Perfume is a liquid that gives people, things and rooms a good smell. It is made of oils which give off scent to the surrounding air. The odoriferous compounds that make up a perfume can be manufactured synthetically or extracted from plant or animal sources.

Perfumes were used in the earliest human civilizations. Modern perfumery began in the late 19th century with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds such as vanillin or coumarin. The artificial compounds gave a wider ranger of scents than natural materials.

Perfume smells more when temperature is warmer. So people put it on the neck, wrist and back of the knee, because these parts are warmer. Eau de Cologne is a type of perfume which can be splashed on the body. It is not so concentrated as the usual perfumes.

Sources

Plants
Today, most common essential oils, such as lavender, peppermint, and eucalyptus, are distilled. Raw plant material, the flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, or peel, is put into a  distillation apparatus over water.  As the water is heated, the steam passes through the plant material collecting the scents. The steam flow through a coil, where it is condensing back to liquid, which is then collected.

Most citrus peel oils are cold pressed, like olive oil production. Citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils got as by-products of the citrus industry are even cheaper.

Animal sources

Ambergris: lumps of  fatty compounds, secreted and expelled by the sperm whale. Because the harvesting of ambergris causes no harm to the whales, collecting it is not controversial.
Castoreum: from the scent glands of the North American beaver.
Civet musk: from the odorous sacs of civets, which are animals in the family Viverridae, related to the mongoose.
Honeycomb: from the honeycomb of the honeybee.
Deer musk: from the musk sacs from the Asian musk deer.

Other natural sources
 Lichen. Commonly used lichens include oakmoss and treemoss thalli.
 Seaweed. Distillates are sometimes used as essential oil in perfumes. An example of a commonly used seaweed is Fucus vesiculosus, the bladder wrack. Natural seaweed fragrances are rarely used due to their higher cost and lower potency than synthetics.

Synthetic sources
Many modern perfumes contain synthesized odorants. Synthetics can provide fragrances which are not found in nature. For instance, Calone, a compound of synthetic origin, gives a fresh metallic marine scent that is widely used. Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate to compounds that are not easily got from natural sources.

History

The word perfume used today derives from the Latin per fumum, meaning "through smoke." Perfumery, or the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt and was further refined by the Romans and Persians.

The world's first recorded chemist is considered to be a woman named Tapputi, a perfume maker who was mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia. She distilled flowers, oil, and calamus with other aromatics then filtered and put them back in the still several times.

In 2005, archaeologists uncovered what are believed to be the world's oldest perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus. The perfumes date back more than 4,000 years. The perfumes were discovered in an ancient perfumery. At least 60 stills, mixing bowls, funnels and perfume bottles were found in the  factory. In ancient times people used herbs and spices, like almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, bergamot, as well as flowers.

The Arabian alchemist, Al-Kindi (Alkindus), wrote in the 9th century a book on perfumes which contained more than a hundred recipes for fragrant oils and medical substances.

The Persian chemist Avicenna introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, the procedure most commonly used today. He first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes were mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals, which made a strong scent. Rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular.

The art of perfumery was known in western Europe since the 13th or 14th centuries. By the 18th century, aromatic plants were grown in France, Sicily, and Italy.

References

Perfume


Mila 18 is a novel by Leon Uris set in German-occupied Warsaw, Poland, before and during World War II. Mila 18 debuted at #7 on The New York Times Best Seller list (the second-highest debut of any Uris novel ever, bested only by the #6 debut of Trinity in 1976) and peaked at #2 in August 1961. Leon Uris's work, based on real events, covers the Nazi occupation of Poland and the atrocities of systematically dehumanising and eliminating the Jewish people of Poland. The name "Mila 18" is taken from the headquarters bunker of Jewish resistance fighters underneath the building at ulica Miła 18 (18 Mila Street, in English, 18 Pleasant Street). (See Miła 18.)
The term ghetto takes on a clearer meaning as the courageous Jewish leaders fight a losing battle against not only the Nazis and their henchmen, but also profiteers and collaborators among themselves. Eventually, as the ghetto is reduced to rubble, a few courageous individuals with few weapons and no outside help assume command of ghetto defence, form a makeshift army and make a stand.

Summary
As in many other books by Uris, the story is largely told from the standpoint of a newspaperman; in this case, an American-Italian journalist, Christopher de Monti, who is assigned to Warsaw after covering the Spanish Civil War. Although meant to be a dispassionate and neutral observer, he meets and becomes intimate with both the Nazi hierarchy and the Jews of Warsaw. He has a passionate affair with the wife of one of the Jewish community leaders, while also dealing with prostitutes provided by the Nazis.

As the ghetto is surrounded and reduced to rubble, he throws in his lot with the gallant defenders. He is one of the few survivors and manages to escape with a young woman, Gabriela Rak, who is pregnant with the child of one of the defenders, Andrei Androfski, a former Polish army officer.

Characters
Andrei Androfski is a Polish army Ulany Brigade officer, and a Jew. He is hot-headed and several other characters comment that he is best at leading cavalry charges – i.e. hopelessly fighting until the end. He remains in the ghetto after the fall of the bunker at Mila 18 and is presumed dead afterwards.
Gabriela Rak is Andrei Androfski's girlfriend, although they decide not to marry due to Andrei's Jewish descent. She worked at the American Embassy in Warsaw before the war and at the end of the book was carrying Andrei's child.
Christopher de Monti is a journalist whose father is Italian and mother is American. While opposed to fascism and being determined to bring out the truth to the world, he does not aid the fighters on the ghetto until he is compelled to enter the ghetto by the Nazi propaganda officer in Poland. He is the only person to know the location of all the ghetto's diaries.
Alexander Brandel is one of the leaders of the uprising and the father of Wolf Brandel. He started a diary, which was later expanded to 24 volumes by members of the ghetto. Loosely based on Emanuel Ringelblum.
Wolf Brandel is the son of Alexander and one of the leaders of the uprising. He escapes the ghetto with a handful of survivors including his girlfriend Rachael Bronski. At the end of the book Christopher de Monti writes that Rachael and Wolf are off fighting in another Jewish resistance group.
Rachael Bronski is the daughter of Paul and Deborah Bronski and the girlfriend of Wolf Brandel. Along with being a talented musician and an excellent soldier she assists Wolf with the command of his part of the army. When the uprising comes to an end Rachael and Wolf escape with a few others out of the sewers and to safety.
Deborah Bronski is Christopher de Monti's lover and the wife of Paul Bronski. She is also the sister of Andrei Androfski. While Deborah does not feel any love for Paul, especially after he opposes the resistance in the ghetto, she refuses to leave him until he dies. Deborah has two children – Rachael and Stephan Bronski.
Paul Bronski is the husband of Deborah Bronski and, although a Jew, does not wish to be associated with other Jews in any way. He works at the Jewish Council and believes in cooperating with the Germans and opposing the Jewish resistance. He commits suicide eventually after not being able to cope with the pressure from both sides. Loosely based on Adam Czerniaków.
Franz Koenig is an ethnic German living in Poland who receives higher and higher status after the Nazi invasion. As the war progresses, Koenig becomes more and more corrupted. He succeeds Paul Bronski in leading the Warsaw Medical Institute.

Planned movie

In August 2017, it was announced by film producer and Miramax co-founder Harvey Weinstein that he would produce a movie based on the novel, appointing himself as director. However, since the revelations of the producer's sexual misconduct against several women, his future in the business has been put into question.

See also

Miła 18
Warsaw Ghetto
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising

References

External links
Mila 18 list of editions at Internet Archive

1961 American novels
Novels by Leon Uris
Novels set in Warsaw
Novels set during World War II
Doubleday (publisher) books
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising

Mila 18


Squid cache, or simply Squid, is a type of proxy server. They have many different uses, including making web servers faster. It is mostly used in HTTP and FTP protocols, but it has some support for some other types of protocols, like SSL, TLS, and HTTPS. It has been made over several years by people in the University of California in San Diego. It was made to be run on Linux-type computers, but with the use of Cygwin, it can also run completely on Windows computers. It is licensed under the GNU General Public License.

Other websites
 Official project homepage

Web server software
Free software

Squid cache


British Airways Ltd was a British airline company operating in Europe in the period 1935–1939.  It was formed in 1935 by the merger of Spartan Air Lines Ltd, United Airways Ltd (no relation to the US carrier United Airlines), and Hillman's Airways.  Its corporate emblem was a winged lion.

History
On 30 September 1935, Allied British Airways Ltd was formed for the purpose of merging the publicly quoted company Hillman's Airways with the private companies of Spartan Air Lines and United Airways Ltd, both controlled by Whitehall Securities Corporation Ltd (WSC), owned by the Hon. Clive Pearson. Its directors were W. D. L. Roberts, Harold Balfour and John DeC Ballardie from WSC, plus John R. McCrindle, Edgar L. Granville and Gerard L. D'Erlanger from Hillman's. On 29 October 1935, the name was changed to British Airways Ltd, and on 11 December 1935 it converted to a public company. Whitehall Securities was joined as investor in the merged airline by banking house Erlangers Ltd, through its Chairman, Leo d'Erlanger. The combined assets of 37 operational aircraft included Armstrong Whitworth Argosy II, Spartan Three Seater, DH.60 Moths, DH.84 Dragons, DH.89 Dragon Rapides, DH.86As and Spartan Cruisers.

In early 1936, aircraft and services of Hillman's Airways were transferred from Stapleford Aerodrome to Heston Aerodrome, the principal base of Spartan Air Lines and United Airways; the single-engined types and most of the DH.84s were then sold. The London to Liverpool services of United Airways were discontinued, and the services between Liverpool, Blackpool, Isle of Man, Belfast and Glasgow were transferred to Northern & Scottish Airways, a sister company. The ownership of DH.89s and Spartan Cruisers was progressively transferred to Northern & Scottish, and the Argosy was withdrawn from use at Stanley Park Aerodrome (Blackpool).

In April 1936 the airline merged with British Continental Airways; the merged fleet continued to operate as British Airways.

On 25 May 1936, the service from London to Cowes and Ryde aerodromes on the Isle of Wight, that was still jointly operated by Spartan Air Lines and Railway Air Services using DH.84s, was transferred from Heston to Gatwick Airport. Gatwick was then undergoing renovation and redevelopment, to include a new terminal and linked railway station, completed in 1937. In 1936, services from London to Paris, Brussels, Ostend, Amsterdam, Hamburg, Copenhagen, Malmö and Stockholm were flown using DH.89s and DH.86s. Four Fokker F.XIIs were purchased from KLM, after attempted purchase and use by Crilly Airways for a London-Lisbon service, and they were employed on the Paris service until sold in September 1936 for intended use in the Spanish Civil War. During 1936, and into 1937, various night mail contracts were operated, using DH.86s and additional two Fokker F.XIIs, two Fokker F.VIIIs, and three Junkers Ju 52s, to Lille, Cologne, and Hanover.

On 7 February 1937, all services were transferred to Croydon Airport, after surfaces at Gatwick became water-logged due to heavy traffic on immature turf and drains that collapsed; some training operations remained there. In March 1937, the first four of seven Lockheed 10 Electras were delivered. On 12 August 1937, Scottish Airways Ltd was formed to merge the operations of Northern & Scottish Airlines with Highland Airways Ltd, and British Airways Ltd held a 50% stake. On 29 May 1938, most aircraft and services were transferred from Croydon to Heston, due to congestion and unpredictable fog, but night mail operations continued from Croydon. On 3 September 1938, the first of nine Lockheed 14s was delivered.

On 15 September 1938, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain flew from Heston to Munich for a meeting with German leader Adolf Hitler at Berchtesgaden. A Lockheed 10 Electra (G-AEPR) of British Airways Ltd was used on that first of three occasions, piloted by C. Nigel Pelly. On 22 September 1938, Chamberlain flew to Cologne for a meeting at Bad Godesberg in Lockheed 14 G-AFGN, flown by Eric Robinson. On 29 September 1938, G-AFGN was piloted by Victor Flowerday on the final trip to Munich, that resulted in the Munich Agreement, Chamberlain's widely publicised return at Heston on 30 September 1938, and his subsequent "Peace for our time" speech.

During 1939, new services were operated to Berlin, Frankfurt, Budapest, Warsaw and Lisbon.

Second World War
Before the outbreak of war on 1 September 1939, the British government had already implemented the Air Navigation (Restriction in Time of War) Order 1939. That ordered military takeover of most civilian airfields in the UK, cessation of all private flying without individual flight permits, and other emergency measures. It was administered by a statutory department of the Air Ministry titled National Air Communications (NAC). By 1 September 1939, the aircraft and administrations of British Airways Ltd (BAL) and Imperial Airways were physically transferred to Bristol (Whitchurch) Airport, to be operated jointly by NAC. On 1 April 1940, British Airways Ltd and Imperial Airways Ltd were officially combined into a new company, British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC), that had already been formed on 24 November 1939 with retrospective financial arrangements.

Fleet
British Airways Ltd operated the following aircraft:

Accidents and incidents
 On 16 May 1936, a Spartan Cruiser (G-ACYL) crashed on landing at Hall Caine Airport, Ramsey, Isle of Man. The aircraft was operating a scheduled passenger flight from Glasgow (Renfrew) Airport. Despite the loss of a wing in the accident, the aircraft was repaired and returned to service.

See also
 List of defunct airlines of the United Kingdom

Notes
 Doyle, Neville. 2001. The Triple Alliance: The Predecessors of the first British Airways. Air-Britain.
 Moss, Peter W. 1962. Impressments Log (Vol I-IV). Air-Britain.
 Moss, Peter W. October 1974. British Airways. Aeroplane Monthly.

 Sherwood, Tim. 1999. Coming in to Land: A Short History of Hounslow, Hanworth and Heston Aerodromes 1911–1946. Heritage Publications (Hounslow Library)

References

External links

 Photo of Spartan Cruisers of British Airways Ltd at Hall Caine Aerodrome IoM, 1936
 Photo of Dragon Rapide (G-ADAG) of Hillmans Airways
 Photo of De Havilland Dragon (G-ADCT) 'Orcadian' of Highland Airways
 Photo of Lockheed 10A (G-AEPR) at Heston, 15 September 1938
 Polish National Archives photo of Lockheed 14 (G-AFGN) with Chamberlain at Heston, 24 September 1938
 Polish National Archives photo of Lockheed 14 with pilot Giles Guthrie
 Polish national Archives photo of Lockheed 14 (G-AFKE) at Warsaw, 1939

Airlines established in 1935
Defunct airlines of the United Kingdom
British companies established in 1935
1935 establishments in England
Airlines disestablished in 1939
1939 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
1940 mergers and acquisitions
1935 mergers and acquisitions

British Airways Ltd


United States Air Force Plant 42  is a classified aircraft manufacturing plant owned by the United States Air Force in the Antelope Valley, about  from downtown Los Angeles. It is also used by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

Plant 42 shares a runway with Palmdale Regional Airport (PMD).

Overview
Plant 42 is owned by the United States Air Force and operated as a component of Edwards Air Force Base, which is  northeast. Most of its facilities are operated by private contractors to build and maintain military aircraft and their components for the United States and its allies.

Plant 42 has  of industrial space and a replacement value of $1.1 billion. Some of its facilities build aircraft, including the Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk and other unmanned aircraft. Others maintain and modify aircraft such as the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit bomber. Still others make spare parts.

Aerospace contractors at Air Force Plant 42 share a runway complex, and either lease building space from the Air Force (an arrangement commonly referred to as a "GOCO," or Government Owned Contractor Operated) or own their own buildings outright (e.g., Lockheed Martin Skunk Works). There are eight production sites specially suited for advanced technology and/or "black" programs. Currently, the most well-known contractors at Plant 42 are Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman. Previously, the facilities were operated by IT&T; McDonnell-Douglas Aircraft; Lockheed California, Norair, a Division of Northrop; and Lockheed Air Terminal.

Plant 42 is a GOCO, contractually operated for the Air Force since 1954. But under the Obama administration, the Air Force chose to take over some plant operations that had long been performed by contractors. The airfield is now operated by the Department of Defense, with 412 TW/Operating Location, Air Force Test Center in command.

Plant 42 controls more than 5,800 acres (23 km2) of Mojave Desert land north of Avenue P and south of Columbia Way (Avenue M). The western border is Sierra Highway, and the plant extends east to around 40th Street East, south of Avenue N to Avenue P, and 50th Street East north of Avenue N to Columbia Way (Avenue M).

It is the Antelope Valley's second-largest employer.

Facilities

Northrop Grumman's B-2 final assembly and modification facility is at Palmdale. In February 1999, Department of Defense officials said that depot support for the B-2 would be provided by commercial and military sources. For example, the engines are to be maintained by the Air Force, software support is to be provided by commercial sources, and airframe maintenance is to be provided by Northrop Grumman at Palmdale.

Rockwell's Palmdale assembly facility is where all the individual parts, pieces, and systems of the Space Shuttle came together and were assembled and tested. Upon completion, the spacecraft was turned over to NASA for truck transport to Edwards AFB. NASA's Dryden Flight Research Facility at Edwards Air Force Base was where the spacecraft was loaded and unloaded on a Shuttle Carrier Aircraft.

About 250 major subcontractors supplied various systems and components to Rockwell's Palmdale assembly facility. The structures of the orbiter were manufactured at various companies under contract to Rockwell International's Space Transportation Systems Division, Downey, California. The upper and lower forward fuselage, crew compartment, forward reaction control system and aft fuselage were manufactured at Rockwell's Space Transportation Systems Division facility in Downey and were transported overland from Downey to Rockwell's Palmdale, California, assembly facility. The midfuselage was manufactured by General Dynamics, San Diego, California, and transported overland to Rockwell's Palmdale assembly facility. The wings (including elevons) were manufactured by Grumman, Bethpage, Long Island, New York, and transported by ship from New York via the Panama Canal to Long Beach, California, and then transported overland to Rockwell's Palmdale assembly facility. The vertical tail (including rudder/speed brake) were manufactured by Fairchild Republic in Farmingdale, Long Island, New York, and transported overland to Rockwell's Palmdale assembly facility. The payload bay doors were manufactured at Rockwell International's Tulsa, Oklahoma, facility and transported overland to Rockwell's Palmdale assembly facility. The body flap was manufactured at Rockwell International's Columbus, Ohio, facility and transported overland to Rockwell's Palmdale assembly facility. The aft orbital maneuvering system/reaction control system pods were manufactured by McDonnell Douglas, St. Louis, Missouri, and transported by aircraft to Rockwell's Palmdale assembly facility. They were also transported by aircraft from Rockwell's Palmdale assembly facility to the Kennedy Space Center.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration had been paying the Air Force for use of Plant 42 facilities for the shuttle work. NASA decided in February 2002 to shift space shuttle overhaul and modification work from Palmdale to Florida. On August 7, 2020, J G Contracting of Nipomo, California, received a contract for maintenance, repair, and construction at U.S. Air Force facilities at Plant 42. On August 31, 2021, KAL Architects of Irvine, California, received a five-year contract for architect and engineering services at Plant 42.

Current known projects include design, engineering, pre-production, production, modification, flight testing, servicing and repair mission related activities to the following:
 B-2 Spirit
 B-21 Raider
 B-52 Stratofortress
 F-22 Raptor
 F-35 Lightning II (JSF)
 MQ-4C Triton
 RQ-4 Global Hawk
 RQ-170 Sentinel
 SOFIA (Stratospheric Observatory for infrared Astronomy) - NASA 747SP
 U-2 "Dragon Lady"
 X-47B

Museums
The Blackbird Airpark Museum, part of the Air Force Flight Test Museum, and the adjacent Joe Davies Heritage Airpark (formerly Palmdale Plant 42 Heritage Airpark) have recently been opened on Plant 42 property along Avenue P (both are free to the public) with displays of the SR-71, U-2, Century Series fighters and other aircraft designed, engineered, manufactured, and flight tested at its facilities.

History

The origins of Plant 42 go to the early 1930s, when a small airstrip was built in the desert. It was listed in 1935 documentation as CAA Intermediate #5. It was established by the Bureau of Air Commerce (later the Civil Aeronautics Administration) who maintained a network of emergency landing fields.  It provided a pilot in distress with a better alternative than landing on a public road or a farmer's field.

World War II
In 1940, Palmdale Army Airfield was activated as a United States Army Air Corps (later Air Forces) airfield for use as an emergency landing strip and for B-25 Mitchell medium bomber support training during World War II. It was one of many intermediate fields that were used as auxiliary fields or emergency landing fields by the AAF during World War II. Their dispersion along the air routes, their infrequent use, and their U.S. government ownership made them ideal for use by military aircraft.  It acted as a sub-base for Muroc Army Airfield and Hammer Army Airfield.

Postwar use

Palmdale Army Airfield was declared a surplus facility in 1946 and was purchased by Los Angeles County for use as a municipal airport. The outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 caused the Air Force to reactivate the property for use in final assembly and flight testing of military jet aircraft.

Both the Air Force and its aircraft contractors needed a location away from major population centers - due to sonic booms, other noises and security concerns - but close enough to the major centers of aircraft design and production, while having excellent flying weather the year around. The land which became Plant 42 fit these criteria. Consequently, the Air Force agreed to purchase the land from Los Angeles County in 1951.

The Air Force awarded a contract to Lockheed Aircraft to develop the master plan for the site. The plan was to construct a facility that would meet the requirements of full war mobilization and augment the industrial production potential of the major airframe manufacturing industry in southern California.

The concept for Air Force Plant 42 originated in the challenge of flight testing high performance jet aircraft over heavily populated areas. Following approval of the Master Plan in 1953, the Palmdale Airport officially became Air Force Plant 42; ownership of the installation was transferred to the Federal Government in 1954.
With USAF encouragement, Lockheed, looked upon with favor by the Air Force at this time, established its permanent presence at Plant 42. It signed a lease in 1956 for 237 acres to use Palmdale Airport for final assembly and flight testing.

Lockheed Skunk Works

Lockheed's famed "Skunk Works" (a corporate division tasked with clandestine development of black projects), which developed such aircraft as the U-2, SR-71 Blackbird and F-117 Nighthawk, is at Site 10 of the complex (actually private property with secure access to Plant 42's airfield), near Sierra Highway. It relocated to Plant 42 from its original Burbank-Glendale-Pasadena Airport (now Bob Hope Airport) site in Burbank after the end of the Cold War. Its present hangar was constructed in 1968 and the outer walls of the structure were put up in a matter of days. Its hangar originally was built for the Lockheed L-1011 Tristar passenger jet project.

Since then, the plant has supported facilities for the production, engineering, final assembly and flight testing of high performance aircraft. During the 1980s it was used by Lockheed to produce the U-2/TR-1 and support the SR-71. Northrop produced the F-5E, and Rockwell supported the B-1B Lancer. Past projects included:
 Each of the Space Shuttle orbiters
 Modernization of the Space Shuttle Columbia's cockpit area
 Lockheed L-1011 Tristar passenger jet
 B-1 Lancer Bomber
 XB-70 Valkyrie
 X-15
 SR-71 Blackbird
 F-117A Nighthawk

See also
 Air Force Plant 4, Fort Worth, Texas
 Air Force Plant 6, Marietta, Georgia
 California World War II Army Airfields

References

External links

 Edwards Air Force Base: Plant 42

1935 establishments in California
1950 establishments in California
Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in California
Antelope Valley
Boeing manufacturing facilities
Buildings and structures in Palmdale, California
Edwards Air Force Base
Government buildings completed in 1950
Industrial buildings completed in 1935
Lockheed Martin-associated military facilities
Military facilities in Greater Los Angeles
Military facilities in the Mojave Desert
Plants of the United States Air Force
Science and technology in Greater Los Angeles

United States Air Force Plant 42


The coat o airms o El Salvador haes been in uise in its current form syne 15 September 1912.  Its center consists o a triangle, in which five volcanoes rise oot o the sea.  Thay seembolise the five member states o the Unitit Provinces o Central Americae.  Abuin the volcanoes is a reid Phrygian cap on a staff afore a golden sun an the date 15 September 1821, Unthirldom Day o El Salvador.  Ower it is a rainbow.  Ahint the coat o airms thare are five banners representin the banners o the Federal Republic o Central Americae raised.  Unner it, thare is a scroll which states the naitional motto o El Salvador: Dios, Unión, Libertad (Spaingie, "God, Union, Liberty").
Aw o this is surroondit bi a laurel garland, which is tied thegither unner the naitional banner. The garland is dividit intae 14 different pairts, which seembolise the 14 Depairtaments, the Salvadoran subnaitional administrative units.  Aw this is surroondit bi golden letters, which form the Spaingie wirds REPÚBLICA DE EL SALVADOR EN LA AMÉRICA CENTRAL (Inglis: Republic o El Salvador in Central Americae).

Naitional seembols o El Salvador
El Salvador

Coat o airms o El Salvador


I Heart Huckabees (stylized as I ♥ Huckabees; also I Love Huckabees) is a 2004 independent black comedy film directed and produced by David O. Russell, who co-wrote the screenplay with Jeff Baena.

A self-described "existential comedy", I Heart Huckabees follows a pair of detectives (Dustin Hoffman and Lily Tomlin), hired to investigate the meaning of the life of their clients (Jude Law, Jason Schwartzman, Mark Wahlberg, and Naomi Watts). As the different investigations cross paths, their rival and nemesis (Isabelle Huppert) tries to drag their clients into her own views on the meaning of their lives.

Plot
Young Albert Markovski heads the local chapter of the "Open Spaces Coalition" environmental group. One of their current projects is stopping the building of a new chain store "big-box" department stores, Huckabees.

Albert is a rival of Brad Stand, a shallow executive at Huckabees. Brad infiltrates Open Spaces and charismatically displaces Albert as the leader. Dawn Campbell is Brad's live-in girlfriend and the face and voice of Huckabees, appearing in all of the store's ads.

After seeing the same conspicuous stranger three times, Albert contacts a couple of existential detectives, Bernard and Vivian Jaffe. They offer him their optimistic brand of existentialism—they call universal interconnectivity (combining romantic and transcendentalist philosophies)—and spy on him, ostensibly to help him solve the coincidence. Fireman Tommy Corn is another client of the Jaffes', with an idealistic, obsessively anti-petroleum-industry philosophy. They introduce Albert to Tommy as his 'other', and they become friends.

Tommy grows dissatisfied with the Jaffes, feeling they are not helping. Seeking out other possibilities, he ends up abandoning (and undermining) the Jaffes by introducing Albert to Caterine Vauban, a former student of the Jaffes who espouses a seemingly opposing nihilistic/absurdist philosophy.

Caterine teaches them to disconnect their inner beings from their daily lives and problems, to synthesize a non-thinking state of "pure being." Lifted from their troubles, they wish to keep that feeling forever. But she says it is inevitable to be drawn back into human drama, and the core truth of it is misery and meaninglessness. To prove her point, Caterine takes Albert into the woods to have sex, leaving Tommy behind. He finds out about it and feels hurt. She tells him that they found each other through all of the human suffering and drama. Tommy rejects this idea and leaves them, furious and lost.

Meanwhile, in Brad's further attempts to undercut Albert, he and Dawn meet with and are influenced by Bernard and Vivian. In the following days, Brad and Dawn rethink their entire lives: she rejects the modeling world, looking for deeper meaning, while he realizes his whole ascent up the corporate ladder is meaningless, as he has focused his whole life on trying to please others and not himself.

All the storylines collide when Brad's house catches fire. While the fire trucks get stuck in a traffic jam, Tommy arrives on his bicycle to put out the fire, which also trapped Dawn inside. As he saves her life, they fall in love. Meanwhile, Brad despairs at the destruction of his home, the symbol of his material success. Albert attains a sort of enlightenment when he synthesizes the two opposing outlooks of the Jaffes and Caterine to realize the cosmic truth of everything.

Brad, meanwhile, is fired from Huckabees, leaving him rudderless. Albert reveals to him that the fire started when he burned Brad's jet skis, then it spread to the rest of the house. He says they are no different, that everything really is inextricably connected, but that these connections necessarily arise from the often senselessly painful reality of human existence. Having realized this, he refers Brad to Caterine, believing she can help him as she did Albert and Tommy.

Albert and Tommy talk later about everything that has happened. Caterine and the Jaffes watch them from afar, concluding they can close both of their cases.

Cast

 Dustin Hoffman as Bernard Jaffe
 Isabelle Huppert as Caterine Vauban
 Jude Law as Brad Stand
 Jason Schwartzman as Albert Markovski
 Lily Tomlin as Vivian Jaffe
 Mark Wahlberg as Tommy Corn
 Naomi Watts as Dawn Campbell
 Ger Duany as Stephen Nimieri
 Isla Fisher as Heather
 Sydney Zarp as Cricket Hooten
 Jonah Hill as Bret Hooten
 Richard Jenkins as Mr. Hooten (uncredited)
 Darlene Hunt as Darlene
 Kevin Dunn as Marty
 Benny Hernandez as Davy
 Richard Appel as Josh
 Benjamin Nurick as Harrison
 Jake Muxworthy as Tim
 Tippi Hedren as Mary Jane Hutchinson
 Altagracia Guzman as Mrs. Echevarria
 Saïd Taghmaoui as Translator
 Bob Gunton as Mr. Silver
 Talia Shire as Mrs. Silver
 Jean Smart as Mrs. Hooten
 Shania Twain as herself

The film features the screen debuts of Jonah Hill (in a minor role) and Ger Duany.

Production
Before directing his first feature, Spanking the Monkey, Russell intended to make a film  "about a guy who sits in the back of a Chinese restaurant with microphones on every table to surreptitiously listen to everybody's conversations, then write perversely personal fortunes for each of the people."

Hitting a writer's block, Russell could not figure out how to make the film work. In the meantime Russell was called for jury duty, after which he stopped writing the film. Ideas in the script stayed with him though and they would later form the basis for the Huckabee script. The final idea came to Russell in a dream where "This female detective she was not following me for criminal reasons, but she was following me for spiritual and metaphysical reasons." Russell, who makes a habit of writing his dreams down, knew instantly upon reading his summary of the dream that this was the story he wanted to pursue.

Incident between David O. Russell and Lily Tomlin
In March 2007, two videos were leaked onto YouTube portraying on-set arguments between Russell and Tomlin. When the Miami New Times asked Tomlin about the videos, she responded, "I love David. There was a lot of pressure in making the movie—even the way it came out you could see it was a very free-associative, crazy movie, and David was under a tremendous amount of pressure. And he's a very free-form kind of guy anyway."

Soundtrack

Jon Brion provided the score and seven original songs for the film. His unique methods for writing previous film scores (Punch-Drunk Love, Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind) involved very close collaboration with the director. Through this process, David O. Russell was able to sit in the same room with Brion and watch an early cut of the film. Russell described what he wanted to portray and Brion would compose music to Russell's descriptions. The process can be seen on a featurette on the film's special edition DVD.

David O. Russell, while working with Brion, had come across Brion's first solo album, Meaningless. Russell has mentioned that Brion's album asks similar questions to the ones Russell was trying to ask with I Heart Huckabees. In particular, Russell notes that the questions on Meaningless are closer to the questions directed from Caterine Vauban's negative and dark point of view.

Many cues used in the film feature a Chamberlin, a keyboard instrument from the 1950s that replicates instrumental sounds using recorded tape.

Release

Marketing
In an advertising campaign for the film, four fictional websites were created. They were portrayed as if they were actual websites involving the characters and organizations featured in the film. Each website had a link called "Disclaimer" at the bottom that leads to FOX Searchlight's official website for the film. Websites were rendered inactive a few months after release, each now redirecting to FOX Searchlight's website.
 Huckabees Corporation: The "official" website for the chain of Huckabees stores. Featured the store history, announcements, three television ads featuring Dawn Campbell, and a banner promoting the Huckabees collaboration with the Open Spaces Coalition.
 Open Spaces Coalition: This website described the importance of the marshlands Albert Markovski is trying to protect, ways of aiding the cause. The site also contained poetry written by Markovski and downloadable flyers.
 Existential Detectives: The website promoting the Jaffes' detective agency. It explained the methodology of the detectives, had two case studies and an online questionnaire.
 Caterine Vauban: The website of Caterine Vauban, author of "If Not Now". The site contained reviews and excerpts from the book.

Box office
I Heart Huckabees opened in a limited release on October 1, 2004, earning $292,177 and ranking number 24 in the weekend's box office. The film was granted a wide release three weeks later on October 22, earning $2,902,468, ranking tenth in the box office. At the end of its run, the film grossed $12,785,432 domestically and $7,286,740 overseas for a worldwide total of $20,072,172.

Reception
The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics. Some critics were displeased with the existential subject matter and said the script was unfocused, while others celebrated its performances (especially Wahlberg as Tommy Corn) and originality. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 63% rating based on 192 reviews, with an average rating of 6.30/10. The site's consensus states: "I Heart Huckabees certainly isn't for everyone, but audiences attuned to its quirky wavelength will find a singularly brainy screwball comedy that refuses to pander." Metacritic reports a 55 out of 100 rating based on 40 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".

In an article for New Review of Film and Television Studies film scholar, Kim Wilkins labelled the dialogue in I Heart Huckabees "hyper-dialogue," which is described as "intensified, unevenly fluctuating, and often ironically inflected use of dialogue in the place of action".

See also
 Deconstruction
 Dialectical monism
 Synchronicity
American Eccentric Cinema

References

External links

2004 films
2004 comedy films
American comedy films
British comedy films
2000s French-language films
2000s Spanish-language films
Environmental films
Existentialist films
Fox Searchlight Pictures films
Films about philosophy
Films directed by David O. Russell
Films produced by Scott Rudin
Films scored by Jon Brion
Films shot in California
Films shot in Los Angeles
Qwerty Films films
2000s English-language films
2000s American films
2000s British films

I Heart Huckabees


Footwork refers to dance technique aspects related to feet: foot position and foot action.

The following aspects of footwork may be considered:
Dance technique: a proper footwork may be vital for proper posture and movement of a dancer.
Aesthetic value: some foot positions and actions are traditionally considered appealing, while other ones are ugly, although this depends on the culture.
Artistic expression: a sophisticated footwork may in itself be the goal of the dance expression.

Different dances place different emphasis on the above aspects.

Ballroom dancing
In a narrow sense, e.g., in descriptions of ballroom dance figures, the term refers to the behavior of the foot when it meets the floor. In particular, it describes which part of the foot is in contact with the floor: ball, heel, flat, toe, high toe, inside/outside edge, etc.

B-boying
In breakdance, moves performed on one's hands and feet may be referred to as downrock or (especially in the southern United States) as footwork.  Typical moves in this type of dance include the "6-step", "2-step", "3-step", "5-step", "coffee grinders", "Valdez", "C-C's", and "front C-C's". Additionally in breakdancing there exists moves specifically known as footwork which place emphasis on one's foot movement. Examples of such moves include the Indian step, Salsa step, and Crossovers.

See also
Glossary of partner dance terms
Glossary of ballet terms
Rises and falls

Dance moves

Footwork (dance)


Superfluidity is a state of matter where fluid or a liquid can act very strangely.

Some of the things a superfluid can do are:

It can flow extremely easily. (How easily a liquid can flow is called its viscosity.) In fact, it flows so easily that friction does not change the way it flows; it has zero viscosity. Because of this, it can actually flow out of a container, like a bowl, even when the bowl is not tipped so the liquid can spill out.
It stays still when its container is spun, instead of starting a whirlpool like when a sink full of water is drained. However, a whirlpool does form if the container is spun at and above a certain speed.

So far, scientists have only been able to create superfluids at extremely cold temperatures. However, superfluids have quite a few uses in science today, like:

 Superfluid Helium at nearly absolute zero -271.4 degrees Celsius [-456.2 degrees Fahrenheit] was used in a special satellite in 1983 to get information on infrared waves in space.
 Superfluids can be used in gyroscopes, to help machines predict information about gravity movements that can't be picked up with regular instruments only.
 One kind of superfluid was used to trap and slow down a beam of light from  its normal speed of 670,600,000 mph (1,079,000,000 km/h) to only 38.03 mph (62.2 km/h) That means the beam of light was moving at .00000567104 % of its speed in a vacuum, or 17 million times slower.

There is also another state of matter called a supersolid, although how they are formed is more complex.

Related pages
Fluid mechanics

Physics

Superfluidity


The London Wall was the defensive wall built by the Romans around Londinium. Londinium was then, as now, the most important port town on the River Thames.

London Wall is now the name of a road in the City of London. It runs along part of the course of the old wall. Until the later Middle Ages, the wall defined the boundaries of the City of London.

City of London
Roman buildings and structures
2nd-century buildings and structures

London Wall


The 11th Hussars (Prince Albert's Own) was a cavalry regiment of the British Army established in 1715. It saw service for three centuries including the First World War and Second World War but then amalgamated with the 10th Royal Hussars (Prince of Wales' Own) to form the Royal Hussars in 1969.

History

Formation to end 18th century

The regiment was formed at Colchester in July 1715 by Philip Honeywood as Honeywood's Regiment of Dragoons, one of 16 raised in response to the 1715 Jacobite rising. It fought in the Battle of Preston that ended the revolt in England and while many of these formations were disbanded in 1718, Honeywood's remained in being.

In the 1745 Jacobite rising, it took part in the December 1745 Clifton Moor Skirmish, allegedly the last military engagement on English soil, as well as Culloden in April, often cited as the last pitched battle on British soil. After 1751, regiments were numbered, rather than being named after the current Colonel, and it became the 11th Regiment of Dragoons.

When the Seven Years' War broke out in 1756, the regiment took part in the 1758 raids on St Malo and Cherbourg. Attempting to divert French forces from Hanover, they failed to achieve this aim and the regiment was shipped to Germany in May 1760 as part of the Marquess of Granby's cavalry corps, winning its first battle honour in July at Warburg. It was also present in the Allied victory at Villinghausen in July 1761, which forced the French onto the defensive and ultimately led to the Treaty of Paris in 1763.

In 1755, each dragoon regiment added a reconnaissance or 'light' troop; in February 1779, these were detached, that from the 11th helping form the 19th Light Dragoons, which in 1862 became the 19th Royal Hussars. While dragoons had previously been mounted infantry, as part of a tactical rethink, the 11th was re-designated in 1783 as 'light cavalry' and became the 11th Regiment of Light Dragoons.

During the French Revolutionary Wars, two squadrons of the 11th Light Dragoons took part in the Duke of York's Low Countries campaign in 1793-95, including  the action at Famars and the sieges of Valenciennes and Landrecies. It was also involved in the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland, including the October 1799 battles of Alkmaar and Castricum.

The 19th century

With the exception of a short spell in Egypt during the victorious campaign of 1801, the regiment did not see active service again until it was sent to Portugal in April 1811, where it joined the Peninsular War campaign. In August, a ten-man piquet was surprised and captured at San Martín de Trevejo in Spain, an incident that may have given rise to the regiment's nickname, The Cherry Pickers, which tradition associates with a mishap occurring in the vicinity of a cherry orchard. It fought at Badajoz in April 1812 and the Battle of Salamanca in July 1812 before returning to Britain. During the campaign of 1815, it was part of Vandeleur's 4th Cavalry Brigade, fighting at Quatre Bras and Waterloo.

In 1819, the regiment moved to India, where it remained until 1836. Shortly before returning to Britain, the Earl of Cardigan became lieutenant-colonel; he embarked on a series of changes, which were intended to increase regimental prestige but resulted in a number of highly publicised disputes, including the so-called 'Black Bottle' affair.

In 1840, the 11th Light Dragoons served as escort to Prince Albert on his arrival in England to marry Queen Victoria. She appointed Prince Albert colonel of the regiment. and granted them the title 11th (Prince Albert's Own) Hussars.   Prince Albert's interests included military tactics and equipment and he helped design the regiment's new uniforms.  By coincidence, the ornate Hussar uniform included crimson  or "cherry" coloured trousers, unique among British regiments and worn ever since in most orders of uniform other than combat and working dress.

The regiment served in the Crimean War, as part of the Light Brigade commanded by Cardigan, now a Major General and fought at the Battle of Alma in September 1854. It was also involved in the Charge of the Light Brigade in October 1854; due to miscommunication, Cardigan led the brigade against unbroken and more numerous Russian forces and while able to withdraw to its starting position, it suffered heavy losses as a result.

The 11th lost three officers and 55 men in the debacle, while Lieutenant Dunn was awarded the Victoria Cross for rescuing two members of his troop. Edward Woodham of the 11th Hussars later acted as Chairman of the organising committee for the 21st Anniversary dinner held at Alexandra Palace for survivors of the Charge. The regiment was renamed the 11th (or Prince Albert's Own) Hussars in 1861. A detachment took part in the 1884 Nile Expedition and during the Second Boer War, it participated in the February 1900 Relief of Ladysmith.

In 1911 Prince Albert's great-grandson Crown Prince Wilhelm of Prussia became colonel-in-chief of the regiment. He was removed in October 1914 following the outbreak of the First World War.

The First World War

The regiment landed in France as part of the 1st Cavalry Brigade in the 1st Cavalry Division in August 1914 for service on the Western Front with the British Expeditionary Force. The regiment took part in the Great Retreat and the regiment, working with the 2nd Dragoon Guards, conducted a cavalry charge which led to the capture of eight guns at Néry in September 1914. In an action during the Battle of Messines in October 1914 a squadron from the regiment endured a heavy German bombardment that left many of its soldiers buried in a trench while another squadron from the regiment used a vantage point at the top of a building to train a machine gun on the Germans. At the Second Battle of Ypres in April 1915 the regiment, working with the Durham Light Infantry and 9th Lancers, held the village of Hooge despite being under attack from the German forces using poison gas. In spring 1918 the commanding officer of the regiment Colonel Rowland Anderson led a bayonet assault at Sailly-Laurette which, taking the Germans by surprise, led to them being completely repulsed.

The inter-war years
The regiment was renamed the 11th Hussars (Prince Albert's Own) in 1921; it became the first British cavalry regiment to become mechanized in 1928 and it became involved in suppressing the Arab revolt in Palestine in 1936.

The Second World War

The regiment, which had been located in Egypt when the war started, deployed as part of the divisional troops of the 7th Armoured Division and conducted raids on Italian positions in Italian Libya using armoured cars during the Western Desert Campaign. It captured Fort Capuzzo in June 1940 and, in an ambush east of Bardia, captured General Lastucci, the Engineer-in-Chief of the Italian Tenth Army.

Following the Italian invasion of Egypt in September 1940, the regiment took part in the British counterattack called Operation Compass, launched against Italian forces first in Egypt, then Libya. It was part of an ad hoc combat unit called Combeforce, commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel John Combe, that cut the retreating Tenth Army off and led to their surrender at the Battle of Beda Fomm in February 1941. The regiment fought at the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942. The regiment took part in the Allied invasion of Italy in September 1943 and, after the Normandy landings in June 1944, took part in the North-West Europe Campaign.

Post-war

The regiment was posted to Wavell Barracks in Berlin in 1945 and, after tours at various locations in Lower Saxony including Jever, Delmenhorst, Osnabrück and Wesendorf, it returned home in March 1953. It deployed to Johor Bahru in Malaya in July 1953 during the Malayan Emergency. After returning home, it moved to Hadrian's Camp in Carlisle as an Armoured Basic Training Unit in August 1956, then to Lisanelly Barracks in Omagh back into the armoured reconnaissance role in August 1959, and then deployed to Aden in November 1960 shortly before the Aden Emergency. It returned to England in November 1961 and then moved to Haig Barracks in Hohne in October 1962 where, after becoming the first regiment to use Chieftain tanks in regular service in 1967, it remained until returning home again in January 1969. The regiment was amalgamated with the 10th Royal Hussars (Prince of Wales's Own), to form the Royal Hussars on 25 October 1969.

Regimental museum
The regimental collection is held by HorsePower: The Museum of the King's Royal Hussars which is based at Peninsula Barracks in Winchester.

Notable members
 James Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan — leader of the Charge of the Light Brigade
 Alexander Roberts Dunn — the first Canadian to win the Victoria Cross, for rescuing two soldiers during the Charge of the Light Brigade
 Tim Forster — Racehorse trainer of 3 Grand National winners
 John Ashley Kilvert — survivor of the Charge of the Light Brigade and later mayor of Wednesbury
 David Margesson, 1st Viscount Margesson — British politician
 Francis Newall, 2nd Baron Newall — British politician
 William Henry Pennington — survivor of the Charge of the Light Brigade and later a Shakespearean actor
 Nicholas Soames — British politician
 Prince Michael of Kent
 Sir Philip Frankland-Payne-Gallwey, 6th Baronet
 Harry Flashman — fictional anti-hero
 Antony Beevor — writer
 John Frederick Boyce Combe — World War II leader of Combe Force
 Ted Dexter — England international cricketer and administrator

Battle honours
The battle honours of the regiment were as follows:
 Early wars: Warburg, Beaumont, Willems, Egypt, Salamanca, Peninsula, Waterloo, Bhurtpore, Alma, Balaklava, Inkerman, Sevastopol
 The Great War:  Mons, Le Cateau, Retreat from Mons, Marne 1914, Aisne 1914, Messines 1914, Armentières 1914, Ypres 1914 '15, Frezenberg, Bellewaarde, Somme 1916 '18, Flers-Courcelette, Arras 1917, Scarpe 1917, Cambrai 1917 '18, St. Quentin, Rosières, Amiens, Albert 1918, Hindenburg Line, St. Quentin Canal, Beaurevoir, Selle, France and Flanders 1914–18
 The Second World War: Egyptian Frontier 1940, Withdrawal to Matruh, Bir Emba, Sidi Barrani, Buq Buq, Bardia 1941, Capture of Tobruk, Beda Fomm, Halfaya 1941, Sidi Suleiman, Tobruk 1941, Gubi I II, Gabr Saleh, Sidi Rezegh 1941, Taieb el Essem, Relief of Tobruk, Saunnu, Msus, Defence of Alamein Line, Alam el Halfa, El Alamein, Advance on Tripoli, Enfidaville, Tunis, North Africa 1940–43, Capture of Naples, Volturno Crossing, Italy 1943, Villers Bocage, Bourguébus Ridge, Mont Pinçon, Jurques, Dives Crossing, La Vie Crossing, Lisieux, Le Touques Crossing, Risle Crossing, Roer, Rhine, Ibbenburen, Aller, North-West Europe 1944–45

Commanding Officers

The Commanding Officers have been:
1958–1961: Lt.-Col. J. Anthony N. Crankshaw
1961–1963: Lt.-Col. Philip D.S. Lauder
1963–1965: Lt.-Col. Richard D. Sutton
1965–1966: Lt.-Col. Thomas A. Hall
1966–1968: Lt.-Col. Peter M. Hamer
1968–1969: Lt.-Col. Clive H. Robertson

Colonels—with other names for the regiment
The colonels of the regiment were as follows (the Kerr family provided the colonels for two-thirds of the regiment's first century):

 1715 Philip Honywood —Honywood's or Honeywood's Regiment of Dragoons
 1732 Lord Mark Kerr — Kerr's Regiment of Dragoons
11th Regiment of Dragoons (1751)
A royal warrant provided that in future regiments would not be known by their colonels' names, but by their "number or rank" on 1 July 1751

 1752 William, Marquess of Lothian
 1775 James Johnston

 11th Regiment of Light Dragoons (1783)
 1785 Thomas Gage
 1787 Joseph, Lord Dover KB
 1789 Studholme Hodgson
 1798 William, Marquess of Lothian KT
 1813 Lord William Bentinck GCB GCH
 1839 Gen. Lord Charles Henry Somerset Manners, KCB
 1839 Lt-Gen. Philip Philpot

11th (Prince Albert's Own) Hussars (1840)
 1840 F.M. Francis Albert Augustus Charles Emmanuel, Duke of Saxony, Prince of Saxe-Coburg (The Prince Consort), KG, KT, KP, GCB, GCMG, KSI
 1842 Gen. Sir Arthur Benjamin Clifton, GCB, KCH
 1842 Gen. Charles Murray Cathcart, 2nd Earl Cathcart (Lord Greenock), GCB
 1847 Gen. Sir Henry Wyndham, KCB
 1860 Lt-Gen. James Thomas Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan, KCB

11th (or Prince Albert's Own) Hussars (1861)
 1868 Gen. George William Key
 1871 Gen. Charles Hagart, CB
 1873 Gen. Sir Archibald Little, GCB
 1875 Gen. William Neville Custance, CB
 1886 Gen. William Charles Forrest, CB
 1902 Lt-Gen. Sir Arthur Lyttelton-Annesley, KCB, KCVO

11th Hussars (Prince Albert's Own) (1921)
 1926 Maj-Gen. Thomas Tait Pitman, CB, CMG
 1939 Brig-Gen. Sir Archibald Fraser Home, KCVO, CB, CMG, DSO
 1945 Maj-Gen. John Frederick Boyce Combe, CB, DSO
 1957 Col. Adam Trevor Smail, DSO
 1965–1969 Col. Sir John Charles Arthur Digby Lawson, Bt, DSO, MC (to The Royal Hussars (Prince of Wales's Own)
 1969 Regiment amalgamated with 10th Royal Hussars (Prince of Wales's Own) to form The Royal Hussars (Prince of Wales's Own)

See also
 British cavalry during the First World War

References

Sources

External links

 War diaries of the 11th Hussars

11 Hussars
Hussar regiments of the British Army
Military units and formations established in 1715
H11
Hussars 011
Regiments of the British Army in the Crimean War
1715 establishments in Great Britain
Military units and formations disestablished in 1969

11th Hussars


A train station, railway station, railroad station, or railway depot is a railway facility where trains stop to load or unload passengers, freight, or both. It generally consists of at least one platform, one track, and a station building providing such ancillary services as ticket sales, waiting rooms, and baggage/freight service. If a station is on a single-track line, it often has a passing loop to facilitate traffic movements.

Locations at which passengers only occasionally board or leave a train, sometimes consisting of a short platform and a waiting area but sometimes indicated by no more than a sign, are variously referred to as "stops", "flag stops", "halts", or "provisional stopping places". The stations themselves may be at ground level, underground, or elevated. Connections may be available to intersecting rail lines or other transport modes such as buses, trams, or other rapid transit systems.

Terminology
Train station is the terminology typically used in the U.S. and more generally now in the UK. In Europe, the terms train station and railway station are both commonly used, with railroad being obsolete. In British Commonwealth nations usage, where railway station is the traditional term, the word station is commonly understood to mean a railway station unless otherwise specified.

In the United States, the term depot is sometimes used as an alternative name for station, along with the compound forms train depot, railway depot, and railroad depot—it is used for both passenger and freight facilities. The term depot is not used in reference to vehicle maintenance facilities in the U.S., whereas it is used as such in Canada and the United Kingdom.

History

The world's first recorded railway station was The Mount on the Oystermouth Railway (later to be known as the Swansea and Mumbles) in Swansea, Wales, which began passenger service in 1807, although the trains were horsedrawn rather than by locomotives.
The two-storey Mount Clare station in Baltimore, Maryland, United States, which survives as a museum, first saw passenger service as the terminus of the horse-drawn Baltimore and Ohio Railroad on 22 May 1830.

The oldest terminal station in the world was Crown Street railway station in Liverpool, England, built in 1830, on the locomotive-hauled Liverpool to Manchester line. The station was slightly older than the still extant Liverpool Road railway station terminal in Manchester. The station was the first to incorporate a train shed. Crown Street station was demolished in 1836, as the Liverpool terminal station moved to Lime Street railway station. Crown Street station was converted to a goods station terminal.

The first stations had little in the way of buildings or amenities. The first stations in the modern sense were on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened in 1830. Manchester's Liverpool Road Station, the second oldest terminal station in the world, is preserved as part of the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester. It resembles a row of Georgian houses.

Early stations were sometimes built with both passenger and freight facilities, though some railway lines were goods-only or passenger-only, and if a line was dual-purpose there would often be a freight depot apart from the passenger station. This type of dual-purpose station can sometimes still be found today, though in many cases goods facilities are restricted to major stations.

Many stations date from the 19th century and reflect the grandiose architecture of the time, lending prestige to the city as well as to railway operations. Countries where railways arrived later may still have such architecture, as later stations often imitated 19th-century styles. Various forms of architecture have been used in the construction of stations, from those boasting grand, intricate, Baroque- or Gothic-style edifices, to plainer utilitarian or modernist styles. Stations in Europe tended to follow British designs and were in some countries, like Italy, financed by British railway companies.

Train stations built more recently often have a similar feel to airports, with a simple, abstract style. Examples of modern stations include those on newer high-speed rail networks, such as the Shinkansen in Japan, THSR in Taiwan, TGV lines in France, and ICE lines in Germany.

Facilities

Stations normally have staffed ticket sales offices, automated ticket machines, or both, although on some lines tickets are sold on board the trains. Many stations include a shop or convenience store. Larger stations usually have fast-food or restaurant facilities. In some countries, stations may also have a bar or pub. Other station facilities may include: toilets, left-luggage, lost-and-found, departures and arrivals schedules, luggage carts, waiting rooms, taxi ranks, bus bays and even car parks. Larger or staffed stations tend to have a greater range of facilities including also a station security office. These are usually open for travellers when there is sufficient traffic over a long enough period of time to warrant the cost. In large cities this may mean facilities available around the clock. A basic station might only have platforms, though it may still be distinguished from a halt, a stopping or halting place that may not even have platforms.

Many stations, either larger or smaller, offer interchange with local transportation; this can vary from a simple bus stop across the street to underground rapid-transit urban rail stations.

In many African, South American, and Asian countries, stations are also used as a place for public markets and other informal businesses. This is especially true on tourist routes or stations near tourist destinations.

As well as providing services for passengers and loading facilities for goods, stations can sometimes have locomotive and rolling stock depots (usually with facilities for storing and refuelling rolling stock and carrying out minor repair jobs).

Configurations
The basic configuration of a station and various other features set certain types apart. The first is the level of the tracks. Stations are often sited where a road crosses the railway: unless the crossing is a level crossing, the road and railway will be at different levels. The platforms will often be raised or lowered relative to the station entrance: the station buildings may be on either level, or both. The other arrangement, where the station entrance and platforms are on the same level, is also common, but is perhaps rarer in urban areas, except when the station is a terminus. Stations located at level crossings can be problematic if the train blocks the roadway while it stops, causing road traffic to wait for an extended period of time. Stations also exist where the station buildings are above the tracks. An example of this is Arbroath.

Occasionally, a station serves two or more railway lines at differing levels. This may be due to the station's position at a point where two lines cross (example: Berlin Hauptbahnhof), or may be to provide separate station capacity for two types of service, such as intercity and suburban (examples: Paris-Gare de Lyon and Philadelphia's 30th Street Station), or for two different destinations.

Stations may also be classified according to the layout of the platforms. Apart from single-track lines, the most basic arrangement is a pair of tracks for the two directions; there is then a basic choice of an island platform between, two separate platforms outside the tracks (side platforms), or a combination of the two. With more tracks, the possibilities expand.

Some stations have unusual platform layouts due to space constraints of the station location, or the alignment of the tracks. Examples include staggered platforms, such as at Tutbury and Hatton railway station on the Crewe–Derby line, and curved platforms, such as Cheadle Hulme railway station on the Macclesfield to Manchester Line. Stations at junctions can also have unusual shapes – a Keilbahnhof (or "wedge-shaped" station) is sited where two lines split. Triangular stations also exist where two lines form a three-way junction and platforms are built on all three sides, for example  and  stations.

Tracks
In a station, there are different types of tracks to serve different purposes. A station may also have a passing loop with a loop line that comes off the straight main line and merge back to the main line on the other end by railroad switches to allow trains to pass.

A track with a spot at the station to board and disembark trains is called station track or house track regardless of whether it is a main line or loop line. If such track is served by a platform, the track may be called platform track. A loop line without a platform which is used to allow a train to clear the main line at the station only, it is called passing track. A track at the station without a platform which is used for trains to pass the station without stopping is called through track.

There may be other sidings at the station which are lower speed tracks for other purposes. A maintenance track or a maintenance siding, usually connected to a passing track, is used for parking maintenance equipment, trains not in service, autoracks or sleepers. A refuge track is a dead-end siding that is connected to a station track as a temporary storage of a disabled train.

Terminus

A "terminus" or "terminal" is a station at the end of a railway line. Trains arriving there have to end their journeys (terminate) or reverse out of the station. Depending on the layout of the station, this usually permits travellers to reach all the platforms without the need to cross any tracks – the public entrance to the station and the main reception facilities being at the far end of the platforms.

Sometimes the track continues for a short distance beyond the station, and terminating trains continue forward after depositing their passengers, before either proceeding to sidings or reversing to the station to pick up departing passengers. Bondi Junction, Australia and Kristiansand Station, Norway are examples.

A terminus is frequently, but not always, the final destination of trains arriving at the station. Especially in continental Europe, a city may have a terminus as its main railway station, and all main lines converge on it. In such cases all trains arriving at the terminus must leave in the reverse direction from that of their arrival. There are several ways in which this can be accomplished:
 arranging for the service to be provided by a multiple-unit or push–pull train, both of which are capable of operating in either direction; the driver simply walks to the other end of the train and takes control from the other cab; this is increasingly the normal method in Europe; and is very common in North America;
 by detaching the locomotive which brought the train into the station and then either
 using another track to "run it around" to the other end of the train, to which it then re-attaches;
 attaching a second locomotive to the outbound end of the train; or
 by the use of a "wye", a roughly triangular arrangement of track and switches (points) where a train can reverse direction and back into the terminal;
 historically, turntables were used to reverse steam engines.
There may also be a bypass line, used by freight trains that do not need to stop at the terminus.

Some termini have a newer set of through platforms underneath (or above, or alongside) the terminal platforms on the main level. They are used by a cross-city extension of the main line, often for commuter trains, while the terminal platforms may serve long-distance services. Examples of underground through lines include the Thameslink platforms at  in London, the Argyle and North Clyde lines of Glasgow's suburban rail network, in Antwerp in Belgium, the RER at the Gare du Nord in Paris, the Milan suburban railway service's Passante railway, and many of the numerous S-Bahn lines at terminal stations in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, such as at Zürich Hauptbahnhof. Due to the disadvantages of terminus stations there have been multiple cases in which one or several terminus stations were replaced with a new through-station, including the cases of Berlin Hauptbahnhof, Vienna Hauptbahnhof and numerous examples throughout the first century of railroading. Stuttgart 21 is a controversial project involving the replacement of a terminus station by a through-station.

An American example of a terminal with this feature is Union Station in Washington, DC, where there are bay platforms on the main concourse level to serve terminating trains and standard island platforms one level below to serve trains continuing southward. The lower tracks run in a tunnel beneath the concourse and emerge a few blocks away to cross the Potomac River into Virginia.

Terminus stations in large cities are by far the biggest stations, with the largest being Grand Central Terminal in New York City. Other major cities, such as London, Boston, Paris, Istanbul, Tokyo, and Milan have more than one terminus, rather than routes straight through the city. Train journeys through such cities often require alternative transport (metro, bus, taxi or ferry) from one terminus to the other. For instance, in Istanbul transfers from the Sirkeci Terminal (the European terminus) and the Haydarpaşa Terminal (the Asian terminus) historically required crossing the Bosphorus via alternative means, before the Marmaray railway tunnel linking Europe and Asia was completed. Some cities, including New York, have both termini and through lines.

Terminals that have competing rail lines using the station frequently set up a jointly owned terminal railroad to own and operate the station and its associated tracks and switching operations.

Stop
During a journey, the term station stop may be used in announcements, to differentiate a halt during which passengers may alight for another reason, such as a locomotive change.

While a junction or interlocking usually divides two or more lines or routes, and thus has remotely or locally operated signals, a station stop does not. A station stop usually does not have any tracks other than the main tracks, and may or may not have switches (points, crossovers).

Intermediate station
An intermediate station does not have any other connecting route, unlike branch-off stations, connecting stations, transfer stations and railway junctions. In a broader sense, an intermediate station is generally any station on the route between its two terminal stations.

The majority of stations are, in practice, intermediate stations. They are mostly designed as through stations; there are only a few intermediate stations that take the form of a stub-end station, for example at some zigzags. If there is a station building, it is usually located to the side of the tracks. In the case of intermediate stations used for both passenger and freight traffic, there is a distinction between those where the station building and goods facilities are on the same side of the tracks and those in which the goods facilities are on the opposite side of the tracks from the station building.

Intermediate stations also occur on some funicular and cable car routes.

Halt

A halt, in railway parlance in the Commonwealth of Nations, Ireland and Portugal, is a small station, usually unstaffed or with very few staff, and with few or no facilities. In some cases, trains stop only on request, when passengers on the platform indicate that they wish to board, or passengers on the train inform the crew that they wish to alight.

United Kingdom
The Great Western Railway in Great Britain began opening haltes on 12 October 1903; from 1905, the French spelling was Anglicised to "halt". These GWR halts had the most basic facilities, with platforms long enough for just one or two carriages; some had no raised platform at all, necessitating the provision of steps on the carriages. Halts were normally unstaffed, tickets being sold on the train. On 1 September 1904, a larger version, known on the GWR as a "platform" instead of a "halt", was introduced; these had longer platforms, and were usually staffed by a senior grade porter, who sold tickets and sometimes booked parcels or milk consignments.

From 1903 to 1947 the GWR built 379 halts and inherited a further 40 from other companies at the Grouping of 1923. Peak building periods were before the First World War (145 built) and 1928–1939 (198 built). Ten more were opened by British Rail on ex-GWR lines. The GWR also built 34 "platforms".

Many such stops remain on the national railway networks in the United Kingdom, such as  in North Wales,  in Shropshire, and  in Warwickshire, where passengers are requested to inform a member of on-board train staff if they wish to alight, or, if catching a train from the station, to make themselves clearly visible to the driver and use a hand signal as the train approaches. Most have had "Halt" removed from their names. Two publicly advertised and publicly accessible National Rail stations retain it:  and .

A number of other halts are still open and operational on privately owned, heritage, and preserved railways throughout the British Isles. The word is often used informally to describe national rail network stations with limited service and low usage, such as the Oxfordshire Halts on the Cotswold Line. It has also sometimes been used for stations served by public services but accessible only by persons travelling to/from an associated factory (for example IBM near Greenock and British Steel Redcar– although neither of these is any longer served by trains), or military base (such as Lympstone Commando) or railway yard. The only two such "private" stopping places on the national system, where the "halt" designation is still officially used, seem to be Staff Halt (at Durnsford Road, Wimbledon) and Battersea Pier Sidings Staff Halt, both of which are solely for railway staff.

Other countries
In Portugal, railway stops are called halts ().

In Ireland, a few small railway stations are designated as "halts" (, sing. ).

In some Commonwealth countries the term "halt" is used.

In Australia, with its sparse rural populations, such stopping places were common on lines that were still open for passenger traffic. In the state of Victoria, for example, a location on a railway line where a small diesel railcar or railmotor could stop on request, allowing passengers to board or alight, was called a "rail motor stopping place" (RMSP). Usually situated near a level crossing, it was often designated solely by a sign beside the railway. The passenger could hail the driver to stop, and could buy a ticket from the train guard or conductor. In South Australia, such facilities were called "provisional stopping places". They were often placed on routes on which "school trains" (services conveying children from rural localities to and from school) operated.

In East Malaysia, halts are commonplace along the less developed KTM East Coast railway line to serve rural 'kampongs' (villages), that require train services to stay connected to important nodes, but do not have a need for staff. People boarding at halts who have not bought tickets online can buy it through staff on board.

In rural and remote communities across Canada and the United States, passengers wanting to board the train at such places had to flag the train down to stop it, hence the name "flag stops" or "flag stations".

Accessibility
Accessibility for disabled people is mandated by law in some countries. Considerations include:

 Elevators or ramps to every platform are necessary for people in wheelchairs who cannot use stairs, and also allow those with prams, bicycles, and luggage to reach the platform more easily and safely
 Minimising the platform gap in both height and width. This also requires rolling stock with appropriate dimensions. At some stations, a railway worker can install a temporary ramp to allow people in wheelchairs to board. Relying on temporary ramps can lead to people in wheelchairs becoming stranded on a train or platform if a staff member fails to show up to deploy the ramp.
 Station facilities such as accessible toilets, payphones, and audible announcements
 Tactile paving to warn visually impaired people that they are approaching a platform edge. Platform screen doors also physically prevent people from falling from the platform edge.
In the United Kingdom, rail operators will arrange alternative transport (typically a taxi) at no extra cost to the ticket holder if the station they intend to travel to or from is inaccessible.

Goods stations

Goods or freight stations deal exclusively or predominantly with the loading and unloading of goods and may well have marshalling yards (classification yards) for the sorting of wagons. The world's first goods terminal was the 1830 Park Lane Goods Station at the South End Liverpool Docks. Built in 1830, the terminal was reached by a  tunnel.

As goods are increasingly moved by road, many former goods stations, as well as the goods sheds at passenger stations, have closed. Many are used purely for the cross-loading of freight and may be known as transshipment stations, where they primarily handle containers. They are also known as container stations or terminals.

Records

Worldwide

 The world's busiest passenger station, with a passenger throughput of 3.5 million passengers per day (1.27 billion per year), is Shinjuku Station in Tokyo.
 The world's station with most platforms is Grand Central Terminal in New York City with 44 platforms.
 The world's station with the longest platform is Hubli Junction railway station with a platform length of  and is located in Karnataka, India.
 The world's highest station above ground level (not above sea level) is Smith–Ninth Streets subway station in New York City.
 Coney Island – Stillwell Avenue in New York City is the world's largest elevated terminal with 8 tracks and 4 island platforms.
 Shanghai South railway station, opened in June 2006, has the world's largest circular transparent roof.

Europe

Busiest
 Gare du Nord, in Paris, is by the number of travellers, at around 214 million per year, the busiest railway station in Europe, the 24th busiest in the world and the busiest outside Japan.
 , in London, is Europe's busiest station by daily rail traffic with 100 to 180 trains per hour passing through.
 Zürich HB is the busiest terminus in Europe by the volume of rail traffic.

Largest
 Leipzig Hbf is the biggest railway station in Europe in terms of floor area ().
 München Hbf and Rome Termini are the largest railway station by number of platforms (32).

Highest
 Jungfraujoch railway station is the highest railway station in the European continent ().

North America
 New York Penn Station is the busiest station in the Western Hemisphere.
 Toronto's Union Station is the busiest station in Canada.

See also

 Bus station
 Bus terminus
 Freight station
 List of IATA-indexed railway stations
 List of railway stations
 Metro station
 Running in board
 Station building

Bibliography

References

External links

 A comprehensive technical article about stations from Railway Technical Web Pages

Passenger rail transport
Railway buildings and structures

Train station


Ascaris is a genus of parasitic nematode worms known as the "giant intestinal roundworms". One species, A. suum, typically infects pigs, while another, A. lumbricoides, affects humans, typically in sub-tropical and tropical areas with poor sanitation. A. lumbricoides is the largest intestinal roundworm and is the most common worm infection of humans, an infection known as ascariasis. Infestation can cause morbidity, and sometimes death, by compromising nutritional status, affecting cognitive processes, inducing tissue reactions, such as granuloma, and provoking intestinal obstruction or rectal prolapse.

The roundworms are members of the phylum Nematoda. They are an extremely successful group; it is estimated that they represent 90% of all life on the seafloor.

References

Nematodes
Parasites

Ascaris


Peter Lynn (born 1946) is a New Zealand kitemaker, engineer and inventor. He is notable for his construction of the world's largest kites (Guinness book of records holders), giant inflatable (sparless) display kites (the most widely known is the 27 m octopus kite), the popularisation of kite buggying and contributions to the development of power kiting and kitesurfing. He spends much of the year travelling worldwide and displaying his kites at International Kite Festivals.

Lynn, together with his wife Elwyn, established a kite business at Ashburton, New Zealand, in 1971, producing single-line kites for children. In 1974 he developed the Peter Lynn Triangular box kite, a framed triangular form cellular single line kite. Beginning in 1984 with the Centipede design, he then developed large creature-themed display kites for the growing number of international kite festivals. These large-scale sparless kites include the manta ray, octopus, puffer-fish, gecko and trilobite.

In 1987 he began developing power kites for traction uses,and designing boats, buggies, boards and snow sleds to use with them. The sport of kite buggying in its modern form began from a kitesailing craft he developed. It was equipped with three 'skis' and was quite unsuccessful on the water. In 1990 he converted it to a land buggy by replacing the skis with wheels. More than 10,000 of his buggies are now in use, and there are also many other kite buggy manufacturers. Kite buggying has become a popular worldwide sport.

In 1994 he developed the 'super-ripstop/thru cord' ram air kite construction system for large display and traction kites. This is a technique of strengthening ripstop nylon by sewing high-tech dacron or spectra/dyneema cord across the material, and providing an adjustable cross-sectional aerodynamic profile by the use of variable length cords rather than the fixed rib used in a conventional wing or ram-air parafoil such as a parachute.

In 1995 he designed the ram-air inflated Megabite, a 635 square metre kite. It was accepted as the world's largest kite by Guinness in 1997. When on the ground, more than 1000 people can comfortably stroll around inside it. He also designed the current Guinness record holder, a 1019 square metre Kuwait flag, which took over the world record from the Megabite in 2005. That same year, he built two additional identically sized kites (Mega Flag in the United States and Mega Moon in Japan), allowing for more exhibitions of the World's Largest Kites around the world.

In 1997 he developed the first 'hybrid' traction kite. It is referred to as hybrid as the form is a single skin kite supported by a combination of both aerodynamic forces and a flexible frame. Conventional traction kites use either a rigid frame inflated with a pump prior to launching or ram air inflated cavities.

In 1999 he developed the first bridleless arch style ram air kite, primarily for kitesurfing. Arc style kites are generally more efficient (better upwind performance) and are more resistant to luffing (more stable and reliable in gusty conditions) relative to leading edge inflatable (LEI) sled kites but have slightly lower lift coefficient (less power from the same size kite).

More recently he has developed the KiteSled (see image), for kite powered snow expeditioning. It steers by bending its skis, which are constructed from multiple longitudinal elements dovetailed together. Using KiteSleds, in May 2006 Australians Patrick Spiers and Ben Deacon completed a 700 km trans-Greenland journey that they believe was 20% faster than would have been possible by kite skiing.

Lynn has also contributed to the theoretical underpinnings of kite flying through a series of scientific papers.

In other fields, his inventions include:

1975. The original 'tipping blade' portable sawmill system, using a single (circular) saw blade which rotates 90 degrees at the end of each pass through a log to enable the production of sawn timber in one operation. While he held the patent on this invention until 1980, after the patent lapsed it became the world standard portable sawmill system.

1987. Started Stirling Research Ltd, and with Dr. Donald Clucas began the development of a stirling cycle engine generator for yachts (and later for in-home combined heat and power systems). From 1991, Dr Clucas continued this development through to commercialisation with WhisperGen, a business formed for this purpose by elements of the NZ electricity industry.

Peter Lynn's father, Robert Frederick Lynn (1914–2012) was the founder of the Lynn Historic Woodworking Trust Inc. a collection of historic woodworking tools, equipment and archives, including the world's largest collection of ornamental turning lathes.  It is sited at The Plains, a colonial era museum park in Ashburton, NZ.  Robert Fredrick Lynn was awarded the Queen's Service Order in the New Years Honours list 2007.

Patents
 Traction kite design, filed April 2002, issued March 2006
 Ram air inflated wing, filed November 2002, issued January 2005

References

External links
 Peter Lynn's website
 Peter Lynn kites
 Peter Lynn Kiteboarding

1946 births
Living people
20th-century New Zealand inventors
New Zealand kite fliers
People from Ashburton, New Zealand
21st-century New Zealand engineers
20th-century New Zealand engineers

Peter Lynn


The Secret Life of the American Teenager is an American teen drama television series. It was shown on ABC Family. The show is about Amy (played by Shailene Woodley) becoming pregnant at 15 after being pressured into having sex with Ricky Underwood (played by Daren Kagasoff). Amy is also facing the difficulties of her family coming apart, and other problems with her friends and boyfriend Ben Boykevich (played by Kenny Baumann).

Plot
During the summer at band camp, Amy Juergens meets Richard "Ricky" Underwood, who persuades her into having sex. Amy learns that she has conceived a child at the beginning of the school year. Her best friends "Lauren Treacy" (played by Camille Winbush) and "Madison Cooperstein" (played by Renee Olstead) are the first ones to know about her being pregnant. Madison unknowingly spreads word that Amy is pregnant, and Amy considers abortion before telling her parents. Soon, Amy's younger sister Ashley finds out. After some time during an argument at the Juergens' home, Amy admits being pregnant and her boyfriend Ben learns too. Ben remains faithful to her during and after her pregnancy. So that the child is not born out of wedlock, Ben and Amy secretly get married illegally.

Meanwhile, Ricky develops relationships with "Adrianne Lee" (played by Francia Raisa), "the school slut" and "Grace Bowman", a spunky, innocent girl. Ricky gets Adrianne to have sex, but fails trying to have sex with Grace, who had wanted to save herself for marriage to her on-and-off boyfriend "Jack Pappas" who betrayed her by sleeping with Adrianne.

Amy's parents, "George Juergens" (played by Mark Derwin) and "Anne  Juergens" (played by Molly Ringwald) start having tensions and get a divorce. After the divorce of Anne and George, Amy's child is born. The baby was named John by Ashley because it was a "clean simple name, his life would already be complicated enough". Ashley and her father (George) moved in together in a house next door, and Anne is expecting a baby boy of her own after she slept with her new boyfriend, David. The baby turns out not to be David's, but it's George's. George and Anne will move back in together, which Amy does not like. Amy's nemesis Adrianne is moving into George's old house, which Amy does not like either because Adrian only wants to spy on her boyfriend, Ricky, and Amy. Amy does not want Adrianne near her baby.

Grace has sex with her boyfriend Jack against her father's will. After that Marshall Bowman passes away in a jet crash and Grace lives in misery thinking she killed her father by sleeping with Jack. She thinks God is punishing her. She starts a teen abstinence group (TAG) and a dead parents club.

Meanwhile, Ben Boykevich wants to go to Bologna, Italy for the summer to work. Amy feels insecure, because she is worried Ben might fall in love with someone else. Amy wants to go, but can not because she has to care for John. Since she can not go, she wants Ben to stay where she can keep any eye on him, but Ben goes to Italy anyway. When he comes back, his personality is changed and Amy thinks that Ben slept or fell in love with someone else. When she asks Ben if he fell in love in Italy, he says no but Amy thinks he's lying, and she thinks Adrianne might know whether he is telling the truth or not. This sparks part of Amy's hatred for Adrianne.

Ben's dad falls in love with a former prostitute named Betty, but Ben does not trust her at first, because he thinks Betty is only in love with his dad for his money. Betty tries to relate to Ben, but Ben is uneasy because Amy does not like Betty either. Betty tries to reassure Ben that she loves his Dad for his heart and not his money, and Ben decides to give her a chance.

then ben and adrianne have a baby because adrianne wanted revenge on ricky.

Other websites

2008 American television series debuts
2013 American television series endings
2000s American drama television series
2000s teen television series
2010s American drama television series
2010s teen television series
ABC Family series
American teen drama television series
Television series about families

English-language television programs