The National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia, (), abbreviated as Colombian Coffee Growers Federation or Fedecafé, is a non-profit business organization, popularly known for its "Juan Valdez" marketing campaign. The Federation was founded in 1927 as a business association that promotes production and exportation of Colombian coffee. It currently represents over 540,000 producers, most of whom are small family owned farms.

While many factors contributed to the impressive increase in production and revenue, the rise and success of the Colombian coffee industry reflects the Federation's rigid adherence to the three objectives which were originally offered to justify its creation: 1) to protect the industry, 2) to study its problems, and 3) to further its interests.

The Federation supports research and development in the production of coffee through grants to local universities and through Federation sponsored research institutes. The Federation also monitors production to ensure export quality standards are met.

The highly successful Juan Valdez branding concept was launched in 1960 to distinguish 100% Colombian coffee from coffee blended with beans from other countries. The trademark character made its debut on a whole-page ad in the Sunday edition of The New York Times on January 6, 1960, featuring a country farmer (campesino) carrying coffee on his mule Conchita.

In November 2019, the Federation received the Distinguished Leadership Award for Social Equity from the Inter-American Dialogue. The award was presented by the vice president of Colombia, Marta Lucía Ramírez.

The arrival of coffee in Colombia
First cultivated in the Dutch East Indies, the species of Coffea arabica came to Americas around the year 1690. The Dutch sent the coffee seeds to their colonies in Surinam, and thereafter to the French Guiana and Brazil. The French, through other routes, took it to Guadeloupe and Martinique, their main two colonies in the Caribbean.

It seems that the Jesuits were the first to introduce seeds of coffee in the "Nueva Granada" (today Colombia) by the year 1723. The first experiments in growing coffee in Colombia are recorded in the 18th century. Although some coffee plantations were initiated during the first half of the 19th century, it was not until the second half of the Century that the coffee industry was consolidated as an economic generator of employment, wealth, and hard currencies.

Coffee seeds arrived late in Colombia, compared with other Latin American countries. According to historians, the first seeds came in through Cúcuta, coming from the Venezuelan Andes, and penetrated all across the Santander provinces. From there, its cultivation spread to Cundinamarca and other provinces.

Nobody knows for sure who brought the first coffee seeds into the country. Some historians give credit to the Jesuits monks, who had farming lands in the "Llanos Orientales", Valle del Cauca and other regions. Other historians point to father Romero, the parochial priest of Salazar de las Palmas, Norte de Santander. There are stories that narrate that father Romero would impose to his parishioners, in penance for their sins, to plant coffee seeds in their backyards.

The advancement of coffee in Colombia
It was during the 19th century that the transformation of the Colombian economy took place, going from a system of mules, tobacco and gold into a system based on coffee, railways and the banks, which created the favorable conditions for a robust economic growth. The initiative for the development, investment and expansion of coffee growing in Colombia came from a group of national dignitaries and pioneers, who devoted their personal talents and resources into a venture of slow turnaround and high risk. Especially Colombian magnate Mr. Carlos Pinzón, virtually the founder of Colombia's modern coffee export business. In many ways, Mr. Carlos Pinzon's coffee empire was the precursor of the present-day Coffee Grower's Federation, overlording consignments, tying up export orders, arranging insurance, and, in many cases, financing.

 From 1870 on, large coffee plantations began to flourish, and this translated into a vigorous expansion of the nation's economy in international trade and commerce. The Colombian coffee industry began to operate as a powerful engine for the development of the nation's economy.

In 1879, the Colombian Congress passed the Coffee Act, known as the Law 29, by which the government would foment and sponsor the growing of coffee in the provinces better qualified for it, according to climate and terroir. As a result of this promotional effort, the production of coffee in Colombia grew enormously, which between 1880 and 1920 went from 107,000 to 2.4 million bags per year (60 kilograms per bag).

By 1920, small growers had done more to develop the industry than any other group. For many decades they planted, processed and sold their coffee virtually unnoticed by Colombia's government. On the other hand, the large growers began voicing their opinions and grievances against the Government through the Agricultural Society of Colombia (Sociedad de Agricultores de Colombia). By the start of the 20th century, there were about 750 coffee farms and plantations. Between 1910 and 1932, this number had increased to more than 150,000 farms and plantations, according to the Coffee Census of 1932.

History of the Coffee Federation
Given the positive advancement of coffee growing in Colombia, an important group of coffee growers, dedicated to the export of the beans, organized an association to regulate the market. Thus, in 1904, the coffee producers organization ("Sociedad de Productores de Café") was established. Although its good intentions, it failed to regulate the industry and the market. It was a difficult task, as the global conditions were complicated due to overproduction, price volatility and the events of World War I. The coffee industry in the nation was evolving and growers, merchants and exporters could not agree on policies and regulations to organize and consolidate it.

In the province of Antioquia, Epifánio Montoya Uribe, a tenacious and visionary coffee grower, promoted the creation of an association to look after the interest of the coffee growers. He created this organization under the name of Colombian coffee union ("Unión Cafetera Colombiana"). His ideas and association efforts were well received by the industry and took hold and, the institution prospered.

On August 25, 1920, the First National Congress of Coffee Growers to convene in Bogotá, promoted and sponsored by the Agricultural Society of Colombia ("Sociead e Agricultores de Colombia") (S.A.C.). This first congress was presided over by Epifánio Montoya. Other dignitaries that attended this event were General Ramón González Valencia (former Vice-President of the country), General Alfredo Vásquez Cobo (presidential candidate), Antonio Samper (president of S.A.C.), Tulio Ospina Vásquez, José de Jesús Salazar, Germán del Corral, Luis Montoya Santamaría, Gabriel Ortiz Williamson and Lucas Caballero. This congress laid the foundation for the successful organization and establishment of the National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia. Much was analyzed and discussed during this congress, mainly regarding transportation infrastructure, financial institutions, trade association and protection of the industry. The magnitude of the issues studied and the challenges addressed by the delegates were overwhelming. At the end, the congress adjourned without any major resolution adopted. Nevertheless, the delegates returned to their provinces with a fervent desire to create a national trade association capable to protect the industry and guide its members.

The response to the efforts and foundations laid by the First National Congress of Coffee Growers would take seven years to materialize. In June 1927, the "Agrarian Association of Antioquia", ("Sociead Antioqueña de Agricultores") (S.A.A.), decide to make a second effort to try to organize and confederate the nation's coffee growers. Thus, the Second National Congress of Coffee Growers convened in Medellín in 1927. The main speaker was former President of Colombia Carlos Eugenio Restrepo, who gave the opening speech.  Twenty nine delegates participated in this Congress and several dignitaries from the political and economic elite of the nation, and among them two of the sons of Tulio Ospina Vásquez, Rafael Ospina Pérez (president of the S.A.A.) who presided over this Congress and Mariano Ospina Pérez, future president of Colombia. Other participants were Daniel Uribe Botero (vice-president of the S.A.A.), Epifánio Montoya, Julio C. Gaitán (representing the government), Pedro Bernal Escobar and Joaquín Santamaría.

By the end of deliberations, the Second National Congress of Coffee Growers had agreed to establish the "National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia" (Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia). The Federation was created as a trade association, private entity and non-profit organization.

Few months later that same year of 1927, the National Congress approved the Law 76, by which duties were imposed on all exports of the country and gave to the National Federation of Coffee Growers the authority to administer and manage all these revenue. Thus, the Federation and the national government signed a contract, on October 15, 1928, by which the government was obliged to transfer to the Federation all revenue generated by this tax. This revenue propelled and fortified the Federation and these resources were used to create the National Coffee Fund.

In 1928, the first regional committee was established as the Coffee Growers Committee of Antioquia (Comité de Cafeteros de Antioquia). Mariano Ospina Pérez was its first President, and the first registered member of the association.

The first Board of Directors of the newly organized Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia assembled in Bogotá, on August 3, 1929. Its first members were Mariano Ospina Vásquez, Alberto Camilo Suárez, Gabriel Ortiz Williamson, Carlos Caballero, Jesús del Corral and Mariano Ospina Pérez, for whom the organization of the national coffee industry was one of his most serious and ambitious concerns.

In December 1930, the Fourth National Congress of Coffee Growers convened in Bogotá. Due to the knowledge and experience of the coffee industry, acquired by running his own coffee business, Mariano Ospina Pérez was summoned by the Minister of Industry, Francisco J. Chaux, and by President Enrique Olaya Herrera to preside over this congress. At the adjournment of this congress, Ospina Pérez was elected, by the unanimous vote of the delegates, as General Director of the Federation serving in this position for four years, until 1934.

In the election of members of the Board of Directors in 1954, Ospina Pérez was installed as President of the Board of Directors. His return to the Federation marked the reappearance of one of Colombia's most important coffee names in an active role in the industry. Under Ospina Pérez' aegis, the National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia successfully consolidated the nation's coffee industry and promoted it in the world markets to great effect. Colombia became the largest producer of prime Coffea arabica coffee in the world. He laid a very solid corporative foundation, and today, the Colombian Coffee Federation congregates and supports over 500,000 independent coffee growers and small farmers.

The managers of the Coffee Federation
The general managers or directors of the National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia do not just function as business managers or administrators, given the fact that in furtherance of their normal business activities in running efficiently and effectively a private enterprise, they actively participate in the formulation and implementation of national policy for the coffee industry and they may substantially influence the macro-economic policy of the country. The general Managers have had a seat in the board of directors of the Banco de la República, in the Council of Economic and Social Policy (Consejo de Política Económica y Social) and in the Council of International Trade and Commerce. Furthermore, they direct and preside the diplomatic missions that represent the nation in international conferences and forums, which may influence foreign policy as well.

Three of the most influential "Gerentes" (general managers) of the 20th century have been Mariano Ospina Pérez, Manuel Mejía Jaramillo and Arturo Gómez Jaramillo. Ospina Pérez (1930–1934), consolidated the organizational structure of the raising institution, promoted the creation of the national network of "almacenes generals de deposito" and established the "Caja Agraria" (a credit and financial institution to aid the small farmers and coffee growers). Mejía Jaramillo (1937–1958), gave to the national coffee industry the international prestige that it now enjoys, was instrumental in the creation of the "Flota Mercante Grancolombiana" (the nation's ocean freighter company), the creation of the "Banco Cafetero", and the "Compañia Agrícola de Seguros". Arturo Gómez (1958–1982), was the leader of the international economic policy in the global markets and the "Convenios Internacionales del Café" (International Coffee Agreement). Arturo Gómez, during his 18 years tenure as "Gerente de la Federación", had a wonderful collaborator as second in command, Jorge Cárdenas Gutiérrez, as deputy General Manager. Cárdenas Gutiérrez was a lawyer with a master's degree in administration. Prior to working for the Federation he had been vice-president of Ecopetrol. Cárdenas Gutiérrez was appointed as "Gerente de la Federación" in 1983, and managed extreme situations form "crisis" to "bonanza". By 2001, he was considered as the most experienced coffee leader in the world".

The enterprises of the Coffee Federation
The Colombian Coffee Federation has created and promoted various enterprises to further support and provide adequate service to the coffee growers. The most significant of these enterprises are the "Flota Mercanmte Grancolombiana", the "Banco Cafetero" and the "Compañia Agricola de Seguros".  Although some of these institutions have faced financial difficulties, and one has been sold, it is relevant to describe the nature of their services and performance.

Flota Mercante Grancolombiana
The "Flota Mercante Grancolombiana" (Colombian ocean freight merchant fleet) was created in 1946, with the purpose of establishing new routes and offering better rates for the exportation of Colombian coffee, and thus, to make this commodity more accessible and affordable in international markets. At that time, the shipping consortium "Grace Line" dominated the ocean forwarding lines and had very high freight rates.

During the time of the postwar, "la Flota" (the fleet) facilitated the sale and shipping of increasing quantities of coffee to the European and Asian markets. In addition to the substantial reduction in freight costs, "la Flota" contributed significant dividends to its major shareholder, the "Fondo Nacional del Café" (the national coffee fund).

The globalization of world economies and the interdependence of the ocean freight industry during the decade of the 90s, made shipping business more efficient and competitive. Major shipping companies sought strategic alliances and partners.  In order to compete in the global market, "la Flota", in 1996-97, entered in partnership with the "Transportacion Marítima Mexicana", a Mexican company with ample experience in ocean shipping. The "Fondo Nacional del Café" acquired 40% of the new company, called "Transportacion Marítima Grancolombiana".

El Banco Cafetero
"El Banco Cafetero" (the bank of the coffee growers) was established in 1954 because "la Caja Agraria" (agricultural financial institution), also created by the Coffee Federation during the 1930s, was not providing adequate service to the coffee growers. This banking and financial institution was created with the purpose of facilitating and financing the production, harvesting, processing, transport and exporting of coffee and other agricultural products.

Eventually, the bank established over 300 branches throughout the country; its assets amounted to 10% of the nation's banking assets and handled over one million seven hundred thousand bank accounts. It became the third largest bank in Colombia, offering every financial services to all the industries and sectors of the national economy.

Compañia Agrícola de Seguros

The "Compañia Agrícola de Seguros" (agrarian insurance company) was created in 1952. The Coffee Federation decided to establish this insurance company because the premiums being charged to its members to insure and protect the warehousing and transportation of coffee, by commercial insurance companies were ever increasing.

The company eventually extended its services to cover production risk and liability, hedging, calamity, auto, life and health insurance to all of the members of the Coffee Federation, offering if lower premiums and higher benefits. The company suffered heavy losses during the earthquake that destroyed Armenia, as this was a highly concentrated area of coffee growers.

The National Coffee Fund
The national coffee fund ("Fondo Nacional del Café") (FNC) has served for several decades as the primary instrument of Colombian coffee policy formulation and implementation. The FNC has two main investment sub-funds, the stabilizer fund and the investment fund. The stabilizer fund manages resources for the internal and external administration of product, prices and commerce.  The investment fund manages the resources for the investment in the Federation's enterprises and, for the lines of credit and production financing for coffee growers.

During the 20th century, Colombia became the number one producer and exporter of premium mild washed coffee in the world. This has been a very significant achievement, attained by the combined efforts of the private sector, the gremial organizations and the Federation's institutions. The successful model of Colombian coffee production and commerce is the outcome of a well balanced combination of efficient private enterprise and a well planned macroeconomic policy by the government. This economic model has become the organizational archetype for more than fifty coffee producing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America.

The 21st century has brought new challenges to the coffee industry, such as the volatility of international prices, the erosion of international agreements and the increased production by Brazil and Vietnam. In order to keep the edge, Colombia must increase its efficiency and productivity, by investing in new technologies,  infrastructure, training and replanting. Here is where the Federation and the FNC play a decisive role.

The program for restructuring and modernizing the coffee industry in Colombia has estimated an investment of two billion dollars. These monetary funds need to be generated from domestic and international sources. The Colombian coffee institutions and the policy making entities are facing the new realities of globalization and monetary volatility and economic uncertainties. Technological advances are being made in electronic commerce, production engineering and quality control, in an effort to reduce production costs and increase productivity. The historical evidence demonstrates that the institutions, organizations and policy making instruments of the coffee industry in Colombia are very dynamic and shall continue to adapt to changing circumstances and perform with leadership, innovation and positive results.

Trademarks and patents of the Federation

The FNC owns several trademarks for its products. Its first trademark, "Juan Valdez", was registered with the USPTO back in 1960, and the word mark for "100% Colombian coffee" was registered in 1969. The letters and stylized form of the name "Juan Valdez" is internationally protected through the Madrid system, and registered in many countries including the European countries and United States. Other trademarks registered with the USPTO include, among others, Buendia, Variedad Castillo and Juan O'Clock. Many of these as well as other marks are registered in the European countries.

The FNC applied for a patent for an invention related to a protein from coffee berry borer (a small beetle) with the USPTO; a PCT application for the same invention has also been filed and FNC entered into the regional phase at the European Patent Office and national phase in Japan.

See also

Anacafé
National Coffee Association
Specialty Coffee Association of America

Footnotes

References

1998 Lockwood Trade Journal Co., Inc.

External links

  Juan Valdez site
  Juan Valdez site

Agricultural organisations based in Colombia
Coffee organizations
Food industry trade groups
Organizations established in 1927
1927 establishments in Colombia
Coffee in Colombia


For other uses, see Finlandia.
Finlandia is a symphonic poem by the Finnish composer Jean Sibelius. He wrote it in 1899 and made some changes to it the next year. "Finlandia" is the Latin name for Finland. At the time Sibelius wrote it, Finland was called the "Grand Duchy of Finland". This was because it was being ruled by Russia. The Finnish people wanted to rule Finland for themselves. The music was composed for a pageant to encourage the Finnish people to work for freedom.

The music of Finlandia is exciting and dramatic. It sounds like the Finnish people struggling to be free. Towards the end the music becomes calm and a lovely tune is played. It is a hymn tune which became known as Finlandia. Many years later Sibelius set some words to this hymn and it is often sung as a separate piece by a choir. The words were written by Veikko Antero Koskenniemi. It has become Finland's best known song and almost feels like a second Finnish national anthem. It is often sung as a hymn in Christian churches to the words "Be still, my soul: the Lord is on your side". The tune was also used as the national anthem of the short-lived African country Biafra.

Compositions by Jean Sibelius
1890s works

Finlandia


The Industry Standard is a U.S. news web site dedicated to technology business news, part of InfoWorld, a news website covering technology in general. It is a revival of a weekly print magazine based in San Francisco which was published between 1998 and 2001.

Print magazine, 1998–2001
The Industry Standard called itself "the newsmagazine of the Internet economy", and it specialized in areas where business and the Internet overlapped. Like Wired, Red Herring, and (later) Business 2.0 and Inside.com, it was part of a breed of late 1990s publications that filled a gap in technology coverage left by mainstream media at the time.

The magazine, which was owned by the technology publishing company IDG, was in many ways the brainchild of John Battelle, who had been a journalist at Wired both in the United States and the United Kingdom. Jonathan Weber was its editor-in-chief. The magazine also ran a web site, thestandard.com.

Beginning in 1999, The Standard began selling a large number of advertising pages in the magazine, and began to be referred to as "the bible" of the Internet economy. In 2000, it sold more ad pages than any magazine in America, and launched that year a European edition. However, as the dot-com boom failed, sales of the magazine began to shrink, and it went into bankruptcy in August 2001. One of the Standards writer-editors, James Ledbetter, published a book in 2003 about the magazine's rise and fall; entitled Starving to Death on $200 Million: The Short, Absurd Life of The Industry Standard.

Website, 2008–present
IDG relaunched The Industry Standard as an online-only publication in 2008. The site featured technology industry news and an interactive section where visitors could make predictions about the future of the tech industry. In 2010, The Industry Standard became a "channel" within InfoWorld, another publication owned by IDG.

References

External links
 Website

Business magazines published in the United States
Online magazines published in the United States
Science and technology magazines published in the United States
Weekly magazines published in the United States
Defunct magazines published in the United States
Dot-com bubble
Magazines established in 1998
Magazines disestablished in 2001
Magazines published in San Francisco
Online magazines with defunct print editions

The Industry Standard


Bad Education is a 2004 Spanish drama movie. The movie was written and directed by Pedro Almodóvar.

It was released on 19 March 2004 in Spain and on 10 September 2004 in Mexico. It was also shown at many international film festivals, such as Cannes, New York City, Toronto and Moscow.

Plot
In 1980 Madrid, young movie director Enrique Goded is looking for his next project. He gets the unexpected visit of an actor looking for work. The actor says he's Enrique's boarding school friend and first love, Ignacio Rodriguez. Ignacio, who is now using the name Ángel Andrade, has brought with him a short story titled The Visit. Ignacio hopes Enrique would be interested in making a movie out of it, and give him the starring role.

The Visit is set in 1977. It tells of a drag artist and transgender woman named Zahara. Her birth name is Ignacio. Zahara plans to rob a drunk admirer. But she then discovers the man is her lover Enrique.

Next, she visits her old school and meets Father Manolo. Manolo abused her when she was a boy. She asks for one million pesetas (Spanish currency) for halting publication of her story The Visit. The story is set around a boarding school for boys in 1964. At the school, Ignacio, a young boy with a beautiful singing voice, is an object of lust from Father Manolo, the school principal and literature teacher.

Enrique wants to adapt Ignacio's story into a movie. But Ángel's condition is that he play the part of Zahara, the transgender lead. However, Enrique is skeptical. He feels the Ignacio he loved and the Ignacio of today are totally different people. He (Enrique) drives to Galicia. That's when he learns from Ignacio's mother that the real Ignacio has been dead for four years. He also learns that the man who came to his office is Ignacio's younger brother Juan.

In the book, it is said that Enrique releases his movie later and has great success. Despite the grief and guilt of his brother, Juan also has success.

Cast
 Gael García Bernal as Juan / Ángel Andrade / Zahara. García was required to display a convincing Castilian Spanish accent before being cast.
 Fele Martínez as Enrique Goded
 Raúl García Forneiro as young Enrique
 Daniel Giménez Cacho as Father Manolo
 Javier Cámara as Paca/Paquito
 Petra Martínez as Mother
 Leonor Watling as Monica, wardrobe girl
 Lluís Homar as Sr. Manuel Berenguer
 Francisco Boira as Ignacio
 Nacho Pérez as young Ignacio
 Juan Fernández as Martín
 Alberto Ferreiro as Enrique Serrano

Release
Bad Education was given an NC-17 rating for "a scene of explicit sexual content". A special edition R-rated version was released later.

A New York Times reporter said that Gael García Bernal had a bad time with the movie director over the movie's content. Bernal defiantly wrote in response nothing could be further from the truth.

The movie opened at the 57th Cannes Film Festival. It was the first Spanish movie to do this.

Box office
The movie opened in theaters in the United States on November 19, 2004. It made USD $147,370 in its opening weekend. At the end of its theatrical run (106 theaters), it had taken in over $5.2 million in the U.S. and Canada. It also took in over $35 million overseas. The total was over $40 million. The movie's budget was near $5 million.

Critical reception
The movie received very good reviews by movie critics. Rotten Tomatoes rates Bad Education at 88%. On the Metacritic, the movie is rated at 88 out of 100, meaning "universal acclaim".

References

2004 drama movies
2000s LGBT movies
Spanish drama movies
Spanish LGBT movies
NC-17 rated movies
Movies directed by Pedro Almodóvar
Movies about pedophilia
Movies about child sexual abuse
Movies set in Madrid

Bad Education


Tryptase alpha-1 and tryptase beta-1 are enzymes that in humans are encoded by the same TPSAB1 gene.  Beta tryptases appear to be the main isoenzymes expressed in mast cells; whereas in basophils, alpha tryptases predominate.

Function

Tryptases comprise a family of trypsin-like serine proteases, the peptidase family S1. Tryptases are enzymatically active only as heparin-stabilized tetramers, and they are resistant to all known endogenous proteinase inhibitors. Several tryptase genes are clustered on chromosome 16p13.3. These genes are characterized by several distinct features. They have a highly conserved 3' UTR and contain tandem repeat sequences at the 5' flank and 3' UTR which are thought to play a role in regulation of the mRNA stability. These genes have an intron immediately upstream of the initiator Met codon, which separates the site of transcription initiation from protein coding sequence. This feature is characteristic of tryptases but is unusual in other genes. The alleles of this gene exhibit an unusual amount of sequence variation, such that the alleles were once thought to represent two separate genes, alpha and beta 1.Tryptases have been implicated as mediators in the pathogenesis of asthma and other allergic and inflammatory disorders.

References

Further reading

EC 3.4.21

TPSAB1


In computer engineering, out-of-order execution, OoOE, is a technique used in most high-performance microprocessors to make use of cycles that would otherwise be wasted by a certain type of costly delay. Most modern CPU designs include support for out of order execution.

The key concept of OoO processing is to allow the processor to avoid a class of delays (termed: "stalls ") that occur when the data needed to perform an operation are unavailable.

OoO processors fill these "slots" in time with other instructions that are ready, then re-order the results at the end to make it appear that the instructions were processed as normal. The way the instructions are ordered in the original computer code is known as program order, in the processor they are handled in data order (the order in which the data, operands, become available in the processor's registers). Fairly complex circuitry is needed to convert from one ordering to the other and maintain a logical ordering of the output; the processor itself appears to be running the instructions in random order.

The benefit of OoO processing grows as the instruction pipeline expands and the speed difference between main memory (or cache memory) and the processor increases. On modern machines, the processor runs many times faster than the memory, so during the time an in-order processor spends waiting for data to arrive, it could have processed a large number of instructions.

In earlier In-order processors, the processing of instructions is normally done in these steps:
 Instruction fetch.
 If input operands are available (in registers for instance), the instruction is dispatched to the appropriate functional unit.  If one or more operands is unavailable during the current clock cycle (generally because they are being fetched from memory), however, the processor stalls until they are available.
 The instruction is executed by the appropriate functional unit.
 The functional unit writes the results back to the register.

Out-of-order processors breaks up the processing of instructions into these steps:
 Instruction fetch.
 Instruction dispatch to an instruction queue (also called instruction buffer or reservation stations).
 The instruction waits in the queue until its input operands are available. The instruction is then allowed to leave the queue before earlier, older instructions.
 The instruction is issued to the appropriate functional unit and executed by that unit.
 The results are queued (Re-order Buffer).
 Only after all older instructions have their results written back to the register file, then this result is written back to the register. This is called the graduation or retire stage.

In the examples outlined above, the OoO processor avoids the stall that occurs in step (2) of the in-order processor when the instruction is not completely ready to be processed due to missing data.

Related pages
 Parallel computing
 Instruction-level parallelism

Other websites
 "Implementation of precise interrupts in pipelined processors", a paper by Smith and Pleszkun (1985).

Computer science

Out-of-order execution


San Francesco di Paola is a prominent church located to the west in Piazza del Plebiscito, the main square of Naples, Italy.

In the early 19th century, King Joachim Murat of Naples (Napoleon's brother-in-law) planned the entire square and the large building with the colonnades as a tribute to the emperor. When Napoleon was finally dispatched, the Bourbons were restored to the throne of Naples. Ferdinand I continued the construction - finished in 1816 - but converted the final product into the church one sees today. He dedicated it to Saint Francis of Paola, who had stayed in a monastery on this site in the 16th century.

The church is  reminiscent of the Pantheon in Rome. The façade is fronted by a portico resting on six columns and two Ionic pillars. Inside, the church is circular with two side chapels. The dome is  high. The portico is by Neapolitan architect Leopoldo Laperuta, while the main building is by the Swiss architect .

Interior
The interior has a number of statues: a San Giovanni Crisostomo by Gennaro Calì, Sant'Ambrogio by Tito Angelini, St Luke by Antonio Calì, a St Matthew by  Carlo Finelli, a St John Evangelist by Pietro Tenerani, St Mark by Giuseppe de Fabris, a Sant'Agostino by Tommaso Arnaud, and a Sant'Attanasio by Angelo Solani.

In the chapels on the right, we find the following altarpieces: San Nicola da Tolentino and St Francis of Paola receives a stem of charity from an Angel, by Nicola Carta, Final Communion of San Ferdinando di Castiglia by Pietro Benvenuti, a Transit di St Joseph by Camillo Gerra, the Immaculate Conception and the death of Sant'Andrea Avellino by Tommaso de Vivo.

Before the main altar, is a 1641 work by Anselmo Cangiano, transferred here in 1835, from the church of the Santi Apostoli. In the apse is a painting of St Francis of Paola resuscitates a dead man by Vincenzo Camuccini. In the sacristy is an Immaculate Conception by Gaspare Landi and a Circumcision of Jesus by Antonio Campi

References

External links

Religious organizations established in 1816
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1816
Francesco di Paola
Neoclassical architecture in Naples
1816 establishments in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
1816 establishments in Italy
19th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy
Neoclassical church buildings in Italy
Joachim Murat

San Francesco di Paola, Naples


A fakir or faqir, is a Sufi who performs feats of endurance or magic. The word comes from faqr (), meaning "poverty".

In English, the word is often for Hindu ascetics (e.g., sadhus, gurus, swamis and yogis) as well as Sufi mystics. It can also be used to for a common street beggar who chants holy names, scriptures or verses.  It has become a common Urdu and Hindi word for "beggar".

Many stereotypes of the great fakir exist, including a near-naked man easily walking barefoot on burning coals, sitting or sleeping on a bed of sharp nails, floating in the air while meditating, or "living on air" (refusing all food).

References

Sufism
Indian culture
Simple living

Fakir


Table Football, Table Soccer and Foosball, are regional names of a table-top game based on association football (EUR) or soccer (USA). The name "foosball" comes from the German word for football, "fussball" or "fußball". Both a recreational game and a serious sport, the game can be played by two (singles) or four (doubles) players.

Tables are broadly defined as professional or home-grade. The tables function the same, but just like pool tables, vary widely in features.

Home-grade tables are great for kids and casual players. A professional grade table in a home game room is a sign of a serious player.

Foosball is played world-wide and professional grade tables reflect unique characteristics of their country of origin.

Serious players need the additional ball control, weight and strength the professional-grade products feature to handle four adult players.

Currently the game of Foosball is again expanding in popularity. For serious players there are local, state, regional, national and international tournaments.

.

Other websites
International Table Soccer Federation
Foosball table this year

Football

Table football


MI5, also called Security Service is one of three British intelligence agencies. It is the security agency responsible for counter-intelligence inside the United Kingdom. It gives the government information about hostile activities inside the UK. The slang term for MI5 inside the security services is "Box 500", after its old wartime postal address. Priorities are set by the Joint Intelligence Committee. All its employees are bound by the Official Secrets Act.

The Secret Intelligence Service (or MI6) is responsible for intelligence collection outside the UK, and the Government Communications Headquarters is responsible for providing signals intelligence.

The arm of the law which works for MI5 is known informally as Special Branch. They have been rearranged as part of the Metropolitan Police's Counter Terrorism Command. MI5 staff do not have the power of arrest: what they do is instruct Special Branch, who then do the leg-work and interrogation of suspects.

Military of the United Kingdom
British intelligence agencies

MI5


Warwick Estevam Kerr (born September 9, 1922, Santana do Parnaíba, São Paulo, Brazil- 15 September 2018) is a Brazilian engineer, geneticist, entomologist, and professor. He made many discoveries in the genetics and sex determination of bees. He is also responsible for the spread of africanized bees across the world.

Other websites
Warwick Estevam Kerr Biography . Brazilian Academy of Sciences.

1922 births
2018 deaths
Geneticists
São Paulo (state)
Brazilian scientists
Entomologists

Warwick Estevam Kerr


Oregano (Origanum vulgare), also known as pot marjoram, is a species of Origanum. It is native to Europe, the Mediterranean region and southern and central Asia. It is a perennial herb. It can grow to 20–80 cm tall. Its leaves are opposite each other. They are 1–4 cm long. The flowers are purple. They can grow 3–4 mm long.  The name of the plant comes from the Greek origanon [ὀρίγανον]: oros [ὄρος] "mountain" and the verb ganousthai [γανοῦσθαι] "delight in".

Growing oregano for cooking

The subspecies of oregano Origanum vulgare hirtum is an important herb. It is used for cooking, especially in  Turkish cuisine and Italian cuisines. The leaves are used for cooking.

Oregano is often used for tomato sauces, fried vegetables and grilled meat. Together with basil, it adds much to the special character of many Italian dishes.

Oregano is an ingredient needed for Turkish cuisine. It adds flavour to the Turkish choban salad. It can be used separately. It can also be added to the lemon-olive oil sauce that goes with almost every fish or meat barbecues and some casseroles.

Oregano has an aromatic, warm and slightly bitter taste. The taste varies in intensity; good quality is so strong that it almost numbs the tongue, but the cultivars adapted to colder climates have often unsatisfactory flavour. The influence of climate, season and soil on the composition of the essential oil is bigger than the difference between the various species.

The related species Origanum onites (Turkey, Asia Minor) and O. heracleoticum (Italy, Balkan peninsula, West Asia) have similar flavours. A closely related plant is marjoram from Asia Minor. That plant has a completely different taste. This is  because phenolic compounds are missing in its essential oil. Some breeds show a flavour intermediate between oregano and marjoram. The Oregano plant is also commonly found in the mediterranean region, and the black sea.

Other websites
Flora Europaea: Origanum vulgare
Germplasm Resources Information Network: Origanum vulgare
Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages: Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.)

Herbs
Lamiaceae

Oregano


The Proms are concerts which are part of a big music festival. "Proms" is short for "Promenade Concerts". The Proms are organized by the BBC, so they are called the "BBC Proms". They take place in the Royal Albert Hall, in London from mid-July to mid-September every year.

Why are they called "Proms"?

The Proms started more than 100 years ago, in 1895. Concerts were expensive in those days, and not many people had enough money to go and hear good music. Most people were only able to hear good music when they went for walks in the London parks where there were Promenade concerts. Orchestras and bands played in bandstands. Most of the music was popular and easy to listen to. People could enjoy the music while they walked about.

In the centre of London there was a building called the Queen's Hall. A man called Robert Newman organized concerts there. He had an idea. He wanted to start a series of concerts which ordinary people (people who were not rich) could afford to go to. He wanted to start a series of "promenade concerts" (in French "se promener" means "to walk"). The idea was that people could have standing places which would not cost much money. There would also be seats for people who could afford to pay more.

The early years of the Proms

Robert Newman knew a very good young conductor, Henry Wood. He asked him to be the conductor of the Proms. A man called Dr Cathcart gave them enough money to get an orchestra together. On 10 August 1895 the first Promenade Concert took place in the Queen's Hall. The price of a promenade ticket (a ticket for a standing place) was one shilling.

The Promenade Concerts were a big success, and soon became known as the "Henry Wood Promenade Concerts". Wood conducted both popular music and the classical works of Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Tchaikovsky, Brahms and Wagner, as well as some English composers. Wallace and Cowan, popular then, have today faded from the scene, although Elgar and Delius have survived due to Wood's Proms. This broke the convention that famous composers, conductors and singers could not be  English.

Some of the music Wood conducted was very new indeed. In 1912 he conducted a piece called "Five Orchestral Pieces" by an Austrian composer Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951).  Its initial lack of appreciation was overcome by inviting Schoenberg to come to England and conduct it himself in 1914.

Henry Wood conducted almost all of the Proms for fifty years, until just before his death in 1944. His innovations with the orchestra staff were to abolish deputies (allegedly in 1904 when, at one rehearsal, none of the regular orchestra, and only deputies attended). Forty members of the orchestra were offended by that decision, and broke away to form what is now the London Symphony Orchestra. In 1913, Wood was also the first English conductor to appoint women to play in his orchestra.

The BBC

In 1927 the BBC started to fund Proms. The radio was a new invention (then termed the "wireless"). Radio broadcasts increased interest in attending live concerts.  In 1930 the BBC Symphony Orchestra was formed, playing at a majority of Prom concerts.

The War and after

In 1941, during World War II, the Queen's Hall was destroyed by bombs. The Proms continued to take place in the Royal Albert Hall. Then it became too dangerous in London and the Proms were held in Bristol and then Bedford. After the War the Proms went back to the Royal Albert Hall. They have been held there ever since. From the 1940s to the late 1960s the BBC Symphony Orchestra played at most of the concerts under the very popular conductor Sir Malcolm Sargent whose Last Night speeches became legendary for their wit.

The Proms today

Today the Proms are very different from when they started. It is much more international. The BBC Symphony Orchestra play several concerts each season but there are lots of other orchestras from all over the world who come to play. People can hear different kinds of music at the Proms: not just classical music but jazz and music from far-away countries. In 2005 the famous Indian musician Ravi Shankar played the sitar at one of the Proms. In 2008 the violinist  Nigel Kennedy played the Violin Concerto by Edward Elgar with the BBC Concert Orchestra, then came back an hour later to give a Late Night Prom of jazz music with the Nigel Kennedy Quintet.

The Proms also include special activities for children. The television programme Blue Peter put on a Blue Peter Prom which is given twice during the weekend at the beginning of the school holidays in late July. In the 2007 season they organized a special Brass Day where children could take part with their instruments. BBC Music Intro put on workshops in the late afternoon for children and their families to learn about music. In 2008 there was a Dr Who prom which was extremely popular, especially with children.  This theme will be repeated in 2010.

Henry Wood encouraged composers to write new music by performing it at the Proms.  Today this tradition continues as the BBC often commission composers to write new music for the Proms.  Some pieces which had their first performance at the Proms have become very well-known, e.g. The Confession of Isobel Gowdie by James MacMillan (first performed in 1990), or John Tavener's The Protecting Veil (first performed in 1989).

For many years now every Prom has been broadcast live on BBC Radio 3. Some of them are shown on television, either on BBC2 or on BBC4 where viewers can, if they wish, read comments about the music as it is played. People can also listen to the Proms for several days afterwards on the Proms website.

The Last Night of the Proms

There is a Prom every night (i.e. every evening) for two months during the summer. The last concert is called the "Last Night of the Proms". It is very famous and millions of people can watch it on television in lots of countries all over the world. Some people who go to the Last Night dress up in funny clothes and wave flags. They hear a piece of music called "Fantasia on British Sea Songs", written by Henry Wood in 1905. It is based on sailors' sea shanties including a 'hornpipe'. The dance that gets faster and faster and the audience clap along, trying to keep up with the orchestra. It includes the song Rule Britannia. The orchestra always play Edward Elgar's Pomp and Circumstance March no 1 which has the tune Land of Hope and Glory. The concert finishes with Parry's hymn Jerusalem. The conductor also makes a speech.

Since 1996 there have been Proms in parks in other towns in the United Kingdom to which thousands of people can go. These all take place on the same night, and there is interactive communication between them and the Prom in the Royal Albert Hall.

How to go to the Proms

One way to go to the Proms is to buy a ticket for a seat, just like any other sort of concert. But many people think the best way to go to the Proms is to be a promenader. This means having a standing place. There are two places to prom: downstairs in the arena and upstairs in the gallery. The Royal Albert Hall is round, and looks like an old Roman amphitheatre. That is why the floor downstairs is called the "arena", like in an amphitheatre. The promenaders who stand downstairs are near the orchestra, especially the front rows. But it can be quite a squash when there are lots of people, and small children need to be near the front to see properly. The other place to promenade is upstairs in the gallery. There is more room there, and it is easy to see, and easy to sit down or even lie down when one feels tired.

A ticket to promenade costs £5. People who want to be a promenader have to wait in a queue outside and buy their ticket as they go in. Anyone who wants to be near the front should join the queue early, especially for the very popular concerts, and at the weekend. Some people queue for hours. They pass the time by talking to one another, reading or playing games. It is all good fun and part of enjoying being at the Proms.

Related pages
 Royal Albert Hall
 Sir Henry Wood
 BBC Symphony Orchestra

References
The Proms - A New History; ed Jenny Doctor and David Wright;
The Henry Wood Proms; David Cox;

Other websites
 The

Classical music festivals
Music festivals in England
BBC
Entertainment in London

BBC Proms


or ETA (Basque for "Basque Homeland and Freedom"; IPA pronunciation: [) was a nationalist separatist terrorist group. It wanted to establish a separate nation-state for the Basque people. The Basque people are an ethnic group living in areas of northern Spain and southwestern France. There are between 2 and 2.5 million Basques in the region. Some of them speak an indigenous, non-Indo-European language called Euskara.

Description
ETA was one of Europe's most notorious and long-running terror groups. It was founded in 1959 from what was left of EKIN, another radical Basque separatist group. Both EKIN and ETA were created because of discontent with the moderate nationalism of the main Basque party, the Basque National Party. ETA committed hundreds of attacks in Spain. It had ties with other terrorist groups both inside and outside the Basque region. These included the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) and Colombia's FARC.

Attacks
Most of ETA's terror attacks targeted businesses and Spanish government officials, especially members of the security services and the judiciary, but it also targeted civilians. Its most common tactics were bombing and assassination. Its attacks took place mostly in the Basque Country, Madrid and Catalonia. Similar to the IRA, ETA sometimes issued warnings before the attacks.

The group assassinated Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco in December 1973. At the time, Blanco was seen by many as the most likely successor to Spain's dictator, Francisco Franco. He was killed when an underground bomb exploded underneath his car. More than twenty years later, ETA nearly assassinated Jose Maria Aznar, an opposition politician who later became prime minister. In 1987, ETA killed 21 people in Barcelona using a car bomb.

Status change
The status of the Basque homeland changed significantly with the end of Francisco Franco's regime and the return of democracy in 1979. Franco tried to suppress Basque nationalism and separatism. The new democratic government, on the other hand, offered significant autonomy to the Basque provinces. In a deal struck in 1980, the Basque region acquired its own parliament similarly to the other regions in Spain. It was also allowed to have its own independent tax legislation. In addition, the language Euskara became more prominent in public culture and education. However, the new autonomous region did not deter the radical separatists that comprised ETA. ETA has committed approximately 900 murders and dozens of kidnappings.

Change of activity
ETA's level of activity has changed over the years. The group has attempted several ceasefires, including a 14-month one that lasted until December 1999. While there have been a number of ETA attacks since 2000, the group has claimed fewer victims. It is believed to be shrinking. Spanish officials believe that recent crackdowns have led to a serious weakening of the group and sense that its future as a terrorist organization may be limited. There are more than one hundred suspected ETA members in Spanish prisons today.

2000s
In the past several years, ETA has done sporadic attacks, including bombings in September 2004, December 2005, and early 2006. However, these bombings were generally preceded by warnings and did not result in any deaths.

In March 2006, ETA declared a permanent ceasefire and expressed to join the political process. The decision may have been linked to the 2004 Madrid train bombings, which killed nearly 200 people. The attack was originally blamed on ETA, though it was soon discovered to be the work of militant Islamists linked to al-Qaeda. Like the IRA, ETA leaders may have felt that the mass casualty terrorism practiced by some radical Islamist groups discredited its violent tactics—though this is not known for certain. ETA had a secretive leadership structure.

In June 2007, ETA declared its March 2006 ceasefire null-and-void. Although many had seen ETA's December 2006 bombing of an airport parking garage as an indication that the truce would not hold. An ETA spokesperson accused the Spanish government of interfering in Basque local elections as well as continuing with the prosecution and conviction of ETA members during the ceasefire.

It must be noted that ETA did not officially renounce violence or initiate steps to decommission its weapons (as the IRA did in July 2005) as part of its ceasefire declaration. ETA ceasefires have deteriorated into violence before.

2010s
On 20 October 2011, ETA announced publicly the definite cessation of its armed activities. Although it vowed to continue to seek an independent Basque state. It was announced in 2 prominent nationalist newspapers, Gara and Berria.

In May 2018 ETA announced that it was formally disbanding. The move marked the end of a half-century of violence that had claimed the lives of more than 800 people.

1959 establishments in Europe
Crime in France
Crime in Spain
National liberation movements
Nationalist organizations in Europe
Politics of Spain
Rebel militia groups
Terrorism
Organizations based in Spain

ETA (separatist group)


Gearóid Mac Niocaill (1932–2004) was one of the foremost twentieth-century scholars and interpreters of late medieval Irish tracts.

Life
Gearóid was born in Hull, England in 1932 to an Irish mother. His lifelong work in the Irish language built upon an earlier tradition of involvement in the Irish revival by English-born scholars like Robin Flower (Bláithín) and George Thomson (Seoirse Mac Tomáis). Mac Niocaill graduated with a BA in Latin and French from the University of Leeds in 1953. He presently travelled to Ireland where he was awarded a post-graduate scholarship by the School of Celtic Studies in the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. In 1956 he was given responsibility for manuscripts in the National Library of Ireland. He submitted a dissertation entitled Cáipéisí i Dli i nGaeilge 1493–1621 in 1962 for which he was duly awarded his doctorate. Three years later, in 1965, Mac Niocaill was made an assistant professor in the School of Celtic Studies at the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.

Mac Niocaill was professor of history at NUI Galway from 1977 until his retirement in 1997. His publication of key late medieval manuscripts in Latin and, especially, Irish restricted his academic audience but affirmed his commitment to the Irish language. Nonetheless, his Na Buirgéisi, xii-xv aois (1964), written in Irish and Latin, is one of the most widely cited and indispensable texts on the burgesses and boroughs in late medieval Ireland. The growing school of literature examining the geographical and archaeological nature of Hiberno-Norman towns have utilised this two-volume text in order to understand the constitutional structure of these towns.

References

External links
Published works, compiled by Donnchadh Ó Corráin, CELT.

1932 births
2004 deaths
Academics of the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies
Alumni of the University of Leeds
People from Kingston upon Hull
Academics of the University of Galway
British medievalists
Celtic studies scholars
20th-century Irish historians
Irish medievalists

Gearóid Mac Niocaill


Fort Harker, located in Kanopolis, Kansas, was an active military installation of the United States Army from November 17, 1866 to October 5, 1872.  The fortification was named after General Charles Garrison Harker, who was killed in action at the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain in the American Civil War.  Fort Harker replaced Fort Ellsworth, which had been located  from the location of Fort Harker and was abandoned after the new fortifications at Fort Harker were constructed.  Fort Harker was a major distribution point for all military points farther west and was one of the most important military stations west of the Missouri River.

History
Fort Ellsworth was established in August, 1864 at the junction of the Fort Riley-Fort Larned Road and the Smoky Hill Trail, near the Smoky Hill River.  Fort Ellsworth was established as the command headquarters for the District of the Upper Arkansas.  Soldiers at the fort patrolled the overland trails to protect wagon trains from any resistance from the Native American tribes in the area.  The fort also served an important role in distributing supplies to other United States Army outposts further west.  Fort Ellsworth connected supply lines from Fort Leavenworth and Fort Riley to the east with Fort Zarah, Fort Larned, Fort Dodge, Fort Hays, and Fort Wallace to the west.  After two years of rapid growth, the fort was badly in need of better facilities and more space.

Construction

Military orders for the construction of a new fort to replace Fort Ellsworth were issued by General Winfield S. Hancock, commander of the Division of the Missouri, on November 17, 1866.  The new fort would be located approximately  northeast of Fort Ellsworth.  Construction may have begun before the official order, as Fort Ellsworth had a master carpenter, a master mason, five carpenters, and fourteen masons on staff as early as September, 1866.  Based on the number of civilian contractors on the fort's payroll, major construction of the facility was likely completed by the summer of 1867. In June 1867, the remainder of the buildings at old Fort Ellsworth were ordered torn down.  Fort Ellsworth was sold to land developers and became the town of Ellsworth, Kansas.

Soon after the completion of major construction, the railroad arrived at Fort Harker.  The Union Pacific Eastern Division completed a line to Fort Harker in July 1867.  The rail line ran through the fort, and a depot was established just outside the fort.  Two large warehouses were built next to the line, which became the principal resupply route for the fort.  By the end of 1867, the fort supported a four-company garrison, the supply depot and over 75 buildings.

Cholera epidemic of 1867
In the summer of 1867, an Asiatic cholera outbreak began amongst the soldiers of the four companies of the 38th Infantry stationed at the fort.  The disease may have arrived with the 38th, who traveled to the fort from St. Louis, Missouri, where a cholera outbreak was also occurring.  The first case of cholera at the fort was diagnosed on June 28.  Within days, one civilian and one soldier had died from the disease, and the epidemic had spread to other soldiers and civilians at the fort, as well as settlers in the surrounding area.  The Post Quarter Master reported that 58 citizens were buried during the month of June.  The epidemic continued through the remainder of 1867, and by the end of the year the official report tabulated 392 cases with 24 deaths among the white troops and 500 cases with 22 deaths among the black troops stationed at or near the fort.

Indian War campaigns
Although no battles were ever fought at the fort itself, troops stationed at Fort Harker were involved in the ongoing Indian Wars between the United States Army and the natives of the Great Plains.  The troops stationed at Fort Harker in 1867 performed more escorts of wagon trains in one year than troops stationed at any other frontier fort in the post-Civil War era.  Once the railroad arrived at the fort in 1867, the need for escort patrols began to shift to the west, and by 1868 the primary role of Fort Harker was changing to that of a supply depot and troop staging site.

In the fall of 1868, General Philip Henry Sheridan moved his command headquarters from Fort Leavenworth to Fort Harker, from where he commanded the campaigns against the Native Americans in the winter of 1868/1869.  On August 25, 1869, Brevet Colonel Joseph G. Tilford was sent to Fort Harker, where he commanded two troops of General George Armstrong Custer's 7th Cavalry.  After wintering at the fort, Tilford and the cavalry set out on a campaign in February 1870.  In May 1870, General Custer and the remaining troops of the 7th Cavalry passed through Fort Harker on their way from Fort Leavenworth to Fort Hays to engage the Native Americans further west.

Closing
By 1871, Fort Harker had declined in importance in the Indian Wars.  Native Americans living in the area of the fort had been displaced by white settlers, and the scene of conflicts had shifted to the west.  An expanding railroad network diminished the importance of the fort as a distribution point for supplies.  In March 1872, the 15th Infantry stationed at Fort Harker redeployed to Fort Union.  On April 5, the remaining companies of the 5th Infantry departed from the fort as well.  Official orders to abandon Fort Harker were received on April 8, 1872.  Soldiers of the 5th Cavalry left Fort Harker on May 7, leaving behind a small garrison of two officers and five enlisted men from the 5th Infantry.  The base was completely abandoned by October 5, 1872.

Geography
Fort Harker was located at the site of the present-day town of Kanopolis.

Fort Harker Museum

The Ellsworth County Historical Society maintains three of the original buildings of Fort Harker as a museum commemorating both Fort Ellsworth and Harker.  These include the Fort Harker Guardhouse and the Fort Harker Commanding Officers' Quarters, which are each separately listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and also the Junior Officer's Quarters. The museum also features a train depot with salt mine and later 19th/early 20th Century exhibits.

A second Junior Officer's Quarters is owned as a private residence.

See also
Hodgden House Museum Complex, in Ellsworth, also operated as a museum by the Ellsworth County Historical Society

References

General References

Oliva, Leo E. (2002). Fort Harker, Defending the Journey West.  Kansas State Historical Society.

External links

 Ellsworth County Historical Society Facebook site - operates Fort Harker Museum & Hodgden House Museum
 Santa Fe Trail Research Site
 Fort Harker Guardhouse Museum - review and photos at Travel Kansas

1864 establishments in Kansas
Military and war museums in Kansas
Harker
Museums in Ellsworth County, Kansas
Buildings and structures in Ellsworth County, Kansas
Harker
National Register of Historic Places in Ellsworth County, Kansas

Fort Harker (Kansas)


A mill, mil or mille is 1/10th of a US cent or 1/1000th of a US Dollar. In the United States, it is most used in gasoline prices.  For example $4.119 per US gallon.  $0.009 is equal to nine mils. It is also used when discussing taxes on land and prices of electricity.

Currency of North America

Mill (currency)


George Christopher Band  (2 February 1929 – 26 August 2011) was an English mountaineer. He was the youngest climber on the 1953 British expedition to Mount Everest on which Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay made the first ascent of the mountain. In 1955, he and Joe Brown were the first climbers to ascend Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world.

Biography
George Band was born in Taiwan and educated at Eltham College. He did his National Service with the Royal Corps of Signals and read Geology at Queens' College, Cambridge, followed by Petroleum Engineering at Imperial College, London.

Having started climbing in the Alps while a student at Queens', he was the youngest climber on the 1953 British expedition to Mount Everest on which Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay made the first ascent of the mountain. Two years later he and Joe Brown became the first climbers to ascend Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world on the 1955 British Kangchenjunga expedition. Out of respect for the religious feelings of the people of Nepal and Sikkim, they stopped about ten feet below the actual summit.

Following these early mountaineering successes, George Band spent most of his professional life in oil and gas exploration. In 2005, aged 76, Band made the trek to the south-west Base Camp of Kangchenjunga in Nepal. He was president of the Alpine Club and the British Mountaineering Council, and he traveled around the world. He wrote the books, Road to Rakaposhi and in 2003, Everest 50 Years on Top of the World (the official history - Mount Everest Foundation, Royal Geographical Society and the Alpine Club). In 2007 he wrote " Summit", a book celebrating 150 years of the Alpine Club. He was Chairman of the Himalayan Trust (UK). George Band was an Appeal Patron for BSES Expeditions, a youth development charity that operates challenging scientific research expeditions to remote wilderness environments.

George Band was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2009 New Year Honours.

George Band died of natural causes in Hampshire, England, UK, on 26 August 2011, aged 82.

Books published
 Road to Rakaposhi (1955)
 Everest: 50 Years on Top of the World (2003)
 Summit (2006), a celebration of 150 years of the Alpine Club.

Footnotes

External links
Obituary of George Band, The Daily Telegraph, 28 August, 2011

1929 births
2011 deaths
Alumni of Imperial College London
Alumni of Queens' College, Cambridge
English mountain climbers
Historians of mountaineering
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Presidents of the Alpine Club (UK)
People educated at Eltham College
20th-century British Army personnel
Royal Corps of Signals soldiers

George Band


Alexandre Dumas, fils (fils is French for son), (27 July 1824 – 27 November 1895) was the son of Alexandre Dumas, père (père is French for father). Like his father, Alexandre Dumas, fils was a celebrated author and playwright.

Alexandre Dumas fils was born in Paris, France, the illegitimate child of Marie-Catherine Labay, a dressmaker, and novelist Alexandre Dumas. In 1831 his father legally recognized him (he adopted him) and ensured the young Dumas received the best education possible at the Institution Goubaux and the College Bourbon. At that time, the law allowed the elder Dumas to take the child away from his mother. Her agony inspired Dumas fils to write about tragic female characters. In almost all of his writings, he emphasized the moral purpose of literature and in his 1858 play, Le fils naturel (The Illegitimate Son), he wrote about the belief that if a man fathers an illegitimate child, then he has an obligation to legitimize the child and marry the woman.

Dumas' paternal great-grandparents were a white French nobleman and a young black Haitian woman. In the boarding schools, Dumas fils was constantly taunted by his classmates. These issues all profoundly influenced his thoughts, behaviour, and writing.

In 1844, Dumas fils moved to Saint-Germain-en-Laye to live with his father. There, he met Marie Duplessis, a young courtesan who would be the inspiration for his romantic novel, La dame aux camélias (The Lady of the Camellias). Adapted into a play, it was titled in English (especially in the United States) as Camille and is the basis for Verdi's 1853 opera, La Traviata. Although he admitted that he had done the adaptation because he needed the money, he had a huge success with the play. With this work began the playwriting career of Dumas fils which not only eclipsed that of his father during his lifetime but also dominated the serious French stage for most of the second half of the nineteenth century. After this, he virtually abandoned the novel (though his semi-autobiographical L'Affaire Clemenceau (1867) achieved some success).

In 1864, Dumas married Nadeja Naryschkine, with whom he had a daughter. After Naryschkine's death, he married Henriette Regnier.

In 1874, he was admitted to the Académie française and in 1894 he was awarded the Légion d'Honneur.

Alexandre Dumas the son died at Marly-le-Roi, Yvelines, on 27 November 1895 and was interred in the Cimetière de Montmartre in Paris. It was, perhaps coincidentally, only some 100 metres away from Marie Duplessis.

Books

 La dame aux camélias (Camille or The Lady of the Camellias, 1848)
 L'affaire Clemenceau (The Clemenceau Case, 1867)

Opera
 Verdi's La Traviata was based on the novel The Lady of the Camellias

Plays
 Atala (1848)
 La Dame aux camélias (1852)
 Diane de Lys (1853)
 Le Bijou de la reine (1855)
 Le Demi-monde (1855)
 La Question d'argent (1857)
 Le Fils naturel (The Illegitimate Son or The Natural Son, 1858)
 Un Père prodigue (1859)
 Un Marriage dans un chapeau (1859) coll. Vivier
 L'Ami des femmes (1864)
 Le Supplice d'une femme (1865) coll. Emile de Girardin
 Heloise Paranquet (1866) coll. Durentin
 Les Idees de Madame Aubray (1867)
 Le Filleul de Pompignac (1869) coll. Francois
 Une Visite de noces (1871)
 La Princesse Georges (1871)
 La Femme de Claude (1873)
 Monsieur Alphonse (1873)
 L'étrangère (1876)
 Les Danicheff (1876) coll. de Corvin
 La Comtesse Romani (1876) coll. Gustave Fould
 La Princesse de Bagdad (1881)
 Denise (1885)
 Francillon (1887)

Other websites

1824 births
1895 deaths
French playwrights
French novelists
Burials at Montmartre Cemetery, Paris
Members of the Académie française

Alexandre Dumas, fils


An emission nebula is a cloud of plasma emitting light in many colors. The glowing is caused by a star being near the nebula. There are many types of emission nebula. H II regions are caused when stars are forming and are very hot, causing the plasma to heat up. Planetary nebulae are made when where a dying star has thrown off its outer layers. This causes the core of the star to heat up the plasma.

General information
A nebula's color depends on what chemicals are in it, and how ionized it is. Because most of the universe is made of hydrogen, many emission nebulae appear red. Hydrogen glows red when it is hot. If the nebula is very hot, other types of gas will be heated and the it might also glow blue and green. By looking at which colors are glowing in a nebula, one can figure out what it is made of.

Emission nebulae sometimes look like they have dark areas in them. This is because clouds of dust block the light when it is traveling between the nebula and the Earth.

Related pages
Reflection nebula
Planetary nebula

Nebulae

Emission nebula


Boris Yakovlevich Bukov, also Boris Bykov ("Sasha") Regiment Commissar (15 November 1935) was a member of the Communist Party since 1919.  Bykov was head of the underground apparatus with which Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss were connected.

Early career
Bykov graduated from Commanders' Upgrading Training School of Razvedupr of the Red Army Staff in 1929.  He received further training at the Red Army Military Academy of Chemical Defense, the Military-Industrial Department (September 1932 - February 1935), and the Red Army Stalin Military Academy of Mechanization and Motorization.  As he was fluent in German, Bykov served as an Officer of Soviet Military Intelligence (GRU) from 1920-1941, working in Germany.  In 1928 Bykov became the section chief of the 2nd Department of the Razvedupr; later he was appointed Assistant Chief of the 2nd Department of the Razvedupr.

Soviet illegal resident
In 1935 Bukov left abroad and served as Illegal Rezident of Razvedupr in the United States from 1936 to 1939.  After leaving the United States, he became a Lecturer (agent-operation cycle) of the Higher Special School of the Red Army Staff from July 1939 to September 1940, followed by a post as Senior Teacher of the chair of intelligence from September 1940 to June 1941.

Wartime service
After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in  June 1941, Bukov headed the chair of foreign countries study of the Second Moscow State Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages which later became known as the Institute of Military Interpreters.

References

Further reading

 Lurie, V.M.  and Kochick, V.Y., GRU: Cases and People, (St. Petersburg and Moscow:  Olma Press, 2003), p. 356 [in Russian].
 W. G. Krivitsky, In Stalin's Secret Service, (New York: Harper Brothers, 1939), 236.
 Sam Tanenhaus, Whittaker Chambers: A Biography, (New York: Random House, 1997), 548, n. 16.
 Allen Weinstein, Perjury: The Hiss–Chambers Case, (New York: Random House, 2nd ed. 1997), pp. 204–208 et al.

1935 births
Living people
Soviet spies
GRU officers

Boris Bukov


The Latvian naitional coat o airms wis formed efter the proclamation o an independent Republic o Latvie on November 18, 1918, an wis offeecially adoptit on Juin 16, 1921. It wis especially creatit for its independent statehuid. The naitional coat o airms combines seembols o Latvian naitional statehuid as well as seembols o auncient historical destricts.

The sun in the upper pairt o the coat o airms seembolizes Latvian naitional statehuid. A stylized depiction o the sun wis uised as a seembol o distinction an naitional identity bi the Imperial Roushie Airmy's Latvian Riflemen durin Warld War I. Durin the war the sun figure wis fashioned wi 17 rays that seembolised the 17 Latvian-inhabitit destricts. The three stars abuin the coat o airms embody the idea o the inclusion o historical destricts (Vidzeme, Latgale an combined Courland-Semigalie (Kurzeme-Zemgale) intae the unitit Latvie.

Culturally historical regions are an aa characterized bi aulder heraldic figures, which awready appeared in the 17t century. Courland an Semigalie (Wastren Latvie) are seembolised bi a reid lion, which appears as early as 1569 in the coat o airms o the umwhile Duke o Courland an Semigalie. Vidzeme an Latgale (Eastren Latvie) are seembolised bi the legendary winged siller creature wi an eagle's heid, a griffin. This seembol appeared in 1566, when the territories kent the day as Vidzeme an Latgale haed come unner Lithuanian control.

The Latvian naitional coat o airms wis designed bi the Latvian airtist Rihards Zariņš.

The proper uise o the Latvian coat o airms is firmly regulatit. Three types o seembol are uised - the muckle coat o airms, the sma enhanced coat o airms an the sma coat o airms.

 The Lairge Coat o Airms is uised bi the Preses o Latvie, the Parliament, the Prime Meenister, the Cabinet o Meenisters, govrenment ministries, the Supreme Court an Prosecutor General, as well as Latvian diplomatic an consular missions.
 The Sma Enhanced Coat o Airms is uised bi the Parliament agencies, the Cabinet o Meenisters an ither institutions unner direct or indirect supervision o the govrenment meenistries.
 The Sma Coat o Airms is uised bi ither govrenment institutions, municipal authorities an educational institutions on offeecial documents.

When Latvie wis pairt o Soviet Union, the coat o airms o the Latvian SSR wis uised, this wis replaced bi the 1918 airms again in 1990.

Colours

 Red - PANTONE 186C
 Green - PANTONE 340C
 Blue - PANTONE 286C
 Yellow - PANTONE 124C
 Golden - PANTONE 873C
 Siller - PANTONE 877C
 Grey - PANTONE 4C
 Black - PANTONE Black

See an aa

 Latvie
 The Banner o Latvie
 Naitional Anthem o Latvie
 Freedom Monument (Riga)

External links
 The Coat of Arms facts at the Latvian Institute website

Naitional seembols o Latvie
Latvie
History o Latvie

Coat o airms o Latvie


The sheep (Ovis aries) is a quadrupedal, ruminant mammal teepically keept as fermstockin. Lik aw ruminants, sheep are members o the order Artiodactyla, the even-taed ungulates. Awtho the name "sheep" applees tae mony species in the genus Ovis, in everyday uisage it awmaist alweys refers tae Ovis aries. Nummerin a little ower ane billion, domestic sheep are an aa the maist numerous species o sheep. An adult female sheep is referred tae as a yowe, an intact male as a tuip, a libbit male as a wedder, an a younger sheep as a  lamm.

Sheep are maist likely descendit frae the wild mouflon o Europe an Asie. Ane o the earliest ainimals tae be domesticatit for agricultural purposes, sheep are raised for fleece, meat (lamm, hogget or mutton) an milk. A sheep's oo is the maist widely uised ainimal feebre, an is uisually hairstit bi shearin. Ovine meat is cried lamm when frae younger ainimals an mutton when frae aulder anes. Sheep conteenue tae be important for oo an meat the day, an are an aa occasionally raised for pelts, as dairy ainimals, or as model organisms for science.

Sheep husbandry is practised ootthrou the majority o the inhabitit warld, an haes been fundamental tae mony ceevilisations. In the modren era, Australie, New Zealand, the soothren an central Sooth American naitions, an the Breetish Isles are maist closely associatit wi sheep production.

Sheepraisin haes a lairge lexicon o unique terms which vary conseederably bi region an dialect. Uise o the wird sheep began as a derivation o the Auld Inglis wird ; it is baith the singular an plural name for the ainimal. A group o sheep is cried a hirsel, flock, herd or mob. Mony ither speceefic terms for the various life stages o sheep exeest, generally relatit tae lammin, shearin, an age.

Bein a key ainimal in the history o fermin, sheep hae a deeply entrenched place in human cultur, an find representation in much modren leid an seembology. As livestock, sheep are maist eften associatit wi pastoral, Arcadian eemagery. Sheep feegur in mony meethologies—sic as the Gowden Fleece—an major releegions, especially the Aubrahamic tradeetions. In baith auncient an morden releegious ritual, sheep are uised as saicrifeecial ainimals.

Sheep
Megafauna
Yerbivorous ainimals
Ainimals descrived in 1758
Fermstockin

Sheep


Wiener Schnitzel (Viennese schnitzel in German, where Schnitzel means a   without bones) is a traditional Austrian dish and is a popular part of Viennese and Austrian cuisine, consisting of a thin slice of veal coated in breadcrumbs and fried.
In Austria the dish is traditionally served with a lemon slice, lingonberry jam and either potato salad or potatoes with parsley and butter.  While the traditional Wiener Schnitzel is made of veal, it is now sometimes made of pork, though in that case it is often called Schnitzel Wiener Art (Germany) (Viennese style schnitzel) or Wiener Schnitzel vom Schwein (Austria) (Viennese schnitzel from the pig) to differentiate it from the original. In Austria, the term Wiener Schnitzel is protected by law, and any schnitzel called by that name has to be made from veal.
The dish may have originated in Milan, northern Italy, as cotoletta alla milanese, and may have appeared in Vienna during the 15th or 16th century. According to another theory, it was introduced in 1857 by Field Marshal Radetzky, who spent much of his life in Milan. The term Wiener Schnitzel itself dates to at least 1862.

Schnitzel Around the World

Schnitzel is often mistaken for sausage in the modern American society. What many Americans do not realize about schnitzel is that its part of the melting pot of American cultures. For example, German immigrants to Texas in the 1800s combined schnitzel recipes to make chicken fried steak -- popular in the southwest U.S.A.. Chicken tenders are similar to Schnitzel as well.

Even Israel has its own type of schnitzel. Areas with large German populations like Argentina also carry schnitzel.

Even though schnitzel is often served as a platter, it comes in sandwiches as well. If it's a platter, it usually comes with "Spätzle" -- German egg noodles.

References

Meat dishes

German food

Austrian food

Wiener schnitzel


A cable tray is a system to put insulated cables and other wiring (communication, network etc.) in building structures, such as in office buildings, residential, industries etc. A cable tray system gives easy access. This is useful when adding new cables or replacing the old cables on the tray.

Cable trays can be made out of galvanized steel, stainless steel, aluminum or plastic. The choice depends on how it will be used or where it will be placed.

Electricity

Cable tray


In Christianity, prima scriptura is the idea that canonical scripture is the most important kind of  divine revelation. People who believe in this idea say that revelation that comes from scripture is more important than revelation that comes from other sources. Other sources include traditions, spiritual gifts, conscience, common sense and the views of experts. Prima scriptura suggests that there are  ways of knowing or understanding God and his will that do not originate from canonized scripture. These may be helpful in interpreting that scripture, but that if they seem to contradict the scriptures, the scriptures should be used instead.

Prima scriptura is sometimes mentioned together with Sola scriptura. Sola scriptura is a view mainly held by protestants which states that only scripture is the source of divine revelation. Sola scriptura rejects scripture which is not in the Bible, while prima scriptura says that there may be such scripture.

Christian theology
Latin words and phrases
Christian terminology

Prima scriptura


Tellurium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Te and the atomic number 52. It has 52 protons and 52 electrons. Its mass number is 127.6. It has 8 natural isotopes. 4 are stable and 4 are radioactive. One of the radioactive ones lasts longer than any other isotope. It has a half life of 2.2 x 1024 years (2.2 septillion years).

Properties

Physical properties

It is a brittle silver-white semimetal. When it is pure it has a metallic shine. It is ground easily. It can be made in an amorphous form. It is a semiconductor. It changes conductivity a little when light shines on it, similar to selenium. It is corrosive to many metals when molten.

Chemical properties
Tellurium is an unreactive element. It can react with reactive metals to make tellurides. It can burn in air to make tellurium dioxide. It can be oxidized even more to tellurium trioxide. It does not corrode. The chemistry of tellurium is similar to some chemistry of selenium and sulfur, although its compounds are more reactive and the element is less reactive. It does not dissolve in most acids, although it dissolves in concentrated sulfuric acid to make a special red tellurium cation.

Chemical compounds

Tellurium makes chemical compounds in several oxidation states: -2, +2, +4, and +6. -2 compounds are normally found in tellurides. They are strong reducing agents. Tellurides are normally the main ore of tellurium. Most natural tellurides are not pure, so they are much less reactive. +2 compounds are found in some tellurium halides, like tellurium(II) chloride and tellurium(II) bromide. They are the rarest oxidation state. +4 compounds are found in tellurites and tellurous acid. They are weak oxidizing agents, that can be reduced to tellurium. Tellurites are made by reacting tellurium dioxide with a metal oxide. +6 compounds are found in tellurates and telluric acid. They are powerful oxidizing agents. Tellurates are made by reacting telluric acid with metal oxides.

Occurrence

Tellurium is a very rare mineral. There is 14 times more silver in the earth than there is tellurium. Tellurium is sometimes found as an element, but most of the times is found as tellurides. Gold tellurides (Calaverite) are found in the earth. They are valuable ores of both tellurium and gold. This gold ore was not recognized as gold during one gold rush and was used as a filler. It was then discovered that it was gold telluride, making another gold rush. Telluride cannot replace sulfide in elements like selenide does.

Preparation
Tellurium can be taken from gold telluride by dissolving the gold telluride in concentrated sulfuric acid. The tellurium dissolves to make a red solution, while the gold sinks to the bottom.

A more common way of extracting tellurium from tellurides is to heat the tellurides. The tellurides are heated with sodium carbonate and air. This makes sodium tellurite. Selenites are normally found as an impurity. They are separated by reacting them with sulfuric acid. The selenites stay in solution. The tellurites turn into tellurium dioxide. Then the tellurium dioxide is reacted with sulfur dioxide dissolved in sulfuric acid to make tellurium metal. The tellurium can be melted and reformed to make bars of tellurium metal.

Uses

The main use of tellurium is in alloys. It is used in iron, copper, and lead alloys. It makes the metals more easily machinable (able to be shaped by a machine). It improves strength and durability of lead and makes it more resistant to corrosion by sulfuric acid.

Tellurium is also used in cadmium telluride solar cells. These are very efficient. It can be alloyed with both cadmium and mercury to make mercury cadmium telluride, an infrared sensitive semiconductor. It is used in some rewritable (able to be erased and written again) optical discs. Lead telluride is used in another type of infrared sensor.

It is also used to color ceramics. It is used to make fiberglass that is used in telecommunications (telephones, internet, etc.). It helps increase the refraction. It is also used in delay blasting caps. Rubber can be hardened.

In biology
Tellurium is not really used in any living things. Some fungi, though, can use tellurium instead of selenium or sulfur. Most organisms can metabolize tellurium to make dimethyl telluride, which is a garlic-smelling chemical. If someone eats a tellurium compound, it gives them garlic breath.

Safety
Tellurium is very toxic.

Related pages
Tellurium compounds

References

Semimetals

Tellurium


A subshrub (Latin suffrutex) is a woody perennial plant. Gardeners use the word to distinguish plants from a shrub that have lower height, typically less than 10–20 cm tall, or that are only weakly woody and/or persist only for a few years. Small, low shrubs such as lavender, periwinkle, and thyme, and many members of the family Ericaceae, such as cranberries, are often classed as subshrubs.

Shrubs

Subshrub


The Corporate sector of Pakistan (otherwise attributed as the Corporatization; or/ simply referred to as the Pakistan Inc.) is an elite business sector expanded in financial cities of Pakistan, and a policy measure programme in the economic period of Pakistan. This programme is also regarded as "Pakistan Inc.", which is a common term used by the mass-media of Pakistan to refer to the corporate sector of the nation. The current policy measure programme is the Companies Ordinance 2016 that legally allows a variety of formations in the mixed economy of Pakistan.

The programme was originally based on the Indian Companies Act, 1913, which was replaced by the Companies Ordinance 1984, finally being replaced by the current Companies Ordinance 2016 in a vision to promote Western-styled corporate sector, and business activities development in Pakistan.  The corporate sector came in direct response to nationalization programme of executed Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and the Pakistan Peoples Party to promote . This programme was integrated in Privatization programme of Prime minister Nawaz Sharif in 1990 who gave free hand to private sector to expand the economical activities in the country. The corporate sector remained to expand in Prime minister Benazir Bhutto's government who promoted the nationalization and privatization at once. In 2004, in a programme initiated by Prime minister Shaukat Aziz, the corporate sector further enhanced and matured; it had built a strong and sizeable sector in the financial hubs of the country.

Under Aziz, many of state-owned megacorporations along with private sector had been registered in stock exchanges of the country in order to promote business competition in the country.

Growth trend
The Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan has registered 920 new companies in the first quarter of 2005. The Company Registration Office at Lahore registered the most number of companies at 324, CRO Karachi 285 companies, and CRO Islamabad 211 companies.

Of the 920 companies, 898 were limited by shares comprising 21 public unlisted companies, 840 private companies, and 37 single member companies. In addition, the commission also registered 11 foreign companies, 9 associations not-for-profit and 2 companies limited by guarantee. Total authorized capital and paid up capital of the companies limited by shares amounted to Rs.50 billion and Rs.2 billion, respectively.

The services sector recorded 161 new incorporations, followed by 121 in trading, 64 in Information Technology, 59 in communication, 50 in fuel and energy, 49 in the real estate development, 38 in construction and 37 in textile sector. The SECP encourages and facilitates corporatisation of all businesses so that the corporate sector contributes towards the economic development of the country.

As of 2005, the Board of Investment estimates that there were 43,965 corporate enterprises registered in Pakistan as detailed below:

See also
Board of Investment
Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan
Karachi Stock Exchange
List of Pakistani companies
Islam in Pakistan

References

Documentation

Companies of Pakistan
Economic history of Pakistan

Corporate sector of Pakistan


The Piedmont has played an important role in the development of music, in general, in Italy, due to the presence of medieval monasteries in that area, institutions that were great preservers of manuscripts in the Middle Ages as well as being geographically well located to connect to musical influences from northern Europe. As well, the political dominance of the Royal House of Savoy leading up to its eventual installation as the ruling dynasty of united Italy was important.

Musically, the Teatro Regio in Torino was one of the fine, old opera houses in Europe, stemming from the 1730s. Also from that period is the Teatro Carignano, which in the late 19th century was the venue for some of the early works of Giacomo Puccini. Torino was actually the first capital of Italy, but with the final unification of the nation in 1861, that function, has been assumed by Rome. Various facets of cultural life, thus, went through a certain period of "downsizing" in the late 19th century. In the early 20th century, however, Arturo Toscanini became the conductor of the municipal symphony and the musical life of the city was rejuvenated. A radio symphony was formed in the 1930s and now, Torino is the seat of the National Symphony Orchestra.

Music theaters and auditoriums in Torino include the Teatro Regio (rebuilt in 1973), the Lingotto or the Gianni Agnelli auditorium (opened in 1994 on the premises of an ex-Fiat factory), the new RAI auditorium (home of the national symphony), the Circolo degli Artisti, (where Toscanini broke in at age 22 as a cellist), and the premises of the Giuseppe Verdi conservatory. The city hosts an annual music festival called Torino Settembre Musica.

As one moves to other provinces in Piedmont, prominent venues and activities include:
the Teatro Comunale in Alessandria;
the Teatro Civico in Tortona;
the Teatro Alfieri in Asti;
the monastery of Bose in Magnano, dedicated to contemporary music;
the Bartolomeo Bruni orchestra in Cuneo;
the Stresa music festival, held on Isola Bella on Lake Maggiore;
the Umberto Giordano Festival in Baveno.

References
Guide Cultura, i luoghi della music (2003) ed. Touring Club Italiano.

External links
 Torino music conservatory
 Stresa music festival on Lake Maggiore
 National Symphony Orchestra
 Torino September music festival
 Concerts today in Piedmont

Piedmont
Piedmont

Music of Piedmont


Kamehameha I (about 1736–1819) was the first king of Hawaii.

Life

Early life
Kamehameha was born about 1736, probably during the winter. His parents were Keoua and Keku'iapoiwa II. They were cousins. Their grandfather was Keawe'ikekahiali'iokamoku, who had been the boss (ali'i nui) of the big island of Hawaii. When Keawe'ikekahiali'iokamoku died, there was a civil war. Keoua and his brother Kalani'opu'u lost, and Alapa'inui won. Keoua lived with Alapa'inui for a while, but he died when Kamehameha was still a little boy. Kamehameha left and lived with his uncle Kalani'opu'u.

Leader on Hawaii Island
When Kamehameha's uncle died in 1782, his cousin Kiwala'o became the new boss of the big island of Hawaii. Kamehameha became the head priest for the Hawaiian god of war Kuka'ilimoku and the leader of the Waipi'o Valley. He and his cousin started to fight because Kamehameha showed more respect to the gods than to his cousin. Some leaders in Kona joined him. They beat Kiwala'o at the Battle of Moku'ohai, and Kamehameha became the leader of Kona, Kohala, and Hamakua on Hawaii Island.

At that time, there were people who said that they could see the future. They told a prophecy that Kamehameha would bring Hawaii together and even unite the people of Polynesia as far away as the Maoris in New Zealand. Kamehameha began to plan to unite all the kingdoms of the different islands. He started buying guns and bullets from British and American sailors who came to Hawaii while they hunted whales. Captain Brown began to bring him gunpowder from China and taught him how to it from sulfur, saltpeter, and charcoal on Hawaii. Isaac Davis and John Young stayed on Hawaii, married Hawaiian women, and taught Kamehameha's men how to use and fix guns.

Kamehameha took Puna from its leader Keawema'uhili in 1790. Keoua Ku'ahu'ula tried to take over his land while he was busy fighting, but Kamehameha was able to come back with his men in time. Keoua Ku'ahu'ula ran away past the volcano Kilauea and lost many men because of poison gas. The next year, Kamehameha invited him to visit. When Keoua Ku'ahu'ula came, he and his protectors were all killed. Kamehameha was now the boss of the big island of Hawaii.

War with other islands
Kamehameha now had 960 war canoes and about 10,000 men. He took Maui and Molokai at the Battle of Kawela in 1795.

Kamehameha then attacked Oahu, landing his men at Wai'alae and Waikiki. His helper Ka'iana was really helping his enemy Kalanikupule. He helped make special safe places for Kalanikupule's cannon on top of the Pali Mountains. This caused Kamehameha to lose many men until he sent many to climb the other side of the mountains and hit the cannon from behind. 400 Oahu men were forced over the side of the mountains'  cliff. Ka'iana was killed in the battle, and Kalanikupule was caught and given as a gift to the war god Kuka'ilimoku.

Kamehameha got Kaumuali'i, the leader of Kauai, to work for him in April 1810 and, in this way, at last became the only leader of all the Hawaiian Islands. Other angry leaders wanted to kill Kaumuali'i with poison at a big dinner but Isaac Davis heard about their plan and told him ahead of time.

Leader of the Hawaiian Islands
Kamehameha made Kamakahonu in Kona his home after about 1812. He wanted the Hawaiian Islands to stay together after he died. He made all the islands use the same laws. He used his taxes to increase the islands' trade with Europe and the United States. He thought about bringing in Christianity to the islands, but decided that the Hawaiian gods that he had followed so far were strong in spirit and had brought him his success. He had somewhere between 20 and 30 wives and about 35 children, including 17 sons and 18 daughters.

Death
Kamehameha died on May 8 or 14, 1819. No one is sure where his body was put, because the Hawaiians thought people could use the spiritual power of the dead and the king's close friends Hoapili and Ho'olulu hid his body carefully. His children by his wife Keopuolani followed him as the leaders of Hawaii and are known as the House of Kamehameha.

1730s births
Kings and Queens of Hawaii
1819 deaths
Native Hawaiians

Kamehameha I