An oropharyngeal airway (also known as an oral airway, OPA or Guedel pattern airway) is a medical device called an airway adjunct used in airway management to maintain or open a patient's airway. It does this by preventing the tongue from covering the epiglottis, which could prevent the person from breathing.  When a person becomes unconscious, the muscles in their jaw relax and allow the tongue to obstruct the airway.

History and usage
The oropharyngeal airway was designed by Arthur Guedel.

Oropharyngeal airways come in a variety of sizes, from infant to adult, and are used commonly in pre-hospital emergency care and for short term airway management post anaesthetic or when manual methods are inadequate to maintain an open airway.  This piece of equipment is utilized by certified first responders, emergency medical technicians, paramedics and other health professionals when tracheal intubation is either not available, not advisable or the problem is of short term duration.

Oropharyngeal airways are indicated only in unconscious people, because of the likelihood that the device would stimulate a gag reflex in conscious or semi-conscious persons. This could result in vomiting and potentially lead to an obstructed airway. Nasopharyngeal airways are mostly used instead as they do not stimulate a gag reflex.

In general, oropharyngeal airways need to be sized and inserted correctly to maximize effectiveness and minimize possible complications, such as oral trauma.

Insertion

The correct size OPA is chosen by measuring from the first incisors to the angle of the jaw. The airway is then inserted into the person's mouth upside down. Once contact is made with the back of the throat, the airway is rotated 180 degrees, allowing for easy insertion, and assuring that the tongue is secured. An alternative method for insertion, the method that is recommended for OPA use in children and infants, involves holding the tongue forward with a tongue depressor and inserting the airway right side up.

The device is removed when the person regains swallow reflex and can protect their own airway, or it is substituted for an advanced airway. It is removed simply by pulling on it without rotation.

Usage
Use of an OPA does not remove the need for the recovery position and ongoing assessment of the airway and it does not prevent obstruction by liquids (blood, saliva, food, cerebrospinal fluid) or the closing of the glottis. It can, however, facilitate ventilation during CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) and for persons with a large tongue.

Key risks of use
The main risks of its use are:
 if the person has a gag reflex, they may vomit
 when it is too large, it can close the glottis and thus close the airway
 improper sizing can cause bleeding in the airway

See also
 Airway management
 Bag valve mask
 Guedel's classification of stages of anesthesia
 Endotracheal tube
 Laryngeal mask airway
 Nasopharyngeal airway

References

External links

 ISO 5364:2016 Anaesthetic and respiratory equipment — Oropharyngeal airways

Airway management
First aid
Emergency medicine

Oropharyngeal airway


Lark Rise to Candleford  is a trilogy of semi-autobiographical novels set in the English countryside in the late 19th century. They were written by Flora Thompson, and first published in that form in 1945. The trilogy includes the previously published stories Lark Rise (1939), Over to Candleford (1941) and Candleford Green (1943).

The stories relate to three communities, a hamlet, the nearby village and the nearest town in Oxfordshire, England. The stories are loosely based around Flora's childhood experiences. The books describe village life through the seasons of the year.

The plays
The television scriptwriter and playwright Keith Dewhurst adapted Thompson's trilogy into two plays, Lark Rise and Candleford, which were performed in the Cottesloe auditorium of London's National Theatre in 1978–9. Dewhurst selected just two days: the first day of harvest for Lark Rise and the first hunt meet of the new year, a winter's day in January, for Candleford. The plays try to make the audience recognize the value of a way of life, close to the land and countryside, that they could never know for themselves. "It will send most spectators out wiser and happier human beings...one of those rare theatrical occasions with a genuine healing quality",  wrote theatre critic Michael Billington of The Guardian.

Television

A ten-part BBC adaptation, starring Dawn French and others, began on BBC One in the UK on 13 January 2008.

References

Other websites
Lark Rise Visited   The Soundtrack from the TV show.
Great War Fiction Commentary from a resident of Juniper Hill—the real village of "Lark Rise".

English novels
Fiction set in the past
Oxfordshire
Series of books

Lark Rise to Candleford


An H-bridge is an electronic circuit that switches the polarity of a voltage applied to a load. These circuits are often used in robotics and other applications to allow DC motors to run forwards or backwards. The name is derived from its common schematic diagram representation, with four switching elements configured as the branches of a letter "H" and the load connected as the cross-bar.

Most DC-to-AC converters (power inverters),
most AC/AC converters,
the DC-to-DC push–pull converter, isolated DC-to-DC converter
most motor controllers,
and many other kinds of power electronics use H bridges.
In particular, a bipolar stepper motor is almost always driven by a motor controller containing two H bridges.

General

H-bridges are available as integrated circuits, or can be built from discrete components.

The term H-bridge is derived from the typical graphical representation of such a circuit.  An H-bridge is built with four switches (solid-state or mechanical). When the switches S1 and S4 (according to the first figure) are closed (and S2 and S3 are open) a positive voltage is applied across the motor. By opening S1 and S4 switches and closing S2 and S3 switches, this voltage is reversed, allowing reverse operation of the motor.

Using the nomenclature above, the switches S1 and S2 should never be closed at the same time, as this would cause a short circuit on the input voltage source. The same applies to the switches S3 and S4. This condition is known as shoot-through.

Common usage
H bridge is used to supply power to a two terminal device. By proper arrangement of the switches, the polarity of the power to the device can be changed. Two examples are discussed below, DC motor Driver and transformer of switching regulator. Note that, not all of the case of switching condition is safe. The "short"(see below in "DC motor driver" section) cases are dangerous to the power source and to the switches.

DC motor Driver

Changing the polarity of the power supply to DC motor is used to change the direction of rotation. Apart from changing the rotation direction, the H-bridge can provide additional operation modes, "brake" and "free run until frictional stop".
The H-bridge arrangement is generally used to reverse the polarity/direction of the motor, but can also be used to 'brake' the motor, where the motor comes to a sudden stop when the motor's terminals are connected together. By connecting its terminals, the motor's kinetic energy is consumed rapidly in form of electrical current and causes the motor to slow down. Another case allows the motor to coast to a stop, as the motor is effectively disconnected from the circuit. The following table summarizes operation, with S1-S4 corresponding to the diagram above. In the table below, "1" is used to represent "on" state of the switch, "0" to represent the "off" state.

Primary coil driver of switching power converter
Typical primary coil driver is to simply replace the two terminals of the DC motor by the two terminals of the primary coil. The switching current in the primary coil turns electrical energy into magnetic energy and transfers back to ac electrical energy in the secondary coil.

Construction

Relays
One way to build an H-bridge is to use an array of relays from a relay board.

A "double pole double throw" (DPDT) relay can generally achieve the same electrical functionality as an H-bridge (considering the usual function of the device). However a semiconductor-based H-bridge would be preferable to the relay where a smaller physical size, high speed switching, or low driving voltage (or low driving power) is needed, or where the wearing out of mechanical parts is undesirable.

Another configuration is to have a DPDT relay to set the direction of current flow and a transistor to enable the current flow. This can extend the relay life, as the relay will be switched while the transistor is off and thereby there is no current flow. It also enables the use of PWM switching to control the current level.

N and P channel semiconductors
A solid-state H-bridge is typically constructed using opposite polarity devices, such as PNP bipolar junction transistors (BJT) or P-channel MOSFETs connected to the high voltage bus and NPN BJTs or N-channel MOSFETs connected to the low voltage bus.

N channel-only semiconductors
The most efficient MOSFET designs use N-channel MOSFETs on both the high side and low side because they typically have a third of the ON resistance of P-channel MOSFETs. This requires a more complex design since the gates of the high side MOSFETs must be driven positive with respect to the DC supply rail. Many integrated circuit MOSFET gate drivers include a charge pump within the device to achieve this.

Alternatively, a switched-mode power supply DC–DC converter can be used to provide isolated ('floating') supplies to the gate drive circuitry. A multiple-output flyback converter is well-suited to this application.

Another method for driving MOSFET-bridges is the use of a specialised transformer known as a GDT (gate drive transformer), which gives the isolated outputs for driving the upper FETs gates. The transformer core is usually a ferrite toroid, with 1:1 or 4:9 winding ratio. However, this method can only be used with high frequency signals. The design of the transformer is also very important, as the leakage inductance should be minimized, or cross conduction may occur. The outputs of the transformer are usually clamped by Zener diodes, because high voltage spikes could destroy the MOSFET gates.

Variants
A common variation of this circuit uses just the two transistors on one side of the load, similar to a class AB amplifier. Such a configuration is called a "half bridge". It acts as an electronic toggle switch, the half bridge is not able to switch polarity of the voltage applied to the load. The half bridge is used in some switched-mode power supplies that use synchronous rectifiers and in switching amplifiers. The half-H bridge type is commonly abbreviated to "Half-H" to distinguish it from full ("Full-H") H-bridges. Another common variation, adding a third 'leg' to the bridge, creates a three-phase inverter. The three-phase inverter is the core of any AC motor drive.

A further variation is the half-controlled bridge, where the low-side switching device on one side of the bridge, and the high-side switching device on the opposite side of the bridge, are each replaced with diodes. This eliminates the shoot-through failure mode, and is commonly used to drive variable or switched reluctance machines and actuators where bi-directional current flow is not required.

Commercial availability
There are many commercially available inexpensive single and dual H-bridge packages. The L293x series, being technically mostly obsolete since the late 1970s due to decreased switching losses and higher speeds in more modern semiconductor products, is still found in many hobbyist circuitry. Few packages, like L9110, have built-in flyback diodes for back EMF protection.

Operation as an inverter
A common use of the H-bridge is an inverter. The arrangement is sometimes known as a single-phase bridge inverter.

The H-bridge with a DC supply will generate a square wave voltage waveform across the load. For a purely inductive load, the current waveform would be a triangle wave, with its peak depending on the inductance, switching frequency, and input voltage.

See also
 Active rectification
 Commutator (electric)

References

External links
 H-Bridge Theory and Practice
 Brief H-Bridge Theory of Operation
 H-bridge tutorial discussing various driving modes and using back-EMF
 PWM DC Motor Controller Using MOSFETs and IR2110 H-Bridge Driver

 H-Bridges on the BEAM Robotics Wiki
  Derivation of formulas to estimate  H-bridge controller current (Vex, JAGUAR,Victor).  Discusses why some H-bridges used in robotics have non-linear current and speed responses.

Projects
 Building an H-bridge-controlled motor with photocells to track light
  H-bridge motor control with 4017 (in Turkish)
 Using the HIP4081A for H-bridge control
 Using the L293D H bridge for DC motor control
 A simple circuit designed around L293D motor driver IC

Bridge circuits

H-bridge


John Warnock Hinckley, Jr. (born May 29, 1955) is the man who attempted to assassinate President Ronald Reagan. On March 30, 1981, shortly after Reagan was elected, Hinckley shot at Reagan in Washington, D.C. Reagan was injured, but recovered quickly. Hinckley was tried, but was found not guilty, due to his insanity. He said the reason he shot the President was to get the attention of actress Jodie Foster, of whom he was a fan.

Hinckley has schizophrenia, dysthymia, narcissistic personality disorder and schizoid personality disorder. He also has borderline and passive-aggressive features. He was born in Ardmore, Oklahoma.

References

1955 births
Living people
American prisoners
People acquitted of crimes
People from Dallas
People from Oklahoma

People with narcissistic personality disorder
People with schizophrenia

John Hinckley Jr.


The Opel Combo is a panel van and leisure activity vehicle made by the German company Opel.

It has different names in other countries such as the Vauxhall Combo (Great Britain), Chevrolet Combo (Chile) and Holden Combo (Australia and New Zealand).

The Combo was introduced in 1994, and a second generation model was introduced in 2001.

The name "Combo" was previously used on a 3-door panel van body style of the Opel Kadett E. It competes with vans/lesuire vehicles such as the Citroën Berlingo, Peugeot Partner, Volkswagen Caddy/Life and the Fiat Doblo.

Gallery

1990s automobiles
2000s automobiles
2010s automobiles
Combo

Opel Combo


A clam is a type of shellfish. Clams can be found in saltwater and freshwater. This is a common usage term, and so includes quite a variety of shellfish. Clams are a fairly common form of bivalve, therefore making it part of the phylum Mollusc. There are many clams in the ocean, but some can also be found in some lakes, streams, and rivers.

The word 'clam' is often applied to those that are edible and live almost of their lives halfway buried in the seafloor. Clams have two shells of equal size connected by two aductor muscles and have a powerful burrowing foot.

Clams for cooking do not live attached to rocks (whereas oysters and mussels do). Clams are often got by digging and cooked and served as clam chowder. They may be found on menus in restaurants that serve seafood.

Clams eat plankton, and are eaten by small sharks and squid.
Clams have a burrowing foot that they use to dig down into the sand or mud to hide.

The shell has three layers. The top one is called mother-of-pearl because it is a coating of pearl material.

A living freshwater clam can work like a filter in fish tanks to keep the water clean.

Life span
Some clams have life cycles of only one year, while at least one may be over 500 years old. All clams have two calcareous shells or valves joined near a hinge with a flexible ligament, and all are filter feeders.

References

Other websites

Bivalves
Seafood

Clam


Saddam Hussein (28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi politician and revolutionary who was fifth president of Iraq, from July 1979 to April 2003. He was 58th and 61st prime minister of Iraq, serving respectively from July 1979 to March 1991 and from May 1994 to April 2003.

He was removed from his position during the War in Iraq led by the United States. He ran a repressive authoritarian government, often described as totalitarian, which is a disputed label.

Childhood

Saddam Hussein was born in the village of Al-Awja, in the Tikrit in Iraq. He never knew his father, Hussein 'Abd al-Majid, who disappeared five months before Saddam was born. Shortly before Saddam was born, Saddam's twelve-year-old brother died of cancer, leaving his mother very depressed in the final months of the pregnancy. She tried to kill herself near the end of the pregnancy and did not want to care for Saddam when he was born. Saddam was sent to the family of an uncle, Khairallah Tulfah, until he was three.

At 10, Saddam ran away from the family to return to live with his uncle, who was a devout Sunni Muslim, in Baghdad. According to Saddam, in 1957, at the age of 20, Saddam became part of the Ba'ath Party. The Ba'ath party is an Arab political party that supports socialism.

In 1958, Hussein was arrested for killing his brother-in-law because he was a communist activist. He spent six months in prison.

Rise in the Ba'ath party

A year after Saddam had joined the Ba'ath party, army officers led by General Abdul Karim Qassim got rid of Faisal II of Iraq. The Baathists were against the new regime, and in 1959, Saddam was involved in the attempted murder of Prime Minister Qassim. Saddam was shot in the leg, but managed to get away to Syria. Later, he moved to Egypt. He was sentenced to death. In exile, he attended the University of Cairo law school.

Army officers, including some with the Ba'ath party, came to power in Iraq in a military coup in 1963. However, the new regime was kicked out quickly. Saddam returned to Iraq, but was imprisoned in 1964 when an anti-Ba'ath group led by Abdul Rahman Arif took power. He escaped from jail in 1967 and became one of the leading members of the party.

Gaining power
In 1976, Saddam was made a general in the Iraqi army. He quickly became the most important person of the regime. He slowly began to gain more power over Iraq's government and the Ba'ath party. As Iraq's weak, old President, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, became more unable to do the duties of his office, Saddam began to take on an more important role as the head of the Iraqi government. He soon became the creator of Iraq's foreign policy and represented the nation in all diplomatic situations.

Conflict with Iran
In 1979, Iran's Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown by the Islamic Revolution, giving way to an Islamic republic led by the Ayatollah Khomeini. The influence of revolutionary Shi'ite Islam grew in the region, particularly in countries with large Shi'ite populations, especially Iraq. Saddam was afraid that radical Islamic ideas were quickly spreading inside his country among most of the Shi'ite people. He worried that these ideas would go against his leadership.

There had also been a rivalry between Saddam and Khomeini since the 1970s. Khomeini was exiled from Iran in 1964. He began living in Iraq, at the Shi'ite holy city of An Najaf. There, he became involved with Iraqi Shi'ites and gained many religious and political followers throughout the world. Under pressure from the Shah, who had agreed to a rapprochement between Iraq and Iran in 1975, Saddam agreed to kick Khomeini out in 1978. After the Islamic Revolution, Khomeini thought defeating Saddam's government may have been the second most important thing to do, only behind keeping his power in Iran.

The Iran-Iraq War 1980-1988
After Khomeini gained power, small battles between Iraq and revolutionary Iran happened for ten months. The two countries were fighting over who controlled the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which divides Iran and Iraq.

Iraq and Iran officially went to war with each other on September 22, 1980. Saddam used the disagreement over the waterway as an excuse to go to war with Iran. However, the war was more likely an attempt by Saddam - supported by both the United States and the Soviet Union - to have Iraq stop radical revolutions like the one in Iran from spreading any further.

In the first days of the war, there was heavy ground fighting around major ports as Iraq launched an attack on Iran's oil-rich, Arab-populated province of Khuzestan. After making some gains, Iraq's troops began to suffer losses from human-wave attacks by Iran. By 1982, Iraq was looking to end the war.

Chemical warfare
During the war, Iraq used chemical warfare against Iranian forces and Kurdish separatists. On March 16, 1988, Saddam ordered Iraqi troops to stop a Kurdish uprising. Iraq attacked the Kurdish town of Halabjah with a mix of poison gas and nerve agents, killing 5000 people, mostly women and children.

Saddam reached out to other Arab governments for cash and political help. The Iranians, hoping to bring down Saddam's non-religious government and start a Shi'ite rebellion in Iraq, refused a cease-fire until 1988.

End of the war
The eight-year war ended in a tie. There were hundreds of thousands of casualties. Perhaps 1.7 million died on both sides. Both economies, previously healthy and growing, were left in ruins.

Saddam was also stuck with a debt of roughly $75 billion. Borrowing money from the U.S. was making Iraq into its client state, embarrassing a strongman who had sought to define and dominate Arab nationalism. Saddam also borrowed a large amount of money from other Arab states during the 1980s to fight Iran. Faced with rebuilding Iraq's infrastructure, Saddam desperately sought out cash once again, this time for postwar reconstruction.

After the war: Tensions with Kuwait
Saddam was pressuring Kuwait to forgive its share of his debt, some $30 billion. (This would mean Iraq would not have to pay back Kuwait's $30 million.) Saddam argued that the struggle with Iran had been fought for the benefit of the other Persian Gulf Arab states as much as for Iraq. Because of this, he said, a share of Iraqi debt should be forgiven.

Saddam had pushed oil-exporting countries to raise oil prices and cut back production. Not only did Kuwait refuse to do this; they also helped support OPEC's opposition to the production cuts that Saddam had requested. Kuwait was pumping large amounts of oil, and keeping prices low, when Iraq needed to sell high-priced oil from its wells to pay off a huge debt.

The fact that Kuwait had so much oil made the region even more tense. Even though Kuwait had fewer people, it had about as much oil in reserve as Iraq. Together, Iraq and Kuwait had 20 percent of the world's known oil reserves.

The Kuwaiti monarchy made Saddam even angrier by drilling oil out of Iraqi wells. At the time, Saddam's regime was not disliked by most of the world. Saddam complained about the drilling to the United States State Department. Although this had gone on for years, Saddam now needed oil money to get rid of a looming economic crisis. Saddam still had an experienced and well-equipped army, which he used to influence regional affairs. He later ordered troops to the Iraqi-Kuwaiti border.

As Iraqi-Kuwaiti relations rapidly grew worse, Saddam was getting different information about how the United States would respond to an invasion. The United States had been working on starting a good relationship with Iraq for roughly a decade. The Reagan administration gave Saddam roughly $40 billion worth of arms in the 1980s to fight Iran, nearly all of it on credit. The U.S. also sent billions of dollars of food and arms to Saddam to keep him from forming a strong alliance with the Soviets.

The U.S. ambassador to Iraq, April Glaspie, met with Saddam in a meeting on July 25. Saddam said he wanted to keep talks going. U.S. officials tried to take a calm, relaxing tone with Iraq. They explained that neither President George H.W. Bush or Secretary of State James Baker wanted military force to be used. However, they also said that they would not take any position on the Iraqi-Kuwaiti dispute and did not want to become involved.

Later, Iraq and Kuwait met for a final negotiation session, which failed. Saddam then sent his troops into Kuwait.

The Gulf War 1990-1991

In August 2, 1990, Saddam invaded Kuwait, causing an international crisis. The invasion of Kuwait gave Iraq, with its own substantial oil fields, control of 20 percent of the Persian Gulf oil. The U.S. helped Saddam Hussein in the war with Iran, but with Iraq's take over of the oil-rich emirate of Kuwait in August of 1990, the United States led a United Nations force that drove Saddam from Kuwait in February 1991.

Because the United States and the Soviet Union were cooperating in the United Nations Security Council, the Security Council was able to pass resolutions. These resolutions gave Iraq a deadline to leave Kuwait.

Saddam ignored the Security Council deadline. On January 16, 1991, coalition of U.S. and Security Council troops launched missile attacks on Iraq. The United States and a group of allies it had quickly gathered, including Egypt, Syria, and Saudi Arabia, made Saddam's army move from Kuwait in January 1991.

Israel, though Saddam attacked it with Iraqi missiles, did not fight back. It did not want to anger Arab states into leaving the coalition. But Saddam had focused attention on the Palestinian problem by promising to make his forces leave from Kuwait if Israel would leave the West Bank, the Golan Heights, and the Gaza Strip. Saddam's proposal further split the Arab world, pitting U.S. and Western-supported Arab states against the Palestinians.

175,000 Iraqis were taken prisoner and about 85,000 died. As part of the cease-fire agreement, Iraq agreed to get rid of all poison gas and germ weapons, and to allow UN observers to inspect the sites.

After the war
All of the different religions and the violence the war had created caused after-war rebellions. After the war, fighting between Shi'ite Muslims, Kurds, and dissident military units was bad. This was a problem to Saddam's rule. Saddam acted by stopping all rebellions in their tracks, especially in the North.

Before the war ended, the United States had encouraged Iraqis to rise up against Saddam. However, when the Shi'ites, Kurds, and dissidents did rise up against Saddam, the United States did not support them.

Without United States support for these rebellions, Saddam survived them. He was then left completely in control of Iraq. The country's economy and army never recovered from the Gulf War. However, Saddam often claimed that Iraq had won the Gulf War, and the United States had lost. This made Saddam popular in many parts of the Arab world.

Saddam liked to show himself as a strict Muslim. This was to calm down the religious parts of the society. He brought back some parts of Sharia law. This included the 2001 law that said homosexuality could be punished by the death penalty. The phrase "Allahu Akbar" ("God is great"), in Saddam's handwriting, was added to the Iraq national flag.

1991-2003
Relations between the United States and Iraq remained tense after the Gulf War. In 1993, the United States decided to attack Iraq, because it thought evidence showed Iraq had sponsored a plan to kill former President George H.W. Bush. On June 26, 1993, the United States launched a missile attack aimed at Iraq's intelligence headquarters in Baghdad.

The United Nations placed a trade embargo on Iraq, blocking Iraqi oil exports. This caused hardship in Iraq and almost destroyed the Iraqi economy and state infrastructure. Only smuggling across the Syrian border, and humanitarian aid kept Iraq from crisis. Later, limited amounts of income from the United Nations oil-for-food program started flowing into Iraq. On December 9, 1996, the United Nations allowed Baghdad to begin selling limited amounts of oil for food and medicine.

U.S. officials continued to accuse Saddam of violating the Gulf War's cease-fire agreement, by developing weapons of mass destruction and other banned weapons, and by violating the UN-imposed sanctions and "no-fly zones." Isolated military strikes by U.S. and British forces continued on Iraq, the largest being Operation Desert Fox in 1998.
After two years of intermittent activity, U.S. and British warplanes struck harder at sites near Baghdad in February 2001.

Saddam's base of Tikriti tribesmen, family members, and other supporters was divided after the war and in the following years. This added to the regime's increasingly repressive and arbitrary nature. Domestic repression inside Iraq grew worse, and Saddam's sons, Uday Hussein and Qusay Hussein, became increasingly powerful and carried out a private reign of terror. They likely had a leading hand when, in August 1995, two of Saddam Hussein's sons-in-law, who held high positions in the Iraqi military, defected to Jordan. Both were killed after returning to Iraq the following February.

2003 invasion of Iraq

In 2003, the United States led an invasion of Iraq. The main reason for the invasion was President George W. Bush's claim that Saddam had weapons of mass destruction. Bush argued that this made Saddam a major threat to Western allies, such as oil-rich Saudi Arabia and Israel; to Western oil supplies from the Persian Gulf states; and to Middle East stability in general. The President before Bush, Bill Clinton (1993-2001), maintained sanctions and made occasional air strikes in the "Iraqi no-fly zones" or other restrictions, in the hope that Saddam would be overthrown by his many political enemies. However, this never happened.

Things changed in the United States after the September 11, 2001 attacks. In his January 2002 State of the Union Address to the United States Congress, President Bush said that Iraq, Iran, and North Korea were an "axis of evil." Bush also argued that Iraq had supported Al-Qaeda, the terrorists who attacked the United States on September 11.

As the war was looming on February 24, 2003, Saddam Hussein talked with CBS News anchor Dan Rather for more than three hours—his first interview with a U.S. reporter in over ten years. CBS aired the taped interview later that week.

The Iraqi government and military collapsed within three weeks after the beginning of the U.S.-led invasion on March 20. The United States tried at least twice to kill Saddam with targeted air strikes, but both failed to hit their target. By the beginning of April, Coalition forces controlled much of Iraq. The resistance of the much-weakened Iraqi Army either crumbled or shifted to guerrilla tactics, and it appeared that Saddam had lost control of Iraq. He was last seen in a video which showed him in the Baghdad suburbs surrounded by supporters. When Baghdad fell to the Coalition on April 9, Saddam was nowhere to be found.

Pursuit and capture

Even when Baghdad was taken over, and most of the fighting had stopped, people still did not know where Saddam was. For a few weeks, some people said they saw Saddam, and some videotapes of Saddam talking came out, but still nobody knows if they were true or not.

Although Saddam was placed at the top of the "most-wanted list," he could not be found, even when the other leaders of the Iraqi regime were arrested. His sons and political heirs, Uday and Qusay, were killed in July 2003 in a clash with U.S. forces after a tip from an Iraqi.

On 14 December 2003, the Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA) of Iran first reported that Saddam Hussein had been arrested. These reports were soon confirmed by other members of the Governing Council, by U.S. military sources, and by British Prime Minister Tony Blair.

Shortly afterwards, the U.S. Civil Administrator in Iraq, Paul Bremer, held a press conference in Baghdad. He officially announced Saddam's capture by saying, "Ladies and gentlemen, we got him!" United States soldiers found Saddam around 8:30 PM Iraqi time on 13 December, in what was called Operation Red Dawn. Saddam was hiding in an underground "spider hole" at a farmhouse in ad-Dawr, near his hometown of Tikrit.

The first photos taken of Saddam after the soldiers found him did not look like the photos taken when he was President of Iraq. He had grown long hair and a long beard. Later on, he shaved his beard to confirm his identity. DNA tests proved that he really was Saddam Hussein. People who talked with him after the soldiers found him said he was healthy, and wanted to talk to people and do what they told him to do. Paul Bremer said that Saddam would have a trial, but that he did not know yet what kind of trial.

Trial

The Iraqi Special Tribunal was in charge of Saddam Hussein's trial, and the trials of some people that helped him to be President of Iraq.

In November 2006, Saddam Hussein was found guilty of 148 murders.

Critics viewed the trial as a show trial that did not meet international standards on the right to a fair trial. Amnesty International stated that the trial was "unfair". Human Rights Watch judged that Saddam's execution "follows a flawed trial and marks a significant step away from the rule of law in Iraq." Several months before the trial took place, Salem Chalabi, the former head of the Iraq Special Tribunal (which was established to try Hussein), accused interim Iraqi Prime Minister Iyad Allawi of pushing for a hasty show trial and execution, stating: "Show trials followed by speedy executions may help the interim government politically in the short term but will be counterproductive for the development of democracy and the rule of law in Iraq in the long term."

Execution

He was put to death in 2006. The hanging was recorded by officials of the government. A witness also secretly recorded the hanging with a cell phone camera, which included sound. The recording showed Saddam being calm as he was prepared for his final moments. Witnesses and executioners could be heard teasing Saddam as the rope was placed on his head, and he was put on the trap door. He was in the middle of a prayer when the trap door beneath him opened, and he was killed. Later, pictures and live video of Saddam's taunting and execution, and of his dead corpse were shown on many Internet sites.

Saddam was buried in his hometown, Al-Awja, Iraq, the next day.

Saddam was scheduled to die on Thursday night, 28 December 2006. Because of last-minute legal appeals in Iraq's Supreme Court of Appeals, Saddam's execution came about 40 hours later. Saddam Hussein was hanged on 30 December 2006 at 6:05 AM, Iraqi time. Saddam refused to wear a hood. He was pronounced dead at 6:10 AM Baghdad time. Baghdad had curfews on those days, which required people to be off the streets by evening.

Personal Life

Saddam had been married three times. His first marriage was to his first cousin, Sajida Talfah. She was the oldest daughter of Saddam's uncle, Khairallah Talfah. Together, Saddam and Sajida had two sons, Uday Saddam Hussein and Qusay Hussein, and three daughters, Rana, Raghad and Hala.

In early 1997, Sajida was put under house arrest, along with her daughters Raghad and Rana, because they were suspected of being involved in an attempted assassination on Uday on 12 December 1996. General Adnan Khairallah Tuffah, who was Sajida's brother and Saddam Hussein's boyhood friend, was allegedly executed because of his growing popularity.

Saddam Hussein also married two other women. The second was Samira Shahbandar, whom he married in 1986 after forcing her husband to divorce her. She was said to have been his favorite wife. His third wife was Nidal al-Hamdani, the general manager of the Solar Energy Research Center in the Council of Scientific Research, whose husband apparently was also persuaded to divorce his wife.

In August 1995, Rana; her husband, Hussein Kamel al Majid; Raghad; her husband, Saddam Kamel Majid; and their children defected to Jordan. They returned to Iraq when they were promised that Saddam Hussein would pardon them. Within three days of their return in February 1996, both of the Majid brothers were executed.

Saddam's daughter Hala is married to Jamal Mustafa, the deputy head of Iraq's Tribal Affairs Office. Neither has been known to be involved in politics. Another cousin was Ali Hassan al-Majid, also known in the United States as "Chemical Ali," who was accused of ordering the use of poison gas in 1988.

In 2000, a romance book titled Zabiba and the King was released and later became a bestselling book. It was later revealed that Hussein was the author of the book.

Notes

2 See PBS Frontline (2003), "The survival of Saddam: secrets of his life and leadership: interview with Saïd K. Aburish" at .
3 From Elisabeth Bumiller's interview of Jerrold M. Post, the founder of the Center for the Analysis of Personality and Political Behavior at the CIA in the New York Times' (May 15, 2004) on the importance of events during Saddam Hussein's youth. It can be read online at  .
8 The full text of Bush's 2002 State of the Union address can be read online (BBC News) at .

Other websites
 The Saddam Hussein Sourcebook  - Provided by the National Security Archive.

1937 births
2006 deaths
Former dictators
Iraqi generals
Iraqi murderers
Iraqi Muslims
People executed by hanging
Presidents of Iraq
Prime Ministers of Iraq
People from Tikrit
Vice presidents of Iraq
War criminals

Saddam Hussein


Vernon Carver Rudolph (June 30, 1915, Marshall County, Kentucky - August 16, 1973) was the founder of Krispy Kreme Doughnuts, Inc.

Rudolph was the oldest of two boys who were born to Plumie and Rethie Rudolph. As he got older, he began to help in the general store that his father owned. When he graduated from high school, he went to Paducah, Kentucky with his uncle. In 1933, Rudolph's uncle bought a doughnut shop and recipe for yeast-raised donuts. He bought them from a French federal employee named Joe La-beau. This all happened during the middle of the great depression, so they moved to Nashville, Tennessee to see if they could get better business there and secure their financial future.

1915 births
1973 deaths
Businesspeople from Kentucky

Vernon Rudolph


Hans Fahrni  (1 October 1874 in Prague – 28 May 1939 in Ostermundigen) was a Swiss chess master.

In 1902, he took 12th in Hanover (DSB Congress, B tournament, Walter John won). In 1904, he won in Coburg (DSB-Congress, B tournament). In 1905, he tied for 2nd-3rd, behind Paul Leonhardt, in Hamburg. In 1905, he tied for 4-6th in Barmen (B tournament; Leo Fleischmann won). In 1906, he took 15th in Ostend (Carl Schlechter won). In 1906, he tied for 14-15th in Nuremberg (DSB-Congress, Frank Marshall won).

In 1909, Fahrni won, ahead of Savielly Tartakower, Semyon Alapin and Rudolf Spielmann, in Munich (Quadrangular). In 1911, he won in San Remo, took 4th in Munich (Quadrangular, Alapin won), and tied for 23-26th in Carlsbad (Richard Teichmann won).

He was the first master to play 100 opponents simultaneously.  It took place in 1911 at Munich.

In 1914, he tied for 7-8th in Baden bei Wien (Spielmann won), and tied for 13-14th in Mannheim (the 19th DSB-Congress, interrupted tournament, Alexander Alekhine won first prize). In 1916, he tied for 4-5th in Triberg (Ilya Rabinovich won).

Fahrni played several matches. In 1907, he lost to Spielmann (+3 –5 =2) in Munich. In 1908, he drew with Alekhine (+1 –1 =1) in Munich. In 1908, he won against Gersz Salwe (+3 –1 =1) in Prague. In 1910, he lost to Spielmann (+3 –4 =4) in Munich. In 1912, he won against Curt von Bardeleben (+3 –0 =1). In 1914, he drew with Leonhardt (+1 –1 =0). In 1916, he drew with Alex Selesnev (+2 –2 =2) in Tiberg. In 1917, he lost to Teichmann (+0 –2 =2) in Zurich.

In 1916, suffering from psychosis, he was hospitalized.  He was released, but following a relapse, he was hospitalized again.

In 1922, he was the first to write a chess monograph on the opening 1.e4 Nf6, calling it Alekhine's Defence.

Books written by Fahrni

Fahrni, Hans: Das Endspiel im Schach: lehrreiche Beispiele: mit hundert Diagrammen /gesammelt und kurz erläutert von Hans Fahrni, Leipzig 1917
Fahrni, Hans: Die Aljechin-Verteidigung, eine schachtheoretische Analyse, Berlin, 1922
FAHRNI, HANS & J.W. KEEMINK JR Het eindspel : handleiding voor schakers.

References

1874 births
1939 deaths
Swiss chess players
Sportspeople from Prague
People from Ostermundigen
Emigrants from Austria-Hungary to Switzerland

Hans Fahrni


Old Bank House is the oldest surviving brick-built house in Sheffield City Centre in South Yorkshire, England.  It lies on Hartshead, north of the High Street.

Although the Manor Lodge had been partly constructed from brick, the first brick building in Sheffield city centre was not completed until 1696, and was initially much ridiculed.  However, by the 1720s, several houses had been rebuilt in brick, and Burrowlee House in Hillsborough had been completed, so the style was no longer a novelty.

The building was constructed in 1728 by the Quaker merchant Nicholas Broadbent.  From 1771 until 1782, his grandson Thomas Broadbent ran a bank from the building, having moved to Page Hall.

The three-storey building is divided into five bays, with the central bay brought slightly forward.  The central bay and corners of the building are marked with giant pilasters, and a plain pediment tops the facade.  St Peter's Close runs through the ground floor of the leftmost bay.

The interior of the building, restored in the 1970s and further improved in 2006 contains some original panelling and plasterwork and is partially Grade I listed.  The building is Grade II* listed and is now used as offices by Bank House Chambers, the longest established set of barristers chambers on the North Eastern Circuit, who began operating in 1862.

References

Ruth Harman and John Minnis, Pevsner Architectural Guides: Sheffield

Houses completed in 1728
Grade II* listed buildings in Sheffield
Houses in Sheffield
1728 establishments in England

Old Bank House


The California State Polytechnic University, Pomona (also known as Cal Poly Pomona) is a public university in Pomona, California, United States. It is one of 23 campuses in the California State University system. It was founded in 1938. Cal Poly Pomona offers 72 degree programs in disciplines like engineering, science, architecture, and many others. The university covers 1,147 acres. It is near the city of Los Angeles.

Cal Poly Pomona student-athletes play sports against other universities using the name Cal Poly Pomona Broncos. The university is a member of the California Collegiate Athletic Association and the NCAA. The official colors of the university and its athletic teams are green and gold.

References

1938 establishments in the United States
1930s establishments in California
California State University
Pomona, California


The Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP) is a deepwater port in the Gulf of Mexico 29 kilometers (18 nautical miles) off the coast of Louisiana near the town of Port Fourchon. LOOP provides tanker offloading and temporary storage services for crude oil transported on some of the largest tankers in the world. Most tankers offloading at LOOP are too large for U.S. inland ports. LOOP handles 13 percent of the nation's foreign oil, about  a day, and connects by pipeline to 50 percent of the U.S. refining capability.

Description
Tankers offload at LOOP by pumping crude oil through hoses connected to a Single Buoy Mooring (SBM) base.  Three SPMs are located 8,000 feet (2.4 km) from the Marine Terminal. The SPMs are designed to handle ships up to 700,000 deadweight tons (635,000 metric tonnes). The crude oil then moves to the Marine Terminal via a 56-inch (1.4 m) diameter submarine pipeline. The Marine Terminal consists of a control platform and a pumping platform.

The control platform is equipped with a helicopter  pad, living quarters, control room, vessel traffic control station, offices and life support equipment. The pumping platform contains four 7,000-hp (5 MW) pumps, power generators, metering and laboratory facilities. Crude oil is only handled on the pumping platform where it is measured, sampled, and boosted to shore via a 48-inch (1.2 m) diameter pipeline.

The distance to shore puts LOOP outside U.S. territorial waters, and special agreements in international sea law are made to allow ships from other countries to come under U.S. jurisdiction to visit LOOP.

Onshore
LOOP's onshore facilities, Fourchon Booster Station and Clovelly Dome Storage Terminal, are located just on-shore in Fourchon and 25 miles (40.2 km) inland near Galliano, Louisiana. The Fourchon Booster Station has four 6,000-hp (4.5 MW) pumps which increase the pressure and crude oil flow en route to the Clovelly Dome Storage Terminal.

Storage
The Clovelly Dome Storage Terminal is used to store crude oil in underground salt domes before it is shipped to the various refineries. The terminal consists of eight caverns with a total capacity of , a pump station with four 6,000-hp pumps, meters to measure the crude oil receipts and deliveries, and a  Brine Storage Reservoir. The brine reservoir is supersaturated with salts so as to prevent further degradation of the massive salt dome in which the eight caverns store the crude. This is because the supersaturated brine is much more dense than the crude oil, and as it is pumped into the caverns to push the crude to the surface and into the surface distribution systems. This results in virtually no loss of quality to the crude oil offload.

References

Further reading
 Read, William B. Loop: The First and Only Offshore Deepwater Oil Port Built in the United States (AuthorHouse, 2007)
 Sasser, Charles E., et al. "Environmental management analysis of the Louisiana Offshore Oil Port." Wetlands 2.1 (1982): 249-261.
 Theriot, Jason. "Building America's First Offshore Oil Port: LOOP." Journal of American History (2012) 99#1 pp: 187-196.
 Theriot, Jason P. American Energy, Imperiled Coast: Oil and Gas Development in Louisiana's Wetlands (LSU Press, 2014)
 Thoms, R. L., and R. M. Gehle. "A brief history of salt cavern use." Proc. 8th World Salt Symposium Elsevier. 2000.

External links
 LOOP LLC. - Home Page
 LOOP Photos Photos of the Louisiana Offshore Oil Port and an unloading ship, April 2002.

Ports and harbors of Louisiana
Petroleum industry in the Gulf of Mexico
Oil terminals
Petroleum infrastructure in the United States
Energy infrastructure in Louisiana

Louisiana Offshore Oil Port


A double-track railway usually involves running one track in each direction, compared to a single-track railway where trains in both directions share the same track.

Overview
In the earliest days of railways in the United Kingdom, most lines were built as double-track because of the difficulty of co-ordinating operations before the invention of the telegraph. The lines also tended to be busy enough to be beyond the capacity of a single track. In the early days the Board of Trade did not consider any single-track railway line to be complete.

In the earliest days of railways in the United States most lines were built as single-track for reasons of cost, and very inefficient timetable working systems were used to prevent head-on collisions on single lines. This improved with the development of the telegraph and the train order system.

Operation

Handedness

In any given country, rail traffic generally runs to one side of a double-track line, not always the same side as road traffic. Thus in Belgium, China (apart from metro systems), France (apart from the classic lines of the former German Alsace and Lorraine), Sweden (apart from Malmö and further south), Switzerland, Italy and Portugal for example, the railways use left-hand running, while the roads use right-hand running. However, there are many exceptions:
 In Finland, rail traffic is mainly RHT, except separate commuter rail tracks in Helsinki area use LHT.
 In Switzerland, the Lausanne Metro and railways in the Germany border area, as well as all tram systems, use RHT.
 In countries such as Indonesia, it is the reverse (right-hand running for railways and left-hand running for roads).
 In Spain, where rails are RHT, metro systems in Madrid and Bilbao use LHT.
In Sweden, the tram systems in Gothenburg (except for Angered station and stations with island platforms), Norrköping and Stockholm (except the Alvik – Alleparken section) are RHT. The railroads (and the metro) use LHT in general, but in Malmö they use RHT due to the connection to Denmark.
In Ukraine, some sections of Kryvyi Rih Metrotram use LHT due to tramcars having doors only on right side, which makes it impossible to use RHT at stations with island platforms.
On the pre-1918 French-German border, for example, flyovers were provided so that trains moving on the left in France end up on the right in Germany and vice versa.
 In the United States, three Metra commuter railroad lines formerly owned by the CNW near Chicago operate with left-hand running, a historical oddity caused by the original placement of station buildings and the directionality of travel demand.

Locomotive design
Handedness of traffic can affect locomotive design. For the driver, visibility is usually good from both sides of the driving cab, so the choice of which side the driver should sit less important. For example, the French SNCF Class BB 7200 is designed to use the left-hand track and therefore uses LHD. When the design was modified for use in the Netherlands as NS Class 1600, the driving cab was not completely redesigned, keeping the driver on the left even though trains use the right-hand track in the Netherlands. Generally, the left/right principle in a country is followed mostly on double track. On steam trains, the steam boiler often obscured some of the view, so the driver was preferably placed nearest to the side of the railway, so that it was easier to see the signals. On single track, when trains meet, the train that does not stop often uses the straight path in the turnout, which can be left or right.

Bi-directional running

Double-track railways, especially older ones, may use each track exclusively in one direction. This arrangement simplifies the signalling systems, especially where the signalling is mechanical (e.g. semaphore signals).

Where the signals and points (UK term) or rail switches (US) are power-operated, it can be worthwhile to provide signals for each line which cater for movement in either direction, so that the double line becomes a pair of single lines. This allows trains to use one track where the other track is out of service due to track maintenance work, or a train failure, or for a fast train to overtake a slow train.

Crossing loops
Most crossing loops are not regarded as double-track even though they consist of multiple tracks. If the crossing loop is long enough to hold several trains, and to allow opposing trains to cross without slowing down or stopping, then that may be regarded as double-track. A more modern British term for such a layout is an extended loop.

Track centres

The distance between the tracks' centres makes a difference in cost and performance of a double-track line. The track centres can be as closely spaced and as cheap as possible, but maintenance must be done on the side. Signals for bi-directional working cannot be mounted between the tracks, so they must be mounted on the 'wrong' side of the line or on expensive signal bridges. For standard gauge tracks the distance may be  or less. Track centres are usually further apart on high speed lines, as pressure waves knock each other as high-speed trains pass. Track centres are also usually further apart on sharp curves, and the length and width of trains is contingent on the minimum railway curve radius of the railway.

Increasing the width of track centres of  or more makes it much easier to mount signals and overhead wiring structures. Very widely spaced centres at major bridges can have military value. It also makes it harder for rogue ships and barges to knock out both bridges in the same accident.

Railway lines in desert areas affected by sand dunes are sometimes built with the two tracks separated, so that if one is covered by sand, the other(s) are still serviceable.

If the standard track centre is changed, it can take a very long time for most or all tracks to be brought into line.

Accidents
On British lines, the space between the two running rails of a single railway track is called the "four foot" (owing to it being 'four foot something' in width), while the space between the different tracks is called the "six foot". It is not safe to stand in the gap between the tracks when trains pass by on both lines, as happened in the Bere Ferrers accident of 1917.

 Narrow track centres on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway contributed to a fatal accident on opening day.
 A US naval scientist and submarine pioneer, Captain Jacques, was killed getting out of the wrong side of a train at Hadley Wood in 1916.
 Narrow track centres contribute to "Second Train Coming" accidents at level crossings since it is harder to see the second train – for example, the accident at Elsenham level crossing in 2005.

Temporary single track
When one track of a double-track railway is out of service for maintenance or a train breaks down, all trains may be concentrated on the one usable track. There may be bi-directional signalling and suitable crossovers to enable trains to move onto the other track expeditiously (such as the Channel Tunnel), or there may be some kind of manual safeworking to control trains on what is now a section of single track. See single-line working.

Accidents can occur if the temporary safeworking system is not implemented properly, as in:

 Brühl train disaster, Germany – 2000.
 Zoufftgen rail crash, France – 2006

Out-of-gauge trains
From time to time, railways are asked to transport exceptional loads such as massive electrical transformers that are too tall, too wide or too heavy to operate normally. Special measures must be carefully taken to plan successful and safe operation of out-of-gauge trains.  For example, adjacent tracks of a double line might have to be shut down to avoid collisions with trains on those adjacent tracks.

Passing lanes
These are a form of crossing loop, but are long enough to allow trains approaching each other from opposite directions on single-track lines to cross (or pass) each other without reducing speed. In order for passing lanes to operate safely and effectively, trains must be timetabled so that they arrive at and enter the loop with close time tolerances, otherwise they will need to slow or even be brought to a complete stop to allow the oncoming train to pass. They are suited to lines with light to moderate traffic.

An example of where passing lanes have been installed in order to improve travel times and increase line capacity is the  section of the Main Southern railway line in Australia between Junee and Albury. This was built as a single track line in stages between 1878 and 1881, and was partially duplicated between 2005 and 2010 by the construction of four passing lanes each  long. In this instance, this was accomplished by extending pre-existing crossing loops of either  or  in length.

Construction

Duplication
The process of expanding a single track to double track is called duplication or doubling, unless the expansion is to restore what was previously double track, in which case it is called redoubling.

The strongest evidence that a line was built as single-track and duplicated at a later date consists of major structures such as bridges and tunnels that are twinned. One example is the twin Slade tunnels on the Ilfracombe Branch Line in the UK. Twinned structures may be identical in appearance, or like some tunnels between Adelaide and Belair in South Australia, substantially different in appearance, being built to different structure gauges.

Tunnel duplication
Tunnels are confined spaces and are difficult to duplicate while trains keep on running. Generally they are duplicated by building a second tunnel. An exception is the Hoosac Tunnel, which was duplicated by enlarging the bore.

Carried-out provision for duplication

To reduce initial costs of a line that is certain to see heavy traffic in the future, a line may be built as single-track but with earthworks and structures designed for ready duplication. An example is the Strathfield to Hamilton line in New South Wales, which was constructed as mainly single-track in the 1880s, with full duplication completed around 1910.  All bridges, tunnels, stations, and earthworks were built for double track.  Stations with platforms with  centres had to be widened later to  centres, except for Gosford.

The former Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) line between Baltimore and Jersey City, now owned by CSX and Conrail Shared Assets Operations, is an example of a duplication line that was reduced to single-track in most locations, but has since undergone re-duplication in many places between Baltimore and Philadelphia when CSX increased freight schedules in the late 1990s.

Also:
 Smardale Gill viaduct.
 Westerham line.
 The Menangle Bridge was single track (1863) but built for double track (1890s). A second track was laid temporarily to allow testing both tracks at once.
 The Long Island Rail Road's Ronkonkoma Branch was originally single track for most of its length, but land for a double track was purchased as part of a project to electrify part of the line in the 1980s. A double track was laid along the rest of the segment in 2018.

Never-used provision for duplication
Some lines are built as single-track with provision for duplication, but the duplication is never carried out. Examples are:
 Swanage Railway
 Bluebell Railway: Horsted Keynes to Culver Junction (Lewes).
 Keighley and Worth Valley Railway – including bridge and tunnels and a deviation.
 Westerham in Kent.
 Mid-Wales Railway (parts).
 Neath and Brecon Railway
 Monkerei Tunnel in New South Wales – double track size at summit reduces fume problem in tunnel.
 Golgotha Tunnel near Eythorne on the East Kent Light Railway was only partly excavated for the second track.
 Skitube Alpine Railway – A provision for a second 300-metre-long passing loop has been made inside the tunnel.
 New Jezreel Valley railway – Planned as a double-tracked line, but only a single track has been constructed due to budgetary issues.
 Linha do Leste and Linha do Alentejo in Portugal. The embankments in all bridges were built to double track but the second one was never installed.
 West Coast Line (Sweden). The line through Varberg is single track but prepared for double track with long enough bridges over the track. The national traffic administration (and predecessor) has since 1980 planned to build the double track, but couldn't for reason of noise rules applying to reconstructions. A new tunnel with a station was considered too expensive but is in the time plan now.

Singling

When the capacity of a double-track railway is in excess of requirements, the two tracks may be reduced to one, in order to reduce maintenance costs and property taxes. In some countries this is called singling. Notable examples of this in the United Kingdom occurred on the Oxford–Worcester–Hereford, Princes Risborough–Banbury and Salisbury–Exeter main lines during the 1970s and 1980s. In all these cases, increases in traffic from the late 1990s have led to the partial reinstatement of double track. In New Zealand the Melling Line was singled to the Western Hutt Railway Station in Lower Hutt in 1958 after it became a branch line rather than part of the main Hutt Valley Line.
Kirkby railway station (until 1977) and Ormskirk railway station (until 1970) were double-track railway, when they were converted into single-track railway with cross-platform interchange.

In New South Wales, Australia, the Main Western Railway between Wallerawang and Tarana, and between Gresham and Newbridge were singled in the 1990s. A new passing loop was opened on part of the closed track at Rydal in the Wallerawang–Tarana section during 2019.

Tunnel singling
A double-track tunnel with restricted clearances is sometimes singled to form a single track tunnel with more generous clearances, such as the Connaught Tunnel in Canada or the Tickhole Tunnel in New South Wales, Australia. In the case of the Tickhole Tunnel a new single-track tunnel was built and the two tracks in the original tunnel were replaced by one track in the centreline of the tunnel. Another case where this was necessary was the Hastings Line in the United Kingdom, where the tunnels were eventually singled to permit the passage of standard British-gauge rolling stock. Before the singling, narrow-bodied stock, specially constructed for the line, had to be used.

As part of the Regional Fast Rail project in Victoria, Australia, the rail line between Kyneton and Bendigo was converted from double- to single-track to provide additional clearance through tunnels and under bridges for trains travelling at up to .

A similar process can be followed on narrow bridges (like the Boyne Viaduct, a bridge just north of Drogheda railway station in Ireland).

The bridge over the Murray River between Albury and Wodonga is double-track, but because of insufficient strength in the bridge only one train is allowed on it at a time. The bridge has since been singled as part of the North East Line Standardisation with the old broad gauge track now disconnected but remains in place on the bridge.

Other tunnel singling
 Hoosac Tunnel, Pan Am Railways, Massachusetts, US.
 Old Main Line Subdivision, B&O, Maryland, US. Entire  subdivision was single-tracked to utilize higher clearances of the 9 tunnels on the line.
 Whitehall Tunnel, B&O, Pennsylvania, US.

Wartime doubling
Railways that become especially busy in wartime and are duplicated, especially in World War I, may revert to single track when peace returns and the extra capacity is no longer required.  The
Flanders campaign saw duplication of the Hazebrouck–Ypres line, amongst other works.

Triple track

Severe gradients can make the headway in the uphill direction much worse than the headway in the downhill direction. Between Whittingham and Maitland, New South Wales, a third track was opened between Whittingham and Branxton in 2011 and Branxton to Maitland in 2012 to equalize the headway in both directions for heavy coal traffic. Triple track could be a compromise between double-track and quad-track; such a system was proposed south of Stockholm Central Station, but was cancelled in favor of Citybanan.

In Melbourne and Brisbane several double track lines have a third track signalled in both directions, so that two tracks are available in the peak direction during rush hours.

Triple track is used in some parts of the New York City Subway to add supplemental rush-hour services. The center track, which serves express trains, is signalled in both directions to allow two tracks to be used in the peak direction during rush hours; the outer tracks use bi-directional running and serve local trains exclusively in one direction. During service disruptions on one of the two outer tracks, trains could also bypass the affected sections on the center track.

The Union Pacific Railroad mainline through Nebraska has a  stretch of triple track between North Platte and Gibbon Junction, due to a high traffic density of 150 trains per day.

Portions of the Canadian National main line in the Greater Toronto Area and Southern Ontario are triple track to facilitate high traffic density of freight services, intercity, and suburban passenger trains sharing the same lines.

India, through its state-owned Indian Railways, has initiated the construction of a third track between Jhansi and Nagpur via Bhopal (approximately ) for reducing the traffic load and delays in passenger train arrivals. The construction between Bina and Bhopal and between Itarsi and Budhni had been completed by April 2020.

Dual gauge
The Melbourne to Albury railway originally consisted of separate  gauge and  gauge single track lines, but when traffic on the broad gauge declined, the lines were converted to bi-directional double track  gauge lines.

Quadruple track

Quadruple track consists of four parallel tracks. On a quad-track line, faster trains can overtake slower ones. Quadruple track is mostly used when there are "local" trains that stop often (or slow freight trains), and also faster inter-city or high-speed "express" trains. It can also be used in commuter rail or rapid transit. The layout can vary, often with the two outer tracks carrying the local trains that stop at every station so one side of stations can be reached without staircase; this can also be reversed, with express trains on the outside and locals on the inside, for example if staffed ticket booths are wanted, allowing one person for both directions. At other places two tracks on one half of the railway carry local trains and the other half faster trains. At the local train stations, the express trains can pass through the station at full speed. For example on the Nuremberg-Bamberg railway, which is quadruple track for most of its course, the inner two tracks are used by the S-Bahn Nuremberg whereas the outer tracks are used for regional express and Intercity Express trains. The section in northern Fürth where the line is "only" double track creates a major bottleneck. For Berlin Stadtbahn the two northern tracks are local S-Bahn and the two other for faster trains.

The most notable example of quadruple track in the United States, and perhaps the only four-track section of mainline therein, was the Pennsylvania Railroad's main corridor through the heart of Pennsylvania around the famous Horseshoe Curve. This line is now owned by Norfolk Southern. Other examples include the Hudson and New Haven Lines, both of which are shared between Metro-North and Amtrak in New York and Connecticut. The New Haven Line is quadruple track along its entire length, while the Hudson Line is only quadruple tracked along the shared portion from Riverdale to Croton–Harmon and along the shared track from Grand Central Terminal to Yankees–East 153rd Street. Amtrak's Northeast Corridor is quadruple tracked in most portions south of New Haven, but also has a few triple-track segments. The Metra Electric District is quadruple-tracked on most of the main line north of Kensington/115th Street station, with local trains running in the center two tracks, and express trains on the outer two tracks.

Outside the United States the Chūō Main Line is an example of a modern, heavily utilized urban quadruple track railway.

Quadruple track is used in rapid transit systems as well: throughout the New York City Subway, the Chicago "L"'s North Side Main Line, and SEPTA's Broad Street Line in the United States, and on the London Underground in the United Kingdom.

Oddities

Non-parallel double track
The two tracks of a double-track railway do not have to follow the same alignment if the terrain is difficult. At Frampton, New South Wales, Australia, the uphill track follows something of a horseshoe curve at 1 in 75 gradient, while the shorter downhill track follows the original single track at 1 in 40 grades.

A similar arrangement to Frampton could not be adopted between Rydal and Sodwalls on the Main Western railway line because the 1 in 75 uphill track is on the wrong side of the 1 in 40 downhill track, so both tracks follow the 1 in 75 grade. Another example is at Gunning.

Between Junee and Marinna, New South Wales, Australia the two tracks are at different levels, with the original southbound and downhill track following ground level with a steep gradient, while the newer northbound and uphill track has a gentler gradient at the cost of more cut and fill.

At the Bethungra Spiral, Australia, the downhill track follows the original short and steep alignment, while the uphill track follows a longer, more easily graded alignment including a spiral.

At Saunderton, England, what became the London-to-Birmingham main line of the Great Western Railway in 1909 was initially part of a single-track branch line from Maidenhead. Down trains follow the route of the old branch line, while up trains follow a more gently graded new construction through a tunnel. This scheme avoided the cost of a new double-track tunnel.

Directional running
Directional running is two separate lines operationally combined to act as a double-track line by converting each line to unidirectional traffic. An example is in central Nevada, where the Western Pacific and Southern Pacific Railroads, longtime rivals who each built and operated tracks between northern California and Utah, agreed to share their lines between meeting points near Winnemucca and Wells, a distance of approximately . Westbound trains from both companies used the Southern Pacific's Overland Route, and eastbound trains used the Western Pacific's Feather River Route (now called the Central Corridor). Crossovers were constructed where the lines ran in close proximity to allow reverse movements. This was necessary as while for most of this run the tracks straddle opposite sides of the Humboldt River, at points the two tracks are several miles apart and some destinations and branch lines can only be accessed from one of the lines. There is a grade separated crossover of the two lines in the shared track area near Palisade, Nevada, which results in trains following right hand traffic in the eastern half of the shared track area, but left hand traffic in the western half. The Union Pacific Railroad has since acquired both of these lines, and continues to operate them as separate lines using directional running. Amtrak also runs the California Zephyr along these routes.

A similar example exists in the Fraser Canyon in British Columbia, where Canadian National and Canadian Pacific Kansas City each own a single-track line – often on either side of the river. The companies have a joint arrangement where they share resources and operate the canyon as a double-track line between meeting points near Mission and Ashcroft.

In other cases, where the shared lines already run in close proximity, the two companies may share facilities. In Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, where the former Reading Railroad and Pennsylvania Railroad shared lines, the lines even shared overhead electrical wire supports, for a  stretch on the northern bank of the Schuylkill River. Both lines eventually came under Conrail ownership in 1976, with the former PRR line being abandoned and now used as a hiking and bicycle path.

An unusual example used to exist on the Isle of Wight, where until 1926 parallel tracks between Smallbrook Junction and St John's Road existed. The Southern Railway installed the actual junction, but it was only used during heavily trafficked summer months. During the winter, the lines reverted to separate single-track routes.

Mixing double and single track
Because double and single track may use different signalling systems, it may be awkward and confusing to mix double and single track too often. For example, intermediate mechanical signal boxes on a double-track line can be closed during periods of light traffic, but this cannot be done if there is a single-line section in between. This problem is less serious with electrical signalling such as Centralized traffic control.

References

External links

Railway line types

Double-track railway


Worcestershire sauce (spoken like ˈwʊstəˌʃɪə or WUSS-ter-SHERR) is a widely-used fermented sauce. It was first made at 68 Broad Street, Worcester, by the company Lea & Perrins in the 1830s.  It was made for selling to people in 1837, and is still the only Worcestershire sauce still to be made in the UK.  In 1930 the company was sold to HP Foods and was later sold to the H.J. Heinz Company from Groupe Danone in 2005.

The sauce is made ready to sell in the Midlands Road factory in Worcester, which is the home of Lea & Perrins since 16 October 1897.

The H. J. Heinz Company, which now makes "The Original Lea & Perrins Worcestershire Sauce", with the name Lea & Perrins, Inc., lists these ingredients on the bottle made in the United States: vinegar, molasses, high fructose corn syrup, anchovies, water, onions, salt, garlic, tamarind concentrate, cloves, natural flavorings and chili pepper extract.

The ingredients of a bottle of Worcestershire sauce from England sold under the name "The Original & Genuine Lea & Perrins Worcestershire Sauce" by Lea & Perrins, Limited, lists the following ingredients: malt vinegar (from barley), spirit vinegar, molasses, sugar, salt, anchovies, tamarind extract, onions, garlic, spice and flavouring.

The sauce is used to make many dishes, both cooked and uncooked, and often with beef; drinks such as the Bloody Mary also use it. Lea & Perrins also makes it in concentrated form that is made ready to sell in other countries.

Worcestershire sauce is called Worcester sauce in South Africa and some parts of the US as; (), or spoken like Woo-ster sauce.

The "Worcestershire sauce" is one of many food products that were made because of Britain ruling India.

References

Sauces

Worcestershire sauce


Lorenzo Campeggio (7 November 1474 – 19 July 1539) was an Italian cardinal and politician. He was the last cardinal protector of England.

Life
Campeggio was born in Milan, the eldest of five sons. In 1500, he took his doctorate in canon and civil law at Bologna and married Francesca Guastavillani with whom he had five children. When she died in 1509, Campeggio began an ecclesiastical career under Pope Julius II's patronage.

He was soon appointed to two diplomatic missions, both against the Council of Pisa, first to the emperor Maximilian I, who gave him the Bishopric of Feltre in 1512 (held until 1520), and then in 1512–13 to the Duke of Milan. In 1513 he returned to Germany seeking a league against the Turks. Pope Leo X made him a Cardinal on 1 July 1517, and Maximilian made him Cardinal–protector of the Holy Roman Empire. On 3 March 1518 he was sent to England as part of Leo's peace policy. This gave Thomas Wolsey the chance to become legate himself by using permission for Campeggio to enter England as leverage, and then to outmanoeuvre the new legate when he arrived, taking over the process of peace-making which led to the Treaty of London in 1519. He was also a member of Johann Goritz's humanist sodality.

Campeggio was appointed cardinal–protector of England on 22 January 1523. He was not involved in much English business, except for the referring of episcopal provisions in consistory. The election of Pope Adrian VI in 1522 cemented his position in the Roman Curia.

Campeggio wrote his De depravato statu ecclesiae for Adrian, which proposed radical reforms for the papal bureaucracy. On 2 December 1524 he received the bishopric of Salisbury, which he had been promised in 1518. The election of Pope Clement VII in 1523 further exalted Campeggio's power. Clement made him bishop of Bologna on 2 December 1523 (held until 1525) and then on 9 January 1524 legate to the Diet of Nuremberg.

During the sack of Rome in 1527, Campeggio lost everything. Clement, who fled to Orvieto, left him behind as papal legate in the city, just when the English political situation required his attention. Wolsey and Henry VIII expected his support for their proposal that a papal co-legate should decide Henry's annulment from Catherine of Aragon in co-operation with Wolsey. Campeggio had, however, already given a legal opinion to the Pontiff supporting the validity of the marriage.

Nevertheless, he was named legate on 8 June 1528, after a joint commission with Wolsey had been agreed on 13 April. Campeggio arrived in London on 8 October 1528 and held the first of many sessions with Wolsey and Henry, the first English King to sue before a papal judge in person.

Campeggio found himself in a difficult position, since Emperor Charles V, Catherine of Aragon's nephew, was determined to maintain the marriage, and was putting pressure on Clement. The deciding point in law for Campeggio was Julius's dispensation for Henry and Catherine's marriage. In Catherine's possession from early in 1528, she showed it to Campeggio in October, and he took it to invalidate his commission, since the latter failed to cover the document. He tried to make the case disappear on 23 July 1529 by proroguing it until October, but this was forestalled by the Pope sending the matter to Rome a week earlier. On his way back to Rome, Campeggio met Charles and Clement in Bologna, where Pope gave Campeggio the castle of Dozza and the Emperor took Campeggio's family under his patronage. Charles later (2 September 1530) gave Campeggio the Spanish bishopric of Huesca and Jaca, which he held until 17 June 1534 when he became bishop of Candia (Crete) (until 1536); in 1532, moreover, when making Campeggio's son Gianbattista bishop of Majorca, the emperor reserved the administration of the see to the young man's father. Campeggio was legate to the Diet of Augsburg in 1530, where he pursued negotiations with Philip Melanchthon.

By 20 May 1531, Henry had dismissed Campeggio as legate. In August 1533, he lost the revenues of Salisbury, and on 21 March 1534 was deprived of the bishopric by act of Parliament; also deprived was Girolamo Ghinucci, Bishop of Worcester.  Campeggio was a member of the commission which excommunicated Henry in 1535. He remained protector of Germany until his death, at the same time devoting much energy to insuring the future of his family; his two sons, two brothers, and one nephew all became bishops. He was named legate to the general council called first at Mantua and then at Vicenza, but he attended only the first session in May 1538. He died on 25 July 1539, aged sixty-four, and was buried in Santa Maria in Trastevere; in 1571 at least some of his bones were transferred to the church of Santi Marta e Bernardino that he had built in Bologna.

References
E. V. Cardinal, Cardinal Lorenzo Campeggio, legate to the courts of Henry VIII and Charles V (1935)
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography

Further reading
Wilkie, William E. 1974. The cardinal protectors of England. Cambridge University Press. .

1474 births
1539 deaths
Apostolic Nuncios to the Holy Roman Empire
Diplomats from Milan
16th-century Italian cardinals
Italian expatriates in England
Bishops of Bologna
Cardinal-bishops of Albano
Cardinal-bishops of Palestrina
Cardinal-bishops of Sabina
Bishops of Salisbury
16th-century English Roman Catholic bishops
16th-century Italian jurists
Italian Renaissance humanists
Burials at Santa Maria in Trastevere
Latin Archbishops of Crete
16th-century Italian Roman Catholic bishops
Clergy from Milan

Lorenzo Campeggio


In Roman mythology, Quirinus was an early god of the Roman state. In Augustan Rome, Quirinus was also a name of Janus, as Janus Quirinus.

History

Quirinus was originally most likely a Sabine god. The Sabines had a settlement near the site of what was to become Rome, and erected an altar to Quirinus on the Collis Quirinalis, the Quirinal Hill, one of the Seven Hills of Rome.  When the Romans settled there, they absorbed the cult of Quirinus into their early belief system — previous to direct Greek influence — and he was said to be the deified Romulus.

In later times, however, Quirinus became far less important, losing his place to (Juno and Minerva and Mars' place).

Notes

Roman gods and goddesses

Quirinus


Ninigi no Mikoto (瓊瓊杵尊) is in Japanese mythology the son of Ame no Oshihomimi no Mikoto, and grandson of Amaterasu, who sent him down to earth to plant rice there. He was the great-grandfather of Emperor Jimmu.

Overview
Amaterasu sent him to bring peace to Japan by bringing the three gifts from Heaven used by the emperor.  The sword, Kusanagi, the mirror, Yata no kagami, and the jewel, Yasakani no magatama.  These three gifts mean to the world that the emperor is the descendant of Amaterasu herself.

The tale of Ninigi no Mikoto being sent to earth is told in the Nihon Shoki.

Family tree

Japanese mythology
Shinto

Ninigi-no-Mikoto


In landscaping, an avenue (from the French), alameda (from the Portuguese and Spanish), or allée (from the French), is traditionally a straight path or road with a line of trees or large shrubs running along each side, which is used, as its Latin source venire ("to come") indicates, to emphasize the "coming to," or arrival at a landscape or architectural feature. In most cases, the trees planted in an avenue will be all of the same species or cultivar, so as to give uniform appearance along the full length of the avenue.

The French term allée is used for avenues planted in parks and landscape gardens, as well as boulevards such as the Grande Allée in Quebec City, Canada, and Karl-Marx-Allee in Berlin.

History
The avenue is one of the oldest ideas in the history of gardens. An Avenue of Sphinxes still leads to the tomb of the pharaoh Hatshepsut. Avenues similarly defined by guardian stone lions lead to the Ming tombs in China.  British archaeologists have adopted highly specific criteria for "avenues" within the context of British archaeology.

In French formal garden Baroque landscape design style, avenues of trees that were centered upon the dwelling radiated across the landscape. See the avenues in the Gardens of Versailles or Het Loo. Other late 17th-century French and Dutch landscapes, in that intensely ordered and flat terrain, fell naturally into avenues; Meindert Hobbema, in The Avenue at Middelharnis (1689) presents such an avenue in farming country, neatly flanked at regular intervals by rows of young trees that have been rigorously limbed up; his central vanishing point mimics the avenue's propensity to draw the spectator forwards along it.

In Austria-Hungary, the fashion for establishing representative avenues appeared as early as the Renaissance and reached its peak in the Baroque period. Avenues lined the access roads to chateaus and manors, as well as pilgrimage routes and Stations of the Cross. The manorial landscape architecture was followed by "folk landscaping" with wayside chapels, crosses and shrines accompanied by trees. Later, Maria Theresa decreed in 1752 to plant trees along the new imperial roads for economic, aesthetic, orientation and safety reasons. Most avenues were created during the reigns of Maria Theresa and Joseph II. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, new landscaping came from England, and formal aesthetics were replaced by the aesthetics of the natural landscape. During Napoleonic wars, pyramidal poplars became a new element, popular due their fast growth and distinctive shape. Also in the middle of the 19th century, when the construction of imperial roads continued, but at the same time a network of non-state side roads was created, the law ordered the planting of avenues along them, especially fruit trees and mulberries. Many baroque alleys have aged and been felled, and fruit tree alleys have become increasingly popular. At the time of the development of motoring, the oldest avenues often hinder the widening and modernization of rural roads and are the subject of dispute between conservationists and traffic safety requirements.

Design

To enhance the approach to mansions or manor houses, avenues were planted along the entrance drive.  Sometimes the avenues are in double rows on each side of a road. Trees preferred for avenues were selected for their height and speed of growth, such as poplar, beech, lime, and horse chestnut. In the American antebellum era South, the southern live oak was typically used, because the trees created a beautiful shade canopy.

Sometimes tree avenues were designed to direct the eye toward some distinctive architectural building or feature, such as a chapels, gazebos, or architectural follies.

Street name

Origin
Avenue as a street name in French, Spanish (avenida) and other languages implies a large straight street in a city, often created as part of a large scheme of urban planning such as Baron Haussmann's remodelling of Paris or the L'Enfant Plan for Washington D.C.; "avenues" will typically be the main roads. This pattern is very often followed in the United States, indeed all the Americas, but in the United Kingdom this sense is less strong and the name is used more randomly, mostly for suburban streets developed in the 20th century, though Western and Eastern Avenues in London are main traffic arteries out of the city, if not very straight.

Cities
In cities which have a grid-based naming system, such as the borough of Manhattan in New York City, there may be a convention that the streets called avenues run parallel in one direction – roughly north–south in the case of Manhattan – while "streets" run at 90 degrees to them across the avenues; roughly east–west in Manhattan. In Washington, DC the avenues radiate from the centre running diagonally across the grid of streets, which follows typical French usage of the name (in France "boulevards" are often main roads running round the city centre). In Phoenix, Arizona, "the avenues" can colloquially mean "the west side of town", due to the numbered north–south-running roads being called "Avenues" in the western part of the city, separated from the eastern "Streets" by a "Central Avenue". Similarly, "the avenues" in San Francisco, California refers to the Richmond District and the Sunset District, the two neighborhoods on the Pacific coast, north and south of Golden Gate Park, respectively.

In Anglophone urban or suburban settings, "avenue" is one of the usual suite of words used in street names, along with "boulevard", "circle", "court", "drive", "lane", "place", "road", "street", "terrace", "way", "gate" and so on, any of which may carry connotations as to the street's size, importance, or function. Avenues were usually lined with trees when first built, although many avenues have lost their trees to make way for overhead wiring, parking or to allow light into properties.

Notable avenues
 Paseo del Prado, Madrid, Spain
 Avenue des Champs-Élysées, Paris, France
 Avenida da Liberdade, Lisbon, Portugal
 Paseo de la Reforma, Mexico City, Mexico
 Fifth Avenue, Manhattan, New York City, United States
 Madison Avenue, Manhattan, New York City, United States
 Michigan Avenue, Chicago, Illinois, United States
 La Brea Avenue, Los Angeles, California, United States
 Holland Park Avenue, London, United Kingdom
 9 de Julio Avenue, Buenos Aires, Argentina
 Paulista Avenue, São Paulo, Brazil
 Kurfürstendamm (Ku'Damm), Berlin, Germany

Gallery

See also

Alley —  a narrow lane, or path
Alameda
Avenue of honour
Garden design

Hedges

 Shade tree
 Southern live oak

References

External links

 Landscape avenue
Garden features
Landscape design history
Types of roads
Types of streets

Avenue (landscape)


Restless legs syndrome is a serious neurological disorder. It involves an irresistible urge to move certain regions of the human body to stop odd or uncomfortable sensation. This condition often involves the legs, torso, the head or the arms. Moving an affected part of the body modulates sensations, which may provide temporary relief. Around 75% of people who have RLS have problems involving iron. Other possible issues include varicose veins, sleep troubles, conditions involving blood sugar, ADHD or fibromyalgia.

Syndromes
Neurology

Restless legs syndrome


Pleurotus nebrodensis, commonly known as  "fungus of basilisk" or  "macchia carduncieddu(?)", is a fungus that was declared by the IUCN as critically endangered in 2006. This fungus only grows on limestone in northern Sicily in association with Cachrys ferulacea (family Apiaceae). The characteristics of the mushroom are its creamy white to yellow colour, its diameter of between , its extremely angled gills, and the breaking apart of the cap surface at maturity.

Taxonomy
The first record of the mushroom was in 1866 by Italian botanist Giuseppe Inzenga, who named it Agaricus nembrodensis; it was described as "the most delicious mushroom of the Sicilian mycological flora". This was widely agreed upon, which has led to widespread cultivation, by professionals and amateurs. In 1886, French mycologist Lucien Quélet transferred the species to the genus Pleurotus.  Recent research has shown that P. nebrodensis is closely related to, but unique from, Pleurotus eryngii, which also occurs in the Mediterranean Basin and is also associated with plants in the family Apiaceae.

Decline
Pleurotus nebrodensis was classified as critically endangered is because it is found in an area of less than , and the population has become fractured. In addition, there are not as many mature fungi, and it is losing its natural habitat. An additional reason for the decline is that collectors are now picking unripe specimens. It is currently estimated that fewer than 250 Pleurotus nebrodensis reach maturity every year.

Conservation
Currently there are no laws to protect Pleurotus nebrodensis. Even in protected areas there has not been a ban on picking of unripe specimens. However, a draft of rules has been created, and could be approved. This draft proposes protecting all ages of the Pleurotus nebrodensis in one part of Madonie Park, a sanctuary, while in another section of the park it will protect any non-mature mushroom. In addition to this, this fungus is being grown, like a crop, to reduce the strain on the wild population.  These fungi that are cultivated for conservation are produced in tunnels that are covered by black nets. These cultivated fungi have the same flavor and aroma as the wild specimens.

See also
 List of Pleurotus species

References

External links

Pleurotaceae
Fungi of Europe
Edible fungi
Carnivorous fungi
Flora of Sicily
Biota of Italy
Taxobox binomials not recognized by IUCN

Pleurotus nebrodensis


A Maß or Mass is an old unit of measurement of liquid. Literally translated, it means mass. It is equal to 1.069 litre. Today, it is only used for measuring quantities of beer (one litre). Beer is usually served as 0.2 or 0.3 l (small beer) or as 0.5 l (big beer), but at some occasions (like the Oktoberfest) and some places it is also served as a Maß.

Usually this Maß is served in special mugs. These used to be made of ceramics, especially clay. During the 19th and 20th centuries most were replaced by ones made of glass.

Old units of measurement
Units of volume

Maß


Gluons are what hold quarks together to make bigger particles. Gluons carry the strong force between other quarks, so it is considered a force carrying particle. Photons do the same thing, but for the electromagnetic force. Also, like photons, gluons are spin-1 particles, and when a particle has spin-1 it is considered a boson.

Gluons are hard to study because although they exist in nature all the time, they are so small and require so much energy to break them away from quarks (about 2 trillion degrees) that scientists have only been able to find more about them from particle colliders such as  the Large Hadron Collider at CERN.

References

Elementary particles

Gluon


Friday the 13th is a 1980 American slasher movie produced and directed by Sean S. Cunningham, and written by Victor Miller.

It stars Betsy Palmer, Adrienne King, Harry Crosby, Laurie Bartram, Kevin Bacon, Jeannine Taylor, Mark Nelson, and Robbi Morgan. The movie tells the story of a group of teenagers who are murdered one by one by an unknown killer while attempting to re-open an abandoned summer camp.

Released in May 1980, Friday the 13th was a major box office success, grossing over $39.7 million in the United States alone. This was the first movie in the a long series of sequels with the creation of serial killer Jason Voorhees.

Other websites

1980 horror movies
Friday the 13th movies
American independent movies
1980 independent movies

Friday the 13th (1980 movie)


Davis Alexander Grubb (July 23, 1919 – July 24, 1980) was an American novelist and short story writer, best known for his 1953 novel The Night of the Hunter, which was
adapted as a film in 1955 by Charles Laughton.

Biography

Born in Moundsville, West Virginia,  Grubb wanted to combine his creative skills as a painter with writing, and attended the Carnegie Institute of Technology in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. However, his color blindness was a handicap he could not overcome and he gave up on painting to dedicate himself to writing fiction. He did, however, make a number of drawings and sketches during the course of his career, some of which were incorporated into his writings.

In 1940, Grubb moved to New York City where he worked at NBC radio as a writer while using his free time to write short stories. In the mid-1940s he was successful in selling several short stories to major magazines and in the early 1950s he started writing a full-length novel. Influenced by accounts of economic hardship by depression-era Americans that his mother had seen firsthand as a social worker, Grubb produced a dark tale that mixed the plight of poor children and adults with that of the evil inflicted by others. The Night of the Hunter became an instant bestseller and was voted a finalist for the 1955 National Book Award. That same year, the book was made into a motion picture that is now regarded as a classic. Deemed "culturally significant" by the Library of Congress, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.

Grubb went on to write a further nine novels and several collections of short stories. His 1969 novel Fools' Parade would also be made into a motion picture starring James Stewart. Some of Grubb's short stories were adapted for television by Alfred Hitchcock and by Rod Serling for his Night Gallery series.

Grubb died in New York City in 1980. His novel Ancient Lights was published posthumously in 1982, and St. Martins Press published 18 of his short stories in a book collection titled You Never Believe Me and Other Stories in 1989.

Bibliography

Novels

The Night of the Hunter (1953)
A Dream of Kings  (1955)
The Watchman  (1961)
The Voices of Glory  (1962)
A Tree Full of Stars  (1965)
Shadow of My Brother  (1966)
The Golden Sickle  (1968)
Fools' Parade  (1969)
The Barefoot Man  (1971)
Ancient Lights  (1982)

Story Collections
Twelve Tales of Suspense and the Supernatural (UK title: One Foot in the Grave) (1964)
The Siege of 318: Thirteen Mystical Stories  (1978)
You Never Believe Me and Other Stories  (1989)

References

Further reading
 Grubb, Louis. "Foreword". Grubb, Davis. You Never Believe Me and Other Stories (1989). p. VII, VII-IX, X-XI

External links

 Davis Grubb, The West Virginia Encyclopedia
 Biography of Davis Grubb, West Virginia Wesleyan College Library

 Davis Grubb drawings, circa 1954, 1973, Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences

1919 births
1980 deaths
People from Moundsville, West Virginia
20th-century American novelists
American male novelists
Novelists from West Virginia
American male short story writers
20th-century American short story writers
20th-century American male writers
Writers from West Virginia
Carnegie Mellon University College of Fine Arts alumni

Davis Grubb


Theory of Music is all about trying to understand how existing music works and how new music could or should be organized. Someone who makes a special study of music theory is a music theorist.

People who make their own music are composers. People who play or sing music are "performers". It is important for both composers and performers to understand what makes the music sound the way it does. In the times of the Ancient Greeks the famous philosopher Pythagoras tried to explain how instruments are tuned. He understood the science of the good vibrations that the instruments make and explained how and why the octave is divided into twelve parts(in some cultures).

In the Middle Ages there were several famous music theorists who wrote books about music theory. Their ideas are interesting for us because they tell us what people thought about music at that time.

In the 18th century some composers wrote books on music theory. Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (son of the famous Johann Sebastian Bach) wrote a book called: "An Essay on the true art of playing the Keyboard". Leopold Mozart (the father of the famous Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart) wrote a book called The Art of Playing the Violin. Both these books were extremely well known in their day. In spite of their titles the first halves of these two books are both about a branch of music theory called "performance practice": They tell us a lot about how music was played in those days, how some rhythms were played quite freely and how ornaments in the music were played.

Today people who want to compose will study music theory, perhaps at college or university school of music.  In a conservatory program, they study harmony and counterpoint as well as form; in other programs, they spend less time on the theories of the past. They will be taught "rules". These rules are not laws, they simply mean: the way that most great composers wrote music in the past. These rules describe what composers of the past did, rather than telling composers of today what to do -- in fact, music composed today can have completely different rules than the music of the past.

Music theory is important for people who perform music because all these things help people to understand the music they are playing.

Music theory


In quantum mechanics, a branch of physics, the Bohr model is the model of the atom proposed by Niels Bohr. Bohr's model is useful only when discussing the behavior of a hydrogen atom. Bohr's model is extremely useful in describing the hydrogen emission spectrum.

Electrons

Energy Levels

The Bohr model says that the angular momentum of an electron within a hydrogen atom can only be integer multiples of a certain number.

Where h is Planck's constant, π is pi, and n is the multiples (1,2,3,...). This formula says that an electron will only be found on the energy levels predicted by the formula, and not anywhere in between. This means that if an electron jumps from one energy level to the next, it will never be in between energy levels, but will instantaneously be transported from one level to the other.

Light
Bohr's model is also useful because it explains the cause of light. Bohr agreed with classical theory that light has a wave-particle duality (meaning that it is made of both electromagnetic waves and particles called photons), but he said that light was given off when an electron in a hydrogen atom jumps from a higher energy level to a lower one. Basically, if an electron with x amount of energy goes to a lower state of energy and loses y energy, then a photon with energy y is emitted by the atom and either becomes light or some other form of radiation.

Related pages
Quantum mechanics
Emission spectrum

Quantum mechanics

Bohr model


Rashad Anton Evans (born September 25, 1979 in Niagara Falls, New York) is an American mixed martial artist. He currently fights for the UFC and fights out of Albuquerque, New Mexico. Evans is a former UFC Light Heavyweight Championship and was the winner of The Ultimate Fight season 2 in the heavyweight division. Evans holds a black belt in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and Gaidojutsu

Other websites
Rashad Evans' Official website

Sportspeople from New York (state)
American mixed martial artists
1979 births
Living people

Rashad Evans