A royal charter is a formal grant issued by a monarch under royal prerogative as letters patent. Historically, they have been used to promulgate public laws, the most famous example being the English Magna Carta (great charter) of 1215, but since the 14th century have only been used in place of private acts to grant a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as boroughs (with municipal charters), universities and learned societies.

Charters should be distinguished from royal warrants of appointment, grants of arms and other forms of letters patent, such as those granting an organisation the right to use the word "royal" in their name or granting city status, which do not have legislative effect. The British monarchy has issued over 1,000 royal charters. Of these about 750 remain in existence.

The earliest charter recorded on the UK government's list was granted to the University of Cambridge by Henry III of England in 1231, although older charters are known to have existed including to the Worshipful Company of Weavers in England in 1150 and to the town of Tain in Scotland in 1066. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute of Legal Executives (CILEX), and the Chartered Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors, in 2014.

Historical development
Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to grant rights and privileges to towns, boroughs and cities. During the 14th and 15th century the concept of incorporation of a municipality by royal charter evolved. Royal charters were used in England to make the most formal grants of various rights, titles, etc. until the reign of Henry VIII, with letters patent being used for less solemn grants. After the eighth year of Henry VIII, all grants under the Great Seal were issued as letters patent.

Among the past and present groups formed by royal charter are the Company of Merchants of the Staple of England (13th century), the British East India Company (1600), the Hudson's Bay Company, the Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China (since merged into Standard Chartered), the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company (P&O), the British South Africa Company, and some of the former British colonies on the North American mainland, City livery companies, the Bank of England and the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC).

Corporations
Between the 14th and 19th centuries, royal charters were used to create chartered companies – for-profit ventures with shareholders, used for exploration, trade and colonisation. Early charters to such companies often granted trade monopolies, but this power was restricted to Parliament from the end of the 17th century. Until the 19th century, royal charters were the only means other than an act of parliament by which a company could be incorporated; in the UK, the Joint Stock Companies Act 1844 opened up a route to incorporation by registration, since when incorporation by royal charter has been, according to the Privy Council, "a special token of Royal favour or ... a mark of distinction".

The use of royal charters to incorporate organisations gave rise to the concept of the "corporation by prescription". This enabled corporations that had existed from time immemorial to be recognised as incorporated via the legal fiction of a "lost charter". Examples of corporations by prescription include Oxford and Cambridge universities.

Universities and colleges
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, of the 81 universities established in pre-Reformation Europe, 13 were established ex consuetudine without any form of charter, 33 by Papal bull alone, 20 by both Papal bull and imperial or royal charter, and 15 by imperial or royal charter alone. Universities established solely by royal (as distinct from imperial) charter did not have the same international recognition – their degrees were only valid within that kingdom.

The first university to be founded by charter was the University of Naples in 1224, founded by an imperial charter of Frederick II. The first university founded by royal charter was the University of Coimbra in 1290, by King Denis of Portugal, which received papal confirmation the same year. Other early universities founded by royal charter include the University of Perpignan (1349; papal confirmation 1379) and the University of Huesca (1354; no confirmation), both by Peter IV of Aragon; the Jagiellonian University (1364; papal confirmation the same year) by Casimir III of Poland; the University of Vienna (1365; Papal confirmation the same year) by Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria; the University of Caen (1432; Papal confirmation 1437) by Henry VI of England; the University of Girona (1446; no confirmation) and the University of Barcelona (1450; papal confirmation the same year), both by Alfonso V of Aragon; the University of Valence (1452; papal confirmation 1459) by the Dauphin Louis (later Louis XI of France); and the University of Palma (1483; no confirmation) by Ferdinand II of Aragon.

British Isles

Both Oxford and Cambridge received royal charters during the 13th century. However, these charters were not concerned with academic matters or their status as universities but rather about the exclusive right of the universities to teach, the powers of the chancellors' courts to rule on disputes involving students, and fixing rents and interest rates.

The University of Cambridge was confirmed by a papal bull in 1317 or 1318, but despite repeated attempts, the University of Oxford never received such confirmation. The three pre-Reformation Scottish universities were all established by papal bulls: St Andrews in 1413; Glasgow in 1451; and King's College, Aberdeen (which later became the University of Aberdeen) in 1494.

Following the Reformation, establishment of universities and colleges by royal charter became the norm. The University of Edinburgh was founded under the authority of a royal charter granted to the Edinburgh town council in 1582 by James VI as the "town's college". Trinity College Dublin was established by a royal charter of Elizabeth I (as Queen of Ireland) in 1593. Both of these charters were given in Latin.

The Edinburgh charter gave permission for the town council "to build and to repair sufficient houses and places for the reception, habitation and teaching of professors of the schools of grammar, the humanities and languages, philosophy, theology, medicine and law, or whichever liberal arts which we declare detract in no way from the aforesaid mortification" and granted them the right to appoint and remove professors. But, as concluded by Edinburgh's principal, Sir Alexander Grant, in his tercentenary history of the university, "Obviously this is no charter founding a university". Instead, he proposed, citing multiple pieces of evidence, that the surviving charter was original granted alongside a second charter founding the college, which was subsequently lost (possibly deliberately). This would also explain the source of Edinburgh's degree awarding powers, which were used from the foundation of the college.

The royal charter of Trinity College Dublin, while being straightforward in incorporating the college, also named it as "mother of a University", and rather than granting the college degree-awarding powers stated that "the students on this College … shall have liberty and power to obtain degrees of Bachelor, Master, and Doctor, at a suitable time, in all arts and faculties". Thus the University of Dublin was also brought into existence by this charter, as the body that awards the degrees earned by students at Trinity College.

Following this, no surviving universities were created in the British Isles until the 19th century. The 1820s saw two colleges receive royal charters: St David's College, Lampeter in 1828 and King's College London in 1829. Neither of these were granted degree-awarding powers or university status. The 1830s saw an attempt by University College London to gain a charter as a university and the creation by Act of Parliament of Durham University, but without incorporating it or granting any specific powers. These led to debate about the powers of royal charters and what was implicit to a university.

The essence of the debate was firstly whether the power to award degrees was incidental to the creation of a university or needed to be explicitly granted and secondly whether a royal charter could, if the power to award degrees was incidental, limit that power – UCL wishing to be granted a royal charter as "London University" but excluding the power to award degrees in theology due to the secular nature of the institute. Sir Charles Wetherell, arguing against the grant of a royal charter to UCL before the Privy Council in 1835, argued for degree-awarding powers being an essential part of a university that could not be limited by charter. Sir William Hamilton, wrote a response to Wetherell in the Edinburgh Review, drawing in Durham University and arguing that the power of universities, including the power to award specific degrees, had always been explicitly granted historically, thus creating a university did not implicitly grant degree-awarding powers. Other historians, however, disagree with Hamilton on the point of whether implicit grants of privileges were made, particularly with regard to the ius ubique docendi – the important privilege of granting universally-recognised degrees that was the defining mark of the studium generale. Hastings Rashdall states that "the special privilege of the jus ubique docendi … was usually, but not quite invariably, conferred in express terms by the original foundation-bulls; and was apparently understood to be involved in the mere act of erection even in the rare cases where it is not expressly conceded". Similarly, Patrick Zutshi, Keeper of Manuscripts and University Archives in Cambridge University Library, writes that "Cambridge never received from the papacy an explicit grant of the ius ubique docendi, but it is generally considered that the right is implied in the terms of John XXII's letter of 1318 concerning Cambridge's status as a studium generale."

UCL was incorporated by royal charter in 1836, but without university status or degree-awarding powers, which went instead to the University of London, created by royal charter with the explicit power to grant degrees in Arts, Law and Medicine. Durham University was incorporated by royal charter in 1837 (explicitly not founding the university, which it describes as having been "established under our Royal sanction, and the authority of our Parliament") but although this confirmed that it had "all the property, rights, and privileges which ... are incident to a University established by our Royal Charter" it contained no explicit grant of degree-awarding powers. This was considered sufficient for it to award "degrees in all the faculties", but all future university royal charters explicitly stated that they were creating a university and explicitly granted degree-awarding power. Both London (1878) and Durham (1895) later received supplemental charters allowing the granting of degrees to women, which was considered to require explicit authorisation. After going through four charters and a number of supplemental charters, London was reconstituted by Act of Parliament in 1898.

The Queen's Colleges in Ireland, at Belfast, Cork, and Galway, were established by royal charter in 1845, as colleges without degree awarding powers. The Queens University of Ireland received its royal charter in 1850, stating "We do will, order, constitute, ordain and found an University ... and the same shall possess and exercise the full powers of granting all such Degrees as are granted by other Universities or Colleges in the faculties of Arts, Medicine and Law". This served as the degree awarding body for the Queen's Colleges until it was replaced by the Royal University of Ireland.

The royal charter of the Victoria University in 1880 started explicitly that "There shall be and is hereby constituted and founded a University" and granted an explicit power of awarding degrees (except in medicine, added by supplemental charter in 1883).

From then until 1992, all universities in the United Kingdom were created by royal charter except for Newcastle University, which was separated from Durham via an Act of Parliament. Following the independence of the Republic of Ireland, new universities there have been created by Acts of the Oireachtas (Irish Parliament). Since 1992, most new universities in the UK have been created by Orders of Council as secondary legislation under the Further and Higher Education Act 1992, although granting degree-awarding powers and university status to colleges incorporated by royal charter is done via an amendment to their charter.

United States
Several of the colonial colleges that predate the American Revolution are described as having been established by royal charter. Except for The College of William & Mary, which received its charter from King William III and Queen Mary II in 1693 following a mission to London by college representatives, these were either provincial charters granted by local governors (acting in the name of the king) or charters granted by legislative acts from local assemblies.

The first charters to be issued by a colonial governor on the consent of their council (rather than by an act of legislation) were those granted to Princeton University (as the College of New Jersey) in 1746 (from acting governor John Hamilton) and 1748 (from Governor Jonathan Belcher). There was concern as to whether a royal charter given by a governor in the King's name was valid without royal approval. An attempt to resolve this in London in 1754 ended inconclusively when Henry Pelham, the prime minister, died. However, Princeton's charter was never challenged in court prior to its ratification by the state legislature in 1780, following the US Declaration of Independence.

Columbia University received its royal charter (as King's College) in 1754 from Lieutenant Governor James DeLancey of New York, who bypassed the assembly rather than risking it rejecting the charter. Rutgers University received its (as Queen's College) in 1766 (and a second charter in 1770) from Governor William Franklin of New Jersey, and Dartmouth College received its in 1769 from Governor John Wentworth of New Hampshire. The case of Dartmouth College v. Woodward, heard before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1818, centred on the status of the college's royal charter. The court found in 1819 that the charter was a contract under the Contract Clause of the US Constitution, meaning that it could not be impaired by state legislation, and that it had not been dissolved by the revolution.

The charter for the College of William and Mary specified it to be a "place of universal study, or perpetual college, for divinity, philosophy, languages and other good arts and sciences", but made no mention of the right to award degrees. However, the Latin text of the charter uses studium generale – the technical term used in the Middle Ages for a university –where the English text has "place of universal study"; it has been argued that this granted William and Mary the rights and status of a university.

The Princeton charter, however, specified that the college could "give and grant any such degree and degrees ... as are usually granted in either of our universities or any other college in our realm of Great Britain". Columbia's charter used very similar language a few years later, as did Dartmouth's charter. The charter of Rutger uses quite different words, specifying that it may "confer all such honorary degrees as usually are granted and conferred in any of our colleges in any of our colonies in America".

Of the other colleges founded prior to the American Revolution, Harvard College was established in 1636 by Act of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and incorporated in 1650 by a charter from the same body, Yale University was established in 1701 by Act of the General Assembly of Connecticut, the University of Pennsylvania received a charter from the proprietors of the colony in 1753, Brown University was established in 1764 (as the College of Rhode Island) by an Act of the Governor and General Assembly of Rhode Island, and Hampden-Sydney College was established privately in 1775 but not incorporated until 1783.

Canada
Eight Canadian universities and colleges were founded or reconstituted under royal charters in the 19th century, prior to Confederation in 1867. Most Canadian universities originally established by royal charter were subsequently reincorporated by acts of the relevant parliaments.

The University of King's College was founded in 1789 and received a royal charter in 1802, naming it, like Trinity College, Dublin, "the Mother of an University" and granting it the power to award degrees. The charter remains in force.

McGill University was established under the name of McGill College in 1821, by a provincial royal charter issued by Governor General of British North America the Earl of Dalhousie; the charter stating that the "College shall be deemed and taken to be an University" and should have the power to grant degrees. It was reconstituted by a royal charter issued in 1852 by Queen Victoria, which remains in force.

The University of New Brunswick was founded in 1785 as the Academy of Liberal Arts and Sciences and received a provincial charter as the College of New Brunswick in 1800. In the 1820s, it began giving university-level instruction and received a royal charter under the name King's College as a "College, with the style and privileges of an University", in 1827. The college was reconstituted as the University of New Brunswick by an act of the provincial parliament in 1859.

The University of Toronto was founded by royal charter in 1827, under the name of King's College, as a "College, with the style and privileges of an University", but did not open until 1843. The charter was subsequently revoked and the institution replaced by the University of Toronto in 1849, under provincial legislation. Victoria University, a college of the University of Toronto, opened in 1832 under the name of the Upper Canada Academy, giving "pre-university" classes. and received a royal charter in 1836. In 1841. a provincial act replaced the charter, reconstituted the academy as Victoria College, and granted it degree-awarding powers. Another college of the University of Toronto, Trinity College, was incorporated by an act of the legislature in 1851 and received a royal charter in 1852, stating that it, "shall be a University and shall have and enjoy all such and the like privileges as are enjoyed by our Universities of our United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland".

Queen's University was established by royal charter in 1841. This remains in force as the university's primary constitutional document and was last amended, through the Canadian federal parliament, in 2011.

 was founded by royal charter in 1852, which granted it degree awarding powers and started that it would, "have, possess, and enjoy all such and the like privileges as are enjoyed by our Universities of our United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland". This was replaced by a new charter from the National Assembly of Quebec in 1971.

Bishop's University was founded, as Bishop's College, by an act of the Parliament of the Province of Canada in 1843 and received a royal charter in 1853, granting it the power to award degrees and stating that, "said College shall be deemed and taken to be a University, and shall have and enjoy all such and the like privileges as are enjoyed by our Universities of our United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland".

The University of Ottawa was established in 1848 as the College of Bytown. It received a royal charter under the name College of Ottawa, raising it to university status in 1866.

Australia
The older Australian universities of Sydney (1850) and Melbourne (1853) were founded by acts of the legislatures of the colonies. This gave rise to doubts about whether their degrees would be recognised outside of those colonies, leading to them seeking royal charters from London, which would grant legitimacy across the British Empire.

The University of Sydney obtained a royal charter in 1858. This stated that (emphasis in the original):

The charter went on to (emphasis in the original):

The University of Melbourne's charter, issued the following year, similarly granted its degrees equivalence with those from British universities.

The act that established the University of Adelaide in 1874 included women undergraduates, causing a delay in the granting of its charter as the authorities in London did not wish to allow this. A further petition for the power to award degrees to women was rejected in 1878 – the same year that London was granted that authority. A charter was finally granted – admitting women to degrees – in 1881.

The last of Australia's 19th century universities, the University of Tasmania, was established in 1890 and obtained a royal charter in 1915.

Guilds, learned societies and professional bodies

Guilds and livery companies are among the earliest organisations recorded as receiving royal charters. The Privy Council list has the Saddlers Company in 1272 as the earliest, followed by the Merchant Taylors Company in 1326 and the Skinners Company in 1327. The earliest charter to the Saddlers Company gave them authority over the saddlers trade; it was not until 1395 that they received a charter of incorporation. The Merchant Taylors were similarly incorporated by a subsequent charter in 1408.

Royal charters gave the first regulation of medicine in Great Britain and Ireland. The Barbers Company of London in 1462, received the earliest recorded charters concerning medicine or surgery, charging them with the superintendence, scrutiny, correction and governance of surgery. A further charter in 1540 to the London Guild – renamed the Company of Barber-Surgeons – specified separate classes of surgeons, barber-surgeons, and barbers. The London Company of Surgeons separated from the barbers in 1745, eventually leading to the establishment of the Royal College of Surgeons by royal charter in 1800. The Royal College of Physicians of London was established by royal charter in 1518 and charged with regulating the practice of medicine in the City of London and within seven miles of the city.

The Barbers Guild (the Gild of St Mary Magdalen) in Dublin is said to have received a charter in 1446, although this was not recorded in the rolls of chancery and was lost in the 18th century. A later charter united the barbers with the (previously unincorporated) surgeons in 1577. The Royal College of Physicians of Ireland was established by royal charter in 1667 and the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, which evolved from the Barbers' Guild in Dublin, in 1784.

The Royal Society was established in 1660 as Britain's first learned society and received its first royal charter in 1662. It was reincorporated by a second royal charter in 1663, which was then amended by a third royal charter in 1669. These were all in Latin, but a supplemental charter in 2012 gave an English translation to take precedence over the Latin text. The Royal Society of Edinburgh was established by royal charter in 1783 and the Royal Irish Academy was established in 1785 and received its royal charter in 1786.

New professional bodies were formed in Britain in the early 19th century representing new professions that arose after the industrial revolution and the rise of laissez-faire capitalism. These new bodies sought recognition by gaining royal charters, laying out their constitutions and defining the profession in question, often based on occupational activity or particular expertise. To their various corporate objectives, these bodies added the concept of working in the public interest that was not found in earlier professional bodies. This established a pattern for British professional bodies, and the 'public interest' has become a key test for a body seeking a royal charter.

Australia

Royal charters have been used in Australia to incorporate non-profit organisations. However, since at least 2004 this has not been a recommended mechanism.

Belgium
The royal decree is the equivalent in Belgium of a royal charter. In the period before 1958, 32 higher education institutes had been created by royal charter. These were typically engineering or technical institutions rather than universities.

However, several non-technical higher education institutions have been founded, or refounded, under royal decree, such as the Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique (National Fund for Scientific Research) in 1928 and the Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie van België voor Wetenschappen en Kunsten in 1938.

Since the Belgian state reform of 1988–1989, competency over education was transferred to the federated entities of Belgium. Royal decrees can therefore no longer grant higher education institution status or university status.

Canada

In Canada, there are a number of organisations that have received royal charters. However, the term is often applied incorrectly to organisations, such as the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, that have been granted the use of a royal title rather than a royal charter.

Companies and societies
Companies, corporations, and societies in Canada founded under or augmented by a royal charter include:
 The Canada Company, incorporated by Act of Parliament in June 1825. A royal charter was issued in August 1826 to purchase and develop lands. Purchased the Crown Reserve of 1,384,413 acres and a special grant of 1,100,000 acres in the Huron County area.
 The Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, founded in 1824 as the first learned society in Canada, received its royal charter in 1831.
 The Royal Society of Canada, founded by Act of Parliament and granted a royal charter in 1883.
 The Royal Life Saving Society of Canada, founded 1891 and received royal patronage and style 1904. A royal charter was granted in 1924 by King George V.

British royal chartered corporations operating in Canada:
 The East India Company; granted a royal charter in 1600 by Queen Elizabeth I (tea sales in North America)
 The Hudson's Bay Company; founded by a royal charter issued in 1670 by King Charles II (administration of parts of current Quebec, Northern Ontario and North West Territories, including Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, and judicial connections with Upper Canada)
 The Bank of British North America capital raised in Britain, founded by royal charter issued in 1836 (amalgamated with Bank of Montreal 1918).
 The Royal Commonwealth Society; founded by a royal charter issued in 1882 by Queen Victoria
 The Royal Academy of Dance; founded in 1920 as the Association of Teachers of Operatic Dancing; reconstituted by a royal charter issued in 1936 by King George V
 The Boy Scouts Association founded in 1910; incorporated by royal charter in 1912; Canadian General Council, now called Scouts Canada, formed in 1914 and incorporated by Act of the Canadian Parliament in 1914.

Territories and communities
Cities under royal charter are not subject to municipal Acts of Parliament applied generally to other municipalities, and instead are governed by legislation applicable to each city individually. The royal charter codifies the laws applied to the particular city, and lays out the powers and responsibilities not given to other municipalities in the province concerned.
 St. John's; claimed as England's first oversea colony by royal charter issued in 1583 by Queen Elizabeth I
 Nova Scotia; founded by a royal charter issued in 1621 by King James I
 Saint John; founded by a royal charter issued in 1785 by King George III
 Vancouver
 Winnipeg
 Montreal

India
The Institution of Engineers was incorporated by royal charter in 1935.

Ireland
A number of Irish institutions were established by or received royal charters prior to Irish independence. These are no longer under the jurisdiction of the British Privy Council and their charters can thus only be altered by a Charter or Act of the Oireachtas (Irish Parliament).

South Africa
The University of South Africa received a royal charter in 1877. The Royal Society of South Africa received a royal charter in 1908.

United Kingdom

Royal charters continue to be used in the United Kingdom to incorporate charities and professional bodies, to raise districts to borough status, and to grant university status and degree awarding powers to colleges previously incorporated by royal charter.

Most new grants of royal charters are reserved for eminent professional bodies, learned societies or charities "which can demonstrate pre-eminence, stability and permanence in their particular field". The body in question has to demonstrate not just pre-eminence and financial stability but also that bringing it under public regulation in this manner is in the public interest. In 2016, the decision to grant a royal charter to the (British) Association for Project Management (APM) was challenged in the court by the (American) Project Management Institute (PMI), who feared it would give a competitive advantage to APM and claimed the criteria had not been correctly applied; the courts ruled that while the possibility of suffering a competitive disadvantage did give PMI standing to challenge the decision, the Privy Council was permitted to take the public interest (in having a chartered body promoting the profession of project management) into account as outweighing any failure to meet the criteria in full. A list of UK chartered professional associations is at .

Individual chartered designations, such as chartered accountant or chartered engineer, are granted by some chartered professional bodies to individual members that meet certain criteria. The Privy Council's policy is that all chartered designations should be broadly similar, and most require Master's level qualifications (or similar experience).
In January 2007, the UK Trade Marks Registry refused to grant protection to the American Chartered Financial Analyst trademark, as the word "chartered" in the UK is associated with royal charters, thus its use would be misleading. "Charter" and "chartered" continue to be "sensitive words" in company names, requiring evidence of a royal charter or (for "chartered") permission from a professional body operating under royal charter. The use of "chartered" in a collective trade mark similarly requires the association applying for the mark to have a royal charter as otherwise "the mark would mislead the public into believing that the association and its members have chartered status".

Unlike other royal charters, a charter to raise a district to borough status is issued using statutory powers under the Local Government Act 1972 rather than by the royal prerogative.

The company registration number of a corporation with a royal charter is prefixed by "RC" for companies registered in England and Wales, "SR" for companies registered in Scotland, and "NR" for companies registered in Northern Ireland. However, many chartered corporations from outside England have an RC prefix from when this was used universally.

The BBC operates under a royal charter which lasts for a period of ten years, after which it is renewed.

United States
Royal charters have not been issued in the US since independence. Those that existed prior to that have the same force as other charters of incorporation issued by state or colonial legislatures. Following Dartmouth College v. Woodward, they are "in the nature of a contract between the state, the corporation representing the founder, and the objects of the charity". Case law indicates that they cannot be changed by legislative action in a way that impairs the original intent of the founder, even if the corporation consents.

See also
 Congressional charter, equivalent document in the United States

References

External links
 Royal charters page on the Privy Council website
 Research briefing from the House of Lords library on Royal Charters and Parliamentary Scrutiny

British monarchy
Monarchy in Canada
Monarchy in Australia
Monarchy in New Zealand

Medieval charters and cartularies

Royal charter


The United Church in Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands is a United church in the Methodist and the Reformed tradition.

It was formed in 1968 by merging the efforts of the London Missionary Society (operating exclusively in Papua), the relatively marginal Presbyterian church (largely confined to Port Moresby itself) and the Methodist mission (largely operating in New Guinea and nearby islands, the western and northern Solomons and the islands of eastern Papua).

Since 1996, there is a United Church in Papua New Guinea and a separate United Church in Solomon Islands.

History

The formation of the United Church pre-dates the merger of its corresponding (and one missionary parent though Methodists from New Zealand) denominations in Australia in 1977 in the Uniting Church in Australia but such cross-denominational mergers were common throughout the 20th century, particularly in Commonwealth countries: for example; the United Church of Northern India (1924) (now merged in the later and wider Church of North India, Church of Pakistan, and Church of Bangladesh); the United Church of Canada (1925) and the Church of South India (1947). It is particularly strong on the Papuan coast, the Southern Highlands, eastern Papua, the New Guinea Islands (including Bougainville, also known as the North Solomons), and the Western Solomons. Unlike the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches in Papua New Guinea for reasons of church tradition as well as for Anglicans' cultural attitudes where it is substantial, the United Church welcomes female clergy. Like Presbyterian, Methodist, Congregationalist and United or Uniting churches elsewhere, its services are primarily for worship with scripture lessons, prayers and sermons, communion being once in a month or every few months. As these denominations in western countries have in recent years lost many members and participants to a lack of worship at all in recent decades, the United Church of Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands has lost some to more fundamentalist sects.

Local and overseas affiliations
The United Church is a member of the Papua New Guinea Council of Churches, Melanesian Council of Churches and the World Council of Churches. In matters of social policy it tends as with its sister denominations in other Commonwealth countries to be largely in accord with the Anglican and Lutheran churches.

Traditionally, many of the United Church's personnel were recruited from earlier-established Methodist and Congregationalist churches in Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga; the United Church continues to have close relations with sister churches in these neighbouring island countries. Its theology and social policy tends to be somewhat more akin to these theologically conservative neighbouring countries' long-established evangelical Protestant churches than to those in Australia. On the other hand, the Church is considerably more broad-minded in such matters than more recently arrived fundamentalist groups, and it maintains the historic Methodist and Congregational strong emphasis on education and literacy in the broadest sense. As with the Anglican and Lutheran churches, the United Church has suffered some attrition in recent decades as a result of aggressive proselytising among its constituents by fundamentalist and pentecostalist groups originating in the United States of America and, to a lesser extent, Australia.

Many of Papua New Guinea's leaders have had a United Church background.

Eminent United Churchmen and Churchwomen
Rabbie Namaliu
Mekere Morauta
Paulias Matane
Bill Skate
Buri Kidu
Mari Kapi

Literature
 Neville Threlfall, One Hundred Years in the Islands. The Methodist/United Church in the New Guinea Islands Region 1875–1975, The United Church (New Guinea Islands Region), Toksave na Buk dipatmen: Rabaul 1975,

See also
Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea
Evangelical Lutheran Church of Papua New Guinea

References

Churches in Papua New Guinea
Churches in the Solomon Islands
Papua New Guinea
United and uniting churches
Christian organizations established in 1968
Christian denominations established in the 20th century
1968 establishments in the United Kingdom


The Away goals rule is a way of breaking ties in association football when two teams played two legs and once at each team's homeground. The rule says that the team that scored the most "away from home" is awarded the win. This rule is used in the UEFA Champions League, UEFA Europa League, FIFA World Cup qualification, CONCACAF Champions League, MLS Cup playoffs, AFC Champions League, AFC Cup, Copa Libertadores, Copa Sudamericana, CAF Champions League, CAF Confederation Cup, Liga MX playoffs, Football League Cup semifinals and Football League play-offs semifinals.

Example

A real life example would be in the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League, where Marseille and Inter Milan were playing in the Round of 16. Marseille won the first leg 1–0 at home, and lost the second leg 1–2. Because they were away from home, and they scored one goal (unlike Inter Milan, as they didn't score a goal when they were away from home), they won the match on away goals.

 Marseille 1–0 Inter Milan
 Inter Milan 2–1 Marseille

Football (soccer) terminology

Away goals rule


The Prince Claus Fund was established in 1996, named in honor of Prince Claus of the Netherlands. It receives an annual subsidy from the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

The Fund has presented the international Prince Claus Awards annually since 1997 to honor individuals and organizations reflecting a progressive and contemporary approach to the themes of culture and development. Recipients are mainly located in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean.

The Prince Claus Awards

 Nominations

Honorees are determined by a jury of experts from fields relevant to its mission of culture and development.PCF, "About the Prince Claus Awards", op. cit.

 Criteria

The most important consideration of the jury is the positive effect of a laureate's work on a wider cultural or social field. The Prince Claus Fund interprets culture in a broad sense to encompass all kinds of artistic and intellectual disciplines, science, media and education.  Outstanding quality is an essential condition for an award.

 Awards presentation

The Principal Award of  is presented during a ceremony at the Royal Palace in Amsterdam in December every year. The additional awards of  each are presented in the Dutch embassies in the countries where the recipients live in December and January.

 The Prince Claus Awards books

Every year, the Fund publishes a book including the awards speech by one of the Honorary Chairmen, an extract of the lecture by a leading thinker, the jury's report and extensive discussions of the laureates' work by experts qualified in the laureates' fields.

 List of previous awards books

The 1997 Prince Claus Awards

 Theme

The winners of the 1997 awards embody the policy aims of the Prince Claus Fund: Exceptional work in the field of culture and development in Asia, Latin America and notably in Africa.

 Laureates

 The Zimbabwe International Book Fair (Principal Award)
 Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) (Senegal)
 Index on Censorship (United Kingdom), organization for the freedom of speech
 Malangatana Ngwenya (Mozambique), artist painter and poet
 Joseph Hanson Kwabena Nketia (Ghana), ethnomusicologist and composer
 Sardono Waluyo Kusumo (Indonesia), choreographer, dancer and filmmaker
 Bruno Stagno (Chile/Costa Rica), architect
 Jim Supangkat (Indonesia), sculptor, art critic and curator
 Abdeljelil Temimi (Tunisia), historian
 Ernest Wamba dia Wamba (D.R. Congo/Tanzania), political philosopher

 Committee

Adriaan van der Staay, Lolle Nauta, Anil Ramdas.

The 1998 Prince Claus Awards

 Theme

"The Art of African Fashion"

 Laureates

 Alphadi (Niger) (Principal Award), fashion designer
 Oumou Sy (Senegal) (Principal Award), fashion designer
 Tetteh Adzedu (Ghana) (Principal Award), fashion designer
 Rakhshan Bani-E'temad (Iran), filmmaker
 Heri Dono (Indonesia), artist painter, sculptor and installation artist
 Ticio Escobar (Paraguay), art critic, curator and museum director
 Jyotindra Jain (India), art and culture scientist
 Jean-Baptiste Kiéthéga (Burkina Faso), archeologist and historian
 David Koloane (South Africa), visual artist and curator
 Baaba Maal (Senegal), singer
 Carlos Monsiváis (Mexico), writer, philosopher and journalist
 Redza Piyadasa (Malaysia), artist and art critic
 Rogelio Salmona (Colombia), architect
 Kumar Shahani (India), filmmaker
 Tian Zhuangzhuang (China), filmmaker
 Nazik Saba Yared (Lebanon), writer, essayist and literature critic

 Committee

Adriaan van der Staay, Charles Correa, Emile Fallaux, Mai Ghoussoub, Gaston Kaboré, Gerardo Mosquera.

The 1999 Prince Claus Awards

 Theme

"Creating Spaces of Freedom"

 Laureates

 Mohand Fellag (France/Algeria) (Principal Award), comedian, actor and writer
 Vitral (Cuba) (Principal Award), socio-cultural magazine
 Al Jazeera (Qatar) (Principal Award), independent television network
 Patrick Chamoiseau (Martinique), writer
 Paulin J. Hountondji (Benin), philosopher
 Cildo Meireles (Brazil), sculptor, installation and conceptual artist
 Pepetela (Angola), writer
 Dessalegn Rahmato (Ethiopia), sociologist
 Juana Marta Rodas and Julia Isídrez (Paraguay), ceramics artists
 Claudia Roden (United Kingdom/Egypt), cookery book writer
 Cheick Oumar Sissoko (Mali), filmmaker
 Tsai Chih Chung (Taiwan), cartoonist, comic strip artist and cartoon filmmaker
 Ken Yeang (Malaysia), architect

 Committee

Adriaan van der Staay, Charles Correa, Emile Fallaux, Mai Ghoussoub, Gaston Kaboré, Gerardo Mosquera.

The 2000 Prince Claus Awards

 Theme

"Urban Heroes"

 Laureates

 Jaime Lerner (Brazil) (Principal Award), architect
 Viva Rio (Brazil) (Principal Award), social work peace organization
 Francisco Toledo (Mexico) (Principal Award), artist painter
 Bush Radio (South Africa), independent radiostation
 Communalism Combat (India), human rights organization
 Cui Jian (China), singer-songwriter, trumpeter, guitarist and film actor
 Film Resource Unit (South Africa), independent film distributor
 Arif Hasan (Pakistan), architect, urban planner, socio-philosopher and poet
 Bhupen Khakhar (India), visual artist
 Komal Kothari (India), ethnomusicologist
 Werewere Liking (Ivory Coast), art painter, filmmaker and writer
 Ayu Utami (Indonesia), radio broadcaster and writer
 Van Leo (Egypt), photographer

 Committee

Adriaan van der Staay, Charles Correa, Emile Fallaux, Mai Ghoussoub, Gaston Kaboré, Gerardo Mosquera, Bruno Stagno.

The 2001 Prince Claus Awards

 Theme

"Carnival"

 Laureates

 Summer Carnival, Rotterdam (Netherlands) (Principal Award), Caribbean carnival
 Peter Minshall, designer (Trinidad) (Principal Award), carnival costume designer
 Chris Abani (Nigeria), writer and poet
 Duong Thu Huong (Vietnam), writer
 Samuel Fosso (Cameroon), photographer
 Jahan-e Ketab (Iran), literary magazine
 Miri Maftun (Afghanistan), ethnomusicologist
 Antun Maqdisi (Syria), political philosopher
 Ibrahim el-Salahi (Sudan/United Kingdom), artist painter
 Elena Rivera Mirano (United States, Philippines), singer, choir leader and musicologist
 Talingo (Panama), cultural magazine
 Iván Thays (Peru), writer

 Committee

Adriaan van der Staay, Charles Correa, Mai Ghoussoub, Gaston Kaboré, Gerardo Mosquera, Bruno Stagno.

The 2002 Prince Claus Awards

 Theme

"Languages and transcultural forms of expression"

 Laureates

 Mohamed Chafik (Morocco) (Principal Award), writer
 Marcelo Araúz Lavadenz (Bolivia), festival director, cultural promoter and choir leader
 Ali Farzat (Syria), cartoonist
 Ferreira Gullar (Brazil), writer and art critic
 Amira Hass (Israel), writer
 Institute for Islamic and Social Studies (Indonesia), human rights organization and study center
 Virginia Pérez-Ratton (Costa Rica), artist, art critic and curator
 Youssou N'Dour (Senegal), singer
 Walter Tournier (Uruguay), animation filmmaker
 Wu Liangyong (China), town-planner

 Committee

Adriaan van der Staay, Sadiq Jalal al-Azm, Aracy Amaral, Goenawan Mohamad, Pedro Pimenta, Claudia Roden, Bruno Stagno.

The 2003 Prince Claus Awards

 Theme

"The Survival and Innovation of Crafts"

 Laureates

 Wang Shixiang (China) (Principal Award), art collector and poet
 The 2002 Arab Human Development Report from notably Nader Fergany (Egypt)
 Mathare Youth Sports Association (Kenya), development aid organization
 Carlinhos Brown (Brazil), singer-songwriter and percussionist
 Lita Stantic (Argentina), filmmaker
 District Six Museum (South Africa), museum on apartheid in South Africa
 Hasan Saltık (Turkey), music producer
 Mick Pearce (Zimbabwe), architect
 Reyum Institute of Arts and Culture (Cambodia), art and culture institute
 G. N. Devy (India), tribal researcher, writer and literary critic
 Yovita Meta (Indonesia), fashion designer and artisan

 Committee

Adriaan van der Staay, Aracy Amaral, Sadik Al-Azm, Goenawan Mohamad, Pedro Pimenta, Claudia Roden, Bruno Stagno.

The 2004 Prince Claus Awards

 Theme

"The positive results of Asylum and Migration"

 Laureates

 Mahmoud Darwish (Palestine) (Principal Award), poet and writer
 Jawad al-Assadi (Iraq), theater maker and poet
 Tin Moe (Burma), poet
 Ivaldo Bertazzo (Brazil), dancer and choreographer
 Bhutan Archery Federation (Bhutan), cultural archery society
 Halet Çambel (Turkey), archeologist
 Omara Khan Massoudi (Afghanistan), museum director
 Memoria Abierta (Argentina), human rights organization
 Farroukh Qasim (Tajikistan), theater maker
 Aminata Traoré (Mali), writer and political activist

 Committee

Adriaan van der Staay, Aracy Amaral, Sadik Al-Azm, Goenawan Mohamad, Pedro Pimenta, Claudia Roden, Bruno Stagno.

The 2005 Prince Claus Awards

 Theme

"Humour and Satire"

 Laureates

 Jonathan Shapiro, alias Zapiro (South Africa) (Principal Award), cartoonist
 Lenin El-Ramly (Egypt), writer and director
 Slamet Gundono (Indonesia), wayang puppeteer and artist
 Edgar Langeveldt (Zimbabwe), stand-up comedian, singer-songwriter and actor
 Michael Poghosyan (Armenia), actor, singer and cabaret performer
 Joaquín Salvador Lavado, alias Quino (Argentina), cartoonist and comic strip artist
 Ebrahim Nabavi (Iran), writer and satirist
 Chéri Samba (D.R. Congo), artist painter
 Niède Guidon (Brazil), archeologist
 Abdul Sheriff (Tanzania), museum director
 Opiyo Okach (Kenya), dancer and choreographer

 Committee

Niek Biegman, Aracy Amaral, Sadik Al-Azm, Goenawan Mohamad, Pedro Pimenta, Claudia Roden, Mick Pearce.

The 2006 Prince Claus Awards

 Theme

"10 years Prince Claus Awards" (recapitulating visual arts, writing and publishing, theater, cultural education and debate, cultural heritage and education)

 Laureates

 Reza Abedini (Iran) (Principal Award), graphical artist and art critic
 Lida Abdul (Afghanistan), visual artist, videographer and photographer
 Christine Tohmé (Lebanon), curator and art promoter
 Erna Brodber (Jamaica), writer and sociologist
 Henry Chakava (Kenya), publisher
 Frankétienne (Haiti), writer, poet, dramatist, musician and artist painter
 Madeeha Gauhar (Pakistan), actress, writer, theater maker and women rights activist
 Michael Mel (Papua New Guinea), art scientist, curator, philosopher, musician and playwright
 Committee for Relevant Art (Nigeria), art platform
 Al Kamandjâti Association (Palestine), musical development organization
 National Museum of Mali, archeological and ethnological museum

 Committee

Selma Al-Radi, Manthia Diawara, Pablo Ortiz Monasterio, Amitav Ghosh, Virginia Pérez-Ratton, Mick Pearce, Niek Biegman.

The 2007 Prince Claus Awards

 Theme

"Culture and Conflict"

 Laureates
Faustin Linyekula (D.R. Congo) (Principal Award), dancer and choreographer
Patricia Ariza (Colombia), poet and actress
Augusto Boal (Brazil), theater maker
Emily Jacir (Palestine), visual artist
Hollis Liverpool, alias Chalkdust (British Virgin Islands), calypso singer and writer
Sudanese Writers Union (Sudan)
Ars Aevi (Bosnia and Herzegovina), museum of art
Oscar Hagerman (Mexico), architect and designer
Harutyun Khachatryan (Armenia), filmmaker
Godfrey Mwampembwa, alias Gado (Kenya), cartoonist
Radio Isanganiro (Burundi), human rights promoter and radio station

 Committee

Peter Geschiere, Manthia Diawara, Pablo Ortiz Monasterio, Mick Pearce, Virginia Pérez-Ratton, Selma Al-Radi.

The 2008 Prince Claus Awards

 Theme

"Culture and the Human Body"

 Laureates

 Mamoni Raisom Goswami (India) (Principal Award), writer and poet
 Li Xianting (China), art critic
 Ganchugiyn Purevbat (Mongolia), artist painter, museum director and lama
 Ousmane Sow (Senegal), sculptor
 Dayanita Singh (India), photographer
 Elia Suleiman (Palestine), filmmaker
 James Iroha Uchechukwu (Nigeria), photographer
 Tania Bruguera (Cuba), visual artist
 Ma Ke (China), fashion designer
 Jeanguy Saintus (Haiti), dancer and choreographer
 Carlos Henríquez Consalvi (Venezuela/El Salvador), radio broadcaster and museum director

The 2009 Prince Claus Awards

Theme

« Culture and Nature »

Laureates
 Simón Vélez - (Colombia) (Principal Award), architect
 El Anatsui - (Ghana), sculptor
 Doual'art - (Cameroon), art organization
 Liang Shaoji - (China), conceptual artist
 Jivya Soma Mashe - (India), visual artist
 Sammy Baloji - (D.R. Congo), photographer
 Santu Mofokeng - (South Africa), photographer
 Kanak Dixit - (Nepal), publisher and writer
 Institute of History of Nicaragua and Central America - (Nicaragua)
 Desiderio Navarro - (Cuba), art and culture critic
 Gastón Acurio - (Peru), cook and gastronomist

The 2010 Prince Claus Awards
Theme

« Borders to reality  »

Laureates
Barzakh Editions (Algeria) (Principal Award), independent publisher
Decolonizing Architecture institute (DAi, Palestine), architectonic institute
Jia Zhangke (China), filmmaker, actor and writer
Kwani Trust (Kenya), literary platform and magazine
Ana Maria Machado (Brazil), painter and writer
Yoani Sánchez (Cuba), blogger and human rights activist
Maya Goded (Mexico), photographer
Kasmalieva & Djumaliev (Kyrgyzstan), visual artist couple
Dinh Q. Lê (Vietnam), visual artist and photographer
Mehrdad Oskouei (Iran), documentary maker
Aung Zaw (Thailand), publisher

The 2011 Prince Claus Awards

Theme

« Breaking taboos »

Laureates
Ntone Edjabe for Chimurenga (Pan-Africa) (Principal Award), DJ, writer and publisher
Said Atabekov, (Kazakhstan), visual artist, videographer and photographer
The Book Café, (Zimbabwe), platform for free cultural expression
Nidia Bustos, (Nicaragua), cultural activist and theatre director
Rena Effendi, (Azerbaijan), photographer
Regina José Galindo, (Guatemala), body and performance artist
Ilkhom Theatre, (Uzbekistan), independent theater
Kettly Mars, (Haiti), poet and writer
Rabih Mroué, (Lebanon), theater maker and visual artist
Riwaq, (Palestine), architectonic organization
Woeser, (Tibet; China), writer, poet and blogger

The 2012 Prince Claus Awards

Theme

«Frontiers of Reality »

Laureates
Eloísa Cartonera  (Argentina) (Principal Award), co-operation of designers and writers
Sami Ben Gharbia, (Tunisia), internet activist
Habiba Djahnine, (Algeria), film producer, film festival curator and essayist
Yassin al-Haj Saleh, (Syria), writer and dissident
Widad Kawar, (Jordan), collector and researcher of Arab clothing and jewellery
Teresa Margolles, (Mexico), photographer, videographer and performance artist
Boniface Mwangi, (Kenya), press photographer and peace activist
Phare Ponleu Selpak, (Cambodia), cultural community organization
Ian Randle, (Jamaica), independent publisher
Maung Thura, alias Zarganar, (Burma), comedian and filmmaker
Mohamed Ibrahim Warsame, alias Hadraawi, (Somaliland), poet and songwriter

The 2013 Prince Claus Awards

Laureates
Ahmed Fouad Negm, (Egypt) (Principal Award), poet and critic
Alejandro Zambra, (Chile), writer
Carla Fernández, (Mexico), fashion designer and cultural historian
Christopher Cozier, (Trinidad and Tobago), multi-media artist and cultural activator
Idrissou Mora-Kpaï, (Benin), documentary filmmaker
Lu Guang, (China), photographer
Naiza Khan, (Pakistan), visual artist
Recycled Orchestra of Cateura, (Paraguay), youth orchestra
Óscar Muñoz, (Colombia), visual artist
Teater Garasi, (Indonesia), performing arts
Zanele Muholi, (South Africa), photographer and visual activist

The 2014 Prince Claus Awards

Laureates

 Ignacio Agüero (Chile), (Principal Award), filmmaker
 Rosina Cazali, (Guatemala), writer and curator
 Lav Diaz, (Philippines), filmmaker
 FX Harsono, (Indonesia), visual artist
 Gülsün Karamustafa, (Turkey), visual artist
 Tran Luong, (Vietnam), media artist
 Museo Itinerante Arte por la Memoria, (Peru), art collective
 Lia Rodrigues, (Brazil), choreographer
 SPARROW Sound & Picture Archives for Research on Women, (India), women's archive

The 2015 Prince Claus Awards

Laureates

 Newsha Tavakolian (Iran), (Principal Award), photojournalist
 Latif Al-Ani (Iraq), photographer
 Amakhosi (Zimbabwe), community-oriented theatre group and cultural hub
 Jelili Atiku (Nigeria), performance artist
 Jean Pierre Bekolo (Cameroon), filmmaker
 ETCETERA (Argentina/Chile), art collective
 Perhat Khaliq (China), musician and singer-songwriter
 Fatos Lubonja (Albania), author, editor and public intellectual
 Ossama Mohammed (Syria), filmmaker
 Oksana Shatalova (Kazakhstan), visual artist and curator
 Y'en A Marre (Senegal), collective of young musicians and journalists

Committee

Bregtje van der Haak, Suad Amiry, Salah Hassan, Kettly Mars, Ong Ken Sen, Gabriela Salgado

The 2016 Prince Claus Awards

Laureates

 Apichatpong Weerasethakul (Thailand), (Principal Award), filmmaker
 Kamal Mouzawak (Lebanon), chef and food activist
 The Second Floor (T2F) (Pakistan), interdisciplinary cultural centre
 Bahia Shehab (Egypt/Lebanon), graphic designer, artist, educator
 La Silla Vacía (The Empty Chair) (Colombia), interactive online portal
 Vo Trong Nghia (Vietnam), architect

 Committee

Emile Fallaux, Sheikha Hoor Al Qasimi, Dinh Q Lê, Visual Artist, Neo Muyanga, Manuel de Rivero, Suely Rolnik

The 2017 Prince Claus Awards

Laureates

 Vincent Carelli (Brazil) (Principal Award), filmmaker
 Ma Jun (China) (Principal Award), environmental activist
 Khadija Al-Salami (filmmaker, Yemen)
 L'Art Rue (art collective, Tunisia)
 Brigitte Baptiste (scientist, Colombia)
 Amar Kanwar (film director, India)
 Diébédo Francis Kéré (architect, Burkina Faso)

The 2018 Prince Claus Awards
Theme 'Louder than Words'
New, the Next Generation Award, which honours an outstanding creative initiative that contributes positively to the lives and possibilities of young people.
Laureates
Market Photo Workshop, (South Africa), (Principal Award), Training institute and cultural platform
Dada Masilio South Africa) (Next Generation Award)(dancer and choreographer)
Adong Judith (playwright, film and theatre-maker, Uganda)
Marwa al-Sabouri (architect and urban thinker, Syria)
Kidlat Tahimik (artist in many disciplines, Philippines)
Eka Kurniawan (writer, Indonesia),
O Menelick 2 Ato (independent platform, Brazil)

The 2019 Prince Claus Awards

Kamala Ibrahim Ishaq, (Sudan) (Principal Award)
 Ambulante (documentaries, Mexico)
 Mariam Kamara (architect, Niger)
 Bill Kouélany (artist & writer, Congo-Brazzaville)
 Djamila Ribeiro (philosopher, Brazil)
 Anocha Suwichakornpong (filmmaker, Thailand)
 Mónica Ojeda Franco (writer, Ecuador), Next Generation Laureate

The 2020 Prince Claus Awards
Ibrahim Mahama, (Ghana, Visual Arts) (Principal Award)
Açik Radyo, (Turkey, Media)
Diamantina Arcoiris, (Colombia, Design)
Fendika Cultural Center, (Ethiopia, Music and performance)
Tunakaimanu Fielakepa, (Tonga, Cultural Heritage)
m7red, (Argentina, Architecture).

References
Awards per year and profiles starting from here

Dutch awards
Awards established in 1996

Prince Claus Fund


Gneiss is a type of metamorphic rock. The minerals in gneiss may come from rocks which were originally either igneous or sedimentary. They were heated and squeezed, and the minerals recrystallized.

Orthogneiss is gneiss got from igneous rock (such as granite). Paragneiss is gneiss got from sedimentary rock (such as sandstone).

In gneisses, minerals tend to be foliated: layered and segregated into bands. Thus there are seams of quartz and of mica in a mica schist, very thin, but consisting essentially of one mineral.

Lewisian gneiss
The Lewisian complex or Lewisian Gneiss is a suite of Precambrian metamorphic rocks that outcrop in the northwestern part of Scotland, forming part of the Hebridean Terrane. These rocks are of Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic age, ranging from 3.0–1.7 Ga.

References

Metamorphic rocks

Gneiss


NWA Wildside was an American professional wrestling company based in Cornelia, Georgia. It operated between September 1999 and April 2005. While in operation, NWA Wildside was one of the main associates of the National Wrestling Alliance and was one of the most-watched  wrestling companies in the United States. Wildside was at first named National Championship Wrestling in 1997 and was owned by Steve Martin. In December 1999 NCW merged with NWA Georgia to form NWA Wildside under the ownership of Bill Behrens.

World Championship Wrestling hired NWA Wildside to be its development territory, and sent their training wrestlers like Shannon Moore, Jamie Noble, Sean O'Haire, Mark Jindrak and Elix Skipper to compete there. Soon, World Championship Wrestling hired some NWA Wildside wrestlers for their shows including A.J. Styles, Frank Paris, Onyx, David Young and Rick Michaels appearing on World Wrestling Federation.

With Total Nonstop Action Wrestling, some NWA Wildside stars such as Styles, Abyss, Young, Onyx, Slim J, Hotstuff Hernandez, Jason Cross, Jimmy Rave, Altar Boy Luke, Matt Sydal, Delirious and Tony Mamaluke appeared for the company. Wildside's weekly wrestling show aired nationally in the U.S. and was available to as much as 40% of the United States.

In 2004, Wildside was shown by The Wrestling Channel in the United Kingdom giving them a bigger audience. Two of the main sellers of Wildside were the fact that their wrestlers were allowed to be more creative in the ring, and the announcers gave a correct showing to the product rather than treating it as a joke.

NWA Wildside closed down after 300 weeks of television because owner Behrens accepted a job with WWE. He then worked with Jody Hamilton, the owner of DSW, a former WWE developmental territory in McDonough, Georgia. Behrens left DSW after getting the promotion ready to show TV but before TV production began due to creative differences with Hamilton, and was employed by TNA as Director of Third Party Bookings.

American professional wrestling promotions
Companies based in Georgia (U.S. state)
1997 establishments in the United States
2005 disestablishments in the United States
Defunct companies of the United States

NWA Wildside


Richard Kimber Franklin (born 15 January 1936) is an English actor, writer, director and political activist. Principally a stage actor, he has also appeared as a regular character in several high-profile British television programmes, including Crossroads and Emmerdale Farm, and he portrayed Captain Mike Yates of UNIT in Doctor Who from 1971 until 1974, returning to the role on a number of occasions both on television and in Doctor Who spin-off media.

Franklin is a dramatist and the author of the book Forest Wisdom: Radical Reform of Democracy and the Welfare State, which reflects his political views and activism, and has written novels based in the Whoniverse. He has stood as a candidate for the UK Parliament for several parties and founded the Silent Majority Party.

Early life and career
Franklin was educated at Westminster School, and read PPE before going on to complete an MA in Modern History at Christ Church, Oxford. During National Service he was commissioned into the Royal Green Jackets (Rifle Brigade) and was a captain in Queen Victoria's Rifles.  Prior to embarking on an acting career, he spent three years at the advertising agency Hobson and Grey as an assistant account executive, assistant producer and scriptwriter.

Franklin trained as an actor at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (colloquially known as RADA), where he won the Jenny Laird prize.

Theatre
Immediately after graduating from RADA, Franklin spent six years in repertory theatre, beginning at the Century Theatre under the directorship of Heinz Bernard. He then spent two years at Birmingham Rep under Peter Dews, a season at Bristol Old Vic under Val May, before moving to Ipswich where in addition to acting he also held an associate directorship.

Franklin has appeared in a number of productions in London's West End. In 1967 he played the role of Corin in As You Like It at the Vaudeville Theatre, alongside Brian Cox as Orlando. In 1978 he took over the lead role in Same Time, Next Year from Michael Crawford. Most recently he understudied the part of Arthur Kipps in The Woman in Black at the Fortune Theatre, playing the role on a number of occasions. Other theatre acting work includes Macbeth (RSC), The Rocky Horror Show (as the Narrator), The Spider's Web (UK Tour for Ian Dickens), Romeo and Juliet (UK Tour with Sean Maguire), The Importance of Being Earnest (English Speaking Theatre, Frankfurt).

A prolific dramatist, a number of Franklin's plays have been produced professionally. These include:
 The Trial of Johnny Bull (Ipswich Theatre)
 Dr Weird and the Amazing Box (Renaissance Theatre)
 The Cage (Edinburgh) Winner, Spirit of the Fringe award
 Shakespeare was a Hunchback (Edinburgh). The play was later used as the basis for the ITV production The Trial of Richard III
 Poison (London Charterhouse)
  Luck of the Draw (premiered at London Charterhouse in 2014, prior to a small-scale National Tour.)
 Shakespeare by Shaggers (Brighton Fringe)
Franklin has had a long association with the British pantomime tradition, having appeared in eighteen different productions. His most recent pantomime role was the Emperor of China in Aladdin at the New Victoria Theatre, during First Family Entertainment's 2014–15 season. Franklin continues to produce new work, the latest of which is The Luck of the Draw, a drama based on his uncle's private diaries and the experiences of a Tommy in the First World War.

As a director, Franklin held an associate directorship at Ipswich. He directed seasons at Swansea Grand and Chesterfield Civic, and was artistic director of Renaissance Theatre in Stockholm. He has directed at Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art, and Mountview Academy of Theatre Arts, as well as a number of London, Edinburgh and Brighton Fringe productions including his own Luck of the Draw, and Shakespeare by Shaggers.

Television
Franklin first came to television prominence in 1969 as Joe Townsend in Crossroads, appearing in thirty-six episodes. Over the course of a long television career he has appeared in a number of well-known British programmes including Blake's 7, Dixon of Dock Green, The Saint, Up Your Junction, Going for a Song, The Millicent Martin Show, Little Women, The Pathfinders, Catherine Cookson's The Gambling Man, Heartbeat, and Emmerdale Farm.

Doctor Who
Franklin first appeared in Doctor Who in the role of Mike Yates, a captain in the fictional military organisation UNIT, in the serial Terror of the Autons (1971), which was the opening story of Jon Pertwee's second season in the role of the Third Doctor. He continued as a series regular until the serial Planet of the Spiders (1974), which also marked the end of Pertwee's tenure as the title character.

He has maintained his association with Doctor Who and appears regularly at conventions, and in spin-off and documentary productions. He has recreated Captain Mike Yates on television twice, for the Twentieth Anniversary special The Five Doctors (1983) and also the Thirtieth Anniversary 3-D Special for Children In Need Dimensions In Time (1993). A photograph of Franklin in role as Yates appeared on screen in the fiftieth anniversary special The Day of the Doctor (2013). He has also appeared in the role on numerous occasions in audio plays for both Big Finish Productions and the BBC, which includes appearing alongside the Fourth Doctor, Tom Baker.

In 2002 Franklin wrote The Killing Stone, a novel featuring Yates as the main character. It was initially released as an audio book, read by the author, before publication by Fantom Films in 2013 under the title Operation H.A.T.E. The rewritten version of the book removed all named references to Doctor Who characters and replaced them with unambiguous equivalents in order to avoid infringing copyright. Franklin also recorded a short cameo, as himself for the live Doctor Who podcast stage show, 50 Years of Doctor Who: Preachrs Podcast Live 2. He appeared in this alongside a mix of modern and classic Doctor Who actors, including Nicholas Briggs, Peter Davison, Simon Fisher Becker and Terry Molloy.

Film
Franklin has collaborated with the director Julian Doyle on two films: Chemical Wedding (2008), about the occultist Aleister Crowley, and Twilight of the Gods (2013), in which he portrayed the German composer Richard Wagner. In 2016, he played Sirro Argonne, one of the Death Star engineers in the Star Wars film Rogue One.

Audio drama
In addition to his numerous appearances in Doctor Who audio dramas, including the audiobook Last of the Gaderene by Mark Gatiss, Franklin's audio credits include two years at BBC radio drama; Sapphire and Steel: The Surest Poison (Big Finish); Harrison Howell in the BBC Radio 2 production of Kiss Me Kate (1996); USA Family Radio; and his own World War I docudrama Luck of the Draw. He also played Davros' father, Nasgard, in the Big Finish audio drama miniseries I, Davros.

Music videos
In 2009 Franklin starred in "The First Days of Spring" for the band Noah and the Whale.

Journalism
Franklin has worked as a theatre critic, and has published a number of reviews for the Edinburgh Evening News and fringereview.co.uk.

Political activities
Franklin's political activities include:
 Candidate in the 1992 United Kingdom general election in Sheffield Brightside for the Liberal Democrats, receiving 5,273 votes
 Candidate in the 1997 United Kingdom general election in Hackney South and Shoreditch for the Referendum Party, receiving 613 votes
 Candidate in the 2001 United Kingdom general election in Hove for the United Kingdom Independence Party, receiving 358 votes
 Founded the Silent Majority Party
 Candidate in the 2005 United Kingdom general election in Hove for the Silent Majority Party, receiving 78 votes
 Founded the 30-50 coalition. The group fielded Elliot Ball as a candidate in the 2015 United Kingdom general election in Bethnal Green and Bow. Ball received 78 votes.

Franklin's political work has led to television appearances on Campaign Calendar (Yorkshire TV). In 1993 he made a speech to the Liberal Democrat Conference which was broadcast by Sky TV.

Filmography

Film

Television

References

External links

Richard Franklin Interview at Best British TV

1936 births
Military personnel from London
Royal Green Jackets officers
Queen Victoria's Rifles officers
20th-century British Army personnel
Alumni of RADA
English male stage actors
English male television actors
Liberal Democrats (UK) parliamentary candidates
Living people
Actors from Marylebone
Referendum Party politicians
UK Independence Party parliamentary candidates

Richard Franklin (actor)


Hylas is a character in Greek mythology. He was the son of King Theiodamas of the Dryopians in Thessaly. When Heracles killed the King in battle, he took Hylas under his wing. The young man became Heracles' gay lover. About 300 BC, the poet Theocritus wrote that Heracles loved "the curly-haired Hylas, [and], like a father would with a well loved son, he taught the youth everything that had made him a powerful and famous man."

The two joined the search for the Golden Fleece. Shortly after their ship left Greece, it put into an island. Hylas set off to look for fresh water. As he neared a spring, the nymphs living within it fell in love with him. They pulled him into the water. He was never seen again. When he did not come back to the ship, Heracles was overcome with grief. He searched the island a long time. The ship set sail without him. Some say Hylas drowned. Others say he fell in love with the nymphs and would not desert them.

Other websites

People in Greek mythology

Hylas


Zakynthos (or Zante) is a Greek island. It is the third largest island in the Ionian Sea. It is in the south Ionian Sea, west of the Peloponnese. Zakynthos' total population amounts to 41,472 inhabitants. The largest town of Zakynthos is Zakynthos city. Zakynthos is mostly flat island, with an area of 410 square kilometres.To the north of the island, there are low mountains and hills.

Sights and tourism

Zakynthos is a very touristic island. Most tourists who visit the island come from Western Europe, mainly Italy and England. The most popular part of island is the southern part. The island has many beautiful beaches, the most famous including the Navagio (shipwreck) and the beach of Laganas. The Mediterranean turtle lives in and around Zakynthos. It is also called careta careta. This species is very rare and it is a threatened species.

References

Islands of Greece

Zakynthos


Gateway Arch National Park is an American national park located in St. Louis, Missouri, near the starting point of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.

In its initial form as a national memorial, it was established in 1935 to commemorate:
the Louisiana Purchase and subsequent westward movement of American explorers and pioneers;
the first civil government west of the Mississippi River; and
the debate over slavery raised by the Dred Scott case.

The national park consists of the Gateway Arch, a steel catenary arch that has become the definitive icon of St. Louis; a park along the Mississippi River on the site of the earliest buildings of the city; the Old Courthouse, a former state and federal courthouse where the Dred Scott case originated; and the  museum at the Gateway Arch. It is the smallest national park in the United States at , less than 2% the size of the next-smallest, Hot Springs National Park.

The immediate surroundings of the Gateway Arch were initially designated the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial (a national memorial) by secretarial order on December 21, 1935. The Gateway Arch was completed on October 28, 1965. The park is maintained by the National Park Service (NPS).

The area surrounding the arch was redesignated as the "Gateway Arch National Park" (a national park) in 2018. This change has been controversial due to the nature of the site ("national parks" typically involve significant natural landscapes and significant opportunities for nature recreation, whereas sites that have primarily historical and architectural significance are usually given other NPS designations). Several publications noted that the addition of Gateway Arch as a national park eroded the significance associated with the "national park" designation, and some suggested that the change was made in order to promote tourism rather than to conserve a nature area.

Components

The Gateway Arch

The Gateway Arch, known as the "Gateway to the West," is the tallest structure in Missouri. It was designed by the Finnish-American architect Eero Saarinen and the German-American structural engineer Hannskarl Bandel in 1947 and built between 1963 and October 1965.  It stands  tall and  wide at its base.  The legs are  wide at the base, narrowing to  at the arch.  There is a unique tram system to carry passengers to the observation room at the top of the arch.

Old Courthouse

The Old Courthouse is built on land originally deeded by St. Louis founder Auguste Chouteau. It marks the location over which the arch reaches. Its dome was built during the American Civil War and is similar to the dome on the United States Capitol which was also built during the Civil War.  It was the site of the local trials in the Dred Scott case.

The courthouse is the only portion of the memorial west of Interstate 44. To the west of the Old Courthouse is a Greenway between Market and Chestnut Streets which is only interrupted by the Civil Courts Building which features a pyramid model of the Mausoleum of Mausolus (which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) on its roof. When the Civil Courts building was built in the 1920s, the Chouteau family sued to regain the property belonging to the Old Courthouse because it had been deeded in perpetuity to be a courthouse.

Museum at the Gateway Arch
Underneath the arch is a visitor center, entered from a circular entryway facing the Old Courthouse. Within the center, a project to rebuild the Museum at the Gateway Arch was completed in July 2018. The new museum features exhibits on a variety of topics including westward expansion and the construction of the Arch, all told through a St. Louis lens. Tucker Theater, finished in 1968 and renovated 30 years later, has about 285 seats and shows a documentary (Monument to the Dream) on the arch's construction. A second theater was added in 1993 but removed in 2018 as part of the CityArchRiver renovation project. Also located in the visitor center are a gift shop and cafe.

History

1930s

The memorial was developed largely through the efforts of St. Louis civic booster Luther Ely Smith who first pitched the idea in 1933, was the long-term chairman of the committee that selected the area and persuaded Franklin Roosevelt in 1935 to make it a National Park Service unit after St. Louis passed a bond issue to begin building it and who partially financed the 1947 architectural contest that selected the arch.

In the early 1930s the United States began looking for a suitable memorial for Thomas Jefferson (the Washington Monument and the newly built Lincoln Memorial were the only large Presidential memorials at the time).

Shortly after Thanksgiving in 1933 Smith who had been on the commission to build the George Rogers Clark National Historical Park in Indiana, was returning via train when he noticed the poor condition of the original platted location of St. Louis along the Mississippi. He thought that the memorial to Jefferson should be on the actual location that was symbolic of one of Jefferson's greatest triumphs—the Louisiana Purchase.

The originally platted area of St. Louis was the site of:
The Battle of St. Louis, the only battle west of the Mississippi River in the American Revolutionary War.
The first capital of Upper Louisiana for the United States, the Louisiana Purchase north of the 33rd parallel that was the original Louisiana Territory in 1803.
The Three Flags Day ceremony in 1804 in which Spain formally turned over Louisiana to France, less than 24 hours before France then officially turned it over to the United States. This technically completed the Louisiana Purchase, and also cleared the way for Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to legally begin their exploration of the continental west, which Spain had prohibited.

Almost all of the historic buildings associated with this period had been replaced by newer buildings.  His idea was to raze all of the buildings in the original St. Louis platted area and replace it with a park with "a central feature, a shaft, a building, an arch, or something which would symbolize American culture and civilization."

Smith pitched the idea to Bernard Dickmann who quickly assembled a meeting of St. Louis civic leaders on December 15, 1933, at the Jefferson Hotel and they endorsed the plan and Smith became chairman of what would become the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial Association (a position he would hold until 1949 with a one-year exception).

The Commission then defined the area, got cost estimates of $30 million to buy the land, clear the buildings and erect a park and monument.  With promises from the federal government (via the United States Territorial Expansion Memorial Commission) to join if the City of St. Louis could raise money.

The area to be included in the park was bounded by the Eads Bridge/Washington Avenue on the north and Poplar Street on the south, the Mississippi River on the east and Third Street (now Interstate 44) on the west. The Old Courthouse, just west of Third Street, was added in 1940.

The only building in this area not included was the Old Cathedral, which is on the site of St. Louis first church and was opposite the home of St. Louis founder Auguste Chouteau. The founders of the city were buried in its graveyard (but were moved in 1849 to Bellefontaine Cemetery during a cholera outbreak).

Taking away 40 blocks in the center of St. Louis was bitterly fought by some sources—particularly the St. Louis Post-Dispatch. On September 10, 1935, the voters of St. Louis approved a $7.5 million bond issue to buy the property. Local architect Louis La Beaume provided a preliminary design proposal for the site that included multiple museums, fountains and obelisks.

The buildings were bought for $7 million by the federal government via Eminent domain and was subject to considerable litigation but were ultimately bought at 131.99 percent of assessed valuation. Roosevelt inspected the memorial area on October 14, 1936 during the dedication of the St. Louis Soldiers Memorial. Included in the party was then Senator Harry S. Truman.

1940s
The land was to be cleared by 1942.  Among the buildings razed was the "Old Rock House" 1818 home of fur trader Manuel Lisa (now occupied by the stairs on the north side of the arch) and the 1819 home of original St. Louis pioneer Jean Pierre Chouteau at First (Main) and Washington streets.

The architectural competition for a monument was delayed by World War II.  Interest in the monument was fed after the war as it was to be the first big monument in the post-World War II era.

The estimated cost of the competition was $225,000 and Smith personally donated $40,000.  Civic leaders held the nationwide competition in 1947 to select a design for the main portion of the Memorial space.

Architect Eero Saarinen won this competition with plans for a  catenary arch to be placed on the banks of the Mississippi River. However, these plans were modified over the next 15 years, placing the arch on higher ground and adding  in height and width.

The central architectural feature at the base of the arch is the Old Courthouse, which was once the tallest building in Missouri and has a dome similar to the United States Capitol and was placed on the building during the American Civil War at the same time as that on the U.S. Capitol.

Saarinen developed the shape with the help of architectural engineer Hannskarl Bandel. It is not a pure inverted catenary. Saarinen preferred a shape that was slightly elongated and thinner towards the top, a shape that produces a subtle soaring effect, and transfers more of the structure's weight downward rather than outward at the base.

When Saarinen won the competition, the official notification was sent to "E. Saarinen", thinking it to be the architect's father Eliel Saarinen, who had also submitted an entry. The family celebrated with a bottle of champagne, and two hours later an embarrassed official called to say the winner was, in fact, the younger Saarinen. The elder Saarinen then broke out a second bottle of champagne to celebrate his son's success.

Among the five finalists was local St. Louis architect Harris Armstrong.

1950s
Land for the memorial was formally dedicated on June 10, 1950, by Harry S. Truman.  However, the Korean War began and the project was put on hold.

On June 23, 1959, work begins on covering railroad tracks that cut across the memorial grounds.

1960s
On February 11, 1961, excavation began, and that September 1, Saarinen died. On February 12, 1963, the first stainless steel triangle that formed the first section of the arch was set in place on the south leg.

On October 28, 1965, it was completed, costing approximately $15 million to build. The adjacent park was designed by landscape architect Dan Kiley. Along with all other historical areas of the National Park Service, the memorial was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. Vice President Hubert Humphrey and Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall dedicated the arch on May 25, 1968.

1980s
In 1984, Congress authorized the enlargement of the Memorial to include up to  on the east bank of the Mississippi River in East St. Louis, Illinois. Funds were authorized to begin land acquisition, but Congress placed a moratorium upon NPS land acquisitions in fiscal year 1998. The moratorium continued into the 21st century, with expansion becoming less likely because of the construction of a riverboat gambling facility and related amenities.

1990s
During the Great Flood of 1993, Mississippi flood waters reached halfway up the Grand Staircase on the east.

In 1999, the arch tram queue areas were renovated at a cost of about $2.2 million. As well, the Ulysses S. Grant National Historic Site in St. Louis County, Missouri, was put under the jurisdiction of the Superintendent of the Memorial.

2000s

The arch was featured on the Missouri state quarter in 2003.

In 2007 St. Louis Mayor Francis Slay and former Missouri Senator John Danforth asked the National Park Service to create a more "active" use of the grounds of the memorial and model it on Millennium Park in Chicago including the possibility of restaurants, fountains, ice skating, swimming, and other activities. The National Park Service was not in favor of the plan noting that the only other overt development pressure on national park property has been at the Jackson Hole Airport in Grand Teton National Park

2010s

Renovations
For most of its existence, the Memorial was largely separated from the rest of Downtown St. Louis by a sunken section of I-70 (now I-44 with the rerouting of I-70 over a new bridge), but in 2014, a lid was installed over the highway, creating the foundation for a park connecting downtown with the Memorial grounds. In November 2015, Saarinen's original master plan was brought to fruition. Building of the Gateway Arch Connector linking the Old Courthouse with the grounds of the arch was completed.  This design, and other design components were imagined by Michael Van Valkenburg Associates. In September 2010 Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates won a design contest to "re-envision the visitor experience" of the grounds. The project, originally planned for completion in 2015 to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the opening of the arch, was completed in 2018. It includes:
replacing the north garage with an outdoor amphitheater, an explorers garden for children and an addition of 7.5 acres of green space.
new cobblestone plaza between the arch and the river
elevated walkways on the Illinois side, reaching 35 feet and winding through a new bird sanctuary, (Congress has authorized the purchase of the Illinois acreage)
an expanded museum below the Gateway Arch with a new western entrance nearly a block closer to downtown than the original entrances.

In 2016, many ash trees on the grounds were removed to preempt damage from emerald ash borers. Prior to the work of CityArchRiver, there were 1,800 trees on the grounds. There are now 4,200.

The $380 million project was funded both privately and publicly. The public funding, provided largely by Proposition P, totaled $159 million. The remaining $221 million were secured via fundraising efforts of Gateway Arch Park foundation.

Redesignation

On June 26, 2017, Senator Roy Blunt (R-Missouri) introduced the Gateway Arch National Park Designation Act () to redesignate Jefferson National Expansion Memorial as Gateway Arch National Park. The legislation was cosponsored by Senator Claire McCaskill (D-Missouri).

In July 2017, Acting Deputy Director of the National Park Service Robert Vogel testified before the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Subcommittee on National Parks. Vogel stated that the Department of the Interior supported changing the name to Gateway Arch National Monument, rather than National Park, to maintain consistency with existing naming conventions. He likened the site to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, noting that existing national parks encompassed thousands of acres at minimum.

The United States Congress approved the bill in early 2018. U.S. President Donald Trump signed the act into law on February 22, 2018, officially renaming the site Gateway Arch National Park.

The new designation has been seen as an attempt to increase tourism in St. Louis. The name has been criticized as inappropriate by some visitors.

Chouteau Greenway
The Chouteau Greenway Project is a public-private partnership that aims to connect Forest Park and the Washington University in St. Louis Danforth Campus to Gateway Arch National Park. Among the partners leading this project are the Arch to Park Collaborative, St. Louis City, and Washington University in St. Louis.

See also
 List of national parks of the United States

References

 National Register of Historic Places Nomination Forms
 Accompanying three photos from c. 1942 and 1975.

External links

Official website – National Park Service
Dred Scott case · suffragette Virginia Minor case
Artistic photos and renderings – State Historical Society of Missouri
Timeline of current arch grounds project, August 2013 to November 2016 – St. Louis Post-Dispatch

Teacher resources
The Old Courthouse lesson plan
The Mathematics and Architecture of the St. Louis Arch, William V. Thayer
Owner's Manual for the Gateway Arch, William V. Thayer

Cultural infrastructure completed in 1965
Arches and vaults
Buildings and monuments honoring American presidents in the United States
Buildings and structures in St. Louis
Eero Saarinen structures
Historic American Engineering Record in Missouri
Monuments and memorials on the National Register of Historic Places in Missouri
National Register of Historic Places in St. Louis
National Register of Historic Places in national parks
National parks in Missouri
Parks in St. Louis
Protected areas on the Mississippi River
Monuments and memorials to Thomas Jefferson
Modernist architecture in Missouri
History of St. Louis
Museums in St. Louis
Protected areas established in 1935
History museums in Missouri
National Park Service areas in Missouri
Monuments and memorials in Missouri
Tourist attractions in St. Louis
Parks on the National Register of Historic Places in Missouri
1935 establishments in Missouri
Downtown St. Louis

Gateway Arch National Park


Scurvy is a disease (sickness). It is caused by not eating enough vitamin C. But scurvy can be prevented. It has many symptoms. People who have scurvy get spots on their skin, especially on their legs. Their teeth may loosen and/or fall out. They may bleed from the mouth, nose, and gums (mucus membranes). A person with scurvy will look pale and feel sad (see depression). They will not be able to move easily, because their joints hurt.

Scurvy can be easily cured. Oranges and other fruits can restore normal vitamin levels. In the past, sailors more commonly got scurvy due to being unable to access these foods. Fresh fruit could not be kept for long. The main cause of scurvy is lack of fresh fruits and vegetables. It is now uncommon.

Signs of scurvy

At first, a person with scurvy may:
Not want to eat (loss of appetite)
Feel sad (slight depression)
Lose weight or not get heavier even though they eat a lot
Have loose feces (diarrhea)
Breathe fast (tachypnea)
Be hot (have a high body temperature or fever)

A bit later a person with scurvy may:
Feel angry (irritability)
Have pains in the legs (and tenderness)
Find it hard to move (pseudo paralysis)
Have swelling of the arms and legs
Bleed from the mouth, nose and gums

Causes
Not eating enough food that has vitamin C
Going on a long trip, often at sea, where there is no fresh food
Not having enough food (famine)
Breaking down the vitamin C by over-cooking (like boiling fruit juice)

Treatment

Eating vitamin C pills or giving it by needle (injection, also known as a shot). The injection almost always cures scurvy in babies.
Drinking orange juice is another treatment that works in babies. Before vitamin C was discovered this was the only treatment.

When a person gets help for scurvy, they usually get better very quickly. Babies start eating again after one or two days of help. The symptoms get better within seven days.

Food sources

Eating vitamin C prevents scurvy. How much vitamin C a person needs changes with his or her age and is different for pregnant and lactating women. The following is the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council's advice on how much vitamin C to eat every day:

 Infants (babies): 30–40 mg
 Children and adults: 45–60 mg
 Pregnant women: 70 mg
 Mothers breast feeding: 90–95 mg

Foods with a lot of vitamin C include the following:

 Citrus fruits (for example: oranges, limes)
 Berries
 Cantaloupe
 Broccoli
 Cauliflower
 Cabbage
 Spinach
 Potatoes
 Tomatoes
 Strawberries

References

Vitamin deficiencies

Scurvy


The 2005 Pacific hurricane season was a slightly inactive season that produced 17 tropical cyclones. It officially started on May 15 and ended on November 30, dates which conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the northeast Pacific Ocean. The first  tropical cyclone, Hurricane Adrian, developed on May 17, while the last storm Tropical Depression Sixteen-E, dissipated on October 20. During the year, a total of 17 tropical cyclones, 15 tropical storms, 7 hurricanes and 2 major hurricanes formed. The most intense hurricane, Hurricane Kenneth remained out over open waters for the duration of its existence. However, the remnants of the storm caused minor flooding on the Island of Hawaii. September was the most active month of the year, as 6 of the 17 tropical cyclones formed during this time.

The pre-season forecast from the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration called for 11-15 named storms and 6-8 hurricanes, of which 2-4 were expected to attain major hurricane status.

Very few storms impacted land throughout the season. Hurricane Adrian was the only landfalling system. It struck El Salvador as a dissipating tropical depression after rapidly weakening from hurricane status. Flooding in Nicaragua caused the only fatality during the season. Tropical Storm Dora and Hurricane Hilary brought tropical storm force winds to coastal Mexico, although no damage was reported. The remnants Tropical Depression One-C caused heavy rainfall on the Island of Hawaii, peaking at 8.8 in (223.52 mm). Hawaii was also affected by the remnants of Hurricane Kenneth which also caused heavy rains on the Island of Hawaii. The combined storms caused very little damage and only one fatality.

Pacific hurricane season
Pacific hurricane seasons
Pacific hurricane season

2005 Pacific hurricane season


Plate readers, also known as microplate readers or microplate photometers, are laboratory equipment used to see any biological, chemical or physical change in samples of chemicals in microtiter plates.

Process

Most of the time, a very bright lamp shines light to the microtiter well and the chemicals react in special ways which can be measured using special equipment.

Other ways to measure certain things are:
How much the chemicals absorb liquid
If they glow in certain areas
How long does a certain reaction go on for under special conditions

Today, plate readers come with tools for data analysis.

Uses
Plate readers are used for:
To monitor cell growth
Acid quantities in chemicals
Cell reactions
Enzyme activity
Cell toxicity
Amounts of chemicals in cells
Checking substances for drugs

Using these plate readers can help human scientists do their work more efficiently. Plate readers are used mostly in research, to find drugs, and to help test the purity of chemicals in pharmacies and laboratories.

Related pages
Microtiter plate

Laboratory equipment

Plate reader


A system  is a group of related things that work together as a whole. These things can be real or imaginary. Systems can be man-made things like a car engine or natural things like a star system. Systems can also be concepts made by people to organize ideas.

A subsystem is a system that is part of some larger system. For example, in computer networking, a disk subsystem is a part of a computer system.

Definition
A system is a group of things that connect and form some kind of coherent whole.

One of the founders of physiology, Claude Bernard, took a big step when he noticed that the internal systems of the body tend to keep things the same even if they are disturbed. He called the functions which keep system stable as homeostasis. This led towards the ideas of error-correction, feedback and regulation. These are all typical of systems which have some kind of goal and can adjust their behaviour so as to correct errors.

Example
The Solar System is an example of a system. The Solar System includes the Sun and the eight planets, as well as the moons of those planets. These and other members are linked by gravity and by their history as a  planetary system.

Types of systems
There are many kinds of systems. The key is that the elements of a system work together as a whole whilst still keeping their own identity. This is why planetary systems and body systems are good examples. They work together but have their own separate identity.
 Systems in a living person, such as digestive system, nervous system, and so on. These systems operate so as to keep the body's physiology going within limits.
 Systems of life, such as life cycle, carbon cycle, or ecosystem
 Systems in science, such as the  solar system
 Any mechanical or electrical gadgets where parts work together to keep the output within certain limits. A thermostat is the classic example of this.

Related pages
 Systems theory
 Systems science
 Cybernetics

References

Systems theory
Basic English 850 words

System


A cult o personality arises when an individual uises mass media, propaganda, or ither methods, tae create an idealized an heroic public image, aften through unquestionin flattery an praise. Cults o personality are uisually associatit wi dictatorships. The sociologist Max Weber developed a tripartite classification o authority; the cult o personality haulds parallels wi what Weber defined as 'charismatic authority'.

A cult o personality is similar tae hero worship, except that it is established bi mass media an propaganda. Housomeivver, the term mey be applied bi analogy tae refer tae adulation o releegious or non-political leaders.

While the cult o personality generally applies tae the enhancement an promotion o a political or releegious doctrine, it stands tae reason that it is an aa assertit in iveryday situations whaur popularity is uised tae advocate conformity tae philosophies an lifestyles, even products an attitudes bi way o peer pressure an herd mentality.

References

Cults
Poleetical terminology
Stalinism

Cult o personality


Iranian Offshore Engineering and Construction Company (IOEC) is the first Iranian general contractor in the oil and gas industries. IOEC specializes in offshore EPC projects and is considered one of the regional pioneers in this area. The company was established in 1991 and operates mainly in the Persian Gulf, with its head office in Tehran. It experienced a very fast growth in its life and achieved a record of $7 billion for its ongoing projects in 2010.

IOEC designs, procures, constructs, installs and provides services for a complete range of offshore surface and partial subsurface infrastructure for the offshore oil and gas industries. IOEC is one of the largest integrated offshore and sub-sea pipe-laying companies in the Middle East. Iran is going to be self-sufficient in drilling of offshore wells up to certain depths (2009).

The company aims to extend its oil and gas activities in both onshore and offshore fields. In addition to mid-stream activities, IOEC intends to develop its up-stream operations. Development of the vessels and localizing the construction technology of drilling rigs include other objectives of this company. In 2016, IOEC stated that it will participate in projects in Europe and Africa.

See also
Petroleum industry in Iran
Industry of Iran

References

External links
 IOEC website

Construction and civil engineering companies of Iran
Oilfield services companies
Petroleum industry in Iran
Iranian entities subject to the U.S. Department of the Treasury sanctions