Susan Bieke Neilson (August 27, 1956 – January 25, 2006) was a United States circuit judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, and before that, a state trial judge in Michigan.

Neilson was nominated by President George W. Bush on February 14, 2005, to a seat vacated by Cornelia G. Kennedy. She was confirmed by the United States Senate on October 27, 2005, and received commission on November 9, 2005. Neilson's service was terminated on January 25, 2006, due to death.

Background

Neilson was born August 27, 1956, in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and was a lifelong Michigan resident. In 1977, she received an Artium Baccalaureus degree in political science from the University of Michigan Honors College. Neilson received her Juris Doctor in 1980 from Wayne State University Law School. Following graduation she practiced products liability, commercial litigation, medical malpractice, and general negligence law with the firm of Dickinson Wright in Detroit, making partner in 1986.

In 1991, Governor John Engler appointed Neilson to the 3rd Judicial Circuit of Michigan, part of the Wayne County Circuit Court, to which she was elected in 1992, and re-elected in 1996, and 2002. Neilson's chambers were in the Coleman A. Young Municipal Center (formerly the City-County Building) in downtown Detroit. While on the bench, Neilson co-wrote and co-edited Michigan Civil Procedure, a two-volume treatise on Michigan civil practice.

Neilson was married with two daughters (Elizabeth, Born in 1984 and Mary, Born in 1990). She was an active Roman Catholic and was a member of the Detroit Catholic Lawyers Society.

Sixth Circuit nomination and confirmation

Neilson was nominated to a Michigan seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit by President George W. Bush on November 8, 2001, to replace Judge Cornelia Groefsema Kennedy, who assumed senior status in 1999. On the same day, Bush also nominated Henry Saad and David McKeague to Michigan seats on the Sixth Circuit. On June 26, 2002, Bush nominated Richard Allen Griffin to a fourth Michigan seat on the Sixth Circuit. During the Democrat-controlled 107th Congress, all four nominations were stalled in the Senate Judiciary Committee by then-chairman, Senator Patrick Leahy, D-VT.

In the 2002 midterm congressional elections, the Republicans regained control of the Senate. During the new 108th Congress, Senator Orrin Hatch, R-UT, the new Republican chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee began to process the previously blocked four nominees. In March 2003, Michigan's two Democratic senators, Carl Levin and Debbie Stabenow announced that they would blue-slip all Bush judicial nominees from Michigan because Bush refused to renominate Helene White and Kathleen McCree Lewis, two Michigan nominees to the Sixth Circuit whose nominations the Senate Republicans had refused to process during President Bill Clinton's second term. Helene White was, at the time, married to Levin's cousin.

Contrary to Levin's and Stabenow's wishes, Hatch gave Saad, McKeague and Griffin hearings, and passed the three nominees out of committee. Furious, Levin and Stabenow convinced their caucus to filibuster the three in order to prevent them from having confirmation votes.

The Senate Republicans increased their numbers in the 109th Congress. Tensions between the Republicans and Democrats rose dramatically as the Republicans sought to break the filibusters of ten Bush court of appeals nominees (including Saad, McKeague and Griffin) by using the nuclear option. In order to defuse the explosive situation concerning the use of the nuclear option and Democrats' obstruction of President Bush's judicial nominations, fourteen moderate Republican and Democratic senators called the Gang of 14 joined together to forge an agreement to guarantee certain filibustered nominations up or down votes. Henry Saad and William Myers, however, were expressly excluded from the deal.

After the Gang of 14 agreement in the Senate in 2005, Neilson finally received a floor vote in the Senate on October 27, 2005. (Fellow Michigan Sixth Circuit nominees Richard Allen Griffin and David McKeague received were confirmed by the Senate in June.) She was confirmed by a 97–0 vote, with both Michigan senators ultimately voting in her favor. Her confirmation came almost exactly four years after her initial nomination. She received her commission on November 9, 2005.

Illness and death

After being nominated by Bush, Neilson learned that she had myelodysplastic syndrome, a rare blood disorder that eventually required her to undergo a bone marrow transplant in 2003. Though greatly diminished physically, Neilson returned to work and, following confirmation, moved her chambers to the federal courthouse in Detroit. On January 25, 2006, Neilson succumbed to the lingering effects of her illness, and died of lung failure in Detroit at the age of 49. Due to her illness and death, Neilson served for only two months on the Sixth Circuit and never wrote any opinions. According to an order of the court published in January 2006, Neilson participated in a decision to rehear a case en banc. The order does not indicate whether Neilson voted for or against rehearing.

Neilson was survived by her husband and two daughters.

Epilogue

After her death, in June 2006, President Bush nominated Stephen J. Murphy III, the United States Attorney for the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan, as Neilson's replacement. When Levin and Stabenow again balked in the 110th Congress at confirming any more Bush judicial nominees for Michigan, his nomination was withdrawn and replaced with that of failed Clinton nominee Helene White, now divorced from Levin's cousin. White was confirmed to Neilson's old seat in 2008.

See also
Bill Clinton judicial appointment controversies
George W. Bush judicial appointment controversies
filibuster
nuclear option
Gang of 14

References

Sources

Sixth Circuit Bio

1956 births
2006 deaths
Deaths from myelodysplastic syndrome
Judges of the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit
United States court of appeals judges appointed by George W. Bush
21st-century American judges
University of Michigan College of Literature, Science, and the Arts alumni
Wayne State University Law School alumni
Deaths from cancer in Michigan
21st-century American women judges

Susan Bieke Neilson


SPQR are the initials of a Latin phrase Senātus Populusque Rōmānus. It means "The Roman Senate and People" or "The Senate and People of Rome".

It refers to the government of the ancient Roman Republic. It is still used as an official emblem of the modern-day municipality of Rome.

SPQR appears on Roman coins, at the end of documents made public by inscription in stone or metal, in dedications of monuments and public works, and on the flag (vexilloid) of the Roman legions.

The phrase appears in Roman political, legal and historical literature, such as the speeches of Cicero and Ab Urbe Condita Libri ("Books from the Founding of the City") of Livy.

The date of first use of SPQR is not known. It first appears in inscriptions of the later Republic, from about 80 BC onwards. It last appears on coins of Constantine the Great (ruled AD 312-337), the first Christian Roman emperor.

The signature continued in use under the Roman Empire. The emperors were considered the representatives of the people, although the decrees of the Senate were dictated by the wishes of the emperor.

Similar language in more modern political and social revolutions no doubt comes from this usage. During the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini, SPQR was emblazoned on many public buildings in an attempt to promote his dictatorship as a "New Roman Empire"

Roman Republic

SPQR


The United States Census of 1870 was the ninth United States Census. It was done by the Census Bureau in June 1870. The 1870 Census was the first census to give detailed information on the black population. The population was 38,555,983 individuals. This was a 22.62% increase since 1860.

1870
1870s in the United States
United States Census

1870 United States Census


A screenplay or script is the written instruction about what happens in a play, movie or television program. The screenplay for a movie has everything that happens in the movie. It includes the plot, the dialogue and actions of the characters, and instructions for editing.  The person who writes the screenplay is called a screenwriter. A screenplay for television is called a teleplay.  The script is usually slightly changed or things will be added or subtracted as the directors and producers decide.

Movie terminology
television

Screenplay


Gabriel Józef Narutowicz (; 29 March 1865 – 16 December 1922) was a Polish professor of hydroelectric engineering and politician who served as the first President of Poland from 11 December 1922 until his assassination on 16 December, five days after assuming office. He previously served as the Minister of Public Works from 1920 to 1922 and briefly as Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1922. A renowned engineer and politically independent, Narutowicz was the first elected head of state following Poland's regained sovereignty from partitioning powers.

Born into a noble family with the strong patriotic sentiment, Narutowicz studied at the Saint Petersburg Imperial University before relocating to Zurich Polytechnic and completing his studies in Switzerland. An engineer by profession, he was a pioneer of electrification and his works were presented at exhibitions across Western Europe. Narutowicz also directed the construction of the first European hydroelectric power plants in Monthey, Mühleberg and Andelsbuch. In 1907, he was nominated a professor of hydroelectric and water engineering in Zurich, and was subsequently assigned to maintaining the Rhine. In September 1919, Narutowicz was invited by the Polish authorities in rebuilding the nation's infrastructure after the devastation caused by World War I. On 23 June 1920, Narutowicz became the Minister of Public Works in Władysław Grabski's government. Following his successful conduct of the Polish delegation at the Genoa Conference, on 28 June 1922 he became the Minister of Foreign Affairs in Artur Śliwiński's cabinet.

During the elections in 1922, Narutowicz was supported by the center-left, most notably the Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie", and by national minorities, but was harshly criticized by the right-wing National Democrats. Far-right zealots, ultra-Catholic unions and nationalists targeted him for sympathy towards Polish Jews. Upon defeating the other candidate, Maurycy Zamoyski, Narutowicz was elected the first president of the Second Polish Republic. After only five days in office, he was assassinated by oppositionist Eligiusz Niewiadomski while viewing paintings at the Zachęta Art Gallery. His funeral, attended by almost 500,000 people, was simultaneously a manifestation of peace which diminished the power of the far-right movement in the upcoming years. Narutowicz was buried with honors on 22 December 1922 in the vault of St. John's Cathedral in Warsaw.

Narutowicz was a non-practicing Catholic and an active Freemason; he participated in rituals throughout the whole country.

Family
Gabriel Józef Narutowicz was born into a Polish-Lithuanian noble family in Telšiai, then part of the Russian Empire after the partitioning of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. His father, Jan Narutowicz, was a local district judge and landholder in the Samogitian village of . As a result of his participation in the January 1863 Uprising against Imperial Russia, he was sentenced to a year in prison; he died when Gabriel was only one.

Gabriel's mother, Wiktoria Szczepkowska, was Jan's third wife. Following her husband's death, she raised the sons herself. An educated woman, intrigued by the philosophy of the Age of Enlightenment, she had a great influence on the development of Gabriel and his siblings' world view. In 1873 she moved to Liepāja, Latvia, so that her children would not be forced to attend a Russian school (Russification in Latvia after the Uprising of 1863 was less enforced than in Lithuania and Poland, the center of the uprising).

An illustration of the dual nature of the family's identity is Gabriel Narutowicz's brother, Stanisław Narutowicz, who, after Lithuania regained independence in 1918, became a Lithuanian, not Polish, citizen. Earlier, towards the end of World War I, Stanisław had become a member of the Council of Lithuania, the provisional Lithuanian parliament. He was a signatory of the Act of Independence of Lithuania of 16 February 1918.

1865–1920

Narutowicz finished his secondary education at the Liepāja Gymnasium, Latvia. He then enrolled at the Saint Petersburg Imperial University, in the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics. Illness, however, caused him to suspend those studies and to later transfer to the Zurich Polytechnic in Switzerland, where he studied from 1887 to 1891.

Narutowicz helped exiled Poles on the run from the Russian authorities during his time in Switzerland. He was also connected with a Polish émigré socialist party, "Proletariat". As a result of his associations, he was banned from returning to Russia and had a warrant issued for his arrest. In 1895 Narutowicz became a Swiss citizen and, after completing his studies, he was employed as an engineer during the construction of the St. Gallen railway.

Narutowicz proved to be an outstanding engineering expert and, in 1895, became chief of works on the River Rhine. Later he was hired by the Kurstein technical office. His works were exhibited at the International Exhibition in Paris (1896), and he would become a famous pioneer of electrification in Switzerland. Narutowicz directed the construction of many other European hydroelectric power plants, such as in Monthey, Mühleberg, and Andelsbuch.

In 1907 he became a professor at ETH Zurich, in the water construction institute in Zurich. He was dean of that institute from 1913 to 1919. He was also a member of the Swiss Committee for Water Economy. In 1915 he was chosen chairman of the International Committee for the regulation of the River Rhine.

During World War I, he cooperated with the General Swiss Committee tasked with helping victims of the war in Poland and was also a member of La Pologne et la Guerre, located in Lausanne. A follower of the ideas of Józef Piłsudski, in September 1919 Narutowicz was invited by the Polish government to return to Poland to take part in the rebuilding of the nation's infrastructure.

1920–22

After coming back to Poland, on 23 June 1920 Narutowicz became the Minister of Public Works in Władysław Grabski's government. He held that post until 26 June 1922 (in four different subsequent cabinets: of Władysław Grabski, Wincenty Witos and the first and the second governments of Antoni Ponikowski). After becoming the Minister of Public Works, Narutowicz immediately started to work on the rebuilding of his country, using the experience acquired in Switzerland as a pioneer of electrification. He would soon go about reorganizing the reconstruction bureaucracy and reduce the number of employees fourfold over the course of two years, in that way greatly increasing its efficiency.

Narutowicz traveled around the country often to personally supervise and direct public works. By 1921 almost 270,000 buildings and 300 bridges had been rebuilt, most of the roads mended, and about 200 km of highways added. He also designed dams and supervised the building of a hydroelectric power plant in Porąbka on the river Soła in the Beskid Mountains, and worked on irrigation control of the Vistula River.

Politically he had a reputation as a moderate, reasonable and broad-minded man. He was a member of the government in every subsequent cabinet (a period of constant government crises and turnover). In April 1922, Narutowicz was delegated (together with the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the time, Konstanty Skirmunt) to participate in the Genoa Conference, and was given credit for the success of the Polish delegation—many Western diplomats had greater trust in the highly respected Narutowicz than in the other government ministers of the newly re-established country.

On 28 June 1922, he became the Minister of Foreign Affairs in Artur Śliwiński's government. He also held that post in the later government of Julian Ignacy Nowak. In October 1922, he represented Poland at a conference in Tallinn. In the election of 1922, he supported the center-right National Public Union (Unia Narodowo-Państwowa), connected with Józef Piłsudski. He himself was a candidate of the Public Union on Eastern Borderlands (Państwowe Zjednoczenie na Kresach) but did not gain a seat in Parliament.

Elections

After having lost the elections, Narutowicz continued as Minister of Foreign Affairs in the government of Julian Nowak. To his own great surprise that December he was nominated as a candidate for the ensuing presidential election. Although Piłsudski tried to discourage him from becoming a presidential candidate (he himself had originally wanted to decline the nomination, which the Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie" had proposed), he eventually relented and accepted.

According to the March Constitution of Poland, the president had to be chosen by the National Assembly, that is, the two houses of parliament (Pol: Zgromadzenie Narodowe i.e. the Sejm and the Senate). There was no clear winner after the first round of voting. In the second round, the official socialist candidate, Ignacy Daszyński, was eliminated; but again, there was no clear victor. The next to drop out were the two candidates most favored by representatives of the national minorities: namely, Jan Baudouin de Courtenay and Stanisław Wojciechowski (the latter supported by some of the Left). In the last and decisive round, only two candidates remained: Count Maurycy Klemens Zamoyski (backed by the right-wing National Democracy movement) and Narutowicz (supported by some center and left-wing parties as well as by spokesmen for various national minorities).

Narutowicz prevailed thanks to the votes of the left, of the representatives for national minorities vote (these representatives were determined to defeat the National Democracy movement), and of the centrist Polish People's Party "Piast" (PSL "Piast"). This last group, initially inclined toward Zamoyski, unexpectedly switched its backing to Narutowicz instead. Eventually, Narutowicz won 289 votes, whereas Zamoyski won only 227 votes, and so Narutowicz was elected the first president of the Second Polish Republic.

Narutowicz's victory came as an extremely unpleasant surprise to various leading right-wingers. Following the election, certain Catholic and nationalist groups began an aggressive campaign against Narutowicz personally. Among other accusations, they called him an atheist and a Freemason, and some of the press referred to him as "the Jewish president". The anti-Pilsudski faction, supported by General Józef Haller, also criticized the new president's overall support of Piłsudski's policies.

Presidency
Gabriel Narutowicz served as president of Poland for a mere five days. During his oath of office ceremony on 11 December 1922, members of the National Democracy and others manifested their opposition against the president-elect with anti-government demonstrations in Warsaw. Earlier on that day, opponents of his election attempted to prevent the president-elect from entering the Sejm by blocking the streets and throwing mud at his motorcade. Narutowicz was never comfortable with the widespread belief that he was a representative of the Left in Polish politics. He had only become the candidate of the Polish Peasant Party "Wyzwolenie" by happenstance; he had also not expected to win the election (in its first-round Narutowicz gained just 62 votes whereas count Zamoyski had 222).

During his first days after his taking the oath of office, Gabriel Narutowicz met with the representatives of the Christian Democratic Party and Cardinal Aleksander Kakowski. Narutowicz realized that it would be impossible to form a majority government in the Parliament, so he made an attempt to create a government beyond the purview of parliament. As a gesture to the right wing, he offered the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs to his rival Zamoyski.

Assassination

Only five days after taking office, on 16 December 1922, Narutowicz was assassinated while attending an art exhibit in the Zachęta National Gallery of Art. The assassin was a painter, Eligiusz Niewiadomski, who had connections with the right wing National Democratic Party and would soon become their martyr. The assassin was sentenced to death and executed outside the Warsaw Citadel on 31 January.

In film
The murder of Narutowicz was the main theme of the 1977 Polish feature film Death of a President (Pol: Śmierć prezydenta), directed by Jerzy Kawalerowicz.

See also
 List of presidents of Poland

References

Further reading
 Richard M. Watt, Bitter Glory: Poland and Its Fate, 1918 to 1939, New York, Simon & Schuster, 1979, .

External links

 Documentary project Narutowicz.pl

1865 births
1922 murders in Poland
1922 deaths
19th-century Polish nobility
20th-century Polish nobility
19th-century Lithuanian nobility
20th-century Lithuanian nobility
Assassinated Polish politicians
Burials at St. John's Archcathedral, Warsaw
Deaths by firearm in Poland
Academic staff of ETH Zurich
Male murder victims
Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the Second Polish Republic
People from Telshevsky Uyezd
People from Telšiai
People murdered in Poland
Polish engineers
Polish Freemasons
Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie" politicians
Presidents of Poland
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
People from the Russian Empire
1920s assassinated politicians
Assassinated presidents in Europe
20th-century assassinated national presidents
20th-century Polish engineers

Gabriel Narutowicz


Alexis Weissenberg (26 July 1929 – 8 January 2012) was a French pianist of Jewish-Bulgarian descent. Technically brilliant, his playing was often described as cold and precise. Weissenberg was born in Sofia and in 1941 was sent to a concentration camp with his family. A guard liked his playing and helped the family escape to Turkey, and then to Jerusalem. In 1946 he moved to New York and studied at the Julliard School of Music. He toured for about ten years, but then did not play in public until 1966 when he performed with Herbert von Karajan in Berlin. He finally settled in Spain, but rarely performed in public.

References

1929 births
2012 deaths
Bulgarian Jews
French pianists
Holocaust survivors
Jewish French musicians
People from Sofia

Alexis Weissenberg


Pizzicato Five (formerly typeset as Pizzicato V and sometimes abbreviated to P5) was a Japanese pop band formed in Tokyo in 1979 by multi-instrumentalists Yasuharu Konishi and Keitarō Takanami. After some personnel changes in the late 1980s, the band gained international fame as a duo consisting of Konishi and vocalist Maki Nomiya. With their music blending together 1960s pop, jazz and synth-pop, the group were a prominent component in the Shibuya-kei movement of the 1990s.

Pizzicato Five was a hugely prolific group during its existence, usually releasing at least a studio album each year in addition to various EPs and remix albums. Their music has appeared in numerous movies, television episodes, and video games.

History

1980s
Pizzicato V began in 1979 when university students Yasuharu Konishi and Keitarō Takanami first met at a local music society conference. Ryō Kamomiya, Mamiko Sasaki, and Shigeo Miyata were soon recruited after a few years. Miyata left the group almost immediately but the four remaining members kept the name Pizzicato V. The band released its first single on Haruomi Hosono's Non-Standard label (Teichiku Records), a 12-inch release titled "The Audrey Hepburn Complex" which was produced by Hosono, in 1985. They followed this with the single "Action".

In 1986, Pizzicato V signed with CBS/Sony (now Sony Music Entertainment Japan). In 1987, the band released their first all-new album, Couples. It was a commercial failure, and the record company began pressuring the band to find a new lead singer. Kamomiya and Sasaki decided to quit. Takao Tajima, Original Love's frontman, joined the band soon as the new vocalist. He decided to work at these two bands. With Tajima, the band released its second album, Bellissima! in 1988.

The next two albums, 1989's On Her Majesty's Request and 1990's Soft Landing on the Moon, were also commercial failures.

1990s

In 1990, Maki Nomiya, who had previously released one solo album, joined as the third lead vocalist. Takao Tajima left to concentrate on his own band Original Love. In 1991, Pizzicato Five signed with Nippon Columbia/Seven Gods (later Triad Records).

Following three EPs showcasing Nomiya's vocals, Pizzicato Five released This Year's Girl. Inspired by the advent of sampling (De La Soul's 3 Feet High and Rising is said to have been a major influence), the group put together a sound which would help start the burgeoning Shibuya-kei scene. The album would spawn two of their best-known songs: "Twiggy Twiggy" and "Baby Love Child".

1992 saw a change in direction as the clubby Sweet Pizzicato Five was released.

The band began to get increasing exposure via the theme songs it recorded for television dramas (a common practice for pop bands in Japan), achieving widespread fame with the 1993 single "Sweet Soul Revue", which was featured in a major spring advertising campaign for Kao Corporation (Kanebo Cosmetics). In December, the single  (literally, 7 p.m. in Tokyo) became another smash hit after it was used as the opening theme of the children's television programme UgoUgo Rūga Ni-gō.

The band's American debut came in 1994 with the release of the EP Five by Five on Matador Records. This was quickly followed by a full-length album, Made in USA, a compilation of tracks from their last three Japanese albums which sold 200,000 copies worldwide.

Shortly before the release of the next album Overdose in the same year, Keitarō Takanami quit the band, leaving Konishi and Nomiya as the only remaining members. In February 1995, the two set off on a successful 14-stop tour of Europe and America. Another compilation, The Sound of Music by Pizzicato Five, was released in October 1995, again featuring various tracks from the Maki-era albums.

After the 1996 release of the album Romantique 96 and several singles, including the hit "Baby Portable Rock", in 1997 the band formed its own label, Readymade Records, and released the commercially successful album Happy End of the World – the only Pizzicato Five album to be released unchanged in both Japan and the rest of the world.

In 1998, the band released The International Playboy & Playgirl Record in Japan. It would be released a year later worldwide with a slightly different track listing and the shortened title (which was also its Japanese title) of Playboy & Playgirl.

1999 came and Pizzicato Five released the JBL Maxisonic series of EPs, followed by the album Pizzicato Five. It included songs from each of the three EPs in very different forms: "Darlin' of Discothèque" is shorter and instrumental, "A Perfect World" is a lounge-style rearrangement sung by guest vocalist Mieko Hirota and the new song "20th Century Girl" is based on the B-side "Room Service", originally written by Masumi Arichika of TV Jesus.

Final years
In 2000, Matador Records released Pizzicato Five under the somewhat less confusing name of The Fifth Release from Matador. The CD version of this left out the first song "Love Again" but added three extra tracks (one from each of the JBL Maxisonic EPs), while the LP version shared the same title but deviated still further from the original track listing. It would also be Pizzicato Five's last American release.

2001 saw the Japanese release of the album Çà et là du Japon and the announcement that the band was to break up, followed by a series of live events featuring guest performances by old members and two further Big Hits and Jet Lags albums – Pizzicato Five R.I.P. (1998–2001) and Singles (1993–2001).

Members
Members (at time of disbandment)
 Yasuharu Konishi (1984–2001) – songwriter, bass guitar, guitar, keyboards, vocals.
 He was the only founding member to stay with the group until the end. He is a music producer now.
 Maki Nomiya (1990–2001) – lead vocals
 Their third vocalist. She is also a solo singer, a narrator, a fashion model and a dress designer now.

Former members
 Keitarō Takanami (1984–1994) – guitar, keyboards and vocals.
 One of the founding members; he is a guitarist and a music producer now. He changed his name to 高浪敬太郎 (Keitarō Takanami) later, and was also known as "K-taro."
 Mamiko Sasaki (1984–1987) – lead vocals
 One of the original members and was the first vocalist of this group.
 Ryō Kamomiya (1984–1987) – keyboards
 One of the original members; he is a composer and an arranger now.
 Takao Tajima (1987–1990) – lead vocal, guitar, harmonica
 Their second vocalist. He had already come out as Original Love's vocalist then. He is a solo singer and is also a music producer now.

Discography

Studio albums
 Couples (1987)
 Bellissima! (1988)
 On Her Majesty's Request (1989)
 Soft Landing on the Moon (1990)
 This Year's Girl (1991)
 Sweet Pizzicato Five (1992)
 Bossa Nova 2001 (1993)
 Overdose (1994)
 Romantique 96 (1995)
 Happy End of the World (1997)
 The International Playboy & Playgirl Record (1998)
 Pizzicato Five (1999)
 Çà et là du Japon (2001)

References

External links
  Official Pizzicato Five website with discography
 Matador Record's page on Pizzicato Five
  Extremely thorough fan site
 Comprehensive database of translated Pizzicato Five lyrics
 Pizzicato Five Discography Song by Song Index

J-pop.com overview

Japanese dance music groups
Japanese electronic musicians
Japanese electropop groups
Japanese dance musicians
Japanese musical duos
Japanese rock music groups
Japanese pop music groups
Male–female musical duos
Musical groups disestablished in 2001
Musical groups established in 1985
Nippon Columbia artists
Matador Records artists
Shibuya-kei musicians
Japanese indie pop groups
Musical groups from Shibuya
1985 establishments in Japan
Female-fronted musical groups

Pizzicato Five


The Chittagong Hill Tracts (Bengali:পার্বত্য চট্টগ্রাম), (Parbotto Chôṭṭogram) comprise an area of 13,189 km2 in south-eastern Bangladesh. The area forms the border of Bangladesh with the Republic of India and Burma. It was a single district of East Pakistan till 1971. In that year it was divided into three separate districts: Khagrachari, Rangamati and Bandarban. Topographically, this is the only hill intensive area of the People's Republic. With a population of Around 800,000 Indigenous peoples (Native (non-Bengali). The Chittagong Hill Tracts is one of the most diverse regions in the country in terms of geography, ethnicity, culture and traditions of the people. The indigenous distinct Jumma people are distinct and different from the majority Bengali people of present-day Bangla-desh in respect of race, language, culture, heritage, religion, political history and economy.

When India was split into two separate countries in 1948, the Radcliffe Line gave this area to East Pakistan (Bangladesh), which was mostly Muslim, even though most people in the area were Buddhists. Today most people are Buddhist, some Christians and animists. The major ethnic groups among 13 peoples are the Chakma, Tipra, Murong and Magh, Marma, Tanchangya, Mro, Lushai, Khumi, Chak, Khiyang, Bawm, Pangkhua and with the Ten indigenous languages. Beside, a very small number of descendants of Ahamiya, Gorkha and Santal also live there. They collectively identify themselves as the Jumma people (High Landers), the first people of the CHT.but almost 50% of the present day's population are immigrated Bengali Muslim settlers. Since the Independence of Bangla-Desh the indigenous population was faced with increasing immigration of settlers from the mainland, fostered by the central nationalist government. Among the tribal nations first political and civil, later (since the 1980s) armed resistance was organised, especially by the Shanti Bahini guerrilla movement. In reaction the whole region was heavily militarised and the police and army unleashed a wide spread repression with a serious human rights violations. The 5-points-manifesto of the Jana Samhati Samiti, released on 7 September 1987, was focused on a well entrenched Autonomy:

 1. Autonomy for the CHT with legislative assembly and recognition of the right to Self-determination.

 2. Inclusion of this provision in the Constitution.

 3. Removal of all non-Tribals settled in CHT after 17 August 1947.

 4. Allocation of funds from the government to develop the region.

 5. Creation of favorable environment for a political solution of the crisis.

On 2 December 1997 a "Peace agreement" was signed by the government and Parvatya Chattagram Jana Samhati Samiti, the political platform of the indigenous peoples, granting a limited level of autonomy to three districts of CHT. The Jana Samhati Samiti transformed into a party, but this treaty has never been implemented, as it was opposed by both the opposition parties of Bangla Desh and by the majority fraction of the Shanti Bahini. The previous nationalists Bangla Desh government of Khaleda Zia promised to re-launch the peace process, but until now did not accomplish with its promises.

Historical Background
Before the colonization, the indigenous Jumma people of CHT were independent. There had been no external interference by any outside power in the affairs of the CHT until 1787, when an agreement was signed with the British. British colonization actually started in 1860. From 1787 to 1860 the British government did not intervene in the internal administration of the CHT. After 1860 and until 1900 the British government administered CHT through a set of Rules promulgated from time to time. For the maintenance of discipline among the police personnel in the CHT, Frontier Police Regulation III of 1881 was promulgated on the 7 December 1881 and CHT Police Force was raised with indigenous Jumma people. For the good government of the CHT, in 1900 the British government enacted the CHT Regulation 1 of 1900 and declared it as an Excluded Area, in order to protect the Jumma people from economic exploitation by non-indigenous Bengali people and to preserve their traditional socio-cultural and political institutions based on customary laws, community ownership of land and so on.

Through the Partition of India, CHT was ceded to the Dominion of Pakistan. The Pakistani government recognized CHT as an Excluded Area and even in the first Constitution of Pakistan, which was adopted in 1956, CHT was declared as an Excluded Area under the CHT Regulation of 1900. From the very outset, the Pakistani government looked upon the Jumma people with an eye of suspicion for being anti-Pakistani as well as anti-Islamic. There was discrimination against the Jumma people in employment, business and education. The government policy was clearly revealed by the repeal of the CHT Frontier Police Regulation of 1881, thus disbanding the Jumma police force in 1948. Even in 1950, in implementing its brazen designs violating the principles and spirit of the CHT Regulation of 1900, the Government of Pakistan started Bengali Muslim settlement program, which continued up to 1966. The government had enacted the CHT (Land Acquisition) Regulation in 1958 in order to grab Jumma people's ancestral lands. Moreover, the government snatched away the rights and privileges of the Jumma people by canceling the Excluded Area status of the CHT in 1963. In 1960, in order to carry out its plan and break down the economic backbone of the Jumma people of the CHT in the name of so-called industrial development, the Pakistani government built the Kaptai hydro-electric dam on the Karnaphuli river in the heartland of the indigenous Jumma people.

During the Separatists War of 1971, the then Chakma King sided with the Pakistanis, so when independence came, the Adivasis' plea for special status fell on deaf ears. The Chakma king left for Pakistan and later became that country's ambassador to Argentina.

Meanwhile, more and more Bengalis were migrating into the area, usurping the land. In 1973 the Adivasis initiated an insurgency. To counter it, the government, in 1979, started issuing permits to landless Bengalis to settle there, with title to tribal land. This practice continued for six years and resulted in a mass migration of approximately 400,000 people into the area – almost as many as all the tribal groups combined. Countless human-rights abuses occurred as the army tried to put down the revolt.

From 1973 until 1997 the Hill Tracts area was the scene of a guerrilla war between the Bangladeshi army and the Shanti Bahini rebels. The troubles stemmed from the cultural clash between the tribal groups and the plains people. After nine months of war of separatism against Pakistan, Bangladesh emerged as an independent state on 16 December 1971. The Jumma people then had hoped that the new rulers of Bangladesh would realize their hopes and aspirations. So the Jumma people demanded to the then government for regional autonomy in a democratic way. Unfortunately, the government of Bangladesh did not respect their fundamental rights and did not write even a single word in the Constitution regarding the entity and safeguard of the Jumma people. Rather, immediately following the independence of Bangladesh in early 1972 the CHT underwent militarization. When the democratic movement to safeguard the national existence of the Jumma people was negotiated by the government with repressive measures through the civil and police administrations, including through militarization with the construction of three Army cantonments, it forced Manabendra Narayan Larma, the then MP and the hero of the CHT Jumma movement, to call for an armed struggle. An armed wing of PCJSS was formed with the name of Shanti Bahini (Peace Force). Since 1979 the Government of Bangladesh has undertaken a drastic program to settle the Bengali population from other Districts of Bangladesh to CHT, so that they would outnumber the Jumma people and use them as human shields for the protection of the Army personnel. At least four hundred thousands of Bengali Muslims were transferred into the CHT and settled on Jumma people's lands.

The PCJSS has always kept the door open for dialogue for resolving the CHT problem through political and peaceful means. For this purpose, the PCJSS held 6 and 13 times formal dialogues with the governments of Ershad and Khaleda Zia respectively. During the last one, after holding 7 round of dialogues with Sheikh Hasina government, the 'CHT Accord' was signed between the National Committee on the CHT on behalf of the government of Bangladesh and the PCJSS on behalf of the permanent residents of the CHT in Dhaka on 2 December 1997.

Geography of Bangladesh

Chittagong Hill Tracts


The Henry VII Lady Chapel is a Lady chapel at the far eastern end of Westminster Abbey built in the Gothic style.

The Chapel was built in 1503 by the architect Sir Reginald Bray. Henry VII was buried in the Chapel on his death in 1509 in a tomb designed by the Italian artist Torrigiani.

16th-century buildings and structures
Westminster Abbey

Henry VII Lady Chapel


A bachelor is a man who has not been married and is not cohabiting. He lives on his own or with a flatmate/housemate. A woman in this situation is sometimes known as a bachelorette. A bachelor cannot have been married, as a man who married but then divorced is called a divorcé. A man whose wife is dead is a widower.

Sometimes, when a bachelor is going to be married, a bachelor party is organized to celebrate the last day that the person will be a bachelor for.

Marriage

es:Soltero

Bachelor


"Unity makes strength" (, ; ; ) is the national motto of Belgium.  It was also taken on by Bulgaria and Haiti.

History

Netherlands

The motto was first used in 1550. It came from the Latin phrase "concordia res parvae crescunt" (small states flourish by concord). The new Dutch Republic took over the phrase as its motto. It was on several of its coins and coats of arms.

The French were in the Netherlands from 1795 to 1813, first as the Batavian Republic then the Kingdom of Holland. Early on the national motto was changed to "Gelykheid, Vryheid, Broederschap" (Equality, Liberty, Fraternity). From 1802 to 1810 'Unity makes strength' was used again. In 1816, it switched to the House of Orange motto 'Je maintiendrai'.

Haiti
The motto was chosen  by the Republic of Haiti  after  the revolution and subsequent independence of  the  slaves of the French colony of Saint-Domingue in 1803. The newly created state of Haiti became officially independent on January 1st,1804 following the capitulation of the French troops at the Battle of Vertieres of November 18,1803. The coat of arms of the republic of Haiti carries the french version of the motto  "L'Union fait la force". The Republic of Haiti is often referred to as the world's First Black Republic.

Belgium

The motto was used by Belgium after its Revolution of 1830.  It was first only in its French form "L'union fait la force".

USA

The motto of Brooklyn, a borough of New York City started by Dutch settlers, is still "Eendraght maeckt maght". The motto Eendragt maakt magt also appears on the badge of the police force of Holland, Michigan.

Bulgaria
After Ferdinand of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha took over the throne of the Principality of Bulgaria,  the country started to use Belgium's motto of L'union fait la force (in Bulgarian: Съединението прави силата). Although Unity makes strength meet in various projects on the coat of arms of Bulgaria in the post-liberation years, it officially became part of it only in 1927. After 1948, the motto dropped from the new Dimitrov Constitution, but remained on the facade of the National Assembly. Following the changes in 1989 and the adoption of a new Constitution of Bulgaria in 1991, the motto has been restored.

South African Republic
On 17 January 1852 the United Kingdom, ruler of the Cape Colony, made the South African Republic free. "Eendragt maakt magt" was the motto on the new state's shield. In 1888 the republic decided Dutch was its official language.

Malaysia
An early design of the coat of arms used between 1948 and 1963 used a variation of the motto, "Unity is Strength".  It was in both English and Jawi. After three more states were added into the federation in 1963, the English motto of the arms was replaced by a rough Malay translation, Bersekutu Bertambah Mutu (literally "Unity Improves Quality"). The Jawi motto remained unchanged.

National symbols of Belgium
National symbols of Bulgaria
National symbols of Haiti
Mottos

Unity makes strength


A mathematical model is a description o a seestem uisin mathematical concepts an leid. The process o developin a mathematical model is termed mathematical modellin. Mathematical models are uised nae anly in the naitural sciences (such as pheesics, biology, yird science, meteorology) an ingineerin disciplines (e.g. computer science, airtificial intelligence), but an aa in the social sciences (such as economics, psychology, sociology an poleetical science); pheesicists, ingineers, statisticians, operations research analysts an economists uise mathematical models maist extensively. A model mey help tae explain a seestem an tae study the effects o different components, an tae mak predictions aboot behaviour.

Mathematical models can tak mony furms, includin but nae leemitit tae dynamical seestems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theoretic models.  These an ither types o models can owerlap, wi a gien  model involvin a variety o abstract structurs. In general, mathematical models mey include logical models, as far as logic is taken as a pairt o mathematics.  In mony cases, the quality o a scientific field depends on hou well the mathematical models developed on the theoretical side agree wi results o repeatable experiments.  Lack o agreement atween theoretical mathematical models an experimental measurments eften leads tae important advances as better theories are developed.

Applee'd mathematics
Collective intelligence
Conceptual models
Knawledge representation

Mathematical terminology

Mathematical model


The districts of England are a level of subdivisions of England used for the purposes of local government. The first local government districts were created in 1894 by the Local Government Act 1894 which created urban districts and rural districts as sub-divisions of counties (which had been created in 1889). Another reform in 1899 created 28 metropolitan boroughs as sub-divisions of the County of London.

There are 36 metropolitan districts, 32 London boroughs, 238 non-metropolitan districts, 46 unitary authorities, the Isles of Scilly, and the City of London, making a total of 354 district-level authorities.

  Districts of England
1894 establishments in the United Kingdom
1890s establishments in England

Districts of England


The Dirac equation is an equation from quantum mechanics. Paul Dirac formulated the equation in 1928. The equation describes the behaviour of fermions (e.g. electrons and quarks), and takes special relativity into account. The equation showed the existence of antimatter.
It does not change in Lorentz transformation. This means it is a differential equation of the same order in space and time.
The Pauli equation can be derived from a special case of the equation
It predicts the existence of antimatter particles, with the same mass and spin, but with the opposite charge. In 1931, Dirac predicted the existence of positrons, one year before the particles were found in an experiment.
It explains why the spin of the electrons in the Stern–Gerlach experiment acts like a magnet, which splits the silver atoms according to their spin.
The differential operator used in a special form of the equation is very important for differential geometry
Dirac Equation also explains the behaviour of electron in two-dimensional Graphene sheet where the electron is set free due to the lack of interaction between elections thus making the electron behave massless.

Quantum mechanics

Dirac equation


Brie is a type of soft cheese with a yellowish interior and a white layer (the "rind") on the outside of the cheese.

The rind is eaten as well as the inside of this cheese. Like other cheeses, Brie is a dairy product made from cows' milk. Brie cheese may be served with fruit as a dessert at the end of a meal, or with a relish.

The cheese is sometimes served slightly melted or baked, in a round, lidded ceramic dish, and topped with nuts or fruit, or both.

How it is made
Brie is a French cheese, and protected by AOC (Appellation d'origine contrôlée). This means only this cheese from this region (near Paris) can properly call itself "brie". This is ignored by some countries outside Europe, but the system of AOC is used in the wine business, so many parts of the world do honour it, and have similar arrangements.

The milk of soft cheeses (à pate molle in French) is not heated during the production of the cheese. Talleyrand said about this kind of cheese that it was the king of cheeses. He said that in the 19th century. This kind of cheese has been made for at least 1000 years.

In Europe this cheese is usually not treated chemically, so it might change in consistency or color. It will go bad if it is not kept cool. If that means it is kept in a refrigerator, note that it should not be eaten that cold. It is best eaten when it is somewhat below normal room temperature. In most countries, brie-style cheeses are made with Pasteurized milk.

Brie can be aged, that is, carefully treated for up to a year. Then it has a darker colour and a stronger taste. This is rarely seen outside of France.

Types of Brie

The following kinds of Brie exist:

 Brie de Meaux, from Champagne (region), AOC since 1986. The 1998 production was 7683 tonnes.
 Brie de Melun, from Ile-de-France, AOC since 1980. 264 tonnes produced in 1998.

Other French Bries are:

 Brie fermier, Île-de-France
 Brie de Melun bleu
 Brie petit moulé
 Brie laitier
 Brie de Coulommiers

Bries from outside France:

 Somerset Brie, England
 Brie Manoir, Québec
 Bleubrie, Québec

Brie de Meaux
Cheeses are made into round loaves, of about 36 cm in diameter. The cheeses then weight about 2.5 kilograms. It is best tasted from April to October, after a ripening period of 8 to 10 weeks. About 2% of the production occurs on farms.

Brie de Melun
The Brie de Melun is smaller than the Brie de Meaux, but more salt is added to it. The ripening period is 10 weeks. It is best consumed April to September, but it can be found March to November, in some locations. About 5% of production occurs on farms.

What Brie should look like
When people buy Brie, they should make sure that it has the following traits:
It is soft.
Brie is covered in a white layer. There may be reddish patches in the layer.
The interior of the cheese should be yellowish.
The cheese has a distinct smell which is often considered to be good.
It should taste slightly nutty.

French cheeses

Brie


Lambak nyaéta gelombang pabeungeutan nu kajadian dina lapisan luhur sagara. Lambak biasana disababkeun ku ayana angin atawa pangaruh géologis nu bisa jadi lumaku rébuan mil saméméh tepi ka darat. Lambak bisa mangrupa-rupa ukuran, ti mimiti riak nepi ka sunami.

Diwangunna lambak
Sabab utama gedéna lambak di basisir samudra nyaéta alatan angin ti kajauhan. Aya tilu faktor utama nu mangaruhan diwanguna "lambak alatan angin":

 Tarikna tiupan angin
 Legana cai anu katiup angin; disebut ogé fetch
 Lilana wanci angin niup di saluhureun hiji aréa.
Éta kabéhanana anu mangruhan kana gedé jeung leutikna lambak di laut. Gedé jeung leutikna ukuran lambak ieu diukur dumasar kana :

 Height (from trough to crest)
 Wavelength (from crest to crest)
 Period (time interval between arrival of consecutive crests at a stationary point)

Waves in a given aréa typically have a range of sizes.  For wéather reporting and for scientific analysis of wind wave statistics, their size over a period of time is usually expressed as "significant wave height."  This figure represents the average height of the highest one-third of the waves in a given time period (usually twelve hours) or in a specific wave or storm system. Given the variability of wave size, the largest individual waves are likely to be twice the reported significant wave height for a particular day or storm.

Tipe lambak alatan angin
Three different types of wind waves develop over time:
 Ripples, or capillary waves
 Séas
 Swells

Ripples appéar on smooth water when the wind blows, but will die if the wind stops.  The restoring force that allows them to propagate is surface tension. Séas are the larger-scale, often irregular motions that form under sustained winds. They tend to last much longer, even after the wind has died, and the restoring force that allows them to persist is gravity. As séas propagate away from their aréa of origin, they naturally separate according to their direction and wavelength.  The regular wave motions formed in this way are known as swells.

Some waves undergo a phenomenon called "breaking". A breaking wave is one whose base can no longer support its top, causing it to collapse. A wave bréaks when it runs into shallow water, or when two wave systems oppose and combine forces. When the slope, or steepness ratio, of a wave is too gréat, bréaking is inevitable.  A 1:24 slope may be a long, shallow swell found in deep waters. A 1:14 and higher slope is a wave that is too steep to remain coherent. Waves can also bréak if the wind grows strong enough to blow the crest off the base of the wave.

Three main types of bréaking waves are identified by surfers or surf lifesavers. Their varying characteristics maké them more or less suitable for surfing, and present different dangers.

 Spilling, or rolling: these are the safest on which to surf; they can be found in relatively sheltered aréas.
 Plunging, or dumping: these bréak suddenly and can "dump" swimmers—pushing them to the bottom with gréat force. Strong winds can cause dumpers; they can also be found where there is a sudden rise in the séa floor.
 Surging: these may never actually bréak as they approach the water's edge, as the water below them is very deep. These waves can knock swimmers over and drag them back into deeper water.

In the context of sediment transport on béaches, océan surface waves can also be classified as either constructive or destructive:

 Constructive waves tend to be low in height (less than 1 meter), and therefore low in energy. As they approach the béach, the wave front steepens only slowly, gently spilling on the béach surface. Swash rapidly loses volume and energy as water percolates through the béach material. This tends to give a wéak backwash that has insufficient force to pull sediment off the béach or to impede swash from the next wave. As a consequence, material is slowly, but constantly, moved up the béach, léading to the formation of ridges (or berms).
 Destructive waves are tall, toppling waves carrying a lot of energy. As they approach the béach, they rapidly steepen, and when bréaking they plunge down and scour the béach. This créates a powerful backwash, as a significant amount of the energy of the wave has not dissipated during bréaking and runup. The backwash inhibits the swash from the next wave. Very little material is moved up the béach, léaving the backwash to pull material away. Destructive waves are commonly associated with steeper béach profiles. The force of éach wave may project some shingle well towards the réar of the béach where it forms a large ridge known as the storm béaches.

Élmu gelombang

Océan surface waves are mechanical waves that propagate along the interface between water and air; the restoring force is provided by gravity, and so they are often referred to as surface gravity waves. As the wind blows, pressure and friction forces perturb the equilibrium of the océan surface. These forces transfer energy from the air to the water, forming waves. In the case of monochromatic linéar plane waves in deep water, particles néar the surface move in circular paths, making océan surface waves a combination of longitudinal (back and forth) and transverse (up and down) wave motions.  When waves propagate in shallow water, (where the depth is less than half the wavelength) the particle trajectories are compressed into ellipses (also see shallow water equations).  As the wave amplitude (height) incréases, the particle paths no longer form closed orbits; rather, after the passage of éach crest, particles are displaced a little forward from their previous positions, a phenomenon known as Stokes drift.  A good illustration of the wave motion is given by *Prof. Robert Dalrymple Java applet

As the depth into the océan incréases, the radius of the circular motion decréases. By a depth equal to half the wavelength λ, the orbital movement has decayed néarly to zero. The speed of the surface wave (also called the celerity) is well approximated by

where
c = gancangna fase;
λ = panjang gelombang;
d = jerona cai;
g = akselerasi alatan gravitasi di pabeungeutan Bumi;

In deep water, where , so  and the hyperbolic tangent approaches , , in m/s, approximates , when  is méasured in meters.
This expression tells us that waves of different wavelengths travel at different speeds. The fastest waves in a storm are the ones with the longest wavelength. As a result, when after a storm waves arrive on the coast, the first ones to arrive are the long wavelength swells.

When several wave trains are present, as is always the case in the océan, the waves form groups. In deep water the groups travel at a group velocity which is half of the phase velocity. Following a single wave in a group one can see the wave appéaring at the back of the group, growing and finally disappéaring at the front of the group.

As the water depth  decréases towards the coast, this will have an effect on the speed of the crest and the trough of the wave; the crest moves faster than the trough. This causes surf, a bréaking of the waves.

Individual "freak waves" (also "rogue waves", "monster waves" and "king waves") sometimes occur in the océan, often as high as 30 meters. Such waves are distinct from tides, caused by the moon and sun's pull, tsunamis that are caused by underwater earthquakes or landslides, and waves generated by underwater explosions or the fall of meteorites.

The movement of océan waves can be captured by wave energy devices. The energy density (per unit aréa) of regular sinusoidal waves depends on the water density , gravity acceleration  and the wave height  (which is equal to twice the amplitude, ):

The velocity of propagation of this energy is the group velocity.

Ngukur gelombang sagara

Ship board observations of waves has been recorded for over 130 yéars. This long record of the wave climate is complemented by indirect méasurements of wave activty found in the éarth's "hum" recorded by seismometers. More accurate quantitative méasurements can be made using a wave pole on a fixed structure. An observer stands on the shore in a designated spot and sights the wave alongside a pole positioned between them and the waves. Such poles are often part of wéather monitoring stations located along coastlines, particularly those associated with lighthouses. 'Electronic poles' known as wave staffs are often used for precise engineering applications, and are operated on some reséarch platforms such as the Aqua Alta tower in the Adriatic Séa, offshore of Venice. Wave staffs are usually replaced by radar (widely used in the Netherlands) or laser altimeters (such as found on some U.S. NDBC stations) for routine méasurements.

A more common and robust way of méasuring waves is using a buoy that records the motion of the water surface, which does not require a fixed platform. The buoy motion provide a time history of the water elevation for that location and statistics can be calculated including the significant and maximum wave heights and periods. modérn waverider buoys usually méasure their movement along the three dimensions and so also give information about wave direction. For the south éast Queensland coastline there are waverider bouys about every 100 km along the coast. The waverider buoys are typically positioned off the entrances of major ports or major recréational surfing or swimming béaches. A network of waverider buoys properly positioned can allow the interpolation of the wave climate for that region. Waverider buoy data is a typical input for coastal modélling, the waverider wave train is typically the deep water wave climate that is then refracted across the séabed contours into the wave breaking zone.

In coastal aréas, the wave-induced velocities and pressure fluctuations can also be recorded using pressure gauges (sometimes of the same kind that méasure tides) and current meters.

Wave heights can also be méasured from space, at léast in a statistical sense, using the change in the form of radar pulses reflected off the séa surface by altimeter radars as found on the French/U.S. Topex/Poseidon and Jason satellites. Other radar techniques such as réal or synthetic aperture radars can also provide a méasurement of wave directions and wavelengths. Such radar systems are best suited for long period waves (swells), allowing the tracking of swells over very long distances.

Modél gelombang sagara
Surfers are very interested in the predicted wave climate. There are many websites that provide predictions of the surf quality for the upcoming days and weeks. The Océan Wave modéls are driven by more general climate models that predict the winds and pressures over the océans.

Océan wave modéls are also an important part of examining the impact of shore protection and beach nourishment proposals. For many béach aréas there is only patchy information about the wave climate, therefore estimating the effect of océan waves is important for managing littoral environments.

Galeri

Rujukan
"Anatomy of a Wave" Holben, Jay boatsafe.com captured 5/23/06
Carr, Michael "Understanding Waves" Sail Oct 1998: 38-45.
Rousmaniere, John. The Annapolis Book of Seamanship, New York: Simon & Schuster 1989
National Weather Service

Tempo ogé

 Kakuatan lambak
 Lambak jeung cai déét
 Persamaan cai déét

Tumbu luar
Introductory oceanography chapter 10 - Ocean Waves
 ESA press release on swell tracking with ASAR onboard ENVISAT
Understanding waves waves, storm, tsunamis, seiches, bores, déadwater, etc. (18pp)
HyperPhysics - Ocean Waves
  SHOM  - in French
Water Waves Wiki
Wave equation
Waverider Buoys for South East Queensland
Costalwatch.com: Australian Wave Prediction for Surfers Website

Géografi basisir
Gelombang cai

Lambak


"Woohoo" is a song sung by Christina Aguilera and Nicki Minaj, from Aguilera's 2010 album Bionic. The song was written by Aguilera, Minaj, Claude Kelly, Jamal "Polow da Don" Jones and Ester Dean. It is a uptempo electrohop song with R&B and hip hop influences; lyrically it speaks of cunnilingus. The song was released on May 18, 2010 as the second single from Aguilera's Bionic album.

2010 songs
Christina Aguilera songs
Nicki Minaj
Songs about sexuality

Woohoo


The Satellaview is a satellite modem add-on for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System only released in Japan by Nintendo. Nintendo made many games for it usually with "BS" in front of them, including remakes of The Legend of Zelda and The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past. Other companies have also made games for it.

Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Video game consoles

Satellaview


The Clones of Bruce Lee (Cantonese: 神威三猛龍; Korean: 蛇形三傑 Death Penalty on Three Robots; Taiwanese: 複製人李小龍:三龍怒火) is a 1980 Bruceploitation martial arts film capitalizing on the death of actor and martial arts star Bruce Lee in 1973.

The film gathers together several of the many Lee imitators who sprang up after the icon's death (including Dragon Lee, Bruce Le and Bruce Lai), alongside performers from the real Lee's films and other veterans of the Hong Kong movie industry.  It has been called "The Mount Rushmore of Bruceploitation films".

Synopsis
Immediately after the death of Bruce Lee in Hong Kong, Colonel Colin (Andy Hannah) of the Special Branch of Investigations asks Professor Lucas (Jon T. Benn), a brilliant scientist, to take samples of the late master's brain tissue. Using these samples, Lucas creates three perfect clones of Lee: Bruce Lee 1 (Dragon Lee), Bruce Lee 2 (Bruce Le), and Bruce Lee 3 (Bruce Lai).  They are trained in martial arts by Bolo Yeung and Chiang Tao. The mission of the clones is to fight crime in Southeast Asia.

Bruce Lee 1 goes undercover as an actor for a corrupt, gold-smuggling producer who plans to have him die on camera.  Meanwhile, the other clones go to Thailand where they meet up with Chuck (Bruce Thai), a local SBI agent who is not a clone but who also resembles Bruce Lee. They have been assigned to kill Dr. Ngai, a mad scientist who is plotting to take over the world with his army of bronze automatons: men whose skin turns to metal when they are injected with Ngai's special formula.

The clones successfully complete their missions and return to Hong Kong. But Professor Lucas, disgruntled because he feels he was not properly rewarded by the SBI for creating the clones, pits them against one another. The professor's female assistants stop the three clones from fighting amongst themselves, and Lucas sends out a small army of men to dispatch the clones. By the end of the film, Bruce Lee 3 has been killed—but so have all of Professor Lucas's henchmen (including the two kung-fu instructors, both defeated by Bruce Lee 1). Bruce Lee 2 finishes off Lucas's personal bodyguard and the professor is arrested.

Reaction
On the website Kung Fu Cinema, Mark Pollard sums up much of the appeal of the film, writing:"Clones of Bruce Lee is the Plan 9 from Outer Space of Hong Kong cinema. It's the very definition of bad filmmaking and sleazy exploitation. Expect to witness mad scientists bent on world domination, death rays, bronzemen, and naked women frolicking on the beach. Despite some decent kung fu action, particularly with Bolo, it's so bad you'll laugh or turn it off."

A review on the website The Bad Movie Report finds it less enjoyable:"Although the Lee-alikes are in superb shape, and certainly know their Lee chops, there is a deadening sameness about the fight scenes that eventually robs the movie of all joy; this flick is, after all, 95% fight scenes. I've always preferred the swordplay-oriented kung fu movies- the more weapons, and the more bizarre, the better. Let's face it, the numerous styles notwithstanding (and there are several on display), there are only so many ways to aim a blow at your opponent and only so many ways to block that blow. Without a good fight coordinator, like Lee himself, Jimmy Wang Yu, Samo Hung or a host of others, after forty-five minutes of the same fight over and over, each subsequent fight becomes the kinetic equivalent of white noise: your mind more or less goes on vacation."

Production notes
The Clones of Bruce Lee contains the only fight scene between Bruce Le and Dragon Lee.

Jon T. Benn, who plays Professor Lucas and is familiar to Bruce Lee fans as the mob boss from Way of the Dragon, later appeared as an American businessman in Jet Li's film Fearless.

This film is one of several appearances in the Bruceploitation subgenre for Bolo Yeung, who won fame for his portrayal of the muscular villain Bolo in Bruce Lee's Enter The Dragon.

References

External links
 IMDb entry
 HK cinemagic entry
 Clones of Bruce Lee – The Ultimate Guide To Bruce Lee Exploitation Cinema
 The Clones of Bruce Lee at Korean Movie Database
 The Clones of Bruce Lee at Korean Powerhouse

1980 films
1980 martial arts films
Hong Kong martial arts films
1980s Cantonese-language films
Bruceploitation films
Films about cloning
Kung fu films
Mad scientist films
1980s Hong Kong films

The Clones of Bruce Lee


Gisborne is a city on the East Coast of New Zealand's North Island. Gisborne is known as "the first city in the world to see the sun". This is because it is the first major city on the side of the International Date Line that sees the new day first.

Cities in New Zealand
Gisborne District

Gisborne, New Zealand


Speech recognition (also known as voice recognition) is the process of converting spoken words into computer text. The user speaks into a microphone and the computer creates a text file of the words they have spoken.

Although the accuracy of these systems has improved in the 21st century, they are still far from perfect.  If you only need them to recognise a few words, for example the words one, two, three etc., then speech recognition software can be very accurate. This is why this feature has started to appear on modern mobile phones. But systems that can recognise any word spoken by any person in any language are still a few years away.

You can greatly improve the accuracy of these systems by training them to recognise just one voice. This is usually done by getting the user to read a short set piece of text into the microphone. The user looks at the text which has been created and corrects any mistakes the software has made.  By repeating this a number of times the computer's accuracy increases a great deal.

Data input

Speech recognition


In private international law, the public policy doctrine or  (French:  "public order") concerns the body of principles that underpin the operation of legal systems in each state. This addresses the social, moral and economic values that tie a society together: values that vary in different cultures and change over time. Law regulates behaviour either to reinforce existing social expectations or to encourage constructive change, and laws are most likely to be effective when they are consistent with the most generally accepted societal norms and reflect the collective morality of the society.

In performing this function, Cappalli has suggested that the critical values of any legal system include impartiality, neutrality, certainty, equality, openness, flexibility, and growth. This assumes that a state's courts function as dispute resolution systems, which avoid the violence that often otherwise accompanies private resolution of disputes. That is, citizens have to be encouraged to use the court system to resolve their disputes. The more certain and predictable the outcome of a court action, the less incentive there is to go to court where a loss is probable. But certainty must be subject to the needs of individual justice, hence the development of equity.

A judge should always consider the underlying policies to determine whether a rule should be applied to a specific factual dispute. If laws are applied too strictly and mechanically, the law cannot keep pace with social innovation. Similarly, if there is an entirely new situation, a return to the policies forming the basic assumptions underpinning potentially relevant rules of law identifies the best guidelines for resolving the immediate dispute. Over time, these policies evolve, becoming more clearly defined and more deeply embedded in the legal system.

Fundamental principles

Ignorance of the law is not an excuse
The fundamental policy in the operation of a legal system is that ignorantia juris non excusat (ignorance of the law is no excuse). It would completely undermine the enforcement of any law if the person potentially at fault was able to raise as a successful defence that he or she had not been aware of the particular law. For this reason, all the main legislatures publish their laws freely whether in hard copy or on the Internet, while others offer them for sale to the public at affordable prices. Because everyone is entitled to access the laws as they affect their personal lives, all adults are assumed responsible enough to research the law before they act. If they fail to do so, they can hardly complain if their acts prove unlawful, no matter how transient they may be within the jurisdiction. The only exception to this rule excuses those of reduced capacity, whether as infants or through mental illness (for example, see the principle of doli incapax which raises an irrebuttable presumption in criminal law that an infant is incapable of committing a crime).

Sanctity of life
Underpinning most social, moral and religious systems is the policy of sanctity of life (also culture of life). In English criminal law, for example, duress is not allowed as a defence to murder because no threat is supposed to overcome a person's moral aversion to taking the life of another. Lord Jauncy in R v Gotts [1992] 2 AC 412 stated:

In refusal of treatment and euthanasia, commission and omission by doctors and hospital authorities resulting in the death of patients has become of increasing significance as societies debate whether the duty to preserve life outweighs the right of the autonomous patient to choose death. More contentious are those situations in which the patient is unable to make the choice personally, e.g. because in a persistent vegetative state or en ventre sa mere, i.e. a child in the womb.

Doctrine of evasion
Similarly, in many branches of law, the doctrine of evasion prevents persons, both natural and artificial, from evading the application of obligations and liabilities already attaching to them. This represents a practical application of the policy that, as an outcome of the social contract, all persons owing allegiance to a state should be entitled to assume that everyone will receive fair and equal treatment before the law, i.e. there will be no favouritism or preferential treatment to any person by virtue of their rank or status within society. As such, this is an exception to the policy in the law of contract which usually allows the parties autonomy to enter into whatever agreement they want and which might otherwise be taken to permit the parties to exclude the normal operation of the law as between themselves (see the policy of freedom of contract).

Children
There are policies specific to all the main branches of law. Hence, one of the policies in family law is parens patriae, i.e. that the state is the default parent for all those children within its jurisdiction and that, if it is necessary to protect the interests of the child, the state will usurp the rights of the natural parents and assert its own rights as every child's legal guardian. Within the EU, the right of the child to be heard in any proceedings is a fundamental right provided in Article 24 Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The views of the child shall be considered on matters which concern him or her in accordance with age and maturity. It also provides that the child's best interest shall be the primary consideration in all actions relating to children, whether taken by public authorities or private institutions.

Marriage
A policy which overlaps between family law and contract law is favor matrimonii which requires that any marriage entered into with a genuine commitment should be held valid unless there is some good reason to the contrary, matching contract law, where the preference is always to give effect to the genuine expectation of the parties.

Discussion

The policies adopted by states have come into being for several reasons. Some are aspects of the concept of sovereignty and reflect the essence of territoriality. Thus, public laws which either define the constitution of the state or regulate its powers can only apply within the boundaries agreed as a part of the process of de jure recognition of statehood by the international community. Other policies are aspects of the social contract, and they define and regulate the relationship between a state and those citizens who owe it allegiance. To that extent, these policies interact with (and sometimes overlap) civil rights and human rights. A number of these rights are defined at a supranational level and it will be necessary for states to consider the extent to which international principles of law are to be allowed to influence the operation of law within their territories. Independently of the work of the international community to produce harmonised principles, the courts in one state may sometimes be faced with lawsuits which either seek to evade the operation of foreign laws through forum shopping or seek the enforcement of "foreign" laws. This is becoming increasingly common as people now move with reasonable freedom between states and international trade routinely services markets in different states. Such lawsuits will not be troublesome if the "foreign" law is the same as the forum law. But serious difficulties will arise if the application of the "foreign" law would produce a different result. These issues are resolved under the systems of law known as "conflict of laws".

In conflict cases, no court will apply a "foreign" law if the result of its application would be contrary to public policy. This is problematic because excluding the application of foreign laws would defeat the purpose of conflict of laws by giving automatic preference to the forum court's domestic law. Thus, for the most part, courts are slower to invoke public policy in cases involving a foreign element than when a domestic legal issue is involved. That said, in those countries that have adopted treaty obligations involving human rights (e.g. the states who submit to jurisdiction of the European Court of Human Rights) broader concepts of public policy may now apply. Thus, courts may have to consider the "justice" implicit in a law that allows a husband to divorce his wife, but not vice versa, as an aspect of sexual discrimination. Similarly, it would be possible to question the propriety of polygamous marriages, the talaq system of divorce which is available in some Islamic states, and Jewish divorce known as the get, but it is likely that the courts would be cautious to avoid any implication that they were discriminating against religions. Equally difficult are the family laws which regulate incestuous relationships and capacity. For example, it is probable that one state should not be too quick to condemn another because it allows a marriage between an uncle and a niece, or allows a marriage with a girl of 13 (e.g. as in Northern Nigeria), particularly if the parties are not proposing residence in the forum state.

Less controversial is the exclusion of foreign laws that are penal or territorial because they seek to collect taxes due to another state, e.g. in English law, if foreign exchange control legislation is used as "an instrument of oppression", it may be denied extraterritorial enforcement (Re Helbert Wagg & Co Ltd [1956] Ch 323, 351). Similarly, otherwise valid contracts may be denied enforcement if to do so would assist an enemy of the forum state or would damage the political relationship with a friendly state. When considering questions of status, English courts have held that incapacities imposed on account of slavery (Somersett's Case [1771] 20 St Tr 1), religion (Re Metcalfe's Trusts [1864] 2 De G J & S 122), alien nationality (Re Helbert Wagg & Co Ltd [1956] Ch 323 at pp. 345/46), race (Oppenheimer v Cattermole [1976] A C 249 at pp. 265, 276/78, 282/83), divorce (Scott v Attorney-General [1886] 11 PD 128), physical incompetence (Re Langley's Settlement Trusts [1962] Ch 541 at pp. 556/57) and prodigality (Worms v De Valdor [1880] 49L J Ch. 261 and Re Selot's Trusts [1902] 1 Ch. 488) will be disregarded. Policy is also a key component to the process for the enforcement of foreign judgments.

References

Sources
 Cappalli, Richard B. The Disappearance of Legal Method, (1997) 70 Temp. L. Rev. 393.
 Dalton, Clare. An Essay in the Deconstruction of Contract Doctrine, (1985) 94 Yale L.J. 997.
 Goodwin-Gill, Guy, Ordre Public Considered and Developed, (1978) 94 LQR 354.
 Moufang, Rainer. The Concept of Ordre Public and Morality in Patent Law, in Geertrui Van Overwalle (Ed.), Patent Law, Ethics and Biotechnology, Katholieke Universiteit Brussel, Bruxelles, (1998).
 Richardson v. Mellish (2 Bing, 252)

External links
 Courts and the Making of Public Policy Research programme of the Foundation for Law, Justice and Society, Oxford
 Ordre Public Reach of the defence of fraud / public policy / ordre public with regard to Recognition and Enforcement of Judgments

Conflict of laws
Philosophy of law
Public policy
Legal doctrines and principles

Public policy doctrine


In celestial navigation, lunar distance, also called a lunar, is the angular distance between the Moon and another celestial body. The lunar distances method uses this angle and a nautical almanac to calculate Greenwich time if so desired, or by extension any other time. That calculated time can be used in solving  a spherical triangle. The theory was first published by Johannes Werner in 1524, before the necessary almanacs had been published. A fuller  method was published in 1763 and used until about 1850 when it was superseded by the marine chronometer. A similar method uses the positions of the Galilean moons of Jupiter.

Purpose
In celestial navigation, knowledge of the time at Greenwich (or another known place) and the measured positions of one or more celestial objects allows the navigator to calculate latitude and longitude.  Reliable marine chronometers were unavailable until the late 18th century and not affordable until the 19th century.
After the method was first published in 1763 by British Astronomer Royal Nevil Maskelyne, based on pioneering work by Tobias Mayer, for about a hundred years (until about 1850) mariners lacking a chronometer used the method of lunar distances to determine Greenwich time as a key step in determining longitude.  Conversely, a mariner with a chronometer could check its accuracy using a lunar determination of Greenwich time. The method saw usage all the way up to the beginning of the 20th century on smaller vessels that could not afford a chronometer or had to rely on this technique for correction of the chronometer.

Method

Summary
The method relies on the relatively quick movement of the moon across the background sky, completing  a circuit of 360 degrees in 27.3 days (the sidereal month), or 13.2 degrees per day. In one hour it will move approximately half a degree, roughly its own angular diameter, with respect to the background stars and the Sun.

Using a sextant, the navigator precisely measures the angle between the moon and another body.  That could be the Sun or one of a selected group of bright stars lying close to the Moon's path, near the ecliptic. At that moment, anyone on the surface of the earth who can see the same two bodies will, after correcting for parallax, observe the same angle. The navigator then consults a prepared table of lunar distances and the times at which they will occur.  By comparing the corrected lunar distance with the tabulated values, the navigator finds the Greenwich time for that observation.
Knowing Greenwich time and local time, the navigator can work out longitude.

Local time can be determined from a sextant observation of the altitude of the Sun or a star.  Then the longitude (relative to Greenwich) is readily calculated from the difference between local time and Greenwich Time, at 15 degrees per hour of difference.

In practice

Having measured the lunar distance and the heights of the two bodies, the navigator can find Greenwich time in three steps.

Step one – Preliminaries
Almanac tables predict lunar distances between the centre of the Moon and the other body (published between 1767 and 1906 in Britain).  However, the observer cannot accurately find the centre of the Moon (or Sun, which was the most frequently used second object). Instead, lunar distances are always measured to the sharply lit, outer edge (the limb, not terminator) of the Moon (or of the Sun). The first correction to the lunar distance is the distance between the limb of the Moon and its center. Since the Moon's apparent size varies with its varying distance from the Earth, almanacs give the Moon's and Sun's semidiameter for each day. Additionally the observed altitudes are cleared of semidiameter.

Step two – Clearing
Clearing the lunar distance means correcting for the effects of parallax and atmospheric refraction on the observation. The almanac gives lunar distances as they would appear if the observer were at the center of a transparent Earth.  Because the Moon is so much closer to the Earth than the stars are, the position of the observer on the surface of the Earth shifts the relative position of the Moon by up to an entire degree.  The clearing correction for parallax and refraction is a relatively simple trigonometric function of the observed lunar distance and the altitudes of the two bodies. Navigators used collections of mathematical tables to work these calculations by any of dozens of distinct clearing methods. For practical applications today the tables by Bruce Stark  may be used for clearing the lunar distance. They are constructed such that only additions and subtractions of tabulated numbers are required instead of trigonometric evaluations

Step three – Finding the time
The navigator, having cleared the lunar distance, now consults a prepared table of lunar distances and the times at which they will occur in order to determine the Greenwich time of the observation. These tables were the high tech wonder of their day. Predicting the position of the moon years in advance requires solving the three-body problem, since the earth, moon and sun were all involved. Euler developed the numerical method they used, called Euler's method, and  received a grant from the Board of Longitude to carry out the computations.

Having found the (absolute) Greenwich time, the navigator either compares it with the observed local apparent time (a separate observation) to find his longitude, or compares it with the Greenwich time on a chronometer (if available) if one wants to check the chronometer.

Errors

Almanac error
By 1810, the errors in the almanac predictions had been reduced to about one-quarter of a minute of arc. By about 1860 (after lunar distance observations had mostly faded into history), the almanac errors were finally reduced to less than the error margin of a sextant in ideal conditions (one-tenth of a minute of arc).

Lunar distance observation
Later sextants (after ) could indicate angle to 0.1 arc-minutes, after the use of the vernier was popularized by its description in English in the book Navigatio Britannica published in 1750 by John Barrow, the mathematician and historian.  In practice at sea, actual errors were somewhat larger.
If the sky is cloudy or the Moon is new (hidden close to the glare of the Sun), lunar distance observations could not be performed.

Total error
A lunar distance changes with time at a rate of roughly half a degree, or 30 arc-minutes, in an hour. The two sources of error, combined, typically amount to about one-half arc-minute in Lunar distance, equivalent to one minute in Greenwich time, which corresponds to an error of as much as one-quarter of a degree of longitude, or about  at the equator.

In literature
Captain Joshua Slocum, in making the first solo circumnavigation of the Earth in 1895–1898, somewhat anachronistically used the lunar method along with dead reckoning in his navigation. He comments in Sailing Alone Around the World on a sight taken in the South Pacific. After correcting an error he found in his log tables, the result was surprisingly accurate:

I found from the result of three observations, after long wrestling with lunar tables, that her longitude agreed within five miles of that by dead-reckoning.
This was wonderful; both, however, might be in error, but somehow I felt confident that both were nearly true, and that in a few hours more I should see land; and so it happened, for then I made out the island of Nukahiva, the southernmost of the Marquesas group, clear-cut and lofty. The verified longitude when abreast was somewhere between the two reckonings; this was extraordinary. All navigators will tell you that from one day to another a ship may lose or gain more than five miles in her sailing-account, and again, in the matter of lunars, even expert lunarians are considered as doing clever work when they average within eight miles of the truth...

The result of these observations naturally tickled my vanity, for I knew it was something to stand on a great ship's deck and with two assistants take lunar observations approximately near the truth. As one of the poorest of American sailors, I was proud of the little achievement alone on the sloop, even by chance though it may have been...

The work of the lunarian, though seldom practised in these days of chronometers, is beautifully edifying, and there is nothing in the realm of navigation that lifts one's heart up more in adoration.

The young Georg Forster describes 1777 in his book "A Voyage around the World" his impressions with captain James Cook on board the ship resolution in the South Pacific. James Cook had two of the new chronometers on board, one made by Mr. Kendal the other by Mr. Arnold, following the famous John Harrison clocks. On march 12, 1774, approaching Easter-Island, Georg Forster (suffering of scurvy) praises the method of lunar distances as the best and most precise method to determine longitude, as compared to the clocks which may fail due to mechanical problems.

See also
 Royal Observatory, Greenwich
 Josef de Mendoza y Ríos
 John Harrison
 History of longitude
 Longitude prize
 Henry Raper
 Bowditch's American Practical Navigator
 Nathaniel Bowditch

References

 New and complete epitome of practical navigation containing all necessary instruction for keeping a ship's reckoning at sea ... to which is added a new and correct set of tables - by J. W. Norie 1828
 Andrewes, William J.H. (Ed.): The Quest for Longitude. Cambridge, Mass. 1996
 Forbes, Eric G.: The Birth of Navigational Science. London 1974
 Jullien, Vincent (Ed.): Le calcul des longitudes: un enjeu pour les mathématiques, l`astronomie, la mesure du temps et la navigation. Rennes 2002
 Howse, Derek: Greenwich Time and the Longitude. London 1997
 Howse, Derek: Nevil Maskelyne. The Seaman's Astronomer. Cambridge 1989
 National Maritime Museum (Ed.): 4 Steps to Longitude. London 1962

External links
 About Lunars... by George Huxtable. (Free tutorial)
 Navigation Spreadsheets: Lunar distance
 Navigational Algorithms - free software for Lunars
 Longitude by Lunars online
 Time and Position by C-program LUNARS-V13
An Essay on Lunar Distance Method, by Richard Dunn

Geodesy
Lunar science
Navigation
Celestial navigation

Lunar distance (navigation)


Geronimo (Chiricahua Goyaałé 'One Who Yawns'; often spelled Goyathlay in English), (June 16, 1829–February 17, 1909) was a well-known Native American leader, but not chief, of the Chiricahua Apache tribe, but he was a Bedonkohe Apache. He was born in what is now the state of New Mexico and was also a respected medicine man. The name Geronimo was given to him by Mexican soldiers who either called to Saint Jerome while fighting him or transcribed his name into Spanish wrong. He led 38 Apache men, women, and children to resist being sent to reservations by the United States government or being captured by the Mexican Army. He surrendered in 1886. After that, he was moved to many different forts in the United States. In 1904 during the world fair in St. Louis, he sold souvenirs and pictures of himself. He died in 1909 from pneumonia.

1829 births
1909 deaths
Deaths from pneumonia
Native American people
People from Oklahoma
People from New Mexico

Geronimo


A Live CD, Live DVD, or Live Distro is a special way of creating a computer operating system so that it is able to run without installing anything on the computer first. This special operating system is used when the computer is booting up, and runs all its programs off the object it is put on. The name of the operating system usually has something to do with the object, such as "Live CD" for CDs, "Live DVD" for DVDs, or "Live USB" for USB flash drives.

"Distro" is short for Distribution, and is used because different types of Linux operating systems are called Linux Distributions, and Linux Distros were the first operating systems to be made into Live CDs. A "Live Distro" is used to refer to all different kinds of these special operating systems, instead of just the ones on a certain object.

The word "live" is used to describe the special way that the operating system is set up so that it can run on a computer without needing to install anything first.

History
The first Linux-based Live CD was Yggdrasil Linux (it stopped being made in 1995), but it did not work well because back then CD drives could not read CDs fast enough. in 2003, a Live CD based on Debian called Knoppix was released. Many people liked to use Knoppix, both as an operating system, and as a way of fixing a computer. Many more people have started using Live CDs since then, because of programs like Linux Live scripts and remastersys which make it very easy to make your own personalized Live CD.

Uses
Some Live Distros are made to demonstrate how an operating system would work on a computer, without making you install it first.

Other Live Distros come with a variety of software which help fix different problems that can happen with a computer, such as if they get a computer virus, or if a person forgets their password.

People also create Live Distros to demonstrate new ways of making operating systems, or proving that an operating system can run on a new type of computer.

Screenshots
Here are some images/screenshots of live CDs:

Related pages
 remastersys, a simple tool to create a customized ubuntu Live CD/DVD
 List of Linux distributions

Other websites
 FreeBSD LiveCD
 Linux Live scripts
 Build your own Custom Live CD
 Bootable CDROM HowTo
 LiveDistro.org: Extensive build/remaster howtos, tools and release announcements.
 Guide: Howto remaster a sidux live CD
 The Live CD List links & information on over 300 Live CDs
 Long list of LiveCDs at the Knoppix Wiki
 The magic of live CDs  Article published on Free Software Magazine about LiveDistros
 Live CD News
 Live CD Build Scripts
 Pondering Live CDs - A BSD perspective on the concept of Live CDs
 Darknet 10 Best Security Live CD Distros for pen-test, forensics, and recovery

Live CD