DVD-Video is a consumer video format used to store digital video on DVD discs. DVD-Video was the dominant consumer home video format in Asia, North America, Europe, and Australia in the 2000s until it was supplanted by the high-definition Blu-ray Disc. Discs using the DVD-Video specification require a DVD drive and an MPEG-2 decoder (e.g., a DVD player, or a computer DVD drive with a software DVD player). Commercial DVD movies are encoded using a combination of MPEG-2 compressed video and audio of varying formats (often multi-channel formats as described below). Typically, the data rate for DVD movies ranges from 3 to 9.5 Mbit/s, and the bit rate is usually adaptive. DVD-Video was first available in Japan on November 1, 1996 (with major releases beginning December 20, 1996), followed by a release on March 24,  1997 in the United States—to line up with the 69th Academy Awards that same day.

The DVD-Video specification was created by DVD Forum and can be obtained from DVD Format/Logo Licensing Corporation for a fee of $5,000. The specification is not publicly available and every subscriber must sign a non-disclosure agreement. Certain information in the DVD Book is proprietary and confidential.

Video data
To record digital video, DVD-Video uses either H.262/MPEG-2 Part 2 compression at up to 9.8 Mbit/s (9,800 kbit/s) or MPEG-1 Part 2 compression at up to 1.856 Mbit/s (1,856 kbit/s). DVD-Video supports video with a bit depth of 8 bits per color, encoded as YCbCr with 4:2:0 chroma subsampling.

The following formats are allowed for H.262/MPEG-2 Part 2 video:
 At a display rate of 25 frames per second, interlaced or progressive scan (commonly used in regions with 50 Hz image scanning frequency, compatible with analog 625-line PAL/SECAM):
 720 × 576 pixels (D-1 resolution, 4:3 fullscreen or 16:9 widescreen aspect ratio)
 704 × 576 pixels (4CIF resolution, 4:3)
 352 × 576 pixels (China Video Disc resolution, 4:3)
 352 × 288 pixels (CIF resolution, 4:3)
 At a display rate of 29.97 frames per second, interlaced or progressive scan (commonly used in regions with 60 Hz image scanning frequency, compatible with analog 525-line NTSC):
 720 × 480 pixels (D-1 resolution, 4:3 or 16:9)
 704 × 480 pixels (4SIF resolution, 4:3)
 352 × 480 pixels (China Video Disc resolution, 4:3)
 352 × 240 pixels (SIF resolution, 4:3)

The following formats are allowed for MPEG-1 video:
 352 × 288 pixels at 25 frame/s, progressive (CIF/VCD resolution, 4:3)
 352 × 240 pixels at 29.97 frame/s, progressive (SIF/VCD resolution, 4:3)

The MPEG-1 Part 2 format does not support interlaced video. The H.262/MPEG-2 Part 2 format supports both interlaced and progressive-scan content, and can handle different frame rates from the ones mentioned above by using pulldown. This is most commonly used to encode 23.976 frame/s content for playback at 29.97 frame/s. Pulldown can be implemented directly while the disc is mastered, by actually encoding the data on the disc at 29.97 frames/s; however, this practice is uncommon for most commercial film releases, which provide content optimized for display on progressive-scan television sets.

Alternatively, the content can be encoded on the disc itself at one of several alternative frame rates, and use flags that identify scanning type, field order and field repeating pattern. Such flags can be added in video stream by the H.262/MPEG-2 Part 2 encoder. A DVD player uses these flags to convert progressive content into interlaced video in real time during playback, producing a signal suitable for interlaced TV sets. These flags also allow reproducing progressive content at their original, non-interlaced format when used with compatible DVD players and progressive-scan television sets.

Audio data

The audio data on a DVD movie can be Dolby Digital (AC-3), DTS, PCM, or MPEG-1 Audio Layer II (MP2) format. In countries using the PAL system standard DVD-Video releases must contain at least one audio track using the PCM, MP2, or AC-3 format, and all standard PAL players must support all three of these formats. A similar standard exists in countries using the NTSC system, though with no requirement mandating the use of or support for the MP2 format. DTS audio is optional for all players, as DTS was not part of the initial draft standard and was added later; thus, many early players are unable to play DTS audio tracks. Only PCM and DTS support 96 kHz sampling rate. Because PCM, being uncompressed, requires a lot of bandwidth and DTS is not universally supported by players, AC-3 is the most common digital audio format for DVDs, and 96 kHz is rare on a DVD. The official allowed formats for the audio tracks on a DVD-Video are:
 PCM: 48 kHz or 96 kHz sampling rate, 16 bit or 24 bit Linear PCM, 2 to 6 channels, up to 6,144 kbit/s; N. B. 16-bit 48 kHz 8 channel PCM is allowed by the DVD-Video specification but is not well-supported by authoring applications or players;
 AC-3: 48 kHz sampling rate, 1 to 5.1 (6) channels, up to 448 kbit/s;
 DTS: 48 kHz or 96 kHz sampling rate; channel layouts = 2.0, 2.1, 5.0, 5.1, 6.1; bitrates for 2.0 and 2.1 = 377.25 and 503.25 kbit/s, bitrates for 5.x and 6.1 = 754.5 and 1509.75 kbit/s;
 MP2: 48 kHz sampling rate, 1 to 7.1 channels, up to 912 kbit/s.

DVDs can contain more than one channel of audio to go together with the video content, supporting a maximum of eight simultaneous audio tracks per video. This is most commonly used for different audio formats—DTS 5.1, AC-3 2.0 etc.—as well as for commentary and audio tracks in different languages.

Data rate
DVD-Video discs have a raw bitrate of 11.08 Mbit/s, with a 1.0 Mbit/s overhead, leaving a payload bitrate of 10.08 Mbit/s. Of this, up to 3.36 Mbit/s can be used for subtitles, a maximum of 10.08 Mbit/s can be split amongst audio and video, and a maximum of 9.80 Mbit/s can be used for video alone. In the case of multiple angles the data is stored interleaved, and so there is a bitrate penalty leading to a max bitrate of 8 Mbit/s per angle to compensate for additional seek time. This limit is not cumulative, so each additional angle can still have up to 8 Mbit/s of bitrate available.

Professionally encoded videos average a bitrate of 4–5 Mbit/s with a maximum of 7–8 Mbit/s in high-action scenes. Encoding at less than the max bitrate (like this) is typically done to allow greater compatibility among players, and to help prevent buffer underruns in the case of dirty or scratched discs.

In October 2001, aiming to improve picture quality over standard editions, Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment offered "Superbit"—a premium line of DVD-Video titles having average bitrates closer to 6 Mbit/s. Audio quality was also improved by the mandatory inclusion of both Dolby Digital and DTS 5.1 surround audio tracks. Multiple languages, angles, and extra audio tracks were eliminated to free up more space for the main title and thereby to ensure the highest data rate possible. In January 2007 the Superbit line was discontinued.

Other features
Some DVD hardware or software players may play discs whose MPEG files do not conform to the above standards; commonly this is used to support discs authored with formats such as VCD and SVCD. While VCD and CVD video is supported by the DVD standard, neither SVCD video nor VCD, CVD, or SVCD audio is compatible with the DVD standard.

Some hardware players will also play DVD-ROMs or CD-ROMs containing "raw" MPEG video files; these are "unauthored" and lack the file and header structure that defines DVD-Video. Standard DVD-Video files contain extra information (such as the number of video tracks, chapters and links to extra features) that DVD players use to navigate the disc.

The maximum chapters allowed per title is 99 and the maximum titles allowed per DVD is 99.

File system
Almost all DVD-Video discs use the UDF bridge format, which is a combination of the DVD MicroUDF (a subset of UDF 1.02) and ISO 9660 file systems.
The UDF bridge format provides backwards compatibility for operating systems that support only ISO 9660. Most DVD players read the UDF filesystem from a DVD-Video disc and ignore the ISO9660 filesystem.

Directory and file structure
A DVD volume for the DVD-Video format has the following structure of directories and files:

 AUDIO_TS directory: empty or not present on DVD-Video discs; contains files only on DVD-Audio discs; it is also known as an Audio Title Sets directory; included on DVD-Video discs for compatibility reasons
 VIDEO_TS directory: stores all data for the DVD-Video; it is also known as a Video Title Sets directory. This directory is required to be present on a DVD-compliant disc.
 Video Manager (VMG) files:
 VIDEO_TS.IFO file: the Video Manager (VMG) information file—stores control and playback information for the entire DVD—e.g. the First Play PGC (Program Chain), locations of all Video Title Sets (VTS), table of titles, number of volumes, domains for multiple languages and regional and parental control settings, information about subtitles, audio tracks, etc. This file is required to be present on a DVD-compliant disc.
 VIDEO_TS.BUP file: the backup copy of the VIDEO_TS.IFO file. It is part of Video Manager (VMG).
 VIDEO_TS.VOB file: the first-play Video Object of the DVD-Video disc, usually a copyright notice or a menu. It is part of Video Manager (VMG). This file is not required to be present on a DVD-compliant disc.
 Video Title Set (VTS) files:
 VTS_01_0.IFO file: stores control and playback information for the Video Title Set 01—e. g. information about chapters, subtitles and audio tracks. A "VTS_zz_0.IFO" file (where "zz" is from 01 to 99) is required to be present on each VTS.
 VTS_01_0.BUP file: a backup copy of the VTS_01_0.IFO file. This file is required to be present on a DVD-compliant disc. It is part of Video Title Set (VTS).
 VTS_01_0.VOB file: Video Title Set 01, Video Object 0, contains the menu for this title. This file is not required to be present on a DVD-compliant disc.
 VTS_01_1.VOB file: Video Title Set 01, Video Object 1, contains the video for this title. At least one file "VTS_zz_1.VOB" is required in the VTS and each "VTS_zz_x". DVD-Video can contain up to 99 (1–99) titles with max 10 (0–9) VOB files each. The last possible VOB file is VTS_99_9.VOB.
 ... etc.

IFO files store control and playback information—e. g. information about chapters, subtitles and audio tracks. They do not store any video or audio data or subtitles.

BUP files are only backups of the IFO files.

Domains
Data structures recorded on a DVD-compliant disc are components of one of the four data groups called domains:
 First-play (FP) – First Play PGC located in the VIDEO_TS.IFO file
 Video Manager (VMG) – contains VIDEO_TS.IFO, VIDEO_TS.BUP and VIDEO_TS.VOB
 Video Title Set (VTS) – contains "VTS_zz_x.IFO", "VTS_zz_x.BUP" and "VTS_zz_x.VOB" files (where "x" is from 1 to 9)
 Video Title Set Menu (VTSM) – uses "VTS_zz_0.VOB" files

Container

Video, audio, subtitle and navigation streams are multiplexed and stored on a DVD-Video disc in the VOB container format (Video Object). VOB is based on the MPEG program stream format, but with additional limitations and specifications in the private streams. The MPEG program stream has provisions for non-standard data (as AC-3, DTS, LPCM or subtitles used in VOB files) in the form of so-called private streams. VOB files are a very strict subset of the MPEG program stream standard. While all VOB files are MPEG program streams, not all MPEG program streams comply with the definition for a VOB file.

DVD recorders can use DVD-VR or DVD+VR format instead of DVD-Video. DVD-VR format store multiplexed audiovisual content in VRO containers. VRO file is an equivalent to a collection of DVD-Video VOB files. Fragmented VRO files are not widely supported by hardware or software players and video editing software. DVD+VR standard defines a logical format for DVD-Video compliant recording on optical discs and is commonly used on DVD+R/RW media.

Subtitles
DVD-Video may also include up to 32 subtitle or subpicture tracks. Subtitles are usually offered as a visual aid for deaf and hearing impaired viewers, displaying translated dialogue into other languages, or displaying karaoke lyrics. They are sometimes used to present additional information about the video being played. Subtitles are stored as bitmap images and therefore can contain any arbitrary text or simple image. They are restricted to a 16-color palette, but are usually implemented with a limit of 4 colors. 16 levels of transparency are also supported to allow blending, but this is also not always implemented. The subtitle tracks are contained within the VOB file of the DVD.

DVD-Video may also contain closed captioning material which can only be viewed on a television set with a decoder.

Chapters and angles
DVD-Video may contain chapters for easy navigation, and continuation of a partially watched film. If space permits, it is also possible to include several versions of certain scenes, called "angles." Today, the multi-angle feature is mostly used for internationalization. For example, it can be used to supply different language versions of images containing written text when subtitles would not do (e. g., the Queen's spell book in Snow White, and the scrolling text in the openings of the Star Wars films). Multiple angles have found a niche in markets such as yoga, erotica, animation (e.g. for storyboards), and live performances.

Extra features
A significant selling point of DVD-Video is that the storage capacity allows for a wide variety of extra, or bonus, features in addition to the feature film. These extra features can include audio commentary; documentary features, commonly about the making of the main title; interviews; deleted footage; outtakes; photo galleries; storyboards; isolated music scores; trivia text commentary; simple games; film shorts; TV spots; radio spots; theatrical trailers which were used to promote the main title; and teaser trailers advertising related movies or DVDs.

Extra features often provide entertainment or add depth and understanding to the film. Games, bloopers, and galleries provide entertainment. Deleted scenes and alternative endings allow the audience to view additional content which was not included in a theatrical release. Directors cuts allow the audience to see how the director envisioned the main title without the constraints which are placed on a theatrical release.

Other extras that can be included on DVDs are motion menus, still pictures, up to 32 selectable subtitles, seamless branching for multiple storylines, up to 9 camera angles, and DVD-ROM / data files that can be accessed on a computer.

Extra features require additional storage space, which often means encoding the main title with lower than possible data rate to fit both the main title and the extras on one disc. Lower data rate may decrease visual and sound quality, which manifests itself in various compression artifacts. To maintain quality the main title and the extras may be released on several discs, or the extras may be omitted completely like in the "Superbit" line of DVDs.

Restrictions
DVD-Video has four complementary systems designed to restrict the DVD user in various ways: Macrovision, Content Scramble System (CSS), region codes, and disabled user operations (UOPs). There are also anti-ripping techniques intended to foil ripping software.

Content Scramble System

Many DVD-Video titles use Content Scramble System (CSS) encryption, which is intended to discourage people from copying the disc. Usually, users need to install software provided on the DVD or downloaded from the Internet such as MPlayer, TotalMedia Theatre, PowerDVD, VLC or WinDVD to be able to view the disc in a computer system.

CSS does not make it difficult (any more) to copy the digital content now that a decoder (DeCSS) has been released, nor is it possible to distinguish between legal and illegal copies of a work, but CSS does restrict the playback software that may be used.

CSS has caused major problems for the inclusion of DVD players in any open source operating systems, since open source player implementations are not officially given access to the decryption keys or license to the patents involved in CSS. Proprietary software players were also difficult to find on some platforms. However, a successful effort has been made to write a decoder by reverse engineering, resulting in DeCSS. This has led to long-running legal battles and the arrest of some of those involved in creating or distributing the DeCSS code, through the use of the controversial U.S. Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), on the grounds that such software could also be used to facilitate unauthorized copying of the data on the discs. The Videolan team, however, went on to make the libdvdcss library. Unlike DeCSS, libdvdcss can access a CSS-encrypted DVD without the need of a cracked key, thus enabling playback of such discs on opensource players without legal restraints (although DVD rippers using this library may still be subject to restrictions).

The DMCA currently affects only the United States, however many other countries are signatories to the similar WIPO Treaty. In some countries it is not illegal to use de-scrambling software to bypass the DVD restrictions. A number of software programs have since appeared on the Web to view DVDs on a number of different platforms.

Other measures such as anti-ripping, as well as U.S. and non-U.S. copyright law, may be used to prevent making unauthorized copies of DVDs. CSS decrypting software, or ripping software, such as DVD Decrypter, AnyDVD, MacTheRipper, and DVD Shrink allows a disc to be copied to hard disk unscrambled. Some DeCSS applications also remove Macrovision, region codes, and disabled user operations (UOPs).

Anti-ripping
After DeCSS ripping software became available, companies developed techniques to introduce errors in DVD-Video discs that do not normally affect playback and navigation of a disc, but can cause problems in software that attempts to copy the entire disc. These approaches, which are not part of the official DVD-Video specification, include Sony ARccOS Protection, Macrovision RipGuard, X-protect, ProtectDisc SecureBurn, Anaho, Fortium, and others. All of these methods have been circumvented (as might have been expected, since all standard DVD players naturally circumvent them to play and navigate the discs normally). Riplock is a feature that reduces drive noise during playback but inadvertently reduces ripping speed.

Disabled user operations

DVD-Video allows the disc to specify whether or not the user may perform any operation, such as selecting a menu, skipping chapters, forwarding or rewinding essentially any function on the remote control. This is known as User Operation Prohibitions, or Prohibited User Operations (UOPs or PUOs). Most DVD players respect these commands (e. g., by preventing skipping or fast-forwarding through a copyright message or an advertisement at the beginning of a disc). However, grey market players ignore UOPs and some DVD "re-authoring" software packages allow the user to produce a copy without these restrictions. The legality of these activities varies by jurisdiction and is the subject of debate. (See fair use.)

Region codes

Each DVD-Video disc contains one or more region codes, denoting the area(s) of the world in which distribution and playback are intended. The commercial DVD player specification dictates that a player must only play discs that contain its region code. In theory, this allows the motion picture studios to control the various aspects of a release (including content, date and price) on a region-by-region basis, or ensure the success of "staggered" or delayed cinema releases from country to country. For example, the British movie 28 Days Later was released on DVD in Europe several months prior to the film's release in North American movie theaters. Regional coding kept the European DVD unplayable for most North American consumers, thereby ensuring that ticket sales would be relatively unaffected.

In practice, many DVD players allow playback of any disc, or can be modified to do so. Entirely independent of encryption, region coding pertains to regional lockout, which originated in the video game industry.

From a worldwide perspective regional coding may be seen as a failure. A huge percentage of players outside of North America can be easily modified (and are even sold pre-modified by mainstream stores such as Amazon.co.uk) to ignore the regional codes on a disc. This, coupled with the fact that almost all televisions in Europe and Australasia are capable of displaying NTSC video (at the very least, in black and white), means that consumers in these regions have a huge choice of discs. Contrary to popular belief, this practice is not illegal and in some countries that strongly support free trade it is encouraged.

A normal DVD player can only play region-coded discs designated for the player's own particular region. However, a code-free or region-free DVD player is capable of playing DVDs from any of the six regions around the world.

The CSS license prohibits manufacturing of DVD players that are not set to a single region by default. While the same license prohibits manufacturers from including prominent interfaces to change the region setting it does not clearly prevent them from including "hidden" menus that enable the player's region to be changed; as such, many high-end models in the U.S. include password-protected or otherwise hidden methods to enable multi-region playback. Conversely in the UK and Ireland many cheap DVD players are multi-region while more expensive systems, including the majority of home cinema systems, are preset to play only region 2 discs.

In China, DVD-Videos for television series are usually released in MPEG-1 video, with MP2 audio. By forgoing Dolby standards, manufacturers cut costs considerably; encoding in lower bit-rates also allows a TV series to be squeezed onto fewer discs. There is no region coding in such cases.

There are also two additional region codes, region 7, which is reserved, and region 8, which is used exclusively for passenger transport such as airlines and cruise ships.

Programming interface
A virtual machine implemented by the DVD player runs bytecode contained on the DVD. This is used to control playback and display special effects on the menus. The instruction set is called the Virtual Machine (VM) DVD command set. There are 16 general parameter registers (GPRM) to hold temporary values and 24 system parameters (SPRM). As a result of a moderately flexible programming interface, DVD players can be used to play games, such as the DVD re-release of Dragon's Lair, along with more sophisticated and advanced games such as Scene It?, all of which can be run on standard DVD players.

Players and recorders

Modern DVD recorders often support additional formats, including DVD+/-R/RW, CD-R/RW, MP3, WMA, SVCD, JPEG, PNG, SVG, KAR and MPEG-4 (DivX/Xvid). Some also include USB ports or flash memory readers. Player prices range from as low as US$20 (£10) to as high as US$2,700 (£1,350).

DVD drives for computers usually come with one of two kinds of Regional Playback Control (RPC), either RPC-1 or RPC-2. This is used to enforce the publisher's restrictions on what regions of the world the DVD can be played. (See Regional lockout and DVD region codes.) While open-source software DVD players allow everything, commercial ones (both standalone models and software players) come further encumbered with restrictions forbidding the viewer from skipping (or in some cases fast-forwarding) certain content such as copyright warnings or advertisements. (See User operation prohibition.)

When DVD drives first became commercially available in 1997, they often came with special cards, which were designed to pass through either the integrated video on the computer motherboard or the video card. The cards were necessary since most computers did not have sufficient processing power to handle the encoding on the discs. As CPU speeds and video card memory drastically increased in the late 1990s, in addition to software alternatives such as PowerDVD becoming readily available, these cards quickly became obsolete.

Video game systems with DVD-Video playback functionality include: Panasonic Q (a variation of the GameCube sold exclusively in Japan), PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Wii (with an unsupported hack), Xbox (additional remote required), Xbox 360, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X.

Competitors and successors

In April 2000, Sonic Solutions and Ravisent announced hDVD, a high-definition extension to DVD. However, hDVD failed to gain much popularity.

On November 18, 2003, the Chinese news agency Xinhua reported the final standard of the Chinese government-sponsored Enhanced Versatile Disc (EVD) which is another extension of standard DVD. Shortly thereafter the development of the format was halted by a licensing dispute between Chinese companies and On2 Technologies, but on December 6, 2006, 20 Chinese electronic firms unveiled 54 prototype EVD players and announced their intention for the format to completely replace DVDs in China by 2008. However, due to a lack of sales, support for EVD was dropped by the Xinhua Bookstore in Wuhan, which was a major supporter of the   format.

Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD

Two competing high-definition (HD) optical-disc formats, HD DVD and Blu-ray, were introduced in 2006. The HD DVD format, promoted by Toshiba, was backed by the DVD Forum, which voted to make it the official successor to DVD. Opposing HD DVD was the Blu-ray format, led by the Blu-ray Disc Association, which shares many members with the DVD forum.

With HD DVD launched in March 2006 and Blu-ray launched in June of the same year, a format war started. Industry analysts likened the situation to the VHS/Betamax format war of the 1980s. At the time of their launch, consumer awareness of either high-definition format was severely limited, with the result that most consumers avoided both formats, already content with DVD. In February 2008, Toshiba capitulated, citing low demand for HD DVD and the faster growth of Blu-ray, and the inclusion of the format in the video game system PlayStation 3 (PS3), among other reasons. Toshiba ended production of their HD DVD players and discontinued promotion of the format, while the HD DVD movie release schedule concluded by June 2008.

After HD DVD was discontinued, Blu-ray became the de facto high-definition optical disc format. However, sales figures suggest that DVD is in no immediate danger of disappearing. All standard DVDs will play on existing Blu-ray players, making the switch to Blu-ray much easier than the switch from VHS to DVD. Moreover, some labels are cutting back on Blu-ray Disc releases in favor of DVD-Video, claiming that low sales do not justify the more expensive Blu-ray Disc format. In addition, a growing number of hardware vendors are enhancing their Blu-ray players with Internet connectivity for subscription-based video downloads.

Ultra HD Blu-ray is the latest version available, supporting 4K resolution content.

CBHD

China Blue High-definition Disc (CBHD) was introduced in September 2007. This format is based on HD DVD. While the Blu-ray format is marketed internationally, CBHDs are exclusively marketed in China.

See also

 Comparison of video player software
 DVD-VR
 DVD+VR
 DVD authoring
 List of DVD authoring applications
 Superbit
 VR mode

References

External links

 DVD-Video information including virtual machine instruction set information.

Audiovisual introductions in 1996
Audio storage
Consumer electronics
DVD
Japanese inventions
Rotating disc computer storage media
Video storage

DVD-Video


Although most commonly known in English as Transnistria, the official name of the region is Pridnestrovie. Here is a detailed explanation of the names used for Transnistria, both official and unofficial, as they appear in the local languages and in English.

Official names, long
Transnistria has three official languages: Russian, Moldavian (in the Cyrillic alphabet), and Ukrainian. In each of the three national languages the name reads:

Russian: Приднестровская Молдавская Республика (Pridnestrovskaya Moldavskaya Respublika), abbreviated ПМР
Moldavian Cyrillic: Република Молдовеняскэ Нистрянэ (Republica Moldovenească Nistreană), abbreviated РМН
Ukrainian: Придністровська Молдавська Республіка (Prydnistrovs'ka Moldavs'ka Respublika), abbreviated ПМР

The abbreviations of each name in the official languages also appear on the Transnistrian coat of arms.

The Constitution of Transnistria gives the official name as Pridnestrovskaia Moldavskaia Respublica (PMR).

Some authorities, such as the President's office, translate this name to English as the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic. The official abbreviation in English is PMR.

Official names, short
The official shortform name (the name in daily usage) in Russian is "Приднестровье", Pridnestrovie, which literally means "Cisdniestria". Short name in Romanian Nistrenia (Нистреня in Cyrillic), in Ukrainian Придністров'я - Prydnistrovia.

The PMR government favours not to translate the country name when written in English. Per a 2000 presidential naming decree, the official transliteration in Latin script is Pridnestrovie.

Names used by Moldova
The Government of Moldova refers to the area as the Administrative-Territorial Units of the Left Bank of the Dniester (Transnistria):
Moldovan: Unitățile Administrativ-Teritoriale din stînga Nistrului (Transnistria)
Russian: Административно-территориальные единицы левобережья Днестра (Приднестровья)
Ukrainian: Автономне територіальне утворення з особливим правовим статусом Придністров'я (Придністров'я)

Other names in use
In Russian, the names used for Transnistria are always consistently either Pridnestrovskaia Moldavskaia Respublica or Pridnestrovie (the two official names, long- and short- respectively). However, in English a wide variety of names have been used to describe the region, among them: Trans-Dniester, Transdnistria, Transdniestria, Transdniestr, Trans-Dniestria, Transdniester, Transniestria, Transdnestr, also Trans-Dnjestr and Trans-Dnjester.

The European Court of Human Rights used the name Moldavian Republic of Transdniestria or Moldovan Republic of Transnistria (MRT), while Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and others sometimes refer to it as the Transnistrian Moldovan Republic (TMR). Author Charles King, in his book The Moldovans, uses the names Dnestr Republic and Dnestr Moldovan Republic (DMR).

Naming background
All of the names cited above have their root in the name of the river Dniester. In Romanian/Moldavian, the river is known as Nistru. The name "Transnistria" is Romanian/Moldavian and literally means "beyond the river Dniester". The name has been in use in Romania as early as 1924.

In both Russian and Ukrainian, the name has a more literal meaning as it is called "Cisdniestria" which means "On this side of the Dniester", "By-the-Dniester" or "On-the-Dniester" (as opposed to beyond the Dniester).

References

External links
 What's in a name: "Pridnestrovie" vs "Transnistria" (English)

Politics of Transnistria
Transnistria

Names of Transnistria


The  Siege of Sidney Street, or the "Battle of Stepney", was a notorious gunfight in London's East End on 3 January 1911.

It happened after a jewellery robbery went bad two weeks before. Three policemen had been killed, and others wounded, and one of the gang was also killed. This event is known as the Houndsditch murders.

The gang were said to be international anarchists led by Peter Piatkow, a.k.a. "Peter the Painter". It is still not clear who their leader actually was.

The end took place at a house in Sidney Street, where word came that a gang of foreigners had moved in. In the fire that ended the siege, one fireman and two robbers died. The fates of other members of the gang, and its leader, are not known.

The Houndsditch murders
On 16 December 1910, a gang of Jewish immigrants attempted to break into the rear of a jeweller's shop at 119 Houndsditch. A nextdoor shopkeeper heard their hammering, and told the City of London Police (in whose area the shop was). Nine unarmed officers — three sergeants and six constables (two in plain clothes) — moved towards the jewellers.

Sergeants Bentley and Bryant knocked at the door of No. 11 Exchange Buildings, behind the jeweller's shop. The gang's leader, George Gardstein, opened the door, but when he did not answer their questions they assumed he did not understand English and told him to fetch someone who did. Gardstein left the door half-closed and disappeared.

The house had a single ground-floor room, into which the front door directly opened, with a staircase leading to the upper floors on the left, and a door to the open yard at the back on the right.

Growing impatient, the two sergeants entered the house to find the room apparently empty, before they became aware of a man standing in the darkness at the top of the stairs. After a short conversation, another man entered through the yard door, rapidly firing a pistol, while the man on the stairs also started shooting.

Both officers were hit, with Bentley collapsing across the doorstep, while Bryant managed to stagger outside. In the street, Constable Woodhams ran to help Bentley, but was himself wounded by one of the gang firing from the cover of the house, as was Sergeant Tucker, who died almost instantly.

The gang then attempted to break out of the cul-de-sac, Gardstein being grabbed by Constable Choate almost at the entrance. In the struggle Choate was wounded several times by Gardstein, before being shot five more times by other members of the gang, who also managed to hit Gardstein in the back. They then dragged Gardstein ¾ of a mile to 59 Grove Street, where he died the next day. Constable Choate and Sergeant Bentley died in separate hospitals the same day. An intense search followed, and a number of the gang or their associates were soon arrested.

The Siege of Sidney Street
On 2 January 1911, an informer told police that two or three members of the gang, possibly including Peter the Painter, were hiding at 100 Sidney Street, Stepney. The police were worried the suspects were about to flee, but expected heavy resistance to any attempt to capture them. On 3 January, two hundred police officers cordoned off the area and the siege began. At dawn the battle started.

The defenders, though heavily outnumbered, had better guns and stores of ammunition. The Tower of London was called for backup, and word got to the Home Secretary, Winston Churchill. Churchill arrived on the spot to see the situation at first hand, and to offer advice. Churchill authorised calling in a detachment of Scots Guards to assist the police.

Six hours into the battle, and just as the field artillery piece that Churchill had authorised arrived, a fire began in the building. When the fire brigade arrived, Churchill refused them access to the building. The police stood ready, guns aimed at the front door, waiting for the men inside to attempt their escape. The door never opened. Instead, the remains of two members of the gang, Fritz Svaars and William Sokolow (both were also known by numerous aliases), were later discovered inside the building.

No sign of Peter the Painter was found. Besides the three policemen, a London firefighter also died of his injuries.

References

Further reading
The Houndsditch murders and the Siege of Sidney Street, Donald Rumbelow.
The Battle of Stepney, Colin Rogers.

1911
1910s in England
20th century in London
Anarchism
Deaths by firearm in England
Murder in London

Siege of Sidney Street


David Edward Crombie  (born April 24, 1936) is a Canadian former academic and politician who served as the 56th mayor of Toronto from 1972 to 1978. Crombie was elected to Parliament following his tenure as mayor. A member of the Progressive Conservative (PC) Party, he served as minister of national health and welfare from 1979 to 1980, minister of Indian affairs and northern development from 1984 to 1986, and secretary of state for Canada from 1986 to 1988.

Early life
Crombie was born in Swansea, then a village west of Toronto, the son of Vera Edith (Beamish) and Norman Davis Crombie. He was a lecturer in politics and urban affairs at Ryerson in the 1960s when he became involved in Toronto's urban reform movement.  At the time, the city had a very pro-development city council that allowed a great deal of demolition of older buildings, including houses, to make way for the construction of apartment blocks, office towers, and highways (see Spadina Expressway). Crombie, along with John Sewell and other urban reformers, became a leader in a grassroots movement that favoured curtailing development in favour of improving social services and prioritizing community interests.

Municipal politics

Crombie was elected to Toronto's city council in 1970, and became Mayor of Toronto in 1972, ushering in an era of socially responsible urban development inspired by thinkers such as Jane Jacobs. Crombie was the first mayor who represented the reform movement of Toronto politics, and his policies differed sharply from those of the Old Guard who preceded him.

Mayor of Toronto
Much of Crombie's time as mayor was spent trying to rein in the development industry. He initially imposed a 45-foot (13.7 m) limit on all new constructions, but this was overturned by the Ontario Municipal Board. Crombie then put forward a new official plan that imposed varying height restrictions across the city, and this was upheld by the board.

The Spadina Expressway had been halted by premier Bill Davis in 1971, but Davis continued to support the construction of the Allen Expressway in the north. Crombie attempted but failed to have it halted. He was more successful in countering plans for the Scarborough Expressway; all work was halted during Crombie's term, leading to its eventual cancellation.

Crombie also opposed the traditional pattern of demolishing poorer neighbourhoods and replacing them with housing projects. The plans to redevelop areas such as Trefann Court, Kensington Market, and Cabbagetown ended under Crombie. Instead, he oversaw the creation of the St. Lawrence neighbourhood, an area of mid-rise, mixed-use, mixed-income buildings that followed Jane Jacobs's vision of urban planning.

Crombie was re-elected in 1974 and 1976 with large majorities. Because of his great public appeal and his height of only , he was repeatedly described in the media as the city's "tiny, perfect mayor".

Federal politics

He left City Hall in 1978 to move to federal politics, winning a by-election as a Progressive Conservative candidate that gave him a seat in the House of Commons of Canada. Crombie served as Minister of Health and Welfare in the short-lived minority government of Prime Minister Joe Clark which was elected in 1979 but lost power the next year.

Crombie stood as a candidate at the 1983 Progressive Conservative leadership convention. He finished fourth. After Mulroney led Conservatives to power in the 1984 election, Crombie became Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs, and later Secretary of State and Minister of Multiculturalism.

Royal Commission on the Future of the Toronto Waterfront
Frustrated in Ottawa, as a Red Tory in an increasingly conservative government, Crombie decided not to run in the 1988 election, and returned to urban affairs as head of the royal commission on the Future of Toronto's waterfront (1988–92). He authored ground-breaking reports including Watershed' and Regeneration, which described new integrated approaches to sustainable planning. The Provincial Government appointed Crombie as head of a provincial agency, the Waterfront Regeneration Trust Agency (1992-1999) to implement the 83 recommendations made in the final report, Regeneration. Among these recommendations was the creation of a waterfront trail. Today the Great Lakes Waterfront Trail extends from Quebec to Sault Ste Marie along Canada's Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. In 1999, Crombie founded the Waterfront Regeneration Trust, as a charity, to continue the work of the provincial agency, and serves on the Board. In addition to leading work on the creation of the Great Lakes Waterfront Trail, the charity manages a fund for the protection and restoration of the Rouge Valley, now part of the Rouge National Urban Park. Crombie tried to find an alternative to Red Hill Creek Expressway but the Hamilton city council dismissed his compromise proposal out of hand as being insufficient.

First Nations and Inuit health reform
In September, 1979, Crombie, a liberal-minded reformer, as Minister of Health and Welfare under the Conservative government Prime Minister Joe Clark, issued a statement representing "current Federal Government practice and policy in the field of Indian health." Crombie declared that the "Federal Government is committed to joining with Indian representatives in a fundamental review of issues involved in Indian health when Indian representatives have developed their position, and the policy emerging from that review could supersede this policy". In the previous year, Indian bands and organizations such as the Union of B.C. Chiefs, the Native Brotherhood and United Native Nations engaged in intense lobbying for Indians to control delivery of health services in their own communities and for the repeal of restrictive service "guidelines introduced in September 1978, to correct abuses in health delivery, and to deal with the environmental health hazards of mercury and fluoride pollution affecting particular communities." Crombie appointed Gary Goldthorpe, as commissioner of the federal inquiry (known as the Goldthorpe Inquiry) into "alleged abuses in medical care delivery at Alert Bay, British Columbia." In 1979 Justice Thomas Berger, who headed the royal commission dealing with Indian and Inuit healthcare, recommended to Crombie that there be greater consultation with Indians and Inuit regarding the delivery of healthcare programs and that an "annual sum of $950,000 was allocated for distribution by the National Indian Brotherhood to develop health consultation structures within the national Indian community." Crombie's successor as Liberal Minister of Health and Welfare, Monique Begin, adopted Berger's recommendations, ushering in the beginning of a change in the way in which health delivery.

Later career
Crombie was appointed Ryerson's first chancellor in 1994 when the polytechnic was granted university status. He served in that role until 1999.

Throughout the 1990s, he served in various advisory capacities to city and provincial governments relating to urban issues in the Toronto area. In 2007 he retired as CEO of the Canadian Urban Institute. In April, 2008, the Toronto District School Board selected Crombie to negotiate a solution to keep unfunded school swimming pools open to the public. In 2014 he publicly opposed plans by the federally run Toronto Port Authority to lengthen runways at Billy Bishop Airport on the Toronto Islands to enable Porter Airlines to expand with jet planes.

On May 13, 2004, Crombie was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada. In 2012, he was made a member of the Order of Ontario. In 2013, he was inducted into the Canadian Disability Hall of Fame. Crombie serves on the Governors' Council of the Toronto Public Library Foundation, the Honorary Council for the Loran Scholars Foundation, and the boards of CivicAction and the Planet in Focus Foundation. In addition, Crombie is a member of the Patron's Council at Dying with Dignity Canada. He also serves on the advisory boards of the Ryerson Image Centre and CARP Canada.

A park named after Crombie runs from Jarvis Street to Berkeley Street, in a formerly industrial area, that was converted to housing.

Personal life
Crombie is the father of two daughters, Robin and Carrie, and actor Jonathan Crombie, who starred in three Anne of Green Gables TV series. Jonathan died in New York on April 15, 2015, of a brain hemorrhage at age 48. His organs were donated, he was cremated and his ashes returned to Canada.

References

Bibliography

External links

1936 births
Living people
Canadian political scientists
Mayors of Toronto
Metropolitan Toronto councillors
Members of the 21st Canadian Ministry
Members of the 24th Canadian Ministry
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario
Officers of the Order of Canada
Members of the Order of Ontario
Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada MPs
University of Toronto alumni
Canadian Ministers of Health and Welfare
Chancellors of Toronto Metropolitan University
Canadian Disability Hall of Fame
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada leadership candidates

David Crombie


Carlo Bonavia (died 1788) was an Italian painter known for idyllic landscape paintings, engravings and drawings.  He was active from 1740 until his death.  He is thought to be from Rome, but worked in Naples from about 1751 to 1788.  He was trained in the Neapolitan landscape tradition of Salvator Rosa (1615–1673) and Leonardo Coccorante (1680–1750), but was much more strongly influenced by the work of Claude Joseph Vernet, who visited Naples in 1737 and 1746.

Bonavia's paintings share with Vernet's a rococo palette of pale blues, creamy yellows, pinks and soft green, as well as an atmospheric, rather than analytical, approach to landscape. Like Vernet, Bonavia painted capricci in which real features of the Neapolitan countryside were placed in imaginary settings.  Bonavia's idyllic landscapes were popular souvenirs of the Grand Tour.  Among his patrons were Lord Brudenell and Count Karl Joseph Firmian, the Austrian ambassador to Naples 1753–8. Bonavia had a very successful career and was praised by Pietro Zani in his Enciclopedia Metodica Critico Ragionata delle Belle Arte (1794) as a fine painter of views and history subjects.

The Accademia di San Luca (Rome), the Dulwich Picture Gallery, the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, the Honolulu Museum of Art, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Museo di Capodimonte (Naples) and Stourhead (Wiltshire, England), Basildon Park (National Trust, Berkshire, England) are among the public collections having paintings by Carlo Bonavia.

References
Constable, W.G., "Carlo Bonavia", Art Quarterly, vol. XXII, No. 1, Spring, 1959, 19.

Gallery

1788 deaths
18th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
Italian vedutisti
Painters from Naples
Landscape artists
Painters of ruins
Year of birth unknown
18th-century Italian male artists

Carlo Bonavia


Hala is a gotra or clan of the Jatt people found in the states of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh in India and in the province of Sindh in Pakistan.

Religion
The members of this gotra are Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. The Muslim Jatts of the Hala gotra are found in Sindh, while Hindu and Sikh Jatts belonging to this gotra are found in Uttar Pradesh and Punjab (India).

Further reading
 Ram Swarup Joon:  History of the Jats, Rohtak, India (1938, 1967)

Ethnic groups in India
Ethnic groups in Sindh

Hala (clan)


Secobarbital sodium (sold as Seconal) is a drug which is used to treat epilepsy and insomnia.  Trade names include Seconal and reds. It was first synthesised in 1928. Like other barbiturates, it is fairly addictive. In many countries, using this drug is illegal, outside the medical context. Today, this drug is only used rarely; Barbiturates have been replaced by Benzodiazepine for many applications.

Drugs used in psychiatry
Organonitrogen compounds
Sodium compounds

Seconal


Apple juice is the juice from apples. It does not have alcohol, and it tastes sweet from the natural fruit sugars. Many companies making apple juice like to say that they do not add more sugar into the drink, and there is only natural sugar.

Origin
The apple tree came from the same era as Elizabethan in the late 1500s and early 1600s (Pyrus malus), and is native to Britain. Even in the Old Saxon papers, apples and cider are mentioned a lot. The fruit is thought to have come in the Caucasus, a place with many mountains between the Black and Caspian Seas.

The Lady apple, a kind of apple still grown today, is believed to be one of the oldest apple trees on record.

Composition
Apple juice is 88% water and 11% carbohydrates (including 9% sugars), with little amounts of protein or fat.

Health
In both facts and stories, the apple appears to be very healthy. There are two types of apple juice. One is the clear apple juice, and the other is the cloudy apple juice. Pectin and starch are taken out during the production process to produce clear apple juice. Cloudy apple juice is cloudy because of evenly-distributed small pulp suspensions in the juice concentrate.
Also, in apple juice, the vitamin C, and other vitamins are contained inside, as well as mineral nutrients such as boron which helps build strong bones.

Apples can also be a main source of fiber, and is a powerful cleanser and an important necessity for the health of your body.

The compounds in apple juice called phytonutrients delay the break down of LDL or cholesterol. In history, the phrase from Benjamin Franklin "an apple a day keeps the doctor away" is very famous. New research is proving this phrase to be a fact. Researchers at UC Davis School of Medicine have recently found out that drinking apple juice seems to slow down the process that may lead to heart disease.

Researchers at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands had studied and found that smokers who ate many fruits and vegetables, especially apples, had reduced their risk of getting the common diseases smokers would get. The risk was reduced by 50%.

For older people, drinking fruit juices should begin with apples, especially if they are suffering from arthritis and rheumatism. This is because apples carry a substantial amount of potassium. Because of this, eating apples or apple juice has been known to help. Drinking apple juice also removes some toxins from the liver and kidneys and is low in calories. Over time, this can reduce the chances of having liver or kidney disease.

Use
Apple juice can be used to make cider and calvados. Some types of cider and all types of Calvados contain alcohol.

Production
Addressed as one of the most popular fruits in the world, the apple is cultivated in around 7,500 different kinds in shape, color, texture, firmness, crispness, acidity, juiciness, sweetness, nutrition, and harvesting time.

Storage
Fresh apple juice needs refrigeration. Closed bottles of canned apple juice can be kept in a dark, cool place, such as a pantry or cupboard. It slows down the spoiling of the product. The way it looks, feels, or tastes could change over time.

Once the juice container is opened. Or if it was not closed and shipped without needing freezing by the producer, it must be closed again tightly and frozen to avoid contamination from microorganisms such as bacteria.

References

Fruit juices
Apple products

Apple juice


Organ donation means that an organ is transferred from the body of one person to that of another person. This is done by a type of surgery called an organ transplant. The donor, the person whose organ is used, may be alive or recently dead. The person receiving the organ is called the recipient.

Organs that can be transplanted are the heart, kidney, liver, lung, pancreas, intestine, skin, and thymus.
Tissues that can be transplanted include bone, muscle, tendon, cornea, heart, and veins.

The most commonly transplanted organs worldwide is the kidney, followed closely by the liver, the heart. The most commonly transplanted tissues are the cornea, bones, and muscle.

There is a great demand for organs and tissues. Donors must give permission. Iran is the only country regulating donors selling one of their kidneys for payment, and there is no waiting list. There is a field of medicine called "regenerative medicine" that has made scientific advances to grow or create organs or tissues from stem cells.

Organs
Giving

Organ donation


The ZIP file format is a popular lossless data compression and archival format created by Phil Katz, founder of PKWARE. A ZIP file contains one or more files that have been compressed, to reduce their file size, or stored as-is. A number of compression algorithms are permitted in zip files but in 2008 only DEFLATE is widely used and supported.

Usage
ZIP files generally use the file extensions ".zip" or ".ZIP" and the MIME media type application/zip. Some software uses the ZIP file format as a wrapper for a large number of small items in a specific structure. Generally when this is done a different file extension is used.

Computer file formats

ZIP (file format)


The House of Movileşti, also Movilă or Moghilă (, Cyrillic: Могила), was a family of boyars in the principality of Moldavia, which became related through marriage with the Muşatin family – the traditional House of Moldavian sovereigns.

According to legend, the family name is connected to the aprod Purice, a low-ranking boyar during the time of Prince Stephen the Great (ruled 1457–1504). Purice is said to have gained Stephen's recognition after kneeling down and helping the diminutive prince mount a fresh horse during battle. After emerging victorious, the ruler awarded him large estates, and told him that his family was to be known not by the rather crude Purice ("flea"), but as Movilă ("hill").

They rose to political prominence during the latter part of the 16th century. Several of the Movileşti were favourable to an alliance with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, intermarried with the Potocki family, and took refuge to southern Poland after being faced with Ottoman reprisals (no longer present in the competitions for the throne after 1634). They survived as szlachta, being awarded a Polish coat of arms (the Mohyła coat of arms).

Members

Princes
In Moldavia:
Ieremia Movilă
Regina/Raina Mohyła, married Prince Michał Wiśniowiecki h. Korybut
Katarzyna Mohyła, married Prince Samuel Korecki h. Pogoń Litewska
Maria Amalia Mohyła, married Stefan Potocki h. Pilawa
Anna Mohyła, married 1. Maksymilian Przerembski h. Nowina, 2. Jan Sędziwój Czarnkowski h. Nałęcz, 3. Władysław Myszkowski h. Jastrzębiec, 4. Stanisław "Rewera" Potocki h. Pilawa
Simion Movilă
Mihail Movilă
Constantin Movilă
Alexandru Movilă
Miron Barnovschi-Movilă
Moise Movilă
In Wallachia:
Simion Movilă
Gabriel Movilă

Others
Petro Mohyla – Metropolitan of Kiev.
Grigore Ureche – Chronicler and high-ranking boyar (Logofăt, Spătar and Great Vornic) in Moldavia

Family tree

Gallery

See also
Moldavian Magnate Wars
Movilă (surname)

External links

Polish noble families
Romanian boyar families
Moldavian nobility

Movilești


The Fabulous Baker Boys is a 1989 romantic comedy and drama movie. The movie is about jazz music singers who perform for a living. These singers go against a female jazz singer. The female singer makes the brothers look at their relationship and music careers. Michelle Pfeiffer plays Susie. Jeff and Beau Bridges play the singers.

The movie was released on October 13, 1989. The reviews were very positive. The movie was nominated for four Academy Awards. Michelle Pfeiffer won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress.

1989 comedy-drama movies
1989 romantic comedy movies
1989 romantic drama movies
American comedy-drama movies
American romantic comedy movies
American romantic drama movies
Movies about singers

The Fabulous Baker Boys


Porta Galliera was a gate or portal of the former outer medieval walls of the city of Bologna, Italy. It is the most ornamented of all the remaining gates.

The gate was built during 1659-1661 by designs of the architect Bartolomeo Provaglia. The interior portal has a scenic Baroque facade, while the external portal accentuates the defensive military role of a gate. The road from here led to Ferrara.

In 1330–1333, the Cardinal Bertrand du Pouget ordered construction of a castle near this gate as part of a siege. By the twentieth-century the walls were torn down, and the gate isolated. Restorations were pursued in 1926 and in 2001–2003.

References

Baroque architecture in Bologna

Porta Galliera, Bologna


The Mutiny on the Bounty has become a famous story, leading to many books, movies, and songs. The HMS Bounty was a small, three masted, fully rigged, sailing ship. The Bounty became famous when the crew (seamen) mutinied (took over) the ship on 28 April 1789. The captain of the Bounty was named William Bligh.

The ship

The ship was built in Hull, England in 1784 and was first called Bethia. In 1787 the ship was rebuilt to carry breadfruit trees. Heat and water were added to the cabins so the trees would survive in cold weather. The British government was hoping the breadfruit trees growing wild in Tahiti could be grown in Jamaica. This would provide cheap food for the slaves working on the sugar farms. The ship was very small - 90 feet 10 inches (27.7 metres) long and 24 feet 4 inches (7.4 metres) wide. The tallest mast was 53 feet (16.1 metres) high.

The Bounty was captained by Lieutenant William Bligh and he took command on 16 August 1787. On 23 December, 1787, Bounty set off on the long trip to Tahiti.  On the journey, William Bligh tried to go around Cape Horn. He tried for over a month but bad weather and winds stopped the ship. The Bounty was turned around and went the longer way around the Cape of Good Hope.

Tahiti
The Bounty reached Tahiti on 25 October 1788.  She had been at sea for ten months.  The crew stayed for five months and lived on the island.  They collected 1015 breadfruit plants. The crew were very happy living in Tahiti and Fletcher Christian fell in love with a Tahitian girl named Maimiti. They did not want to have another long journey and go back to England.

The Bounty left Tahiti on 4 April 1789, on the way to Jamaica. On 28 April, near the Friendly Islands, Fletcher Christian led the mutiny (take over). Bligh and 18 sailors were left at sea in a small boat, while Christian and the Bounty went back to Tahiti. Christian and a small group of sailors, 11 Tahitian women, and 6 Tahitian men then went to the remote Pitcairn Island. After they arrived they took everything they could from the ship. A sailor called Matthew Quintal, burned and destroyed the Bounty on 23 January 1790.

Pitcairn Island
Pitcairn Island is a remote island in the Pacific Ocean. The Polynesians knew about the island and people had once lived there. There was nobody living on Pitcairn when it was discovered by an English sailor, Philip Carteret on 2 July 1767. He made a mistake and marked it on the map 200 miles from its real location. The people from the Bounty had the remote island to themselves. There was a lot of fighting between the new settlers. Fletcher Christian, 4 other mutineers and all 6 of the Tahitian men were killed. One of the 4 surviving mutineers fell off a cliff while drunk. Matthew Quintal was killed by the remaining 2 mutineers after he attacked them. When the American seal-hunting ship Topaz visited the island in 1808 they found only 1 mutineer, John Adams, still alive along with 9 Tahitian women. In 1856, the British government moved all the island people to Norfolk Island. Most stayed on Norfolk, but about 22 people found their way back and their descendants still live on Pitcairn. Norfolk has about 1000 Bounty descendants, which is about half its population.

Afterwards
Lieutenant William Bligh was able to sail the small boat 6500 km back to Batavia. He returned to England and reported the mutiny to the Admiralty on 15 March 1790.  On 7 November 1790, HMS Pandora was sent to Tahiti look for the Bounty and to bring back the mutineers for punishment. The Pandora was able to capture the mutineers left on Tahiti, but could find no sign of the group that was hiding on Pitcairn. The Pandora was wrecked on the way back to England.

The following list tells what happened to the crew of the Bounty.

Two died before the mutiny:
James Valentine, sailor, died from an infection caused by surgery, before arriving in Tahiti
Thomas Huggan, Surgeon, died 6 weeks after arriving on Tahiti

From the 19 left in the small boat, only 12 got back safely to England
Lieutenant William Bligh, Commander
Lawrence Lebogue, sail maker, sailed with Bligh on next trip
Thomas Hayward, midshipman, went back to Tahiti on HMS Pandora, survived and went back to England
John Fryer, Sailing Master
William Cole, boatswain
William Peckover, gunner
William Purcell, carpenter
John Hallett, Midshipman
George Simpson, quartermaster's Mate
John Smith, sailor/Commander's Servant
John Samuel, clerk /steward
Robert Tinkler, sailor

One sailor was killed on the trip to Timor:
John Norton, quartermaster, killed by natives on Tofua

One sailor died from disease when they reached Timor:
David Nelson, botanist, died in Timor

Three sailors died from disease not long after getting to Batavia:
William Elphinstone, master's mate, died from malaria at Batavia
Peter Linkletter, quartermaster, died from malaria at Batavia
Thomas Hall, sailor/ship's cook, died from disease in Batavia

Two sailors died on their way home from Batavia to England:
Thomas Denman Ledward, surgeon's mate, lost at sea
Robert Lamb, sailor/butcher, died on the trip from Batavia

Seven sailors were forced to stay on the Bounty after the mutiny. There was not room in the small boat. They were all taken prisoner in Tahiti by the Pandora to be taken back to England to be charged:
George Stewart, acting midshipman, drowned in the Pandora wreck
Peter Heywood, acting midshipman, found guilty but pardoned
James Morrison, boatswain's mate, found guilty but pardoned.
Charles Norman, carpenter's mate, found not guilty
Michael Byrne, sailor/fiddler, found not guilty
Thomas McIntosh, carpenter's crew, found not guilty
Joseph Coleman, armorer, found not guilty

Two of the mutineers who stayed on Tahiti died before the Pandora arrived:
Charles Churchill, master-at-arms, killed by Matthew Thompson
Matthew Thompson, sailor, killed by the Tahitians

Three mutineers who were captured by the Pandora, drowned in the wreck:
Henry Hillbrant, sailor/cooper
Richard Skinner, sailor/barber
John Sumner, sailor

Four mutineers survived the wreck and were taken to England for trial:
Thomas Burkett, sailor, found guilty and hanged
Thomas Ellison, sailor, found guilty and hanged
John Millward sailor, found guilty and hanged,
William Muspratt, sailor/tailor and assistant cook, sentenced to death, but released on appeal

Only two of the mutineers who went to Pitcairn died peacefully:
Isaac Martin, sailor, killed by the Tahitian men on Pitcairn
William McCoy, sailor, fell from cliff on Pitcairn while drunk
Matthew Quintal, sailor, killed by John Adams on Pitcairn
John Williams, sailor, killed by the Tahitian men on Pitcairn
William Brown, gardener, mutineer, killed by the Tahitian men on Pitcairn
Fletcher Christian, master's mate, killed by the Tahitian men on Pitcairn
John Mills, gunner's mate, killed by the Tahitian men on Pitcairn
Edward Young, acting midshipman, died of illness on Pitcairn
John Adams, sailor, died from natural causes on Pitcairn

Related pages
 William Bligh
 Fletcher Christian
 Pitcairn Island

References

History of the United Kingdom

1789 works

Mutiny on the Bounty


The volcano Tacaná is the second highest peak in Central America at , located in the Sierra Madre de Chiapas of northern Guatemala and southern Mexico.  It is also known in Mexico as Volcán Tacina.

Geography
The volcano is located within the Tacaná municipality of the San Marcos Department in Guatemala; and within the Cacahoatán and Unión Juárez Municipalities of Chiapas state in Mexico.

Its last known eruption was registered in 1986 — a small phreatic eruption in May — but it is still considered as dangerous to more than 250,000 people residing in the area.

Tacaná is the first of hundreds of volcanoes in a  km row, arranged NW to SE, parallel to the Pacific Ocean coast of Central America, known as the Central America Volcanic Arc, formed by an active subduction zone along the western boundary of the Caribbean Plate.

The agricultural valley at its NNE foothills is covered with thick deposits of lahars. From its headwaters in Guatemala, the valley drains through Mexico to the Pacific Ocean. Consequently, mudflows from future eruptions could be dangerous to those in their path in both countries.

Volcanology
Tacaná is a stratovolcano (composite volcano) that is surrounded by deeply dissected plutonic and metamorphic terrain. It has a  wide caldera, with its elongated summit dominated by several lava domes and three large calderas breached to the South.

Mild phreatic eruptions of Tacaná took place in historical times. Its most powerful known explosive activity, which included pyroclastic flows, occurred at about 70 AD (± 100 years). That large explosion has resulted in Tacaná being classified with a volcanic explosivity index of 4 by the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History's Global Volcanism Program.

Biosphere Reserve

Tacaná is part of the Central American Core volcanic chain, which contains fragile ecosystems and rich biodiversity of cultural, scientific, economic and biological relevance, particularly in the high mountain ecosystem. Its landscapes and volcanic edifice present geophysical features of great scientific and aesthetic value.

Consequently, it has been included in UNESCO's World Network of Biosphere Reserves of the Man and Biosphere Program (MAB).

Visitor access
The summit of Tacaná can be reached in about 10 hours. There are two approaches to the mountain. One is from Finca Navidad, South of the volcano, passing through Tojquián Grande, on the Guatemalan side, and moving parallel to the border with Mexico.

The second route is from the Mexican side, from El Carmen, Talismán bridge, Cacahoatán, and Unión Juárez by vehicle, and from there on foot.
This route passes into Guatemala and has been described as one of the most interesting hikes in Central America, leading up winding paths through lush rainforests, subsistence farming villages, up ancient magma flows, and rock-filled temperate forests before reaching the top of the lowest caldera. From there the final stretch to the summit provides panoramic views high above the clouds as the tree line gradually diminishes with altitude. Several major volcanos within the Central American Volcanic Arch including Tajumulco are visible from the summit.

See also

List of mountain peaks of North America
List of mountain peaks of Mexico
List of volcanoes in Mexico
List of mountain peaks of Central America
List of volcanoes in Guatemala

References

External links

"Volcán Tacaná, Guatemala/Mexico"

Stratovolcanoes of Mexico
Active volcanoes
Stratovolcanoes of Guatemala
Sierra Madre de Chiapas
Volcan Tacana
Volcan Tacana
Volcan Tacana
Volcan Tacana
Volcan Tacana
Volcan Tacanar
Volcan Tacana
Volcan Tacana
Volcanoes of Chiapas

Volcán Tacaná


Janemba is the penultimate villain in the Dragon Ball Z movies, before Hirudegarn. He appears in the twelfth movie of the series.

Janemba's Appearance
Janemba starts out as a very large but incredibly round blob.
When Goku hurts Janemba greatly he reverts to a smaller, thinner, yet far more powerful form, Super Janemba. He has purple armor and red skin with a tail.

Story
Janemba was originally an ogre for King Yemma, working at a machine that could bring back the dead. When the machine malfunctioned, the Ogre turned into Janemba. Meanwhile, the malfunctioning brought all the dead villains back to life on Earth, under Frieza's command. Hercule goes to deal with the zombies, while Goku and Pikkon go to deal with Janemba, who has trapped King Yemma inside his palace. Janemba, Goku, and Pikkon begin their fight in the Underworld. Goku is able to deal with Janemba after some battling, and the monster reverts into Super Janemba. Super Janemba's immense power level allows him to easily deal with Super Saiyan 3 Goku, Pikkon, and Vegeta, who had been given his body temporarily to help fight Janemba. Eventually, Goku and Vegeta fuse, but something goes wrong, and they become a very fat and weak fusion named Veku. King Kai blames the messed up fusion on Vegeta, because he did not stretch his index finger out. Veku propels himself away from Super Janemba for the next 30 minutes by farting. In those 30 minutes, Goten and Trunks fight a revived Hitler. They begin easily dealing with him and the Nazis, eventually beating him as Super Gotenks with a Super Kamikaze Ghost Attack. Just after, Hercule is doing a good job fending off the zombies, while Frieza taunts Gohan and Videl. He orders his men to attack the couple, but Gohan easily gets through them, and destroys Frieza with a Ki Blast and a punch to the gut at the same time. This makes all the remaining zombies retreat. Back in the Underworld, Goku and Vegeta unfuse, and try fusing again. This time, it is successful, and Super Gogeta was born. Super Gogeta made quick work of Super Janemba, and ultimately destroyed him.

After Death
Janemba made no other appearances after death.

Forms
Original- Janemba starts out as a large, yellow blob-like monster, and is also very fat.

Super Janemba- Super Janemba is far smaller and thinner than his original form. He is now red, with a purple chestplate, a purple hat like object on his head, and more. He has yellow eyes.

Moves
Lightning Shower Rain- An attack that fires a short-ranged beam of energy. Used in the anime and can be used in Dragon Ball:

Raging Blast 2.
Super Explosive Cannon- An attack in which Super Janemba fires a powerful beam from his mouth. Is used on Pikkon in the anime in a combo, and can be used in Dragon Ball: Raging Blast 2.

Instant Transmission- Super Janemba can also use Instant Transmission. Used in the anime and can be used on Dragon Ball: Raging Blast 2.

Dimension Portal: Super Janemba can also create Dimension Portals, which allow him to move from place to place, as shown in the anime and Dragon Ball: Raging Blast 2.

Dimension Sword Slice: Super Janemba slices his target repeatedly with his Dimension Sword, before teleporting in front of him/her and firing a Super Explosive Cannon.

Molecule Split: Super Janemba can split his molecules, making him seem to teleport. Janemba's dash in Dragon Ball: Raging Blast 2.

Mini-forms: Janemba can create mini-versions of himself to attack.

Movies
Janemba makes his only appearance in Dragon Ball Z movie 12, Fusion Reborn

Trivia
Janemba cannot speak. In his original form, all he can say is his name, but as Super Janemba, all he makes are grunts and groans, similar to Kid Buu.

Dragon Ball characters

Janemba


South Limburg (Dutch: Zuid-Limburg, Limburgish: Zuud-Limburg) is both a COROP (statistical) region as well as a landstreek (area) of the Netherlands located in the province of Limburg. The Dutch term landstreek, literally translated "land area/region", means that the area is not an administrative region but an area that displays cohesion with regard to culture and landscape. With regards to South Limburg this deals with its hilly landscape, especially in the Heuvelland region, sunken lanes, an abundance of castles, and the regional language Limburgish spoken by a significant part of the population alongside Dutch. The region also contains the highest point above sea level in mainland Netherlands, the Vaalserberg being  above sea level (the highest point of the entire country is in the Caribbean Netherlands' island of Saba, namely Mount Scenery being  above sea level).

The region South Limburg in addition, although extended a little further north to Roermond, forms a constituent part of the Euroregion Meuse-Rhine.

Estate region Maastricht-Meerssen

The estate region Maastricht-Meerssen (Dutch: Landgoederenzone Maastricht - Meerssen) is the name for an area stretching from the northeastern parts of Maastricht to the south of Meerssen that is characterised by a large number of estates. The area is crossed by three rivers (namely the Meuse, Geul and Kanjel). A majority of said estates have been built (or renovated) by the 19th century Maastrichtian industrialist Petrus Regout and his descendants. Challenges to transforming the entire region into a recreational area are posed by the crossing of the A2 motorway and various railways through the area as well as the industrial area of Beatrixhaven.

The region spans six neighbourhoods of Maastricht namely:
 Amby: homestead Withuishof, homestead Gravenhof, house Severen, homestead Hagenhof (or Tiendschuur van Amby) and castle Geuselt
 Nazareth: castle Mariënwaard (La Grande Suisse), villa Petite Suisse and villa Kruisdonk
 Limmel: castles Bethlehem and Jerusalem
 Meerssenhoven: castles Vaeeshartelt and Meerssenhoven and villa Klein Vaeshartelt
 Itteren*: homestead Hartelstein
 Borgharen*: Borgharen castle and homestead Wiegershof
(* some publications do not include Itteren and Borgharen in the estate region)

And in Meerssen:
 Weert: homestead Weerterhof and villa Zonnevang
 Rothem: mill IJzeren Molen

Municipalities

The South Limburg contains 18 administrative municipalities (gemeenten):

Cities

Impressions of South Limburg

See also
 South Limburg (Belgium), region in the southern part of the Belgian province of Limburg

External links

Vision on the future of the estate region (Dutch)
The estate region on wigosite.nl (Dutch)
The Regout estates (English)

Regions of Limburg (Netherlands)
Regions of the Netherlands

South Limburg (Netherlands)


The TOtable Tornado Observatory (nicknamed "TOTO") is a large, instrumented barrel-shaped device invented in 1979 by engineers Dr. Al Bedard and Carl Ramzy of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Environmental Technology Laboratory (ETL), and Dr. Howard Bluestein, meteorologist at the University of Oklahoma (OU). NOAA's objective was to place the TOTO directly in the path of a tornado, where it could, theoretically, record valuable information about the tornado's structure. The device's nickname, TOTO, originates from Toto the dog in Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's 1939 film The Wizard of Oz, in which a tornado is a key plot element.

To deploy TOTO, which weighed from 250 to 350 lbs (110–160 kg), two people could unstrap its mooring cables and roll it out of the back of a customized pickup truck in about thirty seconds, using metal wheel ramps. TOTO would then be tipped into a vertical position and swiveled so that a certain side faced north (for accurate wind direction readings). The TOTO crew had to quickly find a relatively level and firm surface, off the road, away from wind obstructions and potential debris generators (such as buildings and trees). With each deployment, there was also a heightened lightning strike risk from handling a large metal object in an open area.

TOTO was deployed several times during the 1980s.  The closest deployment to a tornado was on April 29, 1985, near Ardmore, Oklahoma, by Steve Smith and Lou Wicker of the National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL). It turned out that TOTO had a center of gravity too high for extreme wind, and it fell down as it was sideswiped by the edge of the weak tornado.

TOTO was also deployed as a portable weather station to measure thunderstorm gust fronts and non-tornadic mesocyclones—with more success than its tornado mission. TOTO was retired after 1987 because of safety issues and the logistical difficulty of getting such a  cumbersome object in front of a tornado.

TOTO is currently on display at the National Weather Center (NWC) on the University of Oklahoma campus in Norman, Oklahoma.

TOTO was the inspiration for an instrument package named "Dorothy" in the 1996 Warner Bros. and Universal film, Twister, and for a research project in the TV movie Tornado!.

See also
 Tornado Intercept Vehicle
 TWISTEX
 VORTEX projects

References

External links
 The curiosity corner
 Experts answer tornado questions

Meteorology research and field projects
Storm chasing

TOtable Tornado Observatory


Promenade Station (CC4/DT15) is an MRT Station in Singapore. It is an underground interchange station along Circle MRT Line and Downtown MRT Line. It is the deepest station in Singapore at  below ground. The deepest platform is at Basement 7.

Timeline
17 April 2010: Station opened along Circle Line
22 December 2013: Downtown Line was opened, making Promenade the deepest MRT interchange station.
27 December 2015: Downtown Line Platforms changed from A and B to C and D

Unusual Layout
It is the only station to have four separated stacked side platforms on its own levels -

Basement 2: Circle Line towards Dhoby Ghaut or Marina Bay
Basement 4: Circle Line towards HarbourFront
Basement 6: Downtown Line towards Expo
Basement 7: Downtown Line towards Bukit Panjang
This is due to lack of space and the tight corridor at Temasek Avenue area. The two levels were restricted (B3 and B5).

Exits
A: The Helix Bridge towards Marina Bay Sands, The Float @ Marina Bay, Singapore Flyer, Conrad Centennial Singapore, F1 Pit Building, Mandarin Oriental, Marina Promenade, Marina Square, Raffles Boulevard, Ritz-Carlton Marina
B: Millenia Walk, Centennial Tower, Millenia Tower
C: Suntec City

Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore) stations

Promenade MRT station


Major Thomas Forsyth (December 5, 1771 – October 29, 1833) was a 19th-century American frontiersman and trader who served as a U.S. Indian agent to the Sauk and Fox during the 1820s and was replaced by Felix St. Vrain, prior to the Black Hawk War. His writings, both prior to and while an Indian agent, provided an invaluable source of the early Native American history in the Northwest Territory. His son, Robert Forsyth, was a colonel in the United States Army and an early settler of Chicago, Illinois.

Early life and family
Thomas Forsyth was born in Detroit to William Forsyth, a Scots-Irish Presbyterian who immigrated from Ireland around 1750. A veteran of the French and Indian War, his father was twice wounded, while fighting under General Wolfe at the capture of Quebec in 1759. The elder Forsyth had married the widow of another trader, so he was raised alongside his half-brother John Kinzie, with whom he would also later work. Shortly after Thomas Forsyth was born, his father was imprisoned as a loyalist during the American Revolutionary War. Thomas Forsyth became a successful Indian trader in his youth, spending several years living with the Ottawas on Saginaw Bay. As early as 1798, he spent the winter on an island in the Mississippi a short distance downstream from present-day Quincy, Illinois.

Indian trader, spy, and United States Indian agent
Thomas Forsyth later became partners with his half-brother, John Kinzie, and his son, Robert Forsyth. The two established a trading post in 1802 at the site of what is present-day Chicago, Illinois. After marrying a Keziah Malotte near Malden in 1804, Forsyth moved to Peoria Lake, where he became a successful trader and businessman. During the Peoria War, he served as a spy for Governor William Clark and was later an agent for the tribes in the region and was able to persuade the Illinois River Pottawatomie to remain neutral during the War of 1812. In December of that year, he and a number of others at the agency were arrested by the Illinois Rangers under Captain Thomas E. Craig, who later ordered Peoria to be burned. Forsyth was bitterly resentful of Craig's actions, but Craig defended himself by claiming neither he nor anyone else outside of Washington, D.C. knew of his status as an Indian agent. "It was supposed by the President that Mr. Forsyth would be more serviceable, to both sides, if his friends, the Indians, did not know this situation."

Thomas Forsyth and the others were eventually released by Craig, who dropped them off on the riverbank below Alton, Illinois, where they were "in a starving condition (and) they were landed in the woods ... without shelter or food." He would later distinguish himself as an outspoken supporter of peace for both Native Americans and the U.S. government and, often risking his own life, negotiated with tribal leaders for the release of American prisoners. This was most evident in his securing the release of the survivors of the Fort Dearborn massacre, among whom included Lieutenant Lenai T. Helm, the son-in-law of John Kinzie.

Officially appointed a U.S. Indian subagent for the Sauk and Fox at Rock Island, Illinois, he was later stationed at Fort Armstrong and reported the movements of the Sauk and Fox as well as its ever-increasing strength in the region during the early 1820s. He became a respected figure in the region, however he was eventually replaced after 18 years of service by Felix St. Vrain due to Forsyth's insubordinate attitude, unwillingness to remain at the fort, and the criticism of his supervisor. His successor, 31-year-old Kaskaskia sawmill operator Felix St. Vrain, proved to be unpopular and his inexperience eventually resulted in the St. Vrain massacre. It has been speculated by historians such as Lyman Copeland Draper that his removal from the position as Indian agent to the Sauk and Fox could have prevented the Black Hawk War.

Death
Forsyth retired to St. Louis, Missouri where he died on October 29, 1833. He was survived by his wife, who died only four years later, and his four children.

References

Further reading
Forsyth, Thomas and Lyman Copeland Draper, ed. "Journal of a Voyage from St. Louis to the Falls of St. Anthony, in 1819". Wisconsin State Historical Society Collections. Vol. VI. Madison: Wisconsin State Historical Society, 1872.
Transcripts of the Illinois State Historical Society. Pub. 9 (1904). Springfield, Illinois: Philips Brothers, 1904. (pg. 138-142)

1771 births
1833 deaths
American people of the Indian Wars
American people of the War of 1812
American people of the Black Hawk War
People from Detroit
People from St. Louis
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
American Presbyterians
United States Indian agents
People from Illinois

Thomas Forsyth (Indian agent)


Pedro Friedeberg (born January 11, 1936) is a Mexican artist and designer known for his surrealist work filled with lines colors and ancient and religious symbols. His best known piece is the "Hand-Chair" a sculpture/chair designed for people to sit on the palm, using the fingers as back and arm rests. Friedeberg began studying as an architect but did not complete his studies as he began to draw designs against the conventional forms of the 1950s and even completely implausible ones such as houses with artichoke roofs. However, his work caught the attention of artist Mathias Goeritz who encouraged him to continue as an artist. Friedeberg became part of a group of surrealist artists in Mexico which included Leonora Carrington and Alice Rahon, who were irreverent, rejecting the social and political art which was dominant at the time. Friedeberg has had a lifelong reputation for being eccentric, and states that art is dead because nothing new is being produced.

Life
Pedro Friedeberg was born on January 11, 1936, in Florence, Italy, as the son of German-Jewish parents. His parents escaped from Europe at the beginning of the Second World War arriving in Mexico when he was three years old. He remembers his grandmother marking names in European newspapers of family members who had survived the Holocaust. He says he does not talk about his childhood because it was "German," describing it as "discipline," "torture" and "punishment." He was made to learn violin and speak several languages and he hated to be at home. He was not raised Jewish but rather atheist. Once a servant took him in secret to a church to be baptized. He says because of these experiences, he has seven religions, one for each day of the week.

As a child he express an interest in art early. His mother said that when he was two he liked to sit in front of the Santa María Novella Church in Florence and try to draw it. In his youth he was captivated by the Renaissance architecture of the churches and the Leaning Tower of Pisa. When he was older, he traced the images in the art books that belonged to his father, favoring the works of Canaletto, Piranesi and others from the 18th century. He also liked the perspectives of the drawings of M. C. Escher.

He studied for a while in Boston and then entered the Universidad Iberoamericana in 1957 to study architecture. He began to study architecture because of his own interest and pressure from his parents but made it only to the third year. His professors favored symmetrical architecture such as that of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who designed the Seagram Building in New York, which Friedeberg thought boring. He preferred the works of Antoni Gaudí, creating circular plans, and he began to design impossible works such as houses with artichoke roofs and skyscrapers topped by pears, which earned him failing grades.

However, his time at Iberoamericana allowed him to meet artist Mathias Goeritz, who appreciated his work. Goeritz told Friedeberg to continue with his art and ignore his parents. During the summers, Friedeberg worked as Goeritz's secretary, which included helping on artistic projects.

Through family and friends he met surrealist artists such as Remedios Varo, who recommended his work to Galería Diana, leading to Friedeberg's first exhibition in 1960 when he was only twenty two. From these connections, he began to meet other surrealist artists such as Leonora Carrington and Alice Rahon to become a member of Los Hartos (The Fed-Up), in 1961. This group was based on Dadaist principles: the creation of anti-art for art's sake, rejecting political and social painting. This group's influence led Friedeberg to believe in the autonomy of aestheticism. Later, he and Javier Giron organized a "movement" called "Chinchismo" from the Mexican Spanish world "chinche" which means bug. They asked thirty artists to create bug words and called Pita Amor their muse, with the idea of ridiculing "-isms" or movements in art.

Friedeberg's reputation for eccentricity has been lifelong, not only linked to surrealist artist but other eccentrics such as Edward James and Antonio Souza. Friedeberg has had a tendency to protect and defend those who have lost their fame and fortune, such as Pita Amor did in her old age, when she was ridiculed by elements of Mexican society. He says he consults the I-Ching everyday, and has a collection of saints. His biography on the Internet includes a passage that reads "I get up at the crack of noon and, after watering my pirañas, I breakfast off things Corinthian. Later in the day I partake in an Ionic lunch followed by a Doric nap. On Tuesdays I sketch a volute or two, and perhaps a pediment, if the mood overtakes me. Wednesday I have set aside for anti-meditation. On Thursdays I usually relax whereas on Friday I write autobiographies" He says that the world lacks eccentrics today because people have returned to being sheep through the consumer culture and television which wants us all to be the same.

Friedeberg has been married four times. His third wife was Polish Countess Wanda Zamoyska. This marriage lasted twelve years which he describes at surrealist, a circus and crazy, but tiring. His last wife is Carmen Gutierrez, with whom he has two children, Diana and David. He says Carmen is a very serious woman, unlike his other former wives. Having children changed his life because he could no longer travel around the world and stay up until 5 am drinking.

He currently lives in Mexico City. When he dies, he says he hopes to be buried at the same Venice cemetery where Stravinsky and Diaghilev are, in a tomb with a white gondola and black feathers.

Career

Friedeberg has painted, created murals for institutions in Mexico and abroad, illustrated books and book covers, created furniture and set designs. He was the art director, along with Sergio Villegas of a spectacular called Arbol de la Vida. He began designing furniture in the 1960s, rejecting the then-dominant international style of architecture. He has designed chairs, tables, couches and love seats in fantastic designs. He is best known for his hand-chair, which has sold more than 5,000 copies since it was created in 1962. The original chair was made of wood and covered in gold leaf. It is designed to allow one to sit on the palm, using the fingers as a back and arm rest. He has declared that he is never really relaxed and stated that he has painted one canvas per week, 52 weeks a year for the fifty years of his career in addition to sculptures and chair designs.  His paintings, sculpture and furniture was very fashionable, called "chic" in the 1960s and 1970s.

His first two individual exhibitions were at the Diana Gallery in 1959 and the Protec Gallery in 1960, both in Mexico City. In the 1960s, he had sixteen exhibitions in Mexico, France, New York, Portugal and the Pan American Union in Washington, DC in 1963. In the 1970s, he had nineteen exhibitions in various cities in Mexico and the United States, Barcelona, Haifa (Israel) and Canada. In the 1980s, he had thirteen including the Museo de Arte Moderno in Mexico City. In the 1990s, he had twenty one, mostly in Mexico which a tribute to his work in 1997 and an exhibition in Colombia. In the 2000s, he had nine, all in Mexico except for one in Germany in 2000 and one in Belgium in 2003. He has also participated in many group exhibitions from 1960 to 2003.

Awards include the Córdoba Argentina Biennale in 1966 (2nd prize), the Solar Exhibition in Mexico City in 1967 (1st prize), the Argentina Engraving Triennale in Buenos Aires in 1979,  the XI Biennale of Graphic Works in Tokyo (Special Award) in 1984 and  was named an "Artistic Creator" by the National System of Mexican and Foreign Creators in 1993. His work and life have been featured in many books from 1972 to the present. These books include his autobiography published in Mexico "De vacaciones por la vida, Memorias no autorizadas" (On vacation for life, Unauthorized memories) edited by Trilce and CONACULTA . In his autobiography, Friedeberg writes about experiences with his many friends in the art world, including Salvador Dalí, Leonora Carrington, Kati Horna, Tamara de Lempicka, Mathias Goeritz, Edward James, Zachary Selig and Bridget Bate Tichenor.

His works can be found in the permanent collections of the Museo de Arte Moderno, the José Luis Cuevas Museum, the Televisa Cultural Center, all in Mexico City, the Museum of Contemporary Art in Toluca, the Museum of Contemporary Art in Culiacán, the Museum of Contemporary Art in Pátzcuaro, the Museum of Modern Art in New York, the Museum of Contemporary Art in Chicago, the Museum of Contemporary Art in New Orleans, the Library of Congress in Washington DC, the Rose Art Museum of Brandeis University in Boston,  the National Research Library in Ottawa, the Musée du Louvre in Paris, the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, the National Museum of Modern Art in Baghdad, the Ponce Museum of Art in Puerto Rico, the Franklin Rawson Museum in Argentina, the Omar Rayo Museum in Colombia and the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC., The Museum of Arts and Design in New York.

Artistry

From his first exhibition, his work has had an easily identifiable style, although it is not easily classifiable. He often uses architectural drawing as his medium to create unusual compositions including designs for useless objects, often as a result of boredom. He has studied and incorporated elements of various artistic and design trends from his lifetimes from Art Nouveau to Op art. Much of his work has an industrial quality, stemming from his training as an architect.  However, there is a dream like quality as well, painting impossible palaces and other structures, with innumerable halls and rooms, secret passages and stairs which are often absurd.

Irony and surfeit are generally expressed through the almost hallucinogenic repetition of elements and formal disorder, but it is the result of conscious thought. He classifies his work as eclectic and hybrid. His art is not political, it is art for art's sake and he states it is elitist. He does not believe in making art "for the people" because most people do not care about it. His art almost always have a sarcastic and cynical touch. He says his only intention in his art is to make fun of himself and everyone else.

Paintings, furniture and more are often characterized as being filled with ornamentation, with little or no white space, with lines, colors and symbols referencing ancient scriptures, Aztec codices, Catholicism, Hinduism and the occult. While his art has been criticized as adding ornament for its own sake or even distraction, he disagrees, saying that ornamentation is the oldest form of fine art, added to give objects an exceptional, even religious quality. He has called his extensive ornamentation, which includes elements from ancient texts, "Nintendo Churrigueresque"

Friedeberg belongs to a group of 20th century surrealist artists, which in Mexico include Gunther Gerzso, Mathias Goeritz, Alice Rahon, Kati Horna, Leonora Carrington, Remedios Varo and Paul Antragne, who were grouped together under the name of Los Hartos. They were original, eccentric, irreverent and iconoclastic. His techniques have not changed since he started and themes have changed only a little, as today he includes fantastic animal hybrids in some of his work. He has criticized modern artists saying, "Art has died, after surrealism, there is nothing new." He says that people have lost their taste for irony, sarcasm and the absurd.

References

1936 births
Living people
Universidad Iberoamericana alumni
Italian emigrants to Mexico
20th-century Mexican painters
Mexican male painters
21st-century Mexican painters
20th-century Mexican male artists
21st-century Mexican male artists

Pedro Friedeberg