Now is the time span between the past and the future. It can be long (like an eon in geologic time) or short (like a picosecond) but it is almost always used to refer to the span between the present instant to some time horizon when a decision must be made. It can be used to ask or demand that someone make a decision even if they want to delay.

"I want to know what you think, now."

"What do you think now?"

"Now is the time for all good people to come to the aid of their country."

Mathematics and measurement assume that everything used in one equation equals the same quantities at the beginning of calculation or axiomatization as at the end. That means it is mathematically correct to say that the idea of "equal" means "equal from the time the process starts to the time it ends." In General Semantics and E Prime the words equal, remain (for the past until now) and become (for now into the future) replace the verb "to be" for this reason.

Algebra is now often called snapshot algebra or algebra of seeing because of this dependence on time. If any action or event were possible between steps in algebraic analysis, then, in theory, one would have to start over as if one had no knowledge of the new state at all. For these reasons the idea of statistics and also knowledge and knowledge management are sometimes questioned, for instance, in the book Lies, Damn Lies, and Statistics. A major issue is the comparing of numbers gathered in the past, and now, after some key conditions change.

Basic English 850 words

Now


George Fitzgerald Smoot III (lahir 20 Februari 1945) merupakan seorang ahli astrofizik dan kosmologi Amerika Syarikat.

Beliau juga merupakan seorang professor fizik di University of California, Berkeley. Beliau telah dianugerahkan Hadiah Nobel dalam Fizik 2006, berkongsi dengan John C. Mather kerana "penemuan mereka terhadap bentuk jasad hitam dan anisotrofi latarbelakang gelombang mikro kosmik".  Penemuan ini menolong mengukuhkan teori big-bang alam semesta menggunakan satelit COBE (Cosmic Background Explorer). Merujuk kepada ahli jawatankuasa Hadiah Nobel, "projek COBE boleh dianggap sebagai titik permulaan kosmologi sebagai satu sains yang tepat".

Biografi

Pendidikan dan permulaan penyelidikan
Smoot telah lahir pada 20 Februari 1945 di Yukon, Florida. Beliau telah mempelajari matematik sebelum bertukar ke Massachusetts Institute of Technology di mana beliau memperolehi dua sarjana muda dalam  matematik dan fizik dalam  1966, dan satu ijazah kedoktoran di fizik zarah dalam tahun 1970. Kemudian beliau telah bertukar ke bidang kosmologi, dan telah pergi ke Makmal Kebangsaan Lawrence Berkeley di mana beliau telah berkolaborasi dengan  Luis Walter Alvarez berkenaan dengan eksperimen HAPPE, satu belon stratosfera  bagi mengesan  antijisim dalam atmosfera atas, di mana ia telah diramal oleh keadaan tetap model kosmologi  yang kini samar-samar.

Kemudian beliau mengambil minat dalam latarbelakang gelombang mikro kosmik (CMB), sebelum ini ditemukan oleh Arno Allan Penzias dan Robert Woodrow Wilson. Satu persoalan yang belum diselesaikan pada masa itu adalah struktur alam semesta. Certain models predicted the universe to be in rotation, which left a trace in the CMB in the form of temperature depending on the direction of observation. With the help of Alvarez and Richard A. Muller, he developed a differential radiometer which measured the difference in temperature of the CMB between two directions 60 degrees apart. The instrument, which was mounted on a Lockheed U-2 plane, made it possible to determine that the overall rotation of the universe was null (within the limit of accuracy of the instrument). It detected a variation in the temperature of the CMB corresponding to a dipole, interpreted as the Doppler effect of the Earth's motion relative to the area of CMB emission, which is called the last scattering surface.  Such a doppler effect arises because the Sun (and in fact the Milky Way as a whole) is not stationary, but rather is moving at nearly 600 km/s with respect to the last scattering surface.  This is probably due to the gravitational attraction between our galaxy and a concentration of mass like the Great Attractor.

Although Smoot attended MIT, he was not the same Smoot who was laid end to end to measure the Harvard Bridge between Cambridge and Boston; this was Oliver R. Smoot.  This confusion was clarified by George Smoot himself.

Pengllibatan dalam COBE

At that time, the CMB appeared to be perfectly uniform excluding the distortion caused by the Doppler effect as mentioned above. This result contradicted with observations of the universe, with various structures (galaxies, galaxy clusters, etc.), indicating that the universe was relatively inhomogenous on a small scale. However, these structures formed slowly. Thus, if the universe is inhomogenous today, it would be inhomogenous at the time of the emission of the CMB as well, observable today through weak variations in the temperature of the CMB. It was the detection of these anisotropies that Smoot was working on in the late 1970s. He then proposed to NASA a project involving a satellite equipped with a detector that was similar to the one mounted on the U-2, but was more sensitive and not influenced by air pollution. The proposal was accepted and gave rise to the satellite COBE, and cost US$ 160 million. COBE was launched on November 18, 1989, after a delay owing to the destruction of the Space Shuttle Challenger. After more than two years of observation and analysis, the team of COBE, led by Smoot, announced on 23 April 1992 to have detected negligible fluctuations in the CMB, a breakthrough in the scientific world.

The success of COBE was the outcome of prodigious team work involving more than 1,000 researchers, engineers and other participants. John Mather coordinated the entire process and also had primary responsibility for the experiment that revealed the blackbody form of the CMB measured by COBE. George Smoot had main responsibility for measuring the small variations in the temperature of the radiation.

Smoot collaborated with San Francisco Chronicle journalist Keay Davidson to write the general-audience book Wrinkles in Time , first published in 1994, that chronicled his team's efforts.

Projek masakini

After COBE, Smoot took part in another experiment involving a stratospheric balloon, MAXIMA, which was more precise than COBE, and refined the measurements of the anistrophies of the CMB. He is also a collaborator in SNAP, a satellite which is proposed to measured properties of dark energy, and data from the Spitzer Space Telescope in connection with infra-red radiation.

Rujukan luar
Nobel Prize announcement
Biography at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
 Berkeley lab article

Pautan luar
Biography: George F. Smoot
Short biography: George F. Smoot
Smoot's research group

Rujukan

Ahli fizik Amerika Syarikat
Penerima Hadiah Nobel dalam Fizik
Kelahiran 1945
Orang hidup

George F. Smoot


Carl Friedrich Freiherr von Weizsäcker (; 28 June 1912 – 28 April 2007) was a German physicist and philosopher. He was the longest-living member of the team which performed nuclear research in Germany during the Second World War, under Werner Heisenberg's leadership. There is ongoing debate as to whether or not he and the other members of the team actively and willingly pursued the development of a nuclear bomb for Germany during this time.

A member of the prominent Weizsäcker family, he was son of the diplomat Ernst von Weizsäcker, elder brother of the former German President Richard von Weizsäcker, father of the physicist and environmental researcher Ernst Ulrich von Weizsäcker and father-in-law of the former General Secretary of the World Council of Churches Konrad Raiser.

Weizsäcker made important theoretical discoveries regarding energy production in stars from nuclear fusion processes. He also did influential theoretical work on planetary formation in the early Solar System.

In his late career, he focused more on philosophical, ethical and historical issues, and was awarded several international honours for his work in those areas.

Early life and education
Born in Kiel, Schleswig-Holstein, he was the grandson of Karl Hugo von Weizsäcker, the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Württemberg. His grandfather was ennobled in 1897 and raised to the hereditary nobility with the title of Baron (Freiherr) in 1916. As such, the four-year-old Carl Friedrich Weizsäcker became Baron Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker. Since 1919, noble titles have legally been considered parts of the family name.

Weizsäcker was raised in Stuttgart, Basel and Copenhagen. Between 1929 and 1933 Weizsäcker studied physics, mathematics and astronomy in Berlin, Göttingen and Leipzig, supervised by and working with Heisenberg and Niels Bohr, among others. The supervisor of his doctoral thesis was Friedrich Hund.

Work on nuclear fusion in the Sun
Weizsäcker's special interests as a young researcher were the nuclear processes in stars and the binding energy of atomic nuclei. Together with Hans Bethe he found a mechanism or pathway for the cyclic process of fusion in stars (Bethe–Weizsäcker process, published 1937–1939). This discovery should not be confused with his earlier (1935) development of the Bethe–Weizsäcker formula, or Semi-Empirical Mass Formula (SEMF), which was a theoretical formula relating the curve of nuclear binding energy, nuclear masses, and certain other nuclear properties.

Work on planetary formation
In 1938, Weizsäcker developed a theory on the formation of the Solar System, based on considerations regarding the unequal share of lighter and heavier elements in the Sun and the Solar System's terrestrial planets. His views were later generally acknowledged and refined by a large number of other physicists and astronomers. According to the theory, the Sun and its planets evolved from a gas cloud made up of 99% hydrogen and helium, and 1% of heavier elements. Some 10% of the cloud remained around the Sun as an extensive atmosphere during an initial phase, and the 1% of heavier elements within this 10% of the total mass of the cloud would tally with the fraction of roughly 1% that the planets contribute to the mass of the Solar System today.

The theory also helped to explain the empirically observed regular pattern of increase in the diameters of the orbits of the planets of the Solar System, from inward to outward. This result was a natural outcome of the increasing size of "planetary eddies" of gas and dust farther from the centre of the early solar system.

A further implication of his theory was that many stars out in the universe, with characteristics similar to the Sun, would have to be expected to possess planetary systems similar to our own.

Shortly after the end of the Second World War in Europe, the Russian émigré American physicist George Gamow co-authored an influential paper supporting Weizsäcker's work on planetary formation in the early solar system.

Work on atomic weapons
After nuclear fission became known in early 1939 through the work of Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner, Weizsäcker (and by his own estimate, 200 other physicists) quickly recognised that nuclear weapons could potentially be built. He discussed the upsetting implications in February 1939 with philosopher friend Georg Max Friedrich Valentin Picht (1913–1982).

During the Second World War, Weizsäcker joined the German nuclear weapons program, participating in efforts to construct an atomic bomb, while based at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin. As early as August 1939, Albert Einstein warned U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt about this research and highlighted that "the son of the German Under-Secretary of State, von Weizsäcker, is attached to the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut in Berlin where some of the American work on uranium is now being repeated."

As a protégé of Werner Heisenberg, Weizsäcker was present at a crucial meeting at the Army Ordnance headquarters in Berlin on 17 September 1939, at which the German atomic weapons program was launched. Early in the war — possibly until 1942 — he hoped a successful nuclear weapons project would earn him political influence. In July 1940 he was co-author of a report to the army on the possibility of "energy production" from refined uranium. The report also predicted the possibility of using plutonium for the same purpose including the production of a new type of explosives. During summer 1942 Weizsäcker filed a patent on a transportable "process to generate energy and neutrons by an explosion... e.g. a bomb". The patent application was found in the 1990s in Moscow.

Historians have been divided as to whether Heisenberg and his team were sincerely trying to construct a nuclear weapon, or whether their failure reflected a desire not to succeed because they did not want the Nazi regime to have such a weapon. This latter view, largely based on postwar interviews with Heisenberg and Weizsäcker, was put forward by Robert Jungk in his 1957 book Brighter Than a Thousand Suns. In a 1957 interview with the German weekly Der Spiegel, Weizsäcker frankly admitted to the scientific ambitions of those years "We wanted to know if chain reactions were possible. No matter what we would end up doing with our knowledge – we wanted to know." Only by "divine grace", Weizsäcker said, were they spared the temptation to build the bomb as the German war economy was unable to mobilize the necessary resources.

Original sources about this question were not revealed until 1993, when transcripts of secretly recorded conversations among ten top German physicists, including Heisenberg and Weizsäcker, detained under Operation Epsilon at Farm Hall, near Cambridge in late 1945, were published. In the conversation after the group of detainees had listened to the BBC Radio news on dropping of the atomic bomb on 6 August 1945, Weizsäcker said: "I believe the reason we didn't do it was because all the physicists didn't want to do it, on principle. If we had wanted Germany to win the war we would have succeeded!"

But the "Farm Hall Transcripts" also revealed that Weizsäcker had taken the lead in arguing for an agreement among the scientists that they would claim that they had never wanted to develop a German nuclear weapon. It was this version of events which was given to Jungk as the basis of his book. This story was untrue at least to the extent that the detainees also included scientists actively engaged in eager attempts to build a nuclear bomb, namely Kurt Diebner and Walter Gerlach. Max von Laue later called this agreement "die Lesart" (the Version). Although the memorandum which the scientists drew up was drafted by Heisenberg, von Laue wrote: "The leader in all these discussions was Weizsäcker. I did not hear any mention of any ethical point of view."

Weizsäcker himself stated that Heisenberg, Karl Wirtz and he had a private agreement to study nuclear fission to the fullest possible extent in order to "decide" themselves how to proceed with its technical application. "There was no conspiracy, not even in our small three-man-circle, with certainty not to make the bomb. Just as little, there was no passion to make the bomb..." In a recent report based on additional documents from Russian archives, historian Mark Walker concludes that "in comparison with Diebner [and] Gerlach ... Heisenberg and finally Weizsäcker did obviously not use all power they commanded to provide the National Socialists with nuclear weapons".

Ivan Supek (one of Heisenberg's students and friends) claimed that Weizsäcker was the main figure behind the famous and controversial Heisenberg–Bohr meeting in Copenhagen in September 1941. Allegedly, he tried to persuade Bohr to mediate for peace between Germany and Great Britain. According to Weizsäcker's own account, he had persuaded Heisenberg to meet Bohr in order to broker an accord of the international nuclear physicist "community" not to build the bomb. However, according to Bohr's (posthumously published) account of the events, Heisenberg enthusiastically promoted the prospect of German victory and wanted Bohr and his colleagues to assist in the German atomic program.

Later during the war Weizsäcker worked as a professor at the Reichsuniversität Straßburg. The American capture of his laboratory and papers there in December 1944 revealed to the Western Allies that the Germans had not come close to developing a nuclear weapon.

Post-war career

Weizsäcker was allowed to return to the part of Germany administered by the Western Allies in 1946, and became director of a department for theoretical physics in the Max Planck Institute for Physics in Göttingen. From 1957 to 1969, Weizsäcker was professor of philosophy at the University of Hamburg. In 1957 he won the Max Planck medal. In 1970 he formulated a "Weltinnenpolitik" (world internal policy). From 1970 to 1980, he was head of the Max Planck Institute for the Research of Living Conditions in the Modern World in Starnberg. He researched and published on the danger of nuclear war, what he saw as the conflict between the First World and the Third World, and the consequences of environmental degradation.

He was one of the eight signatories of the Memorandum of Tübingen which called for the recognition of the Oder–Neiße line as the official border between Germany and Poland and spoke against a possible nuclear armament of West Germany.

In the 1970s he founded, together with the Indian philosopher Pandit Gopi Krishna, a research foundation "for western sciences and eastern wisdom". After his retirement in 1980 he became a Christian pacifist, and intensified his work on the conceptual definition of quantum physics, particularly on the Copenhagen interpretation.

His experiences in the Nazi era, and with his own behavior in that time, gave Weizsäcker an interest in questions of ethics and responsibility. In 1957,  he was one of the Göttinger 18, a group of prominent German physicists who protested against the idea that the Bundeswehr (West German armed forces) should be equipped with tactical nuclear weapons. He further suggested that West Germany should declare its definitive abdication of all kinds of nuclear weapons.

In 2007, Weizsäcker died at the age of 94 in Söcking near Starnberg.  Opinions are split on the question of whether he accepted his share of responsibility for the German scientific community's efforts to build a nuclear weapon for Nazi Germany.

Theory of ur-alternatives
Weizsäcker developed the theory of ur-alternatives (archetypal objects), publicized in his book Einheit der Natur (literal translation Oneness of Nature, 1971) and further developed through the 1990s. The theory axiomatically constructs quantum physics from the distinction between empirically observable, binary alternatives. Weizsäcker used his theory to derive the 3-dimensionality of space and to estimate the entropy of a proton falling into a black hole.

Awards and honours
 1957 Max Planck Medal
 1958 Goethe Prize of the city of Frankfurt am Main
 1961 Pour le Mérite for Science and Art
 1963 Peace Prize of the German Book Trade
 1969 Erasmus Prize of the city of Herdam
 1969 Austrian Medal for Science and Art
 1973 Grand Merit Cross with Star and Sash of the Federal Republic of Germany
 1982 Ernst Hellmut Vits Prize of the University of Münster
 1983 Heinrich Heine Prize of the city of Düsseldorf
 1988 Sigmund Freud Prize for Scientific Prose
 1989 Templeton Prize for "Progress in Religion"
 1989 Theodor Heuss Prize "for his world-renowned, diverse and dedicated contributions to humanity themes: peace – justice – Integrity of Creation"
 Prix Arnold Reymond (University of Lausanne)
 Hanseatic Goethe Prize
 Karl IV Prize of the City and University of Prague

Honorary degrees
Law: Free University of Amsterdam, University of Alberta, University of Aberdeen
Theology: University of Tübingen, University of Basel
Science: Karl Marx University, Leipzig
Philosophy: Berlin Institute of Technology, University of Aachen

Memberships
 Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Sciences
 German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina
 Göttingen Academy of Sciences
 Saxon Academy of Sciences
 Austrian Academy of Sciences
 Bavarian Academy of Sciences
 Bavarian Academy of Fine Arts
 German Physical Society
 Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques
 American Physical Society
 Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts
 German Academy for Language and Literature
 Joachim Jungius Society of Science
 Hamburg Institute for Human Sciences

The Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker Gymnasium school was named after him, in the town of Barmstedt, Schleswig-Holstein.

Weizsäcker was nominated four times for the Nobel Prize in Physics.
Since 2009, the Donors' Association for German Science and the Leopoldina makes a biennial award of €50,000 "Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker Award" for "outstanding scientific contribution to resolving socially important problems". There is a Carl-Friedrich von Weizsäcker Foundation, knowledge and responsibility – Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker-Gesellschaft eV.

Works
 Zum Weltbild der Physik, Leipzig 1946 (), 2002, 14th edition, renewed and with introduction by Holger Lyre :de:Holger Lyre
 translation into English by Marjorie Grene The World View of Physics, London, 1952
 translation into French Le Monde vu par la Physique, Paris 1956
 Die Geschichte der Natur, Göttingen 1948  ()
 Die Einheit der Natur, Munich 1971 ()
 translation The Unity of Nature, New York, 1980 ()
 Wege in der Gefahr, Munich 1976
 translation The Politics of Peril, New York 1978
 Der Garten des Menschlichen, Munich 1977 ()
 translation The Ambivalence of progress, essays on historical anthropology, New York 1988 ()
 Deutlichkeit: Beiträge zu politischen und religiösen Gegenwartsfragen, Hanser, München, 1978, 1979 ().
  The Biological Basis of Religion and Genius, Gopi Krishna, New York, intro. by Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, which is half the book, 1971, 1972 ()
 Aufbau der Physik, Munich 1985 ()
 translation The Structure of Physics, Heidelberg 2006 (; )
 Der Mensch in seiner Geschichte, Munich 1991 ()
 Zeit und Wissen, Munich 1992 ()
 Der bedrohte Friede, 1994 ()
 Große Physiker, Munich 1999 ()

See also
Bethe–Weizsäcker cycle or CNO cycle
Liquid drop model
The Heavy Water War

Notes

References

Further reading
 Powers, Thomas, "The Private Heisenberg and the Absent Bomb" (review of Werner and Elisabeth Heisenberg, My Dear Li:  Correspondence, 1937–1946, edited by Anna Maria Hirsch-Heisenberg and translated from the German by Irene Heisenberg, Yale University Press, 312 pp., $40.00), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIII, no. 20 (December 22, 2016, pp. 65–67. "[Werner] Heisenberg, Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, and... Karl Wirtz [during World War II led] an effort [to prevent] a complete shutdown [of work toward a German atom bomb], which would condemn young physicists to military service... or takeover by Nazi extremists who might think an atomic bomb could still give Hitler a complete victory."  (p. 66.)  Desiring on ethical grounds to prevent the introduction of nuclear weapons into the world, the key German nuclear physicists "'agreed... not to deny [the feasibility of] an atomic bomb, but... to [argue] that it could not be implemented within a realistic time frame...'"  (p. 67.)
 "Foreword" by C. F. von Weizäcker in Steven James Bartlett, Critique of Impure Reason: Horizons of Possibility and Meaning, Studies in Theory and Behavior, 2021, , pp. xxxiii–xxxiv.

External links

Annotated bibliography for Carl Weizsacker from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
 "Ich wollte erkennen, ob Atombomben möglich sind" ("I wanted to find out if atomic bombs were possible")– Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker interviewed by Michael Schaaf. uni-hamburg.de

1912 births
2007 deaths
Scientists from Kiel
People from the Province of Schleswig-Holstein
Carl Friedrich
University of Göttingen alumni
Leipzig University alumni
Academic staff of the University of Strasbourg
Academic staff of the University of Hamburg
20th-century German physicists
Philosophers of science
20th-century German philosophers
German Lutherans
Lutheran pacifists
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Templeton Prize laureates
Recipients of the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art
Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Members of the Austrian Academy of Sciences
Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences
Members of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Nuclear program of Nazi Germany
Winners of the Max Planck Medal
German male writers
Operation Epsilon
Richard von Weizsäcker

Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker


Thomas Tegg (1776–1845) was a British bookseller and publisher.

Early life
Tegg was the son of a grocer, born at Wimbledon, Surrey, on 4 March 1776, and was left an orphan at the age of five. He was sent to a boarding school at Galashiels in Selkirkshire. In 1785 he was bound apprentice to Alexander Meggett, a bookseller at Dalkeith. He ran away, sold chapbooks at Berwick, and spent time at Newcastle where he met the wood engraver Thomas Bewick. In Sheffield he obtained employment from Joseph Gales, the proprietor of the Sheffield Register, and encountered Tom Paine and Charles Dibdin. Further wanderings took him to Ireland and Wales, and then, after some years at King's Lynn in Norfolk, he moved to London in 1796.

London

In London he obtained an engagement with William Lane, the proprietor of the Minerva Library, at 53 Leadenhall Street. He subsequently worked for John and Arthur Arch, the Quaker booksellers of Gracechurch Street, where he stayed until he began business on his own account.

Tegg took a shop in partnership with Joseph Dalton Dewick in Aldersgate Street. On 20 April 1800 he married, and opened a shop in St. John Street, Clerkenwell, but lost money through the bad faith of a friend. He took out a country auction licence to try his fortune in the provinces. He started with a stock of shilling political pamphlets and some thousands of the Monthly Visitor. With his wife acting as clerk, he travelled and bought up duplicates in private libraries, clearing his debts.

Returning to London in 1805, he opened a shop at 111 Cheapside. He printed a series of pamphlets, consisting of abridgements of popular works. They proved successful, and he had up to two hundred titles, many of which sold four thousand copies. By 1840 he had published four thousand works on his own account. The Whole Life of Nelson, which he brought out just after the battle of Trafalgar in 1805, sold fifty thousand copies at 6d. and the Life of Mary Anne Clarke (1810), thirteen thousand copies at 7s. 5d. each. In 1824 he purchased the copyright of William Hone's Everyday Book and Table Book, and, republishing it in weekly parts, made a large profit. He then gave Hone £500 to write The Year Book, which proved less successful.

When his own publications began paying well he gave up auctions, which he had continued nightly at 111 Cheapside. In 1824 he made his final move, to 73 Cheapside. In 1825 he started the London Encyclopaedia which ran to twenty-two volumes. He bought remainders on a large scale. He was mentioned as a populariser of literature in Thomas Carlyle's petition on the copyright bill in April 1839.

In 1835, being then a common councilman of the ward of Cheap, he was nominated an alderman, but was not elected. In 1836 he was chosen Sheriff of London; he paid the conventional fine to escape serving, of £400, and added another £100, founding a Tegg scholarship at the City of London School and donating a collection of books.

He died on 21 April 1845, and was buried at Wimbledon. He was generally believed to have been the original of Timothy Twigg in Thomas Hood's 1834 novel Tylney Hall.

Family
Tegg left three sons, including Thomas Tegg, a bookseller, who died on 15 September 1871 and William (1816–1895), who continued the business.

Works
His first short book, The Complete Confectioner, reached a second edition. Tegg was also author of:

 Memoirs of Sir F. Burdett, 1804.
 Tegg's Prime Song Book, bang up to the mark, 1810; third collection, 1810; fourth collection, 1810.
 The Rise, Progress, and Termination of the O. P. War at Covent Garden, in Poetic Epistles, 1810.
 Chronology, or the Historical Companion: a register of events from the earliest period to the present time, 1811; 5th edition 1854.
 Book of Utility or Repository of useful Information, connected with the Moral, Intellectual, and Physical Condition of Man, 1822.
 Remarks on the Speech of Serjeant Talfourd on the Laws relating to Copyright, 1837.
 Handbook for Emigrants, containing Information on Domestic, Mechanical, Medical, and other subjects, 1839.
 Extension of Copyright proposed by Serjeant Talfourd, 1840.
 Treasury of Wit and Anecdote, 1842.
 A Present to an Apprentice, 2nd edition 1848.

He also edited the twelve numbers of The Magazine of Knowledge and Amusement, 1843–4.

Notes

References

Further reading

 v.2 America to Arsenal, v.3 Arsenic to Belswagger, v.4 Benedict to Cadiz, v.5 Caffraria to Clepsydra, v.6 Clergy to Customs, v.7 Cutlery to Elasticity, v.8 Elasticity to Ezra, v.9 F to Garter, v.10 Gas to Halley, v.11 Halo to Indulgence, v.12 Ink to Lindsey, v.13 Line to Medici, v.14 Medicine to Mithridates, v.15 Mithridates to Nox, v.16 Nubia to Perambulator, v.17 Perception to Post, v.18 Potash to Rome v.19 Rome to Seduction, v.20 Seduction to Sphere
 A London Encyclopaedia... @Google Books
 (1829) Vol.2 America to Arsenal, Vol.3 Arsenic to Bell, Vol.4 Benedict to Cadiz, Vol.5 Caffraria to Clepsydra, Vol.7 Cutlery to Elasticity, Vol.8 Elasticity to Ezra, Vol.9 F to Garter, Vol.11 Halo to Indulgence, Vol.12 Infanticide to Lindus, Vol.14 Medicine to Mithradates, Vol.15 Mithradates to Nox, Vol.16 Nubia to Perambulator, Vol.17 Perception to Post, Vol.18 Potash to Rome, Vol.19 Rome to Seduction, Vol.20 Seduction to Sphere, Vol.21 Spheroid to Tewkesbury, Vol.22 Thales to Zypaeus
 (1839) Vol.2 America to Arsenal, Vol.3 Arsenic to Bell, Vol.4 Benedict to Cadiz, Vol.5 Caffraria to Clepsydra, Vol.6 Clergy to Customs, Vol.7 Cutlery to Elasticity, Vol.8 Elasticity to Ezra, Vol.9 F to Garter, Vol.10 Gas to Halley, Vol.12 Ink to Lindsey, Vol.14 Medicine to Mithradates, Vol.15 Mithradates to Nox, Vol.17 Perception to Post, Vol.18 Potash to Rome

External links

1776 births
1845 deaths
People from Wimbledon, London
Publishers (people) from London

Thomas Tegg


Gliwice is a city in south Poland, in Silesian Voivodeship and along the Kłodnica River.  According to a count in 2004, it has a population of 200,361 people.

History of Gliwice
In the late Middle Ages, around 1276, was the first known time that there was a reference to Gliwice in history.  At first, it was ruled by Polish dukes, but later became a part of Bohemia in 1335.  Later on, in 1526, it was conquered by Austria.

In the middle of the 18th century, Gliwice was taken from the Austrian ruling family and became a part of Prussia.  However, in the unification, or coming together, of Germany in 1871, Gliwice became a part of the German empire.

In the 19th century, Gliwice became more developed and was home to many businesses, including one of the most famous theaters in Germany at the time.

In 1945, Gliwice passed into Polish rule.

Other websites
 http://www.gliwice.zobacz.slask.pl
 http://www.gliwice.uc.gov.pl

Cities in Silesian Voivodeship

Gliwice


Australian English is the kind of English language used in Australia.

History
People from Britain and Ireland first came to live in Australia in 1788 (colony of New South Wales). They brought different dialects of English along with them. These different kinds of English began to mix and change. The newcomers soon began to speak with their own distinctive accent and vocabulary.

More and more people came to Australia in the 19th and 20th centuries. Many people came looking for gold. Some came from Britain and Ireland. Others came from non-English speaking countries.  Australian English continued to grow and change.

Australian English has also been influenced by American English. During the Second World War, there were many American soldiers staying in Australia. American television shows and music have been popular in Australia since the 1950s.

Accent
The Australian and New Zealand accents are similar.

In Australian English the /r/ sound can only occur before a vowel.  Many words which sound different in other accents sound the same in Australian English.  Some examples are:

caught and court
raw and roar
aunt and aren't
formally and formerly

Some Australian English vowels sound different to vowels of other kinds of English.  For example, the vowel in day starts with a very open mouth.  This makes the Australian day sound close to the die of most British or American people. Days of the week, however, are sometimes different and the day can sound like dee (usually short and sharp like the letter D).

Sunday becomes Sun-dee
Monday - Mun-dee
Tuesday - Choose-dee (see further explanation below)Wednesday - Wens-dee (1st D and 2nd E are rarely pronounced and if so, it sounds more like Weddinsday but never Weddinsdee)Thursday - Thurs-deeFriday - Fri-deeSaturday - Satta-dee/Sadda-dee or even shorter Sat-dee/Sad-dee (both D's pronounced separately with the syllable break between them)

Australian English has some vowels not used in some other kinds of English.  For example, the words bad and lad do not rhyme because bad has a long vowel and lad has a short one.  Also, cot does not sound like caught and bother does not rhyme with father.

As with American English the /t/ sound can sometimes sound like a /d/ sound.  This usually happens between vowels.  So, for example, waiter can sound like wader betting can sound like beddinggot it  can sound like god itthirty can sound like thirdyAlso in the Australian accent a /t/ sound plus the sound of you comes out sounding like chew and a /d/ sound plus the sound of you comes out sounding like Jew.  Here are some examples of things which sound the same.Tuesday and choose day lightyear and lie cheerdue and Jewdune and JuneAustralians pronounce wh and w the same.  Some examples are:which and witchwhether and weatherwhales and WalesWords
Australians use many words that other English speakers do not use.  The famous Australian greeting, for example, is G'day!.   A native forest is called the bush and the deserts in Australia is called the outback.

Many words were brought to Australia from Britain and Ireland.  For example, mate meaning "friend" which is still used in Britain.  Some of these words have changed in meaning.

A few words have come from Australian Aboriginal languages.  These are mainly names for animals, plants and places.  Some examples are dingo and kangaroo.

Sometimes we do not know where a word came from.  For example, dinkum or fair dinkum means "true", "is that true?", "this is the truth". But nobody knows where the word is from: some say the word comes from Chinese, others say the word comes from England.

Spelling
Australian spelling mostly comes from British spelling. In words like organise, realise, where -ise is the expected and taught spelling method. In words like colour, favourite, -our is the norm, but there are exceptions such as the Labor Party (which was deliberately chosen on the formation of the Party to avoid confusion with the British Labour Party), Victor Harbor and Outer Harbor (geographically unique to the State of South Australia as opposed to place names in other States, e.g., Boat Harbour and Coffs Harbour).

Program and jail, on the other hand, are more common than programme and gaol. Another couple of preferences of the American spelling is with analog, not, analogue (in general, the -ue is dropped), livable, not liveable, guerilla not guerrilla, verandah not veranda, burqa not burka, and pastie, not pasty. With the exception of "spelt", words that use -t in en-GB and end in -ed in en-US, Australia follows the US usage.

Kinds of Australian English
Most linguists split Australian English up into three main kinds. These are Broad, General, and Cultivated Australian English.

Broad Australian English sounds very strongly Australian, when compared to other kinds of English. Steve Irwin spoke Broad Australian English.

General Australian English is the middle ground. It is used by most Australians, and can be heard in Australian-made films and television programs. Hugh Jackman and Nicole Kidman speak General Australian English.

Cultivated Australian English is similar to "Received Pronunciation", the type of British English spoken by people such as David Attenborough. Cate Blanchett and Geoffrey Rush speak Cultivated Australian English.

Australian English demographics change from state to state but it's only slight compared to the variety of British and American English accents. A mixture of Broad and General Australian English accents can be heard across Southern and Western Australia, while Broad Accents are more common by themselves in states such as the Northern Territory and Central Australia. Large metropolitan areas such as Melbourne, Sydney and Southeast Queensland share large portions of each accent. Cultivated Australian English is rare compared to the rest but can be observed in the upper and middle classes, from migrant families with recent British ties (up to a century and a half in some cases) and in performing arts communities where pronounced English is of most benefit.

Subtle changes on an individual level include how the letter 'a' sounds like in the words castle, dance, chance, advance, etc.  Some use the vowel in calm others use the vowel in mat or mad. Another regional difference is the pronunciation of 'e' sounds especially followed by 'l', such as Melbourne, helped, cellist, with Victorians generally transposing the 'a' and 'e' vowel sounds in many words. For example, pronouncing an 'e' sound in words such as alchemy or chalice, yet an 'a' vowel sound for Celery.

There are also geographical differences in the definition of words Australians use in different parts of the country as well.  For example, football (or footy for short) means "rugby league" in NSW, Queensland and the ACT, but "Australian rules football" in everywhere else in Australia. In NSW, a swimming costume is called a cossie or swimmers, in Queensland it is called togs and bathers in Victoria.

Other websites
Australian National Dictionary Centre
Australian Word Map (ABC and Macquarie Dictionary) - documents regionalisms
Introduction to Australian Phonetics and Phonology
Macquarie Dictionary
World English Organisation
Aussie English for beginners -- the origins, meanings and a quiz to test your knowledge  at the National Museum of Australia.
 Strine - Australian Terms Explained  -- basic list of Strine words at School Spirit  webstrip.

Australian culture
Dialects of English

Australian English


Kaons are a specific type of meson (mesons are particles made of one quark and one antiquark). What makes kaons unique is that they are made of one up quark or down quark, and one strange quark. (One of the two quarks that make of a kaon must be an antiquark, and the other must be normal matter. For example, a kaon can be made of one up quark and a strange antiquark). The discovery of kaons was significant because it proved the existence of yet another flavour (type) of quark, the strange quark.

There are four types of kaons, but two of them are relatively easy to understand. There is the K+ and the K0. The + and 0 above the letter K refer to whether the charge is positive, or 0 (neutral). The K+ is made of one up quark, and one strange antiquark. Since antiparticles have the opposite charge of their counterpart (and since normal strange quarks have a charge of -1/3), 2/3 + 1/3 = a +1 charge, or simply a + charge. (Also because antiparticles have the opposite charge of their counterpart, if you change the up quark in a K+ to an up antiquark and the strange antiquark to a normal strange quark, you get the opposite charge, forming a K–). Since down quarks and strange quarks have the same charge, if either one of them is an antiparticle, the overall charge is zero. Therefore, a K0 can either be made of one down quark and  strange antiquark, or one down antiquark and one normal strange quark.

Subatomic particles

Kaon


Heat conduction (or thermal conduction) is the movement of heat from one object to another one that has different temperature when they are touching each other.  For example, we can warm our hands by touching hot-water bottles. When the cold hands touch the hot-water bottle, heat flows from the hotter object (hot-water bottle) to the colder one (hand). People make things with different thermal conductivity, for example cookware to heat things or insulated containers to keep hot things hot or cold things cold.

Other ways to transfer heat are by thermal radiation and/or convection. Usually more than one of these processes happen at the same time.

Microscopic explanation
In the atomic theory solids, liquids and gases are made of tiny particles called "atoms". The temperature of the material measures how fast the atoms are moving and the heat measures the total amount of energy due to the vibration of the atoms.

Conduction can happen when one part of a material is heated. The atoms in this part vibrate faster and are more likely to hit  their neighbors. The collisions cause those atoms also to move faster, passing the heat energy to them. In this way the energy travels through the solid. (Rather like the way energy passes along a set of tumbling dominos).

The atomic picture also helps explain why conduction is more important in solids: in solids the atoms are close together and unable to move around. In liquids and gases the particles can move past each other, so the collisions are less common.

Law of heat conduction
The law of heat conduction, also known as Fourier's law, means that the rate, in time, of heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature and to the area at right angles, to that gradient, through which the heat is flowing:

where:
Q is the amount of heat transferred, and
t is the time taken, and
k is the material's thermal conductivity' and
S is the area through which the heat is flowing, and
T is the temperature.

Thermal conductivity usually varies with temperature, but the variation can be small, over a significant range of temperatures, for some common materials.

Related pages
 Heat transfer
 Convection
 Thermal radiation

Basic physics ideas
Heat transfer

Heat conduction


In jurisprudence, a natural person is a real human being in contrast to an artificial person, meaning an organization that the law treats for some purposes as if it were a person distinct from its members or owner.

For example, the right to vote is given to natural persons only. That is the case for most of the human rights. Therefore, obviously a corporation cannot hold public office, but it can file a lawsuit.

Although science fiction has long fantasized about the possibility of sentient robots (e.g. androids) living among humans (such as Robin Williams Bicentennial Man), no court has yet dealt with the question of whether such a being would be considered a natural person.

Other websites

 Natural Person
Legal terms

Natural person


Francesco Novati (Cremona, 1859 - Sanremo, 1915) was an Italian historian and philologist.

Novati taught in the University of Palermo and Genoa, and in 1890 he became a professor of history and comparative literature at the Regia Accademia Scientifico-Letteraria of Milan. In 1883, he founded the Giornale Storico delle Letteratura Italiana with Rodolfo Renier and Arturo Graf. He also collaborated with many other magazines and newspapers: La Perseveranza, Il Libro e la stampa, La lettura, and Il Corriere della Sera e l'Archivio Storico Lombardo, a publication of the Società Storica Lombarda which Novati joined in 1879, later to become adviser, vice president, and finally president in 1899. The library and archive of Novati letters were donated to the Biblioteca Braidense of Milan in 1916.

Among his works are Il Repertorio diplomatico Visconteo, Flos duellatorum: Il Fior di battaglia di maestro Fiore dei Liberi da Premariacco, and Peter and Alessandro Verri's edition of Il Carteggio.

1859 births
1915 deaths
Writers from Cremona
20th-century Italian historians
Italian philologists
Academic staff of the University of Palermo
Academic staff of the University of Genoa
19th-century Italian historians

Francesco Novati


Clan Douglas, referred tae as The Hoose o Douglas an aw, is an auncient Scots clan frae the Scots Lawlands takin its name frae Douglas, Sooth Lanrikshire, an thence spreadin throu the Scots Borderland, Angus, Lothian an ayont. The clan daes no currently hae a chief, therefore it is considered an airmigerous clan.

The Douglases wur ance the maist pouerful faimily in Scotland. The pouerful Douglas chiefs held the titles o the Earl o Douglas (Black Douglas), Earl o Angus (Red Douglas) an at ane pynt the Earl o Morton.

Mony Douglases mairit intae Scots an ither European royal an noble hooses, therebi ensurin Douglas pouer athin Scotland, as a result o thair accumulatit wealth.

The faimily's oreeginal seat wis Douglas Castle in Lanrikshire, but thay spread tae mony properties throughoot Scotland.

Thare ar mony members o the Douglas Clan buried throughoot the warld, sic as the Abbey o Saint-Germain-des-Prés in Paris, an at Melrose Abbey. Aiblins maist notable o aw is at St Bride's Kirk in Douglas. Dedicatit tae St Bride, the patron saunt o the Douglas, it haulds the mausolea o mony distinguished Douglases, includin that o the Good Sir James Douglas.

History

Oreegins o the clan

Accordin tae tradeetion the Douglases teuk thair name frae the Gaelic placename "Dubh glas" meanin "black-blue/green" (stream). Ane auld tradeetion is that the first chief o Clan Douglas wis Sholto Douglas who helped the king o Scotland win a battle in the year 767. This is unsubstantiatit.

The true progenitor o Clan Douglas wis amsist certainly "Theobaldus Flammatius" (Theobald the Flemming), who received in 1147 the lands near Douglas Water in Lanrikshire in return for services for the Abbot o Kelso.

Awtho the Douglases wur first recordit in the 1170s, the Douglas faimily names consistit o Arkenbald an Freskin, an wur undoubtedly relatit tae the Clan Murray, an tae be o Flemish oreegin. The Clan Murray wur descendit frae a Flemish knight cawed Freskin. Tho the Flemish oreegin o the Douglases is no undisputit, it is aften claimed that the Douglases wur descendit frae a Flemish knight who wis grantit lands on the Douglas Water bi the Abbot o Kelso, who held the barony an lordship o Holydean. Housomeivver this is disputie, it haes been claimed that the lands which wur grantit tae this knight wur no the lands which the Douglas faimily came frae.

In 1179 William Douglas wis Lord o Douglas an it seems likely that he wis Theobald the Flemming's son an the first tae tak the surname Douglas.

Wars o Scots Unthirldom

Durin the Wars o Scots Unthirldom, Sir William Douglas the Hardy, Lord o Douglas wis govrenor o Berwick-upon-Tweed when the toun an Berwick Castle wur besieged bi the forces o Edward I o Ingland. Douglas wis captured an wis released ae efter he haed agreed tae accept the claim o the Inglis king tae be owerlord o Scotland. He subsequently jynt William Wallace in feghtin for Scots unthirldom, but wis captured an taken tae Ingland, whaur he dee'd in 1298, a preesoner in the Touer o Lunnon.

The "Good" Sir James Douglas or "Black Douglas"

William Le Hardi's son, James Douglas, "The Good Sir James", wis the first tae tak the epithet "Black". Douglas wis set tae share in Bruce's early misfortunes, bein present at the defeats at Methven an Dalrigh. But for baith men thir setbacks wur tae provide a valuable lesson in tactics: limitations in baith resoorces an equipment meant that the Scots wad aye be at a disadvantage in conventional Medieval warfare. Bi the time the war wis renewed in the ware o 1307 thay haed learnt the value o guerrilla warfare – kent at the time as 'secret war' – uisin fast movin, lichtly equipped an agile forces tae maximum effect against an enemy aften locked in tae static defensive poseetions. Sir James Douglas recaptured Roxburgh Castle frae the Inglis in 1313. Sir James Douglas wis made a knight banneret, a heich honour, on the field an commandit a wing o the airmy at the Battle o Bannockburn in 1314.

James wis cried "The Black Douglas" bi the Inglis for his daurk deeds in Inglis een, becomin the Bogeyman o a Northren Inglis lullaby "Hush ye, hush ye, little pet ye. Hush ye, hush ye, do no fret ye. The Black Douglas shall no get ye."  Thare ar forby unsubstantiated theories that this wis acause o his colourin an complexion, this is tenuous, Douglas ae appears in Inglis record as "The Black", in Scots' chronicles he is amaist aye referred tae as "The Guid" or "The Good". Later Douglas Lords teuk the moniker o thair revered forebear in the same wey that thay attached Bruce's Hert tae thair Coat o Airms, tae strike fear intae the hearts o thair enemies an exhibit the prowess o thair race.

Crusader

King Robert the Bruce haed requestit that Douglas, latterly his maist esteemed companion in arms, should cairy his hert tae the Holy Land, as atonement for the murder o John III Comyn. Douglas an his knights haed been invitit tae jyne the forces o Alfonso XI o Castile, Edward III o Ingland's cousin bi his mither Queen Isabella, tae fecht against the Moors in 1330 at the siege o Teba. Douglas wis killed as he led a cavalry charge against the enemy while outnumbered an cut off frae the main Christian force; Alfonso kept his airmy back frae the attack; likely in some arrangement wi his cousin Edward who coud niver beat the Douglas in combat. The casket containin the hert o the Bruce wis recovered an returned tae Scotland, tae be interred at Melrose Abbey. Douglas' bones wur boiled an returned tae Scotland; his embalmed hert wis recently recovered in the Douglas vaults at the Kirk o St Bride but his bones ar no in the stane vault lyin unner his effigy an thay hae yet tae be locatit.

Sir Archibald Douglas, Guardian o the Realm

The Scots airmy that focht an lost the Battle o Halidon Hill in 1333 wis led bi James' yungest brither who haed been electit Regent o Scotland in late Mairch o 1333. Sir Archibald Douglas haes been badly treatit bi some historians; frequently misidentifyin this Douglas warrior as the Tyneman or loser when the moniker wis intendit for a later less fortunate but equally warlike Archibald. He wis mentioned in Barbour's The Brus for his great victory durin the Weardale Campaign; leadin the Scots airmy further sooth intae Coonty Durham he devastatit the lands an teuk muckle booty frae Darlington an ither nearby touns an veelages.

Sir James 'The Good' Douglas' naitural son William succeedit tae the title as Lord o Douglas but mey no hae completit his title tae the estates, possibly acause he might hae been unnerage. He dee'd at Battle o Halidon Hill wi his uncle, Sir Archibald Douglas. James' younger brither, Hugh the Dull, Lord o Douglas, a Canon servin the See o Glasgae an held a Prebendary at Roxburgh became Lord Douglas in 1342; Hugh o Douglas resigned his title tae his nephew, the yungest survivin son o the Regent Archibald, William Lord o Douglas who wis tae acome the first Earl. The First Earl's legitimate son James Douglas, 2nt Earl o Douglas succeedit him. His illegitimate son bi Margaret Stewart, 4t Coontess o Angus wis George Douglas, 1st Earl o Angus, who wis the progenitor o the Earls o Angus kent as the "Red Douglases" an aw.

The prestige o the faimily wis greatly increased when James Douglas's great nephew, James Douglas, 2nt Earl o Douglas mairit a House o Stuart princess. In 1388 at the Battle o Otterburn he wis instrumental tae the Scots' victory, but wis killed durin the feghtin. Leavin nae legitimate heir, his titles passed tae the illegitimate son o his great uncle.

15t Century

Wars with Ingland
Archibald Douglas, 3rd Earl o Douglas did muckle tae consolidate the faimily's pouer an influence. He successfully defendit Edinburgh Castle against Henry IV o Ingland in 1400 but dee'd the follaein year.

His son, Archibald Douglas, 4t Earl o Douglas, marriet the dochter o Robert III o Scotland. The fowert Earl focht against King Henry IV o Ingland at the Battle o Shrewsbury in 1403, whaur he wis taken preesoner. He became a general in Joan o Arc's airmy an continued the fecht against the Inglis. He wis rewardit for his efforts wi the Duchy o Touraine.

In 1406, wi the daith o the king, the 4t Earl o Douglas became ane o the cooncil o regents tae rule Scotland durin the childhood o James I o Scotland. In 1412 the 4t Earl haed visitit Paris, when he entered intae a personal alliance wi John the Fearless, Duke o Burgundy, an in 1423 he commandit a contingent f 10,000 Scots sent tae the aid o Charles VII o Fraunce against the Inglis. He wis made lieutenant-general in the French airmy, an received the title Duke o Touraine, wi remainder tae his heirs-male, on 19 Aprile 1424. The newly creatit French duke wis defeatit an slain at Battle o Verneuil on 17 August 1424, alang wi his seicont son, James, an son-in-law John Stewart, 2nt Earl o Buchan.

Murder o the Douglas chiefs at Edinburgh Castle

The Douglases became sae pouerful that bi the early fifteent century thay wur seen as a threat tae the stability o the naition. In 1440 the young William Douglas, 6t Earl o Douglas an his brither wur invitit tae dine wi the ten year-auld King James II o Scotland. The dinner wis organised bi Sir William Crichton o Clan Crichton. Kent as the Black Bull Dinner, a black bull's heid, the seembol o daith, wis brocht in. Efter the dinner the Douglas chiefs wur dragged oot tae Castle Hill, gien a mock trial an beheadit. The Clan Douglas then laid siege tae Edinburgh Castle. Crichton perceivin the danger surrendered the castle tae the King an wis raised tae the title o Lord Crichton. It is still unclear exactly who else wis ultimately responsible, tho it is thocht Crichton, Livingstone an Buchan as likely candidates.

Clan Conflicts

In 1448 Hugh Douglas, Earl o Ormond held command alang wi John Wallace o Clan Wallace when he led a Scots force tae victory against an Inglis airmy at the Battle o Sark in 1448.

The king gae the Earl o Atholl's confiscatit lands o Strathbogie tae Clan Gordon. The castle thare became kent as Huntly, a reminder o the Gordons' Berwickshire lands. Sir Alexander Gordon wis creatit Earl o Huntly in 1449. At this time the king wis at enmity wi the pouerful Clan Douglas. The Gordons stood on the king's side, an wi thair men involved in the sooth o the kintra. The Earl o Moray wis a relation an ally o the Douglases. He an the Douglases teuk the opportunity tae sack the Gordon lands, settin Huntly Castle ablaze. Housomeivver the Gordons returned an quickly destroyed thair enemies. Awtho the castle wis burned tae the grund, a grander castle wis biggit in its place.

The Douglases haed a lang feud wi Clan Colville. Sir Richard Colville haed killed the Laird o Auchinleck who wis an ally o the Douglases. Tae avenge this murther the Douglases attacked the Colvilles in thair castle, whaur mony wur killed. The Douglases levelled the Colville's castle an put thair men tae the swuird. William Douglas, 8t Earl o Douglas personally executit Richard Colville.

Murder o the Douglas chiefs at Stirling Castle

The strength o the Douglases made it impossible for James II o Scotland tae rule freely.  Efter fruitless feudin wi the Douglases the King invitit William Douglas, 8t Earl o Douglas tae Stirling Castle in 1452 unner the promise o safe conduct, but then the King accused the Earl o conspiracy in his dealings wi the Yorkists in Ingland an throu a pact made atween Douglas, the Earl o Crawford an the Lord o the Isles. Upon Douglas' refusal tae repudiate the pact an reaffirm his lealtie tae James II, the King drew his dagger an stabbed Douglas in the throat. The story goes that the King's Captain o the Guard then finished off the Earl wi a pole axe. The body wis thrown frae the windae intae a gairden belaw, whaur it wis later gien burial. A stained gless windae bearin the Douglas Arms nou owerluiks "Douglas Garden", the spot whaur the Earl is said tae hae fallen.

Feud wi the Stewart royal family

In 1455 James Douglas, 9t Earl o Douglas rebelled against the king but his forces wur defeatit at the Battle o Arkinholm bi the king's forces who wur commandit bi the Reid Douglas, Earl o Angus. This brocht an end tae the Black Douglases. Efter the battle an act o parliament gae the Earl o Angus the lordship o Douglas wi the oreeginal possessions o his ancestors in Douglasdale. The 9t earl wis later defeatit bi the forces o King James III o Scotland at the Battle o Lochmaben Fair in 1484.

16t Century Conflicts

In 1513, thare wis a strang Douglas contingent at the Battle o Flodden Field, whaur twa o Archibald Douglas, 5th Earl o Angus's (Red Douglas's) sons wur killed alang wi 200 men o the Clan Douglas.

A dispute occurred in 1530, when Sir Robert Charteris, the 8t Laird an chief o Clan Charteris focht a duel wi Sir James Douglas o Drumlanrig in what wis said tae hae been ane o the last great chivalric contests. It wis focht wi aw the observance o a medieval tournament wi heralds an the king himsel watchin frae the castle walls. The joust wis apparently focht wi sic fury that Charteris' swurd wis brakken an the king haed tae send his men-at-arms tae pairt the combatants.

Archibald Douglas, 6t Earl o Angus held the post o Lord Chancellor an became guardian o James V o Scotland bi marryin his widowed mither, Margaret Tudor, wi whom he haed a dochter, Margaret Douglas, mither o Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. In 1545, Angus led his forces tae victory at the Battle o Ancrum Moor whaur thay defeatit the Inglis airmy durin the Rough Wooing, an he wis present at the defeat in 1547 at the Battle o Pinkie Cleugh an aw.

James Douglas, 4t Earl o Morton, nephew o the 6t Earl o Angus, wis a bitter enemy o Mary, Queen o Scots. He wis ane o the murderers o the queen's secretary David Rizzio an wis hivily implicatit in the murther o her seicont husband Lord Darnley. As regent, he wis brutal in crushin factions still lyal tae Mary, housomeivver, he wis accused o complicity in the murther o Darnley an wis executit in 1581.

17t century & the Bishops' War

Durin the Wars o the Three Kinricks, William Douglas, 11t Earl o Angus, a Catholic, wis a supporter o Charles I o Scotland. In 1633, he wis creatit Marquess o Douglas. Followin the Battle o Kilsyth in 1645, he jynt James Graham, 1st Marquess o Montrose, an wis present when Royalist forces focht Covenanter cavalry at the Battle o Philiphaugh whaur he barely escaped wi his life. Follaein Cromwell's victory, he wis able tae mak peace an wis fined £1,000.

In 1660, William Douglas, the brither o the seicont Marquess o Douglas became, throu marriage, the Duke o Hamilton. Eventually, the titles o Marquess o Douglas, Earl o Angus, an several others devolved tae the Dukes o Hamilton an the heir o that hoose is aaways styled 'Marquess o Douglas an Clydesdale'. The Douglas an Hamilton lines became Douglas-Hamilton an, unner Scots law, ar barred frae inheritin the title o chief o Clan Douglas due tae the hyphenatit surname. This similarly applies tae the Douglas-Home faimily who jynt thair surnames in the aichteent century.

In 1689, James Douglas, Earl o Angus raised the Cameronian regiment (Earl o Angus's regiment) Awtho greatly outnumbered, the regiment managed tae defeat a lairger Jacobite force at the Battle o Dunkeld. The regiment wis victorious unner the command o Captain George Munro o Auchinbowie.

18t century & the Jacobite risins

In 1703 the Marquisate o Douglas wis elevatit tae a Dukedom, housomeivver, in the late 17t century, mair politeecal pouer wis wieldit bi the Douglases o Drumlanrig, in Dumfriesshire who ar descendit frae the Black Douglases an aw. The Douglases o Drumlanrig haed acome Earl o Queensberry in 1633, Marquises in 1682 an Dukes in 1684. The manoeuvres o James Douglas, 2nt Duke o Queensberry, contributit tae the Union o 1707. Later, in the 18t century, durin the Jacobite Uprisings, the Douglases continued thair support for the Breetish govrenment. The Duke o Douglas led the volunteer horse durin the Battle o Sheriffmuir in 1715. At that fecht wis the Duke's young cousin an aw, Archibald Douglas, 2nt Earl o Forfar, colonel o the 3rd Regiment o fit, an who dee'd o wounds taken thare shortly efterwards. Douglas Castle wis burnt bi the Hieland armies o Bonnie Prince Charlie in the 1745 uprisin. Douglas Castle wis again burnt doun in 1755, an the Duke commenced wirk on a new edifice designed bi Robert Adam. Biggin wirk ceased on the Duke's daith in 1761, an wi it his Dukedom became extinct. The Marquisate o Douglas, an Earldom o Angus devolved tae James Hamilton, 7t Duke o Hamilton, the senior male line descendant o the 2nt Marquis o Douglas, his great-great-great grandfaither.

Freemit airtins
 Clan Douglas Society o North Americae
 Douglas Family Site, Brief Historical Account
 Douglas History The Douglas Archives - a compendium o historical notes an biographies.

Douglas

Airmigerous clans

Clan Douglas


Skiing is either sportive or recreational activity using skis for sliding over snow. Skis are used with special boots connected to them with a binding. There are two different types of skiing: downhill skiing and cross country skiing.

Downhill skiing
Downhill skiing is a sport. Skiers ski down a trail (also called a "run") on the side of a mountain or hill. Each trail is marked with a sign that shows how difficult that particular run will be. Three different colors are used to rate the difficulty of the trail. They are: green, blue, and black. Green trails are easiest, blue trails are more difficult, and black trails are rated most difficult. The colors which represent a trail will also be seen in a shape.

The most common ratings for trails are:
 Green circles are the easiest trail. They have a very shallow slope, and the runs are very smooth. They are very wide, and are easily accessed. They are used by beginner skiers to learn.
 Blue square trails are more difficult. The trail will go down a steeper part of the mountain. Sometimes, the trails are narrower, and they may be bumpy. These are advised for beginner skiers wishing to improve.
 Red trails are more difficult. The trail is often longer and steeper and sometimes are less smooth than other runs. These are advised for more advanced skiers.  Red trails are rare. Different ski resorts call them different things, such as double blue square trails.
 Black diamonds are very difficult trails on the mountain. They are often covered in ice or large bumps designed often to challenge skiers. These are advised for very good skiers only.
 Double black diamonds are for expert skiers only. They may have unmarked obstacles and may be very thin runs. They sometimes have to be accessed by hiking up to them, being too steep, rocky, or unused to put in a lift.
 Rarely, there are extreme terrain trails, represented by two black diamonds, one with an E and the other with an X in the center.  These are almost always accessed by hiking, and are for expert, extremely experienced skiers ONLY.
 There are also terrain parks for skiers who want to person stunts and tricks. It consist of tubes, flip courses, and obstacles.

Trail ratings are often relative to the rest of the terrain at the ski resort- for example, the difficulty of a black diamond trail at a small ski area may be a rated as a blue square at a bigger resort with harder trails.

Cross country skiing
Cross country skiing is a sport of endurance. Skiers ski anywhere where there is snow. This is usually through a scenic forest or town.

Alpine skiing
Alpine skiing is a contest of speed. Racers go through the course with red and blue gates and go down to the goal as fast as they can.  There are four disciplines in alpine skiing: downhill, super giant slalom, giant slalom and slalom.

Ski gate

A ski gate is two sticks on a skiing race course that a skier needs to pass between. Ski gates are used in alpine skiing in downhill, Slalom, Giant Slalom and Super-G races. Downhill races have not many ski gates so skiers can be safe when they are going very fast. If a skier does not go between a ski gate, the judges say they are removed from the race. First in the 1980s and now a lot of the time, ski gates have hinges near the snow. Some ski gates have flags at the top of the stick.

References

Other websites

 Sports: Winter Sports: Skiing  Directory of skiing related links
 National Ski Patrol
 Ski tips Tips for getting in shape and improving your skiing.
 Is Global Warming Affecting Skiing How Global Warming is Ruining Skiing

Winter Olympic sports

Skiing


Galvanizing is the coating of a metal with a more reactive metal to stop corrosion. Normally zinc is used to coat iron. The zinc coating corrodes instead of the iron, stopping the iron from corroding. Even if the zinc is scratched, it does not corrode. Metal corrodes after the paint is scratched. The zinc eventually corrodes all the way and then the iron starts corroding.

Galvanizing can happen in two ways. There is hot dip galvanising, where the object is dipped in a pool of liquid zinc. This makes a thicker coating that lasts a long time. It does not have a shiny clean surface, though, so some people would not like it as much.

There is also electro-galvanizing. This is the electroplating of zinc onto an object. It is shiny but thinner, so it does not last as long.

Note

Related pages

Electrolysis

Physical chemistry
Metallurgy

Galvanizing


Johann Heinrich Köselitz (10 January 1854 – 15 August 1918) was a German author and composer. He is known for his longtime friendship with Friedrich Nietzsche, who gave him the pseudonym Peter Gast.

Life

Köselitz was born in Annaberg, Saxony to Gustav Hermann Köselitz (1822–1910), the vice mayor (Vizebürgermeister), and his wife Caroline (1819–1900), a native of Vienna. His younger brother was the painter Rudolf Köselitz.

From 1872, Köselitz studied music with Ernst Friedrich Richter at the University of Leipzig. He transferred in 1875 to the University of Basel, where he attended the lectures of Jacob Burckhardt, Franz Overbeck, and Friedrich Nietzsche. In 1877, Köselitz sharply criticized  the Basel music instructor Selmar Bagge in a newspaper article, which led to a minor scandal.

In Basel, a friendship developed between Köselitz and Nietzsche. Köselitz read for Nietzsche during the latter's intermittent spells of near blindness, and also took dictation. Köselitz was instrumental in the preparation of all of Nietzsche's works after 1876, reviewing the printer's manuscript and sometimes intervening to finalize the text formatting. Nietzsche's break with Wagner and his search for a 'southern' aesthetic with which he could immunize himself from the gloomy German north led him to over-appreciate Köselitz as a musician: 'I should not know how to get along without Rossini; even less, without my own south in music, the music of my Venetian maëstro Pietro Gast. As an amanuensis, however, Köselitz really was invaluable; writing apropos Human, All Too Human, Nietzsche claimed that Gast 'wrote and also corrected: fundamentally, he was really the writer whereas I was merely the author'. All the while, Köselitz worshipped his teacher,  assisting him to the point of self-denial.

In the spring of 1881, while staying together in Recoaro, Nietzsche created the pseudonym 'Peter Gast' for Köselitz. This was the name he was known by among the Nietzsche circle, as well as being the name under which he published all his operas. The name itself is possibly a reference to Mozart's opera Don Giovanni, with its stone guest (Petrus "stone" in Latin, Gast "guest" in German). Peter Gast's most ambitious musical work is the comic opera in three acts The Lion of Venice (Der Löwe von Venedig). Throughout the 1880s, Gast and Nietzsche attempted without success to bring it to performance. It premiered in February 1891 in Danzig under the direction of Carl Fuchs, who exchanged letters with Nietzsche, but under its original title The Secret Wedding (Die heimliche Ehe or Il matrimonio segreto). In the 1930s, it would be shown once again under the title Nietzsche suggested, The Lion of Venice.

Köselitz was financed by his father, and also intermittently supported by Nietzsche's friend Paul Rée. In addition to being a musician and the editor of Nietzsche's writings and letters, he worked as a writer under various pseudonyms, including: Ludwig Mürner, Peter Schlemihl, Petrus Eremitus. He sent articles to many newspapers, and also wrote several short stories and fables.

Notes

References
 Friedrich Götz. Peter Gast – der Mensch, der Künstler, der Gelehrte. Ein Lebensbild in Quellen. Annaberg, 1934.

1854 births
1918 deaths
19th-century classical composers
20th-century classical composers
German opera composers
Male opera composers
People from Annaberg-Buchholz
Musicians from the Kingdom of Saxony
German Romantic composers
German male classical composers
20th-century German composers
19th-century German composers
20th-century German male musicians
19th-century German male musicians
People from the Kingdom of Saxony

Heinrich Köselitz


aptitude is a front-end to APT, the Debian package manager. It displays a list of software packages and allows the user to interactively pick packages to install or remove. It has a search system utilizing flexible search patterns. It was initially created for Debian, but has appeared in RPM-based distributions as well.

User interfaces
aptitude is based on the ncurses computer terminal library, with which it provides an interface that incorporates some elements commonly seen in graphical user interfaces (GUIs) (such as pull-down menus).

In addition to the ncurses interface, aptitude provides an extensive command-line interface (CLI). Even though aptitude is one executable file, it provides command-line functions similar to those of the family of tools provided by APT (apt-get, apt-cache, apt-listchanges, etc.). aptitude also emulates most  command-line arguments, allowing it to act as a full replacement for . In the past, it was recommended that aptitude and apt-get not be used interchangeably. This is no longer true, as both programs now correctly track and share a common list of packages that were automatically installed to satisfy dependencies.

History
aptitude was created in 1999. At the time two other terminal-based APT-like front-ends were available: the dselect program, which had been used to manage packages on Debian before APT was created, and the console-apt program, a project that was considered to be the heir apparent to dselect. aptitude was created to experiment with a more object-oriented programming design than that used in console-apt, in the hope that this would result in a more flexible program with a broader set of features.

The first public release of aptitude was version 0.0.1 on November 18, 1999. It was very limited: it had the ability to view the list of available packages, but could not actually download or install any packages. By version 0.0.4a, this ability had been added, with many other improvements; this version was included in Debian 2.2, code name: .

In late 2000, the whole user interface module was rewritten; a new architecture was created, based on the libsigc++ callback library and concepts from modern widget toolkits such as GTK+ and Qt. This enabled the interface to become much more similar to GUIs than it had been previously, with features such as pull-down menus and pop-up dialogs. One of aptitude's more unusual features, a tiny implementation of Minesweeper, was added at this time. The first official aptitude release following this rewrite was 0.2.0., aptitude 0.2.11.1 was released with Debian 3.0 Woody. By this time, the  project (renamed to ) had been effectively abandoned by its maintainers, and it was removed from Woody. aptitude has also been ported to jailbroken iOS as part of the Cydia package manager.

Easter egg

aptitude states that, unlike APT, it does not have "Super Cow Powers". In apt-get "super cow powers" can be found by issuing the command . However, in aptitude issuing moo will give the user a prompt saying there are no Easter eggs.

However, by issuing , then , and so on the user will see a series of statements denying the "Super Cow Powers" or telling them to go away, some ending with a picture (a reference to Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's The Little Prince) not unlike the original apt-get Easter egg. Different versions of the program have different sequences.

In addition, the package description states that "aptitude is also Y2K-compliant, non-fattening, naturally cleansing, and housebroken."

See also

 AppStream
 Kpackage
 Synaptic (software)

References

External links

Debian
Dpkg
Linux PMS graphical front-ends
Free software that uses ncurses

Aptitude (software)


The German University of Administrative Sciences Speyer (German: Deutsche Universität für Verwaltungswissenschaften Speyer; sometimes referred to as Speyer University), is a national graduate school for administrative sciences and public management located in Speyer, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. Founded in 1947 by the French occupational authorities as a grande école, today it is operated under the joint responsibility of both the Federal Republic (Bund) and all 16 German states (Länder). It runs four Master's programs, grants doctoral degrees and habilitations, offers a postgraduate certificate program, and administers programs of executive education. The school is a major training ground for German and international senior government officials. Noted alumni and faculty include former President of Germany Roman Herzog, Professor Niklas Luhmann; current Minister of Defence Christine Lambrecht, current Justice at the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany Heinrich Amadeus Wolff, former President of the Bundesbank Helmut Schlesinger, former Prosecutor General of Germany Alexander von Stahl, and CEO of BASF Jürgen Strube.

The school was founded in 1947, as the State Academy of Administrative Sciences Speyer (Staatliche Akademie für Verwaltungswissenschaften Speyer). In 1950 it was renamed the School of Administrative Sciences Speyer (Hochschule für Verwaltungswissenschaften Speyer) and after reunification became the German School of Administrative Sciences Speyer (Deutsche Hochschule für Verwaltungswissenschaften Speyer).

History
The school was founded in 1947 as École Supérieure d'Administration by the French occupational authorities in order to democratize the German senior civil service. Created as a sister institution to École Nationale d'Administration, it was the first and only German school to employ the French grande école model. In 1950 it was formally established as a German institution of public law with legal capacity and entrusted with "fostering the administrative sciences in education and research".<ref>{{cite book |title=Zur Struktur der deutschen Verwaltung (On the Structure of German Administration)|year=1967|publisher=Duncker & Humblot |location=Berlin}}</ref> In 1961 and 1970 respectively, it was bestowed with the right to grant habilitations and doctorates, thereby receiving full university status. Since its inception, the school has had a reputation as an "elite training center"."The German University of Administrative Sciences (DHV) in Speyer ranks among the most renowned elite training centers in the country" ("Die Deutsche Hochschule für Verwaltungswissenschaften (DHV) in Speyer gehört zu den berühmtesten Kaderschmieden im Land")  The school is the only German university run jointly by the Federal Republic (Bund) and all 16 German states (Länder).

Academic programs

The university offers programs leading to a postgraduate certificate and master's degrees. Furthermore it runs doctoral programs, and administers programs of executive education. The language of instruction is predominantly German, although each year a series of seminar courses offered in cooperation with Indiana University School of Public and Environmental Affairs is delivered in English language. In 2015 the cooperation expanded to include the University of Southern California's Price School of Public Policy. Master's students may earn the European Master of Public Administration diploma by studying an additional semester abroad at one of the twelve partner schools in the EMPA network.

The one-term postgraduate certificate program offers complementary studies in public management. It is aimed at young and future government officials holding a graduate-level degree. It resembles the first semester of the Master of Administrative Sciences program.

The Master of Administrative Sciences (Magister rerum publicarum) is the school's traditional flagship program. It is a one-year postgraduate program open to students holding an additional graduate-level degree, preferably in law, economics, history, or sociology. Students can choose from some 100 courses that are divided into five policy areas: 1. Public tasks, Organization and Proceedings, 2. Public Management, 3. European and International Affairs, 4. State and Economy, and 5. Higher Education and Research Management. The program comprises two terms at the school, an eight-week internship at German or European institutions, and a subsequent period of three months to write the master's thesis and pass an oral examination. International student enrollment in this program regularly hovers around 50 percent.

The Master of Arts in Administrative Sciences is a two-year interdisciplinary program focusing on public administration in an international context. First year students follow a core curriculum consisting of six modules on administrative, legal, economic, methodological, and strategic topics, and complete a mandatory eight-week internship. In the second year, students choose courses from the following six optional modules: 1. Government and Administration, 2. Public Policy, 3. Europeanization and Internationalization of Public Administration, 4. Organization and Personnel, 5. Funding of Public Services, and 6. Competition and Regulation in the Infrastructure Sector. At the end of the second year, students complete the master's thesis.

The Master of Arts in Public Economy is a two-year program dedicated to the study of the public economic sector from an interdisciplinary perspective. During the first year, students follow the core curriculum of the M.A. in Administrative Sciences. Second-year students complete four deepening modules in Public Finance, Competition and Regulation, Procurement, and Public Corporate Governance, choose one optional module on Public Enterprises, or Infrastructure, and write a master's thesis.

Both M.A. programs also offer a one-year option for students holding a previous relevant master's degree. The Master of Public Administration in Higher Education and Research Management is a two-year part-time program for professional university or research institute administrators.

The university runs doctoral programs in administrative sciences (Doctor rerum publicarum), law (Doctor juris), and political sciences and economy (Doctor rerum politicarum). Doctoral candidates are required to complete one year of coursework in residence at the school, and produce a dissertation which makes a creditable contribution to scholarship in its field. The dissertation must be supervised by a member of the faculty.

The school's executive education provides in-service training for senior civil servants of all government levels. The seminars, workshops and conferences deal with contemporary problems of administration, legislation, and European affairs. The Speyer Leadership College (Führungskolleg Speyer) is a two-year in-service program preparing senior executives holding at least the rank of a Government Director to assume higher positions.

Admission and fees
Admission to the school is competitive and is limited to 25 seats per program and year for the M.A. programs, and to 60 seats for the Master in Administrative Sciences program. Formal minimum entry requirement for all degree programs is a class rank among the top third in the previous academic degree program. Professional administrative experience is considered an asset. For prospective international students, a language test for German at CEFR C1 level is required.

The German state heavily subsidizes university study to keep higher education affordable regardless of socio-economic background. Like most German public universities, Speyer charges no tuition fees for academic programs, for both EU and non-EU citizens. For the professional M.P.A. in Higher Education and Research Management program, the school charges €8,000 in tuition. The annual housing costs for on-campus dormitories range from €1,560 to €3,240.

Research
The university performs "fundamental research with high relevance to practice", and regularly publishes treatises on administrative, legal, political, and economic matters in the Speyer University Monograph Series (Schriftenreihe der Hochschule Speyer''). With its 17 chairs dedicated to public and constitutional law, administrative sciences, economics, modern and contemporary history, sociology, and political science, the school maintains a strategic partnership with the German Research Institute for Public Administration, which is part of the Leibniz Association, and is located on the campus. It also maintains individual research cooperations with 20 universities in Europe, the Americas, and Asia. It is a member of the European Group of Public Administration (EGPA), the Standing Conference of European Public Service Training Agencies (SCEPSTA), the Transatlantic Policy Consortium (TPC), the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA), and the International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration (IASIA).

Alumni
Besides numerous politicians, diplomats, professors, judges, and high-ranking government officials at local, state, federal, and international level, the university's noted alumni and faculty include President of Germany Roman Herzog; Professor Niklas Luhmann, one of the most important social theorists of the 20th century; current Minister of Justice Christine Lambrecht; former Federal Minister and Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations Klaus Töpfer; Federal Minister Wolfgang Bötsch; First Mayor and Prime Minister of Hamburg Christoph Ahlhaus; vice president of the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany Ferdinand Kirchhof; president of the Bundesbank Helmut Schlesinger; president of the Federal Court of Auditors of Germany Dieter Engels; Head of the German Chancellery Waldemar Schreckenberger; president of the Federal Court of Justice of Germany Willi Geiger; president of the Federal Employment Agency of Germany Florian Gerster; Executive Director of the Bundesbank Thilo Sarrazin; Attorney General of Germany Alexander von Stahl; Advocate General at the European Court of Justice Carl Otto Lenz; former CEO and current Chairman of BASF Jürgen Strube; and former CEO of Allianz Global Investors and current Chairman of the Deutsche Börse Group Joachim Faber.

See also
 German Research Institute for Public Administration

References

External links

German Research Institute for Public Administration
European Master of Public Administration Consortium
City of Speyer
Rhine Neckar Metropolitan Area

Public administration schools
Public policy research
Public policy schools
Social science research institutes
Public universities and colleges in Germany
Postgraduate schools in Germany
Universities and colleges in Rhineland-Palatinate
Universities and colleges established in 1947
Speyer
1947 establishments in Germany


Category theory is a type of mathematics.  Category theorists show how different ideas in mathematics are alike. For example, some ideas from topology and abstract algebra are similar. Ideas in category theory are written down in formulas or diagrams. Category theory can be used to make computer programs more secure or easy to write.

A category is a mathematical object. It can be drawn with dots and arrows. Each arrow goes from one dot to one other dot. There can be many dots, sometimes so many that you cannot count them. An arrow is the abstract idea of a function and the dots are the domain and codomain of the function.

Composition is a way to make a new arrow out of two arrows.  If two arrows form an elbow shape, then they have a composition arrow from the start of the first to the end of the second. Composition obeys some axioms, or equations.

Many ideas in abstract algebra are examples of categories or can be used to make categories.  Often, this makes the ideas seem more similar.

Fields of mathematics

Category theory


A superhero is a fictional character who protects innocent people and fights for good.

Modern superheroes usually have superhuman powers, for example have better senses, are stronger and faster than normal humans. Usually a superhero is courageous and noble. They usually have a colorful name and costume.

Some of the most well-known original superheroes are Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Spider-Man and Hulk from DC and Marvel.

Some superheroes do not actually have super powers but are merely strong individuals who want to do good in the world. For example, Batman does not have any superpowers, but has been through years of training to be physically and mentally stronger than his enemies.

Most superheroes keep their identities a secret by wearing masks or helmets.  This protects the superheroes' friends and family from being hurt by villains. Also, because superheroes do not fight within the regulations of the law like police officers do, they would have to be arrested for vigilantism if they revealed their identities.

Also, many superheroes have tragic backstories that play into why they're superheroes in the first place. Batman, for example, saw both of his parents murdered in front of him and dedicated himself to fighting crime to prevent things like that happening to other people. Another example of this is Spider-Man who let a thief go that he could've easily stopped; that same thief later broke into his home and killed Spider-Man's uncle. After this, Spider-Man realized that he had to be responsible with his power and use it to help others.

Superheroes

Superhero


Knud Wedel Hvidberg (27 May 1927 – 5 May 1986) was a Danish painter and sculptor.

Biography
Born in Holstebro in central Jutland, Hvidberg was a self-taught artist. In the early 1960s, he first painted in a Constructivist style inspired by Gunnar Aagaard Andersen and other members of the Linien II artists association. His sculptural creations were mobiles made of roof gutters, plexiglass and iron driven by electric motors with shining lights. One, developed together with William Soya, also had a sound and light component, predating later installations. His 1965 POEX exhibition combined avant-garde developments in art, poetry and drama. Hvidberg sought to give his mobiles associations with the cosmos and with ancient civilisations. While in Rome in the early 1979s, he again became interested in Symbolism which had characterized his early works with crosses and swastikas.

In the 1980s, Hvidberg decorated a number of buildings including the Vordingborg Educational Centre (Vordingborg Uddannelsescenter) in 1985.

Awards
In 1972, Hvidberg was awarded the Eckersberg Medal.

References

Literature

External links
Examples of Knud Hvilberg's paintings from Kunst på arbejde
Illustrated list of Knud Hvilberg's works in Danish museums from Kunstindeks Danmark

1927 births
1986 deaths
20th-century Danish painters
People from Holstebro
Recipients of the Eckersberg Medal
20th-century Danish sculptors
Male sculptors
Danish male artists
20th-century Danish male artists

Knud Hvidberg


Jean Pelletier,  (; February 21, 1935 – January 10, 2009) was a Canadian politician who served as the 37th mayor of Quebec City, Chief of Staff in the Prime Minister's Office, and chairman of Via Rail. He was a leading organizer of the Liberal Party of Canada.

Early career
Born in Chicoutimi, Quebec, the son of Burroughs and Marie (Desautels) Pelletier, Pelletier was educated at the college des Jesuits in Quebec City and the Séminaire de Trois-Rivières. He studied social sciences at Laval University before working as a journalist with CFCM-TV in Quebec City in 1957. From 1958 to 1958, he was a correspondent with Télévision de Radio-Canada. In 1959, he was the press secretary for the Premier of Quebec, Paul Sauvé.

From 1960 to 1962, he was the executive secretary for the Commission des Monuments Historiques de la Province de Québec, a society for the listing and preserving all buildings of historical interest in the province of Quebec. From 1963 to 1964, he was a Technical Advisor to the Secretary of the Province of Quebec. Moving into the private sector, he was a broker for Levesque & Beaubien from 1964 to 1970. From 1970 to 1973, he was a vice president for Dumont Express. From 1973 to 1977, he was vice-president of Action Sociale Ltée.

Political career
Pelletier began his political career with the Union Nationale party, a conservative and nationalist party identifying with Quebec autonomism.

He won a seat as a municipal councillor in Quebec City in December 1976. He was elected mayor in 1977, serving for twelve years and two more elections. During his tenure as mayor, from 1977 to 1989, he improved rail service into the city, was instrumental in reviving the Lower Town and in having it designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

While mayor, Pelletier also became friends with Paris mayor Jacques Chirac. The two worked closely together as part of the Association of Francophone Mayors (1979–89), where Pelletier served as vice president. He successfully persuaded Chirac to keep quiet during the 1980 Quebec referendum, though Chirac personally supported an independent Quebec like General Charles de Gaulle.

With the demise of the Union Nationale, he joined the Liberal Party of Canada.

Chief of Staff to Jean Chrétien
Pelletier was a longtime close ally and friend of Jean Chrétien. They knew each other for years, having first met at boarding school while still youths.  They attended law school at Laval University together and earned similar reputations as being aggressive.

When Chrétien won the leadership in 1990, he was largely unpopular in Quebec, rocked by caucus defects, and indecisive in responding to the Oka standoff. The federal Liberals were disorganized, near bankruptcy, and dropped in the polls from 50 to 32 per cent. In order to reinvigorate his leadership and reorganized his chaotic office, Chrétien hired Pelletier as his chief of staff, while Eddie Goldenberg continued as senior political adviser.

Pelletier ran unsuccessfully in a Quebec City riding during the 1993 election, which saw the party capture few seats in the province of Quebec outside of their federalist stronghold of Montreal. That campaign saw Chrétien become Prime Minister, and Pelletier became his Chief of Staff, making him head of the Prime Minister's Office.

Chrétien praised Pelletier as Chief of Staff, saying "He ran a very tight–and tight-lipped–ship.... As a result, we didn't suffer from the public feuding, backbiting gossip, and anonymous leaks that had plagued other PMOs. Even those columnists and academics who were no fans of the Liberal Party had to concede that Pelletier's operation was among the most efficient and harmonious in memory, despite having been reduced from 120 to 80 employees as a cost-saving measure." Jeffrey Simpson, a columnist for The Globe and Mail, noted that "Pelletier stayed away from the media. He seldom met with journalists, and when he did, he gave almost nothing away. He was courteous, refined, sometimes witty and usually non-informative."

Pelletier persuaded two designates for Governor General, Roméo LeBlanc and Adrienne Clarkson, to marry their long-time partners, so they could be appointed as Canada's head of state.

Pelletier remained close friends with Jacques Chirac, who became President of France in 1994. Pelletier played an instrumental role in Chrétien and Chirac becoming close friends despite their initial disagreements. Chrétien had initially dismissed Chirac as a "right-wing Gaullist" and had been publicly furious when Chirac announced on Larry King Live that France would be one of the first countries to recognize an independent Quebec.  Years later, when Paul Martin became prime minister and dismissed Pelletier (see below), Chirac criticized Martin for his treatment of Pelletier.

Sponsorship Scandal and Via Rail Controversy
On May 4, 2001, Chrétien appointed Pelletier chairman of Via Rail, a Crown corporation.  Soon after, Chrétien promised an extra C$700 million to improve Via's service.

On March 1, 2004, Pelletier and Via President Marc LeFrançois were fired by Prime Minister Paul Martin and Transport Minister Tony Valeri. Their dismissals were shortly after the Liberal Party became embroiled in the sponsorship scandal.  Pelletier was one of four Chrétien loyalists sacked from jobs at Crown corporations by Martin's government during the sponsorship scandal. Via was accused of skipping mandated procedures in order to hand out contracts to Liberal-friendly firms and individuals. Pelletier, however, was not at Via for most of these occurrences, and the Martin government was accused of using an incident as an excuse to remove one of Chrétien's allies. Eddie Goldenberg said that Pelletier "was very hurt about being fired for saying something about Myriam Bédard without being asked for his side. The whole purpose [of firing him] had nothing to do with Ms. Bédard and everything to do with the fact that Mr. Martin didn't like him because he had worked for Mr. Chrétien".

Paul Martin maintained that Pelletier was fired for remarks that he made to Montreal's La Presse newspaper attacking Olympic athlete Myriam Bédard.  Talking about Bédard, who had held a marketing position at Via and had gone to the media with stories of corruption, Pelletier said "I don't want to be mean, but this is a poor girl who deserves pity, who doesn't have a spouse, as far as I know." He later reiterated that "She is struggling as a single mother with economic responsibilities. Deep down, I think she is pitiful." This caused an immediate media fracas and the remarks were widely condemned as sexist and out-of-touch by women's groups, sports groups and others.

On March 30, 2004, Pelletier sued Via and the federal government for C$3 million, for defamation and illegal dismissal. A federal court ruled that dismissal did not follow due process and ordered him reinstated in November 2005.  Although he was reinstated, the government appealed the court ruling and kept him off the payroll.  On December 22, 2005, he was fired a second time, this time after the government ensured that due process was followed. Pelletier filed suit in Quebec Superior Court alleging wrongful dismissal; Transport Minister Jean Lapierre issued a written statement noting that the second dismissal was effective immediately and that Pelletier would not receive compensation due to his suit against the government.

After the 2006 federal election, Reg Alcock, the outgoing President of the Treasury Board, did approve $40,000 to assist Pelletier with legal fees in a court challenge against the Gomery Commission.  Representatives of other parties criticized this payment, saying that the government should only cover legal costs for working civil servants. Pelletier's lawyer argued that it followed a long-standing government policy for high-ranking functionaries in judicial proceedings.

A Federal Court justice ruled in March 2007 that the Martin government acted improperly in 2005 when it fired Pelletier a second time, immediately after a court overturned his first dismissal as head of Via Rail. Justice Francois Lemieux ruled that then-Transport Minister Jean Lapierre, who fired Pelletier the second time, was biased and failed to follow proper procedures. On November 22, 2007, Judge Hélène Langlois of Quebec Superior Court ruled that government of Prime Minister Paul Martin had acted in a "cavalier and precipitous" fashion when it fired Pelletier. Langloise stated, "that behaviour doesn't meet the standard of diligence expected from a contractor when a contractual relationship is ended. It shows a total lack of consideration". Langlois also mentioned that people refused to walk on the same side of the street as Pelletier while others called him names in public. Pelletier was awarded $235,000 in lost income, and a further $100,000 for damaging his reputation. He had sued for $689,000 in financial losses and $3.3 million for moral damages.

On June 26, 2008, federal judge Max Teitelbaum criticized John Gomery for having a preoccupation with the media spotlight that led him to give interviews he should have eschewed, making comments that indicated he judged issues before all evidence was heard, exhibited bias against Mr. Chrétien, and trivialized the inquiry proceedings. For instance, Teitelbaum pointed out that Gomery's remark halfway through the hearings that "juicy stuff" was yet to come made it appear that evidence of wrongdoing was expected before it was heard. The court threw out the Gomery inquiry's conclusions that Chrétien and Pelletier bore responsibility for the sponsorship scandal.

Death
Pelletier died in Quebec City on January 10, 2009, from complications of colon cancer, aged 73. He was survived by his wife, Hélène, and two children, Jean and Marie. Marie and her husband Andrew Stegen have two children named Alix, and Mathew.

Honours
In 1985, Pelletier was made a Member of the Order of Canada in recognition of having "played a pivotal role in many social, cultural and philanthropic organizations in the Old Capital". He was promoted to Officer in 2003 in recognition of having "dedicated his life to public service". In 1990, he was made an Officer of the National Order of Quebec.

References

1935 births
2009 deaths
20th-century Canadian businesspeople
Mayors of Quebec City
Canadian people in rail transport
Via Rail people
Officers of the Order of Canada
Officers of the National Order of Quebec
Politicians from Saguenay, Quebec
Deaths from colorectal cancer
Deaths from cancer in Quebec
Chiefs of staff of the Canadian Prime Minister's Office
Corruption in Canada
Université Laval alumni

Jean Pelletier