William Jesse Shirley (July 6, 1921 – August 27, 1989) was an American actor and tenor/lyric baritone singer who later became a Broadway theatre producer. He is perhaps best known as the speaking and singing voice of Prince Phillip in Walt Disney's 1959 animated classic Sleeping Beauty and for dubbing Jeremy Brett's singing voice in the 1964 film version of My Fair Lady.

Early years
William Jesse Shirley was born in Indianapolis, Indiana, on July 6, 1921. His father, Luther James Shirley, was a funeral director for Shirley Brothers Mortuaries. His mother, Inez Shirley (née Baldwin), was a well-known professional pianist. According to the Indianapolis Star, Inez first discovered her son's talent when he was around the age of five, when one day he began singing along to what she was playing on the piano. She directed him to the founder of the Ogden Chorale, who was taken with the child's vocal ability, expressive eyes, and "unusual personality" for a child of his age. From then on, Billy was known locally as a boy soprano and singing/acting prodigy. He was a very popular boy soloist with the Ogden Chorale, which sang at Christmas and Easter on the steps of the Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument. He performed with the Meglin Kiddies and was an active member of the Children's Civic Theater and the Irvington Playhouse.

At the age of eleven, he traveled with his family to California and was introduced to L. E. Behymer who arranged to introduce him to Sid Grauman. He listened to Billy sing, and the "boy with the golden voice" soon appeared in films by 20th Century Fox, Columbia and Paramount Studios. The family owned a dog, a Boston terrier named Buddy. During the time he stayed in California, little Billy often wrote letters home requesting news about his pet.

Some of the boy's first acting roles were in rare or hard-to-find films, such as The Phantom President (1932) and As The Devil Commands (1933). He sang Christmas carols in As The Devil Commands. Some press reports list the latter film's name as Acquitted, the name of a previous Columbia film from 1929.

Bill attended George W. Julian Elementary during his grade school years and attended Shortridge High School in adolescence. Among other things, he became a member of its student council along with such prominent figures as Madelyn Pugh and Kurt Vonnegut Jr.; he graduated in 1939. The following year, aged 19, Bill and his mother moved to Hollywood, where he studied voice and music at the Herbert Wall School of Music. His singing teacher there, the famous Andrés de Segurola, would accept Shirley as a pupil for no less than six months. Mrs. Shirley lived with her son in Hollywood for sixteen years, and the two went to Indiana to visit family and friends quite often.

He was a 1940 graduate of the Edward Clark Academy, a theater school in Hollywood.

In early 1941, Shirley was introduced to Republic Studios president Herbert Yates by a mutual friend who worked at the studio and remembered that Shirley used to sing as a child. Shirley sang a few numbers for Yates, and was immediately signed up for a seven-year contract.

Shirley's roles in the Republic films were usually very small or supporting. He had a small, yet somewhat important, part in Flying Tigers, as a very young pilot who is mortally wounded during his first mission. He appeared in other rare and usually B-list films, such as Doctors Don't Tell (1941), Rookies on Parade (1941), Hi'-Neighbor (1942), Ice-Capades Revue (1942), and Sailors on Leave (1941).

Career
After his Army service, he worked in radio and on Broadway. He regularly performed on stage, in summer stock, and on television. He appeared in nightclubs, including a six-week engagement at Monte Proser's famous Copacabana in early 1947, the Latin Quarter in New York, the Mocambo in Los Angeles, and the Tropicana and Riviera in Las Vegas.

He found work for radio station KFI on two shows called "Ladies Day" and "The Packard Hour". In 1949, he played Dutch Miller on "The Railroad Hour"'s presentation of Best Foot Forward, and played the role of the gondolier on episode of Ronald Colman's "Favorite Story" presentation of Edgar Allan Poe's "The Assignation". In 1947, he had a part in the musical "Look Ma I'm Dancin'!" as "Shauny O'Shay". During the tryout his part was cut severely, prompting him to leave the show. However, recordings of the production's soundtrack are still available that included Shirley's vocals, to avoid a potential musicians' strike. In late 1948, Darryl Zanuck received a Man-Of-The-Year award in a ceremony at the Mocambo. One scheduled singer was unable to appear, and asked Shirley to substitute for him.

Zanuck heard Bill sing and promptly put him under contract as a ghost singer for 20th Century-Fox. He dubbed vocals for films including Oh, You Beautiful Doll (1949) (Mark Stevens' singing voice) and Dancing In The Dark (1949), but was released by the studio for no known reason a few months later.

Although he had occasional vocal work, Shirley sometimes had difficulty furthering his career. For a while, Shirley performed often with singing actress Gale Robbins. In 1949, he starred with Robbins in the short-lived Broadway revue "A La Carte". He performed with her on an episode of Movietown Radio Theater (also known as Skippy Hollywood Theater) entitled "Show Business". In 1950, the pair performed as themselves on an episode of the Ed Wynn Show.

In 1952 he got his only leading role onscreen: as Stephen Foster in I Dream of Jeanie, although actor Ray Middleton received the top billing. The same year, he played Bruce Martingale, a singer at a local tavern, in Abbott and Costello Meet Captain Kidd. In late 1952, he joined a Hollywood USO troupe to entertain soldiers in Korea for the holidays. During this time, he came down with a throat infection which "worried" his doctors enough to press him to cancel shows pending a "possible" operation. Whether he underwent surgery or not, by February he had recovered enough to be reported past danger, and by April, he had recovered sufficiently enough to take on the role of Johann Strauss, Jr., in Edwin Lester's production of "The Great Waltz". Rehearsals began the following month.

He frequently performed with USO troupes, appearing with stars such as Debbie Reynolds and Keenan Wynn.

In November 1955, he appeared on Arthur Godfrey's "Talent Scouts" show and won first place, although this still did not bring about much publicity or notice that was not localized to his home state.

Sleeping Beauty
 Shirley was approached by the Walt Disney Company to provide the speaking and singing voice for the character of Prince Phillip in its animated version of Sleeping Beauty. Shirley's singing range was tenor/baritone, and had a youthful quality which was ideal for the voice of the young Prince Phillip. Before they were cast as the voices of Aurora and Phillip, Mary Costa and Shirley were asked to audition together to make sure their voices complemented each other. During the film's production, Shirley and actor Ed Kemmer were used by the Disney animators as live action reference models for Prince Phillip; the animators had them perform many of the sequences from the movie while they drew the character. He had many rehearsals with Mary Costa, who was also providing the voice for Princess Aurora.

They acted out their parts just as if they were to appear personally in the finished production. The two even kissed for the sound-track cameras. After their voices were recorded, the animators drew every motion of the characters' lips to fit each enunciated syllable from the actors' mouths, so that viewers would be able to "see" the voices and hear them. The animators would draw sixteen drawings for each syllable formed by the lips. Shirley would later remember that he said, "Whoa, Samson!" to a non-existent horse for a whole day before the sound engineers were satisfied with the inflection. And at that point, Samson had not even been sketched as a horse.

Shortly before the film was released, Shirley and Costa performed together at the Hollywood Bowl on a Disney themed night in 1958.
In an interview, Costa recalled that she and the actresses playing the fairy godmothers (Verna Felton, Barbara Jo Allen, and Barbara Luddy) were endeared to Shirley, his good looks, and his shyness, adding that "we all had our crushes on him" and "he was so shy and we all had just genuine crushes on that Prince. He was really cute." In another interview she said, "We loved to tease him. Verna Felton who played Flora would always creep up behind him with a pencil and act like it was a baton [wand]. She'd do some fairy work on him and say he was going to be the greatest, handsomest, and all of this." Shirley and Costa sang the iconic song of the film,"Once Upon a Dream".

Besides the original, there is a version of the song that was unused and unpublished for the film. It contains rare vocals from both performers that differ slightly from those used in the finished product; this can easily be found on the Internet and the 1997 edition of the VHS. This version is widely considered by fans to be "prettier".

Additional work
Another famous vocal role of Shirley's (again as an uncredited ghost singer) was the singing voice of Freddy Eynsford-Hill (played by Jeremy Brett) in the Warner Bros. film of My Fair Lady. Shirley sang one of the film's most memorable songs, "On the Street Where You Live".  For a long while, Brett claimed that he himself had sung the song and that Mr. Shirley merely "sweetened the high tones." It was not until 1994 that Brett admitted that it was Shirley who sang the song, not him, although Brett claimed that he knew nothing about it until the opening night.

Shirley performed in several Starlight Musical Theater Company productions, such as "The Great Waltz" (1953), a play in which he portrayed Johann "Schani" Strauss II. Florence Henderson was featured as the composer's love interest. Bill became exceptionally popular with Sacramento's Music Circus, as reported by such news items as the Sacramento Bee. Older newspaper reports confirm that he apparently received much acclaim for his acting and singing, especially in his portrayals of Johann Strauss Jr. of "The Great Waltz", and Lt. Joseph Cable of "South Pacific".

During the early 1950s, he was a regular guest on Bekins "Hollywood Music Hall" with actress Lucille Norman, who had worked with him on "Sweethearts on Parade".

According to reports, Bill Shirley offered his services for humanitarian aid efforts. Some of these include funds and telethons, such as a benefit baseball game for the Marion County Society for Crippled Children and Adults in 1952, and the groundbreaking ceremony for the Indianapolis Community Hospital, alongside Jean Hersholt and then-Vice President Richard M. Nixon in 1954.

Bill Shirley is often stated to have retired from acting in 1963. However, he was a member of the Actors' Equity Association and continued to perform well after 1963, especially in industrial shows such as "Diesel Dazzle" and "A Step Ahead" in 1966, and returned to play Nat Miller in a Music Circus production of "Take Me Along" in 1975. He had co-produced "Dames At Sea", which introduced Bernadette Peters, in the 1960s.

It is probable that Shirley's credits are innumerable, but yet unknown as he often received little or no credit for his work.

Death
For the last ten years of his life, he worked with Litton Industries in the real estate department, primarily in Beverly Hills. He retired from the company in May 1989, three months before his death from lung cancer, at age 68 on August 27, 1989, at the Guardian Convalescent Hospital in Los Angeles. He was interred in Indianapolis's Crown Hill Cemetery.

Filmography
The Phantom President (1932) – Bit
As the Devil Commands (1933) – Orphan
Rookies on Parade (1941) – Bill
Ice-Capades (1941) – bit role (uncredited)
Doctors Don't Tell (1941) – Tom Wayne
Sailors on Leave (1941) – Bill Carstairs
Mercy Island (1941) – Guide (uncredited)
Hi, Neighbor (1942) – Dick
Flying Tigers (1942) – Dale
Ice-Capades Revue (1942) – Denny
Three Little Sisters (1944) – Pvt. Ferguson (as William Shirley)
Dancing in the Dark (1949) – Singer of title song over opening credits (uncredited)
Oh, You Beautiful Doll (1949) – dubbed singing voice for Mark Stevens (uncredited)
Come to the Stable (1949) – Male tenor singer with Twentieth Century-Fox Studio Orchestra (movie trailer only, unseen, uncredited)
Nancy Goes to Rio (1950) – Dubbed voice of tenor in operetta – (uncredited)
The Ed Wynn Show (S1 Episode 27) (1950) – Himself
With a Song in My Heart (1952) – (partially dubbed singing voice for Richard Allan; uncredited)
I Dream of Jeanie (1952) – Stephen Foster
Abbott and Costello Meet Captain Kidd (1952) – Bruce Martingale
Sweethearts on Parade (1953) – Bill Gamble
Sleeping Beauty (1959) – Prince Phillip (voice)
My Fair Lady (1964) – Freddy Eynsford-Hill (singing voice, uncredited)

References

External links

1921 births
1989 deaths
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American singers
American male film actors
American male musical theatre actors
Burials at Crown Hill Cemetery
Deaths from lung cancer in California
Male actors from Indianapolis
Musicians from Indianapolis
Shortridge High School alumni
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army soldiers
American male voice actors

Bill Shirley


Pedro Vuskovic Bravo (February 25, 1924 – May 10, 1993) was a Chilean economist of Croatian descent, political figure, minister and author of the economic plan implemented by Salvador Allende during his government called the Vuskovic plan. His economic policies were used by economists Rudi Dornbusch and Sebastian Edwards to coin the term macroeconomic populism.

Life
Pedro Vuskovic was born in Antofagasta, and obtained a degree in business administration from the Universidad de Chile.  He became a professor of Statistics at the same university, while at the same time working for the CEPAL (United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean).

Vuskovic joined the ECLAC/FAO in 1950, shortly after its birth as an institution. For nearly 20 years he worked there, with his career in ECLAC culminating in the position of Director of the Development Division, where he played a role in structuring and disseminating the thinking of ECLAC.  Concurrently, he served as a professor in ECLAC and ILPES training programmes while at the same time teaching classes at the schools of economics and sociology at the University of Chile and the School of Economics at the University of Concepción, finally becoming the Director of the Institute of Economics of the University of Chile.

He was the author of the economic platform of the Popular Unity (UP) campaign, and on November 3, 1970, he was named Minister of Economic Affairs by President Salvador Allende. He became the key figure in the economic policy of the UP government, and tried to implement a massive redistribution of revenue (see Vuskovic plan) by raising salaries and increasing public expenditure, through which he believed that the buying power of the population would increase and accordingly consumption in general.

He remained as a minister until June 17, 1972, when political pressure forced President Allende to halt his economic plans and replace him in the cabinet. Vuskovic then took over the cabinet-level position of Executive Vice President of the Production Development Corporation (CORFO), where he served until September 1973. After the Chilean Coup of 1973, he was exiled to Mexico.

There he became a professor, first at the Economic Research and Teaching Centre (CIDE), where he directed the Institute of Economic Studies of Latin America, and later at the Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in the Humanities at the National University of Mexico (UNAM), where he was named to the position of Coordinator for a programme on poverty and development options in various countries of Latin America.

After the return to democracy in 1990, he returned to Chile for a short while but moved back to Mexico where he lived his last years and died in 1993.

Additional information

See also

History of Chile
Chile under Allende
Salvador Allende
Vuskovic plan

Bibliography

 Vuskovic, Pedro; Acusación al imperialismo, Fondo de Cultura Económica, México D.F., 1975

References

Sources

 In memoriam
 Brief biographical overview
 Bibliography, 1973–93
 Short overview of UP's political and economic policy

1924 births
1993 deaths
Chilean exiles
Chilean socialists
Presidency of Salvador Allende
Chilean people of Croatian descent
Chilean Ministers of Economy
People from Antofagasta
20th-century Chilean economists

Pedro Vuskovic


Bloody Good Time is a first-person shooter developed by Outerlight and published by Ubisoft for Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360. It was released in October 2010.

The game is a spiritual sequel to The Ship, Outerlight's debut title, with similar but improved gameplay and graphics. It features four various game modes (hunt, elimination, revenge and deathmatch). Up to eight players can play in online matches. There is also an arcade mode which allows the player to play against the AI bots. The title uses Valve's Source engine.

The game takes place on a Hollywood movie set and it features three different maps: beach, casino and horror house. Players can choose one of the eight available B-movie characters (The Surfer, The Beach babe, The Goth, The Bunny girl, The Showgirl, The Clown, The Gambler and The Stoner) and then kill other players with 21 different weapons, including usual guns and other items, such as frying pan or remote-controlled rats. The reception has been lukewarm, with very weak sales, which was attributed to Outerlight's demise.

Reception

The game received "mixed or average reviews" on both platforms according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.

See also

References

External links

2010 video games
First-person shooters
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Source (game engine) games
Ubisoft games
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games set in Nevada
Video games set in the Las Vegas Valley
Windows games
Xbox 360 games
Xbox 360 Live Arcade games

Bloody Good Time


The Orthodox Church of Alexandria () is one of the Eastern Orthodox Churches.
It is sometimes called the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria to distinguish it from the Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria. In Egypt, members of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate were also known as Melkite, because they remained in communion with the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople after the schism that followed the Council of Chalcedon in 451.

Eastern Orthodox Church

Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria


CP/CMS (Control Program/Cambridge Monitor System) is a discontinued time-sharing operating system of the late 1960s and early 1970s, known for its excellent performance and advanced features. Among its three versions, CP-40/CMS was an important "one-off" research system that established the CP/CMS virtual machine architecture. It was followed by CP-67/CMS, a reimplementation of CP-40/CMS for the IBM System/360-67, and the primary focus of this article. Finally, CP-370/CMS was a reimplementation of CP-67/CMS for the System/370. While it was never released as such, it became the foundation of IBM's VM/370 operating system, announced in 1972.

Each implementation was a substantial redesign of its predecessor and an evolutionary step forward. CP-67/CMS was the first widely available virtual machine architecture. IBM pioneered this idea with its research systems M44/44X (which used partial virtualization) and CP-40 (which used full virtualization).

In addition to its role as the predecessor of the VM family, CP/CMS played an important role in the development of operating system (OS) theory, the design of IBM's System/370, the time-sharing industry, and the creation of a self-supporting user community that anticipated today's free software movement.

History

Fundamental CP/CMS architectural and strategic parameters were established in CP-40, which began production use at IBM's Cambridge Scientific Center in early 1967. This effort occurred in a complex political and technical milieu, discussed at some length and supported by first-hand quotes in the Wikipedia article History of CP/CMS.

In a nutshell:

 In the early 1960s, IBM sought to maintain dominance over scientific computing, where time-sharing efforts such as CTSS and  MIT's Project MAC gained focus. But IBM had committed to a huge project, the System/360, which took the company in a different direction.
 The time-sharing community was disappointed with the S/360's lack of time-sharing capabilities. This led to key IBM sales losses at Project MAC and Bell Laboratories. IBM's Cambridge Scientific Center (CSC), originally established to support Project MAC, began an effort to regain IBM's credibility in time-sharing, by building a time-sharing operating system for the S/360. This system would eventually become CP/CMS. In the same spirit, IBM designed and released a S/360 model with time-sharing features, the IBM System/360-67, and a time-sharing operating system, TSS/360. TSS failed; but the 360-67 and CP/CMS succeeded, despite internal political battles over time-sharing, and concerted efforts at IBM to scrap the CP/CMS effort.
 In 1967, CP/CMS production use began, first on CSC's CP-40, then later on CP-67 at Lincoln Laboratories and other sites. It was made available via the IBM Type-III Library in 1968. By 1972, CP/CMS had gone through several releases; it was a robust, stable system running on 44 systems; it could support 60 timesharing users on a S/360-67; and at least two commercial timesharing vendors (National CSS and IDC) were reselling S/360-67 time using CP/CMS technology.
 In 1972, IBM announced the addition of virtual memory to the S/370 series, along with the VM/370 operating system, a reimplementation of CP/CMS for the S/370. This marked the end of CP/CMS releases, although the system continued its independent existence for some time. VM releases continued to include source code for some time and members of the VM community long remained active contributors.

Overview

CP/CMS was built by IBM's Cambridge Scientific Center (CSC), a research and development lab with ties to MIT, under the leadership of Robert Creasy. The system's goals, development process, release, and legacy of breakthrough technology, set this system apart from other operating systems of its day and from other large IBM projects. It was an open-source system, made available in source code form to all IBM customers at no charge – as part of the unsupported IBM Type-III Library. CP/CMS users supported themselves and each other. Unusual circumstances, described in the History section below, led to this situation.

CP/CMS consisted of two main components:

 CP, the Control Program, created the virtual machine environment. The widely used version was CP-67, ran on the S/360-67. (The research system CP-40 established the architecture. A third version, CP-370, became VM/370.) Instead of explicitly dividing up memory and other resources among users, which had been the traditional approach, CP provided each user with a simulated stand-alone System/360 computer. Each system was able to run any S/360 software that ran on the bare machine and in effect gave each user a private computer system.
 CMS, the Cambridge Monitor System (and also Console Monitor System – but renamed Conversational Monitor System in VM) was a lightweight single-user operating system, for interactive time-sharing use. By running many copies of CMS in CP's virtual machines – instead of multiple copies of large, traditional multi-tasking OS – the overhead per user was less. This allowed a great number of simultaneous users to share a single S/360.

The CP/CMS virtual machine concept was an important step forward in operating system design.

 By isolating users from each other, CP/CMS greatly improved system reliability and security.
 By simulating a full, stand-alone computer for each user, CP/CMS could run any S/360 software in a time-sharing environment, not just applications specifically designed for time-sharing.
 By using lightweight CMS as the primary user interface, CP/CMS achieved unprecedented time-sharing performance. In addition, the simplicity of CMS made it easier to implement user interface enhancements than in traditional OS.

IBM reimplemented CP/CMS as its VM/370 product line, released in 1972 when virtual memory was added to the S/370 series. VM/370's successors (such as z/VM) remain in wide use today. (It is important to note that IBM reimplemented CP-67, as it had CP-40, and did not simply rename and repackage it. VM coexisted with CP/CMS and its successors for many years. It is thus appropriate to view CP/CMS as an independent OS, distinct from the VM family.)

CP/CMS as free software
CP/CMS was distributed in source code form, and many CP/CMS users were actively involved in studying and modifying that source code. Such direct user involvement with a vendor-supplied operating system was unusual.

In the CP/CMS era, many vendors distributed operating systems in machine-readable source code. IBM provided optional source code for, e.g., OS/360, DOS/360, several later mainstream IBM operating systems. With all these systems, some awareness of system source code was also involved in the SYSGEN process, comparable to a kernel build in modern systems also in installing a Starter Set. (Forty years later, the Hercules emulator can be used to run fossilized versions of these systems, based on source code that is now treated as part of the public domain.)

The importance of operating system source code has changed over time. Before IBM unbundled software from hardware in 1969, the OS (and most other software) was included in the cost of the hardware. Each vendor had complete responsibility for the entire system, hardware and software. This made the distribution medium relatively unimportant. After IBM's unbundling, OS software was delivered as IBM System Control Program (SCP) software, eventually in object code only (OCO) form.

For complicated reasons, CP/CMS was not released in the normal way. It was not supported by IBM, but was made part of the unsupported IBM Type-III Library, a collection of software contributed by IBM personnel (similarly software contributed by customers formed the Type-IV Library). IBM distributed this library to its customers for use 'as is'. The lack of direct IBM support for such products forced active users to support themselves and encouraged modifications and mutual support. CP/CMS and other Type-III products were early forms of free software.

Source code distribution of other IBM operating systems may have continued for some time (e.g. OS/360, DOS/360, DOS/VSE, MVS, and even TSS/370, which all today are generally considered to be in the public domain) since they were arguably published without a copyright notice before 1978.} However, the unsupported status of CP/CMS placed different pressures on its user community and created the need for source code distribution.

CP/CMS was contributed to the Type-III Library by MIT's Lincoln Laboratory and not by IBM, despite the fact that the system was built by IBM's Cambridge Scientific Center. This decision has been described as a form of collusion to outmaneuver the IBM political forces opposed to time-sharing. It is thought that it may also reflect the amount of formal and informal input from MIT and Union Carbide that contributed to the design and implementation of CP-40, the S/360-67, CP-67, and CMS. See History of CP/CMS (historical notes) for further insights and references on this topic.

Many CP/CMS users made extensive modifications to their own copies of the source code. Much of this work was shared among sites, and important changes found their way back into the core system. Other users, such as National CSS and some academic sites, continued independent development of CP/CMS, rather than switching to VM/370 when it became available. These efforts diverged from the community, in what today would be termed a software fork.

After IBM released VM/370, source code distribution of VM continued for several releases. (The VM project did not adopt the use of PL/S, an internal systems programming language mandated for use within IBM on many comparable projects. The use of PL/S would have made source code distribution impossible. IBM attempted to turn away from assembly language to higher level languages as early as 1965, and was making substantial use of PL/S by 1969, e.g. in MVS. PL/S was considered a trade secret at the time and was not available to customers. IBM apparently made exceptions to this policy much later.) The VM user community continued to make important contributions to the software, as it had during the CP/CMS Type-III period. Few OS or DOS sites exhibited active user involvement in deep operating system internals, but this was found at many VM sites. This reverse support helped CP/CMS concepts survive and evolve, despite VM's second class citizen status at IBM.

Architecture
The CP/CMS architecture was revolutionary for its time. The system consisted of a virtualizing control program (CP) which created multiple independent virtual machines (VMs). Platform virtualization was possible because of two elements of the IBM System/360-67:
 Segregation of privileged "supervisor state" instructions from normal "problem state" instructions
 Address translation hardware
When a program was running in "problem state," using a privileged instruction or an invalid memory address would cause the hardware to raise an exception condition. By trapping these conditions, CP could simulate the appropriate behavior, e.g. performing I/O or paging operations. A guest operating system, which would run in "supervisor state" on a bare machine, was run in "problem state" under CP.

The result was a fully virtualized environment. Each virtual machine had its own set of virtual devices, mapped from the system's real hardware environment. Thus a given dial-up teletype was presented to its VM instance as its virtual console.

Note that, in CP-67, certain model-dependent and diagnostic instructions were not virtualized, notably the DIAG instruction. Ultimately, in later development at IBM and elsewhere, DIAG instructions were used to create a non-virtualized interface, to what became called a hypervisor. Client operating systems could use this mechanism to communicate directly with the control program; this offered dramatic performance improvements.

Any S/360 operating system could in fact be run under CP, but normal users ran Cambridge Monitor System (CMS), a simple, single-user operating system. CMS allowed users to run programs and manage their virtual devices. CP-67 versions 1 and 2 did not support virtual memory inside a virtual machine. This was added in version 3. At that point, testing and development of CP itself could be done by running a full copy of CP/CMS inside a single virtual machine. Some CP/CMS operating system work, such as CP-370 development and MVS testing, ran four- or five-level deep stacks of hardware and OS simulations.

The CP/CMS design is different from IBM's previous monolithic operating systems, it separates complex "big system" (dispatching, hardware management, mass storage) from "little system" (application program execution, file I/O, console input/output). The re-categorization of both systems into their own entities prevents a bug in one users' system from affecting both. This is a model feature in microkernel operating systems.

IBM's decision to implement virtualization and virtual memory features in the subsequent S/370 design (although missing from the initial S/370 series) reflects, at least in part, the success of the CP/CMS approach. In turn the survival and success of IBM's VM operating system family, and of virtualization technology in general, owe much to the S/360-67.

In many respects, IBM's CP-67 and CP/CMS products anticipated (and heavily influenced) contemporary virtualization software, such as VMware Workstation, Xen, and Microsoft Virtual PC.

Related terminology
CP: Control Program. CP-40 and CP-67 were implementations for CSC's customized S/360-40 and the standard S/360-67, respectively.
CMS: Cambridge Monitor System. This portion of the CP/CMS system was renamed Conversational Monitor System when IBM released VM/370. Unlike the CP-to-VM transition, however, which was a reimplementation, much of CMS was moved without modification from CP/CMS into VM/370.
VM: Virtual Machine, initially the term pseudo-machine was used, but soon virtual machine was borrowed from the IBM M44/44X project. It was well established in CP/CMS by the time IBM introduced VM/370.
hypervisor: a mechanism for paravirtualization. This term was coined in IBM's reimplementation of CP-67 as VM/370.

See also
 VP/CSS
 History of IBM
 Time-sharing system evolution
 CMS file system

Footnotes

Citations

Detailed citations for points made in this article can be found in History of CP/CMS.

External links
 VM/CMS handbook
 Andreas C. Hofmann: CP-370/CMS – Control Program 370 / Cambridge Monitor System, 1970, in: Computing History Dictionary (german) [¹10.12.2022]

History of software
IBM mainframe operating systems
Time-sharing operating systems
Virtualization software
VM (operating system)
1960s software

CP/CMS


A pyroclastic flow, pronounced pie-roh-class-tick, (also known as a pyroclastic density current) is a flow of "lava", as commonly associated with volcanic eruptions. The flows are currents of hot gas, or tephra, during an eruption that sometimes causes rock falls. A cloud forms over the river of hot rock. This boiling column of superheated gas, sand, tephra, obsidian, and pumice can reach soaring temperatures of 1,000ºC and is from 450 to 700 miles per hour.

They are extremely dangerous and can be deadly.

Volcanology

Pyroclastic flow


Samuel Sebastian Wesley (born London, 14 August 1810; died 19 April 1876) was an English organist and composer.  He was the greatest English composer of church music of his day. He lived at a time when the standard of music in England had become very bad.  He did a lot to improve it, especially church music.  He had a hard life earning enough money.  This was largely his own fault: he was a difficult man with a bad temper and often argued with his employers.

Life

Early years

He was born in London, the illegitimate son of the composer Samuel Wesley and his partner Sarah Suter.  He was given the name of his father (Samuel) and the name Sebastian after the composer Johann Sebastian Bach.

As a boy he sang in the choir of the Chapel Royal.  The Chapel Royal was not nearly as good as it had been in the 16th and 17th centuries when it had been associated with many famous composers.  When choirboys made mistakes the music teacher William Hawes would hit them with a riding whip.  Samuel Sebastian was an excellent choirboy, and he and another boy were sent to Brighton to sing to King George IV who had gone there for his holiday.  He also sang at St. Paul's Cathedral.

Career

Hereford

When he was a young man he played the organ in several churches in London and started to compose. He wrote some music for melodramas in theatres.  When he was 22 he became organist of Hereford Cathedral.  This changed his life, because his career now focussed on church music.  The choir at Hereford was not very good.  The organ was broken, and his lodgings were not nice.  However, he was able to perform in the Three Choirs Festival and he composed some church music, including the popular anthem Blessed be the God and Father, written for an Easter Day service when the choir only had boys and one male singer.  He married the sister of the dean of the cathedral.  Her family did not approve and did not go to the wedding.

Exeter
In 1835 he moved to Exeter Cathedral. He improved the choir there and persuaded the authorities to renovate the organ.  He had a good salary there, but soon got fed up because he argued with his employers.  He often went fishing instead of going to work, sending one of his choir boys to play the organ instead.   One day, when Wesley was supposed to play "God Save the King" he played "Rule Britannia".  This sort of behaviour did not do his reputation much good.  He wanted to get a doctorate degree from Oxford University so he wrote an anthem O Lord thou art my God.  The professor at Oxford, William Crotch, wanted him to make some changes in the music, but he refused.  In the end he was given the degree anyway.

Leeds
The next job he had was at Leeds Parish Church.  This was the only job he had in his life which was not at a cathedral, but his choir at Leeds was probably better than any of the cathedral choirs he had.  The services there were very good, and he improved the choir singing.   Leeds was not a nice town in those days.  It was very badly polluted through industry.  Wesley earned extra money by giving music lessons.  He was also in demand for giving organ recitals in different churches. He gave the choir more modern music to sing, including his own compositions.  He wrote an introduction to a book of psalm tunes in which he criticized the state of the church in England.  He did it in a very personal way and it made his employers angry.

One day he went fishing when he should have been at choir practice.  He fell when climbing over a stile and broke his leg.  After that he always walked with a limp.  While he was in hospital he wrote an anthem Cast me not away to words from Psalm 51.  When the music gets to the words "the bones which thou hast broken" he set them to strange, crunching chords.

In spite of his awkward behaviour the people in Leeds were sorry when he left.  He conducted a performance of the Messiah and he was given a portrait of himself.

Winchester

He went to Winchester Cathedral.  At first he got on very well with the clergy.  He performed and composed new music.  He spent a lot of time collecting and publishing all the anthems he had written. He composed hymn tunes.  He persuaded his employers to spend money on improving the organ.

Although he was being paid a good salary (£80 a year) Wesley did less and less work.  He performed less and left a lot of the playing to his pupils so that he could go fishing and sailing.  He did not like the new precentor who was appointed in 1858.

In 1863 he composed an anthem Give the King thy Judgement for the marriage of the Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VII and Princess Alexandra of Denmark).  He did not like Winchester.  He said there were no other good musicians to talk to.

Gloucester
When the job of organist at Gloucester Cathedral became available he took it and left Winchester very quicky.  Once again he found himself in a cathedral with a bad choir and an organ in a bad state of repair, but this time he seemed to make little effort to do anything about it.  He spent a lot of time editing other people's music.  Once more, after a gap of 30 years, he was able to perform in the Three Choirs Festival.  He conducted the music of Louis Spohr, his father Samuel Wesley and also some music by the young Hubert Parry who was not yet well-known.  When he conducted he often did not think about what he was doing and got muddled.  In 1871 he conducted Bach's St Matthew Passion, the first time it had been performed in England outside London.

He was offered a knighthood but chose to be given money instead.  He started to become ill.  He had a kidney disease.  The last time he played the organ was at Christmas in 1875.  He died on 19th April 1876 and was buried next to his daughter in Devon.  There was no music at all at his funeral.

His music
Wesley is remembered for his music composed for the Church of England.  He wrote many anthems,  including Thou wilt keep him in perfect peace, Blessed be the God and Father, The Wilderness and Ascribe unto the Lord. The last two of these are verse anthems (anthem which contrast sections for the full choir with sections for a few soloists).  The popular short anthem Lead me Lord is part of Praise the Lord, O my soul.

He wrote a number of organ works.  One of his most charming pieces is Holsworthy Church Bells (1874).  He also wrote chamber and orchestral music.

His influence
Wesley had an important influence on organ building.  He went to the Great Exhibition in 1851 and saw organs with pedals that, instead of being exactly parallel, spread out at the top like a fan.  He liked these radiating pedal boards and persuaded the great organ builder Henry Willis to put pedal boards like that in the organs he built.

Samuel Sebastian Wesley was a very famous performer and throughout his life he was often asked to play the first concerts on new organs ("inaugural concerts").  His music is still very popular today, and some of his short anthems are not too difficult for the average church choir to sing.

References
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980; ISBN 1-56159-174-2,   vol 20, pp. 363ff
Samuel Sebastian Wesley: A Life, John Horton, 2004, Oxford University Press ISBN 9780198161462

1810 births
1876 deaths
English composers
Romantic composers

Samuel Sebastian Wesley


The Assyrian Church of the East also called Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East is a Christian church.  It is one of the earliest churches to separate from the larger Church. It traces its origins to the See of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, started by Saint Thomas the Apostle as well as Saint Mari and Addai as shown in the Doctrine of Addai. This church is sometimes known as the "Nestorian Church", the "Syrian Church" or the "Persian Church." The church is currently headed by Mar Dinkha IV.

Other names have been given as well, but they are not accurate. One of these names is Assyrian Orthodox Church, which has led some people to believe that it is part of the Oriental Orthodox community. The church itself does not use the word "Orthodox" in any of its service books or in any of its official correspondence, nor does it use any word which can be translated as "correct faith" or "correct doctrine", the rough translation of the word Orthodox. In India, it is known as the Chaldean Syrian Church. In the West it is often known as the Nestorian Church. The Church itself believes that the term 'Nestorian Church' is chosen badly.

The Assyrian Church is the original Christian church in what was once Parthia; eastern Iraq and Iran. Geographically its influence stretched to China and India in the Middle Ages: a monument found in Xi'an (Hsi-an), the Tang-period capital of China (originally Chang'an), in Chinese and Syriac described the activities of the church in the 7th and 8th century, while half a millennium later a Chinese monk went from Beijing to Paris and Rome to call for an alliance with the Mongols against the Mamelukes.  Before the Portuguese arrival in India in 1498, it provided "East Syrian" bishops to the Saint Thomas Christians.  Patriarch Timothy I (727–823) wrote of the large Christian community in Tibet.

The creators of Assyrian theology are Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia. Both taught at Antioch. The normative Christology of the Assyrian church was written by Babai the Great (551–628) and is clearly different from the accusations of dualism directed toward Nestorius: his main christological work is called the 'Book of the Union', and in it Babai teaches that the two qnome (essences) are unmingled but everlastingly united in the one parsopa (personality) of Christ.

References

Other websites

Assyrian Church of the East - St. Paul's Parish (Orange County, CA)

Eastern Christian denominations

Assyrian Church of the East


Jozef Maria Laurens Theo "Jo" Cals (July 18, 1914 in Roermond - December 30, 1971 in The Hague) was a Dutch politician of the Catholic People's Party (KVP).

Cals studied law at Radboud University Nijmegen. He worked several years as a lawyer and attorney, at the university mentioned before and  also as a school teacher.

As a councillor of Nijmegen he entered politics in 1945. Three years later he became an MP. He exercised this position till 1948, and again from 1963 to 1965. In between, he was (deputy) government minister of Education, Arts and Sciences. In 1965 he became prime minister of the so-called Cals cabinet, consisting of his own Catholic People's Party, the Anti-Revolutionairy Party (ARP) and the Labour Party (PvdA). A motion of fellow party member Norbert Schmelzer led to the end of his cabinet in 1966.

Cals was a Roman Catholic. He died in 1971, aged 57.

References
  Bio at Parlement.com

1914 births
1971 deaths
Catholic People's Party politicians
Deputy government ministers of the Netherlands
Dutch councillors
Dutch jurists
Dutch lawyers
Dutch military personnel of World War II
Dutch Roman Catholics
Members of the House of Representatives of the Netherlands
Government ministers of the Netherlands
Politicians from Limburg (Netherlands)
Prime Ministers of the Netherlands

Jo Cals


An eukaryote is an organism with complex cells, or a single cell with complex structures. In these cells the genetic material is organized into chromosomes in the cell nucleus.

Animals, plants, algae and fungi are all eukaryotes. There are also eukaryotes amongst single-celled protists.

In contrast, simpler organisms, such as bacteria and archaea, do not have nuclei and other complex cell structures. Such organisms are called prokaryotes.

Eukaryotes evolved in the Proterozoic eon. The oldest known eukaryote is Grypania, a coiled, unbranched filament up to 30 mm long. The oldest Grypania fossils come from an iron mine near Negaunee, Michigan. The fossils are dated as 1874 million years old. Grypania lasted into the Mesoproterozoic era.

Another ancient group is the acritarchs, believed to be  stages of algal plankton. They are found 1400 million years ago, in the Mesoproterozoic era.p57

The classification of the Eukaryota is under active discussion, and several taxonomies have been proposed. Modern versions  disagree about the number of kingdoms.

Structure
Eukaryotic cells are usually much bigger than prokaryotes. They can be up to 10 times bigger. Eukaryote cells have many different internal membranes and structures, called organelles. They also have a cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton is made up of microtubules and microfilaments. Those parts are very important in the cell's shape. Eukaryotic DNA is put in bundles called chromosomes. They are separated by a "spindle" during cell division.

Eukaryotes usually have some sort of sexual reproduction by fertilisation. Prokaryotes do not do this.

Prokaryotes do not have sexes, but they can pass DNA to other bacteria. Their cell division is asexual. Bacterial conjugation is when bacteria move a genetic element from one to another.

Eukaryotes have sets of linear chromosomes in the nucleus and the number of chromosomes is usually typical for each species.

Internal membrane
In eukaryotic cells, there are many things with membranes around them. All of them together are called the endomembrane system. Simple bags, called vesicles or vacuoles, are sometimes made by budding off other membranes, just like how children make bubbles with their toys. Many cells take in food and other things using something called endocytosis. In endocytosis, the membrane closest to the outside bends inwards and then pinches off to make a vesicle. Many other organelles that have membranes probably started off as vesicles.

The nucleus is surrounded by a double membranes that has holes in it so things can go in and out. The nuclear envelope has things sticking out of it that look like tubes and sheets. These are called the endoplasmic reticulum which is often shortened to ER. The ER is covered with ribosomes which make proteins.

The ER has two parts, the rough ER and the smooth ER. The rough ER has ribosomes attached to it. The proteins made by the ribosomes attached to the rough ER. Lysosomes have enzymes inside them that break down the food the comes from food vacuoles

Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles, which are vacuoles that can fuse or pinch off from the outer membrane. Contractile vesicles are often used to get and get rid of unneeded water. Extrusomes shoot out stuff that make predators go away or catch food. In multicellular organisms, hormones are often made in vesicles. In the complicated plants, most of the inside of a plant cell is taken up by a central vacuole. That central vacuole is the main thing that keeps osmotic pressure so the cell can hold its shape.

Origin
Because the cell organelles of eukaryotes have different (polyphyletic) origins, the question arises as to whether the group is a unified clade or not. It is certain that the protists are not.

Cell organelles are specialised units which carry out well-defined functions, like mitochondria and plastids. It is fairly clear now that all or most of these organelles have their origin in once-independent prokaryotes (bacteria or archaea), and that the eukaryote cell is a 'community of micro-organisms' working together in 'a marriage of convenience'. The first such events took place between ancient bacteria to produce the double-membrane class known as gram-negative bacteria. Since the gram-negative bacteria include the cyanobacteria, this was the first of several such events in the history of the eukaryotes.

Role of the Archaea
Recent research shows that "the known repertoire of 'eukaryote-specific' proteins in Archaea [indicate] that the archaeal host cell already contained many key components that govern eukaryotic cellular complexity".

Taxonomy
Protista is a group of different single-celled organisms. More accurate taxonomies have been proposed, but scientists are still discussing them. For this reason, Protista is still useful for talking about these organisms. One modern scheme for the classification of the Eukarya is as follows:

The Eukarya may only be unified in the sense that the cells are a community derived from bacteria and archaea; opinions vary. Like the Protista, the Eukarya may be a polyphyletic assembly, though a useful one. However, as mentioned above, all branches of the Eukarya have sexual reproduction. That, and the general organisation of the nucleus, are the defining features. These two points are the main evidence for monophyletic origin.

Etymology
The feature that defines eukaryotes is that their cells have nuclei. Eukaryote comes from the Greek words εὖ (eu, "well" or "good") and  karyon, "nut" or "kernel", here meaning "nucleus".

Related pages
 Life timeline

References

Cell biology
Taxonomy

Eukaryote


Lavrenty Pavlovich Beria (, Russian: Лаврентий Павлович Берия) 9 March 1899: Merkheuli,Russian Empire (Georgia or Abkhazia)– 23 December 1953: Moscow, RSFSR Soviet Union). He was a Georgian-Bolshevik, Soviet politician.

Beria was born to a poor family in Georgia he joined the Bolshevik Party led by Vladimir Ilyich Lenin in 1917 at age 18.

Beria was leader of the secret police of the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin's regime from 1938-1945 (head of the NKVD) 1946-1953 (Head of the MVD). In 1953, Nikita Krushchev plotted to have Beria executed.

Career
Lavrenty Beria joined the Soviet Communist Party in 1917 during the Russian Revolution and the Russian Civil War. In 1938 He and Nikolai Yezhov executed NKVD Chief Genrikh Yagoda and Leninist Alexei Rykov during the Great Purge from 1936-1938. Genrikh Yagoda was executed with Alexei Rykov in 1938. In 1940 during World War 2 Joseph Stalin and Lavrenty Beria executed Nikolai Yezhov.

After Vladimir Lenin died in 1924 at age 53 Joseph Stalin replaced Lenin after his death and Lavrenty Beria joined the NKVD led by Genrikh Yagoda (1891-1938) from 1934-1936 and Nikolai Yezhov from 1936-1938 which both replaced Felix Dzerzhinsky (1877-1926) and Vyacheslav Menzhinsky (1874-1934) in 1926 and in 1934. On 1 December 1934 the NKVD killed Sergei Kirov and it led to the Great Purge in 1936-1938. But in 1939 during the start of World War 2 the NKVD was involved in the Invasion of Poland (1939).

Beria was a Soviet politician, Marshal of the Soviet Union and state security administrator, chief of the Soviet security and secret police apparatus (NKVD) under Joseph Stalin during World War II, against the Nazis from 1941-1945 and First Deputy Premier in the post-war years (1946–53). On June 25 1950 just nearly five years after the Soviet-Japanese War (1945) ended in World War II in Asia, and after Korea was liberated from Japan, North Korea (lead by Kim Il-Sung) invaded South Korea (lead by Syngman Rhee) on June 25 1950 and started the Korean War. Stalin and his Eastern Bloc (East Germany,Czechoslovakia,Poland,Hungary,Romania and Bulgaria) along with Mongolia led by Khroloogiin Choibalsan, and China led by Mao Zedong all helped Kim Il-Sung. however Stalin died on March 5th 1953 at the age of 74 died of a stroke. Lavrentiy Beria with Vyacheslav Molotov, Georgy Malenkov, tried to replace Stalin. Beria was arrested on June 26 and was executed on December 23 1953 at the age of 54 and numerous allegations arose of Beria being a serial killer for murdering men, women and children.

He administered vast sections of the Soviet state. He served as de facto Marshal of the Soviet Union in command of the NKVD field units responsible for anti-partisan operations on the Eastern Front during World War II. His troops also were a barrier against thousands of "turncoats, deserters, cowards and suspected malingerers". Beria administered the vast expansion of the Gulag labor camps. He was responsible for overseeing the secret defense institutions known as sharashkas, critical to the war effort.

Beria also played the decisive role in coordinating the Soviet partisans, who developed an impressive intelligence and sabotage network behind German lines. He attended the Yalta Conference with Stalin, who introduced him to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt as "our Himmler". After the war, he organized the communist takeover of the countries of Central Europe and Eastern Europe.

Beria's uncompromising ruthlessness in his duties and skill at producing results led to his overseeing the Soviet atomic bomb project. Stalin gave it absolute priority and the project was completed in under five years. To achieve this, Beria's NKVD organised Soviet espionage against the West.

Beria was promoted to First Deputy Premier, where he carried out a brief campaign of liberalization. He was briefly a part of the ruling "troika" with Georgy Malenkov and Vyacheslav Molotov. Beria's overconfidence in his position after Stalin's death led him to misjudge other Politburo members.

There was a coup d'état led by Nikita Khrushchev with the military forces of Marshal Georgy Zhukov. Beria was arrested on charges of treason during a meeting in which the full Politburo condemned him. This was all planned by Krushchov. The NKVD was powerless because Zhukov's troops were there. After interrogation, Beria was taken to the basement of the Lubyanka and shot, as were six of his associates.

References

1899 births
1953 deaths
Directors of Soviet intelligence agencies
Marshals of the Soviet Union
People executed by firearm
Politicians from Georgia (country)

Lavrenty Beria


Coronary artery disease, also called coronary heart disease, is a heart disease. ("Coronary" means "the blood vessels of the heart".) Coronary heart disease causes plaque to build up inside the coronary arteries. This causes the coronary arteries to become narrower. An artery is a blood vessel - a tube that carries blood. After the heart supplies blood that is full of oxygen and nutrients, the arteries carry the blood to different parts of the body. The coronary arteries are very important: they supply blood to the heart muscle. So when the coronary arteries become narrower, less blood gets to the heart muscle.

Symptoms
Most people with coronary heart disease can feel healthy for years before they start experiencing symptoms. The most common symptom is a heart attack.  If coronary heart disease is not treated, some of the plaques in the coronary arteries can break away and block the blood flow to the heart.  Coronary heart disease is the most common cause of sudden death. It is also the most common cause of death in people over 65 years old. Men are 10 times more likely to get coronary heart disease than women.

Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a form of heart disease. It causes fatty materials (like cholesterol) to build up in the arteries, forming harder materials called plaques. This causes the arteries to become narrower. It also makes it more difficult for blood to flow through the arteries. This can cause blood clots to form, blocking blood from traveling through the arteries.  Small pieces of plaque can also break off and block smaller blood vessels.

If an artery becomes blocked completely, it causes serious problems. All cells, tissues, and organs in the body need oxygen and nutrients (carried by blood) to survive. If cells or tissues are not supplied with enough blood, they will die. (This is called necrosis.) When this happens in the coronary arteries, a section of the heart dies. This can cause a myocardial infarction (a heart attack) to happen.

Prevention
People can do many different things to keep themselves from getting coronary heart disease:
 They can change their diet. For example, they can eat fewer fatty foods, and take in as few saturated fats and avoiding trans fats as possible.
 They can eat more vegetables, fruits, legumes and whole grains.
 They can avoid drinking alcohol, and can take in less salt.
 They can exercise regularly.
 They can avoid becoming overweight or obese by doing things to control their weight.

Heart disease

Coronary artery disease


TurboPlay Magazine is a bi-monthly, U.S.-based video game magazine which was published by L.F.P. from June/July 1990 through August/September 1992. It was available via subscription only (US$9.95 per year). A total of 14 issues were released, on schedule. TurboPlay exclusively covered NEC's line of video game consoles, especially the North American models: TurboGrafx-16 (PC Engine), TurboGrafx-CD (TG-CD), Turbo Duo (DUO) and the handheld TurboExpress (PC Engine GT). NEC's SuperGrafx (which was never released outside Japan) also received some minor coverage.

Overview
Each 32-page issue features software and hardware reviews and previews, strategy guides and cheats, letters to the editor, one or two feature articles and contest announcements. These bi-monthly contests often required folks to be creative (as writers or artists) and winning entries were awarded one Grand Prize (typically five TG-16 software titles) and five Runners Up (typically one TG-16 software title).

Feature articles ranged from coverage of trade shows (CES, Tokyo Toy Fair) to behind-the-scenes peeks at game development (i.e. interviews with actors during the filming of FMV (full motion video) sequences for the TG-CD It Came From the Desert; interviews with the ICOM development team that created the TG-CD Addams Family).

Both HuCard (TurboChip) and CD-ROM (TG-CD) games were reviewed. Since the TG-CD library was relatively small, the bulk of reviews cover HuCard games. The format of the game reviews changed over the course of the first few issues: initially games were not given a quantitative score (issues #1 & #2), then games were graded on a scale of one to five stars (five being the best, issues #3 & #4), finally, with issue #5, TurboPlay adopted VG & CE's standard format for reviews (i.e. games were given individual scores—on a ten-point scale—for Sound/Music, Graphics, Playability and "Overall").

NEC did not produce TurboPlay, and thus did not have editorial control over its content, but NEC was the primary source of advertising revenue (NEC agreed to purchase at least four full-page ads in each issue, "indefinitely"). As a result, NEC's ads dominated the pages of TurboPlay, although one could also find ads for mail-order companies and a small roster of third-party publishers: Tengen (KLAX), Radiance Software (Sidearms), IGS (Sonic Spike, CyberCore, Sinistron, Tricky Kick), and Working Designs (Cadash, Parasol Stars, Cosmic Fantasy 2, Exile, Exile 2, Vasteel).

Publication history and personnel
TurboPlay was a spin-off magazine from the editors of VideoGames & Computer Entertainment (VG&CE), a popular multi-platform magazine of the late 1980s / early 1990s. VG&CE, like TurboPlay, was published by L.F.P. The two magazines would occasionally run cross-promotions to encourage readers to subscribe to their sister publication.

Alan Hunter, Jim McDermott, Van Arno and other illustrators supplied the cover (and interior) art for TurboPlay.

Lee Pappas and Andy Eddy (respectively, publisher and executive editor of VG&CE) lent their talents to TurboPlay, as did many other VG&CE staff / reviewers. Notable writers for TurboPlay included Victor Ireland (of Working Designs fame) and Donn Nauert (a video game record holder). Donn Nauert was senior editor of TurboPlay for the first twelve issues, with Chris Bieniek taking over the reins for the final two issues.

Donn Nauert, a celebrity of sorts in the gaming community (at the time, he held many video game "high score" records in the Guinness Book of World Records and was a member of the short-lived "U.S. National Video Game Team", wrote many of the feature articles for TurboPlay, in addition to the strategy guides that appeared in nearly every issue.

Victor Ireland, another up-and-coming "celebrity" in the gaming community (he convinced the owner of Working Designs to enter the video game market and begin localizing popular titles for TG-16, TG-CD, Sega CD and later, Sony PlayStation platforms) also contributed regularly to TurboPlay. Beginning with issue #4 (Dec. 90 / Jan. 91), Victor Ireland wrote "Games Around the World", a regular column that profiled PC-Engine games available in Japan. He also covered many trade shows and even penned a feature article on "The Sound and Vision of CD+G". (CD+G—audio compact disc + graphics—was a relatively new format supported by high-end CD players, TurboGrafx-CD, and later, the Sega CD.)

Initially, the software reviews in TurboPlay were uncredited, but eventually the authors were acknowledged. Some reviewers from VG & CE (Chris Bieniek, Clayton Walnum, Donn Nauert, etc.) were commissioned to write reviews for TurboPlay as well. Donn Nauert and Chris Bieniek eventually became permanent staffers at TurboPlay.

Importance of TurboPlay to the TG-16 gaming community
During the 16-bit console wars, TurboGrafx-16 struggled in the North American market and, as a result, was given marginal coverage in the major multi-platform magazines of the day. By default, TurboPlay was the only resource Turbo fans could turn to for more in-depth, consistent and timely coverage of TG-16 domestically and PC-Engine in Japan. Ultimately, it proved to be the most successful North American publication dedicated exclusively to NEC's consoles (see below for related TG-16 publications).

Notes: related TG-16 publications
 NEC published TurboEdge, an official TG-16 newsletter. Only three issues were released: Spring 1991, Fall 1991, Spring 1992. Black and white, 6-8 pages apiece.
 Sendai Publishing Group, under editorial control of TTi, published four issues of Turbo Force to promote the launch of the Turbo Duo console: June 1992, September 1992, January 1993, Spring 1993. Full color, 32 pages apiece.
 After the Turbo Duo was launched, L.F.P. published three issues of Duo World that covered the new console: July/August 1993 (32 pages), September/October 1993 (16 pages), November / December 1993 (16 pages).

References

External links
TurboPlay Magazine Archives (TurboGrafx-16) , offering page scans for all issues of TurboPlay as well as TurboForce and DuoWorld (subsequent TG-16 magazines).
Jim McDermott official site
Interview with editor Chris Bieniek
Bimonthly magazines published in the United States
Video game magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1990
TurboGrafx-16
Magazines disestablished in 1992
Defunct computer magazines published in the United States
Magazines published in California
  sv:Turbografx-16 Digitized TurboPlay magazines on Retro CDN

TurboPlay


A chord progression is a part of music, made up of several chords played one after another. Chord progressions are important for people who write songs or play musical instruments that can play chords, such as the guitar. Chord progressions are used in many types of music. How a piece of music sounds has to do with its chord progression.

Relation to the circle of fifths
The circle of fifths is an idea in music theory that has to do with keys. It also has to do with chord progressions. If you have a song with the chord progression G, C, D, you can see those chords are right next to each other in the circle. So if you want to play the same song in a different key, you can use any other three chords right next to each other. This works for any chord progression.

Common chord progressions

One of the most used chord progressions is based on the first, fourth and fifth notes of a major scale. In the key of C, these are the C, F, and G chords. This progression is used in many simple songs. Since these songs have only three chords, they are sometimes called three-chord songs. Many country, blues, rock, pop and punk songs are three-chord songs.

Related pages
Chord
Harmonics (music)

Music theory

Chord progression


Johor (last time known as Johore, Jawi script: جوهر) is a state of Malaysia. It is one of the most developed states in Malaysia. The capital city and royal seat of Johor is Johor Bahru, once known as Tanjung Puteri. The old state capital is Johor Lama. The Arabic honorific of the state is Darul Ta'zim ("Abode of Dignity'). Johor is surrounded by Pahang to the north, Melaka and Negeri Sembilan to the northwest, and the Straits of Johor to the south which is divided by the international border between Malaysia and the Republic of Singapore. Tanjung Piai, in the district of Pontian, is the most southerly point of mainland Asia.

History
The name "Johor" came from the Arabic word Jauhar, 'gem/precious stone' . Before the name Johor was taken up, the area south of the Muar River to Singapore island  was known as Ujung Tanah or 'land's end' in Malay, due to its location at the end of the Malay Peninsula. Coincidentally, Johor is the most southerly point of the Asian continental mainland.

Transportation centres

Ports
Johor has three ports: Pasir Gudang Port, Port of Tanjung Pelepas and Tanjung Langsat Port.

Airports

Johor has one international airport, the Senai International Airport in Senai. It was opened on 6 June 1974 and has been expanded several times ever since. Currently, it has a 5 million passenger capacity with parallel taxiway under construction.

The airport is also a regional hub of AirAsia, a regional low-cost no-frills airline. Malaysia Airlines also operate flights from Senai airport to some local and international destinations.

Government structure of Johor

Monarchy
Johor is a constitutional monarchy. It was the first state in Malaysia which adopted the constitutional monarchy system, and its laws are stated in Undang-undang Tubuh Negeri Johor (Johor State Establishment Constitution), written by Sultan Abu Bakar. The constitutional head of Johor is the Sultan. This position can only be passed down and held by a member of the Johor Royal Family, who is descended from Sultan Abu Bakar. The State's Sultan since 1981 has been Sultan Iskandar Al-Haj.

Johor was the first state and currently the only state in Malaysia that has its own military force called Johor Military Force or 'Timbalan Setia Negeri'. It is a private army of the Sultan of Johor paid by the state government.

State government

The state government is led by the Chief Minister or Menteri Besar. The current Chief Minister is Dato' Abdul Ghani Othman, a former civil servant. The Chief Minister is assisted by an executive council (exco), whose members are selected from the state assembly members.

The legislative branch of Johor's government is the Johor State Assembly. The state assembly makes laws in matters on the state. Members of the assembly are elected every five years in an election.

Places of interest

Major tourist attractions
Among the popular tourist destinations in Johor are:
 Desaru - beaches & golf courses along the South China Sea
 Johor Bahru - shopping, night market, colonial/royal district
 Endau Rompin National Park - pristine jungle
 Kota Tinggi 34 meter waterfall.
 Kukup - a fishing village with seafood restaurants built over water
 Muar - picturesque riverside town
 Seribuat Archipelago - islands with beautiful beaches, coral reefs
 Tanjung Piai - the southernmost tip of mainland Asia
 Danga Bay - waterfront city
 Pekan Air Panas - hot springs,waterfall,local fruits available
 Kota Iskandar - administrative capital of Johor

National parks and forest reserves
Johor is also known for its national parks. Johor currently has five national parks, with a combined area of more than 700 km² and several smaller recreational forest. Almost all recreational parks are based around a mountain. Johor also has the third largest mangrove forest reserve in Peninsular Malaysia (167 km²).

Geography

Physical
In the official census of 2010, the  population of Johor was 3.35 million people with 48% Malays, 40% Chinese, 8% Indians and 4% others. It is the fifth largest state (18,984 km²) of Malaysia. It is the southernmost state in Peninsular Malaysia being South of Melaka, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang and North of Straits of Johor. The highest point in Johor is Gunung (mountain) Ledang (1276 m). Gunung Ledang is also known as Mount Ophir. Johor is the only state in Malaysia which has a 400 km beach stretching on both the East and the West coast.

Johor has 8 large islands with numerous smaller ones.
 Pulau Tinggi
 Pulau Rawa
 Pulau Sibu
 Pulau Tengah
 Pulau Pemanggil
 Pulau Aur
 Pulau Besar
 Pulau Lima

Weather
Johor experiences wet equatorial weather with monsoon rain from Nov until Feb blowing from the South China Sea. Average annual rainfall is 1778 mm with average temperature of between 25.5 °C (78 °F) and 27.8 °C (82 °F). Humidity is between 82 and 86%.

Hundred Year Peak Rain Fall

On 19 December 2006, continuously heavy downpour occurred in Johor. Many towns such as Muar, Kota Tinggi and Segamat were seriously flooded with water levels as high as  above ground level recorded in some areas. 15 lives were lost and many possessions were destroyed and this resulted in huge financial losses in Johor. More than 100,000 victims were evacuated to flood relief centres.

Links to Singapore
Johor is connected to Singapore by two roads: the Johor-Singapore Causeway and the Malaysia-Singapore Second Link.

The Johor-Singapore Causeway (length: 1038 m) was designed by Messrs Coode, Fizmaurice, Wilson and Mitchell of Westminster, while the construction contract was awarded to Topham, Jones & Railton Ltd of London. It started in 1909 as a railway link by Johor State Railway to connect Johor Bahru to Singapore, then the administrative headquarters of British interests in South-East Asia. Construction of the road section started in 1919 and was completed in 1923.

Other websites
 Johor Chief Minister Office Official Website
 Johor Chief Minister Office Official Website, Media and Communication Unit(MedKom)
 History of the Johor Empire

References

14th-century establishments in Asia
Establishments in Malaysia

Johor


A computer bus (often simply called bus) is part of most computers. Its role is to transfer data, signals, or power between some of the components that make up a computer.

The size or width of a bus is how many bits it carries in parallel. Common bus sizes are: 4 bits, 8 bits, 12 bits, 16 bits, 24 bits, 32 bits, 64 bits, 80 bits, 96 bits, and 128 bits. Computers use such buses to link:
 CPU to on-board Memory
 multiple CPUs in a multi-cpu system
 Arithmetic logic unit to the rest of the CPU
 hard drives, graphics cards, etc. to the main system.

Drives are usually connected by Serial ATA or the earlier ATAPI bus. USB and Firewire connections go to printers and other peripheral devices.

Computer bus


A choir or choral group is a collection of people who sing together. They typically rehearse together with a leader and perform concerts or sing during religious services. Some choirs are professional (the singers are paid for their work in the choir). Some choirs are semi-professional (the leaders are paid at a professional rate for their work with the choir but the singers are not). Some choirs are amateur or recreational (the leaders are either not paid or are offered an honorarium and the singers are not paid). Some amateur choirs invite anyone who is interested sing with them. Professional, semi-professional, and some amateur or recreational choirs require interested people to audition and then select their members based on a set of audition criteria.

Parts of a Choir
The singers in choirs are grouped by their voice types and choral music is usually written with distinct lines or parts for some or all of these voice types. Voice types are typically organized into four groups. From highest vocal range to lowest, these include:

 Soprano (S): typically sung by higher-voiced, adult females or children
 Alto (A): typically sung by lower-voiced, adult females or children and less-typically by males who sing in their falsetto range
 Tenor (T): typically sung by higher-voiced, adult males
 Bass (B): typically sung by lower-voiced, adult males

Music composed for choirs, or choral music, usually has at least two distinct vocal lines or parts that create harmony with one another. Although four vocal ranges are typically specified, composers of choral music often write more than four vocal lines. If the music divides into more than four parts this subdivision is typically shown by repeating the initials of the four voice parts to show which singers should be assigned to these vocal lines, e.g. SSAATTBB (for music in eight parts: two soprano lines, two alto lines etc.). Young children's choirs may be unison choirs (all singing the same line), but older children will sing in two (SS) or three (SSA) parts or more.

Types of Choirs
Choirs usually organize and limit themselves according to voicing and/or age of the singers as well as by the size of group or the type of music they sing.

The primary voicing categories are:
A mixed choir is a group with changed (usually male) and unchanged voices (usually female or children); the voicing for this group is typically expressed as SATB (soprano, alto, tenor, bass).
An equal voice choir is a group for either changed (usually male) voices or unchanged (usually female) voices. Sometimes these choirs are called men's choirs and women's/ladies' choirs. Sometimes they are referred to by their voicing: a TB or TTBB choir and an SA or SSAA choir.
A youth choir varies widely in its voicing since adolescence is the period during which most male voices transition from the soprano or alto vocal range to the tenor or bass vocal range. For this reason, youth choirs can have any combination of voice parts, including SA, SAB, and SATB.
A children's choir is most typically an equal voice group for pre-pubertal singers. Some children's choirs also include youth and, therefore, may include changed voices (tenor and bass).
Choirs that organize themselves by size or repertoire type, they can be called:

 A chorus, choral society, or large ensemble is usually a choir of 40 or more singers and often includes 100+ people. These groups typically sing large works, including operas or oratorios or similar compositions.
 A chamber choir will never include more than 40 singers and will often be considerably smaller.
 A small vocal ensemble or vocal group typically ranges in size from 3 to 12 singers.
 An a cappella choir sings only music that has no pitched instrumental accompaniment.
 There are a vast number of choirs that organize themselves around specific cultural or religious music traditions.

Choir of a Church (Architectural)
The word choir can also mean the part of a church or cathedral where the choir sit. The choir is between the nave (the main body of the church) and the sanctuary (where the altar is). The singers will divide into two groups and sit facing one another on either side of the choir area in the "choir stalls". In cathedrals the singers on the left (when facing the altar) are called "cantoris" and those on the right are called "decani" (pronounce: dee-CAY-nye).

Choir of an Organ
A large pipe organ may have three or more manuals (keyboards). The third keyboard is called the "choir". Traditionally the sound from the choir organ comes from pipes in a separate box behind the organist, facing the choir (the singers). It is often used to accompany them.
Originally it was a separate instrument so that the organist had to turn round to play it. Later it became possible for the organist to play it from the main console.

Some famous choirs
Some famous choirs include:
San Francisco Symphony Chorus
Mormon Tabernacle Choir
Huddersfield Choral Society
BBC Symphony Chorus
BBC Singers
Red Army Choir
National Youth Choir of Great Britain
Vienna Boys' Choir (German: Wiener Sängerknaben)
Harlem Boys' Choir
Choir of St John's College, Cambridge
Choir of Kings' College, Cambridge
Westminster Cathedral Choir

Other websites

Vocal music

Choir (music)


Peter Warlock (born London, 30 October 1894; died London, 17 December 1930),  was an English composer. "Peter Warlock" was not his real name. His real name was Philip Heseltine. He was also a music critic. When he wrote about music he used his real name, but when he composed music he used the pseudonym (borrowed name) "Peter Warlock", which is the name by which he is usually remembered today.

Life
Philip Heseltine did not come from a musical family. When he was two years old his father died. His mother married again and went back to live in Wales, where she came from. Philip went to school at Eton College.

He was still a teenager when he was introduced to the composer Delius, who lived in France. They became good friends and Philip made piano arrangements of some of Delius's music. Later he wrote a book about Delius. He studied in Germany for a time, and then at Oxford where he studied classics. He learned about music by teaching himself. He did not fight in World War I. He was a conscientious objector, but also, his health was not good enough for him to be in the army.

He spent most of his life in London, but he did visit Ireland for a year, and also spent three years with his mother in Wales, and four years in Kent where he lived with Ernest Moeran. Heseltine and Moeran often got drunk together. He became friends with the composer Bernard van Dieren whose music influenced him a lot. He also liked poetry from the time of Queen Elizabeth I.

He died in his apartment from gas poisoning. It is not certain whether it was suicide, but he did let his cat out before he turned on the gas.

His music
His music, written under the name of Peter Warlock, often has links with his literary writings. Some of the best works he wrote are his songs, especially the song-cycle The Curlew, which has lyrics from poems by W. B. Yeats. One of his most popular works is the Capriol Suite for string orchestra.

Warlock wrote many carols, such as Adam Lay Ybounden, Tyrley Tyrlow, and Bethlehem Down.

Warlock was not influenced by folksong like many other English composers of the time. He liked many different styles, including  Renaissance music and the music of Bartók whom he met.

Other websites
The UK branch of the Peter Warlock Society website

1894 births
1930 deaths
20th-century English composers

Peter Warlock


The cytoplasm (not to be confused with cytosol) is the protoplasm of a cell outside the cell nucleus. It is the jelly-like material plus the organelles outside the nucleus, and inside the cell membrane.

Many important functions of a cell take place in organelles, which are like bits of machinery for doing many jobs. The cytoplasm is highly structured: it is not liquidy, but more of a gelatinous substance, even though it is made out of 7580% water.

The cytosol contains a complex mixture of cytoskeleton filaments, including the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. It includes dissolved molecules, and water that fills much of the cell. Due to this network of fibres, membranes and the many dissolved macromolecules such as proteins, the cytosol does not act like a simple liquid. The main function of the cytoplasm is to hold the organelles in place.

Cells

Cytoplasm


Muridae is the largest family of mammals.  It contains over 700 species. These species can be found naturally throughout Eurasia, Africa, and Australia.  They have been introduced worldwide.  The group includes true mice and rats, gerbils, and relatives.

The family name Muridae is sometimes used in a broader sense to include all members of the superfamily Muroidea.

The Murids are classified in four subfamilies, and about 140 genera.

Subfamilies

Deomyinae (spiny mice, brush furred mice, link rat)
Gerbillinae (gerbils, jirds and sand rats)
Leimacomyinae (Togo mouse)
Lophiomyinae (Crested rat)
Murinae (Old World rats and mice including the vlei rats)

Sources
Jansa S.A. and M. Weksler. 2004. Phylogeny of muroid rodents: relationships within and among major lineages as determined by IRBP gene sequences.  Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 31:256-276.
Michaux J. A. Reyes, and F. Catzeflis. 2001. Evolutionary history of the most speciose mammals: molecular phylogeny of muroid rodents. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 17:280-293.
Steppan S.J; R.A. Adkins and J. Anderson. 2004. Phylogeny and divergence date estimates of rapid radiations in muroid rodents based on multiple nuclear genes. Systematic Biology, 53:533-553.
 Muridae on ITIS

Rodents

Muridae


Alessandro Antonelli (July 14, 1798 – October 18, 1888) was an Italian architect of the 19th century. His most famous works are the Mole Antonelliana in Turin (named for him) and both the Novara Cathedral and the Basilica of St. Gaudenzio in Novara.

Biography

Antonelli was born in Ghemme, near Novara. He studied in Milan and Turin, and for years he worked in the state territorial planning offices. After winning an architecture contest in the Accademia Albertina, he moved to Rome in 1828, where he studied deep descriptive geometry.

He elaborated a functional ideal of architecture, which inspired him with an ambitious plan for the renovation of Turin's historical centre. When he returned there in 1836 (remaining until 1857), he became a professor of the Albertina Academy. He was also a deputy in the Kingdom of Sardinia's Parliament, and a member of Turin's communal council and of the Province of Novara's one. In this period he designed numerous works: several residences, the communal seta and the Sanctuary of Boca (whose cupola was never completed due to crumbling risks), a villa at Romagnano Sesia, the Orphans' Hospice in Alessandria, the regulation plans of Ferrara and Novara, the church of San Clement and the Asilo de Medici in Bellinzago Novarese. The church of Borgolavezzaro (1858–1862) was also finished without the cupola, due to high costs.

Noteworthy is the Basilica of San Gaudenzio in Novara, finished in 1887. It is an audacious construction in brickwork, standing 121 m tall. Also from him in Novara are the Casa Bossi and the Cathedral.

Antonelli's most famous work is the Mole Antonelliana, the symbol of Turin, named after him and begun in 1863 as a Jewish synagogue. It was completed in 1897 by the city's council as the Risorgimento Museum. The spire, demolished by a violent cloudburst accompanied by a tornado in 1953, was rebuilt in 1961 according to the original drawings.

Antonelli died in 1888 and was buried in the family cemetery of Maggiora.

References

External links

1798 births
1888 deaths
People from Ghemme
19th-century Italian architects
Accademia Albertina alumni
Academic staff of Accademia Albertina

Alessandro Antonelli


Chicken fingers (also known as chicken tenders, chicken tendies or chicken strips) are chicken meat dipped in breading and then deep-fried, grilled or baked. In the Northeastern United States or the Midwest, chicken strips are often made by way of egg batter and have smooth texture. Elsewhere, however, chicken strips may lack egg batter and the texture can be rather coarse. Chicken strips are provided to customers in certain restaurants, including the KFC, McDonald's and Wendy's fast food networks.

American food
Chicken as food
Fast food

Chicken fingers


Coffee: A Dark History is a 2005 book that examines the history of coffee. It was written by Antony Wild and was published by Norton. Wild had previously worked as a buyer for a specialty-coffee company for over ten years. He argues that coffee has had major effects on the economy of the British Empire. He also maintains that First World consumption of coffee and the accompanying free trade policies have had a negative impact on Third World coffee farmers.

Summary
Although he is unable to determine exactly when and where coffee was first consumed, Wild believes that its effect as a stimulant was first discovered by Ethiopian farmers. He also describes its adoption by Sufi Islam and then Arab society in general. He credits coffee with causing "a revolution in... political, economic, and cultural life" in England. He addresses the relevance of coffee houses in English society, and also outlines the intellectual movement that resulted. The inherent unfairness in the coffee industry on the third world is also addressed. Wild argues in the book that the energizing effects of coffee are partially responsible for the creation of the modern stock exchange, Lloyd's of London, and the London police force in the 1600s. He believes that many British thinkers of the day would have been less prolific had they drunk ale instead of coffee. He also claims that coffee replacing ale as a popular morning beverage helped cause the Age of Enlightenment. Wild expresses the viewpoint of many women in regards to the drinking of British coffee houses. In 1674, the "Women's Petition Against Coffee" was published, stating that men were wasting their time on reflection and coffee, which took away from their time spent at home. He also notes that coffee was frequently consumed at meetings of the Royal Society and by political philosophers such as Andrew Marvell and Samuel Pepys. He also describes how nations in the Americas were able to rapidly increase coffee production in the 18th century due to the use of slavery. He states that coffee played a role that was similar to sugar in promoting the international slave trade.

Wild describes the global supply chain of coffee in detail. He quotes an estimate by the World Bank that 500 million people are involved in the global coffee trade. He notes that coffee is very cheap due to the use of Coffea canephora (robusta coffee) in Vietnam and other countries. In addition to its inexpensive price, he says that the invention of instant coffee also made the drink easier to make and thus more popular, because American soldiers in World War II. He is particularly critical of Starbucks and Nestlé, viewing them as complicit in neocolonial oppression of African farmers. Wild claims the demand for lower prices forces the farmers and workers out of business, especially in Africa and Central America. He advocates the purchase of Fair Trade coffee as a way to help Third World farmers. Wild discusses the impact big businesses have on third world coffee producing countries, including El Salvador, Brazil and Vietnam, that don't get paid as much for exporting coffee.

Wild also discusses the health effects of caffeine. He believes that excessive caffeine consumption poses a risk to human health. He also argues that the coffee industry has produced flawed information that distort the actual effects of caffeine. Although, caffeine has made coffee the popular beverage that it is today.

Reception
Writing in The Washington Monthly Brendan I. Koerner faults Wild for bland, unrefined storytelling, poor logic, and off topic digressions with unnecessary detail about unimportant minutiae. Randolph Schmid of the Associated Press described the digressions as often fascinating, however. Koerner also believes that some of the claims made by Wild about the effects of coffee are outlandish. In addition, he notes that Wild departs from his discussion of coffee to dwell on subjects such as US drug policy and the Vietnam War. However, he praises Wild for eye-opening accounts of the coffee manufacturing process, descriptions of the effects of free trade, and for casting "much-needed light on the consequences of Starbucks' coffee-house hegemony". Jonathan Yardley also praised Wild for the well founded indignation and sorrow with which he describes the global coffee industry.

References

2005 non-fiction books
History books about agriculture
Books about globalization
W. W. Norton & Company books
Coffee culture
Works about coffee
History of coffee

Coffee: A Dark History


Yeshe  Tsogyel (, rhymes with "may say so well") is also known in the Nyingma tradition of Tibetan Buddhism as the Great Bliss Queen. She is both a woman and a female deity called a dakini.

She lived from 757 to 817, and was the wife of Emperor Trisong Detsen (740 - c. 798) who invited Padmasambhava to Tibet:
From the mouth of a lotus was born
The swift goddess, heroic liberator
Who went forth in human form
Amid the snowy mountains of Tibet.

Among Tibetans she is seen as a Buddha who takes the form of an ordinary woman so as to be seen by the average person, "who, for the time being, do not see her Vajravarahi form as a fully perfected deity." In fact,
She displays whatever emanation form will tame
Any given [person], just as, for example, the full moon in the sky
Emerges as [various] reflections in different water vessels.

According to legend she was born in the same manner as the Buddha, a Sanskrit mantra sounding as her mother gave birth painlessly. She is considered a reincarnation of the Buddha's own mother.  Her name ("Primordial (ye) Wisdom (shes) Queen (rgyal mo) of the Lake (tso)") derives from her birth causing a nearby lake to double in size.

As a young girl, she is said to have prayed for the happiness of all sentient beings. At the age of sixteen, she was initiated into Buddhism by Guru Padmasambhava. Although she was originally one of the Queen consorts of Trisong Detsen, he gave her to Padmasambhava and she became his main spiritual consort. After many years of study she became enlightened. Yeshey Tsogyal was the main person who wrote down and collected Padmasambhava's teachings. She also terma most of the hidden teachings called termas.

As the wife of Tri-song-day-tsen and the consort of Padmasambhava, given to him at her request by the king, she also stands historically at the beginning of Buddhism's eclipse of Bön in Tibet.  She is also considered a manifestation of Sarasvati and sometimes identified with the Bodhisattva Tara.

Notes

References
Klein, Anne Carolyn (1995). Meeting the Great Bliss Queen: Buddhists, Feminists, and the Art of the Self. Beacon Press: Boston. .

757 births
817 deaths
Tibetan Buddhism

Yeshe Tsogyal


A subsurface ocean current is an oceanic current that runs beneath surface currents. Examples include the Equatorial Undercurrents of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, the California Undercurrent, and the Agulhas Undercurrent, the deep thermohaline circulation in the Atlantic, and bottom gravity currents near Antarctica. The forcing mechanisms vary for these different types of subsurface currents.

Density current
The most common of these is the density current, epitomized by the Thermohaline current. The density current works on a basic principle: the denser water sinks to the bottom, separating from the less dense water, and causing an opposite reaction from it. There are numerous factors controlling density.

Salinity
One is the salinity of water, a prime example of this being the Mediterranean/Atlantic exchange. The saltier waters of the Mediterranean sink to the bottom and flow along there, until they reach the ledge between the two bodies of water. At this point, they rush over the ledge into the Atlantic, pushing the less saline surface water into the Mediterranean.

Temperature
Another factor of density is temperature. Thermohaline (literally meaning heat-salty) currents are very influenced by heat. Cold water from glaciers, icebergs, etc. descends to join the ultra-deep, cold section of the worldwide Thermohaline current. After spending an exceptionally long time in the depths, it eventually heats up, rising to join the higher Thermohaline current section. Because of the temperature and expansiveness of the Thermohaline current, it is substantially slower, taking nearly 1000 years to run its worldwide circuit.

Turbidity current

One factor of density is so unique that it warrants its own current type. This is the turbidity current. Turbidity current is caused when the density of water is increased by sediment. This current is the underwater equivalent of a landslide. When sediment increases the density of the water, it falls to the bottom, and then follows the form of the land. In doing so, the sediment inside the current gathers more from the ocean bed, which in turn gathers more, and so on. As a limited amount of sediment can be carried by a certain amount of water, more water must become laded with sediment, until a huge, destructive current is washing down some marine hillside. It is theorized that submarine depths, such as the Marianas Trench have been caused in part by this action. There is one additional effect of turbidity currents: upwelling. All of the water rushing into ocean valleys displaces a significant amount of water. This water literally has nowhere to go but up.  The upwelling current goes almost straight up. This spreads the nutrient rich ocean life to the surface, feeding some of the world's largest fisheries. This current also helps Thermohaline currents return to the surface.

Ekman Spiral
An entirely different class of subsurface current is caused by friction with surface currents and objects. When the wind or some other surface force compels surface currents into motion, some of this is translated into subsurface motion. The Ekman Spiral, named after Vagn Walfrid Ekman, is the standard for this transfer of energy. The Ekman Spiral works as follows: when the surface moves, the subsurface inherits some -but not all- of this motion.  Due to the Coriolis Effect, however, the current moves at a 45˚ angle to the right of the first (left in the Southern Hemisphere). The current below is slower yet, and moves at a 45˚ angle to the right.  This process continues in the same manner, until, at about 100 meters below the surface, the current is moving in the opposite direction of the surface current.

Subsidence
The final type of subsurface current is subsidence, caused when forces push water against some obstacle (like a rock), causing it to pile up there. The water at the bottom of the pileup flows away from it, causing a subsidence current.

Wave Patterns
Various subsurface currents conflict at times, causing bizarre wave patterns. One of the most noticeable of these is the Maelstrom. The word is derived from Nordic words meaning to grind and stream. Essentially, the maelstrom is a large, very powerful whirlpool, a large swirling body of water being drawn down and inward toward its center. This is usually the result of tidal currents.

Effect
Subsurface currents have a large effect on life on earth. They flow beneath the surface of the water, allowing them to be relatively free of external influence. Thus, they function like clockwork, providing nutrient transportation, water transfer, etc., as well as affecting the ocean floor and submarine processes.

See also
 Oceanography

References

Ocean currents
Oceanography

Subsurface ocean current