A marine is a member of a military force. Marines specialize in military actions in other countries, such as amphibious warfare.  Marines usually have strong links with the country's navy.  The commander in the field is usually the commander of the fleet.  Support for the marines such as medical, legal, and supplies come from the navy. The anchor is often used as a symbol for the marines. The word marine is from the English word marine, meaning of the sea, from the French marin(e), of the sea which was from the Latin marinus ("maritime"). The name marine means "navy" in French, Dutch, and German. Marine forces are usually part of the navy, but they can be part of the army or act on their own.

In the past the marines have protected ships at sea.  When ship crews were pressed (forced to serve) the marines protected the ship from mutiny.  They would also board other ships during battle or capture prize ships.  They carried out raids on the shore to help the navy.  Marines would also take part in campaign ashore, to help the army.

History

In the earliest days of naval warfare, there was little difference between sailors and soldiers on a warship. The oarsmen of Ancient Greek and Roman ships had to be able to fight the oarsmen of other ships. Armed soldiers were used on Greek ships to get on board enemy ships to fight their crews. The Roman Navy's two legions, I Adiutrix and II Adiutrix, were among the first special naval infantry units.

The first organized group of marines was created when Charles V first assigned the naval infantry of the Compañías Viejas del Mar de Nápoles (Naples Sea Old Companies) to the Escuadras de Galeras del Mediterráneo (Mediterranean Galley Squadrons) in 1537. This was the start of the current Spanish Navy Marines (Infantería de Marina) corps. The American Marine Corps began on 10 November 1775 in Tun Tavern, Philadelphia, just seven months before America declared its independence on 4 July 1776.

Roles

The main task for marine troops is military actions near the coast. Based on ships they are trained to land on and secure key points to around 50 miles inland. Marines leave the warships using helicopters, landing craft, hovercraft and amphibious vehicles.

Marines are also in other naval roles such as boarding other ships, ship clean up, naval port security, mess duty, and field day operations.

By country

Argentina
The Argentine Marine Corps (Infantería de Marina de la Armada de la República Argentina or IMARA) is a part of the Argentine Navy. It has a Fleet Marine Force with one marine battalion, artillery, air defence, communications, logisticss, engineer and vehicle units. There is a Southern Marine Force with two marine battalions, a river operations battalion, a special forces unit (the Amphibious Commandos Group) and several security battalions and companies. The 5th Battalion of the Infanteria de Marina fought in the Falklands War ().

Australia
 Several of the colonies of Australia had volunteer naval infantry forces in the second half of 19th century. The Victorian Naval Brigade was formed in 1859, the Sydney Naval Brigade in 1864, the Queensland Naval Brigade in 1873 and the Naval Artillery Volunteers in 1897 (New South Wales). After the Federation of Australia they became the Commonwealth Naval Militia. When the Royal Australian Navy began in 1911 the volunteers were renamed the Royal Australian Naval Brigade. In 1915 it had 2,817 officers and men. The Naval Brigade was disbanded in 1920 and volunteers joined the Royal Australian Naval Reserve.
 The 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment of the Australian Army will be retrained as marines by 2014.

Bolivia
 The Bolivian Naval Force has about 2,000 naval infantry soldiers and marines.

Brazil

 The Corps of Naval Fusiliers (Corpo de Fuzileiros Navais), with about 15,000 men, is part of the Brazilian Navy. The Marine Corps has an Operational Brigade and some Guard and Ceremonial Duty Battalions. The main unit is the brigade-sized Divisão Anfíbia (Amphibious Division).

Cambodia
 The Royal Cambodian Navy had a force of 2,000 marines in 2007.

Chile

 The Chilean Corps of Naval Infantry (Cuerpo de Infanteria de Marina) is a part of the Chilean Navy. They specialise in amphibious assaults and belong to the Chilean Special Forces Unit, along with the Combat Divers. The Corps has four units, organized along the Chilean territory. Each unit has its own anti-aircraft guns, artillery and landing craft.

China, People's Republic of
People's Liberation Army Marine Corps

China, Republic of
Republic of China Marine Corps

Colombia
 The 24,000-member Colombian Marine Corps is a single division with four brigades (one counter-terrorist and three river brigades), each with several battalions as well as small security units. It is a part of the Colombian Navy.

Croatia
 The Croatian Navy has a 200-man naval infantry corps headquartered in Split. The group has three companies divided between Pula, Šibenik and Ploče and the 4th Guards Brigade (based at Split), which was moved to the Croatian Navy as a naval infantry unit in January 2002.

Cuba
 The Cuban Revolutionary Navy (Marina de Guerra Revolucionaria or MGR) has a small marine battalion called the Desembarco de Granma.

Ecuador
 The 5,000-man Ecuadorian Navyhas a 1,700-man Naval Infantry Corps (Cuerpo de Infanteria de Marina) in Guayaquil. It was formed on 12 November 1962. It has two security battalions, one in the Amazon River area and the other on the Pacific coast. There is also a commando battalion based on the Galápagos Islands.

El Salvador
 The El Salvador Navy has two 600-man Marine Infantry Battalions (Batallon de Infanteria de Marina or BIM), and a 300-man Naval Commando Force. The BIMs were located at La Unión and Usulatan.

Finland

 The Finnish Uusimaa Brigade () in Ekenäs is part of the Finnish Navy and trains the Finnish Marine Commandos, known as coastal jaegers. It is the only Swedish-speaking unit in the Finnish Defence Forces.

France

 The Fusiliers Marins (Sailor-Riflemen) are navy sailors. They protect ships and coastal installations. Out of their ranks come the navy special forces Commandos Marine (Naval Commandos.)

 Troupes de marine or "Marine Troops", are a part of the French Army. Troupes de Marine and the Foreign Legion are the only units of the French army permanently based in Africa, one regiment in Djibouti, one battalion in Senegal, one battalion in Ivory Coast (until 2009, now forming the core of Operation Unicorn), one battalion in Gabon, as well as bases in the French Overseas territories. The Troupes de Marine has infantry (Infanterie de Marine), paratroopers and light cavalry, and artillery (Artillerie de Marine). They provide the ground soldiers for French amphibious task forces and are specially trained for that purpose. The 9th Marine Brigade (9e Brigade Légère Blindée de Marine (9 BLBMa)) works with the 3 Commando Brigade of the Royal Marines, exchanging officers, sharing training and exercises.

Germany

The Spezialisierte Einsatzkräfte Marine (Naval Special Deployment Force) is a special operations group of the German Navy. The battalion includes the Kampfschwimmerkompanie (German commando frogmen), the Minentaucher kompanie and a boarding-company. The unit is based at Eckernförde.
The Marineschutzkräfte (Naval Protection Force) protects of naval bases and facilities. The battalion is based in Eckernförde and has five units: one staff and support company, three infantry companies and a military intelligence platoon.

Greece
The Greek 32nd Marine Brigade "Moravas" (32η Ταξιαρχία Πεζοναυτών Mοράβας) and the Amphibious Raider Squadrons (known as MAK) are naval infantry and maritime operations forces in the Hellenic Army and supported by the Hellenic Navy.

Honduras
 The Honduran Navy set up one 600-man marine infantry battalion (Batallón de Infantería de Marina or BIM) in 1982.

India
The Indian Navy has an elite special operations unit called "MARCOS" (Marine Commandos). They carry out secret activities and counter-terrorism, specializing in sea-based land warfare. Also, they provide support to Indian Army units in specialized areas, such guarding Jammu and Kashmir's Wular lake. This unit was established in 1986, and has about 2000 marines.
The Indian Army also has the 340 Independent Infantry Brigade (Amphibious), part of the 12 Corps (Jodhpur, Rajasthan) of the South Western Command.

Indonesia
The Indonesian Marine Corps (Korps Marinir TNI AL), is a part of the Indonesian Navy started on 15 November 1945, which has:
1. Two Marine Forces ("Pasukan Marinir"), a unit similar to a division, led by a Marine Brigadier General.
2. Three Marine Infantry Brigades (with nine Marine Infantry Battalions).
3. Two Marine Cavalry Regiments (with Marine Amphibious Tank and also Amphibious Artillery-bearer Landing Craft Battalions).
4. Two Marine Artillery Regiments (with Marine Rocket, Howitzer and Gun Battalions).
5. Two Marine Combat Support Regiments, with Marine Engineer, Military Police, Base Defense, Motorized Transportation, Amphibious-Reconnaissance and also Logistic Battalions.
6. Two Marine Bases in Jakarta and Surabaya.
7. Two Marine Hospitals.
8. An anti-terrorism unit called "Detasemen Jala Mangkara" (literally "Sea Ghost Detachment").

Iran
At the fall of the Shah in the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the Imperial Iranian Navy had three battalions of marines. That force has since grown to 2,600 marines in two marine brigades each of three marine battalions. These two brigades have also been reported as three marine battalions in the Islamic Republic of Iran Navy (which may be part of the Iranian Army).
The Navy of the Revolutionary Guard Corps has several units with marine-type functions, with at least one 5,000 man brigade of three or four marine battalions. They also have a Takavar Naval Commando Battalion

Iraq
The Iraqi Navy is a small force with 800 sailors and six platoons of marines designed to protect the shoreline and inland waterways. The navy also protects offshore oil platforms. The navy will have coastal patrol squadrons, assault boat squadrons and a marine battalion. The force will consist of 2,000 to 2,500 sailors by 2010.

Israel
 The Givati Brigade is an amphibious force and is one of the infantry brigades in the Israel Defense Forces.
 Shayetet 13 is the elite commando unit of the Israeli Navy. It carries out special operations at sea, sea-to-land missions, maritime intelligence gathering, and counter-terrorism operations.

Italy

Italian Navy
The San Marco Regiment is a marine unit of the Italian Navy (Marina Militare).
COMSUBIN (Commando Raggruppamento Subacquei ed Incursori Teseo Tesei) is the elite combat frogman force of the Navy and one of the Italian special forces.
Italian Army
The Serenissima Regiment is the marine infantry unit of the Italian Army (Esercito Italiano). Its soldiers are called Lagunari.

Japan
The JSDF has brigades operated similar to marines:
JGSDF 13th Brigade
JGSDF Western Army Infantry Regiment (Ranger), in Sasebo

South Korea
 The Republic of Korea Marine Corps is the marine corps of the Republic of Korea, and is the second largest marine corps in the world with approximately 30,000 men in regular service and thousands more in reserve. Though theoretically it is under the direction of the Chief of Naval Operations, the Marine Corps operates as a distinct arm of the South Korean forces, unlike most other marine branches, which generally operate as part of the country's navy. It was founded as a reconnaissance force just prior to the start of the Korean War.  The ROKMC also saw combat during the Vietnam War while stationed in Da Nang, occasionally fighting alongside US Marines and Navy SEALs. The ROKMC has hovercraft of Russian and American origin, 107 tanks including the indigenous K1 and an upgraded variant of the M48A5, various utility vehicles and ships, and a variety of helicopters (notably the AH-1 Cobra). Their motto is '귀신 잡는 해병대'. (Loosely translated 'Ghost-catching/killing Marines)

North Korea
 The NKPA's Light Infantry Training Guidance Bureau has two or more amphibious light infantry/sniper brigades. These brigades are believed deployed to Wonsan on the east coast and Namp'o and Tasa-ri on the west coast. In organization and manpower, they are reduced versions of the regular light infantry brigades with a total strength of approximately 5,000 men organized into ten battalions. Each battalion has about 400 men organized into five companies each. Some amphibious brigade personnel are trained as frogmen.

Mexico
 The Mexican Naval Infantry (Spanish: Infantería de Marina) of the Mexican Navy consists of 20,000 marines spread in a brigade of three battalions, plus a battalion attached to the Presidential Guard Brigade, three regional battalions with headquarters in Mexico City, Acapulco and Veracruz, and thirty-five independent companies (mainly In Celaya) and detachments distributed among ports, bases and zonal headquarters. The marines are responsible for port security, protection of the ten-kilometer coastal fringe, and patrolling major waterways. The marines have light arms, heavy weapons and armored amphibious vehicles. The Navy has ceded most of its riverine responsibilities to the Army, and has reduced the size of the marine force, putting them back aboard ships where they play a vital role in drug interdiction and boarding of suspect vessels in territorial waters.

Myanmar
 The Myanmar Navy raised a naval infantry battalion of 800 men in 1964, followed by a second battalion in 1967. Two more battalions may have also been raised. They were deployed mainly to the Arakan and Tenasserim areas, and to the Irrawaddy delta, to assist in counter-insurgency operations, but also performed other security duties.

Netherlands
 The Royal Netherlands Navy naval infantry unit is the Royal Netherlands Marine Corps (Korps Mariniers), founded in 1665 as an infantry regiment to the Dutch Navy. Today, it is a brigade approximately 3500 marines strong, consisting of three marine infantry battalions (one of which is in Aruba and Curaçao), one amphibious combat support battalion and one logistical battalion. The Dutch Marine Corps is an elite light infantry unit, operating as a rapid-reaction force, deployable anywhere in the world within 48-hours notice. Dutch Marines train in all possible geological and climate conditions for their role.  Enlisted marine recruit training lasts 30 weeks, and marine officers train up to five years (including naval academy time).

Norway
 The Coastal Ranger Command (Kystjegerkommandoen or KJK) of the Norwegian Navy is an amphibious unit trained to operate in littoral combat theatres, as naval infantry and coastal artillery.

Pakistan

 The Pakistan Marines division of the Pakistani Navy was re-established on April 14, 1990 with about 2000 men and plans to expand the force significantly by 2015. The marines are based at PNS Qasim naval base. The Pakistan Marine Corps assisted in the recovery efforts following the country's floods in 2010.

Paraguay
 The Paraguayan Marine Corps (Cuerpo de Fusileros Navales) is a battalion-sized organization consisting of four company sized brigades.

Peru
 The Peruvian Naval Infantry (Infantería de Marina del Perú) consists of around 3,000 naval infantrymen and includes an amphibious brigade of three battalions and local security units with two transport ships, four tank landing ships, and about forty Chaimite armored personnel carriers. Since 1982, IMAP detachments have been deployed, under army command, in counter-insurgency operations.

Philippines

 The Philippine Marine Corps (PMC) has a strength of about 10,000 men divided into three brigades. The Philippine Marine Corps is considered the shock force of the armed forces and is the first unit to be involved in any amphibious or seaborne clashes.

Poland
 The Polish Navy maintains several naval infantry units responsible for port and coastal security.
 The Polish Army maintains the 7th Coastal Defense Brigade, which bears traditions of the disbanded 7th Coastal Defence Division (the Blue Berets), therefore it is sometimes referred to as the Marines of Poland. However, as of 2010 there are no plans by the Polish Army to create an active marine unit. Therefore, the 7th Brigade carries out only limited-scale exercises of amphibious assaults.

Portugal
 Since 1621, the Portuguese Navy has maintained a naval infantry corps, which is currently known as Corpo de Fuzileiros. The Portuguese Marine Corps consists of about 1500 men, including two naval infantry battalions, a naval police unit, a special operations unit and several support units (logistical, fire support, landing craft, etc.).

Romania
 The 307th Marine Battalion (Batalionul 307 Infanterie Marină) is the light infantry/reconnaissance unit of the Romanian Naval Forces. It is located in Babadag, Tulcea County, and was formed in the mid 1970s for the defence of the Danube Delta and Romanian Black Sea shore.

Russia

 The Russian Naval Infantry, () are the amphibious forces of the Russian Armed Forces. The naval infantry includes the 65th Naval Infantry Brigade of the Russian Pacific Fleet, the independent brigades of the Northern and Baltic Fleets and of the Caspian Military Flotilla, and the independent regiment of the Black Sea Fleet.

Saudi Arabia
 The Saudi Navy maintains two 1500-man marine brigades consisting of three battalions each. The brigades are assigned to the Western Fleet headquartered in Jeddah and the Eastern Fleet headquartered in Jubail. The brigades have 200 Pegaso BMR AFVs and HMMWVs.

South Africa
 The South African Navy's new Rapid Reaction Squadron is a marine type unit. It is planned that this squadron will eventually be a battalion sized unit. Currently it consists of roughly two companies. Members are sailors and use naval ranks. They are trained in infantry combat up to company sized operations. They are also used for crowd control and conduct peacekeeping operations. During peacekeeping operations they are meant to augment an army infantry battalion. Their role is very similar to the now disbanded South Africa Marine Corps.

Spain

 The Spanish Navy Marines (Infantería de Marina) are the oldest existing marine force in the world, as they were established on February 27, 1537, by Charles I when he permanently assigned the Compañías Viejas del Mar de Nápoles (Naples Old Sea Companies) to the Escuadras de Galeras del Mediterráneo (Mediterranean Galley Squadrons). Their red trouser stripes mark the Infanteria de Marina as part of the Royal Household Corps, an honor only shared with the Royal Guard, and were given by Charles III to the marines in reward for their fierce defence of the Castillo del Morro in Havana against the British fleet in 1763.

Sri Lanka
Special Boat Squadron is the elite special operations unit of the Sri Lanka Navy. It is capable of carrying out amphibious raids/operations, maritime counter-terrorism, reconnaissance and target indication, combat swimmer missions and small boat operations. As a special forces unit, its role is not limited to water-borne operations. It also conducts operations on land, either with ground combat units of the Navy and the Army, or separately.
Naval Patrolmen are naval infantry units of the Sri Lanka Navy. It may be 2-3 battalions strong. These units were formed primary as a protective force for base and port security, but has since been trained and deployed for amphibious and land combat operations. In addition to having light arms, the patrolmen have 60mm, 82mm mortars and operate Unibuffel light armored vehicles.

Sweden
 The Swedish Amphibious Corps (Svenska amfibiekåren) is an arm of the Swedish Navy. The Corps consists of six battalions, capable reconnaissance, amphibious assaults and combat on, over and under the surface of the sea.

Taiwan
 The Republic of China Marine Corps (traditional Chinese:) is responsible for amphibious combat, counter-landing and reinforcement of the main island of Taiwan, remote islands, defense of ROCN facilities, and also functions as a rapid reaction force and a strategic reserve.

Thailand
Royal Thai Marine Corps (RTMC)

Tonga
Royal Tongan Marines in Tongan Navy (Tonga Defence Services)

Turkey
The Amphibious Marines Brigade (Amfibi Deniz Piyade Tugayı) of the Turkish Navy consists of 6,000 men based in Foça near İzmir, three amphibious battalions, an MBT battalion, an artillery battalion, a support battalion and other company-sized units.
The Su Altı Taarruz (SAT) of the Turkish Navy is a special operations force for underwater attack. The missions include the acquisition of military intelligence, amphibious assault, counter-terrorism and VIP protection.
The Su Altı Savunma (SAS) of the Turkish Navy is a special operations force for underwater defense.

Ukraine

The Ukrainian Marines was founded in 1993 from a unit of the former Soviet Naval Infantry.

United Arab Emirates
 The UAE Marines is a battalion-sized unit; it has BTR-3s.

United Kingdom

 The Royal Marines (RM) were formed in 1664 and are a part of the UK Naval Service. They have the longest infantry training in the world, which stands at 32 weeks for an enlisted recruit and 64 weeks for an officer recruit. They include a commando brigade (3 Commando Brigade RM), a naval security unit responsible for guarding Britain's naval nuclear weapons and other security duties (the Fleet Protection Group RM), a landing craft and boat-training group which is also a parent unit for three landing craft units deployed on amphibious-support ships, a naval special forces unit (the Special Boat Service) and a naval band service (Royal Marines Band Service).

United States

The United States Marine Corps (USMC) is the largest marine force in the world, responsible for many United States expeditionary operations.  They were created in 1775 to guard naval vessels during the American Revolutionary War.  While the USMC is a component part of the Department of the Navy in the military command structure, it is a military branch separate from the United States Navy.  The USMC also provides security guards at U.S. diplomatic posts throughout the world.  They also provide helicopter transportation for the President of the United States aboard Marine 1. Their motto is Semper Fidelis, "always faithful".  And mascot Chesty the Bulldog after receiving another title from the Germans after the battle of Belleau Wood "Teufelshunde" meaning Devil Dogs.

Uruguay
 The Uruguayan Marine Corps (Cuerpo de Fusileros Navales or FUSNA) is a battalion-sized organization consisting of four company sized brigades.

Venezuela
 The Venezuelan Marine Corps (Infantería de Marina) is a sub-division of the Venezuelan Navy. Headquartered in Meseta de Mamo, Vargas, the estimated numerical strength of this unit is approximately 8,000 men and women. Its mission is to "enlist and direct its units in order to form the disembarking force and/or support of amphibious or special operations; executing naval safeguarding and environmental policing, as well as actively participating in the national development".

Vietnam
 The Vietnam People's Navy maintains a naval infantry force. It once stood at eleven brigades each of several battalions. The first naval infantry unit was established in 1975 and was known as the 126th Brigade. Currently the Vietnam People's Navy maintains two naval infantry brigades which are the 101st Brigade and 147th Brigade.

Historical marine forces

Ancient Greece
The ancient Greek states did not possess specialized marine infantry, instead they used hoplites and archers as an onboard contingent (epibatai).

Ancient Rome
The Roman Navy used regular infantry as marines. Naval personnel were trained for raiding and also provided the troops for at least two legions (I Adiutrix and II Adiutrix) for service on land. The various provincial fleets were usually provided with marines from the adjacent legions.

Byzantine Empire
For several centuries, the Byzantine navy used the descendants of the Mardaites, who were settled in southern Anatolia and Greece, as marines and rowers for its ships. Emperor Basil I also established a separate marine regiment, 4,000 strong, for the central Imperial Fleet based at Constantinople. These were professional troops, and were counted among the elite tagmata.

In the 1260s, when emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos rebuilt the navy, he recruited the Tzakones (settlers from Laconia) and the Gasmouloi (men of mixed Greek-Latin descent) as special marine troops. Despite the progressive decline and virtual disappearance of the navy, they remained active until the late Palaiologan period.

Confederate States of America
The Confederate States Marine Corps (CSMC), a branch of the Confederate States Navy, was established by the Confederate Congress on 16 March 1861.

Denmark-Norway
Marineregimentet (The Marine Regiment) was the naval infantry of the Royal Dano-Norwegian Navy.

Estonia
The Meredessantpataljon, was a short lived infantry battalion of the Estonian Navy. The battalion was created in 1919 from the crews of the Estonian surface warships and was based in Tallinn. The unit was mainly used on the Southern Front during the Estonian War of Independence. The unit was operational from March to June in 1919.

France

The Troupes de marine were founded in 1622 (as compagnies ordinaires de la mer) as land forces under the control of the Secretary of State of the Navy, notably for operations in French Canada. The Compagnies de la Mer were transformed in line infantry regiments by Napoleon, but became once more marine forces in 1822 (for the artillery) and 1831 (for the infantry). These Troupes de marines were in the 19th century the main overseas and colonial forces of the French military. In 1900 they were put under the orders of the War Ministry and took the name of Troupes Coloniales (Colonial Forces). In 1958 the designation of Troupes Coloniales was changed to Troupes d'Outre-Mer (Overseas Forces) but in 1961 it reverted to the original Troupes de marine. Throughout these changes in title these troops continued to be part of the French Army.

Gran Colombia
The Confederation of Gran Colombia Marines were formed in 1822 and were disbanded in 1829, Personnel were mostly from Venezuela.

Germany
German Empire: During the German Imperial era, three 'sea battalions' or Seebatallione based at Kiel, Wilhelmshaven and Tsingtao were maintained. These units served intermittently as colonial intervention forces. The III Seebatallion at the imperial navy's east Asian station at Tsingtao was the only all-German unit with permanent status in a protectorate/colony. The battalion fought at the Siege of Tsingtao.
East Germany: The East German army's Nr29. Regiment ("Ernst Moritz Arndt") was a Motorized Rifle Regiment intended for amphibious operations in the Baltic Sea; while the Volksmarine Kampfschwimmer: Combat swimmer units were intended for support of amphibious operations and for raiding.

Iraq
The old Iraqi Navy maintained several marine companies.
The Iraqi Republican Guard maintained a Marine Brigade as part of its 8th As Saiqa Special Forces Division. The brigade had Brazilian made Engesa EE-11 Urutu wheeled armored personnel carriers.

Italy
The Blackshirts militia maintained an independent Marine Group with four MVSN battalions (24th, 25th, 50th and 60th).

Japan

Both the Imperial Japanese Navy and Army maintained marine-type units. Both were dissolved at the end of World War II and Japan no longer has marines.
The Imperial Japanese Navy's Land Forces maintained several combat units.
Special Naval Landing Forces were the Empire of Japan's Marine Corps.
The IJN also maintained the Guard Forces (keibitai) and Defense Units (bobitai), both of whom also received amphibious assault and beach defence training. However, their performance was poor or average when they were used as assault troops.
 The Imperial Japanese Army's 3,500 man Sea-Landing Brigades (1st to 4th) were used to conduct amphibious assaults on an island, but afterwards they stayed to garrison that island.

Lebanon
The Lebanese Forces militia maintained a small elite marine unit until the LF was disarmed and disbanded the unit. The Marines were the navy of the militia and it maintained a force of small boats.

The Netherlands
The Corps was founded on 10 December 1665 during the Second Anglo-Dutch War by the unofficial leader of the republic Johan de Witt and Admiral Michiel de Ruyter as the Regiment de Marine. Its leader was Willem Joseph Baron van Ghent. The Dutch had successfully used ordinary soldiers in ships at sea in the First Anglo-Dutch War. It was the fifth European marine unit formed, being preceded by the Spanish Marines (1537), the Portuguese Marines (1610), the French Marines (1622) and the English Royal Marines (1664). Like Britain, the Netherlands has had several periods when its Marines were disbanded. The Netherlands itself was under French occupation or control from 1810 until 1813. A new marine unit was raised on 20 March 1801 during the time of the Batavian Republic and on 14 August 1806 the Korps Koninklijke Grenadiers van de Marine was raised under King Louis Bonaparte. The modern Korps Mariniers dates from 1814, receiving its current name in 1817.

The battle honors on the Korps Mariniers' colors are: Raid on the Medway (1667), Kijkduin (1673), Sennefe (1674), Spain, Dogger Bank (1781), West Indies, Algiers (1816), Atjeh, Bali, Rotterdam (1940), Java Sea (1942), Java and Madoera (1947–1948), and New Guinea (1962).

Ottoman Empire
The role of Ottoman naval infantry originated in Orhan's conquest of the Karasi Beylik and the capture of its fleet. From then on Janissaries and Azaps were sometimes deployed as marines during the 14th Century. The Deniz azaps were used during the 16th Century; while troops called Levend (Bahriyeli) were raised on and off over the centuries - over 50,000 of them by the late 18th century. The last raised units were the Ta'ifat al Ru'sa (corsair captains militia) recruited from among the North African Arabs and indigenous Berbers. Ottoman marines were part of the Ottoman navy.

Portuguese Empire
Portugal raised numerous companies of Special Marines (Fuzileiros Especiais) and African Special Marines (Fuzileiros Especiais Africanos), both at home and in the African colonies of Guinea-Bissau, Angola and Mozambique, for service in Africa during the Portuguese Colonial Wars. The African Special Marines were all-black units.

Russia
The Imperial Russian Navy used several regiments of marine equipage troops that fought as much on land as they served in ship detachments.  One battalion was formed within the Guard, and served on the Imperial family's ships.

The Ushkuiniks were medieval Novgorodian pirates who led a Viking-like life and often raided other Russian settlements.

Soviet Union

The Soviet Navy had a number of small battalion-sized naval infantry and coastal defence units that mostly served in the ports and bases before the Second World War. During the war, and building on the visuals of the mutinied sailors of Petrograd in 1917, the Stavka ordered formation of naval infantry brigades from the surplus to either ship or shore duty sailors, and forty brigades served in mostly ground troops roles until 1944 when they were used for amphibious operations in Norway and along the Black Sea coast.

South Africa
The South Africa Marine Corps was set up as a sub-branch of the South African Navy in 1979, with the primary purpose of protecting harbours. The Marines were disbanded in 1989, following a major restructuring of the Navy at the end of the South African Border War.

United Kingdom
 The Royal Marines date from the establishment of a Maritime Regiment of Foot in 1664. Six regiments of Marine Regiments for Sea were formed in 1702 but by 1713 they had been disbanded or taken into the army as regiments of foot. In 1755, a permanent Corps of fifty companies of marines was established for direct service under the Admiralty and this force has an unbroken descent to the Royal Marines of today. See History of the Royal Marines.
 The Royal Navy has since its beginning formed naval landing parties of seamen for action ashore, this being later formalised into the Naval Brigades. These brigades would often dismount guns from their parent vessels for use ashore, these guns often being the only artillery available. The most famous example of this form of land service was provided by the guns accompanying the forces relieving Ladysmith.
 The Corps of Colonial Marines were raised from former slaves as auxiliary units of the Royal Marines for service in the Americas: Two of these units were raised and subsequently disbanded. The first was a small unit which existed from 1808 to 12 October 1810, the second was more substantial and existed from May 1814 to 20 August 1816.
 The Royal Naval Division was part of the Royal Navy in the First World War. In 1914, the shortage of ground forces for the Western Front led to the creation of the Division, composed of two brigades of sailors and a brigade formed by the Royal Marines. The Division was part of the Royal Navy but for command purposes was integrated into the army's command structure. The sailors were initially disappointing as infantry, but eventually developed into one of the better divisions. The Division participated in the defence of the Belgian city of Antwerp in late 1914, and then served with heavy casualties at the Battle of Gallipoli. At different times the Division included various army units. The division ceased to exist after the end of the First World War.

United States
Gooch's Marines, the 61st Foot, raised in the American colonies for the War of Jenkins' Ear in 1739. This was a 3,000 man American regiment of the British Army that served alongside British Marines. Among its officers was Lawrence Washington, half-brother of George Washington. It was disbanded as a regiment in 1742 and the remaining independent companies were merged with another regiment in 1746.
Nobel Jones' Company of Marine Boatmen of the Georgia militia also fought in the War of Jenkins' Ear, helping defeat a Spanish amphibious landing on St. Simons Island in the Battle of Gully Hole Creek and the Battle of Bloody Marsh.
American Colonial Marines were State Marines raised for the various state navies that came into existence shortly before the Revolutionary War.
The Continental Marines were the marine force of the American Colonies during American Revolutionary War. The Corps was formed by the Continental Congress on November 10, 1775 and was disbanded in 1783. The Continental Marines' first and only Commandant was Captain Samuel Nicholas.
Hillet Marine River Regiment of the Union Army during the American Civil War, this regiment consisted of 10 rifle companies, a Cavalry Battalion of 5 companies, and an artillery battalion of three batteries, all of whom operated from Mississippi River gunboats as part of the Mississippi River Squadron.

Republic of Vietnam
The forerunner of the Republic of Vietnam Marine Corps (VNMC) was established by Ngo Dinh Diem, then prime minister of what was then the State of Vietnam on October 13, 1954. The Republic of Vietnam was established in October 1955 after Diem used a fraudulent referendum to topple Bao Dai. The VNMC became defunct on 1 May 1975 after the fall of Saigon.

Yugoslavia
The 12th Naval Infantry Brigade (Mornaricka Pesadijska Brigada) of the Yugoslavian Navy consisted of 900 to 2,000 men in three battalions. A multi-ethnic unit, the brigade was broken up during the dissolution of the Yugoslav federation and saw little action.

Related pages
Navy (Simple English)

References

Other websites

 An Insider's Guide to USMC Bases

Marines
Military occupations

Marine (military)


Kirk Langley is a village and civil parish in Derbyshire. The village is  northwest of Derby and  south east of Brailsford on the A52 road. The population of the civil parish taken at the 2011 Census (including Meynell Langley) was 686.

The Meynell family have held land at Kirk Langley since the reign of Henry I, and the village consists of two parts, Kirk Langley with the parish church, and Meynell Langley. The former Meynell Arms Hotel, now a private house, dates from the Georgian period. The Poles of Radbourne have also had landed interests in this area for many years. In the late 1940s a small council estate was built at Kirk Langley, close to the A52.

The Church of St Michael was built in the early 14th century on the site of a much older one, for which traces of a Saxon wall near the west door provides some evidence. It has a Perpendicular tower and contains heraldic glass and tiles. The screen under the tower is one of the oldest timber screens in Derbyshire. There are monuments to the Meynell and Pole families, including a large marble altar tomb commemorating Henry Poole, a prominent local politician who died in 1559, and his wife Dorothy, an elaborate memorial to Lieutenant William Meynell who was killed at Giurgiu on the Danube in 1854 when fighting with the Turks against the Russians, and an early Victorian memorial to a Meynell 'who was deprived of his life in a collision of carriages' in Clay Cross tunnel.

Leeke Memorial Hall was the village school until 1879. It is now the centre of many village activities, accommodating many of the village's societies. It is named after the Rev W. M. Leeke. Until 1952, when mains water reached the village, the ancient Maple Well provided the water supply. The village has a Church of England primary school in Moor Lane, which has about ninety pupils.

Notable residents
 George Barrington, cricketer, died here.

See also
Listed buildings in Kirk Langley

References

External links

Villages in Derbyshire
Geography of Amber Valley

Kirk Langley


A music festival is a festival where music is played. Music festivals are usually outside, and often have other attractions such as food, games, and other forms of entertainment. They sometimes have a theme such as genre or nationality. Many festivals happen every year, or at some other common interval. However, some only happen once. A music festival can be held for profit or for charity.

Music festival


West Vancouver is a district municipality in the province of British Columbia, Canada. It is part of Metro Vancouver, which is the governing body of the Greater Vancouver Regional District. West Vancouver is northwest of the city of Vancouver, with English Bay to the south and Howe Sound to the northwest.

West Vancouver had a population of 46,694 people according to the 2011 census. Some events of the 2010 Winter Olympics were held at the Cypress Provincial Park, which is mostly within the municipal bounderies. The Horseshoe Bay Ferry Terminal, which ferries British Columbia Highway 1 to Vancouver Island, is also located in West Vancouver.

West Vancouver was founded in 1912, when it separated from the District of North Vancouver, which is just to its east. Along with the City of North Vancouver, these three municipalities are often called the "North Shore".

Settlements in British Columbia

West Vancouver


The Minnesota River is a river in the United States. It is in the northern United States, in the state of Minnesota. It is a tributary of the Mississippi River. It is about 534 km long.

The source of the river is a lake in western Minnesota. The lake is called Big Stone Lake. The lake is on the border between the state of Minnesota and the state of South Dakota. From its source, the Minnesota flows southeast. At Mankato, it turns northeast. It joins the Mississippi just south of the cities of Saint Paul and Minneapolis.

The Minnesota River was formed after the last ice age in North America.

Minnesota

Minnesota River


The Devil Inside is a horror-themed third-person shooter video game developed by Gamesquad and published by Cryo Interactive and TalonSoft for Microsoft Windows in 2000.

Gameplay

The Devil Inside is presented as a reality television game show documenting the supernatural exploits of the protagonist Dave and his titular alter ego, a succubus named Deva. The player can transform between Dave and Deva by activating pentagrams located at certain places throughout the game's levels. During gameplay, Dave/Deva is followed by a small flying camera as well as a cameraman, and the player can switch between the two camera views as desired. Occasionally, a news helicopter will also be present and scripted cutscenes will be viewed from an aerial perspective.

The pacing, exploration, and puzzle factor of the game is similar to that of other survival horror titles. As Dave, the player has access to a variety of guns, which are equipped with laser sights to assist the player in aiming. As Deva, the player uses spells to attack enemies. Spells do not require ammunition, but do deplete mana that regenerates slowly. Some enemies generate souls when killed, and Deva can inhale souls to replenish her mana. Deva also has the ability to fly and regenerate health when standing in fire. The game uses a checkpoint save system represented by television sets found in-game.

Development
The game's script was written by Hubert Chardot, better known for his work in the Alone in the Dark series. Its theme is similar to The Running Man, written by Stephen King, whose name is mentioned early in the game.

Reception

The game received "generally favorable reviews" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.

GameSpots Greg Kasavin cited difficulties with the control scheme. In regards to the game's action sequences, Kasavin opined that "some of the battles are scripted very well. [...] But other times, the combat is poor." The environments of the game were praised for their realism and atmosphere, while character models and sound effects were rated as plain. Overall, the game was described as competent but lacking polish. PC Gamer US praised the animations, camera angles, the use of a dual character, and the game's low learning curve. However, the reviewer cited "poor polygonal figures and texturing", and some environmental bugs as the low points of the game. Eric Bratcher of NextGen called it "A compelling Illbleed meets Space Channel 5 diversion, but the unique presentation can't cover the weaknesses in AI and puzzle design."

In Poland, it was one of the first of the series of cheap premiere releases in the ExtraGra  magazine. Shortly after the game's release, one of Poland's most popular TV stations, TVN aired a report on the game, accusing the distributor, CD Projekt of selling satanic games in commonly accessible kiosks. The epilepsy warning, which by the time was already common among video games released in Poland and almost omnipresent in Europe, was used as an example of the game's exceptionally negative impact on young people.

According to Der Spiegel, The Devil Inside was commercially unsuccessful.

References

Further reading
 Preview at NextGen

External links

2000 video games
Cryo Interactive games
Video games about demons
2000s horror video games
Third-person shooters
Video games developed in France
Video games featuring female protagonists
Windows games
Windows-only games
TalonSoft games
Single-player video games

The Devil Inside (video game)


A cloak is a type of loose garment. It is worn over indoor clothing. It protects a person, for example from cold or rain. It may be part of an outfit or uniform. Cloaks have been used by many historical societies. Their designs, over time, have been changed to match fashion and available textiles.

Cloaks generally fasten at the neck or over the shoulder. They can be different lengths, from hip all the way down the ankle. They may have an attached hood. They may fasten down the front. Cloaks are almost always sleeveless.

References

Outerwear

Cloak


Louis Scutenaire (29 June 1905 – 15 August 1987) was a Belgian French-language poet, anarchist, surrealist and civil servant.  Born Jean Émile Louis Scutenaire in Ollignies, he died in Brussels.

Life
Louis Scutenaire is chiefly remembered as a central figure in the Belgian Surrealist movement, along with René Magritte, Paul Nougé, Marcel Lecomte and his own wife Irène Hamoir.  He studied law at the Free University of Brussels (now split into the Université Libre de Bruxelles and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel) and was a criminal lawyer from 1931 to 1944.  In 1926 he discovered surrealism and was a primary contributor to the Revue surréaliste.  He was sympathetic to communism during the 1930s and 1940s but as the truth about Joseph Stalin's regime became more apparent, he grew disenchanted with it and became an anarchist.  After the Second World War he became a civil servant in the Belgian Ministry of the Interior, a job he kept for the rest of his life.

Scutenaire grew disillusioned with the increasing commercialisation of Surrealism after the Second World War, but this did not apparently impair his close friendship with the most famous Belgian surrealist René Magritte.  Scutenaire and his wife would visit the Magritte home on Sundays, where Scutenaire would be invited to give titles to Magritte's recent paintings;  170 of the paintings still bear the titles that Scutenaire suggested.  (He is also the model for the figure in Magritte's canvas Universal Gravitation.)

Scutenaire's published works include a series of books entitled Mes Inscriptions, collections of gnomic and mischievous aphorisms, as well as one of the earliest and most entertaining monographs on Magritte.  He was awarded in 1985 the Grand Prix spécial de l'Humour noir in recognition of his achievements as a writer with a lifelong distrust of authority and institution.

He died twenty years to the hour after his friend Magritte, just after watching a television programme on the painter.

Sources
André Souris, Paul Nougé et ses complices dans "Entretiens sur le surréalisme", sous la direction de Ferdinand Alquié, Mouton, Paris-La Haye, 1968.
Christian Bussy, Anthologie du surréalisme en Belgique, Paris, Gallimard,1972.
Marcel Mariën, L'activité surréaliste en Belgique (1924–1950), Bruxelles, Lebeer-Hossmann, 1979.
René Magritte et le surréalisme en Belgique, Musées Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Bruxelles, 1982.
Louis Scutenaire, Plein Chant n° 33–34, Bassac, novembre 1986-janvier 1987.
Les écrits de Louis Scutenaire  (De 1913 à 1987), 1. Poèmes et proses, note de Michel-Georges-Bernard, Paris, Éditions de l'Orycte, 29 juin 1987 [Textes présentés dans la chronologie de leur écriture].
Le mouvement surréaliste à Bruxelles et en Wallonie (1924–1947), Paris, Centre Culturel Wallonie Bruxelles, 1988.
Raoul Vaneigem, Louis Scutenaire, Paris, collection Poètes d'aujourd'hui, Seghers, 1991 , 190 p.
René Magritte, La période "vache", "Les pieds dans le plat" avec Louis Scutenaire, Marseille, Musée Cantini, 1992 , 168 p.
Irène, Scut, Magritte & Co, Brussels, Musée Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, 1996, 558 p.
Jean-Patrice Courtois, La grammaire inachevable de Louis Scutenaire, dans "Europe", "Les surréalistes belges", n° 912, Paris, avril 2005.
 Xavier Canonne, Le surréalisme en Belgique, 1924–2000, Fonds Mercator, 2007

External links

 Short biography in French
 Short tribute in English

1905 births
1987 deaths
Belgian poets in French
Surrealist poets
20th-century Belgian poets
Belgian male poets
20th-century Belgian male writers

Louis Scutenaire


Capon Springs is an unincorporated community in Hampshire County, West Virginia, United States. According to the 2000 census, the Capon Springs community has a population of 95.

It is located on Capon Springs Road (West Virginia Secondary Route 16) along Capon Springs Run. Originally known as Frye's Springs after its discoverer Henry Frye, and later established as the Town of Watson in 1787, the town was renamed for its medicinal spring. The springs were believed to carry such healing power that half an acre sold for $900 in gold in the late 18th century. After West Virginia seceded from Virginia in 1863, it had to pay Virginia for the loss of the springs during Reconstruction. The historic Capon Springs & Farms resort is located here and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Notable people

Herman Guy Kump (1877–1962), 19th Governor of West Virginia, and American educator Arthur R. M. Spaid (1866–1936) were born in Capon Springs.

Historical names

Capon Springs and its post office have been known by several varying names throughout its history, which include:

Historic sites
Capon Springs, Capon Springs Road (CR 16)
Octagon House, Capon Springs Road (CR 16)
Old Red Store, Capon Springs Road (CR 16) & McIlwee Road (CR 16/1)
Ms. Bessie's Bungalow, Capon Springs Road (CR 16)

References

Bibliography

Mountain House, Capon Springs, Hampshire County, Virginia. Baltimore, Maryland, The Printing Office, 1857.

External links

Capon Springs & Farms
George Washington National Forest: Lee Ranger District

Populated places established in 1787
Unincorporated communities in Hampshire County, West Virginia
Spa towns in West Virginia
Unincorporated communities in West Virginia
1787 establishments in Virginia

Capon Springs, West Virginia


Margaret Purves GC (born 25 November 1934 - Died 13 September 2021 ), formerly Margaret Vaughan, is a British nurse.  She is best known for receiving the George Cross for an act of bravery when she was only 14 years old. She is the only living woman who has been recognized with this honour.

Early life
Margaret Vaughan was born in Cardiff, Wales. Her father James Boswell Vaughan was Chief Superitendent of Cardiff City Police and her mother was Dorothy May Vaughan (nee Powditch)

In 1949, Vaughan was awarded the Albert Medal because she saved a Boy Scout and his leader from a rough sea off the coast of Cardiff.  The Albert Medal is now replaced with the George Cross. In 1974 the Albert medal was exchanged before the Queen at Buckingham Palace.

Notice of the award was published in the London Gazette on 1 November 1949.  She became one of the few living holders of the Albert Medal.

When she married, she changed her name to Purves. She married John Watt Purves, Captain in REME. They met while she was a
Serving nurse in the QA's in Hanover, Germany. Margaret served
With the QA's in Nairobi and Mauritius prior to this having trained at the Royal London Hospital. She had 3 children. Alison Fiona(1962) Rebecca (1963) and James (1965)

Career
Margaret Purves was an Army nurse serving as an officer in the Queen Alexandra Royal Nusing Corps. After meeting  Capt. John Watt Purves in a hospital bed in Hanover -
Due to a broken rib after a rugby match -
They married
Within 6 months at Llandaff Cathedral and Cardiff Castle.
She lived in Singapore. Canada, UK , Belgium and Germany while he was husband served in the British Army. Whilst in the UK she was the editor of The Craftsman magazine,
Well known to REME

George Cross citation
Purves' George Cross was given because of an act of bravery when she was a young girl.

She received his decoration from King George VI at Buckingham Palace.  The words of her citation explain:
 The KING has been pleased to award the Albert Medal to Margaret Vaughan and the late John Howard Davies for their gallantry in the following circumstances: —
On May 28th, 1949, a party of Scouts, aged between 11 and 15 years, visiting Sully Island were cut off by the rising tide from a causeway which led to the mainland. Most of the boys got safely across, but two of them were forced off the causeway by the strong tide. The leader of the party returned to help the elder boy but in the struggle he too became exhausted. Margaret Vaughan (aged 14 years) saw from the beach the difficulties they were in. She undressed and swam towards them over a distance of some 30 yards in cold, rough water and against strong currents due to the rising tide. On reaching them she towed the boy to the shore while he supported himself by grasping the straps of her costume and his leader's coat. At about ten feet from the shore a life belt was thrown in which the boy was placed by the other two and the three reached the shore safely. Margaret Vaughan's action probably saved the life of the Scout leader as well as that of the elder boy.
Meanwhile, John Howard Davies (aged 13 years) had safely reached the mainland when he saw that his friend, who was unable to swim, was being forced away from the causeway into deep water. He stripped to the waist and went back along the causeway to help him. By swimming out he was able to grasp his friend, and hold him up in the water. Both boys shouted for help and it was obvious that they would not get ashore unaided. By this time a rescue boat had put out from the shore but Davies became exhausted by his efforts and before the boat could reach them he was forced to release his hold on his friend and they drifted apart. The boat rescued the friend but no further sign of Davies was seen. His body was subsequently recovered. There is no doubt that in returning to the aid of his friend after he himself had reached safety Davies gave his life in this rescue attempt.

References

Other websites
 George Cross Recipients

1935 births
Living people
British Army people
George Cross holders
British nurses
People from Cardiff

Margaret Purves


Robert Smith Simpson (November 9, 1906 – September 5, 2010) was an American career Foreign Service Officer who left the diplomatic corps in 1962 as deputy examiner for the State Department after writing a report in which he highlighted what he perceived to be the ignorance of many diplomatic hopefuls who knew little about the culture and geography of the United States.

Biography
Simpson was born November 9, 1906, in Arlington, Virginia and graduated from Washington, D.C.'s Western High School in 1923. He earned his undergraduate degree in 1927 and a master's degree in 1928 from the University of Virginia majoring in history, where he was also a member of Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity. Simpson was awarded a law degree from the Cornell Law School in 1931 and went to work for the New Deal National Recovery Administration. At Columbia University, he worked towards a doctorate in international affairs, but did not complete a dissertation. He was a member of the faculty of the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania from 1935 to 1942.

Diplomacy

Simpson was contacted by the War Shipping Administration the day after the Attack on Pearl Harbor, and worked on addressing issues relating to convoy delays. He served as a Foreign Service Officer starting in 1945, where he contributed to the United Nations Charter. He was stationed in embassies overseas in Athens, Brussels and Mexico City, in addition to consular assignments in Bombay, India and Lourenço Marques (later Maputo), Mozambique.

Simpson wrote an article that was published in the November 1962 issue of Foreign Service Journal, a monthly publication that covers foreign affairs from the perspective of Foreign Service Officers and members of Washington's foreign policy establishment, published by the American Foreign Service Association. In the article found that students interested in joining the Foreign Service "could not name a single American painter, a single composer, a single philosopher" and were "wholly unprepared for diplomatic work". His 1967 book Anatomy of the State Department elaborated on the issue, as did his 1980 text The Crisis in American Diplomacy: Shots across the Bow of the State Department. He edited a 1968 issue of the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, which led to a collaboration with Peter F. Krogh to create the Institute for the Study of Diplomacy at Georgetown University's Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service, to help better prepare students for a career as diplomats. As part of the program there, Simpson taught a course in diplomacy.

Death
Simpson died at age 103 on September 5, 2010, at a retirement community in Charlottesville, Virginia. He was survived by two daughters, three granddaughters and five great-grandchildren. His wife, the former Henriette Lanniée, died in 2007 after 73 years of marriage.

References

1906 births
2010 deaths
People from Arlington County, Virginia
American centenarians
American diplomats
Men centenarians
School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University alumni
Cornell Law School alumni
Walsh School of Foreign Service faculty
University of Pennsylvania faculty
University of Virginia alumni
United States Foreign Service personnel

R. Smith Simpson


Pony Club is an international youth organization devoted to educating youth about horses and riding. Pony Club organizations exist in over thirty countries worldwide.

Origins
Pony Club began in Great Britain in 1929 when the Institute of the Horse formed a youth branch of their organisation called "The Pony Club." It was formed to encourage children to start riding, while providing them with opportunities in the field that they would not be able to reach on their own. The group grew rapidly, from 300 members in 1930, to over 10,000 in 1935. When the Institute of the Horse joined with National Horse Association of Great Britain to form The British Horse Society, Pony Club was incorporated into the new group.

The success of Pony Club in Britain sparked the formation of Pony Clubs in other nations, such that there are now over 100,000 Pony Club members worldwide. Australia has the largest pony club membership in the world with just under 55,000 financial members. Note they also ride horses.

Structure
Each national Pony Club organization has the ability to define its own structure. There is no strict international governing body; however, national Pony Club organizations often work together for international competitions and exchanges.

The core unit of any national Pony Club organization is the local club. Local clubs vary in size, but are generally confined to members within a relatively small geographic area. Multiple local clubs may conduct joint mounted and unmounted meetings, and usually compete together in regional competitions.

Ages of participants range from eight to twenty-five. Because of this vast age range, older Pony Clubbers are able to provide assistance to younger members, and younger members are able to be mentored.

The Pony Club's internal structure consists of many ability levels - from the Beginner: D1, D2, and D3, to the Intermediate: C1, C2, and C3, followed by the Advanced: HB, B, HA, and A.

Further structuring is dependent upon the particular national organization, but most local clubs belong to regions, in which they compete to qualify for national and international competitions.

Manuals
Pony Club manuals are books which provide all the information needed to earn certificates and achievement badges. They have a range of useful information from buying a horse to looking after it and competing with it. They teach Pony Club members horsemanship, how to care for their horses and the responsibilities and positive outcomes of owning a horse.

See also
New Zealand Pony Clubs Association
Pony Club Australia
The Pony Club
United States Pony Clubs

References

The Pony Club Manual of Horsemanship.(13th Edition, 2004)

External links
Canada: Canadian Pony Club
Republic of Ireland: Irish Pony Club
Europe: Euro Pony Club
China: Hong Kong Pony Club
United States of America: Pony Club
Pony Club Australia

Equestrian organizations
Youth organizations established in 1929

Pony Club


is a Japanese banner. They are long, narrow flags, attached to a pole with a cross-rod to hold the fabric straight out and prevent it from furling around the rod; this way, the field is always visible and identifiable.

History of use
The nobori were significant on the battlefields of feudal Japan. The nobori of the time were used to denote units within an army; nobori became much more common in the Sengoku period, in use alongside the earlier hata-jirushi.  Though usually used to represent different divisions within an army, nobori were sometimes made identical, so as to produce an impressive and intimidating display of warrior flags.

Today nobori are a common sight outside businesses, restaurants, and retail stores where they advertise a sale, a new product, and simply the name of the business.  They are used during festivals and sports events; in sports they take the place of the banners and signs common among Western audiences.  They are also used to make commercial announcements, appeal for something, and identify a political party during an election campaign.  They may also line the walkways, fences or walls of Shinto shrines or Buddhist temples and frequently bear the names of donors or deceased parishioners.
In recent years, nobori influenced flags are gaining popularity around the world.

See also

Koi Nobori – fish-shaped streamers flown on Kodomo no Hi (Children's Day)
Sashimono – small banners worn on the back of ashigaru foot soldiers and samurai
Uma-jirushi – large heraldic banners of daimyōs or commanders
Umbul-umbul – slightly similar Indonesian vertical banner, common in Java and Bali.

Gallery

Military communication in feudal Japan
Japanese heraldry
Samurai weapons and equipment

Nobori


Nusa Penida is an island to the southeast of Bali, Indonesia. The island is a subdistrict of the Klungkung regency. There are two small islands nearby: Nusa Lembongan and Nusa Ceningan. The Badung Strait separates the island from Bali while the Lombok Strait separates it from Lombok.
Diving is very popular around the island and there are many Macaques living on the island.

Bali
Islands of Indonesia

Nusa Penida


The Pro Football Hall of Fame is the hall of fame of the National Football League (NFL). It opened in Canton, Ohio, United States, on September 7 1963 with 17 original inductees. Through 2008, all but one of the Hall of Fame members have played some part of their professional career in the NFL (the only player who did not is Buffalo Bills guard Billy Shaw, who played his whole career in the American Football League (AFL) before the 1970 AFL-NFL merger). The Chicago Bears have the most Hall of Famers in the league at 26.

Citations

Canton, Ohio
1963 establishments in the United States
1960s establishments in Ohio

Pro Football Hall of Fame


Avahi is a free zero-configuration networking (zeroconf) implementation, including a system for multicast DNS/DNS-SD service discovery. It is licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL).

Avahi is a system which enables programs to publish and discover services and hosts running on a local network. For example, a user can plug a computer into a network and have Avahi automatically advertise the network services running on its machine, facilitating user access to those services.

Software architecture

Avahi implements the Apple Zeroconf specification, mDNS, DNS-SD and RFC 3927/IPv4LL. Other implementations include Apple's Bonjour framework (the mDNSResponder component of which is licensed under the Apache License).

Avahi provides a set of language bindings (Python, Mono, etc.) and ships with most Linux and BSD distributions. Because of its modularized architecture, major desktop components like GNOME Virtual file system and KDE input/output architecture already integrate Avahi.

Avahi vs. Bonjour
The Avahi project started in 2004 because Apple's Zeroconf implementation, Bonjour, used the GPL-incompatible Apple Public Source License. In 2006 Apple relicensed parts of Bonjour under the Apache License.

Avahi's performance resembles that of Bonjour, sometimes exceeding it; however Avahi can lose services when managing large numbers of requests simultaneously.

History
Avahi was developed by Lennart Poettering and Trent Lloyd. It is the result of a merger in 2005 of Poettering's original mDNS/DNS-SD implementation called "FlexMDNS", and Lloyd's original code called "Avahi". While most of today's code originates from the former project, the name of the latter was used for the joint project. Development on "FlexMDNS" started in late 2004, and work on the original "Avahi" began in early 2004.

Avahi was originally developed under the freedesktop.org umbrella, but has now become a separate project. Avahi, however, makes use of freedesktop.org's D-Bus IPC layer.

The name Avahi is the Malagasy native name and scientific Latin name of a genus of woolly lemur, a family of primates indigenous to Madagascar. Trent Lloyd found the name, liked it, and it stuck. The logo reflects this. Perhaps in coincidence, Avahi backwards is "I-hav-a", a description of a discovery advertisement.

See also

 Linux on the desktop
 Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
 Network Information Service
 OSGi Alliance

References

External links

 Talk  and slides by Poettering/Lloyd at linux.conf.au 2007

Freedesktop.org
Applications using D-Bus
Free network-related software
Free software programmed in C
GNOME
KDE

Avahi (software)


"The Man from Snowy River" is a poem by Australian bush poet Banjo Paterson.  It was first published in The Bulletin, an Australian news magazine, on 26 April 1890, and was published by Angus & Robertson in October 1895, with other poems by Paterson, in The Man from Snowy River and Other Verses.

The poem tells the story of a horseback pursuit to recapture the colt of a prizewinning racehorse that escaped from its paddock and is living with the brumbies (wild horses) of the mountain ranges.  Eventually the brumbies descend a seemingly impassable steep slope, at which point the assembled riders give up the pursuit, except the young protagonist, who spurs his "pony" (small horse) down the "terrible descent" and catches the mob.

Two characters mentioned in the early part of the poem are featured in previous Paterson poems: "Clancy of the Overflow" and Harrison from "Old Pardon, Son of Reprieve".

Setting of the poem
It is recorded in the selected works of "Banjo" Paterson that the location of the ride fictionalised in the poem was in the region of today's Burrinjuck Dam, north-west of Canberra in Australian Capital Territory. Paterson had helped round up brumbies as a child and later owned property in this region.

The Snowy River, from where "the Man" comes, has its headwaters in the Snowy Mountains, the highest section of the Great Dividing Range near the easternmost part of the border between New South Wales and Victoria. The ride does not take place in the Snowy River region because, within the poem, Clancy describes to the other men the country from where "the man from Snowy River" comes.

"The Man"

Corryong, a small town on the western side of the range, claims stockman Jack Riley (1841–1914) as the inspiration for the character, and like many other towns in the region uses the image of the character as part of the marketing to tourists. Riley was a hermit stockman employed by John Pierce of Greg Greg Station at Corryong to run cattle at "Tom Groggin" 60 km upriver from Khancoban, New South Wales. Paterson is said (by Corryong legend) to have met Riley on at least two occasions.

The inspiration for "The Man" was claimed by Banjo himself to be not one person but a number of people, one of which was Owen Cummins. Cummins was born in Dargo and was well known for being a great horseman. He worked around the area before making his way up to Wave Hill, Northern Territory, where a monument has been erected to reflect his role in inspiring the poem. Owen Cummins is also recognised in the Stockmen's Hall of Fame in Longreach.

There is a possibility that another exceptional and fearless rider, Charlie McKeahnie, was the inspiration for the poem. In 1885, when McKeahnie was only 17 years of age, he performed a dangerous riding feat in the Snowy River region. Historian Neville Locker supports this theory, adding that a prior poem had been written about McKeahnie by bush poet Barcroft Boake and that the story had been recounted by a Mrs Hassle to a crowd that included Paterson. Locker also offers as evidence a letter by McKeahnie's sister that discusses the ride and Paterson's hearing of the ride. McKeahnie was killed in a riding accident near Bredbo in 1895 and is buried in the Old Adaminaby cemetery, on the shores of Lake Eucumbene.

Other historians point to the claims of Jim Troy, who died aged 33. Troy was related by marriage to Thomas McNamara, said to be "Clancy", subject of another famous Paterson poem, Clancy of the Overflow.
"Clancy" also had a second claim to absolute knowledge of the "man" having been included in the Snowy River poem as "no better horseman ever held the reins".
McNamara gave an interview to the Brisbane Courier-Mail newspaper in 1938 in which he recalled the actual details of that terrific chase in the hills beside Wagga Wagga.

Another possibility is J.R. Battye from Walgett. In a report
 in the papers in 1877, likely to have been seen by Paterson, Battye while Brumby shooting spurs his horse on when it slips its bridle and, powerless over the animal's actions trusts it to follow the wild ones, which it does, catching them after several miles through country thickly timbered and full of holes.

Historical context of the poem
The poem was written at a time in the 1880s and 1890s when Australia was developing a distinct identity as a nation. Though Australia was still a set of self-governing colonies under the final authority of Britain, and had not yet trod the path of nationhood, there was a distinct feeling that Australians needed to be united and become as one. Australians from all walks of life, be they from the country or the city (Clancy of the Overflow), looked to the bush for their mythology and heroic characters. They saw in the Man from Snowy River a hero whose bravery, adaptability and risk-taking could epitomise a new nation in the south. This new nation emerged as the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901.

Currency commemoration and tribute
A. B. "Banjo" Paterson and "The Man From Snowy River" poem are commemorated on the Australian 10 dollar note
. The full text of the poem is printed several times in microprint as one of the note's security devices.

Recordings of the poem
 In 1972, Slim Dusty recorded the poem with new music, to call attention to the "old bush ballads".
 A reading of the poem by actor and narrator Leonard Teale was named to the National Film and Sound Archive's registry of culturally significant audio recordings, Sounds of Australia, in 2019.
 Steve Bisley narrated the poem, in his role as Banjo Paterson, during the re-enactment of the poem in the 2002 musical theatre production The Man from Snowy River: Arena Spectacular.
 Jack Thompson has released recordings of a number of Banjo Paterson poems including "The Man from Snowy River" and "Clancy of the Overflow" on the album The Bush Poems of A.B. (Banjo) Paterson.
 The Australian folk band Wallis and Matilda set the poem to music on their album Pioneers.
 The Concert Band of the 2nd Military District (Australia) made a recording with the poem narrated by Tim Elliott, accompanied by an arrangement of the music from the 1982 film. (Reference YPRX2097)

Adaptations of the poem
Three films, a television series and an arena spectacular musical have been based on the poem.

Films:
The Man from Snowy River (1920 film)– a silent black & white film
 starring Cyril Mackay as "Jim Conroy" (the Man) and Stella Southern as "Kitty Carewe"
The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)– film
 starring Tom Burlinson as "Jim Craig" (the Man) and Sigrid Thornton as "Jessica Harrison"
 The Man from Snowy River II – the 1988 sequel to the 1982 film
 (US title: Return to Snowy River / UK title: The Untamed)
 starring Tom Burlinson as "Jim Craig" (the Man) and Sigrid Thornton as "Jessica Harrison"

Television:
The Man from Snowy River (TV series) — (set 25 years after the famous ride)
 starring Andrew Clarke as "Matt McGregor" (the Man)

Stage musical:
 The Man from Snowy River: Arena Spectacular
 starring Martin Crewes as "Jim Ryan" (the Man) and Georgie Parker as "Kate Conroy"

See also
 1890 in Australian literature
 Adaminaby
 Snowy River

References

External links
 The Man from Snowy River at Project Gutenberg
 A. B. "Banjo" Paterson Biographical Summary—Reserve Bank of Australia website
 About "The Man from Snowy River"—Australian Government website
 "The Man from Snowy River"—National Treasures—National Library of Australia (includes photo of a draft version of the poem)
 "The Man from Snowy River"—Mountain Man Graphics, Australia website

1890 poems
Adaminaby
Poetry by Banjo Paterson
Slim Dusty songs
The Man from Snowy River
Works originally published in The Bulletin (Australian periodical)

The Man from Snowy River (poem)


Weatherman, also known as  Weathermen and later the Weather Underground Organization, was an American radical left wing militant organization that carried out a series of domestic terrorism activities from 1969 through the 1970s which included bombings, jailbreaks, and riots.

Following is a list of the organization's various activities and incidents.

Activities

1969
 June 18–22 – Students for a Democratic Society SDS National Convention held in Chicago, Illinois. Publication of "Weatherman" founding statement. Members seize control of SDS National Office.
 Summer - A group of members invade the Harvard Center for International Affairs, beating staff and destroying property
 July – Members Bernardine Dohrn, Eleanor Raskin, Dianne Donghi, Peter Clapp, David Millstone and Diana Oughton travel to Cuba and meet representatives of the North Vietnamese and Cuban governments.
 August – Weatherman member Linda Sue Evans travels to North Vietnam. Weatherman activists meet in Cleveland, Ohio, in preparation for "Days of Rage" protests scheduled for October, 1969 in Chicago.
 September 3 – Female members participate in a "jailbreak" at South Hills High School in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where they run through the school shouting anti-war slogans and distributing literature promoting the "National Action." The term "Pittsburgh 26" refers to the 26 women arrested in connection with this incident.
 September 24 – A group of members confronted Chicago Police during a demonstration supporting the "National Action" and protesting the commencement of the Chicago Eight trial stemming from the 1968 Democratic National Convention.
 October 6 – The Haymarket Police Statue in Chicago was bombed; Weathermen later claimed credit for the bombing in their book, Prairie Fire.
 October 8–11 – The "Days of Rage" riots occurred in Chicago, damaging a large amount of property. 287 Weatherman members were arrested; some became fugitives when they failed to appear for trial.
 November 8 - Sniper attack on Cambridge Police Station. Two shots were fired. Two Weathermen, James Kilpatrick and James Reaves, were indicted and subsequently released when a witness recanted his testimony.
 November–December – Karen Ashley and Phoebe Hirsch were among the few Weatherman members to join the first contingent of the Venceremos Brigade (VB) that departs for Cuba to harvest sugar cane.
 December 6 – Bombing of several Chicago police cars parked in a precinct parking lot at 3600 North Halsted Street, Chicago. The WUO claims responsibility in Prairie Fire, stating it was a protest of the fatal police shooting of Illinois Black Panther Party leaders Fred Hampton and Mark Clark on December 4, 1969.
 December 27–30 – Weathermen held a "War Council" in Flint, Michigan, where plans were finalized to change into an underground organization that would commit strategic acts of sabotage against the government. Thereafter they were called "Weather Underground Organization" (WUO).

1970
 January - Silas and Judith Bissell placed a homemade bomb under the steps of the ROTC building. The bomb was made from an electric blasting cap, an alarm clock, a battery and a plastic bag filled with gasoline and explosives.
 February – The WUO closed the SDS National Office in Chicago, concluding the major campus-based organization of the 1960s. The first contingent of the VB returned from Cuba and the second contingent departed. By mid-February the bulk of the leading WUO members had gone underground.
 February 21 – The house of Judge Murtagh, who was presiding over the Panther 21 trial, is fire-bombed with three Molotov cocktails by a WUO cell in New York City.
 March – Warrants are issued for several WUO members, who become federal fugitives when they fail to appear for trial in Chicago.
 March 6 – WUO members Theodore Gold, Diana Oughton, and Terry Robbins are killed in the Greenwich Village townhouse explosion, when a nailbomb they were constructing detonates. The bomb was intended to be planted at a non-commissioned officer's dance at Fort Dix, New Jersey.
 March 30 – Chicago police discover a WUO "bomb factory" on Chicago's north side.
 April 1 - Based on a tip Chicago Police find 59 sticks of dynamite, ammunition, and nitroglycerin in an apartment traced to WUO members.  The discovery of the WUO weapons cache ends WUO activity in this city.
 April 2 - A federal grand jury in Chicago returns a number of indictments charging WUO members with violation of federal anti-riot laws. Also, a number of additional federal warrants charging "unlawful flight to avoid prosecution" are returned in Chicago based on the failure of WUO members to appear for trial in local cases. (The Anti-riot Law charges were later dropped in January, 1974.)
 April 15 – The FBI arrests WUO members Linda Sue Evans and Dianne Donghi in New York City with the help of WUO infiltrator, Larry Grathwohl.
 May 10 – The National Guard Association of the United States building in Washington, D.C. is bombed.
 May 21 – The WUO releases its "Declaration of a State of War" communique under Bernardine Dohrn's name.
 June 6 – In a letter, the WUO claims credit for bombing of the San Francisco Hall of Justice, although no explosion has occurred. Months later, workmen locate an unexploded bomb.
 June 9 - The New York City Police headquarters is bombed by Jane Alpert and accomplices.  Weathermen state this is in response to "police repression."  The bomb made with ten sticks of dynamite exploded in the NYC Police Headquarters.  The explosion was preceded by a warning about six minutes prior to the detonation and subsequently by a WUO claim of responsibility.
 July 23 – A federal grand jury in Detroit, Michigan, returns indictments against thirteen WUO members and former WUO members charging violations of various explosives and firearms laws. (These indictments were later dropped in October, 1973.)
 July 25 - The United States Army base at The Presidio in San Francisco is bombed on the 11th anniversary of the Cuban Revolution. [NYT, 7/27/70] On the same day, a branch of the Bank of America is bombed in New York.
 July 28 - Bank of America HQ in NYC is bombed around 3:50 AM.  WUO claims responsibility.
 September 15 – The WUO helps Dr. Timothy Leary escape from the California Men's Colony prison.
 October 6 - Second bombing of Chicago's Haymarket Police monument
 October 8 - Bombing of Marin County courthouse. WUO states this is in retaliation for the killings of Jonathan Jackson, William Christmas, and James McClain
 October 10 - A Queens traffic-court building is bombed. WUO claims this is to express support for the New York prison riots. [NYT, 10/10/70, p. 12]
 October 11 - A Courthouse in Long Island City, NY is bombed.  An estimated 8 to 10 sticks of dynamite are used.  A warning was given around 10 min. prior to the 1:23 AM blast by the WUO.
 October 14 - The Harvard Center for International Affairs is bombed by The Proud Eagle Tribe of Weather (later renamed the Women's Brigade of the Weather Underground). WUO claims this is to protest the war in Vietnam. [NYT, 10/14/70, p. 30] The bombing was in reaction to Angela Davis' arrest and was the first action undertaken by an all-women's unit of WUO.
 October - Bernardine Dohrn, Katherine Ann Power, and Susan Edith Saxe were put on the FBI's Ten Most Wanted List
 December – Fugitive WUO member Caroline Tanker, who fled the country for Cuba, is arrested by the FBI in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
 December 5 - Five Weatherman are captured for trying to bomb First National City Bank of NY and other buildings on the anniversary of the death of Fred Hampton.  These individuals subsequently plead guilty.
 December 11 -  Vivian Bogart and Patricia Mclean from the WUO are arrested after throwing an incendiary bomb at the Royal National Bank in NYC around 1:30 AM.
 December 16 - Fugitive WUO member Judith Alice Clark is arrested on the Days of Rage indictments by the FBI in New York.

1971
 March 1 - The United States Capitol is bombed. WUO states this is to protest the invasion of Laos. President Richard M. Nixon denounces the bombing as a "shocking act of violence that will outrage all Americans." [NYT, 3/2/71]
 April – FBI agents discover what is dubbed  "Pine Street Bomb Factory", an abandoned apartment utilized by WUO in San Francisco, California.
 August 30 -  Bombings of the Office of California Prisons in Sacramento and San Francisco, allegedly in retaliation for the killing of George Jackson. [LAT, 8/29/71]
 September 17 - The New York Department of Corrections in Albany, New York is bombed, as per WUO to protest the killing of 29 inmates at Attica State Penitentiary. [NYT, 9/18/71]
 October 15 - The bombing of William Bundy's office in the MIT research center. [NYT, 10/16/71]
 Dec 2 - Fugitive WUO member Matthew Steen, suspected in the US Capitol bombing, is arrested in Seattle by the FBI for bank robbery but convicted of federal conspiracy and sentenced to ten years.

1972
 May 19 - Bombing of The Pentagon, "in retaliation for the U.S. bombing raid in Hanoi." The date was chosen for it being Ho Chi Minh's birthday. [NYT, 5/19/72]

1973
 May 18 - The bombing of the 103rd Police Precinct in New York. WUO states this is in response to the killing of 10-year-old black youth Clifford Glover by police.
 September 19 – A WUO member is arrested by the FBI in New York. Released on bond, this member again submerges into the underground.
 September 28 - ITT headquarters buildings in New York City and Rome, Italy are bombed. WUO states this is in response to ITT's alleged role in the Chilean coup earlier that month.
 Around October, 1973 the Government requested dropping charges against most of the WUO members.  The requests cited a recent decision by the Supreme Court that barred electronic surveillance without a court order.  This decision could hamper prosecution of the WUO cases.  In addition, the government did not want to reveal foreign intelligence secrets that the court has ordered disclosed.

1974
 March 6 - Bombing of the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare offices in San Francisco. WUO states this is to protest alleged sterilization of poor women. In the accompanying communiqué, the Women's Brigade argues for "the need for women to take control of daycare, healthcare, birth control and other aspects of women's daily lives."
 May 31 - The Office of the California Attorney General is bombed. WUO states this is in response to the killing of six members of the Symbionese Liberation Army.
 June 17 - Gulf Oil's Pittsburgh headquarters is bombed. WUO states this is to protest the company's actions in Angola, Vietnam, and elsewhere.
 July – The WUO releases the book Prairie Fire, in which they indicate the need for a unified Communist Party. They encourage the creation of study groups to discuss their ideology, and continue to stress the need for violent acts. The book also admits WUO responsibility of several actions from previous years. The Prairie Fire Organizing Committee (PFOC) arises from the teachings in this book and is organized by many former WUO members.
 September 11 – Bombing of Anaconda Corporation (part of the Rockefeller Corporation). WUO states this is in retribution for Anaconda's alleged involvement in the Chilean coup the previous year.

1975
 January 29 - Bombing of the State Department; WUO states this is in response to escalation in Vietnam. (AP. "State Department Rattled by Blast," The Daily Times-News, January 29, 1975, p. 1)
 January 23 - Offices of Dept. of Defense in Oakland are bombed. In a statement released to the press, Weather expressed solidarity with the Vietnamese still fighting against the Thieu regime in Vietnam.
 Spring - WUO publishes "Politics in Command," which is its new political-military strategy.  It furthers the line of building a legal, above-ground organization and begins to minimize the armed struggle role.
 March – The WUO releases its first edition of a new magazine entitled Osawatomie.
 June 16 - Weathermen bomb a Banco de Ponce (a Puerto Rican bank) in New York, WUO states this is in solidarity with striking Puerto Rican cement workers.
 July - More than a thousand women attend the Socialist Feminist Conference at Antioch College in Yellow Springs, OH in which WUO supporters attempt to play a major role.
 July 11–13 – The Prairie Fire Organizing Committee (PFOC) holds its first national convention during which time they go through the formality of creating a new organization.
 September – Bombing of the Kennecott Corporation; WUO states this is in retribution for Kennecott's alleged involvement in the Chilean coup two years prior.

1976
 1976-1981 the Weather Underground slowly disbands, many members turning themselves in after taking advantage of the Federal Government dropping most charges in 1973 (illegal wiretaps and intelligence sources & methods issues) and of President Jimmy Carter's amnesty for draft dodgers.

1977
 February - The first issue of Prairie Fire Organizing Committee's magazine, Breakthrough, is published.
 Spring - The John Brown Book Club compiles articles critical of the old WUO leadership and subsequent split in a pamphlet entitled: The Split of the Weather Underground Organization: Struggling against White and Male Supremacy.
 November 1977 - Former WUO member Matthew Landy Steen appears on the lead segment of CBS 60 Minutes, the first and last ex-Weatherman to appear on national television, urging WUO members still underground to "re-emerge and engage change at the community level." Mark Rudd surrendered within 60 days; the remainder of the Weather leadership resurfaced the following year.
 November - Five WUO members are arrested on conspiracy to bomb California State Senator, John Brigg's offices.  It is later revealed that the Revolutionary Committee and PFOC had been infiltrated, and the arrests were the results of the infiltration.  From this point on, some authors argue that the Weather Underground Organization ceases to exist.

1980
 July - Former WUO member, Cathy Wilkerson surfaces in New York City and is charged with possession of explosives arising from the 1970 townhouse explosion.  She is sentenced to 3 years in prison.
 December 3 - Bernadine Dohrn and Bill Ayers turn themselves in.  Charges against Ayers are dropped in 1973 (illegal wire taps & foreign intelligence sources and methods).  Dohrn is placed on probation.  It was discovered that the FBI had discussed a plan to kidnap her nephew, amongst other controversial schemes.

1981
 October 20 - Brinks robbery in which WUO members Kathy Boudin, Sam Brown, Judy Clark and David Gilbert and the Black Liberation Army stole over $1.6 million from a Brinks armored car at the Nanuet Mall, near Nyack, New York on October 20, 1981. The robbers were stopped by police later that day and engaged them in a shootout, killing two police officers (Waverly Brown and Edward O'Grady) and one Brinks guard (Peter Paige) as well as wounding several others.

1987
 Silas Bissell a leader of the Weather Underground Organization, who was once on the FBI's Ten Most Wanted list is arrested for attempting to bomb a ROTC building. His ex-wife, Judith Bissell served three years for the attempted bombing of California State Senator John Briggs.

See also
 Greenwich Village townhouse explosion
 Weather Underground Organization
 May 19th Communist Organization
 The Weather Underground, documentary film
 Underground, documentary film

General:
 Domestic terrorism in the United States
 List of incidents of political violence in Washington, D.C.

References
Explanatory notes

Citations

Bibliography

 Albert, Michael. "Discussion on Radical Strategy, Sabotage, and the Weathermen."
Retrieved from http://www.spunk.org/texts/misc/sp000209.txt
 Berger, Dan, Outlaws of America: The Weather Underground and the Politics of Solidarity, AK Press, (November 1, 2005), trade paperback, 450 pages,

 Gilbert, David, Students For a Democratic Society and the Weather Underground Organization, (Abraham Guillen Press: Canada, 2002), paperback 40 pages,

 Bringing the War Home: The Weather Underground at Forty by Ron Briley, History News Network, July 20, 2009

Weather Underground
History of Chicago

List of Weatherman actions


Viktor Mikhailovich Afanasyev (; born 31 December 1948) is a colonel in the Russian Air Force and a test cosmonaut of the Yu. A. Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center.  He was born 31 December 1948, in Bryansk,  Russian SFSR, and is married to Yelena Ya. Afanasyeva, born in 1952. They have two children. His father, Mikhail Z. Afanasyev, is deceased. His mother, Marya S. Afanasyeva, resides in Merkulyevo, Bryansk region, Russia. His recreational interests include football, swimming, and tourism. He considers his favorite meal to be borscht.

Education
Graduated from Kachynskoye Military Pilot School in 1970 and the Ordzhonikidze Aviation Institute, Moscow, in 1980.

Special honors
Hero of the Soviet Union; Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR.

Experience
1970 to 1976 served in the Air Force fighting troops as a pilot, senior pilot, and aircraft flight commander. 1976 to 1977 attended the Test Pilot Training Center. 1977 to 1988 served as a test pilot and senior test pilot at the State Research/Test Institute named after Valery Chkalov. Viktor Afanasyev has a Class 1 military test pilot certification. He has logged over 2000 flight hours in more than 40 different aircraft.

GCTC experience
1985 to 1987 Viktor Afanasyev was taking a basic space training course at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center on a part-time training basis. He reported to the GCTC and proceeded to advanced training in 1988. From February 1989 on Afanasyev was training for a space flight aboard the Mir orbital station as the Mir-7 mission backup crew commander.

He has logged 175 flight days during his first space flight (2 December 1990 to 26 May 1991) as the Mir-8 mission crew commander. The mission program included a joint flight with a Japanese and British crewmember. He performed 4 EVAs totaling 20 hours and 55 minutes.

8 January to 9 July 1994, Afanasyev was participating in a space flight aboard the Soyuz-TM-18 transport vehicle and Mir orbital station as the Mir-15 mission crew commander.

October 1996 to January 1998 Afanasyev was training for the Mir-25 mission as a backup crew commander. The mission was supposed to include NASA-7 and Pegasus (CNES) programs.

From March 1998 he underwent training as the Mir-27 mission primary crew commander. 20 February to 28 August 1999, he was participating in a 189-day space flight aboard the Soyuz-TM transport vehicle and Mir orbital station. He has performed 3 EVAs.

Colonel Afanasyev is a veteran of three long-duration missions. He has logged over 545 days in space, and 7 EVAs totaling 38.55 hours. He has a Class 1 cosmonaut certification.

In 2001 Viktor Afanasyev was assigned to the ISS Taxi-1 backup crew.

Honours and awards
 Hero of the Soviet Union (26 May 1991) – for the successful implementation of spaceflight on the orbital scientific research complex Mir and displaying courage and heroism
 Order of Merit for the Fatherland, 2nd class (10 April 2002) – for their courage and professionalism shown during the implementation of space flight on the International Space Station; 3rd class (22 November 1999) – for their courage and heroism displayed during prolonged space flight on the orbital scientific research complex Mir
 Order for Personal Courage (18 August 1994) – for their courage and bravery shown during prolonged space flight on the orbital scientific research complex Mir
 Order of Lenin (26 May 1991)
 Order for Service to the Homeland in the Armed Forces of the USSR, 3rd class (21 February 1985)
 Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration" (12 April 2011) – for the great achievements in the field of research, development, and use of outer space, many years of diligent work, public activities
 Grand Officier of the Legion of Honour (France)
 Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR (26 May 1991) – for the implementation of space flight on the orbital scientific research complex Mir

References
 Viktor M. Afanasyev. Bio

1948 births
Living people
Heroes of the Soviet Union
Recipients of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 2nd class
Recipients of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 3rd class
Recipients of the Order "For Personal Courage"
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour
People from Bryansk
Russian Air Force officers
Russian aviators
Russian cosmonauts
Soviet Air Force officers
Soviet cosmonauts
Spacewalkers
Mir crew members

Viktor Afanasyev (cosmonaut)


EMV is a standard protocol for credit cards and debit cards. Beforehand, such cards used a magnetic stripe to store information. This approach has two main problems: first, the amount of data that can be stored is relatively small. Such a card can store about 1024 Bits, or 128 bytes. The second problem is bigger: the data stored is not encrypted. Using a card with EMV technology, also called a "chip card" for the shiny, metallic "chip" on the front, can solve both problems: it can store much more data, and the data can be encrypted.

Payment cards that use chips have been in use since the early 1990s. Beforehand, each card issuer had their own protocol. With EMV, the protocol has been standardised. The first version of EMV was published in 1995, and there have been different versions since then. It was adopted in Europe before the United States, which required all new cards from 2015 on to have EMV chips.

How do EMV cards work?
Payments using EMV technology is often called "chip and PIN". This is because to use such a card to make a payment at a cash register or point-of-sale terminal, the card first needs to be inserted into a small machine called a "payment terminal" or "PIN pad", with the side where the chip is on facing up and towards the machine. Once the card is inserted, it is left there so that the terminal can read the data stored in the chip. The terminal will often ask the user to confirm the amount of the purchase or refund, choose the account in the case of a debit card, and will then require the user to enter a personal identification number (PIN). This number makes sure nobody other than the owner of the card can use it - if the wrong PIN is entered a certain number of times, the card is locked and cannot be used. Once the correct PIN is entered, the terminal will contact the bank to authorize the transaction. The bank will either "approve" (accept) the transaction, or "decline" (reject) it. Once this happens, the person removes his or her card from the terminal.

References

Other websites
A website about Chip and PIN payments in the UK

Computer protocols

EMV


The old and historical city of Lahore, now in Punjab (Pakistan), has been home to many famous personalities in Indian history, and later Pakistani history after 1947. A list of famous 'Lahoris', or people who lived in Lahore and added positively to its social, cultural and intellectual life, is given below. This is not complete and you may add to it.

This list is given in chronological order.

Notable Lahoris

 Lav, son of Rama, the legendary founder of Lahore.
 Hazrat Ali al-Hajvery, patron Sufi saint of the city.
 Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a ruler of the Delhi Sultanate who did much to embellish the city.
 Akbar the Great, Mughal Emperor
 Jahangir, Mughal Emperor
 Anarkali, famed dancing-girl of Mughal times.
 Nur Jahan, Mughal Empress and early social hostess
 Mian Mir Sahib, another very popular Sufi saint of the city.
 Madho Lal Hussain, 16th century Punjabi Sufi poet.
 Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Sikh ruler of Punjab
 The Fakir Family of the old walled Lahore, owners of the Fakir Khana
 The Mian Family of Baghbanpura which produced many famous people
 Sir Henry Lawrence, early British Indian administrator
 Sir John Lawrence (later Lord Lawrence) first Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab
 Sir Charles Umpherston Aitchison, Lieutenant-Governor
 John Lockwood Kipling, artist and art curator
 Prof. Dr Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner, educationalist
 Sir Ganga Ram, engineer and philanthropist
 Rudyard Kipling, author
 Hakim Ahmad Shuja, scholar, poet, writer and lyricist
 Syed Imtiaz Ali Taj playwright who immortalised the love story of Anarkali.
 Allama Muhammad Iqbal, national poet of Pakistan
 Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan, Premier of the Punjab and renovator of the Badshahi Mosque
 Sir Shahnawaz Khan Mamdot Punjabi landowner and Muslim League supporter
 Amrita Sher-Gil, artist and tragic muse
 Malik Barkat Ali lawyer, journalist and political figure
 Ustad Allah Bux artist
 A.R. Chughtai, artist
 Shakir Ali artist and art teacher
 Anwar Kamal Pasha famous early film director and producer.
 Faiz Ahmad Faiz poet and progressive, socialist journalist
 Dr Mohammad Abdus Salam, Nobel Prize winning physicist
 Anna Molka Ahmed artist, poet and art teacher at the University of the Punjab
 Madam Noor Jehan singer and early movie-star
 Sadequain, artist
 Riaz Shahid, film-maker and writer
 Neelo, popular film actress.
 Taufiq Rafat, poet and Punjabi translator
 Asma Jahangir, eminent lawyer and human rights activist.
 Yawar Hayat Khan early Pakistan Television director-producer.
 Altaf Hussain Pakistani film director.
 Bapsi Sidhwa (née Bhandara) novelist and native of Lahore.
 Mian Muhammad Nawaz Sharif, Lahori politician and industrialist
 Mian Shahbaz Sharif, Chief Minister of the Punjab and bon vivant
 Reema, famous film actress, producer and director.
 Imran Khan ex-sportsman and political reformer
 Mohsin Hamid, novelist and socialite
Hammad Khan, humanitarian and Past District Interact Representative at Rotary International District 3272 2013-14

References

Further reading

 Griffin and Massey, Chiefs and Families of Note in the Punjab, revided edition 1910-11.
 WG Osborne, The Court and Camp of Runjeet Singh, London, 1846.
 Lady Emily Eden, Up the Country, new edition, London, 1983.
 Hakim Ahmad Shuja, Lahore ka Chelsea (Urdu), Lahore, 1969.
 Ian Talbot, Divided Cities: Lahore and Amritsar:1947-1957, Karachi, 2005 edition.
 FS Aijazuddin, Lahore: Illustrated Views of the 19th Century, Lahore, n.d.
 WJ Glover, Making Lahore Modern: Constructing and Imagining a Colonial City, Karachi, 2011.
 B. Gascoine, The Great Mughals, London, 1971.
 M. Athar Tahir, Punjab Portraits, Lahore, 1992.
 Isobel Shaw, Pakistan Handbook 1988.

Lahoris
Lahoris

List of people from Lahore


A paw is the soft foot of a mammal that has claws or nails. A hard foot is called a hoof. Paws are used to pad feet for walking and reduce friction.

Animals with paws
 Members of the Canidae family, such as dogs and foxes
 Felines, such as cats and tigers
 Bears and Raccoons
 Weasels and other mustelids
 Rodents

Animal anatomy

Paw