Maladolescenza () is a 1977 film directed by Pier Giuseppe Murgia.

The film caused significant controversy because of its simulated sex scenes involving underage actresses. Because of these scenes, it was banned in several countries, being labeled as child pornography.

Plot
Laura (Lara Wendel) and Fabrizio (Martin Loeb, age 18) have been meeting every summer in the forest by her parents' summer home. Fabrizio is a solitary boy with only his dog for company; Laura is a sweet girl, but she lacks confidence. This summer new aspects enter into their story as both are growing up. The film represents them as part child, part adult. Part naive, part knowing. Laura is falling in love with Fabrizio, while he displays a new sexual awareness of her masked by his malice.

Fabrizio becomes inexplicably cruel. He accelerates his unwarranted torment of Laura in many ways, including tying her up and putting a snake near her and killing a pet bird she is fond of. Fabrizio prides himself on being 'king of the forest' and rubbishes Laura's tender attempts to be his queen. One day they climb the "Blue Mountain", a mysterious tall mountain at the forest's edge and discover ancient building ruins. Exploring these they find a cave. Inside, Fabrizio seduces Laura.

Fabrizio's cruel streak is boosted by his new sexual confidence. At one point he virtually forces himself on Laura, much to her upset. He does relent when she makes it clear she wants Fabrizio to be gentle with her, which he ridicules.

Things develop further when they meet Sylvia (Eva Ionesco). Unlike the previously virginal Laura, Sylvia is confident and assertive. Fabrizio develops a fascination with her, eventually bribing Laura to fetch her to the forest to join them in play. Sylvia, aware of Fabrizio's interest in her, asserts herself in his affections, quickly replacing Laura and demoting her to servant and victim, which Fabrizio takes delight in. Laura, reluctant to leave her old friend and new lover, stays and becomes the target of the duo's ever progressing cruelty. At one point, they both 'hunt' Laura with bows and arrows and at another, pretend to throw her off a high ledge. They make love in front of her, insisting her punishment is that she must watch, leaving Laura confused and heartbroken.

At the end of summer, with the girls talking about returning to school, Fabrizio becomes pensive and agitated. He insists on taking Sylvia to the ruins for the first time. All three of them go into the cave to escape a thunderstorm and Fabrizio again pretends they are lost as he did with Laura. Sylvia breaks down sobbing for her mother, all traces of her confidence and maturity lost in the fear of being in the cave. Fabrizio repeatedly begs Sylvia to stay with him forever. In the morning, Sylvia is still lost in the cave and further rejects the desperate Fabrizio and his pleas to stay with him. She becomes hysterical and he kills her with a knife, feeling it is the only way he won't lose her. He stays with the dead body and gives Laura the flashlight telling her she knows the way home and Laura reluctantly leaves. The film ends with a translation of the poem "Akarsz-e játszani" ("Would You Like to Play?") by Hungarian writer Dezső Kosztolányi.

Cast
 Lara Wendel as Laura
 Eva Ionesco as Silvia
  as Fabrizio
 Xylot as Iro the dog

Crew
 Directed by: Pier Giuseppe Murgia
 Camera: Lothar Elias Stickelbrucks
 Music: Giuseppe "Pippo" Caruso, Jürgen Drews
 Music Editing: Grandi Firme della Canzone
 Company: Petra Cinema 23/Seven-Star/Petra Cinematografica spa
 Scriptwriter: Peter Berling
 Dialog:
 Italian version: Barbara Alberti & Amedeo Pagani
 Cinematography by: Elias Lother Stickelbrucks
 Color Pictures: Technospes Spa, Rome, Italy
 Production Management: Günter Prantl
 Costume Designer: Isolde Jovine
 Audio: Alexander Hillebrand
 Assistant Camera: Wolf Bachmann & Horst Zagolla
 Decorator: Helga Wandl
 Assistant Director: Anita Rakosi
 Film Editing by: Inga Seyric
 Producer: Franco Cancellieri
 Countries: Italy, Austria, Germany

Filming
The film was co-produced by two Munich companies as well as an Italian enterprise, filmed from 17 August to 16 September 1976, in upper Austria and Kärnten. Chosen to play Sylvia was young Eva Ionesco, herself no stranger to controversy, as her mother was infamous in their native France for her photos featuring a then five-year-old Ionesco in semi-sexual artistic photography.

In May 1977, at the press conference for the presentation of the film, Eva Ionesco said it was "vulgar, shocking and useless".

Controversy
Maladolescenza is known primarily for its use of a young actor and two 11-year-old pubescent actresses in scenes involving both nudity and simulated sex. It's largely unseen in all but a few countries primarily for this reason.

In Germany, although released uncut in cinemas at 91 minutes in 1977, public outcry caused for several scenes to be removed on its home video releases, namely all instances of nudity, sexuality and death involving children, bringing the running time down to 77 minutes.

In 2004, a German cult DVD distributor restored these cuts in a re-mastered version running at 91 minutes. This version was later banned in a German court on 28 July 2006, condemning the material as child pornography, successfully withdrawing all copies from distribution.

In 2010, a Dutch court ruled that the movie qualifies as child pornography because it depicts the sexual exploitation of children.

Its worldwide circulation is largely unknown to this day, including in Italy and France where seemingly no DVD or home video releases have ever been made available.

Soundtrack

The music was recorded in stereo at Dirmaphon Studios, Rome, Italy. The original release contained the first 18 tracks.
 "Maladolescenza" (02:23)
 "L'incubo e il serpente" (02:12)
 "Citta segreta" (01:59)
 "Il labirinto" (02:40)
 "Re e buffone" (00:50)
 "La villa misteriosa" (01:06)
 "Silvia" (01:25)
 "Caccia a Laura" (01:40)
 "Il sopravvento" (01:07)
 "Cara adolescenza" (02:01)
 "Scambio di consegne" (02:29)
 "Ninna nanna a nascondino" (02:07)
 "Silvia e Fabrizio" (01:59)
 "Identificazione" (03:26)
 "La villa di notte" (01:13)
 "È già autunno" (01:19)
 "Adagio per oboe" (01:06)
 "La notte dell'attesa" (02:13)
 "Maladolescenza" (02:44) Alternate Take #1
 "Silvia" (01:10) Alternate Take #1 Harpiscord & Orchestra
 "Maladolescenza" (02:55) Il Recinto Dei Giochi
 "Silvia" (02:28) Alternate Take #2 - Music Box
 "Il labirinto" (Part 2) (01:10)
 "Silvia" (01:29) Alternate Take #3 - Solo Flute
 "Maladolescenza" (01:54) Kamasutra
 "Scambio di consegne" (02:28) Alternate Take
 "Silvia" (02:02) Alternate Take #4 - Harp & Orchestra

References

External links

 Review of Maladolescenza

1977 films
German coming-of-age films
Italian coming-of-age films
German erotic drama films
Italian erotic drama films
West German films
1970s Italian-language films
1970s psychological drama films
1970s exploitation films
Sexual-related controversies in film
Film controversies in Italy
Film controversies in Germany
Film controversies in the Netherlands
Juvenile sexuality in films
1977 drama films
1970s Italian films
1970s German films

Maladolescenza


The Hameau de Chantilly ('hamlet of Chantilly') is a folly in the park of the Château de Chantilly built in 1774 and consisting of seven rustic thatched cottages with luxurious interiors set in a garden.

Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé had his architect Jean-François Leroy design seven rustic cottages for the grounds of the Château de Chantilly in 1774: le Salon 'the parlor', le Billard 'the billiard room', la Salle à manger 'the dining room', la Cuisine 'the kitchen', le Moulin 'the mill'; l'Étable 'the stables' and le Cabinet de lecture 'the reading room' no longer stand. The contrast between the rustic exteriors and the richly decorated interiors surprised and astonished guests. The success and reputation of this hamlet inspired Queen Marie-Antoinette's Hameau de la reine in the gardens of the Petit Trianon at the Château de Versailles. The Revolution spared the hamlet, which was restored by Henri d'Orléans, Duc d'Aumale when he returned to Chantilly in 1870.

In 2007-2008, the exteriors of the cottages were restored using period watercolors and engravings to guide the work; the original rich interiors, however, had disappeared during the 19th century.

Currently the mill houses a restaurant, Aux Goûters Champêtres.

In 1787, Bathilde d'Orléans, whose main residence was the Château de Chantilly, built a similar hameau in the gardens of the Élysée Palace, the Hameau de Chantilly (Paris).

See also
 Cottage orné
 Ferme ornée
 French landscape garden#The rustic village (hameau) as garden feature

Notes

Houses completed in 1774
Folly buildings in France
Buildings and structures in Oise
House of Bourbon-Condé
1774 establishments in France

Hameau de Chantilly


The Old Salt Route was a medieval trade route in Northern Germany, one of the ancient network of salt roads which were used primarily for the transport of salt and other staples. In Germany it was referred to as Alte Salzstraße.

Salt was very valuable and essential at that time; it was sometimes referred to as "white gold." The vast majority of the salt transported on the road was produced from brine near Lüneburg, a city in the northern central part of the country and then transported to Lübeck, a major seaport on Germany's Baltic Sea coast.

History

Historians generally recognize the Old Salt Route as part of a much longer path, which functioned as an important connection between the northern and southern reaches of the country. One of the oldest documents that confirms Lüneburg and its role in refining and transporting salt dates from 956 A.D. According to that document, King Otto I the Great granted the St. Michaelis Monastery in Lüneburg the customs revenue from the saltworks. Even at those early times, the city's wealth was based in large part on the salt found in the area. The Old Salt Route attained its peak of success between the 12th and the 16th century.

The trade route led from Lüneburg northward to Lübeck. From that port city, most of the salt was shipped to numerous destinations that also lie on the Baltic Sea, including Falsterbo, which boasted a Scania Market. There it was used for the preservation of herring, an immensely important food in the Middle Ages, as well as for other foods. The salt trade was a major reason for the power of Lübeck and the Hanseatic League.

Transport of salt

Horse-drawn carts brought the salt from Lüneburg to a crossing of the Elbe river at Artlenburg (near Lauenburg) and from there, via Mölln, to Lübeck. For the most part, however, the historic trade route was composed of unsurfaced, sandy and often muddy roads through heathland, woods and small villages, making the transport of salt an arduous task. In addition, the route was somewhat dangerous, since the valuable cargo attracted thieves, bandits and marauders. The dangers faced by those who make the long trek and the fact that only relatively small quantities of the precious crystalline substance could be carried in any single journey, made moving salt via overland routes very expensive.

In 1398, though, the Stecknitz Canal, one of the first manmade waterways in Europe, was completed, making it possible to transport much more salt in a single shipment and to do so with much greater ease and safety. That change helped merchants satisfy the salt requirements of an ever-growing demand. In the 16th century, for example, about 19,000 tons of the product were carried from Lüneburg to Lübeck each year either by land or water. However, it still took about twenty days to complete each trip.

Tourism

In modern times, a trip along the Salt Road promises a rich blend of nature and culture. The trip can be made on foot or on bicycle and part of the distance can also be enjoyed on a paddle-wheeled steamer. There are many fascinating sights along the old trade route. These points of interest include the historical towns Lüneburg, Mölln and Lübeck, which are highlighted by beautiful façades and little alleyways, and are a major attraction to visitors.

Bicycle route

As a bicycle route, there are the options of a main and a scenic route. The shorter main route (95 km) leads bicyclists through many picturesque little towns such as Lauenburg, Büchen, Mölln and Krummsee and also passes by the Lüne Monastery. The scenic route is especially attractive for nature lovers. The  path diverges from the main thoroughfare at Witzeeze, continues on through the Lauenburg Nature Park and rejoins the main route just before Lübeck.

Lüneburg Heath

Once, the area around Lüneburg was covered in lush woodlands. But because the medieval salt works depended on wood as a fuel used in boiling and purifying the saline water from which the salt was obtained, much of the forest was cut down. Heather then covered area, helping it to become a landscape that now attracts thousands of visitors when that foliage is in full bloom.

See also
 German Salt Museum
 Lüneburg Saltworks
 Sülze Saltworks

Notes

External links
 Lüneburg's Website
  Network Old Salt Street – has English and German content.
 20.000 tons of white gold – German article

Geography of Schleswig-Holstein
German tourist routes
Hanseatic League
History of Lübeck
Trade routes
Medieval economics
Roads in Schleswig-Holstein
Cycle paths in Schleswig-Holstein
Tourist attractions in Schleswig-Holstein
Tourist attractions in Lower Saxony
History of salt
Otto the Great

Old Salt Route


Craig Graham Sager, Sr. (June 29, 1951 – December 15, 2016) was a Turner Sports personality. He was the lead sideline reporter with Marv Albert, Reggie Miller, and Steve Kerr for the NBA on TNT and the lead field reporter for MLB on TBS with Ernie Johnson Jr., Ron Darling, and John Smoltz. He also did college basketball tournaments with Albert and Kerr for CBS and Turner Sports as the #2 team.

Career
He was sports director for two television stations: WINK-TV and KMBD-TV. He was a sports anchor for two other television stations: WTSP (also a sports reporter), and WXLT-TV. He was an anchor for CNN Sports Tonight, College Football Scoreboard and an anchor for the defunct television network CNN Sports Illustrated. While at Kansas City, he provided play-by-play for the Kansas City Kings, Kansas City Royals spring training, and Kansas City Chiefs preseason.

He also was on the fields and sidelines reporting for the Goodwill Games on TBS, TNT World Cup, Golf on TNT, Tennis on TNT, college football on TBS, and TNT Sunday Night Football where he also was the studio host for college football on TBS. Sager called Nordic Skiing and Curling at the 1992 Winter Olympics for TNT. He was a sideline reporter for other basketball tournaments for TNT and has been the Olympic Basketball sideline reporter for NBC since 2008.

While at NBC, he was also a sideline reporter for the 1999 National League Championship Series, 1999 World Series, and Notre Dame Football on NBC.

Illness and death
Sager was diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia in 2014. On December 15, 2016, Sager died from the disease in Atlanta, Georgia, aged 65.

References

People from Atlanta
People from Illinois
Golf broadcasters
Tennis broadcasters
National Basketball Association broadcasters
Olympic Games broadcasters
National Football League broadcasters
College basketball broadcasters
College football broadcasters
Association football broadcasters
Deaths from acute myeloid leukemia
2016 deaths
1949 births

Craig Sager


The Yucatán Peninsula is a peninsula in North America. It separates the Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico. The peninsula is east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, a northwestern geographic divider, separating Central America from the rest of North America.

Before the conquistadores came, the peninsula was the home of the Mayan civilization.

The peninsula includes the Mexican states of Yucatán, Campeche, and Quintana Roo; the northern part of Belize; and Guatemala's northern department of El Petén.  Mexican states on the isthmus to the south and west of the peninsula include Chiapas and Tabasco.

The Chicxulub crater is on the north coast. It is believed to be made by the impact that led to the extinction of the dinosaurs.

Peninsulas of North America
Geography of Belize
Geography of Guatemala
Geography of Mexico

Yucatán Peninsula


Cricket is a sport. It is played between two teams of eleven players. There are many words or expressions in cricket.

A
All-Rounder  An all-rounder is a cricketer who is a good batsman and bowler. The player usually bats sixth or seventh in the batting order. He is usually a medium-pace bowler. Sometimes he can be a medium-fast or spin bowler. Very often the all-rounder is also a good fielder. He is sometimes a specialist fielder. A lot of County cricket teams usually have one or two all-rounders.

Around the wicket  When the bowler is right handed, bowling over the wicket is when he's on the right of the stumps. When he is left handed, it is when he bowls on the left on the stumps. After bowling over the wicket, the bowler might try bowling around the wicket. This might make the batsman make an error.

The Ashes The perpetual prize in England v Australia Test match series. Invented by The Sporting Times in 1882, after a match when Australia beat England on an English ground for the first time. The obituary said that English cricket had died, and the body would be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia. The English press dubbed the next English tour to Australia (1882–83) as the quest to regain The Ashes. During that tour a small terracotta urn was presented to England captain Ivo Bligh by a group of Melbourne women. The contents of the urn are reputed to be the ashes of an item of cricket equipment, a bail.

Asking rate  The run rate at which the team batting second needs to score to catch the opponents' score in a limited overs game. Same as 'required run rate'.

Average A batsman's average is the number of runs he has scored divided by the number of innings. For example, if he has scored 343 runs in 7 innings, his average is 49. If he is not out at the end of one innings, his average would be 57.16. This is because the total would only be divided by six.

A bowler's average is calculated by dividing the number of runs scored when he bowls by the number of wickets he has taken. For example a bowler who takes 48 wickets in total for 1,200 runs has an average of 25.

B
Backlift Lifting the bat in preparation to hitting the ball.

B
Backing up  The term has two meanings. A non striker (the batsman who is not receiving) advances a few steps, and hopes the batsman on strike will score some runs. This is a way to get quick singles.

When a fielder backs up, he covers another fielder in case that one misses the ball. This prevents the possibility of more runs being scored because of an overthrow.

Bad light  Bad light is a reason to stop the play. The umpires may stop the game if they think the fielders, batsmen or bowlers cannot see well enough to play. Sometimes the umpires offer the light to the batsmen. This means they ask them if they want to continue batting or not when it starts to get dark. In one day matches, umpires usually let play continue.

Bails  Each set of three stumps has a pair of bails. They are also made of wood. They are just less than five inches long. They cannot be more than one inch above the stumps. For a batsman to be out at least one of the bails must fall. If neither falls, the batsman cannot be out.

Ball-Tampering  Bowlers often polish the ball, usually on their trousers. However, nobody is allowed to rub it on the pitch or ground. Ball-tampering is when a bowler or fielder deliberately scratches the balls. The most famous example was in 1994. England captain Mike Atherton was fined £2,000 for ball-tampering in a match against South Africa. He had dirt in his pocket. He said he was using it to stop his hands sweating.

Beamer  A beamer is a ball which does not bounce in front of the batsman. Instead it is aimed directly at his head. Sometimes it is done deliberately, but it is usually an error from the bowler.

Block hole  The block hole is a small hole in the pitch. It is normally just behind or in front of the popping crease. It is made by the batsman so he knows where to stand. He will usually ask the umpire to help him. The block hole may be for example in line with the leg stump.

Bouncer  A bouncer (or a bumper) is a fast ball. It is bowled short so that it bounces up towards the batsman's head. It is used to intimidate them. Sometimes the ball is bounced to high and the umpire calls a no-ball. If the bowler bowls too many bouncers the umpire may stop him from bowling. In a one-day game, a bouncer which goes over the batsman's head can be called a wide  by the umpire.

Boundary  The boundary defines the limit of the playing zone. It is normally marked by a rope. When the batsman hits the ball and it goes over the rope without touching the ground, he scores six runs. This is where the term hit for six comes from. If the ball bounces, the batsman gets four runs. There are sometimes other rules on some wicket grounds. For example at Kent's Canterbury ground, there is a lime tree. If you touch the tree you get four runs. The tree was blown over by wind in 2005. Since then a new one is in place, and the tradition continues.

Box  The box is a hard protector for the region of the groin. batsmen, wicketkeepers and close fielders usually wear it. The cricket ball is very hard, so the box is an essential part of equipment for a cricketer.

Bump Ball  When a batsman hits the ball into the ground and a fielder catches it, it is called a bump ball. The batsman is not out. However, some spectators which are far away sometimes appeal for a catch because it looked like the fielder caught the ball without it bouncing.

Bye and Leg Bye  Any runs scored without the ball touching the bat or the batsman's body is called byes. Usually the wicketkeeper stops the ball, but sometimes he misses resulting in byes.
Leg byes are scored when the ball touches any part of the body other than the hands (which count as the bat). Byes and leg byes are not counted as runs for the batsman. They are counted as extras.

Terms
Sports words
Cricket

List of cricket terms


The Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra (Hebrew: התזמורת הסימפונית ירושלים, ha-Tizmoret ha-Simfonit Yerushalayim) is a major orchestra of Israel. Since the 1980s, the JSO has been based in the Henry Crown Symphony Hall, part of the Jerusalem Theater complex.

History
The Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, now in its 85th season, was founded as the Palestine Broadcasting Service Orchestra in the late 1930s. In 1948 it became the national radio orchestra and was known as the "Kol Israel Orchestra". In the 1970s, the orchestra was expanded into the Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, Israel Broadcasting Authority. As a radio symphony orchestra, the majority of the concerts which the orchestra holds at its resident hall – the Henry Crown Auditorium – are being recorded and broadcast over Kan Kol Ha'musika station.

The current Music Director of the JSO is Maestro Julian Rachlin. The orchestra has had eight musical directors hitherto: Mendi Rodan, Lukas Foss, Gary Bertini, Lawrence Foster, David Shallon, Leon Botstein, Frédéric Chaslin and Steven Sloane.

The orchestra maintains a varied repertoire which ranges from the Baroque and the Classical periods through the Romantic period, extending to contemporary composers, many of whom have received their Israeli premières with the JSO. The orchestra was the first Israeli Orchestra to perform the works of renowned composers such as Sofia Gubaidolina, Henry Dutilleux, Alfred Schnittke and others. Since its inception the Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra has consistently encouraged Israeli composers by commissioning and performing their works.

Over the decades, some of the music world's legendary musicians have performed with the JSO, with memorable performances by Igor Stravinsky, Otto Klemperer, Arthur Rubinstein, Yehudi Menuhin, Mstislav Rostropovich, Isaac Stern, Pablo Casals, Igor Markevitch, Henryk Szeryng, Yo Yo Ma, Pierre Boulez, Neville Mariner, Christa Ludwig, Tabea Zimmermann, Martha Argerich, Radu Lupu, Jose Carreras, Jean Pierre Rampal, Maxim Vengerov and Yefim Bronfman.

Among the most notable premières performed by the orchestra: the opera David by Milhaud (1954); the cantata Abraham and Isaac by Stravinsky, conducted by Robert Craft (1964); and Symphony No. 7 The Seven Gates of Jerusalem by Krzysztof Penderecki conducted by Maestro Lorin Maazel, which was commissioned as the conclusion for the Jerusalem 3000 celebrations.

In the past, the orchestra took particular pride in the Liturgical Festival, founded by Maestro Gary Bertini, which presented music of worship from the three major religions. The festival has now been incorporated into the concert season as a series of vocal and liturgical concerts.

The orchestra performs regularly at the Israel Festival. In 2008 the JSO presented the Israeli première of Das Klagende Lied (Mahler) with conductor Uri Segal and the Warsaw Philharmonic Choir.

The JSO often conducts tours in Europe and in the United States, and has played in some of the most prestigious venues, including the Musikvereine in Vienna, the Philharmonie in Cologne and Carnegie Hall in New-York. In February 2015 the JSO was invited by UNESCO to Paris to perform Shostakovich's Symphony No. 13, Babi Yar in a special concert which commemorated the 70th anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz. Even more recently, in August 2015 the orchestra toured in Brazil with Maestro Chaslin and Israeli soloist Itamar Zorman and in 2016 toured the US and Japan. In June 2009 the orchestra performed the oratorio Elijah (Mendelssohn) at the closing event of the annual Bachfest in Leipzig.

The orchestra is supported by the Ministry of Culture and Sport and the Jerusalem City municipality.

Musical directors
The Jerusalem Symphony has been led by the following musical directors:

Karel Salmon (1938 - 1948)
Mendi Rodan (1963 - 1972)
Lukas Foss (1972 - 1976)
Gary Bertini (1978 - 1987)
Lawrence Foster (1988 - 1992)
David Shallon (1992 - 2000)
Frédéric Chaslin (1999 - 2002)
Leon Botstein (2003 - 2011)
Frédéric Chaslin (2011 - 2019)
Steven Sloane (2019 - 2023)
Julian Rachlin (2023 - present)

References

External links

 History of the Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra
 The Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra Blog

Israeli orchestras
Musical groups from Jerusalem
Symphony orchestras
Musical groups established in 1938

Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra


Conjoined twins are twins whose bodies are joined together at birth. This happens where the zygote of identical twins fails to completely separate. Conjoined twins occur in an estimated one in 200,000 births, and approximately half are stillborn. The overall survival rate for conjoined twins is between 5% and 25%. Conjoined twins are more likely to be female (70-75%). Daisy and Violet Hilton are a famous pair of conjoined twins. They were born in Brighton and were kept on top of the Evening Star pub, where they were taught to dance by a cruel barmaid. She then sold them and they toured Vaudeville. They became famous in the movie Freaks and lived long lives, eventually getting married.

Twin people

Conjoined twins


Pine Orchard is a hamlet in York Region, Ontario, Canada, in the town of Whitchurch–Stouffville. It is centred at the intersection of Warden Avenue and Vivian Road in the north-western region of Whitchurch–Stouffville. The original settlers were Quakers who, like the early Mennonites of Whitchurch and Markham townships, were pacifists that came north after the American Revolution. The founder of the hamlet was Isaac Phillips, who arrived from Muncy County, Pennsylvania in 1802. A first post-office was established in 1853, and by 1860 three sawmills were operating in the area. In 1858 the hamlet had a population of 35. The community flourished towards the end of the nineteenth century until township; however at the beginning of the twentieth century the township was almost completely deforested, and the forest industry collapsed. The hamlet's post-office closed in 1914.

References

External links
 Ontario Plaques - Whitchurch Quaker Settlement

Communities in Whitchurch-Stouffville

Pine Orchard, Ontario


Géza Csáth (; born József Brenner; February 13, 1887 – September 11, 1919) was a Hungarian writer, playwright, musician, music critic, psychiatrist, and physician. He was the cousin of Dezső Kosztolányi.

Life
Géza Csáth (pen name of József Brenner) was a writer, critic, music theoretician and medical doctor. A competent violinist even as a child, he originally wanted to be a painter, but his teachers criticised his drawing, so he turned to writing.
He was barely fourteen years old when his first writings on music criticism were published. After grammar school he moved from his native Szabadka (now Subotica in Serbia) to Budapest in order to study medicine.
While at college he wrote short sketches and reviews for newspapers and magazines. He was among the first to laud the work of Bartók and Kodály.

After earning his degree as a medical doctor in 1909 he worked for a short time as a junior doctor at the Psychiatric and Nerve Clinic (also known as Moravcsik Psychiatric Hospital).
He wrote his great novel Diary of a mentally ill woman based on his experiences as a psychiatric doctor (his other main work is his Diary).
He became interested in the effects of narcotics from a medical point of view and also as a creative artist. Out of this curiosity, he started taking morphine in 1910 and soon became addicted.

Csáth also changed his job and worked at various spas as a doctor, and had ample time for writing. Most of his emblematic "dark" short stories were written during this period, often featuring utter physical or mental violence (such as fratricide, rape or seduction and abandonment of adolescent girls). Csáth often described these acts in first person, with powerful insight into the workings of the perpetrators' disturbed minds. His collected short stories were published under the title Tales which end unhappy (Mesék, amelyek rosszul végződnek).

He married Olga Jónás in 1913. In 1914 he was drafted into the army, and at the front his drug problem worsened so much that he was often sent to medical leave and was finally discharged in 1917.
He tried to quit and become a village doctor. His condition further worsened, he became paranoid and by this time his addiction was the central problem of his life, significantly deteriorating his personal relations.
In 1919 he was treated at a psychiatric clinic in a provincial hospital, but he fled and returned to his home. On July 22 he shot and killed his wife with a revolver, poisoned himself and slit his arteries. He was rushed to hospital at Szabadka, but later managed to escape again. He wanted to go to the Moravcsik Psychiatric Hospital, but upon being stopped by Yugoslavian border guards he killed himself by taking poison.

Inspired by Csáth's writings are the ballet "Comedia Tempio" of the dancer-choreographer Josef Nadj  and the opera "A Varázsló Halála" ("The Magician's Death") by the composer Alessio Elia (first performance Nyitott Műhely Auditorium - Budapest, 14 June 2006). Janos Szaz's 2007 film "Opium: Diary of a Madwoman" features a doctor named Josef Brenner who is to some degree based on Csáth.

Bibliography

Works in English
 Diary of Géza Csáth. Translated by Peter Reich. Budapest: Angelusz & Gold, 2000.
 Magician's Garden and Other Stories by Géza Csáth. Compiled by Marianna D. Birnbaum, and translated by Jascha Kessler and Charlotte Rogers. New York: Columbia UP, 1980.

Works in Italian
 Oppio e altre storie(with drawings by Attila Sassy). Translated and edited by M. D'Alessandro.  Roma: E/O, 1985.

Works in Spanish
 Cuentos que acaban mal. Translated into Spanish by Dixon Servicios Lingüísticos, S.L. (Bernadette Borosi and Marga Valdeolmillos) and published in Spain by El Nadir, 2007

Works in German
 Csáth, Géza: Tagebuch 1912-1913 / Géza Csáth. Aus dem Ungarischen von Hans Skirecki und mit einem Nachwort versehen von Lászlo F. Földényi. Berlin: Brinkmann und Bose, 1990. ()
 Csáth, Géza: Muttermord. Aus dem Ungarischen von Hans Skirecki. Berlin: Brinkmann und Bose, 1989 ()
 Csáth, Géza: Erzählungen. Aus dem Ungarischen von Hans Skirecki. Berlin: Brinkmann und Bose, 1999 ()

Works in Danish
 Csáth, Géza: ''Dagbog 1912-1913 Translator by Péter Eszterhás ()

Notes

External links

 Biographical essay at Hungarian Literature Online
 Martin Carayol, Poetics of torture: the case of Géza Csáth
 Tales in Hungarian

 The Magician's Death - musical excerpt of the opera

 Recension of "Géza Csáth: Diary 1912-1913" at eckfenster.de (in German language)

1887 births
1919 suicides
1919 deaths
Hungarians in Vojvodina
20th-century Hungarian male writers
Hungarian psychiatrists
Suicides in Serbia
Writers from Subotica
Hungarian murderers
Suicides by poison
Murder–suicides in Europe

Géza Csáth


The Real Audiencia of Charcas () was a Spanish audiencia with its seat in what is today Bolivia. It was established in 1559 in Ciudad de la Plata de Nuevo Toledo (later Charcas, modern-day Sucre) and had jurisdiction over the , Paraguay and the Governorate of the Río de la Plata, modern-day Uruguay and northern Argentina. This court oversaw the incredible silver output of the mines at Potosí. It was part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until 1776, when it was transferred to the newly created Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata and began to be referred to as Upper Peru.

Structure
Philip II of Spain originally established the audiencia by royal decree on 4 September 1559. Law IX (Audiencia y Chancillería Real de la Plata, Provincia de los Charcas) of Title XV of Book II of the Recopilación de Leyes de Indias of 1680 — which compiles the original 1559 decree and the ones of 29 August 1563, 1 October 1566, 26 May 1573 — describes the borders and functions of the Audiencia.

In Ciudad de la Plata de Nuevo Toledo, Province of the Charcas in Peru, shall reside another Royal Audiencia and Chancellery of ours, with a president; five judges of civil cases [oidores], who shall also be judges of criminal cases [alcaldes del crimen]; a crown attorney [fiscal]; a bailiff [alguacil mayor]; a lieutenant of the Gran Chancellor; and the other necessary ministers and officials; and which shall have for district the Province of the Charcas, all of El Collao, from the town of Ayabiri, along the road of Urqusuyu, from the town of Asillo by the road of Umasuyu, from Atuncana, by the road of Arequipa, towards the part of the Charcas, inclusive with the Provinces of Sangabana, Carabaya, Juríes y Diaguitas, Moyos [see also Moxos people] and Ch'unchu, and Santa Cruz de la Sierra, sharing borders: in the north with the Royal Audiencia of Lima and provinces not yet discovered; in the south with the Royal Audiencia of Chile; and in the east and west with the two Seas of the North and South and the line of demarcation between the Crowns of the Kingdoms of Castile and Portugal, along the Province of Santa Cruz of Brazil. All said territories are and shall be understood to comply with Law 13, which deals with the founding and erection of the Royal Audiencia of Trinidad, Port of Buenos Ayres, because our will is that said law be kept, complied with and executed precisely and punctually.

Independence

Charcas was one of the first regions in Spanish America to establish juntas in the independence period, which deposed the Audiencia judges. These juntas, set up in 1809, were quashed by forces from Peru and Río de la Plata the following year, but the Audiencia was not reestablished until 1816, and then under the auspices of the viceroy of Peru. Areas of Charcas under patriot control sent deputies to the Congress of Tucumán of 9 July 1816 which declared the independence of the provinces of the Río de la Plata. The Republic of Bolivia was created from the Royal Audiencia of Charcas on August 6, 1825.

References

Charcas
Colonial Bolivia
Colonial Paraguay
Colonial Peru
Viceroyalty of Peru
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
16th century in the Viceroyalty of Peru
17th century in the Viceroyalty of Peru
18th century in the Viceroyalty of Peru
18th century in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
19th century in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
States and territories established in 1559
States and territories disestablished in 1824
1559 establishments in the Viceroyalty of Peru
1824 disestablishments in the Viceroyalty of Peru
1824 disestablishments in Argentina
Spanish colonization of the Americas

Real Audiencia of Charcas


Penang Island (; ; ) is part of the state of Penang, on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. It was named Prince of Wales Island when it was occupied by the British East India Company on 12 August 1786, in honour of the birthday of the Prince of Wales, later King George IV. The capital, George Town, was named after the reigning King George III.

History

Penang was originally part of the Malay Sultanate of Kedah. On 11 August 1786, Captain Francis Light of the British East India Company landed in Penang and renamed it Prince of Wales Island in honour of heir to the British throne. Light then received it as a portion on his purported marriage to the daughter of the Sultan of Kedah, although there is no evidence supporting this, as Light was married to Martina Rozells, a Eurasian he met in Phuket. Light ceded Penang to the Government of India and promised the Sultan military protection from Siamese and Burmese armies who were threatening Kedah. Light is now credited as the founder of Penang.

Many early settlers succumbed to malaria, earning Penang the epithet "the White Man's Grave".

Unbeknownst to the Sultan, Light had acted without the approval of the East India Company when he promised military protection. When the Company failed to aid Kedah when Siam attacked it, the Sultan tried to retake the island in 1790. The attempt was unsuccessful, and the Sultan was forced to cede the island to the company for an honorarium of 6,000 Spanish dollars per annum. This was later increased to 10,000 dollars, with Province Wellesley on the mainland of the Malay Peninsula being added to Penang in 1800. An annual honorarium of 10,000 ringgit continues to this day be paid by the Malaysian Federal Government to the state of Kedah.

In 1826, Penang, along with Malacca and Singapore, became part of the Straits Settlements under the British administration in India, moving to direct British colonial rule in 1867. In 1946 it became part of the Malayan Union, before becoming in 1948 a state of the Federation of Malaya, which gained independence in 1957 and became Malaysia in 1963. The island was a free port until 1969.

Geography

With an area of , Penang Island is the fourth-largest island wholly in Malaysia, after Banggi Island, Bruit Island and Langkawi Island. It is also the most populated island in the country with an estimated population of 678,000. The island is connected with the mainland by two Penang Bridges. The 1st bridge begins at Gelugor on the island and ends in Perai on the mainland while the 2nd bridge is located to its south. The mainland portion of the Penang state is known as Seberang Perai (Province Wellesley), and together with Penang Island and other smaller islands, form the state of Penang.

Governance and law

Penang Island is under the state of Penang, which is one of the four states in Malaysia without a Sultan and the head of the state is the Yang di-Pertua Negeri (English: State Ruler), which is appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia.
The island forms the local government area of the Penang Island City Council and is divided into two administrative districts—South West Penang Island and North East Penang Island.

Other than a state ruler, Penang's executive members are led by a chief minister. The current chief minister of Penang is Chow Kon Yeow, and the post has been continuously held by a non-Malay ethnic Chinese since independence, reflecting the state's ethnic majority.

Local Authorities
The local council on the island is the Penang Island City Council (Majlis Bandaraya Pulau Pinang). Local councillors have been appointed by the state government since local elections were abolished in Malaysia in the 1960s. The city council is made up of a mayor, a municipal secretary and 24 councillors. The mayor is appointed by the State Government for two-year term of office while the councillors are appointed for one-year term of office. Penang Island is divided into 2 administrative districts.

The eastern portion of the island facing the mainland is highly urbanised and built-up with either industrial, commercial or residential areas. The western portion is generally more rugged/hilly and less developed than the rest of the island.

See also
Hayat Mahmud, Bengali feudal lord and military commander imprisoned in Penang Island

Notes

References

 Penang FAQs

Penang Island


The Mackenzie River is a major river in northern Canada. It is named after famous explorer, Alexander Mackenzie. The river's watershed drains parts of Alberta, British Columbia, the Northwest Territories, Saskatchewan, and the Yukon. It flows north, for , from Great Slave Lake to the Arctic Ocean. There are only a few small towns on the river, including Fort Providence and Norman Wells. The river is used as a boat transport route during the ice-free summer.

Tributaries of the river include the Liard, Keele, Great Bear, Arctic Red and Peel Rivers. The Slave River, Peace River and Athabasca River provide most of the water in Great Slave Lake.

Rivers of Canada

Mackenzie River


György Kepes (; October 4, 1906 – December 29, 2001) was a Hungarian-born painter, photographer, designer, educator, and art theorist. After immigrating to the U.S. in 1937, he taught design at the New Bauhaus (later the School of Design, then Institute of Design, then Illinois Institute of Design or IIT) in Chicago. In 1967 he founded the Center for Advanced Visual Studies at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) where he taught until his retirement in 1974.

Early years
Kepes was born in Selyp, Hungary. His younger brother was Imre Kepes, an ambassador in Argentina, father of András Kepes, journalist, documentary filmmaker and author. At age 18, he enrolled at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Budapest, where he studied for four years with Istvan Csok, a Hungarian impressionist painter. In the same period, he was also influenced by the socialist avant-garde poet and painter Lajos Kassak, and began to search for means by which he could contribute to the alleviation of social injustice, especially (as he later recalled) "the inhumane conditions of the Hungarian peasantry."

Berlin and London
Kepes gave up painting temporarily and turned instead to filmmaking. In 1930, he settled in Berlin, where he worked as a publication, exhibition and stage designer. Around this time, he designed the dust jacket for Gestalt psychologist Rudolf Arnheim's famous book, Film als Kunst (Film as Art), one of the first published books on film theory. In Berlin, he was also invited to join the design studio of László Moholy-Nagy, the Hungarian photographer who had taught at the Dessau Bauhaus. When, in 1936, Moholy relocated his design studio to London, Kepes joined him there as well.

New Bauhaus
A fortunate consequence of moving to London was that Kepes found his future wife, a 17-year-old British woman née Juliet Appleby, an artist and illustrator. By chance, he saw her on the street, introduced himself, and soon the two began to date. The following year, when Moholy agreed to become the director of a new art school in Chicago (which Moholy dubbed the New Bauhaus), Kepes was invited to join the faculty and to head a curricular area in Light and Color. Kepes asked Juliet to join him. While teaching at the Institute of Design (or New Bauhaus) from 1937 to 1943, Kepes enlarged and refined his ideas about design theory, form in relation to function, and (his own term) the "education of vision."  Kepes was lured to Brooklyn College by Russian-born architect Serge Chermayeff, who had been appointed chair of the Art Department in 1942.  There he taught graphic artists such as Saul Bass.

In 1944, he published Language of Vision, an influential book about design and design education. Widely used for many years as a college textbook (it had thirteen printings, in four languages), it began by acknowledging Kepes' indebtedness to the Berlin-based Gestalt psychologists, and by asserting that "Visual communication is universal and international; it knows no limits of tongue, vocabulary, or grammar, and it can be perceived by the illiterate as well as by the literate… [The visual arts, as] the optimum forms of the language of vision, are, therefore, an invaluable educational medium" (p. 13). In part, the book was important because it predated three other influential texts on the same subject: Paul Rand, Thoughts on Design (1946), László Moholy-Nagy, Vision in Motion (1947), and Rudolf Arnheim, Art and Visual Perception (1954).

In 1942, Kepes had been one of a number of people (Moholy was another) who were asked by the U.S. Army to offer advice on military and civilian urban camouflage, in the course of which he viewed Chicago from the air. He alluded to this experience in Language of Vision, when he talked about natural camouflage: "The numerous optical devices which nature employs in the animal world to conceal animals from their enemies reveal the workings of this law [i.e., perceptual grouping] of visual organization" (p. 45).

Years at MIT
In 1947, Kepes accepted an invitation from the School of Architecture and Planning at MIT to initiate a program there in visual design, a division that later became the Center for Advanced Visual Studies ( 1968). He served as a director of this center until 1972.

Some of the center's early fellows included artists Otto Piene, Panayiotis Vassilakis, Jack Burnham, Wen-Ying Tsai, Stan Vanderbeek, Maryanne Amacher, Joan Brigham, Lowry Burgess, Peter Campus, Muriel Cooper, Douglas Davis, Susan Gamble,  Dieter Jung, Piotr Kowalski, Charlotte Moorman, Antoni Muntadas, Yvonne Rainer, Keiko Prince, Alan Sonfist, Aldo Tambellini, Joe Davis, Bill Seaman, Tamiko Thiel, Alejandro Sina, Don Ritter, Luc Courchesne, and Bill Parker.

While teaching at MIT (where he remained until his retirement in 1974), Kepes was in contact with a wide assortment of artists, designers, architects and scientists, among them Pietro Belluschi, Norbert Wiener, Buckminster Fuller, Rudolf Arnheim, Marcel Breuer, Charles Eames, Erik Erikson, Walter Gropius, Maurice K Smith, and Jerome Wiesner. His own art having moved toward abstract painting, he developed a parallel interest in new scientific imagery, in part because it too had grown increasing "abstract." In 1956, what began as an exhibition became a highly unusual book, The New Landscape in Art and Science, in which Modern-era artwork was paired with scientific images that were made, not with the unaided eye, but with such then "high tech" devices as x-ray machines, stroboscopic photography, electron microscopes, sonar, radar, high-powered telescopes, infrared sensors and so on. His theories on visual perception and, particularly, his personal mentorship, had a profound influence on young MIT architecture, planning, and visual art students. These include Kevin Lynch (The Image of the city) and Maurice K Smith (Associative Form and Field theory).

Kepes and his wife Juliet Appleby Kepes are memorialized at Mt. Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where Kepes died in 2001. The markers are of wood and stone, respectively, and are tall and rectangular in proportion. The Friends of Mt. Auburn provide further information about the stones and the design that was made by grandson Janos Stone.

Vision + Value
In 1965–66, Kepes edited a set of six anthologies, published as a series called the Vision + Value Series. Each volume contained more than 200 pages of essays by some of the most prominent artists, designers, architects and scientists of the time. The richness of the volumes is reflected in their titles: The Education of Vision; Structure in Art and Science; The Nature and Art of Motion; Module, Symmetry, Proportion, Rhythm; Sign, Image, Symbol; and The Man-Made Object.

In his lifetime, Kepes produced other books of lasting importance, among them Graphic Forms: Art as Related to the Book (1949); Arts of Environment (1972); and The Visual Arts Today (1960). He was also a prolific painter and photographer, and his work is in major collections. In recognition of his achievements, there is a Kepes Visual Centre in Eger, Hungary. In 1973 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member and became a full academician in 1978.

Writings
 Language of Vision. Chicago: Paul Theobald, 1944. Reissued: New York: Dover Publications, 1995. .
 Graphic Forms: The Arts as Related to the Book. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1949.
 The New Landscape in Art and Science. Chicago: Paul Theobald, 1956.
 Vision + Value Series, including The Education of Vision. Structure in Art and Science. The Nature and Art of Motion. Module, Symmetry, Proportion, Rhythm. Sign, Image, Symbol. The Man-Made Object. New York: George Braziller, 1965–66.
 The Visual Arts Today. Wesleyan University Press, 1966.
 The Lost Pageantry of Nature. Artscanada, pages 33–39, Dec 1968.
 Arts of Environment. New York: George Braziller, 1972.
 György Kepes: The MIT Years 1945–77. Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1978.
 György Kepes, Lucian Bernard, and Ivan Chermayeff. The 60th Art Directors Annual. New York: ADC Publications, 1981

See also
 Rudolf Arnheim
 László Moholy-Nagy
 Kevin A. Lynch
 IIT Institute of Design

References

Further reading
 "György Kepes" in Ann Lee Morgan, ed., Contemporary Designers. Detroit: Gale Research Company, 1984.
 "György Kepes" in Roy R. Behrens, CAMOUPEDIA: A Compendium of Research on Art, Architecture and Camouflage. Dysart, Iowa: Bobolink Books, 2009. .

External links

 "György Kepes, founder of CAVS, dies at 95"
 "György Kepes: Exemplar of the Visual Arts"
 György Kepes as a contributor to PM magazine.
 Art Directors Club biography, portrait and images of work
 The György Kepes Fellowship for Advanced Studies and Transdisciplinary Research in Art, Culture, and Technology

1906 births
2001 deaths
20th-century Hungarian people
20th-century American painters
American male painters
American muralists
Hungarian painters
Hungarian expatriates in Germany
Hungarian expatriates in the United Kingdom
Hungarian emigrants to the United States
People from Heves County
20th-century American photographers
Brooklyn College faculty
Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery
20th-century American male artists
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters

György Kepes


Sir Victor Gollancz (; 9 April 1893 – 8 February 1967) was a British publisher and humanitarian. Gollancz was known as a supporter of left-wing politics. His loyalties shifted between liberalism and communism; he defined himself as a Christian socialist and an internationalist. He used his publishing house chiefly to promote pacifist and socialist non-fiction, and also launched the Left Book Club.

In the postwar era, he focused his attention on Germany and became known for his promotion of friendship and reconciliation based on his internationalism and his ethic of brotherly love. He founded the organisation Save Europe Now (SEN) in 1945 to campaign for humane treatment of German civilians, and drew attention to their suffering, especially children, and atrocities committed against German civilians. He received an honorary doctorate at the University of Frankfurt in 1949, the Großes Bundesverdienstkreuz of Germany in 1953 and the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade in 1960, and several streets in Germany, including the Gollanczstraße in West Berlin, and two schools, the Victor Gollancz Elementary School and the Victor-Gollancz-Volkshochschule Steglitz-Zehlendorf, were named in his honour. He also campaigned for friendship with Soviet Russia. Gollancz once said: "I hate everything that is pro and anti (different peoples). I am only one thing: I am pro-humanity." Since 2000, the Society for Threatened Peoples has awarded the Victor Gollancz Prize.

Early life

Born in Maida Vale, London, to a family of German Jewish/Polish Jewish background, Victor Gollancz was the son of a wholesale jeweller and the nephew of Rabbi Professor Sir Hermann Gollancz and Professor Sir Israel Gollancz. His grandfather, Rabbi Samuel Marcus Gollancz, had migrated to the United Kingdom in the mid-19th century from Witkowo, near Gniezno (then Gnesen in Prussia) to become cantor of the Hambro' Synagogue in London.

After being educated at St Paul's School, London and taking a degree in classics at New College, Oxford, he became a schoolteacher. Gollancz was commissioned into the Northumberland Fusiliers in October 1915, although he did not see active service. In March 1916, he transferred to Repton School Junior Officers' Training Corps. Gollancz proved to be an innovative and inspiring teacher; he introduced the first civics class to be taught at an English public school and many of his students went on to become teachers themselves, including James Harford and James Darling.

In 1917, he became involved in the Reconstruction Committee, which was planning for post-war Britain. There he met Ernest Benn, who hired him to work in his publishing company, Ernest Benn Limited. Starting with magazines, Gollancz then brought out a series of art books, after which he started signing novelists.

As a publisher

Gollancz formed his own publishing company in 1927, publishing works by writers such as Ford Madox Ford and George Orwell, who wrote that "Gollancz is of course part of the Communism-racket," to Rayner Heppenstall in July 1937 (Orwell went to Secker and Warburg from Homage to Catalonia onwards). The firm, Gollancz Ltd., published pacifist and socialist nonfiction as well as, by the mid-1930s, a solid selection of contemporary fiction, including authors such as Elizabeth Bowen, Daphne du Maurier, and Franz Kafka. While Gollancz published The Red Army Moves by Geoffrey Cox on the Winter War in 1941, he omitted some criticisms of the USSR.

Gollancz was one of the founders of the Left Book Club, the first book club in the UK. He had a knack for marketing, sometimes taking out full-page newspaper advertisements for the books he published, a novelty at the time. He also used eye-catching typography and book designs, and used yellow dust-covers on books. Starting in 1948, Gollancz made yearly scouting trips to the USA; by 1951 American books made up half of his publications.

Gollancz's politics started as those of the Liberal Party and Guild Socialism. By 1931 he had joined the Labour Party, and by the early 1930s he had started publishing left-wing political works, in addition to his more popular titles. Although he never joined the CPGB, Gollancz was closely allied to the Communist Party during the second half of the 1930s. He finally broke with the party after the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact in 1939, and pledged himself to Christian socialism. In the early 1940s, Gollancz was sympathetic to Richard Acland's socialist Common Wealth Party and gave talks for the group before the general election of 1945. Although he never thought the party would win an election, he believed it represented a useful, socialist pressure group.

Religious faith was important part of Gollancz's life. His father was an Orthodox Jew with a very literal interpretation of his faith; Gollancz's dislike of this attitude coloured his approach to organised Judaism for much of his life, but he continued to practise many Jewish rituals at home. Gollancz often claimed to be a Christian, although he was never baptised and his understanding of the religion was highly idiosyncratic. Overall his personal syncretic faith drew on Pelagian Christianity, Judaism, and wide-ranging reading across religious traditions.

His faith manifested itself in a consciousness of bliss and his lifelong political and social campaigning. He compiled a number of books of religious writings, including A Year of Grace, From Darkness to Light, God of a Hundred Names and The New Year of Grace. Gollancz was also a keen music lover, an enthusiasm he explained in his final book, Journey Towards Music.

Gollancz was knighted in the 1965 Queen's Birthday Honours List.

As a campaigner

In addition to his highly successful publishing business, Gollancz was a prolific writer on a variety of subjects, and put his ideas into action by establishing campaigning groups. The Left Book Club was not only a book club run along commercial lines, but also a campaigning group that aimed to propagate left-wing ideas in Britain. The founding of the club marked the end of his career solely as a publisher, after which he devoted much of his energy to campaigning.

His first few pamphlets addressed what he saw as the communist betrayal of left wing ideals, although after the Soviet Union was invaded by Nazi Germany in 1941 he founded the Anglo-Soviet Public Relations Association (ASPRA) to promote cordial relations between the UK and Russia. This was followed by refutation of the anti-German (as opposed to anti-Nazi) doctrine of Sir Robert Vansittart in the pamphlet Shall Our Children Live or Die published in late 1941.

After World War II, Gollancz criticized the rise of what he saw as excessive nationalism in the Allied countries (both Czechoslovakia and the UK), describing nationalism "partly an invention of ambitious and unscrupulous politicians, and partly a drug from which the populace derives [. . .] a kind of bogus and vicarious satisfaction".

1943 publication of description of the Holocaust
Gollancz publicised the anti-Semitism of the Nazi regime early on; in 1933 he had published the compilation volume The Little Brown Book of the Hitler Terror and Fritz Seidler's book on the Nazi persecution of the Jews The Bloodless Pogrom in 1934.

In the summer of 1942, Gollancz came to realise that he and the rest of the world had been seriously underestimating the horrific extent of the Nazi persecution of the Jews. He explained in his 16,000-word pamphlet Let My People Go, written over Christmas 1942, that between one and two million Jews had already been murdered in Nazi-controlled Europe and "unless something effective is done, within a very few months these six million Jews will all be dead.".

Gollancz proposed a series of practical responses, centred around a rescue plan, and undertook a lecture and fundraising tour; he was also made vice-president of Eleanor Rathbone's National Committee for Rescue from Nazi Terror. Published early in the new year of 1943, the pamphlet sold a quarter of a million copies within three months and was quoted in the Parliament of Canada in 1943, and in The Adelaide Advertiser on Saturday 15 May 1943.

Along with Rathbone, Gollancz was the foremost British campaigner during the Second World War on the issue of the Nazi extermination of European Jewry.

Towards the end of June 1943, Gollancz suffered a serious nervous breakdown, believed to have been brought on by overwork (he had cut out holidays and reduced his social and cultural life) and his identification with the Nazis' victims. After his recovery he started work on a book to be called The Necessity for Zionism; although the book was never written, he did publish a number of books on Jewish topics. His work for Zionism at this time led to him being appointed as a governor of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In May 1945, he wrote his last major contribution to Jewish refugees, the pamphlet Nowhere to Lay Their Heads: The Jewish tragedy in Europe and its solution, a personal appeal for the opening up of Palestine for large-scale Jewish immigration from Europe, which he distributed for free and was a great success.

Occupation of Germany after World War II
In April 1945, Gollancz addressed the issue of German collective guilt in a pamphlet, What Buchenwald Really Means that explained that all Germans were not guilty. He maintained that hundreds of thousands of gentiles had been persecuted by the Nazis and many more had been terrorized into silence. Equally, British citizens who had done nothing to save the Jews despite living in a democracy, were not free of guilt. This marked a shift of Gollancz's attention towards the people of Germany. In September 1945, he started an organisation Save Europe Now (SEN) to campaign for the support of Germans, and over the next four years he wrote another eight pamphlets and books addressing the issue and visited the country several times.

Gollancz's campaign for the humane treatment of German civilians involved efforts to persuade the British government to end the ban on sending provisions to Germany and ask that it pursue a policy of reconciliation, as well as organising an airlift to provide Germany and other war-torn European countries with provisions and books. He wrote regular critical articles for, and letters to, British newspapers, and after a visit to the British Zone of Occupation in October and November 1946, he published these along with shocking close-up photos of malnourished children he took there in In Darkest Germany in January 1947.

On the expulsion of Germans after World War II he said: "So far as the conscience of humanity should ever again become sensitive, will this expulsion be an undying disgrace for all those who remember it, who caused it or who put up with it. The Germans have been driven out, but not simply with an imperfection of excessive consideration, but with the highest imaginable degree of brutality." In his book, Our Threatened Values (London, 1946), Gollancz described the conditions Sudeten German prisoners faced in a Czech concentration camp: "They live crammed together in shacks without consideration for gender and age ... They ranged in age from 4 to 80. Everyone looked emaciated ... the most shocking sights were the babies ... nearby stood another mother with a shrivelled bundle of skin and bones in her arms ... Two old women lay as if dead on two cots. Only upon closer inspection, did one discover that they were still lightly breathing. They were, like those babies, nearly dead from hunger ..."

When Field Marshal Montgomery wanted to allot each German citizen a guaranteed diet of only 1,000 calories a day and justified this by referring to the fact that the prisoners of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp had received only 800, Gollancz wrote about starvation in Germany, pointing out that many prisoners never even received 1,000 calories. "There is really only one method of re-educating people", explained Gollancz, "namely the example that one lives oneself."

Gollancz explained his rationale thus, "In the management of our helping actions should nothing, but absolutely nothing else, be decisive than the degree of need." For his biographer, Ruth Dudley Edwards, Gollancz's campaign was based in his concern for the moral underdog and his enjoyment in fighting for unpopular causes. The campaign led Gollancz's friend, Rev. John Collins, to start Christian Action in December 1946, an organisation with similar aims (which later became involved in the campaign against Apartheid). In 1960, Gollancz was awarded the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade for his work with SEN.

Other humanitarian issues
During the fighting that marked the creation of the state of Israel, Gollancz became concerned for the plight of the Arabs and in October 1948 he founded the Jewish Society for Human Service (JSHS), with Rabbi Leo Baeck as its president. This body was based on "the universalist ethic of Judaism" and aimed to work in the newly formed state of Israel "to relieve the suffering of Jews and Arabs indifferently."

In February 1951, Victor Gollancz wrote a letter to The Manchester Guardian asking people to join an international struggle against poverty. Gollancz's letter called for a negotiated end to the Korean War and the creation of an international fund "to turn swords into ploughshares", readers were asked to send a postcard to Gollancz with the simple word 'yes'. He received 5,000 responses. This led to the founding of the Association for World Peace (AWP) with Gollancz as chairman and Canon Charles Raven the vice-chairman. In May 1951, Gollancz invited Harold Wilson to chair an AWP committee and write a pamphlet which was eventually called 'War on Want – a Plan for World Development', published on 9 June 1952. This document led to the founding of the international anti-poverty charity War on Want; its parent body, the AWP, waned after Gollancz stepped down from the chairmanship in 1952.

With Arthur Koestler and John Collins, Gollancz set up the National Campaign for the Prevention of Legal Cruelty in 1955. This organisation was renamed The National Campaign for the Abolition of Capital Punishment (NCACP) and campaigned against judicial killing in the UK. This drive against capital punishment would later lead Gollancz to campaign against the execution of the Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann. He addressed the issue in a controversial pamphlet, The Case of Adolf Eichmann.

Personal life and death
In 1919, Victor married Ruth Lowy, an artist who had studied at the Slade School of Art under Henry Tonks. The couple had five daughters among them Vita Gollancz, an artist; Livia Ruth Gollancz, musician and later head of Victor Gollancz Ltd; and Diana Gollancz, a confidante of poet Philip Larkin.

Gollancz died in London on 8 February 1967.

Selected bibliography
The Making of Women, Oxford Essays in Feminism (1918)
Industrial Ideals (1920)
The Yellow Spot: The Extermination of the Jews in Germany (1936)
Is Mr Chamberlain Saving Peace? (1939)
Betrayal of the Left: An Examination & Refutation of Communist Policy from October 1939 to January 1941: with Suggestions for an Alternative and an Epilogue on Political Morality (1941)
Russia and Ourselves (1941)
"Let My People Go": Some Practical Proposals for Dealing with Hitler's Massacre of the Jews and an Appeal to the British Public (1943)
Leaving Them to Their Fate: The Ethics of Starvation (1946)
Our Threatened Values (1946)
In Darkest Germany (1947)
 Germany Revisited, London: Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1947
A Year of Grace: Passages chosen & arranged to express a mood about God and man (1950)
Capital Punishment: The Heart of the Matter (1955)
Devil's Repertoire: or, Nuclear Bombing and the Life of Man (1959)
Case of Adolf Eichmann (1961)
Journey Towards Music: A Memoir (1964)
Reminiscences of Affection (1968) - posthumous

References

External links

 War on Want's history page
 Paul Foot, Victor Gollancz: From Marx to Muddle Socialist Worker Review, 102, (1987)
 Catalogue of Gollancz's papers, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick

1893 births
1967 deaths
People from Maida Vale
English people of German-Jewish descent
English people of Russian-Jewish descent
People educated at St Paul's School, London
Alumni of New College, Oxford
Members of the Fabian Society
Officers' Training Corps officers
Royal Northumberland Fusiliers officers
Schoolteachers from London
British book publishers (people)
British magazine publishers (people)
British anti–death penalty activists
British Zionists
English Jews
English socialists
British ethicists
George Orwell
Knights Bachelor
Knights Commander of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Victor Gollancz
Jewish socialists
English people of Polish-Jewish descent
British Army personnel of World War I

Victor Gollancz


A security thread is  a security feature of many banknotes to protect against counterfeiting, consisting of a thin ribbon that is threaded through the note's paper.

Usually, the ribbon runs vertically, and is "woven" into the paper, so that it at some places emerges on the front side and at the remaining places at the rear side of the paper. Usually, it is made of metal foil, but sometimes of plastic. Often, it has some text or numbers (e.g., the denomination) engraved.

Threads are embedded within the paper fiber and can be completely invisible or have a star burst effect, where the thread appears to weave in and out of the paper when viewed from one side. However, when held up to the light, the thread will always appear as a solid line. Features can be built into the thread material e.g., microprinting on a transparent plastic  thread or adding materials so they fluoresce under ultraviolet light.
The thread is a difficult feature to counterfeit but some counterfeiters have been known to print a thin grey line or a thin line of varnish in the area of the thread.

Security threads can also be used as an anti-counterfeiting device in passports. They are generally made of plastic and contain microprinting.

References

Banknotes
Money forgery
Currency production
National Security Agency

Security thread


DCPIP (its full name is 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol) is a blue chemical used as a dye because when it is oxidized it is blue.  Once DCPIP is reduced (by addition of electrons) it does not have a color anymore. This reaction can be reversed, and the colourless DCPIP will turn blue again, when it is oxidized.

Purpose
DCPIP is often used to measure the electron transport chain in plants. It has a higher redox potential (electron affinity) than the Fe-S complex in cytochrome b and will therefore "steal" electrons from it. This means that cytochrome c does not  receive them. The process cuts off the electron supply of  photosystem I. A common way to illustrate this change is by the addition of vitamin C solution. This reduces the 'jelly' by transforming it to a colourless mass. This experiment can be carried out to illustrate the effect of changing cell sizes on SA/V (surface area:volume ratio). This is known as Titration.

References
Mathews, Ahern, Van Holde, Biochemistry, Addison Wesley Longman Inc., 2000 pp534–5

Organochlorides
Organonitrogen compounds

Dichlorphenolindophenol


In geometric measurements, lenth is the langest dimension o an object. In ither contexts "length" is the measurt dimension o an object. For insample it is possible tae cut a length o a weir that is shorter than weir thickness.

Length mey be distinguished frae hicht, that is vertical extent, an weenth or brenth, that is the distance frae side tae side, measurin athort the object at richt angles tae the length. Ex. what's the lenth of the figure. Lenth is a measur o ane dimension, whaur aurie is a measur o twa dimensions (length squared) an volume is a measur o three dimensions (length cubed). In maist seestems o measurement, the unit o lenth is a fundamental unit, frae whilk ither units is defined.

References

Lenth


Nobility was the highest social class in pre-modern societies. In the feudal system (in Europe and elsewhere), the nobility were mostly those who got land from the monarch and had to provide services to him, mainly military service. Men of this class were called noblemen. It soon became a hereditary class, sometimes with a right to bear a hereditary title and to have financial and other privileges.

Today, in most countries, 'noble status' means no legal privileges; an important exception is the United Kingdom, where certain titles (titles of the peerage, until recently guaranteed a seat in the Upper House of Westminster Parliament, that is why it is called House of Lords), and still means some less important privileges.

Nobility by rank

Other websites

 The German nobility
 Old Noble Family Trees
 WW-Person , an on-line database of European noble genealogy
 Paul Theroff's An Online Gotha
 Genealogics, an extensive database of European nobles
 Worldroots, a selection of art and genealogy of European nobility
 RoyalArk- ruling houses in many non-European countries
 Web site on the Royalty, the Nobility, the History and the Patrimony
 The Armenian nobility
 The Maltese Nobility and its ilks.
 Italian dynastic genealogies (in Italian, with an introduction in English)
 Worldwidewords
 OneTree Genealogy - European Royal and Danish-Norwegian-Swedish Nobility Lineages

Nobility


The Triumph Super 9 was a British motorcar model, first introduced by the Triumph Motor Company in 1931 at a price of £185. It continued through into 1933. It had an RAC rating of 8.9 hp.

The Super 9's were the first Triumphs to use 12-volt electrics (early Southern Cross's still used 6-volt for a short period) and the first to be fitted with a Coventry Climax engine, which was made under licence by Triumph. Two 6-volt batteries were housed under the rear passenger floor, while the prototype had a single 12-volt battery on the bulk head. Many of the chassis and transmission components were left overs from the Super 7's and 8's.

Engine
The Coventry Climax engines are of the IOE configuration, with a bore of 60 mm and a stroke of 90 mm, giving 1018 cc. Generally a Solex side-draught carburettor was fitted. During 1931 the rear of the engine was supported on a 3/16-inch steel plate spanning across the chassis, consequently the gearbox bell housing was deep and with the starter alongside. Later cars had a cast-iron flywheel housing and a much shallower bell housing, the starter was then repositioned alongside the engine. This arrangement was used on later Super 9s & 10's and on Glorias. The cooling water is circulated by thermal syphon aided by the sloping shape of the aluminium water manifold on the head. The dynamo is driven by a Duplex chain with the distributor mounted at the rear end of the dynamo. A top speed of 60 mph was obtainable with a cruising speed of 45 mph. Petrol consumption in the region of 35 mpg for a car weighing 19 cwt. unladen.

Steering
Steering is by worm and wheel, the drop shaft attached to the wheel is on three keyways so it can be turned through 120 deg. to compensate for wear. Also adjustment is provided for engagement of the worm to the wheel.

Transmission and suspension
Transmission is through a single -inch clutch plate along with a 4-speed-and-reverse gear box. The hand brake operated a transmission brake attached to the rear end of the gear box. A conventional Hardy Spicer prop shaft connected it to the axle. The rear axle is a worm and wheel with underslung worm, making for a low floor. Ratios 5.25, 5.75, 6.25/1. The brakes are Lockheed hydraulic acting on -inch drums with one leading and one trailing shoe on all 4 wheels. The petrol tank is at the rear, unlike Super 7's which had a gravity tank. Fuel was pumped either by Autovac or SU Petrolift.

Suspension consists of 4 semi-elliptic springs on rubber bushes damped by Luvax hydraulic shock absorbers. Cars after 1931 replaced the rubber bushes with bronze bushes and grease nipples. Wheels were of the Magnum type with 5 studs fitted with 4.50×19-inch pneumatic tyres. The car had a track of 3 ft  in and a wheelbase of 7 ft 8 in.

Bodies
There were three significant models on the same chassis, a 4-door six-light saloon, a 4-door tourer and a 2-door 4-seat tourer known as the Southern Cross. The front doors on the saloon were hinged at the front, while those at the back were hinged to the rear. A sliding sun roof was standard, operated by a rotating handle above the driver. Folding rear arm rests were fitted but do not appear on the prototype. The most noticeable differences between 1931 cars and the later models was a change to the radiator surround and different profiling of the front wings.

Accessories
Optional extras were a luggage rack, chrome bumpers and Stevenson Jacking system. The upholstery was leather cloth with leather seating. The only known Super 9 to have Bedford Cord throughout is the prototype; this also has a smokers vent in the roof which is shown on brochures, but is not seen on any production 9's. Instruments consisted of a speedometer, clock, oil gauge and ammeter. After 1931 a petrol gauge was added, prior to this a fuel tap was incorporated to give a reserve supply. Dash switches consisted of, a dash light, interior light, ignition, and a starter button, also choke and fast running control. External lights switching, battery charge rate, and ignition timing  were all at the centre of the steering wheel.

References

External links

Pre 40 Triumph Motor Club - Contact:- Archivist Graham Shipman  (firstname.lastname@example.com)
Ref book: 1940 Triumph Motor Cars ()

Super 9
Cars introduced in 1931

Triumph Super 9


Copy-on-write (COW) is a means of optimisation in Computer Science. When several callers ask for the same resource, they can all be given a pointer to the same address. Only when they try to change the resource does a local copy need to be made. This happens without the caller noticing. It is done so that all the other callers do not see the change they did not do.

Computer science

Copy-on-write


The Baltimore Orioles are a Major League Baseball team from Baltimore, Maryland. They compete in the American League's AL East division. They began play in the early 1900s as the St. Louis Browns, a rival to the St. Louis Cardinals. They moved to Baltimore in 1954 and became the Orioles.

The "Baltimore Oriole" is an orange-and-black bird which is often seen in Maryland. "Orioles" has been a traditional nickname for Baltimore baseball teams. There was a Baltimore Orioles (19th century) in the major leagues. There was also a minor league baseball team called the Orioles which played from the early 1900s until the Browns moved to Baltimore.

The Browns were not a very successful team. They only won one league championship, in 1944. The Orioles have won several league championships and also won the World Series in 1966, 1970 and 1983.

Other websites
 Official Website

References

1900s establishments in the United States
Orioles
1894 establishments
St. Louis Browns

Baltimore Orioles


Don Quixote is a novel by Miguel de Cervantes. The book was published in two parts (1605 and 1615). It was first written in Spanish. Soon afterwards it was translated to English by Thomas Shelton. It is considered by many scholars to be the first modern novel. The main character, Don Quixote, is a paragon of chivalry, but in a deeply flawed and impractical way. Don Quixote is so influential as a character that the word "quixotic" is used to describe his type of behavior.

The story is about Alonso Quixano, a rich middle-aged man. Quixano, having read many tales about chivalry and knights, goes crazy and believes that he is a knight named Don Quixote. He rides around the country with his squire, Sancho, having adventures. He believes his adventures are real, but everyone else laughs at him.

One of the most famous stories in the book is Don Quixote's fight with windmills. He sees some windmills and thinks they are giants. When he rides to fight with them, he is knocked off his horse. Sancho tells him they are only windmills, but Don Quixote does not believe him. He is sure a magician changed windmills into the giants to hurt him.

At the end of the book, Alonso Quixano returns home, hurt badly. He becomes sane again, then dies.

1600s books
Novels
Spanish literature
1610s books

Don Quixote


Lactodurum was a town in the Roman province of Britannia. Today it is known as Towcester, located in the English county of Northamptonshire.

Towcester lays claim to being the oldest town in Northamptonshire and possibly, because of the antiquity of recent Iron Age finds in the town, to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited settlements in the country. There is evidence that it was settled by humans since the Mesolithic era (middle Stone Age). There is also evidence of Iron Age burials in the area.

Watling Street

In Roman times, the Watling Street road (now the A5) was built through the area and Lactodorum, probably a garrison fort, was established on the site of the present day town.
Some local people believe that the original pre-Roman settlement was about half a mile to the south of the present town, at the top of the hill at the crossing of a section of north–south road which became part of the Roman Watling Street and an east–west cattle drovers road (now a minor road called 'cow pastures'), and that there was a small trading post type of settlement there.
Two candidate sites for the Battle of Watling Street, fought in 61AD, are located close to the town, these are Church Stowe which is located 7 km to the north and Paulerspury which is 5 km to the south.

The fort was soon replaced by a civilian settlement which may have grown out of the surrounding vicus. Late 1st century timber buildings were replaced in stone the following century, and included a possible mansio. By the mid-2nd century, there were numerous shops lining the roadsides. 3rd and 4th century private residences were decorated with tesselated pavements and painted with decorative plaster.

Town wall
Lactodorum was encompassed by a wall that was strengthened at several points by stone and brick towers. The wall was also surrounded by a ditch part of which became the Mill Leat on the east side of the town. The modern day St Lawrence's Church in Towcester is thought to occupy the site of a large Roman civic building, possibly a temple; although there was also a bath house in this area. Small fragments of Roman pavement can be seen next to the Church's boiler room.

The Roman suburbs consisted of timber and cob buildings within small rectilinear plots, probably representing small holdings. However, there was also evidence of much industry: smithing, pottery, lead, pewter and bronze working.

See also
 Roman Britain

References

History of Northamptonshire
Roman towns and cities in England
Archaeological sites in Northamptonshire
Towcester

Lactodurum


Léon Joseph Marie Ignace Degrelle (; 15 June 1906 – 31 March 1994) was a Belgian politician and collaborator. He was born in Bouillon, Belgium and died in Malaga, Spain.

Degrelle was the founder of the fascist party of Rex in 1936.

During World War II he erected the Walloon Legion, which fought as a Waffen-SS unit at the Eastern Front. He ultimately had the rank of SS-Standartenführer der Waffen-SS (comparable with the rank of colonel).

After the war he managed to escape to Spain, where he died in 1994, aged 87.

References
 For Rex and Belgium: Leon Degrelle and Walloon Political & Military Collaboration 1940-1945. Eddy de Bruyne, Marc Rikmenspoel. Solihull, West Midlands, England: Helion, 2004.

1906 births
1994 deaths
Belgian people of World War II
Belgian politicians
Colonels
European military people
People from Luxembourg (Belgium)
SS officers
Waffen-SS people

Léon Degrelle


A bar is a building or business where alcoholic drinks (such as beer, wine, or liquor) are served. Bars are also found in pubs and nightclubs. They may also serve snack food. In most countries, bars are regulated and licenced by the regional or local governments, which establish laws regarding the opening hours and serving policies. In Canada and the United States, a liquor tax is placed on the sales of alcoholic beverages.

Drink coasters are used in bars and restaurants to protect the table surface from alcohol.

Restaurants
Places where alcohol is served

Bar (business)


Thomas "Tom" Evans (5 June 1947 – 19 November 1983) was an English guitarist and songwriter, who had several hit records as a member of Badfinger, during the late 1960s and early 1970s. He was also the cowriter of "Without You", with collaborator Peter Ham, another member of Badfinger.

Evans and Ham wrote most of Badfinger's hits together, including "No Matter What", "Day After Day", and "Baby Blue", which appeared on Apple Records. After leaving Apple, Badfinger's fortunes dipped. Ham committed suicide by hanging in 1975. Evans was devastated, and never got over losing his musical partner. He also hanged himself, in London in 1983.

"Without You" first became a hit in a cover version by Harry Nilsson in 1971, and the song became a standard as time went on. Badfinger's music was mostly forgotten by the 1980s, but became popular again in the 1990s when their old records appeared on compact disc.

1947 births
1983 deaths
English guitarists
English rock composers
Musicians from Liverpool
Musicians who committed suicide
Suicides by hanging in the United Kingdom

Tom Evans


The Russian ruble or rouble ( rublʹ, plural:  rubli; sign: ₽, руб; code: RUB) is the currency of Russia. It is also used in two partially recognized countries, Abkhazia and South Ossetia. It is also used in the unrecognised republics of Donetsk and Luhansk. One ruble is subdivided into 100 kopeks ( kopeyka, plural:  kopeyki).

The ruble was the currency of the Russian Empire and of the Soviet Union (as the Soviet ruble). Only three countries, Russia, Belarus and Transnistria use currencies known as ruble. The ruble was the world's first decimal currency: it was decimalised in 1704 when the ruble became equal to 100 kopeks.

In 1992 the Soviet ruble (code: SUR) was replaced with the Russian ruble (code: RUR) at the rate 1 SUR = 1 RUR. In 1998, while Russia was suffering from a second economic crisis,  the Russian ruble was redenominated with the new code "RUB" and was exchanged at the rate of 1 RUB = 1,000 RUR.

References

Russia
Currency of Europe

Russian ruble


Promotion and relegation are terms used in many sports.

Being promoted means moving up a league to one of a higher status. This usually happens when a team wins their league. Relegation normally happens to the team(s) at the bottom of the league at the end of the competition. They are moved down a league to one of a lower status.

For example:
Team A wins the league and is promoted from the Second Division to the First Division.
Team B finishes last in the First Division and is relegated to the Second Division.

Sports words

Promotion and relegation


Nictoglobe is an online art magazine. Its international contributors are working in arts related fields, such as (digital) writing, painting, poetry and activism. Nictoglobe is edited and published by A. Andreas (Andreas Maria Jacobs) who was born in the Netherlands in 1956.

Early years
Nictoglobe started sometime in 1982 as a stenciled paper, exclusively and privately distributed on the local night bus service in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Copies of these first printings are available at the International Institute of Social History (IISG) in Amsterdam. The printed edition was followed up by electronic editions on Bulletin Board Systems. Later editions were put on MSXII systems, and finally on TeleText modules.

Internet era
With the arrival of ARPAnet in Europe in the late 80s, new editions were placed on the Internet. New collaborations include the 'Ey Ar' shows and the founding of the Brahamian Intelligence Service in 2004.

In summer 2007, Nictoglobe organized @ De Balie - Centre for Culture and Politics, Amsterdam, using free publicly accessible open source software tools, developed and provided by de Balie, a DIY CoolMediaHotTalkShow about 'Creative Resistance, New Media as Soft Arms'.

Other projects

Nictoglobe created La Resocialista Internacional a poetical multi-lingual website which also goes under the original Dutch title: Burgerwaanzin.nl. This project gained some global attention expressed by its inclusion in new media festivals a.o File Festival São Paulo (2011), File Rio (2012), Brazil and the European Anthology of Electronic Writing, ELMCIP Blekinge Institute of Technology, Sweden (2012)

The netart project  Semantic Disturbances (2007  - 2012), included in different new-media art related periodicals: Web del Sol, US, Hyperrhiz, US and collections such as Runme.org UK, Rhizome's Artbase, US and the Electronic Literature Collection Volume 2, Electronic Literature Organization US (2010)

11 Ways to escape the symbolic Field, experimental electronic poems using internet driven imagery was featured at ISEA 2012 in Albuquerque, New Mexico US after its first live performance at Stichting Perdu Amsterdam (2011) and will be featured at the ELO Conference/Festival Chercher le Texte in Paris, France (2013)

Friction Research

Nictoglobe publishes (almost) yearly a themed special on new media practices, Friction Research.

 2011 Friction Research #4: Reclaim the Mind
 2010 Friction Research #3: Art is not about Communication
 2009 Friction Research #2: Investigating Ruptures in the Art-Political Grid
 2007 Friction Research #1: Creative Resistance, New Media as soft Arms

See also
List of art magazines

Sources

External links

 The Brahamian Intelligence Service

1982 establishments in the Netherlands
1986 disestablishments in the Netherlands
Defunct magazines published in the Netherlands
Magazines published in the Netherlands
English-language magazines
Magazines established in 1982
Magazines disestablished in 1986
Online magazines with defunct print editions
Quarterly magazines published in the Netherlands
Visual arts magazines

Nictoglobe


Beyoncé is the self-titled fifth album by Beyoncé. It was released on iTunes on December 13, 2013.
The release of the album made the iTunes website stop working. This happened because there were so many people on the website at once for the album. Timbaland, Justin Timberlake, and Pharrell Williams are producers of songs on the album. The album got good reviews. "XO" was released as the first single from the album. On December 21, 2013 the album will be released on CD and DVD in the United States. Billboard chose the album as the best of 2013.

Songs
Beyoncé starts with "Pretty Hurts". The third track "Drunk in Love" was released as one of the album's two lead singles. Jay-Z, Knowles' husband, raps in it. The song is about how much Knowles likes having sex with Jay-Z.  "Partition" is about having sex in a limousine. In "Mine", Drake raps. The song "Superpower" has Frank Ocean singing in it. "XO" was released as a lead single to the album.

Feminism
The album has a feminist theme. "Flawless", the eleventh song on the album, samples "Why We Should All Be Feminists", a TED talk by the Nigerian writer Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie. In New Statesman Laurie Penny described "Blow" as being about how Knowles likes being given cunnilingus. She compared it to Prince. In the song "Drunk in Love" Jay-Z raps about domestic violence. The lyric was criticized for making violence against women seem like a good thing.

Sales
The album sold 80,000 copies in the first three hours after it was released. In slightly under a day it sold 430,000 copies. In its first three days the album sold 828,773 copies. It sold over a million copies in less than a week. The album sold more quickly than any other album on iTunes ever. It went straight to number one in the Billboard 200. This made it her fifth number one album. It also entered the Canadian Albums Chart at number one. and the UK Albums Chart at number five

Track listing

References

2013 albums
Beyoncé albums
Electronica albums
Hip hop albums
R&B albums
Columbia Records albums

Beyoncé (album)


1875 ke saal suk ke roj suruu bhaes rahaa.

Ghatna
 Suva ke Chini Mill ke profitable nai rahe ke band hoe gais rahaa.
 Rewa Plantation Co Ltd ke Koronivia Mill ganna pere ke suruu karis.
 2 January - Fiji ke pahila Legislative Council ke ek Royal Charter se banawa gais rahaa, jiske niche Council ke member Governor aur kamti se kamti dui aur public officers aur log rahaa jiske Rani nominate karat rahis.
 24 March - Secretary of State for India, Lord Salisbury, ek dispatch me batais: " The colonial laws and their administration will be such that Indian settlers... will be in all respects free men, with privileges no whit inferior to those of any other class of Her Majesty's subjects resident in the colonies."
 10 April - Swami Dayanand, Bombay me Arya Samaj ke staphana karis rahaa
 Measles ke kaaran 40,000 se jaada log ke maut Fiji me hoe gais. Ii bemaari Cakobau ke larrkaa logan ke Australia me pakrris aur uu logan aae ke Fiji me failae diin.
 June - Rewa Planation Co Ltd (Nausori) Mill , Uli Calia (Koroqaqa), Nausori me me banawa gais rahaa.
 1 September - Fiji's ke pahila Governor, Sir Arthur Gordon Australia se Fiji pahucha aur Colonists logan ke aage aapan pahila bhasan me batais:
"An ample and steady supply of labour is absolutely essential to the Colony. From whence and under what management shall we obtain it most certainly, most cheaply and with the least probability of abuse. The first question is whether the management of the introduction of immigrants should be undertaken by the Government exclusively, or, as at present, by private parties. I am of opinion that it should be undertaken by the Government. But the question is one on which I should wish to have your opinion, and I will ask you to write aye or no before you leave the room to the following question, which you will find written on a sheet of paper near the door: "Is it in your opinion desirable that the Government should undertake the conduct and management of the immigration of labour?" Now as to the source from which labour is to be obtained. Shall we attempt not to supplant but to supplement Polynesian labour by that of Indian coolies? I think that we shall do well to do so. I have nothing to urge against Polynesian labour, but I think we must admit that the supply of it is decreasing and the cost of it increasing. All the evidence I have been able to obtain tends to show that this state of things will continue.

The supply of labour which is to be obtained from India is practically boundless. The amount of wages ordinarily given to Indian coolies is well known. I hold in my hand some statistics as to the probable expense of their introduction here. My calculations are 3pounds/18/-, the expense for recruiting; 10/- a head, per man, for the agent; passage money, 12pounds; cost of returning same, 3pounds; in all 19pounds/8/-; deducting from this amount of one third, as paid by the Government, we arrive at the fact that for 12pounds/18/8 we obtain a coolie servant for five years with his wages of 5d per day additional with rations."

From the Fiji Times, 8 September, 1875
 29 September - Taveuni ke Selia Levu Estate me Chini ke ek mill ganna ke pere ke suru karis

Janam
 31 October - Sardar Vallabhbhae Patel, Indian political leader, Iron Man of India ke janam, Nadiad, Gujarat, India me bhaes rahaa. (maut: 15 December 1950)

Maut

 4 April – Hans Christian Andersen ek Danish lekhak aur kavi rahaa, jiske maut Copenhagen, Denmark me bhaes rahaa.  (janam: 2 April 1805)

References

 Indianetzone - Arya Samaj
 Fiji Government Online Portal - Historical Timeline

1875


The African penguin (Spheniscus demersus), also known as Black-footed penguin or Jackass penguin, is found on the south-western coast of Africa. It lives in colonies on 24 islands between Namibia and Algoa Bay, near Port Elizabeth, South Africa. The largest colony on Dyer Island, near Kleinbaai. Two colonies were established by penguins in the 1980s on the mainland near Cape Town at Boulders Beach near Simon's Town and Stony Point in Betty's Bay. Mainland colonies probably only became possible in recent times due to fewer predators, although the Betty's Bay colony has been attacked by leopards. The only other mainland colony is in Namibia, but it is not known when this was established.

The African penguin may live up to 20 years. It grows up to 65 cm tall and weighs up to 3 kg. They eat fish, crabs and squids. The breeding time is 38 days.

Boulders Beach is a tourist attraction, for the beach, swimming and the penguins. The penguins will allow people to approach them as close as a meter (3 ft).

The closest relatives of the African Penguins are the Humboldt and Magellanic penguins found in southern South America and the Galápagos Penguin found in the Pacific Ocean near the equator.

Other articles
Penguin Town

References

Penguins

African penguin


María Eva Duarte de Perón (; 7 Mey 1919 – 26 Julie 1952) wis the seicont wife o Preses Juan Perón (1895–1974) an served as the First Lady o Argentinae frae 1946 till her daith in 1952. She is aften referred tae as simply Eva Perón, or bi the affectionate Spaingie leid diminutive Evita, which literally translates intae Inglis as "Little Eva".

She wis born oot o wedlock in the village o Los Toldos in rural Argentinae in 1919, the fowert o five children. In 1934, at the age o 15, she went tae the naition's caipital o Buenos Aires, where she pursued a career as a stage, radio, an film actress. Eva met Colonel Juan Perón on Januar 22, 1944, in Buenos Aires durin a charity event at the Luna Park Stadium tae benefit the victims of an earthquake in San Juan, Argentinae. The twa wur married the follaein year. In 1946, Juan Perón wis electit Preses o Argentinae. Ower the course o the next sax years, Eva Perón became pouerful athin the pro-Peronist trade unions, essentially for speakin on behauf o labor richts. She an aa ran the Ministries o Labor an Health, foondit an ran the charitable Eva Perón Foundation, championed women's suffrage in Argentinae, an foundit
an ran the naition's first lairge-scale female politeecal pairty, the Female Peronist Pairty.

1919 births
1952 daiths
Actor-politeecians
Argentine film actresses
Justicialist Pairty politeecians
Argentine revolutionars
Argentine Roman Catholics
Cancer daiths in Argentinae
Daiths frae cervical cancer
Fowk saunts

Mummies
Fowk frae Buenos Aires Province
Spouses o the Preses o Argentinae
Argentine weemen in politics
Buirials at La Recoleta seemetry

Eva Perón