Panda may mean:

Biology and medicine
 Giant panda
 Qinling Panda, a subspecies of the Giant Panda
 Pygmy Giant Panda, the earliest known ancestor of the Giant panda
 Red panda which may be related to the raccoon
 Panda (plant), a genus of the family Pandaceae
 PANDAS or P.A.N.D.A.S. is Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptoccal infections
 Panda eyes may refer to bilateral periorbital bruising, a sign of a fracture of the base of the skull

Technology
 Fiat Panda, a city car manufactured by Fiat
 Panda car, a patrol car used by the British police
 pandas (software), an open source data analysis library for Python
 Panda Software, a software company specialising in antivirus software
 Panda3D, a library of subroutines for 3D rendering and game development

Biography
 A Brahmin pandit who acts as a religious guide, for example at Hindu death ceremonies, as in the holy cities of Haridwar or Varanasi
 Panda (band), a Mexican group
 Panda (musician), a Dutch electronic musician
 Panda Bear (musician), alias used by experimental musician Noah Lennox
 Giant Panda (group), an underground hip hop group from Los Angeles, California

Culture
 Panda Express, a fast-food Chinese restaurant chain operating in the USA
 Canal Panda, a Portuguese television channel dedicated to children's programming
 Panda (Tekken character)
 Fierce Panda Records, a record label
 Chinese Silver Panda, a silver coin produced by the People's Republic of China
 Panda or Empanda, an Ancient Roman goddess

Panda (disambiguation)


The Geneva Conventions are a set of four treaties of international law at wartime. They were formulated in Geneva, Switzerland. All of the four treaties are about humanitarian issues. The Swiss Henri Dunant was the person who started the creation of the Conventions. He did this after he saw the unimaginable cruelty of the Battle of Solferino in 1859.

Some parts of the four Geneva Conventions say that all countries who signed must create national laws to make violations of the Geneva Conventions a crime.

The four Conventions

The conventions and their agreements are as follows:

 First Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field" (first adopted in 1864, last revision in 1949). This was to make things better for people which have been injured in battle. It basically says that the medical teams on the battlefield must help anyone who is injured, not just people from their own side.
 Second Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea" (first adopted in 1949, came after looking over the 1907 Hague Convention X). Similar to the first convention, but for battles that happen at sea.
 Third Geneva Convention "relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War" (started in 1929, last revision in 1949). This convention says that a prisoner of war has certain rights. In the recent past, the United States made headlines. They said that some of the Taliban fighters they captured in Afghanistan were not prisoners of war, but illegal combatants, so they did not have these rights.
 Fourth Geneva Convention "relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War" (first adopted in 1949, based on parts of the 1907 Hague Convention IV). When there is a war, the people who do not take part in the war (they are called civilians) must be protected in some ways. This convention says how to do it.

Protocols

In addition, there are three more protocols to the Geneva Conventions:

 Protocol I (1977): Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts. This treaty says how victims of conflicts and wars should be dealt with.

 Protocol II (1977): Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and about the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts. This is about victims of civil wars.
 Protocol III (2005): Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem. This is about the introduction of the red diamond, as a symbol of the Red Cross that is free of religious connotations.

Changes

After the First Convention was agreed, the International Committee of the Red Cross was founded in 1863.

All four conventions were last checked and agreed on in 1949. Those versions are related to previous revisions. In some cases, ideas from the 1907 Hague Convention were added. Usually, people refer to all four conventions as the "Geneva Conventions of 1949" or simply the "Geneva Conventions". Later conferences have added text that makes it illegal to use certain kinds of warfare, like chemical warfare. They have also spoken about issues of civil wars.

Clara Barton was important in campaigning for the United States to agree to the First Geneva Convention.  The United States signed that Convention in 1882.

By the Fourth Geneva Convention in 1949, some 47 nations had ratified the agreements.

Today, nearly all 200 countries of the world are "signatory" nations.  This means they have signed and agreed to follow the Geneva Conventions.

Related pages
 Prisoners of war
 International Committee of the Red Cross
Laws of war
War crimes (crimes that break the Geneva Conventions)
 International Criminal Court (a court that can try people who break the Geneva Conventions)

Other websites
 States party to the Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols
 Red Cross and Geneva Conventions
 Texts of the Conventions Source: ICRC 1949 Conventions and 1977 Protocols  Source: Society of Professional Journalists
 Reference Guide to the Geneva Conventions
 United Nation's Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights - International Human Rights Instruments
 Geneva Conventions at Law-Ref.org  - fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents
 list of states which have signed the Geneva conventions (1929 and 1949) and additional protocols (1977) (documents in French) — Switzerland is currently the depositary of approximately 60 international treaties and lists of the states parties to each of these treaties (in French). There is also database access.
 Geneva Conventions depository overview in English (.PDF)  created from the Swiss archives by Advocacy & Intelligence Index For POWs-MIAs Archives

Geneva Conventions


Charles Henry Mayo (30 November 1884 – July 1977) was an English professional golfer of the early 20th century. Mayo won the 1911 Belgian Open held at the Royal Golf Club of Belgium. Frenchman Arnaud Massy finished in second place. He had seven starts in the Open Championship, his best finish being T11 in 1912. He finished runner-up in the 1908 French Open and had five international appearances representing England against Scotland.

Early life
Mayo was born in Dudley, England, on 30 November 1884, the son of Isaac Mayo. He started playing golf at age 8, playing in the streets of Gospel End where he grew up with a home-made club made of a block of wood with a small tree branch stuck in a burned out hole.

Mayo's two brothers, Albert (1886–1973) and Walter (1894–1916), were both professional golfers. Walter was killed in France during World War I.

Early golf career
Mayo was professional at Broadway Golf Club in about 1902  and then at Bridgnorth where he was in early 1905 but soon thereafter became the first professional at Chipstead Golf Club which opened in September 1906. Even before the opening of the course he had moved to Chipstead and competed in the southern section qualifying for the News of the World Matchplay, where he finished 5th, qualifying comfortably with 16 places available. He also competed in a tournament at Radyr Golf Club which served as the Welsh section qualifying event, but which was open to all PGA members. He won the event with a score of 152. Later he finished joint runner-up in an open competition at Sandwell Park. In the finals of the News of the World Matchplay, Mayo won four matches to reach the final against Sandy Herd, losing 8 and 7 in the 36-hole final. Mayo won £30 and a silver medal. Mayo was described as "a plucky and painstaking young player" as well as "deliberate but steady".

Mayo's success during the summer of 1906 made him more widely known and soon after the News of the World Matchplay, he and George Duncan challenged any two professionals to a foursome over 72 holes for £50 each side, with their £50 being provided by World of Golf. The challenge was accepted by James Braid and Harry Vardon. The first 36 holes were played at Walton Heath and finished with Braid and Vardon being 4 up. The remaining 36 holes were played at Timperley. Braid and Vardon continued their good form and won easily 9 and 8. In early 1907 Mayo played Allan Gow, the professional at Gog Magog, to a 72-hole match for £40. the first 36 holes were played at Bridgnorth and Mayo finished the day 12 holes up. The final day was played at the Royal West Norfolk Club at Brancaster with Mayo ending up the winner by the overwhelming score of 14 and 13. Immediately after this match Mayo resigned from the Chipstead Club, despite having served just 8 months of a 5-year contract, and took up a position at the newly opened Burhill Golf Club, Walton-on-Thames. In 1908, Mayo was paired with George Duncan and won a challenge match against Harry Vardon and Ted Ray.

Mayo was demobilised in 1919 and returned to Burhill after serving in the Royal Air Force (RAF) during World War I. After the war he quickly regained good playing form and was entered in the St Annes Old Links Tournament where he was joint leader after the first day but faded on the second day to finish joint 5th, three strokes behind J.H. Taylor.

Walter Mayo

Mayo's younger brother, Walter, was Charles's assistant at Burhill from 1911 to 1914, although he spent the summer of 1912 as professional at Baden-Baden. During his period at Baden-Baden he played in the 1912 German Open, an event in which Charles set a new course record. Walter played in the southern section qualifying for the 1913 News of the World Matchplay at Burhill but finished 11 strokes behind the qualifying places. He played in the southern section qualifying for the 1914 Sphere and Tatler Foursomes Tournament at Old Fold Manor and finished 5th, a stroke ahead of Charles, and qualified comfortably. Walter won £2 2s for his second round 74, the best by an assistant professional. The best of the day by a full professional was just one shot better. In the finals he was paired with Reginald Gray but they lost in the first round at the 19th hole. Walter served in the Rifle Brigade and was killed in the First World War in France on 15 November 1916.

Later golf career
On 20 April 1920, Mayo and his wife along with their two children – daughter Ivy and son Charles, Jr. – departed Liverpool aboard the SS Vasari and arrived in New York on 4 May 1920. The family left New York and travelled to Illinois where Mayo's father Isaac was already living. Soon after arrival in the U.S., Mayo acquired some work in designing the Hacienda Golf Club in La Habra Heights, California, and is credited with the design of the course's back nine holes. Later in 1920 Mayo took a job as head professional at Edgewater Golf Club in Chicago, Illinois, where he and Chick Evans lost a match to the touring British duo of George Duncan and Abe Mitchell on 26 July 1921. He subsequently accepted a position as head professional at Druid Hills Golf Club near Atlanta in December 1921. He replaced the late J. Douglas Edgar who had been murdered on an Atlanta street. Mayo's appointment at Druid Hills was short-lived since he gave up the post and had returned to the United Kingdom in time to play in the Glasgow Herald Tournament in early June 1922. Mayo reached the last-16, winning £17 10s. In October he qualified for the final stages of the News of the World Matchplay, losing in the last-32 round. In early 1923 he returned to the United States to take up an appointment at Westhampton Country Club on Long Island, New York.

Golf course designs

In addition to designing the back nine holes at Hacienda Golf Club in California, Mayo is credited with designing the first nine holes of Blackhawk Country Club near Lake Mendota in Wisconsin and his brother Albert became its first professional in 1921.

Later life, retirement, and death
In 1940 Mayo and his wife Rosetta were living in Hempstead, New York, where he was the superintendent of Lido Golf Club.  Mayo retired from Hackensack Country Club (New Jersey) in 1958 where he had been professional since 1944. Mayo died in July 1977 at River Edge, New Jersey. He was made a life member of the British PGA in 1955.

Tournaments

Belgian Open
In addition to winning the 1911 Belgian Open, Mayo also competed in the 1914 Belgian Open, held at the Royal Antwerp Golf Club, and finished in second place behind Tom Ball.

1920 PGA Championship
Mayo competed in the 1920 PGA Championship and started out in round one of the match play tournament by defeating Lloyd Gullickson 2 and 1. In round two he lost to Louis Tellier by the score of 4 and 3. His T9 finish in the tournament was his best in a major championship.

Tournament wins
Note: This list may be incomplete
1908 London Professional Foursomes Tournament (with George Duncan)
1911 Belgian Open

Results in major championships

Note: Mayo never played in the Masters Tournament.

NYF = Tournament not yet founded
NT = No tournament
DNP = Did not play
? = unknown
R64, R32, R16, QF, SF = Round in which player lost in PGA Championship match play
"T" indicates a tie for a place
Yellow background for top-10

Team appearances
England–Scotland Professional Match (representing England): 1907 (winners), 1909 (winners), 1910 (winners), 1912 (tie), 1913 (winners)
Coronation Match (representing the Professionals): 1911 (winners)

References

English male golfers
Sportspeople from Dudley
Golf course architects
1884 births
1977 deaths

Charles Mayo (golfer)


The Eating Disorder Diagnostic Scale (EDDS) is a self-report questionnaire that assesses the presence of three eating disorders; anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder. It was adapted by Stice et al. in 2000 from the validated structured psychiatric interview: The Eating Disorder Examination (EDE) and the eating disorder module of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID)16.

A study was made to complete the EDDS research; the process to create and finalize the questionnaire. A group of people eating-disorders researchers take a looked at a preliminary version of the questionnaire and made a final decision of which questions to put on the final questionnaire with the 22 questions. The questionnaire starts off with questions about the patient's feelings towards physical appearance, specifically weight. Then, it proceeds to questions about having episodes of eating with a loss of control and how the patient felt after overeating. The questions afterwards are about the patient's experience on fasting, making themselves vomit and using laxatives to prevent weight gain. It will then ask how much body image problems impact relationship and friendship with others. Lastly, the questionnaire asks for the patient's current weight, height, sex and age.

The EDDS questionnaire is used for researchers to provide some cures for the three types of eating disorder. It is more efficient than having an interview because it is easier to get a result, from a group of participants, with the 22-item questionnaire. Having to interview each participant is a harder and more time-consuming way to get a result. This questionnaire is also useful for primary care/ clinical purposes to identify patients with eating pathology.

In follow up studies of the reliability and validity of the EDDS, it was shown to be sufficiently sensitive to detect the effects of eating disorders prevention programs, response to such programs and the future onset of eating disorder pathology and depression. The EDDS shows both full and subthreshold diagnoses for anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder.
EDDS is a continuous eating disorder symptom composite score.
The PhenX Toolkit uses the EDDS for as an Eating Disorders Screener protocol.

See also
 Body Attitudes Test
 Body Attitudes Questionnaire
 Eating Disorder Inventory
 SCOFF questionnaire

References

Eating disorders screening and assessment tools

Eating Disorder Diagnostic Scale


England, England is a satirical postmodern novel by Julian Barnes, published and shortlisted for the Booker Prize in 1998. While researchers have also pointed out the novel's characteristic dystopian and farcical elements, Barnes himself described the novel as a "semi-farce".

England, England broaches the idea of replicating England in a theme park on the Isle of Wight. It calls into question ideas of national identity, invented traditions, the creations of myths and the authenticity of history and memory.

Plot summary

England, England is divided into three parts entitled "England", "England, England" and "Anglia". The first part focuses on the protagonist Martha Cochrane and her childhood memories. Growing up in the surrounding of the English countryside, her peaceful childhood is disrupted when her father leaves the land family. Martha's memories of her father are closely related to playing a Counties of England jigsaw puzzle with him.

The second part, "England, England", is set in the near future. Martha is now in her forties and is employed by the entrepreneur Sir Jack Pitman for a megalomaniacal project: Sir Jack aims to turn the Isle of Wight into a gigantic theme park which contains everything that people, especially tourists, consider to be quintessentially English, selected according to what Sir Jack himself approves of. The theme park − called "England, England" − thus becomes a replica of England's best known historical buildings, figures and sites. Popular English tourist attractions and icons of "Englishness" are crammed together to be easily accessible without having to travel the whole of "real" England.

While working on the set-up of the project, Martha starts an affair with one of her colleagues, Paul Harrison. They discover Sir Jack's adult baby fetish and blackmail him with incriminating evidence when Sir Jack wants to dismiss Martha. She thus becomes CEO of the Island project, which turns out to be a highly popular tourist attraction. As a consequence of the huge success, "England, England" becomes an independent state and part of the European Union, while the real, "Old England" suffers a severe decline and increasingly falls into international irrelevance. After a major scandal in the theme park, however, Martha is eventually expelled from the island.

The third part of the novel, "Anglia", is set decades later and depicts Martha who has returned to a village in Old England after many years of wandering abroad. The original nation has regressed into a vastly de-populated, agrarian and pre-industrial state without any international political influence, while "England, England" continues to prosper.

Themes

Beyond the basic twin plots surrounding Pitman and Cochrane, England, England is a novel of ideas – mainly ideas that correspond to the criticism of society voiced by French philosophers of the second half of the 20th century. The seminal work in this respect is Jean Baudrillard's (b. 1929) L'échange symbolique et la mort (1976), in which Baudrillard claims that in the course of the 20th century reality has been superseded by "simulacra", by representations of the original which – in a world where technology has developed the means to replicate each and everything, including works of art (cf. Walter Benjamin's 1936 essay "Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit") and humans (by means of cloning) — acquire an independent and increasingly higher status than the original: because they are safer, easier to handle, more cost-effective, ubiquitous and thus more easily accessible, renewable, and predictable. (Cf. "postmodernism" and also US sociologist George Ritzer's "McDonaldization" thesis of the 1990s, in particular his discussion of tourism).

This is exactly the purpose of Pitman's final project: he wants his island to epitomise everything that is truly English. As a fervent patriot, he wants to put England in a nutshell for all the world to see and to cash in on England at the same time: he does not mind that the real thing takes a turn for the worse and eventually deteriorates.

The two strands of action — Martha Cochrane's rise to fame and her subsequent downfall on the one hand and the launching of the project and its continuing success on the other — are intertwined when Martha applies for a job as Special Consultant in Pitman's personal staff, which she gets. Martha has acquired all the professional skills necessary to succeed in our post-industrialist society, yet she has retained from her childhood at least some of her emotional and sentimental inclinations. Although she has become scheming, calculating and ruthless in her professional life, she is still able, at times, to listen to her heart – especially in her relationship with Paul Harrison, the "Ideas Catcher". This ability of hers also helps her cope with old age back in rural Anglia.

By having his characters uninhibitedly subvert all of England's long-standing customs and traditions, Barnes inadvertently also collects, registers and critically assesses these myths. For the sake of simplification, however, in the novel old English folklore, customs and legends, but also historical facts, are altered to fit the overall purpose of the Project. As the whole island is supposed to be fit for family consumption, history has to be rewritten and bowdlerised (to pay lip service to political correctness and avoid sexual harassment actions). As they are paying high prices, mainly in advance, the visitors to the island are supposed never to be faced with anything incomprehensible or illogical because that would spoil the fun for them and could even give rise to complaints.

The majority of attractions of England, England enjoy great popularity. For example, tourists are fascinated by the artificially recreated London "pea soup" fog or by a re-enactment of the Battle of Britain. Visitors also like watching the King, nicknamed "Kingy-Thingy" by his wife, who is still a Windsor; but after the death of Elizabeth II the strict line of succession has been abandoned. Both the King and his Queen enjoy having affairs with other people, and their escapades are regularly exposed by the tabloid papers. Pitman persuades the King to move permanently to the Isle of Wight, where his only duty is to appear regularly on the balcony of a half-size replica (but with double glazing) of Buckingham Palace for the paying visitors to see. Special script-writers have been hired for him and Queen
Denise for the rare instances where they are allowed to say something.

However, because the actors sooner or later over-identify with their roles, some of the other attractions go terribly wrong. Robin Hood and his band actually start hunting their own food in the Island's heritage parks and old-English farmyards; the smugglers really start smuggling (cf. Adam Smith's approval of smuggling); and the "Samuel Johnson Dining Experience" turns out to be a flop because Doctor Johnson is regularly rude to the guests who dine at his table.

Notes

References
 Guignery, Vanessa (2006). The Fiction of Julian Barnes. A reader's guide to essential criticism. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
 Henke, Christoph (2003). "Remembering Selves, Constructing Selves: Memory and Identity in Contemporary British Fiction". Journal for the Study of British Cultures 10(1), 77–100.
 "He's turned towards Python". (30 August 1998).  The Observer.
 Holmes, Frederick M. (2009). Julian Barnes. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
 Korte, Barbara (2002). "Julian Barnes' England, England: Tourism as a Critique of Postmodernism". In H. Berghoff, C. Harvie, B. Korte, & R. Schneider (Eds.), The Making of Modern Tourism: The Cultural History of the British Experience, 1600–2000, pp. 285–303. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
 Mergenthal, Silvia (2003). A Fast-Forward Version of England. Constructions of Englishness in Contemporary Fiction. Heidelberg: Winter.
 Nünning, Vera (2001). "The Invention of Cultural Traditions: The Construction and Deconstruction of Englishness and Authenticity in Julian Barnes' England, England". 1–28. The article is available on Julian Barnes' website.

External links
Julian Barnes website (England, England): https://web.archive.org/web/20060324151156/http://www.julianbarnes.com/bib/england.html, with extensive bibliography of translations and scholarly articles.

1998 British novels
Novels set on islands
1998 science fiction novels
British satirical novels
Novels by Julian Barnes
Isle of Wight
Jonathan Cape books
Novels set in England
Dystopian novels
Modern history of England
1998 in England
English nationalism
Historiography of England
English traditions
English mythology
English comedy
British comedy novels
Novels about nationalism
English popular culture

England, England


Osmosis (/ɒzˈmoʊ.sɪs/) is the movement of solvent (liquid) molecules through a membrane, from one solution to another, which happens without an outside force.

Solvent will move to the side that has a higher concentration of solutes, or dissolved particles — and thus a lower concentration of solvent. This happens because the membrane is selectively permeable:  the solvent can pass through, but the solute cannot. Solvent molecules move randomly, and so the concentrations on both sides become more equal.

Osmosis can be made to do work. Osmotic pressure is the external pressure that must be applied so that there is no net movement of solvent across the membrane. Osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute.

Osmosis is important in biological (living) systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable. In general, these membranes are impermeable to large  molecules such as ions, proteins, and polysaccharides. They are  permeable to non-polar or hydrophobic molecules like lipids and small molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and nitric oxide. Permeability depends on solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size. Water molecules travel through the plasma membrane, vacuole or protoplast by diffusing across the phospholipid bilayer.

Osmosis provides the main way water is gets in and out of cells. The turgor pressure of a cell is largely maintained by osmosis across the cell membrane between the cell interior and its environment.

Hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic

Solutions may have more or less solute per unit of solvent. The one with less is called hypotonic. When the two solutions have equal concentration, they are isotonic. The one with more is hypertonic. When the hypotonic solution is outside the cell, and hypertonic solution inside, the cell becomes swollen and distorted.

Cell membranes
The plasma membrane of a cell is semi-permeable, which means it allows the entry of certain molecules in or out. It lets small molecules pass through, but blocks larger molecules,. The membrane also has ports or gateways which get certain macromolecules through. This is active transport, which uses energy and is selective. It is the outermost covering of the animal cell, made of proteins and lipids. Example: exchange of gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Related pages
 Reverse osmosis
 Osmoregulation

Cell biology
Thermodynamics

Osmosis


Chi-squared test (or  test) is a statistical hypothesis test. It usually tests the hypothesis that "the experimental data does not differ from untreated data". That is a null hypothesis. The distribution of the test statistic is a chi-squared distribution when the null hypothesis is true.

The test results are regarded as 'significant' if there is only one chance in 20 that the result could be got by chance.

Groups
There are three main groups of tests:
Tests for distribution check that the values follow a given probability distribution.
Tests for independence check that the values are independent; if this is the case, no value can be left out without losing information.
Tests for homogeneity: These check that all samples taken have the same probability distribution, or are from the same set of values.

Statistical tests

Chi-squared test


Clan Lindsay is a Lowland Scots clan based in Angus.

History

Oreegins o the Clan

Thare is currently nae kent proven path pertainin tae the oreegin o the Clan Lindsay. Housomeivver, several possible theories hae been advanced ower the years.  First is the theory proposed in 1769 bi biographer/historian, Richard Rolt, in which he claimed that the Lindsays wur o Anglo-Saxon strynd. In his "Lives of the Lindsays", first published in 1840, the 25t Earl o Crawford discoontit Rolt's Anglo-Saxon strynd theory an statit that the Lindsays wur "distinctly" o Norman strynd.  Then in 1985/1990, Breetish historian, Beryl Platts established, via an analysis o heraldic devices, the Lindsays wur o Flemish strynd. Muckle wirk is yet tae be done afore the oreegin o the Lindsays can be statit as proven athoot ony doubt.

Efter the Norman conquest o 1066 Baldric de Lindsay became a tenant unner the Earl o Chester in England. In 1120 Sir Walter Lindsay wis a member o the cooncil o David, Earl o Huntingdon who became King o Scotland. Sir Walter Lindsay's successor, aither his son or brither came tae Scotland wi the new King.

William Lindsay acquired the lands o Crawford in Lanrikshire, Scotland. He gae some o his Ayrshire lands tae the Dryburgh Abbey.

In the 13t century Sir David Lindsay o Crawford jynt King Louis IX o Fraunce on a crusade but he wis killed in Egyp. Ane o the crusader's sons Sir Alexander Lindsay wis a Knight o King Edward I o Ingland.

Wars of Scots Unthirldom

Bi the end o the 13t century the Wars o Scots Unthirldom haed begun an it caused mony dilemmas for the Lindsays as thay haed families on baith sides o the border. Housomeivver Sir Alexander Lindsay's patriotism made him tak the side o Scotland. The Lindsays wur supporters o baith William Wallace an King Robert the Bruce. His Inglis properties wur forfeitit an his sons thare wur impreesoned. The eldest o thir sons Sir David Lindsay wis later amang the signatories o the Declaration o Arbroath, the 1320 assertion o Scots Unthirldom. Sir James Lindsay focht at the Battle o Otterburn in 1388 whaur the Scots defeatit the Inglis. It wis Sir Alexander Lindsay o Glenesk who durin John Gaunts invasion o Scotland, attacked an put tae the swuird the crew o ane o the Inglis ships that haed landit abuin Queen's Ferry (Sooth Queensferry).

15t Century & Clan Conflicts

At the Battle o Arbroath in 1445 the Clan Lindsay led bi the Maister o Crawford advanced wi ower 1000 men. Thair fae wis the Clan Ogilvy who wur supportit bi men frae the Clan Oliphant, Clan Gordon, Clan Seton an Clan Forbes o Pitsligo. The Master o Crawford's faither, David Lindsay, 3rd Earl o Crawford rode atween the twa airmies in an attempt tae caw a truce. Housomeivver, an illadvised Ogilvie, thinkin that this wis the stairt o the Lindsay's attack, threw his spear at the Earl, hittin him in the mooth an killin him instantly. Sae the battle began which went in the Clan Lindsay's favour. Here fell Ogilvie o Inverquharty, Forbes o Pitsligo, Brucklay o Gartley, Gordon o Borrowfield, an Oliphant o Aberdalgie, alang wi 500 or sae Ogilvies. Housomeivver, the Lindsays lost a disproportionate amoont o men, maist notably the Earl himsel.

In 1448 Lord Lindsay o Byres gae King James III o Scotland the "great grey horse" which wad cairy him faster intae battle than ony ither horse in Scotland. Lord Lindsay hissel led a force o several thoosan at the Battle o Sauchieburn.

Durin the 15t century the Clan Lindsay lost muckle o thair land due tae feudin wi the Clan Ogilvy. Chief Alexander Lindsay, the 4t Earl o Crawford, forby kent as the Tiger Earl an Earl Beardie wis badly defeatit bi the Clan Ogilvy an the Clan Gordon unner the Earl o Huntly at Brechin in 1452. Housomeivver aw wis nae lost as Alexander Lindsay's son wis made Duke o Montrose bi King James III o Scotland.

16t Century & Anglo-Scots Wars

In the 16t Century durin the Anglo-Scots Wars the Clan Lindsay focht at the Battle o Flodden Field in 1513 whaur thair chief, the 6t Earl o Crawford wis slain.

The fift Lord Lindsay wis ane o the fower nobles tae whom the chairge o the infant Mary, Queen o Scots wis committit in 1542. His son Patrick, th 6t Lord, wis a fierce reformer an ane o the Lords o the Congregation. He teuk pairt in the murther o David Rizzio an challenged Bothwell tae mortal combat at Carberry Hill, an at Lochleven Castle forced the Queen tae then gie up her croun. It wis frae this line that the 10t Lord wis made 1st Earl o Lindsay bi King Charles in the 17t century. The Lindsays later supportit Mary, Queen o Scots an focht for her at the Battle o Langside in 1568.

17t Century & Ceevil War

In the 17t century durin the Ceevil War the Clan Lindsay wur Ryalist supporters o King Charles Stuart o England, Scotland & Ireland. The daith o the Clan Lindsay Chief an 16t Earl in 1652 wis the last o that line tae be Earl o Crawford an the Earldom wis passed intae the haunds o King Charles. Housomeivver anither line o Lindsays received a new title, held bi John the 1st Earl o Lindsay who wis awready the 10t Lord Lindsay o Byres.

18t Century & Jacobite Uprisins

The Lindsays o Balcarres descend frae a younger son o the nint Earl o Crawford. Thay wur creatit Earls o Balcarres for thair services durin the Ceevil War. The 1st Earl o Balcarres wis made hereditary govrenor o Edinburgh Castle. His son supportit the Jacobite Uprisin an focht at the Battle o Sherrifmuir in 1715. The Clan Lindsay did no tak pairt in the Jacobite Uprisin o 1745 tae 1746.

Spellins
The Lindsays are arguably the clan wi the maist diverse variations when it comes tae spellin thair name. Kent spellins include:

Limesay
Linday
Linde
Lindeci
Lindensay
Lindesa
Lindesaia
Lindesaie
Lindesans
Lindesay
Lindesaye
Lindese
Lindesee
Lindesei
Lindeseia
Lindeseie
Lindesey
Lindesi
Lindesie
Lindesins
Lindessay
Lindessaya
Lindessaye
Lindessey
Lindesseye
Lindessi
Lindesy
Lindesye
Lindeszey
Lindey
Lindiesay
Lindisay
Lindisin
Lindissa
Lindissai
Lindissay
Lindisseia
Lindsa
Lindsai
Lindsay
Lindsaye
Lindsey
Lindsseie
Lindyesaye
Lindyssay
Lindyssey
Linsai
Linsaie
Linsay
Linsey
Linsee
Linsley
Linzee
Lyncay
Lynde
Lynddesai
Lynddessay
Lynddessaye
Lyndesai
Lyndesay
Lyndeseia
Lyndeseie
Lyndesey
Lyndeseye
Lyndesheie
Lyndeshey
Lyndesie
Lyndesins
Lyndessai
Lyndessay
Lyndessaye
Lyndessey
Lyndessy
Lyndesy
Lyndesya
Lyndey
Lyndezay
Lyndisay
Lyndissai
Lyndissay
Lyndisseye
Lyndsa
Lyndsaia
Lyndsaie
Lyndsay
Lyndsey
Lyndseye
Lyndsy
Lyndysay
Lyndyssay
Lyndyssey
Lynsay
Lynse
Lynsey

Clan Castle

Edzell Castle wis the oreeginal castle o the Chief o Clan Lindsay which thay acquired in 1358 an retained awnership till 1715.
Crawford Castle
Carsluith Castle
Spynie Palace
Lordscairnie Castle
Craigie Castle, Ayrshire
 Lindsane

Clan affiliatit surnames
Affiliatit Surnames o Clan Lindsay include:

Auchinleck
Buyers
Byers
Cobb
Crawford
Deuchar
Deuchars
Downie
Fotheringham
Leeds
Rhind
Rhynd
Summers
Sumner

Freemit airtins
http://www.clanlindsay.org.au/history.htm
http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/htol/lindsay2.html
http://www.myclan.com/clans/Lindsay_66/default.php
http://www.clanlindsay.com

Lindsay

Clan Lindsay


The Torre dei Gianfigliazzi is a Romanesque-style medieval tower-residence located on Via de' Tornabuoni #1 in central Florence, region of Tuscany, Italy. It can be seen rising adjacent to the left of the church of Santa Trinita. It now hosts a hotel.

History
A large tower-residence, it was built in medieval times for the Guelph family of the Ruggerini, and was totally demolished after the Guelph were expelled from Florence in 1260. Reconstructed, it was acquired by the Fastelli first, and then, in the late 14th century, to the Gianfigliazzi, who owned it until their extinction in 1760.

In the early 19th century it was used by the local Nobles' Academy, and housed figures such as Alessandro Manzoni, Louis Bonaparte and Vittorio Alfieri.  In 1841 it was extensively renovated, with the addition of merlons inspired by the nearby Palazzo Spini Feroni and the opening of new windows.

Sources

Towers in Florence
Palaces in Florence
Romanesque architecture in Florence

Torre dei Gianfigliazzi


A tyrant (pronounce: tie-rant) is a person who rules with absolute power. In its Greek origin the word has no negative meaning: we translate Oedipus Tyrannus as 'Oedipus the King'. A tyrant  usually rules a country, and he often got his position as powerful ruler by force, although some of them inherited their power.

Later, the word came to mean someone who ruled with cruelty and injustice. The rule of a tyrant is called tyranny.  The adjective is tyrannical.

A dictator or despot is someone who rules with absolute authority, usually cruelly. It now has the same meaning as 'tyrant', whereas before, 'tyrant' meant something like 'ruler' or 'king'.

In the 10th and 9th centuries BC, Ancient Greece was ruled by monarchs. By the 7th century BC, they were ruled by groups of aristocrats. These aristocrats started to become unpopular. This gave cruel people the chance to get power for themselves, telling the people that they would be good rulers, but turning bad once they got power.

Around 650 BC the tyrant Cypselus became powerful in Corinth.  There were other tyrants in the Asiatic countries that were ruled by Greece.  Cypselus's son Periander was also a cruel tyrant who ruled for 40 years. The tyranny in Corinth came to an end after he died.

Ancient Greece
Forms of government

Tyrant


Christiane Eberhardine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth (19 December 1671 – 4 September 1727) was Electress of Saxony from 1694 to 1727 (her death) and Queen Consort of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1697 to 1727 by marriage to Augustus II the Strong. Not once throughout the whole of her thirty-year queenship did she set foot in Poland, instead living in Saxony in self-imposed exile. Born a German margravine, she was called Sachsens Betsäule, "Saxony's pillar of prayer", by her Protestant subjects for her refusal to convert to Catholicism. Despite the allegiance of Christiane Eberhardine and her mother-in-law, Anna Sophie of Denmark, to Lutheranism, her husband and son, later Augustus III, both became Catholics, ensuring Catholic succession in the Albertine lands after a century and a half.

Biography

Early life
She was the firstborn child of Christian Ernst, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, and his second wife, Princess Sophie Luise of Württemberg, daughter of Eberhard III, Duke of Württemberg. She was named for her father, Christian, and her mother's father, Eberhard. As the daughter of the Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, she was margravine by birth. She had five younger siblings, only two of whom survived infancy. She remained close to her relatives in Bayreuth and continued to visit them after her marriage.

Marriage and issues
She married Frederick Augustus, Duke of Saxony, the younger brother of the elector, John George IV, on 20 January 1693 at age 21. The marriage was purely political and highly unhappy. Augustus considered her boring, while she was shocked and hurt by his constant infidelity.

Three years later, on 17 October 1696, their son Frederick Augustus was born in Dresden. This was the only pregnancy in their entire 34-year-long marriage. He was brought up by his paternal grandmother, Anna Sophie of Denmark. Because Christiane Eberhardine and her mother-in-law got on well, she visited her son frequently.

Christiane Eberhardine's husband converted to Catholicism to become king of Poland, but she remained faithful to her Protestant beliefs and was not present at her husband's coronation, and was never crowned queen of Poland. Her Protestant countrymen named her "The Pillar of Saxony."

Queen and Electress
Christiane Eberhardine became electress when Augustus succeeded his brother as elector in 1694. In the carnival procession with which Augustus celebrated his elevation, and where the members of his court drove through Dresden dressed as gods and goddesses, the mistress of her husband, Maria Aurora von Königsmarck, participated in the procession, driving the wagon of Apollo dressed as the goddess Aurora, while she participated in a minor role as one of the Vestal Virgins escorting the goddess Vesta. In 1696, Christiane Eberhardine gave birth to her only child, the heir to the throne, after the only pregnancy during her entire marriage.

In 1697, Augustus converted to Catholicism and was elected King of Poland. Apparently, he had discussed neither his conversion nor his candidacy with her. His conversion caused a scandal in Saxony, and he was forced to guarantee the religious freedom of Saxony. According to the contemporary norms, Christiane Eberhardine, now queen, was expected to follow him to Poland and support him by hosting his court as queen by his side and be crowned with him in Kraków, and from the summer of 1697 until the coronation on 15 September 1697, Augustus tried to negotiate for her to come. However, Christiane Eberhardine refused to attend the coronation and to set foot in Poland despite the fact that her father also united with Augustus in persuading her. According to the Pacta Conventa, which Augustus had signed after his election, he was obliged to persuade her to convert, which she refused. In March 1698, Augustus invited her to come to Danzig, where there was a large Protestant minority and where her father was to meet her. He promised her the freedom to remain a Protestant, bring with her a Protestant clergyman and practice her own faith, as long as the clergyman did not appear in public dressed in office and she did not visit Protestant churches in public. Augustus further guaranteed that their son would not convert by entrusting him to the care of his Protestant mother, Dowager Electress Anna Sophie. Christiane Eberhardine did not agree with the terms and refused to follow her father to Danzig and therefrom to Warsaw. On April 1698, her spouse and father signed a document in Warsaw, promising freedom of religion for her in Danzig and Thorn, though not publicly. Her father then returned with the document to Dresden and tried to convince her to come to Poland. Despite repeated attempts and demands from her husband and father, Christiane Eberhardine refused to go to Poland, and she never did during the entire reign of Augustus, nor was she ever crowned queen.

During his reign, Augustus traveled between Poland and Saxony, and during his visits in Saxony, Christiane Eberhardine appeared at his side at official functions, such as when he returned to Saxony after his election in Dresden in August 1699, when they appeared at the theater. Often, however, they did not meet for years at a time, such as for example in 1700–1703 and 1714–1717, when he spent all his time in Poland. Augustus visited her at Pretzsch every year he traveled to Dresden.

Queen Christiane Eberhardine lived separated from her spouse with her own court in Hartenfels Castle in Torgau in winters and in her castle at Pretzsch an der Elbe in the summers, which was close to the residence of her mother-in-law, who also had the custody of her son, whom she often visited, as she and her mother-in-law was on friendly terms. She made trips to her relatives in Bayreuth and the spa at Ems and regularly visited Dresden during the carnival season and Christmas. Christiane Eberhardine continued to participate in representational court life in Dresden whenever her presence was required, the biggest festivities being the state visit of the King of Denmark in 1709 and the wedding of her son in 1719.

In her voluntary exile she concentrated on cultural activities and took interest in the faith of orphaned children. At her court, she took many relatives as courtiers to educate them, among them Charlotte of Braunschweig, who married the Russian heir to the throne, Sophie Magdalene who married the Crown Prince of Denmark and Sophie Caroline who married the Prince of Ostfriesland. She was also active in the field of economics; in 1697 she took over operation of the glass factory in Pretzsch, founded by Constantin Fremel. She enjoyed to play cards and billiards, which is noted to have amassed great debts by 1711. She founded an orangery and during the last year of her life she was in the midst of planning a Protestant convent for female nobles.

Queen Christiane Eberhardine, as did her mother-in-law, enjoyed immense popularity in Saxony as a symbol of Protestant faith and protection against Catholic Poland, which the Protestants feared would enforce a counter reformation. In this role, Protestant preachers liked to portray her as a miserable Protestant martyr, isolated as a virtual prisoner in her lonely castle, a portrait even more accentuated after her son had been taken from Saxony and converted to Catholicism.

Christiane Eberhardine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth died at the age of 55 and was buried on 6 September in the parish church of Pretzsch. Neither her husband nor her son were present at the funeral.
In commemoration of her death, Johann Sebastian Bach composed the cantata Laß, Fürstin, laß noch einen Strahl, BWV 198, to a text of Johann Christoph Gottsched, first performed on 15 October 1727 in the Paulinerkirche, the church of the University of Leipzig.

References

Sources
Watanabe-O'Kelly, Helen. "Enlightenment, Emancipation, and the Queen Consort." Enlightenment and Emancipation. Ed. Susan Manning and Peter France. Lewisburg, Pa.: Bucknell UP, 2006. 119–25. Print.

Further reading

 Stichart, Franz Otto: Galerie der sächsischen Fürstinnen; biogr. Skizzen sämtlicher Ahnfrauen des kgl. Hauses Sachsen, Leipzig 1857
 Blanckmeister, Franz: Kurfürstin Christiane Eberhardine von Sachsen: eine ev. Bekennerin, Barmen 1892
 Meyer, Johannes: Frauengestalten und Frauenwalten im Hause Wettin, Bautzen 1912
 Haake, Paul: Christiane Eberhardine und August der Starke: eine Ehetragödie, Dresden 1930
 Lauckner, Martin: Eine alte Unterschrift von zarter Hand, in: Sächs. Heimat, Hamburg, Jg. 1981
 Czok, Karl: August der Starke und Kursachsen, Leipzig 1987. Aufgeklärter Absolutismus und kirchlich-religiöse Toleranzpolitik bei August dem Starken, In: Sachsen und die Wettiner. Chancen und Realitäten (Sondernummer der Dresdner Hefte); Dresden 1990
 Fellmann, Walter: Prinzessinnen. Glanz, Einsamkeit und Skandale am sächsischen Hof, Leipzig 1996
 Böttcher, Hans-Joachim: Christiane Eberhardine Prinzessin von Brandenburg-Bayreuth, Kurfürstin von Sachsen und Königin von Polen, Gemahlin August des Starken, Dresden 2011.

1671 births
1727 deaths
German Lutherans
Electoral Princesses of Saxony
Grand Duchesses of Lithuania
House of Hohenzollern
People from Bayreuth
Queens consort of Poland
Electresses of Saxony
⚭Christiane Eberhardine of Brandenburgbayreuth
Augustus the Strong
Daughters of monarchs


The coaching inn (also coaching house or staging inn) was a vital part of Europe's inland transport infrastructure until the development of the railway, providing a resting point (layover) for people and horses. The inn served the needs of travellers, for food, drink, and rest. The attached stables, staffed by hostlers, cared for the horses, including changing a tired team for a fresh one. Coaching inns were used by private travellers in their coaches, the public riding stagecoaches between one town and another, and (in England at least) the mail coach. Just as with roadhouses in other countries, although many survive, and some still offer overnight accommodation, in general coaching inns have lost their original function and now operate as ordinary pubs.

Coaching inns stabled teams of horses for stagecoaches and mail coaches and replaced tired teams with fresh teams. In America, stage stations performed these functions. Traditionally English coaching inns were seven miles apart but this depended very much on the terrain. Some English towns had as many as ten such inns and rivalry between them was intense, not only for the income from the stagecoach operators but for the revenue for food and drink supplied to the passengers. Barnet, Hertfordshire still has an unusually high number of historic pubs along its high street due to its former position on the Great North Road from London to the North of England.

Historic coaching inns

The Black Lion in Cardigan (established 1105) is probably the oldest Welsh coaching inn. Other historic inns in Wales include the Black Boy Inn (built 1522) and the Groes Inn (1573).

The Bear, Oxford, was founded in 1774 as 'The Jolly Trooper' from the house of the stableman to the coaching inn 'The Bear Inn', on High Street. It acquired the name The Bear, and the history of the coaching inn, when The Bear Inn was converted into a private house in 1801.

There were many coaching inns in what is now central London. The only remaining one with the galleries to the bedrooms above is The George Inn, Southwark, owned by the National Trust and still run as a pub. Many have been demolished and plaques mark their location. The Nomura building close to the Museum of London on London Wall commemorates the "Bull and Mouth" Inn. The Golden Cross House, opposite St Martin's in the Fields recalls the Golden Cross, Charing Cross coaching inn.

Cock and Bull

A pair of coaching inns along Watling Street in Stony Stratford are claimed to have given rise to the term "cock and bull stories". The claim is that stories by coach passengers would be further embellished as they passed between the two hostelries, "The Cock" and "The Bull", fuelled by ale and an interested audience. Hence any suspiciously elaborate tale would become a cock and bull story. However, there is no evidence to suggest that this is where the phrase originated. The phrase, first recorded in 1621, may instead be an allusion to Aesop's fables, with their incredible talking animals.

References

Bibliography
Coaching Era, The: Stage and Mail Coach Travel in and Around Bath, Bristol and Somerset, Roy Gallop, Fiducia  (2003),

 'The English Urban Inn 1560–1750', Alan Everitt, in Perspectives in English Urban History, ed. By Alan Everitt, Palgrave Macmillan (1973),  I

External links
Coaching inns. By Anne Woodley.
Stagecoaches and Coaching Inns. Cottontown.
 Photos of examples of what may be considered coaching inns in geograph.org.uk

Transport infrastructure
Drinking establishments in Europe
Tourist accommodations
Horse-related professions and professionals
Hotel types

Coaching inn


The Academy Awards for Best Dance Direction is an Academy Award.  It was given between 1935 and 1937 only.

Winners and nominees

1930s
1935: Dave Gould - Broadway Melody of 1936 ("I've Got a Feeling You're Fooling") and Folies Bergere ("Straw Hat")
 Busby Berkeley - Gold Diggers of 1935 ("Lullaby of Broadway") and ("The Words Are in My Heart")
 Bobby Connolly - Broadway Hostess ("Playboy from Paree") and Go Into Your Dance ("Latin from Manhattan")
 Sammy Lee - King of Burlesque ("Lovely Lady") and ("Too Good to Be True")
 Hermes Pan - Top Hat ("Top Hat")
 LeRoy Prinz - All the King's Horses ("Viennese Waltz")  and The Big Broadcast of 1936 ("It's the Animal in Me")
 B. Zemach - She ("Hall of Kings")1936: Seymour Felix - The Great Ziegfeld ("A Pretty Girl Is Like a Melody")
 Busby Berkeley - Gold Diggers of 1937 ("Love and War")
 Bobby Connolly - Cain and Mabel ("1000 Love Songs")
 Dave Gould - Born to Dance ("Swingin' the Jinx Away")
 Jack Haskell - One in a Million ("Skating Ensemble")
 Hermes Pan - Swing Time ("Bojangles of Harlem")
 Russell Lewis - Dancing Pirate ("The Finale")

'1937: Hermes Pan - A Damsel in Distress ("Fun House")
 Busby Berkeley - Varsity Show ("The Finale")
 Bobby Connolly - Ready, Willing and Able ("Too Marvelous for Words")
 Dave Gould - A Day at the Races ("All God's Children Got Rhythm")
 Sammy Lee - Ali Baba Goes to Town ("Swing Is Here to Stay")
 Harry Losee - Thin Ice ("Prince Igor Suite")
 LeRoy Prinz - Waikiki Wedding'' ("Luau")

Dance Direction

Academy Award for Best Dance Direction


Bobby Aitken is a Cuban-born Jamaican guitarist and singer who had a string of hits in Jamaica in the 1960s and led the band The Carib Beats.

Biography
Aitken is the brother of Laurel Aitken, and recorded in the early 1960s for producer King Edwards. He had hits in the ska era of the 1960s with singles such as "Never Never" (1962, Blue Beat), "Baby Baby" (1962, Island Records), "Don't Leave Me", "I've Told You", and "It Takes a Friend" (all 1963), "Jericho" and "Rolling Stone" (1964), "Rain Came Tumbling Down" (1965), "Thunderball" and "Shame & Scandal" (1966), and "What a Fool" (1967). Aitken also led the band The Carib Beats, who recorded for J.J. Johnson, Bunny Lee, Joe Gibbs, Ewan McDermott, and Clancy Eccles. The Carib Beats disbanded in the mid-1960s, with Aitken becoming more involved with his church. Aitken has also been involved in the music tuition of the younger members of the congregation of his church, including Carlton "Santa" Davis, who went on to become one of the most prominent Jamaican drummers of the 1970s. He is the father of rising singer Debbi Verbz.

Aitken was one of the top session musicians of the rocksteady era, and his productions from this era were collected together on the album Bobby Aitken Presents Rock Steady Original & Red Hot, released by Next Step Records. Bobby Aitkens musical works were stolen, reproduced, and has been illegally sold since he became a Christian 1975. Other honorable songs the Legend has created were hit song, " Jesus Name So Sweet" 1977 the year of his 2nd to last daughter. The song was made popular by Donnie McKlurkin, which is now copyrighted by Bobby Aitkens.

References

External links
Bobby Aitken at discogs.com

Jamaican reggae musicians
Island Records artists
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Bobby Aitken


Lionel George Logue (26 February 1880 – 12 April 1953) was an Australian speecht herapist, scientist, and stage actor who successfully treated King George VI, who had a pronounced stammer.

Life
Lionel George Logue was born in College Town, Adelaide, South Australia on 26 February 1880. Logue was married to Myrtle Gruenert from 1907 until her death in 1945. They had three children.

Before he ascended the throne, Albert, Duke of York hated public speaking because he suffered from a severe stammer. His closing speech at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley on 31 October 1925 proved that the speaker and listeners alike. The experience left the Duke resolved to find a way to manage his stammer, so he engaged Logue in 1926.

Diagnosing poor co-ordination between the Duke's larynx and thoracic diaphragm, Logue prescribed a daily hour of vocal exercises. Logue's treatment gave the Duke the confidence to relax and avoid tension-induced muscle spasms. As a result, he suffered only the occasional hesitancy in speech. By 1927, he was speaking confidently and managed his address at the opening of the Old Parliament House in Canberra without stammering.

Logue worked with the Duke through the 1930s and 40s. He used tongue-twisters to help his patient rehearse for major speeches, his coronation, and his radio broadcasts to the British Empire throughout the Second World War. The two men remained friends until the King's death.

Logue died in London, England on 12 April 1953, aged 73 from natural causes. His funeral was held on 17 April 1953 in Holy Trinity, Brompton before his body was cremated.

Movies
He was played by actor Geoffrey Rush in Tom Hooper's 2010 movie, ''The King's Speech.

References

Other websites
"Lionel Logue 'never swore in front of King George VI'", BBC Radio Leicester
 Bowen, C. (2002). Lionel Logue: Pioneer speech therapist. Retrieved 1 January 2011

1880 births
1953 births
Australian stage actors
Scientists from South Australia
Australian educators
Actors from Adelaide

Lionel Logue


Thunderhead Mountain is a  mountain in the west-central part of the Great Smoky Mountains, located in the Southeastern United States.  Rising along the border between Tennessee and North Carolina, the mountain dominates the Western Smokies.  The Appalachian Trail crosses its summit, making it a popular hiking destination.  Rocky Top, a knob on the western part of the mountain's summit ridge, shares its name with a popular Tennessee state song.

Thunderhead rises approximately  above its northern base at Little River and approximately  above its southern base at Bone Valley.  The mountain consists of three peaks, the lowest being Rocky Top at  above sea level and the easternmost being the highest at  above sea level.  Thunderhead is the highest point in Blount County, Tennessee and the highest point on the Appalachian Trail coming from the south until the trail ascends Silers Bald  some  to the east.

The mountain's name originated in the 19th century. It probably referred to the unpredictable weather that often strikes the higher elevations in the Smokies.  According to Laura Thornborough, a writer who hiked to the summit of Thunderhead along with local guide Sam Cook in the 1930s:

Geology
Thunderhead consists of precambrian sandstone.  Thunderhead sandstone is part of the Ocoee Supergroup, which was formed from ancient ocean sediments between 500 million and one billion years ago. The mountain itself was formed appx. 200 million years ago during the Appalachian orogeny, when the collision of the North American and African plates thrust the rock upward.

History

James Spence, who cleared the ridge  to the west (now known as Spence Field), was the first known permanent settler in the vicinity. While the extent of Spence's farm is unknown, cattle-grazing had rendered Thunderhead a grassy bald by the late-19th century.

Thunderhead is one of the few mountains listed under its current name in  Arnold Guyot's 1859 survey of the crest of the Smokies.  Guyot measured Thunderhead's elevation at  above sea level, missing the modern measurement by just seven feet (2 m).

During the Civil War, a group of East Tennesseans attempted to form a wilderness settlement on the mountain's north slope known as "New World," although the settlement didn't last.  The settlement was located along Thunderhead Prong, near Chimney Rocks.

As preservationist groups began buying land in the Smokies in the early 1900s, Thunderhead became a favorite hiking destination for park visitors.  John W. Oliver, the great-grandson of the first European settlers in Cades Cove, started offering guided hikes to the
mountain in 1924.  The trail he (and Thornborough's guide, Sam Cook) used largely followed the Bote Mountain Trail-Appalachian Trail route still in use today.

In the years after the Great Smoky Mountains National Park was formed, wooded plants started to reclaim much of the Smokies crest west of Clingmans Dome.  Park strategy at present is to allow Thunderhead to return to its natural state.  A narrow path is maintained across the top of the mountain for Appalachian Trail thru-hikers.

Access

The Bote Mountain Trail, with its trailhead on Little River Road, ascends  to the crest of the Smokies and intersects the Appalachian Trail at Spence Field.  From Spence Field, it is approximately  to the summit of Thunderhead.  The Lead Cove Trail, also beginning on Little River Road (near Cades Cove), offers the shortest access to the summit by bypassing the first  of the Bote Mountain Trail.  From the Lead Cove trailhead, it is approximately  to the summit of Thunderhead.  The Anthony Creek Trail, rising out of the Cades Cove campground, also bypasses the first  of the Bote Mountain Trail.  From the Anthony Creek trailhead, it is approximately  to the summit of Thunderhead.

While the main summit of Thunderhead is covered in foliage, Rocky Top offers a 360-degree view of the western Smokies.

References

External links

Great Smoky Mountains National Park Trail Map
Thunderhead Mountain - Peakbagger.com
Hiking information for Rocky Top and Thunderhead
Great Smoky Mountains National Park Landforms

Mountains of Great Smoky Mountains National Park
Mountains on the Appalachian Trail
Mountains of Tennessee
Mountains of North Carolina
Protected areas of Blount County, Tennessee
Protected areas of Swain County, North Carolina
Appalachian balds
Mountains of Swain County, North Carolina
Mountains of Blount County, Tennessee

Thunderhead Mountain


Menden (, official name: Menden (Sauerland); Westphalian: Mennen) is a city in the district Märkischer Kreis, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located at the north end of the Sauerland near the Ruhr river.

History
Menden's first churches were built in the 9th century. From 1180 on the area around Menden was part of the Cologne region, however, as it was on the border with the County of Mark, it was often fought over. In 1276, it received city rights. Industrialization started early: in 1695 needle production was the first industry, later followed by limestone products such as cement. In 1816 Menden was included within Prussia, after being part of Hesse for 13 years. In 1975 the city was merged with several previously independent municipalities, thus it grew in area as well as population.

Points of interest
The Hönnetal, a narrow valley with some beautiful cliffs carved into the limestone bedrock by the river Hönne.

Education

Primary education
In Menden (Sauerland), there are eleven elementary schools.

Secondary schools
Besides four hauptschulen, two realschulen, there are three grammar schools:

 Heilig-Geist-Gymnasium, only for boys until 1977; since 2015 combined with the Walramgymnasium and now named Städtisches Gymnasium an der Hönne
 Walburgisgymnasium, only for girls until 1974
 Walramgymnasium; since 2015 combined with the Heilig-Geist-Gymnasium and now named Städtisches Gymnasium an der Hönne

Culture
The theatre managed by the city government, is the Theater am Ziegelbrand (TAZ). It is directed by Volker Fleige.

Music
Menden à la carte is a popular festival. It is organized by the Initiativkreis Mendener Wirtschaft.

Theatre
In Menden there are three theatres; the Theater am Ziegelbrand in an old factory building with places for 49 spectators.
Another theatre is located under the indoor swimming pool with places for 99 people. It is called  Zimmertheater Scaramouche and corporate appearances and a traditional Christmas stage play can be seen there. For the young visitors there is a kids club. The third theatre is in Halingen. It is called the Halinger Dorftheater.

Museum
Founded in 1912, the Museum of Menden specialized on the living circumstances of the citizens of Menden in medieval age. It informs about and reconstructs the equipment from farmers' and patricians' houses. It also presents bones of human beings from prehistoric times and the complete skeleton of a cave bear.

Buildings
 The ruin of Burg Rodenberg, an old caste in the forest near the indoor swimming pool.
 The St.-Vincenz-Kirche, founded in 1345, is the biggest church in Menden and is near the old city hall.
 Parts of the old city defense such as 3 towers and a little part of the city wall still exist and may be seen.

Sport
In Menden there are many sport clubs. It is the home of the Sauerland Cup, which is a competition for handball clubs from all around the world. Even clubs from Japan or Switzerland took part in 2005. It takes place in spring and nearly every sports hall available is used. Menden is also the host of an international soccer competition in which every U-10 club can take part. The Huckenohlstadion is a multi-purpose stadium.  Menden also has clubs for basketball, tennis, swimming, dancing, volleyball, boxing and contests, matches and demonstrations can be attended nearly every weekend.

Regular events
The first event in a year is the carnival, with a parade of clubs andlocal dance groups.

The second event is the Lendringser Frühling. Organized by the Lendringser Werbegemeinschaft it is an event combined with the possibility of Sunday shopping. The public can visit stalls and presentations of different groups such as a bike performance or typical food from different communities like the Greek one.

The Good Friday procession has taken place since the 17th century. The route starts near the St Vincenz Church and goes over 14 stations to the St Antonius Chapel and it begins hourly. The route is  long, and especially for the youth there is a procession with music which is well attended by young people.

In the time around Pentecost, Menden organizes a kirmes with amusement rides, food stands and a big firework display on Tuesday at the end of the kirmes. This event is a big magnet for over 300,000 people living around Menden. This event takes place during four days, from the Saturday before Pentecost until the Tuesday after.

The series Mendener Sommer is a collection of several events of different national and international music artists.
The events which are free and organized by the culture office are mainly in July and August and take place outside in the centre of the city.

Menden à la carte is an event which takes place in the summer from Friday to Sunday and is marked culturally and culinarily.

The Mendener Herbst is an event of the Menden advertising organization and takes place every year on the 3rd weekend of October. It is a kind of a junk market for arts and crafts from the region.

Twin towns – sister cities

Menden is twinned with:

 Aire-sur-la-Lys, France (1965)
 Ardres, France (1974/75)
 Braine-l'Alleud, Belgium (1978)
 Flintshire, Wales, United Kingdom (1980)
 Lestrem, France (1971)
 Locon, France (1964)
 Marœuil, France (1984)
 Plungė, Lithuania (1992/93)
 Eisenberg, Germany

Friendly cities
Menden also has friendly relations with:
 Chalcis, Greece (2000)

Notable people

Augustin Henninghaus (1862–1939), missionary bishop in China at the time of the German Empire
Erich Bärenfänger (1915–1945), Major General
Wolfram Kuschke (born 1950), President of the Government and NRW Minister, social democrat
Silvia Hollmann (born 1955), athlete
Dieter Lemke (born 1956), footballer
Dendemann (born 1974), rapper

References

External links

Official website
Theater am Ziegelbrand

Towns in North Rhine-Westphalia
Märkischer Kreis

Menden


George Armitrage Miller (February 3, 1920 – July 22, 2012) was one of the founders of cognitive psychology in the 20th century. He studied thinking, language, and memory.

Miller found out that if you ask people to remember a list of words or numbers, most people can remember only between five and nine words or numbers. His paper The magical number seven, plus or minus two explained this as a limitation in human short-term memory.

Once a behaviorist, Miller moved to cognitive psychology. In 1991, Miller was awarded the National Medal of Science. Miller revolutionized the world of psychology by showing that aspects of the human mind could be observed and tested in a laboratory setting.

Early life
Miller was born in Charleston, West Virginia. In 1940 he received his bachelor's degree from the University of Alabama, where he majored in English and speech. In 1946, Miller received his Ph.D. in Psychology from Harvard University. During his life, he taught as a professor at Princeton, Harvard, and Rockefeller University. He died in Plainsboro, New Jersey at the age of 92.

Chunking
The first concept introduced by Miller is known as chunking. Chunking is a way developed to help people remember a certain number of words or numbers. It is known to help with both short-term memory and long-term memory. When he asked subjects to perform memory tasks in various experiments, he noticed that most subjects recalled about seven units from a list regardless of the list topic. Miller said that the short-term memory could only hold 5-9 chunks of information (plus or minus two) and is also a way to increase the capacity of short-term memory. A chunk can refer to digits, words, faces, or any type of meaningful unit. Chunking is when a person groups multiple words together to help with memory tasks. This technique can help people with recalling specific groups of words. Remembering is much easier when the chunking technique is used. An example of chunking would be trying to remember a long sequence of digits. For example, 2 4 5 6 1 4 2 7 0 could be remembered by chunking those numbers into smaller meaningful units such as 245 614 270.

The magical number seven
"The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information" was a paper published originally in The Psychology Review. This paper remains Miller's most famous and cited piece of work in the history of psychology. It outlines the number of items, numbers, or objects an average human memory can hold. Miller states in his paper, "This number assumes a variety of disguises, being sometimes a little larger and sometimes a little smaller than usual, but never changing so much as to be unrecognizable" (Miller 1956). He did a series of memory tasks that led him to believe that 7 was the number. The paper goes into depth stating how the memory span is a complicated source and how it can hold a lot of information.

Wordnet
Miller began working on Wordnet in the mid 1980s. It is a large database of English nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs that are grouped into sets of cognitive synonyms which represent a specific concept or idea. It resembles a thesaurus since it groups words together based on their meanings. Miller wanted to use Wordnet as a tool to test psycholinguistic theories on how people use and understand words.

Publications
 Miller G.A. 1956. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review 63 (2): 81–97
 Miller G.A; Galanter E. & Pribram K.H. 1960. Plans and the structure of behavior. Adams Bannister Cox.

Institutions
 Princeton University
 Harvard University

Awards
 Distinguished Scientific Contribution award from the American Psychological Association, 1963
 Distinguished Service award from the American Speech and Hearing Association, 1976
 Award in Behavioral Sciences from the New York Academy of Sciences, 1982
 Gold Medal from the American Psychological Foundation, 1990
 National Medal of Science from the White House, 1991
 Louis E. Levy Medal from the Franklin Institute, 1991
 International Prize from the Fyssen Foundation, 1992
 John P. McGovern award from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2000
 Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology award from the American Psychological Association, 2003
 Antonio Zampolli Prize from the European Languages Research Association, 2006

References

1920 births
2012 deaths
American psychologists
Scientists from West Virginia
Writers from West Virginia
People from Charleston, West Virginia
Phrases

George A. Miller


A system file is an important file which an operating system needs to be able to work properly. System files are found mainly in computers and device drivers. They can contain important information. They can contain information which enables a computer to start. They can also contain information which tells the computer how to run properly as you use it. Deleting a system file can damage a computer or make it unusable. System files in a Windows operating system are found in the System32 folder, the most important folder on the computer's hard drive. Most system files cannot be edited or deleted as they are always in use by the system.

Computing

System file


Vita-Cola (VEET-ah KOHL-a) is a cola drink made in the east o Germany. It wis oreeginally an eemitation o Coca-Cola made in the German Democratic Republic, kent as Aest Germany an aw. It wis introduced in 1957, adverteesed as a "Brauselimonade mit Frucht- und Kräutergeschmack" (fizzie drink wi fruit an yerb gusts) an uisin a formulae that is yet hauden hidlins like Coca-Cola's "Merchandise 7X" formulae). At its peend, Vita-Cola wis bottled in owre 200 factories.

Aifter the dingin doun o the Berlin Waw an Airn Curtain in 1989, Vita-Cola's business swith cam in an Wastern cola kenmerks teuk its place. Houaniver, wi the advent o Ostalgie (nostalgia amang "Ossis" for "auld lang syne" in Aest Germany), monie ae-time Aest German products wis brocht back, Vita-Cola bein ane o the maist weel-likit. The firm Thüringer Waldquell (itsel an aest German company) gat the richts tae the name an formulae an begoud makkin Vita-Cola in 1994.

Vita-Cola's gust is best descrieved as cola-like wi a stark leemon an fruit kichenin. Forby thon it is noticeably less succred nor Afri-Cola, Coca-Cola or Pepsi-Cola, an haes a wee glittie conseestencie endue tae its uiss o citrus an ither aromatic iles in the formulae.

Fremmit airtins
Offeeciel Wabsteid

Cola buists
1957 introductions

Vita-Cola


Hermann Leberecht Strack (6 May 1848 – 5 October 1922) was a German Protestant theologian and orientalist; born in Berlin.

Biography
From 1877, Strack was assistant professor of Old Testament exegesis and Semitic languages at the University of Berlin. He was the foremost Christian authority in Germany on Talmudic and rabbinic literature, and studied rabbinics under Steinschneider. Since the reappearance of anti-Semitism in Germany, Strack had been the champion of the Jews against the attacks of such men as Hofprediger Adolf Stoecker, Professor August Rohling, and others. In 1885 Strack became the editor of Nathanael. Zeitschrift für die Arbeit der Evangelischen Kirche an Israel, published at Berlin; and in 1883 he founded the Institutum Judaicum, which aimed at the conversion of Jews to Christianity. In the beginning of his career the Prussian government sent Strack to St. Petersburg to examine the Bible manuscripts there; on this occasion he examined also the antiquities of the Firkovich collection, which he declared to be forgeries. This claim was found to be untrue: the Firkovich collection is closely related to Cairo Geniza material found by Solomon Schechter.

Selected works
Prolegomena Critica in Vetus Testamentum Hebraicum (Leipzig, 1873);
Katalog der Hebräschen Bibelhandschriften der Kaiserlichen Oeffentlichen Bibliothek in St. Petersburg (St. Petersburg and Leipzig, 1875), in collaboration with A. Harkavy;
Prophetarum Posteriorum Codex Babylonicus Petropolitanus (ib. 1876);
A. Firkowitch und Seine Entdeckungen (ib. 1876);
editions of the Mishnah tractates Abot (Carlsruhe, 1882; 2d ed. Berlin, 1888), Yoma (ib. 1888),  'Abodah Zarah (ib. 1888), and Shabbat (ib. 1890);
Hebräische Grammatik (Karlsruhe, 1883; 3d ed. Munchen, 1902); Hebrew Grammar (Berlin-London-New York, 1889; 2nd English ed.)
Lehrbuch der Neuhebräischen Sprache und Litteratur (ib. 1884), in collaboration with Karl Siegfried;
Herr Adolf Stöcker (ib. 1885; 2d ed. 1886);
Einleitung in den Talmud (Leipzig, 1887; 2d ed. 1894), a revised reprint of his article on the subject in Herzog-Hauck's Real-Encyklopädie, to which he made a whole series of contributions on rabbinic subjects;
Paradigmen zur Hebräischen Grammatik (Leipzig, 1887)
Einleitung in das Alte Testament (Nördlingen, 1888; 5th ed. Munich, 1898);
Der Blutaberglaube in der Menschheit, Blutmorde und Blutritus (ib. 1891; 5th ed. 1900), an investigation into the blood libel;
Die Juden. Dürfen Sie 'Verbrecher von Religionswegen' Genannt Werden? (Berlin, 1893);
Abriss des Biblischen Aramäisch (Leipzig, 1897).
Jüdische Geheimgesetze? Mit 3 Anh.: Rohling, Ecker und kein Ende?. Artur Dinter u. Kunst, Wissenschaft, Vaterland. "Die Weisen von Zion" und ihre Gläubigen (Berlin 1920; ib. 3rd and 4th ed. 1921).
Introduction to the Talmud & Midrash (1931), Jewish Publication Society of America, based on the 5th Edition of Einleitung in den Talmud & Midrasch.
Kommentar zum Neuen Testament Aus Talmud und Midrasch, with Paul Billerbeck; (1922–1928; 4 volumes).

Since 1886 Strack was associated with Zoeckler in editing the Kurzgefasster Kommentar zu den Schriften des Alten und Neuen Testaments (Nördlingen and Munich). Strack was also a member of the Foreign Board of Consulting Editors of the Jewish Encyclopedia.

Translations
The Passover Meal, translated by Nathaniel J. Biebert (Red Brick Parsonage, 2013).
Luke 18 and Fasting: Commentary on Luke 18:11b,12a, translated by Nathaniel J. Biebert (Red Brick Parsonage, 2013).
John 10 and Hanukkah: Commentary on John 10:22-30, translated by Nathaniel J. Biebert (Red Brick Parsonage, 2013).
Commentary on Luke 7:36-50, translated by Nathaniel J. Biebert (Red Brick Parsonage, 2013).
Commentary on Matthew 5:13-14, translated by Nathaniel J. Biebert (Red Brick Parsonage, 2014).

References

External links

 Digitized works by Hermann Strack at the Leo Baeck Institute, New York

1848 births
1922 deaths
Writers from Berlin
Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin
19th-century German Protestant theologians
20th-century German Protestant theologians
German orientalists
Christian Hebraists
German male non-fiction writers
19th-century male writers

Hermann Strack


Mangalore, officially known as Mangaluru, is the chief port city of the Indian state of Karnataka. It is located about 352 km (219 mi) west of the state capital, Bengaluru, between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats mountain range. The population of the urban agglomeration was 623,841, according to the provisional results of the 2011 national census of India.

Mangalore developed as a port in the Arabian Sea during ancient times and became a major port of India. This port handles 75 per cent of India's coffee and cashew exports. The port is used as a staging point for sea traffic along the Malabar Coast. This coastal city was ruled by several major powers, including the Kadambas, Alupas, Vijayanagar Empire, Keladi Nayaks and the Portuguese. The city was a source of contention between the British and the Mysore rulers, Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan. Eventually annexed by the British in 1799, Mangalore remained part of the Madras Presidency until India's independence in 1947. The city was unified with the state of Mysore (now called Karnataka) in 1956.

Mangalore is the largest city and administrative headquarters of the Dakshina Kannada district, and is one of the most multicultural non-metro cities of India. It is also the largest city in the Coastal and Malnad regions of Karnataka, besides being a commercial, industrial, educational and healthcare hub on the West Coast of India. This port city has the second largest airport in Karnataka. Mangalore city urban agglomeration extends from Ullal in the south to Mulki in the north, covering a distance of over 40 km (25 mi). The city's landscape is characterised by rolling hills, coconut palms, freshwater streams and hard red-clay tiled-roof buildings. The city has an average elevation of 22 m (72 ft) above mean sea level. Mangalore has a tropical monsoon climate, and is under the influence of the Southwest monsoon.

Romi panam

Mongllur


Kathleen Genevieve Ledecky ([ləˈdekʰɪ],  [ledetskɪː]; born Mairch 17, 1997) is an American competeetion soummer, twa-time Olympic gowd medallist, an nine-time warld champion. She is the current warld-record haulder in the 400-, 800-, an 1,500-meter freestyle (lang course). She an aa haulds the fastest times in the 500-, 1000-, an 1,650-yard freestyle events.

1997 births
Livin fowk
American female freestyle soummers
American fowk o Czech strynd
Olympic gowd medallists for the Unitit States in soummin
Olympic medallists in soummin
Olympic soummers o the Unitit States
Fowk frae Bethesda, Maryland
Sportsfowk frae Washington, D.C.
Soummers at the 2012 Simmer Olympics
Medallists at the 2012 Simmer Olympics
Soummers at the 2016 Simmer Olympics
Warld Aquatics Championships medallists in soummin
Warld record hauders in soummin
Medallists at the 2016 Simmer Olympics
Olympic siller medallists for the Unitit States
Jewish American sportsfowk
Jewish soummers

Katie Ledecky


Neutrons, with protons and electrons, make up an atom. Neutrons and protons are found in the nucleus of an atom. Unlike protons, which have a positive charge, or electrons, which have a negative charge, neutrons have zero charge which means they are  neutral particles. Neutrons bind with protons with the residual strong force.

Neutrons were predicted by Ernest Rutherford, and discovered by James Chadwick, in 1932. Atoms were fired at a thin pane of beryllium. Particles emerged which had no charge, and he called these 'neutrons'. They were later added to the modern image of the atom.

Neutrons have a mass of 1.675 × 10-24g, which is a little heavier than the proton. Neutrons are 1839 times heavier than electrons.

Like all hadrons, neutrons are made of quarks. A neutron is made of two down quarks and one up quark. One up quark has a charge of +2/3, and the two down quarks each have a charge of -1/3. The fact that these charges cancel out is why neutrons have a neutral (0) charge. Quarks are held together by gluons.

Isotopes
Neutrons can be found in almost all atoms together with protons and electrons. Hydrogen-1 is the only exception. Atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons are called isotopes of the same element.

The number of neutrons in an atom does not affect its chemical properties. However it affects its half-life, a measure of its stability. An unstable isotope has a short half-life, in which half of it decays to lighter elements. By contrast, a stable isotope has a long half-life, much longer than that of an unstable isotope. The stability of an isotope is related to radioactivity: an unstable isotope can be highly radioactive.

Atomic reactions
Neutrons are the key to nuclear chain reactions, nuclear power and nuclear weapons.

Related pages
 Proton
 Electron

References

Subatomic particles
Basic physics ideas

Neutron


Grady Sizemore III (born August 2, 1982) is a retired American baseball player. He played for four Major League Baseball teams: the Cleveland Indians, Boston Red Sox, Philadelphia Phillies, and Tampa Bay Rays. He was a center fielder.

Sizemore graduated from Cascade High School in Everett, Washington in 2000. A notable high school star in football, basketball, and baseball, Sizemore signed a letter of intent to play football and baseball at the University of Washington. At the time of his high school graduation, Sizemore was the Cascade all-time leader in rushing yards with 3,081 yards and interceptions with 16.

Sizemore did not play for the college because the Expos selected Sizemore in the 3rd round of the 2000 Draft. The team offered him a $2 million signing bonus for him not to play for the college. Sizemore signed and almost immediately began his quick climb to the big leagues.

In 2002, he was traded to the Cleveland Indians by the Montreal Expos.

In 2006, Sizemore was selected to his first All-Star Game as a reserve outfielder.

Sizemore currently resides in Mill Creek, Washington and Tempe, Arizona.

Other websites

1982 births
Living people
American baseball players
Sportspeople from Seattle
Tempe, Arizona
Boston Red Sox players
Cleveland Indians players
Philadelphia Phillies players
Tampa Bay Rays players

Grady Sizemore


Julius Caesar (25 March 1830 – 6 March 1878) was an English cricketer who played in 194 first-class matches between 1849 and 1867.

Childhood

Julius Caesar was born in Godalming, Surrey, to Benjamin Caesar, an English professional cricketer, and his wife Anne (née Bowler). Benjamin and Anne had seven children. George, Richard, Lawrence William, Ann, Benjamin, Frederick Bowler and finally Julius. He was brought up in Godalming, a town with approximately 4,000 inhabitants, in Surrey, England. He was almost certainly educated in one of the two schools in Godalming at the time, and could read and write with a legible hand.

Benjamin himself played cricket, and his brother Fred later played first-class cricket too.

Caesar's cricketing skills first attracted local press attention when he was 16. On 7 July 1846 the Surrey Gazette wrote:

A single-wicket match was played on the New Ground, Godalming, between Julius Caesar, a lad of 16 years of age, of the Godalming Cricket Club, and Mr C Coomber, of Eashing. Caesar went in first and obtained five which, with one wide, made six. Coomber fetched three runs which, with three wides, made six. Caesar for his second innings got 49, and wides three, making a total with the first of 58. Coomber followed and, after 35 balls were delivered, obtained no run and scored only one wide, leaving Caesar the winner by 51. The lad promises to be as noted in the game of cricket as his ancient namesake was in the art of war. The Godalming club are ready to back him against any lad of his age in the County of Surrey.

He found an influential friend in the Marshall family, proprietors of a local timber merchants. Henry Marshall was the first mayor of Godalming in 1836. He was also a prominent member of Surrey County Cricket Club, which was formed in 1845, and president of Surrey club from 1856 to 1867.

In 1848 Caesar first played at the Oval, for Goldalming cricket club against Surrey. Against a mostly professional attack, Caesar made 67 and 46 as Godalming scored 161 and 192 for 5 and dismissed Surrey for 158 before Surrey "gave up".

In June 1849, 10 weeks after his 19th birthday, and on the recommendation of Alexander Marshall, Caesar played for the second time at the Oval. He played for the Players (i.e. professionals) of Surrey XI against the county's gentlemen (i.e. amateurs). Caesar played off the front foot, and was an aggressive batsman, and made 30 in his innings, a good score that was the second highest in the match. The Players went on to win by 10 wickets, and the Surrey Standard said of Caesar's performance:

Caesar is a fine steady bat, but without the flair and finish of Caffyn; neither is his bowling so good; but his fielding at point is extremely beautiful.

On 28 and 29 June  Caesar first played inter-county cricket, taking on Sussex at the Oval, where he scored a reasonable-looking 15 as Surrey won by 15 runs. He did better in the return match at Petworth 3 weeks later, scoring 30; however, Surrey fared worse, losing by an innings. On 6 and 7 August, Caesar first came across William Clarke as Surrey took on England at the Oval. Caesar opened the batting for Surrey, scoring 18 after "hitting away in good style". In the second innings, Caesar was out to Clarke himself, after playing back to him and hitting his own wicket for 2. Surrey went on to beat England by 31 runs. Caesar completed the 1849 with a 25 for the Players of Surrey against Twenty Gentlemen of Surrey Club in the return match which the Players won by 2 wickets.

The wages for a professional around this time, though they varied, would have been around £4 a match for a draw or loss, £5 for a win. Sometimes, if there was a special achievement, such as a half-century, a ground collection would be made for that player.

Clarke was a cricket entrepreneur, who had created his own professional All-England Eleven that toured the country, playing local teams, usually at odds, and in front large audiences. The tours not only increased cricket's popularity but were also treated as large carnival events in the towns and villages they visited. Often fairs and side attractions would be organised to coincide with the cricket, with the visit by the All-England Eleven being the main topic of conversation for months earlier. Caesar was to join the All-England Eleven in 1851.

On Tuesday 4 June 1850, Caesar married Jane Brewser, the daughter of a carpenter in the parish church of Stoke-next-Guildford. The age of majority, before which they needed their parents' permission to marry, was 21, and they gave their ages as 22, even though they were both 20 at the time. They also both gave the same address of Stoke Fields (Guildford). They had a son two months later on 29 July. Although originally called Frederick William, he was christened William Sankey on 1 December 1850 at St John's Church, Farncombe.

At the end of July 1850, Caesar came across Clarke again, when he played for Fourteen of Surrey against the All-England Eleven. The game was drawn, and Caesar scored 18 before being bowled by Clarke himself.

Then on 8 and 9 August came a match which was greatly anticipated, and one which is best remembered, entirely for its novelty value: Julius and eleven of his family played eleven locally based amateurs. The match was advertised as "Twelve Caesars and Eleven Gentlemen of Godalming and District". This was a deliberate play on Suetonius' famous Roman history The Twelve Caesars. The Caesars started out as the bookmakers' favourites. The match attracted a great crowd, who saw the Gentlemen make 123, before the Caesars scored 95. The Caesars then skittled out the Gentlemen for 42 to leave only 71 to win. But, to the surprise of many, they only got 54, losing by 16 runs.

Joining the All-England Eleven

The last first-class game Caesar played in 1850 was against the All-England Eleven, and he scored 18 as Fourteen of Surrey secured a draw. His first such game in 1851 was also against the All-England Eleven. It was another draw, but Caesar impressed, top-scoring with 38. In July, Surrey played Nottinghamshire for the first time. Nottinghamshire were led by Clarke, and included the great George Parr, and Surrey won comfortably by 75 runs. However, Caesar himself was out without scoring in both innings, and he became extremely dejected. This fear that failure in one match would lead to his summary dismissal stayed with him throughout his cricketing life. However, he recovered, and at the beginning of August scored his maiden half-century for Surrey, against Yorkshire at the Oval.

It was then that he joined the All-England Eleven, playing his first game for them at Newark-on-Trent. This meant Caesar would now tour the country, playing cricket, and receiving somewhere between £4 and £6 from Clarke, from which he would also have to pay his expenses. Caesar's form dropped, which would have made him more anxious about his place, and he got up to some strange antics at hotels. He became irrationally nervous fearing that someone may have died in his bed, or that the hotel would burn down. One time, after yells from a drunkard outside, Caesar convinced himself that there was a fire and rang the alarm bell, causing minor panic amongst the other guests.

1852 saw a split, with many cricketers in the All-England Eleven leaving to form a rival United England XI under John Wisden. The split was most likely because of William Clarke's parsimony and unwillingness to increase the wages he paid his players. Caesar, the youngest of Clarke's professionals, chose to remain with the All-England Eleven. In June, the All-England Eleven played Sixteen of Godalming and District over three days. However, this time Caesar played for Godalming, with the match being partially for Caesar's benefit. Four other Caesars also turned out for Godalming.

Although Caesar was always nervous of failure, he appears to have been highly regarded by other players. He often opened the innings. Richard Daft, a fellow All-Englander, wrote that "his hitting was as smart and clean as anything that could be witnessed".

England

In 1853 Caesar first played for England. The game was against Nottinghamshire at Lord's. He scored only 1 and 7, but his second dismissal caused some controversy. He dabbed at a ball from John Birkley, which went towards the wicket-keeper. In taking the ball, the wicket-keeper dislodged a bail, at which point the umpire announced him out bowled. The wicket-keeper remained silent as Caesar walked. Caesar fared better in the weeks after this and put together a series of high scores, including 63 not out in Cirencester. In August, he got his maiden century, for England against Kent. His 101 included one five, nine fours and five threes.

1854 saw Caesar involved in controversy when he was playing for England against Nottinghamshire at Lord's. That year, the Marylebone Cricket Club, the guardian of the laws of cricket introduced a new rule permitting injured batsmen a runner so that they themselves did not have to run between the wickets. So when, in the second innings, Caesar was batting with John Wisden, and Caesar, perhaps suffering from gout, asked for a runner, William Buttress came out to substitute for him. Later Caesar drove a ball from William Clarke and, forgetting his runner, proceeded to make his own way to the opposite wicket, with Wisden also swapping ends. Buttress stayed still and Clarke put down the wicket at the bowler's end (where Caesar was). The umpire gave Wisden out, saying on the grounds that Buttress (Caesar's runner) and Wisden had not crossed. But Clarke disagreed and said Caesar should go. When the umpire refused, Clarke and Nottinghamshire walked off. Bell's Life reported that "After a long argument at the pavilion, it was decided that Caesar should go out. Neither the striker nor the substitute being off their ground, we are of the opinion (according to the law) that Wisden ought to have been given out, although the case would have been very hard indeed."

Surrey did not play at the Oval in 1854 as a result of a dispute with the lease. To supplement his income, Caesar was employed by one of the Marshalls at the new Cricketers' pub in Nightingale Road, Farncombe. 1854 was as strong a year for Caesar as 1853, with him averaging a very respectable 22.30 in first-class cricket. This was good enough for him to be selected for the Players (professionals) against the Gentlemen (amateurs) at Lord's. However, he wasn't to play in the game as a dispute had arisen between Clarke (his All-England Eleven boss) and the MCC. He did, however, still turn out for Surrey, topping the county averages with 35.28 from the four matches he played.

Miscellaneous information

He was a carpenter and joiner by trade, but became cricket coach and groundsman at Charterhouse School in later life. One of his pupils at Charterhouse was C. Aubrey Smith who went on to play for Sussex, captain England in his only Test match and become a famous Hollywood movie star.

Lillywhite records his height as  and his weight as , and he is said to have been a very powerful man for his size. As a batsman, he was a fine free-hitter, especially forward and to the leg side, and made excellent scores for his county, especially in and about 1861. However, his first-class batting average was only 15.78 from 333 innings, with three centuries, including a top score of 132 not out.

He is said to have fielded well anywhere, though generally at point, where he took some wonderful catches. He was a fast round-armed bowler, but was seldom asked to bowl. He took 13 wickets with a bowling average of 23.62.

He was also a member of George Parr's team that visited North America – the first British cricket tour overseas, organised by Fred Lillywhite – and joined Parr's team that toured Australia and New Zealand in 1863/64. This involved travelling on the SS Great Britain.

It is said that he suffered from dropsy while coaching at Charterhouse and it is this that probably contributed to his early death.

References

External sources

Further reading
 Julius Caesar, The Ill-Fated Cricketer by Geoff Amey

1830 births
1878 deaths
English cricketers of 1826 to 1863
English cricketers of 1864 to 1889
All-England Eleven cricketers
English cricketers
Surrey cricketers
People from Godalming
Players cricketers
North v South cricketers
Players of the South cricketers
Players of Surrey cricketers
Cricketers from Surrey

Julius Caesar (cricketer)


Humphrey Davy Findley Kitto, FBA (6 February 1897 – 21 January 1982) was a British classical scholar of Cornish ancestry. He was born in Stroud, Gloucestershire.

He was educated at The Crypt School, Gloucester, and St. John's College, Cambridge. He wrote his doctorate in  1920 at the  University of Bristol. He became a lecturer in Greek at the University of Glasgow from 1920 to 1944. On that year, he returned to the University of Bristol where he became Professor of Greek and emeritus in 1962. He concentrated on studies of Greek tragedy, especially translations of the works of Sophocles.

His early book, "In the Mountains of Greece", describes his journeys in that country, with no more than incidental reference to antiquity.

His 1952 general treatment The Greeks covered the whole range of ancient Greek culture, and became a standard text.

After his retirement, he taught at College Year in Athens (CYA), a study abroad program for foreign students in Athens, Greece.

Works
 In the Mountains of Greece (1933)
 Greek Tragedy: A Literary Study (1939)
 Form and meaning in drama: A study of six Greek plays and of Hamlet  (1956)
 The Greeks (1951; 1952), Penguin Books A220
 Poiesis: Structure and Thought (1966), Sather Classical Lectures
 Sophocles: Three Tragedies: Antigone, Oedipus the King, Electra. translated into English verse by H. D. F. Kitto

References

External links

1897 births
1982 deaths
People from Stroud
English classical scholars
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
People educated at The Crypt School, Gloucester
Classical scholars of the University of Bristol
Classical scholars of the University of Glasgow
Scholars of ancient Greek literature
Translators of Ancient Greek texts
Fellows of the British Academy
20th-century translators

H. D. F. Kitto


Olivine (or chrysolite) is a silicate mineral made of magnesium iron silicate with the formula .

It ranges in colour from chartreuse green to pale olive.  In its gem form, it is called peridot.

Dunite contains (or has) over 90%+ olivine in it.  Dunite and other peridotite rocks are major constituents of the Earth's mantle above a depth of about 400 kilometers. Dunite is rarely found on land, except where slabs of mantle rock from a subduction zone have been thrust onto continental crust.
Olivine has also been found at several extraterrestrial locations, such as the moon and many passing space rocks - as well as the outer layers of dust orbiting young stars.

Minerals
Igneous rocks

Olivine