Meherabad ("abad" means a flourishing colony) is the main center where Meher Baba lived and worked from 1923. It is about nine kilometers (6 miles) south of Ahmednagar, India. It is now the site of Meher Baba's tomb as well as places for visitors to stay. A large number of buildings associated with the earlier days of Baba's work as well as places of charity are also there. Many Baba lovers work or live in the Meherabad area. Meherabad is a popular place of pilgrimage. Around 30,000 pilgrims come each year to Amartithi (the anniversary of Meher Baba's death). In 1944 Meher Baba moved his residence 15 miles north to Meherazad located on the other side of Ahmedagar. It also is a place of pilgrimage.
Cities in Maharashtra

Meherabad


The Trans-Asian Railway (TAR) is a project to build a freight railway across Europe and Asia. The TAR is a project of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP).

The project was started in the 1950s. The idea then was to have 8750 miles (14,000km) of rail link between Singapore and Istanbul, Turkey. Further connections to Europe and Africa were also considered.  At that time, there was not as much shipping and air travel as today, and the project promised to make shipping faster and cheaper between Europe and Asia.  Progress in developing the TAR was slowed by political and economic problems during the 1960s, 1970s and early 1980s.  By the 1990s, the end of the Cold war, and normal relations between some countries, made it seem more possible to create a rail network across the Asian continent.

The TAR was seen as a way to handle the huge increases in international trade between Eurasian nations, with easier shipping.  It was seen as a way to improve the economies of landlocked countries like Laos, Afghanistan, Mongolia, and the Central Asian republics, and make them easier to reach.

Much of the railway network already exists, but there are still some major gaps. A big challenge is the differences in rail gauge across Eurasia. There are four different major rail gauges (to measure the distance between rails) across the continent: most of Europe, as well as Turkey, Iran, China, and the Koreas use the 1435 mm gauge, known as Standard gauge; Finland, Russia, and the former Soviet republics use a 1520 mm gauge; most of the railways in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka use a 1676 mm gauge, and most of Southeast Asia has metre-gauge.  For the most part, the TAR would not change national gauges; large machines would be built to move shipping containers from train to train at the breaks of gauge.

By 2001, the four corridors had been studied as part of the plan:

 The Northern Corridor will link Europe and the Pacific, via Germany, Poland, Belarus, Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, and the Koreas, with breaks of gauge at the Polish-Belarusian border (1435 mm to 1520 mm), the Kazakhstan-Chinese border (1520 mm to 1435 mm), and the Mongolian-Chinese border (1520 mm to 1435 mm). The 5750 miles (9,200km) Trans-Siberian Railway covers much of this route and already carries large amounts of freight from East-Asia to Moscow, and on to the rest of Europe. Due to political problems with North Korea, freight from South Korea must be shipped by sea to the port of Vladivostok to reach the route.

 The Southern Corridor will go from Europe to Southeast Asia, connecting Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Thailand, with links to China's Yunnan Province and, through Malaysia, to Singapore. There are gaps in eastern Iran, between India and Myanmar, between Myanmar and Thailand, between Thailand and Cambodia, between Cambodia and Vietnam and between Thailand and Yunnan. Breaks of gauge occur, or will occur, at the Iran-Pakistan border (1435 mm to 1676 mm), the India-Myanmar border (1676 mm to 1000 mm), and to China (1000 mm to 1435 mm).

 A Southeast Asian network

 The North-South Corridor will link Northern Europe to the Persian Gulf. The main route starts in Helsinki, Finland, and continues through Russia to the Caspian Sea, where it splits into three routes: a western route through Azerbaijan, Armenia, and western Iran; a central route across the Caspian Sea to Iran by ferry; and an eastern route through Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenia to eastern Iran. The routes meet in the Iranian capital of Tehran and continue to the Iranian port of Bandar Abbas.

Related pages
Asian Highway Network

Other websites
 The Trans-Asian Railway

Rail transport in Asia
Rail transport in Europe

Trans-Asian Railway


Bonk's Revenge, known as  in Japan and PC Kid 2 in Europe, is a 2D platformer set in prehistory, originally for the PC Engine/TurboGrafx-16 console, created in 1991 by the Red Company for Hudson Soft, and licensed by NEC. This is the second title in the Bonk series, and it was re-released for the TurboGrafx-16 in 1992 on the Gate of Thunder 4-in-1 game CD-ROM. A completely different game with the same name appeared on the Game Boy, whereas the original version was re-released for Wii Virtual Console and on the Japanese PlayStation Store. It was also released in Japan on Windows Store on December 13, 2013, and on Wii U Virtual Console on March 12, 2014. The title is also playable on the Turbografx-16/PC Engine Mini Console.

Gameplay
This time, the titular large-headed caveman is on a quest to recover half of the Moon, which was stolen by the evil King Drool III. Its multiple stages each contain several specific areas, which range from outdoors to trains to space to underwater. As in most platformers, Bonk has several crucial abilities: the I button causes him to jump; the II button causes him to "bonk," an action in which Bonk slams his head forward, inflicting a killing blow on most enemies; I jump-II combo causes Bonk to headbutt the Earth, killing enemies he lands on and creating a damaging shock wave; Holding down the II button in midair causes Bonk to spin and hover, allowing for long, controlled jumps. Bonk can also use his large mouth to grip onto allowed surfaces for climbing.

Bonk's health is reflected in heart containers, similar to games in the Zelda series. Taking damage will cause Bonk to lose a certain amount of hearts, and hearts can be refilled through items, such as fruit, collected throughout the game. Bonk can also attain blue hearts that increase his amount of hearts, allowing him to effectively gain more health as the game progresses. The game also features Smileys, similar to coins in the Mario series, which are helpful when the player gets to the bonus round after each boss because they can get extra lives. Bonk can also turn invincible when he collects a large meat or two small meats, and can gain an extra life when he collects a small model of himself.

Power-up forms
Bonk is able to power-up and change into various forms by eating meat.
With one small piece of meat, when he Bonks, a cloud floats towards enemies, freezing them when they come in contact. When he spins in the air, he has a cloud surrounding him. When he lands on his head, it freezes all enemies on-screen.
With an additional small piece or one large piece, he becomes fully powered up and becomes temporarily invincible. In this form, he breathes fire, which destroys any enemies that come into contact with it.  When spinning, he is surrounded by fire, & when he lands, it causes damage to all enemies, and instantly destroys most, but not all of them on-screen.

Variations in gameplay
In the Game Boy version of this title, Bonk can turn into one of three unique heroes: Master Bonk, Hungry Bonk, or Stealth Bonk. Becoming Master Bonk dresses Bonk in a cape, provides him with Vulcan-esque ears, and gives him the ability to move faster and jump higher. Becoming Hungry Bonk gives Bonk an animalistic appearance with evil eyes and a mouth full of razor-sharp teeth, and gives Bonk the ability to chew enemies to death, as well as providing him with a much stronger headbutt that can kill nearby foes. Becoming Stealth Bonk dresses Bonk in a striped jail outfit, and gives him the ability to enter special locked doors that lead to areas such as the bank, where Bonk can collect Smileys, the butcher's, where Bonk can eat more slabs of meat in hope for a different power-up, and jail, where Bonk loses a portion of his Smileys.

Grabbing one of many tulips scattered throughout the game carries Bonk to a special bonus stage where he can face off against Mechabonk -- a RoboCop-esque version of Bonk—in a best-of-three battle to "bonk" one another off the edge of a small stage. Winning two rounds provides Bonk with an extra life, while a loss transforms Bonk into Wounded Bonk, where Bonk resembles a mummy and takes twice as much damage as usual.

The game overall is very similar to games in the Mario series, providing linear, side-scrolling action, multiple power-ups, and several small boss confrontations leading up to a final boss. Its treatment of power-ups is similar as well: taking a hit while powered-up causes Bonk to take no damage, but instead lose his power. For those who struggle with the game, the game offers passwords after game overs, so the player does not need to start over from the beginning.

Reception
In the United Kingdom, PC Kid 2 was the top-selling PC Engine game in September 1991.

Reviewing the Game Boy game, GamePro commented that the game is fun but too short and easy, offering "not much more than an afternoon or two of challenge." Entertainment Weekly gave the game a B. French gaming magazine  gave PC Kid II a 97% score.

Notes

References

External links
 The Bonk Compendium (Covering all games and references to Bonk)

Game Boy games
TurboGrafx-16 games
Virtual Console games
Virtual Console games for Wii U
PlayStation Network games
Windows games
Platformers
1991 video games
Red Entertainment games
Bonk (series)
Single-player video games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Hirohiko Takayama
Video game sequels

Bonk's Revenge


Panniers or side hoops are women's undergarments worn in the 17th and 18th centuries to extend the width of the skirts at the side while leaving the front and back relatively flat. This provided a panel where woven patterns, elaborate decorations and rich embroidery could be displayed and fully appreciated.

History

The style originated in Spanish court dress of the 17th century, familiar in portraits by Velázquez. The fashion spread to France and from there to the rest of Europe after c. 1718–1719, when some Spanish dresses had been displayed in Paris. It is also suggested that the pannier originated in Germany or England, having been around since 1710 in England, and appearing in the French court in the last years of Louis XIV's reign.

The earlier form of the pannier took the shape similar to a 19th-century crinoline. They were wide and domed in circumference.  As they developed, they differed from earlier equivalents such as the farthingale of the late 16th century, by not extending equally in all directions, but being very wide at the sides, but not coming out so far to front and back.  By the mid-century, the "shoulders" were rather abrupt, not gently curved.

By the mid-18th century, a woman took up three times as much space as a man and always presented an imposing spectacle. At their most extreme, panniers could extend the skirt several feet at each side. By the 1780s, panniers were normally worn only with very formal gowns and within court fashion.

The name comes from panniers, a French term for wicker baskets slung on either side of a pack animal.

Gallery

See also
1750–1795 in fashion
Hoop skirt

References

External links

Eighteenth-Century Silhouette and Support at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Costumer's Manifesto: The Cut of Women's Clothes 1700–1800
Paniers

17th-century fashion
18th-century fashion
Undergarments
History of clothing (Western fashion)
Women's clothing

Pannier (clothing)


The Mississippian is the first geological epoch in the Carboniferous geological period. It began about 359 million years ago and ended 323.

The names Mississippian and Pennsylvanian are used in North America, because they match the strata there. Geologists from elsewhere mostly use just 'Carboniferous', or they use the official terms for stages, as defined by the International Commission for Stratigraphy.

During the Mississippian the sea level was high, and much of North America was covered by a shallow sea. The strata are mostly layers of marine limestones.

Carboniferous

Mississippian (geology)


Louise Diane d'Orléans (27 June 1716 – 26 September 1736) was the last child of Philippe d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans (Regent of the Kingdom from 1715 to 1723) and his wife, Françoise Marie de Bourbon, the youngest illegitimate daughter of King Louis XIV of France and his mistress, Madame de Montespan. The Princess of Conti by marriage, she died in childbirth at the age of twenty. Some sources refer to her as Louis Diane. The princess used the name Louise.

Biography
Louise Diane d'Orléans was born in the Palais-Royal, the Paris residence of the House of Orléans, on 27 June 1716 as the youngest child of the Duke and Duchess of Orléans.  Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate was her fathers mother and was not impressed at the thought of having another granddaughter

Her siblings were:

Mademoiselle de Valois (17 December 1693 – 17 October 1694)
Marie Louise Élisabeth d'Orléans, Duchess of Berry (20 August 1695 – 21 July 1719)
Louise Adélaïde d'Orléans, Abbess of Chelles (13 August 1698 – 10 February 1743)
Charlotte Aglaé d'Orléans, Duchess of Modena and Reggio (20 October 1700 – 19 January 1761)
Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Chartres, later Duke of Orléans (4 August 1703 – 4 February 1752)
Louise Élisabeth d'Orléans, Queen of Spain (11 December 1709 – 16 June 1742)
Philippine Élisabeth d'Orléans, Mademoiselle de Beaujolais (18 December 1714 – 21 May 1734)

Until her marriage, she was known as Mademoiselle de Chartres . known as Mademoiselle de Chartres. She grew up with her younger sister Élisabeth with a convent education. Her sister would later become the Queen of Spain.

Louise grew up in an era when her father, known as Philippe d'Orléans or simply le Régent was the ruler of France, him being in charge of the affairs of state since the death of Louis XIV. The Palais-Royal was where the Régent held his court and lived openly with his mistress.

In her youth, she was said to have been a very sensitive child and would grow up to be one of the more beautiful of the Regent's daughters. Despite her being another girl, (1 of 7 overall), her birth was not really greeted with the joy that had met her brother, Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans.

In December 1731, it was decided that she should marry her distant cousin Louis François de Bourbon, Prince of Conti. Her marriage was arranged by her mother Françoise Marie, Dowager Duchess of Orléans and her first cousin (and subsequent mother in law) Louise Élisabeth, Dowager Princess of Conti.

She was baptised on 19 January 1732 by the Cardinal of Rohan and she married the Prince of Conti three days later, on 22 January. The marriage ceremony took place at the Palace of Versailles. Louise was then fifteen years old. At her wedding, her cousin Élisabeth Alexandrine de Bourbon held her train.

After the marriage, she became known at court as Her Serene Highness, the Princess of Conti. Her husband had succeeded to the Conti title in 1727 upon the death of his father, Louis Armand II, Prince of Conti. In 1734, Louise gave birth to a son, heir to the Conti name, and, in 1736, to a second child who died at birth.

Louise died in childbirth on 26 September 1736 outside Paris. She was buried at the Saint-André-des-Arcs church. Her only surviving son, Louis François Joseph, was the last Prince of Conti.

Children
Louis François Joseph de Bourbon, Prince of Conti (1 September 1734 – 13 March 1814) married   Princess Maria Fortunata of Modena; had no children.
Stillborn son (26 September 1736).

Ancestors

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles

27 June 1716 – 21 January 1732 Her Serene Highness Mademoiselle de Chartres
21 January 1732 – 26 September 1736 Her Serene Highness the Princess of Conti (Madame la princesse de Conti)

1716 births
1736 deaths
House of Orléans
Deaths in childbirth
People from Paris

Louise Diane d'Orléans


USS Neville (AP-16/APA-9) was a  in service with the United States Navy from 1918 to 1919 and from 1940 to 1946. She was scrapped in 1957.

History
The ship was ordered in 1918 as SS War Harbour and completed at Bethlehem Steel Company's Alameda, California yard as hull #162 for the British Shipping Controller, London, requisitioned during construction and completed by the United States Shipping Board (USSB) as Independence and assigned official number 217172.

U.S. Navy service (1918-1919)
She was acquired by the Navy and commissioned on 16 November 1918 and made one Atlantic crossing from New York to England with foodstuffs in 1919. After World War I service, she decommissioned on 20 March 1919 and was returned to the USSB for US Merchant Marine service.

Commercial service (1920-1940)
Rebuilt and renamed City of Norfolk in 1930, she was run by the Baltimore Mail Steamship Company until reacquired by the Navy on 14 December 1940. Converted by the Willamette Iron and Steel Works, Portland, Oregon, she recommissioned as Neville (AP-16), on 14 May 1941.

U.S. Navy service (1940-1957)
On 18 June 1941, Neville reported for duty with the Atlantic Fleet and for the remaining days of quasi-peace in 1941 transported military and naval personnel to various points along the East Coast and in the Caribbean.

World War II
On 7 December 1941 she was at San Juan, en route from Trinidad to New York. Within the month, however, she was conducting landing exercises with Army units along the Virginia coast. Detached from that duty in mid-February, she embarked Army and Navy personnel and equipment and departed the East Coast, on 19 February 1942, on the first trans-oceanic run of her second world war.

She completed the round-trip voyage to Belfast, including a stop at Glasgow, on 25 March, at New York, disembarked RAF, RCAF, and British Merchant Navy personnel, and then continued on to Norfolk for voyage repairs. At the same time, she received 20 mm guns and more modern landing craft for use in her new operational territory, the Pacific.

Guadalcanal
Neville departed Hampton Roads, on 10 April, and steaming south with TF 38, transited the Panama Canal, on the 18th, becoming a unit of TransDiv 8, ServRon 4, Pacific Fleet. Anchoring in Fanui Bay, Bora Bora, on 4 May, she discharged her Army and Seabee passengers and proceeded on to Wellington, New Zealand, where she remained until 22 July. Then, with units of the 1st Marine Division embarked, she headed toward the Fiji Islands to rendezvous with other Allied vessels assigned to "Operation Watchtower", the assaults on Tulagi and Guadalcanal.

At 0630, on 7 August, Neville arrived in her assigned transport area off beach "Blue" on Tulagi. Seven minutes later she lowered her boats and Raider groups were dispatched. At 0730 Marine Combat Team 2 was debarked into landing boats which put them ashore soon after "H-hour", 0800. Despite increasingly stiff opposition, all assigned waves had been landed by 1012. By 1320, aerial resistance, in the form of bombers and fighters, had been added to the well developed Japanese defenses in the Tulagi-Gavutu-Tanambogo area. The long battle for the Solomons had begun.

Neville remained in the area through the 9th, witnessing, from a distance, the devastation wrought off Savo Island on that date. On the 13th, she arrived at Nouméa, New Caledonia, whence she continued on to Wellington to take on reinforcements. Returning to the combat area on 26 October, she participated in the landings at Aola Bay on 4 November, and then departed to take up transport duties in the New Caledonia-New Hebrides area. At the end of the month, she again returned to Guadalcanal, discharged supplies and reinforcements, took on personnel to be evacuated, and headed south east. After stopping at Espiritu Santo to disembark her evacuees, she proceeded to San Diego, arriving on 4 January 1943 for availability.

North Africa
On 14 February, Neville, now redesignated APA-9 (effective 1 February), stood out from San Diego en route back to the Atlantic. She arrived at Norfolk on 10 March, and after amphibious training in the Chesapeake Bay area, sailed on 8 June for North Africa to prepare for the Sicilian invasion. By 10 July she was off Scoglitti with "Cent" Force as it landed Army units on either side of that fishing town. Assigned to the Northern Group, Nevilles boats delivered units of the 45th "Thunderbird" Division to "Red" beach, near the mouth of the Acate River, at 0434. Despite being the last group to get away from their transport, heavy surf, and indefinite landmarks, they were the first to touch down on the beach. With the last wave in by 0640, the task of discharging cargo was begun. On the afternoon of the 12th, the APA departed the assault area and returned to Oran, whence she sailed, on the 22nd, for the United States.

Gilbert and Marshall Islands
Neville arrived at Newport News, Virginia, 3 August, only to depart again on the 23rd, once more assigned to the Pacific. By the end of September she was engaged in intensive landing exercises in the Hawaiian Islands. On 10 November she stood out of Honolulu and sailed for the Gilberts with troops of the 27th Division and a platoon of Marine Raiders, 5th Amphibious Corps, embarked.

On the morning of 20 November, Marine and Army units were landed on Tarawa and Makin. At 0642 Neville dispatched her Marines to secure Katubam but kept her Army units on board for later landings on the lagoon side of Butaritari. By 1015 the first of eight waves had been dispatched, landing on beach "Yellow" at 1040 under an opposing storm of small arms fire. Cargo discharge operations, begun later in the day, continued through the 22nd. On the 23rd, Neville departed the transport area only to return the next day to take on survivors from  before returning to Pearl Harbor. From Pearl Harbor, the transport steamed to Bremerton, Washington, underwent repairs, and then headed south to San Diego, arriving on 31 December.

With the new year, 1944, Neville received new landing craft, fresh boat crews, and orders to join Trans Div 30 at Pearl Harbor. She arrived in Hawaii on 9 January, again took on units of the 27th Division, and on the 23rd got underway, with TG 51.1, the Kwajalein Attack Force Reserve Group. Neville sighted Kwajalein on the 31st, but maneuvered east of the Atoll until entering the lagoon on 2 February. There she engaged in debarkation drills in preparation for the assault on Eniwetok. On 11 February, the uncommitted Kwajalein Reserve Group was dissolved and reformed as the Eniwetok Expeditionary Group. Four days later the group, TG 51.11, sortied from Kwajalein.

On the 17th, Neville entered Eniwetok lagoon and prepared to land her troops on the main objective, Engebi, the following morning. The first waves hit the beaches at 0844. Neville's boats, used on the 17th and on the morning of the 18th, were not called on to transport her own passengers to the beaches until after the vessel had shifted to Transport Area 3. Then, at 1609, troops were debarked for landings on Eniwetok Island. For the next three days, she remained off Eniwetok, sending supplies to the beaches and taking on casualties. On the 23rd, she shifted to the Parry Island transport area, where she remained for four days. APA–9 then got underway for Kwajalein, Pearl Harbor, and, ultimately, San Francisco. On 8 April, she returned to Hawaii to conduct amphibious training exercises with Marine personnel in preparation for "Operation Forager", the push into the Marianas.

Marianas
Assigned in May to TransDiv 10, Neville departed Honolulu on 30 May, and steamed west with TF 52. Soon after 0630 on 15 June, she was in her assigned transport area,  off Saipan. By 0700 her boats had departed for a demonstration feint off Mutcho Point, Garapan. Her boats reloaded in mid-morning, she shifted to the Charan Kanoa transport area. At 1103 she received orders to send her troops in to beach "Green Two". The first boats shoved off for the departure line at 1135 and by 1340 the job was completed.

From the 15th until the 18th, the transport retired each night to positions just off the islands of Saipan and Tinian. From the 19th to the 21st, as the Battle of the Philippine Sea raged, she cruised 75–100 miles east-northeast of Saipan, then returned to complete off-loading cargo at Saipan. On the 23rd, she turned her bow toward Eniwetok, where Japanese POWs were taken on board. Next sailing to Kwajalein, she embarked ambulatory casualties, and on 5 July joined a convoy headed for Pearl Harbor. There, on 13 July, she delivered her prisoners, and the next day continued her voyage, arriving at San Diego on the 21st.

On her arrival at San Diego, Neville was assigned to TU 13.1.1, TransDiv 1, then conducting amphibious training exercises for assault troops. From 3 January 1945 until 15 August, she operated as a training ship for APA crews, and then, after the cessation of hostilities, resumed duties as a transport to ferry fresh troops to former Japanese islands in the South Pacific and bring home veterans.

Decommissioning and fate
On 15 January 1946, the World War I transport departed California for the last time. Steaming to the East Coast, she arrived at Boston on 5 February to begin inactivation, decommissioning on 30 April. Transferred to War Shipping Administration on 16 July, she was struck from the Navy List on 15 August 1946, and scrapped in 1957.

Awards
Neville received 5 battle stars for her World War II service.

References

External links

Transports of the United States Navy
Heywood-class attack transports
World War II auxiliary ships of the United States
World War II amphibious warfare vessels of the United States
Ships built in Alameda, California
1918 ships

USS Neville


In a group of hills or mountains, a pass is a path for crossing a mountain. It is usually a saddle point between two higher areas. Many of the world's mountain ranges have always made travel difficult so passes have been important throughout history in trade, war and migration.

A pass has the general form of a saddle between two mountains. They are often found just above the source of a river, making a sort of "bridge" over to the headwaters of another river. Passes may be very short, with steep slopes to the top of the pass, or valleys of many kilometers.

Roads and railways have been built through passes. Some high and rugged passes may have tunnels dug underneath to let traffic move faster.

The top of a pass is often the only flat ground in the area so it is often a good site for buildings. For countries whose borders lie on a mountain range, the pass is often part of the border. As well as making travel easy between valleys, passes also provide a route between two mountain tops so it is common for tracks to meet at a pass; this often makes them good routes even when travelling between a summit and the valley floor.

Some of the best known passes are Great St Bernard Pass at  in the Alps, the Khyber Pass at  between Afghanistan and Pakistan, and the Khardong La Pass at  in Jammu and Kashmir, India.

Related pages
 Ranges, Peaks and passes of the Alps

Other websites

References

Mountain pass


A synchrotron is a type of particle accelerator where particles travel around many times in a circle.  It uses a magnetic field to turn the particles in the circle and an electric field to speed up the particles. The components are carefully matched up with the travelling particle beam so that the circle stays the same size while the particles go faster. Mark Oliphant invented the proton synchrotron. Vladimir Veksler was the first to publish the idea. Edwin McMillan constructed the first electron synchrotron.

Characteristics
The synchrotron is an improvement over the cyclotron where the particles travel in a spiral pattern.  A cyclotron uses a constant magnetic field and a constant-frequency applied electric field.  (One of these is varied in the synchrocyclotron). Both of these fields are varied in the synchrotron to change the path from a spiral to a circle. By carefully making the fields bigger as the particles gain energy, the width of the circular path can be kept the same as the machine accelerates the particles. This allows the vacuum chamber for the particles to be a large thin circular pipe torus (donut shape). It is easier to use some straight sections between the bending magnets and some bent sections within the magnets giving the torus the shape of a round-cornered polygon. A path that acts like a very large circle can be constructed using simple straight and curved pipe segments, unlike the disc-shaped chamber of the cyclotron type devices. The shape also requires the use of multiple magnets to bend the particle beams. Straight sections are required at spacings around a ring for both radiofrequency cavities, and in third generation setups space is allowed for insertion of energy extraction devices such as wigglers and undulators. Most synchrotrons use two types of magnets: dipole magnets to bend the particle beam and quadrupole magnets to focus the beam.

The maximum energy that a cyclic accelerator can impart is typically limited by the strength of the magnetic field(s) and the minimum radius (maximum curvature) of the particle path. So, over time, physicist have built accelerators with bigger magnets and larger circles to reach higher particle energy levels.

In a cyclotron, the maximum radius is quite limited as the particles start at the center and spiral outward. So, the entire path must be a self-supporting disc-shaped vacuum chamber. Since the radius is limited, the power of the machine becomes limited by the strength of the magnetic field. In the case of an ordinary electromagnet the field strength is limited by the saturation of the core (when all magnetic domains are lined up the same way, the field cannot not be further increased to any practical extent). The arrangement of the single pair of magnets the full width of the device also limits the economic size of the device.

Synchrotrons overcome these limits, using a narrow beam pipe which can be surrounded by much smaller and more tightly focusing magnets. The ability of this device to accelerate particles is limited by the fact that the particles must be charged to be accelerated at all, but charged particles under acceleration emit photons (light particles), which makes them lose energy. The limiting beam energy is reached when the energy lost to the lateral (bending) acceleration required to maintain the beam path in a circle equals the energy added each cycle. More powerful accelerators are built by using large radius paths and by using more numerous and more powerful microwave cavities to accelerate the particle beam between corners. Lighter particles (such as electrons) lose a larger fraction of their energy when turning. Practically speaking, the energy of electron/positron accelerators is limited by this radiation loss, while it does not play a significant role in the dynamics of proton or ion accelerators. The energy of those is limited strictly by the strength of magnets and by the cost.

Design and operation
Particles are injected into the main ring at substantial energies by either a linear accelerator (linac) or by an intermediate synchrotron which is in turn fed by a linear accelerator. The "linac" is in turn fed by particles accelerated to intermediate energy by a simple high voltage power supply, typically a Cockcroft-Walton generator.

Particles are designed to leave the linac at a specified speed ("injection velocity") for entry into the synchrotron.  The operators calculate the magnetic field strength needed to steer particles with the injection velocity on the path of the synchrotron.  The operators give the electromagnets enough current to create the right amount of magnetic field strength.

Starting from that initial magnetic field strength, the magnetic field is then increased. The particles pass through an electrostatic accelerator driven by a high alternating voltage. At particle speeds not close to the speed of light the frequency of the accelerating voltage can be made roughly proportional to the current in the bending magnets. A finer control of the frequency is performed by a servo loop which responds to the detection of the passing of the traveling group of particles. At particle speeds approaching light speed the frequency becomes more nearly constant, while the current in the bending magnets continues to increase. The maximum energy that can be applied to the particles (for a given ring size and magnet count) is determined by the saturation of the cores of the bending magnets (the point at which increasing current does not produce additional magnetic field). One way to obtain additional power is to make the torus larger and add additional bending magnets. This allows the amount of particle redirection at saturation to be less and so the particles can be more energetic. Another means of obtaining higher power is to use superconducting magnets, these not being limited by core saturation.

When the particles have reached their maximum energy, they are steered out of the synchrotron and aimed at a target.  Early synchrotrons used stationary targets.  In order to double the energy of a collision, physicists in the 1970s began to collide two particle beams travelling in the opposite direction instead of just one beam and a stationary target.  To have two beams that are travelling in the synchrontron in opposite directions, they used particles with the same mass but with the opposite sign.  For example, electrons and positrons or protons and antiprotons.

Large synchrotrons

One of the early large synchrotrons, now retired, is the Bevatron, constructed in 1950 at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. The name of this proton accelerator comes from its power, in the range of 6.3 GeV (then called BeV for billion electron volts; the name predates the adoption of the SI prefix giga-). A number of heavy elements, unseen in the natural world, were first created with this machine. This site is also the location of one of the first large bubble chambers used to examine the results of the atomic collisions produced by the machine.

Another early large synchrotron is the Cosmotron built at Brookhaven National Laboratory which reached 3.3 GeV in 1953. The first Cornell University synchrotron was built before 1950 with a power of 300 MeV.

Until August 2008, the highest energy synchrotron in the world was the Tevatron, at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, in the United States. It accelerates protons and antiprotons to slightly less than 1 TeV of kinetic energy and collides them together. The Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which has been built at the European Laboratory for High Energy Physics (CERN), has roughly seven times this energy (so proton-proton collisions occur at roughly 14 TeV). It is housed in the 27 km tunnel which formerly housed the Large Electron Positron (LEP) collider, so it will maintain the claim as the largest scientific device ever built. The LHC will also accelerate heavy ions (such as lead) up to an energy of 1.15 PeV.

The largest device of this type seriously proposed was the Superconducting Super Collider (SSC), which was to be built in Texas. This design, like others, used superconducting magnets which allow more intense magnetic fields to be created without the limitations of core saturation.  Its planned ring circumference was 87.1 kilometres (54.1 mi) with an energy of 20 TeV per beam of protons.  Construction was begun in 1991 but later cancelled in 1994. The project had been poorly managed.  Some people say that the end of the Cold War resulted in a change of scientific funding priorities that contributed to its ultimate cancellation.

While there is still potential for yet more powerful proton and heavy particle cyclic accelerators, it appears that the next step up in electron beam energy must avoid losses due to synchrotron radiation. This will require a return to the linear accelerator, but with devices significantly longer than those currently in use. There is at present a major effort to design and build the International Linear Collider (ILC), which will consist of two opposing linear accelerators, one for electrons and one for positrons. These will collide at a total center of mass energy of 0.5 TeV.

However, synchrotron radiation also has a wide range of applications (see synchrotron light) and many 2nd and 3rd generation synchrotrons have been built especially to harness it. The largest of those 3rd generation synchrotron light sources are the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in Grenoble, France, the Advanced Photon Source (APS) near Chicago, USA, and SPring-8 in Japan, accelerating electrons up to 6, 7 and 8 GeV, respectively.

Synchrotrons which are useful for cutting edge research are large machines, costing tens or hundreds of millions of dollars to construct, and each beamline (there may be 20 to 50 at a large synchrotron) costs another two or three million dollars on average. These installations are mostly built by the science funding agencies of governments of developed countries, or by collaborations between several countries in a region, and operated as infrastructure facilities available to scientists from universities and research organisations throughout the country, region, or world. More compact models, however, have been developed, such as the Compact Light Source.

List of installations

 Note: in the case of colliders, the quoted energy is often double what is shown here. The above table shows the energy of one beam but if two opposing beams collide head on, the centre of mass energy is double the beam energy shown.

Applications
Life sciences: protein and large molecule crystallography
LIGA based microfabrication
Drug discovery and research
"Burning" computer chip designs into metal wafers

Analysing chemicals to determine their composition
Observing the reaction of living cells to drugs
Inorganic material crystallography and microanalysis
Fluorescence studies
Semiconductor material analysis and structural studies
Geological material analysis
Medical imaging
Proton therapy to treat some forms of cancer

Related pages
 List of synchrotron radiation facilities
 Synchrotron X-ray tomographic microscopy
 Energy amplifier
 Superconducting Radio Frequency

References

Other websites

Canadian Light Source
Australian Synchrotron
Diamond UK Synchrotron
Lightsources.org
CERN Large Hadron Collider
Synchrotron Light Sources of the World
A Miniature Synchrotron:  room-size synchrotron offers scientists a new way to perform high-quality x-ray experiments in their own labs, Technology Review, February 4, 2008
Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory
Podcast interview with a scientist at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility
Indian SRS
 Sameen Ahmed Khan, Synchrotron Radiation (in Asia), ATIP Report, No. ATIP02.034, 28 pages (21 August 2002). (ATIP: The Asian Technology Information Program, Tokyo, Japan, 2002).  Complete Report.
ALBA Light Source

Physics

Synchrotron


An otoscope or auriscope is a medical device which is used to look into the ears. Health care providers use otoscopes to screen for illness during regular check-ups and also to investigate ear symptoms.  An otoscope potentially gives a view of the ear canal and tympanic membrane or eardrum.  Because the eardrum is the border separating the external ear canal from the middle ear, its characteristics can be indicative of various diseases of the middle ear space.  The presence of earwax (cerumen), shed skin, pus, canal skin edema, foreign body, and various ear diseases can obscure any view of the eardrum and thus severely compromise the value of otoscopy done with a common otoscope, but confirm the presence of obstructing symptoms.

The most commonly used otoscopes consist of a handle and a head. The head contains a light source and a simple low-power magnifying lens, typically around 8 diopters (3.00x Mag). The distal (front) end of the otoscope has an attachment for disposable plastic ear specula. The examiner first straightens the ear canal by pulling on the pinna (usually the earlobe, side or top) and then inserts the ear speculum side of the otoscope into the external ear.  It is important to brace the hand holding the otoscope against the patient's head to avoid injury to the ear canal by placing the index finger or little finger against the head. The examiner can then look through a lens on the rear of the instrument and see inside the ear canal. In many models, the lens can be removed, which allows the examiner to insert instruments through the otoscope into the ear canal, such as for removing earwax. Most models also have an insertion point for a bulb capable of pushing air through the speculum which is called pneumatic otoscope. This puff of air allows an examiner to test the mobility of the tympanic membrane.

Many otoscopes used in doctors offices are wall-mounted while others are portable. Wall-mounted otoscopes are attached by a flexible power cord to a base, which serves to hold the otoscope when it's not in use and also serves as a source of electric power, being plugged into an electric outlet. Portable models are powered by batteries in the handle; these batteries are usually rechargeable and can be recharged from a base unit. Otoscopes are often sold with ophthalmoscopes as a diagnostic set.

Diseases which may be diagnosed by an otoscope include otitis media and otitis externa, infection of the middle and outer parts of the ear, respectively.

Otoscopes are also frequently used for examining patients' noses (avoiding the need for a separate nasal speculum) and (with the speculum removed) upper throats.

The most commonly used otoscopes—those used in emergency rooms, pediatric offices, general practice, and by internists- are monocular devices.  They provide only a two-dimensional view of the ear canal, its contents, and usually at least a portion of the eardrum, depending on what is within the ear canal and its status.  Another method of performing otoscopy (visualization of the ear) is use of a binocular microscope, in conjunction with a larger plastic or metal ear speculum, with the patient supine and the head tilted, which provides a much larger field of view and the added advantages of a stable head, far superior lighting, and most importantly, depth perception.  A binocular (two-eyed) view is required in order to judge depth.  If wax or another material obstructs the canal and/or a view of the entire eardrum, it can easily and confidently be removed with specialized suction tips and other microscopic ear instruments, whereas the absence of depth perception with the one-eyed view of a common otoscope makes removal of anything more laborious and hazardous.  Another major advantage of the binocular microscope is that both of the examiner's hands are free, since the microscope is suspended from a stand. The microscope has up to 40x power magnification, which allows much more detailed viewing of the entire ear canal, and of the entire eardrum unless edema of the canal skin prevents it.  Subtle changes in the anatomy are much more easily detected and interpreted than with a monocular view otoscope.  Traditionally only ENT specialists (otolaryngologists) and otologists (subspecialty ear doctors) acquire binocular microscopes and the necessary skills and training to use them, and incorporate their routine use in evaluating patient's ear complaints.  Studies have shown that reliance on a monocular otoscope to diagnose ear disease results in a more than 50% chance of misdiagnosis, as compared to binocular microscopic otoscopy.  The expense of acquiring a binocular microscope is only one obstacle to its being more widely adapted to general medicine.  The low level of familiarity with binocular otoscopy among pediatric and general medicine professors in physician training programs is probably a more difficult obstacle to overcome.  Thus, the standard of general otologic diagnosis and ear care remains, for the most part, the largely antiquated monocular otoscope.

Selected patents
 , "Speculum ", Willard E Dow, 1901.
 , "Otoscope ", Henry L De Zeng, 1926.
 , "Otoscope ", Henry L De Zeng, 1927.
 , "Otoscope ", John G Smith, 1928.
 , "Otoscope ", Arthur F Dittmer, 1939.
 , "Otoscope construction ", William C. Moore, John D. Connors, Richard W. Newman, 1977.
 , "Combination otoscope and audiometer  ", James W. Heller, 1986.

See also

References

External links

 Phisick – Pictures and information about antique otoscopes

Ear procedures
Medical equipment

Otoscope


Troaking was the barter between the natives of Greenland and whalers from ports in Scotland.

From the signing of the Treaty of Kiel in 1814 until the occupation of Denmark by Nazi Germany in 1940, Greenland was a protected and very isolated society. The Danish government, which governed Greenland as its colony, had been convinced that this society would face exploitation from the outside world or even extinction if the country was opened up, and thus it maintained a strict monopoly of Greenland's economy barring any trading or fishing within a certain distance of the Greenlandic coast. It did not, however, prohibit the sale of small articles not used in their trade, thus creating a loophole that enabled the practice of troaking, a barter between the natives and the Scottish whalers.

References

Whaling in Scotland
History of Greenland
Whaling in Denmark
Trade

Troaking


Faroese music is primarily vocal, accompanied by the fiddle (which arrived in the 17th century) and European dances like the minuet and polka. During the twentieth century choirs have played an important role in the musical history of the Faroes, and some of the best known current choirs are Tarira, Havnarkórið, Tórshavnar Manskór, Ljómur, Fuglafjarðar Gentukór, and the choirs situated in Copenhagen: Húsakórið and Mpiri.

History
Much of the imported music and instruments remained popular only in the capital and largest city, Tórshavn.  Rural peoples remained true to traditions of chain dance and ballads.  The three types of dance ballads are kvæði, tættir and vísur.  Many of these dance forms were revived after World War 2, when a number of dance societies were formed.  The ballads were largely compiled in Corpus Carminum Færoensium, which collected over 44,000 stanzas.

Other songs include skjaldur, fantastic fairy tales sung by adults for children, and pitch-sliding, microtonal hymns called kingosálmar. In her magnum opus about Faroese folk singing, Marianne Clausen comprehensively described the various genres, and presented about 3,300 music transcriptions of folk singing melodies.

Modern musicians
Modern Faroese musicians who have fused native traditions with music from Scotland, Bulgaria and the Sami people of northern Scandinavia:

Kristian Blak
Enekk
Gunnar
Annika Hoydal
Lennart Kullgren

Other well known Faroese musicians include:

Reiley
Eivør Pálsdóttir
Teitur Lassen
Lena Anderssen
Høgni Lisberg
Høgni Reistrup
Guðrið Hansdóttir
Greta Svabo Bech
Petur Pólson
Terji Rasmussen
Arnold Ludvig
Evi Tausen
Hallur Joensen
Hanus G. Johansen
Elin Brimheim Heinesen
Heine Lützen
Ólavur Jakobsen
Kári av Reyni
Kári P.
Alex Bærendsen
Regin Dahl
Davur Juul Magnussen
Simon Von Konoy
Ólavur Olsen
Eyðun Nolsøe
Guðrun Sólja Jacobsen
Kári Sverisson
Steintór Rasmussen
Anna Katrin Egilstrøð
Brandur Enni
Linda Andrews
Lyon Hansen
Jens Marni Hansen
Uni Arge
Leivur Thomsen
Jóannes Lamhauge

Modern bands
Well known Faroese bands include (in alphabetical order)

200
Analog Norð
Arnold Ludvig Sextet
Boys in a Band
Byrta
Clickhaze
Danny & The Veetos
Deiggj
Devon
The Dreams
Eivør
Faroe Boys
Frændur
Gestir
the Ghost
Glóð
Goodiepal
Hamferð
Hamradun
Heidrik
Heljareyga
Hjarnar
Høgni Reistrup
Kiasmos
Lama Sea
Lena

Makrel
Marius
Moirae (band)
Mold
MonkeyRat
MC-Hár
Nalja
Oniontree
ORKA
Páll Finnur Páll
Present Past

Sic
Safir
Side Effect
The Story Ends
Swangah
Synarchy
Teitur
Týr
Valravn
Yggdrasil

Modern classical composers
There are also some quite famous Faroese classical composers. Sunleif Rasmussen is until now the only Faroese ever to have written a symphony. Other composers are Kristian Blak, Edvard N. Debess, Janus Rasmussen, Tróndur Bogason, Kári Bæk, Palli Hansen, Knút Olsen and Pauli í Sandágerði.

Classical ensemble Aldubáran has commissioned and performed a vast amount of  music from Faroese composers and performed it domestically and abroad.

Details on specific musicians and groups

Gestir
Gestir are signed to Tutl Records in the Faroe Islands. They were formed in 2002, and have been playing rock festivals in the Faroe Islands,  Denmark and other countries.  Their long-awaited debut album Burtur frá Toftunum was released in the Faroe Islands in July 2006.   In the summer of 2006 Gestir played the "Atlantic Music Event" at NASA (Reykjavik, Iceland), the G! Festival (Gota, Faroe Islands) and Nord-Atlantiske Brygge (Copenhagen, Denmark). On September 30, 2006 Gestir performed a special concert at the Nordic House, Torshavn, Faroe Islands, in celebration of their album release. In December 2006 Gestir were invited to play at faroese singer/songwriter Teitur´s special Christmas show at Store Vega, Copenhagen. Gestir's most significant concerts in the summer of 2005 were the G! Festival and at Lille Vega, Copenhagen. Gestir won the bi-annual Faroese music contest Prix Føroyar in 2003.

The members of Gestir are Ólavur Jákupsson (vocals, electric & acoustic guitars, synthesizers, piano), Torfinnur Jákupsson (electric & acoustic guitars, piano, lyrics), Jógvan Andreas á Brúnni (drums), Niels Jákup i Jógvanstovu (bass) and Knút Háberg Eysturstein (synthesizers, hammond, piano, rhodes).

Aldubáran

The chamber ensemble Aldubáran is the only professional ensemble of its kind in the Faroe Islands. Formed in 1995, it has had a huge impact on the modern classical scene in the Faroe Islands. The purpose of Aldubáran was to perform classical music and to commission Faroese music from composers and to perform this domestically and abroad. Since its formation, the ensemble has become a household name. Especially the collaboration with folk-singer Hanus G. Johansen and their release in 2000 of album Bouquet on the label Tutl, had a broad impact, and still is a big seller. Since then Aldubáran has released four albums on Tutl. Aldubáran was in 2004 nominated for the Nordic Council Music Prize. Aldubáran has toured extensively and in autumn 2006, Aldubáran produced and played the first ever Faroese opera The Madmans' Garden by composer Sunleif Rasmussen. The members of Aldubáran are: Andrea Heindriksdóttir (flute), Anna Klett (clarinet), Páll Sólstein (horn), Joost Bosdijk (bassoon), Sámal Petersen, Øssur Bæk, Jón Festirstein (violins), Angelika Hansen (viola), Andreas T Restorff (cello), Ólavur Olsen (trumpet), Johan Hentze (trumpet), Kristina Thede Johansen (saxophone), Ólavur Jakobsen (guitar), Jóhannes Andreasen (piano), and Bernharður Wilkinson (conductor).

Týr

A folk metal band with progressive elements, whose members hail from the Faroes.  The band is known for performing traditional Faroese material both live and on recordings.  They compose songs in both Faroese and English, often with Viking or Pagan subject matter.

The group has released seven albums since their founding in 1998 and they perform worldwide.

Record labels
Tutl Records is the major record label of the Faroe Islands

Music festivals in the Faroe Islands
 G! Festival
 Tórshavn Jazz Festival
 Summarfestivalurin

References
 Cronshaw, Andrew. "A New Pulse for the Pols". 2000.  In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark  with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 58–63. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books.

External links
 Musicfromthefaroeislands - Faroe Islands Alliance for Music Export
 MUSIC.fo - Faroese music portal
 Tutl - Faroese music online
 Gfestival- The official website of the annual G! Festival!
 Summarfestivalur- The official website of the annual Summerfestival

Music of the Faroe Islands


Brighton is a city on the south coast of England. It was called "Brighthelmstone". It is in the county of East Sussex. In 2000, it joined Hove to become the city of Brighton & Hove. Historically, Brighton forms the main part of the Brighton/Worthing/Littlehampton conurbation, with 474,485 inhabitants (2011 census). This is England's 12th largest conurbation, and the mostly densely populated area outside London.

History
From the 1730s, Brighton entered its second phase of development—one which brought a rapid improvement in its fortunes. The fad for bathing in seawater as a cure for illnesses was encouraged. From the 1760s it was a boarding point for boats travelling to France. Road transport to London was improved when the main road via Crawley was turnpiked in 1770. Spas and indoor baths were opened by physicians.

From 1780, development of Georgian terraced houses started. The fishing village developed to the fashionable resort of Brighton. Growth of the town was encouraged by the patronage of the Prince Regent (later King George IV) after his first visit in 1783. He spent much of his leisure time in the town, and had the Royal Pavilion built during the early part of his Regency.

The arrival of the London and Brighton Railway in 1841 brought Brighton within the reach of day-trippers from London. Some major attractions such as the West Pier and the Brighton Palace Pier were built for the growing number of tourists. The population grew from around 7,000 in 1801 to more than 120,000 by 1901.

In 1984, a Provisional Irish Republican Army bombing killed five people.

Modern-day Brighton is a centre for education, sports, and recreation. It has two universities: University of Sussex and the University of Brighton. It also has 54 other schools.

In 2003, the universities of Sussex and Brighton formed a medical school, known as Brighton and Sussex Medical School. Brighton has a thriving LGBT community and every year in the first weekend in  August Pride festivities are held.

Notable people

 Dora Bryan - English actress
 Henry Thrale - English politician. Lived in West Street. His good friend, Samuel Johnson, often stayed at his home.
 Laurence Olivier - lived in the city for many years
 Martha Gunn - famous Brighton dipper and favourite of George IV
 Nick Cave - Australian musician,  been living in the city since the 1980s
 Rudyard Kipling - classical books author

References

Brighton


A ghost story is any piece of fiction, or drama, that includes a ghost, or simply takes as a premise the possibility of ghosts or characters' belief in them. The "ghost" may appear of its own accord or be summoned by magic. Linked to the ghost is the idea of a "haunting", where a supernatural entity is tied to a place, object or person. Ghost stories are commonly examples of ghostlore.

Colloquially, the term "ghost story" can refer to any kind of scary story. In a narrower sense, the ghost story has been developed as a short story format, within genre fiction. It is a form of supernatural fiction and specifically of weird fiction, and is often a horror story.

While ghost stories are often explicitly meant to scare, they have been written to serve all sorts of purposes, from comedy to morality tales. Ghosts often appear in the narrative as sentinels or prophets of things to come. Belief in ghosts is found in all cultures around the world, and thus ghost stories may be passed down orally or in written form.

History

A widespread belief concerning ghosts is that they are composed of a misty, airy, or subtle material. Anthropologists link this idea to early beliefs that ghosts were the person within the person (the person's spirit), most noticeable in ancient cultures as a person's breath, which upon exhaling in colder climates appears visibly as a white mist. Belief in ghosts is found in all cultures around the world, and thus ghost stories may be passed down orally or in written form.

The campfire story, a form of oral storytelling, often involves recounting ghost stories, or other scary stories. Some of the stories are decades old, with varying versions across multiple cultures. Many schools and educational institutions encourage ghost storytelling as part of literature.

In 1929, five key features of the English ghost story were identified in "Some Remarks on Ghost Stories" by M. R. James. As summarized by Frank Coffman for a course in popular imaginative literature, they were:
 The pretense of truth
 "A pleasing terror"
 No gratuitous bloodshed or sex
 No "explanation of the machinery"
 Setting: "those of the writer's (and reader's) own day"

The introduction of pulp magazines in the early 1900s created new avenues for ghost stories to be published, and they also began to appear in publications such as Good Housekeeping and The New Yorker.

Literature

Early examples
Ghosts in the classical world often appeared in the form of vapor or smoke, but at other times they were described as being substantial, appearing as they had been at the time of death, complete with the wounds that killed them. Spirits of the dead appear in literature as early as Homer's Odyssey, which features a journey to the underworld and the hero encountering the ghosts of the dead, as well as the Old Testament in which the Witch of Endor calls the spirit of the prophet Samuel.

The play Mostellaria, by the Roman playwright Plautus, is the earliest known work to feature a haunted dwelling, and is sometimes translated as The Haunted House. Another early account of a haunted place comes from an account by Pliny the Younger ( 50 AD). Pliny describes the haunting of a house in Athens by a ghost bound in chains, an archetype that would become familiar in later literature.

Ghosts often appeared in the tragedies of the Roman writer Seneca, who would later influence the revival of tragedy on the Renaissance stage, particularly Thomas Kyd and Shakespeare.

The One Thousand and One Nights, sometimes known as Arabian Nights, contains a number of ghost stories, often involving jinn (also spelled as djinn), ghouls and corpses.  In particular, the tale of "Ali the Cairene and the Haunted House in Baghdad" revolves around a house haunted by jinns. Other medieval Arabic literature, such as the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity, also contain ghost stories.

The 11th century Japanese work The Tale of Genji contains ghost stories, and includes characters being possessed by spirits.

English Renaissance theatre

In the mid-16th century, the works of Seneca were rediscovered by Italian humanists, and they became the models for the revival of tragedy. Seneca's influence is particularly evident in Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy and Shakespeare's Hamlet, both of which share a revenge theme, a corpse-strewn climax, and ghosts among the cast. The ghosts in Richard III also resemble the Senecan model, while the ghost in Hamlet plays a more complex role. The shade of Hamlet's murdered father in Hamlet has become one of the more recognizable ghosts in English literature. In another of Shakespeare's works, Macbeth, the murdered Banquo returns as a ghost to the dismay of the title character.

In English Renaissance theatre, ghosts were often depicted in the garb of the living and even in armour. Armour, being out-of-date by the time of the Renaissance, gave the stage ghost a sense of antiquity. The sheeted ghost began to gain ground on stage in the 1800s because an armoured ghost had to be moved about by complicated pulley systems or lifts, and eventually became clichéd stage elements and objects of ridicule. Ann Jones and Peter Stallybrass, in Renaissance Clothing and the Materials of Memory, point out, "In fact, it is as laughter increasingly threatens the Ghost that he starts to be staged not in armor but in some form of 'spirit drapery'." An interesting observation by Jones and Stallybrass is that "at the historical point at which ghosts themselves become increasingly implausible, at least to an educated elite, to believe in them at all it seems to be necessary to assert their immateriality, their invisibility. [...] The drapery of ghosts must now, indeed, be as spiritual as the ghosts themselves. This is a striking departure both from the ghosts of the Renaissance stage and from the Greek and Roman theatrical ghosts upon which that stage drew. The most prominent feature of Renaissance ghosts is precisely their gross materiality. They appear to us conspicuously clothed."

Border ballads

Ghosts figured prominently in traditional British ballads of the 16th and 17th centuries, particularly the "Border Ballads" of the turbulent border country between England and Scotland. Ballads of this type include "The Unquiet Grave", "The Wife of Usher's Well", and "Sweet William's Ghost", which feature the recurring theme of returning dead lovers or children. In the ballad "King Henry", a particularly ravenous ghost devours the king's horse and hounds before forcing the king into bed. The king then awakens to find the ghost transformed into a beautiful woman. The Flying Dutchman was a ghost ship that became the subject of many ghost stories.

Romantic era

One of the key early appearances by ghosts was The Castle of Otranto by Horace Walpole in 1764, considered to be the first gothic novel.
However, although the ghost story shares the use of the supernatural with the Gothic novel, the two forms differ. Ghost stories, unlike Gothic fiction, usually take place in a time and location near to the audience of the story.

The modern short story emerged in Germany in the early decades of the 19th century. Kleist's "The Beggar Woman of Locarno", published in 1810, and several other works from the period lay claim to being the first ghost short stories of a modern type. E. T. A. Hoffmann's ghost stories include "The Elementary Spirit" and "The Mines of Falun".

The Russian equivalent of the ghost story is the bylichka. Notable examples of the genre from the 1830s include Gogol's "Viy" and Pushkin's "The Queen of Spades", although there were scores of other stories from lesser known writers, produced primarily as Christmas fiction. The Vosges mountain range is the setting for most ghost stories by the French writing team of Erckmann-Chatrian.

One of the earliest writers of ghost stories in English was Sir Walter Scott. His ghost stories, "Wandering Willie's Tale" (1824, first published as part of Redgauntlet) and The Tapestried Chamber (1828) eschewed the "Gothic" style of writing and helped set an example for later writers in the genre.

"Golden Age of the Ghost Story"

Historian of the ghost story Jack Sullivan has noted that many literary critics argue a "Golden Age of the Ghost Story" existed between the decline of the Gothic novel in  the 1830s and the start of the First World War. Sullivan argues that the work of Edgar Allan Poe and Sheridan Le Fanu inaugurated this "Golden Age".

Irish author Sheridan Le Fanu was one of the most influential writers of ghost stories.. Le Fanu's collections, such as In a Glass Darkly (1872) and The Purcell Papers (1880), helped popularise the short story as a medium for ghost fiction. Charlotte Riddell, who wrote fiction as Mrs. J. H. Riddell, created ghost stories which were noted for adept use of the haunted house theme.

The "classic" ghost story arose during the Victorian period, and included authors such as M. R. James, Sheridan Le Fanu, Violet Hunt, and Henry James. Classic ghost stories were influenced by the gothic fiction tradition, and contain elements of folklore and psychology. M. R. James summed up the essential elements of a ghost story as, "Malevolence and terror, the glare of evil faces, 'the stony grin of unearthly malice', pursuing forms in darkness, and 'long-drawn, distant screams', are all in place, and so is a modicum of blood, shed with deliberation and carefully husbanded ...".

Famous literary apparitions from the Victorian period are the ghosts of A Christmas Carol, in which Ebenezer Scrooge is helped to see the error of his ways by the ghost of his former colleague Jacob Marley, and the ghosts of Christmas Past, Christmas Present and Christmas Yet to Come. In a precursor to A Christmas Carol Dickens published "The Story of the Goblins Who Stole a Sexton". Dickens also wrote "The Signal-Man", another work featuring a ghost.

Jamesian style

David Langford has described British author M. R. James as writing "the 20th century's most influential canon of ghost stories". James perfected a method of story-telling which has since become known as Jamesian, which involved abandoning many of the traditional Gothic elements of his predecessors. The classic Jamesian tale usually includes the following elements:

 a characterful setting in an English village, seaside town or country estate; an ancient town in France, Denmark or Sweden; or a venerable abbey or university
 a nondescript and rather naïve gentleman-scholar as protagonist (often of a reserved nature)
 the discovery of an old book or other antiquarian object that somehow unlocks, calls down the wrath, or at least attracts the unwelcome attention of a supernatural menace, usually from beyond the grave

According to James, the story must "put the reader into the position of saying to himself, 'If I'm not very careful, something of this kind may happen to me!" He also perfected the technique of narrating supernatural events through implication and suggestion, letting his reader fill in the blanks, and focusing on the mundane details of his settings and characters in order to throw the horrific and bizarre elements into greater relief. He summed up his approach in his foreword to the anthology Ghosts and Marvels (Oxford, 1924): "Two ingredients most valuable in the concocting of a ghost story are, to me, the atmosphere and the nicely managed crescendo. ... Let us, then, be introduced to the actors in a placid way; let us see them going about their ordinary business, undisturbed by forebodings, pleased with their surroundings; and into this calm environment let the ominous thing put out its head, unobtrusively at first, and then more insistently, until it holds the stage."

Another aspect James considered a requisite was "that the ghost should be malevolent or odious: amiable and helpful apparitions are all very well in fairy tales or in local legends, but I have no use for them in a fictitious ghost story."

Despite his suggestion in the essay "Stories I Have Tried to Write" that writers employ reticence in their work, many of James's tales depict scenes and images of savage and often disturbing violence.

19th-century American writers

Influenced by British and German examples, American writers began to produce their own ghost stories. Washington Irving's short story "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" (1820), based on an earlier German folktale, features a Headless Horseman. It has been adapted for film and television many times, such as Sleepy Hollow, a successful 1999 feature film. Irving also wrote "The Adventure of the German Student" and Edgar Allan Poe wrote some stories which contain ghosts, such as "The Masque of the Red Death" and "Morella".

In the later 19th century, mainstream American writers such as Edith Wharton, Mary E. Wilkins Freeman and F. Marion Crawford all wrote ghost fiction. Henry James also wrote ghost stories, including "The Jolly Corner" and The Turn of the Screw. The Turn of the Screw, his most famous ghost story, has appeared in a number of adaptations, notably a film, The Innocents, and an opera, Benjamin Britten's The Turn of the Screw.

The introduction of pulp magazines in the early 1900s created new avenues for ghost stories to be published, and they also began to appear in publications such as Good Housekeeping and The New Yorker.

Comedies and operas
Oscar Telgmann's opera Leo, the Royal Cadet (1885) includes "Judge's Song" about a ghost at the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, Ontario.

Oscar Wilde's comic short story "The Canterville Ghost" (1887) has been adapted for film and television on several occasions.

In the United States, prior to and during the First World War, folklorists Olive Dame Campbell and Cecil Sharp collected ballads from the people of the Appalachian Mountains, which included ghostly themes such as "The Cruel Ship's Carpenter", "The Suffolk Miracle", "The Unquiet Grave" and "The Wife of Usher's Well". The theme of these ballads was often the return of a dead lover. These songs were variants of traditional British ballads handed down by generations of mountaineers descended from the people of the Anglo-Scottish border region.

Psychological horror

In the Edwardian era, Algernon Blackwood (who combined the ghost story with nature mysticism), Oliver Onions (whose ghost stories drew on psychological horror), and William Hope Hodgson (whose ghost tales also contained elements of the sea story and science fiction) helped move the ghost story in new directions.

Kaidan

Kaidan (怪談), which literally means "supernatural tale" or "weird tale", is a form of Japanese ghost story. Kaidan entered the vernacular when a game called Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai became popular in the Edo period. The popularity of the game, as well as the acquisition of a printing press, led to the creation of a literary genre called Kaidanshu. Kaidan are not always horror stories, they can "be funny, or strange, or just telling about an odd thing that happened one time".

Lafcadio Hearn published Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things in 1904 as a collection of Japanese ghost stories which was also adapted into a film. The book "is seen as the first introduction of Japanese superstition to European and American audiences".

Modern era (1920 onward)
Ghost Stories magazine, which contained almost nothing but ghost stories, was published from 1926 to 1932.

Beginning in the 1940s, Fritz Leiber wrote ghost tales set in modern industrial settings, such as "Smoke Ghost" (1941) and "A Bit of the Dark World" (1962). Shirley Jackson made an important contribution to ghost fiction with her novel The Haunting of Hill House (1959).

A noted modern British writer of ghost fiction is Ramsey Campbell. Susan Hill also produced The Woman in Black (1983), a ghost novel that has been adapted for stage, television and film.

Noël Coward's play Blithe Spirit, later made into a 1945 film, places a more humorous slant on the phenomenon of haunting of individuals and specific locations.

Film

During the late 1890s the depiction of ghost and supernatural events appear in films. With the advent of motion pictures and television, screen depictions of ghosts became common, and spanned a variety of genres. The works of Shakespeare, Dickens and Wilde have all been made into cinematic versions, as well as adaptations of other playwrights and novelists. One of the well known short films was Haunted Castle directed by Georges Méliès in 1896. It is also considered as the first silent short film depicting ghost and supernatural events.

In 1926 the novel Topper by Thorne Smith was published, which created the modern American ghost. When the novel was adapted into the 1937 movie Topper, it initiated a new film genre and would also influence television. After the second World War, sentimental depictions of ghosts had become more popular in cinema than horror, and include the 1947 film The Ghost and Mrs. Muir, which was later adapted to television with a successful 1968–70 TV series. Genuine psychological horror films from this period include 1944's The Uninvited, and 1945's Dead of Night. The film Blithe Spirit, based on a play by Noël Coward, was also produced in this period. 1963 saw one of the first major adaptations of a ghost novel, The Haunting, based on the well known novel The Haunting of Hill House.

The 1970s saw screen depictions of ghosts diverge into distinct genres of the romantic and horror. A common theme in the romantic genre from this period is the ghost as a benign guide or messenger, often with unfinished business, such as 1989's Field of Dreams, the 1990 film Ghost, and the 1993 comedy Heart and Souls. In the horror genre, 1980's The Fog, and the A Nightmare on Elm Street series of films from the 1980s and 1990s are notable examples of the trend for the merging of ghost stories with scenes of physical violence. The 1990s saw a return to classic "gothic" ghosts, whose dangers were more psychological than physical. Examples of films are comedy and mystery from this period include 1984's Ghostbusters, 1999's The Sixth Sense and The Others. The 1990s also saw a lighthearted adaptation of the children's character Casper the Friendly Ghost, originally popular in cartoon form in the 1950s and early 1960s, in the feature film Casper.

Asian cinema has also produced horror films about ghosts, such as the 1998 Japanese film Ringu (remade in the US as The Ring in 2002), and the Pang brothers' 2002 film The Eye. Indian ghost movies are popular not just in India, but in the Middle East, Africa, South East Asia and other parts of the world. Some Indian ghost movies such as the comedy / horror film Manichitrathazhu have been commercial successes, dubbed into several languages. Generally the films are based on the experiences of modern people who are unexpectedly exposed to ghosts, and usually draw on traditional Indian literature or folklore. In some cases the Indian films are remakes of western films, such as Anjaane, based on Alejandro Amenábar's ghost story The Others.

Television

In fictional television programming, ghosts have been explored in series such as Ghost Whisperer, Medium, Supernatural, the television series adaptation of The Ghost and Mrs. Muir and Randall and Hopkirk (Deceased). In animated fictional television programming, ghosts have served as the central element in series such as Casper the Friendly Ghost, Danny Phantom, and Scooby-Doo, as well as minor roles in various other television shows.

Popularized in part by the 1984 comedy franchise Ghostbusters, ghost hunting has been popularized as a hobby wherein reportedly haunted places are explored. The ghost hunting theme has been featured in paranormal reality television series, such as A Haunting, Ghost Adventures, Ghost Hunters, Ghost Hunters International, Ghost Lab, and Most Haunted. It is also represented in children's television by such programs as The Ghost Hunter based on the book series of the same name and Ghost Trackers.

The Indian television series Aahat featured ghost and supernatural stories written by B. P. Singh. It was first aired on 5 October 1995 and ran for more than a decade, ending on 25 November 2010 with more than 450 episodes.

See also

 Macabre
 Paranormal romance
 Ghost Stories (magazine)

References

Further reading

 Bailey, Dale. American Nightmares: The Haunted House Formula in American Popular Fiction. Bowling Green, OH: Popular Press, 1999. .

 Ashley, Mike, ed. Phantom Perfumes and Other Shades: Memories of Ghost Stories Magazine. Ash-Tree Press, 2000.
 Joynes, Andrew, ed. Medieval Ghost Stories: An Anthology of Miracles, Marvels and Prodigies. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2003.
 Locke, John, ed. Ghost Stories: The Magazine and Its Makers, Volumes 1 & 2. Off-Trail Publications, 2010.
 Sullivan, Jack. Elegant Nightmares: The English Ghost Story from Le Fanu to Blackwood, Ohio University Press, 1978. .
 Brewster, Scott, and Luke Thurston, ed. The Routledge Handbook to the Ghost Story. New York: Routledge, 2018.
 O'Brian, Helen Conrad, and Julie Anne Stevens, ed. The Ghost Story from the Middle Ages to the 20th Century: A Ghostly Genre. Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2010.
 Briggs, Julia, Night Visitors: The Rise and Fall of the English Ghost Story. London: Faber, 1977.

External links
 - 1919
 PDF of original 1919 The Best Ghost Stories
 Ghost Story Society

Fantasy genres
Folklore
Halloween practices
Horror genres
Psychological horror
Speculative fiction
Traditional stories
ja:怪談

Ghost story


The circulatory system (also called the cardiovascular system) is the body system that moves blood around the body.  It consists of the heart and blood vessels.  The blood carries various materials that the body needs, and takes away waste and harmful substances.

Blood vessels that take blood away from the heart are arteries. Arteries divide into smaller arteries as they go away from the heart. The smaller arteries that connect to the capillaries, are called arterioles.

Blood vessels that take blood towards the heart are veins. Veins get bigger as they go towards the heart. The smallest veins are called venules. Pronounced (VEHN-yools)

Capillaries go between arteries and veins. Capillaries are quite thin, hence the name which comes from the Latin capillus meaning "hair."

So blood moves: heart→artery→arteriole→capillary→venule→vein→heart. This is called circulation. There are two different circulations in the circulatory system. The systemic circulation is how blood goes to most of the body. The pulmonary circulation is how blood goes through the lungs. (Pulmonary means ¨about the lungs¨). This is how it works in mammals, including humans. Circulatory systems of other vertebrates differ somewhat.

Systemic circulation
Blood that comes from the left side of the heart is full of oxygen and nutrients. Nutrients are substances that your body needs to live, like protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. The blood brings the oxygen and nutrients to your body.

This blood in systemic arteries that is full of oxygen and nutrients is systemic arterial blood. It is sometimes just called arterial blood.

The biggest systemic artery in the body is the aorta. This is the large blood vessel that comes out of the heart. Smaller arteries branch off from the aorta. These arteries have smaller arteries that branch off from them. The smallest arteries turn into arterioles.

The smallest blood vessels are capillaries. Systemic arterioles turn into capillaries. The blood from arterioles goes into the capillaries. There oxygen and nutrients go out of the blood into the tissue around the capillaries. The blood also picks up carbon dioxide and waste from the tissue. The network of capillaries that brings blood to an area is called a capillary bed.

On the other end of the capillary, it turns into a venule. Venules are the smallest veins. Veins take blood back to the heart. As veins go back to the heart, they merge and get bigger. The biggest systemic veins in the body are the vena cava. There are two vena cava. The inferior vena cava takes blood from the lower part of the body to the right side of the heart. (In anatomy, inferior means below.) The superior vena cava takes blood from the upper part of the body to the heart. (Superior means above.)

Pulmonary circulation
This same movement of blood goes through the lungs in the pulmonary circulation.

The blood that the vena cava vein takes to the heart is full of carbon dioxide. It has much less oxygen than (systemic) arterial blood. The right side of the heart pushes the venous blood into the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery takes blood to the lungs. In the lungs, the blood goes through the pulmonary capillary bed. (The capillaries that are in the lungs). Here it gets more oxygen. It also drops off carbon dioxide. (This is the opposite of what happens in capillary beds in the rest of the body. In the systemic circulation blood drops off oxygen and picks up carbon dioxide).

After the pulmonary capillary bed, the blood goes to the pulmonary veins. This pulmonary venous blood now is full of oxygen. The pulmonary veins take blood to the left side of the heart. Then the blood goes to the systemic circulation again.

The shunt
Veins from the gut shunt to the liver before returning to the right atrium and ventricle. The shunt is called the hepatic portal vein.

The meaning of this is as follows. The liver is the body's main chemical factory. It takes in the flow of nutrients from the gut, and adjusts them to suit what the body needs. It can store surplus nutrients, or release extra nutrients from store. It can change the chemical make-up of many nutrients. In this way it adapts to the many different kinds of food which the body digests.

References

Related pages
 Lymphatic system

Other websites
 American Medical Association Encyclopedia - The Circulatory System
 Ohio Heart and Vascular Center - pictures
 Circulatory system Citizendium

Cardiovascular system

Circulatory system


A wood block is a small percussion instrument. It is made of wood and hit like a drum. The woodblock is hollow inside so that it makes a big, resonating sound. It can come in different forms, but many modern woodblocks are shaped like a brick.

It is sometimes called a Chinese block because it has Chinese origins.

The sticks used to hit the woodblock can be snare drum sticks or xylophone beaters. It makes a hard, high sound. It can often be heard in large orchestras, e.g. in Bernstein's West Side Story.

Percussion instruments

Woodblock


Banteay Samré ( ; "The Citadel of the Samré") is a temple at Angkor, Cambodia, located 400 metres to the east of the East Baray.   Built during the reign of Suryavarman II and Yasovarman II in the early 12th century, it is a Hindu temple in the Angkor Wat style.

Named after the Samré, an ancient people of Indochina, the temple uses the same materials as the Banteay Srei.

Banteay Samré was excellently restored by Maurice Glaize from 1936 until 1944. The design of its single ogival tower is immediately recognizable as Angkor Wat style along with other temples in the region such as Thommanon and Chau Say Tevoda. Due to this temple's similarity to some monuments of north-east Thailand, it has the appearance of a compact Phimai. While there are no inscriptions describing its foundation, it seems likely to have been built by a high official of the court during the reign of King Suryavarman II.

Plan
It has a single tower over the shrine and this is connected by an antarala to a mandapa. All of this is flanked by two libraries, and two concentric gallery enclosures surround the ensemble. Banteay Samré is approached by a 200 metre long raised causeway from the east. This suggests that the temple enclosed a reasonable sized town. An avenue of 350 metres leads from the East Baray, ending in another cruciform terrace at the west side of the temple. The outer enclosure wall is 6 metres high and the inner enclosure has gopuras at the cardinal points.

Gallery

Notes

External links

 Banteay Samre, Photographic Documentation and Gallery

References

Angkorian sites in Siem Reap Province
Hindu temples in Siem Reap Province
12th-century Hindu temples

Banteay Samré


Phonology is part of linguistics. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Phonology is the science that studies the way that sounds (phones) carry meaning in language. Sounds (phones) that carry meaning in language are called phonemes. Sounds that do not carry meaning in the language are called allophones.

Phonology focuses on the study of phonemes, "units of sound (speech) that distinguish one word from another in a particular language." Phonology also includes studies of how words are articulated, or spoken.

Terminology
Phonology refers to the sound patterns of a language. Phonology is different from phonetics. Phonology studies how sounds form meaning in language. Phonetics studies how those sounds are formed. Studies of phonology and phonetics are sometimes combined, which results in more specific areas of study.

History
In 300 BC, Panini was the first person to study phonology. He created a grammar (a set of language rules) for Sanskrit (an ancient Indian language). He also created a list of the phonemes in Sanskrit. He assigned a symbol to represent each phoneme. The symbols are still used today in phonology.

The first person to use the word "phoneme" was the French linguist (one who studies language) A. Dufriche-Desgenettes. In the 1800s, Jan Baudoin gave the definition of phoneme that is uses today.Soon afterward, Baudouin de Courtenay began the study of phonology.and worked on the theory of phonetic alternations, which predicts changes in the sounds of a language.

One of the best schools of phonology was the Prague school. In 1939, a student of that school, Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy, published one of the most important studies on phonology. His work was titled Principles of Phonology. Another important person in the Prague school was Roman Jakobson. Roman was the most well-known linguist in the 1900s.

In 1968, Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle published The Sound Pattern of English (SPE). This book described generative phonology, which studies how grammar changes how people use language.

Branches of linguistics

Phonology