Toxicology is the study of how chemicals hurt living things. Toxicologists use biology, chemistry, pharmacology, and medicine. Measuring toxicity of a substance (relation between does and effect), is a major part of the work.

Many chemicals that we call poisons are only toxic when made into different chemicals by the body.  Many chemicals are made toxic in the liver by enzymes, for example paracetamol, which is a common drug. There is also some variation in liver enzymes (caused by genetic variation) in different people that can cause a substance to be more toxic in one person than it is in another. Some substances are also only toxic when they are with other chemicals, as one liver enzyme can cause activity in another enzyme.

Some measures of toxicity
 LD50 is a test that finds an average dose required to kill half of the animals being tested (normally rats in human toxicity).
 The Fixed Dose Procedure, an alternative to the LD50 which measures oral toxicity in a similar way, but using fewer animals and with less suffering.
 Minimum lethal dose (MLD, also LDmin), the smallest amount of drug that can produce death in an animal species under controlled conditions.
 Draize test
 LDLo
 IC50
 EC50

Related pages
 In vitro toxicology
 Toxicity

Other websites
 Society of Toxicology

Toxicology


The Lanarkshire Derby is a football rivalry in Lanarkshire, Scotland, and matches are played between two of Motherwell, Hamilton Academical, Airdrie United and Albion Rovers.

Motherwell vs Airdrie
This game is the biggest Lanarkshire derby, and big crowds usually come to watch this match, at either Fir Park or Excelsior Stadium. For a very long time, Motherwell and Airdrieonians were the two biggest teams in Lanarkshire, up until Airdrie went out of business in 2002. There has only been one game between these two teams since Airdrie re-formed as Airdrie United, in the 2007 Scottish Cup. A Richie Foran goal won it for Motherwell that day, in front of a crowd of 5,924, the highest ever for an Airdrie United match. Also, this match had often been the final of the Lanarkshire Cup, a competition where teams from all-over Lanarkshire played in. This competition stopped in 1996.

Motherwell vs Hamilton Academical
This game is the second-biggest Lanarkshire derby, and the most Southern of all the derbies. Up until 2008, both teams were mostly in different divisions. Then Hamilton got promoted to the SPL and both teams were to play each other a lot. This ended when Hamilton got relegated in 2011, meaning that Motherwell are now the only SPL team in Lanarkshire.

Hamilton Academical vs Airdrie
This game is between the two middle-rated teams in Lanarkshire, and is not as big as when one of the teams play Motherwell. Both teams have usually been in a league lower than the SPL, so this is not thought to be a big derby.

Airdrie vs Albion Rovers
This game is big for both teams, as they were both in the Monklands area, until Airdrie moved to a new stadium in the Petersburn area in 1998. The first match between Albion and Airdrie (as United), was in 2010, when Airdrie beat Albion Rovers 1-0 at Cliftonhill. Since that game, both teams are in the same division in the 2011-12 season.

Albion Rovers vs Hamilton Academical
This is not a big derby match, as both teams have been in different divisions for most of their existence. They were in the same league in 2001, but have not met each other since, making this derby the smallest. Coatbridge and Hamilton are 6 miles apart.

Albion Rovers vs Motherwell
This is the least remembered of the derbies, as Albion have been in the lower divisions for most of their existence, whilst Motherwell have been in the top division. There is also no bad feeling between the two, as a few young Motherwell players have gone out on loan to Albion Rovers over the years.

References

Football in Scotland

Lanarkshire derby


Michael Andrew Smerconish ( ; born March 15, 1962) is an American radio host and television presenter, political commentator, newspaper columnist, author, and lawyer. He broadcasts The Michael Smerconish Program weekdays at 9:00 a.m. ET on SiriusXM's POTUS Channel (124), and hosts the CNN and CNN International program Smerconish at 9:00 a.m. ET on Saturdays. He is a Sunday newspaper columnist for The Philadelphia Inquirer. Smerconish has written seven books: six non-fiction works and one novel. He is also of counsel to the Philadelphia law firm of Kline & Specter.

Early life and education
Smerconish was born in Doylestown, Pennsylvania, the son of Florence (née Grovich) and Walter Smerconish. His family hails from Galicia in Eastern Europe, Montenegro, and Italy. He graduated from Central Bucks High School West, a public high school in Doylestown, Pennsylvania. He received his B.A. from Lehigh University and his Juris Doctor degree from the University of Pennsylvania Law School.

He has been awarded several honorary degrees: a Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Widener University on May 26, 2016, a Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Delaware Valley College on May 19, 2018, and a Doctor of Science degree from University of the Sciences on May 20, 2020.

Politics

Smerconish was raised in a Republican household, and while in his early teens, Smerconish began to correspond with the then Democratic Mayor of Philadelphia, Frank L. Rizzo. Eventually the two would meet and establish a close relationship. But Smerconish's start in politics came in the spring of 1980 when his father competed unsuccessfully in a Republican primary for the Pennsylvania state legislature. Smerconish worked tirelessly in his father's campaign during his own senior year in high school, during which he registered to vote for the first time. Despite his father's election loss, Smerconish was smitten with GOP politics, having met both Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush during the build-up to the Pennsylvania Primary.

In 1980, Smerconish founded Lehigh University Youth for Reagan/Bush. While a full-time student at the University of Pennsylvania Law School, he ran for the Pennsylvania state legislature, losing the Republican Primary by 419 votes. After losing his primary, Smerconish continued at Penn Law, while working nearly full-time running political campaigns. In 1986, he was responsible for the City of Philadelphia in Senator Arlen Specter's re-election win, and in 1987, Smerconish served as Rizzo's Political Director in Rizzo's losing (Republican) bid to re-take City Hall. After graduating from Penn Law, he opened up a title insurance agency with his brother Wally, before being appointed, at age 29, by the administration of President George H.W. Bush to serve as the Department of Housing and Urban Development's Regional Administrator for Philadelphia Region III (consisting of Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia) under Secretary Jack Kemp.

After supporting only Republican presidential candidates for three decades, Smerconish publicly broke with the GOP and endorsed Barack Obama for president on October 19, 2008. In a 2,000-word essay for Salon titled "Why this lifelong Republican may vote for Obama," citing the Republican Party's failure to capture Osama bin Laden after seven years of war, he wrote, "All of this drives me bat-shit, and it just might drive me into the Obama camp. That'd be quite a departure."

He has urged the Republican Party to pursue "moderation on social issues in order to advance a suburban agenda for the GOP." Writing a 2010 op-ed for The Washington Post titled "On cable TV and talk radio, a push toward polarization," Smerconish said, "Buying gas or groceries or attending back-to-school nights, I speak to people for whom the issues are a mixed bag; they are liberal on some, conservative on others, middle of the road on the rest. But politicians don't take their cues from those people. No, politicians emulate the world of punditry."

On February 21, 2010, he announced in a newspaper column that he had left the Republican Party. Discussing Smerconish's move to the middle, Manuel Roig-Franzia of The Washington Post wrote, "It may be conventional wisdom that the only way to truly succeed in the world of talk is to occupy one of the poles. But Smerconish is betting his career that there's a great untapped center."

Smerconish voted for neither Hillary Clinton nor Donald Trump in the 2016 United States presidential election.

Legal
Smerconish's tenure at HUD came to a close after George H.W. Bush was defeated by Bill Clinton in the 1992 election. In 1993, Smerconish began what would become a decade practicing law with legendary trial attorney James E. Beasley, who would become the benefactor and eponym of the Temple University Beasley School of Law. Smerconish became acquainted with Beasley while at HUD when he sought the latter's legal opinion for a possible defamation action against Steve Lopez, then a columnist with The Philadelphia Inquirer. Beasley was noted for his record-breaking defamation wins against the newspaper. (No lawsuit was filed by Smerconish against Lopez.) Working closely with Beasley for a decade, Smerconish specialized in complex tort litigation. At a 2015 legal seminar sponsored by the Pennsylvania Bar Institute, Smerconish wrote an essay summarizing some of his lessons learned working for Beasley.

Smerconish's legal work spanned various subject areas, including contracts, medical malpractice, and products liability. His clients included: the Philadelphia Fraternal Order of Police (in an action against Dead Kennedys for publishing an FOP photograph on an album cover that advocated the murder of police); the City of Rome, Italy (in a contract dispute against the Barnes Foundation); and Orlin Norris, a professional boxer who through Smerconish sued promoter Don King for a shot at the heavyweight title. In a medical malpractice action, Smerconish successfully sued abortion provider Kermit Gosnell. While in active practice, Smerconish served one term as a member of the Board of Directors of The Philadelphia Trial Lawyer's Association. Today, Smerconish's law license hangs in the office of the Philadelphia law firm Kline & Specter.

Media
His media work grew out of his unique political experiences at an early age (working for Vice President Bush, running unsuccessfully for the state legislature, running campaigns for Arlen Specter and Frank Rizzo and ultimately being appointed to a sub-cabinet-level position by President George H.W. Bush). In the spring of 1990, Smerconish made his first radio appearance as a guest of a guest-host, Brian Tierney, who was then a substitute host on Philadelphia talk station 96.5 FM WWDB. During the 1991 Philadelphia mayoral election, Smerconish worked at WWDB as a political analyst. He then transitioned from a guest to a guest-host. By 1993, he had his own program Sunday nights from 8 p.m. until midnight, during which time his day job was the practice of law. In 1996, after the death of longtime broadcaster Dominic Quinn, Smerconish moved to Saturday and Sunday mornings, the latter of which allowed him to be the lead-in of Sid Mark's Sunday with Sinatra. WWDB was then sold by broadcast entrepreneurs Chuck and Susan Schwartz and a new owner began selling informercials masked as programming which Smerconish refused to honor. That led to his 1997 move to CBS affiliate WPHT (formerly known as WCAU AM). By the following year, he was moved to afternoon drive, all the while maintaining his practice of law. Only when in September 2003, after the firing of Don Imus, whose morning drive slot he took, did Smerconish become a talk show host who was a lawyer instead of a lawyer who was a talk show host.

He has received many accolades for his work as a broadcaster including Talkers Magazine consistently naming him one of America's most important talk show hosts, and Radio & Records naming him the nation's 2006 Local Personality of the Year. In 2003, he was named to "The Pennsylvania Report Power 75 List" of influential figures in Pennsylvania politics. The National Association of Broadcasters selected him as a 2011 Marconi Award finalist in the category of Best Network/Syndicated Host. He has often been the recipient of several Philadelphia Achievement in Radio awards, including Best Talk Show Host and Best Evening Program. Philadelphia Magazine named him the City's best talk show host in 2004, as well as one of the City's most powerful citizens.

In February 2009, Smerconish's program was placed into national syndication by Dial Global. On August 20, 2009, Smerconish became the first talk radio host to interview President Barack Obama live from the White House, one of seven radio conversations he's had with Obama. The interview was held in the Diplomatic Reception Room, where President Franklin D. Roosevelt conducted fireside chats. The President took questions from Smerconish and his listeners on a variety of subjects including the recent debates on the then-pending Affordable Care Act. He has also interviewed Presidents Jimmy Carter, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton and George W. Bush, as well as Vice Presidents Al Gore, Dick Cheney and Joe Biden. He has often said that he has spoken with everyone who interested him with the exception of the elusive creator of Seinfeld and Curb Your Enthusiasm, Larry David.

As a result of his increasing radio prominence, Smerconish was increasingly invited to appear on television, first locally and then nationally. In Philadelphia, he was first asked to appear by his friend and eventual mentor, Larry Kane, on WCAU Channel 10 providing election night analysis. He then became a regular on the local ABC affiliate (WPVI) program Inside Story, hosted by Marc Howard. And he often appeared as the guest of Lynn Doyle, host of Comcast's It's Your Call on CN8. CNN soon tapped Smerconish as a guest (and guest host) of Arthel Neville on the program TalkBack Live. CNN engaged Smerconish as a legal analyst and also utilized him as the substitute for Glenn Beck on CNN's Headline News. CNN briefly aired a program called Attorneys at Law featuring Smerconish, Jeffrey Toobin, and Lisa Bloom. When CNN switched to wall-to-wall coverage of the Iraq Invasion, the program was interrupted and never returned. Smerconish then moved to MSNBC as a contributor at the invitation of Phil Griffin, the future head of MSNBC, where he began guest hosting Scarborough Country in the absence of former Republican congressman Joe Scarborough. When in 2007, MSNBC fired Don Imus for a racial slur, it was Smerconish who was invited by the network to guest host Imus' time slot during the week of April 23–27 as a replacement on a trial basis. In-studio guests included Jon Anderson of Yes and former New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani. MSNBC eventually hired Scarborough for the slot formerly held by Imus and rebranded the program as Morning Joe (where Smerconish has never been a guest). At MSNBC, Smerconish's role then became one of appearing daily with Tamron Hall, host of News Nation, and as a guest host of Hardball in the absence of Chris Matthews, a position he filled for five years. At the same time—despite the polarized media climate and differences between MSNBC and Fox News—he guest hosted The Radio Factor for Bill O'Reilly.

In 2013, Smerconish decided to give up his terrestrial radio platform then consisting of 80 radio stations across the country to move to the POTUS Channel 124 on Sirius XM Radio. He said at the time that this reflected his desire to be "nonpartisan" in discussing issues; having left the Republican party in 2010, adding that satellite radio would give him more freedom to talk politics without a party label.

Then, in early 2014, Smerconish left MSNBC after Jeff Zucker, president of CNN, invited him to host his own program there. Said Smerconish at the time, "The type of program I do on radio is far more in keeping with what CNN does on TV than it is with FOX or MSNBC." Smerconish broadcasts on CNN Saturdays at 9:00 am ET. The show also broadcast around the world by CNN International.

Smerconish has appeared on virtually every television program where politics is a staple, from Larry King Live to The View, from Real Time with Bill Maher to The Today Show, from The Colbert Report to The O'Reilly Factor.

He also writes a Sunday column in The Philadelphia Inquirer, and his work has been reprinted in newspapers nationwide, including The Washington Post, The Dallas Morning News, The Denver Post, Miami Herald, Boston Herald, Sacramento Bee, and Detroit News.

On June 5, 2020, rapper Meek Mill released his song "Otherside of America". Rolling Stone writes that Mill "paints a vivid picture of life on 'the other side of America.'" In the song's final seconds, Mill includes audio from a December 2018 interview with Smerconish during which the two discussed the need for criminal justice reform.

To mark his 30 years in talk radio, Smerconish aired an autobiographical film Things I Wish I Knew Before I Started Talking on Saturday, July 11, 2020 on CNN. In the film, Smerconish walks through his transition from a reliably Republican voter to a registered independent, illustrated by interview excerpts and anecdotes throughout his time in talk radio and television as a political commentator. He ultimately argues that the Republican party today does not resemble the one he joined in 1980, largely due to politicians taking cues from the media. The film was acquired by Virgil Films in October 2020 and aired on virtual cinemas on December 8, 2020. On June 15, 2021, the film debuted on Hulu.

Books
Smerconish's work as a radio broadcaster was consumed by the events of 9/11 for years following 2001. While paying close attention to the hearings of the 9/11 Commission, Smerconish picked up on a question put to Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice by Commissioner John Lehman which suggested that political correctness played a role in airport security before and after 9/11. Smerconish subsequently interviewed Lehman whereupon Lehman shared the fact that testimony in front of the Commission suggested there was a limit on the number of Arab males who could be pulled out of line at any one time for secondary screening. Smerconish wrote about Lehman's account for his (then) column in the Philadelphia Daily News and stayed on the subject, eventually testifying before a Senate subcommittee at the invitation of Senator Arlen Specter. Ultimately, Smerconish wrote his first book, Flying Blind: How Political Correctness Continues to Compromise Airline Safety Post 9/11 (2004), about his investigation, and donated all proceeds to the Garden of Reflection, a 9/11 tribute garden in his native Bucks County, Pennsylvania.

His second book, a New York Times best-seller, was Muzzled: From T-Ball to Terrorism – True Stories That Should Be Fiction (2007), which sought to link the restraint of fighting the war on terror to domestic political correctness.

His third book, another New York Times best-seller, Murdered by Mumia: A Life Sentence of Loss, Pain, and Injustice (2007) (co-written by Maureen Faulkner) told the story of slain Philadelphia police officer Daniel Faulkner, in what was arguably the highest profile death penalty case in the world. Despite being convicted and sentenced to death by a Philadelphia jury for the murder of Faulkner, Mumia Abu-Jamal became a cause célèbre for death penalty opponents around the world. In print, Smerconish told Faulkner's story, and donated the $200,000 he was paid to write the book to a charitable fund established in the slain officer's name.

His fourth book, Morning Drive: Things I Wish I Knew Before I Started Talking (2009) detailed his evolving political positions against the backdrop of his talk radio career. Morning Drive's chapters were evenly split between issue-oriented essays and back-of-the-house media tales.

He then returned to the subject of 9/11 for his fifth book, Instinct: The Man Who Stopped the 20th Hijacker (2009), which tells the true story of Jose Melendez-Perez, a Customs and Border Protection Inspector at Orlando International Airport, who thwarted the entry of Mohammed al Qahtani, the 20th hijacker, one month before 9/11. Once again, Smerconish gave all author profits to charity, this time, the Flight 93 National Memorial in Shanksville, Pennsylvania. Smerconish subsequently sought to credit Melendez-Perez with playing a role in the killing of Osama bin Laden because he denied al Qahtani's entry and Qahtani, as a prisoner of war in Guantanamo Bay, was one of the detainees who identified bin Laden's courier, leading to the successful raid of SEAL Team Six.

Talk: A Novel (2014) is Smerconish's sixth book and first fictional work, about the life of conservative talk show host Stan Powers. Powers, a former slacker and stoner with no political knowledge, is nevertheless able to quickly ascend the talk radio world by his entertainment skills and recitation of red-meat talking points (which conflict with his own opinions). The more Stan Powers says on fictionalized radio station WRGT with which he personally disagrees, the higher he sees his star rising. With a Republican convention coming to his hometown of Tampa, Florida, will Powers continue to spout the lines that pay for his beach front condominium, or will he take the professional risk of being true to himself? Warner Horizon Television has optioned the rights to the novel.

Clowns to the Left of Me, Jokers to the Right (2018) is Smerconish's seventh book, a compilation of 100 of Smerconish's more memorable newspaper columns in The Philadelphia Inquirer and Philadelphia Daily News, each with a new Afterword, drawn from the 1,047 he published between 2001 and 2016. As characterized by Foreword Reviews: "Michael Smerconish's collection is compelling and entertaining—not as a filtering of daily news through a predictable ideological lens, but as a group of insightful entries into conversations about current events and issues….This sampling of Smerconish's columns exemplifies the kind of discourse, based on reason and evidence, that makes a newspaper, in print or online, indispensable to citizens of democracy." As characterized by The Daily Beast, "[The columns] make for enjoyable reading and remind us that journalism properly practiced requires a good deal of nerve, honesty, and insight, along with openness to dialogue and the determination not to live in a bubble." All author proceeds are being donated to the Children's Crisis Treatment Center, which provides social services to children in Philadelphia who are the victims of trauma.

After the release of Clowns, Smerconish composed a one-man show in which he draws on columns reprinted in the book and weaves them together with his explanation of the political divide. He has since toured the country in support of what he calls "American Life in Columns", appearing at the Paley Center in Los Angeles, Hobby Center in Houston, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Park Square Theatre in St. Paul, Sellersville Theatre outside of Philadelphia, the Crofoot Ballroom in Pontiac, Michigan, and at City Wineries located in Boston, Chicago, New York City, Atlanta and Nashville.

References

External links
Smerconish's Home Page
CNN page for Smerconish
Smerconish's Soundcloud featuring cuts from The Michael Smerconish Program
Smerconish's Kline & Specter bio

American columnists
American political writers
American male writers
American social sciences writers
American talk radio hosts
Television anchors from Philadelphia
Journalists from Philadelphia
Lehigh University alumni
People from Doylestown, Pennsylvania
American people of Montenegrin descent
American people of Rusyn descent
American people of Lemko descent
American people of Yugoslav descent
University of Pennsylvania Law School alumni
Living people
1962 births
CNN people

Michael Smerconish


ABC1 is a telly chainel fae Disney whilk wis first lenched anerly on the British Digital Terrestrial Television stance Freeview on 27 September, 2004. On 10 December, 2004 hit wis eikit tae Telewest's digital cable onwaitin, an belyve efterhaund on the NTL digital cable onwaitin.

The schedule conseests o American drama, comedy an saip. Thir's mainly fae the ABC netwark, sic as Sports Night an General Hospital. The chainel forbye shaws twa programmes fae sports netwark ESPN whilk is ABC-awned. A feow o hits programmes sic as 8 Simple Rules an Home Improvement are forbye see'n in the UK on the ABC-awned Disney Channel.

Televeesion networks

ABC1


The DAF 600 is a small family car that wis DAF's first production passenger car: it wis first presented at the Amsterdam Motor Show in Februar 1958 an wis in production bi 1959, awtho the firm haed published the first details o the car at the end o 1957. It wis available until 1963.

The 600 wis the first car tae hae a continuously variable transmission (CVT) seestem - the innovative DAF Variomatic. The DAF Variomatic employs centrifugal weights tae shift the transmission an is enhanced bi an ingine manifold vacuum.  It wis the anly car ever produced which went faster bi the semple expedient o gently an gradually releasing the accelerator ance tap speed haed been reached.  This increased manifold vacuum that helped the variable pulleys shift tae an even higher ratio sae even tho the ingine RPM stays the same, the transmission increases the car's speed, in the case o the DAF 600, frae 60 mile per oor (97 km/h) tae nearly 70 mph (110 km/h) gien enough time an level road.

The Variomatic forby permitted increased ingine braking bi operating a switch on the dashboard that reversed the action o the vacuum on the pulley's diaphragm, seeking a lawer ratio wi increased manifold vacuum.

Notes

600
Rear wheel drive vehicles
Vehicles wi CVT transmission
Sedans
1950s automobiles
1960s automobiles
Vehicles introduced in 1958

DAF 600


The flag of Burundi was created in 1967. It has a white diagonal cross divided the field into alternating red and green areas. The center of the cross merges into a white disk, on which there are three red solid six-pointed stars outlined in green. The ratio of the flag was 2:3 until 27 September 1982. The current ratio is 3:5.

Burundi
Burundi

Flag of Burundi


A stanza is a related group of lines or verses in a poem. A stanza also can be a verse in paragraph form. They can keep on going without punctuation. It may also be a line in a poem.

Two most important features of a stanza is the number of lines and the rhyme scheme. There are many kinds of stanza.

 Two-line stanza (aa).
 Three-line stanza (aaa).
 Four-line stanza (aaaa, aabb, abab, abba)
 Five-line stanza (for example ababb)
 Six-line stanza (for example ababcc)
 Seven-line stanza (for example ababbcc, it is called rhyme royal)
 Eight-line stanza (for example abababcc, it is Italian ottava rima)
 Nine-line stanza (for example ababbcbcc, it is Spenserian stanza)
 Ten-line stanza (for example ababccdeed)

An Italian sonnet consists of two four-line stanzas and two three-line stanzas:

 abba abba cdc dcd

A French ballad is composed of three eight-line stanzas and a four-line one:

 ababbcbc ababbcbc ababbcbc bcbc

Some stanzas are named after poets, who invented or often used them. An example is Sapphic stanza that was named after famous Greek woman poet Sappho.

Bibliography
Joseph Berg Esenwein, Mary Eleanor Roberts, Art of Versification. Revised edition. Springfield: 1920.

poetry

Stanza


Hustler HD or Hustler HD 3D is a subscription based adult entertainment pay television channel distributed throughout Europe via digital cable as naxoo (in Switzerland) and satellite television. The channel broadcasts in HDTV and 3DTV format. It is owned by the Dutch-based company Sapphire Media International BV.

Hustler HD and Hustler TV offers hardcore pornography aimed at a straight male audience. It is the sister channel to Blue Hustler who specializes in softcore pornography.

External links
 Official Website

3D television channels
HD-only channels

Hustler HD


Eldena Abbey (), originally Hilda Abbey () is a former Cistercian monastery near the present town of Greifswald in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. Only ruins survive, which are well known as a frequent subject of Caspar David Friedrich's paintings, including the famous Abtei im Eichwald ("Abbey in the Oak Forest").

History

Monastery
In the 12th century the Baltic coast south of the island of Rügen belonged to the Rani principality of Rügen, which in its turn was subject to the Danes. The Danish Cistercian monastery, Esrum Abbey, was thus able to found a daughter house in the area, Dargun Abbey, at Dargun, west of Demmin, in 1172. When in 1198 this monastery was destroyed in fighting between Denmark and Brandenburg, Jaromar I, Prince of the Rani, whose wife was of the Danish royal house, offered to re-settle the monks at a new site at the mouth of the River Ryck, close to the boundary between the territory of the Princes of Rügen, and the County of Gützkow, since the early 1120s subordinate to the Duchy of Pomerania.

The offer of the site, which included profitable salt pans, was accepted, and in 1199 Hilda Abbey, now Eldena Abbey,
 was founded, and confirmed by Pope Innocent III in 1204. The princes of Rügen further endowed the new monastery with extensive lands in the border country between the Rügen-owned territories of Gristow and Wostrose (Wusterhusen), the area of Lositz (Loitz) which was debated between Rügen and Mecklenburg, and the County of Gützkow.

The monastery became wealthy from the salt trade and was very influential in the Christianisation of Western Pomerania. It also brought about the foundation at the beginning of the 13th century of the town of Greifswald, which started out as the monastery's trading settlement opposite the salt pans, near the point where the via regia, an important trade route, crossed the river. After the Battle of Bornhöved in 1227 the Danes withdrew from this part of their former territories, and despite some competition from the princes of Rügen, the Duke of Pomerania, Wartislaw III, was able in 1248/49 to press the abbey into subinfeudating Greifswald to him. Wartislaw was later buried in Eldena Abbey, as were later members of the ducal family, the House of Pomerania.

Throughout the 13th century, Eldena Abbey organized the cultivation and settlement of its growing estates in the Ostsiedlung process, allocating and founding Wendish, Danish and German villages. In the growing town of Greifswald however, the Cistercians of Eldena lost much of their influence the foundation in the town in the mid-13th century of friaries of the Franciscans (Greyfriars) and the Dominicans (Blackfriars).

The east end of the abbey church was built in about 1200, while the conventual buildings date from the mid-13th and 14th centuries, all in Brick Gothic. The final stages of construction were the west front and the nave of the church, which were completed in the 15th century.

Dissolution and later history
The abbey was dissolved in 1535, when the Reformation was introduced into Pomerania by Duke Philip I, who took over its estates. The buildings were severely damaged during the Thirty Years' War. In 1634 the site was given to the University of Greifswald. The buildings fell derelict during the Swedish occupation of western Pomerania (1648–1815), and bricks were taken away to build fortifications.

By the beginning of the 19th century, when the Romantic painter Caspar David Friedrich knew the abbey, it was a ruin, which he made the subject of several paintings. Renewed public interest led to the beginning of restoration work in 1828, and on the basis of designs by the Prussian landscape gardener Peter Joseph Lenné a park was laid out on the abbey precinct.

In 1926-1927, scientific excavations were carried out in order to reconstruct the exact layout of the site. In the 1960s further work was carried out to make the site suitable for use for public and cultural events. Still more works were authorised from 1996 onwards jointly by both the State Office for the Preservation of Historical Monuments (Landesamt für Denkmalpflege) and the town of Greifswald, which eventually led to the declaration of the ruins as a cultural site of the Pomerania Euroregion.

List of abbots
Liwinius 1193–1207
Sueno I 1207–1215
Johannes I 1234–1241
Andreas 1241
Sueno II 1249–1254
Christian 1256
Reginarus 1265
Rudolf 1270–1274
Johannes II 1275–1290
Hermann I 1293
Nikolaus I Witte 1294–1295
Heinrich I 1297–1303
Jakob Stumpel 1304–1306
Heinrich II 1306–1309
Robert 1319
Johannes III of Hagen c. 1325
Arnold of Lübeck c. 1329
Gerhard I 1335
Heinrich III 1337
Gerhard II 1341
Martin 1347–1367
Johannes IV Rotermund 1369
Johannes V 1369–1388
Johannes VI 1392–1415
Nikolaus II 1415–1434
Hartwich 1436–1447
Everhard 1448–1452
Sabellus Crugher 1455–1456
Theodorich 1458
Hermann II 1459–1470
Johannes VII 1470–1473
Nikolaus III 1473-1486
Gregorius Groper 1486–1490
Lambert von Werle 1490–1499
Matthias 1499–1510
Enwaldus Schinkel 1510–1535

Notes

Sources and external links

Die Ruinenbilder des Caspar David Friedrich

Monasteries in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
Cistercian monasteries in Germany
Religious organizations established in the 1190s
1535 disestablishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1190s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1199 establishments in Europe
Christian monasteries established in the 12th century
Ruined abbeys and monasteries
Church ruins in Germany
Burial sites of the House of Pomerania
Monasteries dissolved under the Protestant Reformation

Eldena Abbey


Josiah Oliver Wolcott (October 31, 1877 – November 11, 1938) was an American lawyer, politician and judge, from Dover, in Kent County, Delaware. He was a member of the Democratic Party, who served as Attorney General of Delaware, U.S. Senator from Delaware, and Chancellor of Delaware.

Early life and family
Wolcott was born in Dover, Delaware, attended the Wilmington Conference Academy, now Wesley College, at Dover, and graduated from Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut. He was admitted to the Delaware Bar in 1904 and began the practice of law at Wilmington, Delaware.

Professional and political career
Wolcott was Deputy Delaware Attorney General from 1909 until 1913, elected Delaware Attorney General in 1912 and served from January 21, 1913, until January 16, 1917.

In the first popular election of a U.S. Senator in Delaware, he was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1916, defeating incumbent Republican U.S. Senator Henry A. du Pont. During this term, Wolcott served with the Democratic majority in the 65th Congress, but was in the minority in the 66th and 67th Congress. In the 65th Congress he was Chairman of the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Commerce. Between 1918 and 1919, he served on the Overman Committee, investigating seditious German and Bolshevik activities. In all, he served from March 4, 1917 to July 2, 1921, during the administrations of U.S. Presidents Woodrow Wilson and Warren G. Harding.

Wolcott was the senate sponsor of legislation to create a federal charter for the American Legion. The House co-sponsor was Rep. Royal Johnson of South Dakota. The bill was filed on June 27, 1919, passed the House on August 27, passed the Senate on September 5 and was signed by President Wilson on September 16, 1919. (A History of the American Legion Marquis James. 1923. Pg. 71.)

On July 2, 1921, Wolcott resigned from the U.S. Senate to accept a surprising appointment from Republican Governor William D. Denney to become Chancellor of the Delaware Court of Chancery. The appointment came to be known as the "deal" or the "dirty deal," and many suspected T. Coleman du Pont organized it in order to gain the U.S. Senate seat for himself and the Republican Party. Wolcott served as Chancellor for the remainder of his life.

Death and legacy
Wolcott died at Dover and is buried there in the Lakeside Methodist Episcopal Cemetery.

According to Henry R. Horsey and William Duffy in their article on the Delaware Court system, Wolcott distinguished himself as Chancellor and they continued: Chancellery "Judge Pearson later recalled the spartan 'office' of Chancellor Wolcott, consisting of a small desk and gooseneck lamp, in the stacks of the State Law Library in Dover. There Wolcott worked without a secretary, writing his opinions in longhand. Pearson attributed Wolcott's conduct to his determination to ask for nothing. It was during Wolcott's tenure that Delaware's Court of Chancery gained the high regard and respect of lawyers and corporate boards throughout the country. It was Wolcott's judicial wisdom and judgment that first attracted lawyers and litigants from around the nation to Delaware as a preferred forum for litigation."

Every year, five students in their final year at Delaware Law School earn the Josiah Oliver Wolcott Fellowship. Wolcott fellows work as judicial law clerks for the Supreme Court of Delaware.

Almanac
Elections are held the first Tuesday after November 1. U.S. Senators are popularly elected and took office March 4 for a six-year term.

References

Images
Biographical Directory of the United States Congress

External links

Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Delaware's Members of Congress

The Political Graveyard
The Supreme Court of Delaware until 1951

1877 births
1938 deaths
Methodists from Delaware
People from Dover, Delaware
Wesleyan University alumni
Delaware lawyers
Delaware Attorneys General
Delaware Democrats
Democratic Party United States senators from Delaware
Burials in Dover, Delaware
Chancellors of Delaware
Wesley College (Delaware) alumni
19th-century American lawyers
20th-century American lawyers

Josiah O. Wolcott


The Book of Zechariah is a book of the Bible found in the Old Testament and the Jewish Tanakh thought to be written by the prophet Zechariah.  The name "Zechariah" means "God remembered." We don't know much about Zechariah.  The book itself tells us only that his grandfather was Iddo, a priest who returned with Zerubbabel from Babylon.

Chapters 1 to 6, written in 520 BC, start by telling the nation's history as a warning to the people. Then come eight visions, which show more about the history of Israel. These are to give the people hope. We are then told about the crowning of Jeshua/Joshua the priest. This showed that their religion was being restored.  Then Zechariah tells that the kingdoms of the world will someday become the kingdom of God's Messiah.

Chapters 7 and 8 were written two years later. The people were keeping days of sorrow to remind them of the loss of their city 70 years ago.  They are told that now they can now have days to celebrate the return home and can be assured that now God is with them and will make them happy.

Chapters 9 to 11 tell of a future time when the nations around them would be destroyed by an army, but Jerusalem would be kept from destruction.  This seems to have been talking about the coming of Alexander the Great with his army which happened in 332 BC. Tyre was taken by building a land bridge from the shore to the island city which was thought to be safe from capture. He also destroyed the city of Gaza.  But Alexander did not destroy Jerusalem when he came there.  Zechariah said that after these wars the Messiah would come.

Chapters 12 to 14 tell about the glories that await Israel in "the latter day", the final conflict and triumph of God's kingdom.

Most Christians read the predictions in chapters 7 to 14 as talking about Jesus, either directly or indirectly. These chapters helped the writers of the Gospels understand Jesus' suffering, death and resurrection, which they quoted as they wrote of Jesus' final days. One of these quotes is from Chapter 9, verse 9, "Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion; shout, O daughter of Jerusalem: behold, your King comes unto you: he is just, and having salvation; lowly, and riding upon a donkey." All four Gospels tell of Jesus riding into Jerusalem on a donkey and two of them say that Zechariah told of this ahead of time.

Old Testament books
Books of the Hebrew Bible
6th-century BC books

Book of Zechariah


Super Mario is the biggest and most important sub-series of the Mario series. It started in 1985 with the creation of Super Mario Bros. on the Famicom and later on the Nintendo Entertainment System (also called NES). It has been followed by many sequels released in almost every Nintendo video game console to date, except the Game Boy, the Game Boy Color, the Game Boy Advance, and the Virtual Boy, where only remakes, ports, or other spin-offs games where released.

Most of these games, except Super Mario Bros. 2, Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island, and the Super Mario Land series, are about Mario and, normally, his brother Luigi and sometimes his best friend Yoshi, in their adventure to search for and save Princess Peach from Bowser, who wants to takeover the Mushroom Kingdom, or another place, depending on the game. The Mario brothers' adventure is not easy, however, as they need to face Bowser's troops all over, who try to stop the brothers' attempts to save the princess.

All the games, and even some remakes, have been started by the Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development (also called Nintendo EAD) branch but not by the same area.

In 2010, the series celebrated the twenty-fifth of the release of Super Mario Bros.. The celebration included a series of videos showing various tricks throughout the series' games on the Wii's Nintendo Channel, as well as releasing a Wii port of Super Mario All-Stars, which included a history booklet of the Super Mario series and a CD containing several songs from games in the series.

Games
Super Mario Bros.

This game is the first in the Super Mario series. It was made for the Famicom and the NES in 1985. This game set the way for the later games, and it was later re-released for many newer systems, including the Game Boy Advance and the Virtual Console for the Wii. This game marks the first appearance for many new heros, species, and villains. These characters include Bowser, Princess Peach (then called Princess Toadstool), Toad and the Mushroom Retainers, Goombas, Koopa Troopas, and many more.

Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels

A year after Super Mario Bros., Nintendo put out this game. It was made for the Famicom Disk System. It uses a slightly different form of Super Mario Bros.'s engine, with different levels and new features including different graphics and the enemies acting a different way. This game is called Super Mario Bros. 2 in Japan; Nintendo of America originally thought this game was too hard and too much like the first to sell well in the United States. However, this game came in United States as part of Super Mario All-Stars, and recently, this game was on the Virtual Console on the Wii.

Super Mario Bros. 2

After seeing that the Lost Levels was too hard, they did not release it in North America and Europe. Instead they remade Doki Doki Panic with Mario characters. You can play as Mario, Luigi, Toad and Peach, each with their own powers and abilities. They need to free Subcon from the evil frog Wart. The game has been included in remakes, such as Super Mario All-Stars and on Virtual Console.

Super Mario Bros. 3

This is the fourth Super Mario game. It was made for the Famicom and the NES. Many new species appear, including main ones like Boo and Spike. Boom Boom, Dry Bones, and the Koopalings also first appear here. New power-ups also appear such as the Super Leaf, the Hammer Suit and the Frog Suit. It has been believed to be one of the greatest games of all time. Its hard and tricky levels made it a huge success. It has new power ups, new moves, items, and enemies. It also has special non-level parts of each world, including Toad Houses where lives are gotten and Spade Panels, as well as some secret parts, such as the White Toad House and the Treasure Ship.

Super Mario World

This game was released in 1990 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (also called SNES). It was also re-released as the second game in the Super Mario Advance series. In this game Mario and Peach go on a trip to Dinosaur Land but things go wrong when Bowser kidnaps Peach. This game was special for creating Yoshi and the species. It is the fifth game in the Super Mario series.

Super Mario 64

This game has its own special gameplay and story to the Super Mario series. It was released in 1996 for the Nintendo 64. In this game, Mario uses Power Stars to bring back the kidnapped Peach. Mario jumps into paintings trying to find Peach. Unlike games before, the way to win the levels in this game is not to find the end of the level; instead, Mario needs to find Power Stars by finishing missions in each course. This is also the first 3D game in this series. Though it was not the first 3-D platforming game, it transformed the genre, with many games soon following its formula, using it as a sort of guide. It is widely celebrated as one of the greatest games of all time. A remake for this game came out in 2004 for the Nintendo DS called Super Mario 64 DS. This game brought in new bosses, such as King Bob-omb and Eyerok.

Super Mario Sunshine

This game was released in 2002 for the Nintendo GameCube. Its gameplay is almost like Super Mario 64; however, it has a different storyline. Mario, Princess Peach, and Toadsworth are taking a vacation to Isle Delfino, when they find that the island has been ruined and the Shine Sprites stolen by a strange enemy that looks like Mario himself. Mario is then taken into custody and has to get a job cleaning up the entire island. Instead of collecting Power Stars, the player collects Shine Sprites. This game also introduced many recurring characters and bosses in the Mario series, including Toadsworth, Bowser Jr., Petey Piranha, Gooper Blooper, Piantas, Nokis, Shadow Mario, and FLUDD. Super Mario Galaxy is the sequel to this game. This is the second 3D game in the series.

New Super Mario Bros.

This game is the eighth in the Super Mario series. It starts out when Bowser Jr. kidnaps Peach during a strange accident. Luigi can be played in this game, too. Luigi could not be played since Super Mario World. This is the first game since Super Mario World (1990) that features the classic 2D play-style of the Super Mario Bros. games. The game features a solo story mode with Mario or Luigi, a two-player wireless game Mario vs. Luigi, as well as a mini-game mode for up to four players. It was released in 2006 for the Nintendo DS. New Super Mario Bros. Wii is the sequel, though that game is not thought to be a direct sequel to the DS game.

Super Mario Galaxy

This game is the ninth in the Super Mario series and the third 3D game in the series. It is different than the first two 3D games for the Mario series, this game takes place in deep space. Mario goes to the Star Festival because Princess Peach asks him, when the town comes under attack by Bowser's air forces. He steals Peach's castle and sends it to the center of the universe, making Mario have to save her. Most of the game's levels includes many small planets and asteriods, while others have bigger planets. A new popular species and character appear, Luma and Rosalina. It was released in 2007 for the Wii. This game has a direct sequel, called Super Mario Galaxy 2. It is the only 3D game that has a direct sequel.

New Super Mario Bros. Wii

This game is the tenth in the Super Mario series and the second for the Wii. It is an indirect sequel to New Super Mario Bros.. In this game, Yoshis are can be ridden and the Koopalings return. It has single-player and multiplayer mode for up to four players at the same time. This is the first time more than one player can play at the same time in a Super Mario game. Two new characters that can be played appear, Yellow Toad and Blue Toad. New power-ups also appear including the Propeller Suit and the Penguin Suit.

Super Mario Galaxy 2

This is the eleventh in the Super Mario series. It is also the fourth 3D game in the series. The sequel contains many things from the first game, such as the story, the adventure being in outer space, objects such as Launch Stars, recurring items including the Bee Mushroom, and things about gravity. The game shows new things such as the use of Yoshi and new power-ups such as the Cloud Flower. Rosalina reappears and new characters of the Luma species appear including Lubba. This is the third game for the Wii in the Super Mario series.

Super Mario 3D Land

This is the fifth 3D game in the series, and the twelfth game in the Super Mario series. The levels of this game are much more straight and flat than the other 3D games, almost like side-scrolling games. Many past power-ups and characters return, such as False Bowsers, the Super Leaf and Boom Boom. There are new power-ups, such as Boomerang Mario, and White Tanooki Mario. There are also new enemies and a female partner of Boom Boom named Pom Pom.

New Super Mario Bros. 2

This game is another side-scroller in the series released in 2012 for the Nintendo 3DS. It's the third game in the New Super Mario Bros. series and a direct sequel to New Super Mario Bros.. The game has lots of coins, and Raccoon Mario is back after not being in a game for a long time. A new power-up called the Gold Flower turns Mario into Gold Mario.

New Super Mario Bros. U

This game is a side-scroller for the Wii U. The game uses some things from Super Mario World like Baby Yoshis, Sumo Bros., Bony Beetles, and diagonal pipess. The game is very much the same as New Super Mario Bros. Wii with its four-player mode, what is different is a player with a Wii U GamePad can make platforms in what Nintendo calls "Boost Mode". It is the first Super Mario game (and Mario game) in high-definition. Flying Squirrel Mario is new.

Super Mario 3D World

This game is the console sequel to Super Mario 3D Land. The game lets the player turn into Cat Mario by picking up a Super Bell. Everyone who could be played in Super Mario Bros. 2 can be played again, with the same exact power. Mario, Luigi, Princess Peach, and Toad try to save the Sprixie Princesses that Bowser has kidnapped and save the Sprixie Kingdom.

Super Mario Odyssey

This game is an open-world 3D platformer. The game introduces Cappy, a new character in the Mario series. He allows Mario to control objects and characters, in which the game calls "capturing." In the game, Mario and Cappy chase Bowser across different worlds, as he has kidnapped Princess Peach. The game was released on October 27, 2017.

Remakes and re-releases
Super Mario Bros. (handheld)

In 1987, an easier Super Mario Bros. was released for the Game & Watch. It is a sidescroller where Mario had to move over many platforms while keeping away from Lakitus and Bullet Bills.

Super Mario All-Stars

This game (called Super Mario Collection in Japan) was released in 1993 also for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. It is a remake of the first four Super Mario series games. Super Mario Bros., Super Mario Bros. 2, Super Mario Bros. 3, and Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels. This game changed the four games' graphics and sound to make them better.

Super Mario All-Stars + Super Mario World

This game is an America/Europe-only remake of Super Mario All-Stars that also has Super Mario World for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. It is the second remake of the series.

Super Mario Bros. Deluxe

This game is a Game Boy Color remake which includes the first two Super Mario games ever released: Super Mario Bros. and Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels (Super Mario Bros.: For Super Players). It also has many other collectibles, like images that could be printed with the Game Boy Printer, a calendar, and a fortune teller. Unlike other remakes, it was not developed by Nintendo EAD, but by Nintendo Research & Development 2 (also called Nintendo R&D2).

Super Mario Advance

This game is a remake of Super Mario Bros. 2 made for the Game Boy Advance, and released in 2001. Like Super Mario All-Stars, this game had changed graphics.

Super Mario World: Super Mario Advance 2

This game is a remake of Super Mario World made for the Game Boy Advance. It was the second  in the Super Mario Advance series and was released in 2002. There are many differences between Super Mario World and this game. The game was a gigantic hit for Nintendo and the Game Boy Advance, selling 3,290,000 copies in the United States and 5,460,000 copies worldwide. Luigi's sprite (video game graphic) has been changed and made taller than Mario, like how he looks now, and Mario Bros. has been put in the game.

Super Mario Advance 4: Super Mario Bros. 3

n 2003, the fourth in the Super Mario Advance series, was released for the Game Boy Advance. It is much the same graphics and sound to the Super Mario All-Stars form, and made use of the e-Reader. A few e-cards came with new copies of the game, while two sets (called "series") of cards, were released and sold with the game. By scanning special cards into the e-Reader, players were able to send items, videos, and most importantly, new levels into the game. One important item was the Cape Feather from Super Mario World, which let Mario change into Cape Mario. There were also two Switch cards that the player could turn on (and turn off) the effects of by scanning them; the Orange Switch and the Blue Green Switch. Scanning these switches set off small uses in the game. The e-Reader item is still available in the European form, but has been turned off and cannot be used anymore.

Classic NES Series: Super Mario Bros.

The NES form of Super Mario Bros. was released for the Game Boy Advance as part of the Classic NES series of games in celebrating and remembering for the 20th anniversary of the release of the first Famicom and NES. It does not have any new additions, all of the errors were left in the game, and the graphics were shrank to fit the GBA screen size.

Famicom Mini: Super Mario Bros. 2

In Japan, the Classic NES series was called Famicom Mini. Super Mario Bros. 2 (Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels) was released only in Japan. Much like Super Mario Bros., it did not have any new items, the errors were the same, and the graphics shrank.

Super Mario 64 DS

This game is a remake of Super Mario 64. It was released in 2004 for the Nintendo DS. It is also the first Mario game released for the Nintendo DS. Though it is a remake, there are many differences between it and the first. One difference is that there are many secret stars, making 150 Power Stars instead of 120. Wario, Luigi, and Yoshi can be played, and mini-games were added.

Super Mario All-Stars Limited Edition

Released for the Wii in 2010, this game celebrates the 25th anniversary of Mario by having the same games as Super Mario All-Stars.

New Super Luigi U

This is a game released to praise the Year of Luigi. It keeps many of the same things from New Super Mario Bros. U, such as the story and world map. It has also been released as a DLC title for New Super Mario Bros. U. However all of the levels have been changed, and Mario is gone, making Luigi the main character. Nabbit can be played, taking the place of Mario. The boxed form was for sale until the end of the Year of Luigi (2013).

New Super Mario Bros. U + New Super Luigi U

A collection of both New Super Mario Bros. U and New Super Luigi U on the same disc, released with the Mario & Luigi Deluxe Wii U set (known as the Premium Pack in Europe) only. This game has changes to the originals, including a new title screen and over 200 videos included as a present.

New Super Mario Bros. U Deluxe

A collection of both New Super Mario Bros. U and New Super Luigi U on the same game card, released with some new additions to New Super Mario Bros. U + New Super Luigi U. It was released for the Nintendo Switch in 2019.

Super Mario Land series
Super Mario Land

It plays much the same to the games on the Nintendo Entertainment System. It was the first game to have Princess Daisy instead of Princess Peach. The goal of the player is to beat Tatanga and save Princess Daisy. Mario can beat enemies by jumping on their head, but some cannot be beaten this way. It released on Virtual Console in 2011 on 3DS.

Super Mario Land 2: 6 Golden Coins

This is the second in the Super Mario Land series, released in 1992, three years after Super Mario Land. This is the first game to have Wario, the main rival of Mario. In this game, it is made known that what happened in Super Mario Land  was made by Wario so that he could take over the castle Mario owned. He uses the power of six magic coins to lock the castle, leaving them to the care of eight of his assistants (including Tatanga) so that Mario cannot get inside. Now, Mario needs to travel through six different worlds to get those coins and his castle back from the money-grabbing anti-hero. This game has better graphics, as well as a save feature, which is not present in Super Mario Land because of its short length. However, it keeps the same Mario-style gameplay and even brings back the Fire Flower power-up. There is also a new power-up, which is a carrot that lets Mario slide across certain areas. Like Super Mario World, Mario now has the spin jump ability, which can be used to kill certain enemies quickly.

Wario Land: Super Mario Land 3

Taking place after his loss in Super Mario Land 2, Wario makes a decision to go on a hunt to get himself enough money to get a castle of his own. During his hunt, he discovers many treasures as he fights Captain Syrup and her army, the Black Sugar Pirates. The gameplay in Wario Land differs slightly from the previous Super Mario Land installments. For example, if the player holds down the B button, then Wario does not run. His momentum does increase, however, if Wario is using the Jet Wario power-up, which lets him fly through the air for a short amount of time at super speed. His other power-ups are Bull Wario, which gives him super strength and the power to stick to ceilings and conveyor belts, and the Dragon Wario power-up, which lets him blow fire. Wario is also able to hold and cast enemies (as well as coins, which are normally needed to go out of a stage).

VB Mario Land

This was a Super Mario Land game planned for the Virtual Boy which ended up called off because of the short time the system was out. The game was going to use all of the powers of the system and would have dungeons much the same to The Legend of Zelda games. Not much is known about this game, but it is known Wario was set to show up, as would a three-dimensional (also called 3-D) Mario Bros.. It is thought that some ideas were taken from this game and put into Mario Clash.

References

Mario video games

Super Mario


Kallang MRT Station (EW10) is an above-ground Mass Rapid Transit station on the East West Line in Kallang, Singapore. It is painted in yellow livery and located next to the Kallang River, which is famous for its water sports. This is the last above-ground station westbound until Redhill. Westward of the station towards Lavender, the tracks lose elevation until they level out when sufficiently underground. This is because of space limitations in the Central Business District.

The station is within the vicinity of Boon Keng MRT station on the North East Line, Stadium MRT station on the Circle Line and Geylang Bahru MRT station on the Downtown Line. Kallang station is located next to the Lorong 1 Geylang Bus Terminal and within walking distance to the Kallang Riverside Park located at Kampong Bugis.

When Stadium MRT Station was under construction, Kallang station would be crowded when either the Singapore Indoor Stadium or the National Stadium hosted an event. After the opening of the Singapore Sports Hub, a sheltered walkway was built to connect Kallang station to the Singapore Sports Hub to ease overcrowding on Stadium station which only caters to 3-car trains.

It was formerly E3, before 2001.

References

Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore) stations

Kallang MRT station


Wrongful life is a legal action in which someone is sued for not stopping the birth of a severely disabled child.  In this type of lawsuit a child and the parents will sue a doctor or a hospital.  The doctor or hospital is sued for not giving information about the disability during the pregnancy.  The doctor or hospital may have not provided all the information on a genetic case before the pregnancy.  The parents argue that if the mother had known this information, she would have had an abortion, or chosen not to become pregnant at all.

In the past, only parents could sue for their own damages the occurred as a result of the birth of a disabled child (e.g., the mother's own pregnancy medical bills and cost of psychiatric treatment for both parents' emotional distress resulting from becoming aware that their child was disabled).  This cause of action is known as wrongful birth.  But the child could not sue for his or her own damages, which were often much more in terms of money and harm.

In four U.S. states, the child is allowed to start a wrongful life cause of action for damages.  In 1982, the Supreme Court of California was the first state supreme court to permit the child's right to sue for wrongful life, but in the same decision, limited the child's recovery to special damages.

Most other jurisdictions, including England and Ontario, have not allowed the wrongful life cause of action.

Related pages
Wrongful birth
Wrongful abortion
Bioethics

References

Further reading
 Appel, Jacob M.   Physicians, Wrongful Life and the Constitution, Medicine & Health, Rhode Island Volume 87, Number 2.  February 2004.  Retrieved October 28, 2008.

Other websites
Sydney Morning Herald article from May 2004
Article on wrongful life in the Cornell Law Review.

Abortion
Law

Wrongful life


Juggling notation is the written depiction of concepts and practices in juggling. Toss juggling patterns have a reputation for being "easier done than said" – while it might be easy to learn a given maneuver and demonstrate it for others, it is often much harder to communicate the idea accurately using speech or plain text. To circumvent this problem, various numeric or diagram-based notation systems have been developed to facilitate communication of patterns or tricks between jugglers, as well the investigation and discovery of new patterns.

A juggling notation system (based on music notation) was first proposed by Dave Storer in 1978 and while the first juggling diagram (a ladder diagram), by Claude Shannon around 1981, was not printed till 2010, the first printed diagram and second oldest notation system were proposed by Jeff Walker in 1982.

Diagram-based

While diagrams are the most visual and reader-friendly way to notate many juggling patterns, they rely on images, so are complicated to produce and unwieldy to share via text or speech.

 Ladder diagrams - Each rung on the "ladder" represents a point in time (or "beat"). The juggled objects are represented as lines, their paths through time and between a pair of hands.

 Causal diagrams - Similar to the ladder diagram but doesn't show the props held in a juggler's hands. Instead it only shows each "problem" — an incoming prop — and what the juggler should do to make space in his or her hands to catch that incoming prop. It is usually used for club passing and can be displayed or edited in some juggling software.
Mills Mess State Transition Diagrams - Mills Mess is a popular pattern in which the arms cross and uncross. Mills Mess State Transition Diagrams can be used to track these basic arm movements.

Numeric
The following notation systems use only numbers and common characters. The patterns can easily be communicated by text. Most numeric systems are designed to be processed by software juggling simulators — for example, to view juggling patterns as computer animations.

Siteswap

Developed by mathematically inclined jugglers Bengt Magnusson and Bruce "Boppo" Tiemann in 1985, siteswap is by far the most common juggling notation.

A given juggling pattern is represented by a sequence of digits, like "333", "97531", or "744". Each digit represents the number of throws that occur by the time that same prop will be caught. For example, "333" represents a common three-ball cascade, where three props are thrown before the same prop will be caught and thrown again. Within the "531531" pattern, the prop thrown first, the '5' throw, will not be caught until five throws have been made, including itself, where it will be thrown again as a '1'. The prop thrown next, the '3', will be thrown again on the third throw afterwards, the next '3'. And the next prop is thrown with a '1' throw, which is a direct pass to the other hand and will be thrown on the very next throw as a '5'.

Because the number represents the number of throws that occur before that prop will be caught, it also can be thought to describe how high one throws the prop, or how long it remains in the air relative to the other throws, where even numbers inevitably come back to the same hand and odd numbers cross over to the other hand.

The number of props in a given juggling pattern can be determined by the average of one repeating group. "633633633", therefore describes a four-prop pattern, while "414414414" describes a three-prop juggling pattern.

"Vanilla" siteswap is the most basic form of siteswap and uses only a simple string of digits to describe patterns that throw only one prop at a time, alternating between hands. For slightly more complicated patterns, extra rules and syntax are added to create the following two siteswap extensions:

Synchronous Siteswap, or "Synch" Siteswap. This is used to notate patterns where both hands throw at the same time, rather than alternating left and right hands. The numbers for the two throws are combined in parentheses and separated by a comma. For example, "(4,4)(4,4)(4,4)".
Multiplex Siteswap. "Multiplex", in the world of juggling, means "more than one ball is in the hand at the time of the throw". Multiplex Siteswap allows you to notate such patterns, and also can be mixed with synchronous siteswap. A multiplex is described by a digit for each prop in the multiplex throw contained within square brackets. "23[43]23[43]" is a common four ball multiplex.

Vanilla, synch, and multiplex siteswap are the "standard" forms of siteswap. Not only are they understood by jugglers, there are also many computer programs capable of animating juggling patterns entered in siteswap notation.

Other extensions to siteswap have been developed for specific purposes. These are far less common than the "standard" forms of siteswap, understood by far fewer jugglers and only specialized software.

Passing siteswap - used for simple passing patterns and prechac transforms
Multi-Hand Notation (MHN) - Developed by Ed Carstens for use with his juggling program JugglePro, MHN can describe patterns with any number of hands and at any rhythm.
Generalised Siteswap (GS) - Developed by Ben Beever, GS places siteswap into a matrix that uses optional, additional rows to describe any desired attributes of the throws or catches within a pattern, such as timing issues (e.g. for synch patterns), number of spins (e.g. for clubs) and hand position/orientation (e.g. for backcrosses, claw catches etc.).

References

External links

Notation
Toss juggling

Juggling notation


Funkites (1778 to c.1850) were a group of Mennonite (Anabaptist) followers that splintered from mainstream Mennonites as the result of a schism caused by Bishop Christian Funk.

The Funkite congregation formed during the late 18th century when the colonies were building support to separate from English rule. A Mennonite Bishop, Christian Funk of Franconia Township, Pennsylvania, spoke in favor of supporting the movement. Bishop Funk realized that Mennonites as well as other Anabaptists departed Europe due to religious persecution, and he feared that if this new country would fall under European rule that religious persecution would continue. He preached that Mennonites should stand up to support revolution against European rule and dominance. Otherwise everything they gained might be lost. This went against the doctrines held by Mennonites of non-violence, pacifism, and refusal to swear oaths (including those of allegiance). Another issue which Funk advocated was the support of the revolutionary war tax. Again, this was contrary to Mennonite doctrines.

In an effort to break away from English dominance and in supporting religious freedom in the colonies, Bishop Funk stated that Mennonites should pay the war tax. Fellow Bishops tried to change Funk's mind but failed. Funk's refusal resulted in being ordered to step down as Bishop. Unable to accept this decision, Funk was excommunicated in 1778. He and approximately 52 of his followers splintered from the main congregation and formed a separate Mennonite group known as Funkites. This was the first schism among the Mennonites in America.

This was quite a serious turning point for the Mennonite religion and culture in the new world. Never before did anything so serious cause a break-up of the church, and among Mennonites who had suffered persecution together in Germany and Switzerland, not too many years earlier.

On Bishop Christian Funk's death in 1811 the congregation continued to worship in four locations near Evansburg, Lower Providence Township, Pennsylvania until 1850 when the last of the Funkites died out. A memorial to Christian Funk is located at the Funkite Cemetery near Evansburg, Pennsylvania. The cemetery contains 32 markers, the earliest dating from 1815.

References

External links
 Wenger, John C. (1956). "Funkites." Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online.
 Leatherman, Quintus. (1956). "Funk, Christian (1731-1811)." Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online.

Mennonite denominations
1778 establishments in the United States

Funkites


Selkirkshire is a county in Scotland.  It is next to Berwickshire, Peeblesshire and Midlothian.  The whole of Selkirkshire is in the Scottish Borders council area. The shire is named after the town of Selkirk.

Selkirkshire's county town is the Royal Burgh of Selkirk.

Local government
Selkirkshire County Council, like all the County Councils in Scotland, was made in 1890.  The Council met in Selkirk.  Selkirkshire County Council was ended in 1975.

In 1975 a new Borders Region was made.  Selkirkshire was made part of a district called Etterick and Lauderdale.  Etterick and Lauderdale District Council was ended in 1996.

Selkirkshire is now all in the Scottish Borders Council Area.

Scottish Borders

Selkirkshire


The banner o the Faroe Islands is an affset cross, follaein as wi ither Nordic banners the tradeetion set bi Dannebrog. The banner is cawed Merkið which means "the banner" or "the mark". It resembles the banners o neighbouring Norrowey an Iceland.

The banner wis devised in 1919 bi Jens Oliver Lisberg an ithers while thay wur studyin in Copenhagen. The first time the Merkið wis raised in the Faroe Islands wis on Juin 22 that year in Famjin on the occasion o a weddin. On 25 Aprile 1940 the Breetish occupation govrenment approved the banner for uise bi Faroese vessels. Aprile 25 is still celebratit as Flaggdagur an it is a naitional holiday. Wi the Hame Rule Act o 23 Mairch 1948, the banner wis finally recognised bi the Dens Govrenment as the naitional banner o the Faroes. The oreeginal copy o the banner is displayed in the kirk o Fámjin in Suðuroy.

Popular cultur

In the muisic video for sangster Björk's sang Declare Independence, the banner o the Faroe Islands (as well as that o Greenland's) are featurt on the uniforms o those who appear in the video. Björk, who is frae the umwhile Dens possession o Iceland, haes utilized her sang as a wake-up caw for colonized fowks tae break thair ties wi thair colonizers.

See an aa
 Nordic Cross Banner

References

Faroe Islands
Naitional seembols o the Faroe Islands
Faroe Islands

Banner o the Faroe Islands


Benjamin Halevy (, 6 May 1910 – 7 August 1996) was an Israeli judge and politician.

Biography
Halevy was born Ernst Levi in Weißenfels, Germany  and educated at the Universities of Freiburg, Göttingen and Berlin. He immigrated to what was then British Mandatory Palestine in 1933 after Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, and studied at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Halevy was a Magistrate Judge in Jerusalem during the Mandate period, from 1938 until Israel's declaration of independence in 1948. He served as a District Judge and the President of the Jerusalem District Court until 1963 when he was appointed to the Supreme Court of Israel.

Halevy was the sole judge in what became known as the "Kastner trial," a libel lawsuit against Malchiel Gruenwald, a hotelier, who accused Rudolf Kastner of having been a Nazi collaborator. Halevy allowed the scope of the trial to be expanded and ruled that Kastner had indeed, in his words, "sold his soul to the devil." Kastner was later assassinated and Halevy's ruling was mostly overturned by the Supreme Court. The manner in which he conducted the trial was criticized.

Halevy was the sole judge at the trial of the Kafr Qasim massacre's perpetrators, and in his decision famously wrote, "The distinguishing mark of a manifestly illegal order is that above such an order should fly, like a black flag, a warning saying: 'Prohibited!'" He was later a judge at the trial of Adolf Eichmann, along with Yitzhak Raveh and Moshe Landau.

In 1969 Halevy resigned from the court in order to enter politics. He was elected to the Seventh Knesset for the Gahal (Herut-Liberal Bloc) list, and again to the Eighth Knesset in 1973 after Gahal had merged into Likud. He later left the party to sit as an independent MK. In the 1977 elections, he was returned to the Knesset on Dash's list, but the party split up after a year, and Halevy joined the Democratic Movement, before leaving to again sit as an independent. During the Ninth Knesset he also served as deputy speaker.

Today a street in his birthplace Weißenfels is named after him.

He was married for many years to Luba. They had a son and daughter. After Luba's death he married Michal Halevy.

See also
Israeli judicial system
Adolf Eichmann

References

External links

1910 births
1996 deaths
University of Göttingen alumni
20th-century Israeli judges
Judges of the Supreme Court of Israel
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to Mandatory Palestine
Democratic Movement (Israel) politicians
Democratic Movement for Change politicians
Likud politicians
Gahal politicians
People from Weißenfels
People from the Province of Saxony
Adolf Eichmann
Members of the 7th Knesset (1969–1974)
Members of the 8th Knesset (1974–1977)
Members of the 9th Knesset (1977–1981)
Deputy Speakers of the Knesset

Benjamin Halevy


Suwałki is a city in northern Poland in Podlaskie Voivodeship. It has about 69 100 inhabitants and is 65,24 km².

History
The area of Suwałki has had people living on it since the early Middle Ages. However, with the coming of the Teutonic Order to Sudovia, their lands were captured and did not have many people living on it. The village was founded by monks, who were given the area around the future city in 1667 by the Grand Duke of Lithuania John II Casimir. Soon after the group of monks built its headquarters in Wigry, where a monastery and a church were built. The new owners of the area started fast use and building of the forests and brought enough settlers to build new villages in the area. Also, production of wood, lumber, tar and iron ore was started.

The town was cut into into 300 lots for future houses and its people were all given civil rights and did not have taxes for seven years. The town was also given 18.03 square kilometres of forest that was to be made into land to grow crops on. On May 2, 1720, by King August II let the city keep its rights, and the town was allowed to have one fair a week and four markets a year. A coat of arms was given also, with Saint Roch and Saint Romuald on it.

In 1794 the area was taken by Prussia. In 1796 the monastery in Wigry was closed and the ground that it was on was taken by the Prussian government. The next year local authorities were moved to the town, as well as a group of soldiers. By the end of 18th century, Suwałki had 1,184 people and 216 houses. Many of them were Jewish.

In 1807 Suwałki was taken by the Duchy of Warsaw. After losing Napoleon Bonaparte and the Congress of Vienna, the area was taken by Poland. The title of a powiat capital was gone for a short time, but it got the title back on January 16, 1816, when Augustów Voivodeship was made and its police were slowly moved to Suwałki. Soon after the old city hall was destroyed and replaced with a new one, and General Józef Zajączek paid for paving all the city's streets. Also, the graveyard was moved from the town centre to the edge of the town, and the area was made into a romantic city park. Also, a new road connecting Warsaw with St. Petersburg was built.

New streets were paved and new buildings were opened. In 1820 a new church was built and the following year the first synagogue opened. In 1829 a permanent post office was opened in Suwałki. Between 1806 and 1827 the number of people living in the town grew and reached 3,753 people living in 357 houses. In the November Uprising of 1831 the people living in the town took part in the fights against Russia, but the city was taken by the Russian army on February 11. In 1835 Tsar Nicholas I decided not to move the capital to Augustów and the fate of Suwałki was sealed. Two years later the town became the capital of Augustów Gubernia.

In 1826 new buildings were started by the state police. In 1835 a police station was finished, in 1844 a new town hall was finished, and Orthodox and Protestant churches. Soon after a new marketplace was opened, and St. Peter's and Paul's hospital and a gymnasium. Between 1840 and 1849 the main Catholic church was re-done Polish architects of the era, including Piotr Aigner, Antoni Corazzi and Henryk Marconi. In 1847 the city council passed a law banning building of new wooden houses.

The number of people living in the city kept growing quickly. In 1857 it had 11,273 people and in 1872 it had almost 20,000 people. New factories needed workers they came from all over the world. Because of that, the Polish-Jewish people was joined by people of many types of people that worshipped in the Russian Empire. Soon the city became the fourth biggest town in the Kingdom of Poland. After the January Uprising of 1863, a new a kind of government was made to join all of the Polish lands with Russia. In 1866 the gubernia of Augustów was named Suwałki Gubernia. However, the new Warsaw-Petersburg railroad passed by Suwałki and the town's growth ended.

After the spring of 1905, the time of Polish cultural re-building started. Although the Polish language was still kept from use, Polish schools and a library were opened. After the Great War broke out, there were fights for the area. In 1915, Suwałki was in German control. The town and nearby areas were broken from the rest of the Poland and were ruled by a German commander. Laws made by the German command led to the making of many secret social groups. In 1917, local branches of the Polska Organizacja Wojskowa were made.

After the end of the Central Powers in November 1918, the commander signed an agreement with the Temporary Council of the Suwałki Region and let the city back into Poland. However, the German army stayed in the city. In February 1919 the local people voted in the first elections to the Polish Sejm, but soon after the German commanders changed their minds and kept the Polish soldiers from the area and in May passed it to Lithuania to control. By the end of July the Paris Peace Conference gave the city to Poland and the Lithuanians left the city, but some of the Polish lands were left on the Lithuanian side of the border while several Lithuanian villages were left on the Polish side of the border. This led to the Sejny Uprising on August 23, 1919. To make the city safe, the next day Polish soldiers entered Suwałki. There was a Polish-Lithuanian War and for several days limited fights were fought for the control over Suwałki, Sejny and other towns in that area. The war ended because of the Entente in mid-September. During the Polish-Bolshevik War the city was captured by the Reds and after the Battle of Warsaw it was again given to the Lithuanians, but it was taken by the Polish Army with few losses soon after.

During the time between the wars, Suwałki ruled itself. This led to another time of growth, with the number of people in the city rising from 16,780 in 1921 to almost 25,000 in 1935. Most of the money in the city was made from trade during this time. Also, in 1931 the new water works and a power plant were built.

In the later times of the Polish Defensive War of 1939 the town was shortly captured by the Red Army. However, on October 12 of the same year the Soviets quit and gave the area to the Germans, because of the Nazi-Soviet Alliance. The town was named Sudauen and was made a part of the German Reich's East Prussia. Laws and terror led to the making of some rebellion groups. Although most of them were destroyed by the Gestapo, by 1942 the area had one of the strongest ZWZ and AK networks. Almost all of the city's once 7,000-strong Jewish people were murdered in German concentration camps. On October 23, 1944, the city was captured by the Soviet 3rd Belarusian Front. The fights for the city lasted for a few days and killed almost 5,000 Soviet soldiers.

After the war, Suwałki was still a capital of the powiat. The heavily damaged town recovered very slowly and Communism did not help the city's problems. This time came to an end in 1975, when Suwałki became the capital of a separate Suwałki Voivodeship. The number of people rose quickly and by the end of the 1970s there were over 36,000 people in the city.

In 1989 the city had a time of trouble. Most of the city's factories did not work good enough and ran out of money. However, the making of the Suwałki Special Economic Zone and the place of the Russian and Lithuanian borders opened new chances for local trade. Also, the clean city started to bring many tourists from all around the world to the city.

Tourist attractions
 Kościuszko street with classicist architecture
 19th century park
 St. Alexander's Church
 St. Peter and Paul's Church
 Cemetery complex at Bakałarzewska street (Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant, Jewish and Muslim)
 Municipal museum
 Town Hall
 Former gymnasium building
 Museum and monument to Maria Konopnicka
 19th century brewery of Wacław Kunc

Cities in Podlaskie Voivodeship

Suwałki


Quantum tunnelling is a part of the theoretical branch of physics known as quantum mechanics. It states that  electrons can behave like both particles and waves, and can cancel the effects of an energy barrier if the energy barrier is thin enough, due to quantum mechanics being  dependent on probability. In other words, particles can travel through walls, doors, etc. if the door or wall is thin enough. The particle—usually a subatomic or quark particle such as an electron or photon—can become a wave to focus a great deal of energy on the barrier, ultimately negating it. There is also a non-zero chance that it could be found inside the barrier. However, this only noticeably works for subatomic particles, as the chance for macroscopic objects to do this is very, very low, small enough to not be thought about much.

Quantum mechanics

Quantum tunnelling


The current Chairman (presiding officer) of the Senate of Pakistan is Farooq Naek since 12 March, 2009.

The first Chairman of the Senate was Justice Khan Habibullah Khan.

Purpose and role
The main purpose for the creation of the Senate of Pakistan was to give equal representation to all the federating units since the membership of the National Assembly was based on the population of each province. Equal provincial membership in the Senate, thus, balances the provincial inequality in the National Assembly and dispels doubts and apprehension, if any, regarding deprivation and exploitation.

The role of the Senate is to promote national cohesion and harmony and to alleviate fears of the smaller provinces regarding domination by any one province because of its majority, in the National Assembly.

The Senate is a body that represents the provinces and territories of the country and promotes a feeling of equality, peace and good understanding between them, which is so essential for the growth and prosperity of a nation. Thus, the Senate in Pakistan, over the years, has emerged as an essential organ and a stabilizing factor of the federation.

Relationship between Constituents of the Parliament
a) President and Parliament: Under Article 50 of the Constitution, the Majlis-i-Shoora (Parliament) of Pakistan consists of the President and two Houses to be known respectively as the National Assembly and the Senate.

The President is elected by members of both Houses of the Parliament and the Provincial Assemblies. The President may be removed from office or impeached through a resolution, passed by not less than two-thirds of the total membership of the Parliament in a joint sitting of the two Houses, convened for the purpose.

The Constitution empowers the President to dissolve the National Assembly in his discretion if a situation has arisen in which the Government of the Federation cannot be carried out in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution and an appeal to the electorate is necessary. However, the Senate is not subject to dissolution.

In case the office of the President becomes vacant for any reason, the Chairman, or if he is unable to perform the functions of the office of the President, the Speaker, acts as President till such time that a President is elected. Same is the case when the President by reason of absence from Pakistan or any other cause is unable to perform his functions.

b) Relations between the Houses: Unless both the Houses pass a Bill and it receives President's assent it cannot become a law except in the case of a money bill which is the sole prerogative of the National Assembly. Under the Legal Framework Order, 2002, the role of a Mediation Committee, comprising eight members from each House, has been introduced for the first time to evolve consensus on Bills, in case there is a disagreement between the two Houses.

c) Cabinet: The Constitution provides that there shall be a Cabinet headed by the Prime Minister which is collectively responsible to the National Assembly. The Prime Minister is chosen from the National Assembly.

The Federal Ministers and Ministers of State are appointed from amongst the members of Parliament. However, the number of Federal Ministers and Ministers of State who are members of Senate, shall not at any time, exceed one fourth of the numbers of Federal Ministers.

List

Chairman of the Senate of Pakistan


Founded in 1924, the American Society of Parasitologists comprises a diverse group of about 700 scientists from academia, industry, and government involved in the study and teaching of the scientific discipline of parasitology.
Society members contribute to the development of parasitology as a discipline, as well as to primary research in behavior, biochemistry, ecology, immunology, medicine, molecular biology, physiology, systematics, and other related fields of science.

Notable members of the society include William C. Campbell, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2015.

The Mission of the American Society of Parasitologists is to constantly improve understanding of parasites, parasitic diseases, and parasitism on a global basis and to disseminate this knowledge worldwide. This mission is achieved by providing opportunities for all scientists to publish their original findings in the Society's bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal, the Journal of Parasitology., and to present and discuss new information at the Society's annual meeting, in the ASP's Newsletter, through the ASP's Public Advocacy Network, or in discussion groups on the internet. ASP aims to educate parasitologists via their Web Page  and other educational media produced by the Society. To meet the goal of remaining a strong focus of scientific exchange across the broad discipline of parasitology, ASP actively seeks and supports new research areas and new members, and strives to retain current members, as well as encourage and support the continued existence of highly specialized areas of research in parasitology.

Recognizing that parasitism is the most common form of existence, and that parasites and the diseases they can cause affect the health, development, and evolution of free-living animals and plants, the American Society of Parasitologists seeks to foster the advancement of knowledge in all areas of parasitism. Understanding the value of this knowledge and the responsibility given to the ASP as a result of understanding parasitism, the ASP seeks to disseminate this knowledge to all who have need of it through outreach programs with educational systems, governmental, public, and private agencies, as well as during scientific meetings. To do this, ASP is dedicated to the perpetuation of all areas of the discipline that is parasitology.

The American Society of Parasitologists is supported by 8 regional affiliates: Annual Midwestern Conference of Parasitologists (AMCOP), The Helminthological Society of Washington (HELMSOC), Northern California Parasitologists (NCP)
, New England Association of Parasitologists (NEAP), Rocky Mountain Conference of Parasitologists (RMCP), Southern California Society of Parasitologists (SCSP), Southeastern Society of Parasitologists (SSP), and Southwestern Association of Parasitologists (SWAP).  Each affiliate has its own members, leadership structure, and holds their own annual meetings.

The next ASP meeting will be held 21–24 June 2018 in Cancun, Mexico.

References

External links

Professional associations based in the United States
Parasitology

American Society of Parasitologists


Gender is a social word that is used to talk about how people express masculine (traits most people think of as male) or feminine (traits most people think of as female) traits.

Definitions and history

"Gender" comes from the Latin word genus which meant "kind" or "type". In the few hundred years before the 1950s, the term 'gender' was used only in the field of grammar. In 1955, a scientist began to use the word gender in new ways when referring to people, in a way that was related to their 'sex' but not quite the same. The term was not applied to other animals. They continued to have different "sexes".

Grammar

Before the 1950s, the term 'gender' was used only in the field of grammar, and only to distinguish a category of words that are called 'feminine nouns' from other words that are 'masculine nouns'.[1][2] Early Indo-European languages~had three genders. Languages that come from Latin like Spanish, French, and Italian have lost one, and their nouns are either feminine or masculine in gender. For example, in Spanish, 'house' (casa) is feminine, and 'day' (día) is masculine. Some languages still have three genders, like German. Outside of their grammatical category, the word 'gender' was not used to refer to people. At that time, when one spoke about someone being either 'male' or 'female', the word used was sex.

Pronouns

Merriam Webster officially recognized the pronoun "they" as a singular use pronoun in 2019.  According to the dictionary, the word had actually been used as a non-gender binary pronoun since the 1300s.  Around the time Merriam Webster made this announcement, artist Sam Smith announced that their correct pronouns were actually they/them.  Typically, for those who identify as female, the correct pronouns are she/her, and for males, he/him.

The difference between sex and gender
Many people often use the terms "sex " and "gender" interchangeably, however, some people now assign them two different meanings. They use the term "sex" to refer to the biological assignment of an individual, which is often based on scientific knowledge. This biological determination is often made at birth.  Doctors often assign sex by looking at pre-natal images or directly inspecting genitalia at birth. This determination is still based on our beliefs on gender and sex being the same. The problem lies in what happens when an individual falls outside of the typical categories of "male" or "female". Some medical professionals have turned to the Karyotype method to look at the sex chromosomes to determine biological sex. "Gender", on the other hand, is considered by some to be more of a psychological factor.  To them, gender is determined by our expressions, and behaviors rather than scientific knowledge.

Gender as a social construct
Typically, gender has been described by using terms such as man, woman, or even transsexual.  These terms are applied to people based on their sex, or sometimes on the basis of culturally constructed characteristics. Although many people may be biologically assigned a sex, the gender they believe themselves to be may not align with this sex. An individual's gender is often assumed by outsiders based on cultural norms: outward appearance, body shape and size, physical activity, etc. Although an individual's gender identity is determined by psychology, a gender identity can be constructed by wearing particular clothing, language, actions and such, that are associated with that gender in a given society. Psychologist and feminist anthropologist Anne Fausto-Sterling calls this embodiment.

Gender roles

In 1955, John Money created the term gender role and began to use it to mean something different from sex. Gender roles are how a society views different genders and how they should act. An example of this would be how some people believe feminine or female people should cook and clean rather than play sports. These roles change over time and differ based on different cultures, but are often ideas that are created by people rather than coming from nature.

Gender identity development
The term identity means the mental image someone has of themself as well as some kind of similarity with others in some particular way.  Gender identity, specifically, refers to the experiences someone has that are similar to a person of a particular gender.  This gender identity affects how a person views themself as well as how they interact with others. Developmental psychologists have found that the development of an identity begins in early adolescence. Learning about what it means to be a particular gender also starts at an early age.  During adolescence, children begin to internalize the gender roles in their surroundings and "gender intensification" occurs. Gender intensification means that the child feels more pressure to conform to socially sanctioned gender norms, resulting in deeper gender role differentiation for boys and girls. Biological, can affect gender identity development as well.  Research done with animals has shown that pre-natal sex hormones affect the sexual differentiation of the brain.

Gender and sexual orientation

Gender binary
'Binary' comes from the Latin word bini meaning two together. As such binary refers to an idea in which there are only two possible options that are often opposite. This is how most people thought of gender throughout history in many parts of the world with male and female being the only two options.

Thinking of gender in this way can lead to a society with strict gender roles that are in place for a long time to think that those are natural or biological roles that each option has to conform to at birth. Examples of this are women who are not allowed access to education or jobs or men who are expected to not be emotional or soft. Strict binary gender roles are also often tied to reasons for oppression of sexualities outside of the majority. Societies often enforce gender binaries due to concepts like tradition and the idea that their stability relies on keeping this binary in place.

The LGBTQ+ community
The term LGBTQ is constantly evolving and adding terms to the acronym as knowledge of the community becomes more widely known.  As of 2020, the acronym has expanded to LGBTQQIAAP, which stands for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Queer, Questioning, Intersex, Asexual, Ally, and Pansexual. The community is, however, mostly referred to as the LGBTQ+ community.

Intersex
Intersex is the word used to describe the condition where a person has genitals that are not clearly male or female.  There is a variety of ways this condition may physically manifest including infants that have enlarged clitorises or a combination of elements of both the male and female genitalia. Sex assignment is often performed on infants that have obvious intersex characteristics, this is often referred to as intersex genital mutilation. Some have recently suggested that medically unnecessary surgeries such as intersex genital mutilation be delayed until the child is old enough to make a medically informed decision with counseling. Many intersex individuals may even go their whole lives without knowing that they are intersex due to a chromosomal abnormality.  Typically, females' sex chromosomes are XX and males XY, however, XXY (Klinefelter syndrome), XXXY, XXXXY, and XYY are some other possibilities.

Gender spectrum
Although many societies still exist under a gender binary, more and more around the world are becoming more accepting of ideas of gender outside of strict male and female categories. An important thing to know about gender in this form is that the people who exist within them have always existed but have not always been free to express themselves. One example of this is people who are transgender, those who were labeled based on their biological sex, but eventually come to realize that label does not fit what they identify with. In addition to this, some people do not experience gender in a way that fits into a binary at all, and these people are called either non binary or genderqueer.

Another category that is not a part of the gender binary is called intersex. Intersex people are born without obviously male or female genitalia. It is a common practice in hospitals that an intersex baby will have a surgery that makes them one sex. Doctors do this with the belief it will help the child later on in life as they begin to develop during puberty. However, it can cause mental and emotional issues for the child if they begin to struggle with gender identity. Intersexuality is not a well accepted or understood idea in most places, since most people have never heard of it or are willing to accept people who are.

Related pages

 Agender
 Bigender
 Gender equality
 Genderfluid
 Gender identity
 Intersexuality
 Pansexuality
 Sexual dimorphism
 Transgender
 Transsexual

References

Gender


Pruners are a cutting tool for pruning plants. A common form is held in one hand; it is also called snippers or secateurs.  It has two handles, one connected to a blade and the other to a blunt surface.  Like the word scissors, pruners is used as a plural.

A pole pruner is like a pair of pruners, but at the end of a pole. It is operated by pulling on a rope.

Pruners are used for cutting plants and small branches, such as roses and grapevines. Stems thicker than a pencil will need to be cut with loppers or a saw instead.

Cutting tools
Gardening tools

Pruners