The South China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean. It is bounded in the north by South China, in the west by the Indochinese Peninsula, in the east by the islands of Taiwan and northwestern Philippines (mainly Luzon, Mindoro and Palawan), and in the south by the Indonesian islands of Borneo, eastern Sumatra and the Bangka Belitung Islands, encompassing an area of around .  It communicates with the East China Sea via the Taiwan Strait, the Philippine Sea via the Luzon Strait, the Sulu Sea via the straits around Palawan, and the Java Sea via the Karimata and Bangka Straits. The Gulf of Thailand and the Gulf of Tonkin are part of the South China Sea.

$3.4 trillion of the world's $16 trillion maritime shipping passed through South China Sea in 2016. Oil and natural gas reserves have been found in the area. The Western Central Pacific accounted for 14% of world's commercial fishing in 2010.

The South China Sea Islands, collectively comprising several archipelago clusters of mostly small uninhabited islands, islets (cays and shoals), reefs/atolls and seamounts numbering in the hundreds, are subject to competing claims of sovereignty by several countries. These claims are also reflected in the variety of names used for the islands and the sea.

Etymology

South China Sea is the dominant term used in English for the sea, and the name in most European languages is equivalent. This name is a result of early European interest in the sea as a route from Europe and South Asia to the trading opportunities of China. In the 16th century, Portuguese sailors called it the China Sea (); later needs to differentiate it from nearby bodies of water led to calling it South China Sea. The International Hydrographic Organization refers to the sea as "South China Sea (Nan Hai)".

The Yizhoushu, which was a chronicle of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046–771 BCE), gives the first Chinese name for South China Sea as Nanfang Hai (), claiming that barbarians from that sea gave tributes of hawksbill sea turtles to the Zhou rulers. The Classic of Poetry, Zuo Zhuan, and Guoyu classics of the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BCE) also referred to the sea, but by the name Nan Hai () in reference to the State of Chu's expeditions there. Nan Hai, the South Sea, was one of the Four Seas of Chinese literature. There are three other seas, one for each of the four cardinal directions. During the Eastern Han dynasty (23–220 CE), China's rulers called the sea Zhang Hai (). Fei Hai () became popular during the Southern and Northern dynasties. Usage of the current Chinese name, Nan Hai (South Sea), gradually became widespread during the Qing dynasty.

In Southeast Asia it was once called the Champa Sea or Sea of Cham, after the maritime kingdom of Champa (nowadays Central Vietnam), which flourished there before the 16th century. The majority of the sea came under Japanese naval control during World War II following the military acquisition of many surrounding South East Asian territories in 1941. Japan calls the sea  "South China Sea". This was written  until 2004, when the Japanese Foreign Ministry and other departments switched the spelling to , which has become the standard usage in Japan.

In China, it is called the South Sea, (), and in Vietnam the East Sea, . In Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, it was long called the South China Sea (, ), with the part within Philippine territorial waters often called the "Luzon Sea", , by the Philippines.

However, following an escalation of the Spratly Islands dispute in 2011, various Philippine government agencies started using the name West Philippine Sea. A Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) spokesperson said that the sea to the east of the Philippines will continue to be called the Philippine Sea. In September 2012, Philippine President Benigno Aquino III signed Administrative Order No. 29, mandating that all government agencies use the name West Philippine Sea to refer to the parts of South China Sea within the Philippines exclusive economic zone, including the Luzon Sea as well as the waters around, within and adjacent to the Kalayaan Island Group and Bajo de Masinloc, and tasked the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority to use the name in official maps.

In July 2017, to assert its sovereignty, Indonesia renamed the northern reaches of its exclusive economic zone in the South China Sea as the North Natuna Sea, which is located north of the Indonesian Natuna Islands, bordering southern Vietnam exclusive economic zone, corresponding to southern end of South China Sea. The "Natuna Sea" is located south of Natuna Island within Indonesian territorial waters. Therefore, Indonesia has named two seas that are portions of South China Sea; the Natuna Sea located between Natuna Islands and the Lingga and Tambelan Archipelagos, and the North Natuna Sea located between the Natuna Islands and Cape Cà Mau on the southern tip of the Mekong Delta in Vietnam.

Hydrography
States and territories with borders on the sea (clockwise from north) include: the People's Republic of China, the Republic of China (Taiwan), the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia and Vietnam. Major rivers that flow into South China Sea include the Pearl, Min, Jiulong, Red, Mekong, Menam, Rajang, Baram, Kapuas, Batang Hari, Musi, Kampar, Indragiri, Pahang, Agno, Pampanga and Pasig Rivers.

The IHO in its Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition (1953), defines the limits of South China Sea as follows:
On the South. The Eastern and Southern limits of Singapore and Malacca Straits [A line joining Tanjong Datok, the Southeast point of Johore () through Horsburgh Reef to Pulo Koko, the Northeastern extreme of Bintan Island (). The Northeastern coast of Sumatra] as far West as Tanjong Kedabu () down the East coast of Sumatra to Lucipara Point () thence to Tanjong Nanka, the Southwest extremity of Banka Island (where it transitions as Java Sea), through this island to Tanjong Berikat the Eastern point (), on to Tanjong Djemang () in Billiton, along the North coast of this island to Tanjong Boeroeng Mandi () and thence a line to Tanjong Sambar () the Southwest extreme of Borneo.
On the East. From Tanjong Sambar through the West coast of Borneo to Tanjong Sampanmangio, the North point, thence a line to West points of Balabac and Secam Reefs, on to the West point of Bancalan Island and to Cape Buliluyan, the Southwest point of Palawan, through this island to Cabuli Point, the Northern point thereof, thence to the Northwest point of Busuanga and to Cape Calavite in the island of Mindoro, to the Northwest point of Lubang Island and to Point Fuego (14°08'N) in Luzon Island, through this island to Cape Engano, the Northeast point of Luzon, along a line joining this cape with the East point of Balintang Island (20°N) and to the East point of Y'Ami Island (21°05'N) thence to Garan Bi, the Southern point of Taiwan (Formosa), through this island to Santyo (25°N) its North Eastern Point.
On the North. From Fuki Kaku the North point of Formosa to Kiushan Tao (Turnabout Island) on to the South point of Haitan Tao (25°25'N) and thence Westward on the parallel of 25°24' North to the coast of Fukien.
On the West. The Mainland, the Southern limit of the Gulf of Thailand and the East coast of the Malay Peninsula.

However, in a revised edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, 4th edition (1986), the International Hydrographic Organization officially recognized the Natuna Sea. Thus the southern limit of South China Sea is revised from the Bangka Belitung Islands to the Natuna Islands.

Geology

The sea lies above a drowned continental shelf; during recent ice ages global sea level was hundreds of metres lower, and Borneo was part of the Asian mainland.

The South China Sea opened around 45 million years ago when the "Dangerous Ground" rifted away from southern China. Extension culminated in seafloor spreading around 30 million years ago, a process that propagated to the southwest resulting in the V-shaped basin we see today. Extension ceased around 17 million years ago.

Arguments have continued about the role of tectonic extrusion in forming the basin. Paul Tapponnier and colleagues have argued that as India collides with Asia it pushes Indochina to the southeast. The relative shear between Indochina and China caused the South China Sea to open. This view is disputed by geologists who do not consider Indochina to have moved far relative to mainland Asia. Marine geophysical studies in the Gulf of Tonkin by Peter Clift has shown that the Red River Fault was active and causing basin formation at least by 37 million years ago in the northwest South China Sea, consistent with extrusion playing a part in the formation of the sea. Since opening, the South China Sea has been the repository of large sediment volumes delivered by the Mekong River, Red River and Pearl River. Several of these deltas are rich in oil and gas deposits.

Islands and seamounts

The South China Sea contains over 250 small islands, atolls, cays, shoals, reefs, and sandbars, most of which have no indigenous people, many of which are naturally under water at high tide, and some of which are permanently submerged. The features are:

 The Spratly Islands
 The Paracel Islands
 Pratas Island and the Vereker Banks
 The Macclesfield Bank
 The Scarborough Shoal

The Spratly Islands spread over an 810 by 900 km area covering some 175 identified insular features, the largest being Taiping Island (Itu Aba) at just over  long and with its highest elevation at .

The largest singular feature in the area of the Spratly Islands is a  wide seamount called Reed Tablemount, also known as Reed Bank, in the northeast of the group, separated from Palawan Island of the Philippines by the Palawan Trench. Now completely submerged, with a depth of , it was an island until it was covered about 7,000 years ago by increasing sea levels after the last ice age. With an area of , it is one of the largest submerged atoll structures in the world.

Trade route

The South China Sea has historically been an important trade route between China, southeast Asia, and going to India and the west. The number of shipwrecks of trading ships that lie on the ocean's floor attest to a thriving trade going back centuries. Nine historic trade ships carrying ceramics dating back to the 10th century until the 19th century were excavated under Swedish engineer Sten Sjöstrand.

$3.4 trillion of the world's $16 trillion maritime shipping passed through South China Sea in 2016.

Natural resources

In 2012-2013, the United States Energy Information Administration estimates very little oil and natural gas in contested areas such as the Paracel and the Spratly Islands. Most of the proved or probable 11 billion barrels of oil and 190 trillion cubic feet of natural gas in the South China Sea exist near undisputed shorelines.

In 2010, the Western Central Pacific (excluding the northernmost reaches of the South China Sea closest to the PRC coast) accounted for 14% of the total world catch from commercial fishing of 11.7 million tonnes. This was up from less than 4 million tonnes in 1970.

China announced in May 2017 a breakthrough for mining methane clathrates, when they extracted methane from hydrates in the South China Sea, but commercial adoption may take a decade or more.

Territorial claims

Several countries have made competing territorial claims over the South China Sea. Such disputes have been regarded as Asia's most potentially dangerous point of conflict.
Both the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC, commonly known as Taiwan) claim almost the entire body as their own, demarcating their claims within what is known as the "nine-dash line", which claims overlap with virtually every other country in the region. Competing claims include:
 Indonesia, Vietnam, China, and Taiwan over waters northeast of the Natuna Islands
 The Philippines, China, and Taiwan over Scarborough Shoal.
 Vietnam, China, and Taiwan over waters west of the Spratly Islands. Some or all of the islands themselves are also disputed between Vietnam, China, Taiwan, Brunei, Malaysia, and the Philippines.
 The Paracel Islands are disputed between China, Taiwan and Vietnam.
 Malaysia, Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam over areas in the Gulf of Thailand.
 Singapore and Malaysia along the Strait of Johore and the Strait of Singapore.

China and Vietnam have both been vigorous in prosecuting their claims. China (various governments) and South Vietnam each controlled part of the Paracel Islands before 1974. A brief conflict in 1974 resulted in 18 Chinese and 53 Vietnamese deaths, and China has controlled the whole of Paracel since then. The Spratly Islands have been the site of a naval clash, in which over 70 Vietnamese sailors were killed just south of Chigua Reef in March 1988. Disputing claimants regularly report clashes between naval vessels.

ASEAN in general, and Malaysia in particular, have been keen to ensure that the territorial disputes within the South China Sea do not escalate into armed conflict. As such, joint development authorities have been set up in areas of overlapping claims to jointly develop the area and divide the profits equally without settling the issue of sovereignty over the area. This is true particularly in the Gulf of Thailand. Generally, China has preferred to resolve competing claims bilaterally, while some ASEAN countries prefer multilateral talks, believing that they are disadvantaged in bilateral negotiations with the much larger China and that because many countries claim the same territory only multilateral talks could effectively resolve the competing claims.

The overlapping claims over Pedra Branca or Pulau Batu Putih including the neighboring Middle Rocks by both Singapore and Malaysia were settled in 2008 by the International Court of Justice, awarding Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh to Singapore and the Middle Rocks to Malaysia.

In July 2010, US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton called for China to resolve the territorial dispute. China responded by demanding the US keep out of the issue. This came at a time when both countries had been engaging in naval exercises in a show of force to the opposing side, which increased tensions in the region. The US Department of Defense released a statement on August 18 where it opposed the use of force to resolve the dispute, and accused China of assertive behaviour. On July 22, 2011, one of India's amphibious assault vessels, the INS Airavat which was on a friendly visit to Vietnam, was reportedly contacted at a distance of  from the Vietnamese coast in the disputed South China Sea on an open radio channel by a vessel identifying itself as the Chinese Navy and stating that the ship was entering Chinese waters. The spokesperson for the Indian Navy clarified that as no ship or aircraft was visible from INS Airavat it proceeded on her onward journey as scheduled. The Indian Navy further clarified that "[t]here was no confrontation involving the INS Airavat. India supports freedom of navigation in international waters, including in the South China Sea, and the right of passage in accordance with accepted principles of international law. These principles should be respected by all."

In September 2011, shortly after China and Vietnam had signed an agreement seeking to contain a dispute over the South China Sea, India's state-run explorer, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) said that its overseas investment arm ONGC Videsh Limited had signed a three-year deal with PetroVietnam for developing long-term cooperation in the oil sector and that it had accepted Vietnam's offer of exploration in certain specified blocks in the South China Sea. In response, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Jiang Yu issued a protest. The spokesman of the Ministry of External Affairs of the Government of India responded by saying that "The Chinese had concerns but we are going by what the Vietnamese authorities have told us and have conveyed this to the Chinese." The Indo-Vietnamese deal was also denounced by the Chinese state-run newspaper Global Times.

In 1999, Taiwan claimed the entirety of the South China Sea islands under the Lee Teng-hui administration. The entire subsoil, seabed and waters of the Paracels and Spratlys are claimed by Taiwan.

In 2012 and 2013, Vietnam and Taiwan butted heads against each other over anti-Vietnamese military exercises by Taiwan.

In May 2014, China established an oil rig near the Paracel Islands, leading to multiple incidents between Vietnamese and Chinese ships.

In December 2018, retired Chinese admiral Luo Yuan proposed that a possible solution to tensions with the United States in the South China Sea would be to sink one or two United States Navy aircraft carriers to break US morale. Also in December 2018, Chinese commentator and Senior Colonel in the People's Liberation Army Air Force, Dai Xu suggested that China's navy should ram United States Navy ships sailing in the South China Sea.

The US, although not a signatory to UNCLOS, has maintained its position that its naval vessels have consistently sailed unhindered through the South China Sea and will continue to do so. At times US warships have come within the 12 nautical-mile limit of Chinese-controlled islands (such as the Paracel Islands), arousing China's ire. During the US Chief of Naval Operations' visit to China in early 2019, he and his Chinese counterpart worked out rules of engagement, whenever American warships and Chinese warships met up on the high seas.

On 26 June 2020, the 36th Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Summit was held virtually. Vietnam, as the Chairman of the Summit, released the Chairman's Statement. The Statement said the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea is "the basis for determining maritime entitlements, sovereign rights, jurisdiction and legitimate interests over maritime zones, and the 1982 UNCLOS sets out the legal framework within which all activities in the oceans and seas must be carried out."

Military maneuver
It was reported by VOA on 27 August 2020 that a U.S. defense official said that the People's Liberation Army of China launched four medium-range ballistic missiles from mainland China into an area of the South China Sea.

In 2022, Vietnam demanded that Taiwan stop conducting its military drills at the Spratly Islands, which is located within the South China Sea.

2016 arbitration

In January 2013, the Philippines initiated arbitration proceedings against China (PRC) over issues surrounding the nine-dash line, characterization of maritime features, and EEZ. On 12 July 2016, an arbitral tribunal ruled in favor of the Philippines on most of its submissions. It clarified that it would not "rule on any question of sovereignty over land territory and would not delimit any maritime boundary between the Parties" but concluded that China had not historically exercised exclusive control within the nine-dash line, hence has "no legal basis" to claim "historic rights" over the resources. It also concluded that China's historic rights claims over the maritime areas (as opposed to land masses and territorial waters) inside the nine-dash line would have no lawful effect outside of what's entitled to under UNCLOS. It criticized China's land reclamation projects and its construction of artificial islands in the Spratly Islands, saying that it had caused "severe harm to the coral reef environment". Finally, it characterized Taiping Island and other features of the Spratly Islands as "rocks" under UNCLOS, and therefore are not entitled to a 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone. The arbitral tribunal decision was ruled as final and non-appealable by either country. China rejected the ruling, calling it "ill-founded". Taiwan, which currently administers Taiping Island, the largest of the Spratly Islands, also rejected the ruling. Eight governments have publicly called for the ruling to be respected, 35 have issued generally positive statements noting the verdict but have stopped short of calling for the parties to abide by it, and eight have publicly rejected it. The eight governments in support are Australia, Canada, Germany, Japan, New Zealand, the Philippines, United Kingdom, and the United States; the governments in opposition are China, Montenegro, Pakistan, Russia, Sudan, Syria, Taiwan, and Vanuatu. The United Nations itself does not have a position on the legal and procedural merits of the case or on the disputed claims, and the Secretary-General expressed his hope that the continued consultations on a Code of Conduct between ASEAN and China under the framework of the Declaration of the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea will lead to increased mutual understanding among all the parties.

In March 2020, the Philippines expressed its concern about approximately 220 PRC militia vessels in the disputed area.

See also

 List of maritime features in the Spratly Islands

References

Further reading

 Francois-Xavier Bonnet, Geopolitics of Scarborough Shoal, Irasec Discussion Paper 14, November 2012
 C. Michael Hogan (2011) South China Sea Topic ed. P. Saundry. Ed.-in-chief C.J. Cleveland. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC
 Clive Schofield et al., From Disputed Waters to Seas of Opportunity: Overcoming Barriers to Maritime Cooperation in East and Southeast Asia (July 2011)
 UNEP (2007). Review of the Legal Aspects of Environmental Management in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand. UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No. 9.
 Wang, Gungwu (2003). The Nanhai Trade: Early Chinese Trade in the South China Sea. Marshall Cavendish International. .
 Keyan Zou (2005). Law of the sea in East Asia: issues and prospects. London/New York: Rutledge Curzon.
 United States. Congress. (2014). Maritime Sovereignty in the East and South China Seas: Joint Hearing before the Subcommittee on Seapower and Projection Forces of the Committee on Armed Services Meeting Jointly with the Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific of the Committee on Foreign Affairs (Serial No. 113-137), House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, Second Session, Hearing held January 14, 2014

External links

 ASEAN and the South China Sea: Deepening Divisions Q&A with Ian J. Storey (July 2012)
 Rising Tensions in the South China Sea, June 2011 Q&A with Ian J. Storey
 News collections on The South China Sea on China Digital Times
 The South China Sea on Google Earth - featured on Google Earth's Official Blog
 South China Sea Virtual Library - online resource for students, scholars and policy-makers interested in South China Sea regional development, environment, and security issues.
 Energy Information Administration - The South China Sea
 Tropical Research and Conservation Centre - The South China Sea
 Weekly Piracy Report
 Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
 UNEP/GEF South China Sea Knowledge Documents
 Audio Radio communication between United States Navy Boeing P-8A Poseidon aircraft operating under international law and the Chinese Navy warnings.
 A 1775 Chart of the China Sea | Southeast Asia Digital Library

Marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean
Maritime Southeast Asia
Seas of Indonesia
Seas of Malaysia
Seas of the Philippines
Bodies of water of Brunei
Seas of China
Bodies of water of Hong Kong
Bodies of water of Macau
Bodies of water of Singapore
Seas of Taiwan
Bodies of water of Vietnam
Disputed territories in Southeast Asia
Territorial disputes of China
Territorial disputes of Malaysia
Territorial disputes of Vietnam
Territorial disputes of the Philippines
Territorial disputes of the Republic of China
Indonesia–Vietnam border
Malaysia–Vietnam border
Seas of Asia
China Seas

South China Sea


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Though AASHTO is not a government body, it possesses quasi-governmental powers in the sense that the organizations that supply its members customarily obey most AASHTO decisions.

Besides its publications, AASHTO performs or cooperates in research projects.

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Þorsteinn Gylfason (12 August 1942 – 16 August 2005) was an Icelandic philosopher, translator, musician and poet. Þorsteinn distinguished himself in Icelandic public life with his writings in newspapers, journals and publications.

His life and accomplishments

Early life
Þorsteinn was born and raised in Reykjavík, the capital of Iceland. His parents were Guðrún Vilmundardóttir and Gylfi Þorsteinsson Gíslason, a university professor and government minister. He was the brother of Vilmundur Gylfason, a politician, and Þorvaldur Gylfason, an economist.

Þorsteinn graduated from the Menntaskólinn í Reykjavík gymnasium in 1961 and subsequently received a grant to study at Harvard University. He left Harvard with a B.A. degree in philosophy, having studied under the tutelage of Willard Van Orman Quine. He returned home for graduate studies in Icelandic, and later attended the University of Munich and Magdalen College, Oxford from 1965 to 1971. At Oxford, he studied under Gilbert Ryle and befriended well-known characters from philosophical circles, such as Alfred Jules Ayer. This influence affected his work in philosophy to a considerable extent.

Career
Þorsteinn worked as an assistant professor at the University of Iceland from 1971, and was made full professor in 1989. He was visiting professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the London School of Economics.

Þorsteinn received a number of awards and acknowledgements for his works, amongst them the Þórbergur Þórðarson and National Icelandic Literature Prizes in 1997. In 1994, he was awarded the Knights Cross of the Icelandic Falcon by Icelandic president Vigdís Finnbogadóttir for his contributions to Icelandic culture and academia.

Works
Þorsteinn wrote 12 books on philosophy and philology, including An Essay on Man (1970), An Essay on the World (1992), Thinking in Icelandic (1996) and Justice and Injustice (1998). He also published over 37 academic papers in various philosophical journals and composed poetry and lyrics, either with musical composer Atli Heimir Sveinsson or to the music of Kurt Weill and Richard Wagner.

His translations to Icelandic included On Liberty by John Stuart Mill, Søren Kierkegaard's Repetitions, Plato's Phaedo, Descartes' Meditations, all of whom were published by the Icelandic Literature Society, for which he served as a series chief editor for almost two decades.

Philosophy
Þorsteinn's philosophical work was mostly in the philosophy of language and mind and political philosophy. His method and style of philosophy was very much rooted in the analytic tradition, through influence from men such as W.V.O. Quine and Gilbert Ryle. He also found inspiration in the continental philosophers, especially from existentialism in the style of Søren Kierkegaard and Martin Heidegger, whose works he translated into Icelandic. Later on, his focus was on contemporary work by Elizabeth Anscombe, Donald Davidson, Saul Kripke, John Rawls, Philippa Foot, Charles Taylor and Richard Rorty.

Þorsteinn's early works (An Essay on Man in particular) are in the style of 20th century logical positivism—highly suspicious of esoteric Hegelian metaphysics. He later turned away from comprehensive theories to focus on specific problems. He considered himself an analytic philosopher insofar as "the ideas that have proven to be the most fruitful and inspiring, have been those of scholars generally considered to be 'analytic philosophers'." He usually said he was not much of a utilitarian neither in personal thinking nor politics and favoured deontology and virtue ethics.

His final words when describing himself as a philosopher were: "I believe that no philosophical theory can avoid paying the utmost heed to the natural sciences."

Death
Þorsteinn was diagnosed with terminal cancer of the stomach on 12 August 2005 and died four days later. His funeral took place in Reykjavík Cathedral.

Publications

Books
 Tilraun um manninn [An Essay on Man], Reykjavík 1970.
 Þrætubókarkorn [Dialectic] (with P.T. Geach), Reykjavík, 1981.
 Tilraun um heiminn [An Essay on the World], Reykjavík 1992.
 Sprek af reka [Logs of Driftwood], Reykjavík 1993 (translations of verse).
 Að hugsa á íslenzku [Thinking in Icelandic], Reykjavík 1996 (collected essays on the philosophy of language).
 Réttlæti og ranglæti [Justice and Injustice], Reykjavík 1998 (collected essays on political philosophy).
 Söngfugl að sunnan [A Songbird from the South], Reykjavik 2000 (translations of verse).
 Sál og mál [Mind and Language], Reykjavík 2006 (collected essays in Icelandic and English published posthumously).

Booklets
 Rauður fyrirlestur [A Red Lecture], Reykjavík 1982 (against libertarianism).
 Valdsorðaskak [A Disputation on Power], Reykjavík 1982.
 Orðasmíð [The Creativity of Language], Reykjavík 1991 (inaugural lecture).
 Niflungahringurinn [Der Ring des Nibelungen], Listahátíð í Reykjavík 1994. See Works for the Stage (1).
 Gagnrýni hreinnar skynsemi [Pure Reason Criticised], Reykjavík 1994 (on Kant). (Revised as Náin skoðun skynseminnar, Reykjavík 2001).

Principal essays in books or periodicals
 "Skemmtilegt er myrkrið" [The Fun of Darkness], Tímarit Máls og menningar 1971, 285-313 (against dialectical materialism).
 "Að hugsa á íslenzku" [Thinking in Icelandic], Skírnir 1973, 129-158 (also published as a booklet).
 "Ætti sálarfræði að vera til?" [Should There Be Psychology?] Skírnir 1975, 5-37.
 "Er vit í vísindum?" [Is Science Rational?], Tímarit Máls og menningar 1975, 245-266 (on Kuhn versus Popper).
 "Um fyrirburðafræði" [On Parapsychology], Lífgeislar 1979, 3-34 and 61–66.
 "Hvers vegna í dauðanum?" [Why on Earth?], Morgunblaðið 12 April 1980 (on the psychology of education).
 "Málrækt í mannlegum fræðum" [Linguistic Purism in the Humanities], Skíma IV, 3 (1981).
 "Hvað er réttlæti?" [What is Justice?], Skírnir 1984, 159–222.
 "Teikn og tákn" [Signs and Symbols], Stúdentablaðið LXI, 4, 17–19.
 "Tónlist, réttlæti og sannleikur" [Music, Justice and Truth], Andvari 1985, 127-142 (on the aesthetics of music).
 "Sur des parlers anciens, faisons des mots nouveaux" [New Words for an Old Language], Diogène 1985, 19-36 (on neology). Also published in English, Spanish and Chinese.
 "Inngangur" [Introduction] to Sigurður Nordal: Einlyndi og marglyndi [Unity and Diversity], Reykjavík 1986, ix-xxxvii.
 "Hundrað og eitt ár" [101 Years], Tímarit Máls og menningar 1989, 304-318 (a centenary celebration of the writer Þórbergur Þórðarson).
 "Ludwig Wittgenstein", Hugur 1989, 5-22 (a centenary celebration).
 "Martin Heidegger", Teningur 1989 (a centenary celebration).
 "Snilld og brjálæði" [Genius and Madness], Tímaritið 2000 1990.
 "Ljósið sem hvarf" [The Light that Vanished], Skírnir 1990, 362-389 (on the philosophy of religion).
 "Det kreativa ordet" [The Creative Word] in Georg Klein (ed.): Om kreativitet och flow [On Creativity and Flow], Stockholm 1990.
 "Skáldskapur og sannleikur" [Poetry and Truth], Teningur 1991, 24–27.
 "Anaxímandros frá Míletos" [Anaximander of Miletus], Tímarit Máls og menningar 1991, 75–91.
 "Inngangur" [Introduction] and "Skýringar" [Notes] to René Descartes: Orðræða um aðferð [Discourse on Method], Reykjavík 1991, 11-54 and 153–202.
 "Líf og sál" [Life and Soul] in Einar Logi Vignisson og Ólafur Páll Jónsson (eds.): Af líkama og sál [Of Body and Mind], Reykjavík 1992.
 "Að gera eða vera" [To Do or to Be] in Hugur Vol. 6 (1993–1994), 63–90.
 "Skólar, úhrif og þroski" (Schools, External Effects and Human Development] in Ný menntamál Vol. 12 No. 4. (1994), 6–11.
 "Er tónlist mál?" [Is Music a Language?] Tímarit Máls og menningar 1994.
 "Gildi, boð og ástæður" [Values, Imperatives and Reasons] in Hugur Vol. 6 (1995), 14–31.
 "SDG" [Soli Deo Gloria] in Þorsteinn Helgason (ed.): Sem niður margra vatna: Sumartónleikar í Skálholtskirkju tuttugu ára, Reykjavík 1995, 29-33 (on Bach's theology)
 "Fjölræði og sjálfstæði" [Pluralism and Independence] in Tímarit lögfræðinga 1995, 1-15 (on the independence of the judiciary).
 "Richard Wagner as a Poet" in Wagner's Ring and Its Icelandic Sources, edited by Úlfar Bragason, Stofnun Sigurðar Nordals, Reykjavík 1995.
 "Túlkun og tjáning" [Interpretation and Expression] in Leikhúsmál 1996 (on dramatic acting).
 "Sannleikur" [Truth] in Er vit í vísindum?, Reykjavík 1996.
 "Kan DNA-koden och binas dans betraktas som språk?" (Can the DNA-code and the Dance of Bees be regarded as languages?) in Medicinsk vetenskap vid Karolinska Institutet No. 4 1997.
 "Introduction" to Njál's Saga, Wordsworth Classics of World Literarture, 1998.
 "Inngangur" [Introduction] to Ludwig Wittgenstein's Bláa bókin [The Blue Book], Reykjavík 1998.
 "Er eignarréttur náttúrlegur?" in Afmælisrit: Þór Vilhjálmsson sjötugur, Orator, Reykjavík 2000.
 "Inngangur" [Introduction] to René Descartes: Hugleiðingar um frumspeki [Meditations], Reykjavík 2001.
 "Refir, broddgeltir, dýrlingur og snákur" [on G.E.M. Anscombe and W.V.O. Quine] in Hugur, Reykjavík 2002.

Principal poems in periodicals and anthologies
 "Glerhús við skál" [Clerihews Above a Glass], Morgunblaðið 1985.
 "Ólafur Jónsson", Lesbók Morgunblaðsins 1989.
 "Hamingjan um nótt" [Happiness at Night], Tímarit Máls og menningar 1990 and Spegill, spegill, Reykjavik 1991 (an anthology of literature for secondary schools).
 "Vilmundur Gylfason", Tímarit Máls og menningar 1990.
 "Ættjarðarkvæði" [A Patriotic Song], Morgunblaðið 1991.
 "Töfraflautan" [The Magic Flute], Leikskrá Íslensku óperunnar 1991 and Morgunblaðið 1991.
 "Sónhenda með ensku sniði" [A Sonnet in the English Manner], Vörður 1993.
 "Skírnarsálmur Alexöndru" [Alexandra's Baptismal Hymn], Lesbók Morgunblaðsins 1995.
 "Draugar í bænum á miðvikudagsmorgni" [Ghosts in Town on a Wednesday Morning],
 "Gegnum jarðgöng tímans" [Through The Tunnel of Time], Reykjavík 1998.

Works for the stage
 Richard Wagner: Niflungahringurinn [The Ring of the Nibelung]. (A verse translation of selections from Wagner's text with spoken interludes for two actors, performed at the National Theatre of Iceland and printed 1994).
 Jónas í hvalnum [Jonah in the Whale] 1995. (An oratorio with music by Atli Heimir Sveinsson. The music is not yet completed).
 Til hinna óbornu [An die Nachgeborenen, To Those Who Come After]. (A cabaret of songs by Kurt Weill, Hanns Eisler and Paul Dessau to Bertolt Brecht's poems with spoken interludes, performed October 1998.)
 Kristnitaka á Íslandi [The Conversion of Iceland] 1999. (A grand opera in two acts, with music by Atli Heimir Sveinsson, commissioned for the 1000th anniversary of Christianity in Iceland in 2000. Performed at the Icelandic Opera in April 2001.)

Main translations into Icelandic
 Søren Kierkegaard: Repetition (Helgafell, Reykjavík 1966). New edition: Hið íslenzka bókmenntafélag, Reykjavík 2000.
 J.S. Mill: On Liberty (co-translator, 1970).
 Plato: Phaedo (1972) (in Síðustu dagar Sókratesar).
 René Descartes: Meditations, Hið íslenzka bókmenntafélag, Reykjavík 2001.
 Albert Giraud: Pierrot Lunaire, to music by Schönberg (1980). Reprinted in Sprek af reka 1993.
 Emanuel Schikaneder: The Magic Flute, to music by Mozart (co-translator, performed 1983–1984 and 1991–1992).
 Martin Heidegger: Aus der Erfahrung des Denkens (1989).
 P.I. Tchaikovsky and K. Shilovsky (after A. Pushkin): Eugene Onegin, to music by Tchaikovsky (performed and printed 1993–1994).
 Søren Kierkegaard: "Ómar af strengleikum" [Selections from the Diapsalmata in Either-Or], Jón á Bægisá I, 1994.
 Engelbert Humperdinck: Hans og Gréta [Hänsel und Gretel], performed 1996.
 Franz Lehár: Káta ekkjan [Die lustige Witwe], performed 1997.
 Verse by Lucretius, J.W. v. Goethe, Robert Burns, A.O. Vinje, Gabriele d'Annunzio, Stefan George, Rainer Maria Rilke, Bertolt Brecht, W.B. Yeats, T.S. Eliot, W.H. Auden and others, published in periodicals. Collected together with much previously unpublished material in Sprek af reka 1993.

External links
 The University Iceland
 Þorsteinn Gylfason's Philosophical Self-Description
 Morgunblaðið's Memoriam of Þorsteinn Gylfason
 Rauður fyrirlestur Transcript of "A Red Lecture" in Reykjavík 1982 against libertarianism (in Icelandic)

1942 births
2005 deaths
Thorsteinn Gylfason
Academics of the London School of Economics
Analytic philosophers
Thorsteinn Gylfason
Deaths from stomach cancer
Harvard College alumni
Thorsteinn Gylfason
Thorsteinn Gylfason
Political philosophers
Philosophers of language
Philosophers of mind
Thorsteinn Gylfason

Þorsteinn Gylfason


A grazer is an animal, usually a herbivorous mammal, which eats grass.  It is contrasted with browsers, which eat trees & shrubs.

The life-style, dentition (teeth), and digestive system of grazers is different from browsers, to handle the problems of eating and digesting grass. This is well illustrated in the evolution of such groups as horses. Ruminants are the largest group of grazers, though many other animals such as giant pandas also graze.

When grazers keep eating grass in an area without giving the plants time to grow back, that is called overgrazing.

Animals by eating behaviors

Grazer


Albert Salomon Anselm Freiherr von Rothschild (29 October 1844 – 11 February 1911)  was a banker in Austria-Hungary and a member of the Rothschild banking family of Austria. Businesses that he owned included Creditanstalt and the Northern Railway.

Personal life
Born in Vienna, he was the youngest son of Anselm von Rothschild (1803–1874) and Charlotte von Rothschild (1807–1859). Known in the family as "Salbert," he was educated in Vienna and Brünn/Brno.

On his father's death in 1874, brothers Nathaniel and  Ferdinand inherited most of their parents real estate and art collection. However, the family business passed to Albert including the S M von Rothschild bank, the single largest shareholding in the Creditanstalt, and the shares in the Northern Railway. After two generations in Austria, communications between his family and the Rothschilds in England had diminished considerably but Albert wisely reinstated the regular exchange of vital information on current economic matters and politics in their respective countries.

In 1876, Albert von Rothschild married his second cousin Baroness Bettina Caroline de Rothschild (1858–1892) of Paris, France, daughter of Alphonse James de Rothschild.  They had seven children. Their firstborn was Georg von Rothschild (22 March 1877 - 10 January 1934). He never married and died in a private mental hospital. The youngest, Oskar von Rothschild (1888–1909), never married and at age 21 committed suicide. Georg and Oskar are buried in the Zentralfriedhof, Vienna.

Albert von Rothschild owned several large properties including the Palais Albert Rothschild at Prinz-Eugen-Straße 20-22, in the IV. district Wieden district of Vienna designed by the French architect Gabriel-Hippolyte Destailleur and built between 1876 and 1882.

In December 1887, Albert and his wife were given the right to be presented at Court, the first time such a privilege had been granted in Austria to Jews. Albert continued the family's involvement in the arts and with philanthropic projects. He was a chess patron who helped to finance the Vienna tournaments of 1873, 1882, 1898, 1903 (Gambit) and 1908. He was also President of the Vienna Chess Association 1872-1883 and a strong amateur player. He took a special interest in institutions that provided assistance to Jewish artists and musicians. Following his wife's death in 1892 at the age of thirty-four, in her memory Albert von Rothschild built the Bettina Frauenspital (Bettina Hospital for Women) and a Bettina Rothschild begonia was named for her. The Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa named the large Main belt asteroid he discovered in 1885 the 250 Bettina in her honor as a benefactor of the Vienna Observatory.

Albert was awarded the Iron Cross of Merit in 1893 for his role in Austro-Hungarian monetary reform.

When his unmarried and childless brother Nathaniel died in 1905, Albert inherited his Palais Nathaniel Rothschild at 14-16 Theresianumgasse in Vienna along with its large collection of art.

Albert Salomon von Rothschild died in Vienna on 11 February 1911 and was interred next to his wife and their six-year-old daughter Charlotte in the city's Zentralfriedhof. In recognition of Albert von Rothschild's years of financial support, the 719 Albert Amor asteroid was named in his memory by astronomer Johann Palisa.

See also
 See the list of references at Rothschild banking family of Austria

External links

1844 births
1911 deaths
Albert Salomon
19th-century Austrian businesspeople
Austrian bankers
Austrian chess players
Jewish chess players
Austrian art collectors
Philanthropists from Vienna
Austro-Hungarian Jews
Burials at the Vienna Central Cemetery
Chess patrons
20th-century Austrian businesspeople
Game players from Vienna

Albert Salomon Anselm von Rothschild


Fly fishing is a method of sport fishing. An artificial fly is cast into the target area with a fly line and fly-fishing rod. This way, the fisherman or woman can catch a lot of fish, both freshwater and marine. Fly fishermen and women use special equipment, such as fly-fishing rod, fly-fishing reel, fly-fishing line, and pitfalls, which are made from natural or synthetic sling materials.

History
Fly fishing probably began in ancient Egypt, but its modern form goes all the way back to the England of the second half of the 19th century. The local fishermen caught fish with live and later artificial insects. This method began to spread to the rest of Europe. National and international competitions and championships were started. This has brought fly fishing to the attention of the public.

Types of fly fishing

Lake fly fishing
Lake fly fishing is done on backwaters and mostly on reservoirs, ponds and lakes. The actual hunt is done either from the bank or from the water, by fording or with the help of vessels like ships.

River fly fishing
River fly fishing is usually done in flowing waters. It is normally done by fording. The fisherman or woman stands in the water dressed in special waders and wading boots. Fishing from the bank is also possible but it is not done very often.

Sea fly fishing
Sea fly fishing is done by fording as well as fishing from a boat.

Dry fly fishing
Dry fly fishing is done with a floating line. The bait floats on the water. The fly often looks like hatched insects or other food on the water surface.

Wet fly fishing
Wet fly fishing is done with all types of fly-fishing lines. The fly is underwater and looks like drowned or newly hatched insects.

Streamer fishing
Streamer fishing is mostly done with sinking fly lines. The flies look like insects or other organisms.

Nymph fishing
Nymph fishing is done with all types of fly-fishing lines. The flies look like young insects.

Fly fishing equipment

Fly-fishing rod is a kind of fishing rod which is designed only for fly fishing. Its purpose is to give enough power to the fly-fishing line, which carries an artificial fly to the hunting area.

The fly-fishing line moves an artificial fly to the place of casting. It is only supposed to be used for fly fishing and with the fly-fishing rod and fly-fishing reel. It is not suitable for other ways of fly fishing because it would be damaged.

The fly-fishing reel is used for storing and backing the fly-fishing line. The fly line is stored in a coil. This coil revolves around its vertical axis in the reel. The fly-fishing line is reeled by moving the coil. The coil is secured with a handle.

Fishing

sv:Sportfiske#Flugfiske

Fly fishing


Gangwon Province or Gangwon-do () was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty.  The province was formed in 1395, and derived its name from the names of the principal cities of Gangneung (강릉; 江陵) and the provincial capital Wonju (원주; 原州).

In 1895, Gangwon-do was replaced by the Districts of Chuncheon (Chuncheon-bu; 춘천부; 春川府) in the west and Gangneung (Gangneung-bu; 강릉부; 江陵府) in the east. (Wonju later became part of Chungju District.)

In 1896, Korea was redivided into thirteen provinces, and the two districts were merged to re-form Gangwon-do Province.  Although Wonju rejoined Gangwon-do province, the provincial capital was moved to Chuncheon (춘천; 春川).

With the division of Korea in 1945, the subsequent establishment of separate North and South Korean governments in 1948, and the conclusion of the Korean War in 1953, Gangwon came to be divided into separate provinces once again: Gangwon Province (South Korea) and Kangwon Province (North Korea).

Notes and References

See also
 History of Korea
 Gangwon Province (South Korea)
 Kangwon Province (North Korea)

Provinces of Korea

Joseon

Gangwon Province (Korea)


Kikuyu is the largest tribe in Kenya. They are 22% of Kenya's population and are of Bantu ethnicity.

History
There are two theories explaining where the Kikuyu came from. First, it is believed the Kikuyus came from Central Africa, where all the Bantus once lived. They then moved south towards present day Tanzania where the migrating group separated again and the Kikuyus moved towards Mount Kenya, where they settled. The second theory is that they came from a mythical place called Shungwaya, which is present day Somalia.

According to Kikuyu creation stories, Ngai (their God) made a man, called Gikuyu, and his wife, Mumbi, and settled them on Mount Kenya. Gikuyu and Mumbi had nine daughters who form the major groups of the Kikuyu people. Due to the fertile soil on Mount Kenya and the hard work of the Kikuyu people, they grew more than they needed and started trading with their neighbours, the Maasai (a Nilotic tribe). The Kikuyus swapped their farm produce and crops for the animal products from the Maasai, who kept livestock. It is also believed that the Maasai are the ones who married the nine daughters of Gikuyu and  Mumbi.

Kikuyu language
Members of the Kikuyu tribe speak the Kikuyu language. The Kikuyu greeting is "Wi mwega?" which means "Are you fine?". There are a few Kikuyu dialects depending on region. Kikuyus from Nyeri, for instance, have other forms of greeting including: "Wakia Maitu" greeting an elderly female, "Wakia Awa" greeting an elderly male, and "Wanyua" for agemates.

The Kikuyu language is also similar to other languages like Meru, Mbeere, and Embu which are believed to have been once part of the Kikuyu tribe but moved away and formed their own tribes. Even though English and Kiswahili are the main languages spoken in Kenya across tribes, the Kikuyu language is still spoken a lot today as a sense of cultural pride.

Famous Kikuyu people
Famous people from this tribe include: Jomo Kenyatta (the first president of Kenya), Mwai Kibaki (the third president of Kenya), Uhuru Kenyatta (current president) and Wangari Maathai (the first African female Nobel Peace Prize winner.)

Other websites
Kikuyu.com
Kikuyu origin

Ethnic groups in Kenya

Kikuyu


The Doge's Palace () is a gothic palace in Venice, northern Italy. The palace was the home of the Doge of Venice, the ruler of the Republic of Venice In 1923 the palace became a museum, one of 11 museums run by the Fondazione Musei Civici di Venezia. In 2010 it was visited by 1,358,186 people.

History
In 810, Doge Angelo Partecipazio moved the government from the island of Malamocco to the Rialto. The first palace was destroyed by a fire in the 10th century, which is in the 900s. A second palace was started by Doge Sebastiano Ziani (1172–1178). There are still parts of this building which can be seen on the ground floor, including stone wall bases and some brick paving. As Venice grew, the palace needed to be rebuilt to meet new demands. For example, changes in the political structure meant there were many more members of the Great Council.

This third palace, in Gothic style, was started about 1340. The first section was on the side facing the lagoon. In 1424 Doge Francesco Foscari built the wing overlooking the Piazzetta. This new building was for the law-courts, with a ground floor arcade on the outside. The first floor had open loggias running along the facade. When the Porta della Carta was built in 1442, it made an internal courtyard.

In 1483, a fire destroyed the Doge's residence which was in the part of the palace overlooking the canal. Architect Antonio Rizzo used the new Renaissance style for the building's architecture. A new building was built alongside the canal, stretching from the ponte della Canonica to the Ponte della Paglia. The official rooms of the government had art works specially made by Vittore Carpaccio, Giorgione, Alvise Vivarini and Giovanni Bellini. A fire in 1547 destroyed some rooms on the second floor. A big fire in 1577 destroyed the Scrutinio Room and the Great Council Chamber. Art work by Gentile da Fabriano, Pisanello, Alvise Vivarini, Vittore Carpaccio, Giovanni Bellini, Pordenone, and Titian were also lost in the fire. The palace was rebuilt in the original gothic style. Some classical features were added, such as the Bridge of Sighs joining the prison to the palace.

The palace was the home of the government of the Republic of Venice until the Napoleonic occupation of the city in 1797. Venice was ruled by the French, then Austria, and in 1866 it became part of Italy. During this time, the palace was used for various government offices, the Biblioteca Marciana and other important cultural institutions within the city.

By the end of the 19th century, the building was showing clear signs of decay. The Italian government spent a lot of money to repair the building. All public offices were moved elsewhere, except the State Office for the protection of historical Monuments, which is still housed at the palace's loggia floor. In 1923, the municipality of Venice set up the palace as a museum. In 1996, the Doge's Palace has been part of the Venetian museums network, which is run by the Fondazione Musei Civici di Venezia since 2008.

The building

Outside

The oldest part of the palace is the facade overlooking the lagoon. The corners of the building have 14th century sculptures by Filippo Calendario, Raverti and Antonio Bregno. The ground floor arcade and the loggia has 14th and 15th century capitals. Some of these are copies made during the 19th century.

The Porta della Carta, was the grand entrance to the building. The gateway was built and decorated by Giovanni and Bartolomeo Bon from 1438–1442. The name Porta della Carta could be because this was the area where public scribes set up their desks, or from the cartabum, where all the important government documents were kept. On either side of the gateway are two gothic towers, with sculptures of the Cardinal Virtues.  On the top is a bust of Saint Mark, and over him is a statue of Justice with her symbols of sword and scales.  In the space above the cornice, there is a sculpture of the Doge Francesco Foscari kneeling before the St. Mark's Lion.  This was made in the 19th century by Luigi Ferrrari, to replace the original destroyed in 1797.

The public entrance to the Doge's Palace is now through the Porta del Frumento, in the waterfront side of the building.

The courtyard
The north side of the courtyard is made by the palace and St. Mark's Basilica, which used to be the Doge's chapel. At the center of the courtyard are two well-heads built in the mid-16th century.

In 1485 a grand staircase was built within the courtyard. Linked to the Porta della Carta, it created a monumental approach from the Piazza into the heart of the building. Since 1567, the Giants' Staircase has been guarded by Sansovino's two huge statues of Mars and Neptune. These show Venice's power by land and by sea, and therefore the reason for its name. Members of the Senate gathered before government meetings in the Senator's Courtyard, to the right of the Giants' Staircase.

Venice
Palaces in Italy
1924 establishments in Europe
1920s establishments in Italy

Doge's Palace, Venice


Wreck Small Speakers on Expensive Stereos was a band from New Zealand consisting of Michael Morley and Richard Ram. During the early 1980s they released numerous cassettes through the Wrecked Music and Every Secret Thing labels. In 1986 the Flying Nun label released their River Falling Love EP, which was reissued in 1993 by the Ajax Records label. The reissue featured bonus tracks culled from their earlier cassettes, some featuring vocals by Denise Roughan of Look Blue Go Purple.  Roughan later went on to form the 3Ds in the late eighties, while Morley went on to perform with The Dead C.

Discography

External links
 Profile and Discography at The Big City
 [ AMG Entry]

New Zealand rock music groups
Flying Nun Records artists
Dunedin Sound musical groups


Baron  was a Japanese military leader and diplomat.

Biography

Early life and education
Ōtori Keisuke was born in Akamatsu Village, in the Akō domain of Harima Province (modern-day Hyōgo), the son of physician Kobayashi Naosuke. At a young age, he entered the Shizutani school in Bizen, engaging in Chinese studies, and continued his education at the renowned Rangaku school of Ogata Kōan, where he studied Dutch language and medicine.  Further learning was obtained in Edo, where Ōtori travelled to attend the school of Tsuboi Tadamasu, known for instructing students engaged in the study and translation of Dutch.  While in Edo he also received education from Egawa Tarōzaemon regarding military strategy, and studied English with Nakahama Manjirō, thus coming into possession of an uncommonly thorough, for his era, appreciation of Western culture.  As a result, in 1859, the Tokugawa shogunate appointed him as an instructor to its Kaiseijo institute, and it was from there that Ōtori entered the shogunate army.

Time in the Tokugawa Army
After entering the Tokugawa army, Ōtori displayed promise as a student, quickly becoming a senior instructor of infantry tactics.  After a period spent as a student of Jules Brunet in Yokohama, learning specifics of French infantry tactics, he was promoted to (), a rank equivalent to a four-star general in a modern Western army.

Ōtori used his status as a respected scholar of Western studies to take the rather unexpected step of making suggestions on governmental reform to the Shōgun. In 1864, he issued a petition expressing his views on the benefits of a bicameral legislature to the government. In his position with the military, Ōtori was able to create of an elite brigade, the Denshūtai, modeled after advice provided by strategists attached to the 1867–68 French military mission to Japan.  Consisting of 800 men, the Denshūtai's members were chosen on the basis of capability rather than background; a matter of particular determination for Ōtori, who remained mindful of his own relatively humble birth.

Boshin War
In the aftermath of military failure at the Battle of Toba–Fushimi in early 1868, Shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu returned to Edo and expressed serious consideration towards pledging allegiance to the new Meiji government.  Otori and Oguri Tadamasa did not intend to lay down their arms without battle, and indicated their intention to continue the war but, following the surrender of Edo Castle, Ōtori gathered 500 men of the Shogunate Army at Hō'on-ji Temple in Asakusa, and left Edo.  Upon arriving in Ichikawa he joined with Hijikata Toshizō of the Shinsengumi, Akizuki Tōnosuke of Aizu, Tatsumi Naofumi of Kuwana, and others, expanding his force to 2000 men. Dividing the infantry into three groups, he ordered them to attack.  One unit was marched towards Nikkō, defeating an Imperial Army detachment on the way at Koyama in Shimotsuke Province. The detached unit under Hijikata had also defeated an Imperial army force at Utsunomiya Castle, and proceeded to enter the castle by way of Koyama.  Ultimately, however, for Ōtori Keisuke, there would be no more military victories.

Upon reaching the domain seat of Wakamatsu, Ōtori's men mounted a fighting retreat while defending the western approaches to Aizu.  In his search for reinforcements, Ōtori unsuccessfully petitioned Matsudaira Katamori to gather peasants from the surrounding villages and, although continuing to remain in the vicinity of Wakamatsu for some time, was eventually forced to retreat in the face of an advance from the Imperial Army, making his way to Sendai. There he met with Enomoto Takeaki, who had arrived in Matsushima Bay with six warships of the former Shogunate. Boarding these ships, the force headed for Hakodate, Hokkaidō.

Soon afterward, the Republic of Ezo was established, and as a result of the first attempt at democratic elections that Japan had ever seen, Ōtori was elected Minister of the Army. However, in terms of battlefield experience, Ōtori was expert mostly in theory; while his second-in-command Hijikata Toshizō was far more experienced in combat, and Ōtori's awkwardness, as well as his tendency to laugh and say Mata maketa yo! ("Oh I lost again!") in the face of defeat gave him a bad reputation with his men.

In the Battle of Hakodate when the Imperial Army surrounded the Goryōkaku fortress, Enomoto Takeaki wanted to go down fighting; however, it was Ōtori who suggested a peaceful surrender, changing Enomoto's mind with his words of "If it's dying you want you can do it anytime."

Ōtori was taken into custody and transferred to a prison in Tokyo; a building which ironically he had built himself as Ōdaira-mae Infantry Barracks.

Later life
While in prison, Ōtori continued to make use of his knowledge of Western learning, to the benefit of his fellow prisoners.  An anecdote recounts that during his imprisonment, he not only reformed the bad habits of the prison director, but also managed to institute a parliamentary system amongst the prisoners.

After his release in 1872, Ōtori agreed to work in the Meiji government, first becoming involved in land reclamation, and later becoming president of the Gakushūin Peers' School in 1886. In 1889, Ōtori was sent as an ambassador to China's Qing dynasty and Korea's Joseon dynasty. He also had an instrumental role in the opening of the First Sino-Japanese War.

Ōtori was also involved in efforts to preserve history. Beginning in 1898, he assisted with the editing and publication of the magazine Kyū Bakufu, which focused on archiving memoirs and accounts of the former Shogunate by the men who had made up its ranks. He also contributed to the building of a monument to the war dead in Hakodate.

Ōtori Keisuke died from esophageal cancer two months after his 78th birthday.

See also
 List of Ambassadors from Japan to South Korea

References

External links
大鳥圭介 at bakusin.com

Japanese military leaders
Japanese diplomats
Japanese educators
19th-century Japanese historians
Samurai
Hatamoto
People of the Boshin War
Military personnel from Hyōgo Prefecture
Deaths from esophageal cancer
Deaths from cancer in Japan
1833 births
1911 deaths
Place of death missing

Ōtori Keisuke


Lester J. Harrison (August 20, 1904 – December 23, 1997) was an American professional basketball player, coach, and team owner and is a member of the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame.

Career
Upon his graduation from East High School in Rochester, New York, in 1923, Harrison began playing, coaching, and organizing semi-professional basketball, working for the Rochester Seagrams and later the Rochester Ebers.

In 1945, with his brother Joseph (Jack), Harrison founded his own semi-pro team, the Rochester Pros; in 1946, the franchise changed its name to Royals and began play in the National Basketball League (NBL).  Harrison oversaw the NBL iteration of his team for three years, with head coach Eddie Malanowicz leading the Royals to three straight NBL finals (of which the team won one, over the Sheboygan Red Skins in 1946) and amassing a record of 99 wins and 43 losses.  In 1946, Harrison, as team owner, signed Long Island University standout Dolly King; King became the first African-American to have played in the league since 1943 and the first to see substantial playing time for his team.

After the 1947–48 season, Harrison moved his team to the Basketball Association of America (BAA), and, after his team spent one year in the BAA, served on the committee that brokered the merger of the BAA and NBL and produced the National Basketball Association (NBA).  Harrison coached the Royals through the 1954–55 season and would retire having led his team to five NBA divisional titles and the 1951 NBA championship when the Royals defeated the New York Knicks in seven games.  He remained owner of the Royals for three more years, relocating the team to Cincinnati, Ohio prior to the 1957 season and selling in 1958.
Harrison coached many Naismith Basketball Hall of Famers, including Bob Davies, Red Holzman, Bobby Wanzer, Al Cervi, Arnie Risen, Pop Gates and Alex Hannum. He also coached Pro Football Hall of Fame quarterback Otto Graham, Chuck "The Rifleman" Connors and Del Rice, an MLB player and the manager of the California Angels in 1972.

Honors
In view of his having been a member of the boards of directors of the NBL, BAA, and NBA, having helped broker the merger of the NBL and BAA, and having been a proponent of the introduction of the 24-second shot clock, Harrison was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame as a contributor in 1980. His induction class included Jerry West, Oscar Robertson, Jerry Lucas, Dallas Shirley and Everett Shelton. In 1990, he was inducted into the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame.

The basketball court at the Blue Cross Arena in Rochester is named in his honor and plays host to the Section V high school basketball tournament each year. It also serves as home court for the Rochester Razorsharks of the Premier Basketball League.

References

External links

 Basketball-Reference.com: Les Harrison

1904 births
1997 deaths
American men's basketball coaches
Basketball coaches from New York (state)
Jewish men's basketball players
Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees
National Basketball Association championship-winning head coaches
National Basketball League (United States) owners
Rochester Royals head coaches
Basketball players from Rochester, New York

Les Harrison (basketball)


Battle of Słobodyszcze or Battle of Slobodyshche took place around 7 and 8 October 1660 during the Russo-Polish War (1654–67) between Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (and their Tatar allies) and the Tsardom of Russia allied Cossacks near Slobodyshche; it ended with a stalemate which was a tactical Polish victory as the Poles were able to continue the siege of Russian encampment at the battle of Chudniv.

Some historians speculate that there was never any battle of Slobodyshche, and it was a mystification created by Cossack leader Yurii Khmelnytsky and Polish commanders (Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski) - Khmelnytsky did not want to aid Russian voivode Vasily Sheremetev who was besieged at Chudniv, and Poles were able to concentrate on that task - there is however no consensus on that variant.

Whether the battle took place or not, Khmelnytsky did not push his Cossacks for an assault on the Polish lines and (suffering from heavy desertions) he decided to enter negotiations with the Poles. The Treaty of Chudniv was signed on 17 October, mostly repeating the 1657 Treaty of Hadyach (although the creation of Grand Duchy of Ruthenia had to be confirmed by the Polish king) and pledging Cossacks allegiance to the Poles.

References
 Łukasz Ossoliński, "Kampania na Ukrainie 1660 roku"; doctoral thesis (University of Warsaw), 1995, available here

Conflicts in 1660
1660 in Europe
Slobodyszcze

Battle of Slobodyshche


Cacus is a character in Roman mythology. He was a hideous, three-headed, fire-belching shepherd who lived in a cave in the Aventine Forest in Italy. His cave was covered with the bones of the people he killed. Human skulls and human arms were hanging above the cave entrance. Cacus' parents were Hephaestus and Medusa.

Hercules had stolen the Geryon's cattle. He was driving the herd through Italy when Cacus crossed his path. Cacus stole some of the animals. He dragged them backwards to his cave to confuse Hercules.

The next morning, Hercules missed the animals at once. He went to Cacus' cave. Cacus had put a huge rock at the entrance but Hercules tossed it aside. Cacus tried to drive Hercules off by belching fire. Hercules grabbed him and "battered his face to a pulp." Hercules put together an altar to Zeus. He later set up his own worship at the site. Some say it was not Hercules who killed Cacus but a huge shepherd named Garanus or Recaranus, a friend of Hercules'.

Notes

References

Other websites

Roman mythology

Cacus


The Fluffer, sebuah filem bebas 2001 A.S., adalah sebuah cerita bersegi tiga pada percintaan obsesif dimuatkan terhadap latar belakang industri video dewasa. The film was written by Wash West and co-directed by West and his life partner Richard Glatzer. The Fluffer mencirikan kameo dari bilangan tokoh dalam industri hiburan dewasa, termasuk Ron Jeremy, pengarah Chi Chi LaRue, Karen Dior, Zach Richards, Derek Cameron, Chad Donovan, Thomas Lloyd, Jim Steel, Chris Green dan Cole Tucker.

The Fluffer adalah pilihan rasmi dan diperdanakan pada 2001 di Internationale Filmfestspiele Berlin (Pesta Filem Antarabangsa Berlin) ke-51. Ia telah dipilih untuk Pesta Filem Antarabangsa Toronto pada tahun itu, di mana ia dibuatkan debut Amerika Utara.

Sinopsis jalan cerita

Sean McGinnis is a 22 year old film student who moves to Los Angeles to break into the movie business. While looking for work, he passes the time watching rented videos. He sets out to watch Citizen Kane, but the videotape has accidentally been switched with an adult movie called Citizen Cum.  Sean becomes instantly obsessed with the star of Citizen Cum, Johnny Rebel. His interest in Johnny leads Sean to turn down work in the mainstream film industry to become a cameraman for Men of Janus, the production company that has Johnny under exclusive contract. On his first shoot, Sean ends up as a "Fluffer" for Johnny, performing (offscreen) oral sex on him to help him maintain an erection and reach orgasm for the "money shot." He learns that Johnny's real name is Mikey, he is "gay for pay" and doesn't perform oral sex on other men or even kiss. Johnny has Sean fluff him on additional productions, and Sean's infatuation continues to grow. He confides his feelings for Johnny to co-worker Silver, who tells him that the relationship is hopeless because Johnny's a porn star and straight. Meanwhile, Johnny's girlfriend Julie, who works as a stripper under her stagename Babylon but who has tried to move into mainstream acting, learns she is pregnant.

Trying to break from Johnny, Sean begins dating an acupuncture student named Brian. However, Brian breaks up with Sean because of his emotional unavailability, the result of his continuing obsession with Johnny.

Johnny's crystal meth use spirals out of control. He goes on a five-day binge and misses a scheduled film shoot. The film's producer Sam Martins forces Sean to fluff Johnny's replacement for the shoot. Johnny shows up late to the set and is fired. Julie decides to get an abortion since she cannot rely on Johnny to help raise a child. She breaks up with Johnny and changes the locks to her apartment.

At the studio an expensive video camera goes missing and company manager Chad Cox is found dead in his apartment. The police seek Johnny, under his real name Michael Rossini, for questioning. Johnny turns to Sean for help, and together they flee to Mexico. Once in Mexico, Sean sells his car for getaway money. Johnny initially denies  involvement in Chad's death but later confesses to Sean that he killed Chad accidentally during a fight over the payoff for stealing the camera for drug money. That night Johnny offers to let Sean service him sexually, but for the first time Sean declines. Sean shares in oblique terms memories of being sexually abused as a child by an adult male neighbor. Johnny starts to cry, saying he can relate because of some of the "fucked up shit" he's been through and that he was made to do things he didn't want to do. Sean comforts Johnny and for the first time calls him "Mikey." They kiss.

When Sean wakes the next morning, Johnny is gone along with all of Sean's money. Sean initially tries to hitchike back to the United States, but ends up accepting an offer to go further south to an idyllic location he had previously suggested he and Johnny visit. Babylon packs up her apartment and drives north away from Los Angeles. Mikey survives in Mexico by committing armed robberies, his new gritty reality counterpointed as Sean reads a fan letter written to Johnny, who remains a figure of fantasy.

Pengeluaran DVD
The Fluffer telah dikeluarkan pada DVD Rantau 1 pada September 20, 2002 (versi R-rated) dan September 28, 2002 (Unrated Special Edition). Perbezaan di antara dua versi adalah sedikit; versi R-rated mempunyai dialog alih suara lebih dengan kurang baris eksplisit dan sedikit kurang kebogelan.

Rujukan

External links

Filem 2001
Filem drama 2000-an
Filem drama Amerika Syarikat
Filem berkaitan-LGBT
Filem mengenai perfileman

The Fluffer


Luis de Florez (March 4, 1889 − November 1962) was a naval aviator and a Rear Admiral in the United States Navy that was actively involved in experimental aerospace development projects for the United States Government. As both an active duty and a retired U.S. Navy admiral, de Florez was influential in the development of early flight simulators, and was a pioneer in the use of "virtual reality" to simulate flight and combat situations in World War II.

Biography

Luis de Florez was from New York City.  De Florez attended MIT, and graduated in 1911 with a B.S. in Mechanical Engineering. He wrote his thesis on the subject of an aircraft problem, titled "Thrust of Propellers in Flight." The Admiral de Florez Design and Innovation Award is named after him, and his son, Peter de Florez, who was an MIT professor, established a $500,000 fund to
foster and encourage activities related to humor at MIT. The de Florez Prize in Human Engineering was established in 1964 at his bequest.

De Florez worked in the United States Navy as a career officer in World War I. He worked in the aviation section of the Navy and also on the development of refinery technology.

In the 1930s, De Florez also worked as an engineering consultant for various oil companies. His name is on several patents, including a 1918 U.S. patent (#1,264,374) for a "Liquid prism device" with rigid closed sides which included a system for varying the density of a medium filling the prism and thereby varying the refraction of light waves passing through the prism, and a 1930 Canadian patent for the "cracking and distillation of hydrocarbon oils". During World War II, he gave up his business to help solve the Navy's training problems.

World War II
In 1941, then Commander de Florez visited the United Kingdom and wrote what would become an influential report on British aircraft simulator techniques. It influenced the establishing of the Special Devices Division of the Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics (what would later become the NAWCTSD).
Later that year, Commander de Florez became head of the new Special Devices Desk in the Engineering Division of the Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics. De Florez championed the use of "synthetic training devices" and urged the Navy to undertake development of such devices to increase readiness. He also worked on the development of antisubmarine devices. De Florez has been credited with over sixty inventions.

During World War II, he was subsequently promoted to captain and then to Flag rank, becoming a rear admiral in 1944.

In 1944, de Florez was awarded the Robert J. Collier Trophy for 1943 for his work in training combat pilots and flight crews through the development of inexpensive synthetic devices.

De Florez was awarded with the Legion of Merit in June 1945.

Post-war
In 1946, Tufts University awarded de Florez an honorary Doctor of Science degree at commencement.

Admiral de Florez was the first director of technical research at the CIA. In 1950, de Florez helped Robert Fulton get a contract with the Office of Naval Research to develop the Fulton surface-to-air recovery system. In 1954, as the CIA's chairman of research, de Florez argued against reprimanding those responsible for the then-secret but now controversial MKULTRA L.S.D. research program.

In the mid-1950s, de Florez was the president of the Flight Safety Foundation.  Presented since 1966, the Foundation's Admiral Luis de Florez Flight Safety Award is named after him. It recognizes "outstanding individual contributions to aviation safety, through basic design, device or practice." De Florez established a trust to support the award that provides each recipient with $1,000.

De Florez worked as an aide to Navy Vice Admiral Harold G. Bowen, Sr., Director of Office of Research and Invention (ORI) (later named ONR).
He also once served as a director of Douglas Aircraft Corp.

Luis de Florez died in November 1962, at the age of 73 in the cockpit of his airplane, which was ready for take-off at a Connecticut airport.  The main building complex at the Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division, Naval Support Activity Orlando, Florida, is named in his honor.

See also
Hispanics in the United States Navy
Hispanic Americans in World War II

References

1889 births
1962 deaths
Collier Trophy recipients
MIT School of Engineering alumni
Members of the Early Birds of Aviation
People of the Central Intelligence Agency
United States Naval Aviators
United States Navy rear admirals
United States Navy personnel of World War I
United States Navy World War II admirals
Recipients of the Legion of Merit

Luis de Florez


Ragnachar or Ragnarius (died 509) was a Frankish petty king (regulus) who ruled from Cambrai. According to Gregory of Tours, Ragnachar "was so unrestrained in his wantonness that he scarcely had mercy for his own near relatives".

According to the Gesta episcoporum Cameracensium, Clovis I and Ragnachar were related through Clovis's mother, Basina, a Thuringian princess.

In 486, Ragnachar allied with Clovis, who was king of the Salian Franks, in order to attack Syagrius, the Roman ruler of the Domain of Soissons. After Clovis was baptised a Christian in 496, about half of the 6,000 or so Frankish warriors who formed the armies of the various reguli refused to join him and cleaved to Ragnachar, still a traditional pagan. Hincmar of Reims writes in his biography of Saint Remigius (who baptised Clovis): "Finally, many of the army of the Franks, not yet converted to the faith, followed the king's relative Ragnachar across the Somme for some distance."

The Gesta says that Ragnachar's unbridled lust extended even to the wives of his close associates. He also discounted the advice of his closet counselors in favor of his favorite courtier Farro. Ragnachar was reputed to divide all the gifts or food he received between himself and his favourite, and have a saying, "Enough for me and my Farro". Those thus offended plotted to be rid of Ragnachar.

The opportunity arose when, in 509, the arrogant Ragnachar denied Clovis entrance into Cambrai. Clovis took advantage of the disaffection and bribed Ragnachar's military followers, his leudes, with "armlets and belts [that were] made to resemble gold [but were only] bronze gilded so as to deceive", and thus deprived him of his support. Clovis then went to war against him.

When Ragnachar's spies came back from observing the movements of Clovis's army, they are reported to have said it was of "sufficient strength for you and your Farro". The leudes captured Ragnachar and his brother Ricchar (Riccar), while they were fleeing after their defeat in battle. They brought them, hands tied behind their backs, to Clovis. Gregory reports that Clovis asked Ragnachar: "Why have you humiliated our family in permitting yourself to be bound? It would have been better for you to die." He then killed him with an axe and told Ricchar, "If you had aided your brother, he would not have been bound", before killing Ricchar in the same way. Ragnachar's other brother, Rignomer, was later killed on Clovis's orders at Le Mans. At their death all of their family's riches and Ragnachar's kingdom passed to Clovis.

When the traitorous leudes complained of having received false gold, Clovis told them that that was their payment for betraying their lord, and that they should be grateful they still had their lives.

Hincmar's account of Ragnachar continues with his subsequent defeat, noting that the leudes followed him "until, the grace of Christ cooperating, the glorious victory obtained, that same Ragnachar, submitting to the shame of baseness, was bound by his own Franks to be handed over; King Clovis killed him and all the people of the Franks by the Blessed Remigius were converted to the faith and received baptism".

Notes

Bibliography
Bachrach, Bernard. Merovingian Military Organization, 481–751. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1972.
Bachrach, Bernard. "Procopius and the Chronology of Clovis's Reign," Viator, 1 (1970), 21–31.
Dill, Samuel. Roman Society in Gaul in the Merovingian Age. London: Macmillan, 1926.
Gregory of Tours. History of the Franks, trans. E. Brehaut, Records of Civilization 2. New York: Columbia University Press, 1916.
Hincmar of Reims. "Vita Remigii episcopi Remensis", trans. B. Krusch, Monumenta Germaniae Historica, SS r. Merov. 3. Hanover, 1896.
Kurth, Godefroi. Clovis, I. Paris, 1896.
Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. The Long-Haired Kings and Other Studies in Frankish History. London: Butler & Tanner, 1962.

6th-century Frankish kings
509 deaths
Frankish warriors
Year of birth unknown
6th-century executions

Ragnachar


Mandaeism or Mandaeanism (Mandaic: Mandaiuta,  Mandā'iyya) is a monotheistic religion. The religion has a  strong dualistic world view.  Its followers, the Mandaeans,  think highly of Adam, Abel, Seth, Enosh, Noah, Shem, Aram and especially John the Baptist.

Originally, Mandaeism was practiced mainly in the countries around the lower Euphrates and Tigris and the rivers that surround the Shatt-al-Arab waterway. Today, this area belongs to Iraq and Khuzestan Province in Iran. Because they were persecuted in that area, many Mandaeans have left that area and now live abroad. This is commonly called diaspora. Most left for Europe, Australia and North America.

There are thought to be between 60,000 and 70,000 Mandaeans worldwide, and until the 2003 Iraq war, almost all of them lived in Iraq. The 2003 Iraq War reduced the population of Iraqi Mandaeans to approximately 5,000 by 2007.  Most Iraqi Mandaeans fled to Syria and Jordan under the threat of violence by Islamic extremists and the turmoil of the war.

The Mandaeans have remained separate and intensely private—what has been reported of them and their religion has come primarily from outsiders, particularly from the Orientalists J. Heinrich Petermann, Nicholas Siouffi, and Lady Ethel Drower.

Mandaean beliefs
Mandeism is the religion of the Mandaean people. It is based on a common history and heritage. There is no fixed set of religious creeds and doctrines. A basic guide to Mandaean theology does not exist. The corpus of Mandaean literature is quite large. It also covers topics such as eschatology, the knowledge of God, and the afterlife. It only does this in an unsystematic manner. Apart from the priests, very few people know it.

Basic beliefs
According to E.S. Drower, the Mandaean Gnosis is characterized by nine features, which also appear in various forms in other gnostic sects:
 There is a supreme entity without form. It expressed itself by creating a number of spiritual, etheric, and material worlds and beings. There is a Creator which came from it, and produced all these worlds and beings. The cosmos is created by Archetypal Man, who produces it resembling to his own shape.
 Dualism: a cosmic Father and Mother, Light and Darkness, Right and Left, syzygy in cosmic and microcosmic form.
 As a feature of this dualism, counter-types, a world of ideas.
 The soul is portrayed as an exile, a captive: her home and origin is the supreme Entity to which she eventually returns.
 Planets and stars influence fate and human beings, and are also places of detention after death.
 A saviour spirit or saviour spirits which assist the soul on her journey through life and after it to 'worlds of light'.
 A cult-language of symbol and metaphor. Ideas and qualities are personified.
 'Mysteries', i.e. sacraments to help and purify the soul, to ensure her rebirth into a spiritual body, and her ascent from the world of matter.  These are often adaptations of existing seasonal and traditional rites to which an esoteric interpretation is attached.  In the case of the Naoreans this interpretation is based on the Creation story (see 1 and 2), especially on the Divine Man, Adam, as crowned and anointed King-priest.
 Great secrecy is enjoined upon initiates; full explanation of 1, 2, and 8 is reserved for those considered able to understand and preserve the gnosis.

Mandaeans believe in marriage and procreation, and in the importance of leading an ethical and moral lifestyle in this world. They put a high priority on family life. Consequently, Mandaeans do not practice celibacy or asceticism. Mandaeans will, however, abstain from strong drink and red meat. They look forward to a future liberated from the influence of the Torah, which they consider to be evil in origin. While they agree with other gnostic sects that the world is a prison governed by the planetary archons, they do not view it as a cruel and inhospitable one.

Mandaean religious texts
The Mandaeans have many religious texts. The most important of them is the Genzā Rabbā or Ginza. The Ginza is a collection of history, theology, and prayers.  The Genzā Rabbā is divided into two halves — the Genzā Smālā or "Left Ginza" and the Genzā Yeminā or "Right Ginza".

Before the printing press was invented, people copied texts by hand. The people doing this were called scribes. Each person's handwriting is special in certain ways. This was the same with scribes. A scribe might join two letters in a certain way, or he might do the dots on those letters that have them in a special way. Jorunn J. Buckley looked at these special marks the copyists left in the Left Ginza. That way he was able to show that the copying of that text goes back to the to the late 2nd or early 3rd century AD. These special marks show that the Mandaeans existed during the late Arsacid period at the very latest. A legend called  Harrān Gāwetā also strengthens this. According to this legend, the Mandaeans left Palestine after the destruction of Jerusalem in the 1st century AD and settled inside the Arsacid empire.  Although the Ginza continued to evolve under the rule of the Sassanians and the Islamic empires, few textual traditions can lay claim to such extensive continuity.

Other important books include the Qolastā, the "Canonical Prayerbook of the Mandaeans," which was translated by E.S. Drower.  One of the most important works of Mandaean scripture is the Draša d-Iahia "the Book of John the Baptist". This book is accessible to both laymen and initiates.  There are also many other religious texts such as ritual commentaries, which are generally only consulted by the members of the priesthood.

The language in which the Mandaean religious literature was originally written is known as Mandaic, and is a member of the Aramaic family of dialects. It is written in a cursive variant of the Parthian chancellory script. The majority of Mandaean lay people do not speak this language. Some members of the Mandaean community in Iran ( about 300-500 out of a total of ca. 5000 Iranian Mandaeans) continue to speak Neo-Mandaic, a modern version of this language.

Chief prophets

Mandaeans have several prophets. Iahia or Iuhana "John the Baptist" has a special status, higher than his role in Christianity and Islam. Mandaeans do not consider John to be the founder of their religion. They only worship him as one of their greatest teachers. They trace their beliefs back to Adam.

Mandaeans maintain that Jesus was a mšiha kdaba "false messiah" who changed the teachings given to him by John. The Mandaic word k(a)daba, however, comes  from two roots: the first root, meaning "to lie," is the one traditionally given to Jesus; the second, meaning "to write," might provide a second meaning, that of "book". Some Mandaeans, who are motivated perhaps by an ecumenical spirit, maintain that Jesus was not a "lying Messiah" but a "book Messiah". The "book" in question presumably being the Christian Gospels. This seems to be a folk etymology without support in the Mandaean texts.

Likewise, the Mandaeans believe that Abraham, Moses, and Muhammad were false prophets, but recognize other prophetic figures from the monotheistic traditions, such as Adam, his sons Hibil (Abel) and Šitil (Seth), and his grandson Anuš (Enosh), as well as Nuh (Noah), his son Sam (Shem) and his son Ram (Aram). The latter three they consider to be their direct ancestors.

Priests and laymen
There is a strict division between Mandaean laity and the priests.  According to E.S. Drower (The Secret Adam, p. ix):
[T]hose amongst the community who possess secret knowledge are called Nauraiia - Naoreans (or, if the heavy '' is written as 'z', Nazorenes).  At the same time the ignorant or semi-ignorant laity are called 'Mandaeans', Mandaiia - 'gnostics'.  When a man becomes a priest he leaves 'Mandaeanism' and enters tarmiduta, 'priesthood'.  Even then he has not attained to true enlightenment, for this, called 'Nairuta', is reserved for a very few.  Those possessed of its secrets may call themselves Naoreans, and 'Naorean' today indicates not only one who observes strictly all rules of ritual purity, but one who understands the secret doctrine.

There are three grades of priesthood in Mandaeism: the tarmidia "disciples" (Neo-Mandaic tarmidānā), the ganzibria "treasurers" (from Old Persian ganza-bara "id.", Neo-Mandaic ) and the rišamma "leader of the people."  This last office, the highest level of the Mandaean priesthood, has lain vacant for many years.  At the moment, the highest office currently occupied is that of the , a title which appears first in a religious context in the Aramaic ritual texts from Persepolis (ca. 3rd c. BCE) and which may be related to the kamnaskires (Elamite <qa-ap-nu-iš-ki-ra> kapnuskir "treasurer"), title of the rulers of Elymais (modern Khuzestan) during the Hellenistic age. Traditionally, any  who baptizes seven or more  may qualify for the office of rišamma, though the Mandaean community has yet to rally as a whole behind any single candidate.

The contemporary priesthood can trace its immediate origins to the first half of the 19th century.  In 1831, an outbreak of cholera devastated the region and eliminated most if not all of the Mandaean religious authorities. Two of the surviving acolytes (šgandia), Yahia Bihram and Ram Zihrun, reestablished the priesthood on the basis of their own training and the texts that were available to them.

Related groups
According to the Fihrist of ibn al-Nadim, Mani, the founder of Manichaeism, was brought up within the Elkasaites (Elcesaites or Elchasaite) sect. The Elkasaites were a Christian baptismal sect which may have been related to the Mandaeans. The members of this sect wore white and performed baptisms like the Mandaeans. They lived in east Judea and northern Mesopotamia. According to the Harran Gawaitā legend, the Mandaeans migrated to southern Mesopotamia from there. Mani later left the Elkasaites to start his own religion. Mandaean scholar Säve-Söderberg showed that Mani's Psalms of Thomas were closely related to Mandaean texts. This would imply that Mani had access to Mandaean religious literature.

Other groups which have been identified with the Mandaeans include the "Nasoraeans", described by Epiphanius, and the Dositheans, mentioned by Theodore Bar Kōnī in his Scholion.  Ibn al-Nadim also mentions a group called the Mughtasila, "the self-ablutionists," who may be identified with one or the other of these groups.  The members of this sect, like the Mandaeans, wore white and performed baptisms.

It is difficult to say if groups such as the Elkasaites, the Mughtasila, the Nasoraeans, and the Dositheans are related to the Mandaeans or to one another.
The names say that there are a number of different groups. Much of the teaching of these groups is secret. This makes it difficult to see the nature of these groups or the relationships between them.

Mandaeans today

Persecution
Under Saddam Hussein, the Mandeans were recognised as a religious minority. Many of them are craftspeople, like smiths or traders of gold and silver. These people belonged to the middle classes. Since the change of government in Iraq, islamic extremists have harassed them. There are also reports of attacks on women who refuse to veil themselves.  Most Iraqi Mandaeans have fled as a result, and the Mandaean community in Iraq faces extinction.

In Iran, Mandeans do not have a problem with violence, but they are prohibited from fully participating in civil life because of  Gozinesh Law.  This law and other gozinesh provisions require a religious screening for people who want to  access employment, education, and a range of other areas. A very important part of this screening procedure is devotion to the tenets of Islam.  These laws are regularly applied to discriminate against religious and ethnic groups that are not officially recognized, such as the Mandaeans.

Many left because of the Iraq War
There were over  60,000 Mandaeans in Iraq in the early 1990s. In 2007,  only about 5,000 to 7,000 remain there; over 80% of Iraqi Mandaeans were refugees in Syria and Jordan. This is a result of the Iraq War.  There are small Mandaean populations in Australia (c. 3,500 as of 2006), Canada, the USA (c. 1,500), the UK (c. 1,000) and Sweden (c. 5,000).

The current status of the Mandaeans has prompted a number of American intellectuals and civil rights activists to call for their government to extend refugee status to the community.  In 2007, the New York Times ran an op-ed in which Swarthmore professor Nathaniel Deutsch called for the Bush administration to take immediate action to preserve the community:

References

Other websites
The first Iranian website about Mandaeism.
Mandaean Association Union - The Mandaean Association Union is an international federation which strives for unification of Mandaeans around the globe.  Information in English and Arabic.
Mandaean World- Information on the Mandaeans including history, the Mandaic language and Literature.
Mandaean scriptures: Ginza Rba and Haran Gawaitha texts and fragments—Take note the book titled Ginza Rba is not the Ginza Rba but is instead "The Canonical Prayerbook of the Mandaeans" as translated by E.S Drower.
Gnostic John the Baptizer: Selections from the Mandæan John-Book: This is the complete 1924 edition of G.R.S. Mead's classic study of the Mandæan John-Book (in The Gnosis Archive collection - www.gnosis.org).
Fragments of a Faith Forgotten by G.R.S. Mead a complete version (with old and new errors), contains information on Mani, Manichaeism, Elkasaites, Nasoraeans, Sabians and other gnostic groups. Published in 1901, still considered authoritative.
Extracts from E. S. Drower, Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran, Leiden, 1962
An Ancient Religion Endangered by Iraq War - A video by News21.
BBC: Iraq chaos threatens ancient faith
BBC: Iraq's Mandaeans 'face extinction'
BBC: Mandaeans - a threatened religion

Esotericism

Mandaeism


The national coat of arms of Armenia consists of an eagle and a lion supporting a shield. The coat of arms combines new and old symbols. The eagle and lion are ancient Armenian symbols dating from the first Armenian kingdoms that existed prior to Christ.

The current coat of arms was adopted on 19 April 1992 by the Armenian Supreme Council decision. On 15 June 2006, the law on the state coat of arms of Armenia was passed by the Armenian Parliament.

Symbolism

Shield
The shield consists of many parts. In the center is an image of Mount Ararat with Noah's Ark sitting on top of it. According to tradition, the ark is said to have finally rested on the mountain after the great flood. Ararat is considered the national symbol of Armenia and so is of significant importance to the coat of arms. Surrounding Mount Ararat are symbols of old Armenian dynasties. In the lower left portion of the shield, there are two eagles looking at each other, symbolizing the length of the Armenian territory during the reign of the Artaxiad Dynasty that ruled in the 1st century BC. In the upper left portion, there is a lion with a cross, the emblem for the Bagratuni dynasty that ruled during the Middle Ages, between 7th and 11th centuries. Under this dynasty, Armenia blossomed culturally, making its capital, Ani, one of the most important cultural, social and commercial centers of its time. Bagratuni was destroyed by the Byzantine Empire's encroachment and by Seljuk invasions in the 11th century AD. In the upper right portion, there is a two-headed eagle, the emblem of the first dynasty to reign over a Christian Armenia, the Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia. Tiridates III of Arsacid Dynasty made Armenia the first Christian nation in 301 AD. This dynasty ruled from the 1st century AD to 428 AD. In the lower right portion, there is a lion with a cross, the emblem of the Rubenid dynasty. This dynasty reigned in Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, a state that expanded and prospered during the 12th and 13th centuries, until the Mamelukes and Turks eventually conquered it.

Eagle and Lion
The eagle supports the shield on the left side of the coat of arms, while the lion on the right side. The eagle was the symbol of the Artaxiad Dynasty and later on the symbol of the Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia. It holds the Artaxiad Dynasty's branch of the shield. Whereas, the lion was the symbol of the Bagratuni Dynasty and later on the symbol of the Rubenid Dynasty. It holds the Rubenid Dynasty's branch of the shield.

Both of these animals were chosen because of their power, courage, patience, wisdom, and nobility in animal kingdom.

Five vital elements
 The sword represents the power and strength of the nation, breaking the chains of oppression.
 The broken chain represents effort shown by the nation to gain freedom and independence.
 The wheat ears represent the hard working nature of the Armenian people.
 The feather represents the intellectual and cultural heritage of the Armenian people.
 The ribbon represents the colors of the flag of Armenia.

History

Coat of arms of the Democratic Republic of Armenia
The present-day Armenian coat of arms has its origins with the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Armenia (DRA) in 1918. In that year, an early variation of the coat of arms was adopted by the DRA. The symbols on this earlier version were placed in a slightly different order and the eagle and lion have their tongues out, giving them a more menacing look. It's also worthy to note that only Mount Ararat (along with Little Ararat) are depicted while Noah's Ark is absent. The coat of arms was designed by architect and member of the Russian Academy of Fine Arts Alexander Tamanian (best known for his work on Yerevan's city plan) and artist Hakob Kojoyan.

Transcaucasian SFSR

In 1922 Armenia was incorporated into Transcaucasian SFSR with Georgia and Azerbaijan. The coat of arms of the Transcaucasian SFSR was adopted by the government of the Transcaucasian SFSR. It is uncertain when exactly it was adopted. It incorporates designs from each of the three major groups that combined in the Transcaucasian SFSR, the Armenians, Azeri and Georgians, and unusually features Islamic art and communist elements side by side. The latticework in the star itself bespeaks the former coat of arms of Georgia from 1918 to 1921 and adopted again from 1991 to 2004; the crescent moon represents the Muslim Azeris, on a background depicting the national symbol of the Armenians, Mount Ararat.

Soviet coat of arms

In 1937, a new coat of arms was adopted. Like the DRA coat of arms, this coat showed Mount Ararat along with the Soviet hammer and sickle and red star behind it. The inclusion of Ararat brought objections from Turkey because the mountain is part of its territory. The Kremlin retorted that although the Turkish symbol was the crescent, it did not mean that they laid claim to the moon. The Soviet Union broke apart in 1991 and Armenia thus became an independent republic.

Bald eagles, like other eagles worldwide, had been seen by many as symbols of strength, courage, freedom and immortality for generations.

Related pages
 Flag of Armenia

References

Other websites
 Coat of arms of Armenia
 The Evolution of the Armenian Flag and Coat of Arms
 Armenica.org - Symbolic values and information about the Armenian flag and coat of arms
 National Coat of Arms of the Republic of Armenia - Official website
 Atlas of Conflicts: Examples of Old Armenian Heraldy

Armenia
National symbols of Armenia

Coat of arms of Armenia