The House of Burgesses  was the elected representative element of the Virginia General Assembly, the legislative body of the Colony of Virginia.

From 1642 to 1776, the House of Burgesses was an instrument of government alongside the royally-appointed colonial governor and the upper-house Council of State in the General House.

When the Virginia colony declared its independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain at the Fifth Virginia Convention in 1776 and became the independent Commonwealth of Virginia, the House of Burgesses became the House of Delegates, which continues to serve as the lower house of the General Assembly.

Title

Burgess originally referred to a freeman of a borough, a self-governing town or settlement in England.

Early years
The Colony of Virginia was founded by a joint-stock company, the Virginia Company, as a private venture, though under a royal charter. Early governors provided the stern leadership and harsh judgments required for the colony to survive its early difficulties.

Early crises with famine, disease, Native American raids, the need to establish cash crops, and lack of skilled or committed labor, meant the colony needed to attract enough new and responsible settlers if it were to grow and prosper.

To encourage settlers to come to Virginia, in November 1618 the Virginia Company's leaders gave instructions to the new governor, Sir George Yeardley, which became known as "the great charter."

It established that immigrants who paid their own way to Virginia would receive fifty acres of land and not be mere tenants. The civil authority would control the military. In 1619, based on the instructions, Governor Yeardley initiated the election of 22 burgesses by the settlements and Jamestown. They, together with the royally-appointed Governor and six-member Council of State, would form the first General Assembly as a unicameral body.

The governor could veto its actions and the Company still maintained overall control of the venture, but the settlers would have a limited say in the management of their own affairs, including their finances.

A House of Assembly was created at the same time in Bermuda (which had also been settled by the Virginia Company, and was by then managed by its offshoot, the Somers Isles Company) and held its first session in 1620.

A handful of Polish craftsmen, brought to the colony to supply skill in the manufacture of pitch, tar, potash, and soap ash, were initially denied full political rights. They downed their tools in protest but returned to work after being declared free and enfranchised, apparently by agreement with the Virginia Company.

First session
On July 30, 1619, Governor Yeardley convened the General Assembly as the first representative legislature in the Americas for a six-day meeting at the new timber church on Jamestown Island, Virginia. The unicameral Assembly was composed of the Governor, a Council of State appointed by the Virginia Company, and the 22 locally elected representatives.

The Assembly's first session of July 30, 1619, was cut short by an outbreak of malaria and adjourned after five days. On the third day of the assembly, the assembly's Journal noted "Mr. Shelley, one of the Burgesses, deceased." Twenty-two (22) members were sent to the assembly from the following constituencies:
 from James City: William Powell and William Spence
 from Charles City: Samuel Sharpe and Samuel Jordan
 from the City of Henricus: Thomas Dowse and John Pollington
 from Kecoughtan: William Tucker and William Capps
 from Smythe's Hundred: Thomas Graves and Walter Shelley
 from Martin's Hundred: John Boys and John Jackson
 from Argall's Gift Plantation: Thomas Pawlett and Edward Gourgainy
 from Flowerdew Hundred Plantation: Edmund Rossingham and John Jefferson
 from Lawne's Plantation: Christopher Lawne and Thomas Washer
 from Ward's Plantation: John Warde and John Gibbs
 from Martin's Brandon: Thomas Davis and Robert Stacy
The latter two burgesses were excluded from the assembly because John Martin refused to give up a clause in his land patent that exempted his borough "from any command of the colony except it be aiding and assisting the same against any foreign or domestic enemy."

Later 17th century
Especially after the massacre of almost 400 colonists on March 22, 1622, by Native Americans, and epidemics in the winters before and after the massacre, the governor and council ruled arbitrarily, showing great contempt for the assembly and allowing no dissent.

By 1624, the royal government in London had heard enough about the problems of the colony and revoked the charter of the Virginia Company. Virginia became a crown colony and the governor and council would be appointed by the Crown. Nonetheless, the Assembly maintained management of local affairs with some informal royal assent, although it was not royally confirmed until 1639.

In 1634, the General Assembly divided the colony into eight shires (later renamed counties) for purposes of government, administration, and the judicial system. By 1643, the expanding colony had 15 counties. All of the county offices, including a board of commissioners, judges, sheriff, constable, and clerks, were appointed positions. Only the burgesses were elected by a vote of the people. Women had no right to vote. Only free and white men originally were given the right to vote, by 1670 only property owners were allowed to vote.

In 1642, Governor William Berkeley urged the creation of a bicameral legislature, which the Assembly promptly implemented; the House of Burgesses was thus formed and met separately from the Council of State.

In 1652, the parliamentary forces of Oliver Cromwell forced the colony to submit to being taken over by the English government. Again, the colonists were able to retain the General Assembly as their governing body. Only taxes agreed to by the assembly were to be levied. Still, most Virginia colonists were loyal to Prince Charles and were pleased with his restoration as King Charles II in 1660. He went on to directly or indirectly restrict some of the liberties of the colonists, such as requiring tobacco to be shipped only to England, only on English ships, with the price set by the English merchant buyers; but the General Assembly remained.

A majority of the members of the General Assembly of 1676 were supporters of Nathaniel Bacon. They enacted legislation designed to further popular sovereignty and representative government and to equalize opportunities. Bacon took little part in the deliberations since he was busy fighting the Native Americans.

The statehouse in Jamestown burned down for the fourth time on October 20, 1698. The General Assembly met temporarily in Middle Plantation,  inland from Jamestown, and then in 1699 permanently moved the capital of the colony to Middle Plantation, which they renamed Williamsburg.

Moving toward independence

The French and Indian War in North America from 1754 to 1763 resulted in local colonial losses and economic disruption. Higher taxes were to follow, and adverse local reactions to these and how they were determined would drive events well into the next decade.

In 1764, desiring revenue from its North American colonies, Parliament passed the first law specifically aimed at raising colonial money for the Crown. The Sugar Act increased duties on non-British goods shipped to the colonies. The same year, the Currency Act prohibited American colonies from issuing their own currency. These angered many American colonists and began colonial opposition with protests. By the end of the year, many colonies were practicing non-importation, a refusal to use imported British goods.

In 1765, the British Quartering Act, which required the colonies to provide barracks and supplies to British troops, further angered American colonists; and to raise more money for Britain, Parliament enacted the Stamp Act on the American colonies, to tax newspapers, almanacs, pamphlets, broadsides, legal documents, dice, and playing cards. American colonists responded to Parliament's acts with organized protest throughout the colonies. A network of secret organizations known as the Sons of Liberty was created to intimidate the stamp agents collecting the taxes, and before the Stamp Act could take effect, all the appointed stamp agents in the colonies had resigned.  The Massachusetts Assembly suggested a meeting of all colonies to work for the repeal of the Stamp Act, and all but four colonies were represented. The colonists also increased their non-importation efforts, and sought to increase in local production.

In May 1765, Patrick Henry presented a series of resolves that became known as the Virginia Resolves, denouncing the Stamp Act and denying the authority of the British parliament to tax the colonies, since they were not represented by elected members of parliament. Newspapers around the colonies published all his resolves, even the most radical ones which had not been passed by the assembly. The assembly also sent a 1768 Petition, Memorial, and Remonstrance to Parliament.

From 1769 -1775 Thomas Jefferson represented Albemarle County as a delegate in the Virginia House of Burgesses. He pursued reforms to slavery and introduced legislation allowing masters to take control over the emancipation of slaves in 1769, taking discretion away from the royal Governor and General Court. Jefferson persuaded his cousin Richard Bland to spearhead the legislation's passage, but the reaction was strongly negative.

In 1769 the Virginia House of Burgesses passed several resolutions condemning Britain's stationing troops in Boston following the Massachusetts Circular Letter of the previous year; these resolutions stated that only Virginia's governor and legislature could tax its citizens. The members also drafted a formal letter to the King, completing it just before the legislature was dissolved by Virginia's royal governor.

In 1774, after Parliament passed the Boston Port Act to close Boston Harbor, the House of Burgesses adopted resolutions in support of the Boston colonists which resulted in Virginia's royal governor, John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, dissolving the assembly. The burgesses then reassembled on their own and issued calls for the first of five Virginia Conventions. These conventions were essentially meetings of the House of Burgesses without the governor and Council, Peyton Randolph the Speaker of the House would serve as the President of the convention, and they would elect delegates to the Continental Congress. The First Continental Congress passed their Declaration and Resolves, which inter alia claimed that American colonists were equal to all other British citizens, protested against taxation without representation, and stated that Britain could not tax the colonists since they were not represented in Parliament.

In 1775 the burgesses, meeting in conventions, listened to Patrick Henry deliver his "give me liberty or give me death" speech and raised regiments. The House of Burgesses was called back by Lord Dunmore one last time in June 1775 to address British Prime Minister Lord North's Conciliatory Resolution. Randolph, who was a delegate to the Continental Congress, returned to Williamsburg to take his place as Speaker. Randolph indicated that the resolution had not been sent to the Congress (it had instead been sent to each colony individually in an attempt to divide them and bypass the Continental Congress). The House of Burgesses rejected the proposal, which was also later rejected by the Continental Congress. The burgesses formed a Committee of Safety to take over governance in the absence of the royal governor, Dunmore, who had organized loyalists forces but after defeats, he took refuge on a British warship.

In 1776 the House of Burgesses ended. The final entry in the Journals of the House of Burgesses is "6th of May. 16 Geo. III. 1776 … FINIS." Edmund Pendleton, a member of the House of Burgesses (and President of the Committee of Safety) who was present at the final meeting, wrote in a letter to Richard Henry Lee on the following day, "We met in an assembly yesterday and determined not to adjourn, but let that body die."
Later on the same morning, the members of the fifth and final Virginia Revolutionary Convention met in the chamber of the House of Burgesses in Williamsburg and elected Pendleton its president. The convention voted for independence from Britain. The former colony had become the independent Commonwealth of Virginia and the convention created the Constitution of Virginia with a new General Assembly, composed of an elected Senate and an elected House of Delegates. The House of Delegates acceded to the role of the former House of Burgesses.

Meeting places

In 1619, the General Assembly first met in the church in Jamestown. Subsequent meetings continued to take place in Jamestown.

In 1700, the seat of the House of Burgesses was moved from Jamestown to Middle Plantation, near what was soon renamed Williamsburg. The Burgesses met there, first (1700 to 1704) in the Great Hall of what is now called the Wren Building at the College of William and Mary, while the Capitol was under construction. When the Capitol burned in 1747, the legislature moved back into the college until the second Capitol was completed in 1754. The present Capitol building at Colonial Williamsburg is a reconstruction of the earlier of the two lost buildings.

In 1779, and effective in April 1780, the House of Delegates moved the capital city to Richmond during the American Revolutionary War for safety reasons.

Legacy
The House of Burgesses became the House of Delegates in 1776, retaining its status as the lower house of the General Assembly, the legislative branch of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Through the General Assembly and House of Burgesses, the Virginia House of Delegates is considered the oldest continuous legislative body in the New World.

In honor of the original House of Burgesses, every four years, the Virginia General Assembly traditionally leaves the current Capitol in Richmond, and meets for one day in the restored Capitol building at Colonial Williamsburg. The most recent commemorative session (the 26th) was held in January 2016.

In January 2007, the Assembly held a special session at Jamestown to mark the 400th anniversary of its founding as part of the Jamestown 2007 celebration, including an address by then-Vice-President Dick Cheney.

In January 2019, to mark the 400th anniversary of the House of Burgesses, the Virginia House of Representatives Clerk's Office announced a new Database of House Members called "DOME" that  "[chronicles] the 9,700-plus men and women who served as burgesses or delegates in the Virginia General Assembly over the past four centuries."

See also
List of members of the Virginia House of Burgesses
List of speakers of the Virginia House of Burgesses
Virginia Slave Codes of 1705

References

Bibliography

Further reading
 Hatch, Charles E., Jr., (1956 rev). America's Oldest Legislative Assembly & Its Jamestown Statehouses, Appendix II. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service.

Rubin, Jr. Louis D. Virginia: A History.New York W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1977. .
Salmon, Emily J. and Campbell, Jr., Edward D. C., editors, The Hornbook of Virginia History. Richmond, Virginia: The Library of Virginia, 1994.

External links

 A History of the Virginia House of Delegates: Commemorating the First and Oldest Continuous English-Speaking Representative Legislative Assembly in the Western Hemisphere
 Generall Historie of Virginia by Captaine John Smith
 Evolution of the Virginia Colony, 1610–1630 (Library of Congress)

.

1619 establishments in Virginia
1776 disestablishments in Virginia
Defunct unicameral legislatures
Virginia House of Burgesses

House of Burgesses


, is a role-playing video game series made by Nintendo, Ape, Inc., HAL Laboratory, and Brownie Brown. Shigesato Itoi was in charge of all three games. It has three main games in it, and started on the NES with Mother, and then it had EarthBound on the Super NES and Mother 3 on the Game Boy Advance. EarthBound is the only game of the three that came out in English, and it has a strong fanbase that wants the other two games in English too.

Plot

Setting
The series takes place by travelling in western directions for the most part, but it also goes to other places like deserts, a prehistoric world, and a dream world.

Games

Mother

Mother is the first title in the EarthBound series. It was made by Ape, Inc. and designed by Shigesato Itoi for the NES. It was going to be called EarthBound in the United States, and Nintendo of America completed the translation of the game, but they decided that role-playing video games were not worth releasing, and that it was too late in the NES' life to release.

EarthBound

EarthBound (known as Mother 2 in Japan) is the second title in the series. It's the most well known because it was the only one released outside of Japan. It was made by Ape, Inc. for the Super NES. It stars a boy named Ness, a girl named Paula, a boy named Jeff, and a boy named Poo, who have to work together to defeat an evil alien called Giygas, who conquers the Earth 10 years in the future.

Mother 3

Mother 3 is the third and latest EarthBound game. It was made by Brownie Brown and released for the Game Boy Advance. It started on the Nintendo 64 as EarthBound 64, but got canceled since the N64 was almost done. It was announced in 2003 that it was going to move to the Game Boy Advance, and came out in 2006. It changed from 3D to 2D, but it kept the same characters and story. It never came outside of Japan because of EarthBound's low sales in the United States, though there have been a lot of rumors, including one in Electronic Gaming Monthly about a game called Mother Compilation for the Nintendo DS which would include all three games. Mother 3 is about the adventures of a boy named Lucas and his dog Boney, who joins up with a princess named Kumatora and a thief named Duster who have to fight the Pig Mask Army. Shigesato Itoi, the creator, has no plans to make a sequel.

Other releases
Nintendo made a collection of Mother and EarthBound for the Game Boy Advance called Mother 1 + 2. It never came out of Japan. There has not been another re-release of any of the games since, but EarthBound was rated by the ESRB for a Virtual Console release.

EarthBound has always been in the Super Smash Bros. series. In Super Smash Bros., Ness (from EarthBound) is a playable character, using special PSI moves and attacks from EarthBound. He appeared again in Super Smash Bros. Melee with some new moves, and was going to be replaced by Lucas because he was going to be the star of EarthBound 64, but since it was canceled, he kept Ness instead. Melee also added stages from EarthBound based on two of the towns from the second game, and collectible trophies of characters and items from it. Super Smash Bros. Brawl brought Ness back, but also added Lucas since Mother 3 came out. It also added a stage from Mother 3 and new trophies too.

Other websites
 Official Mother Website
 Official Japanese EarthBound Website
 Official Mother 1 + 2 Website
 Official Mother 3 Page
 Itoi's Mother 3 website
 EarthBound fansite
 Mother capture
 Mother Party

References

Mother series

Mother (series)


The following is a list of players that were named to the Associated Press All-Pro Team, the Newspaper Enterprise Association All-Pro team and the Pro Football Writers Association, and Pro Football Weekly All-Pro teams in 1972. Both first- and second- teams are listed for the AP, NEA, and PFWA  teams. These are the four All-Pro teams that are included in the Total Football II: The Official Encyclopedia of the National Football League and compose the Consensus All-pro team for 1972.

Teams

Key
AP = Associated Press All-Pro team; AP-2 Associated Press Second-team All-Pro; PFWA = Pro Football Writers Association All-Pro team; NEA = Newspaper Enterprise Association All-Pro team.; NEA-2 Newspaper Enterprise Association Second-team All-Pro; PFW = Pro Football Weekly All-Pro team; t = players tied in votes.

References

Pro-Football-Reference.com

All-Pro Teams
Allpro

1972 All-Pro Team


Multiplexing is the name for an operation or method which combines several signals into one, before that signal is sent over a telecommunications line. At the other end of the line, the combined signals are demultiplexed, that is, the combination of the signals is undone. There are different ways how this multiplexing can be done:
Space division multiplexing: Each channel can use its own part of the space exclusively. There are many channels, in different spaces. This is like people talking in different places. If the people talking are far apart, the conversations won't interfere.
Frequency division multiplexing: Different channels use the different frequencies. The sounds bats  make use frequencies that humans cannot hear. Their conversations will therefore not interfere.
Time division multiplexing: Different channels use different time slots. In Amateur radio, there will only be one person speaking at a time. Different people who speak at different times do not interfere with each other.
Code division multiplexing: Communications are coded. Different signals use different codes.  People speaking in different languages do not interfere.
Multiplexing was first done for telegraphy in the 1870s, and for telephone lines in 1910. Today, it is widely used.

Telecommunications

Multiplexing


A republic is a form of government that has no monarchy and no hereditary aristocracy. It originates from Rome. In 509 BC, the Romans overthrew the Roman Kingdom and established a republic, a government in which citizens elected representatives to rule on their behalf.

National sovereignty lies in the authority of the government, not in an emperor or monarch. The word republic comes from the Latin words res publica,  meaning a "public thing". For example, the United States and India are republics. However, the United Kingdom and Canada are not republics since they have a monarch (King Charles III in both cases)

Countries with a king or other monarch and free elections is called a constitutional monarchy, not republics. A constitutional monarchy resembles a republic because the constitution has been amended to remove power from the monarch and install institutions conforming to a philosophy of republicanism. That includes the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms, the Netherlands, Thailand, and countries in Scandinavia and elsewhere. What makes a republic different is that its laws are made and enforced without royal authority.

The head of state in a republic is generally a person who has been chosen by the citizens by direct election or by a group of elected representatives to act as the top representative of the people. In most republics, the head of state is called the president. In some countries, the president is elected and has a lot of political power. In others, the president does not hold much direct power but is important in the legal system for other reasons.

Sometimes, state is called a "republic" when its head is not called a "king". For example, the Roman Empire had an "emperor" and the Dutch Republic had a "stadholder", but they worked as hereditary monarchs.

Licchavi, in India, was an aristocratic state in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE and is nowadays sometimes called the first republic. The earliest republics that were much imitated later were Greek cities, for example democracy in Athens. The biggest difference from the other city-states was that people chose their leaders by voting or by lottery. Several Italian city-states during the Renaissance were ruled by a small group of aristocrats, and were called republics.

References

Forms of government

Republic


Screaming is a vocal technique often used in punk rock, fast played metal music, and screamo. It is usually simply either a louder than normal high pitched form of singing, or a louder than normal low pitched form of singing. In both cases the vocalist usually tries to make it sound like some sort of beast's growl. For this reason, a low pitched scream is usually called a death growl.

More experimental forms of screaming are often used in alternative rock and emo music. These genres often have shrill screaming that has an emotional tone to it. The band, Thursday, is a good example of this.

Screaming is popular in genres: screamo, post-hardcore, hardcore punk, heavy metal, and many more.

Some other bands that have screaming include Silverstein, Hawthorne Heights, and Escape the Fate.

Communication

Screaming


In mathematics, hyperbolic geometry is a non-Euclidean geometry, meaning that the parallel postulate that defines Euclidean geometry isn't true. On a hyperbolic plane, lines that started out parallel will become further and further apart.

Replacing this rule means that hyperbolic geometry acts differently from ordinary flat plane geometry. For example, triangles will have angles that add up to less than 180 degrees, meaning that they are too pointy and will look like the sides are sinking into the middle.

Many real objects look like hyperbolic planes. For example, some types of coral and lettuce are shaped like pieces of hyperbolic planes. Other people say that it's easier to draw a map of the Internet when your map isn't flat, because there are a lot of computers around the edges but very few in the center. Some physicists even think our universe is a little bit hyperbolic.

Formal definition

The parallel postulate in Euclidean geometry says that in two dimensional space, for any given line l and point P not on l, there is exactly one line through P that does not intersect l. This line is called  parallel to l. In hyperbolic geometry there are at least two such lines through P. As they do not intersect l, the parallel postulate is false. Models have been constructed within Euclidean geometry that obey the axioms of hyperbolic geometry. These models prove that the parallel postulate is independent of the other postulates of Euclid.

Because there is no hyperbolic analogue to Euclidean parallel lines, the hyperbolic use of parallel and related terms varies among writers. In this article, the two limiting lines are called asymptotic and lines that have a common perpendicular are called ultraparallel; the simple word parallel may apply to both.

Non-intersecting lines
An interesting property of hyperbolic geometry follows from the occurrence of more than one parallel line through a point P: there are two classes of non-intersecting lines. Let B be the point on l such that the line PB is perpendicular to l. Consider the line x through P such that x does not intersect l, and the angle θ between PB and x counterclockwise from PB is as small as possible; i.e., any smaller angle will force the line to intersect l. This is called an asymptotic line in hyperbolic geometry. Symmetrically, the line y that forms the same angle θ between PB and itself but clockwise from PB will also be asymptotic.  x and y are the only two lines asymptotic to l through P. All other lines through P not intersecting l, with angles greater than θ with PB, are called ultraparallel (or disjointly parallel) to l. Notice that since there are an infinite number of possible angles between θ and 90 degrees, and each one will determine two lines through P and disjointly parallel to l, there exist an infinite number of ultraparallel lines.

Thus we have this modified form of the parallel postulate: In hyperbolic geometry, given any line l, and point P not on l, there are exactly two lines through P which are asymptotic to l, and infinitely many lines through P ultraparallel to l.

The differences between these types of lines can also be looked at in the following way: the distance between asymptotic lines run to zero in one direction and grows without bound in the other; the distance between ultraparallel lines increases in both directions. The ultraparallel theorem states that there is a unique line in the hyperbolic plane that is perpendicular to each of a given pair of ultraparallel lines.

In Euclidean geometry, the angle of parallelism is a constant; that is, any distance  between parallel lines yields an angle of parallelism equal to 90°. In hyperbolic geometry, the angle of parallelism varies with the  function. This function, described by Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky, produces a unique angle of parallelism for each distance . As the distance gets shorter,  approaches 90°, whereas with increasing distance  approaches 0°. Thus, as distances get smaller, the hyperbolic plane behaves more and more like Euclidean geometry. Indeed, on small scales compared to , where  is the (constant) Gaussian curvature of the plane, an observer would have a hard time determining whether he is in the Euclidean or the hyperbolic plane.

History
For centuries, geometers tried to prove the parallel postulate. They failed, but their efforts gave birth to hyperbolic geometry. The theorems of Alhacen, Khayyam on quadrilaterals, were the first theorems on hyperbolic geometry. Their works on hyperbolic geometry had an influence on its development among later European geometers, including Witelo, Alfonso and John Wallis.

In the nineteenth century, hyperbolic geometry was explored by János Bolyai and Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky, after whom it sometimes is named. Lobachevsky published in 1830, while Bolyai independently discovered it and published in 1832. Karl Friedrich Gauss also studied hyperbolic geometry, describing in a 1824 letter to Taurinus that he had constructed it, but did not publish his work. In 1868, Eugenio Beltrami provided models of it, and used this to prove that hyperbolic geometry was consistent if Euclidean geometry was.

The term "hyperbolic geometry" was introduced by Felix Klein in 1871. For more history, see article on non-Euclidean geometry.

Models of the hyperbolic plane

There are three models commonly used for hyperbolic geometry: the Klein model, the Poincaré disc model, and the Lorentz model, or hyperboloid model. These models define a real hyperbolic space which satisfies the axioms of a hyperbolic geometry.
Despite the naming, the two disc models and the half-plane model were introduced as models of hyperbolic space by Beltrami, not by Poincaré or Klein.

 The Klein model, also known as the projective disc model and Beltrami-Klein model, uses the interior of a circle for the hyperbolic plane, and chords of the circle as lines.
 The Poincaré half-plane model takes one-half of the Euclidean plane, as determined by a Euclidean line B, to be the hyperbolic plane (B itself is not included).
 Hyperbolic lines are then either half-circles orthogonal to B or rays perpendicular to B.
 Both Poincaré models preserve hyperbolic angles, and are thereby conformal. All isometries within these models are therefore Möbius transformations.
 The half-plane model is identical (at the limit) to the Poincaré disc model at the edge of the disc
This model has direct application to special relativity, as Minkowski 3-space is a model for spacetime, suppressing one spatial dimension. One can take the hyperboloid to represent the events that various moving observers, radiating outward in a spatial plane from a single point, will reach in a fixed proper time. The hyperbolic distance between two points on the hyperboloid can then be identified with the relative rapidity between the two corresponding observers.

Visualizing hyperbolic geometry

M. C. Escher's famous prints Circle Limit III  and Circle Limit IV
illustrate the conformal disc model quite well. In both one can see the geodesics. (In III the white lines are not geodesics, but hypercycles, which run alongside them.) It is also possible to see quite plainly the negative curvature of the hyperbolic plane, through its effect on the sum of angles in triangles and squares.

In the Euclidean plane, their angles would sum to 450°; i.e., a circle and a quarter. From this we see that the sum of angles of a triangle in the hyperbolic plane must be smaller than 180°. Another visible property is exponential growth. In Circle Limit IV, for example, one can see that the number of angels and demons  within a distance of n from the center rises exponentially. The demons have equal hyperbolic area, so the area of a ball of radius n must rise exponentially in n.

There are several ways to physically realize a hyperbolic plane (or approximation thereof). A particularly well-known paper model based on the pseudosphere is due to William Thurston. The art of crochet has been used to demonstrate hyperbolic planes with the first being made by Daina Taimina. In 2000, Keith Henderson demonstrated a quick-to-make paper model dubbed the "hyperbolic soccerball".

Other websites
 Visions of Infinity: Tiling a hyperbolic floor inspires both mathematics and art  Science News: Dec. 23, 2000; Vol. 158, No. 26/27, p. 408
 Java freeware for creating sketches in both the Poincaré Disk and the Upper Half-Plane Models of Hyperbolic Geometry University of New Mexico
 "The Hyperbolic Geometry Song" A short music video about the basics of Hyperbolic Geometry available at YouTube.

 More on hyperbolic geometry, including movies and equations for conversion between the different models  University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
, interactive instructional website.

References

Literature

 Coxeter, H. S. M. (1942) Non-Euclidean geometry, University of Toronto Press, Toronto
 Nikolai I. Lobachevsky, Pangeometry, Translator and Editor: A. Papadopoulos,  Heritage of European Mathematics Series, Vol. 4, European Mathematical Society, 2010.
 Milnor, John W. (1982) Hyperbolic geometry: The first 150 years, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. (N.S.) Volume 6, Number 1, pp. 9–24.
 Reynolds, William F. (1993) Hyperbolic Geometry on a Hyperboloid, American Mathematical Monthly 100:442-455.
 Stillwell, John. (1996) Sources in Hyperbolic Geometry, volume 10 in AMS/LMS series History of Mathematics.
 Samuels, David. (March 2006) Knit Theory Discover Magazine, volume 27, Number 3.
 James W. Anderson, Hyperbolic Geometry, Springer 2005,

Fields of geometry

Hyperbolic geometry


Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison (July 25, 1775 – February 25, 1864) was the wife of President William Henry Harrison. President Benjamin Harrison was her grandson. She was the First Lady of the United States during her husband's one-month term in 1841. But she never entered the White House.

She was born near Morristown, New Jersey on July 25, 1775. Her father was a judge and his name was John Cleves Symmes. Her mother's name was Anna Tuthill Symmes. Her mother died in 1776 when Anna was hardly one year old. During the American Revolution, Anna's father dressed like a British soldier and carried her on horseback passing through the British lines to her grandparents on Long Island. They cared for the child till the end of the war with the British.

At the age of thirteen, she went to North Bend, Ohio to live with her father and the stepmother. After few years, she met William Harrison, a young army officer. She married him on 25th November 1795. The couple had six sons and four daughters: Elizabeth Bassett "Betsy" (1796 - 1846), John Cleves Symmes (1798 - 1830), Lucy Singleton (1800 - 1826), William Henry, Jr. (1802 - 1838), John Scott (1804 - 1878), Benjamin (1806 - 1840), Mary Symmes (1809 - 1842), Carter Bassett (1811 - 1839), Anna Tuthill (1813 - 1845), and James Findlay (1814 - 1817).

After an eventful career in the US Army, her husband became the President of the United States in 1841. Due to her illness, she could not attend the inauguration ceremony and remained at their home in North Bend. After a month, on April 4, 1841, she was about to move to Washington when she learned of her husband's death. Thus, she never entered the White House, even though she was the First Lady.

After the death of her husband, she lived in North Bend with one of her sons, John Scott Harrison. She helped raise his children. One of the children was eight-year old Benjamin who became President of the United States. She died at the age of 88 on February 25, 1864 at home in North Bend, Ohio.

References

1775 births
1864 deaths
18th-century American people
First Ladies of the United States
William Henry Harrison

Anna Harrison


St. George's Parish is one of the nine parishes of Bermuda. It is named after the founder of the Bermuda colony, Admiral Sir George Somers.

It is located in the north-easternmost part of the island chain, containing a small part of the main island around Tucker's Town and the Tucker's Town Peninsula, as well as the island of St. George, and many smaller islands, notably Coney, Paget, Nonsuch, Castle, and Smith's Islands.

Technically, St. George's also includes the island of St. David's, though this is often considered a separate entity. St. David's Island, and Cooper's Island, and Longbird Island became a single, contiguous landmass during the Second World War construction of what is now L.F. Wade International Airport, formerly a joint USAAF/RAF base, Kindley Field (and subsequently a USAF base, Kindley Air Force Base, then a US Navy air station, NAS Bermuda.

The parish is joined to Hamilton Parish in the south, via The Causeway (which, like the Florida Keys in the United States, is a chain of small islands which have been connected by reclaimed land and bridges) and also at Tucker's Town. The parish is unique among those in Bermuda, in that it does not cover exactly 2.3 square miles (about 6.0 km² or 1500 acres). The reason for this is the land reclamation that took place when Kindley Air Force Base was constructed, which expanded the parish's area by some 150 acres (60 hectares) to a little over 2.5 square miles (6.6 km², 1620 acres). It had a population of 5,659 in 2016, representing about 9 percent of the total Bermudan population.

Natural features in St. George's include Castle Harbour, St. George's Harbour, St. David's Head, Tobacco Bay, and Ferry Reach.

Other notable features of St. George's include the St. David's Lighthouse, Fort St. Catherine, and the Bermuda Biological Station for Research.

Education
Primary schools:
 St. George's Preschool
 St. David's Preschool on St. David's
 St. George's Primary School in St. George's
 East End Primary School on St. George's Island
 St. David's Primary School on St. David's

Clearwater Middle School is located on St. David's. It opened on September 6, 1997 in the former Roger B. Chaffee High School with 155  students originating from the former St. George's Secondary School.

References

External links
Bermuda Online

Parishes of Bermuda

St. George's Parish, Bermuda


Stop Stansted Expansion (SSE)  is a pressure group established in 2002. It was originally a working group of the North West Essex and East Herts Preservation Association, in response to the Government's consultation on expanding UK airports and, particularly, expansion plans for Stansted Airport defined in 2001. It has around 7,500 members and registered online supporters and its campaign director is Carol Barbone.

Aims
The group's objective is to "restrict the development of Stansted Airport within tight limits that are truly sustainable and, in this way, to protect the quality of life of its supporters over wide areas of Essex, Hertfordshire and Suffolk, to preserve local heritage and to protect the natural environment."

The organisation has already delayed the time-frame for second runway plans for Stansted by four years (from 2011 to 2015).

If the plans went ahead, there would be climate change effects. The predicted annual equivalent carbon dioxide emissions ( they are around 5 million tonnes a year at present) are 12 million tonnes annually with full use of the existing runway and up to 23 million tonnes a year with a second runway.

Government response
On the 9th October 2008, the UK Government approved an increase in Stansted's permitted passenger throughput from 25 million passengers per annum (mppa) to 35mppa using the existing runway following a Public Enquiry. Stop Stansted Expansion (SSE) has described this decision as "entirely predictable, cynical and unjustified".
After this announcement, on 14 November, Stop Stansted Expansion lodged an Appeal with the High Court.

A key part of the campaign against the second runway is to stimulate letters of objection to the application. Uttlesford District Council has received over nine thousand representations to date with many more expected to follow.

Figures
Passenger traffic at Stansted is falling sharply. The airport handled 6% fewer passenger in 2008 than in the previous year (22.3m passengers last year compared to 23.8m passengers in 2007). SSE therefore says that "increasing passenger numbers from 25mppa to 35mppa will not make any difference in the short term. Indeed, with the recent dramatic deterioration in the economic situation – both domestically and internationally – the UK is entering uncharted territory with regard to the future demand for air travel."

Public Inquiry
BAA's Plans to get through the Public Inquiry as fast as possible for their application for a second Stansted runway (in six months) have been condemned by Stop Stansted Expansion (SSE). It began 15 April 2009.

The news that the Inspector appointed by the Government is looking to conduct the Inquiry at a breakneck pace was revealed in a note from the Planning Inspectorate issued ahead of the Pre Inquiry Meeting held on 10 November 2008, when the Inquiry programme and procedures were discussed at a public session. A further programming meeting is to be held on 19 January 2009.

"Running parallel sessions examining different subjects in different Inquiry rooms at the same time would severely compromise the community's ability to participate fully in the Inquiry" SSE says. "It would be impossible to conduct a fair and proper examination of BAA's plans by effectively excluding community representation by SSE and parish councils who are planning to play a leading role, said Carol Barbone, campaign director."

Organisations which support Stop Stansted Expansion
Campaign to Protect Rural England (CPRE)
The Woodland Trust
Friends of the Earth
Greenpeace
Aviation Environment Federation
HACAN Clear Skies Heathrow
Enough'senough
Plane Stupid
Ramblers' Association
We Can
World Development Movement

References

Other websites
Stop Stansted Expansion Website

2002 establishments in the United Kingdom

en:London Stansted Airport#Proposed developments

Stop Stansted Expansion


LightZone is a free, open-source digital photo editor software application. It was originally developed as commercial software by the now-defunct Light Crafts. Its main purpose is to handle the workflow, including non-destructive editing when handling images in various RAW formats. It is comparable to Adobe Lightroom.

History
Versions for Windows, Mac OS X and Linux were available commercially. Although the Linux version was free of charge in earlier versions, its price was adapted with the 3.5 release.

In mid-September, 2011, the Light Crafts website went offline without notice. It was reported that Fabio Riccardi, founder of Light Crafts and the primary developer of LightZone, was now working as an Apple employee, as evidenced by his LinkedIn profile. The final version from Light Crafts was version 3.9, except for Mac OS X which had a bug-fix version 3.9.2. Ongoing LightZone support, including updates to let LightZone process Raw files from new camera models, was being provided by the volunteer LightZombie Project.

On 22 December 2012, the LightZombie domain was redirected to the new LightZoneProject.org site, and an announcement was made by Anton Kast (one of the original authors of LightZone) that they had negotiated to release the original LightZone source as free software. This was hosted at https://github.com/AntonKast/LightZone (later moved to https://github.com/ktgw0316/LightZone).

In June 2013, new packages of LightZone were released for Linux, Mac OSX, and Microsoft Windows platforms. While effectively identical in terms of features to the previous proprietary version (v3.9.x) this release was cast as v4.0.0 to distinguish it as the first under the free BSD-3-Clause license.

Features
LightZone edits both RAW and JPEG format images. LightZone can create and apply pre-determined image transformations, called "styles", to an entire batch of images in a single operation. Using styles, photographers make and save their own preferred compensations for each RAW image based upon camera specific characteristics. Once created, a style is easily applied to multiple images, allowing those standard camera compensations to be applied to every image before the photographer ever views or edits it.

LightZone is a non-destructive RAW editor. It treats the digital image original (typically a RAW file) as precious and non-editable. When LightZone edits an original digital image, a new resulting post-edit image file is created (for example a new JPEG copy) and the original image file is left unaltered. By being non-destructive LightZone preserves the original "digital negative" which contains the maximum information originally captured by the camera, and allows additional images with different transformations to be produced from the original.

LightZone outputs JPEG files which contain metadata references to the original image file location and a record of the transformations applied during editing.

Because the JPEG output files that LightZone crates contain the entire transformation history, edits can always be undone in a new edit session, long after they were saved. Indeed, the same transformations can be easily reordered, and additional transformations applied subsequently to yield further image improvements. Additionally, since transformations always begin with the original RAW image rather than an intermediate JPEG version, JPEG compression related editing artifacts are avoided.

Awards
On December 19, 2007, LightZone was awarded a MacWorld's 23rd Annual Editors' Choice Award.

See also

 List of free and open source software packages

References

External links

 A quick, short review of LightZone 4.0

2005 software
Free graphics software
Free raw image processing software
Free software programmed in Java (programming language)
Formerly proprietary software
Software using the BSD license

LightZone


Oliver Perry Temple (January 27, 1820 – November 2, 1907) was an American attorney, author, judge, and economic promoter active primarily in East Tennessee in the latter half of the 19th century.  During the months leading up to the Civil War, Temple played a pivotal role in organizing East Tennessee's Unionists.  In June 1861, he drafted the final resolutions of the pro-Union East Tennessee Convention, and spent much of the first half of the war providing legal defense for Unionists who had been charged with treason by Confederate authorities.

After the war, Temple promoted agricultural and industrial development in East Tennessee, most notably by assisting in the development of the Rugby Colony, and in later years wrote several books on the history of East Tennessee.

Early life
Temple was born near Greeneville, Tennessee, to James and Mary (Craig) Temple, and was raised on his father's large farm. As a teenager, he was fond of debating, and would walk miles to participate in debate societies at country schools. At age 16, he enrolled in the fledgling Greeneville College, but quit in 1838 to march with the state militia to suppress a Cherokee uprising.

While serving with the militia, Temple was inspired to study law after reading An Essay Concerning Human Understanding by English philosopher John Locke.  He attended Tusculum College from 1838 to 1841, and attended Washington College from 1841 to 1844. At the latter, he was a classmate and mentor of future North Carolina governor Zebulon Vance. After graduating from Washington College, Temple studied law under Judge Robert McKinney, and was admitted to the bar in 1846. He initially practiced in Greeneville in partnership with future Arkansas Supreme Court justice, Freeman Compton.

In 1847, Temple challenged Democratic incumbent Andrew Johnson for the 1st district congressional seat. He criticized Johnson for voting to censure General Zachary Taylor, opposing a payraise for soldiers, and pandering to Whig voters by attacking President James K. Polk. Two days before the election, the two engaged in a fierce debate in Jonesborough in which they accused one another of selfishly avoiding service in the Mexican–American War. Temple later wrote that Johnson, displaying a "haughty air of superiority," dismissed him as a "Juvenile Competitor" and threatened to disgrace him if he didn't withdraw from the race. On election day, Johnson narrowly prevailed, 5,758 votes to 5,342.

In 1848, Temple moved to Knoxville, Tennessee, where he established a law partnership with William H. Sneed.

In 1850, Temple was appointed by President Millard Fillmore commissioner to help conciliate Indian tribes in territories captured during the Mexican–American War to the United States government. Upon returning to Knoxville, he helped establish the Knoxville and Ohio Railroad, and briefly served as a director of the East Tennessee and Georgia Railroad. In 1855, after Sneed was elected to Congress, Temple established a law partnership with future federal judge Connally Trigg.

At Knoxville's Southern Commercial Convention in 1856, Temple opposed a resolution calling for the reopening of the African slave trade.  In 1860, he attended the Constitutional Union Party convention in Baltimore. He served as an elector for the party's candidate, John Bell, during that year's presidential election.

Civil War

As secession fervor swept into Knoxville in the wake of the election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860, Temple organized a meeting for the city's Unionists at his house to plot a course of action.  They agreed to counter the secessionists at a November 26 citywide assembly at the Knox County Courthouse that had been called to discuss a possible statewide secession convention.  This assembly and a subsequent assembly on December 8, at which Temple delivered two speeches, were both particularly contentious, and provided a rallying point for the region's Unionists.  Inspired by these efforts, counties across East Tennessee held similar meetings and declared their loyalty to the Union.

Temple and other Unionists canvassed East Tennessee throughout the first half of 1861.  At a speech in front of a hostile crowd near what is now Concord, Temple argued that while the Constitution protected slavery, he would prefer slavery "perish" if it meant preserving the Union.  Temple's Gay Street office provided a popular meeting place for the city's Unionists during this period.  Temple later recalled defusing a confrontation at his office between former Constitutional Union Party candidate John Bell, who had recently switched sides and supported secession, and radical Unionist newspaper editor William G. Brownlow, in May 1861.

During the June, 1861 East Tennessee Convention in Greeneville, Temple drafted a set of resolutions that would eventually be approved by the convention delegates and later presented to the Tennessee General Assembly.  Temple's resolutions, which he drew up as an alternative to an earlier set of convention resolutions that were deemed too provocative, essentially asked the legislature to allow the counties of East Tennessee to withdraw from Tennessee and form a separate, Union-aligned state.  The state legislature rejected the convention proposal, and at the urging of influential pro-Confederacy supporters Confederate in East Tennessee, Confederate military forces were transported by rail into southern East Tennessee and these rebel troops occupied Knoxville shortly thereafter.

Temple fled to the North in August 1861 after Brownlow warned that Confederate authorities were planning to arrest Knoxville's Unionists.  Within a few weeks, he returned, however, after promising the city's Confederate leaders he would remain neutral during the conflict.  He spent much of the first half of the war providing legal defense for Unionists accused of various offenses, including members of East Tennessee bridge-burning conspiracy and several participants in the Great Locomotive Chase.

When the Union Army entered Knoxville in September 1863, Temple joyously ran the length of Gay Street behind a regiment of soldiers.  Shortly after the army's arrival, General Ulysses S. Grant met with Temple at Melrose, and inquired about the feasibility of marching up the French Broad River into North Carolina, and then north to Virginia in an attempt to outflank Robert E. Lee.  Temple advised against this, warning that the terrain of the Blue Ridge Mountains made such a trek nearly impossible.

Later life

After the war, Temple quickly formed a new law firm with Samuel A. Rogers and James Deaderick.  In 1866, he was appointed chancellor of Tennessee's Eighth Chancery District, succeeding Samuel R. Rodgers, who had died.  In 1870, he was moved to the Second Chancery District, where he served as  chancellor until 1878.  Temple's annual income of more than $13,000 was the highest reported in the 1870 census in Knox County, edging out the partners of the wholesaling giant, Cowan, McClung and Company. He lost much of his fortune during the Panic of 1873, however.

Throughout the 1870s, Temple, as the "spirit" behind the Knoxville Industrial Association and as the president of the East Tennessee Farmers' Convention, championed economic development in East Tennessee.  As he stated in a speech before the Association in 1869, Temple believed in a diversified economy that was based on both agriculture and industry.  He gave numerous lectures extolling East Tennessee's climate and natural resources during this period.

In the late 1870s and early 1880s, Temple provided legal, agricultural, and promotional assistance to the Rugby Colony, then being developed on the Cumberland Plateau.  On September 16, 1880, Temple hosted a large dinner in Knoxville for the colony's founder, Thomas Hughes, and spoke at the "opening" of the colony several days later.

Temple retired from the legal profession in 1880, and with the help of Congressman Leonidas C. Houk, was appointed Knox County's postmaster the following year. In 1893, he wrote a sketch of Tennessee governor John Sevier to mark the occasion of the reinterment of Sevier on the lawn of the Knox County Courthouse. In 1897, he published The Covenanter, The Cavalier, and The Puritan, which discusses the origins and contributions of the Scotch-Irish (Temple uses the broader term "Covenanter") in American history.

East Tennessee and the Civil War

In 1899, Temple published his Civil War memoir, East Tennessee and the Civil War, the purpose of which was to vindicate the actions of East Tennessee's Unionists, many of whom were considered traitors by fellow Southerners.  Like his contemporary, Thomas William Humes, Temple traces the origins of East Tennessee's Unionist sentiments to Revolutionary War patriotism, but goes a step further, arguing this sentiment was rooted in the early influence of Scotch-Irish Covenanter settlers, who were devout and independent, and zealously committed to religious and political liberty.

Temple rejected secession as unconstitutional, arguing that the Founders clearly envisioned a perpetual Union.  He argued that revolt was only acceptable to overthrow an unjust government, and endeavored to show that not only had the federal government gone to great pains to appease Southern slaveowners, but had been favorable to Southern interests throughout much of the nation's history.  Temple suggested that the secession movement had little to do with slavery or states' rights, but was driven instead by Southern elites more concerned with personal ambitions.  He went so far as to suggest that most Southerners opposed secession in 1860, and that votes in favor of secession were the result of intimidation, fraud, and temporary panic.

Temple's book contains detailed accounts of several key events of Civil War-era East Tennessee, many of which he personally witnessed.  He provides one of the more extensive descriptions of the East Tennessee bridge-burnings, having gone to great pains to identify and correspond with members of the conspiracy.  He also provides an invaluable account of the East Tennessee Convention, of which he had been an integral member, having provided the draft for the convention's final resolutions.

Death and legacy

Temple fell seriously ill in 1904, and never fully recovered.  He died on November 2, 1907, and was buried in Knoxville's Old Gray Cemetery.  A large obelisk marks the Temple family plot.

Temple married Scotia Caledonia Hume in 1851.  Their only child, Mary Boyce Temple (1856–1929), compiled and published Notable Men of Tennessee, a collection of biographies her father had written about various Civil War-era figures.  She was also a founding member of Knoxville's Ossoli Circle, and campaigned for women's suffrage in the early 20th century.  Temple was of Scottish and English descent, and his mansion, Melrose, was named for Melrose, Scotland, the home of his wife's parents.

Temple was a trustee of the University of Tennessee for over a half-century, from 1854 until his death in 1907.  He helped establish the school's College of Agriculture, and was a key advisor to President Charles Dabney. Hess Hall, on the university's campus, now stands where his Melrose mansion once stood.

Bibliography

Books

The Covenanter, The Cavalier, and The Puritan (1897)
East Tennessee and the Civil War (1899)
John Sevier: Citizen, Soldier, Legislator, Governor, Statesman, 1744–1815 (1910)
Notable Men of Tennessee (1912)

Speeches

"An Address Delivered Before the Knoxville Industrial Association" (1869)

See also
James C. Luttrell
Samuel Cole Williams

References

External links

Finding Aid for the O. P. Temple Papers — University of Tennessee Special Collections

1820 births
1907 deaths
People from Greene County, Tennessee
Lawyers from Knoxville, Tennessee
Tennessee Whigs
19th-century American politicians
Tennessee Republicans
Businesspeople from Tennessee
Tennessee state court judges
19th-century American railroad executives
Tennessee Constitutional Unionists
19th-century American historians
19th-century American male writers
Southern Unionists in the American Civil War
19th-century American judges
American male non-fiction writers

Oliver Perry Temple


The Battle of Saratoga is considered the turning point of the American Revolution. The battle was fought in late 1777. It was actually two engagements: the Battle of Freeman's Farm (September 19) and the Battle of Bemis Heights (October 7). The Americans were led by General Horatio Gates. The British were led by General John Burgoyne. On October 17 Burgoyne surrendered his army of nearly 6,000 British soldiers. The American victory helped convince France to come to the aid of the Continental Army. It also helped them recognize the United States.

Prelude
In early 1777, General William Howe asked London to approve his plan to attack Philadelphia. This would destroy the rebellious American government. In Canada, General John Burgoyne submitted a plan to move down through New York and meet General Howe at Albany. This would divide the colonies. London approved both plans. Burgoyne began moving down the Hudson River valley from Canada. He split his force into two columns. One, under Colonel Barry St. Leger moved east from Lake Ontario down the Mohawk Valley. They attacked the Americans at Fort Stanwix. The Americans sent two parties to relieve the fort. The second, under the command of Benedict Arnold, drove the British away from the fort. St. Leger's column retreated back to Lake Ontario. Burgoyne continued south with his own column of about 7,000 British and Hessian soldiers. He was joined by about 500 native Americans, allied to the British.

Burgoyne made a proclamation to his Indians to go out and strike at the enemy. He added that women and children, or any who did not oppose them should not be killed. But men, women and children were killed. One famous incident upset all the colonists. A young woman named Jane McCrea was engaged to marry one of Burgoyne's young tory officers. Indians bringing her to Burgoyne fought over her, killed and scalped her. Burgoyne wouldn't punish the Indian who killed her. This proved he could not even protect friendly colonists. Newspapers in the colonies spread the story. As a result, a great many Americans who had been neutral took up arms against the British. The story even reached England. In the House of Commons Edmund Burke spoke out against the British policy of using Native American allies.

Battle of Freeman's Farm
Howe had captured Philadelphia. But it took so long he did not send any forces north to support Burgoyne. On September 19 Burgoyne attacked the Americans who were entrenched on Bemis Heights near Saratoga. He again fought Americans at Freeman's Farm. This time it was American riflemen under the command of Daniel Morgan. American Marksman killed a large number of British and Hessian officers. This was intended to cause confusion among the British forces. Burgoyne lost about 600 casualties. He claimed victory although he was still held in place by the Americans.

Battle of Bemis Heights
Burgoyne tried and failed to attack the Americans again on October 7. But the Americans held out against him. A counterattack led by Benedict Arnold pushed the British back further until they finally retreated back to Saratoga. This battle cost Burgoyne another 600 casualties. The American losses were less than 150. Burgoyne's army was now surrounded by a much larger and growing American army. On October 13, 1777 Burgoyne asked for a Ceasefire. Horatio Gates, the American commander asked for Burgoyne's surrender. But Burgoyne stalled and did not give an answer. The terms given by Gates were harsh. Finally Gates offered better terms. On October 17, Burgoyne surrendered.

British surrender
Burgoyne surrendered his whole army of 5,752. He gave up 42 cannons, 7,000 muskets and all his supplies. Officers were separated from their men and placed on parole. Unlike their men they were allowed to keep their pistols. Gates invited Burgoyne to dine with him. The two men were friendly. Each toasted the other's leader. The British and Hessian soldiers were marched to Boston. Per the agreement they were to return to England on their promise not to fight again. While some did return to England, Congress changed the terms. Many were sent to prisons in the colonies to wait out the war.

References

Other websites
 Battle Of Saratoga - Sept & Oct 1777
 The Battle of Saratoga 1777; British Battles

Battles of the American Revolutionary War
1777 in New York (state)

Battle of Saratoga


The American League (or AL) is one of the two leagues that make up Major League Baseball (MLB). The other is the National League (or NL). The American League is made up of 15 teams. At the end of each season, five of these teams go to the "post-season" where one will win the American League championship. The champions of the American League plays against the champions of the National League in the World Series. The team that wins the World Series is the champion of Major League Baseball. Teams in the American league usually play against other teams in the American league, except for a few games a year when they play National league teams. There are 3 Divisions of the American League: AL East, AL Central, and AL West.

Differences
The only big difference between the American League and the National League is that the AL uses the "Designated Hitter" (or DH). The Designated Hitter is a player who does not play in the field, but is used to bat for the worst hitter in his team's "lineup" (usually the pitcher). The NL does not use the Designated Hitter, and all players in the "lineup" must bat and field for themselves. If the DH plays an NL game in an NL park, he often plays First Base if at all.  If they play in an AL park, the NL can use a DH.

Related pages
 National League

American League


The pocket gophers are burrowing rodents of the family Geomyidae.  These are the "true" gophers. Several ground squirrels of the family Sciuridae are often called gophers as well. They are not true gophers,though.  The name "pocket gopher" on its own is used for a number of subspecies of the family. Pocket gophers, despite being largely a pest, are a symbol of the U.S. state of Minnesota, sometimes called "the Gopher State".

Distribution
Pocket gophers are widely distributed in North America, extending into Central America.

Appearance
Gophers are heavily built, and most are moderately large. They usually  weigh a few hundred grams.  A few species reach weights approaching 1 kg.  Most gophers have brown fur which often closely matches the color of the soil in which they live.  Their most characteristic feature is their large cheek pouches. The pocket in their name comes from these pouches. These pouches are fur-lined, and can be turned inside out.  They extend from the side of the mouth well back onto the shoulders. They have small eyes and a short, hairy tail which they use to feel around tunnels when they walk backwards.

Behavior
All pocket gophers are burrowers. They are larder hoarders, and their cheek pouches are used for transporting food back to their burrows.  Gophers can collect large hoards. Their presence is unambiguously announced by the appearance of mounds of fresh dirt about 20 cm in diameter.  These mounds will often appear in vegetable gardens, lawns, or farms, as gophers like moist soil.  They also enjoy feeding on vegetables.  For this reason, some species are considered agricultural pests. They may also damage trees in forests.  Although they will attempt to flee when threatened, they may attack other animals, including cats and humans, and can inflict serious bites with their long, sharp teeth.

Classification
There has been much debate among taxonomists about which races of pocket gopher should be recognised as full species. There are about 37 species in six genera.

Other websites
Article on the Animal Diversity Web site
eNature flashcard with image (southeastern pocket gopher)
eNature flashcard with image (western pocket gopher)

Geomyoid rodents
Mammals of North America

Pocket gopher


Coma is a medical term. It is a state of deep unconsciousness. People who are in that state cannot be woken up. They also do not react to pain or light. Coma can result from various conditions. Some of these are intoxication, poisons, damages or diseases of the nervous system. It can also be the result of certain drugs. Doctors sometimes put patients that have very bad injuries into a coma. There are different levels of coma. Comas usually do not last more than several weeks, but those several weeks could be disastrous. Sometimes only basic bodily functions are left over. Intensive hospital care is often needed to recover some of these functions.

Some comas can last years, but these are usually not woken up from. The family of a coma victim (or whoever has the power of Attorney) can sign papers so that they are taken off of life support and then will die.

Symptoms

Coma


Romana, short for Romanadvoratrelundar,  is a fictional character in the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. She is a Time Lady from the planet Gallifrey, and she was a companion of the Fourth Doctor.
Because she was a Time Lord, Romana was able to regenerate, having two on-screen incarnations with somewhat different personalities (called Romana I and Romana II by fans). Romana I was played by Mary Tamm from 1978 to 1979. When she became pregnant and chose not to return for another series, the part was recast. Romana II was played by Lalla Ward from 1979 to 1981.

Romana I
The White Guardian assigns Romana to help the Doctor during his quest for the Key to Time.  Romana first appears in The Ribos Operation, and was intended as a contrast to her predecessor, the savage Leela.  Romana is initially haughty and somewhat arrogant, looking down on the Doctor (whom she considers to be her academic inferior; she obtained a triple first at the academy, while the Doctor passed with only 51 percent, on his second attempt) and responding to his initial resentment at her presence with icy put-downs. However, she soon gains an appreciation for the Doctor's experience and sense of adventure, and begins to respect him as a teacher.

Romana II
The introduction of Romana's second incarnation in Destiny of the Daleks, a script credited to Terry Nation, but with several changes by script editor Douglas Adams, treats the concept of regeneration humorously.  At the beginning of the serial, Romana changes bodily forms several times, like she was trying on different outfits, before deciding to take the form of Princess Astra, who had been played by Lalla Ward in the final serial of Season 16, The Armageddon Factor.

Romana II enjoys a more intimate relationship with the Doctor than her first incarnation, some fans have assumed that she had a romantic relationship with the Doctor. Although a relationship was never shown or intended by the writers. In many ways, she is the companion most like her Doctor - besides being of the same race and close to the same intelligence, she occasionally mimics his sense of style, wields her own sonic screwdriver and can occasionally get the better of him in moments of banter and more practical situations. As her practical experience develops, she also becomes more assured and capable in the situations she finds herself in.

Her final television appearance was in Warriors' Gate, where, along with  the robot dog K-9, she leaves to forge her own path in the parallel universe of E-space. She also appears briefly in the 20th Anniversary special The Five Doctors through the reuse of footage from the uncompleted story Shada because Tom Baker refused to come back.

After the departure of both Romana I and II, both versions of the character also appeared very briefly in flashback sequences during the Fourth Doctor's regeneration in Logopolis as well as the Fifth Doctor's mind-copy in Resurrection of the Daleks.

She would also be mentioned in Castrovalva during the Fifth Doctor's post-regenerative confusion, as well as Arc of Infinity, where the Fifth Doctor, in response to a reprimand from the High Council of Time Lords for "leaving her behind", retorts that she "chose to remain in E-Space".

In the new series the doctor says that all of the Time Lords apart from him were killed in the time war. Whether Romana was killed with the others, or is still alive in E-Space or elsewhere, has not been specifically established on screen.

Appearances in other media

An article by Russell T Davies in the Doctor Who Annual 2006 states that Romana was President of the Time Lords during the Time War against the Daleks (see below), which ended with Gallifrey being destroyed. As with all spin-off media and the new series, it is unknown if it is canon.

Novels
In the licensed Virgin New Adventures novel Blood Harvest by Terrance Dicks, Romana II leaves E-Space and returns to Gallifrey with the help of the Seventh Doctor.  In Goth Opera by Paul Cornell, from the complementary Missing Adventures series, she is given a seat on the High Council of Time Lords. In New Adventures' Happy Endings, also by Cornell, it is revealed that Romana has become Lady President of Gallifrey. Romana's presidency is reflected in the later novels and in her appearances (voiced by Ward) in audio dramas from Big Finish Productions.  Romana appears in independent charity novel Time's Champion, in the role of President of the Time Lords.

In the BBC Books Eighth Doctor Adventures novels, Romana undergoes a second regeneration, and her new incarnation (Romana III, whose appearance was modelled on silent movie actress Louise Brooks) is far less sympathetic and far more ruthless than the other two.

Audio plays

Romana II appeared pseudonymously in a series of audio plays produced in the early 2000s by BBV. In this series, Lalla Ward played a character who appeared with K-9 in an unnamed parallel universe.  This character is called the Mistress (which was what K-9 called Romana in the television series).  Because of an unusual copyright situation in which BBV was able to license K-9 but not Romana or other Doctor Who elements, the Mistress is not explicitly called Romana.  For similar reasons, the parallel universe (obviously intended to reflect Romana's exile in E-Space) is called a "pocket universe" in the series' packaging.

In Big Finish's regular line of Doctor Who audio stories, Ward joined the Sixth Doctor in The Apocalypse Element, in which Romana is Lady President of Gallifrey. In Zagreus, Romana II is forced to banish the Eighth Doctor from the universe as he has become a danger to it following his infection by the forces of "anti-time".  Following on from this, she is featured in a number of audio plays with former Doctor companion Leela (played by Louise Jameson) under the umbrella title of Gallifrey.

The series ends on a cliffhanger, with Gallifrey on the brink of economic and social collapse as well as in danger of being overrun by a Free Time virus, while most of the characters are trapped with no apparent means of escape.

List of appearances

Television
Season 16
The Ribos Operation (Romana I)
The Pirate Planet
The Stones of Blood
The Androids of Tara
The Power of Kroll
The Armageddon Factor
Season 17
Destiny of the Daleks (Romana II)
City of Death
The Creature from the Pit
Nightmare of Eden
The Horns of Nimon
Shada (not completed or transmitted)
Season 18
The Leisure Hive
Meglos
Full Circle
State of Decay
Warriors' Gate
20th anniversary special
The Five Doctors (footage from Shada)
30th anniversary special
Dimensions in Time

Audio dramas
BBV
K-9: The Choice (pseudonymous appearance)
K-9: The Search (pseudonymous appearance)
Big Finish Productions
The Apocalypse Element
Neverland
Zagreus
Shada (webcast on BBCi, later released on CD)
Gallifrey: Weapon of Choice
Gallifrey: Square One
Gallifrey: The Inquiry
Gallifrey: A Blind Eye
Gallifrey: Lies
Gallifrey: Spirit
Gallifrey: Pandora
Gallifrey: Insurgency
Gallifrey: Imperiatrix
Gallifrey: Fractures
Gallifrey: Warfare
Gallifrey: Appropriation
Gallifrey: Mindbomb
Gallifrey: Panacea
The Beautiful People
Ferril's Folly (Romana I)

Novels
Virgin Missing Adventures
Goth Opera by Paul Cornell
The Romance of Crime by Gareth Roberts
The English Way of Death by Gareth Roberts
The Shadow of Weng-Chiang by David A. McIntee
The Well-Mannered War by Gareth Roberts
Virgin New Adventures
Blood Harvest by Terrance Dicks
Happy Endings by Paul Cornell
Lungbarrow by Marc Platt
Eighth Doctor Adventures
The Eight Doctors by Terrance Dicks
The Shadows of Avalon by Paul Cornell
The Ancestor Cell by Peter Anghelides and Stephen Cole
Past Doctor Adventures
Tomb of Valdemar by Simon Messingham
Heart of TARDIS by Dave Stone
Festival of Death by Jonathan Morris
Independent Novels
Time's Champion

Short stories
"Glass" by Tara Samms
"Return of the Spiders" by Gareth Roberts
"Special Occasions 1: The Not So Sinister Sponge" by Gareth Roberts and Clayton Hickman
"Special Occasions 2: Do You Love Anyone Enough?" by Norman Ashby
"Special Occasions 3: Better Take Care" by Steve Burford
"Special Occasions 4: Playing with Toys" by David Agnew
"I Was A Monster!!!" by Joseph Lidster
"The Lying Old Witch in the Wardrobe" by Mark Michalowski
"Doing Time" by Lance Parkin
"O, Darkness" by John Binns
"The Time Lord's Story" by Iain McLaughlin and Claire Bartlett
"The Little Things" by Paul Beardsley
"The Clanging Chimes of Doom" by Jonathan Morris
"Present Tense" by Ian Potter
"Suitors, Inc." by Paul Magrs
"Life from Lifelessness" by Keith R.A. DeCandido
"The Glarn Strategy" by Brian Dooley
"All Snug in Their Beds" by Scott Alan Woodard
"Good Queen, Bad Queen, I Queen, You Queen" by Terri Osborne
"Breadcrumbs" by James Moran

Comics
"Terror on Xaboi" by Paul Crompton (Doctor Who Annual 1980) - 1st incarnation
"The Weapon" by Paul Crompton (Doctor Who Annual 1980) - 1st incarnation
"Every Dog Has His Day" by Mel Powell (Doctor Who Annual 1981) - 2nd incarnation
"Victims" by Dan Abnett, Colin Andrew and Enid Orc (Doctor Who Magazine 212–214) - 2nd incarnation
"The Seventh Segment" by Gareth Roberts, Paul Peart and Elitta Fell (Doctor Who Magazine Summer Special 1995) - 1st incarnation

Other websites
 Romana I on the BBC's Doctor Who website
 Romana II on the BBC's Doctor Who website

Doctor Who characters

Romana (Doctor Who)


James Wilson (September 14, 1742 – August 21, 1798) was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence. Wilson was elected two times to the Continental Congress, and was a major force in drafting the United States Constitution. He was a leading legal thinker, and he was one of the first six justices appointed by George Washington to the Supreme Court of the United States.  Wilson was born in Scotland, but lived most of his life in Pennsylvania.

Early years
James Wilson was born in Carskerdo, near St. Andrews, Scotland. His parents were William Wilson and Alison Landall.  Wilson attended a number of universities in Scotland without attaining a degree. Imbued with the ideas of the Scottish Enlightenment, he moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in British America in 1766, carrying valuable letters of introduction. These helped Wilson to begin tutoring and then teaching at The Academy and College of Philadelphia (now the University of Pennsylvania). He petitioned there for a degree and was awarded an honorary Master of Arts several months later.

Wilson started reading the law at the office of John Dickinson a short time later. After two years of studying, he got the bar in Philadelphia, and, in the following year (1767), set up his own practice in Reading, Pennsylvania. His office was very successful and he earned a small fortune in a few years. By then he had a small farm near Carlisle, Pennsylvania, was handling cases in eight local counties, and was lecturing at The Academy and College of Philadelphia.

On 5 November 1771, he married Rachel Bird, daughter of William Bird and Bridgette Hulings, they had six children together.

Political career
In 1774, Wilson wrote a pamphlet saying that the British Parliament had no power in America.  He was for the Declaration of Independence when he was in the Continental Congress.  During the American Revolution, he served in the Pennsylvania State Militia.  He was also attacked at his house by a mob.  This was called the Fort Wilson riot.  Wilson also continued to practice law, and was France's lawyer in the U.S.

Wilson was one of the main political economists at the Constitutional Convention.  He gave more speeches than anyone but Gouverneur Morris.  He also proposed the three-fifths compromise, and sat on the Committee of Detail.

Wilson served on the United States Supreme Court from 1789 to 1798.  He was the first associate justice nominated by George Washington.

References

1742 births
1798 deaths
Politicians from Pennsylvania

James Wilson


Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev (9 November 1818 - 3 September 1883) was a Russian writer, most famous for his novel Fathers and Sons.

Life

Turgenev was born into a rich land-owning family in Oryol, Russia, on 9 November 1818. His father died when Turgenev was sixteen. He and his brother Nicholas were brought up by their mother. She did not treat them well.

Turgenev went to the University of Moscow for one year and then moved to the University of Saint Petersburg, where he studied Classics and Russian Literature. In 1838 he went to the University of Berlin to study philosophy and history. Turgenev liked Germany and thought Russia should change their social system to be more like Germany's.

The 1840s and 1850s were hard times for writers and artists in Russia. The political system did not allow them to express themselves as they wanted to. Many intelligent Russians left the country and went to England, France and Germany. In 1852 Turgenev himself was put in prison for a month for praising Nikolai Gogol – a famous Russian writer who had been criticised by the ruling powers in the country. In 1854, Turgenev moved to Western Europe and started writing his novel Rudin, which complained about the Russia of the 1840s and 1850s.

The political system in Russia changed in 1855 when Alexander II took over power from his father Nicholas I. Writers and artists had more freedom from this time. In 1860 one of Turgenev's most famous novels, First Love, was published.

In 1862, Fathers and Sons, Turgenev's most famous novel, appeared. Many people did not like the novel which upset Turgenev and he began to write less.

Smoke was published in 1867, but again was not popular in Russia.

In 1879, he received an honorary degree from the University of Oxford in England.

In later life, Turgenev did not live in Russia much. He lived either at Baden-Baden or Paris, often near the singer Pauline Viardot, who he was having an affair with. He never married, but he did have a daughter with one of his family's servants.

Turgenev died near Paris on 3 September 1883. On his deathbed he told Leo Tolstoy to start writing again.

Turgenev had an awkward relationship with two other famous Russian writers – Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoevsky. Tolstoy and Dostoevsky criticised Turgenev for liking Western Europe and its literature more than Russian literature. Turgenev was also close to the French writer Gustave Flaubert.

Main works

 1857 - Rudin (Рудин), English translation: Rudin
 1859 - Dvoryanskoye Gnezdo (Дворянское гнездо), English translation: A Nest of Gentlefolk
 1860 - Nakanune (Накануне), English translation: On the Eve
 1862 - Ottsy i Deti (Отцы и дети); English translation: Fathers and Sons
 1867 - Dym (Дым); English translation: Smoke
 1877 - Nov (Новь); English translation: Virgin Soil

Related pages
List of Russian language poets
List of Russian-language novelists

Other websites
 Works by & about Ivan Turgenev at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated)
  Gutenberg.org (plain text and HTML)

1818 births
1883 deaths
Russian writers

Ivan Turgenev


General Edwin William Rawlings, USAF (Ret), (September 11, 1904 – December 8, 1997) was a leading figure in the administrative development of the United States Air Force (USAF).

Early life
A Milroy, Minnesota native, Rawlings graduated with an economics degree from Hamline University in Saint Paul, Minnesota. He became a flying cadet in February 1929. Almost 25 years to the day later, he became one of the USAF's youngest generals, confirmed for a fourth star at 49. He had also by then earned an MBA from Harvard University.

Air comptroller pioneer
In November 1946, Symington named Rawlings as air comptroller, helping to organize the office. The position was so successful and struck such a note, the United States adopted the idea of a comptroller for all three services.

In 1951, Rawlings became commander of Air Materiel Command at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, leading USAF's procurement and logistics efforts for seven years. Air Force Chief of Staff Thomas D. White credited him with spectacular increases in the effectiveness of the Air Force logistics, accomplished through new management methods, concepts, and philosophy, and thus the Air Force has been able to match the tempo of the jet, missile, and space era.

Rawlings was a command pilot and combat and aircraft observer, whose decorations included the Distinguished Service Medal and Distinguished Flying Cross, which he received in 1930 for his role in the rescue of an aircrew downed in the Pacific. He also received the Soldier's Medal in 1954 for rescuing his pilot who was lying underneath a B-17 Flying Fortress that caught fire after landing at Wright-Patterson.

Later life
After retiring from USAF in 1959, he went on to a career with General Mills, rising to become president and board chairman. During his second career, General Rawlings introduced corporate social responsibility and adapted the Delphi method for corporate strategic planning.

In 1997, Rawlings died in Auburn, Washington at age 93.

Legacy
In 1981 the Air Force Association (AFA) and AEF in 1981 established the Gen.. Edwin W. Rawlings Award initially to recognize energy conservation achievements within USAF. Now the award recognizes and outstanding technician or manager in environmental matters.

The AFA's Gen. E. W. Rawlings Chapter was chartered in Saint Paul in August 1982.

Eugene M. Zuckert, Secretary of the Air Force from 1961 to 1965, credits Rawlings with building a "mature, business-like" image for the newly established Air Force. Zuckert said Air Force Secretary Stuart Symington asked him in 1945 why he had to "send out a search party" whenever he needed Army Air Forces statistics, Zuckert remembered a Rawlings memo suggesting the creation of a comptroller position and passed the idea on to Symington. According to Zuckert, the methods developed by Rawlings  constituted "a very important step in the development of a postwar Air Force."

References

External links
Air Force Association USAF Mentorship Artist profile
American Airpower Biography:  A Survey of the Field

1904 births
1997 deaths
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
Chairmen of General Mills
Hamline University alumni
Harvard Business School alumni
People from Redwood County, Minnesota
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Soldier's Medal
Systems thinking
United States Air Force generals
United States Army Air Forces officers
Military personnel from Minnesota

Edwin W. Rawlings