Centre for Renewable Energies (CENER) and of Acciona Energía.

Pamplona is the main commercial and services centre of Navarre. Its area of influence is not beyond the province, except for the University of Navarre and its teaching hospital, which provide private educational and health services nationwide.

Education and culture

The city is home to two universities: the above-mentioned University of Navarre, a corporate work of Opus Dei founded in 1952, which is ranked as the best private university in Spain, and the Public University of Navarre, established by the Government of Navarre in 1987. There is also a local branch of the UNED (Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia).

The two most important museums in Pamplona are the Museo de Navarra, devoted to the archaeological and artistic heritage of Navarre, and the Museo Diocesano of religious art, located in the cathedral. Pamplona is the first Spanish city in the French way of the Way of Saint James.

Pamplona has hosted the Sarasate Violin International Competition biennially since 1991, and the annual Punto de Vista International Documentary Film Festival, the most important Spanish documentary film festival, since 2004.

One of the more popular cultural expressions include the "Gigantes", which come out during festivals many times during the year. These are approximately 30-foot wooden statues that have a person inside that make them dance around the city. They represent each of the main continents of the world, including Europe, the Americas, Africa, and Asia.

Politics
After the 2015 municipal elections, there are 27 seats in Pamplona's municipal council: ten of Navarrese People's Union (Unión del Pueblo Navarro), five of EH Bildu, five of Geroa Bai, three of the Socialist Party of Navarre, three of Aranzadi (supported by Podemos Sí Se Puede) and one of Izquierda-Ezkerra.

Transportation

Pamplona is linked by motorways with neighbouring Zaragoza (1978), San Sebastián, Vitoria (1995) and Logroño (2006). Since 2007 buses use a new bus station in the city centre that replaces the old one (1934).

The airport (1972), operated by Aena and located in Noain, schedules several flights daily to Madrid and Barcelona. There are railway (1861) links with Madrid, Zaragoza and northern Spain, operated by Renfe. High speed train link with Zaragoza, Madrid, and Barcelona was not expected until 2014. A new railway station will be built in the southern part of the city.

Within the city and surroundings there are also 23 daytime lines and 10 night lines of public buses, operated by TCC, the chartered company of the Mancomunidad de la Comarca de Pamplona.

Main sights
Several notable churches, most of its 16th- to 18th-century fortified system and other civil architecture buildings belong to the historic-artistic heritage of Pamplona.

Religious architecture
The most important religious building is the fourteenth century Gothic Cathedral, with an outstanding cloister and a Neoclassical façade. There are another two main Gothic churches in the old city: Saint Sernin and Saint Nicholas, both built during the thirteenth century. Two other Gothic churches were built during the sixteenth century: Saint Dominic and Saint Augustine. During the seventeenth and eighteenth century were built the Baroque chapels of Saint Fermin, in the church of Saint Lawrence, and of the Virgin of the Road (Virgen del Camino), in the church of Saint Sernin, the convents of the Augustinian Recollect nuns and the Carmelite friars, and the Saint Ignatius basilica in the place where he was injured in the battle and during the subsequent convalescence he decided to be a priest. The most remarkable twentieth century religious buildings are probably the new diocesan seminary (1931) and the classical-revival style memorial church (1942) to the Navarrese dead in the Nationalist side of the Civil War and that is used today as temporary exhibitions room.

Military and civil architecture

From the prominent military past of Pamplona remain three of the four sides of the city walls and, with little modifications, the citadel or star fort. All the mediaeval structures were replaced and improved during 16th, 17th and 18th centuries in order to resist artillery sieges. Completely obsolete for modern warfare, they are used today as parks.

The oldest civil building today existing is a fourteenth-century house that was used as Cámara de Comptos (the court of auditors of the early modern autonomous kingdom of Navarre) from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century. There are also several medieval bridges on the Arga: Santa Engracia, Miluce, Magdalena, and San Pedro. The medieval palace of Saint Peter, which was alternatively used by Navarrese kings and Pamplonese bishops, was used during the early modern age as the Viceroy's palace and later was the seat of the military governor of Navarre; from the time of the Civil War it was in ruins but was recently rebuilt to be used as the General Archive of Navarre.

The most outstanding Baroque civil architecture is from the eighteenth century: town hall, episcopal palace, Saint John the Baptist seminary, and the Rozalejo's, Ezpeleta's (today music school), Navarro-Tafalla's (today, the local office of PNV), and Guenduláin's (today, a hotel) mansions. The provincial government built its own Neoclassical palace, the so-called Palace of Navarre, during the nineteenth century.

Late nineteenth and early twentieth century Pamplonese architecture shows the tendencies that are fully developed in other more important Spanish cities: La Agrícola building (1912), several apartment buildings with some timid modernist ornamentation, etc. The most notable architect in twentieth century Pamplona was Víctor Eusa (1894–1990), whose designs were influenced by the European expressionism and other avant-garde movements.

Parks
Pamplona has many parks and green areas. The oldest is the Taconera park, whose early designs are from the seventeenth century. Taconera is today a romantic park, with wide pedestrian paths, parterres, and sculptures.

The Media Luna park was built as part of the II Ensanche and is intended to allow relaxing strolling and sightseeing over the northern part of the town.

After its demilitarization, the citadel (Ciudadela) and its surrounding area (Vuelta del Castillo) shifted into a park area with large lawns and modern sculptures.

The most remarkable parks of the new neighborhoods include the Yamaguchi park, between Iturrama and Ermitagaña, which includes a little Japanese garden as well as the Planetarium of Pamplona; the campus of the University of Navarre; the Parque del Mundo in Chantrea; and the Arga park.

Sports

CA Osasuna (Club Atlético Osasuna (Basque for "Health") is the local football team. Their home stadium is called El Sadar, known as Reyno de Navarra between 2005 and 2013 in exchange for the Government of Navarre's sponsorship.

Pamplona's bull ring was rebuilt in 1923. It seats 19,529 and is the third largest in the world, after the bull rings of Mexico City and Madrid.

Other sports with some of the top clubs in Pamplona include handball (Portland San Antonio, Europe's championship winner 2001), futsal (MRA Xota) and water polo (Larraina).

Pamplona's favourite son may well be Miguel Indurain, five time Tour de France winner. Former Arsenal goalkeeper Manuel Almunia is also from Pamplona.

The Movistar Team, the direct descendant of Indurain's Banesto team, is based in Egüés, a municipality in the metropolitan area of Pamplona.

Pamplona is also home to the headquarters of the International Federation of Basque Pelota (FIPV). Basque pelota is principally practised in France, Spain, and North and South America, but also in other countries like Italy and Philippines.

Notable citizens

 Fermin (* 272; † 303)
 Martín de Rada, (1533–1578)
 Pablo de Sarasate (1844–1908), internationally renowned composer and violin player
 José Sanjurjo (1872–1936), army general
 Víctor Pradera Larumbe (1873–1936)
 Ignacio Baleztena Ascárate (1887–1972)
 Luis Arellano Dihinx (1906–1969)
 Sabicas (1912–1990)
 Jaime del Burgo Torres (1912–2005)
 Alfredo Landa (1933–2013)
 Marysa Navarro (born 1934)
 Carlos Garaikoetxea (born 1938)
 Javier Rojo (born 1949)
 Serafín Zubiri (born 1964), singer
 Jon Andoni Goikoetxea (born 1965), Spain footballer
 Alberto Urroz (born 1965), classical pianist
 Cesar Palacios Chocarro (born 1974), Spain footballer
 Javier López Vallejo (born 1975), Spain footballer
 Francisco Puñal (born 1975), Spain footballer
 Tiko (born 1976), Spain footballer
 Manuel Almunia (born 1977), Spain footballer
 Jesús María Lacruz (born 1978), Spain footballer
 Gorka Iraizoz (born 1981), Spain footballer
 Miguel Flaño (born 1984), Spain footballer
 Javier Flaño (born 1984), Spain footballer
 Fernando Llorente (born 1985), Spain footballer
 María Hernández (born 1986), Spanish professional golfer
 Raúl García (born 1986), Spain footballer
 Nacho Monreal (born 1986), Spain footballer
 Abel Azcona (born 1988), Contemporary artist
 César Azpilicueta (born 1989), Spain footballer
 Carlota Ciganda (born 1990), Spanish professional golfer
 Iker Muniain (born 1992), Spain footballer
 Mikel Merino (born 1996), Spain U21 footballer
 Amaia Romero (born 1999), singer
 Javier Garro Barrio (1933 - 2003)
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Twin towns and sister cities

Pamplona is twinned with the following cities:

Notes

References

Bibliography
See: Bibliography of the history of Pamplona

External links

70s BC establishments
Populated places established in the 1st century BC
Municipalities in Navarre
Vascones
Navarre
Roman sites in Spain
Tourism in Spain

Pamplona


The Layover is a travel and food show on the Travel Channel hosted by Anthony Bourdain.  The show premiered on November 21, 2011 in an episode based on Singapore. The format and the content of the show are based on what a traveler can do, eat, visit and enjoy within 24 to 48 hours in a city. Each episode starts with the host landing at the city, with the clock starting the countdown until the time that he will leave the city. As a seasoned traveler, he meets up with locals and explores the city in and out, within matters of hours, both the touristy way and the local way.

On February 15, 2012, Travel Channel renewed the show for the 2012/2013 season, selecting November 19, 2012 for the second-season premiere; featured cities for the season include Atlanta, Chicago, Dublin, New Orleans, Paris, Philadelphia, São Paulo, Seattle, Toronto, and Taipei.

Episodes

Season 1 (2011–12)

Season 2 (2012–13)

References

External links

 Article on the Huffingtonpost

English-language television shows
Food travelogue television series
Travel Channel original programming
2011 American television series debuts
2013 American television series endings

The Layover (TV series)


Auguste Chabaud (3 October 1882 – 23 May 1955) was a French painter and sculptor.

Biography
He was born in Nimes. At the age of fourteen Chabaud joined the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Avignon. In 1899 he went to Paris to continue his artistic training at the Academie Julian and the Ecole des Beaux Arts. There he met Henri Matisse and André Derain. In 1900 he returned to his parents' vineyard in southern France, because the business was affected by a crisis there.

In 1901, he was forced to leave Paris again in order to secure his livelihood. He worked on a ship and got to know the West African coast. In the following years he became acquainted with the Parisian nightlife. In the Paris neighborhood Montmartre, where he had his studio, he painted various scenes of Parisian life.

Chabaud's Cubist phase began in 1911, where he also began sculpting. In the following years he had many exhibitions, including 1913 in New York, where his works were exhibited alongside those of artists such as Matisse, Derain, Vlaminck and Picasso.

After his return from the first World War Chabaud settled down in Graveson. From 1920 he had his "blue period". He used the Prussian Blue as the only color in his works. From then, he focused exclusively on the south of France. He painted scenes of rural life, the farmers, and the hills and trails of the Alpilles. He died in 1955 in Graveson.

In 1992, the Regional Council of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur opened the Musée Auguste Chabaud in his honor.

References

External links
 Website of the Musée Chabaud in Graveson

19th-century French painters
French male painters
20th-century French painters
20th-century French male artists
1882 births
1955 deaths
Artists from Nîmes
20th-century French sculptors
19th-century French sculptors
French male sculptors
19th-century French male artists

Auguste Chabaud


America's Talking was an American short-lived cable television channel focused mainly on talk based programming, created by NBC and spun off from economic channel CNBC. It was launched on July 4, 1994, and was carried in 10 million American households upon launch. The headquarters were in an office building in Fort Lee, New Jersey, two floors below CNBC's original studios, on Fletcher Avenue. It was shuttered on July 15, 1996, and its transponder space was replaced by MSNBC.

Programming
The programming was mainly focused on low-budget talk shows, and included the following lineup:
America's Talking A.M. - A morning talk show, hosted by Steve Doocy and Kai Kim, with Tony Morelli as "the Prodigy Guy".
Am I Nuts? - (later named State of Mind) hosted by psychologist Bernie Katz and behavioral therapist Cynthia Richmond.
What's New? - The latest hot gadgets, hosted by Mike Jerrick and later Brian Tracey.
Break A Leg with Bill McCuddy - Mid-afternoon chatfest hosted by the winner of a CNBC-sponsored talent contest, Bill McCuddy. Featured celebrities and musical acts.
Alive and Wellness - Healthy living by holistic methods, hosted by Carol Martin.
Ask E. Jean - A call-in advice show hosted by writer E. Jean Carroll.
Have a Heart - A talk/news show discussing the brighter side of the news and show-arranged charitable situations, hosted by Lu Hanessian.
Pork - A political talk show focusing on government waste hosted by John David Klein. The executive producers were Robin Gellman and Dennis Sullivan.
AT In-Depth - A two-hour news/talk show focusing on the day's top stories, co-hosted by Terry Anzur in Fort Lee and Chris Matthews in Washington. Matthews later got his own show (see below) and the show became In Depth Coast to Coast with Anzur in Burbank, CA, and John Gibson in Fort Lee.
Straight Forward - A celebrity hour-long talk show, hosted by the President of the network, Roger Ailes.
Bugged! - A comedic look at what bugs people, hosted by Brian O'Connor with Bill Gulino.
R&R with Roger Rose - A late-night themed talk show featuring the latest music and celebrities.
After Hours - This show replaced R&R, was basically the same format, hosted by Brian Tracy and Bill Gulino.  The show was eventually moved over to CNBC where it was hosted by Mike Jerrick.
Politics with Chris Matthews - After moving over to CNBC during the rampdown of America's Talking, the show was renamed Hardball with Chris Matthews and eventually moved to MSNBC, where it aired nightly at 7 p.m. until March 2, 2020, when Mathews announced his retirement at the top of his final program. Following a commercial break, Steve Kornacki took over for the rest of that episode.
Cable Crossings - A minute-long serial that aired between programs, written by Marv Himelfarb, featuring Brian Fraley, and Kim Gregory. Music written by Bill Gulino.

Demise
While America's Talking had something of a following, it was not successful in the ratings and was picked up by few cable providers. In January 1996, NBC announced plans to partner with Microsoft to launch MSNBC on cable and online with the satellite transponder that America's Talking occupied, effectively ending the life of the network.

After network president Roger Ailes left NBC to join Rupert Murdoch in launching the Fox News Channel for News Corporation, America's Talking officially signed off on July 15, 1996 and was replaced at 9 a.m. by MSNBC Live, hosted by Jodi Applegate.

References

Defunct television networks in the United States
Television channels and stations established in 1994
Television channels and stations disestablished in 1996
Former General Electric subsidiaries
CNBC
MSNBC
1990s American television talk shows
Companies based in Bergen County, New Jersey
1994 establishments in New Jersey
Fort Lee, New Jersey

America's Talking


Listening is not quite the same thing as hearing. Hearing is a biological process that can be scientifically explained, but listening is a psychological process of what happens to sounds as we interpret and use them. It is a cognitive activity.

In psychology, speech is part of pragmatics, a field which deals with signs and their interpretation. The signs in question are called "speech acts".

To listen means to try and understand what has been said. Listening is often one side of a conversation. Asking questions helps one understand what has been said. A subject can be better understood by asking the correct questions.

Listening differs from obeying. Parents often say to a disobedient child that he "didn't listen to me", meaning, he heard but didn't do as was suggested.

Listening also applies to sounds, not just language. It is active hearing. We hear a sound, and know what it means. This applies to animals as well. Cats list in the long grass for the little sounds that mice make. So perhaps a better description of listening is "deliberate hearing to get the meaning of sounds".

References

Cognition
Human communication
Life skills

Listening


The New Democratic Party of Manitoba (NDP) is a social democratic political party in Manitoba, Canada. It is the provincial wing of the federal New Democratic Party (NDP). It was formed from the Manitoba Co-operative Commonwealth Federation. In 1961, the national Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) merged with the Canadian Labour Congress to form the NDP. The Manitoba wing of the CCF took the New Democratic Party name on November 4, 1961.

The NDP formed a minority government after winning 28 out of 57 seats in the 1969 general election. Edward Schreyer became premier. In the 1973 general election, the NDP won 31 seats and formed a majority government. The party was the largest party in the assembly until the 1988 general election. After that election, the party won only 12 seats.

The party was returned to government in the 1999 general election and formed the government after that.

Political parties of Manitoba

New Democratic Party of Manitoba


Agnatic seniority is a patrilineal principle of inheritance where the order of succession to the throne prefers the monarch's younger brother over the monarch's own sons. A monarch's children (the next generation) succeed only after the males of the elder generation have all been exhausted. Agnatic seniority essentially excludes females of the dynasty and their descendants from the succession. Contrast agnatic primogeniture, where the king's sons stand higher in succession than his brothers.

Description
In hereditary monarchies, particularly in more ancient times, seniority was a much-used principle of order of succession. The Ottoman Empire evolved from an elective succession (following the principle of agnatic seniority) to a succession inherited by the law of agnatic seniority.

In succession based on rotation (close to seniority), all (male) members of the dynasty were entitled to the monarchy, in principle. However, this tends to lead to situations where there is no clear rule to determine who is the next monarch.

Brothers succeeding each other as a system leads quickly, particularly in the following generations, to complex patterns and also to disputes between branches which have formed within the monarchical house.

Monarchs had collateral relatives, some of whom were rather distant cousins, who were often as entitled to succeed as the monarch himself. Either one branch obtained sufficient control over others (often by force), the rival branches arrived at a balance (such as the succession becoming rotational), or the inheritance was somehow partitioned.

Succession based on agnatic seniority or rotation was often limited to those princes who were sons of an earlier reigning monarch. Thus, a son of a king had a higher claim than a son of a prince. In some cases, distinctions were even made based on whether the claimant was born to a monarch who reigned at the time of birth (porphyrogeniture).

This limit was practical, as otherwise the number of rivals would be overwhelming. However, it usually left multiple rivals who too often waged civil war against each other. In other cases, the eligible branches of dynasty became extinct in the male line (no surviving sons), in which situation the limit was problematic.

Sons of princes who did not live long enough to succeed to the throne were unsatisfied with such limits. This led to interpretation problems: What if a claimant's father was a rightful monarch, but not recognized by everyone, or by no one (did not rule at all)? The cases were further complicated by co-reigning monarchs, but this was often a practical solution to a controversial succession.

Agnatic seniority tends in the long run to favor a sort of ultimogeniture, because princes born in a certain generation to the most junior lines tend to be more likely alive at the demise of the predecessor (the last of the immediately preceding generation). In a situation where representatives from any later generation are not allowed to succeed until the last ones of the earlier generation die, plenty of dynasts, usually from more senior branches, will die before their turn on the throne. This tendency is one of the causes of disputed successions: some desire to succeed before they die, and plead the seniority or better blood of their branch. This is further exacerbated if a dynast is not allowed to succeed in case his father was not regnant (or is regarded just as a spare, eligible to succeed only after all those males whose fathers were regnant)—senior branches will with high likelihood sooner or later lose their places in succession. Agnatic seniority tends to favor boys who are born to fathers in their old age.

Succession within one family based on seniority was often a device to control an elective monarchy. Those two forms of monarchy (agnatic seniority and elective monarchy) were mostly used in the same centuries. Many kingdoms were officially elective long into historical times (though the election usually, or always, fell to family of the deceased monarch).

The preference for males which exists in most systems of hereditary succession came mostly from the perceived nature of the role of the monarch:

 Tribal chiefs (proto-monarchs) were required to personally participate in violent activities such as war, duels, and raiding expeditions.
 His income was dependent on the "protection money" or corvee labor collected from those people he was supposed to protect from violence, both from outside (war) and from within (crime). The collection of these funds or services often required the threat or actual use of force by the monarch, but more politely labeled "taxes" and "duties". These forms of revenue-collecting are also present in non-monarchical systems.
 It was very useful, or even required, that the monarch be a warrior and a military commander. Warriors (almost always males) often would only accept other males as their commanders.
 Additionally, in some monarchies, the monarch held a certain mystical, almost priestly, position. That role, depending on the tradition in question, was often denied to females. In the French monarchy, one of the official explanations for the Salic Law was that the monarch was obliged to use certain sacred instruments, which females were forbidden even to touch.

In earlier centuries, perhaps in every second or every third generation on average, the male line often became extinct and females were needed to trace the line of succession. During this period, male lines tended to become extinct relatively quickly, usually due to violent death. Therefore, "pure" agnatic succession was impossible to maintain, and frequent exceptions were made—eligibility being granted to the eldest sons of sisters or other female relatives of the monarch.

The fully agnatic succession also did not serve the interests of individual monarchs who favored close female relatives and their descendants over very distant male relatives.

In the later Middle Ages, violence directly involving the monarch and his heirs became less of a factor, as they gradually decreased their personal participation in combat. Sons were much more likely to survive to adulthood and to marry than in previous centuries, when many noble families lost adolescent sons to constant warfare. In addition, the living conditions and nutrition of the nobility improved, leading to fewer miscarriages and decreased infant and childhood mortality. Daughters were therefore needed less and less to trace succession.

In many cultures, surnames are agnatically determined.

Historical examples

Agnatic seniority has been used in several historical monarchies.

Angevin Empire
The County of Anjou followed inheritance by agnatic seniority. When Henry II of England married Eleanor of Aquitaine, creating the Angevin Empire, this resulted in some question over what inheritance laws would affect their children, as Henry II's father was the count of Anjou, and he inherited England and Normandy through his mother. Henry II's eldest son, the Young Henry, died before him, so the throne passed to his next oldest son, Richard I of England. Henry II's third son, Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany died three years before his father, but his pregnant wife later gave birth to a son, Arthur of Brittany. When Richard was mortally wounded during a castle siege, on his deathbed he named his brother John, Henry II's fourth and youngest son, as his heir. However, the inheritance was questioned by the young Arthur of Brittany (then 12 years old). Arthur argued that as the son of John's older brother Geoffrey, he was the rightful heir of Richard and Henry II according to the laws of agnatic primogeniture which were followed in England and Normandy. John countered that as the male-line heirs of the Counts of Anjou, the Angevin Empire followed the succession law of Anjou which was based on agnatic seniority. Thus, John claimed that as Richard's younger brother, he stood in line ahead of his nephew. Arthur continued to press his claim for the next four years, allying with the king of France against John, though Richard's deathbed declaration of John as his heir provided greater strength to his claim. Ultimately, Arthur was captured in battle, imprisoned, and presumably killed by John. The matter was never definitively decided, as John lost all continental land possessions in France and had to relinquish any claim to rule of Anjou.

Chinese Empire
It was practiced by the Shang dynasty and the enfeoffed Shang survivors who ruled the State of Song under the Zhou dynasty in China.

Czech lands
In Moravia and Bohemia since 1055 to 1182 respective 1203, established by duke Bretislaus I in his seniority "constitution".

Ethiopian Empire
In the succession for the Emperor of Ethiopia, limitation to agnates was controlled until recent times. According to research by the historian Taddesse Tamrat, the order of succession during the Zagwe dynasty was that of brother succeeding brother as King of Ethiopia (i.e., agnatic seniority), which apparently was based on Agaw laws of inheritance. However, the principle of agnatic primogeniture later became dominant, although succession to the throne at the death of the monarch could be claimed by any male blood relative of the Emperor—sons, brothers, uncles or cousins. To avoid instability and civil war, an Emperor typically took care to designate his chosen heir, and to strengthen the heir's position against rivals. In addition, the Emperor would place the heir's rivals in a secure location, which drastically limited their ability to disrupt the Empire with revolts, or to dispute the succession of an heir apparent. Over time, Emperors were more frequently selected by a council of the senior officials of the realm, both secular and religious. The Ethiopian experience is a particularly good example of the instability which can result from the application of the principle of agnatic seniority.

Kievan Rus'

In Kievan Rus' during the Rurik dynasty, a variant of agnatic seniority known as the rota system gradually evolved over the course of several generations. According to Janet Martin (1995), each new generation of princes fought wars of succession or princely rebellions, resulting in the establishment of a new rule that the next generation accepted. By the end of the 11th century, there was a comprehensive succession system that almost every member of the Rurikid house respected. While some scholars have supposed that Yaroslav the Wise invented the system all on his own, Martin rejected this idea in favour of every generation contributing a new rule.

Morocco
It was sometimes used in Morocco by the Alaouite dynasty until it was definitely abolished by King Mohammed V (1957–1961) who introduced agnatic primogeniture.

Piast Poland
In the Piast Kingdom of Poland, the Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth enacted in 1138 with the establishment of a Seniorate Province at Kraków led to a centuries-long period of fragmentation of the country among his descendants.

Saudi Arabia
The principle is currently used by the House of Saud, the royal family of Saudi Arabia; all successors to Ibn Saud as King of Saudi Arabia were one of his 45 sons. Currently, as all remaining first-generation candidates are in their 70s and 80s, the Allegiance Council has been instituted to smooth the transition of power to the grandsons of Ibn Saud. The institution of the Allegiance Council arguably makes the succession formally elective, but seniority remains the overriding factor, and it is expected that the most-senior dynast will be elected unless he is uninterested in the throne or otherwise disqualified.

See also
 Line of succession to the Saudi Arabian throne, which followed agnatic seniority in 1918–2017
 Perak, a state in Malaysia whose monarchy follows this principle (see also Sultan of Perak)
 Order of succession
 Primogeniture
 Proximity of blood
 Rota system
 Tanistry

References

Bibliography

Inheritance
Monarchy
Order of succession

Agnatic seniority


Hubert Charles Sumlin (November 16, 1931 – December 4, 2011) was a Chicago blues guitarist and singer, best known for his "wrenched, shattering bursts of notes, sudden cliff-hanger silences and daring rhythmic suspensions" as a member of Howlin' Wolf's band. He was ranked number 43 in Rolling Stones "100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time".

Biography
Sumlin was born in Greenwood, Mississippi, and raised in Hughes, Arkansas. He got his first guitar when he was eight years old. As a boy, he met Howlin' Wolf by sneaking into a performance.

Wolf relocated from Memphis to Chicago in 1953, but his longtime guitarist Willie Johnson chose not to join him. In Chicago, Wolf hired the guitarist Jody Williams, but in 1954 he invited Sumlin to move to Chicago to play second guitar in his band. Williams left the band in 1955, leaving Sumlin as the primary guitarist, a position he held almost continuously (except for a brief spell playing with Muddy Waters around 1956) for the remainder of Wolf's career. According to Sumlin, Howlin' Wolf sent him to a classical guitar instructor at the Chicago Conservatory of Music to learn keyboards and scales. Sumlin played on the album Howlin' Wolf (called the "rocking chair album", with reference to its  cover illustration), which was named the third greatest guitar album of all time by Mojo magazine in 2004.

Upon Wolf's death in 1976, Sumlin continued playing with several other members of Wolf's band, as the Wolf Gang, until about 1980. He also recorded under his own name, beginning with a session from a tour of Europe with Wolf in 1964. His last solo album was About Them Shoes, released in 2004 by Tone-Cool Records. He underwent lung removal surgery the same year, but he continued performing until just before his death. His final recording, just days before his death, was tracks for an album by Stephen Dale Petit, Cracking The Code (333 Records).

Sumlin was inducted into the Blues Foundation Hall of Fame in 2008. He was nominated for four Grammy Awards: in 1999 for the album Tribute to Howlin' Wolf, with Henry Gray, Calvin Jones, Sam Lay, and Colin Linden; in 2000 for Legends, with Pinetop Perkins; in 2006, for his solo project About Them Shoes (which features performances by Keith Richards, Eric Clapton, Levon Helm, David Johansen and James Cotton) and in 2010 for his contribution to Kenny Wayne Shepherd's Live! in Chicago. He won multiple Blues Music Awards. He was a judge for the fifth annual Independent Music Awards, given to support the careers of independent artists.

Sumlin lived in Totowa, New Jersey for 10 years before his death.  He died of heart failure on December 4, 2011, at the age of 80, in a hospital in Wayne, New Jersey. Mick Jagger and Keith Richards paid Sumlin's funeral expenses.

Partial discography

References

External links

 Hubert Sumlin biography at About.com
 BBC review of About Them Shoes
 Illustrated Hubert Sumlin discography

1931 births
People from Greenwood, Mississippi
People from Totowa, New Jersey
American blues guitarists
American male guitarists
American blues singers
Blues musicians from Mississippi
Chicago blues musicians
Black Top Records artists
2011 deaths
Guitarists from Illinois
Guitarists from Mississippi
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American male musicians
Blind Pig Records artists
Telarc Records artists
Chess Records artists
Black & Blue Records artists
African-American guitarists
20th-century African-American male singers
21st-century African-American male singers

Hubert Sumlin


Joaquín Turina Pérez (9 December 188214 January 1949) was a Spanish composer of classical music.

Biography
Turina was brought up in Seville, and the music of this town always had a big influence on his music. His father was a painter. As a small boy Turina's favourite toy was a small toy accordion. He started to study medicine, but he wanted to be a musician, so his father let him study music instead. He had piano lessons with Enrique Rodriguez and studied harmony with Garcia Torres, who was in charge of music at the cathedral in Seville.

Soon Turina started to compose. He met Falla and the two musicians became lifelong friends. He moved to Paris in 1905 where he studied with Moskowski and d'Indy. One of the his first works to be performed was piano quintet. The style was similar to César Franck. Albéniz heard it and advised the young composer to make his music sound Spanish.

Turina's music started to be performed widely. In 1914 both Turina and Falla returned to live in Spain. They were two of the most important Spanish composers. He was choirmaster at the Teatro Real and he had an opera Jardin de oriente performed there. He became director of the Madrid Conservatory and received many honours. He died after a long illness.

Turina's music always sounds very Spanish, although he used the forms of main European composers. He wrote many short piano pieces which often describe a person. He wrote songs and guitar music.

References

Other websites

1882 births
1949 deaths
20th-century Spanish composers

Joaquín Turina


Suds is a 1920 American silent comedy film directed by John Francis Dillon and starring Mary Pickford. The film is based on the 1904 English stage play 'Op o' Me Thumb, a one-act work first produced in London and presented the following year in New York with Maude Adams, a curtain raiser for her appearance in Peter Pan.

Plot
Amanda Afflick (Mary Pickford) is a poor laundry woman working in London. She is too weak to do the hard work, but is always picked on and humiliated by her boss Madame Didier (Rose Dione). Amanda is desperately in love with the handsome customer Horace Greensmith (Albert Austin), but none of her colleagues thinks she has a chance of being his sweetheart.

One afternoon Amanda gets in trouble again and is forced to work all night long. All alone, she fantasizes about her first and only meeting with Horace, eight months ago. All the fellow employees ridicule her for still having faith that he will return someday to pick up his clothes. Amanda is fed up with all her colleagues making fun of her and lies that she is a duchess, coming from a wealthy family. She comes up with a story of her having an affair with Horace. Her father found out and sent her to live in London.

Meanwhile, co-worker Benjamin Jones (Harold Goodwin) has the job of collecting laundry with his cart. One day, his beloved horse Lavender is too weak to go up a hill and falls. The cart is destroyed and when Benjamin admits the truth to Madame Didier, she asks for the horse to be killed. Benjamin reveals to Amanda what will happen with Lavender and she tries to stop the horse from being killed. She eventually buys the horse and takes it into her own home.

Amanda is not allowed to take the horse into her own apartment and is noticed on the streets by the wealthy and sympathizing Lady Burke-Cavendish. She offers to take the horse to live at her country place. Amanda is delighted and accepts her offer. Later, Lady Burke-Cavendish stops by to tell Amanda the horse is doing very well. Amanda lies to the fellow laundry women Lady Burke-Cavendish is actually her aunt.

They are interrupted by Horace: he has returned for his laundry. The fellow workers assume he will recognize Amanda, since they were lied to he is her secret lover. Amanda is desperate and successfully pretends to be reunited with him. Horace is confused and wants to leave. While the laundry women are away she tells the truth to Horace. Benjamin walks in on them, initially trying to flirt with Amanda, but when he notices Horace's presence he leaves.

Horace sympathizes with Amanda and invites her to his mansion. He changes his mind when he becomes ashamed of her. Amanda notices this and pulls back. Horace leaves and Amanda is left behind with a broken heart. She is later hired as Lady Burke-Cavendish's personal maid and now lives in wealth. She finds out Horace is a worker at the country place and they fall in love with each other.

Remake
The original film was adapted to a musical written by Deonn Ritchie Hunt with music by Kim Douglas in the 2000s.

Cast
Mary Pickford as Amanda Afflick
Albert Austin as Horace Greensmith
Harold Goodwin as Benjamin Pillsbury Jones
Rose Dione as Madame Jeanne Gallifilet Didier
Darwin Karr as The Archduke
Taylor N. Duncan (undetermined role) (uncredited)
Joan Marsh (undetermined role) (uncredited)
Nadyne Montgomery (undetermined role) (uncredited)
Theodore Roberts (undetermined role) (uncredited)
Hal Wilson (undetermined role) (uncredited)

Production crew
Produced by Mary Pickford
Cinematography by L. William O'Connell	and Charles Rosher
Art Direction by Max Parker
Costume Design by Adele Crinley
Assistant Director William A. Crinley
Art Department - Alfred L. Werker (props)
Other crew - William S. Johnson (electrical effects)

See also
Mary Pickford filmography

References

External links

1920 films
1920s English-language films
1920 comedy films
American black-and-white films
American silent feature films
Films directed by John Francis Dillon
United Artists films
Articles containing video clips
Silent American comedy films
Films set in London
1920s American films

Suds (film)


Hereford cattle are a widely used breed in temperate areas, mainly for beef production.

Originally from Herefordshire, England, they are found in the temperate parts of Australia. The breed also enjoys great popularity among ranchers in the desert American Southwest of the United States, as well as in the centre and east of Argentina and in Uruguay. Herefords made up the largest percentage of registered cows among herders in New Zealand. This is a testament to the hardiness of the breed; while originating in cool, moist Britain, they have thrived in much harsher climates. The breed has adapted to a wide range of climates on nearly every continent.

Hornless variants with the polled gene are known as the Polled Herefords. Breeding horned and hornless together functions as a genetic dehorner. This is often used as an alternative to a dehorning process, which causes stress and often weight loss.

References

Cattle breeds

Hereford (cattle)


Captain Nathaniel Carver (24 September 1740 – 1 May 1815) was a prosperous merchant of British America. Near the end of the American Revolutionary War, he was captured by a British naval frigate, , commanded by Horatio Nelson, whom he later assisted in escaping a superior French force.

Biography
Carver was born on 24 September 1740 in Plymouth in the then-British Province of Massachusetts Bay. He played an active part in town affairs and served on many juries and committees.

Encounter with Horatio Nelson
Nelson was patrolling the bay now known as Massachusetts Bay, when on 14 July 1782, he stumbled upon and captured the Plymouth schooner Harmony. Lacking knowledge of the dangerous shoals in the area, Nelson 'invited' the schooner's master, Carver, to act as pilot. Carver agreed to help the British, even though he was a prominent citizen of Plymouth and had previously signed the Plymouth Petition, drawn up in 1773 in opposition to British tyranny.

Carver had been aboard the Albemarle for a month when she encountered a squadron of four French ships of the line and a frigate. Carver's knowledge allowed Nelson to run his ship among the shoals of St George's bank. The four larger ships abandoned the pursuit but the frigate continued to follow. With the odds evened, Albemarle backed sail. The French frigate declined the challenge and returned to her squadron.

Nelson decided to reward Carver's invaluable assistance. "You have rendered us, sir, a very essential service and it is not the custom of English seamen to be ungrateful", Nelson explained as he presented Carver with his ship and a letter intended to protect him from further harassment. It stated, "These are to certify that I took the schooner Harmony, Nathaniel Carver, master, belonging to Plymouth, but on acc't of his good services have given him up his vessel again. Dated on b'd His Majesty's ship Albemarle, 7 Aug., 1782, in Boston Bay. Horatio Nelson".

Carver took his vessel and returned home to Plymouth but realising that having helped the enemy, he would be viewed as a traitor, he concocted a story to explain his good fortune. Carver claimed that he had borrowed another boat and sailed out to Albemarle with sheep and fresh vegetables which he then exchanged for his schooner. Nelson, Carver went on, was so overwhelmed with his kindness that he not only returned the vessel, he presented him with the letter noting his 'good services'.

This story apparently convinced his fellow countrymen, and indeed, when Nelson died in 1805, a letter from Boston arrived in England, which repeated Carver's version of events.

Nathaniel Carver died on 1 May 1815 at the age of 74. He is buried on the southeasterly side of Old Burial Hill in Plymouth, Massachusetts.

References

1740 births
1815 deaths
People from Plymouth, Massachusetts
Hoaxers

Nathaniel Carver


Observations on Man, his Frame, his Duty, and his Expectations is 18th-century British philosopher David Hartley's major work. Published in two parts in 1749 by Samuel Richardson, it puts forth Hartley's principal theories: the doctrine of vibrations and the doctrine of associations. The first part of the text deals with the frame of the human body and mind, and their mutual connections and influences, the second with the duty and expectations of mankind.

Intellectual background
Hartley's physical theory was drawn from certain speculations as to nervous action which Isaac Newton had published in his Principia (1687). Elements of Hartley's psychological theory were suggested by other writers, such as John Gay. For example, "in Hartley's theory, emotion is a fluid like electricity or water"—it flows from one experience to the next, a concept he called transference and lifted from the writings of Gay. Although Hartley acknowledges that Gay "put me upon considering the power of association" in relation to transference, he developed a different theory of association from Gay's.

Hartley's theories
Like John Locke, Hartley asserted that, prior to sensation, the human mind is a tabula rasa. Beginning with simple sensations, the mind eventually forms advanced states of consciousness. Hartley sought to explain, not only the phenomena of memory, which others had similarly explained before him, but also the phenomena of emotion, of reasoning, and of voluntary and involuntary action.

Doctrine of vibrations
Hartley believed that sensation is the result of vibrations of the minute particles of the medullary substance of the nerves, made possible by a subtle, elastic ether that was rare in the interstices of solid bodies and in their close neighbourhood. Pleasure was the result of moderate vibrations and pain of violent vibrations, sometimes so violent that they broke the continuity of the nerves. These vibrations left behind a tendency to fainter vibrations or "vibratiuncles" of a similar kind in the brain, which corresponded to "ideas of sensation." This accounted for memory.

Doctrine of association

According to Hartley's theory, the brain produces associations in two ways: 1) external stimuli produce vibrations; and 2) the heat and movement of its own arteries produce vibrations. The nature of these vibrations is determined by each person's past experiences and by the circumstances of the moment, which cause one or another tendency to prevail. Sensations which are frequently associated together become associated with the ideas corresponding to those sensations, sometimes so intimately that they form what appears to be a new simple idea.

Free will
Starting from a detailed account of the senses, Hartley tried to show how, by the above laws, all the emotions may be explained. He argues that pure, disinterested sentiment exists, while at the same time declaring it to have grown out of self-regarding feelings. Voluntary action is explained as the result of a firm connection between a motion and a sensation or "idea," and, on the physical side, between an "ideal" and a motory vibration. Therefore, in the free will controversy Hartley took his place as a determinist. It was only with reluctance, and when his speculations were nearly complete, that he came to a conclusion on this subject in accordance with his theory.

Influence
Hartley's theory helped give birth to the modern study of the connection between the physiology of the human brain and "the mind".

Notes

References
 Allen, Richard C.  (1999). David Hartley on Human Nature. Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press.
 James, William, The Principles of Psychology (New York, 1890).
 Rousseau, George S. (2004). Nervous Acts: Essays on Literature, Culture and Sensibility. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.  (Paperback)  (Hardcover)
 Walls, Joan, The Philosophy of David Hartley and the Root Metaphor of Mechanism: A Study in the History of Psychology, Journal of Mind and Behavior, vol. 3 (1982), pp. 259–74.

1749 non-fiction books
Metaphysics books
Psychology books

Observations on Man


Itaewon is a neighborhood in Yongsan-gu, Seoul. It is an international neighborhood. Travellers and expatriate residents come here for  shopping, restaurants, and nightlife.

About 22,000 people live there, but between 4000-5000 reportedly visit the commercial district daily. Many US military personnel from the nearby Yongsan Garrison come here. Itaewon has restaurants serving food from many parts of the world, including India, Thailand, and Mexico. Those foods are not common in Korea.

Seoul
Subdivisions of South Korea

Itaewon


Colonel Gilberto José Marxuach a.k.a. "The Father of the San Juan Civil Defense" (November 19, 1910 – April 18, 1957), was a former officer in the United States Army who in 1951 founded and became the first director of the Civil Defense in the City of San Juan, Puerto Rico.

Early years
Marxuach (birth name: Gilberto José Marxuach Acosta ) was born in San Juan, Puerto Rico on November 19, 1910, to Colonel Teófilo Marxuach Plumey and Carolina Acosta Acosta. Marxuach was one of three siblings born to the couple; his brothers were Teófilo José and Raúl José. His family had historically played a prominent role in the island's commercial, political and military affairs. His grandfather, José María Marxuach, was twice the Mayor of the City of San Juan and the only Puerto Rican to serve in said position when Puerto Rico was under Spanish rule and after the island was ceded to the United States. Marxuach's father belonged to the Porto Rico Regiment and had the distinction of ordering the first shot fired in World War I on behalf of the United States on March 21, 1915, and his uncle Acisclo Marxuach y Plumey (b. 1895) was an honorary consul of Spain in Puerto Rico. Marxuach's mother was the granddaughter of José Julián Acosta, a distinguished journalist and a fervent advocate of the abolition of slavery in Puerto Rico.

Marxuach was greatly influenced by his father and grew up near Fort San Cristóbal, where his father was stationed. The experience instilled in him a lifetime love for the military, and served as an influential factor in his decision to seek a career in the military. Marxuach graduated from the Central High School in Santurce in 1928. On June 17, 1928, he joined the Puerto Rico National Guard and received his basic training at Camp Las Casas in Santurce. He was given an appointment to attend the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, by Theodore Roosevelt Jr., the United States appointed governor of Puerto Rico. However, an automobile accident left him bedridden for over a year. Upon recovery, he was unable to attend the academy because he was over the age limit.

National Guardsman and educator
Marxuach served in the National Guard until 1931, year in which he enrolled in the University of Puerto Rico. He earned his Bachelor of Science degree in 1936, the same year in which he rejoined the National Guard. In 1937, he joined the Science Department faculty of the University of Puerto Rico as an assistant science professor and in 1938 was promoted to the position of science professor. During this time period, Marxuach married Margarita Ginorio Dominguez (December 23, 1938) and he earned his master's degree in Botany from the University of Michigan.

Military career
In 1937, Japan invaded China and in September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. As a precautionary measure, the 295th and 296th Infantry Regiments of the Puerto Rican National Guard, founded by Major General Luis R. Esteves, were called into Federal Active Service and assigned to the Puerto Rican Department in accordance with the existing War Plan Orange. That same month, Marxuach joined the United States Army and on October 15, 1940, was commissioned a second lieutenant. He was assigned to the 295 Regiment at Camp Tortuguero in Puerto Rico and soon after was reassigned to 296th Infantry Regiment.

After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor the U.S. entered the World War II. On January 12, 1944, the 296th Infantry Regiment departed from Puerto Rico to the Panama Canal Zone. During this timeframe Marxuach had been promoted three times, from first lieutenant to major. As major, he served as the commander of the 2nd Infantry Battalion of the 296th. Together with his men, he received intense jungle training and was later put in charge of a rescue mission which searched for the remains of various American soldiers who perished aboard a C-45 Expeditor military aircraft which crashed in the Panamanian jungles.

In April 1945, the 296th returned to Puerto Rico and soon after was sent to Honolulu, Hawaii. The 296th arrived on June 25, 1945, and was attached to the Central Pacific Base Command at Kahuku Air Base. By then Marxuach had been promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel and was in charge of the 1114th Artillery Co. and the 1558th Engineers Co.

The American participation in the Second World War came to an end in Europe on May 8, 1945, when the western Allies celebrated "V-E Day" (Victory in Europe Day) upon Germany's surrender, and in the Asian theater on August 14, 1945 "V-J Day" (Victory over Japan Day) when the Japanese surrendered by signing the Japanese Instrument of Surrender.

The 296th Regiment returned to Puerto Rico on March 6, 1946, and was awarded the American Theater streamer and the Pacific Theater streamer. On November 12, 1946, Marxuach was promoted to colonel. In 1947, he retired as regimental executive officer of Headquarters Co. of the 296th, due to a service-related disability. The 296th was deactivated that same year.

During his military career, Marxuach attended the Infantry School at Fort Benning in Georgia for 3 months where he learned the mechanical functioning and tactical employment of all infantry weapons. For another three months he attended the Military Intelligence Center at Camp Ritchie, situated in the mountains near Pennsylvania. Here he studied the organization and composition of foreign armies, advanced map reading, interrogation of the enemy during war, and evaluation of information.

Founder of the San Juan Civil Defense
Marxuach enrolled in the law school of the University of Puerto Rico upon his retirement from the Army. He worked in the institution's Carnegie Library and used the extra income to help pay for his tuition. On June 27, 1949, Marxuach earned his law degree and set up a private law practice in San Juan.

In 1951, Marxuach joined the municipal administration of Felisa Rincón de Gautier (1897–1994), also known as "Doña Fela," the first woman to be elected as the mayor of a capital city in any of the Americas, where he served as municipal legal advisor. Among his responsibilities were representing the mayor on official matters whenever warranted. Marxuach was given the task of organizing the San Juan Municipal Civil Defense and on March 8, 1952, became its first director. The Civil Defense was established during the Cold War to prepare civilians for a nuclear military attack.

Later years and legacy
Marxuach held the positions of San Juan municipal legal advisor and director of the city's Civil Defense until April 18, 1957, when he died after a brief sudden illness in his house in Santurce. Marxuach was buried with full military honors in the Puerto Rico National Cemetery, in the Bayamón. He was survived by his wife, Margarita Ginorio Dominguez (1910–1994) and his three children, Gilberto, Maria del Socorro and Margarita.

On June 26, 1970, the Mayor of San Juan, Carlos Romero Barceló, dedicated an underground nuclear shelter which would house the municipal offices in case of a nuclear attack. The shelter, which is located in a sector of San Juan called Río Piedras, was named the "Colonel Gilberto Marxuach Center" in his honor.

Military decorations and awards
Among Colonel Gilberto José Marxuach's many military decorations are the following:

See also

List of Puerto Ricans
List of Puerto Rican military personnel
Military history of Puerto Rico
 Other members of the Marxuach family

Notes

References

1910 births
1957 deaths
Military personnel from San Juan, Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican people of Catalan descent
Puerto Rico National Guard personnel
University of Puerto Rico alumni
Puerto Rican military officers
University of Puerto Rico faculty
Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies alumni
Puerto Rican Army personnel
United States Army personnel of World War II
Ritchie Boys
United States Army colonels
Puerto Rican lawyers
People from Santurce, Puerto Rico
Burials at Puerto Rico National Cemetery

Gilberto José Marxuach


Anguilla is a British overseas territory in the Caribbean, one of the most northerly of the Leeward Islands in the Lesser Antilles. It consists of the main island of Anguilla itself, together with a number of much smaller islands and cays with no permanent population.

First stamps
Anguilla has produced its own stamps since 1967. It was formerly part of St. Kitts and Nevis and the islands were granted Associated Statehood on February 27, 1967. Its first stamps in 1967 were those of St. Kitts-Nevis but opted with Independent Anguilla. However, owing to limited stocks available for overprinting, the sale of the stamps was controlled by the Postmaster, and no orders from the trade were accepted. Later in 1967 it produced the first stamps without overprints and displayed notable sites in Anguilla such as Sombrero Lighthouse etc.

Later issues
In 1968 several issues were produced, Anguilla Ships, Anguillan Birds, the 35th Anniversary of the Anguillan Girl Guides and a Christmas issue. In 1969 the first issue celebrated the Anguillan salt industry, but on July 7, 1969 the Anguillan post office was officially recognised by the government of St. Kitts-Nevis and they issued an official independence issue in January 1969.

References

External lists

The first issues of Anguilla.
Anguilla Philatelical Resources in the web

Communications in Anguilla
Anguilla
History of Anguilla
Anguilla

Postage stamps and postal history of Anguilla


The Juvenile Instructor was a magazine for members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). It began publication in 1866 as a private publication, but by the late 1860s served as the de facto publication of the LDS Church's Deseret Sunday School Union organization. It was an official periodical of the LDS Church from 1901 to 1929, after which the church replaced it with  The Instructor.

History
The Juvenile Instructor was issued monthly and was initially targeted toward the children and youth members of the LDS Church. It consisted of catechisms on the Bible, Book of Mormon, and Doctrine and Covenants; musical compositions; illustrations; stories; editorial teachings; and other aids to gospel instruction. It was the first magazine for children published in the United States west of the Mississippi River.

For much of its history, The Juvenile Instructor was owned by the Cannon family. Its first editor was George Q. Cannon, an LDS Church apostle. Cannon and his family continued to publish the magazine privately until January 1, 1901, when the Deseret Sunday School Union purchased the magazine and continued its publication. From 1901 to 1929, the magazine was considered the official publication of the church's Sunday School.

From 1881 to 1890, George Reynolds was an assistant editor of The Juvenile Instructor. In 1882, he wrote a series of popular articles in the magazine about Joseph Smith and the translation of the Book of Mormon.

Blog
In 2007, an academically leaning blog focused on the history of the Latter-day Saints was formed and named Juvenile Instructor with the original intention "to situate the study of Mormonism within wider frameworks, including American religious history, western history, gender history, and, on occasion, the history of the Republic of South Africa."

See also

List of Latter Day Saint periodicals

Notes

External links
Juvenile Instructor (PDF scans) courtesy of the Church History Library and the Internet Archive.
Juvenile Instructor, an LDS history-themed blog, part of the Mormon blogosphere.

1866 in Christianity
Defunct magazines published in the United States
Magazines disestablished in 1929
Magazines established in 1866
Religious works for children
Sunday School (LDS Church)
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints periodicals
Young people and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
20th-century Mormonism
1866 establishments in Utah Territory
Magazines published in Utah

Juvenile Instructor


交关多人欢喜用个汉文字输入方式代码。

外部链接
 The Chinese University of Hong Kong Research Centre for Humanities Computing: Chinese Character Database: With Word-formations Phonologically Disambiguated According to the Cantonese Dialect: A Chinese character database covering the entire set of Big-5 Chinese characters (5401 Level 1 and 7652 Level 2 Hanzi) as well as 7 additional ETen Hanzi. Cangjie input codes are shown for each character in the database. Note: The Hong Kong Supplementary Character Set (HKSCS - 2001) is not included in this database.
 Mingzhu generator: Chu Bong Foo's page. Includes the executable, sourcecode and instructions. Mingzhu is a Canjie character generator that runs on MS Windows ' "DOS PROMPT". It requires Microsoft Macro Assembler and Link.
 Friend of the Cangjie: a Cangjie reference and a place where it is possible to download the Cangjie 5 for various operating systems, and Cangjie's supplementary input code lists for inputting the Simplified characters
 CjExplorer : a tool for learning Canjie. The Canjie code for a highlighted Chinese character will be displayed when the tool is running.
 Overview of the Cang-Jie Method: a great resource for English speakers to learn the rules and method of Cangjie.

亚洲文字输入

仓颉码


The Austin Dam failure, also referred to as "The Great Granite Dam" failure, was a catastrophic dam failure near Austin, Texas that killed several dozen people in 1900. The destruction of the dam drained the Lake McDonald reservoir and left the city of Austin without electrical power for a number of months.

"At 11.20 a.m. on April 7, when the lake level had reached a height of 11.07 feet above the crest of the dam, the dam gave way at a point ... about 300 feet from the east end of the dam. Observers [at three different points] all agree in their testimony that it first opened [at the point about 300 feet from the east end of the dam], and as though the mad current had simply pushed its way through the structure. Sooner than it takes to write these words the two sections ... each about 250 feet long, were shoved or pushed into the lower positions ... about 60 feet from their former positions in the dam. There was not the slightest overturning. ...

As soon as the sections were broken out ... the partially pent-up waters rushed through the gap, those held back by [the intact section] producing a strong current in the direction of the power house. This current struck the wall of the power house almost on a level with the floor of the pump room (about 12 feet below the crest of the dam), crushed in all of the windows on the west side, flooded all of the lower stories, and caught and drowned five employees and three small boys. Two of the employees miraculously escaped by climbing through a belt hole in the dynamo room. These workmen were pumping water from the lower portions of the power house."

Subsequent attempts to rebuild the dam were unsuccessful. The dam was finally replaced by the Tom Miller Dam in the 1940s.

References

External links
 U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply paper
 Austin Dam 1896

1900 disasters in the United States
Dam failures in the United States
Disasters in Austin, Texas
1900 in Texas
History of Austin, Texas

Austin Dam failure (Texas)


Maharashtra is a state in Western India.  Its language is Marathi. It is the third biggest state of India by area and second biggest state in India based on population.  Only one Indian state has more people (Uttar Pradesh). Mumbai is the capital of Maharashtra.  Pune is the cultural and educational capital.

Geography
Maharashtra is in the west part of India. It is on the coast of the Arabian Sea. Six other states of India have borders with Maharashtra. It covers an area of . It is bigger than Italy, but smaller than Oman. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the West Indian zone.

Maharashtra has more business than any other state of India.

There are some well-known cave monuments like Ajanta and Ellora. The first oil mill is in Mumbai. Some of the crops grown in Maharashtra are Bajra, Jowar, Rice, Wheat, etc. The neighbouring States are Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Goa, and Chhattisgarh. Some of the famous food dishes in Maharashtra are Pav Bhaji, Vada pav, Misal pav, etc.

Culture
As per the 2011 India census, Around 79% of people in Maharashtra are Hindus, therefore Hinduism forms a major link in the culture of Maharashtra. There are many temples in Maharashtra and some of them are very old. The architecture of these temples is a mixture of architecture from North and South India. The temples also have ideas from Hindu, Buddhist and Jain cultures. Maharashtra has many forts like Raigad and Pratapgad which were very important in the early history of the Maratha Empire and also sea forts like the one at Sindhudurg. A famous dance form in Maharashtra is lavani. Maharashtra is split into five areas: Konkan, Paschim Maharashtra, Northern Maharashtra, Marathwada, and Vidarbha. Each of these regions has its own unique culture, including various dialects of the Marathi language, traditional songs, cuisine, clothing, and people.

Music
The folk music of Maharashtra is mixed.

An early piece of Marathi literature is Bhawarthadeepika (known as Dnyaneshwari) by Dnyaneshwar. The religious songs called bhajans by Dnyaneshwar, Tukaram, Namdev,chokhamela,Savta Mali are very popular. Modern Marathi literature also has some great poets and authors like Jyotirao Govindrao Phule, Savitribai Jyotirao Phule, Dr.Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, Anna Bhau Sathe, Namdev Dhasal, M.M. Deshmukh, P. L. Deshpande, Kusumagraj, Prahlad Keshav Atre and Vyankatesh Madgulkar. Many books are published every year in Marathi.

The theater, movies, and television in Maharashtra are mostly made in Mumbai, and the actors in each area (like television) can work in the others. Some important people in the movie industry are Dadasaheb Phalke, Dada Kondke, Ashok Saraf, Laxmikant Berde, Sachin Pilgaonkar, Mahesh Kothare and V. Shantaram. Early Marathi theatre had important playwrights (people who write plays) like Kolhatkar, Khadilkar, Deval, Gadkari and Kirloskar. They wrote musical plays called Sangeet Naatak. The music from those plays is called Natyasangeet. Important actors at this time were Bal Gandharva, Keshavrao Bhosle, Bhaurao Kolhatkar, and Dinanath Mangeshkar.

Some of the popular Marathi television channels are Mi Marathi and ETV Marathi. They have many kinds of shows: soap operas, cooking, travel, political satire, and game shows.

Food
The food of Maharashtra is different in each place. The people in the Konkan region eat more rice and the ones near the ocean eat a lot of fish. In eastern Maharashtra, most people eat a lot of wheat, jowar, and bajra. Other important things people eat in Maharashtra are lentils, onions, tomatoes, potatoes, chilies, garlic, ginger, and aamras. Many people also eat chicken and mutton.

In the past, women wore a long sari (Nauvari saree) and men wore a dhoti or pajama with a shirt. Today, women in the cities often wear other clothes like Salwar kameez (dresses from the Punjab), and men in the cities wear trousers and a shirt.

Cricket is very popular in Maharashtra. Many people play it and many others watch it. Kabaddi is also popular. Children play Viti-Dandu and Pakada-pakadi (Tag).

Hindus in Maharashtra follow the Saka era calendar. Gudi Padwa, Diwali, Rangapanchami, Gokulashtami, and Ganeshotsav are some of the festivals that are celebrated in Maharashtra. Ganeshotsav is the biggest festival. Hindus celebrate it with reverence and festivity in Maharashtra and it has also become popular in other parts of India. The festival which lasts ten days is in honor of Ganesha, the Hindu god of learning and knowledge.

Provincial symbols of Maharashtra

National parks
There are some national park as:
 Chandoli National Park (2004), Chandoli National Park is natural World Heritage Site and 317.67 km² National Park spread overSatara, Kolhapur and Sangli District, Maharashtra state, India, established in May 2004. Earlier it was a Wildlife Sanctuary declared in 1985
 Gugamal National Park (1975), has an area of 1673.93 square kilometers. Built in 1974, this park is in Chikhaldara and Dharni Tehsils of Amravati District, Maharashtra, India. It is part of Melghat Tiger Reserve.
 Navegoan National park (1975), Navegaon National Park is a national park in the Gondia district of Maharashtra, India. Navegaon, a popular forest resort in the Vidarbha region, the easternmost part of Maharashtra, was built in the 18th century
 Sanjay Gandhi (Borivilli) National Park (1983), Sanjay Gandhi National Park, formerly Borivali National Park, is a large protected area in the northern part of Mumbai city in Maharashtra State in India.   Address: Mumbai, Maharashtra 400101  Area: 103.8 km²
 Todoba National Park (1955), Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve is a tiger reserve in Chandrapur district of Maharashtra state in central India. It is notable as Maharashtra's oldest and largest national park. It is one of India's 50 "Project Tiger" - tiger reserves. Area: 625.4 km²

References

Other websites

 Maharashtra -Citizendium

Maharashtra


The Bruck–Ryser–Chowla theorem is a result on the combinatorics of block designs that implies nonexistence of certain kinds of design. It states that if a (v, b, r, k, λ)-design exists with v = b (a symmetric block design), then:
 if v is even, then k − λ is a square;
 if v is odd, then the following Diophantine equation has a nontrivial solution:
 x2  − (k − λ)y2 − (−1)(v−1)/2 λ z2 = 0.

The theorem was proved in the case of projective planes by . It was extended to symmetric designs by .

Projective planes
In the special case of a symmetric design with λ = 1, that is, a projective plane, the theorem (which in this case is referred to as the Bruck–Ryser theorem) can be stated as follows: If a finite projective plane of order q exists and q is congruent to 1 or 2 (mod 4), then q must be the sum of two squares.  Note that for a projective plane, the design parameters are v = b = q2 + q + 1, r = k = q + 1, λ = 1. Thus, v is always odd in this case.

The theorem, for example, rules out the existence of projective planes of orders 6 and 14 but allows the existence of planes of orders 10 and 12.  Since a projective plane of order 10 has been shown not to exist using a combination of coding theory and large-scale computer search, the condition of the theorem is evidently not sufficient for the existence of a design.  However, no stronger general non-existence criterion is known.

Connection with incidence matrices
The existence of a symmetric (v, b, r, k, λ)-design is equivalent to the existence of a v × v incidence matrix R with elements 0 and 1 satisfying

where  is the v × v identity matrix and J is the v × v all-1 matrix.  In essence, the Bruck–Ryser–Chowla theorem is a statement of the necessary conditions for the existence of a rational v × v matrix R satisfying this equation.  In fact, the conditions stated in the Bruck–Ryser–Chowla theorem are not merely necessary, but also sufficient for the existence of such a rational matrix R.  They can be derived from the Hasse–Minkowski theorem on the rational equivalence of quadratic forms.

References

 van Lint, J.H., and R.M. Wilson (1992), A Course in Combinatorics.  Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press.

External links

Theorems in combinatorics
Theorems in projective geometry
Theorems in statistics
Design of experiments

Bruck–Ryser–Chowla theorem


Gillitts is a suburb on the western boundary of Durban, KwaZulu Natala, Afrika Borwa.

Overview
It is about 35 km inland from the city centre at an elevation of 1800 feet (600 m ASL). Although Durban is semi-tropical and very humid, Gillitts is above the humidity and is not humid, except when it is in the clouds, which generally occurs in summer. It is in the mist belt area, so this area gets a fair amount of mist which many of the residents complain about.

It is positioned near the currently burgeoning Hillcrest and Kloof. The whole area is known as the Upper Highway Area as the M13 highway intersects it.

While some residents do seem to complain about the mist, it does usually come as a welcome relief to the intense humidity of the area.

Gillitts has remained fairly stable while Kloof and Hillcrest in the surrounding areas are growing quite rapidly. This can be attributable to the fact that there is very little area for Gillitts to grow.

Gillitts originated as an extensive farm that extended over the whole of the Upper Highway area, but over time, the farm was sold off and now only the 100-year-old farmhouse remains inside the Gillitts Driving Range and 9-hole, mashie golf course. This golf course is one of the best designed courses of its size in KZN.

The area of Gillitts extends along either side of the M13 highway which stretches from Durban to Pietermaritzburg. The M13 replaced the Old Main Road between the two cities, and a section of Old Main Road is now the major road through the south side of Gillitts.

Off of Stockville Road – one of the other main roads in Gillitts suburb – a large ethnic Indian population lives, and over the traditional Indian festivals, fireworks are very prominent as part of their celebrations, especially over Dipvali and New Years.

On the northern side of the M13, known as Gillitts Park, the old train line from Durban to Pietermaritzburg winds through the residential areas. This train line is no longer in regular use, and is only used by the Umgeni Steam Railway, who runs a tourist service of carriages through from Kloof Train Station to Cato Ridge on the last Sunday of every month. This train is pulled by 'Maureen', a restored Class 3BR No. 1486 steam engine built in 1912 and the sound of the train whistle echoing through the neighbourhood on a Sunday morning is a reminder of a quieter time of life.

The Gillitts Train Station on the line in the middle of Gillitts is derelict and currently not used, but is a beautiful example of 1900-era architecture. Dating back to the Boer War in the first decade of the 20th century, the train station was a stop for British soldiers transiting from Durban through to the Midland battlefields as well as returning wounded soldiers.

During the Boer War, the Gillitts family farm held a garrison of British troops, who built a small dam for water and a camp in what is now Camp Road. The dam still exists in a picturesque natural park amongst the houses on what is now Ashley Drive and contains bass, barbel and other fish species as well as supporting a variety of other waterfowl.

The Gillitts Conservancy is a very active organisation who manages the Iphithi Nature Reserve in the middle of northern Gillitts. This nature reserve is a success story. Situated in a valley between two roads, it was a stand of invader species Blue Gum trees for 50 years until 2001. The residents bordering the valley organised a committee and contracted a logger to fell the Blue Gums. As the wood was valuable as timber, the committee was paid a lump sum which it used to found the nature reserve, fence off the additional entrances and pay for the laying of paths, building of viewing decks and planting of indigenous species. Today the Iphithi Nature Reserve is a 15 Hectare stand of indigenous forest, wetland and grasslands and home to many species of birds, small mammals and even a dam has been built which is populated with fish.
The walks and park benches are popular with the residents and the park is quite heavily used on weekends.

With plot sizes of minimum half-an-acre, very few cluster developments, no commercial or industrial development and this very active environmentalist population, Gillitts still houses hundreds of birds and indigenous wildlife including small buck, duiker, Iphithi and porcupine.

In the first six months of 2009, we have seen an upsurge in housebreakings in the area. Traditionally an out-of-the-way neighbourhood, Gillitts Park has been largely spared the crime problems that the rest of the country has experienced. The recent upsurge in incidents has led to the formation of a neighbourhood watch association. Called the Gillitts Park Streetwatch, this organisation is composed of residents who have contracted a service provider to provide cellphone communications links between members. By watching out for each other and working with local law enforcement, the 860-home neighbourhood saw nine arrests of housebreakers in four weeks. The crime rate has since dropped off.

References

Gillitts