Bruno Latour (; 22 June 1947 – 9 October 2022) was a French philosopher, anthropologist and sociologist. He was especially known for his work in the field of science and technology studies (STS). After teaching at the École des Mines de Paris (Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation) from 1982 to 2006, he became professor at Sciences Po Paris (2006–2017), where he was the scientific director of the Sciences Po Medialab. He retired from several university activities in 2017. He was also a Centennial Professor at the London School of Economics.

Latour is best known for his books We Have Never Been Modern (1991; English translation, 1993), Laboratory Life (with Steve Woolgar, 1979) and Science in Action (1987). Although his studies of scientific practice were at one time associated with social constructionist approaches to the philosophy of science, Latour diverged significantly from such approaches. He was best known for withdrawing from the subjective/objective division and re-developing the approach to work in practice. Latour said in 2017 that he is interested in helping to rebuild trust in science and that some of the authority of science needs to be regained.
Along with Michel Callon, Madeleine Akrich, and John Law, Latour is one of the primary developers of actor–network theory (ANT), a constructionist approach influenced by the ethnomethodology of Harold Garfinkel, the generative semiotics of Algirdas Julien Greimas, and (more recently) the sociology of Émile Durkheim's rival Gabriel Tarde.

Biography
Latour was related to a well-known family of winemakers from Burgundy known as Maison Louis Latour, but was not associated with the similarly named Château Latour estate in Bordeaux.

As a student, Latour originally focused on philosophy. In 1971–1972, he ranked second and then first (reçu second, premier) in the French national competitive exam (/CAPES de philosophies). He was deeply influenced by Michel Serres. Latour went on to earn his PhD degree in philosophical theology at the University of Tours in 1975. His thesis title was Exégèse et ontologie: une analyse des textes de resurrection (Exegesis and Ontology: An Analysis of the Texts of Resurrection).

Latour developed an interest in anthropology, and undertook fieldwork in Ivory Coast (on behalf of ORSTOM) which resulted in a brief monograph on decolonization, race, and industrial relations. After spending more than twenty years (1982–2006) at the Centre de sociologie de l'innovation at the École des Mines in Paris, Latour moved in 2006 to Sciences Po, where he was the first occupant of a chair named for Gabriel Tarde. In recent years he also served as one of the curators of successful art exhibitions at the Zentrum für Kunst und Medientechnologie in Karlsruhe, Germany, including "Iconoclash" (2002) and "Making Things Public" (2005). In 2005 he also held the Spinoza Chair of Philosophy at the University of Amsterdam.

Latour's religion continued into the later parts of his life.

Latour died from pancreatic cancer on 9 October 2022, at the age of 75.

Awards and honors
On 22 May 2008, Latour was awarded an honorary doctorate by the Université de Montréal on the occasion of an organizational communication conference held in honor of the work of James R. Taylor, on whom Latour has had an important influence. He held several other honorary doctorates, as well as France's Légion d'Honneur (2012).

Holberg Prize
On 13 March 2013, he was announced as the winner of the 2013 Holberg Prize. The prize committee stated that "Bruno Latour has undertaken an ambitious analysis and reinterpretation of modernity, and has challenged fundamental concepts such as the distinction between modern and pre-modern, nature and society, human and non-human." The committee states that "the impact of Latour's work is evident internationally and far beyond studies of the history of science, art history, history, philosophy, anthropology, geography, theology, literature and law."

A 2013 article in Aftenposten by Norwegian philosopher Jon Elster criticised the conferment to Latour, by saying "The question is, does he deserve the prize. ... If the statutes [of the award] had used new knowledge as a main criteria, instead of one of several, then he would be completely unqualified in my opinion."

Spinoza and Kyoto Prize
The Dutch "International Spinozaprijs Foundation" awarded the "Spinozalens 2020" to Bruno Latour on 24 November 2020.
In 2021 he received the Kyoto Prize in the category "Thought and Ethics".

Main works

Laboratory Life
After his early career efforts, Latour shifted his research interests to focus on laboratory scientists. Latour rose in importance following the 1979 publication of Laboratory Life: the Social Construction of Scientific Facts with co-author Steve Woolgar. In the book, the authors undertake an ethnographic study of a neuroendocrinology research laboratory at the Salk Institute. This early work argued that naïve descriptions of the scientific method, in which theories stand or fall on the outcome of a single experiment, are inconsistent with actual laboratory practice.

In the laboratory, Latour and Woolgar observed that a typical experiment produces only inconclusive data that is attributed to failure of the apparatus or experimental method, and that a large part of scientific training involves learning how to make the subjective decision of what data to keep and what data to throw out. Latour and Woolgar argued that, for untrained observers, the entire process resembles not an unbiased search for truth and accuracy but a mechanism for ignoring data that contradicts scientific orthodoxy.

Latour and Woolgar produced a highly heterodox and controversial picture of the sciences. Drawing on the work of Gaston Bachelard, they advance the notion that the objects of scientific study are socially constructed within the laboratory—that they cannot be attributed with an existence outside of the instruments that measure them and the minds that interpret them. They view scientific activity as a system of beliefs, oral traditions and culturally specific practices—in short, science is reconstructed not as a procedure or as a set of principles but as a culture. Latour's 1987 book Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society is one of the key texts of the sociology of scientific knowledge in which he famously wrote his Second Principle as follows: "Scientist and engineers speak in the name of new allies that they have shaped and enrolled; representatives among other representatives, they add these unexpected resources to tip the balance of force in their favor."

Some of Latour's position and findings in this era provoked vehement rebuttals. Gross and Leavitt argue that Latour's position becomes absurd when applied to non-scientific contexts: e.g., if a group of coworkers in a windowless room were debating whether or not it were raining outside and went outdoors to discover raindrops in the air and puddles on the soil, Latour's hypothesis would assert that the rain was socially constructed. Similarly, philosopher John Searle argues that Latour's "extreme social constructivist" position is seriously flawed on several points, and furthermore has inadvertently "comical results".

The Pasteurization of France
After a research project examining the sociology of primatologists, Latour followed up the themes in Laboratory Life with Les Microbes: guerre et paix (published in English as The Pasteurization of France in 1988). In it, he reviews the life and career of one of France's most famous scientists Louis Pasteur and his discovery of microbes, in the fashion of a political biography. Latour highlights the social forces at work in and around Pasteur's career and the uneven manner in which his theories were accepted. By providing more explicitly ideological explanations for the acceptance of Pasteur's work more easily in some quarters than in others, he seeks to undermine the notion that the acceptance and rejection of scientific theories is primarily, or even usually, a matter of experiment, evidence or reason.

Aramis, or The Love of Technology

Aramis, or The Love of Technology focuses on the history of an unsuccessful mass-transit project. Aramis PRT (personal rapid transit), a high tech automated subway, had been developed in France during the 70s and 80s and was supposed to be implemented as a personal rapid transit system in Paris. It combined the flexibility of an automobile with the efficiency of a subway. Aramis was to be an ideal urban transportation system based on private cars in constant motion and the elimination of unnecessary transfers. This new form of transportation was intended to be as secure and inexpensive as collective transportation. The proposed system had custom-designed motors, sensors, controls, digital electronics, software and a major installation in southern Paris. But in the end the project died in 1987. Latour argues that the technology failed not because any particular actor killed it, but because the actors failed to sustain it through negotiation and adaptation to a changing social situation. While investigating Aramis's demise, Latour delineates the tenets of actor-network theory. According to Latour's own description of the book, the work aims "at training readers in the booming field of technology studies and at experimenting in the many new literary forms that are necessary to handle mechanisms and automatisms without using the belief that they are mechanical or automatic."

We Have Never Been Modern
Latour's work Nous n'avons jamais été modernes : Essai d'anthropologie symétrique was first published in French in 1991, and then in English in 1993 as We Have Never Been Modern.

Latour encouraged the reader of this anthropology of science to re-think and re-evaluate our mental landscape. He evaluated the work of scientists and contemplated the contribution of the scientific method to knowledge and work, blurring the distinction across various fields and disciplines.

Latour argued that society has never really been modern and promoted nonmodernism (or amodernism) over postmodernism, modernism, or antimodernism. His stance was that we have never been modern and minor divisions alone separate Westerners now from other collectives. Latour viewed modernism as an era that believed it had annulled the entire past in its wake. He presented the antimodern reaction as defending such entities as spirit, rationality, liberty, society, God, or even the past. Postmoderns, according to Latour, also accepted the modernistic abstractions as if they were real. In contrast, the nonmodern approach reestablished symmetry between science and technology on the one hand and society on the other. Latour also referred to the impossibility of returning to premodernism because it precluded the large scale experimentation which was a benefit of modernism.

Latour attempted to prove through case studies the fallacy in the old object/subject and Nature/Society compacts of modernity, which can be traced back to Plato. He refused the concept of "out there" versus "in here". He rendered the object/subject distinction as simply unusable and charted a new approach towards knowledge, work, and circulating reference. Latour considered nonmoderns to be playing on a different field, one vastly different to that of post-moderns. He referred to it as much broader and much less polemical, a creation of an unknown territory, which he playfully referred to as the Middle Kingdom.

In 1998, historian of science Margaret C. Jacob argued that Latour's politicized account of the development of modernism in the 17th century is "a fanciful escape from modern Western history".

Pandora's Hope

Pandora's Hope (1999) marks a return to the themes Latour explored in Science in Action and We Have Never Been Modern. It uses independent but thematically linked essays and case studies to question the authority and reliability of scientific knowledge. Latour uses a narrative, anecdotal approach in a number of the essays, describing his work with pedologists in the Amazon rainforest, the development of the pasteurization process, and the research of French atomic scientists at the outbreak of the Second World War. Latour states that this specific, anecdotal approach to science studies is essential to gaining a full understanding of the discipline: "The only way to understand the reality of science studies is to follow what science studies do best, that is, paying close attention to the details of scientific practice" (p. 24). Some authors have criticized Latour's methodology, including Katherine Pandora, a history of science professor at the University of Oklahoma. In her review of Pandora's Hope, Katherine Pandora states:
"[Latour's] writing can be stimulating, fresh and at times genuinely moving, but it can also display a distractingly mannered style in which a rococo zeal for compounding metaphors, examples, definitions and abstractions can frustrate even readers who approach his work with the best of intentions (notwithstanding the inclusion of a nine-page glossary of terms and liberal use of diagrams in an attempt to achieve the utmost clarity)".
In addition to his epistemological concerns, Latour also explores the political dimension of science studies in Pandora's Hope. Two of the chapters draw on Plato's Gorgias as a means of investigating and highlighting the distinction between content and context. As Katherine Pandora states in her review:
"It is hard not to be caught up in the author's obvious delight in deploying a classic work from antiquity to bring current concerns into sharper focus, following along as he manages to leave the reader with the impression that the protagonists Socrates and Callicles are not only in dialogue with each other but with Latour as well."
Although Latour frames his discussion with a classical model, his examples of fraught political issues are all current and of continuing relevance: global warming, the spread of mad cow disease, and the carcinogenic effects of smoking are all mentioned at various points in Pandora's Hope. In Felix Stalder's article "Beyond constructivism: towards a realistic realism", he summarizes Latour's position on the political dimension of science studies as follows: "These scientific debates have been artificially kept open in order to render impossible any political action against these problems and those who profit from them".

"Why Has Critique Run Out of Steam?"
In a 2004 article, Latour questioned the fundamental premises on which he had based most of his career, asking, "Was I wrong to participate in the invention of this field known as science studies?" He undertakes a trenchant critique of his own field of study and, more generally, of social criticism in contemporary academia. He suggests that critique, as currently practiced, is bordering on irrelevancy. To maintain any vitality, Latour argues that social critiques require a drastic reappraisal: "our critical equipment deserves as much critical scrutiny as the Pentagon budget." (p. 231) To regain focus and credibility, Latour argues that social critiques must embrace empiricism, to insist on the "cultivation of a stubbornly realist attitude – to speak like William James". (p. 233)

Latour suggests that about 90 per cent of contemporary social criticism displays one of two approaches which he terms "the fact position and the fairy position." (p. 237) The fairy position is anti-fetishist, arguing that "objects of belief" (e.g., religion, arts) are merely concepts created by the projected wishes and desires of the "naive believer"; the "fact position" argues that individuals are dominated, often covertly and without their awareness, by external forces (e.g., economics, gender). (p. 238) "Do you see now why it feels so good to be a critical mind?" asks Latour: no matter which position you take, "You're always right!" (p. 238–239) Social critics tend to use anti-fetishism against ideas they personally reject; to use "an unrepentant positivist" approach for fields of study they consider valuable; all the while thinking as "a perfectly healthy sturdy realist for what you really cherish." (p. 241) These inconsistencies and double standards go largely unrecognized in social critique because "there is never any crossover between the two lists of objects in the fact position and the fairy position." (p. 241)

The practical result of these approaches being taught to millions of students in elite universities for several decades is a widespread and influential "critical barbarity" that has—like a malign virus created by a "mad scientist"—thus far proven impossible to control. Most troubling, Latour notes that critical ideas have been appropriated by those he describes as conspiracy theorists, including global warming deniers and the 9/11 Truth movement: "Maybe I am taking conspiracy theories too seriously, but I am worried to detect, in those mad mixtures of knee-jerk disbelief, punctilious demands for proofs, and free use of powerful explanation from the social neverland, many of the weapons of social critique." (p. 230)

The conclusion of the article is to argue for a positive framing of critique, to help understand how matters of concern can be supported rather than undermined: "The critic is not the one who lifts the rugs from under the feet of the naïve believers, but the one who offers the participants arenas in which to gather. The critic is not the one who alternates haphazardly between antifetishism and positivism like the drunk iconoclast drawn by Goya, but the one for whom, if something is constructed, then it means it is fragile and thus in great need of care and caution."

Latour's article has been highly influential within the field of postcritique, an intellectual movement within literary criticism and cultural studies that seeks to find new forms of reading and interpretation that go beyond the methods of critique, critical theory, and ideological criticism. The literary critic Rita Felski has named Latour as an important precursor to the project of postcritique.

Reassembling the Social
In Reassembling the Social (2005), Latour continues a reappraisal of his work, developing what he calls a "practical metaphysics", which calls "real" anything that an actor (one whom we are studying) claims as a source of motivation for action. So if someone says, "I was inspired by God to be charitable to my neighbors" we are obliged to recognize the "ontological weight" of their claim, rather than attempting to replace their belief in God's presence with "social stuff", like class, gender, imperialism, etc. Latour's nuanced metaphysics demands the existence of a plurality of worlds, and the willingness of the researcher to chart ever more. He argues that researchers must give up the hope of fitting their actors into a structure or framework, but Latour believes the benefits of this sacrifice far outweigh the downsides: "Their complex metaphysics would at least be respected, their recalcitrance recognized, their objections deployed, their multiplicity accepted."

For Latour, to talk about metaphysics or ontology—what really is—means paying close empirical attention to the various, contradictory institutions and ideas that bring people together and inspire them to act. Here is Latour's description of metaphysics:
If we call metaphysics the discipline inspired by the philosophical tradition that purports to define the basic structure of the world, then empirical metaphysics is what the controversies over agencies lead to since they ceaselessly populate the world with new drives and, as ceaselessly, contest the existence of others. The question then becomes how to explore the actors' own metaphysics.
A more traditional metaphysicist might object, arguing that this means there are multiple, contradictory realities, since there are "controversies over agencies" – since there is a plurality of contradictory ideas that people claim as a basis for action (God, nature, the state, sexual drives, personal ambition, and so on). This objection manifests the most important difference between traditional philosophical metaphysics and Latour's nuance: for Latour, there is no "basic structure of reality" or a single, self-consistent world. An unknowably large multiplicity of realities, or "worlds" in his terms, exists–one for each actor's sources of agency, inspirations for action.  In this Latour is remarkably close to B.F. Skinner's position in Beyond Freedom and Dignity and the philosophy of Radical Behaviorism.  Actors bring "the real" (metaphysics) into being. The task of the researcher is not to find one "basic structure" that explains agency, but to recognize "the metaphysical innovations proposed by ordinary actors". Mapping those metaphysical innovations involves a strong dedication to relativism, Latour argues. The relativist researcher "learns the actors' language," records what they say about what they do, and does not appeal to a higher "structure" to "explain" the actor's motivations. The relativist "takes seriously what [actors] are obstinately saying" and "follows the direction indicated by their fingers when they designate what 'makes them act'". The relativist recognizes the plurality of metaphysics that actors bring into being, and attempts to map them rather than reducing them to a single structure or explanation.

In the science wars

Alan Sokal, in his Fashionable Nonsense, criticized Latour's relativism by referring to an article written by Latour in La Recherche in 1998. In his reaction to research showing that the pharaoh Ramses II probably died of tuberculosis, Latour thought "How could he pass away due to a bacillus discovered by Koch in 1882? ... Before Koch, the bacillus has no real existence." He says that it is as much of an anachronism as it would be to claim that the pharaoh died of machine-gun fire.

Latour noted that he had been asked "Do you believe in reality?", which caused a "quick and laughing answer". Reality, for Latour, is neither something we have to believe in nor do we have lost access to it in the first place. "'Do you believe in reality?' To ask such a question one has to become so distant from reality that the fear of losing it entirely becomes plausible—and this fear itself has an intellectual history [...] Only a mind put in the strangest position, looking at a world from inside out and linked to the outside by nothing but the tenuous connection of the gaze, will throb in the constant fear of losing reality; only such a bodiless observer will desperately look for some absolute life-supporting survival kit."According to Latour, the originality of science studies lies in demonstrating that facts are both real and constructed. The accusation of a postmodern hostility to science, thus, not only fails to recognize that science studies aims at a more robust understanding how science is done in practice, but also shows a fundamental misunderstanding of the methods and insights of science studies. In fact, Latour has emphatically problematized the rise of anti-scientific thinking and so-called "alternative facts" For Latour, the recent attacks against climate sciences and other disciplines demonstrate that there is a real war on science going on requiring a more intimate cooperation between science and science studies.

Selected bibliography

Books
  Originally published 1979 in Los Angeles, by SAGE Publications

Chapters in books

Journal articles

See also

 Social construction of technology
 Technological determinism

References

Sources

External links

 Bruno Latour's website

1947 births
2022 deaths
People from Beaune
Sociologists of science
Science and technology studies scholars
Social constructionism
Sociology of scientific knowledge
French sociologists
21st-century French anthropologists
Academic staff of Mines Paris - PSL
Actor-network theory
French Roman Catholics
Catholic philosophers
Holberg Prize laureates
French male writers
French male essayists
20th-century French philosophers
21st-century French philosophers
Philosophers of science
Philosophers of technology
Posthumanists
Continental philosophers
Recipients of the Legion of Honour
20th-century male writers
21st-century male writers
Academic staff of Sciences Po
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
Deaths from cancer in France
Kyoto laureates in Arts and Philosophy
20th-century French anthropologists

Bruno Latour


Anno 2070 is a city-building and economic simulation game, with real-time strategy elements. It is the 5th game of the Anno series. It was released on 17 November 2011, and was co-developed by the German studios Related Designs and Blue Byte, and published by Ubisoft. Anno 2070 required Uplay to operate as an always online DRM System, later removed for receiving severe criticism from players.

Plot
The scenario is set in the year 2070. Global warming has melted the Arctic ice cap, which has raised the global sea level so that the coasts were flooded. As a result, many old cities have vanished under the ocean, and much of what was once highland has been turned into chains of new islands. Responsibility for settling and exploiting these new frontiers is given to a select group of people, who captain mobile ocean-going bases known as Arks.

The game has three factions: The Eden Initiative (referred to as the "Ecos"), Global Trust (referred to as the "Tycoons"), and the S.A.A.T. (referred to as the "Techs"). Ecos are environmental and build sustainable cities, but are inefficient and slow to expand. Tycoons are industrious and expand quickly, but have problems with pollution and dwindling resources. The Tech is a support faction available to the other two, and they are useful in researching the latest and most powerful technologies. The Techs are only available later in the game when 10,000 credits are donated to their cause.

Gameplay
In Anno 2070, politics are no longer defined by countries, boundaries, religions, races, etc., but how humans choose to produce energy. All humankind rally under one global government where the three main factions of the game control the world's decisions. Players can also vote for a World President and vote in Senate Council. Participation will give different effects to all players, depending on who is president or what bill was passed, until the next cycle of voting begins. For example, voting for the Tycoons' CEO Skylar Banes will increase productivity of manufacturing buildings.

Players can also gain achievement and rewards from just playing the game. Players can customize their Ark to fit personal preference, which is only for aesthetics, as well as gaining special rewards that affect gameplay.

Resources and technology upgrades can be carried on Arks, and be used in another game in "Continuous Mode".

Events
The gameplay includes "World Events"; special missions offered only for a limited time, allowing all players to band together and complete the missions. Completing missions will reward players depending on how many people participate.

First event: Neo Skullz Pirates - players answer the World Council's call to war against pirates who threaten humanity with nuclear missiles.
Second event: Project Eden - players help the Eden Initiative activate "Former" technologies, which are high-performance air and water filtration systems, to fight pollution on islands.
Third event: Global Distrust - players help the Global Trust to prevent a global recession by expanding trade and decrease taxes to attract more inhabitants.
Fourth event: The Nordamark Conflict - players need to mediate a confrontation between Global Trust and Eden Initiative in a region called Nordamark with diplomats and a nuclear submarine, Orca.
Fifth event: The Secret of the Ebashi Trench - players help the Tech faction to develop a geothermal power plant. This event is the prelude of the Deep Ocean expansion.

There are also "Current Events", where a player can complete a particular quest for one of the three factions to gain rewards. Current Events change daily, unlike World Events, which can be around for several months.

Factions
Tycoon - Leader: Skylar Banes, CEO. This faction is representative of the Global Trust, Earth's number one leading energy supplier in 2070. Tycoons like to exploit resources quickly for immediate use, which leads to workers that are richer and can pay more taxes. The economy of a Tycoon player accelerates early in the game and declines gradually near the end, as their non-renewable resources run out (Tech's technologies can mitigate this setback however). In turn, Tycoons decrease the eco balance and affect the environment negatively. Tycoons rely on coal and nuclear plants for power, and their citizens enjoy hamburgers, wine and spending time at the Casino. Tycoon citizens do not worry about negative eco balance as much as their Eco counterparts, but they can gain benefits from positive eco balance. To increase eco balance, Tycoons can build, for example, CO2 reservoirs and waste compactors, but their techonogies are only capable of annulling the negative impact on environment, and cannot create positive ecobalance.
Eco - Leader: Seamus Green, founder and spiritual leader. This faction is representative of the Eden Initiative, Earth's most influential environmental organization. Ecos rely on green technology to create their cities, which preserve nature and help the eco balance. Their cities are inefficient and slow to prosper, but Ecos' economy will be steady and reliable until the game's end. Ecos rely on wind and solar power, and their citizens enjoy drinking tea, eating health food and listening to orchestral music. Ecos are affected by negative eco balance more than Tycoons, but they can also benefit from a positive eco balance. To increase the eco balance, Ecos use ozone generators and weather changing stations, etc.
Tech - Leader: F.A.T.H.E.R., super-intelligent AI. This faction is representative of the S.A.A.T. (Scientific Academy for Advanced Technologies), and are the supreme inventors of technology and masters of the underwater world. They designed the Ark and E.V.E. (the player's in-game advisor), as well as building plans for aircraft, submarines, and missiles. Tech is the only faction that can live and work underwater on submerged plateaus. Farming algae and mining diamonds are a few things they can do underwater. Tech can research hydroelectric dams for energy and utilize marine current power plants underwater. Their people are scientists and like to study in research buildings. To advance to a higher level, their citizens need algae processed food from underwater cities, and they like to drink energy drinks (made from coffee and sugar).

Development

Digital rights management
The game was protected by Tagès SolidShield with a 3 machine activation limit and always needed to be connected to the Internet while playing the game. Changing hardware could use up one activation. After the last activation was used, 1 was regained every 30 days.

This generated wide criticism as legitimate players faced different problems with such online only systems. In 2012, Ubisoft decided to release a universal patch removing the online only DRM from several games including Anno 2070. The SolidShield DRM with its activation limit was entirely removed on July 8, 2020.

Downloadable content
The first DLC packs were released on 13 February 2012:
 The Keeper Package - S.A.A.T. version of Former technology tool with unique skin as well as access to high-end upgrades.
 The Development Package - Two exclusive bonus missions on the history of Former technology and a new portrait of the inventor Josh "the Ghost" Steen.
 The Eden Series Package - Elaborate decorations for the Eco faction, like new Park Systems layouts, Flower Beds, Fountain, etc.

Three DLC packs were added on 26 March, these with a Tycoon theme in contrast to the previous Eco-themed DLCs:
 The Central Statistical Package - Global Trust skinned version of the Statistics Center building and all its upgrades.
 The Crisis Response Package - Two exclusive missions focused on restoring the Tycoon's former economic glory after a stock market crash.
 The Distrust Series Package - Ornamental, decorative buildings for the Tycoon faction, including underground Shopping Malls, Searchlights, Security Fences, etc.

Three DLC packs were added with the new World Event The Nordamark Conflict:
 The E.V.E. Package - Give a new portrait of EVE in red theme.
 The Silent Running Package - Give players access to a nuclear submarine Erebos, and its various upgrades.
 The Nordamark Line Package - Various harbor ornamental buildings are added, including a lighthouse which can change the time of day to dawn, noon, dusk, and night.

Expansion
In October 2012, Ubisoft published an expansion to the game called Deep Ocean, which adds a new civilization level for the tech faction and new resources and products to satisfy that faction's new needs. It also offers a new energy source, the geothermal power plant, which may cause a new natural disaster: a tsunami. Five new campaign missions introduce these new features. It also adds many new factors to the game, which completely changes the way the game is played, most notably when playing with the Tech Faction.

Players who don't have the Deep Ocean expansion cannot play a multiplayer game with other players who do have the expansion unless the expansion is deactivated.

Reception

Critical reception for Anno 2070 has been positive since the game's release, with a majority of critics considering it a big step forward in the Anno series. Criticism of the game is heavily influenced by the requirement to be always online to access all game options. Without being online the player can still access an offline mode, but one can't edit their own profile information, and the player is unable to update their Ark base, place cargo into it, or upgrade it with equipment. Early reception at the time of release was also negatively influenced by constant crashes, server issues, and critics pointed out that the game worked better on pirated versions instead of the official one with Ubisoft server access.

References

External links

2011 video games
Anno (series)
Strategy games
City-building games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Real-time strategy video games
Science fiction video games
Ubisoft games
Video games developed in Germany
Video games set in the 2070s
Fiction set in 2070
Video games with expansion packs
Windows games
Windows-only games
Blue Byte games
Post-apocalyptic video games

Anno 2070


Cerebral aneurysms, also called brain aneurysms, are a cerebrovascular issue in which weakness in the walls of a cerebral artery causes localized dilation or ballooning in the blood vessel. Small, unchanging aneurysms may produce very few symptoms. However, before a larger aneurysm ruptures, individuals may experience sudden or severe headaches, nausea, vomiting and vision problems. The rupture may also directly cause serious damage directly to the brain, usually from the bleeding itself-this is a hemorrhagic stroke that can lead to and may cause arm or leg weakness or paralysis and speech troubles. Cerebral aneurysms may result due to congenital defect, high blood pressure or head trauma. Onsets are sometimes sudden and without warning, and such ruptures are extremely dangerous and usually result in bleeding into the brain itself, leading to a subarachnoid hemorrhage, which then constitutes a stroke. This condition may lead to death or permanent disability for some individuals.

Diseases and disorders of the brain

Intracranial aneurysm


New jack swing is a type of music that combines dance, hip hop, R&B and other musical genres. It was extremely popular between 1984 and 1997. The artists of new jack swing include TLC, Bell Biv Devoe and New Edition. Teddy Riley started new jack swing. Michael Jackson's 1991 album Dangerous is the most successful new jack swing album.

New jack swing


Li'l Abner is a 1956 musical with a book by Norman Panama and Melvin Frank, music by Gene De Paul, and lyrics by Johnny Mercer. Based on the comic strip Li'l Abner by Al Capp, the show is, on the surface, a broad spoof of hillbillies, but it is also a pointed satire on other topics, ranging from American politics and incompetence in the United States federal government to propriety and gender roles.

After several other writers and composers considered musicalizing the comic strip, Al Capp finally made a deal in 1955 with the eventual creators for a musical to be financed by Paramount Pictures, which wanted to follow the stage version with a film musical. The Broadway production opened on November 15, 1956, and ran for a moderately successful 693 performances. The score and Michael Kidd's choreography received critical praise, but some critics felt that the book's adaptation lost the spirit of the comic strip. Kidd and Edie Adams, as Daisy Mae, won Tony Awards, while newcomer Peter Palmer, in the title role, won a Theatre World Award. Paramount released a film version with the same title in 1959, with most of the Broadway cast reprising their roles.

History
A musical version of the popular comic strip Li'l Abner was first planned in 1946, with the book to be written by the comic strip's author, Al Capp. Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II were named as potential producers, though reports did not state whether they intended to write the score. However, this version never materialized, and over the next several years, various authors and composers sought to musicalize Li'l Abner, including writers Arnold Horwitt and Josh Logan.

In 1953, Arthur Schwartz and Alan Jay Lerner obtained the rights to the show from Al Capp; the three were to co-produce the show, with Schwartz writing the music and Lerner writing the book and lyrics for an opening during the 1954–55 season. The familiar comic strip characters were to be retained but Li'l Abner and his longtime sweetheart Daisy Mae would not yet be married in the musical. Hollywood star Van Johnson expressed interest in the title role, saying he would dye his hair black to match the comic strip character; he had not appeared on Broadway since the 1940 production of Pal Joey.

The Schwartz–Lerner version also fell through, but by the next year Lerner and composer Burton Lane planned to write the musical. Herman Levin would serve as producer, and rehearsals were scheduled to begin in November 1954. However, later that year, Levin announced a musical version of George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion, by Lerner and Loewe. Although work was supposed to continue on the Lane–Lerner Li'l Abner, this version never appeared, and My Fair Lady, Lerner and Loewe's adaptation of Pygmalion, opened in 1956, becoming the hit musical of the decade.

In 1955, Norman Panama and Melvin Frank announced a Li'l Abner musical to open on Broadway in 1956, followed by a film of the musical. The music was to be written by Gene de Paul with lyrics by Johnny Mercer. De Paul and Mercer had previously written the score for the popular movie musical, Seven Brides for Seven Brothers. Michael Kidd, who had choreographed Seven Brides for Seven Brothers, was to direct and choreograph Li'l Abner. Al Capp approved the production and was to receive a share of any profits. Paramount Pictures was the sole backer of the musical and also paid $300,000 for its film rights, with Panama and Frank slated to adapt, direct, and produce the film version.

The producers conducted a long search for the actor to play the title role: over 400 actors auditioned for the part, and at one time, Dick Shawn was reported to be their preferred choice. However, the producers eventually chose unknown singer Peter Palmer, who had been serving in an army entertainment unit; Panama and Frank saw him perform on a segment of The Ed Sullivan Show featuring talented American soldiers. Palmer was a trained singer with a music degree from the University of Illinois, where he had also played football; at 6'4" and 228 pounds, Palmer had the right "look" to play Li'l Abner. He was 15 years younger than Van Johnson, who had expressed an interest in the role.

The leading female role, Daisy Mae, was relatively easier to cast. The producers knew that they wanted soprano Edie Adams, who had given a star-making performance as Eileen in the 1953 musical Wonderful Town. Adams, however, had also been offered the lead role in the original production of Candide. Adams asked director George Abbott, who had directed her in Wonderful Town, which show she should choose, and he advised her to take Daisy Mae, which she subsequently did. Coincidentally, Al Capp had been one of the three judges for the "Miss U.S. Television" contest broadcast on the DuMont Television Network in 1950 that first brought Adams national attention.

Synopsis

Act One
"It's a Typical Day" as the citizens of Dogpatch, U.S.A. go about their daily activities. As usual, sweet, curvaceous Daisy Mae Scragg is pursuing Li'l Abner Yokum who, despite being a strapping, handsome young man, isn't interested in girls or employment. Abner's domineering, diminutive Mammy sends Daisy Mae to tell Abner to come to the Cornpone Meetin' in the town square. At the fishing hole with his friends, Abner lazily reflects that if he could be anyone in the world, he'd rather be himself ("If I had my Druthers"). Daisy Mae tells the young men about the meeting, and they rush into town. Daisy is frustrated because Abner has failed to take any romantic interest in her ("If I Had My Druthers" (reprise)).

The townspeople assemble for the Cornpone Meetin', where parson Marryin' Sam leads a celebration of Dogpatch's founder, "Jubilation T. Cornpone", a bumbling Confederate general whose leadership was more beneficial to the North than to the South. Senator Fogbound, Dogpatch's U.S. congressman, tells the citizens that Congress has declared Dogpatch the most unnecessary town in the U.S., and so it must be evacuated to be used as a nuclear bomb test site to be overseen by Dr. Finsdale, a government scientist. Everyone is thrilled that Dogpatch has been picked out of the entire U.S. ("Rag Offen the Bush").

But Earthquake McGoon reminds them that if they leave Dogpatch, the annual Sadie Hawkins Day race won't take place: in Dogpatch, the only way anyone can be married is if a young woman catches a boy on Sadie Hawkins Day. Daisy Mae's sleazy unscrupulous relative, Romeo Scragg, gives Earthquake permission to marry Daisy Mae (in exchange for a $1 bribe). The townspeople decide to save Dogpatch and Sadie Hawkins Day by proving there is something necessary in the town. Daisy Mae asks Abner if he will let her catch him on Sadie Hawkins Day and tries to persuade him that he deserves to marry a girl like her, and Abner agrees that she should marry a boy like him ("Namely You"). The townspeople lament that their beloved home has been declared an "Unnecessary Town" as Dr. Finsdale declares all of their attempts to prove their worth were in vain.

It turns out that Mammy Yokum's Yokumberry Tonic, which she makes from the one-of-a-kind Yokumberry tree growing outside her home, is what has made Abner so strong and handsome.

When a short, pudgy government scientist is given a spoonful, he turns into a tall, muscular man. Abner also agrees to go to Washington, accompanied by Marryin' Sam, to allow Dr. Finadale and the government to test the tonic on the scrawny men of Dogpatch. There, greedy, tyrannical General Bullmoose wants to buy the formula for Yokumberry Tonic, and he is angry that Li'l Abner intends to turn the formula over to the government for free ("What's Good for General Bullmoose"). He hatches a dastardly scheme in which his girlfriend, femme fatale Appassionata Von Climax, will catch Abner on Sadie Hawkins Day. Once they're married, Bullmoose will kill Abner, and the formula will belong to his widow, Appassionata.

Abner and Marryin' Sam return to Dogpatch with the happy news that "The Country's In the Very Best of Hands". On Sadie Hawkins Day, General Bullmoose and Appassionata arrive in Dogpatch. They hire Evil Eye Fleagle to help Appassionata catch Abner. The race begins, and the young women of Dogpatch pursue the young men ("Sadie Hawkins Day" ballet). Though Daisy Mae, with the help of Stupefyin' Jones (any man who looks at her freezes), almost succeeds in catching Abner, Evil Eye Fleagle uses his evil eye to freeze everyone in the race, and Appassionata calmly walks up to Abner and claims him as hers.

Act Two
In Washington, Dr. Finsdale and the scientists testing Yokumberry Tonic dream of a time when life will be totally controlled by science ("Oh Happy Day"). In Dogpatch, Daisy Mae concludes that the reason she couldn't win Abner is that she, at age seventeen, is too old and no longer beautiful, and Marryin' Sam joins her lament ("I'm Past My Prime"). Mammy Yokum has a vision in which she sees Bullmoose and Apassionata's plot to kill Li'l Abner. Daisy Mae asks Earthquake McGoon to go to Washington, D.C. to save Li'l Abner, promising to marry him if he does.

In Washington, an engagement party is being held for Li'l Abner and Appassionata. General Bullmoose has Evil Eye Fleagle on hand; since Fleagle's evil eye can require him to do anything requested, Apassionata won't even have to marry Abner to get the formula. The General is planning to simply have Fleagle use his eye on Abner, get the formula for Yokumberry Tonic, and then order Abner to commit suicide. Mammy and Pappy Yokum, Earthquake, Daisy Mae, and the ladies of Dogpatch all show up to sabotage the party. When Fleagle tries to use his evil eye on Abner, Earthquake holds up a mirrored serving tray to protect himself, and the beam from Fleagle's eye bounces off the tray and rebounds onto General Bullmoose. Mammy Yokum questions the General, and he reveals the entire plot. The police arrest him and Apassionata.

The women of Dogpatch go to the laboratory to see the results of Yokumberry Tonic. Their scrawny husbands have been transformed into handsome men, but they have no interest in their wives. Dr. Finsdale explains that this is an unfortunate side effect of the tonic: it kills men's romantic interests. The women beg for him to "Put 'Em Back" the way they were before they took the tonic. Daisy tells Abner that she's promised to marry Earthquake since he came to Washington and saved Abner, but she'd rather marry Abner ("Namely You" (reprise)). Softspoken Pappy Yokum tells Abner that he has a secret potion which will make Abner want to marry Daisy Mae. Abner agrees to take it once they get back to Dogpatch.

Back in Dogpatch, Marryin' Sam is officiating at Daisy Mae and Earthquake's wedding. Before the wedding, Daisy introduces her filthy relatives to Earthquake, saying that they'll be coming to live with them once they are married. Marryin' Sam begins the ceremony by warning Earthquake of the potential consequences of marriage ("The Matrimonial Stomp"). Abner and Pappy interrupt the ceremony, and Abner takes the potion (Pappy whispers to Mammy that it's really just water) and declares that he wants to marry Daisy Mae. Earthquake now happily relinquishes Daisy Mae to marry Abner instead. Dr. Finsdale arrives, warning that the atomic bombs will arrive soon. As the townspeople try to move the town's statue of Jubilation T. Cornpone, a plaque bearing a declaration by Abraham Lincoln is revealed: because Cornpone's military blunders almost single-handedly allowed the North to win the Civil War, Dogpatch is designated a national shrine. Dr. Finsdale cancels the bombings, the scrawny men of Dogpatch return home to their happy wives, and the citizens of Dogpatch honor Jubilation T. Cornpone as Abner kisses Daisy Mae (Finale).

Musical Numbers

Act I
 A Typical Day – Dogpatchers
 If I Had My Druthers – Li'l Abner and Cronies
 If I Had My Druthers (Reprise) – Daisy Mae
 Jubilation T. Cornpone – Marryin' Sam and Dogpatchers
 Rag Offen the Bush – Dogpatchers
 Namely You – Daisy Mae and Li'l Abner
 Unnecessary Town – Li'l Abner, Daisy Mae and Dogpatchers
 What's Good for General Bullmoose – Secretaries
 There's Room Enough For Us†
 The Country's in the Very Best of Hands – Li'l Abner and Marryin' Sam
 Sadie Hawkins Day (Ballet) – Dogpatchers

Act II
 Oh Happy Day – Drs. Finsdale, Smithborn, Krogmeyer and Schleifitz
 I'm Past My Prime – Daisy Mae and Marryin' Sam
 Love in a Home – Li'l Abner and Daisy Mae
 Progress Is the Root of All Evil – Bullmoose
 Progress Is the Root of All Evil (Reprise) – Bullmoose
 Put 'Em Back – Wives
 Namely You (Reprise) – Daisy Mae
 The Matrimonial Stomp – Marryin' Sam and Dogpatchers
 Finale – Company

†Added after the show opened

Productions

The Broadway production, directed and choreographed by Michael Kidd and orchestrated by Philip J. Lang, opened on November 15, 1956, at the St. James Theatre where it ran for 693 performances. The original Broadway cast starred Peter Palmer in the title role and Edie Adams (billed as Edith Adams) as Daisy Mae. The cast included Howard St. John as General Bullmoose, Stubby Kaye as Marryin' Sam, Tina Louise as Appassionata von Climax, Julie Newmar as Stupefyin' Jones, Al Nesor as Evil Eye Fleagle, Charlotte Rae as Mammy Yokum, Joe E. Marks as Pappy Yokum, Carmen Alvarez as Moonbeam McSwine, Ted Thurston as Senator Jack S. Phogbound, Bern Hoffman as Earthquake McGoon, and Tony Mordente as Lonesome Polecat.  Alvin Colt designed the costumes, for which he was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Costume Design. The wardrobe is on display at the Costume World Broadway Collection in Pompano Beach, Florida.

In 1998, Li'l Abner was presented in concert as part of the New York City Center's Encores! series.

Goodspeed Musicals in East Haddam, Connecticut, presented the musical from April 21 to July 2, 2006. The production was updated to contemporary times and included references to Martha Stewart, Donald Trump, and Al Sharpton, among others, and the actor who played General Bullmoose was a Dick Cheney (at the time the U.S. vice president) look-alike.

"Reprise! Broadway's Best" produced the musical in Los Angeles in February 2008.

Film and television

A film based on the stage musical was made by Paramount and released in 1959, with most of the Broadway cast reprising their roles. The film was shot to resemble a stage set, with the buildings and surroundings in two-dimensions, giving the sense of a "proscenium dividing audience and performer".

A TV adaption was produced in 1971 starring Ray Young as Li'l Abner, Nancee Parkinson as Daisy Mae, Billy Bletcher as Pappy Yokum, Donald O'Connor as General Bullmoose and Billie Hayes, reprising her role as Mammy Yokum, which she had played in the 1959 film version.

Response

Critical reception
1956 Original Broadway Production
The 1956 original Broadway production opened to great praise for Michael Kidd's choreography, and the score was generally well received. However, some critics thought that the creators of the musical had not effectively translated the original comic strip to the stage, and there was some critical disagreement about whether the satirical elements were effective. In the New York Herald Tribune, for example, Walter Kerr praised Kidd's direction and choreography, saying that Kidd "knows how to set fists and feet pounding against the floor. ... Every time he does it the air sizzles and crackles". He also praised the score, stating, "Every time ... the orchestra strikes up for one of Johnny Mercer's and Gene de Paul's salutes to comic-strip fury, the beat is driving, the voices are clamoring. ... It's all done with zip and zingo". John Chapman of the Daily News found Li'l Abner very enjoyable, stating, "I decided I was going to like it all very much soon after the curtain rose and this fetching little Edith Adams sidled up to this big hunk, Peter Palmer, and said, shyly, 'Abner, I brought you some worms.' There is a cast which is as remarkable for its ability to entertain as for its picturesqueness". He praised the satirical lyrics, stating, "Johnny Mercer's lyrics bring to mind the salty and saucy days of Lorenz Hart and Ira Gershwin [as they] jab at our personal and national foibles".

Brooks Atkinson of The New York Times lauded Michael Kidd's choreography, stating, "If everyone in Li'l Abner were as talented as Michael Kidd, everything would be as brilliant as the ballets, and probably the world would be gayer, too. But it is difficult to make a fluent musical romance out of some characters who may have hearts of gold but are not very bright in the upper story". Atkinson thought the book of the musical was inferior to the choreography, stating that the book did "not have the lightness, simplicity, and speed of the Dogpatch folks. ... Mr. Kidd has caught the spirit of Dogpatch civilization brilliantly enough to suggest that ballet is a more suitable medium than words for animating Al Capp's cartoon drawings".

Tom Donnelly of the New York World-Telegram & Sun thought that the production had not retained the spirit of the comic strip, stating, "Those aren't real Dogpatch people stompin' and whompin' and cavortin' across that stage. Those are (sob!) Broadway actors done up in funny looking costumes". He also thought that too much of the libretto was spent explaining the Dogpatch milieu, which Donnelly assumed would be familiar to most audience members since Li'l Abner was at that time a very popular comic strip. Conversely, John McClain of the New York Journal American thought the show would have been incomprehensible to anyone not already familiar with the comic strip. McClain also thought the show's political satire was of "questionable taste", asserting, "it's poor timing to feature a song about 'The Country's in the Very Best of Hands', which attempts to show it isn't, and to haul out and shove all over the stage that dreary caricature of a relentless millionaire". However, McClain still concluded, "it is sure to be a great big hit. Li'l Abner is bountiful, lively, and tuneful".

1998 Encores! Production
In his review of the 1998 Encores! production, Anthony Tommasini of The New York Times praised the production, calling it a "stylish revisiting", saying, "everything we have come to expect of [the Encores! series] is in evidence here: a fresh faced, multitalented cast; imaginative staging from the director, Christopher Ashley; careful attention ... to recreating the original orchestrations; stylish playing from the band, and wonderfully kinetic choreography".  However, Tommasini thought the show itself was flawed, pronouncing the book "dated-on-arrival" and saying, "Even in 1956 it must have been hard to find much satirical humor in [the plot]. Today it's downright creepy". He conceded that "the Mercer–De Paul has some tuneful gems" but opined that "Mercer's witty lyrics create a paradox for the actors: characters who sing clever lyrics inevitably sound clever. ...  So the score undermines the dimwitted characterizations". Irv Lichtman of Billboard favorably reviewed both the production and the show itself, saying the performance exemplified Encores' "utterly delightful, right-on-the-mark performances". He wrote, "The successful but largely forgotten 1956 musical Li'l Abner is certainly not a dud, for it has good-natured energy and a bright and tuneful score by Gene DePaul and Johnny Mercer ... the show serves well as one of those solid "knockabout" shows Broadway turned out with regularity through the '50s". He praised the "playful zest" of the characterizations and "fine re-creations of the original choreography".

2006 Goodspeed Revival
In The New York Times review of the 2006 Goodspeed production, Anita Gates generally approved of the new topical references added to the show, noting that "Scott Schwartz's colorful new production at the Goodspeed Opera House in East Haddam has updated some of the political references, but the show's message – typified by the gullible Dogpatchers' song "The Country's in the Very Best of Hands" – remains the same". Gates stated that "the musical is cartoonish by definition and hardly one of Broadway's great treasures, but the show grows on you", opining that "most of the Johnny Mercer–Gene de Paul songs are forgettable, but "Namely Me" ... stands out". Frank Rizzo of Variety was more critical of the production, declaring, "even cartoon characters with a diminishing fan base should be shown some respect. This production, helmed with ever-increasing doses of exaggeration by Scott Schwartz, pushes the idiot quotient to new levels and overwhelms the piece's playful political commentary". He praised the show itself, asserting that it contained "many Mercer–de Paul gems in a tuneful, bright score". Rizzo stated that updating Li'l Abner was "not a bad idea, given that there are perennial themes ... that fit into today's social zeitgeist", but he thought that the updates had not been applied consistently, as the show had retained many 1950s references.

Awards and nominations
1957 Tony Awards
 Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical - Edith Adams (winner)
 Tony Award for Best Costume Design - Costume Design by Alvin Colt (nominee)
 Tony Award for Best Choreography - Michael Kidd (winner)

Theatre World Awards
 1957 Theatre World Award - Peter Palmer (winner)
 1958 Theatre World Award - Wynne Miller (winner)

Notes

References
Bloom, Ken and Vlastnik, Frank (2004). Broadway Musicals: The 101 Greatest Shows of All Time. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, Inc.
Hischak, Thomas (2008). The Oxford Companion to the American Musical. New York: Oxford University Press.
Suskin, Stephen (1990). Opening Night on Broadway: A Critical Quotebook of the Golden Era of the Musical Theatre. New York: Schrimmer Books.

External links

 Li'l Abner synopsis, song list, scenes at guidetomusicaltheatre.com

1956 musicals
1971 in American television
Broadway musicals
Li'l Abner
Musicals based on comic strips
Musicals by Johnny Mercer
American musical television films
Musical theatre television specials
Tony Award-winning musicals
Musicals set in the United States

Li'l Abner (musical)


Palacio de La Moneda (, Palace of the Mint), or simply La Moneda, is the seat of the President of the Republic of Chile. It also houses the offices of three cabinet ministers: Interior, General Secretariat of the Presidency, and General Secretariat of the Government. Located in downtown Santiago, it occupies an entire block in the Civic District, bordered by Moneda street to the north, Morandé street to the east, Alameda del Libertador Bernardo O'Higgins to the south, and Teatinos street to the west.

History
La Moneda, originally a colonial mint house, was designed by Italian architect Joaquín Toesca. Construction began in 1784 and was opened in 1805, while still under construction. The production of coins in Chile took place at La Moneda from 1814 to 1929.

In June, 1845 during president Manuel Bulnes's administration, the palace became the seat of government and presidential residence. In 1930, a public square—named Plaza de la Constitución ("Constitution Square")—was built in front of the palace. After the presidency of Gabriel González Videla it ceased to serve as a presidential residence.

During the military coup d'état on September 11, 1973, the Chilean Air Force strafed the palace with unguided rockets and automatic cannon fire. The president Salvador Allende committed suicide in the palace at this time. Reconstruction and restoration projects of the damage caused were completed in March 1981, although some bullet marks have been preserved and can still be seen today. During the 1973–1980 restorations, an underground office complex (the so-called "bunker") was built under the front square to provide a safe escape for General Augusto Pinochet in case of an attack.

Under the presidency of Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, the palace was painted white. During President Ricardo Lagos's administration, the palace's inner courtyards were opened to the public during certain hours of the day. Lagos also re-opened Morandé 80—a gate used by Chilean presidents to enter the palace since the early 20th century. It was eliminated during the restoration of the palace as not being in the original plans, but was restored because of the heavy symbolism attached to it as being the gate through which Chilean Presidents entered La Moneda skipping the main's gate guard protocol or, in other words, as ordinary citizens of the country. It was also the gate through which the body of President Allende was taken out after the 1973 coup.

A traditional changing of the guard ceremony takes place every two days   on odd-numbered days in odd-numbered months, even-numbered days in even-numbered months, including Sundays, at 10 a.m. weekdays and 11 a.m. on weekends (as of June 2015).  A formal ceremony dating back to the 1850s, it lasts about 30 minutes and includes a band playing, troops with horses parading into the square, and much pomp and circumstance. The Carabineros de Chile provides the guard unit and band for the ceremony, the guard unit being composed of a Foot Guards battalion and a Horse Guards squadron.

Architecture

Construction
Joaquín Toesca had worked on many public buildings in colonial Chile, including the Santiago Metropolitan Cathedral, before he was engaged to design the new royal mint that would become the Palacio de la Moneda.

Works on the building started in 1784, with building materials arriving the following year from around Chile and the world: limestone from the Polpaico country estate; sand from the Maipo River; red stones from a quarry at the Cerro San Cristóbal in Santiago; white stone from the neighbouring Cerro Blanco; oak and cypress wood from Valdivia; Spanish metal works from Vizcaya. Twenty varieties of brick were baked in Santiago for the construction of lintels, comers, floors, moldings, and of the solid walls more than a meter thick.

Toesca died in 1799, before seeing his work finished, and military engineer Agustin Cavallero took over the project. The "Mint House of Santiago de Chile" finally opened in 1805.

In 1929, an annex was commissioned the then President Carlos Ibáñez del Campo to give the palace a facade to face the Alameda Avenue, the main street of Santiago. The project was designed by Josué Smith strictly following the design of the original construction. The three-floor annex was built using part of the original construction that was occupied until that date by the mint, which was relocated to a site adjacent to Quinta Normal Park.

In 1940, a former mint pavilion, part of the original design of Toesca, was demolished to make way for the Patio de los Naranjos.

Architectural style
The Palacio de la Moneda is built in a pure neoclassical style with Roman Doric influences. The building's wide, horizontal shape and rectangular composition conveys strength and stability, according to the palace's listing on the UNESCO website. Its main façade faces Moneda street, and its rooms are distributed along the transverse and longitudinal axes forming several patios.

Behind this façade lie three patios: the Patio de los Cañones, which functions as an entrance hall; a covered patio; and finally the Patio de los Naranjos, where presidential ceremonies take place.

The architecture website ARQHYS.com states that the Palacio de la Moneda is "the only structure in the pure Italian neoclassical style that exists in Latin America."

The building has been subject to several modifications throughout the years, made by different presidents. The last great restoration of the building was carried out after the 1973 military coup, when large portions of the building were destroyed or damaged.

Plaza de la Ciudadanía

To celebrate the bicentenary of Chile's independence in 2010, a new public square called the Plaza de la Ciudadanía (''Citizenry Square'' in Spanish) was constructed on the south side of the palace stretching down to the Avenida Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins or "Alameda". Construction began in May 2004 and the plaza was inaugurated in December 2005.

Designed by Undurraga Devés Arquitectos, the Plaza de la Ciudadanía has been called "one of the most important public works in the last century" by Chile's Plataforma Arquitectura website. Paths leading down from the plaza give access to the underground Palacio de La Moneda Cultural Center, which hosts a range of exhibitions on Chilean culture and history.

Gallery

See also
 La Moneda Palace Guard
 Palace of Cerro Castillo

References

External links

Government of Chile
Government from La Moneda
Live webcam

Buildings and structures in Santiago
Mints (currency)
National Monuments of Chile
Neoclassical architecture in Chile
Neoclassical palaces
Official residences in Chile
Palaces in Chile
Presidential residences
Colonial architecture in Chile
Tourist attractions in Santiago, Chile
1805 in the Captaincy General of Chile
Government buildings completed in 1805
Architecture in Chile

Palacio de La Moneda (Chile)


The 17-book Macropædia is the third part of the Encyclopædia Britannica, and the other two parts are the 12-book Micropædia and the 1-book Propædia. The name comes from the word "macro" and "encyclopaedia". Macro means big, and so, the Macropædia is a big encyclopaedia. The Macropaedia has articles that are very detailed, but one article is usually about a very large topic. It is the opposite of the Micropædia, which has articles that are short.

The Macropædia was introduced in the 15th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica in 1974 with 19 book having 4,207 articles. In 1985, these articles were combined and made smaller into 17 books with about 700 articles, which can be as short as 2 pages, and as long as 310 pages. The longest article, on the United States, was from the combining of the 50 articles on each state.

Since it was created, it has not stayed the same. New articles are always being added, older articles can be split, shortened, merged, or even deleted.

Encyclopædia Britannica

Macropædia


Brighton Voice was an alternative or underground newspaper published in Brighton, England in the 1970s and 1980s.

History
Brighton Voice was one of the many alternative local newspapers that sprung up in the United Kingdom in the 1960s and 1970s. With a launching statement describing its aim as "giving a voice to ordinary people" the first issue was published in March 1973. It was started by just two people, an academic at the University of Sussex and a printer at the university, for whom the "reason for starting the paper was opposition to state power, locally and nationally" and who claimed to find the "chic radicalism of Brighton insufferably boring". The initial team of two rapidly expanded to five and within three months there were up to 50 people volunteering to assist.

Its operation was made possible by the arrival of inexpensive photolithography that permitted printing without typesetting. Before the arrival of Desktop Publishing it was typed, with the typewritten sections pasted up onto master sheets using Cow Gum, with headlines in Letraset. The first 66 issues were in A4, but from issue 67 the Voice changed to A3 newsprint and from Issue 72 to A2 newsprint. It was first printed by Voice personnel on a small press owned by a member of the collective and then at a squat in Islington, North London but printing was quickly moved back to Brighton. In the early days doing the printing yourself was part of the philosophy of those involved. Bankruptcy of the printer and a subsequent suspicious fire meant that printing had to be moved back to London on two occasions, to be printed by another alternative paper, the Islington Gutter Press. Later, to accommodate the new format, it was printed in Bristol.

The Voice was listed in Ulrich's Periodicals Directory and Benn's Media Directory. It ceased publication with issue No 132 in July 1989, making it one of the longest-running alternative papers in the United Kingdom. By the late 1980s it was facing competition from the growth of commercial listings magazines in Brighton such as The Punter, and the emergence of more extreme anarchist papers such as Brighton Bomber, neither of which has survived.

Brighton Voice was intended to be issued monthly but usually managed about nine issues a year. The collective approach, which allowed anyone who wanted to turn up at monthly editorial meetings and to participate in production led to slow decision making and lengthy editorial meetings. These were initially held in people's homes although in the early days it was difficult to find space for all those who wanted to contribute. Subsequently, editorial meetings were held at the "Open Café", an anarchist, whole-foods restaurant on Victoria Road in Brighton. The Voice was typed and laid out in the basement of the café. Subsequently, it moved to several other locations in Brighton and Hove.

Distribution of the magazine caused problems. Most newsagents were reluctant to stock it, either because of disagreement with the contents or fear of legal action. In 1976 the local Conservative Member of Parliament, Andrew Bowden, wrote to all the newsagents in his constituency advising them not to sell the Voice because the collective included "a number of left-wing extremists" responsible for "churning out deliberate lies and political filth". Two years later, local fascists responded to the Voice'''s campaign against the National Front by smashing windows of some newsagents. However, around 25 retailers remained faithful, with a dozen continuing to sell it to the end of its life.

Sales were highest at Infinity Foods, a whole foods shop that exists to this day, and on the University of Sussex campus but circulation amongst the ordinary citizens of Brighton and Hove was relatively patchy, despite street sales by members of the collective. Unsurprisingly it spoke mainly to the already committed. Circulation of the Voice never reached 2000, and sales over its lifetime averaged around 1000. The first issue was sold for 4 New Pence in 1973 (it was launched soon after decimalisation), rising, in two decades of high inflation, to 30 pence by the time of the final issue.

Unlike some other alternative newspapers in the UK the Voice received an insignificant proportion of its income from paid advertising. Also unlike some similar newspapers it received no outside support. While other papers received small subsidies from their local councils it would, as Aubrey et al point out, have been inconceivable for the Voice to be subsidised by the then Conservative-controlled Brighton Council, which it regularly attacked. Revenue was primarily generated from sales and the more affluent members of the collective inevitably provided some support.

Towards the end of its life the number of people working on the paper declined. By then a DTP system was being used and fewer people were needed to produce the paper. However, the lack of new blood coming in meant that enthusiasm dwindled. By Issue 125 there were only three people working on it and, eventually, it quietly died.

Campaigns
The Voice followed broadly anarchist principles and functioned as a collective. It was essentially libertarian and dismissive of political parties and mainly aimed to expose what it saw as the self-interested and incompetent management of the then separate councils of Brighton and neighbouring Hove, now merged into the one authority of Brighton and Hove. Campaigns conducted included one against the construction of the Brighton Marina, and the Voice also made submissions to the Planning Enquiry for the marina. With others it also campaigned successfully against proposals to demolish Brighton railway station.

The Voice's major impact was probably in the area of housing. For several years it was the voice of the local Squatters Union. It concentrated on the scandalous housing situation in the town and was one of the first to highlight the practices of some Brighton landlords, most notably Nicholas Hoogstraten who subsequently spent time in gaol. The newspaper took part in many demonstrations in Brighton and Hove, always using an all-purpose banner with the words "Brighton Voice says No".

The Voice also campaigned jointly with other organisations and published their newsletters as part of the paper. The Unemployed Workers Union published Doleful News as an insert and fully produced Issue 81 of the Voice. The paper developed close relationships with local union leaders, which led to copies of the Trades Council Bulletin being incorporated in the Voice. In its last years it also included the full programme for the annual Brighton Urban Free Festival (BUFF).

Membership
Membership of the collective was open to all and rotated considerably. However, it was predominantly white, middle class and male. Anyone could participate and write a piece, as long as it was critical of the status quo. Initially it was considered inappropriate to edit contributions, but it was quickly realised that such an approach would lead to an unsaleable paper. Its first members included anarchists, Marxists and left-wing members of the Labour Party. The collective saw that the greatest impact could be achieved by responding to particular events rather than by following a particular dogma. Fearing legal action, contributions were anonymous, although the Tenth Birthday Issue departed from this practice when one of the founders, Roy Carr-Hill, contributed a signed piece.

Despite being open to all, the Voice rarely had more than eight active participants at any time. As Cottle points out, the fact that the collective had relatively few members may have contributed to its longevity. Other similar papers with larger collectives tended to cease publication after a relatively short time. Members of the collective at one time or another included Steve Bassam, who was Government Chief Whip in the House of Lords in 2008–09; Rod Kedward, a noted history professor at the University of Sussex; the investigative journalist Duncan Campbell, Mike Scott, a Brighton Social Worker and the journalist Val Hennessy. One count reported that at least seven Voice contributors eventually ended up working in the national media, including the BBC. Others went on to work for the United Nations. Exposure by the Voice of misdoings in Brighton and Hove greatly benefited from insider tips provided by Adam Trimingham and Rowan Dore of the Brighton Evening Argus. Other local journalists including Roy Greenslade, who subsequently became editor of the Daily Mirror, also provided tips.

Copies
A complete set of copies of the Brighton Voice is available at the Brighton History Centre.

See also
 SchNEWS''
 List of underground newspapers of the 1960s counterculture

References

External links
 Bruno Crosby, the Open Cafe and Brighton Voice

1973 establishments in England
Newspapers established in 1973
1989 disestablishments in England
History of Brighton and Hove
Anarchist collectives
Anarchist newspapers
Alternative press
Underground press
Libertarian publications

Brighton Voice


Live 8 was a rock concert organized by activist Bob Geldof. The concert took place in nine places at once on July 2, 2005. Like Bob's Live Aid concert, Live 8 was made for helping out African citizens who were not getting enough food and medicine. However, this concert was not for charity. Instead, it was held to make people aware of the famine in Africa. Bob wanted to make the political group named the G8 give more to Africa. The concerts featured singers like Paul McCartney, Juan Diego Flórez and U2.

In November 2005, the concerts were released on DVD. The money used to buy the DVD sets was also used to help Africans.

2005 in music
Concerts

Live 8


MPS (Mathematical Programming System) is a file format for presenting and archiving linear programming (LP) and mixed integer programming problems.

Overview

The format was named after an early IBM LP product and has emerged as a de facto standard ASCII medium among most of the commercial LP solvers. Essentially all commercial LP solvers accept this format, and it is also accepted by the open-source COIN-OR system.  Other software may require a customized reader routine in order to read MPS files. However, with the acceptance of algebraic modeling languages MPS usage has declined. For example, according to the NEOS server statistics in January 2011 less than 1% of submissions were in MPS form compared to 59.4% of AMPL and 29.7% of GAMS submissions.

MPS is column-oriented (as opposed to entering the model as equations), and all model components (variables, rows, etc.) receive names. MPS is an old format, so it is set up for punch cards: Fields start in column 2, 5, 15, 25, 40 and 50. Sections of an MPS file are marked by so-called header cards, which are distinguished by their starting in column 1. Although it is typical to use upper-case throughout the file for historical reasons, many MPS-readers will accept mixed-case for anything except the header cards, and some allow mixed-case anywhere. The names that you choose for the individual entities (constraints or variables) are not important to the solver; one should pick meaningful names, or easy names for a post-processing code to read.

MPS format
Here is a little sample model written in MPS format (explained in more detail below):

 NAME          TESTPROB
 ROWS
  N  COST
  L  LIM1
  G  LIM2
  E  MYEQN
 COLUMNS
     XONE      COST                 1   LIM1                 1
     XONE      LIM2                 1
     YTWO      COST                 4   LIM1                 1
     YTWO      MYEQN               -1
     ZTHREE    COST                 9   LIM2                 1
     ZTHREE    MYEQN                1
 RHS
     RHS1      LIM1                 5   LIM2                10
     RHS1      MYEQN                7
 BOUNDS
  UP BND1      XONE                 4
  LO BND1      YTWO                -1
  UP BND1      YTWO                 1
 ENDATA

For comparison, here is the same model written out in an equation-oriented format:

 Optimize
  COST:    XONE + 4*YTWO + 9*ZTHREE
 Subject To
  LIM1:    XONE + YTWO          <= 5
  LIM2:    XONE        + ZTHREE >= 10
  MYEQN:        - YTWO + ZTHREE  = 7
 Bounds
        XONE <= 4
  -1 <= YTWO <= 1
 End

As mentioned below, the lower bound on XONE is either zero or -infinity, depending upon implementation, because it is not specified.  Strangely, nothing in MPS format specifies the direction of optimization, and there is no standard "default" direction; some LP solvers will maximize if not instructed otherwise, others will minimize, and still others put safety first and have no default and require a selection somewhere in a control program or by a calling parameter. If the model is formulated for minimization and the solver requires maximization (or vice versa), it is easy to convert between the two by negating all coefficients of the objective function. The optimal value of the objective function will then be the negative of the original optimal value, but the values of the variables themselves will be correct.  Some programs support specifying minimization/maximization within the MPS file.
 OBJSENSE
  MAX

Variables
The NAME record can have any value, starting in column 15.

The ROWS section defines the names of all the constraints; entries in column 2 or 3 are E for equality  ( = ) rows, L for less-than ( <= ) rows, G for greater-than ( >= ) rows, and N for non-constraining rows. The order of the rows named in this section is unimportant, except for non-constraining rows marked N,  the first of which would be interpreted as the objective function.

The COLUMNS section contains the entries of the A-matrix. All entries for a given column must be placed consecutively, although within a column the order of the entries (rows) is irrelevant. Rows not mentioned for a column are implied to have a coefficient of zero.

The RHS section allows one or more right-hand-side vectors to be defined; there is seldom more than one. In the above example, the name of the RHS vector is RHS1, and has non-zero values in all 3 of the constraint rows of the problem. Rows not mentioned in an RHS vector would be assumed to have a right-hand-side of zero.

The optional BOUNDS section specifies lower and upper bounds on individual variables, if they are not given by rows in the matrix. All the bounds that have a given name in column 5 are taken together as a set. Variables not mentioned in a given BOUNDS set are taken to be non-negative (lower bound zero, no upper bound). A bound of type UP means an upper bound is applied to the variable. A bound of type LO means a lower bound is applied. A bound type of FX ("fixed") means that the variable has upper and lower bounds equal to a single value. A bound type of FR ("free") means the variable has neither lower nor upper bounds and so can take on negative values.   A variation on that is MI for free negative, giving an upper bound of 0 but no lower bound.  Bound type PL is for a free positive from zero to plus infinity, but as this is the normal default, it is seldom used.  There are also bound types for use in MIP  models – BV for binary, being 0 or 1.  UI for upper integer and LI for lower integer.  SC stands for semi-continuous and indicates that the variable may be zero, but if not must be equal to at least the value given.

Another optional section called RANGES specifies double-inequalities, in a somewhat counterintuitive way not described here. Ways to mark integer variables are also beyond the scope of this article (keyword MARKER and possibly SOS are involved). The final card must be ENDATA (notice the odd spelling).

A few special cases of the MPS standard are not consistently handled by implementations. In the BOUNDS section, if a variable is given a nonpositive upper bound but no lower bound, its lower bound may default to zero or to minus infinity (also, if the upper bound is given as zero, the lower bound might be zero or negative infinity). If an integer variable has no upper bound specified, its upper bound may default to one rather than to plus infinity.

Limitations

MPS has many limitations. It does not specify the direction of optimization which is handled differently by solvers. Numeric fields have 12 characters width therefore limiting the precision. The representation is neither easy for human interpretation nor compact (although reserves column / row order information, which is often beneficial for LP solver behaviour reproducibility). One of the alternatives to MPS that does not have its limitations and is supported by most solvers is the nl file format.

Extensions

Many LP products include extensions to the MPS format. The free format MPS allows for long names and more accurate data by allowing fields to exceed the columns defined by the original standard, and apply whitespaces as separators instead of fixed column positions (note that this makes some MPS files that included whitespaces as part of names to be no longer valid). Some extensions include adding new kind of data to the MPS file (e.g. sections to include objective sense, integrality requirements, quadratic data or advanced MIP modelling constructs).  There is also a compressed MPSC file format. SMPS is a specialized extension, designed to represent stochastic programming problem instances, in use especially in research environments.

Although some extensions are not standardized, the format is still in general use.

See also
 Linear programming
 MPS file format – a description of the format by the authors of lp_solve
 xMPS – an extended MPS format

References

Linear programming
Mathematical optimization software
Computer file formats

MPS (format)


A lay clerk, also known as a lay vicar, is a term used in the United Kingdom to describe a male singer who sings in a cathedral choir or a choir belonging to a college of one of the large traditional universities.  A lay clerk is usually paid for the job.  When he is called "lay vicar" the term "vicar" comes from the Latin word "vice" (meaning "deputy").  A lay vicar is not in holy orders (he is not a priest).  Today there are a few female lay clerks, e.g. in Dublin.

The term "layman" was used in the Middle Ages for a chorister who sings some of the music that was too difficult for the priests to sing.  Today many of the lay clerks in places such as Oxford or Cambridge combine their work as layclerk with studying at University.  It is similar to a scholarship for studying.

Singers
Christian religious occupations

Lay clerk


The 2005 Holiday Bowl was a college football bowl game. The game was held at Qualcomm Stadium in San Diego on December 29, 2005, with the Big 12 Conference's Oklahoma Sooners defeating the Pacific-10 Conference's Oregon Ducks, 17–14.

Team selection
The Ducks were playing to show that they deserved a BCS bowl bid, having gone 10–1 during the regular season (the only loss coming to the nation's top-ranked team, Southern California), while the Sooners, who had lost in the BCS championship game each of the past two years, were trying to show that they really were the team that came into the season ranked fifth in the USA Today coaches' poll and seventh in the AP writers' poll than the team that lost to Texas by 33.

Game summary
Although Oregon got off to an early 7-3 lead and held that lead for nearly half the game, 22:38, the offense was unable to muster much against an Oklahoma defense that recorded four sacks (two by junior defensive end C.J. Ah You), held the Ducks to 2.6 yards per carry, and allowed only six third-down conversions in 18 attempts.

Rotating between Dennis Dixon and Brady Leaf (whose brother, Ryan, was once the quarterback for the San Diego Chargers and played in said stadium) at quarterback, as they had done since losing starter Kellen Clemens earlier in the year, the Ducks gained 244 passing yards on 44 attempts, but much of that came in the fourth quarter as the Sooners defense tired during two extended drives. Oregon managed little success on the ground, with their top rusher, senior Terrence Whitehead, going for only 42 yards. Oklahoma's offense played largely efficiently, gaining 365 yards, with redshirt freshman quarterback Rhett Bomar completing 59 percent of his passes for 229 yards and one touchdown (freshman Malcolm Kelly was the team's top receiver, hauling in seven Bomar throws for 78 yards). Sophomore Adrian Peterson led the way on the ground, accumulating 79 yards on 23 carries.

In spite of their general success, Bomar and Peterson each provided Oregon hope, with Bomar throwing an interception and Peterson fumbling within a yard of the goal line. The Ducks, trailing by 10 points in the fourth quarter, were unable to convert a first-down in the shadow of their own goal posts against the aggressive Sooners defense and thus failed to capitalize on the Peterson turnover. Their defense, though, stymied every Oklahoma drive in the fourth quarter, getting two more possessions for the offense, and Oregon drove 81 yards in 14 plays, with Brady Leaf hitting Tim Day for a three-yard touchdown. Once more the Sooners offense failed to convert a third-down on their ensuing possession as the Ducks defense tightened, and behind a resurgent Leaf, Oregon drove to the Oklahoma 19-yard-line before Sooners senior linebacker Clint Ingram intercepted a Leaf pass to seal the victory for the Sooners.

Scoring Summary

Source:

Statistics

References

Holiday Bowl
Holiday Bowl
Oklahoma Sooners football bowl games
Oregon Ducks football bowl games
2005 in sports in California
December 2005 sports events in the United States

2005 Holiday Bowl


The Cortijo Jurado, or Casa Encantada as it is known, is a 19th-century mansion that lies in ruins just off the A-357 near Campanillas Village in Málaga Province (Spain). It enjoys the reputation as being one of the most haunted houses in the Province.  The 45,206 square metres of land that makes up the Cortijo estate is estimated to be worth almost 1.4 million euros.

History
The mansion was built in the 19th century by the influential Heredia family from Málaga, one of Andalucia's wealthiest families at the time.
The building boasts 365 windows, one for each day of the year and was constructed as a cortijo as part of a plan to convert the farm into a grand agricultural enterprise.  In 1925, the property passed to its new owners, the Jurado family.

It is known in Málaga as 'the haunted mansion', not only for its ghostly appearance, but due to numerous reports of mysterious voices and strange sounds that have been reportedly heard there without explanation.  It is among the best known 'haunted' buildings in Spain and is considered a sort of temple by followers of paranormal phenomena.

Legend has it that the Heredia family, together with other rich families in the area, kidnapped young girls, aged between 18 and 21, and subjected them to sinister satanic rituals, involving rape and murder.  The bodies of their victims are said to be buried deep within the property. Whilst it is true that many young girls did disappear during this period, nothing was ever proven to connect their disappearance to the Heredia family. Many say they used their money and influence to evade justice. Whatever the truth of the matter, paranormal enthusiasts maintain that the pain and suffering that took place within those grim walls has led to inexplicable ghostly phenomena.

Recent history

In 2002, Málaga Council approved a proposal submitted by the Mirador group to build a four-star hotel complex in the grounds of the Cortijo Jurado and to renovate the original building to provide a cultural edifice, open to the public.

In December, 2004, the construction licence was issued and a high-profile event was arranged, during which Málaga's Mayor, Francisco de la Torre, laid the symbolic foundation stone to inaugurate the commencement of the project.
Four years later, not a single brick has been laid.
Since then, the Mirador group has faced a number of lawsuits from clients to whom they sold properties which were never built.

The courts froze the lands of the Cortijo to protect debts of over five million euros, most of which is owed to Promociones Pantie, from whom Mirador secured the mortgage for this property. Málaga Council is also owed 365,000 euros by the Mirador group.  Málaga Council then contentiously extended the building licence for the original project when it expired in December 2008.

In February 2009, opposition councillor, Antonio Serrano, of the 'United Left', lodged an official complaint accusing the town hall of bribery and abuse of power in relation to their dealings with the Mirador group.  One of the main issues raised by Serrano was the fact that the town hall had waived the obligatory ten per cent fee for the building licence, which in this case was 900,000 euros.  The town hall defended its position by claiming that the regulations had not come into force at the time the agreement was signed.

In May 2009 a Málaga judge ordered the troubled property group, Mirador, who own the property to sell it by public auction, on May 11, at the behest of one of the group's principal creditors, Promociones Pantie. The auction did not go through due to an administrative error.

References

Province of Málaga
Houses in Spain
Buildings and structures in Andalusia

Cortijo Jurado


Hyves is a website where people can have contact with friends online. It can be used to make new friends or to stay in touch with old friends. It was started in 2004 and has over 9 million users; most of them are Dutch. That is the reason why it is very popular in the Netherlands.
Pictures and videos can be put and shared on it. Hyves is similar to Facebook or the German VZ Networks.

Other websites
 http://www.hyves.nl

Social networking

Hyves


The Charophyceae are the green algae closest to plants.

Their exact rank is the matter of some debate. Some botanists recommend expanding the existing plant kingdom to include charophyceans and chlorophytes.

Others classify Charophyceae as a class under division Charophyta, with Chlorophyta remaining a distinct division. There are also other possibilities.

The consensus among botanists is that charophyceans are the organisms most closely related to land plants (embryophytes).

Many of the complex plant traits related to sexual reproduction evolved first in charophyceans. Analysis of cpDNA (chloroplast DNA) shows that characteristics of plant chloroplasts also evolved first in the charophyceans, before the Zygnematales diverged from the lineage that lead to Coleochaetales, Charales, and the land plants.

Groups generally included within the Charophyceae are:
Mesostigmatales
Klebsormidiales
Zygnematales
Desmidiales
Charales
Coleochaetales

References

Algae

Charophyceae


Salvador Edward Luria (Turin, Italy, August 13, 1912 – Lexington, Massachusetts, February 6, 1991) was an Italian microbiologist.

He won the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his pioneering work with Max Delbrück and Alfred Hershey on phages in molecular biology.

Biography
Luria was born Salvatore Edoardo Luria in Turin, Italy to an influential Italian Sephardic Jewish family. He attended the medical school at the  University of Turin. There, he met two other future Nobel laureates: Rita Levi-Montalcini and Renato Dulbecco.

In Rome, he was introduced to Max Delbrück's theories on the gene as a molecule and began to formulate methods for testing genetic theory with bacteriophages, which are viruses that infect bacteria.

In 1938, he received a fellowship to study in the United States, where he intended to work with Delbrück. Soon after Luria received the award Benito Mussolini's fascist regime banned Jews from academic research fellowships.

Without funding sources for work in the U.S. or Italy, Luria left his home country for Paris, France in 1938. As the Nazi German armies invaded France in 1940, Luria fled on bicycle to Marseilles where he received an immigration visa to the United States.

Phage research
Luria arrived in New York City on September 12, 1940 and soon changed his first and middle names. With the help of physicist Enrico Fermi, whom he knew from his time at the University of Rome, Luria received a fellowship at Columbia University. He soon met Delbrück and Hershey, and they collaborated on experiments at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory and in Delbrück's lab at Vanderbilt University.

His famous experiment with Delbrück in 1943, known as the Luria-Delbrück experiment, demonstrated that inheritance in bacteria follows Darwinian rather than Lamarckian principles and that mutant genes occurring randomly can still give viral resistance without the virus being present. The idea that natural selection affects bacteria has profound consequences, for example, it explains how bacteria develop antibiotic resistance.

From 1943 to 1950, he worked at Indiana University, Bloomington. His first graduate student was James D. Watson, who went on to discover the structure of DNA with Francis Crick. In January 1947, Luria became a naturalized citizen of the United States.

In 1950, Luria moved to the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. While investigating how a culture of E. coli was able to stop the production of phages, Luria discovered that specific bacterial strains produce enzymes that cut DNA at certain sequences. These enzymes became known as restriction enzymes and developed into one of the main molecular tools in molecular biology.

References

1912 births
1991 deaths
American activists
American biologists
American Nobel Prize winners
Italian Jews
Italian biologists
Jewish American academics
Jewish American scientists
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
Microbiologists
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners
People from Turin
Italian Nobel Prize winners

Salvador Luria


See Irish Workers' Group  (1976) for the Irish Workers' Group which was a member of the League for a Fifth International.
The Irish Workers' Group (IWG) was a Marxist political party in Ireland.  It originated as the Irish Workers Union, which later called itself the Irish Communist Group, and contained a variety of people who all considered themselves to be Marxists. Some were from an Irish Republican background, and some, including Gerry Lawless,  also became involved in Saor Éire.

In time the group developed distinct Trotskyist and Maoist wings. The latter broke away to form the Irish Communist Organisation, which evolved into the British and Irish Communist Organisation. The former became the Irish Workers' Group, set
up by Lawless. The IWG produced a paper Irish Militant and a theoretical journal An Solas/Workers' Republic.

By 1967 the IWG, then based in London among exiled political activists, was failing and handed over their journal to Sean Matgamna and Rachel Lever who were about to launch Workers Fight.  A section with support in Ireland then formed the League for a Workers Republic which entered discussions with the Socialist Labour League, British affiliate of the International Committee of the Fourth International.

Other members of the IWG later influential in the Irish far-left were Eamonn McCann, a leader of the Socialist Workers Party, and Michael Farrell, a leader of the now defunct People's Democracy. This group seems to have ceased to exist in the late 1960s.

A later Irish Workers' Group was an organisation that split from the
Socialist Workers Movement in 1976. It maintained links with the
British Workers Power group and
the League for a Fifth International.

References

All-Ireland political parties
Defunct political parties in Northern Ireland
Defunct political parties in the Republic of Ireland
Socialist parties in Ireland
Trotskyist organisations in Ireland
Trotskyist organisations in Northern Ireland

Irish Workers' Group