(literally, Hawaii-Midway Battle of the Sea and Sky: Storm in the Pacific Ocean) is a 1960 Eastmancolor Japanese war film directed by Shūe Matsubayashi. The story is an account of a young Japanese bombardier, Lt. Koji Kitami (Yosuke Natsuki) stationed aboard the  and his participation in two battles in the Pacific during World War II, the attack on Pearl Harbor and the Battle of Midway.

Storm Over the Pacific was the first color widescreen war film from Toho Studios. The film was made by many of the same individuals behind the Godzilla franchise, such as producer Tomoyuki Tanaka, special effects director Eiji Tsuburaya, and assistant special effects director Teruyoshi Nakano. Storm Over the Pacific was released in 1961 in the United States in a dubbed and abridged 98 minute version produced by Hugo Grimaldi as I Bombed Pearl Harbor.

Some special effects scenes were later incorporated as stock footage in the 1976 film Midway (which also stars Toshirō Mifune).

Plot
In 1941, Lt. Koji Kitami (Yosuke Natsuki) is a young Japanese bombardier, stationed aboard the . On 1 December 1941, a Japanese fleet of 30 warships sails for Hawaii. When diplomatic negotiations in Washington fail, the task force commander, Adm. Tamon Yamaguchi (Toshiro Mifune) receives orders to attack Pearl Harbor. On December 7, the surprise attack is carried out successfully.

Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, Koji returns to Japan and his childhood sweetheart, Keiko (Misa Uehara). Although deeply in love with Keiko, Koji fears that marriage will make him less worthy as a naval officer.

His faith in his leaders and his country remains strong through the successful campaigns of the early war, but is severely shaken by the disastrous events during the Battle of Midway, learning that reports back to the homeland are lies. In the battle, his carrier Hiryu is attacked by U.S. dive bombers and badly damaged. High-ranking officers order the ship abandoned, but rather than leave it as a prize of war, a Japanese destroyer is given instructions to sink the carrier. As the Hiryu goes down, Koji and others give a final salute.

Cast

Production
Film historian Stephen Pendo in Aviation in the Cinema (1985) noted Storm Over the Pacific heavily utilized models to create realistic battle scenes. The special effects were supervised by Eiji Tsuburaya who was renown for his work in numerous 1950s and 1960s Japanese horror and science fiction films. During his 50-year career as a special effects director, Tsuburaya worked on approximately 250 films in total.

In World War II, Tsuburaya had created the realistic attack scenes in Hawai Mare oki kaisen (The War at Sea from Hawaii to Malaya) (1942) that depicted the Pearl Harbor attacks. The same model scene was reprised for Storm Over the Pacific. Tsuburaya and his special effects team created 136 ship models for Storm Over the Pacific, including Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi and USS Yorktown aircraft carriers, 11 and 13 metres respectively. The 1/16th scale models of ships were shot in a large water tank.

The miniature photography in Storm Over the Pacific was subsequently re-used in a number of later films, including Midway (1976) and the Japanese films Admiral Yamamoto (1968) and The Imperial Navy (1981).

Reception
When Storm Over the Pacific was released, it met with critical approvals and was widely recognized as "telling the other side" or giving the Japanese perspective of World War II in the Pacific. Film historians Jack Hardwick and Ed Schnepf, however, dismissed the English version, I Bombed Pearl Harbor (1961) as poorly dubbed and with the predominance of "miniatures", as a pallid rival to Tora! Tora! Tora! (1970).

References

Notes

Bibliography

 Anderson, Joseph L. The Japanese Film: Art and Industry. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1982. .
 Hardwick, Jack and Ed Schnepf. "A Viewer's Guide to Aviation Movies". The Making of the Great Aviation Films, General Aviation Series, Volume 2, 1989.
 Pendo, Stephen. Aviation in the Cinema. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 1985. .
 Ragone, August. Eiji Tsuburaya: Master of Monsters. San Francisco, California: Chronicle Books, 2014, first edition 2007. .
 Tam, King-fai, Timothy Y. Tsu and Sandra Wilson, eds. Chinese and Japanese Films on the Second World War. London: routledge, 2014. .

External links

1960 films
Japanese aviation films
Japanese war films
Japanese epic films
1960s Japanese-language films
Seafaring films based on actual events
Toho films
War epic films
Pacific War films
World War II films based on actual events
Films about the United States Navy in World War II
Films directed by Shūe Matsubayashi
Japanese World War II films
Films set on aircraft carriers
Films about the Battle of Midway
1960s Japanese films
World War II aviation films
World War II naval films
Films about naval aviation
Films set in 1941
Films set in 1942
Films scored by Ikuma Dan

Storm Over the Pacific


The 12-inch single (often called "12") is a type of gramophone record that has a wider groove compared to other types of records. This allows better sound quality. This record type is used a lot in disco and dance music genres, where DJs use them to play in discos or clubs. They are usually played at 45 RPM, which allows for improved quality.

Audio disc

12-inch single


Halakha is the Hebrew word for the Jewish code of laws.

History
A long time ago, these laws were oral (spoken, but not written down). Once they became written down they were called the Mishnah. The Mishnah was made by rabbis in the 1st and 2nd Century (CE).

Related pages

 Law of Moses

Jewish law

Halakha


Octocorallia (also known as Alcyonaria) is a class of Anthozoa comprising around 3,000 species of water-based organisms formed of colonial polyps with 8-fold symmetry. It includes the blue coral, soft corals, sea pens, and gorgonians (sea fans and sea whips) within three orders: Alcyonacea, Helioporacea, and Pennatulacea. These organisms have an internal skeleton secreted by mesoglea and polyps with eight tentacles and eight mesentaries. As with all Cnidarians these organisms have a complex life cycle including a motile phase when they are considered plankton and later characteristic sessile phase.

Octocorals have existed at least since the Ordovician period, as shown by Maurits Lindström's findings in the 1970s. Recent work suggesting that the Cambrian Pywackia may represent a Cambrian octocoral is disputed.

Biology

Octocorals resemble the stony corals in general appearance and in the size of their polyps, but lack the distinctive stony skeleton. Also unlike the stony corals, each polyp has only eight tentacles, each of which is feather-like in shape, with numerous side-branches, or pinnules.

Octocorals are colonial organisms, with numerous tiny polyps embedded in a soft matrix that forms the visible structure of the colony. The matrix is composed of mesogleal tissue, lined by a continuous epidermis and perforated by numerous tiny channels. The channels interconnect the gastrovascular cavities of the polyps, allowing water and nutrients to flow freely between all the members of the colony. The skeletal material, called coenenchyme, is composed of living tissue secreted by numerous wandering amoebocytes. Although it is generally soft, in many species it is reinforced with calcareous or horny material.

The polyp is largely embedded within the colonial skeleton, with only the uppermost surface, including the tentacles and mouth, projecting about the surface. The mouth is slit-like, with a single ciliated groove, or siphonoglyph, at one side to help control water flow. It opens into a tubular pharynx that projects down into a gastrovascular cavity that occupies the hollow interior. The pharynx is surrounded by eight radial partitions, or mesenteries, that divide the upper part of the gastrovascular cavity into chambers, one of which connects to the hollow space inside each tentacle. The gonads are located near the base of each mesentery.

Phylogeny
Octocorallia is considered to be monophyletic, meaning that all contained species are descended from a common ancestor, but the relationships between subdivisions are not well known. The sea pens (Pennatulacea) and blue coral (Helioporacea) continue to be assigned separate orders, whereas the current order Alcyonacea was historically represented by four orders: Alcyonacea, Gorgonacea, Stolonifera and Telestacea.

References

External links

Anthozoa
Animal classes

Octocorallia


The Yeshiva University Museum is a teaching museum and the cultural arm of Yeshiva University. Along with the American Jewish Historical Society, the American Sephardi Federation, the Leo Baeck Institute, New York and the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, it is a member organization of the Center for Jewish History, a Smithsonian Institution affiliate located in New York's Chelsea neighborhood.

History and mission
The museum was founded in 1973. Its mission is to celebrate the culturally diverse intellectual and artistic achievements of 3,000 years of Jewish experience. The museum aims to provide a window into Jewish culture around the world and throughout history through multi-disciplinary exhibitions and publications. Following the retirement of Sylvia A. Herskowitz, Dr. Jacob Wisse was appointed the museum's director on February 26, 2009.

Collection
The museum's collection of more than 8,000 artifacts includes fine and folk art, ethnographic and archaeological artifacts, clothing and textiles, Jewish ceremonial art objects, documents, books, and manuscripts.

Highlights of the collection include:
 Archaeological artifacts dating from the Bronze Age to Late Antiquity
 Historic illuminated manuscripts such as one from 1478 recording the Simon of Trent blood libel trial
 Thomas Jefferson's handwritten letter of 1818 affirming religious freedom and denouncing anti-Semitism
 The Torah scroll and tefillin purported to belong to the Baal Shem Tov, founder of the Hasidic movement
 A model of Herod's Temple by Leen Ritmeyer
Yeshiva University Museum's holdings embrace several significant collections of Jewish art and material culture, including:
 Models of historic synagogues commissioned for the museum's founding
 Meyerhoff Collection of Early Israeli Art
 Jean Moldovan Collection of Jewish Children's books
 Raphael Patai Amulet Collection
 Max Stern Collection of Judaica
 "Aishet Hayil: Woman of Valor" from the Book of Proverbs by Siri Berg

Facilities and programs
The museum consists of four galleries, an exhibition arcade, an outdoor sculpture garden, a docent lounge, a children's workshop room, and a suite of offices. Other Center for Jewish History facilities include a 250-seat handicapped-accessible auditorium and projection room, meeting rooms, a lunchroom, and a kosher café.

The museum produces two types of exhibitions, usually shown concurrently: one examining a Jewish community or historic event, and the other featuring contemporary artists working on Jewish themes. The museum occasionally presents traveling exhibitions. Other offerings include family craft workshops, lectures, films, concerts, and multilingual exhibition tours in English, Hebrew, Spanish, Russian, and Yiddish.

The Yeshiva University Museum's outreach programs work with New York City public schools to provide students with art education and teachers with professional development. The New York State Council on the Arts, Project Arts of the New York City Board of Education, and the bilingual education program Title VII support these programs. A founding member of the Council of American Jewish Museums, Yeshiva University Museum plays a leading role in encouraging the growth of emerging museums and in developing conservation and preservation techniques for all Jewish museums.

Awards

 1981: National Jewish Book Award in the Visual Arts category for Purim: The Face and the Mask

See also

List of university art museums and galleries in New York State

References

External links

 Yeshiva University Museum
 Center for Jewish History
 Council of American Jewish Museums

1973 establishments in New York City
Art museums and galleries in New York City
Chelsea, Manhattan
Jewish museums in New York City
Jews and Judaism in Manhattan
Museums established in 1973
Museums in Manhattan
Religious museums in New York (state)
Yeshiva University
Smithsonian Institution affiliates
University art museums and galleries in New York City
History museums in New York City

Yeshiva University Museum


The spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) is one of the most common and well known species of dogfish. It is a small species of shark, with an average length of 28-39 inches (70–100 cm), and reaching a maximum weight of 9.8 kg.

The dogfish is found in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean, and can be found from the surface to depths as deep as 1,460 metres. The spiny dogfish feeds mainly on pelagic fish such as herring, menhaden, capelin, sand lance, and mackerel.

Description
The spiny dogfish has a slim, long body and a flattened head. The snout is narrow, with a pointed tip. The eyes of this species are quite large. The first dorsal fin is located about halfway between the pectoral fins and the pelvic fins. The second dorsal fin is about two-thirds the size of the first one and is located behind the pelvic fins.

On the front of each dorsal fin there is a sharp spine attached to them, giving the spiny dogfish its name. The first spine is about half as long as the second spine. The pectoral fins form nearly perfect equilateral triangles, with rounded rear tips, and slightly concave rear margins. The pelvic fins are closer to the second dorsal fin than to the first dorsal fin. One the caudal fin, there is no notch on the upper lobe and the lower lobe is not well-developed. There is no anal fin on the Spiny dogfish.

The dorsal surface of the dogfish is slate-coloured and may have a brownish cast. There are rows of white spots along each side, from above the pectoral fins to above the pelvic fins. These spots are more visible on immature spiny dogfish, and they fade as the shark matures. With some individuals, the spots completely disappear. The edges of the dorsal fins and the caudal fin have a dusky-colour at birth, but this colour quickly fades. The ventral surface of the dogfish ranges from pale grey to pure white.

The average length of the spiny dogfish is 28-39 inches (70–100 cm), with adult males ranging from 24-35 inches (60–90 cm), and adult females ranging from 30-42 inches (76–107 cm). The maximum reported length of males is 39 inches (100 cm), and females is 49 inches (124 cm). Mature females can weigh as much as 3.2-4.5 kg (7-10 pounds), with a maximum recorded weight of 9.8 kg (22 pounds). The all-tackle game fish record is 7.14 kg (16 pounds), and was caught off the coast of Ireland in 1989.

Habitat
In the western Atlantic, the spiny dogfish ranges from Greenland to Argentina, and in the eastern Atlantic it is found from Iceland and the Murmanski Coast (Russia) to South Africa, including the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. In the western Pacific, the dogfish occurs from the Bering Sea to New Zealand, while in the eastern Pacific, this species is found from the Bering Sea to Chile.

Spiny dogfish are benthopelagic, meaning that they are found just above the bottom of the ocean. They are found from the surface to depths as deep as 1,460 metres. Spiny dogfish can be found in brackish water, but prefer seawater, and are commonly found in waters with the temperature of 7-15 °C. Spiny dogfish are found inshore and offshore, over continental and insular (island) shelve, and upper slopes. They are often found in enclosed bays and estuaries. They have been reported to enter freshwater but cannot survive there for more than a few hours.

Predators
Spiny dogfish have been found in the stomachs of cod, red hake, and goosefish, as well as other dogfish. Larger species of sharks, as well as seals and Killer whales also feed on the spiny dogfish. To defend itself, the dogfish curls into a ball, and strikes at predators with its spines on the dorsal fins.

Feeding
The spiny dogfish usually feeds in groups. They feed mainly on pelagic fish such as herring, menhaden, capelin, sand lance, and mackerel, often consuming large numbers of them. They have been known to bite through fishing nets to be able to feed on the caught fish, usually releasing most of the fish. This has given the dogfish a bad reputation among fishermen. Other food items of this species includes molluscs (such as squid and octopus), crustacea (such as shrimp and crab), jellyfish, sea cucumber, algae, smaller sharks, and shark egg cases.

Reproduction
The gestation period of the spiny dogfish lasts up to 2 years. Spiny dogfish are ovoviviparous, meaning that the embryos develop inside eggs inside the female, and are nourished by yolk-filled sacs. Finally, the female gives birth to 1-20 pups, each one measuring around 20 to 33 centimeters. The spiny dogfish lives to the age of 20–75 years.

Human interaction
thumb|right|250px|A catch of Spiny dogfish

The dogfish poses little threat to humans, but if it is not handled properly, the spines on its dorsal fins can give a harmful wound. Also, the spiny dogfish has earned itself a bad reputation among fishermen due to its habit of biting through fishing nets to get at any fish which is caught in the nets.

The spiny dogfish is the most common living shark, yet two populations in the northwest and northeast Atlantic are at great risk due to overfishing. This shark is caught for food, liver oil, and is used to make sand paper, vitamins, leather, fertiliser, and pet food. Between 1900 and 1910, when the dogfish was at its peak abundance, it was estimated that up to 27 million spiny dogfish were caught off the Massachusetts coast every year.

Conservation
Due to their long gestation period and the low number of pups they give birth to at a time, the spiny dogfish must be managed carefully. This species is extremely vulnerable to overfishing and is currently on the brink of collapse.

Commercial fishermen target mature females because they grow to larger sizes than males. The fishing of spiny dogfish increased dramatically in the U.S.A during the 1990s, resulting in the population of mature females to decrease by 75%, leading to low number of pups. In 2001, the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) voted to extend an emergency action that closes state waters to fish for the vulnerable dogfish. This was in response to heavy fishing that devastated dogfish populations during the 1990s.

In late 2000, a fishery management plan for the spiny dogfish began to develop, followed by its approval in November 2002. Federal and state recovery plans are currently in place but are continually challenged. The National Marine Fisheries Service, with new data predicting the collapse of the spiny dogfish populations, closed federal waters to dogfish fishing in July 2003. The spiny dogfish is currently listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN.

Gallery

References

Sharks

Spiny dogfish


Caryn Linda Navy (born July 5, 1953) is an American mathematician and computer scientist. Blind since childhood, she is chiefly known for her work in set-theoretic topology and Braille technology.

Early life
Navy was born in Brooklyn, New York in 1953. Born premature, she was diagnosed as totally blind from retinopathy of prematurity. Her family soon discovered that she could actually see from the corner of one eye, but at age 10 she lost all sight due to retinal detachment.

The next year, in sixth grade, Navy began learning to read and write Braille at school. She also learned the Nemeth Braille system for writing mathematics, which became her favorite subject. She enjoyed team math competitions, and at age 14 independently rediscovered Euclid's formula for even perfect numbers. She also learned Hebrew Braille in preparation for her bat mitzvah service. At age 16 Navy was hired for her first job, as a Dictaphone typist in New York City. She took a class to learn to travel the New York City Subway.

Education
Navy attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1971–1975, majoring in mathematics. The only textbook she had
in Braille was her calculus book. All her other books were obtained as audiobooks from Recording for the Blind.
At MIT, her undergraduate advisor James Munkres introduced her to the subject of topology. Upon her graduation with a bachelor's degree in mathematics in 1975, she received the AMITA Senior Academic Award from the Association of MIT Alumnae. Early in her undergraduate career, Navy met David Holladay, an electrical engineering student. He looked up enough Braille to write her a note after their first meeting. They were married after graduation.

Navy attended graduate school at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, majoring in mathematics, with a minor in computer science. During her graduate education, she used an Optacon device to read textbooks that were not available in Braille or as audiobooks. She received her M.A. in 1977, and her Ph.D. in 1981 under the supervision of topologist Mary Ellen Rudin.

Mathematics
Navy's doctoral thesis, "Nonparacompactness in Para-Lindelöf Spaces", was important in the development of metrizability theory. The paper examines the properties of para-Lindelöf topological spaces, which are a generalization of both Lindelöf spaces and paracompact spaces. In a para-Lindelöf space, every open cover has a locally countable open refinement, that is, one such that each point of the space has a neighborhood that intersects only countably many elements of the refinement. The spaces constructed by Navy are counterexamples to the conjecture that all para-Lindelöf spaces are paracompact. Some of her spaces are even normal Moore spaces under suitable set-theoretic assumptions. Since every metrizable space is paracompact, these are counterexamples to the normal Moore space conjecture.

Stephen Watson called Navy's construction "a rather general one that permitted quite a lot of latitude" and said, "No other way of getting para-Lindelöf is known. I don't think another way of getting para-Lindelöf is even possible—Navy's method looks quite canonical to me." In 1983, William Fleissner modified one of her spaces to be a normal Moore space under the assumption of a particular covering property. Fleissner's examples finally resolved the normal Moore space conjecture by showing that it requires large cardinal axioms.

Career
After graduate school, Navy took a position as a visiting assistant professor in the mathematics department of Bucknell University in 1981. While they were living in Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, Holladay started a software company called Raised Dot Computing, focused on computer Braille technology. He was inspired by Navy's need for Braille translation to help with her math teaching. She was an important consultant for the company, helping with software ideas and testing products in her university work. In December 1981, Raised Dot Computing released its first major product, BRAILLE-EDIT, a word processor and two-way Braille translator program for the Apple II. Navy left the university in 1984 to work for the company, and the couple and the company moved back to Madison, Wisconsin in July 1984.

Navy applied her computer skills to improving Raised Dot Computing's assistive software, producing enhanced versions of BRAILLE-EDIT and utility programs to handle textbook-format Braille and other special formats. In 1985 they added a line of MS-DOS software, culminating in the company's most successful product, MegaDots. Released in August 1992 and maintained until 2016, MegaDots provided Braille translation and word processing for the PC. Raised Dot Computing was transferred in September 1998 to a Wisconsin nonprofit organization called Braille Planet, which was then bought out in August 1999 by Duxbury Systems. Navy and Holladay live in Westford, Massachusetts, and still work at Duxbury.

Navy is a member of the Braille Authority of North America, where she serves as a consultant to the Nemeth Code Technical Committee.

References

External links
 David Holladay and Caryn Navy Oral History

Living people
1953 births
20th-century American mathematicians
Blind scholars and academics
Bucknell University faculty
Jewish American scientists
Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science alumni
Scientists from Brooklyn
Topologists
University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Letters and Science alumni
American women computer scientists
American women mathematicians
20th-century women mathematicians
Mathematicians from New York (state)
American computer scientists
20th-century American women scientists
21st-century American Jews
21st-century American women scientists
American scientists with disabilities
American blind people

Caryn Navy


Gero Hütter (born 18 December 1968) is a German hematologist. Hütter and his medical team transplanted bone marrow deficient in a key HIV receptor to a leukemia patient, Timothy Ray Brown, who was also infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Subsequently, the patient's circulating HIV dropped to undetectable levels. The case was widely reported in the media, and Hütter was named one of the "Berliners of the year" for 2008 by the Berliner Morgenpost, a Berlin newspaper.

HIV treatment

In 2009, Hütter, Eckhard Thiel and others from the Charité Hospital in Berlin, Germany, published a report on the case in the New England Journal of Medicine. Their patient Timothy Ray Brown, a US citizen born in Seattle, Washington, and living in Berlin, had both acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) and HIV. The physicians found a bone marrow donor with a CCR5-Δ32 mutation in both genomic copies of a gene encoding a cell-surface chemokine receptor called CCR5. Because "most of HIV strains" use the CCR5 receptor to enter a host cell, the mutation confers resistance to HIV infection. The patient himself was heterozygous for CCR5-Δ32. Following the transplant procedure, the patient's CD4+ T-cells circulating in the blood were homozygous for CCR5-Δ32. The macrophages in his bowel, which continued to express wildtype CCR5 (because they hadn't been replaced yet from bone marrow precursors), also had no detectable virus. After 600 days without antiretroviral drug treatment, the patient's blood, bone marrow and bowel HIV levels were below the limit of detection; the virus was thought to be present in other tissues.  However, the patient actually had a brain biopsy, in addition to biopsies of his intestines, liver, lymph nodes, bone marrow—basically, every part of the body that can be biopsied. All were negative for virus. There is no virus in this person's body out to two and a half years off of all anti-HIV drugs.  His antibody levels—called titers—are declining just the way expected if the patient was vaccinated against HIV and then the levels of antibodies were examined. They'd be very strong in the beginning, but would weaken if they are not re-exposed to the virus.  It is believed this patient has no HIV in his body and therefore there is nothing to re-expose him, so the concentration of HIV antibodies in his blood is decreasing. It is predicted that, in a couple of years, his HIV antibody test will be negative.

The mortality risk associated with bone marrow transplants is thought to contraindicate the use of this experimental treatment for HIV-positive individuals without leukemia or lymphoma. Some researchers such as Edward Berger believe that resistance to CCR5 inhibition may emerge if CXCR4 strains of HIV emerge (these use CXCR4 rather than CCR5 as a coreceptor, from which they become independent). Before the treatment though the patient had low levels of the CXCR4 virus but after the treatment this type of HIV could not be detected either which Hütter called "very surprising". People without CCR5 can be more sensitive to some infections such as West Nile virus.

Jay Levy, one of the first researchers to isolate and describe HIV in the early 1980s, wrote an editorial accompanying Hütter's publication in the New England Journal of Medicine. Noting the reduction in detectable HIV in the patient's blood and the return of the patient's circulating CD4+ T-cell population to normal levels, with all of the cells expressing the resistant variant of CCR5, Levy cautions that calling this treatment a cure would be premature. This is because HIV is known to hide in latent form in a variety of organs not easily sampled, including the heart and brain. The high risks of a bone marrow transplant also make this treatment risky since many bone marrow patients die. And the CXCR4 virus that was detectable in the blood of the patient before the treatment "could eventually emerge". Levy does believe though that this case "could pave the way for innovative approaches that provide long-lasting viral control with limited toxicities for persons with HIV infection".

As of June 4, 2010, Hütter's patient was in very good health and had been HIV- and cancer-free (combined) for two years. In the March 10, 2011, issue of the medical journal Blood, Hütter wrote, "it is reasonable to conclude that cure of HIV infection has been achieved in this patient." Hütter concurred with this assessment.

Hütter received an award on June 3, 2010, from the AIDS Policy Project, a national advocacy group focused on an AIDS cure, and San Francisco Supervisor Ross Mirkarimi on behalf of the people of San Francisco.

The text read:
"Dr. Gero Hütter: In recognition of your historic achievement of being the first doctor to functionally cure AIDS/HIV through an innovative procedure that entails a remarkable example of the use of stem cell transplants. We join you with hope that your achievement will globally inspire researchers to explore new techniques and technologies for an AIDS cure. On behalf of the people of San Francisco, the AIDS Policy Project, and all those engaged in the combat against the HIV disease, the City and County of San Francisco extends its highest commendation!" —Supervisor Ross Mirkarimi, Member, San Francisco Board of Supervisors, June 3, 2010

See also
 Gene therapy

References

German hematologists
HIV/AIDS researchers
German medical researchers
1968 births
Living people
Physicians of the Charité

Gero Hütter


In computing, the Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) is an  application-layer Internet standard  protocol used by local e-mail clients to get e-mail from a remote mail server over a TCP/IP connection.  POP3 and IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol) are the two most widely accepted Internet standard protocols for e-mail retrieval.  Almost all modern e-mail clients and servers support both.

Many years ago, a proposal was outlined for a POP4 specification, complete with a working server implementation.  The proposed POP4 extension adds basic folder management, multipart message support, as well as message flag management, allowing for a light protocol which supports some popular IMAP features which POP3 lacks.  No progress has been found in the POP4 specification since 2003.

Related Requests For Comments (RFCs)
 RFC 1939 – Post Office Protocol - Version 3 (STD 53)
 RFC 1957 – Some Observations on Implementations of the Post Office Protocol (POP3)
 RFC 2195 – IMAP/POP AUTHorize Extension for Simple Challenge/Response
 RFC 2384 – POP URL Scheme
 RFC 2449 – POP3 Extension Mechanism
 RFC 2595 – Using TLS with IMAP, POP3 and ACAP
 RFC 3206 – The SYS and AUTH POP Response Codes
 RFC 5034 – The Post Office Protocol (POP3) Simple Authentication and Security Layer (SASL) Authentication Mechanism

Related pages
 Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 E-mail client
 Webmail
 POP3 clients: getmail, fetchmail
 Email encryption

Computer protocols
E-mail

Post Office Protocol


In Norse mythology, Óðr (sometimes written in English as Odr or Od) is a man associated with the goddess Freyja. The Prose Edda and Heimskringla, both by Snorri Sturluson, describe Óðr as Freyja's husband. They also describe him as the father of Freyja's daughter Hnoss. Heimskringla adds that the couple had another daughter together, Gersemi.

Not much else is written about Óðr, except that he often went away on long journeys. Freyja wept when she missed him. Several scholars have suggested that Óðr may just have been another name for the god Odin.When Freyja wept, she wept  tears of red gold, which was very valuable and precious, and this is what she used to give to heroes to do jobs for her so that they had something to bargain with.

Norse mythology

Óðr


Count Frederick of Isenberg (Friedrich von Isenberg)   (1193 – 15 November 1226) was a German noble, the younger son of Arnold of Altena  (died 1209). Before the split between Arnold of Altena-Isenberg the eldest and his brother Friedrich Altena-Mark the younger son of Everhard von Berg-Altena. His family castle was the Isenberg near Hattingen, Germany.

Murder
According to recent research, Frederick of Isenberg was a leading figure in the opposition of Westphalian nobles to the aggressive power politics of the Archbishop of Cologne, Engelbert of Berg.

In 1225 at the Nobles' Assembly in Soest, Count Frederick met his cousin Count Engelbert von Berg, Archbishop of Cologne, in order to bring about a peaceful agreement concerning the stewardship (Vogtei) of Essen Abbey, which Count Frederick, according to contemporary complaints, was abusing to his own benefit and to the detriment of the abbey. No conclusion was reached.

During their return together from Soest to Cologne, Count Frederick arranged to ambush his cousin, in a defile at the foot of the Gevelsberg between Hagen and Schwelm in the late afternoon of 7 November 1225, in the course of which the Archbishop was killed.

There is no consensus as to whether it was a deliberately planned murder, or whether the Archbishop was killed in the heat of combat. Current research assumes the latter, and that it was intended to take him into "knightly detention" so that the political demands of the opposing nobility could be pushed through. This was in accordance with the customs of the medieval feuding ethos.

Aftermath

Frederick of Isenberg was outlawed and excommunicated. He was stripped of all offices and stewardships and his entire personal wealth. In the winter of 1225/1226 the new Archbishop of Cologne, Heinrich von Müllenark, besieged and destroyed his castle.

Frederick travelled with his brothers Dietrich and Engelbert, bishops of Münster and Osnabrück (both also implicated in the death of the Archbishop), and the notary of Isenberg with the necessary documents to the Curia in Rome, in order to have the excommunication lifted.

On the return journey Frederick was taken prisoner at Liège and sold for 2,100 silver marks to the chapter of Cologne Cathedral. On 14 November 1226 he was executed in front of the Severin Gate in Cologne. His arms and legs were smashed and he was broken on the wheel, after which he was displayed on a stone pillar. He did not die until the next day.

His son, Count Dietrich von Altena-Isenberg, later fought to recover his paternal inheritance and founded the house of the Lords of Limburg Styrum and the house of the Counts of Limburg Hohenlimburg and the County of Limburg at Hohenlimburg.

Marriage and children
Frederick married c. 1210 Sophie of Limburg, a daughter of Waleran III, Duke of Limburg and Cunigunde of Lorraine. They had issue:
 Dietrich I (born before 1215, died 1301), last Count of Isenberg and Altena, 1st Count of Limburg (a.d.Lenne)
 Friedrich of Altena (born before 1220, died after 1243)
 Elisabeth of Altena (born before 1220, died after 1275), married ca. 1234 Dietrich II Count of Mors (born 1226, died 1275)
 Sophie of Altena (born before 1222, died after 1292), married in 1237 Heinrich III von Volmestein
 Agnes of Altena (born before 1228, died after 1282), married in 1243 Burchard III von Broich. They had 13 children
 a daughter, married Johann I Count of Sponheim and Sayn.

Literature
 Kraus, T.R., Die Entstehung der Landesherrschaft der Grafen von Berg bis zum Jahre 1225, Neustadt an der Aisch 1981
 Andernach, N., Entwicklung der Grafschaft Berg, in: Land im Mittelpunkt der Mächte. Die Herzogtümer Jülich-Kleve-Berg, Kleve 1984, S.63-73.
 Hoederath, H.T. Der Fall des Hauses Isenberg 1225/1226 . In rechtsgeschichterlicher und soziologischer Schau, 1954 Zeitschrift der Savigny stiftung fur Rechtsgeschichte. Kanonistische Abteilung
 Aders,G. Die Grafen (von Limburg) und die Herrn von Limburg-Styrum aus dem Haus Berg-Altena-Isenberg. Zeitschift 'Der Marker" 1956 blad 7.
 Korteweg, K.N. Descendants of Dietrich I Graf von Limburg Hohenlimburg. (Corrected lineage). De Nederlandse Leeuw Jaargang LXXXI no.8 August 1964.
 Berg, A. Lineage counts of Limburg Hohenlimburg and Lords of Limburg-Styrum. (Same independent conclusion) Archive fur Sippenforschung Heft 14. Jahrgang 30. Mai 1964.
 Klueting, H: "'Daß sie ein Abspliß von der Grafschaft Mark ist, daran ist kein Zweifel'": Die Grafschaft Limburg vom 13. bis zum 19 Jahrhundert", in: Jahrburch des Vereins für Orts-und Heimatkunde in der Grafschaft Mark 93/93 (1995), pp 63–126.
 Marra, S: "Grafen von der Mark, Herzöge von Kleve-Mark" und "Jülich-Kleve (Hof)", in: Werner Paravicini, editor: Fürstliche Höfe und Residenzen im spätmittelalterlichen Reich, (Sigmaringen 2003)
 Eversberg, H. Graf Friederich von Isenberg und die Isenburg 1193-1226. Hattingen 1989
 Gerhard E. Sollbach: "Der gewaltsame Tod des Erzbischofs Engelbert I. von Köln am 7. November 1225. Ein mittelalterlicher Kriminalfall", in: Jahrbuch des Vereins für Ort- und Heimatkunde in der Grafschaft Mark, 93./94. Bd., 1995, pp 7–49.
 Bleicher, W. Hohenlimburgher Heimatblätter fűr den Raum Hagen und Isenlohn. Beiträge zur Landeskunde. Monatsschrift des Vereins fűr Orts- und Heimatkunde Hohenlimburg e.V. Drűck Geldsetzer und Schäfer Gmbh. Iserlohn. County of Limburg Lenne. 1976-2012

External links
 7. November 1225
 Burg Isenberg, offizielle Seite
 Die Isenburg bei Hattingen - eine außergewöhnliche Geschichte
 Hohenlimburger Heimat Blatter

References

German murderers
Counts in Germany
German outlaws
Frederick
Counts of Limburg
Frederick
People excommunicated by the Catholic Church
People executed by breaking wheel
Executed people from North Rhine-Westphalia
People executed by Germany
1193 births
1226 deaths
13th-century murderers
13th-century executions

Frederick of Isenberg


The Battle o Fawkirk wis ane o the major stramashes o the First Scots Weir o Unthirldom, an wis a veectory for the Kinrick o Ingland. The Battle wis focht on the 22t o Julie 1298 in Fawkirk, in the middlins lawlands o Scotland atween the airmies o the Kinrick o Scotland- wha were led bi William Wallace an the Kinrick o Ingland wha were led bi Edward I o Ingland.

The battle
The Scots airmy wis 6,000 strang an wis makkit up o 5,000 fitmen an 1,000 horse, monie of the Scots fitmen haed lang spears cawed schiltrons that were uised tae fend aff the Inglis horse. The Inglis airmy wis makkit up o 12,500 fitmen an 2,500 horse, an inouth the Inglis airmy were monie airchers - maist o wham were Welsh, forby the airmy haed lairge nummers o hivy horse that were rid bi sodgers wi lang lances.

The battle wis focht on boggie grund sae that the Inglis horse couldnae chairge directly at the Scots fitmen. Houaniver the Welsh airchers shuitit hails o flanes that badly daimiget the Scots fitmen, an than the Inglis fitmen and horse attackit frae the sides o the battlefield aroond the boggie aurie. Than the twa airmies focht a bluidy battle, wi the Inglis takkin veectory. Ance the battle haed feenisht, baith airmies haed losses o aboot 2,000 men. William Wallace an 4,000 ither Scots were able tae evite frae the battlefield but the defeat resultit in Wallace dimitit as Gairdian o Scotland.

References

Fawkirk
Fawkirk

Battle o Fawkirk


The red-footed tortoise (Chelonoidis carbonarius) is a species of tortoise from northern South America. These medium-sized tortoises generally average  as adults, but can reach over . They have dark-colored, loaf-shaped carapaces (back shell) with a lighter patch in the middle of each scute (scales on the shell), and dark limbs with brightly colored scales that range from pale yellow to dark red. Recognized differences are seen between red-footed tortoises from different regions. They are closely related to the yellow-footed tortoise (C. denticulatus) from the Amazon Basin. They are popularly kept as pets, and over-collection has caused them to be vulnerable to extinction. The species name has often been misspelled as carbonaria, an error introduced in the 1980s when Chelonoidis was elevated to genus and mistakenly treated as feminine, an error recognized and fixed in 2017.

Their natural habitat ranges from savannah to forest edges around the Amazon Basin. They are omnivorous with a diet based on a wide assortment of plants, mostly fruit when available, but also including grasses, flowers, fungi, carrion, and invertebrates. They do not brumate, but may aestivate in hot, dry weather.

Eggs, hatchlings, and juvenile tortoises are food for many predators, but the main threats for adults are jaguars and humans. Population density ranges from locally common to very scarce due in part to habitat destruction and over-collection for food and the pet trade.

Names
Red-footed tortoises have many common names: red-leg, red-legged, or red-foot tortoise (often without the hyphen) and the savanna tortoise, as well as local names, such as carumbe or karumbe, which means 'slow moving' (Brazil, Paraguay), wayapopi or morrocoy (Venezuela, Colombia), and  variations of jabuti such as japuta and jabuti-piranga (Brazil, Argentina). In Portuguese, jabuti (jaboti) refers to both the red-footed tortoise and the yellow-footed tortoise.

It is also called kati in Natú and sambó in Kiriri.

Taxonomy

Red footed tortoises were originally assigned to the genus Testudo (named by Carl Linnaeus in 1758) for a short time, but it soon became the term for turtles with high-domed shells, elephantine legs, and completely terrestrial habits—the tortoises. In 1835, Leopold Fitzinger used Geochelone to differentiate some non-Mediterranean tortoises, apparently based on size and lack of specific identifying characteristics such as the hinged shell in the African hingeback tortoises. He used the term Chelonoidis as a subgenus for the species from South America. Few people used these terms until they were resurrected by Hewitt in 1933 and Loveridge and Williams in 1957.

In 1982, Roger Bour and Charles Crumly each separated Geochelone into different genera based on anatomic differences, especially in the skulls. That resulted in the formation or restoration of several genera: Aldabrachelys, Astrochelys, Cylindraspis, Indotestudo, Manouria, and Chelonoidis. Chelonoidis was distinguished from other Geochelone by their South American location, as well as the absence of the nuchal scute (the marginal centered over the neck) and the presence of a large, undivided supracaudal (the scute or scutes directly over the tail), as well as differences in the skull. Many of these generic names are still debated; for example, no specific definition of Geochelone is given, and Chelonoidis is primarily used for geography rather than unique anatomic characteristics.

The species name carbonarius means 'coal-like' referring to a dark coal with glowing patches. It was originally identified by Johann Baptist von Spix in 1824. The holotype was kept in the Zoologischen Sammlung des Bayerischen Staates in Munich, Germany, but was lost. Paulo Vanzolini believes it may have come from near the city of Manaus, Brazil, on the Rio Negro. No subspecies of red-footed tortoise are recognized, although many believe the species has five or more variants that may be subspecies or even separate species.

Description
Red-footed tortoises show sex, regional, and individual variations in color, shell shape, and minor anatomical characteristics. Adult  carapaces are generally an elongated oval with sides that are nearly parallel, although the sides of males may curve inwards. They are fairly highly domed and smooth with a rather flat back (although the scutes may be raised or 'pyramided' in some individuals, especially captive specimens). Often, a high point over the hips is seen, with a small sloped section over the neck. The vertebral and costal scutes (the scutes along the center and sides of the carapace) are black or dark brown with a pale yellow areole in the center. The marginals (scutes along the edge of the carapace) 'tuck under' along the sides and flare slightly over the limbs. They are dark with the pale aureole along the middle of the lower edge. The nuchal scute (the marginal over the neck) is absent, and the marginals over the tail are joined as one large supracaudal. Growth rings are clearly evident in most individuals, but become worn smooth with age.

The plastron (bottom shell) is large and thick along the edges. The gulars (frontmost pair of plastron scutes) do not protrude much past the front of the carapace. The plastron of a male is deeply indented, and the anal scutes (rearmost pair of plastron scutes) may be used to sex the animal while the color pattern varies by region.

The head is relatively small with a squared-off profile and flat on top, longer than it is wide. The eye is large with a brown, almost black iris, and rarely any sclera visible around it. The upper jaw is slightly hooked, and the upper jaw is notched in the front middle. About 15 to 20 'teeth' or fine grooves occur on each side of each jaw. A nearly circular tympanum is located behind and below the eye and is covered with a dark scale. The scales of the head are generally smallish and irregular, becoming small and pebbly on the neck. Many of the scales are colored pale yellow to brick red, especially those on the top of the head, above the tympanum, around the nostrils, on the lower jaw, and on the sides of the neck. Males are usually slightly more colorful than females, and colors vary by region.

The limbs are generally cylindrical with five claws on the fore limbs and four on the hind, but no visible toes. The fore limbs are slightly flattened and the front surface is covered with large scales, mostly with the same color as the head. They are not as large or protrusive as they are in more primitive species such as the African spurred tortoise (Geochelone sulcata). The tail is muscular, varies in length and overall shape by sex, and lacks any sort of claw on the tip.

Average adult sizes vary by region and sex, and 'giants' are often encountered. Red-footed tortoises average  with males slightly larger overall. Tortoises up to  are fairly common and over  are occasionally discovered. The largest known specimen, from Paraguay, was  long, and weighed over . It is unknown if the 'giants' represent diet availability, genetic issues, longevity, or other possibilities.

Hatchling and young red-footed tortoises have much rounder and flatter carapaces that start off as mostly pale yellow to brown. New growth adds dark rings around the pale center of each scute. The marginals of very young tortoises are serrated, especially over the hind limbs. This probably aids in both camouflage against the leaf litter and in making the small animals harder to eat. Young tortoises are generally more colorful overall.

Males are slightly larger and more colorful overall. The carapace of a  male from north of the Amazon basin shows a 'wasp waist', or constrictions along the sides. The male's plastron is deeply indented to help with positioning during mating. The male's tail is long and muscular, generally carried along a side while the female's tail is short and conical.

The anal scutes vary to allow the male's tail more mobility and allows more protection for the female's hind end. The gap between the points of the anal scales and the marginals is wider and the anal scutes form a broader angle- almost a straight line across- in males to allow the tail to move laterally. The angle is more closed (to about a 90° angle) and the points are closer to the marginals in females.

Distribution and habitat

Red-footed tortoises range from southeastern Panama to Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and Guiana in the north; south along the Andes to the west in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia; east to Brazil, and along the southern range in Bolivia, Paraguay, and possibly northern Argentina. They are not evenly distributed within their range. For example, they are not often found in central Brazil or in heavily forested areas in general, and have only documented in Peru since 1985. Accurate range information is complicated by the sheer size of the range, political and geographic barriers, and confusion about where many specimens were collected.

They are also found on several Caribbean Islands, although it is not always clear if they are native or brought by humans. Many of the colonies seem to have been established in the 17th century as food supplies or as pets. They are found on the former Netherlands Antilles, Trinidad, Tobago, Grenada, Barbados, St. Vincent, the Grenadines, Santa Lucia, Martinique, Dominica, Guadalupe, the Leeward Islands, the Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico.

The preferred habitat of the red-footed tortoise varies somewhat by region, but generally includes fairly consistent seasonal temperatures near  that rarely get lower than  or over , generally with high humidity and plenty of rainfall, although some of the areas can get quite dry. Most of the range experiences cooler wet seasons (April to August) and warmer dry seasons (September to March), but some parts of the southern range have occasional cold snaps. Red-footed tortoises are often found in or near transitional areas between forest and savannah, such as forest clearings, wood edges, or along waterways.

Regional variations
Various authors have divided the red-footed tortoise into different groups by anatomy and geography. Peter Pritchard recognized seven types, but DNA research has identified five genotypes.

The most obvious differences are between the groups found north or south of the Amazon basin. The 'northern' variants all look very much like the holotype and are distinguished primarily by shell, head, and limb coloration. The variants south of the Amazon are generally both larger and smaller than the holotype, have a very different plastral pattern, and have an enlarged scale or 'spur' on the inside of the fore limb elbow.

Northeastern variant
This is the holotype of the species. Head and limb colors are generally light orange to red. Plastrons are mostly pale yellow. They range in the Guiana Shield- Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, Guiana, and northern Brazil.

Northwestern variant
They are similar to the northeastern variant, but their carapace base color is grey, dark brown, or coffee rather than black. Their pale plastrons have central dark areas resembling an exclamation point. Their heads and limbs are generally pale yellow to orange. The average size is slightly smaller than usual- 30–35 cm. They are found in southeast Panama and Colombia.

Northern variant
These also are similar to the northeastern variant, with head and limb colors generally pale yellow to light orange, rarely red, and their heads and limbs are often slightly different colors. The average size is slightly smaller than usual- 30–35 cm. They are found in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.

Southern variant

The southern variants' carapaces are often not quite black to dark brown, sometimes with light grey or whitish between the scutes. Their plastrons are mostly dark in a symmetrical mottled pattern. Size tends to be larger on average then northeastern variants, with the largest individuals found in this area. Fore limbs feature a slightly enlarged scale on the side of the 'elbow'. Adult males do not have the constricted waist, and females average a bit larger than the males. They are seen in the Gran Chaco - Bolivia, Paraguay, and northern Argentina.

Eastern variant
Carapaces of the eastern variants are often light grey or whitish between the scutes. Their plastrons are mostly dark in a symmetrical mottled pattern. Size tends to be smaller on average than northeastern variants, also reaching sexual maturity at a smaller size. Fore limbs feature a slightly enlarged scale on the side of the 'elbow'. Their heads and limbs are either yellowish or red, ranging to brilliant cherry-red. They are located in east to southeast Brazil. The red-headed type of this variant is often called a 'cherry-head' in the pet trade.

Population features
Little information is available about population density or sex ratios. Many specimens are recorded from near research stations and cities, but that is almost certainly more due to the ease of finding them there than higher localized populations. They are considered one of the most common turtle species in many localities. When a dam was being built in the Edo region of Venezuela, several hundreds of the red- and yellow-footed tortoises were captured for relocation. Large numbers are also found in markets, confiscated at airports, etc. However, very few records exist from Peru, Ecuador, Argentina, and central Brazil. In the Guiana Shield region, islands of higher populations and stretches where few have been located are seen.

Counting tortoises that are often well-hidden, dug in, deep in burrows, etc. is difficult. Trained dogs discover many that otherwise might not be found. One study showed a nearly balanced mix of 1.32 males per female, and 1.05 red-footed tortoises per hectare (2.4 acres) on the island, which may be an underestimate due to the difficulty in finding the tortoises.

Evolutionary history and fossil record
The genus Chelonoidis has two main subcategories based on appearance and habitat- the C. carbonarius and the C. chilensis groups. The C. carbonarius group has the closely related red- and yellow-footed tortoises that clearly share a common ancestor. The C. chilensis group features the Chaco tortoise (C. chilensis) and Galápagos tortoise (C. niger), which share similar habitats and a basic appearance, but otherwise do not seem to be closely related. The relationship between the groups is unclear.

Several theories are offered to explain the relatively small number of tortoise species in South America and the relationship between them, but the fossil record is not very complete. One long-held theory is that they came from Asia using the land bridge, then spread down through North America and shared ancestors with the gopher tortoises (Gopherus species). Another holds Geochelone ancestors floated over from central Africa, taking advantage of their ability to float, resist salt water, and go without food for extended periods.

DNA studies suggest that the carbonarius group may be related to the African hingeback tortoises (Kinixys species). This suggests that they might have come from Gondwana before it separated into Africa and South America some 130 million years ago.  One ancestral form from about 5mya, Chelonoidis hesterna (Auffenberg 1971), is thought to have lived in wet forests and split into two species in the Miocene with the yellow-footed tortoises remaining in the deep forest and the red-footeds colonizing the edges of the forests and the emerging savannahs. As the climate and topography changed, groups of red-footed tortoises became physically separated and genetically isolated.

Ecology and behavior
The red-footed tortoise's climate in the northern part of the range changes little day to day  and rarely gets too hot for them, so the tortoises do not need to practice any form of dormancy and can often forage all day long. The tortoises in Moskovitz's study area were most active after 3:00pm while many species from warmer climes would be most active in the morning and evening. Tortoises from the southern parts of the range experience much hotter, colder, and drier conditions than most of the range and aestivate when food becomes scarce. They may aestivate or brumate when the temperatures are low enough.

Most species of tortoise spend much of their day inactive, and red-footed tortoises generally spend over 50% of the daylight hours at rest. They may rest for even longer after a large meal, with five- to ten-day stretches being common. One large specimen seems to have stayed in the same position for over a month. Resting tortoises barely move, allowing leaf litter to accumulate on them, and termites have built tunnels on the carapaces of resting red-footed tortoises.

 They seek shelter in places that offer thermoregulation and protection from predators. Treefalls are a favored site, as are debris piles, burrows (especially those of the armadillo (Dasypodidae family) and agouti (Dasyprocta species)), hollow logs, holes, and heavy vegetation cover. They generally try to find tight-fitting resting places, and will occasionally 'wedge' themselves between roots and trunks but remain otherwise exposed. Burrows and holes are often flooded and the tortoises will rest in the water and mud with just their nostrils and eyes exposed. In warmer weather, they press up against moister, cooler surfaces in shelter areas. The tortoises show personal preferences with many individuals always seeking out a specific type of shelter.

Shelters are often communal with as many tortoises as can fit in the space. Good shelters are so important, and visibility is so poor that the tortoises will leave scent trails that they or others can follow. Some shelters are so heavily used by tortoises that clear trails in the dirt lead to them, though individual tortoises may not return to a given shelter regularly.

Besides communal shelters and scent marking, red-footed tortoises also show other signs of semisocial behavior such as lack of aggression at feeding sites, not protecting territory, and group feeding at fruit falls and carrion (although it is not unusual for one tortoise to block access or even try to make off with some of the food). Red-footed tortoises often follow each other, usually a smaller one following a larger and quite often males following males, but all combinations are seen. They have also been observed following apparent scent trails laid by an individual a day or two earlier.

Predators
Hatchling and young tortoises are at high risk of predation. Tegu lizards (Tupinambis species), ring-tailed coatis (Nasua nasua), and introduced rats and mongooses attack nests and eggs. Many predators take the young tortoises, including large lizards, snakes, crocodilians, and even large turtles; predatory birds such as the curassow (Crax species), guan (Penelope species), rails, cuckoos, and falcons; and mammals such as cats (Felidae species), opossums, foxes, peccaries, and feral dogs.

Other than humans, the main predators of the adult tortoises are jaguars (Panthera onca). Red-footed and yellow-footed tortoises seem to be a significant food source for jaguars in some parts of their respective ranges, such as Manú National Park in Peru. Jaguars bite at the carapace and work at cracking or prying it apart to extract the soft tissues. Many tortoises show toothmarks from attacks that they survived, often on the hind end when they were otherwise protected in a burrow or shelter.

Diet
Discussing the diet of the red-footed tortoise is difficult due to the wide variety of foods it eats, the variety and seasonal availability of plants available across the extensive range, interpreting what field reports are trying to describe, and because studying fecal pellets gives very different results than what the animals are observed eating.

Forest-dwelling tortoises in the Chelonoidis, Indotestudo, Manouria, and Kinixys genera are omnivores with upper and lower intestines about the same length, while herbivorous genera such as Gopherus and Testudo have longer large intestines to digest fibrous grasses. Most omnivorous tortoises have no other specialized digestive structures, reflecting their generalized, flexible diet.

The bulk of the diet is some sort of fruit or seed pod. Common fruits come from cacti (Opuntia), figs (Ficus), pehen (Acacia aroma), Spondias, Annona, Philodendron, bromeliads, and more. Up to five different kinds of fruits are often found in fecal pellets. The entire fruit is eaten, and the seeds are passed and can germinate, giving red- and yellow-footed tortoises a significant role in seed dispersal. Red-footed tortoises have been observed at the base of fruit trees, apparently waiting for fruit to fall.

The rest of the diet includes grasses, leaves, flowers, roots, and shoots from a wide assortment of plants as well as fungi, live invertebrates (such as ants, termites, beetles, butterflies, snails, and worms), carrion, and feces (especially from foxes). Tortoises are often found at carcasses feeding until gorged, and occasionally eat small live animals such as snakes and rodents. Pebbles and sand are also often found in fecal pellets.

The diet changes based on season and availability. In the wet season it may be roughly 70% fruit, 25% fresh leaves and shoots, and the rest being fungi and animal food. The dry season sees 40% fruits, 23% flowers, 16% fresh leaves and shoots, and the rest fungi, moss, and animal food.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Merchan|first=Manuel|author2=Ana M. Fidalgo |author3=Cesar Perez |title=Biology, Distribution and Conservation of the Redfoot TortoiseGeochelone carbonaria|journal=Reptilia (GB)|year=1998|volume=2|pages=30–38}}
</ref>

Omnivorous tortoises seek out foods high in calcium even if other foods are more readily available, and  even eat mineral-rich soil if they cannot get adequate calcium in the diet.

 Movement
Red-foot tortoises forage over areas ranging from  usually making a 'spiderweb' pattern centered on a good hide or a recent fruit fall. They generally move methodically  around 5 to 20 m/hr (5.5-22 yd/hr), but can raise up on their long legs and move up to 100 m/hr (109 yd/hr) when they want. While they generally forage in zig-zag or looping patterns, they sometimes move  or more in fairly straight lines, often at a rapid pace. They show a marked preference for moving under medium to dense vegetation cover.

 Lifecycle
All turtles and tortoises start as eggs. Red-footed tortoise eggs are roughly spherical and average around  and weigh  with two to seven eggs in a clutch, although the same females may lay multiple clutches near each other. The incubation period is 105–202 days, with 150 being typical.

Hatchlings use an egg tooth to open the egg. They stay in the egg or nest for several days. Hatchling shells are bent almost in half in the egg and take some time to straighten out. The  hatchling's carapace is flat, somewhat creased from being folded in the egg, and has serrated sides. Little is known of the daily activities or diet of hatchling wild tortoises. Subadult tortoises grow quickly to reach breeding sizes- roughly , depending on the average adult size of the regional variant.

The peak time for courtship and reproduction is the early wet season in April and May, although it can happen at any time. Courtship noises and possibly scent cues seem to attract other tortoises to 'courting sites' under fruiting  trees such as Genipa. When two tortoises meet about a meter apart, they engage in some specific behaviors to identify the other. The first trigger is head and limb color; the bright red, orange, yellow, or white colors on the dark skin identify the other animal as the proper species. Next, the larger tortoise makes jerky side-to-side head movements for two to four seconds. If both tortoises are males, one will either withdraw and retreat, or they may try to ram each other, trying to get their gular scutes under the other one, then pushing them several meters away as quickly as possible. The defeated tortoise is sometimes flipped onto his back in the process. The defeated tortoise will leave the area afterwards. Neither head bobbing nor ritual combat have been observed in tortoises south of the Amazon Basin, possibly due to the lack of yellow-footed tortoises in the area. Males mounting other males, and even females mounting either sex have been witnessed and are thought to show dominance.

If the other tortoise is a female, she will move away and the male will follow, touching her carapace and occasionally sniffing at her cloaca. If the female stops, the male may either wait for her to resume moving or leave. Males make loud 'clucking' sounds during the chase. After trailing, the male mounts the female, his feet planted on the costals of her carapace, rams his anal scutes against her supracaudal, and makes a loud raspy 'bark'. If the female resumes walking, he may fall off and resume trailing. Females sometimes seem to intentionally use low limbs to knock males off. A receptive female  extends her hind legs and lifts her plastron as the male plants himself on his own extended hind legs as he works to align their cloacae for insertion. The tail, scutes, and penis of the tortoise are designed to work around the awkwardness of the shell. The male often leans his head over her head and holds his jaws wide open making calls that get louder. He may bite her, as well, sometimes quite aggressively. The shells can make loud clacking noises during the forceful thrusts. The female walks away after copulation, sometimes knocking the male off her.

The female begins nesting five to six weeks after mating. Digging the nests is often difficult in hard soil. The female may urinate to soften the soil before using her hind legs to dig a chamber about  in about three and a half hours. Inexperienced females often dig several partial nests, and even experienced females may abandon a nest they are working on and start another. When the nest is ready, she lowers her tail as deep into the nest as she can and deposits an egg every 30 to 120 seconds. She recovers the nest and tamps the soil down. Females get better at digging, covering, and camouflaging nests over time. After it is covered and hidden, she often gets a long drink of water, then finds a shelter and rest. Very rarely, a red-footed tortoise lays eggs on the surface, or within a patch of cacti.

As with other tortoises, red-footed tortoises can reproduce most of their lives, although the number of eggs laid and the ratio of successful hatchlings improves as the tortoise matures, then drops off again as the tortoise ages. Because of the difficulty in determining the age of a wild tortoise, few data on longevity exist, although many live for 30 years or more in captivity.

 Conservation and relations with humans
The red-foot tortoise is considered vulnerable and is listed in CITES Appendix II, restricting international trade- although this does not offer protection within a country and smuggling still occurs in large numbers. Conservation parks and refuges, captive-breeding farms in natural conditions, and increased captive breeding in other countries has helped, but they are still exported in large numbers (35,565 from 2000 to 2005), mostly as pets and food. The recorded exports do not include smuggling or other losses, which some estimate to be well over twice that number. They are considered especially at risk in Argentina and Colombia, and are considered more at risk than yellow-footed and Chaco tortoises.

They are widely used as food throughout their ranges, especially where other meats are limited. Their ability to go a long time without eating makes it easy to catch and keeps them fresh for extended periods. The Catholic Church allows tortoises to be eaten on fasting days when most meats are forbidden such as Lent. Tortoise pie (pastel de morrocoy, served in a tortoise shell) is a favorite food for those times, and large numbers of tortoises are exported just for that purpose. Even people living in countries with an abundance of available livestock enjoy wild game, such as tortoises, when possible. Hunting for food is so extensive that Colombia and some other countries import tortoises from neighbors.

Habitat destruction is another significant threat to the red-footed tortoise, and so many other species. They are also widely collected as local pets and their shells are sold as souvenirs.

 Captive care
Red-footed tortoises are popular pet tortoises around the world. They are relatively inexpensive, are a manageable size, have interesting personalities, and are colorful. Pet tortoises should be purchased as captive-bred from a reliable breeder when possible to both help protect wild populations and to avoid internal parasites.

Any reptile can carry Salmonella'' species, so keepers should practice proper hygiene, such as washing their hands after handling the animals or their wastes. Dogs, even well-behaved dogs, often attack or chew on tortoises, so great care must be taken if they are around.

Housing
All tortoises should be housed outdoors when conditions allow. Outdoor pens should allow space for exercise, secure walls that are at least 1.5 times taller than the tortoise is long, and security from both predators and escape. Shelter and water should always be provided.

Indoor housing is generally scaled to the size of the tortoise and must be secure and waterproof for this high-humidity species, as well as offering adequate space. Aquaria and plastic tubs are often used for younger tortoises, while a "tortoise table" (similar to shelf-less bookcase lying on its back), indoor minigreenhouse, or large indoor pen can be used for larger tortoises or groups of tortoises.

An indoor habitat should be lined with a substrate such as hardwood mulches (like cypress), coconut coir, soil and sand mixes, or some combination. A hide and water dish are necessary, and live or silk plants also help.

Environment
Heat, light, and humidity must be kept within proper guidelines for healthy tortoises. Red-footed tortoises are most active at temperatures from . A warmer area of  is recommended, and night temperatures can drop a few degrees lower. High levels of humidity should be available in some part of the habitat.

Lighting should be low and diffuse or plenty of shade should be offered. Lights that emit UVB wavelengths are recommended to help the tortoise metabolize calcium correctly and help regulate the pineal gland if the tortoise will be indoors for extended periods.

Captive diet
Pet tortoises should be allowed to forage in a well-planted outdoor pen whenever possible. The basic diet should consist of a variety of plants, vegetables, and fruits with occasional meat, and be high in calcium and fiber, and low in sugars and fats. Fruits should be kept as whole as possible. Commercial tortoise pellets can be offered along with fresh foods.

The bulk of the diet should be leafy greens such as turnip or collard greens, dandelion, leafy or curly lettuces, endive, kale, cabbage, edible tree or plant leaves such as mulberry or hibiscus, lettuce mixes, parsley, grape leaves, etc.

Vegetables and fruits offer variety and other nutrients, but are a smaller part of the captive diet. Good choices would include: cactus pads and fruits, papaya, figs, mango, mushrooms, pumpkin, squash, melon, pineapple, strawberry, cucumber, hays and grasses (such as wheatgrass), corn, peas and beans, carrot, apple, pear, plums, and okra.

Meats form a very small part of the captive diet, and can include live bugs or invertebrates (especially slugs), baby mice or rats, chicken, egg, organ meat, lean beef, tuna or other 'oily' fish, or cat or dog food.

Calcium should be supplemented frequently in very small amounts. Other vitamins can be offered in very small amounts as well, but are best provided through a balanced, varied diet.

References

External links

 See video of red-footed tortoises at the Naples Zoo
 Red Foot Tortoise
About.com-Red Foot Tortoise
Animals of the Virgin Islands gov.vi
Red Foot Tortoise AVPH - Turtles and Tortoises

Chelonoidis
Turtles of South America
Reptiles of the Caribbean
Reptiles of Saint Barthélemy
Reptiles of Saint Martin (island)
Reptiles of Guyana
Vulnerable animals
Vulnerable biota of South America
Reptiles described in 1824
Articles containing video clips

Red-footed tortoise


The Kentucky River is a river in the state of Kentucky. It is a tributary of, or flows into, the Ohio River and is 259 miles long. The city of Frankfort is located on the Kentucky River. It is formed at Beattyville, Kentucky, which is in Lee County, which is where the North and South Forks come together.

Description

The river is formed in eastern Kentucky at Beattyville, in Lee County, when the North, Middle and South Forks meet at about 670 feet (204 m). The river flows generally northwest, and is highly meandering in the mountains. It then flows through Daniel Boone National Forest, then past Irvine and Boonesborough, then southwest, passing south of Lexington, then north through Frankfort. It joins the Ohio at Carrollton.

Approximately 15 mi (25 km) southwest of Boonesborough it is joined by the Red River. About 20 mi (30 km) southwest of Boonesborough it is joined by Silver Creek. At High Bridge, it is joined by the Dix River. At Frankfort, it is joined by Benson Creek. 10 mi north of Frankfort, Elkhorn Creek flows into the river.

Between Clays Ferry in Madison County and Frankfort, the river passes through the Kentucky River Palisades. The latter is a series of steep gorges approximately 100 mi (160 km) in length.

According to Robert F. Collins of the United States Forest Service, Dr. Thomas Walker named the river, in 1750, Louisa River, after Princess Louisa, the wife of Prince William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland. Later, the name Louisa became Levisa and shifted to the nearby stream today called Levisa Fork River.

References
 Collins, Robert F. "A History of the Daniel Boone National Forest". (1975)
 Arthur Benke & Colbert Cushing, "Rivers of North America".  Elsevier Academic Press, 2005
 Rhodes, Captain Rick, "The Ohio River --In American History and Voyaging on Today's River" has a section on the Kentucky River, Heron Island Guides, 2007,

Rivers of Kentucky

Kentucky River


Mons Meg is a mediaeval bombard made in 1449. It is now at Edinburgh Castle, Scotland. In contrast to modern shells, which are explosive, these older cannons fired solid balls. Mons Meg fired balls of iron.

It seems, from the accounts of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, that it was made to his order around 1449 and sent as a gift eight years later to King James II of Scotland, with other artillery supplies. Mons Meg weighs , is  in length, and has a calibre of . The final cost of the gun was £1,536. 2s.

History

Manufacture
The bombard was made from long bars of iron, hooped with rings and fused into one mass. The Duke's artillery maker constructed it, and it was tested at Mons, Wallonia, in June 1449. The Duke did not take delivery until 1453. The Duke decided to help the Scots against the English, and sent it to James II. James imported a lot of artillery from continental Europe during his reign. He used it against his enemies in Scotland, such as the Earl of Douglas. James died as a result of an exploding cannon used in the siege of Roxburgh Castle in 1460.

Another story suggests Mons Meg was made in order to help James II in the 1452 siege of Threave Castle in Kirkcudbright, when the Clan MacLellan used it to batter the castle. This version has little support.

In action
The  calibre cannon accepted balls that weighed about . It could only be fired 8-10 times a day due to the tremendous heat generated by the huge powder charge. In early years the gun, like the other royal cannon, was painted with red-lead to keep it from rusting. This cost 30 shillings in June 1539.

From the 1540s Meg was retired from active service and was fired only on ceremonial occasions from Edinburgh Castle, from where shot could be found up to two miles away. When Mons was fired on 3 July 1558, workmen were paid to find and retrieve the shot from Wardie Mure, near the River Forth. The salute marked the marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots to the French Dauphin.

The gun was fired in 1680 to celebrate the arrival of James, Duke of Albany and York, later King James II of England and VII of Scotland. The barrel burst. An English cannoneer had loaded the charge and many Scots believed that the damage was done on purpose, since the English had no cannon as big as this. The incident was also seen as a bad omen for the future King.

The cannon was left outside Foog's Gate at Edinburgh Castle. It was next taken, with other disused ordnance, to the Tower of London in 1754, but was returned to the Castle in 1829, after a campaign by the author Sir Walter Scott. It was restored, and now sits outside St. Margaret's Chapel.

References

Artillery
Edinburgh

Mons Meg


The University of Fort Hare is a public university in Alice, Eastern Cape, South Africa. It was an important university for black Africans from 1916 to 1959.

It offered a Western-style, academically excellent education to students from across sub-Saharan Africa, creating a black African elite. Nelson Mandela studied at the university during his early years before leading a group of students on a political strike and getting expelled.

References

Other websites
 Official website

Fort Hare
Eastern Cape

University of Fort Hare


Alan Frank Guttmacher (May 19, 1898 – March 18, 1974) was an American obstetrician/gynecologist. He served as president of Planned Parenthood and vice-president of the American Eugenics Society. Guttmacher founded the American Association of Planned Parenthood Physicians, now known as the Association of Reproductive Health Professionals, as a forum for physicians to discuss the birth control pill and other advances in the field. He founded the Association for the Study of Abortion in 1964. He was a member of the Association for Voluntary Sterilization. The Guttmacher Institute is named after him.

In 1973, Guttmacher was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto II.

Family
Guttmacher was born in 1898 to Rabbi Adolf (Adolph) Guttmacher, and Laura (Oppenheimer) Guttmacher, German Jewish emigrants. His twin brother, Manfred Guttmacher, was an advisor to the Baltimore City's Supreme Bench as a psychiatrist. Their older sister, Dorothy Emma Guttmacher, owned the Tudor Flower Shops at Johns Hopkins Hospital. Alan married Leonore Gidding in 1926 and together they raised three daughters, Ann (Loeb), Sally (Holtzman), and Susan (Green).

Professional history

Guttmacher was a graduate of Johns Hopkins University and the Hopkins Medical School. He served as Director of Obstetrics and Gynecology and was appointed Obstetrician and Gynecologist-In-Chief at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York for approximately ten years. In 1962, ten years after moving to New York, he became president of the Planned Parenthood Federation. He extended this endeavor by founding the Association of Planned Parenthood Physicians which included scientists and medical practitioners. From 1964 to 1968, he served as Chairman of the Medical Committee of the International Planned Parenthood Federation. Guttmacher was also a fellow of the American College of Obstetrics and Gynecologists, the American Fertility Society, New York Academy of Medicine, and the American Association of Obstetricians and Gynecologists.

References

External links
 "Who was Alan Guttmacher?" (from the Guttmacher Institute)
Alan F. Guttmacher papers, 1860, 1898-1974. H MS c 155. Harvard Medical Library, Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine, Boston, Mass.

American eugenicists
American people of German-Jewish descent
1898 births
1974 deaths
American birth control activists
Johns Hopkins Hospital
Presidents of Planned Parenthood
Jewish eugenicists
Jewish humanists
Activists from Maryland
American twins
Park School of Baltimore alumni
Members of the National Academy of Medicine

Alan Frank Guttmacher


The national flag of Anguilla, a British overseas territory, consists of a Blue Ensign with the British flag in the canton, charged with the coat of arms of Anguilla in the fly. The coat of arms consists of three dolphins, which were featured on the earlier Anguillan flag, and which stand for friendship, wisdom and strength.

Anguilla
Anguilla

Flag of Anguilla


William Watts "Buck" Biggers (June 2, 1927 – February 10, 2013) was an American novelist and co-creator of the long-running animated television series Underdog.

Early life
Born in Avondale Estates, Georgia, Biggers went to Avondale High where he was member of a debating team which won the state championship. Skipping his senior year of high school, he edited the school newspaper at North Georgia Military College and went on to Emory University Law School. At age 20, he headed for New York City where he struggled unsuccessfully as a pianist and vocalist, singing his own original songs. At the advertising agency Dancer Fitzgerald Sample, he began as a mailroom trainee and rose to the position of VP Account Supervisor on General Mills and Corn Products/Best Foods accounts, handling millions in billing.

Animation
At Dancer Fitzgerald Sample in 1960, Biggers teamed with Chester Stover, Treadwell D. Covington and artist Joseph Harris to create TV animation in formats devised to sell General Mills breakfast cereals. Leaving Dancer Fitzgerald Sample, Biggers relocated to Cape Cod to form his company, Total Television (TTV), with animation produced at Gamma Studios in Mexico. TTV created and produced a variety of animated TV series, including The King and Odie (the studio's first program), The Hunter, Tooter Turtle, Tennessee Tuxedo, Go Go Gophers, The World of Commander McBragg, Klondike Kat and Underdog. For these series, Biggers co-wrote more than 500 scripts and composed all theme songs, words and music. The highly successful Underdog originally was telecast on NBC from 1964 to 1966, followed by a run on CBS (1966–68) and a return to NBC (1968–70 and 1972–73).

Total TeleVision folded when General Mills dropped out as the sponsor in 1969. Biggers moved back to New York as VP Promotion and Creative Services for NBC, heading a 90-person department for five years. He returned to Cape Cod for a 12-year career as a freelance writer, contributing to TV Guide, Family Circle and Reader's Digest. Biggers and Stover collaborated on the television news column, TV Tinderbox, which ran in 200 newspapers, syndicated by the Chicago Tribune-New York Daily News and later by Dallas' Tel-Aire Syndicate and King Features Syndicate.

In 1995, Biggers, Stover, Covington and Harris sold their creations to Lorne Michaels, who sold the rights to Little Golden Books, which published Underdog and the Disappearing Ice Cream. For BearManor Media, Biggers co-authored How Underdog Was Born (2005).

Novels
In 1968, Ballantine Books published Biggers' The Man Inside as an original paperback. At the time, because of the author's name and the tale of a quest for higher consciousness, some readers believed the novel had been written under a pseudonym by Alan Watts. Along with a description of the characters, the story was only briefly described on the back cover as "Strange, hallucinatory, following its own inner logic down unexpected paths, The Man Inside is a novel of startling originality, a journey towards wisdom—like Hermann Hesse's Steppenwolf—that culminates in revelation." However, the opening page blurb elaborated:
The Man Inside is a novel of startling originality. It could be read as a parody of the Horatio Alger story—the orphan boy whose struggles lead him down and down until success comes at the bottom. Or a Kafkaesque pursuit of Purpose, the ceaseless quest for the meaning of life—always baffled by the cruel traps of mankind. Or a journey toward wisdom—in the manner of Hermann Hesse—that culminates oddly: satori achieved inside a robot. But such suggestions can give only a faint indication of the strange and haunting powers of The Man Inside. The rest the reader must discover for himself.

In 1999, it was reissued by Bamberger Books as a hardcover. It was optioned as a feature film by One Brick Films. His novel Hold Back the Tide concerns a lovelorn police chief who wants a hypnotist to eliminate his obsessions so he can continue solving crimes. It was published February, 2001, as a 1st Books Library ebook.

Victory over Violence
Biggers was vice-president and co-founder of the Boston-based Victory over Violence "dedicated to creating a positive force in the media to offset the cynicism and negativity, which create a climate of violence," and has used Underdog to promote the organization.

Biggers created a new episode of Underdog in 1999 as a half-hour radio show, narrated by Tom Ellis. In it, Simon Bar Sinister develops a Switchpitch baseball to turn positive people negative. His attempt to become king of Boston is foiled by Underdog and Sweet Polly Purebred.

Death
Biggers died of a heart attack at his home in Manomet, Massachusetts on February 10, 2013.

References

External links
Biggers on the 2007 Underdog movie
Boston Globe: Positive People Day
Harris Literary Agency Biggers profile
"Have No Fear" by Evan Hessel, Forbes, August 13, 2007
Victory Over Violence
Underdog theme

1927 births
2013 deaths
People from Avondale Estates, Georgia
American male composers
American composers
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American male writers
American health and wellness writers
Novelists from Georgia (U.S. state)
American male television writers
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
American male screenwriters
21st-century American male writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American male non-fiction writers
Emory University School of Law alumni
Screenwriters from Georgia (U.S. state)

W. Watts Biggers