Sylvia Callen Franklin, also known as Sylvia Lorraine Callen, and Sylvia Caldwell, was a young Chicago communist, recruited by Louis Budenz into the Communist Party USA's secret apparatus c. 1937.

Callen was assigned by Dr. Gregory Rabinowitz to go to New York City and infiltrate the Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party (SWP) using the pseudonym "Sylvia Caldwell". She became the secretary of James Cannon, who headed the SWP.  Callen later testified to a federal grand jury about her infiltration of the SWP  and about how she provided information from the SWP offices to Rabinowitz. Rabinowitz was later replaced by Jack Soble. She had been married for a time to Zalmond Franklin, who also served Soviet intelligence.  For a time, she was also known as Sylvia Lorraine Doxsee.

Callen is identified in Venona traffic under the cover name SATYR.  Venona messages reveal Callen giving copies to the KGB of SWP correspondence, intimate information on Leon Trotsky's widow, Natalia Sedova, and financial reports of Trotskyist groups.

When Budenz later defected, he named Callen as a Stalinist infiltrator but her SWP comrades  refused to believe him. In 1954, Callen, then known as Sylvia Doxsee and living in Chicago, was called before a grand jury. Invoking the Fifth Amendment, she refused to answer questions about her membership in the SWP, her relationship with the KGB, Louis Budenz, or anything else. She was called back to another grand jury in 1958. This time, she was more cooperative, confessing that she met regularly with Rabinowitz and Soble to pass on confidential Trotskyist material at an apartment rented by a woman named Lucy Booker. Callen was named as an unindicted co-conspirator when Robert Soblen was charged with espionage in 1960, but she never publicly testified.

Callen's grand jury testimony was first publicly released and her status as a GPU agent confirmed as part of the International Committee of the Fourth International's Security and the Fourth International investigation.

Venona
The Venona project was a United States counterintelligence program initiated during World War II by the United States Army's Signal Intelligence Service (later absorbed by the National Security Agency), which ran from February 1, 1943, until October 1, 1980. It was intended to decrypt messages transmitted by the intelligence agencies of the Soviet Union (e.g. the NKVD, the KGB, and the GRU). Syvia Callen is referenced in the following Venona project decryptions, indicating that she worked for Soviet NKVD:
 899 KGB New York to Moscow, 11 June 1943, p. 1
 899 KGB New York to Moscow, 11 June 1943, p. 2
 926 New York to Moscow, 16 June 1943
 670 KGB New York to Moscow, 11 May 1944, p. 1
 670 KGB New York to Moscow, 11 May 1944, p. 2
 670 KGB New York to Moscow, 11 May 1944, p. 3
 751–752 KGB New York to Moscow, 26 May 1944
 851 KGB New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944, p. 1
 851 KGB New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944, p. 2

References
 Louis Budenz affidavit, 11 November 1950, American Aspects of the Assassination of Leon Trotsky, U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Un-American Activities, 81st Cong., 2d sess., part I, v–ix
 Louis Budenz, Men Without Faces: The Communist Conspiracy in the USA (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1948), 123–126.
 New York FBI memo, serial 1980, FBI Silvermaster file (FBI file 65-56402). On Straight, see chapter 5.
 Sylvia Franklin Dossier (New York: Labor Publication, 1977) contains excerpts from Callen's grand jury testimony.
 Callen's grand jury testimony is in The Gelfand Case: A Legal History of the Exposure of U.S. Government Agents in the Leadership of the Socialist Workers Party, vol. 2 (Detroit: Labor Publication, 1985), 526–564.
 FBI memorandum, Existing Corroboration of Bentley's Overall Testimony, FBI Silvermaster file, serial 4201; Margaret Browder FBI file, 100-287645, serial 153; Booker interview in Sylvia Franklin Dossier.
 John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), pgs. 261, 262–263, 276.

External links
FBI Silvermaster file

Members of the Communist Party USA
Members of the Socialist Workers Party (United States)
American people in the Venona papers
American spies for the Soviet Union
American communists
Possibly living people
Year of birth missing

Sylvia Callen


The Ravi River (),
(, , is a river that crosses northwestern India and eastern Pakistan. It is one of the five rivers which give Punjab its name.

It is also one of the major five rivers/tributaries of Indus.

The Ravi was known as Parushani or Iravati to Indians in Vedic times and Hydraotes to the Ancient Greeks.

It originates in the Himalayas in the Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh following a north-westerly course. It turns to the south-west, near Dalhousie, and then cuts a gorge in the Dhaola Dhar range entering the Punjab plain near Madhopur. It then flows along the Indo-Pak border for some distance before entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab River.

The total length of the river is about 720 km.

The waters of the Ravi river are allocated to India under the Indus Waters Treaty between India and Pakistan and the resulting Indus Basin Project.

It is also called 'The river of Lahore' since that great city is located on its eastern bank. On its western bank is located the famous town of Shahdara with the tomb of Jahangir and the Tomb of Noor Jahan.

Rivers of Pakistan
Tributaries of the Indus River

Ravi River


Superman is an NES video game by Kemco based on the DC Comics character. The Japanese release featured a synthesized version of the 1978 film's score, but in the US version, these songs are replaced by music recycled from Indora no Hikari.

Gameplay
In the game, the player controls Superman on a quest to save the city of Metropolis from the evil Lex Luthor and a gang of criminals that were exiled from the planet Krypton. The game had an overhead map of various locations in the city that the player can travel to, with animated scenes, but then the gameplay would switch to a more traditional side-scrolling adventure game.

Superman has an energy (Super Power) bar and he can collect various icons in the game to use a limited supply of one of his item powers: x-ray vision (make certain enemies visible), superflight, super spin, heat vision (laser attack), and super breath 1 and super breath 2 (freeze enemies). One of the main differences from the comics was that Superman's x-ray vision was used to make invisible enemies visible. The instruction booklet explained that glitch by claiming that "Superman is now unable to see inside buildings, as Lex has lined all the buildings in Metropolis with lead!" Aside from the item powers, Superman can also jump and punch. Players start out the game as Clark Kent but can change into Superman (provided that they have enough Super Power) by entering into one of the phone booths that are scattered throughout the city. However, taking sufficient damage from enemies would cause Superman to become Clark Kent. Whenever Superman entered the Daily Planet building he would always revert to Clark Kent, no matter what his power level was. The game also came with an area map that split up the districts of Metropolis and allowed Superman to use his superflight power to quickly change areas. Occasionally a "Help!" signal would appear on the map, such as a person being mugged, to which Superman could fly to that area immediately and aid the person in need.

At the end of each city level, or "chapter", the player battles a different boss and, upon defeating the boss, is given an animated front page of a Daily Planet newspaper praising their success. The second to the last chapter boss in the game is Lex Luthor. This is followed by three fights in a row against the exiled criminals from Krypton; Ursa, Non and General Zod at the "Statue of Freedom", which looks like the Statue of Liberty.

References

External links

1987 video games
Kemco games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Nintendo Entertainment System-only games
Seika Corporation games
Superman video games
Superhero video games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games set in the United States
Single-player video games

Superman (1987 video game)


Playsets, or play sets, are themed collections of similar toys designed to work together to enact some action or event. The most common toy playsets involve plastic figures, accessories, and possibly buildings or scenery, purchased together in a common box. Some sets during the 1960s and 1970s were offered within metal "suitcase" containers that also functioned as part of the playset.

First pioneered by metal figure manufacturers around the turn of the 20th century, usually as military "play" figures with simple accessories, the concept of the playset was further developed by companies like Marx Toys, Superior Toy, Remco, Deluxe Reading, Multiple Toymakers (MPC) and others throughout the Baby Boomer era. Several manufacturers continue to produce playsets today.

Popular playsets

Several popular playsets by Marx were:

 Battle of the Blue and Gray (1958)
 Battleground
 Ben-Hur
 Desert Fox
 Fort Apache (1951)
 The Alamo
 The Guns of Navarone
 Johnny Tremain

Popular playsets based on television series were:

 The Adventures of Rin Tin Tin
 The Adventures of Robin Hood (TV series)
 Captain Gallant of the Foreign Legion
 Daniel Boone
 Davy Crockett
 The Flintstones
 The Gallant Men
 Tom Corbett
 Gunsmoke
 Jungle Jim later recycled as Daktari
 Johnny Ringo
 The Rifleman
 The Roy Rogers Show Mineral City (1952) (the first "branded" playset)
 The Untouchables
 Zorro

See also
 Toy soldiers
 Reamsa Plastic Toy soldier

References

 Levinthal, David Small Wonder: Worlds in a Box Zzdap Publishing (1997)
 Playsets at Marx Toy Museum

Further reading
 Playset Magazine

Action figures
Toy collecting
1950s toys
1960s toys
1970s toys

Playset


James Charles Dahlman (December 15, 1856 – January 21, 1930), also known as Jim Dahlman, Cowboy Jim and Mayor Jim, was elected to eight terms as mayor of Omaha, Nebraska, serving the city for 20 years over a 23-year-period. A German-American and an agnostic, Dahlman grew up in a ranching area and started working as a Texas cowboy.  He was elected as a county sheriff and small town mayor in western Nebraska before moving to Omaha.

Called the "perpetual Mayor" in Omaha, Dahlman was seen by many as a cover man for the city's vice elements. Earning the reputation as the "wettest mayor in America", Dahlman saw the number of saloons in Omaha double during his first 10 years as mayor.  The term "Dahlmanism" was coined to describe his politics.

Background
James Charles Dahlman was born in Yorktown, DeWitt County, Texas, in 1856. He was the eldest son of Charles and Mary Dahlman, both German Americans. At age 17, he won a Texas state riding competition and became a cowhand shortly afterwards. He was known as an expert with the lariat. In 1878, at the age of 22, Dahlman killed his brother-in-law during an argument and fled to western Nebraska, where he used the name "Jim Murray".  Dahlman later learned a judge ruled the killing was self-defense. After working as a cowpuncher at the N-Bar Newman Ranch near Gordon for several years, Dahlman became a range boss.

In late 1884, Dahlman married Hattie Abbott who was a student at Wellesley College. Her father, Charles Abbott, was a doctor in Maine and Hattie met Dahlman at the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation where he was working at the time.

Early political career
Later Dahlman became a brand inspector for the Wyoming Stock Association at Valentine.  Soon he was elected sheriff of Dawes County. In 1885 he became the mayor of Chadron and was elected twice to that office.

While mayor of Chadron, Dahlman formed a friendship with a successful young lawyer from Lincoln named William Jennings Bryan. For the next several years, the pair maintained contact, with Dahlman raising funds in Chadron for Bryan's 1892 campaign for re-election to Congress. Dahlman served twice as a Nebraska delegate to the Democratic National Convention, in 1892 and 1896.

After declining an offer as the police chief in Omaha in 1896, Dahlman served as Democratic state chairman. He helped Bryan to carry Nebraska in his first run for President of the United States that year.

In 1899 Dahlman was hired by the Union Stock Yards Company of Omaha.

Mayor of Omaha
Dahlman was elected in 1906 to serve as Omaha mayor, the first of three elections in a row which he won. He became a close ally of Tom Dennison, who reportedly supported his first campaign because Dahlman was "tolerant" of Dennison's Sporting District in downtown Omaha.  In 1908 the Nebraska Legislature passed a law that required saloons to be open only during daylight hours.  Mayor Dahlman led the opposition in Omaha, where he openly flaunted his defiance in a variety of establishments throughout the city.
In his first term Dahlman ensured Dennison's political standing within the city. However, running on an anti-Prohibition ticket, Dahlman quickly lost support of Bryan, who deeply supported Prohibition.

Dahlman has been noted for his early concern for the city's citizens, particularly calling for prudence during Thanksgiving Day meals. He was also condemned for his "loose" attitudes towards Omaha's vice elements. Religious leaders throughout the city started referring to "Dahlmanism", which according to a period newspaper called the Omaha Bee, "exposes the most sacred interests of morality and public order. Its concealed friendliness to the elements of vice and crime renders Dahlmanism a menace to public morals."

Governor's race
Dahlman lost a race for Governor of Nebraska against Chester H. Aldrich in 1910. Running on anti-Prohibition and local control for cities, Dahlman lost to Aldrich's promises of progressive reform.  Dahlman also hinted at moving the Nebraska State Capitol from Lincoln to Omaha. However, Germans in Omaha and the National German-American Alliance supported Dahlman by providing him with 70% of their vote that year. In what was called the "Dahlman element", the mayor gained a great deal of support from breweries across the state, but failed to significantly challenge Aldrich.

After serving as a United States Marshal in 1920, he resigned in 1921 to become mayor of Omaha for the fifth time, and was mayor for three more terms afterwards.

Policy-making

Under Dahlman, Omaha claimed its "strong city" status for the first time. Before him, the city had to get permission from the state legislature to give a policeman a raise.  Dahlman led the battle to gain the city's autonomy and was accused of wanting to "secede" Omaha from the state of Nebraska. State legislators scoffed at Omaha's ability to control her own affairs.

When a constitutional amendment was submitted to the voters, however, they approved giving Omaha government more authority.  Other major accomplishments of Dahlman's mayorship included the city's purchase of the Florence Waterworks, the gas company and formation of the Metropolitan Utilities District in 1921.

Dahlman was lambasted for his response to the disastrous Omaha Easter Sunday Tornado of 1913, when he refused federal aid and contributions from people across the country. The city suffered more than 100 related deaths, and millions of dollars in property damage in a swath of destruction for miles through the city.

Civic involvement
Dahlman was a member of several social and philanthropic organizations, including the Omaha Community Chest, the Omaha Chamber of Commerce, the Young Men's Christian Association, the Omaha Library Commission, the Fraternal Aid Union, the Royal Arcanum, the Woodmen of the World, the Ancient Order of United Workmen, the Moose and the Elks. He was president of the Americanization League.

Omaha Race Riot of 1919

After keeping the mayorship for three terms in a row, Dahlman lost the 1918 election to Edward P. Smith, a reformist Democrat who was supported by the powerful Omaha Church Federation and the Douglas County Dry League.  Smith focused his slate on making Omaha a dry city, cleaning up the "vice" elements of the city, and securing a positive future for the city's businesses. Smith and the city commission that shared his reformist objectives were the bane of Tom Dennison.

Later a grand jury found suggested that the "vice element" or Dennison's men, had assaulted women while in blackface, to raise racial tensions in the city.  Postwar social issues, as in other industrial cities, were brewing, as groups competed for space and jobs.  Blacks were recruited by the meatpacking industry as strikebreakers, which increased hostility of white ethnics toward them.  Their numbers increased dramatically in Omaha between 1910 and 1920; it was the only place in the state where many blacks lived.  Ethnic Irish were involved in an earlier riot in Greektown, resulting in attacks, burning of buildings and Greeks' leaving Omaha.

In September 1919 an African American named Willy Brown was accused of rape and taken to the county courthouse for protection.  A mob of white men from South Omaha, who were mostly of white ethnic immigrant descent, marched to the Douglas County Courthouse and ended up lynching Brown, after attacking and burning the courthouse.  While there were reports that the violence was led by a variety of men, one of Dennison's henchman was seen urging on the mob.  Dennison quickly got him out of town after the riot.  Contemporary historians believe that Dennison, acting on behalf of Dahlman, contributed to the poisonous atmosphere in the city, if not to the specific event.

The report of the grand jury trial, initiated two weeks after the riot, stated the riot "was not a casual affair; it was premeditated and planned by those secret and invisible forces that today are fighting you and the men who represent good government."

Because of the riot, Smith never could recover his political career.  He had barely survived being lynched himself.  He hired 100 more police officers for the city, but could recover no political momentum.  He refused to take any action with the city commission.  In 1921 Dahlman and his ticket were re-elected into control of the city.

Death
Dahlman died in office January 21, 1930.

Legacy
After his death, the Dahlman neighborhood, Dahlman School, Dahlman Park and Dahlman Avenue in Omaha were named in his honor.

In 1964, Dahlman was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners, cited as "the Cowboy Mayor of Omaha, cattleman and Sheriff of Dawes County."

His two grandsons went to the U.S. Naval Academy. The USS Collett (DD-730) was named for the eldest grandson, John A. Collett, and the first commanding officer was the other grandson, James Dahlman Collett.

In 1964, he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum.

Popular culture
Jim Dahlman makes an appearance in the historical novel Kings of Broken Things by Theodore Wheeler that is set in Omaha during the era of Tom Dennison's control. The novel depicts the Omaha Race Riot of 1919 and an attempt to fix the municipal election of 1918 when Dahlman lost his re-election bid.

Political timeline
James Dahlman was a lifelong Democrat who served in the following positions:

See also
 History of Omaha
 List of mayors of Omaha

References

External links
 "Recollections of Cowboy Life in Western Nebraska." An address given by James Dahlman at the Annual Meeting of the Nebraska State Historical Society on January 10, 1922.
 Photo of Dahlman
 (1909) "Mayor James C. Dahlman,"  Omaha Police Souvenir Book.
 Photo of Dahlman  from the Omaha Police Souvenir Book.
 1908 photo

Bibliography
 (1927) "Sketches of American mayors," National Municipal Review. 16(2). p 111–117.

People from Yorktown, Texas
Mayors of Omaha, Nebraska
1856 births
1930 deaths
American cattlemen
Nebraska Democrats
American agnostics
American crime bosses
American people of German descent
Crime in Omaha, Nebraska
United States Marshals
People from Chadron, Nebraska
State political party chairs of Nebraska
People from Valentine, Nebraska

James Dahlman


A temple is a building where people go to practice their religion. In a temple people may perform religious rituals, ceremonies, and pray. Thus, a temple is a general term for a house of worship. Christians usually call their religious buildings churches.

Some examples of temples from different religions:
Hinduism (Mandir)
Buddhism (Shaolin)
Temples at Uppsala
Greek temple
Temple in Jerusalem
Mormon temple
Roman temple
Reform Judaism's synagogues.
Baha'i (Mashriqu'l-Adhkar)
Temples in Bangkok

Other websites

Temple


Francis Richard "Dick" Scobee (May 19, 1939 - January 28, 1986) was an American astronaut. He was flying as the commander of Space Shuttle Challenger when the shuttle exploded. In the explosion, Scobee and six other astronauts were killed.

Scobee was selected for NASA's astronaut program in January 1978 and he completed his training in August 1979. In April 1984, Scobee piloted the Challenger mission STS-41-C, which successfully deployed one satellite and repaired another.

Challenger STS-51-L
He was elevated to the role of spacecraft commander for the STS-51-L mission (Challenger mission). The mission was designed to deploy a satellite to study the approaching Halley's Comet and to inaugurate the Teacher in Space Project. It was delayed several times due to bad weather and technical glitches. When they did the mission, an O-ring seal failure destroyed the shuttle 73 seconds into the flight, killing Scobee and the other six members of the crew; the tragedy was viewed live on national television and prompted several days of national mourning.

Personal life
Scobee is survived by his wife Virginia June Kent, and two children, Kathie R. (Scobee) Fulgham and Lieutenant General Richard W. Scobee, USAF.

Other websites
Scobee's bio at NASA

American astronauts
People from Washington (state)
1939 births
1986 deaths
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery

Dick Scobee


Magdalena of Lippe (25 February 1552, Detmold – 26 February 1587, Darmstadt) was a German noblewoman.  She was a Countess of Lippe by birth.  By her marriage to George I, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt she was the first Landgravine of Hesse-Darmstadt.

Life
Magdalena was the daughter of Count Bernhard VIII of Lippe (1527–1563) from his marriage to Catherine (1524–1583), daughter of Count Philip III of Waldeck-Eisenberg.
After her father's death, she moved to the court of Landgrave William IV of Hesse-Kassel, where she was regarded as a natural beauty.  Here, she met George.  She married him on 17 August 1572.  William paid the expenses of the marriage.  The marriage was a happy one.  Magdalena was regarded as so virtuous, pious and benevolent, that she was sometimes compared to Saint Elisabeth.  She even wrote a prayer book for her children.  Magdalena and her husband laid the groundwork for the State and University library of Hesse.

She died in 1587, after 15 years of marriage, at the age of 35.  She died after the birth of her last child.  She was buried in the choir of the city church of Darmstadt.  Her famous epitaph can still be found behind the high altar.  It was dedicated to her by her husband in 1589.

Issue
Magdalena and George had ten children, of whom three sons and three daughters reached adulthood:
 Philip William (1576–1576), Hereditary prince
 Louis V (1577–1626), Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt
 married in 1598 princess Magdalene of Brandenburg (1582–1616)
 Christine (1578–1596)
 married in 1595 Count Frederick Magnus of Erbach-Fürstenau (1575–1618)
 Elisabeth (1579–1655)
 married in 1601 Count John Casimir of Nassau-Weilburg-Gleiberg (1577–1602)
 Marie Hedwig (1580–1582)
 Philip III (1581–1643), Landgrave of Hesse-Butzbach
 married firstly, in 1610, Countess Anna Margarethe of Diepholz (1580–1629)
 married secondly, in 1632, Countess Christine Sophie of East Frisia (1600–1658)
 Anna (1583–1631)
 married in 1601 Count Albert Otto of Solms-Laubach (1576–1610)
 Frederick I (1585–1638), Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg
 married in 1622 Countess Margarethe of Leiningen-Westerburg (1604–1667)
 Magdalene (1586–1586)
 John (1587–1587)

References
 Johann Wilhelm Christian Steiner: Georg I., Landgraf von Hessen-Darmstadt, Stifter des landgräfl. hessen..., p. 211
 Heinrich Künzel: Geschichte von Hessen, insbesondere Geschichte des Großherzogthums Hessen, p. 649

External links

Countesses in Germany
1552 births
1587 deaths
People from Detmold
16th-century German people
Landgravines of Hesse-Darmstadt
House of Hesse
Deaths in childbirth
Daughters of monarchs

Magdalena of Lippe


Sidi Mubarak Bombay (1820–1885) was a waYao explorer and guide, who participated in numerous expeditions by 19th century British explorers to East Africa.

He was a waYao, a subgroup of the Bantu peoples, born in 1820 on the border of Tanzania and Mozambique. As a young boy he was captured by Swahili slavers. His captors made him march to the slave market in Kilwa, where he was sold in exchange for some cloth, never again to see his family.  Next he was sailed on a dhow to the Gujarat area of India. His owner gave him the slave name of 'Mubarak'.  Bombay lived as a slave in India many years and learned Hindi. He was emancipated after his owner died, and returned to Africa.

In Africa, Bombay met John Hanning Speke, who asked him to join his expedition to find the source of the Nile River. Bombay and Speke communicated with each other in Hindi, as it was the only language both of them understood. Bombay was well regarded by the British explorers; in the words of Sir Richard Burton, "The gem of the party, however, is one Sidi Mubarak, who has taken to himself the agnomen of 'Bombay.'" Between 1856 and 1876, Bombay participated in expeditions by Speke and other English explorers, including Richard Francis Burton, Henry Morton Stanley and Verney Lovett Cameron. When Stanley went in search of David Livingstone, Bombay was appointed chief of the caravan.  In 1873 Bombay walked across the continent of Africa from the East coast to the West Coast.

His role in exploration was recognised by the Royal Geographical Society of London, which presented Bombay a silver medal and a pension in 1876 for his assistance to Speke as they strove to find the source of the Nile River. However, he was never invited to England. Bombay died in Africa in 1885 at the age of 65.

References

Further reading
 Burton, Richard Francis. Zanzibar: city, island, and coast, Volume 2, page 179. London: Tinsley Brothers, 18 Catherine St., Strand, 1872.
 Royal Geographic Society. Unlocking the Archives: Sidi Mubarak Bombay

1820 births
1885 deaths
African explorers of Africa

Sidi Mubarak Bombay


Boulton & Watt was an early British engineering and manufacturing firm. They were very significant in the early industrial revolution. The partners were the English manufacturer Matthew Boulton and the Scottish engineer James Watt.

The firm designed and made marine and stationary steam engines. It was founded in the English West Midlands around Birmingham in 1775, and grew to be a major producer of steam engines in the 19th century.

The Boulton and Watt steam engine was the first to use steam at above atmospheric pressure. This was a great step in the development of the steam engine. Watt's invention was a key point in the Industrial Revolution.
Their engines were used for pumping water in canals, mines, and waterworks, and for driving machines.

The Soho Foundry
At first the partnership made the drawing and specifications for the engines, and supervised the work to erect it on the customers property. They produced almost none of the parts themselves. Watt did most of his work at his home in Harper's Hill in Birmingham, while Boulton worked at the Soho Manufactory.

Gradually the partners began to actually make more and more of the parts, and by 1795 they purchased a property about a mile away from the Soho manufactory, on the banks of the Birmingham Canal. There they built a new foundry for making the engines. The Soho Foundry opened in 1796 at a time when Watt's sons, Gregory and James Jr. were heavily involved in the management of the enterprise. In 1800, the year of Watt's retirement, the firm made a total of forty-one engines.

Watt retired in 1800, the same year that his fundamental patent and partnership with Boulton expired. The famous partnership was transferred to the men's sons, Matthew Robinson Boulton and James Watt Jr. Longtime firm engineer William Murdoch was soon made a partner and the firm prospered.

References

Engineering organizations
1775 establishments
Machines
Engineering companies of the United Kingdom

Boulton & Watt


Kinmount is a village with a population of approximately 500, located on the Burnt River in Ontario, Canada. The village is apportioned by three municipalities, they are, City of Kawartha Lakes, Minden Hills and Trent Lakes. The village's hinterland covers large sections of both Haliburton and Peterborough counties for which it is a shopping and cultural centre. Prior to the formation of the City of Kawartha Lakes, Kinmount was the seat of Somerville Township.

Economy

The economy of Kinmount once relied on forestry but is now primarily based on tourism. The village is an important source of supplies for summer cottagers in the area and, consequently, becomes nearly dormant in winter. One of Kinmount's primary businesses and tourist draws is the Highland Cinemas — a first-run movie theatre with a movie poster and equipment museum.

The local post office, at 4078 County Rd 121, offers lock boxes and services one rural delivery route.

History

Kinmount was originally named Burnt River Crossing (a name now used by a nearby village), after the river which flows through the village. In 1859, it was renamed Kinmount by Mrs. Malcolm Bell, after Kinmount, Scotland.

Kinmount is notable for being one of the first sites of Icelandic settlement in Canada. Although the group moved to Manitoba after a year, their story is told and their presence commemorated by an Ontario Historical Plaque. A memorial paying tribute to these early settlers was erected there in September 2000. Over 500 people gathered for the dedication including the Foreign Minister of Iceland and the Deputy Prime Minister of Canada.

The Victoria Railway connected Kinmount with Lindsay and Haliburton. The line was absorbed by Canadian National Railways as the Haliburton subdivision. Passenger service ceased in 1960, freight service ended in 1978 and the line was abandoned in 1981.

Kinmount most recently gained national attention in the summer of 2004, when it became the first Ontario village to actively canvas a family physician to move to the community. The grass-roots campaign included leaflets, posters, and newspaper ads throughout the province.

Attractions
The Kinmount Fair is held annually on the Labour Day weekend.

See also
List of communities in Ontario

References

External links
Official Kinmount website

Communities in Kawartha Lakes

Kinmount


Sir Anthony John Charles Meyer, 3rd Baronet (27 October 1920 – 24 December 2004) was a British soldier, diplomat, and Conservative and later Liberal Democrat politician, best known for standing against Margaret Thatcher for the party leadership in 1989. In spite of his staunch conservative views on economic policy, his passionate support of increased British integration into the European Union led to him becoming increasingly marginalised in Thatcher's Conservative Party.

After being deselected as a Conservative parliamentary candidate for the 1992 general election, Meyer became policy director of the European Movement, and in 1998 he joined the Pro-Euro Conservative Party.  After that disbanded in 2001, he became a member of the Liberal Democrats.

Early life
Meyer was the son of Marjorie Amy Georgina (née Seeley) and Sir Frank Cecil Meyer. His father was vice-chairman of the De Beers diamond company, and from 1924 to 1929 he was Conservative Member of Parliament for Great Yarmouth, Norfolk. His father was from a Jewish family. His grandfather, Sir Carl Meyer, 1st Baronet, was born in Hamburg, Germany; he migrated to Britain in the late 19th century, when he worked for the Rothschilds, and later for De Beers; he eventually became Governor of the National Bank of Egypt and was given a baronetcy for the large donations he made to found a National Theatre in Britain.

Education and war service
Meyer was educated at Sandroyd School in Wiltshire before winning a scholarship to Eton College. He inherited the baronetcy at the age of 15 when his father died in a hunting accident. Like his father, he also attended New College, Oxford, but after one year he joined the Scots Guards in 1941, the same year he married Barbadee Knight, and they had one son and three daughters. During the battle for Caen, in the break-out from the Normandy invasion beaches he was seriously wounded when the tank he was travelling in was hit, and he spent the next nine months on his back in hospital. During this time he read extensively to make up for his lost years at Oxford, but decided not to return to university. Instead, he joined HM Treasury where he mostly worked on winding up the affairs of the Polish government-in-exile.

Diplomatic career
In 1946 Meyer passed the Foreign Service examinations, and from 1951 to 1956 he was appointed to the British Embassy in Paris, where he became First Secretary in 1953. The subsequent appointment to the embassy in Moscow was not so enjoyable – he did not speak the language, and confined to the "diplomatic ghetto" through the Soviet government's ban on foreign contacts with its citizens, he said he did not have a job to do. He was rescued by a Soviet attempt to compromise him – he reported an attempt to lure him into a cab by a woman agent to the ambassador, who put Meyer and his family on the next plane home. Between 1958 and 1962, he worked at the Foreign Office on European political problems, at a time when the Office was changing its policy from being against the "Common Market" to in favour of Britain's joining it.

Political career

Entry into politics
The death of his mother in 1962 provided Meyer with the family's wealth, and he decided to enter politics to support his pro-European views. In 1962, he resigned from the Foreign Office to work unpaid for the Common Market Campaign led by Liberal peer Gladwyn Jebb. He later said that he was initially undecided whether to stand for the Conservatives or the Liberals, but his admiration for the Conservative prime minister Harold Macmillan swung his choice.

In 1963, Meyer was selected to fight the constituency of Eton and Slough, then held by Labour's leftwing internationalist Fenner Brockway. In the 1964 General Election, Meyer won the seat by 11 votes, gaining respect by ignoring his constituency party's advice to campaign on the race issue, which could have swung a number of votes in that constituency at the time. His was one of only four Conservative gains in that election. Recognising that he would only be in the seat temporarily, Meyer made the most of his time in Parliament, advocating Britain's joining the Common Market and strengthening the United Nations. He also established himself on the liberal wing of the party: voting to abolish capital punishment and for sanctions against Rhodesia. In the 1966 General Election he lost his seat to Labour's Joan Lestor by 4,663 votes.

His liberalism made him almost untouchable in the Conservative Party, and his applications to stand in six constituencies (including Windsor, where he lived) were rejected, but eventually fellow Old Etonian Nigel Birch recommended Meyer to replace him in the constituency of West Flintshire, in north-eastern Wales. He returned to parliament at the 1970 general election.

MP for West Flintshire
Meyer became a popular MP in his new constituency, gaining a reputation for putting the interests of his constituency ahead of Conservative government policy, for example by voting against the closure of the Shotton steelworks, supporting the Airbus A300B whose wings some of his constituents built, against its all-British rival the BAC 3-11, while insisting on the importance of an effective pan-European technology. After Labour's return to power in 1974, he opposed continued sanctions against the white minority government in Rhodesia, claiming that it was intended to transfer power "forcibly to a violent minority".

When the Conservative party returned to power under Margaret Thatcher in 1979, Meyer's type of pro-Europeanism was at odds with the Euroscepticism of the bulk of the party. When his Flintshire West constituency's boundaries were expanded and redrawn to form the Clwyd North West constituency in 1983, there was an attempt by local party activists to replace him with the more Thatcherite MEP, Beata Brookes, whom Meyer managed to defeat.

Leadership challenge
On 23 November 1989, at a time of both Thatcher's and the Conservative Party's waning popularity and shortly after Nigel Lawson's resignation as chancellor, 69-year-old Meyer put himself forward as the pro-European stalking horse for the leadership of the Conservative Party. Meyer fully expected that one of the more prominent pro-Europeans such as Ian Gilmour or Michael Heseltine would take over the role; in the event, none of them did so, and Meyer had no illusions that he had any chance of success. He was derided as "Sir Anthony Whats'isname" by the pro-Thatcher Sun newspaper, who reported that he was the only Conservative MP to oppose the use of force to win back the Falkland Islands following the Argentine invasion of 1982 and had backed a number of Labour policies, including votes against Tory-led welfare benefit cuts and immigration issues. He was also slammed by the Daily Express as "Sir Nobody".

In the 1989 leadership election on 5 December, Meyer was defeated by 314 votes to 33, but when spoilt votes and abstentions were added it was discovered that 60 MPs out of 374 had failed to support Thatcher. Meyer said that "people started to think the unthinkable", and Thatcher was ousted in November 1990 to be succeeded by John Major. Michael Heseltine, who would challenge Thatcher the following year, was reported by The Glasgow Herald as being believed to be one of the three MPs who did not vote in the contest. The same newspaper also reported that in the aftermath of the vote Hesseltine's supporters argued the result showed that unless Mrs Thatcher changed "her style of leadership", she would "be on her way out next year"

On 19 January 1990, Meyer was deselected as a candidate for the 1992 general election by the Clwyd North West constituency party for his "treachery", by a 2–1 majority. The deselection campaign was enlivened by a tabloid newspaper's revelation that Meyer had for 26 years had an affair with Simone Washington, a former model and blues singer.

Post-parliamentary career
After his forced career change in 1992 Meyer became policy director for the European Movement, and in 1998 he defected to the Pro-Euro Conservative Party before becoming a member of the Liberal Democrats. In 1999 he stood unsuccessfully, during the European Parliament elections, for the London seat.  After 1999 he became a lecturer on European affairs until his death.

Death
Meyer died of cancer, aged 84, in Kensington and Chelsea, London, in December 2004.

His son, Anthony Ashley Frank Meyer (born 1944), succeeded him in the baronetcy.

In popular culture
Meyer was portrayed by Geoffrey Wilkinson in the 2002 BBC production of Ian Curteis' controversial The Falklands Play.

Arms
 (German: I rest, I rust)

Legacy
The Papers of Sir Anthony Meyer are housed at the British Library. The papers can be accessed through the British Library catalogue.

References

External links

Obituary – Sir Anthony Meyer The Guardian, 8 January 2005
Obituary – Sir Anthony Meyer Times Online, 8 January 2005
Obituary – Sir Anthony Meyer Daily Telegraph, 10 January 2005

1920 births
2004 deaths
Alumni of New College, Oxford
British Army personnel of World War II
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for Welsh constituencies
Deaths from cancer in England
English people of German-Jewish descent
Government and politics of Slough
Liberal Democrats (UK) politicians
3
People educated at Sandroyd School
People from Slough
Politicians of the Pro-Euro Conservative Party
Scots Guards officers
UK MPs 1964–1966
UK MPs 1970–1974
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
People educated at Eton College

Sir Anthony Meyer, 3rd Baronet


In a multicellular organism, an organ is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. In the hierarchy of life, an organ lies between tissue and an organ system. Tissues are formed from same type cells to act together in a function. Tissues of different types combine to form an organ which has a specific function. The intestinal wall for example is formed by epithelial tissue and smooth muscle tissue. Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system, also called a biological system or body system.

An organ's tissues can be broadly categorized as parenchyma, the functional tissue, and stroma, the structural tissue with supportive, connective, or ancillary functions. For example, the gland's tissue that makes the hormones is the parenchyma, whereas the stroma includes the nerves that innervate the parenchyma, the blood vessels that oxygenate and nourish it and carry away its metabolic wastes, and the connective tissues that provide a suitable place for it to be situated and anchored. The main tissues that make up an organ tend to have common embryologic origins, such as arising from the same germ layer. Organs exist in most multicellular organisms. In single-celled organisms such as members of the eukaryotes, the functional analogue of an organ is known as an organelle. In plants, there are three main organs.

The number of organs in any organism depends on the definition used. By one widely adopted definition, 79 organs have been identified in the human body.

Animals

Except for placozoans, multicellular animals including humans have a variety of organ systems. These specific systems are widely studied in human anatomy. The functions of these organ systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the nervous and endocrine system both operate via a shared organ, the hypothalamus. For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the neuroendocrine system. The same is true for the musculoskeletal system because of the relationship between the muscular and skeletal systems.
 Cardiovascular system: pumping and channeling blood to and from the body and lungs with heart, blood and blood vessels.
 Digestive system: digestion and processing food with salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, colon, mesentery, rectum and anus.
 Endocrine system: communication within the body using hormones made by endocrine glands such as the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal body or pineal gland, thyroid, parathyroids and adrenals, i.e., adrenal glands.
 Excretory system: kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra involved in fluid balance, electrolyte balance and excretion of urine.
 Lymphatic system: structures involved in the transfer of lymph between tissues and the blood stream, the lymph and the nodes and vessels that transport it including the immune system: defending against disease-causing agents with leukocytes, tonsils, adenoids, thymus and spleen.
 Integumentary system: skin, hair and nails of mammals. Also scales of fish, reptiles, and birds, and feathers of birds.
 Muscular system: movement with muscles.
 Nervous system: collecting, transferring and processing information with brain, spinal cord and nerves.
 Reproductive system: the sex organs, such as ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vulva, vagina, testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate and penis.
 Respiratory system: the organs used for breathing, the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and diaphragm.
 Skeletal system: structural support and protection with bones, cartilage, ligaments and tendons.

Viscera
In the study of anatomy, viscera (: viscus) refers to the internal organs of the abdominal, thoracic, and pelvic cavities. The abdominal organs may be classified as solid organs, or hollow organs. The solid organs are the liver, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, and adrenal glands. The hollow organs of the abdomen are the stomach, intestines, gallbladder, bladder, and rectum. In the thoracic cavity, the heart is a hollow, muscular organ.  Splanchnology is the study of the viscera. The term "visceral" is contrasted with the term "", meaning "of or relating to the wall of a body part, organ or cavity" The two terms are often used in describing a membrane or piece of connective tissue, referring to the opposing sides.

Origin and evolution

The organ level of organisation in animals can be first detected in flatworms and the more derived phyla, i.e. the bilaterians. The less-advanced taxa (i.e. Placozoa, Porifera, Ctenophora and Cnidaria) do not show consolidation of their tissues into organs.

More complex animals are composed of different organs, which have evolved over time. For example, the liver and heart evolved in the chordates about 550-500 million years ago, while the gut and brain are even more ancient, arising in the ancestor of vertebrates, insects, molluscs, and worms about 700-650 million years ago.

Given the ancient origin of most vertebrate organs, researchers have looked for model systems, where organs have evolved more recently, and ideally have evolved multiple times independently. An outstanding model for this kind of research is the placenta, which has evolved more than 100 times independently in vertebrates, has evolved relatively recently in some lineages, and exists in intermediate forms in extant taxa. Studies on the evolution of the placenta have identified a variety of genetic and physiological processes that contribute to the origin and evolution of organs, these include the re-purposing of existing animal tissues, the acquisition of new functional properties by these tissues, and novel interactions of distinct tissue types.

Plants

The study of plant organs is covered in plant morphology. Organs of plants can be divided into vegetative and reproductive. Vegetative plant organs include roots, stems, and leaves. The reproductive organs are variable. In flowering plants, they are represented by the flower, seed and fruit. In conifers, the organ that bears the reproductive structures is called a cone. In other divisions (phyla) of plants, the reproductive organs are called strobili, in Lycopodiophyta, or simply gametophores in mosses. Common organ system designations in plants include the differentiation of shoot and root. All parts of the plant above ground (in non-epiphytes), including the functionally distinct leaf and flower organs, may be classified together as the shoot organ system.

The vegetative organs are essential for maintaining the life of a plant. While there can be 11 organ systems in animals, there are far fewer in plants, where some perform the vital functions, such as photosynthesis, while the reproductive organs are essential in reproduction. However, if there is asexual vegetative reproduction, the vegetative organs are those that create the new generation of plants (see clonal colony).

Society and culture
Many societies have a system for organ donation, in which a living or deceased donor's organ are transplanted into a person with a failing organ. The transplantation of larger solid organs often requires immunosuppression to prevent organ rejection or graft-versus-host disease.

There is considerable interest throughout the world in creating laboratory-grown or artificial organs.

Organ transplants
Beginning in the 20th century organ transplants began to take place as scientists knew more about the anatomy of organs. These came later in time as procedures were often dangerous and difficult. Both the source and method of obtaining the organ to transplant are major ethical issues to consider, and because organs as resources for transplant are always more limited than demand for them, various notions of justice, including distributive justice, are developed in the ethical analysis. This situation continues as long as transplantation relies upon organ donors rather than technological innovation, testing, and industrial manufacturing.

History

The English word "organ" dates back to the twelfth century and refers to any musical instrument. By the late 14th century, the musical term's meaning had narrowed to refer specifically to the keyboard-based instrument. At the same time, a second meaning arose, in reference to a "body part adapted to a certain function".

Plant organs are made from tissue composed of different types of tissue. The three tissue types are ground, vascular, and dermal. When three or more organs are present, it is called an organ system.

The adjective visceral, also splanchnic, is used for anything pertaining to the internal organs. Historically, viscera of animals were examined by Roman pagan priests like the haruspices or the augurs in order to divine the future by their shape, dimensions or other factors. This practice remains an important ritual in some remote, tribal societies.

The term "visceral" is contrasted with the term "", meaning "of or relating to the wall of a body part, organ or cavity" The two terms are often used in describing a membrane or piece of connective tissue, referring to the opposing sides.

Antiquity
Aristotle used the word frequently in his philosophy, both to describe the organs of plants or animals (e.g. the roots of a tree, the heart or liver of an animal), and to describe more abstract "parts" of an interconnected whole (e.g. his logical works, taken as a whole, are referred to as the Organon).

Some alchemists (e.g. Paracelsus) adopted the Hermetic Qabalah assignment between the seven vital organs and the seven classical planets as follows:

Chinese traditional medicine recognizes eleven organs, associated with the five Chinese traditional elements and with yin and yang, as follows:

The Chinese associated the five elements with the five planets (Jupiter, Mars, Venus, Saturn, and Mercury) similar to the way the classical planets were associated with different metals. The yin and yang distinction approximates the modern notion of solid and hollow organs.

See also

 List of organs of the human body
 Organoid
 Organ-on-a-chip

References

External links

Levels of organization (Biology)

Organ (biology)


A wrench (or spanner) is a tool used to provide grip and turn nuts and bolts, and similarly shaped objects.

In British English, spanner is the standard term. The most common shapes are called open-ended spanner and ring spanner. The term wrench is generally used for tools that turn non-fastening devices (e.g. tap wrench and pipe wrench), or may be used for a monkey wrench – an adjustable spanner.

What a wrench or spanner does is to grip. Pulling or pushing the handle to rotate gives mechanical advantage. It applies torque to turn objects – usually rotary fasteners, such as nuts and bolts – or keep them from turning.

Adjustable wrenches
An adjustable spanner, or adjustable wrench, or crescent wrench in American English, is a tool. It may move its jaw to rotate nuts or bolts of different sizes. It was invented by Edwin Beard Budding (1795–1846), who also invented the lawnmower.

tools

Wrench


The Hawthorne effect is a form of reactivity. When the group which is under study knows about the study and their behavior changes after knowing that they are being studied, this change of behavior is the Hawthorne effect. For example: a group of 10 people are being studied for their health after exercising. Without knowing that they are being studied, they do or not do exercise, but after knowing that they are being studied they regularly do exercise.

Sociology
Cognition

Hawthorne effect


The two-body problem is a problem from classical mechanics: there are two bodies which influence each other.  Very often they attract or repel each other. In many cases they rotate. The problem uses bodies which are circles, or spheres. Solving the problem is possible for many situations, but it usually involves higher level mathematics.

Simplification: One body has a mass that is much smaller
When one of the two bodies has a mass that is much smaller, the influence of this smaller body on the larger one is very small, and can be disregarded. In such a case, the problem can be reformulated as a one-centre problem, where there is a stationary big body in the centre, and a small body orbiting around the big one. This setting is very comon. Johannes Kepler was the first person to formulate and solve it. For this reason, it is also known as Kepler problem.

General solution for the two-body problem
Isaac Newton was the first person to solve to the general two-body problem.

Three or more bodies
Mechanics

Looking at the generalizations, there are two other problems which are related:
 The three-body problem (three bodies influence each other): This problem can only be solved exactly for few very special cases. It needs to be approximated for the other ones.
 The n-body problem: n bodies inflience each other: No solutions exist for the general case.

Two-body problem


If someone is found guilty of a crime, their punishment may be to pay a fine, a certain amount of money. In many countries, fines can be ordered by police, court judges and some government officers.

When agreeing to a contract with a business, a customer may agree to certain rules. If the customer breaks the rules, then they agree to pay a fine for doing so. For example, when somebody hires a car and agrees to return it by Friday, they agree that if they do not return the car by Friday, they must pay a $50 fine to the business.

Punishments
Money

Fine


Fast Fiction was a market stall, magazine, mail order distributor and news sheet that played a key role in the history of British small press comics. It existed in its various forms from 1981 through to 1990 under the stewardship of Paul Gravett, Phil Elliott and Ed Pinsent.

The name was taken from a Classics Illustrated knock-off spotted in the Overstreet Comic Book Price Guide.

History
Paul Gravett started the Fast Fiction stall at the bimonthly Westminster Comics Mart in London, England, in 1981, selling imported European comics, or bande dessinée. Having discovered that interesting new comics were being published in short-run photocopy form he contacted the creators and offered to sell their comics on his stall and through mail order. Initially, this was done for free with a small percentage cut being introduced later. The Fast Fiction stall became the de facto social centre for small press publishers along with the adjoining pub, The Westminster Arms.

Cartoonist Phil Elliott and Ian Wieczorek took over Fast Fiction in late 1981 when Gravett started working for Pssst!, magazine leading to him launching Escape Magazine. The bimonthly stall and mail-order distributor continued along with a regular information sheet listing titles available to order, and a new anthology featuring cartoonists they sold. This was also called Fast Fiction, debuting in 1982 with a print run of 100 copies, and lasting until 1991, with issues #29 and #30 reviewed in Zum! #1.  Ed Pinsent, another cartoonist who had been involved in the cassette culture music trading scene, subsequently took over from Elliott and continued to run things until 1990.

Following the closure of Fast Fiction their mailing list was passed on to Luke Walsh (later known as Luke Temple Walsh) and Mike Kidson who used it to launch the small press comics review zine Zum!.

See also

British small press comics
Escape Magazine

References

Campbell, Eddie (2001) Alec: How To Be An Artist. Eddie Campbell Comics. .
Gravett, Paul (2003) "The Great Escape" The Comics Journal Special Edition 3 46-61
Huxley, David (2001) Nasty Tales: Sex, Drugs, Rock'n'Roll and Violence in the British Underground Headpress

British comics
Defunct British comics
British small press comics
Distribution companies of the United Kingdom

Fast Fiction


The United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees is an international agreement that defines who is a refugee. It lists the rights of people who are granted asylum (allowed to live in another country because it is not safe to live in their home country).  It also lists the responsibilities of countries that give asylum to refugees.

The Convention also says which people are not seen as refugees, like war criminals.

History

The Convention was approved at a special United Nations conference on 28 July 1951. At first, it only talked about protecting European refugees after World War II. There were limits on how long the Convention would last, and who it protected.

But in 1967, a "protocol" (change) to the Convention took away these limits. This protocol made the Convention apply to all refugees.

Because the convention was approved in Geneva, it is often called "the Geneva Convention." But it is not one of the more well-known Geneva Conventions that talk about what kind of behavior is allowed during wars.

Denmark was the first state to ratify (agree to) the treaty, on 4 December 1952. Today, 147 countries have agreed to the Convention, the Protocol, or both. (See the map on this page.)

Chapter I. Definition of a Refugee

Chapter 1 is made up of Articles from 1 to 11. Article 1 of the Convention (as updated) by the 1967 Protocol, gives the definition of a refugee:
"A person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it.."

This means a refugee is someone who is had to leave their home country because, if they stayed, they would be persecuted (treated badly) because of:
 Their race;
 Their religion;
 Their nationality (what country they were born in);
 Being in a certain social group; or
 Having political beliefs that their government did not like

Chapter II. Juridical Status
Chapter II is made up of Articles 12 to 16. These talk about:
 People's right to property (things they own)
 People's right to freedom of association (the freedom to be part of any social group or political party they want to be)
 Refugees' rights to be able to use the courts

Chapter III. Gainful Employment
Chapter III talks about people's rights to work:
 Article 17 says everyone has the right to "wage-earning employment" (the right to work for pay)
 Article 18 says people also have the right to "self-employment"
 Article 19 says refugees have the right to "liberal professions"

Chapter IV. Welfare
Chapter IV talks about refugees' rights to:
 Rationing (being given food) (Article 20)
 A place to live (Article 21)
 Public relief (Article 23)
 Good working conditions and social security (Article 24)

Chapter V. Administrative Measure
Chapter V is made of Articles 25 to 34. These articles talk about the refugees' legal rights:
 Article 31 says that a refugee who has entered a country illegally should not be punished, if the refugee did this to escape from a threat to his life or freedom
 Article 32 says that a country must not make any refugee leave the country just because of national security or public order. The country would have to have a specific reason to make that refugee leave the country.
 Article 33 talks about "Prohibition of expulsion or return" (called "refoulement" in French). That means no country can make a refugee leave or send them back to their home country, if in their home country their life or freedom would be in danger.
 Article 34 says that when a country takes refugees in, the country has to do everything it can to help the refugees assimilate and become naturalised (change their nationality to their new country).

References

Related pages
International human rights law
Refugee
United Nations
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

Other websites

 1951 to Today (UNHCR)
 Full text of the Convention (UNHCHR)
 States Parties to the Convention and Protocol (UNHCR)

1950s treaties
Human rights
History of the United Nations
Migration laws
20th century in Geneva
1951
1967
1960s treaties


In fluid of meat or rice Boiling water poured ei salt washed and cleaned and left to boil on slow fire about 30 minutes. At the end of the soup is added bit of grated lemon with a grater Rind, give a wave, fire removed after 5–6 minutes and regulated by the yellow of eggs. For this, in a porcelain bowl Throw egg yolk, whipped and beat the lemon juice added, or limontoz dissolved in water and juice a little at the shoulder. At the end regulated by thin black pepper and chopped Parsley, nor desired.

Për 4-5 persona duhen:
lëng mishi 1.5 litra, oriz 4 lugë gjelle, gjalpë 50 g ose 1 lugë gjelle, e verdhë veze 1, limon 1/2 kokrre, majdanoz, kripë, piper i zi.

Gatime

Supë orizi me vezë dhe limon


Ant-Man (Scott Lang) is a  fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by David Michelinie, Bob Layton and John Byrne, Scott Lang first appeared in The Avengers #181 (March 1979) and in Marvel Premiere #47 (April 1979) as the second superhero character to use the Ant-Man name in the Marvel Universe. He is a reformed thief and an electronics expert. He was a member of the Avengers, the Fantastic Four and the Guardians of the Galaxy, the main character in the comic-book series FF and, in 2015, he became the title character in the series Ant-Man.

Scott Lang is an ex-convict and electronics expert hired by Stark International, which enables him to steal the Ant-Man suit from Hank Pym, who had long since given up the name, to help his sick daughter. When Pym finds out, he gives the suit to Lang, allowing him to become the second Ant-Man. As Ant-Man, he serves as an Avenger for years, until he is killed during the Avengers Disassembled storyline. Years later, he is resurrected in the Avengers: The Children's Crusade mini-series. Following his resurrection, Lang heads the Future Foundation and founds his own company, the Ant-Man Security Solutions.

Paul Rudd plays Scott Lang in the Marvel Cinematic Universe films Ant-Man (2015), Captain America: Civil War (2016), Ant-Man and the Wasp (2018), Avengers: Endgame (2019), and Ant-Man and the Wasp: Quantumania (2023), the web series WHIH Newsfront (2015), and the animated series What If...? (2021).

Publication history
Created by David Michelinie, Bob Layton and John Byrne, Scott Lang first appeared in The Avengers #181 (cover-dated March 1979) and as the second Ant-Man in Marvel Premiere #47 (April 1979). Michelinie had long been an enthusiast of shrinking heroes, and saw Hank Pym's return to the Yellowjacket guise as an opportunity to take over the discarded Ant-Man identity. He explained how he came up with the character:

Though Ant-Man's two-issue tryout in Marvel Premiere failed to garner the character his own series, the dynamic of a single father and reformed criminal in the superhero role struck a chord with readers and led to Ant-Man enjoying modest popularity and frequent appearances in Marvel Comics thereafter.

Ant-Man appeared prominently in the 2012's FF series by Matt Fraction and Mike Allred.

An ongoing series focusing on Lang, titled simply Ant-Man written by Nick Spencer and drawn by Ramon Rosanas, began in January 2015. After Marvel's Secret Wars event, the series continued with the title Astonishing Ant-Man.

Fictional character biography

Early life
Scott Lang was born in Coral Gables, Florida. A movie fanatic, he turned to burglary when his occupation as an electrical engineer failed to  provide him with enough excitement in life. (This was later retconned with the statement that he did so because he could not support his family.) Apprehended, Lang served his prison sentence and was paroled after four years for good behavior. In prison, he furthered his study of electronics and was soon hired by Stark International to work in its design department. Under Tony Stark's direction, he helped install a new security system in Avengers Mansion.

The second Ant-Man
When his daughter Cassie became seriously ill, Scott Lang sought out Dr. Erica Sondheim, the only person capable of helping her. However, at the very moment he attempted to contact her, Sondheim was forcibly taken away to Cross Technological Enterprises, and in order to get her out, he decided to return to burglary as a final resort. He broke into Hank Pym's home and stole the Ant-Man suit and shrinking gas canisters. Garbed as Ant-Man, Lang broke into Cross Enterprises and discovered that Sondheim was being held prisoner by Darren Cross. He rescued the doctor from Cross' clutches and was relieved when Sondheim was able to save his beloved Cassie's life. Upon being confronted by Pym (as Yellowjacket), Lang intended to return the Ant-Man suit to Pym and turn himself in for its theft, but Pym, aware of the use to which Lang had put the stolen goods, offered to let him keep them, provided he only use them to uphold the law.

Hero
Shortly after, Scott Lang donned the Ant-Man costume on various occasions, primarily to assist Iron Man and the Avengers. Scott came to the rescue when Iron Man was trapped in his armor in the aftermath of a system overload. He also helped Yellowjacket (Hank Pym's alias at the time) attempt to rescue the Wasp captured by Dr. Parnell Solomon, and alongside the Avengers he first battled Taskmaster. He then battled Odd John's mutated insects, and encountered Biotron of the Micronauts. Alongside Spider-Man, he again battled Taskmaster, exploiting Taskmaster's belief that he was Pym by using his growth capsules on one of his ants as a surprise tactic. As Lang, he attempted to stop the Raiders at a Dallas electronics engineers convention. He then battled the malfunctioning GARD computer security system at Stark International. As Lang, he aided Iron Man and Jim Rhodes against Mauler. He then met the Fantastic Four, and on their behalf first journeyed to a "micro-world", and joined the Thing in battle against its denizens.

Scott was instrumental in helping Iron Man discover who possessed copies of his technology during the "Armor Wars" storyline.

He also aided the Avengers in infiltrating Taskmaster's henchmen-training facility, battling the Taskmaster alongside Hawkeye, and visited Henry Pym while he was in prison. He encountered Rick Jones and Alpha Flight, and then battled Dire Wraiths alongside Rom and Starshine. Scott was serving in an Avengers back-up team created when Baron Helmut Zemo's Masters of Evil took control of the Mansion and captured some of the current team; he even helped the Wasp defeat the Absorbing Man and Titania when they attacked a hospital in an attempt to kill a comatose Hercules. He accidentally shrank Spider-Man and battled the Scarlet Beetle. He also battled Dragonfly.

Lang was briefly hired by the Fantastic Four to serve as their technical consultant when Reed Richards was missing and presumed dead. It was during this period that Lang learned that Cassie had long since found out about his double life as a superhero. Lang later returned to form a temporary Fantastic Four with the Human Torch, She-Hulk and Namorita when the other three were temporarily trapped in the Negative Zone.

Lang played an important role in helping Mister Fantastic cure the Hulk, who was suffering from Lou Gehrig's disease; using a cure devised by Leader, Lang shrank down to microscopic size, entered Hulk's genes, and replaced the damaged genes causing the disease with healthy genes taken from the corpse of Bruce Banner's father, the energy surge released when Hulk returned to human form integrating the new genes into Hulk's system and curing of the disease.

After his ex-wife Peggy Rae gained custody of their daughter, Lang accepted an offer to join the Avengers officially. His personality clashed immediately with fellow Avenger Jack of Hearts. However, in The Avengers vol. 3 #76, Jack helped save Cassie from a child-murderer, shortly before committing suicide by traveling into space with the murderer and exploding rather than return to the containment cells required to control his power.

He also appeared in the series Alias by Brian Michael Bendis, where he dated the leading character Jessica Jones, a former costumed superhero named Jewel who left that avocation to become a private investigator.

He assists her in a matter with Mattie Franklin, one of the many female heroes to take the Spider-Woman name. Assisting the duo is S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Clay Quartermain. Purple Man uses his powers to make it seem as if Scott had been consumed by ants.

"Death"
When Jack of Hearts reappears on the grounds of Avengers Mansion in a zombified state, Scott Lang rushes to Jack, only for Jack to blow himself up, destroying much of the mansion and seemingly killing Scott. This Jack may have been some type of "apparition" created by an insane Scarlet Witch rather than the actual Jack of Hearts, starting the crisis known as Avengers Disassembled.

His daughter Cassie Lang subsequently takes the name Stature as a member of the Young Avengers, having apparently taken enough Pym particles over the years to enable Cassie to automatically grow and shrink in size whenever she wants.

His Ant-Man helmet falls into Amadeus Cho's possession for a time with Cassie's blessing, choosing to focus on the insect mind-controlling abilities.

Return
During the events of the limited series Avengers: The Children's Crusade, Iron Lad takes the Young Avengers and an amnesiac Wanda Maximoff into the past, back to the day that the events of Avengers Disassembled began. Here, despite Iron Lad's assurance that they could not interact, Scott Lang is hugged by his daughter, and to take him away from the zombified Jack of Hearts who is revealed to be the real Jack of Hearts under the control of an insane Scarlet Witch. When Jack explodes, the Scarlet Witch regains her memories and returns them to the present, including Scott (thus his death is retconned as having never actually happened, as he was merely taken from his time and brought forward). Scott is proud that his daughter followed in his footsteps. However, a subsequent battle ensues (regarding the fate of the Scarlet Witch) involving the Avengers, Young Avengers, X-Men, Magneto, X-Factor and Doctor Doom. In the course of the fight, Scott is seemingly killed by Doom, although he actually survives relatively unscathed; enraged, Cassie attacks but Doom kills her, much to Scott's grief.

Afterwards, Scott joins the new Defenders team composed of Doctor Strange, Silver Surfer, Namor, Red She-Hulk, Iron Fist and Black Cat. Eventually, he became the second Future Foundation's leader replacing Reed Richards when the Fantastic Four went on a time travel trip. Still suffering from his daughter's death, he decided to aim all the Foundation's resources towards making Doctor Doom pay for his crime; in the meantime he engaged in a romantic relationship with Darla Deering, aka Ms. Thing.  It is to Darla that Scott confessed that he killed a fellow in-mate while in prison.

After a heated battle, Scott managed to exact his revenge on Doctor Doom by gradually overwhelming and defeating him, and by having him believe he had killed Valeria Richards. He also determined the true meaning of Pym Particles, and how they operate on three distinct axes determining size, strength and durability.

During the "AXIS" storyline, a now-heroic and repentant Doctor Doom used Scarlet Witch's powers to resurrect Cassandra Lang, seeking to atone for at least one of his crimes; she turned out alive and well on Scott's doorstep.

Following this, Lang moved to Miami to start a new life as well as to spend more time with his daughter. Scott later established Ant-Man Security Solutions. When he was attacked by Grizzly, mistaking him for Eric O'Grady unaware of the latter's death, Scott had to clear up the misunderstanding. Afterwards, Scott offered Grizzly a job in the company. When Cassie was kidnapped by Crossfire on behalf of Augustine Cross to use Cassie's Pym-particle irradiated heart could revive the very first villain Scott had fought, Scott was forced to turn to Grizzly and his fellow supervillain Machinesmith to infiltrate Cross' plant to save his daughter. With Machinesmith disabling all the security Scott was able to get into Cross Technologies and fight his way to Darren Cross, whom Dr. Sondheim was blackmailed into reviving using Cassie's heart. Darren engaged in combat against Ant-Man while the hero tried to buy time for Sondheim to transplant another heart into Cassie. After Cross was forced to flee when the Pym Particles now in his body caused him to shrink down, Scott shrank down to microscopic size, and was guided by Sondheim to attack Cassie's white cells and allow her body accept the new heart's tissue. Even though the procedure was difficult, Scott was finally able to help Cassie survive the experience. When Peggy and Blake arrived, Sondheim told her that Cassie suffered an infraction and Scott took them to her. Although he saved his daughter, Scott decided to distance himself from her so that she could have a normal life.

Some months ago, Ant-Man helped Giant-Man into rescuing a computer technician named Raz Malhotra from Egghead. Months later after the incident where Hank Pym and Ultron were fused together with Pym seemingly perishing as a result of the fusion, Scott received one of Pym's labs. Recalling his encounter with Raz, Scott sent Raz a present in the form of the Giant-Man suit.

During the "Last Days" part of the "Secret Wars" storyline, Ant-Man recovers an unnamed Asgardian artifact from Slug which he won from Mary Morgan in a game of contract bridge. Ant-Man delivers the goods to Mary Morgan where he learns that she is Miss Patriot. Mary Morgan revealed that Valhalla Villas is a retirement home for Golden Age heroes and villains where they live out their days in blissful remembrance. Mary Morgan then assembles the residents of Valhalla Villas like Golden Girl, Doctor Fear, Thunderer, Leopard Girl, Human Top, Sun Girl, American Ace, Flash Foster, and Wax Master. Using the Asgardian artifact, Mary Morgan rejuvenated the Valhalla Villa residents as Miami sees the unexpected resurgence of characters from the Golden Age. Mary decides to remain elderly since the past was too much to bear the first and only time. Scott then visits his ex-wife Peggy Rae in an attempt to see his daughter Cassandra Lang. Peggy puts Scott in his place due to him making no effort to visit her since she was in the hospital. Peggy also tells Scott that Cassandra is at a school excursion to Atlanta. While drinking at a nightclub, Ant-Man encounters Janice Lincoln and tries to take her down, only to get blasted. Janice states to Ant-Man that he should party like there is no tomorrow since it is the last night on Earth. Ant-Man takes in Janice's suggestions as they both hit the dance floor. He wakes up the next morning with Janice in his bed as the final parts of the Incursion occur.

As part of the "All-New, All-Different Marvel," Ant-Man becomes a target of Whirlwind when Power Broker offers a demonstration of the Hench App to Darren Cross. When Cross was unable to pay $12,000,000.00 to Power Broker, Whirlwind received orders to not attack Ant-Man. Ant-Man later helped Darla Deering when she was attacked by the second Magician (the son of the original Magician) when he was hired by a publicist named Marlena Howard through the Hench App to pretend to have a grudge against her.

Scott Lang later reunited with Raz Malhotra and took him to confront Power Broker at his public promotion of the Hench App 2.0. They ended up coming into conflict with a female Blacklash who Power Broker hired to guard the event. Due to Raz's inexperience in crimefighting, Blacklash got away. Following the incident, Scott Lang gave Raz an offer come with him to Florida to be trained while looking over Hank Pym's lab there. Raz accepted the offer.

Scott later recruited Hijacker, Whirlwind, Beetle, Voice, and Magician to his Ant-Man Security Solutions. As a team, they fought Darren Cross, Crossfire and Augustine Cross to save Stinger, aka Cassie Lang. After that battle, the NYPD arrested Scott for his crimes. After a trial, he was released.

During the "Secret Empire" storyline, Ant-Man joins the resistance group against HYDRA after they takeover the U.S. After seeing footage from Rick Jones, explaining Steve Rogers' conversion into HYDRA's supreme leader, Scott is among the heroes who join Hawkeye in the search for the Cosmic Cube fragments that were scattered around the world, so they could reform the Cube and restore Steve back to normal. After he smuggles Cassie out of the country, he offers Sam Wilson to join the resistance but Sam turns it down. Ant-Man then meets him at a bar, with a small group of heroes led by Hawkeye. Hawkeye and the Tony Stark A.I. manage to convince Sam to smuggle them out of the country so they can find the Cosmic Cube fragments. It is eventually revealed that HYDRA found and captured Cassie, forcing Scott to become a double agent in order to save her life. He confesses his treachery just as HYDRA's forces arrive and destroy the resistance's hideout. During the final battle, Scott shrinks Bucky Barnes down so that he can enter the Cosmic Cube and reawaken Kobik. This ultimately allows Kobik to bring back the original Steve Rogers, who defeats his HYDRA doppelganger.

With his reputation tarnished due to his betrayal, Scott joins the Guardians of the Galaxy in order to get away from Earth for a while. During a later attempt to coordinate a return to Earth for Cassie's birthday with Nadia van Dyne's aid, things go quickly awry, and the two of them experience a series of bizarre adventures in the microverse before returning home. However, in the process the two of them became quantum-entangled with each other.

Hero for Hire
Trying to pick up the pieces of his lost life on Earth, Scott takes up residence in an ant-hill in Florida and begins offering his service for pay. On a mission, he ends up joining forces with Swarm against a new enemy called Macrothrax.

Powers and abilities
Using a gaseous form of "Pym particles" kept in a compartment in his belt, Ant-Man initially had the power to shrink himself (and other people and objects along with himself) to the size of an ant and return to normal. Over time, he has acquired the ability to change size at will. He can also shrink to sub-microscopic size, and thereby enter the countless "subatomic universes". He retains his normal strength in ant size.

The cybernetic Ant-Man helmet allows rudimentary telepathic communication with insects, and is equipped with sound amplification equipment allowing normal-sized humans to hear its wearer. The helmet also has a retractable plexiglass face shield and a limited air supply.

Lang has advanced training and expertise in electronics, having earned an electronics technician certificate, plus additional advanced electronics training he received while in prison. At times, Lang even made his own modifications to the Ant-Man equipment, such as installing the Pym gas dispenser in his helmet rather than leaving it on his belt, or mounting an electric disruptor into his helmet for offensive purposes.

Other versions

MC2
In the MC2 universe, Lang appears in two distinct versions. The Lang of the main MC2 continuity has long retired from the Avengers and has acted as a mentor for Cassie, who has taken up the role of the family superhero. Also, the Thunder Guard, a group of Nazi Avengers from an alternate universe who fought A-Next, included a mentally highly unstable version of Scott called "Pincer" who had killed that universe's version of Cassie.

Ultimate Marvel
The Ultimate Marvel version of the character is David "Dave" Scotty, one of the Giant-Men that was utilized on the Ultimates' Reserves. During a legion of vampires' attack, he was among those that guard the S.H.I.E.L.D. Triskelion. After vampires attack and bit him multiple times, Scotty turned into a vampire. In the ensuing battle, Dave gets killed by Peter, a fellow Giant-Man.

The actual Ultimate version of Scott Lang is the second major version of Giant-Man. Dr. Lang appears as a member of the New Ultimates during a massive showdown between the Ultimates and the Avengers. Lang later helps both teams defeat Gregory Stark's forces in North Korea. His daughter Cassie later joins the Ultimates.

What If?
In "What If Iron Man Lost the Armor Wars", Lang is captured while spying on Justin Hammer, and taken prisoner along with Cassie. When Hammer is later assassinated and his knowledge over the Iron Man armor claimed by A.I.M., Scott and Cassie are taken hostage by them as well, but are eventually freed by Stark clad in the Firepower armor.

In other media

Television
 Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes, voiced by Crispin Freeman.
 Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears in Avengers Assemble, voiced by Grant George in the first three seasons and by Josh Keaton in the last two seasons.
 Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears in Ultimate Spider-Man, voiced again by Grant George.
 Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes: Avengers Reassembled, voiced again by Grant George.
 Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears in Guardians of the Galaxy, voiced again by Grant George in the second season and by Josh Keaton in the third season.
 Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears in a Coke Mini commercial that premiered during Super Bowl 50, with Paul Rudd reprising his role from the Marvel Cinematic Universe films.
 Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears in a series of self-titled animated shorts, voiced again by Josh Keaton.
 Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears in Spidey and His Amazing Friends, voiced by Sean Giambrone.

Marvel Cinematic Universe

Paul Rudd portrays Scott Lang / Ant-Man in the live-action Marvel Cinematic Universe films Ant-Man, Captain America: Civil War, Ant-Man and the Wasp, Avengers: Endgame, and Ant-Man and the Wasp: Quantumania. Additionally, Rudd voices an alternate timeline version of Lang in the Disney+ animated series What If...? episode "What If... Zombies?!"

Video games
 Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears as a playable character in Marvel Heroes, voiced again by Grant George.
 Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears as a playable character in Marvel: Avengers Alliance.
 Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears in Marvel Contest of Champions.
 Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears in Marvel: Future Fight.
 Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears as a playable character in Disney Infinity 3.0.
 Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears as a playable character in Marvel Puzzle Quest.
 Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears in Marvel Pinball.
 The MCU incarnation of Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears as a DLC character in Lego Marvel's Avengers.
 The MCU incarnation of Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2.
 Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears as a non-playable character (NPC) in Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order, voiced again by Josh Keaton.

Miscellaneous
The MCU incarnation of Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears in the Ant-Man and The Wasp: Nano Battle! attraction, with Paul Rudd reprising his role from the films.

Collected editions

References

Sources

Further reading

External links
 Ant-Man (Scott Lang) at Marvel.com
 Marvel Directory: Ant Man II

Ant-Man
Avengers (comics) characters
Characters created by David Michelinie
Characters created by John Byrne (comics)
Comics characters introduced in 1979
Fictional characters from Florida
Fictional characters who can change size
Fictional electrical engineers
Fictional professional thieves
Marvel Comics American superheroes
Marvel Comics male superheroes
Marvel Comics telepaths

Ant-Man (Scott Lang)


Auger electron spectroscopy is a way of telling what chemical elements are at the surface of an object.

When an electron is removed from a core level of an atom, a higher energy level electron may fall in the vacancy. If the energy released by the fall is transferred to another electron, the latter (called Auger electron) will be emitted from the atom, in what is called the Auger effect, after the French physicist who discovered the phenomenon, Pierre Auger. The kinetic energy levels of the Auger electrons depend on the type of the atoms from which the electrons were ejected, and the chemical environment of the atoms. AES consists of bombarding a sample with energetic electrons and measuring the energy of the Auger electrons, obtaining a spectra that can be used to get information about the identity and environment of the emitting atoms.

Spectroscopy

Auger electron spectroscopy


Adria is a town and comune in the province of Rovigo in the Veneto region of northern Italy, situated between the mouths of the rivers Adige and Po. The remains of the Etruscan city of Atria or Hatria are to be found below the modern city, three to four metres below the current level. Adria and Spina were the Etruscan ports and depots for Felsina (now Bologna). Adria may have given its name during an early period to the Adriatic Sea, to which it was connected by channels.

History

Ancient era
The first settlements built in the area are of Venetic origin, during the twelfth to ninth centuries BC, consisting of stilt houses in the wetlands, that were then still close to the sea. At that time the main stream of the Po, the Adria channel, flowed into the sea in this area. The Villanovan culture, named for an archaeological site at the village of Villanova, near Bologna (Etruscan Felsina), flourished in this area from the tenth until as late as the sixth century BC. The foundations of classical Atria are dated from 530 to 520 BC.

The Etruscans built the port and settlement of Adria after the channel gradually started to run dry. During the later period of the sixth century BC the port continued to flourish. The Etruscan-controlled area of the Po Valley was generally known as Padanian Etruria, as opposed to their main concentration along the Tyrrhenian coast south of the Arno.

Greeks from Aegina and later from Syracuse by Dionysius I colonised the city making it into an emporion. Greeks had been trading with the Veneti from the sixth century BC at least, especially the amber, originally coming from the Baltic sea.

Mass Celtic incursions into the Po valley resulted in friction between the Gauls and Etruscans and intermarriage, attested by epigraphic inscriptions on which Etruscan and Celtic names appear together. The city was populated by Etruscans, Veneti, Greeks and Celts.

Pliny the Elder, a Roman author and fleet commander, wrote about a system of channels in Atria that was, "first made by the Tuscans [i.e. Etruscans], thus discharging the flow of the river across the marshes of the Atriani called the Seven Seas, with the famous harbor of the Tuscan town of Atria which formerly gave the name of Atriatic to the sea now called the Adriatic". Those "Seven Seas" were interlinked coastal lagoons, separated from the open sea by sand pits and barrier islands. The Etruscans extended this natural inland waterway with new canals to extend the navigation possibilities of the tidal reaches of the Po all the way north to Atria.  As late as the time of the emperor Vespasian, shallow draft galleys could still be rowed from Ravenna into the heart of Etruria. Under Roman occupation the town ceded importance to Ravenna as the continued siltation of the Po delta carried the seafront further to the east. The sea is now about  from Adria.

The first exploration of ancient Atria was carried out by Carlo Bocchi and published as Importanza di Adria la Veneta. The collections of the Bocchi family were given to the public at the beginning of the 20th century and comprise a major part of the city museum collection of antiquities.

There are several ideas concerning the etymology of the ancient toponym Adria/Atria. One theory is that it derives from the Illyrian (Venetic language) word  adur "water, sea".

Medieval and modern age
At the time of the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the port of Adria had lost most of its importance. It finally declined after the total change of the local hydrography in 589, following the catastrophic flood documented by Paul the Deacon, and Adria became a fief of the archdiocese of Ravenna.

After a period as an independent commune, it was a possession of the Este of Ferrara and, in the 16th century, of the Republic of Venice. At that time Adria was a small village surrounded by malaria-plagued marshes. It recovered its importance when Polesine was reclaimed in the same century.

During the Napoleonic Wars it was first under France, then under Austria, to which it was assigned in 1815 after the Congress of Vienna, as part of Lombardy-Venetia.

Main sights
Church of Santa Maria Assunta della Tomba (formerly the cathedral), of medieval origin but rebuilt in 1718. It houses an octagonal baptismal font from the 7th or 8th century, with the carved name of the 3rd bishop of Adria, Bono. Other artworks include several 15th and 16th century paintings, and, in the chapel, a terracotta relief depicting a Dormitio Virginis, attributed to Michele da Firenze.
Adria Cathedral, the New Cathedral (Cattedrale Nuova dei Santi Petro i Paulo), dedicated to Saints Peter and Paul
 Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Adria

Twin towns – sister cities

Adria is twinned with:
 Ermont, France
 Lampertheim, Germany
 Maldegem, Belgium
 Rovinj, Croatia, since 1982

See also
 Bishopric of Adria

References

Sources

External links

 Northern Etruria
 Etruscan Engineering and Agriculture
 International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: "Adria"
 Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, 1976: "Adria (Atria), Veneto, Italy
 Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Adria

Etruscan cities
Cities and towns in Veneto
Syracusian colonies
Villanovan culture

Adria


The coat o airms o Kenyae features twa lions, a seembol o pertection, hauldin spears an a traditional East African shield. The shield an spears seembolise unity an defence o freedom. The shield contains the naitional colors, representin:

 Black for the fowk o Kenyae
 Green for the agricultur an naitural resoorces
 Red for the struggle for freedom
 White for unity an peace.

The middle reid strip bears a rooster hauldin an axe, which accordin tae local customs, denotes a new an prosperous life.

The shield an lions staund on a silhouette o Munt Kenyae containin in the foregrund examples o Kenyae agricultural produce - coffee, pyrethrum, sisal, tea, maize an pineapples.

The coat o airms is supportit bi a scroll upon which is written the wird 'Harambee'. In Swauheely, Harambee means "pullin thegither" or "aw for ane". It is the cry o the fishermen as thay draw thair nets towards the shore. The same wird is echoed bi aw ane when a collective effort is made for the common guid, such as helpin a faimily in need, or the construction o a schuil or a kirk.

References

Naitional seembols o Kenyae
Kenyae

Coat o airms o Kenyae


Anomie means the absence of the usual moral or ethical values, where a person or group lacks ethical standards. In the context of society or government it may be a cause of social unrest.

Etymology
The word comes from Greek, namely the prefix  a- "without", and nomos "law". The original meaning of anomie was "against or outside the law".

In contemporary English the word anomie can mean not only normlessness but also anarchy. Émile Durkheim and later theorists, meant with anomie a reaction against or a retreat from the regulatory social controls of society, and is a completely separate concept from anarchy which is an absence of effective rulers or leaders.

Anomie in literature and film
In Albert Camus's existentialist novel The Stranger, the protagonist Meursault struggles to construct an individual system of values as he responds to the disappearance of the old. He exists largely in a state of anomie, as seen from the apathy evinced in the opening lines: "Aujourd'hui, maman est morte. Ou peut-être hier, je ne sais pas" ("Today Mother died. Or maybe yesterday, I don't know.")

Dostoevsky, whose work is often considered a philosophical precursor to existentialism, often expressed a similar concern in his novels. In The Brothers Karamazov, the character Dimitri Karamazov asks his atheist friend Rakitin, "...without God and immortal life? All things are lawful then, they can do what they like?" Raskolnikov, the anti-hero of Dostoevsky's novel Crime and Punishment, puts this philosophy into action when he kills an elderly pawnbroker and her sister, later rationalizing this act to himself with the words, "...it wasn't a human being I killed, it was a principle!"

On Hermann Hesse´s Der Steppenwolf we can also find a very clear picture of anomie. The protagonist affirms that the men of the Dark Ages did not suffer more than those of the Classical Antiquity, and vice-versa. It is rather those who live between two times, those who do not know what to follow, that suffer the most. In this token, a man from the Dark Ages living in the Classical Antiquity, or the opposite, would undergo a gulping sadness and agony.

Bibliography
 Marco Orru 1883. The Ethics of Anomie: Jean Marie Guyau and Emile Durkheim, British Journal of Sociology, 34, #4. 499–518.
 Jordi Riba 1999. La morale anomique de Jean-Marie Guyau. Paris : L'Harmattan.

References

Other websites
"Anomie" discussed at the Émile Durkheim Archive.

Sociology

Anomie