The Miami soil series is the state soil of Indiana.

The less sloping Miami soils are used mainly for corn, soybeans, or winter wheat. The steeper areas are used as pasture, hayland, or woodland. Significant area has been converted to residential and commercial uses. There are  of Miami soils mapped in Indiana.

Miami soils formed in calcareous, loamy till on the Wisconsin Till Plains. The native vegetation is hardwood forest. Miami soils are fertile and have a moderate available water capacity. Indiana is nationally ranked for agricultural production because of the highly productive Miami soils along with other prime farmland soils in the State.

The Miami series consists of moderately well drained soils formed in as much as 18 inches (46 cm) of loess or silty material and in the underlying loamy till on till plains. They are very deep soils that are moderately deep to dense till. Permeability is moderate or moderately slow in the solum, and slow or very slow in the underlying dense till. Slope ranges from 0 to 60%. Mean annual precipitation is 40 inches (1000 mm), and mean annual temperature is 52 °F (11 °C).

Miami soils are classified in USDA soil taxonomy as fine-loamy, mixed, active, mesic Oxyaquic Hapludalfs.

See also
 Alfisols
 Udic moisture regime
Pedology (soil study)
Soil types
List of U.S. state soils

Further reading

Pershing, Marvin W. "History of Tipton County, Indiana: Her People, Industries and Institutions." Indianapolis: B.F. Bowen (1914). Page 38.

References

Pedology
Soil in the United States
Geology of Indiana
Symbols of Indiana
Types of soil

Miami (soil)


Vitus was born in Sicily in southern Italy. He was born in 290 AD. He died in Luciana in the northwest of Italy. Vitus was one of the fourteen holy helpers.

Legend says that Vitus was the son of a man named Hylas. Hylas didn't like Vitus for being Christian so he arrested him with his tutor and his nurse. Vitus travelled to Lucania which is in Rome, Italy and he got trapped by some people who knew his father. They put Vitus in a pot of boiled oil with a rooster. After a while he died in the pot.

Saint Vitus was the patron saint of actors, comedians, dancers and epileptics. Vitus's feast day is June 15, which was his date of death in 303. People in Germany celebrate the feast of St Vitus by dancing next to his statue on June 15...

Christian saints
303 deaths
Year of birth missing

Saint Vitus


Mount Shasta is a dormant volcano in northern California in the United States.

The volcano is part of the Cascade Range. It has a smaller peak abutting it, Shastina, and seven glaciers. The mountain stands alone in a large expanse of flatter land, rising 9,822 feet above the surrounding terrain. The Sacramento River flows south near the west edge of the mountain. The town of Mount Shasta and Shasta Lake Reservoir, formed by Shasta Dam, are all named for Mount Shasta. This stratovolcano is expected to erupt again someday.

References

Volcanoes of the United States
Mountains of California
Siskiyou County, California

Mount Shasta


Gas is an animated short, directed by Chuck Jones and first released in May 1944. It features Private Snafu learning the value of a gas mask in warfare. The cartoon was produced by Warner Bros. Cartoons. The script writers for the Snafu cartoons were typically uncredited, though animation historians consider that several of them were written or co-written by Dr. Seuss and Munro Leaf.

Plot

The film is set in a military camp, with a sign informing viewers that the camp is situated at a distance of 3642.5 miles (5862 kilometers) from Brooklyn. An alarm alerts the soldiers to wear their gas masks and assemble at a predetermined area of the camp. Every soldier rushes to complete the task, except for Snafu who has trouble locating his gas mask case. He is the last soldier to arrive to the assembly grounds, and has yet to actually wear his mask. When Snafu opens the case, he reaches in and retrieves first a sheer bra, then Bugs Bunny, and last his mask. His lack of organization skills earns him the attention of the Commanding General. He is singled out for additional drills & exercises with his gas mask by his 1st Sergeant.

Following his training, an exhausted Snafu discards his gas mask and leaves it with the trash waiting to be collected. He proceeds to rest under a tree in an idyllic meadow, at a short distance from the camp. While he rests, a passing airplane sprays poison gas. The gas takes the form of an anthropomorphic gas cloud and parachutes its way to the ground. Spotting Snafu as the easiest target around, it begins surrounding him. As Snafu relaxes under the tree, he comments on "the smell of new-mown hay, apple blossoms, flypaper..." whereupon he finally realizes that he is in danger of being gassed.

Snafu barely manages to escape breathing the gas and "frantically chases the trash truck" to retrieve his gas mask. While the gas cloud seems to sweep over both the soldier and the truck, Snafu emerges triumphant. He had managed to wear the mask before breathing the poison. Night finds Snafu sleeping with his gas mask at hand, "in a lover's embrace". In a flirtatious manner, the mask comments "I didn't know you cared" and the short ends.

Analysis

The extensive use of chemical weapons in World War I had left a lasting impression. During World War II, there were fears that chemical warfare would again be used against both military targets and civilians. In practice, all major combatants of the War stockpiled chemical weapons, but these weapons were rarely used and played a minimal role in the conflict.

The short was part of the ongoing efforts of the military to convince soldiers that their gas masks were more than "dead weight". As the war progressed and the expected chemical warfare did not occur, soldiers were increasingly likely to view both the masks and their training in using them as essentially useless.

Sources

References

External links

1944 films
1944 animated films
1944 short films
1940s animated short films
Private Snafu
Short films directed by Chuck Jones
Articles containing video clips
Films scored by Carl Stalling
Films produced by Leon Schlesinger
Bugs Bunny films
American black-and-white films
1944 comedy films
1940s Warner Bros. animated short films

Gas (1944 film)


Simon Boccanegra is an opera by Giuseppe Verdi.  It is divided into a  prologue and  three acts.  The libretto is by Francesco Maria Piave.  The story was based on a play Simón Bocanegra (1843) by Antonio García Gutiérrez.

Simon Boccanegra was first performed at Teatro La Fenice, Venice on 12 March 1857.  It was not very successful, and many years later Verdi made a lot of changes to it.  He was helped by the writer Arrigo Boito who made changes to the plot.  The new version was first performed at La Scala, Milan on 24 March 1881. This is the version that is normally performed today.

Roles

The story of the opera

The story is supposed to take place in the middle of the 14th century in Genoa.  Genoa (in Italian: Genova) is now a town in Italy, but in those days Italy was not yet one country, and Genoa, like Venice, was a small republic, ruled by a Doge (pronounced "Doadz" in English.  It is an Italian word meaning "duke").  Until the time of this story the Doge had always been chosen from one of the rich patricians.  The ordinary, common people (the plebeians), could not be chosen to be the Doge.

At the beginning of the story Fiesco is the Doge of Genoa.  He has a daughter Maria.  Maria has fallen in love with Simon Boccanegra who is a plebeian, so he would not be important enough to be allowed to marry her, even though he has become a hero because he has fought lots of pirates.  Simon and Maria had a child, a young girl.  After she was born she was given to an old woman to look after, but one day the old woman died and the small child wandered off alone.  She was found wandering by the sea shore by Count Grimaldi who took her and looked after her as if she were his own child.

No one knows what has happened to the child.  Count Grimaldi does not know who she is.  He thinks she is an orphan.

Prologue
When the opera begins, Paolo, the leader of the Plebeian party, persuades Pietro to encourage the plebeians to vote for Simon Boccanegra as the new doge of Genoa. Boccanegra arrives and agrees that he would be doge if he were chosen.  Simon thinks this would make Fiesco allow him to marry Maria.  For the past three months Fiesco has locked his daughter in the palace because she had had a child with Simon.

Maria dies (we never see her in the opera).  Fiesco now laments the death of his daughter. Simon begs Fiesco to forgive him.  Fiesco does not tell him Maria has just died.  He promises to forgive him only if Simon lets him have his granddaughter. Simon explains he cannot because the child has disappeared.  He goes into Maria's room and finds she is dead.  The people sing happily because Simon is the new Doge.

Act 1

The story of Act I takes place 25 years later.  Simon is still the Doge.  He has sent many of his enemies into exile and taken away their property.  Count Grimaldi is one of the people who has been exiled.  In the Grimaldi castle, Fiesco is calling himself Andrea Grimaldi so that people do not know who he is.  He is plotting with Simon's enemies to overthrow him.  He does not know that his granddaughter (Simon's daughter) is the young lady called Amelia Grimaldi who is living in the castle.

At the beginning of Act I we see Amelia singing a beautiful song about the morning and the sea and the stars.  She has a lover, Gabriele Adorno.  When he arrives she warns him of the dangers of political plotting.  The news is brought that the Doge is coming. Amelia is worried that the Doge will make her marry Paolo, so she asks Gabriele to ask Andrea (who is actually Fiesco) immediately for permission for them to marry. Fiesco agrees.  He tells Gabriele that she was a poor orphan who had been found (he does not realize that it is his granddaughter).  Gabriele says that he does not care about that, so Fiesco blesses the marriage.

Simon enters. He tells her that Count Grimaldi is forgiven and can return home.  He asks her whether she would like to marry Paolo, but she refuses. She tells him that she is an orphan and she shows him a locket with a picture of her mother.  Simon realizes that Amelia is his long-lost daughter. They are very happy to have found one another. When Paolo enters, Simon tells him he cannot marry her.  Paolo is furious and decides to kidnap Amelia.

In the next scene we see Simon surrounded by the plebeian and patrician members of his Council.  They are discussing whether they should make peace with the republic of Venice.  Suddenly a crowd enters shouting for death to Simon.  They are chasing Gabriele.  Gabriele confesses that he killed Lorenzino for trying to kidnap Amelia.  As Lorenzino lay dying he had said that he had been told by an important person to kidnap her.   Adorno guesses that Simon must have ordered the kidnapping.  He is about to attack him when Amelia rushes in and stops the fight   Simon arrests Gabriele.  He realizes that Paolo must be the real kidnapper, and makes everybody (including Paolo) curse him.  Simon and his daughter are left alone on stage at the end of the act.

Act 2
Paolo is frightened.  He is furious with Simon and decides he must poison him.  Fiesco and Gabriele are brought in.  He tells Fiesco he can be free if he murders Simon.  Fiesco refuses.  Just as Fiesco and Gabriele are about to leave, Paolo asks Gabriele whether he knows Amelia is here in the palace having an affair with Simon.  Gabriele is furious.  When Amelia enters she denies the story.  She tells Gabriele she loves him and tries to persuade him to leave, but Simon is coming and Gabriele hides.

Amelia tells Simon that she would die for Gabriele.  Simon agrees to pardon him. He drinks from a poisoned glass of wine, which Paolo had put on the table, and falls asleep. Gabriele tries to kill him, but Amelia stops him. Simon wakes up.  He tells Gabriele that Amelia is his daughter. Gabriele begs Simon for forgiveness and promises he will fight for him.

Act 3

This takes place in a great hall which looks out on the harbour.  Fiesco has been set free,  but Paolo is condemned to death for leading the uprising against the Doge. Paolo tells Fiesco that he has poisoned Simon. Fiesco goes to Simon, who is now dying (the poison is working slowly).  Simon recognizes his old enemy who he thought was dead.  He is happy to tell him that Amelia is his long-lost granddaughter. Fiesco feels terribly sad and tells Simon about the poison.  Gabriele and Amelia have just got married.  They find her father and grandfather are now friends. Simon asks for Gabriele to be the next Doge when he dies.  Fiesco goes to the window and announces to the crowd that Gabriele Adorno is now the new Doge and that Simon Boccanegra is dead.

References
Giuseppe Verdi – Simon Boccanegra. Dokumente – Materialien – Texte, Praesens Verlag, Vienna 2008.
The New Kobbe's Opera Book, ed. The Earl of Harewood and Antony Peattie,

Compositions by Giuseppe Verdi
1850s operas

Simon Boccanegra


PSR B1620−26 b is an exoplanet located approximately 12,400 light-years from Earth in the constellation of Scorpius. It bears the unofficial nicknames "Methuselah" and "the Genesis planet" (named after the Biblical character Methuselah, who, according to the Bible, lived to be the oldest person) due to its extreme age.  The planet is in a circumbinary orbit around the two stars of PSR B1620−26 (which are a pulsar (PSR B1620−26 A) and a white dwarf (WD B1620-26)) and is the first circumbinary planet ever confirmed. It is also the first planet found in a globular cluster. The planet is one of the oldest known extrasolar planets, believed to be about 12.7 billion years old.

Characteristics

Mass, orbit, and age
PSR B1620−26 b has a mass of 2.627 times that of Jupiter, and orbits at a distance of 23 AU (3.4 billion km), a little larger than the distance between Uranus and the Sun. Each orbit of the planet takes about 100 years.

The triple system is just outside the core of the globular cluster Messier 4. The age of the cluster has been estimated to be about 12.7 billion years, and because all stars in a cluster form at about the same time, and planets form together with their host stars, it is likely that PSR B1620−26 b is also about 12.7 billion years old. This is much older than any other known planet discovered to date, and nearly three times as old as Earth.

Host stars
PSR B1620−26 b orbits a pair of stars. The primary star, PSR B1620−26, is a pulsar, a neutron star spinning at 100 revolutions per second, with a mass of 1.34 , a likely radius of around 20 kilometers (0.00003 ) and a likely temperature less than or equal to 300,000 K. The second is a white dwarf with a mass of 0.34 , a likely radius of around 0.01 , and a likely temperature less than or equal to 25,200 K. These stars orbit each other at a distance of 1 AU about once every six months. The age of the system is 12.7 to 13 billion years old, making this one of the oldest binary stars known. In comparison, the Sun has an age of 4.6 billion years.

The binary system's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 24. It is far too dim to be seen with the naked eye.

Evolutionary history

The origin of this pulsar planet is still uncertain, but it probably did not form where it is found today. Because of the decreased gravitational force when the core of star collapses to a neutron star and ejects most of its mass in a supernova explosion, it is unlikely that a planet could remain in orbit after such an event. It is more likely that the planet formed in orbit around the star that has now evolved into the white dwarf, and that the star and planet were only later captured into orbit around the neutron star.

Stellar encounters are not very common in the disk of the Milky Way, where the Sun is, but in the dense core of globular clusters they occur frequently. At some point during the 10 billion years, the neutron star is thought to have encountered and captured the host star of the planet into a tight orbit, probably losing a previous companion star in the process.
About half a billion years ago, the newly captured star began to expand into a red giant (see stellar evolution).

Typical pulsar periods for young pulsars are of the order of one second, and they increase with time; the very short periods exhibited by so-called millisecond pulsars are due to the transfer of material from a binary companion. The pulse period of PSR B1620−26 is a few milliseconds, providing strong evidence for matter transfer. It is believed that as the pulsar's red giant companion expanded, it filled and then exceeded its Roche lobe, so that its surface layers started being transferred onto the neutron star.

The infalling matter produced complex and spectacular effects. The infalling matter 'spun up' the neutron star, due to the transfer of angular momentum, and for a few hundred million years, the stars formed a low-mass X-ray binary, as the infalling matter was heated to temperatures high enough to glow in X-rays.

Mass transfer came to an end when the surface layers of the mass-losing star were depleted, and the core slowly shrunk to a white dwarf. Now the stars peacefully orbit around each other. The long-term prospects for PSR B1620−26 b are poor, though. The triple system, which is much more massive than a typical isolated star in M4, is slowly drifting down into the core of the cluster, where the density of stars is very high. In a billion years or so, the triple will probably have another close encounter with a nearby star. The most common outcome of such encounters is that the lightest companion is ejected from the multiple star system. If this happens, PSR B1620−26 b will most likely be ejected completely from M4, and will spend the rest of its existence wandering alone in interstellar space as an interstellar planet.

Detection and discovery

Like nearly all extrasolar planets discovered prior to 2008, PSR B1620−26 b was originally detected through the Doppler shifts its orbit induces on radiation from the star it orbits (in this case, changes in the apparent pulsation period of the pulsar). In the early 1990s, a group of astronomers led by Donald Backer, who were studying what they thought was a binary pulsar, determined that a third object was needed to explain the observed Doppler shifts. Within a few years, the gravitational effects of the planet on the orbit of the pulsar and white dwarf had been measured, giving an estimate of the mass of the third object that was too small for it to be a star. The conclusion that the third object was a planet was announced by Stephen Thorsett and his collaborators in 1993.

The study of the planetary orbit allowed the mass of the white dwarf star to be estimated as well, and theories of the formation of the planet suggested that the white dwarf should be young and hot. On July 10, 2003, the detection of the white dwarf and confirmation of its predicted properties were announced by a team led by Steinn Sigurdsson, using observations from the Hubble Space Telescope. It was at a NASA press briefing that the name Methuselah was introduced, capturing press attention around the world.

Name
While the designation PSR B1620−26 b is not used in any scientific papers, the planet is listed in the SIMBAD database as PSR B1620−26 b. Some popular sources use the designation PSR B1620−26 c to refer to the planet, as it was described as the third member of a triple system (composed of the planet and two stars). This designation doesn't appear in the SIMBAD database, and more modern naming conventions use a separated lettering system where lower-case letters to refer to planets and upper-case letters to designate stars (e.g. Gliese 667 Cc is the 'c' planet orbiting Gliese 667C, which is the 'C' star of a triple system), making PSR B1620−26 b the designation for a planet orbiting both stars of the PSR B1620−26 system. Neither usage is employed in the scientific literature with respect to the PSR B1620−26 planet.

Though not officially recognized, the name "Methuselah" is commonly used for the planet in popular articles. This name is usually used as the informal name to show the similarities to the planets of the Solar System, while the "latter name" is used astronomically.  Methuselah is the only planet to have received a biblical name or nickname, although three other extrasolar planets have been unofficial mythological nicknames (just like in the Solar System), those planets being Dimidium, originally dubbed "Bellerophon"; Gliese 581 g, sometimes called "Zarmina," or even more rarely "Zarmina's World" or "Zarmina's Planet"; and HD 209458 b, occasionally referred to as "Osiris."

See also
 51 Pegasi b
 PSR 1257+12
 Pulsar planet

References

External links

Circumbinary planets
Exoplanets detected by timing
Exoplanets discovered in 1993
Exoplanets with proper names
Giant planets
Pulsar planets
Scorpius

PSR B1620−26 b


Anthony Henday (fl. 1750 – 1762) was one of the first white men to explore the interior of the Canadian northwest. His explorations were for the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) who were worried that La Vérendrye and the other western commanders were taking furs from the northwest to their forts.

Henday volunteered to undertake an expedition into this territory. He came from the Isle of Wight, and was a convicted smuggler and joined the HBC in 1750 as a net-maker and labourer. Henday had gained some experience in inland travel after arriving at York Factory. On June 26, 1754, he set out with a group of  Plains Indians. They passed the French Fort Paskoya where he may have met La Corne, the western commander at that time.

In October of 1754 he and his group came to what is now Alberta from York Factory with a mission to meet the Blackfoot and perhaps trade with them. The Blackfoot did not give a clear answer, but Henday decided they meant "no", so he travelled back to York Factory with news that he had explored the area and had met with the Blackfoot. Since the answer had been unsure, there was no more expeditions to Alberta.

This trip, and later ones, took Henday across much of the prairies of what is now Saskatchewan and Alberta and his journal shows that he brought a lot of trade to York Factory. Records show that some of the trade also went to the French at Fort Saint-Louis (Fort de la Corne)  and Fort  Paskoya which were on the route to Hudson Bay. He left the service of the HBC in 1762 largely because his efforts for the company, at least in his estimation, had not been properly recognized.

Anthony Henday Drive, a large ring road in Edmonton is named in his honour.

References

Other websites
 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online

1720s births
1762 deaths
History of Canada
People from the Isle of Wight

Anthony Henday


Toul is a city in the Northeastern part of France. There are about 17,000 people living there. Toul is a fortified town, with a long history. The people who started building the city were the Romans. It was the capital of the Leuci tribe. When the Carolingian Empire was split by the Treaty of Meerssen, in 870, Toul was  given to East Francia. In the early 1800s, the importance of the city diminished, and Nancy took its place.

Communes in Meurthe-et-Moselle
Subprefectures in France

Toul


Basa program nyaéta basa jieunan nu bisa dipaké keur ngadalikeun paripolah hiji mesin, utamana komputer. Basa program, saperti basa alami, dihartikeun ku aturan sintaksis jeung semantik keur ngajelaskeun struktur jeung hartina. Loba basa program nu mibanda sababaraha wanda dina nuliskeun sintaks jeung semantik; sababaraha basa program ngan dihartikeun ku sawanda dina cara maké sacara resmi.

Basa program dipaké keur mantuan komunikasi dina raraga ngokolakeun pangaweruh tur nembongkeun algoritma sacara présisi. Sababaraha pangarang méré watesan nu leuwih heureut yén "basa program" nyaéta basa nu bisa dipaké keur ngagambarkeun sakabeh algoritma nu mungkin; kadangkala watesan "basa komputer" dipaké keur basa jieunan nu leuwih heureut.

Rebuan basa program nu beda-beda geus dijieun, tur meh unggal taun dijieun basa program nu anyar.

Harti
Sifat penting keur nangtukeun pilihan basa program nyaéta:

 Fungsi:  Basa program nyaéta basa nu pake keur nulis program komputer, kaasup tampilan komputer dina sababaraha komputasi atawa algoritma sarta bisa ogé salaku alat kadali luar saperti printer, robot, jeung nu séjénna.
 Target:  Basa program béda jeung basa alami yén dina basa alami ngan dipaké keur antar manusa, sedengkeun dina basa program ngawenangkeun jalma keur nyieun parentah kana mesin. Sababaraha basa program dupake keur alat ngadalikeun nu séjénna.  Contona program PostScript remen dijieun ku basa program séjénna keur ngadalikeun printer atawa tampila.
 Konsep: Basa program mibanda sababaraha kompnen keur ngartikeun tur ngokolakeun struktur data atawa ngadalikeun kaputusan aliran.
 Kakuatan ekspresi:  Teori komputasi misahkeun basa ku itungan nu bisa ditembongkeun (tempo hirarki Chomsky). Sakabéh basa Turing lengkep bisa dipaké kana runtuyan algoritma nu sarua. ANSI/ISO SQL jeung Charity conto basa Turing teu lengkep nu ilahar disebut basa program.

Basa non-komputasi, saperti basa markup siga HTML atawa formal grammar siga BNF, ilaharna teu disebut basa program. Ilaharna basa program ditambahkeun kana basa non-itungan ieu.

Kaperluan
Kaperluan utama basa program nyaéta keur méré parentah kana komputer. Saperti, basa program béda jeung ekspresi jalma nu mana merlukeun présisi nu luhur tur lengkep. Waktu ngagunakan hiji basa alam keur ngobrol jeung jalma séjén, pangarang jeung nu ngobrol bisa bingung tur nyieun saeutik kasalahan, sarta duana masih bisa ngarti. béda jeung komputer nu sarua jeung naon anu diparentahkeun ka manéhna, teu bisa ngarti kana kode nu nyieun program "nu dimaksud" keur nulis. Kombinasi harti basa, program, jeung asupan program kudu sacara husus ngartikeun paripolah luar nu bakal kajadian lamun éta program dijalankeun.

Many languages have been designed from scratch, altered to meet new needs, combined with other languages, and eventually fallen into disuse.  Although there have been attempts to design one "universal" computer language that serves all purposes, all of them have failed to be accepted in this role.  The need for diverse computer languages arises from the diversity of contexts in which languages are used:

 Programs range from tiny scripts written by individual hobbyists to huge systems written by hundreds of programmers.
 Programmers range in expertise from novices who need simplicity above all else, to experts who may be comfortable with considerable complexity.
 Programs must balance speed, size, and simplicity on systems ranging from microcontrollers to supercomputers.
 Programs may be written once and not change for generations, or they may undergo néarly constant modification.
 Finally, programmers may simply differ in their tastes:  they may be accustomed to discussing problems and expressing them in a particular language.

One common trend in the development of programming languages has been to add more ability to solve problems using a higher level of abstraction.  The éarliest programming languages were tied very closely to the underlying hardware of the computer.  As new programming languages have developed, féatures have been added that let programmers express idéas that are more removed from simple translation into underlying hardware instructions.  Because programmers are less tied to the needs of the computer, their programs can do more computing with less effort from the programmer.  This lets them write more programs in the same amount of time.

Natural language processors have been proposed as a way to eliminate the need for a specialized language for programming. However, this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to debate. Edsger Dijkstra took the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent the introduction of méaningless constructs, and dismissed natural language programming as "foolish." Alan Perlis was similarly dismissive of the idéa.

Elements

Syntax

A programming language's surface form is known as its syntax.  Most programming languages are purely textual; they use sequences of text including words, numbers, and punctuation, much like written natural languages.  On the other hand, there are some programming languages which are more graphical in nature, using spatial relationships between symbols to specify a program.

The syntax of a language describes the possible combinations of symbols that form a syntactically correct program.  The méaning given to a combination of symbols is handled by semantics.  Since most languages are textual, this article discusses textual syntax.

Programming language syntax is usually defined using a combination of regular expressions (for lexical structure) and Backus-Naur Form (for grammatical structure).  Below is a simple grammar, based on Lisp:

expression ::= atom   | list
atom       ::= number | symbol
number     ::= [+-]?['0'-'9']+
symbol     ::= ['A'-'Z''a'-'z'].*
list       ::= '(' expression* ')'

This grammar specifies the following:
 an expression is either an atom or a list;
 an atom is either a number or a symbol;
 a number is an unbroken sequence of one or more decimal digits, optionally preceded by a plus or minus sign;
 a symbol is a letter followed by zero or more of any characters (excluding whitespace); and
 a list is a matched pair of parentheses, with zero or more expressions inside it.

The following are examples of well-formed token sequences in this grammar: '12345', '()', '(a b c232 (1))'

Not all syntactically correct programs are semantically correct.  Many syntactically correct programs are nonetheless ill-formed, per the language's rules; and may (depending on the language specification and the soundness of the implementation) result in an error on translation or execution.  In some cases, such programs may exhibit undefined behavior.  Even when a program is well-defined within a language, it may still have a méaning that is not intended by the person who wrote it.

Using natural language as an example, it may not be possible to assign a méaning to a grammatically correct sentence or the sentence may be false:
 "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously." is grammatically well-formed but has no generally accepted méaning.
 "John is a married bachelor." is grammatically well-formed but expresses a méaning that cannot be true.

The following C language fragment is syntactically correct, but performs an operation that is not semantically defined (because p is a null pointer, the operations p->réal and p->im have no méaning):

 complex *p = NULL;
 complex abs_p = sqrt (p->réal * p->réal + p->im * p->im);

The grammar needed to specify a programming language can be classified by its position in the Chomsky hierarchy.  The syntax of most programming languages can be specified using a Type-2 grammar, i.e., they are context-free grammars.

Type system

A type system defines how a programming language classifies values and expressions into types, how it can manipulate those types and how they interact.  This generally includes a description of the data structures that can be constructed in the language.  The design and study of type systems using formal mathematics is known as type theory.

Internally, all data in modérn digital computers are stored simply as zeros or ones (binary).

Typed versus untyped languages
A language is typed if operations defined for one data type cannot be performed on values of another data type. For example, "this text between the quotes" is a string. In most programming languages, dividing a number by a string has no méaning. Most modérn programming languages will therefore reject any program attempting to perform such an operation.  In some languages, the méaningless operation will be detected when the program is compiled ("static" type checking), and rejected by the compiler, while in others, it will be detected when the program is run ("dynamic" type checking), resulting in a runtime exception.

A special case of typed languages are the single-type languages.  These are often scripting or markup languages, such as Rexx or SGML, and have only one data type — most commonly character strings which are used for both symbolic and numeric data.

In contrast, an untyped language, such as most assembly languages, allows any operation to be performed on any data, which are generally considered to be sequences of bits of various lengths.  High-level languages which are untyped include BCPL and some varieties of Forth.

In practice, while few languages are considered typed from the point of view of type theory (verifying or rejecting all operations), most modérn languages offer a degree of typing.  Many production languages provide méans to bypass or subvert the type system.

Static versus dynamic typing
In static typing all expressions have their types determined prior to the program being run (typically at compile-time).  For example, 1 and (2+2) are integer expressions; they cannot be passed to a function that expects a string, or stored in a variable that is defined to hold dates.

Statically-typed languages can be manifestly typed or type-inferred.  In the first case, the programmer must explicitly write types at certain textual positions (for example, at variable declarations).  In the second case, the compiler infers the types of expressions and declarations based on context.  Most mainstréam statically-typed languages, such as C++ and Java, are manifestly typed.  Complete type inference has traditionally been associated with less mainstréam languages, such as Haskell and ML.  However, many manifestly typed languages support partial type inference; for example, Java and C# both infer types in certain limited cases.
Dynamic typing, also called latent typing, determines the type-safety of operations at runtime; in other words, types are associated with runtime values rather than textual expressions.  As with type-inferred languages, dynamically typed languages do not require the programmer to write explicit type annotations on expressions.  Among other things, this may permit a single variable to refer to values of different types at different points in the program execution.  However, type errors cannot be automatically detected until a piece of code is actually executed, making debugging more difficult. Ruby, Lisp, JavaScript,  and Python are dynamically typed.

Weak and strong typing
Weak typing allows a value of one type to be tréated as another, for example tréating a string as a number.  This can occasionally be useful, but it can also allow some kinds of program faults to go undetected at compile time.

Strong typing prevents the above.  Attempting to mix types raises an error.  Strongly-typed languages are often termed type-safe or safe.  Type safety can prevent particular kinds of program faults occurring (because constructs containing them are flagged at compile time).

An alternative definition for "weakly typed" refers to languages, such as Perl, JavaScript, and C++ which permit a large number of implicit type conversions; Perl in particular can be characterized as a dynamically typed programming language in which type checking can take place at runtime. See type system.  This capability is often useful, but occasionally dangerous; as it would permit operations whose objects can change type on demand.

Strong and static are generally considered orthogonal concepts, but usage in the literature differs.  Some use the term strongly typed to méan strongly, statically typed, or, even more confusingly, to méan simply statically typed.  Thus C has been called both strongly typed and wéakly, statically typed..

Execution semantics
Once data has been specified, the machine must be instructed to perform operations on the data.  The execution semantics of a language defines how and when the various constructs of a language should produce a program behavior.

For example, the semantics may define the strategy by which expressions are evaluated to values, or the manner in which control structures conditionally execute statements.

Core library

Most programming languages have an associated core library (sometimes known as the 'Standard library', especially if it is included as part of the published language standard), which is conventionally made available by all implementations of the language. Core libraries typically include definitions for commonly used algorithms, data structures, and mechanisms for input and output.

A language's core library is often tréated as part of the language by its users, although the designers may have tréated it as a separate entity.  Many language specifications define a core that must be made available in all implementations, and in the case of standardized languages this core library may be required.  The line between a language and its core library therefore differs from language to language.  Indeed, some languages are designed so that the méanings of certain syntactic constructs cannot even be described without referring to the core library.  For example, in Java, a string literal is defined as an instance of the java.lang.String class; similarly, in Smalltalk, an anonymous function expression (a "block") constructs an instance of the library's BlockContext class.  Conversely, Scheme contains multiple coherent subsets that suffice to construct the rest of the language as library macros, and so the language designers do not even bother to say which portions of the language must be implemented as language constructs, and which must be implemented as parts of a library.

Practice
A language's designers and users must construct a number of artifacts that govern and enable the practice of programming.  The most important of these artifacts are the language specification and implementation.

Specification

The specification of a programming language is intended to provide a definition that language users and implementors can use to determine the behavior of a program, given its source code.

A programming language specification can take several forms, including the following:

 An explicit definition of the syntax and semantics of the language.  While  syntax is commonly specified using a formal grammar, semantic definitions may be written in natural language (e.g., the C language), or a formal semantics (e.g., the Standard ML  and Scheme specifications).
 A description of the behavior of a translator for the language (e.g., the C++ and Fortran specifications).  The syntax and semantics of the language have to be inferred from this description, which may be written in natural or a formal language.
 A reference or model implementation, sometimes written in the language being specified (e.g., Prolog or ANSI REXX).  The syntax and semantics of the language are explicit in the behavior of the reference implementation.

Implementation

An implementation of a programming language provides a way to execute that program on one or more configurations of hardware and software.  There are, broadly, two approaches to programming language implementation: compilation and interpretation.  It is generally possible to implement a language using either technique.

The output of a compiler may be executed by hardware or a program called an interpreter.  In some implementations that maké use of the interpreter approach there is no distinct boundary between compiling and interpreting.  For instance, some implementations of the BASIC programming language compile and then execute the source a line at a time.

Programs that are executed directly on the hardware usually run several orders of magnitude faster than those that are interpreted in software.

One technique for improving the performance of interpreted programs is just-in-time compilation.  Here the virtual machine monitors which sequences of bytecode are frequently executed and translates them to machine code for direct execution on the hardware.

History

Early developments
The first programming languages predate the modérn computer. The 19th century had "programmable" looms and player piano scrolls which implemented what are today recognized as examples of domain-specific programming languages.  By the beginning of the twentieth century, punch cards encoded data and directed mechanical processing.  In the 1930s and 1940s, the formalisms of Alonzo Church's lambda calculus and Alan Turing's Turing machines provided mathematical abstractions for expressing algorithms; the lambda calculus remains influential in language design.

In the 1940s, the first electrically powered digital computers were créated. The computers of the éarly 1950s, notably the UNIVAC I and the IBM 701 used machine language programs. First generation machine language programming was quickly superseded by a second generation of programming languages known as Assembly languages.  Later in the 1950s, assembly language programming, which had evolved to include the use of macro instructions, was followed by the development of three higher-level programming languages: FORTRAN, LISP, and COBOL. Updated versions of all of these are still in general use, and importantly, éach has strongly influenced the development of later languages.  At the end of the 1950s, the language formalized as Algol 60 was introduced, and most later programming languages are, in many respects, descendants of Algol. The format and use of the éarly programming languages was héavily influenced by the constraints of the interface.

Refinement

The period from the 1960s to the late 1970s brought the development of the major language paradigms now in use, though many aspects were refinements of idéas in the very first Third-generation programming languages:
 APL introduced array programming and influenced functional programming.
 PL/I (NPL) was designed in the éarly 1960s to incorporate the best idéas from FORTRAN and COBOL.
 In the 1960s, Simula was the first language designed to support object-oriented programming; in the mid-1970s, Smalltalk followed with the first "purely" object-oriented language.
 C was developed between 1969 and 1973 as a systems programming language, and remains popular.
 Prolog, designed in 1972, was the first logic programming language.
 In 1978, ML built a polymorphic type system on top of Lisp, pioneering statically typed functional programming languages.
éach of these languages spawned an entire family of descendants, and most modérn languages count at léast one of them in their ancestry.

The 1960s and 1970s also saw considerable debate over the merits of structured programming, and whether programming languages should be designed to support it. Edsger Dijkstra, in a famous 1968 letter published in the Communications of the ACM, argued that GOTO statements should be eliminated from all "higher level" programming languages.

The 1960s and 1970s also saw expansion of techniques that reduced the footprint of a program as well as improved productivity of the programmer and user. The card deck for an éarly 4GL was a lot smaller for the same functionality expressed in a 3GL deck.

Consolidation and growth

The 1980s were yéars of relative consolidation. C++ combined object-oriented and systems programming.  The United States government standardized Ada, a systems programming language intended for use by defense contractors. In Japan and elsewhere, vast sums were spent investigating so-called "fifth generation" languages that incorporated logic programming constructs. The functional languages community moved to standardize ML and Lisp.  Rather than inventing new paradigms, all of these movements elaborated upon the idéas invented in the previous decade.

One important trend in language design during the 1980s was an incréased focus on programming for large-scale systems through the use of modules, or large-scale organizational units of code.  Modula-2, Ada, and ML all developed notable module systems in the 1980s, although other languages, such as PL/I, alréady had extensive support for modular programming. Module systems were often wedded to generic programming constructs.

The rapid growth of the Internet in the mid-1990's créated opportunities for new languages.  Perl, originally a Unix scripting tool first reléased in 1987, became common in dynamic Web sites.  Java came to be used for server-side programming.  These developments were not fundamentally novel, rather they were refinements to existing languages and paradigms, and largely based on the C family of programming languages.

Programming language evolution continues, in both industry and reséarch.  Current directions include security and reliability verification, new kinds of modularity (mixins, delegates, aspects), and database integration.

The 4GLs are examples of languages which are domain-specific, such as SQL, which manipulates and returns sets of data rather than the scalar values which are canonical to most programming languages. Perl, for example, with its 'here document' can hold multiple 4GL programs, as well as multiple JavaScript programs, in part of its own perl code and use variable interpolation in the 'here document' to support multi-language programming.

Measuring language usage
It is difficult to determine which programming languages are most widely used, and what usage méans varies by context.  One language may occupy the gréater number of programmer hours, a different one have more lines of code, and a third utilize the most CPU time.  Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications.  For example, COBOL is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large mainframes; FORTRAN in engineering applications; C in embedded applications and operating systems; and other languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications.

Various methods of méasuring language popularity, éach subject to a different bias over what is méasured, have been proposed:

 counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language
 the number of books sold that téach or describe the language
 estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language—which may underestimate languages not often found in public séarches
 counts of language references found using a web séarch engine.

Taxonomies

There is no overarching classification scheme for programming languages.  A given programming language does not usually have a single ancestor language.  Languages commonly arise by combining the elements of several predecessor languages with new idéas in circulation at the time.  Idéas that originate in one language will diffuse throughout a family of related languages, and then léap suddenly across familial gaps to appéar in an entirely different family.

The task is further complicated by the fact that languages can be classified along multiple axes.  For example, Java is both an object-oriented language (because it encourages object-oriented organization) and a concurrent language (because it contains built-in constructs for running multiple threads in parallel).  Python is an object-oriented scripting language.

In broad strokes, programming languages divide into programming paradigms and a classification by intended domain of use.  Paradigms include procedural programming, object-oriented programming, functional programming, and logic programming; some languages are hybrids of paradigms or multi-paradigmatic.  An assembly language is not so much a paradigm as a direct modél of an underlying machine architecture.  By purpose, programming languages might be considered general purpose, system programming languages, scripting languages, domain-specific languages, or concurrent/distributed languages (or a combination of these).  Some general purpose languages were designed largely with educational goals.

A programming language may also be classified by factors unrelated to programming paradigm. For instance, most programming languages use English language keywords, while a minority do not. Other languages may be classified as being esoteric or not.

See also

 List of programming languages
 Comparison of programming languages
 Literate programming
 Invariant based programming
 Programming language dialect
 Programming language theory
 Computer science and List of basic computer science topics
 Software engineering and List of software engineering topics

References

Further reading
 Daniel P. Friedman, Mitchell Wand, Christopher Thomas Haynes: Essentials of Programming Languages, The MIT Press 2001.
 David Gelernter, Suresh Jagannathan: Programming Linguistics, The MIT Press 1990.
 Shriram Krishnamurthi: Programming Languages: Application and Interpretation, online publication.
 Bruce J. MacLennan: Principles of Programming Languages: Design, Evaluation, and Implementation, Oxford University Press 1999.
 John C. Mitchell: Concepts in Programming Languages, Cambridge University Press 2002.
 Benjamin C. Pierce: Types and Programming Languages, The MIT Press 2002.
 Ravi Sethi: Programming Languages: Concepts and Constructs, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley 1996.
 Michael L. Scott: Programming Language Pragmatics, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers 2005.
 Richard L. Wexelblat (ed.): History of Programming Languages, Academic Press 1981.

Tumbu luar
 99 Bottles of Beer A collection of implementations in many languages.
 Computer Languages History graphical chart
 Dictionary of Programming Languages
 History of Programming Languages (HOPL)
 Open Directory - Computer Programming Languages
 Syntax Patterns for Various Languages
 The Evolution of Programming Languages by Peter Grogono

Basa komputer

Basa program


Demand is the total amount of goods or services which people want to buy, for a set price. The demand for an item indicates how much it is needed or wanted. This is important in economics, because the law of supply and demand will decide the price at which something will be bought and sold.

Demand is the amount of goods that people want to buy at a given price. Prices go up when supply is less, and demand is more. It follows the law of demand where as price increases, demand decreases and vice versa showing an inverse relationship between quantity demanded and price. This is known as the law of demand which assumes that the consumer will want more. Demand forecasting tries to predict how demand will change in the future.

Sometimes the demand does not change much no matter what the price is. One example is when people are addicted to illegal drugs.  These people need to get their drugs, they will pay any price they can afford. This effect is known as elasticity.

Microeconomics

Demand


George Lamb Willard (August 15, 1827 – July 2, 1863) was an officer in the United States Army who served in the Mexican-American War and the American Civil War. He lost his life leading a brigade in the II Corps at the Battle of Gettysburg. Colonel Willard was the namesake of Fort Willard.

Early life and career
George L. Willard was born in New York City on August 15, 1827. In 1847 he enlisted in the 15th U.S. Infantry and served in the Mexican-American War. By the war's end, Willard had reached the rank of sergeant. For his part in the war he was made a Second Lieutenant in the 8th U.S. Infantry. Willard served in the regular service until the outbreak of the Civil War, rising to the rank of captain. At the outbreak of the war Willard was unwilling to give up his regular commission and so he missed any chance to command a regiment of volunteers. He served with his regiment during the Peninsula Campaign.

Civil War

Harpers Ferry
In late 1862 Willard, by then a major in the 19th U. S. Infantry, organized and became colonel of the 125th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment. Willard was allowed to retain his commission in the regular army. He suffered misfortune while commanding his regiment at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, in 1862. His raw recruits did not distinguish themselves in the Battle of Harpers Ferry, in which they fell apart under fire during the fighting on Bolivar Heights. They were too frightened, especially by the enfilade fire coming in from Loudon Heights to rally. When the garrison was surrendered to Stonewall Jackson by Col. Dixon S. Miles, Willard and his men became prisoners of war.

When the 125th was paroled in early 1863, Willard was in charge until it was exchanged for captured Confederate troops. During that period, the New Yorkers were encamped at Camp Douglas in Chicago, Illinois. Then they were assigned to the defenses of Washington, D.C. in the division of Brig. Gen. Silas Casey, part of a brigade of New York veterans of Harpers Ferry led by Brig. Gen. Alexander Hays. The brigade became the third in Casey's division of the XXII Corps in February 1863. Willard testified before the military commission that investigated the surrender of Harpers Ferry and was critical of the conduct of Miles. He also was quoted by another officer as thinking the garrison's commander unfit to be in charge.

Gettysburg

The units of the "Harper's Ferry Brigade" joined the Army of the Potomac on June 28, 1863. They were assigned to II Corps, where they became the 3rd Brigade, 3rd Division under General Hays. The veterans of the corps did not greet the "Harpers Ferry Cowards" kindly until they had proven their courage in combat. The division commander Maj. Gen. William H. French had been assigned to the Middle Department and Hays replaced him. Willard duly succeeded by seniority to command of the brigade; which now consisted of the 39th, 111th, 125th and 126th New York regiments.

The 3rd Brigade marched northward in heat and dust of the summer of 1863, halting at Uniontown, Maryland, on June 30. The grueling march had caused many to fall out of the ranks, joining only when the division encamped. On July 1, when the division crossed into Pennsylvania, the third brigade was at the rear of the column, guarding the wagon train. Reaching Gettysburg, Pennsylvania late on July 1, Willard's command camped along the Taneytown Road behind the Round Tops. Early on July 2, the brigade moved up to Cemetery Ridge, taking a position near the Bryan farm.

Late on July 2, when Maj. Gen. Winfield S. Hancock had been placed in charge of the Army's endangered left flank, he sent back to his II Corps for reinforcements. A courier found Hays and Willard together. Hays ordered Willard to take his brigade to the left and "knock the Hell" out of the Confederates. Hancock appeared and led Willard's brigade to the left himself. Forming a line of battle just north of Weikert's Woods, the brigade had three regiments in line with a fourth in reserve (That regiment participated in repulsing the Confederate brigade of Brig. Gen. Cadmus Wilcox.).

Willard's men stopped the advance of Brig. Gen. William Barksdale, who had captured the Union position at the Peach Orchard and then pressed forward toward Cemetery Ridge. Willard ordered the two regiments on his right forward, pushing the Confederates back. Some of Willard's men are reported to have yelled, as they charged, "Remember Harpers Ferry!". The New Yorkers recovered abandoned Union guns, but came under heavy fire from Confederate artillery after crossing Plum Run. Willard had just ordered his men back to their start line when he was hit in the face by an artillery round. He died on the spot, leaving command of the brigade to Col. Eliakim Sherrill. The brigade report, filed by Lt. Col. James M. Bull of the 126th New York, gives a detailed account of this counterattack.

His body was recovered and transported back to his family.

Memorials
Fort Willard in the defenses of Washington, D. C. was named for the fallen colonel.

A small monument—dedicated in 1888—stands on the Gettysburg battlefield near where Willard fell.

Camp #154 of the Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War in Albany, New York is named for Willard.

Notes

References
 Gottfried, Barry M., Brigades of Gettysburg, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press, 2002.
 Pfanz, Harry W., Gettysburg the Second Day Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987.
 Teetor, Paul R., A matter of hours: treason at Harper's Ferry, Rutherford, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press; London: Associated University Presses, 1982.
 Joseph Stickelmyer, "Friend Jennie" Civil war letters by lt George Bryan 125th NY volunteers inf  2009 Wasteland Press

External links

Union Army colonels
United States Army officers
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
People of New York (state) in the American Civil War
Union military personnel killed in the American Civil War
American Civil War prisoners of war
Military personnel from New York City
1827 births
1863 deaths
Burials at Oakwood Cemetery (Troy, New York)

George L. Willard


Cipriano de Rore (born in Ronse, Flanders, 1515 or 1516; died  Parma, September 1565) was a composer who lived in the Renaissance period.  He was Flemish, but spent all his adult life in Italy.  The name de Rore is a proper Flemish name, not a name that has been changed to look Italian.  He was one of the most important composer of madrigals in the 16th century.

Life
There is very little known about Rore's early life.  He was born in a small town called Ronse (Renaix) in what is now Belgium.  It is possible that he had music lessons in Antwerp.  We think that he was taken to Italy by Margaret of Parma in 1533 as one of her servants.  Margaret, who was an illegitimate daughter of Charles V, was very wealthy and she married into the Medici family.  Rore probably continued to learn about music in Italy.

In his music publications de Rore is called a "disciple" of Adrian Willaert.  We do not know whether this means that he had lessons from Willaert, or just that he learned to compose by studying Willaert's music.  His first book of madrigals was published in 1542, and then two books of motets were published.

In 1546 Rore went to Ferrara, where he was maestro di cappella (choirmaster) He wrote a great deal of music in Ferrara.  He worked for the Duke Ercole II d'Este.  He composed masses, motets, chansons, and lots of madrigals, some of which were about things that happened in the court at Ferrara.  The duke awarded him an important honour.  Rore also wrote music for Albrecht V of Bavaria who lived in Munich.

He left his job in Ferrara and went back to Flanders where he found his home town Ronse had been destroyed in a war.  He went back to Ferrara, but could not get his old job back.  After another visit to Flanders he returned to Italy and got a job in Parma, but the music in that town was not very good.  For a short time he had a very important job of
maestro di cappella at St. Mark's.  Adrian Willaert had just died.  However, Rore only kept this job for a year, returning to Parma in  1564 and dying there the next year.

Works and influence
Rore is best known for his Italian madrigals, but he also wrote a lot of church music, including masses and motets.  He learned from studying the music of Josquin. His madrigals are based on the style of Willaert.  He enjoyed writing thick counterpoint and making the voices imitate one another a lot.  Most of the words he set were serious words, not lighthearted and amusing.  He often used chromaticism.  He developed his musical style a lot during his lifetime.  His music was very important in the development of the Italian madrigal, and it led the way to the madrigals of Monteverdi.

References
 Reese, Gustave. Music in the Renaissance.  New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1954.
[*http://www.grovemusic.com/Groves Online]

1510s births
1565 deaths
Belgian composers
Franco-Flemish composers
People from East Flanders
Renaissance composers

Cipriano de Rore


Torquato Pereira de Araújo Neto (November 9, 1944 – November 10, 1972) was a Brazilian journalist, poet and songwriter. He is perhaps best known as a lyricist for the Tropicália counterculture movement, which later expanded its influence to Música popular brasileira. He worked with Gal Costa, Gilberto Gil, Edu Lobo and Waly Salomão. He committed suicide at the age of 28.

Neto was the son of a public prosecutor and a primary schoolteacher from Teresina, the capital of the northeastern Brazilian state of Piauí. At the age of 16, he moved to Salvador, Bahia, to attend secondary school at the Colégio Nossa Senhora da Vitória, where he was a classmate of Gilberto Gil.  While there, he also worked as an assistant on Glauber Rocha's first feature film, Barravento.

Neto became actively involved in the cultural scene in Salvador, where he met Caetano Veloso, Gal Costa, and Maria Bethânia. In 1962, he moved to Rio de Janeiro to study journalism at university but never graduated. He wrote columns on culture for several publications there. Torquato acted as a cultural agent and polemical defender of the artistic avant-garde, including Tropicalia, Cinema Marginal, and Concretism. He was friends with several major figures of these movements, including the musicians mentioned above, the poets Décio Pignatari and Augusto and Haroldo de Campos, filmmaker Ivan Cardoso, and artist Hélio Oiticica. At this time, Neto came to be seen as a figure in Tropicalism, having written the breviary "Tropicalismo para principiantes" ("Tropicalism for Beginners"), in which he argued for the necessity of creating a genuinely Brazilian "pop": "Accept completely all that the life of the tropics can give, without preconceptions of aesthetic order, without consideration of tackiness or bad taste, solely living the tropical and the new universe it contains, still unknown." Neto was also an important lyricist of iconic songs of the tropicalist movement.

At the end of the 1960s, after the exile of his friends Gil and Caetano under the military dictatorship, he traveled to Europe and the United States with his wife Ana Maria and lived in London for a brief period. On returning to Brazil in the early 1970s, Neto began to isolate himself, feeling alienated by both the military regime and the "ideological patrols" of the left. He went through a series of hospitalizations for alcoholism and broke several friendships. Neto committed suicide the day after his 28th birthday, in 1972.

External links
 Jornal de Poesia (In Portuguese)
 UNC Press
 Gilberto Gil.com

1944 births
1972 suicides
1972 deaths
Música Popular Brasileira
Brazilian journalists
Suicides in Brazil
Suicides by gas
Tropicália
People from Teresina
20th-century journalists

Torquato Neto


A fall is, in everyday language and thought, a movement down that happens due to gravity.  An example is when something rolls off a table and falls down to the floor.

Scientific and universal definition
Falling is a motion towards a place where an object will have a lower total potential energy or lower potential.  Total potential energy being the sum of all potential energies -- those from gravitational fields, electric fields, and magnetic fields.

The idea of falling in natural human language(s) as falling down begs the definition of what down really is. Down may be straight towards your feet, or if you are on a hill, be off at an angle. Often an attempt is made to correct this definition by saying down is towards the center of the Earth. But that definition only works here on Earth. The idea of falling using common everyday language as being in the direction of down does not work in places in the universe other than Earth. In space, somewhere between the Earth and its moon, an object may fall to the earth or fall to the moon. At other places an object may fall towards the Sun or Jupiter. At other places in the universe an object may even fall to a point in space between stars and planets.

Falling using common everyday language is also true only due to gravity. A balloon rubbed on your hair and held close to the ceiling will fall up towards the ceiling. Electrically charged objects do not always fall due to the force of gravity, but due to electric forces. As masses fall in gravitational fields, charges or charged objects will fall to a place where they have less total potential energy. Magnetic objects will fall in a magnetic field to a place where they have less total potential energy.

Falling people
Falling is a very common cause of people's injuries, possibly the most common cause. This is especially the case for elderly people, people with various conditions causing a loss of balance, and for people who do sports and other leisure activities requiring significant motion.

In many cases, elderly people become less steady on their feet and if they fall they are at a greater risk of having serious injuries, such as breaking their hip, because of the more brittle condition of their bones.

During sports and other recreational activities such as bicycling or skateboarding, people are more likely to fall.  Some bicyclists and skateboarders wear protective clothing to protect their body in the event of a fall, such as a helmet, elbow pads, and knee pads.

Force
Safety
Fall

Fall (motion)


Within quality management systems (QMS) and information technology (IT) systems, change control is a process—either formal or informal—used to ensure that changes to a product or system are introduced in a controlled and coordinated manner. It reduces the possibility that unnecessary changes will be introduced to a system without forethought, introducing faults into the system or undoing changes made by other users of software. The goals of a change control procedure usually include minimal disruption to services, reduction in back-out activities, and cost-effective utilization of resources involved in implementing change. According to the Project Management Institute, change control is a "process whereby modifications to documents, deliverables, or baselines associated with the project are identified, documented, approved, or rejected."

Change control is used in various industries, including in IT, software development, the pharmaceutical industry, the medical device industry, and other engineering/manufacturing industries. For the IT and software industries, change control is a major aspect of the broader discipline of change management. Typical examples from the computer and network environments are patches to software products, installation of new operating systems, upgrades to network routing tables, or changes to the electrical power systems supporting such infrastructure.

Certain portions of ITIL cover change control.

The process
There is considerable overlap and confusion between change management, configuration management and change control. The definition below is not yet integrated with definitions of the others.

Change control can be described as a set of six steps:

 Plan / scope
 Assess / analyze
 Review / approval
 Build / test
 Implement
 Close

Plan / scope
Consider the primary and ancillary detail of the proposed change. This should include aspects such as identifying the change, its owner(s), how it will be communicated and executed, how success will be verified, the change's estimate of importance, its added value, its conformity to business and industry standards, and its target date for completion.

Assess / analyze
Impact and risk assessment is the next vital step. When executed, will the proposed plan cause something to go wrong? Will related systems be impacted by the proposed change? Even minor details should be considered during this phase. Afterwards, a risk category should ideally be assigned to the proposed change: high-, moderate-, or low-risk. High-risk change requires many additional steps such as management approval and stakeholder notification, whereas low-risk change may only require project manager approval and minimal documentation. If not addressed in the plan/scope, the desire for a backout plan should be expressed, particularly for high-risk changes that have significant worst-case scenarios.

Review / approval
Whether it's a change controller, change control board, steering committee, or project manager, a review and approval process is typically required. The plan/scope and impact/risk assessments are considered in the context of business goals, requirements, and resources. If, for example, the change request is deemed to address a low severity, low impact issue that requires significant resources to correct, the request may be made low priority or shelved altogether. In cases where a high-impact change is requested but without a strong plan, the review/approval entity may request a full business case may be requested for further analysis.

Build / test
If the change control request is approved to move forward, the delivery team will execute the solution through a small-scale development process in test or development environments. This allows the delivery team an opportunity to design and make incremental changes, with unit and/or regression testing. Little in the way of testing and validation may occur for low-risk changes, though major changes will require significant testing before implementation. They will then seek approval and request a time and date to carry out the implementation phase. In rare cases where the solution can't be tested, special consideration should be made towards the change/implementation window.

Implement
In most cases a special implementation team with the technical expertise to quickly move a change along is used to implement the change. The team should also be implementing the change not only according to the approved plan but also according to organizational standards, industry standards, and quality management standards. The implementation process may also require additional staff responsibilities outside the implementation team, including stakeholders who may be asked to assist with troubleshooting. Following implementation, the team may also carry out a post-implementation review, which would take place at another stakeholder meeting or during project closing procedures.

Close
The closing process can be one of the more difficult and important phases of change control. Three primary tasks at this end phase include determining that the project is actually complete, evaluating "the project plan in the context of project completion," and providing tangible proof of project success. If despite best efforts something went wrong during the change control process, a post-mortem on what happened will need to be run, with the intent of applying lessons learned to future changes.

Regulatory environment
In a good manufacturing practice regulated industry, the topic is frequently encountered by its users.  Various industrial guidances and commentaries are available for people to comprehend this concept.  As a common practice, the activity is usually directed by one or more SOPs. From the information technology perspective for clinical trials, it has been guided by another U.S. Food and Drug Administration document.

See also
 Change request
 Change order
 Engineering change order
 Documentation
 Identifier
 Version control
 Changelog
 Living document
 Specification (technical standard)
 Standardization
 Scope management

Citations

References

Information technology management
Project management
Software project management

Change control


Locality of reference is a phenomenon that can be seen in Computer science. It says that the same value, or the place where it is stored is accessed often. There are two different kinds of locality of reference:
Temporal locality: If a value is referenced, there is a high probability it will be referenced again a short time from now
Spatial locality: A value is stored in a certain location in storage (memory, disk,..). If this location is referenced, it is very probable that locations that are physically close to it will be referenced as well.

Reasons
There are many reasons why locality of reference occurs:
Predictability: Well-written programs only behave in a predictable way.
Structure of the program: Often programs act on several items, one at a time. This item will be accessed more than once as computation or processing is done.
Linear data structures: Programs may have loops that act on arrays or lists. They reference an item by its index in the array or list.

Uses
Programs can be optimised in certain ways, to make them run faster:
Increase the locality of reference by changing the program
Hardware can be built to exploit the locality of reference.
Caching is very successful because of locality of reference.

Computer science

Locality of reference


Michael Cowpland (born April 23, 1943 in Bexhill-on-Sea) is a British-born entrepreneur, businessman, and the founder and one-time president, chairman and CEO of Corel, a Canadian software company.

Career

Mitel
Cowpland worked for Bell Northern Research (later part of Nortel Networks), then MicroSystems International. In 1973, Cowpland and Terry Matthews founded Mitel Corporation, a company that developed and sold electronic PBX systems. Initial success made both founders millionaires. Sales peaked at $250 million, but over-expansion and development problems saw the company bought by British Telecom. Both Cowpland and Matthews left the company in 1984 amid disagreements with the owners.

Corel
Matthews went on to found Newbridge Networks, while Cowpland launched Cowpland Research Laboratory (soon Corel) in Ottawa in 1985. At first, the company sold DTP workstations, but success did not arrive until the launch of the graphics software CorelDRAW in 1989.

In 1996, he offered a challenge to Microsoft with a move into productivity software, acquiring WordPerfect from Novell for $158 million. However this was unsuccessful as Microsoft managed to get many new computers loaded with Microsoft Word along with Windows. The company also made unsuccessful forays into CAD, videoconferencing, Java, Linux and other developments.

He was investigated by the Ontario Securities Commission (OSC) in 1999–2000 regarding allegations that he had used insider information to sell $20 million in Corel shares at $8/share shortly before the company posted disappointing results. The two sides settled the case in 2003, with Cowpland agreeing to pay $575,000.
Subsequent to Cowpland's alleged insider sale at $8, Corel shares hit a peak of $60/share around November 1999, during the height of the Linux boom when Corel's Desktop Linux was seen to be a potential rival to Microsoft Windows.

After an unsuccessful attempt to buy Borland with a view to creating a critical mass for Linux, Cowpland left Corel in August 2000, and moved on to buy control of ZIM corporation, a database and mobile content company which is listed on the NASDAQ bulletin board (ZIMCF).

Personal life

He was married to his first wife Darlene until 1991 when they divorced. They have two daughters, Paula and Christine. In 1992, he married his second wife, Marlen Cowpland. The couple live in a $14-million 1,800-square-metre house in  Rockcliffe Park, Ontario.

References

1943 births
Living people
Businesspeople from Ottawa
English businesspeople
Carleton University alumni
Alumni of Imperial College London
People from Bexhill-on-Sea
English emigrants to Canada
Nortel employees
Canadian technology company founders
Corel
Canadian technology chief executives
Canadian chairpersons of corporations

Michael Cowpland


Sima Qian () was the historian of the Han Dynasty under Emperor Wu. He was born at Xia Yang (present-day Shan Xi Province, Han City) in either 145 or 135 BC. His father, Sima Tan, was also a historian.

Life
When Sima Qian was 10, he could read the articles which were written in Classical Chinese.

He travelled around China and visited a plenty of scenic attractions and heritages when he was 20.

In 108 BC, with the death of Sima Qian's father, he carried on the job of being a historian.

In 104 BC, Sima Qian finished editing Taichu Calendar with the imperial officials, Tang Du and Luo Xiahong.

In 99 BC, Sima Qian got involved in the Li Ling Affair. He was punished and sent to prison. Sima Qian would be sentenced to death if he could not pay a fine or accept the terrible punishment - castration. With the fact that Sima Qian did not have enough money to pay the fine and he hoped to finish writing the Records of the Grand Historian, he accepted the castration. Sima Qian finally spent 19 years to write that book.

Sima Qian died in 86 BC.

2nd-century BC births
1st-century BC deaths
Chinese historians

Sima Qian


Daniel Isaac "Danny" Schechter (June 27, 1942 – March 19, 2015) was an American television producer, independent filmmaker, blogger, and media critic. He wrote and spoke about many issues including apartheid, civil rights, economics, foreign policy, journalistic control and ethics, and medicine. While attending the London School of Economics in the 1960s Schechter became an anti-apartheid activist and made trips to South Africa on behalf of the African National Congress (ANC). Later he would help musician Steven Van Zandt assemble other performers to form Artists United Against Apartheid who released the album Sun City in 1985. Schechter produced and directed six nonfiction films about Nelson Mandela from the time Mandela was a political prisoner to his election and service as President of South Africa.

Schechter's first job in media was with WBCN in Boston, Massachusetts, during the 1970s where he became known as "Danny Schechter, the news dissector", a nickname that stuck throughout his life. He continued to work in media with ABC and the start-up cable television news station CNN until he abandoned corporate media and founded TV and film production company Globalvision with his friend and longtime associate Rory O'Connor. Globalvision produced South Africa Now which was a television show that focused on the anti-apartheid struggle and news and culture from South Africa. He authored over 14 books.

Biography

Early life and education
Schechter was born in New York City, in 1942. His mother, Ruth Lisa Schechter (née Lubin), was a secretary and a published poet; his father, Jerry Schechter, was a garment center pattern maker and a sculptor. Grandson of Russian-Jewish immigrant socialists, Schechter grew up in the Bronx, in the garment union-sponsored Amalgamated housing cooperative development.   He attended DeWitt Clinton High School, and graduated in 1964 from Cornell University, where he wrote for the Cornell Daily Sun and was a member of the Quill and Dagger society.  He later received a master's degree from the London School of Economics and an honorary doctorate from Fitchburg State University.

During his time in London, Schechter was a Steering Committee member of the American anti-Vietnam war group The Stop-it Committee. He met Ruth First and other anti-apartheid activists. He joined the African National Congress (ANC) as a part of the organization's "London Recruits", who were tasked with entering South Africa undetected by authorities and conveying communication between exiled members of the ANC and members still in South Africa. While in South Africa Schechter attended the funeral of Albert Lutuli who was the President of the African National Congress from 1952 to 1967.

Schechter was a civil rights worker and the communications director of the Northern Student Movement, and served as a community organizer in a War on Poverty program.  He also worked as an assistant to the Mayor of Detroit in 1966.

He was a Nieman Fellow in Journalism at Harvard University, where he taught in 1969, and an adjunct professor at the Graduate School of Journalism at Columbia University.

Media career
His media career began at Boston radio station WBCN-FM where he would start his show with the line, "This is Danny Schechter, your news dissector". The nickname was given to him by accident as he was introduced on-air by a colleague as "the news inspector, the news digester, the news dissector". Schechter recalled, 'news dissector' that sounded pretty unique and good, so I basically latched onto it". He would eventually rise to the position of news director for WBCN-FM. Dissecting the news to Schechter meant he reported on the facts of a story, laid the background for the issue and then asserted why media outlets failed to accurately report on the story. Schechter described himself as "a participatory journalist, a down-with-the-movement reporter, a manic media maven." Among his many interviews was one with John Lennon and Yoko Ono in June 1973.

Schechter joined the start-up staff at CNN as a producer and later was a producer for the ABC newsmagazine 20/20, responsible for 50 segments of the program; he won two Emmy Awards and was nominated for two others including for a 1983 investigation of President Reagan's plans to fight and recover from all-out nuclear war co-produced with Bill Lichtenstein.

Schechter assisted musician Steven Van Zandt and record producer Arthur Baker in creating Artists United Against Apartheid, which was a group of musicians who released a protest album in 1985 entitled Sun City.

After working in corporate media Schechter decided to found Globalvision, a New York City-based television and film production company, with Rory O'Connor. There Schechter created and executive-produced the series South Africa Now. According to O'Connor the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) declined to distribute the program because of its anti-apartheid advocacy. However, Globalvision circumnavigated PBS and went directly to individual public television stations where it was carried in over 150 markets. Crew for South Africa Now were banned from South Africa itself, which made production of the show more difficult.

Schechter and O'Connor later co-produced Rights & Wrongs: Human Rights Television, which aired on American public television stations and in over 60 countries from 1992 to 1996. He was the recipient of the Society of Professional Journalists' 2001 Award for Excellence in Documentary Journalism. Schechter's film WMD: Weapons of Mass Deception won the Austin Film Festival's Documentary Film Award in 2004.

From 1999 to 2010, Schechter was also the executive editor and "blogger-in-chief" at the now-defunct MediaChannel.org, for which he wrote a nearly-3000-word daily blog on media and society. Known for his sharp criticism of corporate media, Schechter was just as scathing in his opinions about PBS, who rejected several of his ideas for documentaries including a biography for American Masters on economist John Kenneth Galbraith. In a 2002 column for Current Schechter wrote, "PBS is a land of niches and bailiwicks, a Japanese-style employment system topped with execs who seem to have cushy jobs for life if they play it safe. They are thus very risk-averse and barely accountable to the public in whose name they are paid."

Schechter died of pancreatic cancer on March 19, 2015, in New York City.

Awards and honors
2001 Award for Excellence in Documentary Journalism from the Society of Professional Journalists (for Falun Gong's Challenge to China)
2004 Austin Film Festival Documentary Film Award (for WMD: Weapons of Mass Deception)
2008 James Aronson Award for Blogging
Honorary doctorate from Fitchburg State University
Nieman Fellowship in Journalism at Harvard University
Two Emmy Awards, four nominations

Productions

Film and television
Schechter produced and directed many television specials and documentary films, including:

 Beyond A Long Walk To Freedom (2014)
 America's Surveillance State (2014)
 DeWitt Clinton HS: The School That Can Teach Them All, on the fight for Public Education (2013)
 Who Rules America? (2012)
 Plunder: The Crime Of Our Time (2010)
 Barack Obama: The People's President (2009)
 Boob Tube: Sex, TV and Ugly George (2008)
 Viva Madiba (2008)
 A Work in Progress: Danny Schechter and the Journalism of Change (2007)
 In Debt We Trust: America Before The Bubble Burst (2006)
 WMD: Weapons of Mass Deception (2004)
 Counting on Democracy (2004), about the 2000 Florida election recount, narrated by Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee
 We Are Family (2002), about a benefit recording of the Sister Sledge song following the September 11, 2001 attacks; shown at the Sundance Film Festival
 Nkosi: A Voice of Africa's AIDS Orphans (2001), narrated by Danny Glover
 Falun Gong's Challenge to China (2001)
 A Hero for All: Nelson Mandela's Farewell (1999)
 Globalization & Human Rights (1998)
 Beyond Life: Timothy Leary Lives (1997)
 The World of Elie Wiesel (1997)
 Sowing Seeds/Reaping Peace: The World of Seeds of Peace (1996)
 Prisoners of Hope: Reunion on Robben Island (1995), co-directed by Barbara Kopple
 Countdown to Freedom: Ten Days that Changed South Africa (1994), narrated by James Earl Jones and Alfre Woodard
 Sarajevo Ground Zero (1993)
 The Living Canvas (1992), narrated by Billy Dee Williams
 Beyond JFK: The Question of Conspiracy (1992), co-directed by Marc Levin and Barbara Kopple
 Give Peace a Chance (1991)
 Nelson Mandela: Free at Last (1991), PBS national broadcast
 Mandela in America (1990)
 The Making of Sun City (1987)
 Student Power (1968)

Books
Schechter's books include:

 Surveillance A to Z (Seven Stories Press, 2015, forthcoming).
 When South Africa Called, We Answered: How the Media and International Solidarity Helped Topple Apartheid (Cosimo Books, 2015).
 Madiba A to Z: The Many Faces of Nelson Mandela (Seven Stories Press, 2013).
 Occupy: Dissecting Occupy Wall Street (Cosimo Books, 2012).
 Blogothon: Reflections and Revelations from the News Dissector (Cosimo Books, 2012)
 The Crime Of Our Time: Why Wall Street is Not Too Big To Jail (Disinformation Books, 2010)
 Plunder: Investigating Our Economic Calamity and the Subprime Scandal (Cosimo Books, 2008)
 When News Lies (Select Books, 2006)
 The Death of Media (and the Fight to Save Democracy) (Melville House Publishing, 2005).
 Media Wars: News At A Time of Terror (Rowman & Littlefield, 2003)
 Embedded: Weapons of Mass Deception: How the Media Failed to Cover the Iraq War (Prometheus Books, 2003)
 News Dissector: Passions, Pieces and Polemics (Akashic Books, 2001)
 Falun Gong's Challenge to China: Spiritual Practice or 'Evil Cult'? (Akashic Books, 2000)
 The More You Watch, The Less You Know (Seven Stories Press, 1997)

References

External links

The News Dissector podcast
 Interview with Schechter by JK Fowler for The Mantle, 2011

Remembering the News Dissector, by Bill Lichtenstein, April 24, 2015. Boston Globe
Remembering Danny Schechter, "The News Dissector": Pioneering Journalist, Filmmaker & Activist, March 20, 2015, Democracy Now!
Danny Schechter (1942-2015), March 19, 2015, by Greg Palast
 The African Activist Archive Project website includes a description and documents of the Africa Research Group (ARG) of which Schechter was a founder; some of the ARG documents are from a collection he donated to Michigan State University Libraries. The website also includes a description and material of vision%20%28producer%20of%20South%20Africa%20Now%29 Globalvision (producer of South Africa Now) including documents and video of the television show South Africa Now of which he was the Executive Producer.

1942 births
2015 deaths
Film producers from New York (state)
20th-century American Jews
American male journalists
American media critics
American non-fiction writers
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Jewish American journalists
Television producers from New York City
Cornell University alumni
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
DeWitt Clinton High School alumni
Nieman Fellows
People from the Bronx
Radio personalities from Boston
Journalists from New York City
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Film producers from Massachusetts
21st-century American Jews

Danny Schechter


Purpose and description
This template creates a link to the Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS), a database containing scientific names of biological taxa and a history of their classification.

 Use and example
To use the template, you first need to search ITIS to find the taxon's ID number.
The example wiki text
{{ITIS|ID=506801|taxon=''Camellia sinensis''|year=2006|date=16 February}}
creates

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{{ITIS|ID=506801}}
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{{ITIS|ID=506801|showITIS=no}}
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This may be useful in cases where the ITIS link is given inline, for example:

 The seeds of Camellia sinensis () can be pressed...

Note: The citation style always adds a period after the last term unless neither the date nor the ITIS link are displayed.

 Parameters
ID: The Taxonomic Serial Number (TSN) of the taxon in ITIS.
taxon (optional): The taxon's name. (Should be included, but in some cases, the taxon's name will be implicit from context.)
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 See also
 :wikispecies:Template:ITIS
 :commons:Template:ITIS

Système d'Information Taxonomique Intégré


The amplitude or peak amplitude of a wave is a measure of how big its oscillation is.

Amplitudes are always measured as positive numbers (for example: 3.5, 1, 120) and are never negative (for example: -3.5, -1, -120). That's because distance can only be greater than zero or equal to zero; negative distance does not exist.

The distance from the top of one peak to the bottom of another is called peak-to-peak amplitude. Another way to describe peak-to-peak amplitude is to say that it is the distance between the maximum positive value and the maximum negative value of a wave is the maximum displacement of a wave from an equilibrium position

Related pages

 Waves and their properties:
 Frequency
 Period
 Wavelength
 Amplitude modulation
 Vibration control
 Vibration isolation

Wave physics
Mechanical vibrations

Amplitude


Erythropoietin, or Erythropoetin (EPO) is a hormone produced by the kidneys. Epoetin is a synthetic version.

Erythropoietin acts on the bone marrow so that it makes more red blood cells. It is used to treat some kinds of anemia. Anemia can happen in kidney failure, or from chemotherapy to treat cancer. The man-made hormone is made with cell cultures. The hormone can be used for blood doping in endurance sports although this is illegal in all athletic competitions.

It is also responsible for inhibiting the body process "Gluconeogenesis" (a process in your body which makes glucose from products other than carbohydrates), thus contributing to cure of type2 diabetes, glucose intolerance.

Related pages
List of chemicals in doping cases in sport

Hormones

Erythropoietin