The Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs is an international organization that brings together scholars and public figures to work toward reducing the danger of armed conflict and to seek solutions to global security threats. It was founded in 1957 by Joseph Rotblat and Bertrand Russell in Pugwash, Nova Scotia, Canada, following the release of the Russell–Einstein Manifesto in 1955.

Rotblat and the Pugwash Conference jointly won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1995 for their efforts on nuclear disarmament. International Student/Young Pugwash groups have existed since founder Cyrus Eaton's death in 1979.

Origin of the Pugwash Conferences

The Russell–Einstein Manifesto, released July 9, 1955, called for a conference for scientists to assess the dangers of weapons of mass destruction (then only considered to be nuclear weapons). Cyrus Eaton, an industrialist and philanthropist, offered on July 13 to finance and host the conference in the town of his birth, Pugwash, Nova Scotia. This was not taken up at the time because a meeting was planned for India, at the invitation of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. With the outbreak of the Suez Crisis the Indian conference was postponed. Aristotle Onassis offered to finance a meeting in Monaco instead, but this was rejected. Eaton's former invitation was taken up.

The first conference was held at what became known as Thinkers' Lodge in July 1957 in Pugwash, Nova Scotia. Twenty-two scientists attended the first conference:
 seven from the United States: David F. Cavers, Paul M. Doty, Hermann J. Muller, Eugene Rabinowitch, Walter Selove, Leó Szilárd, Victor Frederick Weisskopf
 three from the Soviet Union: Alexander M. Kuzin (Александр М. Кузин), Dmitri Skobeltsyn, Alexander V. Topchiev (Александр В. Топчиев)
 three from Japan: Iwao Ogawa, Shinichiro Tomonaga, Hideki Yukawa
 two from the UK: Cecil F. Powell, Joseph Rotblat
 two from Canada: Brock Chisholm, John S. Foster
 one each from Australia (Mark Oliphant), Austria (Hans Thirring), China (Zhou Peiyuan), France (Antoine M. B. Lacassagne), and Poland (Marian Danysz).
Cyrus Eaton, Eric Burhop, Ruth Adams, Anne Kinder Jones, and Vladimir Pavlichenko also were present. Many others were unable to attend, including co-founder Bertrand Russell, for health reasons. From the Soviet Union, Mikhail Ilyich Bruk (; 1923 Moscow - 2009 Jurmala) attended as an English-Russian technical translator. Later, Armand Hammer stated, "Mike's KGB."

Organizational structure

Pugwash's "main objective is the elimination of all weapons of mass destruction (nuclear, chemical and biological) and of war as a social institution to settle international disputes. To that extent, peaceful resolution of conflicts through dialogue and mutual understanding is an essential part of Pugwash activities, that is particularly relevant when and where nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction are deployed or could be used."

"The various Pugwash activities (general conferences, workshops, study groups, consultations and special projects) provide a channel of communication between scientists, scholars, and individuals experienced in government, diplomacy, and the military for in-depth discussion and analysis of the problems and opportunities at the intersection of science and world affairs.  To ensure a free and frank exchange of views, conducive to the emergence of original ideas and an effective communication between different or antagonistic governments, countries and groups, Pugwash meetings as a rule are held in private.  This is the main modus operandi of Pugwash.  In addition to influencing governments by the transmission of the results of these discussions and meetings, Pugwash also may seek to make an impact on the scientific community and on public opinion through the holding of special types of meetings and through its publications."

Officers include the president and secretary-general. Formal governance is provided by the Pugwash Council, which serves for five years. There is also an executive committee that assists the secretary-general. Jayantha Dhanapala is the current president. Paolo Cotta-Ramusino is the current Secretary General.

The four Pugwash offices, in Rome (international secretariat), London, Geneva, and Washington D.C., provide support for Pugwash activities and serve as liaisons to the United Nations and other international organizations.

There are approximately fifty national Pugwash groups, organized as independent entities and often supported or administered by national academies of science.

The International Student/Young Pugwash groups works with, but are independent from, the international Pugwash group.

Contributions to international security
Pugwash's first fifteen years coincided with the Berlin Crisis, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, and the Vietnam War. Pugwash played a useful role in opening communication channels during a time of otherwise-strained official and unofficial relations. It provided background work to the Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963), the Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968), the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972), the Biological Weapons Convention (1972), and the Chemical Weapons Convention (1993). Former US Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara has credited a backchannel Pugwash initiative (code named PENNSYLVANIA) with laying the groundwork for the negotiations that ended the Vietnam War. Mikhail Gorbachev admitted the influence of the organisation on him when he was leader of the Soviet Union. In addition, Pugwash has been credited with being a groundbreaking and innovative "transnational" organization and a leading example of the effectiveness of Track II diplomacy.

During the Cold War, it was claimed that the Pugwash Conference became a front conference for the Soviet Union, whose agents often managed to weaken Pugwash critique of USSR and instead concentrate on blaming the United States and the West.  In 1980, the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence received a report that the Pugwash Conference was used by Soviet delegates to promote Soviet propaganda. Joseph Rotblat said in his 1998 Bertrand Russell Peace Lecture that there were a few participants in the conferences from the Soviet Union "who were obviously sent to push the party line, but the majority were genuine scientists and behaved as such".

Following the end of the Cold War, the traditional Pugwash focus on decreasing the salience of nuclear weapons and promoting a world free of nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction addresses the following issue areas:

Nuclear stability, nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation: 1. Traditional Nuclear Disarmament, US-Russia nuclear disarmament, nuclear weapons in Europe; 2. Nuclear weapons and nuclear proliferation in the Middle East, Israeli nuclear weapons, Iranian nuclear program, proposal for a Middle Eastern zone free of weapons of mass destruction, Arab attitudes towards nuclear weapons and nuclear proliferation; 3. India and Pakistan nuclear relations, the effects of US India nuclear deal; 4. North Korea.
Regional security in regions where nuclear weapons exist or risks of nuclear proliferation are significant:  1. Middle East—general issues, the impact of the Palestinian problem and its relevance in the Arab world, the consequences of the so-called Arab spring and the growth of the Islamic movements and parties, Arab-Iranian, Arab-Israeli and Iran-Israeli relations; 2. South-Central Asia—traditional antagonism between India and Pakistan, the role of terrorist attacks in the worsening of such antagonism, US-Pakistani relations in general. The role of radical movements in Pakistan, reconciliation and peace in Afghanistan, talking to the Taliban (is it possible and how should be done?), Pakistani-Afghan relations.

The Pugwash movement has also been concerned with environmental issues and as a result of its 1988 meeting in Dagomys it issued the Dagomys Declaration on Environmental Degradation ().

Nobel Peace Prize
In 1995, fifty years after the bombing of Nagasaki and Hiroshima, and forty years after the signing of the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, the Pugwash Conferences and Joseph Rotblat were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize jointly "for their efforts to diminish the part played by nuclear arms in international politics and, in the longer run, to eliminate such arms." The Norwegian Nobel committee hoped that awarding the prize to Rotblat and Pugwash would "encourage world leaders to intensify their efforts to rid the world of nuclear weapons." In his acceptance speech, Rotblat quoted a key phrase from the Manifesto: "Remember your humanity."

International Foundation for Science
From the 1965 Pugwash conference came a recommendation to establish the International Foundation for Science "in order to address the stultifying conditions under which younger faculty members in the universities of developing countries were attempting to do research". The organization gives grants to early-career scientists in low-income countries for work on local water resources and biology.

Secretaries General
 Joseph Rotblat : 1957–1973
 Bernard Feld : 1973–1978
 Martin Kaplan : 1978–1989
 Francesco Calogero : 1989–1997
 George Rathjens : 1997–2002
 Paolo Cotta-Ramusino : 2002–

Pugwash Presidents
As of 2019, 13 individuals have served as Presidents of the Pugwash Conferences.
Earl (Bertrand) Russell, 1950 Nobel Prize in Literature, a founder of the movement, was its natural head in its initial years. The formal office of the presidency was established at the Quinquennial Conference in Ronneby, in 1967. The president's role was to "preside over the Annual Pugwash Conferences and, in addition, between Conferences, to offer his counsel and advice to the members of the Continuing Committee and the Secretary-General, and thereby assist them in the execution of the activities of the Movement."
Sir John Cockcroft, joint recipient of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physics for pioneering work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles, was elected as the first president in 1967, though he died suddenly ten days later.
Lord Florey, who shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for extraction of penicillin, was then invited to become president, though he also died within weeks. At that point the Continuing Committee decided to have a rotating presidency for a term of one year, to have that office held by a distinguished person in the country where the annual conference would be held each year.
Francis Perrin (1968), had worked with Frederic Joliot's team to establish in 1939 the possibility of nuclear chain reactions and nuclear energy production.
Mikhail Millionshchikov (1969), an eminent physicist who later became Speaker of the Russian Parliament.
Eugene Rabinowitch (1970), American biophysicist who worked on the Manhattan Project and was co-author with Leo Szilard of the Franck Report and co-founder in 1945 of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. In September 1970, the Continuing Committee switched back to the initial idea of a permanent office of president, with a five-year term.
Hannes Alfvén (1970–1975), recipient of the 1970 Nobel in Physics for work on his theory of magnetohydrodynamics.
Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (1976–1988), recipient of the 1964 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances.
Sir Joseph Rotblat (1988–1997), physicist, one of the founders of the Pugwash Movement, co-recipient of the 1995 Nobel Peace Prize.
Sir Michael Atiyah (1997–2002), a mathematician, was awarded the 1966 Fields Medal, for his work in developing K-theory.
Prof. M.S. Swaminathan (2002–2007), agricultural scientist, one of the pioneers of the Green Revolution and recipient of the World Food Prize and the UNESCO Gandhi Prize.
Amb. Jayantha Dhanapla (2007–2017), former Under-Secretary-General for Disarmament Affairs at the United Nations (1998–2003), and former Ambassador of Sri Lanka to the US (1995–97) and to the UN Office in Geneva (1984–87)
Amb. Sergio Duarte (2017–), former UN Undersecretary for Disarmament Affairs and a retired career diplomat from Brazil

Pugwashites
The Pugwash Conference itself does not have formal membership (although national organisations do). All participants take part in their individual capacities and not as representatives of any organization, institution or government.  Anyone who has attended a meeting is considered a "Pugwashite".  There are more than 3,500 "Pugwashites" worldwide.

Pugwash Council for the 2007–2012 Quinquennium

Amb. Jayantha Dhanapala (President), former UN Under-Secretary-General
Prof. Paolo Cotta-Ramusino (Secretary General), Professor of Theoretical Physics, University of Milano (Italy)
Amb. (ret.) Ochieng Adala, former Perm Rep of Kenya to the United Nations in New York.
Amb. Sergey Batsanov, Director, Geneva Pugwash, former Rep of the USSR/Russia to CD
Dr. Adele Buckley, fmr VP of Tech, Ontario Centre for Enviro Tech Advancement.
Prof. Francesco Calogero (Fmr Sec Gen), Prof, Theoretical Physics, Univ of Rome "La Sapienza".
Dr. Lynn Eden, Center for International Security and Cooperation, Stanford Univ.
Prof. John Finney, Emeritus Prof of Physics, University College London.
Prof. Galia Golan-Gild, Professor of Govt, Interdisciplinary Center (IDC), Herzliya, Israel.
Prof. Karen Hallberg, Prof of Physics, Fellow, Argentine Natl Council, Science & Tech
Dr. Peter Jones, fmr sr Policy Advisor, Sec & Intell Secretariat, Ottawa (PM's Department).
Gen. (ret.) Dr. Mohamed Kadry Said, Head of the Military Studies Unit, Al-Ahram Center
Dr. Mustafa Kibaroglu, Chair of the International Relations, Okan University Tuzla, Turkey
Mr. Cliff Kupchan, Director of Europe and Asia of the Eurasia Group, Washington, DC
Mr. Sverre Lodgaard, former Director, Norwegian Institute of International Affairs
Prof. Saideh Lotfian (Council Chair), Assoc Prof, Political Science, University of Tehran.
Dr. Riad Malki, Min. of Foreign Affairs, Min. of Information, Palestinian Natl Authority.
Amb. Miguel Marin-Bosch, former Deputy Foreign Minister of Mexico.
Gen. (ret.) Talat Masood, former Secretary, Defence Production Division, MOD
Prof. Amitabh Mattoo Professor of International Relations and Member, National Knowledge Commission
Dr. Steven Miller (Chair of Executive Committee), International Security Program of the Belfer Center, Harvard University
Prof. Götz Neuneck, Institute for Peace Research and Security Policy (IFSH), Hamburg.
Dr. Alexander Nikitin, Director of the Center for Political and International Studies
Mr. Niu Qiang, Secretary General, Chinese People's Assoc for Peace and Disarmament
Gen. Pan Zhengqiang, Deputy Chair, China Foundation of International Studies
Acad. Yuri Ryzhov, President, International Engineering University, Moscow
Prof. Ivo Slaus, former Member of the Croatian Parliament
Dr. Mark Byung-Moon Suh, Chair, Corea Trust Fund
Prof. Takao Takahara, Professor of International Politics and Peace Research, Faculty of International Studies, Meiji Gakuin University, Japan
Dr. Bob van der Zwaan, Senior Scientific Researcher, Energy Research Center of The Netherlands

Other Pugwashites

 Syed Azeez Pasha
 Ruth Adams
 Raymond Aubrac
 Lev Artsimovich
 Frank Barnaby
 Ana Maria Cetto
 Carl Djerassi
 Paul M. Doty
Bernard T. Feld
 Shalheveth Freier
 John Holdren
George Ignatieff
 Frédéric Joliot-Curie
 Peter Kapitza
Sergey Kapitsa
 Patricia Lindop
 Robert K. Logan
 Robert McNamara
 Georgi Nadjakov
 Wolfgang K. H. Panofsky
 Bas Pease
 John Charles Polanyi
 Isidor Isaac Rabi
 Martin Rees
 Sherry Rehman
 Andrei Sakharov
 M. Shamsher Ali
 Hussain al-Shahristani
 Ali Asghar Soltanieh
 Ivan Supek
 Igor Tamm
 Herbert York
 Victor Weisskopf
 Walter Dorn

Legacy
As the birthplace of the Pugwash movement, the Thinkers' Lodge was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 2008.

Jubilee Pugwash Conference Astana
The Jubilee 62nd Pugwash Conference devoted to nuclear disarmament was held in Astana, the capital of Kazakhstan, in 2017. The conference celebrated the 60th anniversary of the first Pugwash Conference, held in Pugwash, Nova Scotia in 1957. The theme of the conference was "Confronting New Nuclear Dangers." The conference agenda focused on strengthening the nuclear test ban and combating terrorism.

The Astana conference working groups included:
 Nuclear disarmament and the UN negotiation process to prohibit nuclear weapons
 Nuclear non-proliferation, civilian nuclear energy and energy security
 Regional Security: Europe and NATO
 Regional Security: Middle East
 Regional Security: South Asia (Afghanistan, Pakistan, India)
 Regional Security: Northeast Asia
 Emerging new technologies and security issues (Cyber Security, AI, Robot)

See also

 List of anti-war organizations
 List of peace activists
 Student Pugwash USA
 International Student/Young Pugwash
 Nuclear Weapons: The Road to Zero
 Soviet influence on the peace movement
 International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons
 Anti-nuclear organizations
 List of books about nuclear issues
 List of films about nuclear issues
 Captain Pugwash

Notes

References

Books

External links

 Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
 Russia: Russian Pugwash Committee
 Canada: Canadian Pugwash Group -see:
 France: Association Française pour le Mouvement Pugwash
 The First Pugwash Conference.

 Profile of Joseph Rotblat
 The Early Days of Pugwash, by Joseph Rotblat in Physics Today, June 2001.
 Pugwash And The International Treaties On Chemical And Biological Warfare, by J.P. Perry Robinson.
 Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs (Rome, through 1996 only)
 The Dagomys Declaration on Environmental Degradation.
 J. Rotblat, Scientists in the Quest for Peace: A history of the Pugwash Conferences, MIT Press,1972.

Archival collections

 Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs records, 1958-1981, Niels Bohr Library & Archives

Anti–nuclear weapons movement
International scientific organizations
Organizations awarded Nobel Peace Prizes
International nongovernmental organizations
International organisations based in Italy
Ethics of science and technology
International security
Organisations based in Rome
Non-profit organisations based in Italy
Scientific organisations based in Italy
Scientific organizations established in 1957
1957 establishments in Canada
Buildings and structures in Nova Scotia
1957 in Nova Scotia
Existential risk organizations


The Zibelemärit (Bernese German dialect; English: Onion market) is an annual market with aspects of a fair in the old town of Bern, Switzerland. It takes place the fourth Monday in November.

History
Historical research indicates that the Zibelemärit originated in the 1850s with marmettes, farmer's wives from around Murten, coming to Bern at around St. Martin's Day to sell their produce. According to a local story, the Zibelemärit is a much older festivity though. According to this legend, the Bernese awarded the people from the nearby city of Fribourg the right to sell onions in the city in reward for their aid after a fire that destroyed much of Bern in 1405.

Customs
As the name indicates, it is mainly onions that are sold on the Zibelemärit. Bernese farmers, who are proud of their decorative onion tresses and onion wreaths, also sell other onion products on the market, including Zwiebelkuchen (onion pie), onion soup and onion sausages. Decorative chains of sugar onions are also popular with children.

The Zibelemärit opens very early in the day, at around 03:00 to 04:00. Later in the morning, the narrow alleys are usually packed tight with people, which is what the Bernese call the Gstungg. A general confetti battle in which mostly children participate ensues at four o'clock in the afternoon, officially ending the market.

References

  Zibelemärit on g26.ch

Swiss culture
Street markets
Bern
1850s establishments in Europe
19th-century establishments in Switzerland

Zibelemärit


Tengboche Monastery (or Thyangboche Monastery), also known as Dawa Choling Gompa, in the Tengboche village in Khumjung in the Khumbu region of eastern Nepal is a Tibetan Buddhist monastery of the Sherpa community. Situated at , the monastery is the largest gompa in the Khumbu region of Nepal. It was built in 1916 by Lama Gulu with strong links to its mother monastery known as the Rongbuk Monastery in Tibet. In 1934, it was destroyed by an earthquake and was subsequently rebuilt. In 1989, it was destroyed for a second time by a fire and then rebuilt with the help of volunteers and international assistance.

Tengboche monastery is amidst the Sagarmatha National Park (a UNESCO World Heritage Site of "outstanding universal value"), draped with a panoramic view of the Himalayan Mountains, including the well-known peaks of Tawache, Everest, Nuptse, Lhotse, Ama Dablam, and Thamserku.

Tengboche is the terminus site of the "Sacred Sites Trail Project" of the Sagarmatha National Park that attracts large number of tourists for trekking and mountaineering. It is a circular trail that covers 10 monasteries in a clockwise direction terminating in the Tengboche Monastery.

History
 The Khumbu valley, where the monastery is, came under the influence of Buddhism about 350 years back. Ancient scriptures of Tibet refer to this valley along with Rowlang and Khanbalung valleys as sacred places. Lama Sangwa Dorje is referred to as the founder of the oldest monastery in Khumbu at Pangboche as well as many other small hermitages. His divine psychic knowledge and clairvoyant vision had prophesied suitability of establishing a monastery at Tengboche based on a footprint on a rock left by him while meditating.

However, the actual establishment of the monastery happened only during Ngawang Tenzin Norbu's time; Norbu was considered Sangwa Dorje's fifth incarnation. He had established a monastery at Rongbuk in Tibet on the northern face of Mount Everest. He blessed Chatang Chotar, known as Lama Gulu, to found the Tengboche monastery at Tengboche village. As a result, it got established at its present location in 1916. It is the first celibate monastery under the Nyingmapa lineage of the Vajrayana Buddhism. Many older village-level monasteries are close by.

Three wealthy inhabitants of the local Sherpa community are credited with funding building of the monastery. Among these three, Karma was the most influential and well known as he was a tax collector, and he also enjoyed the patronage of the Rana rulers of Nepal. It is said that apart from Khumbu Sherpas, Sherung Sherpas have been involved with building this monastery. Some of the village temples, chortens and smaller religious shrines are predated to 1880, particularly all the large chortens. The Mani wall, made of slabs of stone inscribed with prayers and sacred texts is dated to 1915.

The monastery was destroyed during the 1934 earthquake. Subsequently, Lama Gulu who had built it died. His successor, Umze Gelden, took up the task of rebuilding, with strong support from Ngawang Tenzin Norbu. The monks and the local community, with support from a skilled carpenter from Lhasa, re-established the monastery. Exclusive murals were painted by Kappa Kalden, a renowned artist. With an influx of tourists to the Khumbu region, particularly for trekking by mountaineers, the monastery has received wide recognition.

However, the monastery's precious old scriptures, statues, murals and wood carvings were destroyed in the devastating fire caused by an electrical short circuit on 19 January 1989. The monumental stone credited with Lama Sangwa Dorje's left footprint had fractured. A few trekkers managed to salvage some books and paintings. It has since been completely rebuilt with money donated from around the world.

Following the destruction of the monastery by fire, its rebuilding was undertaken by the present Nawang Tenzing Jangpo who is considered as the incarnation of the founder Lama Gulu, an important spiritual leader of the Sherpas. He has established an equation with many trekkers and climbers of all denominations who visit the monastery, which has helped him in finding funds for restoration. With due diligence to the set religious practices, the monastery has been substantially rebuilt. Tibetan painter Tarke-la's wall paintings that display the Bodhisattvas or the Buddha decorate the sanctum. In addition, the monks and Sherpa community with help from the Sir Edmund Hillary and Himalayan Trust, the American Himalayan Heritage Foundation and many international well-wishers have shown their support in several ways.

Hillary and Tenzing Norgay, an inhabitant of this village, were the first to reach the summit of Mount Everest on the British 1953 expedition. Thereafter, this monastery has acquired more international interest, as it is on the route to the base camp of Everest for routes made via the Khumbu icefall and west ridge. Everest expeditioners visit the monastery to light candles and seek the blessings of gods for good health and safe mountaineering.

John Hunt, the leader of the 1953 expedition and one of the first mountaineers to visit the monastery (most, but not all, previous expeditions approached the mountain from the northern (Tibetan) side), offered the following description of Thengboche in The Ascent of Everest:

The rebuilt monastery was formally consecrated in 1993 and is considered as the gateway to Mount Everest. The religious room of the Guru Rimpoche in the monastery was fully restored in September 2008. The entrance gate has also been rebuilt with funds provided by the Greater Himalayas Foundation based in Washington DC, United States.

The monastery is said to be home to 60 monks reflecting its financial prosperity. It is also said that fewer and fewer young boys join as monks as they prefer to work in mountaineering or trekking-related activities.

Geography

Tengboche Monastery is located on a hill at the confluence of the Dudh Kosi and the Imja Khola rivers. It lies in Khumbu district to the north east of Kathmandu on the Nepal – Tibet border. It is inhabited by sherpas ('sherpa' literally means the easterner) who migrated from Tibet six hundred years ago. The monastery is approached by a mountain trail from Namche, via the nearest airport in Lukla () connecting to Kathmandu.

Its approach is by a hard three days of trekking from Lukla. However, considering acclimatization needs for the high altitude climbing, a four-day trek is generally preferred. This trail crosses initially the Dudh Kosi () river and a further climb leads to the Tengboche monastery at  altitude. A downhill trek leads to Devouche, the nunnery. The backdrop to the monastery is provided, particularly during winter, by the shining snow clad peak of Ama Dablam, the tip of the Everest that glows from the Lotse ridge and several other peaks. Tengboche is the mid-way station of the trail to the base camp for the climbers of Mount Everest and other peaks of over ; all these areas form part of the entire Kumbhu region up to Tibet border with an area of  encompassing the Sagarmatha National park. In the Kumbu region of Nepal, the monastery is strategically placed on the way to Everest base camp and thus attracts large number of tourists from all parts of the world. During the spring season, hill slopes around Tengboche are covered with flowering rhododendrons.

Structures

The current monastery is constructed with stone masonry. The courtyard and storerooms are large to facilitate the monks' religious rites and activities. The main building has the mandatory Dokhang, the prayer hall, where a large statue of Shakyamuni Buddha is deified. The statue extends to two floors of the monastery and encompasses the Ser sang lha khang, the first floor shrine room. Sakyamuni Buddha is flanked by Manjushri, the deity of wisdom and Maitreya and of the future Buddha. The scriptures of the Kangyur, the original teachings of the Buddha translated into Tibetan are part of the sanctum.

The rebuilt monastery is a large and impressive structure with a camping area in its front and a number of lodges. Tengboche is surrounded by ancient mani stones (flat stones inscribed with the mantra "Om Mane Padme Hum", prayer flags flying atop the high peaks (flags are flown in colours denoting the five Buddhist elements: earth, wind, fire, water and consciousness).

Although the original paintings of the monastery were dated to the 14th century, according to Fuerer Haimendorf, the present set of paintings was produced in the 20th century. The mural paintings, Thangka paintings and sculptural collections, according to the art critic Tucci are: motifs of differing origin and baroque exuberance of workmanship are underlined by a certain heaviness of design and concern not to leave any space unfilled
Tucci further elaborates on the exaggerated depictions in Tibetan art forms: Even the shape of the Tibetan utensils and furniture is overblown. The bulging teapots, rather short necked with their high domed lids have none of the lightness of the Persian or Chinese ones.

Nunnery
Vajrayana Buddhism does not restrict its teachings of Buddhism to male or female. In fact, during the initial years of establishing the Tengboche Monastery, nuns studied and practiced Buddhism here. However, over the years, when the nuns wanted an exclusive place of their own to live and pray, the Lama Gulu, head of the monastery granted them land in a small valley known as Devoche. The nunnery was then established at Devoche, a short walk from the Tengboche. This small nunnery, administered by the Tengboche, is called Devoche or Debuche Nunnery (Ani). It is at an elevation of . It was built amidst rhododendron and juniper forests. At one time, fifteen nuns resided here, but now only nine old nuns live in this place in poverty stricken conditions. Many nuns have even left to pursue studies in Kathmandu and India.

Other monasteries

In the nearby villages, there are many other chortens, small monasteries and hermitages including those at Pangboche, Thame, Lawdo, Khumjung and Kunde.

Further improvements
Even though the monastery was rebuilt after the fire, there was lack of many facilities such as reliable and safe drinking water, electricity and so forth. A 'Master Plan' was prepared by specialists, funds collected and projects launched, which have resulted in developing a water supply system that is providing clean drinking water to Tengboche (even during the coldest months), a micro hydropower station that provides assured electricity, establishment of sacred land for high altitude medicinal herb plantation close to the monastery, an Eco-Centre to promote sustainable tourism, better toilets and accommodation for porters, income generating schemes to sustain the local population and most importantly establishing schools for better education facilities to local people.

Mani Rimdu Festival

Mani Rimdu is the most important festival of the Sherpa people. It is held during the tenth lunar month of the Tibetan calendar, corresponding to October–November of the Gregorian calendar. It falls on the autumn season when large groups of tourists visit the Khumbu region to trek to Everest Base Camp and to witness the festival which lasts for nineteen days. The religious festivities involve ceremonies and meditation (Drupchen). The meaning attributed to "Mani Rimdu" is that 'Mani' means "part of the chant of Chenrezig" and 'Rilbu' or 'Rimdu' means small red pills that are blessed during the festival. The red pills are blessed repeatedly and then distributed to all those who attend.

The festival is a tradition passed on from its mother monastery, the Rongbuk. It begins with an elaborate depiction of the mandala diagram made with coloured sand. This sand is extracted from a specified location in the hills. The mandala takes four days to draw; it is then covered and is central to the religious festival that lasts for the next 10 days. The program includes 16 dance numbers with interludes for comical effect. Finally, after all the devotees have left, the monks perform a fire rite to dispel all harm to the world. The sand mandala specially created for the festival is then formally removed with prayers for the benefit of all sentient beings. At the end of the festivities the resident Tengboche Rinpoche of the monastery blesses the general public after which the 'Mask Dances' are performed by the monks. The monks perform the masked dance to usher some of the protective deities as manifestation of the legendary saint Guru Rinpoche, the founder of Tibetan Buddhism; the dance numbers also display the defeat of demons and the initiation of Buddhism to Tibet.

Thus, Tengboche Monastery and Mani Rimdu are major attractions for tourists in Nepal. The number of tourists visiting the monastery is said to be about 15,000 per year and during peak tourist season the number is said to be 600 per week.

In popular culture
The monastery is mentioned in the lyrics to Kate Bush's song "Wild Man" on her album 50 Words for Snow.

Musician Brett Dennen has a song on his album Por Favor called "Tengboche"

The monastery is featured in the movie Everest

See also

Gallery

References

External links

 Trekking to Everest

Buddhist monasteries in Nepal
Tibetan Buddhism in Nepal
Nyingma monasteries and temples
1916 establishments in Nepal

es:Monasterio Tengboche#top

Tengboche Monastery


Björk was born Björk Guðmundsdóttir on 21 November 1965 in Reykjavík, Iceland. She is an Icelandic singer, songwriter, composer, actress, record producer and DJ.

Her career started with singing Tina Charles' 1976 hit song "I Love to Love" in a school recital, and a recording of her singing the song was sent to the RÚV radio station. The recording was nationally broadcast, after that, Björk was offered a recording contract. Her self-titled début album, Björk, was recorded and released in Iceland in December 1977. Before embarking on a solo career in 1993, Björk was the lead singer of alternative rock band The Sugarcubes, which is called as "Iceland's biggest rock band". Since then, she has received consistent critical praise for her innovative vocal and compositional approaches, musical experimentation, and art direction, and is recognized as one of the best singer-songwriters of her generation. Her albums reached the top 20 in the Billboard 200 chart.

Björk has won five BRIT Awards, four MTV Video Music Awards, one MOJO Award, three UK Music Video Awards, 21 Icelandic Music Awards and, in 2010, the Polar Music Prize from the Royal Swedish Academy of Music in recognition of her "deeply personal music and lyrics, her precise arrangements and her unique voice". She has also been nominated for 14 Grammy Awards, one Academy Award, and two Golden Globe Awards. She was included in Time Magazine's list of the 100 most influential people in the world. She won the Best Actress Award at the 2000 Cannes Film Festival for her performance in the movie Dancer in the Dark.

She has a son and a daughter, Sindri and Isadòra. She lives in New York City, but also owns a home in Reykjavík.

Björk was in the 2013 television documentary When Björk Met Attenborough with Sir David Attenborough.

Discography (albums by Björk)
 Björk (1977) - Her first album, most songs are a mixture of covers translated into Icelandic.
 Gling-Gló (1990) - A jazz album where she sings mostly in Icelandic. The only album that was made by Björk Guðmundsdóttir & tríó Guðmundar Ingólfssonar.
 Debut (1993)
 Post (1995)
 Telegram (1996) - Remixes from Post.
 Homogenic (1997)
 Selmasongs (2000) - Soundtrack album of Lars von Trier's Dancer in the Dark.
 Vespertine (2001)
 Greatest Hits (2002) - Collection of the best tracks of Björk chosen by audience.
 Family Tree (2002) - Mini compact disc boxset of rare and unreleased works.
 Live Box (2003) - Collection of music from each album's live shows.
 Medúlla (2004)
 Drawing Restraint 9 (2005) - Music from her movie with her former husband Matthew Barney, Drawing Restraint 9.
 Surrounded (2006) - Dual Disc boxset of most of her old music, remastered in Surround Sound.
 Volta (2007)
 Biophilia (2011)
 Bastards (2012) - Remixes from Biophilia.
 Vulnicura (2015)
 Vulnicura Strings (2015) - Acoustic, instrumental version of Vulnicura.
 Vulnicura Live (2016) - Live concert version of Vulnicura.
 Utopia (2017)
 Fossora (2022)

References

Other websites

Björk
Brit Award winners
Icelandic movie actors
Rock musicians
Singer-songwriters
1965 births
Living people
People from Reykjavík
Trip hop musicians
Icelandic composers
21st-century composers
20th-century composers
Icelandic singers

Björk


A charge is an action in battle in which soldiers advance towards their enemy at their best speed to engage in close combat. The charge has been the key tactic and decisive moment of most battles in history.

The basic process operating in a charge is speed of advance against rate (or effectiveness) of fire. If the attackers advance at a more rapid rate than the defenders can kill or disable them then the attackers will reach the defenders. When a charge was not successful that will often leave the would-be attackers extremely vulnerable to a counter-charge.

War

Charge (warfare)


The North Cascades are a name used for the mountains at the north end of the Cascade Range, south of Canada. The North Cascades are entirely in the United States, in the state of Washington. At the Canadian border, the North Cascades are called the Canadian Cascades. The highest point in the North Cascades is Mount Baker (10,781 ft/3,286m). North Cascades National Park is located at the northernmost end of the North Cascades.

Some of the primary rivers in the North Cascades are the Skagit, Nooksack, Stillaguamish, and Stehekin. Lake Chelan is the largest lake in the North Cascades. Although now termed a reservoir, it was originally a natural lake, but enlarged by a dam. The urban areas of Seattle, Tacoma and Everett are all west of the North Cascades. The Columbia River, Washington's largest river, forms the east and south boundary.

Mountains of Canada

North Cascades


The term robber baron was first used in the 12th and 13th centuries to describe rich men who lived in large castles along major transportation rivers, like the Rhine in Europe. They would send ships out onto these rivers to stop anybody who was traveling through who did not know better and collect a tax from them on any money or goods on these ships. They were not officially allowed to collect these taxes. It was only the Holy Roman Emperor who could decide what taxes to be charged, how much and who could charge it.

Second, it is a slang term used of certain rich and ruthless industrialists and bankers, especially in the late 19th and early 20th century U.S.A.

History of Germany
People

Robber baron


Prime factorization of any given number is to breakdown the number into its factors until all of its factors are prime numbers. This can be achieved by dividing the given number from smallest prime number and continue it until all its factors are prime.

Example: Prime factorization of number 1729

You should see if the number is divisible by smallest prime numbers, since 1729 isn't divisible by 2, move to next smallest prime number, that is 3, but the remainder is still non zero, next prime numbers are 5,7 and so on, dividing by 7 gives a zero remainder.

1729 = 7*247, further check if 247 is a prime or not , if its not prime, continue the same steps of prime factorization for 247.

1729 = 7*247 = 7*13*19, Notice that all the factors for the 1729 at this point are prime and no further factors are possible except 1, so further factorization should be stopped.

Number theory
Prime numbers

Prime factorization


The Confederate Army of the Potomac, whose name was short-lived, was under the command of Brig. Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard in the early days of the American Civil War. Its only major combat action was the First Battle of Bull Run. Afterwards, the Army of the Shenandoah was merged into the Army of the Potomac with Gen. Joseph E. Johnston, the commander of the Shenandoah, taking command. The Army of the Potomac was renamed the Army of Northern Virginia on March 14, 1862, with Beauregard's original army eventually becoming the First Corps, Army of Northern Virginia.

History
The army was formed from Confederate units defending northeastern Virginia, which arrived over the course of April to July 1861. Philip St. George Cocke was appointed to command the area of Virginia along "the line of the Potomac" and to muster the local militia companies into Confederate service. Regiments from Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina also arrived in Virginia and were assigned to Cocke's command. On May 21, Cocke was replaced in command in northeastern Virginia by Milledge L. Bonham, who was in turn superseded by P. G. T. Beauregard ten days later. Beauregard divided his army into six brigades (two of which were commanded by Cocke and Bonham) and concentrated them along the south bank of Bull Run, intending to defend the rail center of Manassas Junction. He would be reinforced by additional regiments over the next few weeks, forming a seventh brigade, and received the brigade of Theophilus H. Holmes as well.

Over the course of his first weeks in command, Beauregard sent to Confederate president Jefferson Davis various plans for an offensive against Union forces in northern Virginia, which usually involved coordination with Joseph E. Johnston's Army of the Shenandoah. Both Davis and his military advisor, Robert E. Lee, rejected these plans as being impractical. On July 18, as forces from the Union Army of Northeastern Virginia commanded by Irvin McDowell advanced to within a few miles of Beauregard's positions, the Confederate War Department ordered Johnston to transfer his army to reinforce Beauregard; his army arrived by rail over the next few days. Johnston was the senior officer present and had overall command of the combined Confederate armies. Beauregard had drawn up plans for an attack on the Union left wing across Bull Run and convinced Johnston to approve the plan. Johnston deferred the issuing of orders to Beauregard since he was more familiar with the terrain.

During the First Battle of Bull Run, which occurred on July 21, Colonel Nathan Evans' brigade from the Army of the Potomac began the opening stages of the fighting on Matthews Hill, reinforced by two brigades from Johnston's army. As the fighting shifted to Henry House Hill, Cocke's and Jubal Early's brigades along with units from Bonham's brigade from Beauregard's army, along with the rest of Johnston's army, were shifted to the Confederate left wing. An attack by Early's brigade on the Union right flank at about 4 p.m. helped drive the Union army from the field. Beauregard's brigades lost fewer men than Johnston's brigades, but some commands still suffered a casualty rate as high as twenty percent.

Most of Beauregard's brigades remained on the Confederate right, since Beauregard still hoped to launch an attack on the Union left wing. However, because of contradictory and confusing orders, some of which apparently were never delivered to the intended recipients, the attack was never launched. The brigades on this part of the field never fought at all or participated in only minor skirmishing. David R. Jones and James Longstreet crossed Bull Run and attempted to organize an attack but following a brief skirmish Jones' brigade was thrown back due to heavy artillery fire. Both brigades subsequently withdrew back to Bull Run.

The two Confederate armies were consolidated into a single army following the battle, retaining the name "Army of the Potomac" and with Johnston in command; Beauregard was initially posted as its second-in-command but he was soon transferred to the Western Theater. The army was spread through northern Virginia to observe the Union Army of the Potomac in Washington, fighting several small skirmishes including the Battle of Ball's Bluff. In the spring of 1862, Johnston's army was transferred to the Richmond area, where the Army of the Peninsula and the Confederate garrison of Norfolk, Virginia, were incorporated into the army. At this time in the Peninsula Campaign, the army was officially renamed the Army of Northern Virginia, although Johnston continued to use the name Army of the Potomac until he was wounded.

See also
 First Bull Run Confederate order of battle

Notes

References
 Davis, William C. Battle at Bull Run: A History of the First Major Campaign of the Civil War. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1977.
 Detzer, David. Donnybrook: The Battle of Bull Run, 1861. New York: Harcourt, Inc., 2004. .
 Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, .
 Gottfried, Bradley M. The Maps of First Bull Run: An Atlas of the First Bull Run (Manassas) Campaign, including the Battle of Ball's Bluff, June - October 1861. New York: Savas Beatie, 2009. .
 Sears, Stephen W. To the Gates of Richmond: The Peninsula Campaign. New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1992. .
 Civil War Home website

1861 establishments in Virginia
Military units and formations established in 1861
1862 disestablishments in the Confederate States of America
Potomac
Virginia in the American Civil War
1865 disestablishments in Virginia
Military units and formations disestablished in 1865

Army of the Potomac (Confederate)


A tenor is a type of classical male singing voice whose vocal range lies between the countertenor and baritone voice types. It is the highest male chest voice type. Composers typically write music for this voice in the range from the second B below middle C to the G above middle C (i.e. B2 to G4) in choral music, and from the second B flat below middle C to the C above middle C (B2 to C5) in operatic music, but the range can extend at either end. Subtypes of tenor include the leggero tenor, lyric tenor, spinto tenor, dramatic tenor, heldentenor, and tenor buffo or .

History

The name "tenor" derives from the Latin word tenere, which means "to hold". As noted in the "Tenor" article at Grove Music Online:

In polyphony between about 1250 and 1500, the [tenor was the] structurally fundamental (or 'holding') voice, vocal or instrumental; by the 15th century it came to signify the male voice that sang such parts.

All other voices were normally calculated in relation to the tenor, which often proceeded in longer note values and carried a borrowed Cantus firmus melody. Until the late 16th-century introduction of the contratenor singers, the tenor was usually the highest voice, assuming the role of providing a foundation. It was also in the 18th century that "tenor" came to signify the male voice that sang such parts. Thus, for earlier repertoire, a line marked 'tenor' indicated the part's role, and not the required voice type; indeed, even as late as the eighteenth century, partbooks labelled 'tenor' might contain parts for a range of voice types.

Vocal range

The vocal range of the tenor is  the highest of the male voice types. Within opera, the lowest note in the standard tenor repertoire is widely defined to be B2. However, the role of Rodrigo di Dhu (written for Andrea Nozzari) in Rossini's rarely performed La donna del lago is defined as a tenor but requires an A2. Within more frequently performed repertoire, Mime and Herod both call for an A2. A few tenor roles in the standard repertoire call for a "tenor C" (C5, one octave above middle C). Some, if not all, of the few top Cs in the standard operatic repertoire are either optional—such as in "Che gelida manina" in Puccini's La bohème—or interpolated (added) by tradition, such as in "Di quella pira" from Verdi's Il trovatore); however, the highest demanded note in the standard tenor operatic repertoire is D5, found in "Mes amis, écoutez l'histoire" from Adolphe Adam's Le postillon de Lonjumeau and "" from Fromental Halévy's La Juive). In the leggero repertoire, the highest note is F5 (Arturo in "Credeasi, misera" from Bellini's I puritani), therefore, very few tenors have this role in their repertoire without transposition (given the raising of concert pitch since its composition), or resorting to falsetto.

In choral music

In SATB four-part mixed chorus, the tenor is the second lowest vocal range, above the bass and below the alto and soprano. Men's chorus usually denotes an ensemble of TTBB in which the first tenor is the highest voice. Whilst certain choral music does require the first tenors to ascend the full tenor range, the majority of choral music places the tenors in the range from approximately B2 up to A4. The requirements of the tenor voice in choral music are also tied to the style of music most often performed by a given choir. Orchestral choruses typically call for tenors with fully resonant voices, but chamber or a cappella choral music (choral music sung with no instrumental accompaniment) can rely on baritones singing in falsetto.

Even so, one nearly ubiquitous facet of choral singing is the shortage of tenor voices. Most men 18 and older tend to have baritone chest voices, and because of this, many men in choirs tend to prefer singing in the bass section (though true basses are even rarer than tenors). Many baritones sing tenor even if they are not able to cover the full range in only their chest voice, and sometimes contraltos sing the tenor part. In men's choruses that consist of four male vocal parts (TTBB; tenor 1, tenor 2, bass 1, bass 2), tenors will often sing both in chest voice and falsetto, extending the vocal range of the choir.

Subtypes and roles in opera
Within the tenor voice type category are seven generally recognized subcategories: leggero tenor, lyric tenor, spinto tenor, dramatic tenor, heldentenor, Mozart tenor, and tenor buffo or spieltenor. There is considerable overlap between the various categories of role and of voice-type; some tenor singers have begun with lyric voices but have transformed with time into spinto or even dramatic tenors.

Leggero
Also known as the tenore di grazia, the leggero tenor is essentially the male equivalent of a lyric coloratura. This voice is light, agile, and capable of executing difficult passages of fioritura. The typical leggero tenor possesses a range spanning from approximately C3 to E5, with a few being able to sing up to F5 or higher in full voice. In some cases, the chest register of the leggero tenor may extend below C3. Voices of this type are utilized frequently in the operas of Rossini, Donizetti, Bellini and in music dating from the Baroque period.

Leggero tenor roles in operas:

Lyric
The lyric tenor is a warm graceful voice with a bright, full timbre that is strong but not heavy and can be heard over an orchestra. Lyric tenors have a range from approximately the C one octave below middle C (C3) to the D one octave above middle C (D5). Similarly, their lower range may extend a few notes below the C3. There are many vocal shades to the lyric tenor group, repertoire should be selected according to the weight, colors, and abilities of the voice.

Gilbert Duprez (1806–1896) was a historically significant lyric tenor. He was the first tenor to sing on stage the operatic high C from the chest (ut de poitrine) as opposed to using falsettone. He is also known for originating the role of Edgardo in Lucia di Lammermoor.

Lyric tenor roles in operas:

Spinto
The spinto tenor has the brightness and height of a lyric tenor, but with a heavier vocal weight enabling the voice to be "pushed" to dramatic climaxes with less strain than the lighter-voice counterparts. Spinto tenors have a darker timbre than a lyric tenor, without having a vocal color as dark as many (not all) dramatic tenors. The German equivalent of the Spinto Fach is the  and encompasses many of the Dramatic tenor roles as well as some Wagner roles such as Lohengrin and Stolzing. The difference is often the depth and metal in the voice where some lyric tenors age or push their way into singing as a Spinto giving them a lighter tone and a  tends to be either a young heldentenor or true lyric spinto. Spinto tenors have a range from approximately the C one octave below middle C (C3) to the C one octave above middle C (C5).

Spinto tenor roles in operas:

Dramatic
Also "tenore robusto", the dramatic tenor has an emotive, ringing and very powerful, clarion, heroic tenor sound. The dramatic tenor's approximate range is from the B one octave below middle C (B2) to the B one octave above middle C (B4) with some able to sing up to the C one octave above middle C (C5). Many successful dramatic tenors though have historically avoided the coveted high C in performance. Their lower range tends to extend into the baritone tessitura or, a few notes below the C3, even down to A♭2. Some dramatic tenors have a rich and dark tonal colour to their voice (such as the mature Enrico Caruso) while others (like Francesco Tamagno) possess a bright, steely timbre.

Dramatic tenor roles in operas:

Heldentenor

The heldentenor (English: heroic tenor) has a rich, dark, powerful and dramatic voice. As its name implies, the heldentenor vocal Fach features in the German romantic operatic repertoire. The heldentenor is the German equivalent of the tenore drammatico, however with a more baritonal quality: the typical Wagnerian protagonist. The keystone of the heldentenor's repertoire is arguably Wagner's Siegfried, an extremely demanding role requiring a wide vocal range and great power, plus tremendous stamina and acting ability. Often the heldentenor is a baritone who has transitioned to this Fach or tenors who have been misidentified as baritones. Therefore, the heldentenor voice might or might not have facility up to high B or C. The repertoire, however, rarely calls for such high notes.

Heldentenor roles in operas:

Mozart
A Mozart tenor is yet another distinct tenor type. In Mozart singing, the most important element is the instrumental approach of the vocal sound which implies: flawless and slender emission of sound, perfect intonation, legato, diction and phrasing, capability to cope with the dynamic requirements of the score, beauty of timbre, secure line of singing through perfect support and absolute breath control, musical intelligence, body discipline, elegance, nobility, agility and, most importantly, ability for dramatic expressiveness within the narrow borders imposed by the strict Mozartian style.

The German Mozart tenor tradition goes back to the end of the 1920s, when Mozart tenors started making use of Caruso's technique (a tenor who rarely sang Mozart) to achieve and improve the required dynamics and dramatic expressiveness.

Mozart tenor roles in operas:

Tenor buffo or spieltenor
A Tenor buffo or spieltenor is a tenor with good acting ability, and the ability to create distinct voices for his characters. This voice specializes in smaller comic roles. The range of the tenor buffo is from the C one octave below middle C (C3) to the C one octave above middle C (C5). The tessitura of these parts ranges from lower than other tenor roles to very high and broad. These parts are often played by younger tenors who have not yet reached their full vocal potential or older tenors who are beyond their prime singing years. Only rarely will a singer specialize in these roles for an entire career. In French opéra comique, supporting roles requiring a thin voice but good acting are sometimes described as 'trial', after the singer Antoine Trial (1737–1795), examples being in the operas of Ravel and in The Tales of Hoffmann.

Tenor buffo or spieltenor roles in operas:

Gilbert and Sullivan and operetta
All of Gilbert and Sullivan's Savoy operas have at least one lead lyric tenor character. Notable operetta roles are:

 Candide, Candide (Bernstein)
 Alfred, Die Fledermaus (Johann Strauss II)
 Eisenstein, Die Fledermaus (Johann Strauss II)
 Camille, Count de Rosillon, The Merry Widow (Lehár)
 Prince Karl, The Student Prince (Romberg)
 Captain Dick, Naughty Marietta (Herbert)
 Edwin, Trial by Jury (Gilbert and Sullivan)
 Alexis, The Sorcerer (Gilbert and Sullivan)
 Ralph Rackstraw H.M.S. Pinafore (Gilbert and Sullivan)
 Frederic, The Pirates of Penzance (Gilbert and Sullivan)
 The Duke of Dunstable, Patience (Gilbert and Sullivan)
 Lord Tolloller, Iolanthe (Gilbert and Sullivan)
 Hilarion, Princess Ida (Gilbert and Sullivan)
 Nanki-Poo, The Mikado (Gilbert and Sullivan)
 Richard Dauntless, Ruddigore (Gilbert and Sullivan)
 Colonel Fairfax, The Yeomen of the Guard (Gilbert and Sullivan)
 Marco Palmieri, The Gondoliers (Gilbert and Sullivan)

Other uses
There are four parts in barbershop harmony: bass, baritone, lead, and tenor (lowest to highest), with "tenor" referring to the highest part. The tenor generally sings in falsetto voice, corresponding roughly to the countertenor in classical music, and harmonizes above the lead, who sings the melody. The barbershop tenor range is Middle C to A one octave above Middle C, though it is written an octave lower. The "lead" in barbershop music is equivalent to the normal tenor range.

In bluegrass music, the melody line is called the lead. Tenor is sung an interval of a third above the lead. Baritone is the fifth of the scale that has the lead as a tonic, and may be sung below the lead, or even above the lead (and the tenor), in which case it is called "high baritone".

See also

 Category of tenors
 Fach system for voice classification
 List of tenors in non-classical music
 Voice classification in non-classical music

References

External links

Choral music
Musical terminology
Opera terminology
Pitch (music)
Voice types

Tenor


The Canadian Respiratory Journal  is a bimonthly peer-reviewed medical journal. It publishes original research and news dealing with respiratory disease, sleep medicine, critical care, and thoracic surgery as well as continuing medical education and practice guidelines. It was the official journal of the Canadian Thoracic Society, the Canadian Critical Care Society and the Canadian Sleep Society from 1993 to January 1, 2016, however, its association with these organizations ended when it was purchased from its original publisher, the Pulsus Group by the Hindawi Publishing Corporation.

References

External links

Multilingual journals
Pulmonology journals
Bimonthly journals
Academic journals established in 1994
Hindawi Publishing Corporation academic journals

Canadian Respiratory Journal


Antoine Duhamel (30 July 1925 – 11 September 2014) was a French composer, orchestra conductor and music teacher.

Duhamel was born in Valmondois in the Val-d'Oise département of France. Duhamel was the son of French writer Georges Duhamel and actress Blanche Albane. He studied music at the Sorbonne.

He wrote the score for his first movie in 1960. In 2002 he was awarded the Silver Bear at the Berlin Film Festival for his music for the Bertrand Tavernier directed movie, Laissez-passer.

Antoine Duhamel scored several of Jean-Luc Godard's movies, including Pierrot le Fou and Week End.

Duhamel died in Paris, France, aged, 89.

References

1925 births
2014 deaths
20th-century French composers
French conductors
Musicians from Île-de-France
People from Val-d'Oise

Antoine Duhamel


Fuid is material that comes frae ainimals or plaunts, eaten by leevin things tae provide energy an nutreetion. Fuid conteens the nutreetion that fowk need tae be healthy. Fowk need tae eat protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, an minerals tae be healthy. Liquids uised for energy an nutrition are aften cried "drinks".

Fuid for bodies is maistly made throu fermin or gairdenin, an includes ainimal an vegetable springheids. Some fowk refuse tae eat fuid frae ainimal origin, like meat, eggs an products wi milk in thaim. No eatin meat is cried vegetarianism. No eatin or uisin ony ainimal products is cried veganism.

Cuisine

Fuid


Military diving is underwater diving done by members of armed forces for military purposes.

Any method of diving may be used. It is the military purpose that makes it military diving.

Military diving for offensive purposes is usually done using rebreathers as they do not make much bubbles which can be seen by the enemy. These divers may be called frogmen or combat divers.

Othe military divers do work to remove obstructions and explosive devices like mines. They are called clearance divers.

Military divers may also do inspections and repair work on the bottoms of ships, and underwater work in support of military engineering operations.

Military

Military diving