Uranium ore deposits are economically recoverable concentrations of uranium within the Earth's crust. Uranium is one of the most common elements in the Earth's crust, being 40 times more common than silver and 500 times more common than gold.  It can be found almost everywhere in rock, soil, rivers, and oceans.  The challenge for commercial uranium extraction is to find those areas where the concentrations are adequate to form an economically viable deposit. The primary use for uranium obtained from mining is in fuel for nuclear reactors.

Globally, the distribution of uranium ore deposits is widespread on all continents, with the largest deposits found in Australia, Kazakhstan, and Canada. To date, high-grade deposits are only found in the Athabasca Basin region of Canada.

Uranium deposits are generally classified based on host rocks, structural setting, and mineralogy of the deposit. The most widely used classification scheme was developed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and subdivides deposits into 15 categories.

Uranium

Uranium is a silvery-gray metallic weakly radioactive chemical element. It has the chemical symbol U and atomic number 92. The most common isotopes in natural uranium are 238U (99.27%) and 235U (0.72%). All uranium isotopes present in natural uranium are radioactive and fissionable, and 235U is fissile (will support a neutron-mediated chain reaction). Uranium, thorium, and one radioactive isotope of potassium () as well as their decay products are the main elements contributing to natural terrestrial radioactivity. Cosmogenic radionuclides are of less importance but unlike the aforementioned primordial radionuclides, which date back to the formation of the planet and have since slowly decayed away, they are replenished at roughly the same rate they decay by the bombardment of earth with cosmic rays.

Uranium has the highest atomic weight of the naturally occurring elements and is approximately 70% denser than lead, but not as dense as tungsten, gold, platinum, iridium, or osmium. It is always found combined with other elements. Along with all elements having atomic weights higher than that of iron, it is only naturally formed in supernova explosions.

Uranium minerals

The primary uranium ore mineral is uraninite (UO2) (previously known as pitchblende). A range of other uranium minerals can be found in various deposits. These include carnotite, tyuyamunite, torbernite and autunite. The davidite-brannerite-absite type uranium titanates, and the euxenite-fergusonite-samarskite group are other uranium minerals.

A large variety of secondary uranium minerals are known, many of which are brilliantly coloured and fluorescent. The most common are gummite (a mixture of minerals), autunite (with calcium), saleeite (magnesium) and torbernite (with copper); and hydrated uranium silicates such as coffinite, uranophane (with calcium) and sklodowskite (magnesium).

Ore genesis

There are several themes of uranium ore deposit formation, which are caused by geological and chemical features of rocks and the element uranium. The basic themes of uranium ore genesis are host mineralogy, reduction-oxidation potential, and porosity.

Uranium is a highly soluble, as well as a radioactive, heavy metal. It can be easily dissolved, transported and precipitated within ground waters by subtle changes in oxidation conditions. Uranium also does not usually form very insoluble mineral species, which is a further factor in the wide variety of geological conditions and places in which uranium mineralization may accumulate.

Uranium is an incompatible element within magmas, and as such it tends to become accumulated within highly fractionated and evolved granite melts, particularly alkaline examples. These melts tend to become highly enriched in uranium, thorium and potassium, and may in turn create internal pegmatites or hydrothermal systems into which uranium may dissolve.

Classification schemes

IAEA Classification (1996)
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) assigns uranium deposits to 15 main categories of deposit types, according to their geological setting and genesis of mineralization, arranged according to their approximate economic significance.
 Unconformity-related deposits
 Sandstone deposits
 Quartz-pebble conglomerate deposits
 Breccia complex deposits
 Vein deposits
 Intrusive deposits (Alaskites)
 Phosphorite deposits
 Collapse breccia pipe deposits
 Volcanic deposits
 Surficial deposits
 Metasomatite deposits
 Metamorphic deposits
 Lignite
 Black shale deposits
 Other types of deposits

Alternate scheme
The IAEA classification scheme works well, but is far from ideal, as it does not consider that similar processes may form many deposit types, yet in a different geological setting. The following table groups the above deposit types based on their environment of deposition.

Deposit types (IAEA Classification)

Unconformity-related deposits

Unconformity-type uranium deposits host high grades relative to other uranium deposits and include some of the largest and richest deposits known. They occur in close proximity to unconformities between relatively quartz-rich sandstones comprising the basal portion of relatively undeformed sedimentary basins and deformed metamorphic basement rocks. These sedimentary basins are typically of Proterozoic age, however some Phanerozoic examples exist.

Phanerozoic unconformity-related deposits occur in Proterozoic metasediments below an unconformity at the base of overlying Phanerozoic sandstone. These deposits are small and low-grade (Bertholene and Aveyron deposits, in France).

The two most significant areas for this style of deposit are currently the Athabasca Basin in Saskatchewan, Canada, and the McArthur Basin in the Northern Territory, Australia.

Athabasca Basin

The highest grade uranium deposits are found in the Athabasca Basin in Canada, including the two largest high grade uranium deposits in the world, Cigar Lake with 217 million pounds (99,000 t) U3O8 at an average grade of 18% and McArthur River with 324 million pounds (147,000 t) U3O8 at an average grade of 17%. These deposits occur below, across and immediately above the unconformity. Additionally, another high grade discovery is in the development stage at Patterson Lake (Triple R deposit) with an estimated mineral resource identified as; "Indicated Mineral Resources" estimated to total 2,291,000 tons at an average grade of 1.58% U3O8 containing 79,610,000 pounds of U3O8. "Inferred Mineral Resources" are estimated to total 901,000 tons at an average grade of 1.30% U3O8 containing 25,884,000 pounds of U3O8.

McArthur Basin

The deposits of the McArthur River basin in the East Alligator Rivers region of the Northern Territory of Australia (including Jabiluka, Ranger, and Nabarlek) are below the unconformity and are at the low-grade end of the unconformity deposit range but are still high grade compared to most uranium deposit types. There has been very little exploration in Australia to locate deeply concealed deposits lying above the unconformity similar to those in Canada. It is possible that very high grade deposits occur in the sandstones above the unconformity in the Alligator Rivers/Arnhem Land area.

Sandstone deposits

Sandstone deposits are contained within medium to coarse-grained sandstones deposited in a continental fluvial or marginal marine sedimentary environment. Impermeable shale or mudstone units are interbedded in the sedimentary sequence and often occur immediately above and below the mineralised horizon. Uranium is mobile under oxidising conditions and precipitates under reducing conditions, and thus the presence of a reducing environment is essential for the formation of uranium deposits in sandstone.

Primary mineralization consists of pitchblende and coffinite, with weathering producing secondary mineralization. Sandstone deposits constitute about 18% of world uranium resources. Orebodies of this type are commonly low to medium grade (0.05–0.4% U3O8) and individual orebodies are small to medium in size (ranging up to a maximum of 50,000 t U3O8).

Sandstone hosted uranium deposits are widespread globally and span a broad range of host rock ages. Some of the major provinces and production centers include:
 the Wyoming basins
 the Grants District of New Mexico
 deposits in Central Europe and
 Kazakhstan
Significant potential remains in most of these centers as well as in Australia, Mongolia, South America, and Africa.

This model type can be further subdivided into the following sub-types:
 tabular
 roll front
 basal channel
 structurally related
Many deposits represent combinations of these types.

Tabular
Tabular deposits consist of irregular tabular or elongate lenticular zones of uranium mineralisation within selectively reduced sediments. The mineralised zones are oriented parallel to the direction of groundwater flow, but on a small scale the ore zones may cut across sedimentary features of the host sandstone.  Deposits of this nature commonly occur within palaeochannels cut in the underlying basement rocks.

Tabular sandstone uranium deposits contains many of the highest grades of the sandstone class, however the average deposit size is very small.

Roll front

Roll-front uranium deposits are generally hosted within permeable and porous sandstones or conglomerates. The mechanism for deposit formation is dissolution of uranium from the formation or nearby strata and the transport of this soluble uranium into the host unit. When the fluids change redox state, generally in contact with carbon-rich organic matter, uranium precipitates to form a 'front'.

The Rollfront subtype deposits typically represent the largest of the sandstone-hosted uranium deposits and one of the largest uranium deposit types with an average of 21 million lb (9,500 t) U3O8. Included in this class are the Inkai deposit in Kazakhstan and the Smith Ranch deposit in Wyoming. Probably more significant than their larger size, rollfront deposits have the advantage of being amenable to low cost in-situ leach recovery.

Typical characteristics:
roll-front deposits are crescent-shaped bodies that transect the host lithology
typically the convex side points down the hydraulic gradient.
the limbs or tails tend to be peneconcordant with the lithology.
most ore-bodies consist of several interconnected rolls.
individual roll-front deposits are quite small but collectively can extend for considerable distances.

Basal channel (palaeochannel)
Basal channel deposits are often grouped with tabular or rollfront deposits, depending on their unique characteristics. The model for formation of palaeochannel deposits is similar to that for roll-front deposits, above, except that the source of uranium may be in the watershed leading into a stream, or the bed load of the palaeochannel itself. This uranium is transported through the groundwaters and is deposited either at a reduced boundary, or in ephemeral drainage systems such as those in deserts of Namibia and Australia, it is deposited in calcretised evaporation sites or even in saline lakes as the ground water evaporates.

Some particularly rich uranium deposits are formed in palaeochannels which are filled in the lower parts by lignite or brown coal, which acts as a particularly efficient reductive trap for uranium. Sometimes, elements such as scandium, gold and silver may be concentrated within these lignite-hosted uranium deposits.

The Frome Embayment in South Australia hosts several deposits of this type including Honeymoon, Oban, Beverley and [Four-Mile]  (which is the largest deposit of this class). These deposits are hosted in palaeochannels filled with Cainozoic sediments and sourced their uranium from uranium-rich Palaeo- to Mesoproterozoic rocks of the Mount Painter Inlier and the Olary Domain of the Curnamona Province.

Structurally related

Tectonic-lithologic controlled uranium deposits occur in sandstones adjacent to a permeable fault zone which cuts the sandstone/mudstone sequence. Mineralisation forms tongue-shaped ore zones along the permeable sandstone layers adjacent to the fault. Often there are a number of mineralised zones 'stacked' vertically on top of each other within sandstone units adjacent to the fault zone.

Quartz-pebble conglomerate deposits
Quartz pebble conglomerate hosted uranium deposits are of historical significance as the major source of primary production for several decades after World War II. This type of deposit has been identified in eight localities around the world, however the most significant deposits are in the Huronian Supergroup in Ontario, Canada and in the Witwatersrand Supergroup of South Africa. These deposits make up approximately 13% of the world's uranium resources.

Two main sub-types have been identified:
Elliot Lake
Witwatersrand

Quartz pebble conglomerate hosted uranium deposits formed from the transport and deposition of uraninite in a fluvial sedimentary environment and are defined as stratiform and stratabound paleoplacer deposits. Host rocks are typically submature to supermature, polymictic conglomerates and sandstones deposited in alluvial fan and braided stream environments. The host conglomerates of the Huronian deposits in Canada are situated at the base of the sequence, whereas the mineralized horizons in the Witwatersand are arguably along tectonized intraformational unconformities.

Uranium minerals were derived from uraniferous pegmatites in the sediment source areas. These deposits are restricted to the Archean and early Paleoproterozoic and do not occur in sediments younger than about 2,200 million years when oxygen levels in the atmosphere reached a critical level, making simple uranium oxides no longer stable in near-surface environments.

Quartz pebble conglomerate uranium deposits are typically low grade but characterized by high tonnages. The Huronian deposits in Canada generally contain higher grades (0.15% U3O8) and greater resources (as shown by the Denison and Quirke mines), however some of the South African gold deposits also contain sizeable low grade (0.01% U3O8) uranium resources.

Witwatersrand sub-type
In the Witwatersrand deposits ores are found along unconformities, shale and siltstone beds, and carbonaceous seams. The West Rand Group of sediments tend to host the most uranium within the Witwatersrand Supergroup. The uranium rich Dominion Reef is located at the base of the West Rand Supergroup. The Vaal Reef is the most uranium rich reef of the Central Rand Group of sediments. Structural controls on the regional scale are normal faults while on the deposit scale are bedding parallel shears and thrusts. Textural evidence indicates that the uranium and gold have been remobilized to their current sites; however the debate continues if the original deposition was detrital or was entirely hydrothermal, or alternatively related to high grade diagenesis.

Uranium minerals in the Witwatersrand deposits are typically uraninite with lesser uranothorite, brannerite, and coffinite. The uranium is especially concentrated along thin carbonaceous seams or carbon leaders. Strong regional scale alteration consists of pyrophyllite, chloritoid, muscovite, chlorite, quartz, rutile, and pyrite. The main elements associated with the uranium are gold and silver. Gold contents are much higher than in the Elliot Lake type with U:Au ranging between 5:1 and 500:1, which indicates that these gold-rich ores are essentially very low grade uranium deposits with gold.

Elliot Lake sub-type
Sedimentological controls on the Huronian deposits of the Elliot Lake district appear to be much stronger than in the Witwatersrand deposits. Ores grade from uranium through thorium to titanium-rich with decreasing pebble size and increasing distance from their source. While evidence of post-diagenetic remobilization has been identified, these effects appear far subordinate to the sedimentological controls.

Ore consists of uraninite with lesser brannerite and thucholite. These occur in thin beds exhibiting graded bedding reminiscent of placer sorting. Alteration is nonexistent to very weak at best and the weak chlorite and sericite are believed to be mainly post-ore effects. Other post-depositional alteration includes pyritization, silicification, and alteration of titanium minerals. The most prominent geochemical associations with the uranium are thorium and titanium.

This schematic model represents the original depositional setting. The Huronian underwent mild post-depositional folding during the Penokean orogeny around 1.9 billion years. The main regional structure is the Quirke syncline along the margins of which the majority of the known deposits are situated. Due to this structural overprint ore bodies range from subhorizontal to steeply dipping.

Breccia complex deposits (IOCG-U)

Only one iron-ore-copper-gold (IOCG) deposit of this type is known to contain economically significant quantities of uranium.  Olympic Dam in South Australia is the world's largest resource of low-grade uranium and accounts for about 66% of Australia's reserves plus resources.

Uranium occurs with copper, gold, silver, and rare earth elements (REE) in a large hematite-rich granite breccia complex in the Gawler Craton overlain by approximately 300 metres of flat-lying sedimentary rocks of the Stuart Shelf geological province.

Another example for the Breccia type is the Mount Gee area in the Mount Painter Inlier, South Australia. Uranium mineralised quartz-hematite breccia is related to Palaeoproterozoic granites with uranium contents of up to 100 ppm. Hydrothermal processes at about 300 million years ago remobilised uranium from these granites and enriched them in the quartz-hematite breccias. The breccias in the area host a low grade resource of about 31,400 t U3O8 at 615 ppm in average.

Vein deposits

Vein deposits play a special role in the history of uranium: the term "pitchblende" ("Pechblende") originates from German vein deposits when they were mined for silver in the 16th century. F.E. Brückmann made the first mineralogical description of the mineral in 1727 and the vein deposit Jachymov in the Czech Republic became the type locality for uraninite. In 1789 the German chemist M. H. Klaproth discovered the element of uranium in a sample of pitchblende from the Johanngeorgenstadt vein deposit. The first industrial production of uranium was made from the Jachymov deposit and Marie and Pierre Curie used the tailings of the mine for their discovery of polonium and radium.

Vein deposits consist of uranium minerals filling in cavities such as cracks, veins, fractures, breccias, and stockworks associated with steeply dipping fault systems. There are three major subtypes of vein style uranium mineralisation:
intragranitic veins (Central Massif, France)
veins in metasedimentary rocks in exocontacts of granites
quartz-carbonate uranium veins (Erzgebirge Mts, Germany/Czech Republic; Bohemian Massif, Czech Republic)
uranium-polymetal veins (Erzgebirge Mts, Germany/Czech Republic; Saskatchewan, Canada)
mineralised fault and shear zones (central Africa; Bohemian Massif, Czech Republic)

Intragranitic veins form in the late phase of magmatic activity when hot fluids derived from the magma precipitate uranium on cracks within the newly formed granite. Such mineralisation contributed much to the uranium production of France. Veins hosted by metasedimentary units in the exocontact of granites are the most important sources of uranium mineralisation in central Europe including the world class deposits Schneeberg-Schlema-Alberoda in Germany (96,000 t uranium content) as well as Pribram (50,000 t uranium content) and Jachymov (~10,000 t uranium content) in the Czech Republic. Also they are closely related to the granites, the mineralization is much younger with a time gap between granite formation and mineralisation of 20 million years. The initial uranium mineralisation consists of quartz, carbonate, fluorite and pitchblende. Remobilisation of uranium occurred at later stages producing polymetal veins containing silver, cobalt, nickel, arsenic and other elements. Large deposits of this type can contain more than 1,000 individual mineralized veins. However, only 5 to 12% of the vein areas carry mineralization and although massive lenses of pitchblende can occur, the overall ore grade is only about 0.1% uranium.

The Bohemian Massif also contains shear zone hosted uranium deposits with the most important one being Rozna-Olsi in Moravia northwest of Brno. Rozna is currently the only operating uranium mine in central Europe with a total uranium content of 23,000 t and an average grade of 0.24%. The formation of this mineralisation occurred in several stages. After the Variscan Orogeny, extension took place and hydrothermal fluids overprinted fine grained materials in shear zones with a sulfide-chlorite alteration. Fluids from the overlying sediments entered the basement mobilising uranium and while uprising on the shear zone, the chlorite-pyrite material caused precipitation of uranium minerals in form of coffinite, pitchblende and U-Zr-silicates. This initial mineralisation event took place at about 277 million to 264 million years. During the Triassic a further mineralisation event took place relocating uranium into quartz-carbonate-uranium veins. Another example of this mineralisation style is the Shinkolobwe deposit in Congo, Africa, containing about 30,000 t of uranium.

Intrusive associated deposits
Intrusive deposits make up a large proportion of the world's uranium resources. Included in this type are those associated with intrusive rocks including alaskite, granite, pegmatite and monzonites. Major world deposits include Rossing (Namibia), Ilimaussaq intrusive complex (Greenland) and Palabora (South Africa).

Phosphorite deposits
Marine sedimentary phosphorite deposits can contain low grade concentrations of uranium, up to 0.01–0.015% U3O8, within fluorite or apatite.  These deposits can have a significant tonnage. Very large phosphorite deposits occur in Florida and Idaho in the United States, Morocco, and some middle eastern countries.

Collapse breccia pipe deposits
Collapse breccia pipe deposits occur within vertical, circular solution collapse structures, formed by the dissolution of limestone by groundwater.  Pipes are typically filled with down-dropped coarse fragments of limestone and overlying sediments and can be from  wide and up to  deep.

Primary ore minerals are uraninite and pitchblende, which occur as cavity fills and coatings on quartz grains within permeable sandstone breccias within the pipe. Resources within individual pipes can range up to 2500 tonnes U3O8 at an average grade of between 0.3 and 1.0% U3O8.

The best known examples of this deposit type are in the Arizona breccia pipe uranium mineralization in the US, where several of these deposits have been mined.

Volcanic deposits
Volcanic deposits occur in felsic to intermediate volcanic to volcaniclastic rocks and associated caldera subsidence structures, comagmatic intrusions, ring dykes and diatremes.

Mineralization occurs either as structurally controlled veins and breccias discordant to the stratigraphy and less commonly as stratabound mineralization either in extrusive rocks or permeable sedimentary facies. Mineralization may be primary, that is magmatic-related or as secondary mineralization due to leaching, remobilization and re-precipitation. The principal uranium mineral in volcanic deposits is pitchblende, which is usually associated with molybdenite and minor amounts of lead, tin and tungsten mineralization.

Volcanic hosted uranium deposits occur in host rocks spanning the Precambrian to the Cenozoic but because of the shallow levels at which they form, preservation favors younger age deposits. Some of the more important deposits or districts are Streltsovskoye, Russia; Dornod, Mongolia; and McDermitt, Nevada.

The average deposit size is rather small with grades of 0.02% to 0.2% U3O8. These deposits make up only a small proportion of the world's uranium resources.  The only volcanic hosted deposits currently being exploited are those of the Streltsovkoye district of eastern Siberia. This is in fact not a single stand-alone deposit, but 18 individual deposits occurring within the Streltsovsk caldera complex. Nevertheless, the average size of these deposits is far greater than the average volcanic type.

Surficial deposits (calcretes)
Surficial deposits are broadly defined as Tertiary to Recent near-surface uranium concentrations in sediments or soils.  Mineralization in calcrete (calcium and magnesium carbonates) are the largest of the surficial deposits. They are interbedded with Tertiary sand and clay, which are usually cemented by calcium and magnesium carbonates.  Surficial deposits also occur in peat bogs, karst caverns and soils.

Surficial deposits account for approximately 4% of world uranium resources.  The Yeelirrie deposit is by far the world's largest surficial deposit, averaging 0.15% U3O8.  Langer Heinrich in Namibia is another significant surficial deposit.

Metasomatite deposits
Metasomatite deposits consist of disseminated uranium minerals within structurally deformed rocks that have been affected by intense sodium metasomatism.  Ore minerals are uraninite and brannerite. Th/U ratio in the ores is mostly less than 0.1. Metasomatites are typically small in size and generally contain less than 1000 t U3O8. Giant (up to 100 thousands t U) U deposits in sodium metasomatites (albitites) are known in Central Ukraine and Brazil.

Two subtypes are defined based on host lithologies:
metasomatized granite; ex. Ross Adams deposit in Alaska, United States, Novokostantynivka deposit in Kirovogradska oblast, Ukraine.
metasomatised metasediment; Zhovta River and ex. Pervomayske deposits in Dnipropetrovska oblast, Ukraine and Valhalla deposit in northwestern Queensland, Australia.

Metamorphic deposits

Metamorphic deposits those that occur in metasediments or metavolcanic rocks where there is no direct evidence for mineralization post-dating metamorphism.  These deposits were formed during regional metamorphism of uranium bearing or mineralized sediments or volcanic precursors.

The most prominent deposits of this type are Mary Kathleen, Queensland, Australia, and Forstau, Austria.

Lignite
Lignite deposits (soft brown coal) can contain significant uranium mineralization. Mineralization can also be found in clay and sandstone immediately adjacent to lignite deposits. Uranium has been adsorbed onto carbonaceous matter and as a result no discrete uranium minerals have formed. Deposits of this type are known from the Serres Basin, in Greece, and in North and South Dakota in the USA. The uranium content in these deposits is very low, on average less than 0.005% U3O8, and does not currently warrant commercial extraction.

Black shale deposits
Black shale mineralisations are large low-grade resources of uranium. They form in submarine environments under oxygen-free conditions. Organic matter in clay-rich sediments will not be converted to CO2 by biological processes in this environment and it can reduce and immobilise uranium dissolved in seawater. Average uranium grades of black shales are 50 to 250 ppm. The largest explored resource is Ranstad in Sweden containing 254,000 t of uranium. However, there are estimates for black shales in the US and Brazil assuming a uranium content of over 1 million tonnes, but at grades below 100 ppm uranium. The Chattanooga Shale in the southeastern USA for example is estimated to contain 4 to 5 million tonnes at an average grade of 54 ppm.

Because of their low grades, no black shale deposit ever produced significant amounts of uranium with one exception: the Ronneburg deposit in eastern Thuringia, Germany. The Ordovician and Silurian black shales at Ronneburg have a background uranium content of 40 to 60 ppm. However, hydrothermal and supergene processes caused remobilsation and enrichment of the uranium. The production between 1950 and 1990 was about 100,000 t of uranium at average grades of 700 to 1,000 ppm. Measured and inferred resources containing 87,000 t uranium at grades between 200 and 900 ppm are left.

Other types of deposits
There are also uranium deposits, of other types, in the Jurassic Todilto Limestone in the Grants District, New Mexico, USA.
The Freital/Dresden-Gittersee deposit in eastern Germany produced about 3.700 t of uranium from Permian hard coal and its host rocks. The average ore grade was 0.11%. The deposit formed in a combination of syngenetic and diagenetic processes.
In some countries, for example China, trials are underway to extract uranium from fly ash.

See also

 List of countries by uranium reserves
 List of uranium mines
 Nuclear fuel cycle
 Ore genesis
 Uranium mining

References

Additional sources

Economic geology
Ore deposits
Uranium

Uranium ore


In linguistics, a postbase is a special kind of grammatical suffixing morpheme that is suffixed to a base. It is mostly found in Eskimo–Aleut languages and Formosan Languages. Postbases differ from most other affixes in that they usually carry a much more salient semantic content than affixes in other languages and are semantically more akin to verbs. In Eskimo–Aleut languages meanings such as "to have", "to want", "to think", "to say" are usually expressed by postbases.

External links
Iñupiaq Postbases -1
Iñupiaq Postbases -2
Dictionary of Utkuhiksalingmiut : Postbases (word-forming suffixes)

Linguistic morphology
Lexical units

Eskaleut languages

Postbase


Karl Ernst Adolf Anderssen (Breslau, 6 July 1818 – Breslau, 13 March 1879) was a German chess master, and a teacher of mathematics. He was recognised as the best player in the world for much of the time between 1851 and 1870.

Anderssen won three great international tournaments: the first in London 1851, then London 1862 and Baden-Baden 1870. Anderssen lost matches in 1858 to Paul Morphy and, narrowly, to Steinitz in 1866. He was also a chess problem composer.p16

Anderssen became the most successful tournament player in Europe, winning over half the events he entered—including the Baden-Baden 1870 tournament, which is comparable to modern strong GM tournaments. His last success was at Leipzig in 1877 where he came second equal with Zukertort, behind Paulsen. He was then nearly 60.

He is still famous for his brilliant sacrificial attacking play, particularly in the 'Immortal Game' (1851) and the 'Evergreen Game' (1852). He was also one of the most likeable of chess masters and became an elder statesman of the game, to whom others turned for advice or arbitration.

His status
Anderssen was never world champion because "there was as yet no concept of a formal championship, or of the means by which one might be awarded...  The world championship proper was the creation of Wilhelm Steinitz (18361900)... The first match for the world championship was in 1886"...  Also: "Wilhelm Steinitz... was the first person to use the title of Champion of the world...".

Mathematician
Anderssen was a teacher of mathematics in Breslau (now Wroclaw). He became a professor in about 1862, and in January 1865 was awarded honorary degrees of PhD and MA. These honours were not for chess, but not much is known about the teaching part of his career.

Games
Adolf Anderssen vs Jean Dufresne, Berlin 1852, Giuoco Piano: Evans Gambit (C52), 1-0 The "Evergreen Game" – a short game full of sacrifices and ending with a  checkmate
Adolf Anderssen vs Paul Morphy match, Paris 1858, English opening by transposition. Anderssen beats Morphy in a long struggle.
Gottschall, Hermann von 1912 (reprint 2006). Adolf Anderssen, der Altmeister deutscher Schachspielkunst. Elibron Classics. . 748 games.
Bachmann, Ludwig 1914. Schachmeister Anderssen. Anspach.

References

1818 births
1879 deaths
German chess players
German mathematicians
People from former German territories
People from Wrocław

Adolf Anderssen


CoffeeCup HTML Editor is an HTML editor. Originally created by Nicholas Longo and Kevin Jurica, it was first released to the public in August 1996. Until version 12.5 released in 2012, it was capable of WYSIWYG editing.

According to the authors the editor was the first to support JavaScript (version 3.5 Sep. 1996), split-screen editing (version 4.0, March 1997) and built-in FTP upload (version 5.2, February 1998).

It was voted Best Windows HTML Editor in the About.com Readers' Choice Awards two years in a row in 2011 and 2012.

References

External links

HTML editors
Web development software
1996 software
Windows-only shareware
Windows-only freeware

CoffeeCup HTML Editor


Philip II of Spain (21 May 1527 – 13 September 1598) was, starting in 1556, king of Spain, and Burgundy, Netherlands, Naples, Sicily, and Spanish America. He was born in Valladolid and was the only son of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and his wife to live until he was an adult. He was strongly Catholic.

His rule was filled with troubles since his war against the Dutch Republic was expensive and unsuccessful, and his Spanish Armada was defeated and destroyed, which caused him to be harsh to his subjects.

Childhood
For the first seven years of his life, Philip moved between different castles with his mother. In 1534 he moved into a private house in Salamanca to start his schooling. His mother died in 1539 and he took her body to Granada, where his great-grandparents Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella were buried. He left Spain in 1547 and moved to the Netherlands, where his father's family was from. His father wanted him to become more European but the people there thought he was too cold and serious.

Marriages and children
 He married his cousin, Maria of Portugal, in (1543), They were both 16 years old. She gave him a son, Don Carlos of Spain (1545-1564) but died a few days later.
 Philip wanted to marry an English queen, Queen Elizabeth I of England, who was Protestant.  He did not marry her, as she wasn't catholic and she also rejected his proposal as he caused her to execute her dad Mary, Queen of Scots.
 Instead, he married her Catholic half-sister, Queen Mary I of England in 1554.  The marriage made him King Consort while she lived.  Her people did not like the marriage, and Philip saw it only as a political move.  On January 16, 1556, Philip became King of Spain when his father gave up the throne, but Philip chose to stay out of the country until his father died, two years later. Mary died in 1558 without children.
 Philip believed his son, Don Carlos had planned his death, so he put Don Carlos in jail. The prince died soon after, so Philip's enemies said that he had ordered someone to kill him. Some evidence shows this, but it was probably too much eating and drinking that killed Don Carlos.

Titles/styles/honors

Phillip II obtained most of his titles from his parents, he had obtained some other titles to like King of Portugal

In Castile he was: King of Castile, Leon, Grenada, Toledo, Seville, Cordoba, Murcia, Jaen, Algarves, Gibraltar, Algeciras, Canary Islands, of the Indias, the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea, and Lord of Molina.

In Aragon he was: King of Aragon, Majorca, Menorca, Sardinia and Corsica, Naples, Sicily, Valencia, Navarre, Jerusalem, Margrave of Oristano, Count of Goceano, Count of Barcelona, Count of Roussillon, Count of Cerdanya, Duke of Athens, Duke of Neopatria.

In Portugal he was: King of Portugal, either side of the sea in Africa, Lord of Guinea and of Conquest, Navigation, and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India, etc.

In England he was: King of England and France (titular) and Ireland.

Hapsburg Titles: Duke of Milan, Imperial vicar of Siena, Archduke of Austria, Princely Count of Habsburg and of Tyrol, Prince of Swabia.

In Burgundy: Lord of the Netherlands, Duke of Lothier, of Brabant, of Limburg, of Luxemburg, of Guelders. Count of Flanders, of Artois, of Hainaut, of Holland, of Zeeland, of Namur, of Zutphen. Margrave of the Holy Roman Empire, Lord of Frisia, Salins, Mechelen, the cities, towns and lands of Utrecht, Overyssel, GroningenCount Palatine of Burgundy from 10 June 1556; Count of Charolais from 21 September 1558
Duke of Burgundy
Dominator in Asia, Africa

Honours
Knight of the Golden Fleece: 1531 – 13 September 1598
Grand Master of the Order of the Golden Fleece:[75] 23 October 1555 – 13 September 1598
Grand Master of the Order of Calatrava: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
Grand Master of the Order of Alcantara: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
Grand Master of the Order of Santiago: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
Grand Master of the Order of Montesa: 8 December 1587 – 13 September 1598

References
 Der Traum Philipps des Zweiten (English: The Dream of Philip II). 'Edgar Maas'

1527 births
1598 deaths
Kings and Queens of Spain
Kings and Queens consort of England
Counts and countesses of Flanders
Kings and Queens of Portugal

Philip II of Spain


The Xiaomi Mi 4 () is a smartphone developed by the Chinese electronics manufacturer Xiaomi for its high-end smartphone line, and was released in August 2014. Xiaomi held an event to formally introduce the high-end phone, and its complementary smart-accessory, the Xiaomi MiBand, during the Xiaomi New Product Launch Event 2014 on 22 July 2014.

Similar to the principle of the Xiaomi Mi2, the Mi 4 is a highly revamped version of its predecessor, the Xiaomi Mi3. The phone is of a different design to its predecessor. It was also released slightly before the new MIUI 6, which was introduced in August 2014.

Reception towards the device was generally positive, though there were still a high amount of negative feedback from users of Apple's iPhone due to its similar design and quality. Some media companies hailed it to be one of the best smartphones available in the market due to its high-end hardware which is sold for a comparably at a lower price compared to competitor smartphones. However, others criticized it for being too similar to Apple's iPhone 5S.

History
Before its official unveiling, media speculation primarily focused on leaks; including photos of the early prototypes of the device and screenshots of MIUI 6, these leaks were later proven to be fake.

Xiaomi announced the Mi 4 and MiBand during a media event at the CNCC on 22 July 2014. While the device was announced in July 2014, it didn't become available until August 2014, shortly before unveiling MIUI 6.

In August 2014, the Mi 4 was released in China and then to other countries. Xiaomi operated in a limited, however expanding, list of countries and consumers outside of the countries it operates in have to buy it online.

Features

Operating system and software

The Xiaomi Mi 4 ships with MIUI V5 (upgradable to MIUI V10), Xiaomi's variant of the Android operating system. The user interface of MIUI is based on the concept of direct manipulation, using multi-touch gestures. Interface control elements consist of sliders, switches, and buttons. Interaction with the OS includes gestures such as swipe, tap, pinch and reverse pinch, all of which have specific definitions within the context of the Android operating system and its multi-touch interface. Internal accelerometers are used by some applications to respond to the movement of the device such as rotating it vertically (one common result is switching from portrait to landscape mode). The device includes an updater application that allows it to update its OS to the latest version of MIUI available to it.

Windows 10 ROM Port
In March 2015, it was announced that selected registered users of Mi 4 devices in China would receive a ROM port of the Windows 10 Mobile operating system as a trial partnership between Xiaomi and Microsoft. The ROM flash download was released for these users in June 2015, who could then test the software on their devices and provide feedback to both Microsoft and Xiaomi.

Design
The device has a 5-inch (12.7 cm) Sharp/JDI OGS fully laminated touchscreen, with a screen resolution of 1080x1920 at a pixel density of 441 ppi. Its home button is similar to its predecessor and is mainly touch-based with adjustable haptic feedback. The phone itself weighs 149 grams (5.26 oz) and uses a stainless steel frame. The device is currently available in three color finishes, black, white and rose gold.

Hardware
The Xiaomi Mi 4 is powered by a Qualcomm Snapdragon 801 (MSM8974-AC) chipset, which, at one point made it the fastest Android smartphone to date according to the AnTuTu benchmark application. Its processor is a quad-core 2.5 GHz Krait 400 and its graphics card is an Adreno 330. The phone includes a 3080 mAh battery, which provides 280 hours of standby time. It comes with a 13 megapixel primary camera and an 8 megapixel secondary camera. Xiaomi also released another model of Mi 4 with 64 GB of internal memory.

Accessories

The Xiaomi Mi 4 was announced with a complementary US$12 smart accessory known as the Xiaomi Mi Band which is a waterproof sleep-cycle smart alarm, fitness monitor, sleep tracker and remote smartphone unlocker. It comes in various exchangeable bands and has a 30-day battery capacity.

Compatibility with CyanogenMod and dual-boot
The phone is compatible with CM13, CM14.1 and supports true dual-boot.

See also
 Comparison of smartphones

References

Android (operating system) devices
Mobile phones introduced in 2014
Discontinued flagship smartphones
Mi 4
Mobile phones with 4K video recording
Mobile phones with infrared transmitter
Windows 10 Mobile devices

Xiaomi Mi 4


The palaestra at Olympia, Greece is an ancient structure, now in ruins. There were many palaestra throughout Greece. A palaestra was the place where Greek athletes trained for and practiced wrestling, the pankration, and sometimes boxing. The palaestra at Olympia was built sometime in the third century BC.

It is north of the gymnasion. It is square. Its sides are each about 66 meters long. Its door is in the northwest corner. The lower part of the outer walls were made of stone and the upper part of brick. Inside was a sand-covered yard open to the sky. This yard was surrounded on all four sides with colonnades of Doric columns. In bad weather, the athletes practiced under these colonnades.

Off these colonnades were rooms where the athletes dressed and undressed, rubbed themselves with olive oil, dusted themselves with powder or sand, and met friends.  There was a tub (1.5 meters deep) in the corner of the yard that was used for cold baths.  There were rooms for the storage of oil and equipment.

In 195556, the German Archaeological Institute partly restored the palaestra. Complete restoration is not possible because many of the columns have been completely destroyed.

Palaestra

References

Ancient Greek wrestling
Boxing
Sports buildings in Greece
Buildings and structures in Olympia
3rd-century BC buildings and structures

Palaestra at Olympia


The House of Bonaparte was an imperial and royal European dynasty founded by Napoleon I of France in 1804, a Corsican military leader who rose to power and transformed the French Republic into the French Empire. The dynasty ruled from 1804 to 1815 and again from 1852 to 1870.

Napoleon I of France

Napoleon Bonaparte is the most significant person associated with the Bonaparte family because he created the First French Empire that conquered much of Europe in the early 19th century. He was elected as first consul of France on November 10, 1799 with the help of his brother, Lucien Bonaparte, speaker of the Council of Five Hundred. He later crowned himself Emperor of the French in December 2, 1804 and King of Italy in May 26 1805. He then made his elder brother Joseph (1768–1844) king of Naples (1806–1808) and then of Spain (1808–1813), his third brother Louis, king of Holland (1806–1810), and his youngest brother Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia(1807-1813).

Napoleon's son Napoleon François Charles Joseph (1811–1832) was created king of Rome (1811–1814) and was later styled Napoleon II by loyalists of the dynasty, though he only ruled for two weeks after his father's abdication. Charles Louis Napoléon (1808–1873), son of Louis Napoléon, was president of France in 1848 and emperor in 1852 until 1870, reigning as Napoléon III. A political movement for Corsican independence surfaced in the 1990s which included a Bonapartist restoration in its programme.

Crowns held by the family

Emperors of the French

 Napoleon I (1804–1814, 1815), also King of Italy (1805–1814)
 Napoleon II (1815), styled King of Rome from birth, but never reigned
 Napoleon III (1852–1870), nephew of Napoleon I and son of Louis I of Holland

Kings of Holland
 Louis I (1806–1810)
 Louis II (1810), also Grand Duke of Berg (1809–1813)

Kings of Naples
 Joseph I (1806–1808)
 Joachim I (1808–1815), also Grand Duke of Berg (1806–1808)

King of Westphalia
 Jérôme I (1807–1813)

King of Spain
 Joseph I (1808–1813)

Grand Duchess of Tuscany
 Elisa Bonaparte (1809–1814)

House of Bonaparte
Bonaparte, House of
1804 establishments in Europe
1815 disestablishments
1852 establishments
1870 disestablishments
1850s establishments in Europe
1870s disestablishments in Europe
1810s disestablishments in Europe

House of Bonaparte


Caroline Lee Radziwiłł (née Bouvier'; March 3, 1933 – February 15, 2019) was an American socialite. She was the younger sister of former US First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis.

Life

Radziwill was born Caroline Lee Bouvier at Doctors Hospital in New York, New She was the second daughter of wealthy stockbroker John Vernou Bouvier III and Janet Norton Lee. Her older sister was Jacqueline Lee Bouvier (1929-1994), future First Lady of the United States. She also had a step-sister and a step-brother, Janet (1945-1985) and James Auchincloss (b. 1947). They were the children of her mother by her second husband Hugh D. Auchincloss.

She has been known as "Lee" since childhood. Like her older sister, she was educated at selective schools for high society girls. She graduated from Miss Porter's in 1951.

Radziwill married three times. Her first husband was Michael Canfield, a publishing executive. They married on April 18, 1953, and moved to London, England. They divorced in 1958. She married Prince Stanislas Radziwill on March 19, 1959. They had two children; Anthony (1959-1999) and Christina (b. 1960). They divorced in 1974. She then moved back to the United States, where she married film director Herbert Ross, on September 23, 1988. They divorced in 2001 shortly before Ross's death.

In March 1962, Radziwill went with her sister Jacqueline Kennedy, then First Lady, on a goodwill tour of India and Pakistan.

In the 1960s, Radziwill tried a career as an actress. She was unsuccessful. She later tried interior decoration with some success.

Her son Anthony died of cancer in August 1999, one month after the death in a plane crash of her nephew John F. Kennedy Jr..

She lived in Paris, France. Radziwill died on February 15, 2019 in New York City, aged 85.

References

1933 births
2019 deaths
Businesspeople from New York City
American socialites

Lee Radziwill


Lisgar Collegiate Institute is in Ottawa, Canada. It is the oldest secondary school in Ottawa and possibly Ontario. It was named after a former Governor General of Canada. It was established in 1874 and has been formerly known as the Ottawa Collegiate Institute and the Dalhousie District Grammar School. It celebrated its 160th anniversary in 2004.
Lisgar houses about 1000 students. It has a gifted program.

Schools in Ontario
1874 establishments
1870s establishments in Canada
Organizations based in Ottawa

Lisgar Collegiate Institute


Viscount  (August 23, 1847 – February 12, 1889) was a Meiji period Japanese statesman, diplomat, and founder of Japan's modern educational system.

Early life

Mori was born in the Satsuma domain (modern Kagoshima prefecture) from a samurai family, and educated in the Kaisenjo School for Western Learning run by the Satsuma domain. In 1865, he was sent as a student to University College London in Great Britain, where he studied western techniques in mathematics, physics, and naval surveying. He returned to Japan just after the start of the Meiji Restoration and took on a number of governmental positions within the new Meiji government.

Meiji statesman
Mori was the first Japanese ambassador to the United States, from 1871 to 1873. During his stay in the United States, he became very interested in western methods of education and western social institutions. On his return to Japan, he organized the Meirokusha, Japan's first modern intellectual society.

Mori was a member of the Meiji Enlightenment movement, and advocated freedom of religion, secular education, equal rights for women (except for voting), international law, and most drastically, the abandonment of the Japanese language in favor of English.

In 1875, he established the Shoho Koshujo (Japan's first commercial college), the predecessor of Hitotsubashi University. Thereafter, he successively served as ambassador to Qing dynasty China, Senior Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs, ambassador to Great Britain, member of Sanjiin (legislative advisory council) and Education Ministry official.

He was recruited by Itō Hirobumi to join the first cabinet as Minister of Education and continued in the same post under the Kuroda administration from 1886 to 1889. During this period, he enacted the "Mori Reforms" of Japan's education system, which included six years of compulsory, co-educational schooling, and the creation of high schools for training of a select elite. Under his leadership, the central ministry took greater control over school curriculum and emphasized Neo-Confucian morality and national loyalty in the lower schools while allowing some intellectual freedom in higher education.

He has been denounced by post-World War II liberals as a reactionary who was responsible for Japanese elitist and statist educational system, while he was equally condemned by his contemporaries as a radical who imposed unwanted westernization on Japanese society at the expense of Japanese culture and tradition. For example, he advocated the use of English. He was also a known Christian.

Mori was stabbed by an ultranationalist on the very day of promulgation of the Meiji Constitution in 1889, and died the next day. The assassin was outraged by Mori's alleged failure to follow religious protocol during his visit to Ise Shrine two years earlier; for example, Mori was said to have not removed his shoes before entering and pushed aside a sacred veil with a walking stick.

Selected portions of his writings may be found in W.R. Braisted's book Meiroku Zasshi: Journal of the Japanese Enlightenment which were originally published in a magazine entitled Meiroku zasshi.

In popular culture
Mori appears as a minor character in the alternate history novel The Difference Engine, by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling, as an enthusiast of modernity and a protégé of Laurence Oliphant and in the speculative fiction novel 'The Lost Future of Pepperharrow'  by Natasha Pulley.

See also

Japanese students in Britain
Anglo-Japanese relations
Yūrei zaka

References

Further reading
 Cobbing, Andrew. The Japanese Discovery of Victorian Britain. RoutledgeCurzon, London, 1998.
Hall, Ivan Parker. Mori Arinori. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1973. .
"Mori Arinori, 1847–89: From Diplomat to Statesman", Chapter One, Britain & Japan: Biographical Portraits Volume 4, by Andrew Cobbing, Japan Library 2002.
Morikawa, Terumichi (2015). "Mori Arinori and Japanese Education (1847-1889)". Education about Asia, Volume 20:2 (Fall 2015): Asia: Biographies and Personal Stories, Part II.  https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/mori-arinori-and-japanese-education-1847-1889/.
 Smith, Patrick. Japan: A Reinterpretation. New York: Pantheon, 1997. . pp. 75–106.

External links

Mori, Arinori | Portraits of Modern Japanese Historical Figures (National Diet Library)

1847 births
1889 deaths
1880s assassinated politicians
Japanese expatriates in the United Kingdom
People from Satsuma Domain
Japanese Christians
Assassinated Japanese politicians
Assassinated educators
Kazoku
People of Meiji-period Japan
People murdered in Tokyo
Shimazu retainers
Education ministers of Japan
Ambassadors of Japan to the United Kingdom
Ambassadors of Japan to the United States
Alumni of University College London
Hitotsubashi University
University and college founders

Mori Arinori


The Church of Shoghakat (; meaning "drop of light" because of the ray of light that came down from heaven upon Hripsime's martyrs) was erected in 1694 by Prince Aghamal Sorotetsi during the reign of Catholicos Nahabed I in the city of Vagharshapat (Etchmiadzin), in Armenia's Armavir Province.

History
The church sits on the holy site where a group of unnamed nuns following Gayane and Hripsime were martyred during the time of the conversion of Armenia to Christianity in the year 301 AD.  The 5th-century Armenian historian Agathangelos wrote that the young and beautiful Hripsime who at the time was a Christian nun in Rome, was to be forcefully married to the Roman emperor Diocletian.  She and the abbess Gayane among other nuns fled the tyrant emperor and left to Armenia.  The pagan Armenian King Trdat received a letter from Diocletian in which he described her beauty. Trdat discovered where the nuns were hiding, and fell in love with Hripsime and later Gayane.  After their refusal of his advances, Hripsime and Gayane were tortured and martyred separately at the locations of the churches of their names.  The remaining thirty-eight nuns were martyred at the location of Shoghakat.  The name of the church refers to the ray of light that appeared during the martyrdom of the nuns.  During the time that Hripsime was being tortured, Gayane had told her to "be of good cheer, and stand firm" in her faith.  King Trdat was to be later converted to Christianity and made it the official religion of the kingdom.

Architecture

Earlier structures
At the site of the present day church of Shoghakat, there stood an earlier church of the 6th or 7th century which has not survived.  It is believed that the structure standing at the site today possibly rests on the foundations of the earlier church (other sources say that Shoghakat may have been built upon the foundations of a 13th-century church).  At the southwest end of the building, excavations uncovered the remains of a single-chamber church constructed on a stepped platform, thought to have been a 4th-century memorial chapel.  At the southern wall is a small semi-circular apse believed to have served as a southern portico. The bases of the wall piers have features that are characteristic to 4th- and 5th-century Armenian churches. Two portals that led into the chapel were located as well, one to the south and one to the west.

Shoghakat Church
Shoghakat is a domed single-nave basilica with a semi-circular eastern apse flanked on either side by narrow chapels.   Some portions of the apse wall could possibly date to the 5th century.  Four pendentives help make the transition from the square central bay to the octagonal drum and conical dome above. As in some of the other medieval Armenian churches, the drum and dome are situated off-center and to the west. The main portal into the church leads into the interior from an open gallery adjacent to the western wall of the structure.  A lengthy inscription is on the exterior lintel above the door, and is offset by the orangish color of the tufa used.  Another smaller portal is at the southern wall. Very little ornamentation adorns the main body of the church except for a geometric pattern that is around the mid-portion of the exterior of the drum, some khachkars built into the upper walls, and a geometric cross design at the exterior of the eastern wall with rosettes and two small cross shaped windows that let some light into the apse of the church.

At the western end of the structure is a vaulted open gallery constructed simultaneously with the church.  A single large arched opening centered in the middle of the front façade leads into the gallery, where directly across from it is the main portal to the church. Open arched windows are located to either side of the arch on the western wall as well as the walls north and south.  The frames surrounding the windows and the large arched entry are highly ornamented with geometric patterns, rosettes, and khachkars.  Centered above the gallery is a cupola supported by six-columns that serves as the church's belfry.  Foliage patterns adorn each of the six upper exterior of corners of the cupola.

Gallery

See also
 Etchmiadzin, Armenia
 Etchmiadzin Cathedral
 Saint Gayane Church
 Saint Hripsimé Church
 Zvartnots Cathedral

References

Bibliography

External links

 Saint Shoghakat Church
 Armenian Architectural Studies
 Armeniapedia.org: Shoghakat Church

Buildings and structures in Armavir Province
Christian monasteries in Armenia
Oriental Orthodox congregations established in the 13th century
Tourist attractions in Armavir Province
World Heritage Sites in Armenia

Shoghakat Church


Ieoh Ming Pei (born 26 Aprile, 1917; deed 16 Mey 2019) wis a Cheenese-American airchitect. Pei haes been an important name in his field, wi his biggins biggit aw ower the warld. He wis the seicont warld-famous airchitect tae exceed the age o 100, efter Oscar Niemeyer.

Career
In 1983, Pei won the Pritzker Prize.

References

1917 births
American centenarians
2019 daiths
Airchitects frae Suzhou
Harvard Graduate School of Design alumni
MIT School of Architecture and Planning alumni
Alumni o St. Paul's College, Hong Kong
American airchitects
American airchitects o Cheenese strynd
Cheenese emigrants tae the Unitit States
Cheenese airchitects
Cheenese centenarians
Centenarian airchitects
Members o the American Academy o Airts an Letters
Modrenist airchitects
Unitit States Naitional Medal o Airts recipients
Presidential Medal o Freedom recipients
Pritzker Airchitectur Prize winners
Naitional Design Awaird winners
Recipients o the Ryal Gowd Medal
Recipients o the Praemium Imperiale
Members o Committee o 100
Fowk frae Katonah, New York
Skyscraper airchitects

I. M. Pei


Dione in Greek mythology is a vague goddess presence who has her most concrete was the mother of Aphrodite. Zeus was the father are stories about Dione are in the Iliad by Homer. Aphrodite journeys to Dione's side after she has been wounded in battle while protecting her favorite son Aeneas.

Greek gods and goddesses

Dione (mythology)


Heinrich Ratjen (20 November 1918 – 22 April 2008), born Dora Ratjen, was a German athlete who competed for Germany in the women's high jump at the 1936 Summer Olympics at Berlin, finishing fourth, but was later determined to be male and/or intersex. In some news reports, he was erroneously referred to as Hermann Ratjen and Horst Ratjen.

Life
A file containing the findings of an investigation conducted in 1938 and 1939 into Ratjen's life was made public by Der Spiegel in 2009.

Ratjen was born in Erichshof, near Bremen, into a family described as "simple folk".  The father, Heinrich Ratjen, stated in 1938: "When the child was born the midwife called over to me, 'Heini, it's a boy!' But five minutes later she said to me, 'It is a girl, after all.  Nine months later, when the child, who had been christened Dora, was ill, a doctor examined the child's genitalia and, according to Heinrich, said "Let it be. You can't do anything about it anyway." Dora stated, also in 1938: "My parents brought me up as a girl [and] I therefore wore girl's clothes all my childhood. But from the age of 10 or 11 I started to realize I wasn't female, but male. However I never asked my parents why I had to wear women's clothes even though I was male."

In his teens, Dora began competing successfully as a girl at sports, apparently being "too embarrassed to talk about what was happening to him". In 1936, he took part in the Olympics, his teammate Gretel Bergmann stating: "I never had any suspicions, not even once... In the communal shower we wondered why she never showed herself naked. It was grotesque that someone could still be that shy at the age of 17. We just thought, 'She's strange. She's odd'... But no-one knew or noticed anything about her different sexuality."  In 1938, Ratjen competed at the European Athletics Championships, and won the gold medal with a world record jump of .

In 1939, he broke the world record in the high jump. But Dorothy Tyler-Odam was suspicious of Ratjen, saying, "They wrote to me telling me I didn't hold the record, so I wrote to them saying, 'She's not a woman, she's a man'. They did some research and found 'her' serving as a waiter called Hermann Ratjen. So I got my world record back." Odam's world record was formally recognized by the sport's world governing body, the IAAF, in 1957.

Gender controversy
On 21 September 1938, Ratjen took an express train from Vienna to Cologne. The conductor of the train reported to the police at the station in Magdeburg that there was "a man dressed as a woman" on the train. Ratjen was ordered off the train and questioned by the police. He showed his genuine documents which said he was a woman, but after some hesitation, admitted to being a man and told his story. A physician was summoned and after an examination pronounced Ratjen to be male. However, the physician described Ratjen's intersex genitalia as having a "coarse scarred stripe", and stated his opinion that with this organ sexual intercourse would be impossible.

The athlete was arrested, and sent to Hohenlychen sports sanatorium for further tests, with the same results. Criminal proceedings continued until 10 March 1939, when the public prosecutor stated: "Fraud cannot be deemed to have taken place because there was no intention to reap financial reward." Dora promised the authorities he would "cease engaging in sport with immediate effect". The athlete's father, Heinrich Ratjen, initially insisted that Dora should continue to be treated as female but on 29 March 1939 wrote to the police chief of Bremen: "Following the change of the registry office entry regarding the child's sex, I would request you change the child's first name to Heinrich."  The gold medal won by Ratjen was returned and his name expunged from the records.

Later life and confusion
According to Der Spiegel, Dora, then Heinrich Ratjen, who later called himself Heinz, was issued a new ID and work papers and taken to Hanover by the Reichsarbeitsdienst "as a working man".  He later took over the running of his parents' bar, refusing requests for interviews before his death in 2008.

However, in 1966, Time magazine reported that, in 1957, Dora had presented as Hermann, a waiter in Bremen, "who tearfully confessed that he had been forced by the Nazis to pose as a woman 'for the sake of the honor and glory of Germany'. Sighed Hermann: 'For three years I lived the life of a girl. It was most dull.

In 2009, the film Berlin 36 presented a fictionalised version of the story presented by Time magazine.  In the version of Ratjen's story presented as background to the movie, the Nazis supposedly wanted to ensure that Hitler would not be embarrassed by a Jewish athlete winning a gold medal for Germany at the Olympics, and Gretel Bergmann was replaced in the team by Ratjen. In 1938, Ratjen was supposedly then disqualified after the European Championships when a doctor discovered that he had strapped up his genitals. Asked for comment following the movie's release, Bergmann said she had "no idea" why Ratjen did what he did.

Der Spiegel disputed the assertion that Ratjen was a tool of the Nazis, as presented by Time and the movie, stating:

See also
Gender verification in sports
Intersex rights in Germany

References

1918 births
2008 deaths
Athletes (track and field) at the 1936 Summer Olympics
Sex verification in sports
Intersex sportspeople
Intersex men
German high jumpers
Olympic athletes for Germany
Cheating in sports
Sportspeople from Bremen (city)
German LGBT sportspeople
LGBT track and field athletes
Reich Labour Service members
20th-century German LGBT people

Heinrich Ratjen


Ben E. Rich (1855–1913) was a leading missionary and spokesman for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) in the early 20th-century. He was also a publisher, novelist, and an active participant in politics.

Rich was born on November 7, 1855, the son of Charles C. Rich and his plural (polygamist) wife Sarah D. Pea. He first served as a missionary for the LDS Church in Great Britain from 1881 until 1883. For part of this time he oversaw the emigration of Church members from Britain to the United States. He worked as a salesman for Z.C.M.I and then as a store manager for the Goden Equitable Co-operative Store. In 1893 he moved to Rexburg, Idaho where he owned and operated the Rexburg Press, later renamed the Silver Hammer and relocated to St. Anthony, Idaho. Rich also wrote the novel Mr. Durant of Salt Lake City: That Mormon. Rich was a leading Republican and an associate of Theodore Roosevelt.

In 1898 he was made president of the Southern States Mission. When the mission was divided two years later, Rich continued as president of the newly formed Middle States Mission based in Washington, D.C. Upon the death of the president of the Southern States Mission, the Middle States Mission was dissolved and Rich was again assigned to preside over the Southern States Mission. In 1908, he was assigned to the Eastern States Mission, serving there as its president until the time of his death in 1913. As mission president in these areas, he was at the forefront of evangelizing the LDS Church during the Reed Smoot hearings and was involved in several highly publicized debates with leading Protestant preachers, most notably his debate with A. A. Bunner of the Church of Christ. Rich also authored a number of missionary tracts, often drawing on his experience with opposition to the Church, including calls often made by Protestant ministers to forcibly drive out the missionaries.

References

Sources
Andrew Jenson, LDS Biographical Encyclopedia, Vol. 3, p. 208-209.
David F. Boone, "Ben E. Rich" in Arnold K. Garr, et al., ed., The Encyclopedia of Latter-day Saint History (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2000), p. 1019.

19th-century American novelists
American leaders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Mission presidents (LDS Church)
1855 births
1913 deaths
People from Rexburg, Idaho
Novelists from Idaho
Idaho Republicans
20th-century Mormon missionaries
19th-century Mormon missionaries
American Mormon missionaries in the United States
American male novelists
19th-century American male writers
People from St. Anthony, Idaho
Latter Day Saints from Idaho

Ben E. Rich


The British Rail Class 35 is a class of mixed traffic B-B diesel locomotive with hydraulic transmission.  On account of their Mekydro-design hydraulic transmission units, the design became known as the Hymeks.

The type was developed for the Western Region of British Railways, which had opted for lightweight locomotives with hydraulic transmission when allocated funds under the British Railways Modernisation Plan of 1955.  One hundred and one of the class were built between 1961 and 1964 when it became apparent that there was a requirement for a medium power diesel-hydraulic design for both secondary passenger work and freight duties.

They were allocated to Bristol Bath Road, Cardiff Canton and Old Oak Common. None of the class was named. Withdrawal from service began in 1971, and by 1975 all had been withdrawn.  Their early withdrawal was caused, primarily, by BR classifying the hydraulic transmission as non-standard. Four examples survived into preservation.

35

British Rail Class 35