The Primavera is a painting by Sandro Botticelli, which was painted in about 1482.

What is the painting of?
The painting is set in the garden of Venus, who is in the middle of the painting.  Above her head is Cupid, who is aiming a bow and arrow at The Three Graces.  The Three Graces are dancing a rondel.  Mercury is on the left of the painting.  He is wearing a helmet and is carrying a sword.  This means that he is the guard of Venus's garden.  On the right of the picture is Zephyr.  Zephyr is the god of the wind.  He is chasing a nymph called Cloris.  Next to Cloris is Flora, the goddess of Spring, scattering flowers. She was originally Cloris but was turned into Flora by Zephyr.

Where is the painting?
The Primavera is in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence.

15th-century paintings
Art by Sandro Botticelli

Primavera (Botticelli)


The Land Force Command (LFC) is the army of Canada and is often called the Canadian Army. It is part of the Canadian Forces. It is made of 19,500 full-time soldiers and 16,000 part-time soldiers. Canada also has an navy and an air force.

The army has infantry, artillery and tanks.

Military of Canada

Canadian Army


Satin is a type of cloth that has a glossy surface and a dull back.

Satin is commonly used in baseball jackets, athletic shorts, women's lingerie, nightgowns, and evening gowns. It is also used in some men's boxer shorts, shirts and neckties, bed sheets, and in the making of pointe shoes for use in ballet. Due to its qualities, satin is widely used for the manufacture of bed linen.

Satin was originally woven by the silk weavers in China. As the secrets of silk making were carried westward, splendid satins were woven in Genoa and Florence, then at Lyons and in England in the 15th cent.

Modern satins are made in a great variety of fibers, including synthetic ones. The term satin now refers to any fabric that is manufactured with a satin weave and is a mixture of silk threads with a synthetic filament, such as rayon or polyester. Silk mixed with short-staple cotton threads is referred to as sateen. Satin fabric is easily recognized by its even, glossy surface and flowing drape.

Dutchess satin is a high thread count, medium-bodied, low luster blended satin that sews easily and benefits from underlining to maintain shape. The extra weight of dutchess satin, as compared to regular satin fabric, lends itself to beading and embroidery. The synthetic component allows the fabric to be machine washed, and makes it last longer. Dutchess satin is used extensively for bridal wear and accessories, due to its pearly sheen and structural stability. The wrinkle-resistant material is also ideal for evening wear and lingerie.

References

Woven fabrics

Satin


A public figure is a legal term applied in the context of defamation actions (libel and slander), as well as invasion of privacy. A public figure (such as a politician, musician, celebrity, or business leader) cannot base a lawsuit on incorrect harmful statements unless there is proof that the writer or publisher acted with malice (knowledge or reckless disregard for the truth). The burden of proof is higher in the case of a public figure.

Legal terms

Public figure


A pier is a raised walkway across water. It can be a simple light wooden structure which has no effect on the current and tides, or a major structure with buildings and as long as a mile out to sea. In the United States, these may be referred to as docks. A pier can be made of wood, concrete, or other materials.

Transport buildings and structures

Pier


Jitsumi Gōgen Yamaguchi (山口剛玄; January 20, 1909 – May 20, 1989), also known as Gōgen Yamaguchi, was a Japanese martial artist and student of Gōjū-ryū Karate under Chōjun Miyagi.  He was one of the most well-known karate-dō masters from Japan and he founded the International Karate-dō Gōjū Kai Association.

Prior to his death, Yamaguchi was decorated by the Emperor of Japan in 1968 with the Ranjū-Hōshō, らんじゅほうしょう(藍綬褒章), the Blue Ribbon Medal of the fifth order of merit, for his enormous contribution to the spread worldwide of the Japanese martial arts. For many years he was listed in the Guinness Book of Records regarding his rank and achievements. According to an obituary:

Early years
According to his autobiographical work: Karate Gojū-ryū by the Cat Tokyo, Japan (1963), Gōgen Yamaguchi was born on January 20, 1909, in Miyakonojō Shonai, Miyazaki Prefecture, Japan, near Kagoshima City on the island of Kyūshū. In his 5th year of primary school Yamaguchi commenced his karate-dō training under the guidance of Takeo Maruta, a carpenter joiner from Okinawa. Maruta was a Gōjū-ryū practitioner.

Gōgen Yamaguchi was named Jitsumi Yamaguchi by his father Tokutarō who was a merchant and later a schoolteacher and superintendent; his mother was Yoshimatsu. Jitsumi was their 3rd son, and there were ten children in this very large Japanese family.

"The Cat"
Gōgen Yamaguchi was also famously known in the world of karate-dō as 'the Cat'; he was a very small man, just over five feet (1.52 meters) and a mere 160 pounds (73 kg); however, he projected the impression of great bulk and an aura reminiscent of the samurai era. He was first dubbed 'the Cat' by American GIs for his gliding walk and flowing hair. He alone was primarily responsible for the spread of Gōjū-ryū throughout the world today whereby hundreds of thousands of practitioners have experienced some form of training within traditional and non-traditional karate dojo.

According to Gōgen Yamaguchi himself when interviewed by French magazine Karate journalist Rolland Gaillac, April 1977 edition, he stated: "Even today, young man, if you were to face me in combat, I would be able to determine in a second the strength of your Ki. Immediately I would know if you were a good opponent. It is this quality, and no other, which has given me the name of The Cat."

Early training in Kyoto

Gōgen then began the serious study of karate-dō with Sensei Takeo Maruta after his family relocated to Kyoto. Maruta was also a carpenter or joiner by trade and was himself a student of the legendary Chōjun Miyagi of Okinawa. Gōgen Yamaguchi studied directly with Chōjun Miyagi later in 1929, after he and his then-current teacher and friend Jitsuei Yogi wrote to Chōjun Miyagi and invited him to come to Japan.

Gogen meets Chōjun Miyagi
Chōjun Miyagi visited the university dojo of Kansai, Osaka, Ritsumeikan, Kyoto, and Doshisha Universities, whilst Gōgen was attending Ritsumeikan University in Kyoto. There he studied Law and in 1930 Yogi together with Gōgen Yamaguchi co-founded the , the first karate club at Ritsumeikan University. The Ritsumeikan Karate-dō Kenkyū-kai was the first university karate club in western Japan and was infamous for its hard style training and fierce karate fighters. Both Yogi and Yamaguchi attended Ritsumeikan University during the time Chōjun Miyagi visited, and Chōjun Miyagi stayed in Yogi's apartment.

Chōjun Miyagi later gave Gōgen Yamaguchi the responsibility for spreading Gōjū-ryū in mainland Japan. In the early 1930s, Gōgen designed what would become the legendary signature Gōjū-ryū fist. It is said to be modeled after the right fist of Chōjun Miyagi.

Introduces Jiyū Kumite and Forms the All Japan Karate-dō Gōjū-kai Federation
After graduating from Ritsumeikan University in Kyoto in 1934, that same year Gōgen designed and introduced Jiyū-kumite which has become known today as sport and tournament fighting kumite. In 1935 he officially formed the All Japan Karate-dō Gōjū-kai Association (which later split into the JKF Gojukai and the J.K.G.A.) Also in 1935 Gōgen began his travels with the Japanese government as an intelligence officer and his first son Norimi Gōsei Yamaguchi was born (Gōsei is the current leader of Gōjū-kai USA).

World War II
During his military tour in Manchuria in World War II, Gōgen was captured by the Soviet military in 1942 and incarcerated as a prisoner of war in a Russian concentration camp; it was here that he battled and defeated a live tiger according to his autobiography (cited above). Gōgen Yamaguchi was originally targeted for hard labour in the POW camp; however, he had impressed even these hard-nosed Russians and who discovered who he was and requested that he teach karate-dō to the Russian soldiers, it was then that, 'the prisoner became the master of the guards, who became his students'.

In 1945, Gōgen returned to Japan where he re-opened his initial karate-dō dojo in Nippori, which was later destroyed by fire, and advertised with a sign outside reading Gōjū-ryū-kai. Many people thought his school was closed forever and that he had been killed in the war; accordingly Gōgen held large exhibitions in Tokyo, which showcased the various Chinese and Japanese martial arts that he had experienced. His school reopened and moved at a later date to the Suginami-ku area of Tokyo. Here he quickly expanded throughout a network of independent Gōjū-ryū dojo. The rapid growth and expansion was reinforced by Gōgen's energetic and forceful persona, which resulted in a worldwide network of karate schools, which he alone built into a powerful martial arts empire.

Mention must be made here of Gōgen Yamaguchi's legendary discussion noted in his autobiography regarding his military duty in Manchuria during World War II, whereby Gōgen was a prisoner of War of the Soviet Army in 1942 and incarcerated at a Russian concentration camp; it was here that he admitted having battled and defeated a live tiger, after he was locked in a cell with the beast which his captors expected would devour him.  Certainly this admission has created much controversy; however, Russian sources from the time would need to be located in order to verify the extent of the veracity of this event.

Registers the name Gōjū-Kai, opens his Honbu Dojo
Gōgen Yamaguchi established the Gōjū-kai Headquarters in Suginami-ku, Tokyo, Japan, nearby to the busy shopping precinct of Roppongi. By 1950 Gōjū-kai Headquarters was officially relocated to the Suginami Tokyo school which contributed to an almost tripling of membership to 450,000 according to his autobiography. Five years later he officially chartered the I.K.G.A. Later in 1964, Gōgen Yamaguchi along with other founder members Ōtsuka Hironori from Wadō-ryū; Nakayama Masatoshi from Shotokan; Mabuni Kenei and Iwata Manzao of Shitō-ryū, unified all the karate dojo in Japan to form the All Japan Karate-dō Federation which is still in existence today as the Japan Karate Federation (JKF).

Gōjū-Kai spreads throughout the western world
By 1966, his organization comprised more than 200 dojo and clubs and 60,000 members within the Gōjū-kai system.

His most notable students included Yamamoto Gonnohyoue and Yamaguchi Gosei. Another notable student was Mas Oyama who attained 8th Dan under Yamaguchi Gogen before starting his own style the Kyokushin-kai.

In Australia, Paul Starling (the most senior Caucasian pupil graded by Gōgen Yamaguchi in his lifetime) and now 8th Dan Hanshi, had been training with Gōgen's first Australian student Mervyn Oakley who opened his Sydney Goju Kai School in 1963.

Contributions to Budō
Gōgen Yamaguchi's contributions to Gōjū-ryū karate-dō and to karate-dō in general have been enormous. Under his leadership and guidance the International Karate-dō Gōjū-kai Association (I.K.G.A) has developed and thrived. The organization has increased in popularity both in Japan and other Asian and Western countries throughout the world. By 2008 there were approximately 60-70 countries teaching the Gōjū-kai karate-dō principles and training methods. Gōgen Yamaguchi succeeded in unifying all the karate schools in Japan into a single union which resulted in the formation of The Federation of All Japan Karate-dō Organization (F.A.J.K.O.) in 1964. The Kokusai Budō Renmei - (The International Martial Arts Federation) in Japan, whose chairman was Prince Higashikuni of the Japanese Imperial Family appointed Yamaguchi as a Shihan - master of that organisation's karate-dō division. Yamaguchi added to the Gōjū system the Taikyoku kata forms, - training methods for the beginner students to prepare them for the more advanced kata.

It has been argued that 'never before has a single man had such profound effect on the development and propagation of karate-dō'. (De Jong, Ingo, 1989). Goju-Kai Karate-do Hard and Soft in Harmony - Volume 1. Sweden, Jakobsbergs Tryckeri AB.

Gōgen Yamaguchi visited Sydney and Melbourne, Australia on two occasions, in 1970 and 1972.

Family

Gōgen Yamaguchi Kaiso died on May 20, 1989. He had been married twice, firstly to Midori with whom he had four children: Gōsei Norimi Yamaguchi (b. 1935), Gōsen Kishio Yamaguchi (1940-1990), Makiko Yamaguchi, and Gōshi Hirofumi Yamaguchi (b. 1942). He and his second wife, Mitsue, had one child, Gōkyōko Wakako Yamaguchi. All of his children practiced karate-dō and became masters in their own right. The names commencing with gō (剛) were their karate names. Gōsei Norimi Yamaguchi has his own organisation in the United States and Gōshi Hirofumi Yamaguchi is the President of the International Karate-dō Gōjū-kai, with branches in 60 countries. Gōsen Kishio Yamaguchi was the Vice President of Japan Airlines. Kishio, who died in the early 1990s, was deeply involved in the running of the I.K.G.A whilst his youngest sister Wakako Yamaguchi was an All Japan Kata Champion for a number of years. Makiko Yamaguchi died from subarachnoid hemorrhage at a relatively young age during the late 1980s.

Sources
 Alexander, George, The Cat, Gogen Yamaguchi 10th Dan Collectors Edition DVD, (2002).
 Bishop, Mark, Okinawan Karate: Teachers, Styles and Secret Techniques, (1999).
 Black Belt Magazine, College of Hard Knocks, Gogen Yamaguchi's Nippon Karate-dō Senmon Gakko. (Summer Edition 1974).
 Brennan, Kevin, Australasian Fighting Arts Magazine 1977 April Edition.
 Craig, DM, IAI: The Art Of Drawing The Sword
 De Jong, Ingo,Goju-Kai Karate-do Hard and Soft in Harmony Sweden, Jakobsbergs Tryckeri, (1989)
 Green, TA, Svinth JR, Modern Arts in the Modern World, (2003)
 Kanazawa, Hirokazu, Karate My Life, (2003).
 Kane et al., The Way of Kata: A Comprehensive Guide for Deciphering Martial Applications (2005)
 Kim, Richard, The Weaponless Warriors, (1974)
 Noble, Graham, The Life Story of Karate Master Gogen Yamaguchi, Dragon Times.
 Palabrica, Sonny (1966), The "Cat". Gogen Yamaguchi, Head of Gojuryu Karate, Has Become A Legend in His Time, Black Belt Magazine, 28-35
 Ratti, O; Westbrook, A, Secrets of the Samurai: A Survey of the Martial Arts of Feudal Japan, (1999.)
 Starling, Paul, The End of an Era, Gogen Yamabuchi- Obituary, Australasian Fighting Arts,Aug-Sept Issue, p.p. 68-70 (1989). Training in Japan, Ibid, 1977 April issue.
 Urban, Peter, The Karate Dojo, (reprint 1991.)
 Urban, Peter, The Karate dojo, (1967)
 Williams, Johnpaul, Gōjū-Ryū Karate-Dō Desk Reference 剛柔流空手道 参考書: Volume 1 – Introduction & Historic Chronology 武道, 武術の歴史.
 Yamaguchi Gogen, Karate Gojū-ryū by the Cat. 1963 Rapid Print Co. Ltd Tokyo, Japan.
 Yamaguchi, Gogen, Goju-ryū Karate do Kyohan, Rising Sun Productions (1999)
 Yamaguchi, Goshi, Goju-ryū Karate A Visual Guide to Kumite Techniques Japan (1993)
 Yamaguchi, Norimi Gosei, Goju-ryū Karate do, Ohara Publications (1974)

References

External links
 Headquarters of IKGA Japan
 Headquarters of JKGA Japan
 Headquarters of IKGA Scandinavia and Europe
 Headquarters Sydney Australia
 Norimi Gosei Yamaguchi USA
 IKGA Brasil
 Article Graham Noble - Dragon Publications
 Goju-kai (IKGA) Fan Page
 Shuji Tasaki Hanshi Interview - www.gojuryu.net

1909 births
1989 deaths
Sportspeople from Kagoshima Prefecture
People from Miyakonojō
Japanese male karateka
Gōjū-ryū practitioners
Kansai University alumni
Ritsumeikan University alumni
Japanese military personnel of World War II
Japanese prisoners of war
World War II prisoners of war held by the Soviet Union

Gōgen Yamaguchi


The end zone refers to the scoring area on the field, according to gridiron-based codes of football. It is the area between the end line and goal line bounded by the sidelines.  There are two end zones. Each one is on an opposite side of the field. It is bordered on all sides by a white line indicating its beginning and end points. Usually padded orange square markers are placed at each of the four corners as a visual aid. Canadian rule books use the terms goal area and dead line instead of end zone and end line respectively. But the latter terms are the more common in Canadian English. In American football the end zone is 10 yards deep. Canadian football end zones are 20 yards; 10 yards deeper than those in American football. Sports like association football and ice hockey require the puck or ball to pass completely over the goal line to count as a score. Canadian and American football merely need the nose of the ball to break the vertical plane of the outer edge of the goal line.

References

American football
Canadian football

End zone


Franklin Wesley "Bud" Held (born October 25, 1927) is an American athlete primarily notable for his performance throwing the javelin. He was born in Los Angeles, California.

College career
Held started as a pole vaulter at Grossmont High School near San Diego, where he finished in a 3-way tie for 4th place at the 1946 CIF California State Meet.  He switched to the javelin while a student at Stanford University, where he won the NCAA javelin championship in 1948, 1949, and 1950. Held won the AAU USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships six times, 1949, 1951, 1953 to 55 and 1958. Held set six American records in the javelin, and in 1953 became the first American to hold the world javelin record with an effort of ; in so doing, Held became the first athlete ever to throw the  javelin over . He set a second world record of  in 1955, and his career best throw was  in 1956.

International competition
Held was a member of the United States' 1952 Olympic team where he placed ninth after a shoulder injury, and missed making the 1956 Olympic team by an inch. He won a gold medal in the 1955 Pan American Games in 1955 with a throw of .

Master's competition
Held continues to compete in masters competitions. In 1970, Held set a United States national masters javelin record of . On October 4, 2008, at the Club West Masters Track meet in Santa Barbara, Held set the age 80+ World Record in the pole vault adding to the M75 World Record he already holds.  He is also ranked in the discus.  He also coaches his live-in partner Nadine O'Connor, who holds the women's 65+ pole vault world record, among numerous other track and field records.

Outside of competition
After his retirement from standard competition, Held became a sporting equipment businessman. He founded Ektelon, inventing the world's first aluminum tennis racquet and its related stringing equipment from his San Diego garage, then subsequently the first aluminum racquetball racquet. He also invented a hollow javelin that was used into the 1960s, but his design was later outlawed due to safety concerns.

Honors
Held was inducted into the USA Track & Field Hall of Fame in 1987, the USATF Masters Hall of Fame in 2005 and is a member of the Stanford Athletic Hall of Fame.

References

External links

1927 births
Living people
20th-century American inventors
American male javelin throwers
Pan American Games gold medalists for the United States
Athletes (track and field) at the 1955 Pan American Games
Olympic track and field athletes for the United States
Athletes (track and field) at the 1952 Summer Olympics
Stanford Cardinal men's track and field athletes
American masters athletes
American male pole vaulters
World record holders in masters athletics
World record setters in athletics (track and field)
Track and field athletes from Los Angeles
Pan American Games medalists in athletics (track and field)
Medalists at the 1955 Pan American Games
Grossmont High School alumni
Track and field athletes from San Diego
 American Masters Athlete that competed in Olympics

Bud Held


An orange is a fruit of various citrus species in the family Rutaceae (see list of plants known as orange); it primarily refers to Citrus × sinensis, which is also called sweet orange, to distinguish it from the related Citrus × aurantium, referred to as bitter orange. The sweet orange reproduces asexually (apomixis through nucellar embryony); varieties of the sweet orange arise through mutations.

The orange is a hybrid between pomelo (Citrus maxima) and mandarin (Citrus reticulata). The chloroplast genome, and therefore the maternal line, is that of pomelo. The sweet orange has had its full genome sequenced.

The orange originated in a region encompassing Southern China, Northeast India, and Myanmar, and the earliest mention of the sweet orange was in Chinese literature in 314 BC. , orange trees were found to be the most cultivated fruit tree in the world. Orange trees are widely grown in tropical and subtropical climates for their sweet fruit. The fruit of the orange tree can be eaten fresh, or processed for its juice or fragrant peel. , sweet oranges accounted for approximately 70% of citrus production.

In 2019, 79 million tonnes of oranges were grown worldwide, with Brazil producing 22% of the total, followed by China and India.

Taxonomy

  All citrus trees are angiosperms, belong to the single genus Citrus, and remain almost entirely interfertile. This includes grapefruits, lemons, limes, oranges, and various other types and hybrids. As the interfertility of oranges and other citrus has produced numerous hybrids and cultivars, and bud mutations have also been selected, citrus taxonomy is fairly controversial, confusing, or inconsistent. The fruit of any citrus tree is considered a hesperidium, a kind of modified berry; it is covered by a rind originated by a rugged thickening of the ovary wall.

History

The sweet orange is not a wild fruit, having arisen in domestication from a cross between a non-pure mandarin orange and a hybrid pomelo that had a substantial mandarin component. Since its chloroplast DNA is that of pomelo, it was likely the hybrid pomelo, perhaps a BC1 pomelo backcross, that was the maternal parent of the first orange. Based on genomic analysis, the relative proportions of the ancestral species in the sweet orange are approximately 42% pomelo and 58% mandarin. All varieties of the sweet orange descend from this prototype cross, differing only by mutations selected for during agricultural propagation. Sweet oranges have a distinct origin from the bitter orange, which arose independently, perhaps in the wild, from a cross between pure mandarin and pomelo parents. The earliest mention of the sweet orange in Chinese literature dates from 314 BC.

In Europe, the Moors introduced the orange to the Iberian Peninsula, which was known as Al-Andalus, with large-scale cultivation starting in the 10th century, as evidenced by complex irrigation techniques specifically adapted to support orange orchards. Citrus fruits—among them the bitter orange—were introduced to Sicily in the 9th century during the period of the Emirate of Sicily, but the sweet orange was unknown until the late 15th century or the beginnings of the 16th century, when Italian and Portuguese merchants brought orange trees into the Mediterranean area. Shortly afterward, the sweet orange quickly was adopted as an edible fruit. It was considered a luxury food grown by wealthy people in private conservatories, called orangeries. By 1646, the sweet orange was well known throughout Europe. Louis XIV of France had a great love of orange trees and built the grandest of all royal Orangeries at the Palace of Versailles. At Versailles, potted orange trees in solid silver tubs were placed throughout the rooms of the palace, while the Orangerie allowed year-round cultivation of the fruit to supply the court. When Louis condemned his finance minister, Nicolas Fouquet, in 1664, part of the treasures that he confiscated were over 1,000 orange trees from Fouquet's estate at Vaux-le-Vicomte.

Spanish travelers introduced the sweet orange to the American continent. On his second voyage in 1493, Christopher Columbus may have planted the fruit on Hispaniola. Subsequent expeditions in the mid-1500s brought sweet oranges to South America and Mexico, and to Florida in 1565, when Pedro Menéndez de Avilés founded St Augustine. Spanish missionaries brought orange trees to Arizona between 1707 and 1710, while the Franciscans did the same in San Diego, California, in 1769. An orchard was planted at the San Gabriel Mission around 1804, and a commercial orchard was established in 1841 near present-day Los Angeles. In Louisiana, oranges were probably introduced by French explorers.

Archibald Menzies, the botanist and naturalist on the Vancouver Expedition, collected orange seeds in South Africa, raised the seedlings onboard, and gave them to several Hawaiian chiefs in 1792. Eventually, the sweet orange was grown in wide areas of the Hawaiian Islands, but its cultivation stopped after the arrival of the Mediterranean fruit fly in the early 1900s.

As oranges are rich in vitamin C and do not spoil easily, during the Age of Discovery, Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch sailors planted citrus trees along trade routes to prevent scurvy.

Florida farmers obtained seeds from New Orleans around 1872, after which orange groves were established by grafting the sweet orange on to sour orange rootstocks.

Etymology

The word ultimately derives from Proto-Dravidian or Tamil  (). From there the word entered Sanskrit  ( or ), meaning 'orange tree'. The Sanskrit word reached European languages through Persian  () and its Arabic derivative  ().

The word entered Late Middle English in the 14th century via Old French  (in the phrase ). The French word, in turn, comes from Old Provençal , based on the Arabic word. In several languages, the initial n present in earlier forms of the word dropped off because it may have been mistaken as part of an indefinite article ending in an n sound. In French, for example,  may have been heard as . This linguistic change is called juncture loss. The color was named after the fruit, and the first recorded use of orange as a color name in English was in 1512.

Terminology
Different names have been given to the many varieties of the species. Orange applies primarily to the sweet orange—Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck. The orange tree is an evergreen, flowering tree, with an average height of , although some very old specimens can reach . Its oval leaves, alternately arranged, are  long and have crenulate margins. Sweet oranges grow in a range of different sizes, and shapes varying from spherical to oblong. Inside and attached to the rind is a porous white tissue, the white, bitter mesocarp or albedo (pith). The orange contains a number of distinct carpels (segments) inside, typically about ten, each delimited by a membrane, and containing many juice-filled vesicles and usually a few seeds (pips). When unripe, the fruit is green. The grainy irregular rind of the ripe fruit can range from bright orange to yellow-orange, but frequently retains green patches or, under warm climate conditions, remains entirely green. Like all other citrus fruits, the sweet orange is non-climacteric. The Citrus sinensis group is subdivided into four classes with distinct characteristics: common oranges, blood or pigmented oranges, navel oranges, and acidless oranges.

Other citrus groups also known as oranges are:
 Bergamot orange (Citrus bergamia Risso), grown mainly in Italy for its peel, producing a primary essence for perfumes, also used to flavor Earl Grey tea. It is a hybrid of bitter orange x lemon.
 Bitter orange (Citrus aurantium), also known as Seville orange, sour orange (especially when used as rootstock for a sweet orange tree), bigarade orange and marmalade orange. Like the sweet orange, it is a pomelo x mandarin hybrid, but arose from a distinct hybridization event.
 Mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata) is an original species of citrus, and is a progenitor of the common orange.
 Trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata), sometimes included in the genus (classified as Citrus trifoliata). It often serves as a rootstock for sweet orange trees and other Citrus cultivars.

An enormous number of cultivars have, like the sweet orange, a mix of pomelo and mandarin ancestry. Some cultivars are mandarin-pomelo hybrids, bred from the same parents as the sweet orange (e.g. the tangor and ponkan tangerine). Other cultivars are sweet orange x mandarin hybrids (e.g. clementines). Mandarin traits generally include being smaller and oblate, easier to peel, and less acidic. Pomelo traits include a thick white albedo (rind pith, mesocarp) that is more closely attached to the segments.

Orange trees generally are grafted. The bottom of the tree, including the roots and trunk, is called rootstock, while the fruit-bearing top has two different names: budwood (when referring to the process of grafting) and scion (when mentioning the variety of orange).

Composition

Nutrition

Orange flesh is 87% water, 12% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contains negligible fat (see table). As a 100 gram reference amount, orange flesh provides 47 calories, and is a rich source of vitamin C, providing 64% of the Daily Value. The vitamin C content depends on the cultivar and the production mode. Fruits produced in organic farming have higher levels of vitamin C than oranges from conventional farming. No other micronutrients are present in significant amounts (see table).

Phytochemicals
Oranges contain diverse phytochemicals, including carotenoids (beta-carotene, lutein and beta-cryptoxanthin), flavonoids (e.g. naringenin) and numerous volatile organic compounds producing orange aroma, including aldehydes, esters, terpenes, alcohols, and ketones.

Orange juice contains only about one-fifth the citric acid of lime or lemon juice (which contain about 47 g/L).

Cultivars

Common

Common oranges (also called "white", "round", or "blond" oranges) constitute about two-thirds of all the orange production. The majority of this crop is used for juice extraction.

Valencia Late

The Valencia orange is a late-season fruit, and therefore a popular variety when navel oranges are out of season. This is why an anthropomorphic orange was chosen as the mascot for the 1982 FIFA World Cup, held in Spain. The mascot was named Naranjito ("little orange") and wore the colors of the Spanish national football team.

Thomas Rivers, an English nurseryman, imported this variety from the Azores Islands and catalogued it in 1865 under the name Excelsior. Around 1870, he provided trees to S. B. Parsons, a Long Island nurseryman, who in turn sold them to E. H. Hart of Federal Point, Florida.
'Valencia Late' fruits have higher levels of vitamin C than most other cultivars, including navel oranges.

Hamlin
This cultivar was discovered by A. G. Hamlin near Glenwood, Florida, in 1879. The fruit is small, smooth, not highly colored, and juicy, with a pale yellow colored juice, especially in fruits that come from lemon rootstock. The fruit may be seedless, or may contain a number of small seeds. The tree is high-yielding and cold-tolerant and it produces good quality fruit, which is harvested from October to December. It thrives in humid subtropical climates. In cooler, more arid areas, the trees produce edible fruit, but too small for commercial use.

Trees from groves in hammocks or areas covered with pine forest are budded on sour orange trees, a method that gives a high solids content. On sand, they are grafted on rough lemon rootstock. The Hamlin orange is one of the most popular juice oranges in Florida and replaces the Parson Brown variety as the principal early-season juice orange. This cultivar is now the leading early orange in Florida and, possibly, in the rest of the world.

Other valencias

 Bahia: grown in Brazil and Uruguay
 Bali: grown in Bali, Indonesia. Larger than other orange
 Belladonna: grown in Italy
 Berna: grown mainly in Spain
 Biondo Comune ("ordinary blond"): widely grown in the Mediterranean basin, especially in North Africa, Egypt, Greece (where it is called "koines"), Italy (where it is also known as "Liscio"), and Spain; it also is called "Beledi" and "Nostrale"; in Italy, this variety ripens in December, earlier than the competing Tarocco variety
 Biondo Riccio: grown in Italy
 Byeonggyul: grown in Jeju Island, South Korea
 Cadanera: a seedless orange of excellent flavor grown in Algeria, Morocco, and Spain; it begins to ripen in November and is known by a wide variety of trade names, such as Cadena Fina, Cadena sin Jueso, Precoce de Valence ("early from Valencia"), Precoce des Canaries, and Valence san Pepins ("seedless Valencia"); it was first grown in Spain in 1870
 Calabrese or Calabrese Ovale: grown in Italy
 Carvalhal: grown in Portugal
 Castellana: grown in Spain
 Charmute: grown in Brazil
 Cherry Orange: grown in southern China and Japan
 Clanor: grown in South Africa
 Dom João: grown in Portugal
 Fukuhara: grown in Japan
 Gardner: grown in Florida, this mid-season orange ripens around the beginning of February, approximately the same time as the Midsweet variety; Gardner is about as hardy as Sunstar and Midsweet
 Homosassa: grown in Florida
 Jaffa orange: grown in the Middle East, also known as "Shamouti"
 Jincheng: the most popular orange in China
 Joppa: grown in South Africa and Texas
 Khettmali: grown in Israel and Lebanon

 Kona: a type of Valencia orange introduced in Hawaii in 1792 by Captain George Vancouver; for many decades in the nineteenth century, these oranges were the leading export from the Kona district on the Big Island of Hawaii; in Kailua-Kona, some of the original stock still bears fruit
 Lima: grown in Brazil
 Lue Gim Gong: grown in Florida, is an early scion developed by Lue Gim Gong, a Chinese immigrant known as the "Citrus Genius"; in 1888, Lue cross-pollinated two orange varieties—the Hart's late Valencia and the Mediterranean Sweet—and obtained a fruit both sweet and frost-tolerant; this variety was propagated at the Glen St. Mary Nursery, which in 1911 received the Silver Wilder Medal by the American Pomological Society; originally considered a hybrid, the Lue Gim Gong orange was later found to be a nucellar seedling of the Valencia type, which is properly called Lue Gim Gong; since 2006, the Lue Gim Gong variety is grown in Florida, although sold under the general name Valencia
 Macetera: grown in Spain, it is known for its unique flavor

 Malta: grown in Pakistan
 Maltaise Blonde: grown in north Africa
 Maltaise Ovale: grown in South Africa and in California under the names of Garey's or California Mediterranean Sweet
 Marrs: grown in Texas, California and Iran, it is relatively low in acid
 Medan: grown in Medan, Indonesia
 Midsweet: grown in Florida, it is a newer scion similar to the Hamlin and Pineapple varieties, it is hardier than Pineapple and ripens later; the fruit production and quality are similar to those of the Hamlin, but the juice has a deeper color
 Moro Tarocco: grown in Italy, it is oval, resembles a tangelo, and has a distinctive caramel-colored endocarp; this color is the result of a pigment called anthocarpium, not usually found in citruses, but common in red fruits and flowers; the original mutation occurred in Sicily in the seventeenth century
 Narinja: grown in Andhra, South India
 Parson Brown: grown in Florida, Mexico, and Turkey, it once was a widely grown Florida juice orange, its popularity has declined since new varieties with more juice, better yield, and higher acid and sugar content have been developed; it originated as a chance seedling in Florida in 1865; its fruits are round, medium large, have a thick, pebbly peel and contain 10 to 30 seeds; it still is grown because it is the earliest maturing fruit in the United States, usually maturing in early September in the Valley district of Texas, and from early October to January in Florida; its peel and juice color are poor, as is the quality of its juice
 Pera: grown in Brazil, it is very popular in the Brazilian citrus industry and yielded 7.5 million metric tons in 2005
 Pera Coroa: grown in Brazil
 Pera Natal: grown in Brazil
 Pera Rio: grown in Brazil
 Pineapple: grown in North and South America and India
 Pontianak: oval-shaped orange grown especially in Pontianak, Indonesia
 Premier: grown in South Africa
 Rhode Red: is a mutation of the Valencia orange, but the color of its flesh is more intense; it has more juice, and less acidity and vitamin C than the Valencia; it was discovered by Paul Rhode in 1955 in a grove near Sebring, Florida
 Roble: it was first shipped from Spain in 1851 by Joseph Roble to his homestead in what is now Roble's Park in Tampa, Florida; it is known for its high sugar content
 Queen: grown in South Africa
 Salustiana: grown in North Africa
 Sathgudi: grown in Tamil Nadu, South India
 Seleta, Selecta: grown in Australia and Brazil, it is high in acid
 Shamouti Masry: grown in Egypt; it is a richer variety of Shamouti
 Sunstar: grown in Florida, this newer cultivar ripens in mid-season (December to March) and it is more resistant to cold and fruit-drop than the competing Pineapple variety; the color of its juice is darker than that of the competing Hamlin
 Tomango: grown in South Africa
 Verna: grown in Algeria, Mexico, Morocco, and Spain
 Vicieda: grown in Algeria, Morocco, and Spain
 Westin: grown in Brazil
 Xã Đoài orange: grown in Vietnam

Navel
Navel oranges are characterized by the growth of a second fruit at the apex, which protrudes slightly and resembles a human navel. They are primarily grown for human consumption for various reasons: their thicker skin makes them easy to peel, they are less juicy and their bitterness—a result of the high concentrations of limonin and other limonoids—renders them less suitable for juice. Their widespread distribution and long harvest period have made navel oranges very popular. In the United States, they are available from November to April, with peak supplies in January, February, and March.

According to a 1917 study by Palemon Dorsett, Archibald Dixon Shamel and Wilson Popenoe of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), a single mutation in a Selecta orange tree planted on the grounds of a monastery in Bahia, Brazil, probably yielded the first navel orange between 1810 and 1820. Nevertheless, a researcher at the University of California, Riverside, has suggested that the parent variety was more likely the Portuguese navel orange (Umbigo), described by Antoine Risso and Pierre Antoine Poiteau in their book Histoire naturelle des orangers ("Natural History of Orange Trees", 1818–1822). The mutation caused the orange to develop a second fruit at its base, opposite the stem, embedded within the peel of the primary orange. Navel oranges were introduced in Australia in 1824 and in Florida in 1835. In 1873, Eliza Tibbets planted two cuttings of the original tree in Riverside, California, where the fruit became known as "Washington". This cultivar was very successful, and rapidly spread to other countries. Because the mutation left the fruit seedless, therefore sterile, the only method to cultivate navel oranges was to graft cuttings onto other varieties of citrus trees. The California Citrus State Historic Park and the Orcutt Ranch Horticulture Center preserve the history of navel oranges in Riverside.

Today, navel oranges continue to be propagated through cutting and grafting. This does not allow for the usual selective breeding methodologies, and so all navel oranges can be considered fruits from that single, nearly 200-year-old tree: they have exactly the same genetic make-up as the original tree and are clones. This case is similar to that of the common yellow seedless banana, the Cavendish, or that of the Granny Smith apple. On rare occasions, however, further mutations can lead to new varieties.

Cara cara

Cara cara oranges (also called "red navel") are a type of navel orange grown mainly in Venezuela, South Africa and in California's San Joaquin Valley. They are sweet and comparatively low in acid, with a bright orange rind similar to that of other navels, but their flesh is distinctively pinkish red. It is believed that they have originated as a cross between the Washington navel and the Brazilian Bahia navel, and they were discovered at the Hacienda Cara Cara in Valencia, Venezuela, in 1976.

South African cara caras are ready for market in early August, while Venezuelan fruits arrive in October and Californian fruits in late November.

Other navels
 Bahianinha or Bahia
 Dream Navel
 Late Navel
 Washington or California Navel

Blood

Blood oranges are a natural mutation of C. sinensis, although today the majority of them are hybrids. High concentrations of anthocyanin give the rind, flesh, and juice of the fruit their characteristic dark red color. Blood oranges were first discovered and cultivated in Sicily in the fifteenth century. Since then they have spread worldwide, but are grown especially in Spain and Italy under the names of sanguina and sanguinella, respectively.

The blood orange, with its distinct color and flavor, is generally considered favorably as a juice, and has found a niche as an ingredient variation in traditional Seville marmalade.

Maltese: a small and highly colored variety, generally thought to have originated in Italy as a mutation and cultivated there for centuries. It also is grown extensively in southern Spain and Malta. It is used in sorbets and other desserts due to its rich burgundy color. Moro, originally from Sicily, it is common throughout Italy. This medium-sized fruit has a relatively long harvest, which lasts from December to April. Sanguinelli, a mutant of the Doble Fina, was discovered in 1929 in Almenara, in the Castellón province of Spain. It is cultivated in Sicily. Tarocco is relatively new variety developed in Italy. It begins to ripen in late January.

Acidless
Acidless oranges are an early-season fruit with very low levels of acid. They also are called "sweet" oranges in the United States, with similar names in other countries: douce in France, sucrena in Spain, dolce or maltese in Italy, meski in North Africa and the Near East (where they are especially popular), şeker portakal ("sugar orange") in Turkey, succari in Egypt, and lima in Brazil.

The lack of acid, which protects orange juice against spoilage in other groups, renders them generally unfit for processing as juice, so they are primarily eaten. They remain profitable in areas of local consumption, but rapid spoilage renders them unsuitable for export to major population centres of Europe, Asia, or the United States.

Hybrid
Sweet oranges have also given rise to a range of hybrids, notably the grapefruit, which arose from a sweet orange x pomelo backcross. A spontaneous backcross of the grapefruit and sweet orange then resulted in the orangelo.  Spontaneous and engineered backcrosses between the sweet orange and mandarin oranges or tangerines has produced a group collectively known as tangors, which includes the clementine and Murcott.  More complex crosses have also been produced.  The so-called Ambersweet orange is actually a complex sweet orange x (Orlando tangelo x clementine) hybrid, legally designated a sweet orange in the United States so it can be used in orange juices.  The citranges are a group of intergeneric sweet orange x trifoliate orange hybrids.

Attributes

Sensory factors

The taste of oranges is determined mainly by the relative ratios of sugars and acids, whereas orange aroma derives from volatile organic compounds, including alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, terpenes, and esters. Bitter limonoid compounds, such as limonin, decrease gradually during development, whereas volatile aroma compounds tend to peak in mid– to late–season development. Taste quality tends to improve later in harvests when there is a higher sugar/acid ratio with less bitterness. As a citrus fruit, the orange is acidic, with pH levels ranging from 2.9 to 4.0.

Sensory qualities vary according to genetic background, environmental conditions during development, ripeness at harvest, postharvest conditions, and storage duration.

Grading

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has established the following grades for Florida oranges, which primarily apply to oranges sold as fresh fruit: US Fancy, US No. 1 Bright, US No. 1, US No. 1 Golden, US No. 1 Bronze, US No. 1 Russet, US No. 2 Bright, US No. 2, US No. 2 Russet, and US No. 3. The general characteristics graded are color (both hue and uniformity), firmness, maturity, varietal characteristics, texture, and shape. Fancy, the highest grade, requires the highest grade of color and an absence of blemishes, while the terms Bright, Golden, Bronze, and Russet concern solely discoloration.

Grade numbers are determined by the amount of unsightly blemishes on the skin and firmness of the fruit that do not affect consumer safety. The USDA separates blemishes into three categories:
 General blemishes: ammoniation, buckskin, caked melanose, creasing, decay, scab, split navels, sprayburn, undeveloped segments, unhealed segments, and wormy fruit
 Injuries to fruit: bruises, green spots, oil spots, rough, wide, or protruding navels, scale, scars, skin breakdown, and thorn scratches
 Damage caused by dirt or other foreign material, disease, dryness, or mushy condition, hail, insects, riciness or woodiness, and sunburn.

The USDA uses a separate grading system for oranges used for juice because appearance and texture are irrelevant in this case. There are only two grades: US Grade AA Juice and US Grade A Juice, which are given to the oranges before processing. Juice grades are determined by three factors:
 The juiciness of the orange
 The amount of solids in the juice (at least 10% solids are required for the AA grade)
 The proportion of anhydric citric acid in fruit solids

Cultivation

Climate

Like most citrus plants, oranges do well under moderate temperatures—between —and require considerable amounts of sunshine and water. It has been suggested that the use of water resources by the citrus industry in the Middle East is a contributing factor to the desiccation of the region, notably in the documentary series H2O: The Molecule That Made Us (2020). Another significant element in the full development of the fruit is the temperature variation between summer and winter and between day and night. In cooler climates, oranges can be grown indoors.

As oranges are sensitive to frost, there are different methods to prevent frost damage to crops and trees when subfreezing temperatures are expected. A common process is to spray the trees with water so as to cover them with a thin layer of ice that will stay just at the freezing point, insulating them even if air temperatures drop far lower. This is because water continues to lose heat as long as the environment is colder than it is, and so the water turning to ice in the environment cannot damage the trees. This practice, however, offers protection only for a very short time. Another procedure involves burning fuel oil in smudge pots put between the trees. These devices burn with a great deal of particulate emission, so condensation of water vapour on the particulate soot prevents condensation on plants and raises the air temperature very slightly. Smudge pots were developed for the first time after a disastrous freeze in Southern California in January 1913 destroyed a whole crop.

Propagation

It is possible to grow orange trees directly from seeds, but they may be infertile or produce fruit that may be different from its parent. For the seed of a commercial orange to grow, it must be kept moist at all times. One approach is placing the seeds between two sheets of damp paper towel until they germinate and then planting them, although many cultivators just set the seeds straight into the soil.

Commercially grown orange trees are propagated asexually by grafting a mature cultivar onto a suitable seedling rootstock to ensure the same yield, identical fruit characteristics, and resistance to diseases throughout the years. Propagation involves two stages: first, a rootstock is grown from seed. Then, when it is approximately one year old, the leafy top is cut off and a bud taken from a specific scion variety, is grafted into its bark. The scion is what determines the variety of orange, while the rootstock makes the tree resistant to pests and diseases and adaptable to specific soil and climatic conditions. Thus, rootstocks influence the rate of growth and have an effect on fruit yield and quality.

Rootstocks must be compatible with the variety inserted into them because otherwise, the tree may decline, be less productive, or die.

Among the several advantages to grafting are that trees mature uniformly and begin to bear fruit earlier than those reproduced by seeds (3 to 4 years in contrast with 6 to 7 years), and that it makes it possible to combine the best attributes of a scion with those of a rootstock.

Harvest
Canopy-shaking mechanical harvesters are being used increasingly in Florida to harvest oranges. Current canopy shaker machines use a series of six-to-seven-foot-long tines to shake the tree canopy at a relatively constant  stroke and frequency.

Normally, oranges are picked once they are pale orange.

Degreening
Oranges must be mature when harvested. In the United States, laws forbid harvesting immature fruit for human consumption in Texas, Arizona, California and Florida. Ripe oranges, however, often have some green or yellow-green color in the skin. Ethylene gas is used to turn green skin to orange. This process is known as "degreening", also called "gassing", "sweating", or "curing". Oranges are non-climacteric fruits and cannot post-harvest ripen internally in response to ethylene gas, though they will de-green externally.

Storage

Commercially, oranges can be stored by refrigeration in controlled-atmosphere chambers for up to twelve weeks after harvest. Storage life ultimately depends on cultivar, maturity, pre-harvest conditions, and handling. In stores and markets, however, oranges should be displayed on non-refrigerated shelves.

At home, oranges have a shelf life of about one month. In either case, optimally, they are stored loosely in an open or perforated plastic bag.

Pests and diseases

Cottony cushion scale
The first major pest that attacked orange trees in the United States was the cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi), imported from Australia to California in 1868. Within 20 years, it wiped out the citrus orchards around Los Angeles, and limited orange growth throughout California. In 1888, the USDA sent Alfred Koebele to Australia to study this scale insect in its native habitat. He brought back with him specimens of Novius cardinalis, an Australian ladybird beetle, and within a decade the pest was controlled.

Citrus greening disease
The citrus greening disease, caused by the bacterium Liberobacter asiaticum, has been the most serious threat to orange production since 2010. It is characterized by streaks of different shades on the leaves, and deformed, poorly colored, unsavory fruit. In areas where the disease is endemic, citrus trees live for only five to eight years and never bear fruit suitable for consumption. In the western hemisphere, the disease was discovered in Florida in 1998, where it has attacked nearly all the trees ever since. It was reported in Brazil by Fundecitrus Brasil in 2004. As from 2009, 0.87% of the trees in Brazil's main orange growing areas (São Paulo and Minas Gerais) showed symptoms of greening, an increase of 49% over 2008.

The disease is spread primarily by two species of psyllid insects. One of them is the Asian citrus psyllid (Diaphorina citri Kuwayama), an efficient vector of the Liberobacter asiaticum. Generalist predators such as the ladybird beetles Curinus coeruleus, Olla v-nigrum, Harmonia axyridis, and Cycloneda sanguinea, and the lacewings Ceraeochrysa spp. and Chrysoperla spp. make significant contribution to the mortality of the Asian citrus psyllid, which results in 80–100% reduction in psyllid populations. In contrast, parasitism by Tamarixia radiata, a species-specific parasitoid of the Asian citrus psyllid, is variable and generally low in southwest Florida: in 2006, it amounted to a reduction of less than 12% from May to September and 50% in November.

In 2007, foliar applications of insecticides reduced psyllid populations for a short time, but also suppressed the populations of predatory ladybird beetles. Soil application of aldicarb provided limited control of Asian citrus psyllid, while drenches of imidacloprid to young trees were effective for two months or more.

Management of citrus greening disease is difficult and requires an integrated approach that includes use of clean stock, elimination of inoculum via voluntary and regulatory means, use of pesticides to control psyllid vectors in the citrus crop, and biological control of psyllid vectors in non-crop reservoirs. Citrus greening disease is not under completely successful management.

Greasy spot
Greasy spot, a fungal disease caused by the Mycosphaerella citri, produces leaf spots and premature defoliation, thus reducing the tree's vigour and yield. Ascospores of M. citri are generated in pseudothecia in decomposing fallen leaves. Once mature, ascospores are ejected and subsequently dispersed by air currents.

Uses

Culinary

Fruit

Oranges, whose flavor may vary from sweet to sour, are commonly peeled and eaten fresh raw or squeezed for juice. Orange juice is obtained by squeezing the fruit on a special tool (a juicer or squeezer) and collecting the juice in a tray underneath. This can be made at home or, on a much larger scale, industrially. Brazil is the largest producer of orange juice in the world, followed by the United States, where it is one of the commodities traded on the New York Board of Trade. Frozen orange juice concentrate is made from freshly squeezed and filtered orange juice.

Rind
The thick bitter rind is usually discarded, but can be processed into animal feed by desiccation, using pressure and heat. It also is used in certain recipes as a food flavoring or garnish. The outermost layer of the rind can be thinly grated with a zester to produce orange zest. Zest is popular in cooking because it contains oils and has a strong flavor similar to that of the orange pulp. The white part of the rind, including the pith, is a source of pectin and has nearly the same amount of vitamin C as the flesh and other nutrients.

Peel
Although not as juicy or tasty as the flesh, orange peel is edible and has significant contents of vitamin C, dietary fiber, total polyphenols, carotenoids, limonene and dietary minerals, such as potassium and magnesium.

Extracts
Sweet orange oil is a by-product of the juice industry produced by pressing the peel. It is used for flavoring food and drinks and also in the perfume industry and aromatherapy for its fragrance. Sweet orange oil consists of approximately 90% D-limonene, a solvent used in various household chemicals, such as wood conditioners for furniture and—along with other citrus oils—detergents and hand cleansers. It is an efficient cleaning agent with a pleasant smell, promoted for being environmentally friendly and therefore, preferable to petrochemicals. D-limonene is, however, classified as irritating to the skin and as very toxic to aquatic life in different countries.

Preserves
Marmalade preserves are traditionally made with Seville oranges, which are less sweet. All parts of the fruit are used: the pith and pips (separated and placed in a muslin bag) are boiled in a mixture of juice, slivered peel, sliced-up flesh, sugar, and water to extract their pectin, which helps the conserve to set.

Manufacturing

Production

In 2021, world production of oranges was 76 million tonnes, led by Brazil with 21% of the total, followed by India, China, Mexico and the United States as other major producers (table).

In the United States, groves are located mainly in Florida, California, and Texas. The majority of California's crop is sold as fresh fruit, whereas Florida's oranges are destined to juice products. The Indian River area of Florida is known for the high quality of its juice, which often is sold fresh in the United States and frequently blended with juice produced in other regions because Indian River trees yield very sweet oranges, but in relatively small quantities.

Orange juice is traded internationally as frozen, concentrated orange juice to reduce the volume used so that storage and transportation costs are lower.

See also
 Eliza Tibbets (for the history of orange groves in California, United States)
 List of citrus fruits
 List of culinary fruits

References

External links

 Citrus sinensis List of Chemicals (Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases), USDA, Agricultural Research Service.
 Oranges: Safe Methods to Store, Preserve, and Enjoy. (2006). University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources. Accessed May 23, 2014.

Articles containing video clips
Cocktail garnishes
Crops originating from China
Fruits originating in Asia
Symbols of California
Symbols of Florida
Tropical agriculture

Orange (fruit)


The Fylde is a coastal plain in western Lancashire, England.  It is 13-mile (20-kilometre) square-shaped peninsula. It is bounded by Morecambe Bay to the north, the Ribble estuary to the south, the Irish Sea to the west, and the Bowland hills to the east. The eastern boundary is near the M6 motorway.

Peninsulas of the United Kingdom
Lancashire

The Fylde


An asylum seeker is a person who was forced to flee from their country, due to democide genocide, or mass murder. (endangered) and routed to nearby countries to seek refuge but, is not accepted yet as a refugee. Refugees and asylum seekers are different.

The decision whether a person is a refugee or not is most often left to certain government agencies with the host country. This can lead to a situation where the country will see an asylum seeker neither as refugee nor as legitimate migrant. Then they will be treated as an illegal immigrant (a person who is not a citizen of the country) even if their life was endangered in the country they fled from.

If a person comes to a country to seek asylum, their refugee status will then be assessed. The government decides whether the person is in danger because of persecution, or if they are just trying to come to that country for free. If a person is not a refugee, they will not have the rights of a refugee. In that case, the government does not have to follow the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees.

Other page
Political asylum

International relations

Asylum seeker


This airticle is aboot crochet cleeks, gin ye like dab heir for cleek (gowf)s

A cleek is a kynd o needle, whilk for ordinar haes a heuk at ane eyn, uised for tae threid yairn throu snorlie latchets. Juist ae cleek is needit for tae mak crochet tacks. A kynd o crochet needle wi a heuk at ilka eyn, kent as a cro-heuk, is uised for tae mak dooble-sided crochet pieces. The cleek's foremaist uiss is thocht tae hae been in the last 1700s or aerlie 1800s.

Fremmit Airtins

Aw o follaein is in Inglis

Aboot crochet heuk pairts
Uisin cleeks
Uiss an appearance o cro-heuks

Crochet

Cleek


In optics, transparency is the property of allowing light to pass through something.

An object that is transparent can be seen through. The image you see through a transparent object is similar to the image you see without it.  However, the object may be changed if the transparent object behaves like a lens or like an optical filter; this could change the size, shape, or color of the image. The opposite of transparency is opacity.

Some animals are transparent, so predators cannot see them so easily. An example of a transparent animal is the jellyfish. Transparency works better in places with a small amount of light than in places with lots of light.

Translucency
If some light can be seen through an object but some of the detail of the image is lost, it is a translucent material.

Light passes through a translucent object, but you cannot see objects behind it. The light passes through but the material scatters the light, so you cannot see the object, only its shadow.

Examples of translucent materials are frosted glass, thin paper, and some types of amber.

Optics

Transparency


Yalkut Yosef (, "Collation of Yosef") is an authoritative, contemporary work of Halakha, providing a detailed explanation of the Shulchan Aruch as based on the halachic rulings of the former Rishon LeTzion Rav Ovadia Yosef.  It was written by Rabbi Yitzhak Yosef, his son.

Yalkut Yosef is written to give practical halachic guidance to Jews of Sephardi and Mizrahi origin; it is widely cited, and a growing number of synagogues and yeshivot are using the work for study purposes.

The work is published in 24 volumes and includes a 2 volume "kitzur" (summary). It currently covers almost all of the Orach Chayim section of the Shulchan Aruch, and parts of Yoreh De'ah dealing with Kashrut.

A new English edition, "The Saka Edition-Yalkut Yosef",  is currently being published under the leadership of Rabbi Yisrael Bitan of Haketer Institute of Jerusalem.  As of September 2018, 30 volumes have been published and additional volumes are under preparation. Haketer Institute plans on publishing 33 volumes which will cover all areas of Sephardi Halacha observance.

See also
Ben Ish Chai, by Rabbi Yosef Hayyim, a Sephardi work of Halakha incorporating Kabbalistic teachings.
Kaf HaChaim - a discursive Sephardi work of Halakha by Rabbi Yaakov Chaim Sofer.

References and External links
Notes

Links
 Yalkut Yosef Kitzur Shulchan Aruch online
 http://www.yalkutyosef.co.il/
 Kitzur Shulchan Aruch Yalkut Yosef set online for Android

Shas
Ovadia Yosef
Rabbinic legal texts and responsa
Sifrei Kodesh

Yalkut Yosef


Roy Allen Hartzell (July 6, 1881 – November 6, 1961), played in Major League Baseball from 1906 to 1916.

Hartzell started his career with the St. Louis Browns (now known as the Baltimore Orioles), and was later traded to the New York Highlanders (now New York Yankees) for two other players, Jimmy Austin and Frank LaPorte.

Early life
Hartzell was born on July 6, 1881, in Golden, Colorado.  His parents were James and Nellie Hartzell from Illinois.  James G. Hartzell was a Civil War veteran and died and is buried in California. Hertzel had two brothers named Lester and Harry. Lester was a mining engineer and a professor at the State School of Mines in Colorado.  Lester was quarterback of the Mines football team.  Harry was involved in tourism operations in the Golden community.

Roy Hartzell played baseball and football in the Denver area. Hartzell worked in the smelters in Montana before signing with the pros. He married Ella Stebbins in Philadelphia in April 1911. She was also from Golden. He had some business in the Golden area working with rentals and sales.

Major Leagues
Hartzell was 24 years old when he played his first game in the big leagues on April 17, 1906, with the St. Louis Browns.  He played many positions including second base, third base, shortstop, and outfield in each of his 11 seasons of baseball.  At the plate he batted left-handed, but threw right-handed.  He stood about 5 foot 8 inches tall, and weighed 155 pounds.

On October 3, 1911, New York was playing the Boston Red Sox.  Jack Lewis of Boston was pulling a steal and collided with Hartzell and had to be replaced by a pinch runner named Duffy Lewis.  The two Lewises are of no relation.

Hartzell  played in 1,290 games with a life-time batting average of .252.  His last MLB game was on July 25, 1916. He signed to play for the 1917 Toledo Iron Men of the American Association.

Accomplishments
On July 12, 1911 when Hartzell was the cleanup hitter, he hit a 3-run double and another double in the same inning, then added a sacrifice fly and a grand slam, driving in a total of 8 runs.  It was a Major League record until Jimmy Foxx had 9 RBI in a game in 1933.

Hartzell's 595 at-bats for the Browns led the American League in 1909, and his 91 RBI for New York in 1911 were the most by a player in the Yankees' first 13 years.

Later years
Hartzell died on November 6, 1961, in Golden, Colorado, his birthplace.  He was buried in Golden Cemetery.

See also
List of Major League Baseball career stolen bases leaders

References

External links

Baseball Library
Baseball Almanac

1881 births
1961 deaths
Major League Baseball outfielders
Major League Baseball third basemen
St. Louis Browns players
New York Highlanders players
Baseball players from Colorado
People from Golden, Colorado
Sportspeople from Jefferson County, Colorado
Minor league baseball managers
Kansas City Blue Stockings players
Denver Grizzlies (baseball) players
Peoria Distillers players
Des Moines Underwriters players
St. Paul Saints (AA) players
Baltimore Orioles (International League) players
Toledo Iron Men players
Iola Gasbags players

Roy Hartzell


Peter Strudel or Peter Strudl (ca. 1660 – 4 October 1714) was an Austrian sculptor and painter. His work forms the transition of Austria to the high baroque style.

Strudel was born in Cles, Trentino.

Between 1676 (when he was 16 years old) and 1686, Peter Strudel came to the Hofburg in Vienna and, together with his brother Paul Strudel, obtained a position as painter to the Imperial Court. Around 1690, he bought a property in the suburbs from the imperial "gewesten Hatschieren-Rott" master Romanus Bernhard Tschagon and his wife Marie Polixena. There he built the Strudelhof mansion, where he founded a private art school in 1688. This was the first general training centre for artists outside the painters guild, after the model of the Accademia di San Luca (1593) and that of the French Académie Royale (Académie de peinture et de sculpture, founded in 1648 in Paris). The school has been shown to have received government subsidies from 1692.

In 1701, Peter Strudel (Praefectus Academiae Nostrae) became Reichsfreiherr and was appointed the director of the landscape academy. At the behest of Emperor Joseph I, this school, in 1705, became Kayserliche Academie. However, the activity of the academy temporarily ended with the death of its founder, when Strudel died in 1714.

In 1726, however, a re-establishment took place through Jakob van Schuppen as "K.k. Hofacademie of the painters, sculptor and architecture", which still exists. Peter Strudel is considered as a founder of the oldest art academy of central Europe, the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna. One year before the death of Strudel, the Strudelhof included a plague house, where those afflicted by the epidemic were treated and quarantined.

After several ownership changes  between 1795 and 1873, the house was torn down. The newly built house still kept the name "Palace Strudlhof" (Strudelhofgasse 10). The ultimatum to Serbia in 1914, which led to World War I was signed in this house, and in 1970, the disarmament talks between the USSR and the USA of (SALT I) took place there.

Until the Strudelhof was converted in 1999 to its modern rôle as a conference centre, it was used as the embassy of Qatar. Similar to the work of his brother Paul, the work of Peter Strudel also captured the style of sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Peter Strudel as well as his brother Paul created most of the statues.

Peter Strudel died in Vienna at the age of approximately 55 years. He is still commemorated by the street name Strudlhofgasse in Alsergrund where his house used to stand. The Strudlhofstiege staircase in this lane, together with the Palais Strudlhof earned fame through the book Die Strudlhofstiege by Heimito von Doderer.

Works
Altar piece in Garsten (1688)
Altar piece in Stift Klosterneuburg monastery (1690)
Altar piece of the Rochuskirche in Vienna (1699)
Statues of Habsburg rulers in the dome area of the Nationalbibliothek (1700)
Statues of Habsburg rulers in the Schloss Laxenburg (1700)
Pan with Puttas, National Museum of Serbia

References

1660s births
1714 deaths
People from Cles
17th-century Austrian painters
Austrian male painters
18th-century Austrian painters
18th-century Austrian male artists
Austrian sculptors
Austrian male sculptors
People associated with the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna
Barons of Austria

Peter Strudel


Steam is the name given to water when it is in a gas form.  Steam is sometimes thought of as a cloud of translucent mist, however that is only the result of the steam condensing in the air, forming water vapor.  Actual hot steam is invisible.

When the pressure of the atmosphere is 1013 mbar (this is about the average pressure for a place which is at sea level), water will boil (turn into steam) at 100 degrees Celsius.  This is the boiling point.  Boiling happens in a boiler. 100 degrees Celsius is the same temperature as 212 degrees Fahrenheit, 80 degrees Réaumur and 373.15 Kelvin.

A major use of steam is to power steam engines. A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid.

Heating food
Steam gets sometimes used for heating food. In a pressure cooker, some water turns into steam, and some steam gets released (or let out) thru a valve.

There are other ways to steam food.

Other websites
 Steam -Citizendium

Basic English 850 words
Gases

Steam


Saint Perfectus (Santo Perfecto) (died 18 April 850) was one of the Martyrs of Córdoba whose martyrdom was recorded by Saint Eulogius in the Memoriale sanctorum.

He was born in Córdoba when the area was under the control of the Moors (the Umayyad Caliphate). Perfecto was a monk and ordained priest.  He served at the basilica of St. Acisclus in Córdoba.  Christians were tolerated in the area, but not uniformly. According to his legend, in 850, Perfecto was challenged by two Muslim men to say who was the greater prophet: Jesus or Mohammed.

At first he refrained from responding, so as not to provoke them; but they insisted that he give them an answer, promising to protect him from reprisals.  He then told them in Arabic that Muhammed was a false prophet and that he was an immoral man for supposedly seducing his adopted son's wife.  The Muslims kept their promise and let him go, but several days later some of them changed their mind and had him arrested.

They had friends seize Perfecto (so as to not be forsworn) and tried. Perfecto was found guilty of blasphemy by the Islamic court and was executed. The legend says that Perfecto's final words were to bless Christ and condemn Muhammad and his Qur'an.

He was beheaded on 18 April 850.

His martyrdom was one of the first in a period of Muslim persecution of the Christians in Al-Andalus, which began in 850 under Abd ar-Rahman II, continued under his successor Muhammad I, and went on intermittently until 960 .

His Catholic feast day is 18 April.

References
Entry for St. Perfectus in the Roman Martyrology
The Martyrs of Córdoba - Chapter 2 of "Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain" by Kenneth Baxter Wolf
Santo Perfecto (Spanish)

Medieval Spanish saints
850 deaths
9th-century Christian saints
9th-century Christian martyrs
Christian critics of Islam
People executed for blasphemy
People from Córdoba, Spain
Christian saints killed by Muslims
Year of birth unknown
9th-century people from al-Andalus
Christians from al-Andalus

Perfectus