The Dieppe Raid is also known as the Battle of Dieppe, Operation Rutter and, later,  Operation Jubilee. It was a Second World War Allied attack on the German-occupied port of Dieppe. The attack took place on the northern coast of France on 19 August 1942.

The attack began at 5:00 a.m. and by 10:50 a.m. the Allied commanders had to call a retreat. Over 6,000 infantrymen, mostly Canadian, were supported by a Canadian Armoured regiment. They were also helped by a strong force of Royal Navy and smaller Royal Air Force group.

The goal was to capture a major port for a short period and to gather information. Upon retreat, the Allies also wanted to destroy coastal defences, port structures and important buildings. The raid was also intended to improve morale and demonstrate the commitment of the United Kingdom to attack a Western front in Europe.

None of these goals were achieved. There was not enough Allied artillery support. The troops were trapped on the beach by obstacles and German gunfire. After less than 10 hours since the first landings, the last Allied troops had all been either killed, evacuated, or captured by the Germans.

Instead of showing the British commitment, the terrible number of Allied deaths showed that the Allies were not ready to invade France for a long time. The attack did help the Allies to gather some information.

A total of 3,623 of the 6,086 men (almost 60%) who went ashore were either killed, wounded, or captured. The Royal Air Force did not get the Luftwaffe to start a battle. The RAF lost 96 aircraft (at least 32 to being shot down or accidents), compared to 48 lost by the Luftwaffe.

The Royal Navy lost 33 landing craft and one destroyer. The events at Dieppe affected the plans for the North African (Operation Torch) and Normandy landings (Operation Overlord).

Background

The British decided the Dieppe attack could be planned within a month. They were very careful to keep the attack secret. No records were kept of the plans.

After the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Forces from Dunkirk in May 1940, the British started to plan an attack force. It would use new ways of doing sea landings on beaches (amphibious warfare).

The British started planning was to see if they could capture a port. This would allow them to test out how to use ships in the attack. It would also allow them to test new equipment.

Dieppe, a coastal town in France, is built along a long cliff by the English Channel. In 1942, the Germans set up two large artillery batteries at Berneval-le-Grand and Varengeville. One important consideration for the British planners was that Dieppe was within range of the Royal Air Force's fighter aircraft.

There was also pressure from the Soviet government to attack the Germans in Western Europe. By early 1942, The Wehrmacht's Operation Barbarossa attacks did not destroy the Soviet Union.

However, the Germans moved into southern Soviet territory, pushing toward Stalingrad. Joseph Stalin demanded that the Allies attack in France to force the Germans to move  40 divisions away from the Eastern Front. This would make the fighting less hard for the Red Army.

Plan
The Dieppe raid was a major attack planned by Vice-Admiral Lord Mountbatten.

The attacking force would consist of  5,000 Canadians, 1,000 British troops, and 50 United States Rangers.

It was originally planned in April 1942 and code named Operation Rutter. The Allies planned to do a major attack on a German-held port on the French coast and to hold it for two tides. They would destroy enemy buildings and defences before withdrawing.

This plan was approved in May 1942. It included British parachute units attacking German artillery batteries. The Canadians would land on the beaches and attack. The parachute operation was cancelled and instead No. 3 Commando and No. 4 Commando would land by sea and attack the artillery batteries.

Land component
The Canadian government wanted that Canadian troops to do some fighting. The 2nd Canadian Infantry Division, commanded by Major General John Hamilton Roberts, was selected for the main force.
The plan called for an attack, without any heavy air bombing.

The lack of enough bombing was one of the main reasons for the attack's failure. Some people think that air and naval bombing was not done to limit casualties of French civilians in the port.

The Dieppe landings were planned on six beaches. Four were in front of the town, and two to the eastern and western sides.

Armoured support was provided by the 14th Army Tank Regiment (The Calgary Regiment (Tank)). 58 of the new Churchill tanks would be sent ashore using the new landing craft tank (LCT). In addition, three of the Churchills had flame-throwers and all could operate in the shallow water near the beach.

Naval and air support
The Royal Navy would supply 237 ships and landing craft.  However, pre-landing naval gunfire support was limited, consisting of six Hunt-class destroyers with 4-inch guns. The Royal Air Force would supply 74 squadrons of aircraft, of which 66 were fighter squadrons.

Intelligence
There was not much information about the beaches. There were German gun positions on the cliffs, but these had not been spotted. The planners thought that Dieppe is not heavily defended and that the beaches in are suitable for landing infantry, and armored fighting vehicles.

German forces

The German forces at Dieppe were ready for the attack. They were warned by French double agents that the British were planning some action in the area. They had also detected increased radio talk and landing craft being gathered together in the southern British coastal ports.

Dieppe and the cliffs were well defended. The 1,500 troops were
placed along the beaches of Dieppe and the nearby towns, covering all the likely landing places.

The Germans had machine guns, mortars and artillery. The city and port was protected.

The Luftwaffe forces were Jagdgeschwader 2 (JG2) and Jagdgeschwader 26 (JG26), with 200 fighters, mostly the  Fw 190. There were about 100 bombers from Kampfgeschwader 2 (KG2), Kampfgeschwader 45 (KG45), and Kampfgeschwader 77 (KG77), mostly Dornier 217s.

Initial landings
The Allied fleet left the south coast of England on the night of 18 August 1942. The Canadians left from the Port of Newhaven. The fleet of eight destroyers and motor gun boats to protect the landing craft and motor launches were preceded by minesweepers that cleared paths through the English Channel for them.

The initial landings began at 04:50 on 19 August. There were attacks on the two artillery batteries on the sides of the main landing area.

On their way in, the landing craft and escorts heading towards Puys and Berneval ran into a small German group of ships and exchanged fire at 03:48.

Yellow Beach

The goal for Lieutenant Colonel John Durnford-Slater and  No. 3 Commando was to do two landings  east of Dieppe to destroy the coastal artillery battery near Berneval. The battery could fire upon the landing at Dieppe  to the west.

The craft carrying No. 3 Commando approached the coast to the east. They were not warned of the approach of a German convoy that had been found by British "Chain Home" radar stations at 21:30.

German S-boats escorting a German tanker torpedoed some of the landing craft and damaged the escorting Steam Gun Boat 5.

Motor Launch 346  and Landing Craft Flak 1 fired on the German boats. The group got spread out, with some losses, and the enemy's coastal defences were alerted.

Only 18 commandos got near the German artillery battery. They fired guns at the Germans. Although unable to destroy the artillery, it caused problems for the German artillery troops.
The commandos had to pull back because there were many enemy troops.

Orange Beach

The goal for Lieutenant Colonel Lord Lovat and No. 4 Commando (including 50 United States Army Rangers) was to do two landings  west of Dieppe. They had to destroy the coastal artillery battery Hess at Blancmesnil-Sainte-Marguerite. Landing on the right side, they climbed the hill and attacked. They destroyed the artillery battery of six 150 mm guns. This was the only success of Operation Jubilee.  The commando then withdrew at 07:30 as planned.

Most of No. 4 returned to England. This part of the raid was seen as a good example of how the Royal Marine Commando should attack during landings. Lord Lovat was awarded the Distinguished Service Order, and Captain Patrick Porteous No. 4 Commando, was awarded the Victoria Cross.

Blue beach

The naval battle between the small German convoy and the craft carrying No. 3 Commando had made the German defenders at Blue beach aware of the attack. The landing near Puys by the Royal Regiment of Canada plus three platoons from the Black Watch of Canada and an artillery group was ordered to destroy machine gun and artillery batteries protecting the Dieppe beach.

They were delayed by 20 minutes and the smoke that should have hidden their attack had lifted. The Germans were ready in their defensive positions for the landings. The well-fortified German forces fired guns at the Canadian forces that did land on the beach.

As soon as they reached the shore, the Canadians found themselves unable to move forward. The Royal Regiment of Canada had many deaths. Of the 556 men in the regiment, 200 were killed and 264 captured.

Green beach
On Green beach at the same time that No. 4 Commando had landed, the South Saskatchewan Regiment went towards Pourville. They landed at 04:52 without being detected. The regiment managed to leave their landing craft before the Germans could start firing their guns.

The regiment had to enter Pourville to cross the river by the only bridge. Before they managed to reach the bridge, the Germans had put machine guns and anti-tank guns there which stopped them. With dead and wounded Canadians lying on the bridge, Lieutenant Colonel Charles Cecil Ingersoll Merritt, the commanding officer, crossed the bridge several times. He wanted to show his soldiers that the bridge could be crossed. Lieutenant Colonel Merritt was awarded the Victoria Cross.

Pourville radar station

One of the goals of the Dieppe Raid was to discover the technology of a German radar station.

RAF Flight Sergeant Jack Nissenthall, a radar specialist, was to attempt to enter the radar station and learn its secrets. If he were about to be captured, the soldiers with him had to kill him. He knew a lot of secrets about Allied radar. He also carried a cyanide pill to take if he was captured.

Nissenthall and his men could not enter the radar station due to strong German defences. Nissenthall did cut all telephone wires.

References

European battles of World War II
1942 in Europe
1940s in France
August events

Dieppe Raid


Special relativity (or the special theory of relativity) is a theory in physics that was developed and explained by Albert Einstein in 1905. It applies to all physical phenomena, so long as gravitation is not significant. Special relativity applies to Minkowski space, or "flat spacetime" (phenomena which are not influenced by gravitation).

Einstein knew that some weaknesses  had been discovered in older physics. For example, older physics thought light moved in luminiferous aether. Various tiny effects were expected if this theory were true. Gradually it seemed these predictions were not going to work out.

Eventually, Einstein (1905) drew the conclusion that the concepts of space and time needed a fundamental revision. The result was special relativity theory, which brought together a new principle "the constancy of the speed of light"  and the previously established "principle of relativity".

Galileo had already established the principle of relativity, which said that physical events must look the same to all observers, and no observer has the "right" way to look at the things studied by physics. For example, the Earth is moving very fast around the Sun, but we do not notice it because we are moving with the Earth at the same speed; therefore, from our point of view, the Earth is at rest. However, Galileo's math could not explain some things, such as the speed of light. According to him, the measured speed of light should be different for different speeds of the observer in comparison with its source. However, the Michelson-Morley experiment showed that this is not true, at least not for all cases. Einstein's theory of special relativity explained this among other things.

Basics of special relativity

Suppose that you are moving toward something that is moving toward you. If you measure its speed, it will seem to be moving faster than if you were not moving. Now suppose you are moving away from something that is moving toward you.  If you measure its speed again, it will seem to be moving more slowly. This is the idea of "relative speed"—the speed of the object relative to you.

Before Albert Einstein, scientists were trying to measure the "relative speed" of light. They were doing this by measuring the speed of star light reaching the Earth. They expected that if the Earth was moving toward a star, the light from that star should seem faster than if the Earth was moving away from that star. However, they noticed that no matter who performed the experiments, where the experiments were performed, or what star light was used, the measured speed of light in a vacuum was always the same.

Einstein said this happens because there is something unexpected about length and duration, or how long something lasts. He thought that as Earth moves through space, all measurable durations change very slightly. Any clock used to measure a duration will be wrong by exactly the right amount so that the speed of light remains the same. Imagining a "light clock" allows us to better understand this remarkable fact for the case of a single light wave.

Also, Einstein said that as Earth moves through space, all measurable lengths change (ever so slightly). Any device measuring length will give a length off by exactly the right amount so that the speed of light remains the same.

The most difficult thing to understand is that events that appear to be simultaneous in one frame may not be simultaneous in another. This has many effects that are not easy to perceive or understand. Since the length of an object is the distance from head to tail at one simultaneous moment, it follows that if two observers disagree about what events are simultaneous then this will affect (sometimes dramatically) their measurements of the length of objects. Furthermore, if a line of clocks appear synchronized to a stationary observer and appear to be out of sync to that same observer after accelerating to a certain velocity then it follows that during the acceleration the clocks ran at different speeds. Some may even run backwards. This line of reasoning leads to general relativity.

Other scientists before Einstein had written about light seeming to go the same speed no matter how it was observed. What made Einstein's theory so revolutionary is that it considers the measurement of the speed of light to be constant by definition, in other words it is a law of nature. This has the remarkable implications that speed-related measurements, length and duration, change in order to accommodate this.

The Lorentz transformations
The mathematical bases of special relativity are the Lorentz transformations, which mathematically describe the views of space and time for two observers who are moving relative to each other but are not experiencing acceleration.

To define the transformations we use a Cartesian coordinate system to mathematically describe the time and space of "events".
Each observer can describe an event as the position of something in space at a certain time, using coordinates (x,y,z,t).
The location of the event is defined in the first three coordinates (x,y,z) in relation to an arbitrary center (0,0,0) so that (3,3,3) is a diagonal going 3 units of distance (like meters or miles) out in each direction.
The time of the event is described with the fourth coordinate t in relation to an arbitrary (0) point in time in some unit of time (like seconds or hours or years).

Let there be an observer K  who describes when events occur with a time coordinate t, and who describes where events occur with spatial coordinates x, y, and z.
This is mathematically defining the first observer whose "point of view" will be our first reference.

Let us specify that the time of an event is given: by the time that it is observed t(observed) (say today, at 12 o'clock) minus the time that it took for the observation to reach the observer.
This can be calculated as the distance from the observer to the event d(observed) (say the event is on a star which is 1 light year away, so it takes the light 1 year to reach the observer) divided by c, the speed of light (several million miles per hour), which we define as being the same for all observers.

This is correct because distance, divided by speed gives the time it takes to go that distance at that speed (e.g. 30 miles divided by 10 mph: give us 3 hours, because if you go at 10 mph for 3 hours, you reach 30 miles). So we have:

This is mathematically defining what any "time" means for any observer.

Now with these definitions in place, let there be another observer K'  who is
 moving along the x axis of K at a rate of v,
 has a spatial coordinate system of x' , y' , and z' ,
where x axis is coincident with the x axis,
and with the y' and z' axes - "always being parallel" to the y and z axes.

This means that when K' gives a location like (3,1,2), the x (which is 3 in this example) is the same place that K, the first observer would be talking about, but the 1 on the y axis or the 2 on the z axis are only parallel to some location on the K' observer's coordinate system,
and
 where K and K' ' are coincident at t = t' = 0
This means that the coordinate (0,0,0,0) is the same event for both observers.
In other words, both observers have (at least) one time and location that they both agree on, which is location and time zero.

The Lorentz Transformations then are

 , and
 .

Define an event to have spacetime coordinates  in system S and  in a reference frame moving at a velocity v with respect to that frame, S′. Then the Lorentz transformation specifies that these coordinates are related in the following way:
is the Lorentz factor and c is the speed of light in vacuum, and the velocity v of S′ is parallel to the x-axis. For simplicity, the y and z coordinates are unaffected; only the x and t coordinates are transformed. These Lorentz transformations form a one-parameter group of linear mappings, that parameter being called rapidity.

Solving the above four transformation equations for the unprimed coordinates yields the inverse Lorentz transformation:

Enforcing this inverse Lorentz transformation to coincide with the Lorentz transformation from the primed to the unprimed system, shows the unprimed frame as moving with the velocity v′ = −v, as measured in the primed frame.

There is nothing special about the x-axis. The transformation can apply to the y- or z-axis, or indeed in any direction, which can be done by directions parallel to the motion (which are warped by the γ factor) and perpendicular; see the article Lorentz transformation for details.

A quantity invariant under Lorentz transformations is known as a Lorentz scalar.

Writing the Lorentz transformation and its inverse in terms of coordinate differences, where one event has coordinates  and , another event has coordinates and , and the differences are defined as

we get

If we take differentials instead of taking differences, we get

 Mass, energy and momentum
In special relativity, the momentum  and the total energy  of an object as a function of its mass  are

and
 .

A frequently made error (also in some books) is to rewrite this equation using a "relativistic mass" (in the direction of motion) of .
The reason why this is incorrect is that light, for example, has no mass, but has energy. If we use this formula, the photon (particle of light) has a mass, which is according to experiments incorrect.

In special relativity, an object's mass, total energy and momentum are related by the equation
 .
For an object at rest,  so the above equation simplifies to . Hence, a massive object at rest still has energy. We call this rest energy and denote it by :
.

 History
The need for special relativity arose from Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism, which were published in 1865. It was later found that they call for electromagnetic waves (such as light) to move at a constant speed (i.e., the speed of light).

To have James Clerk Maxwell's equations be consistent with both astronomical observations[1] and Newtonian physics,[2] Maxwell proposed in 1877 that light travels through an ether which is everywhere in the universe.

In 1887, the famous Michelson-Morley experiment tried to detect the "ether wind" generated by the movement of the Earth.[3] The persistent null results of this experiment puzzled physicists, and called the ether theory into question.

In 1895, Lorentz and Fitzgerald noted that the null result of the Michelson-Morley experiment could be explained by the ether wind contracting the experiment in the direction of motion of the ether.  This effect is called the Lorentz contraction, and (without ether) is a consequence of special relativity.

In 1899, Lorentz first published the Lorentz equations.  Although this was not the first time they had been published, this was the first time that they were used as an explanation of the Michelson-Morley's null result, since the Lorentz contraction is a result of them.

In 1900, Poincaré gave a famous speech in which he considered the possibility that some "new physics" was needed to explain the Michelson-Morley experiment.

In 1904, Lorentz showed that electrical and magnetic fields can be modified into each other through the Lorentz transformations.

In 1905, Einstein published his article introducing special relativity, "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", in Annalen der Physik.  In this article, he presented the postulates of relativity, derived the Lorentz transformations from them, and (unaware of Lorentz's 1904 article) also showed how the Lorentz Transformations affect electric and magnetic fields.

Later in 1905, Einstein published another article presenting E = mc2.

In 1908, Max Planck endorsed Einstein's theory and named it "relativity".  In that same year, Hermann Minkowski gave a famous speech on Space and Time in which he showed that relativity is self-consistent and further developed the theory.  These events forced the physics community to take relativity seriously.  Relativity came to be more and more accepted after that.

In 1912, Einstein and Lorentz were nominated for the Nobel prize in physics due to their pioneering work on relativity.  Unfortunately, relativity was so controversial then, and remained controversial for such a long time that a Nobel prize was never awarded for it.

 Experimental confirmations
 The Michelson-Morley experiment, which failed to detect any difference in the speed of light based on the direction of the light's movement.
 Fizeau's experiment, in which the index of refraction for light in moving water cannot be made to be less than 1.  The observed results are explained by the relativistic rule for adding velocities.
 The energy and momentum of light obey the equation .  (In Newtonian physics, this is expected to be .)
 The transverse doppler effect, which is where the light emitted by a quickly moving object is red-shifted due to time dilation.
 The presence of muons created in the upper atmosphere at the surface of Earth.  The issue is that it takes much longer than the half-life of the muons to get down to Earth surface even at nearly the speed of light.  Their presence can be seen as either being due to time dilation (in our view) or length contraction of the distance to the earth surface (in the muon's view).
 Particle accelerators cannot be constructed without accounting for relativistic physics.

 Notes
 [1] Observations of binary stars show that light takes the same amount of time to reach the Earth over the same distance for both stars in such systems.  If the speed of light was constant with respect to its source, the light from the approaching star would arrive sooner than the light from the receding star.  This would cause binary stars to appear to move in ways that violate Kepler's Laws, but this is not seen.
 [2] The second postulate of special relativity (that the speed of light is the same for all observers) contradicts Newtonian physics.
 [3] Since the Earth is constantly being accelerated as it orbits the Sun, the initial null result was not a concern.  However, that did mean that a strong ether wind should have been present 6 months later, but none was observed.

Related pages
 General relativity

 References

 W. Rindler, Introduction to Special Relativity'', 2nd edition, Oxford Science Publications, 1991, .
 Web article on the history of special relativity
 Relativity Calculator - Learn Special Relativity Mathematics The mathematics of special relativity presented in as simple and comprehensive manner possible within philosophical and historical contexts.

Other websites
http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SR/rocket.html

Relativity
Albert Einstein
Basic physics ideas

Special relativity


Charles Peters (born December 22, 1926) is an American journalist, editor, and author. He was the founder and editor-in-chief of the Washington Monthly magazine and the author of We Do Our Part: Toward A Fairer and More Equal America (Random House, 2017). Writing in The New York Times, Jonathan Martin called the book a "well timed … cri de coeur" and "a desperate plea to his country and party to resist the temptations of greed, materialism and elitism."

Early life and education
Charles Peters was born in December 1926 in Charleston, West Virginia. He attended public schools, graduating from Charleston High School in 1944. He enlisted in the U.S. Army in 1944, serving at Ohio University, Camp Atterbury in Indiana, and Fort McClellan, Alabama, where an injury in a training accident resulted in his being in Army hospitals for several months, and his discharge from the Army in 1946.

In 1946, he went to New York City to enter Columbia College. After receiving his BA in 1949, he entered graduate school at Columbia and received his MA. in 1951. In 1952–53, he worked for the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency in New York. During the summers from 1946 through 1954, he performed various backstage roles at summer theaters in Boylston, Massachusetts, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, and Newport, Rhode Island, and had his own repertory company in Charleston, West Virginia.

Peters entered the University of Virginia School of Law in 1954. He was named to the editorial board of the Virginia Law Review in 1955, serving until his graduation with a JD in 1957.

Early career
After law school, he married Elizabeth Hubbell, a former ballet dancer who had attended Vassar College, and returned to Charleston to practice law with his father's firm, Peters, Merricks, Leslie and Mohler. His practice included libel, criminal defense, corporate and labor law, as well as representing plaintiffs and defendants in civil trials.

In 1959, he was named chief staff officer of the Judiciary Committee of the West Virginia House of Delegates, and in 1960, he was elected a member of the House. In 1960, he also managed the primary and general election campaigns in Kanawha County for presidential candidate John F. Kennedy. After serving in the 1961 session of the legislature, he went to Washington, D.C., to help start the Peace Corps. After returning to serve in the 1962 legislative session, he was named the Peace Corps' director of evaluation, a position that required him to report on the performance of the agency's programs overseas and on how they could be improved.

Founding of the Washington Monthly
In 1968, Peters resigned from the Peace Corps to begin planning a new magazine to be called the Washington Monthly.

The magazine's prospectus said its purpose would be "to look at Washington the way an anthropologist looks at a South Sea island," helping the reader understand our system of politics and government, where it breaks down, why it breaks down, and what can be done to make it work." The first issue was published in January 1969. Its articles included "The White House Staff vs. the Cabinet," "What Happens to a Senator's Day," and "The Data Game." Among the authors were such journalists as David Broder, Murray Kempton, Russell Baker, and Calvin Trillin, as well as people who had worked in government, such as Peters, former White House aide Bill Moyers, and former U.S. Senate aide James Boyd. A similar mix of authors would continue to write for the magazine, but beginning in 1970, the magazine became largely the product of young unknowns, who would typically serve as writer-editors for two years. Among them were Taylor Branch, Suzannah Lessard, James Fallows, Walter Shapiro, Michael Kinsley, David Ignatius, Nicholas Lemann, Gregg Easterbrook, Mickey Kaus, Joe Nocera, Jonathan Alter, Timothy Noah, Steve Waldman, Matt Cooper, Jason DeParle, James Bennet, Katherine Boo, and Jon Meacham. One author characterizes Peters and the magazine as important influences on radical centrist political thought.

Peters served as editor of the Washington Monthly until he retired in 2001, but continued to write a regular column Tilting at Windmills for the magazine until 2014. Russell Baker, in an interview in the alumni magazine Columbia College Today, called Peters "a great editor in an age that's not producing great editors."

Founding of Understanding Government
In 1998, he founded a non-profit organization called Understanding Government with the purpose of improving press coverage of the executive branch of government.  Understanding Government sponsored the first-ever Prize for Preventive Journalism, given in 2008 to journalist Michael Grunwald, and has published reports on federal agencies including the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Federal Aviation Administration, and the Consumer Product Safety Commission. Peters retired from the nonprofit in 2012, and it ceased operations in 2014.

Books
Author
We Do Our Part: Toward a Fairer and More Equal America
Lyndon B. Johnson
Five Days in Philadelphia: The Amazing 'We Want Willkie!' Convention of 1940 and How It Freed FDR to Save the Western World
How Washington Really Works
Tilting At Windmills: An Autobiography

Co-editor
Blowing the Whistle (with Taylor Branch)
The System (with James Fallows)
The Culture of Bureaucracy (with Michael Nelson)
A New Road for America:  the Neoliberal Movement (with Phil Keisling)
Inside the System (with Timothy Adams – first ed.; with John Rothchild – second ed.; with James Fallows – third ed.; with Nicholas Lemann – fourth ed.; with Jonathan Alter – fifth ed.)

Articles
A Neoliberal's Manifesto

Awards

Peters was named the recipient of the first Richard M. Clurman Award in 1996 for his work mentoring young journalists. He also received the Columbia Journalism Award in 1978 and was a Poynter Fellow at Yale University in 1980, the Delacorte Lecturer at the Graduate School of Journalism at Columbia University in 1990 and 2003 and visiting fellow at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University in 1994. In 2001, he was elected to the Hall of Fame of the American Society of Magazine Editors and the Hall of Fame of the D.C. Society of Professional Journalists. In 2002 he was the Times Mirror David M. Laventhol Visiting Professor at Columbia University's Graduate School of Journalism. In 2003, he received the Carr Van Anda Award from the E. W. Scripps School of Journalism, Ohio University. He was a Public Scholar at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, September 2002 through April 2003.

References

External links
The West Virginia & Regional History Center at West Virginia University houses the Charles Peters papers within the Distinguished West Virginians Archive
Tilting at Windmills listing
Washington Monthly bio
Understanding Government bio
The Political Graveyard
How Washington Really Works (documentary about Charles Peters and the Washington Monthly)

1926 births
Living people
American biographers
American columnists
American male journalists
American magazine editors
American political writers
Charleston High School (West Virginia) alumni
Columbia College (New York) alumni
Journalists from West Virginia
Lawyers from Charleston, West Virginia
Radical centrist writers
United States Army soldiers
University of Virginia School of Law alumni
West Virginia Democrats
West Virginia lawyers
Writers from Charleston, West Virginia
American male biographers
United States Army personnel of World War II

Charles Peters


is a Japanese mecha-anime television series created by designer Keiichi Sato and director Kazuyoshi Katayama for Sunrise. The writing staff was assembled by the series' head writer, Chiaki J. Konaka, who is known for his work on Serial Experiments Lain and Hellsing. The story takes place forty years after a mysterious occurrence causes the residents of Paradigm City to lose their memories. The series follows Roger Smith, Paradigm City's top Negotiator. He provides this "much needed service" with the help of a robot named R. Dorothy Wayneright and his butler Norman Burg. When the need arises, Roger calls upon Big O, a giant relic from the city's past.

The television series was designed as a tribute to Japanese and Western shows from the 1960s and 1970s. The series is presented in the style of film noir and combines themes of detective fiction and mecha anime. The setpieces are reminiscent of tokusatsu productions of the 1950s and 1960s, particularly Toho's kaiju movies, and the score is an eclectic mix of styles and musical homages.

The Big O aired on Wowow satellite television from October 13, 1999, and January 19, 2000. The English-language version premiered on Cartoon Network's Toonami on April 2, 2001, and ended on April 23, 2001. Originally planned as a 26-episode series, low viewership in Japan reduced production to the first 13. Positive international reception resulted in a second season consisting of the remaining 13 episodes, co-produced by Cartoon Network, Sunrise, and Bandai Visual. Season two premiered on Japan's Sun Television on January 2, 2003, and the American premiere took place seven months later. Following the closure of Bandai Entertainment by parent company Bandai (owned by Bandai Namco Holdings) in 2012, Sunrise announced at Otakon 2013 that Sentai Filmworks acquired both seasons of The Big O.

Synopsis

Setting

The Big O is set in the fictional city-state of .  The city is located on a seacoast and is surrounded by a vast desert wasteland. The partially domed city is wholly controlled by the monopolistic Paradigm Corporation, resulting in a corporate police state. Paradigm is known as  because forty years prior to the story,  destroyed the world outside the city and left the survivors without any prior memories. The city is characterized by severe class inequity; the higher-income population resides inside the more pleasant domes, with the remainder left in tenements outside. Residents of the city believe that they are the last survivors of the world and no other nations exist outside the city. Androids and giant robots known as "Megadeus" coexist with the residents of Paradigm City and residents do not find them unusual.

Plot

After failing to negotiate with terrorists at the cost of his client's life, Roger Smith is obligated to care for Dorothy Wayneright, a young female android. Over the course of the series, Roger Smith continues to accept negotiation work from the residents of Paradigm City, he often leads to uncovering the nature and mystery of Paradigm City and encountering megadeus or other giant enemies that require Big O. Supporting characters are Angel, a mysterious woman in search of memories; Dan Dastun, chief of the military police of Paradigm city and old friend of Roger Smith; and Norman Burg, the butler of Roger Smith and mechanic of Big O.

The main antagonist is Alex Rosewater, chairman of Paradigm City whose goal is to revive the megadeus "Big Fau" in attempts to become the god of Paradigm City. Other recurring antagonists are Jason Beck, criminal and con-artist attempting to humiliate Roger Smith; Schwarzwald, an ex-reporter obsessed with finding the truth of Paradigm City and also pilot of the megadeus "Big Duo"; Vera Ronstadt, leader of a group of foreigners known as the Union searching for memories and revenge against Paradigm City; and Alan Gabriel, a cyborg assassin working for Alex Rosewater and the Union.

The series ends with the awakening of a new megadeus, and the revelation that the world is a simulated reality. A climactic battle ensues between Big O and Big Fau, after which reality is systematically erased by the new megadeus, an incarnation of Angel, recognized as "Big Venus" by Dorothy. Roger implores Angel to "let go of the past" regardless of its existential reality, and focus only on the present and the future. In an isolated control room, the real Angel observes Roger and her past encounters with him on a series of television monitors. On the control panel lies Metropolis, a book featured prominently since the thirteenth episode; the cover features an illustration of angel wings and gives the author's name as "Angel Rosewater". Big Venus and Big O physically merge, causing the virtual reality to reset. The final scene shows Roger Smith driving down a restored Paradigm city with Dorothy and Angel observing him from the side of the road.

Production and release

Development of the retro-styled series began in 1996. Keiichi Sato came up with the concept of The Big O: a giant city-smashing robot, piloted by a man in black, in a Gotham-like environment. He later met up with Kazuyoshi Katayama, who had just finished directing Those Who Hunt Elves, and started work on the layouts and character designs. But when things "were about to really start moving," production on Katayama's Sentimental Journey began, putting plans on hold. Meanwhile, Sato was heavily involved with his work on City Hunter.

Sato admits it all started as "a gimmick for a toy" but the representatives at Bandai Hobby Division did not see the same potential. From there on, the dealings would be with Bandai Visual, but Sunrise still needed some safeguards and requested more robots be designed to increase prospective toy sales. In 1999, with the designs complete, Chiaki J. Konaka was brought on as head writer. Among other things, Konaka came up with the idea of "a town without memory" and his writing staff put together the outline for a 26-episodes series.

The Big O premiered on October 13, 1999, on Wowow. When the production staff was informed the series would be shortened to 13 episodes, the writers decided to end it with a cliffhanger, hoping the next 13 episodes would be picked up. In April 2001, The Big O premiered on Cartoon Network's Toonami lineup.

The series garnered positive fan response internationally that resulted in a second season co-produced by Cartoon Network and Sunrise. Season two premiered on Japan's Sun Television in January 2003, with the American premiere taking place seven months later as an Adult Swim exclusive. The second season would not be seen on Toonami until July 27, 2013, 10 years after it began airing on Adult Swim.

The second season was scripted by Chiaki Konaka with input from the American producers.  Cartoon Network raised two requests for the second season: more action and reveal the mystery in the first season, although Kazuyoshi Katayama admitted that he did not intend to reveal it, just to make an anthology of adventures setting in the universe. Along with the 13 episodes of season two, Cartoon Network had an option for 26 additional episodes to be written by Konaka, but according to Jason DeMarco, executive producer for season two, the middling ratings and DVD sales in the United States and Japan made any further episodes impossible to be produced.

Following the closure of Bandai Entertainment by parent company in 2012, Sunrise announced at Otakon 2013 that Sentai Filmworks rescued both seasons of The Big O. On June 20, 2017, Sentai Filmworks released both seasons on Blu-ray.

Music

The Big O was scored by Geidai alumnus Toshihiko Sahashi. His composition is richly symphonic and classical, with a number of pieces delving into electronica and jazz. Chosen because of his "frightening amount of musical knowledge about TV dramas overseas," Sahashi integrates musical homages into the soundtrack. The background music draws from film noir, spy films and sci-fi television series like The Twilight Zone. The battle themes are reminiscent of Akira Ifukube's compositions for the Godzilla series.

The first opening theme is the Queen-influenced "Big-O!". Composed, arranged and performed by Rui Nagai, the song resembles the theme to the Flash Gordon film. The second opening theme is "Respect," composed by Sahashi. The track is an homage to the music of UFO, composed by Barry Gray. In 2007, Rui Nagai composed "Big-O! Show Must Go On," a 1960s hard rock piece, for Animax's reruns of the show; this composition replaced the original opening themes for the Blu-Ray release of the series. The closing theme is the slow love ballad "And Forever..." written by Chie and composed by Ken Shima. The duet is performed by Robbie Danzie and Naoki Takao.

Along with Sahashi's original compositions, the soundtrack features Chopin's Prelude No. 15 and a jazz saxophone rendition of "Jingle Bells." The complete score was released in two volumes by Victor Entertainment.

Design
The Big O is the brainchild of Keiichi Sato and Kazuyoshi Katayama, an homage to the shows they grew up with. The show references the works of tokusatsu produced by the Toei Company and Tsuburaya Productions, as well as shows such as Super Robot Red Baron and Super Robot Mach Baron and "old school" super robot anime. The series is done in the style of film noir and pulp fiction and combines the feel of a detective show with the giant robot genre.

Style

The Big O shares many of its themes, diction, archetypes and visual iconography with film noirs of the 1940s like The Big Sleep (1946). The series incorporates the use of long dark shadows in the tradition of chiaroscuro and tenebrism. Film noir is also known for its use of odd angles, such as Roger's low shot introduction in the first episode. Noir cinematographers favoured this angle because it made characters almost rise from the ground, giving them dramatic girth and symbolic overtones. Other disorientating devices like dutch angles, mirror reflection and distorting shots are employed throughout the series.

The characters of The Big O fit the noir and pulp fiction archetypes. Roger Smith is a protagonist in the mold of Chandler's Philip Marlowe or Hammett's Sam Spade. He is canny and cynical, a disillusioned cop-turned-negotiator whose job has more in common with detective-style work than negotiating. Big Ear is Roger's street informant and Dan Dastun is the friend on the police force. The recurring Beck is the imaginative thug compelled by delusions of grandeur while Angel fills the role of the femme fatale. Minor characters include crooked cops, corrupt business men and deranged scientists.

The dialogue in the series is recognized for its witty, wry sense of humor. The characters come off as charming and exchange banter not often heard in anime series, as the dialogue has the tendency to be straightforward. The plot is moved along by Roger's voice-over narration, a device used in film noir to place the viewer in the mind of the protagonist so it can intimately experience the character's angst and partly identify with the narrator.

The tall buildings and giant domes create a sense of claustrophobia and paranoia characteristic of the style. The rural landscape, Ailesberry Farm, contrasts Paradigm City. Noir protagonists often look for sanctuary in such settings but they just as likely end up becoming a killing ground. The series score is representative of its setting. While no classic noir possesses a jazz score, the music could be heard in nightclubs within the films. Roger's recurring theme, a lone saxophone accompaniment to the protagonist's narration, best exemplifies the noir stylings of the series.

Amnesia is a common plot device in film noir. Because most of these stories focused on a character proving his innocence, authors up the ante by making him an amnesiac, unable to prove his innocence even to himself.

Influences
Before The Big O, Sunrise was a subcontractor for Warner Bros. Animation's Batman: The Animated Series, one of the series' influences.  Cartoon Network, under the Toonami flag advertised the series as "One part Bond.  One part  Bruce Wayne.  One part City Smashing Robot."

Roger Smith is a pastiche of the Bruce Wayne persona and the Batman. The character design resembles Wayne, complete with slicked-back hair and double-breasted business suit. Like Bruce, Roger prides himself in being a rich playboy to the extent that one of his household's rules is only women may be let into his mansion without his permission. Like Batman, Roger Smith carries a no-gun policy, albeit more flexible. Unlike the personal motives of the Batman, Roger enforces this rule for "it's all part of being a gentleman." Among Roger's gadgetry is the Griffon, a large, black hi-tech sedan comparable to the Batmobile, a grappling cable that shoots out his wristwatch and the giant robot that Angel calls "Roger's alter ego."

The Big O'''s cast of supporting characters includes Norman, Roger's faithful mechanically-inclined butler who fills the role of Alfred Pennyworth; R. Dorothy Wayneright, who plays the role of the sidekick; and Dan Dastun, a good honest cop who, like Jim Gordon, is both a friend to the hero and greatly respected by his comrades.

The other major influence is Mitsuteru Yokoyama's Giant Robo. Before working on The Big O, Kazuyoshi Katayama and other animators worked with Yasuhiro Imagawa on Giant Robo: The Day the Earth Stood Still. The feature, a "retro chic" homage to Yokoyama's career, took seven years to produce and suffered low sales and high running costs. Frustrated by the experience, Katayama and his staff put all their efforts into making "good" with The Big O.

Like Giant Robo, the megadeuses of Big O are metal behemoths. The designs are strange and "more macho than practical," sporting big stovepipe arms and exposed rivets. Unlike the giants of other mecha series, the megadeuses do not exhibit ninja-like speed nor grace. Instead, the robots are armed with "old school" weaponry such as missiles, piston powered punches, machine guns and laser cannons.

Katayama also cited Super Robot Red Baron and Super Robot Mach Baron among influences on the inspiration of The Big O. Believing that because Red Baron had such a low budget and the big fights always happened outside of a city setting, he wanted Big O to be the show he felt Red Baron could be with a bigger budget. He also spoke of how he first came up with designs for the robots first as if they were making designs to appeal to toy companies, rather than how Gundam was created with a toy company wanting an anime to represent their new product. Big O's large pumping piston "Sudden Impact" arms, for example, he felt would be cool gimmicks in a toy.

Related media
PublicationsThe Big O was conceived as a media franchise. To this effect, Sunrise requested a manga be produced along with the animated series. The Big O manga started serialization in Kodansha's Magazine Z in July 1999, three months before the anime premiere. Authored by Hitoshi Ariga, the manga uses Keiichi Sato's concept designs in an all-new story. The series ended in October 2001. The issues were later collected in six volumes. The English version of the manga is published by Viz Media.

In anticipation of the broadcast of the second season, a new manga series was published. , authored by Hitoshi Ariga. Lost Memory takes place between volumes five and six of the original manga. The issues were serialized in Magazine Z from November 2002 to September 2003 and were collected in two volumes. , a novel by Yuki Taniguchi, was released 16 July 2003 by Tokuma Shoten.The Big O Visual: The official companion to the TV series () was published by Futabasha in 2003. The book contains full-color artwork, character bios and concept art, mecha sketches, video/LD/DVD jacket illustrations, history on the making of The Big O, staff interviews, "Roger's Monologues" comic strip and the original script for the final episode of the series.

Audio drama
"Walking Together On The Yellow Brick Road" was released by Victor Entertainment on 21 September 2000. The drama CD was written by series head writer Chiaki J. Konaka and featured the series' voice cast. An English translation, written by English dub translator David Fleming, was posted on Konaka's website.

Video games
The first season of Big O is featured in Super Robot Wars D for the Game Boy Advance in 2003. The series, including its second season, is also featured in Super Robot Wars Z, released in 2008. The Big O became a mainstay of the "Z" games, appearing in each entry of the subseries.

Toys and model kits
Bandai released a non-scale model kit of Big O in 2000. Though it was an easy snap-together kit, it required painting, as all of the parts (except the clear orange crown and canopy) were molded in dark gray. The kit included springs that enabled the slide-action Side Piles on the forearms to simulate Big O's Sudden Impact maneuver. Also included was an unpainted Roger Smith figure.

PVC figures of Big O and Big Duo (Schwarzwald's Megadeus) were sold by Bandai America. Each came with non-poseable figures of Roger, Dorothy and Angel. Mini-figure sets were sold in Japan and America during the run of the second season. The characters included Big O (standard and attack modes), Roger, Dorothy & Norman, Griffon (Roger's car), Dorothy-1 (Big O's first opponent), Schwarzwald and Big Duo.

In 2009, Bandai released a plastic/diecast figure of the Big O under their Soul of Chogokin line. The figure has the same features as the model kit, but with added detail and accessories. Its design was closely supervised by original designer Keiichi Sato.

In 2011, Max Factory released action figures of Roger and Dorothy through their Figma toyline. Like most Figmas, they are very detailed, articulated and come with accessories and interchangeable faces. In the same year, Max Factory also released a 12-inch, diecast figure of Big O under their Max Gokin line. The figure contained most of the accessories as the Soul of Chogokin figure but also included some others that could be bought separately from the SOC figure, such as the Mobydick (hip) Anchors and Roger Smith's car: the Griffon. Like the Soul of Chogokin figure, its design was also supervised by Keiichi Sato. As well, in that same year, Max Factory released soft vinyl figures of Big Duo and Big Fau, in-scale with the Max Gokin Big O. These figures are high in detail but limited in articulation, such as the arms and legs being the only things to move. To date, this is the only action figure of Big Fau.

ReceptionThe Big O premiered on October 13, 1999. The show was not a hit in its native Japan, rather it was reduced from an outlined 26 episodes to 13 episodes. Western audiences were more receptive and the series achieved the success its creators were looking for. In an interview with AnimePlay, Keiichi Sato said "This is exactly as we had planned", referring to the success overseas.<ref name = "AnimePlay">{{cite journal |last= Shimura |first= Shinichi |title= Anime rebel with a cause: The Big O's Keiichi Sato | journal= AnimePlay | volume = 5 | year = 2004  | pages = 22–26 }}</ref>

Several words appear constantly in the English-language reviews; adjectives like "hip", "sleek," "stylish",
 "classy", and, above all, "cool" serve to describe the artwork, the concept, and the series itself. Reviewers have pointed out references and homages to various works of fiction, namely Batman, Giant Robo, the works of Isaac Asimov, Fritz Lang's Metropolis, James Bond, and Cowboy Bebop. But "while saying that may cause one to think the show is completely derivative", reads an article at Anime on DVD, "The Big O still manages to stand out as something original amongst the other numerous cookie-cutter anime shows." One reviewer cites the extensive homages as one of the series problems and calls to unoriginality on the creators' part.

The first season's reception was positive. Anime on DVD recommends it as an essential series. Chris Beveridge of the aforementioned site gave an A− to Vols. 1 and 2, and a B+ to Vols. 3 and 4. Mike Toole of Anime Jump gave it 4.5 (out of a possible 5) stars, while the review at the Anime Academy gave it a grade of 83, listing the series' high points as being "unique", the characters "interesting," and the action "nice." Reviewers, and fans alike, agree the season's downfall was the ending, or its lack thereof. The dangling plot threads frustrated the viewers and prompted Cartoon Network's involvement in the production of further episodes.

The look and feel of the show received a big enhancement in the second season. This time around, the animation is "near OVA quality" and the artwork "far more lush and detailed." Also enhanced are the troubles of the first season. The giant robot battles still seem out of place to some, while others praise the "over-the-top-ness" of their execution.

For some reviewers, the second season "doesn't quite match the first" addressing to "something" missing in these episodes. Andy Patrizio of IGN points out changes in Roger Smith's character, who "lost some of his cool and his very funny side in the second season." Like a repeat of season one, this season's ending is considered its downfall. Chris Beveridge of Anime on DVD wonders if this was head writer "Konaka's attempt to throw his hat into the ring for creating one of the most confusing and oblique endings of any series." Patrizio states "the creators watched The Truman Show and The Matrix a few times too many."

The series continues to have a strong cult following into the 2010s. In 2014 BuzzFeed writer Ryan Broderick ranked The Big O as one of the best anime series to binge-watch. Dan Casey host of The Nerdist's Dan Cave stated The Big O was the anime series he was most eager to see rebooted or remade, along with Trigun and Soul Eater. In 2017, Ollie Barder of Forbes wrote, "From the classic and retro styled mecha design of Keiichi Sato to the overall film noir visual tone of the series, The Big O was a fascinating and visually very different kind of show. It also had a fantastic voice cast, with probably the most notable of these being Akiko Yajima as the voice of Roger's disapproving android Dorothy." In 2019, Crunchyroll writer Thomas Zoth ranked The Big O'' as his top 10 anime since the 1990s.

References
Notes

Citations

External links

1999 anime television series debuts
1999 manga
2000 Japanese television series endings
2002 manga
2003 Japanese television series endings
2003 anime television series debuts
Animated television series about robots
Anime with original screenplays
Bandai Entertainment anime titles
Bandai Namco franchises
Bandai Visual
Fiction about amnesia
Japanese adult animated science fiction television series
Kodansha manga
Madman Entertainment anime
Neo-noir television series
Post-apocalyptic anime and manga
Seinen manga
Sentai Filmworks
Sunrise (company)
Super robot anime and manga

Toonami
Viz Media manga
Wowow original programming

The Big O


The Smoky Hill Chalk is an Upper Cretaceous conservation Lagerstätte, or fossil-rich geological formation. It is known for its exceptionally well-preserved marine reptiles from the Western Inland Sea.

The Smoky Hill Chalk outcrops in parts of northwest Kansas, its most famous localities for fossils, and in southeastern Nebraska. Large well-known fossils excavated from the Smoky Hill Chalk include marine reptiles such as plesiosaurs, large bony fish such as Xiphactinus, mosasaurs, pterosaurs (namely Pteranodon), flightless marine birds such as Hesperornis,  and turtles.  Many of the most well-known specimens of the marine reptiles were collected by dinosaur hunter Charles H. Sternberg and his son George. The son collected a unique fossil of the giant bony fish Xiphactinus audax with the skeleton of another bony fish, Gillicus arcuatus inside the larger one.  Another excellent skeleton of Xiphactinus audax was collected by Edward Drinker Cope during the late nineteenth century heyday of American paleontology.

References

Lagerstätten
Cretaceous
Geography of Kansas
Geography of Nebraska

Smoky Hill Chalk


Charlottenburg was an independent city to the west of Berlin until 1920. Then it was made part of Groß-Berlin (Greater Berlin) and turned into a borough.

As a part of the changes to the boroughs of Berlin in 2001 Charlottenburg was joined with Wilmersdorf to make the new borough of Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf. In 2004, the new borough's districts were rearranged. The former borough of Charlottenburg was divided into the localities of Westend, Charlottenburg-Nord and Charlottenburg. In addition to that, Charlottenburg features a number of popular kiezes.

Charlottenburg is best known for Charlottenburg Palace, the largest surviving royal palace in Berlin.

Charlottenburg celebrated its 300th anniversary in 2005.

Geography
Charlottenburg is located along the river Spree within the Berlin-Warsaw glacial valley, west of the Tiergarten park. The Straße des 17. Juni (17th June Street), former Charlottenburger Chaussee, which runs through the park, connects it with the historic centre of Berlin.

Charlottenburg palace

In 1695, Sophia Charlotte of Hanover got the district of Lietzow from her husband Elector Frederick III, in exchange for her estates in Caputh and Langerwisch, near Potsdam.

Frederick had a summer residence built for his wife by the architect Johann Arnold Nering between 1695 and 1699. In 1701, Frederick became the first Prussian King (Frederick I of Prussia), and he made the building much bigger

Just after the death of Sophie Charlotte, the village near the palace was called 'Charlottenburg' and the palace itself Schloss Charlottenburg, and the settlement was chartered as a town. The king was the town's mayor until Lietzow was incorporated into Charlottenburg in 1720.

Frederick's successor, Frederick William I of Prussia, rarely stayed at the palace. Frederick William even tried to end the town's privileges. It was not until 1740, at the coronation of his successor Frederick II (Frederick the Great), that the town's became important again. The eastern New Wing was built by Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff between 1740 and 1747 as Frederick the Great's home. Later, Frederick II preferred the palace of Sanssouci, which he had partly designed himself.

When Frederick II died in 1786, his nephew Frederick William II succeeded him, and Charlottenburg became his favourite residence, as it was for his son and successor Frederick William III.

After the defeat of the Prussian army at Jena in 1806, Charlottenburg was occupied by the French. Napoleon occupied the palace, while his troops camped nearby.

Recreational and residential area
In the late 18th century, Charlottenburg's development did not depend only on the crown. The town became a recreational area for the expanding city of Berlin. Its first real inn opened in the 1770s, in the street then called 'Berliner Straße' (now Otto-Suhr-Allee), and many other inns and beer gardens were to follow, popular for weekend parties especially.

Sights
Beside the palace, Charlottenburg is also home to the Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church on the Breitscheidplatz, the fomer West Berlin landmark, the Kurfürstendamm and the Zoo railway station as well as the Deutsche Oper Berlin, one of the three Berlin opera houses.

Twin towns
Charlottenburg is twinned with
 , Linz,
 , Trento, and
 , Lewisham, South East London

Districts of Berlin

Charlottenburg


Orthopedic casts are casts made of plaster that cover a limb to hold a broken bone in place while it heals.  Doctors use casts of fiberglass currently.  In early times, people often used splints to help heal broken bones.  It is thought that orthopedic casts came about from splints.

Medical equipment

Orthopedic cast


Mumps is a viral disease. Only humans get it. Some of the most commons symptoms are fever, headaches, swelling of the parotoid glands, sore throat, and orchitis (which means swelling of the testicles).

Mumps can be diagnosed by the increase in alpha amylase isoenzymes in blood plasma.

The MMR vaccine stops measles, mumps and rubella. Hence we can say that mumps can be prevented by MMR vaccination.

Diseases caused by viruses

Mumps


The Macleod Group was a short-lived pressure group and dining club associated with the 'left-wing' of Conservative Party that existed in 1975 before amalgamation with others to form the Tory Reform Group. It was composed of Tories who were considered progressive on many of the social issues of the time - for example, many supported the abolition of capital punishment - and strong supporters of Britain's membership of the EEC.

The group was established soon after the general elections of 1974 by Nicholas Scott. The President was David Knox, and the vice-presidents were Robert Carr, Lynda Chalker, Sir Nigel Fisher and Nicholas Scott.

In January 1975 the Macleod Group came out in support of Edward Heath in the 1975 Conservative leadership election. When Margaret Thatcher won the contest, the group expressed disappointment at her choices for the Shadow Cabinet. They were particularly displeased with the absence of Robert Carr, Peter Walker, and Nicholas Scott in the Shadow Cabinet, and complained that the common factor was neither age nor ability, but that they were all on the 'left' of the party.

In September 1975, the Macleod Group merged with Pressure for Economic and Social Toryism (Pest),the Progressive Tory Pressure Group and the Social Tory Action Group to form the Tory Reform Group and many prominent members in the Macleod Group went on to play a big role in the Tory Reform Group.

References

Organisations associated with the Conservative Party (UK)
1975 establishments in the United Kingdom

Macleod Group


A damper is a valve or plate that stops or regulates the flow of air inside a duct, chimney, VAV box, air handler, or other air-handling equipment. A damper may be used to cut off central air conditioning (heating or cooling) to an unused room, or to regulate it for room-by-room temperature and climate control -- for example in the case of Volume Control Dampers.  Its operation can be manual or automatic. Manual dampers are turned by a handle on the outside of a duct.  Automatic dampers are used to regulate airflow constantly and are operated by electric or pneumatic motors, in turn controlled by a thermostat or building automation system. Automatic or motorized dampers may also be controlled by a solenoid, and the degree of air-flow calibrated, perhaps according to signals from the thermostat going to the actuator of the damper in order to modulate the flow of air-conditioned air in order to effect climate control.

In a chimney flue, a damper closes off the flue to keep the weather (and birds and other animals) out and warm or cool air in.  This is usually done in the summer, but also sometimes in the winter between uses.  In some cases, the damper may also be partly closed to help control the rate of combustion.  The damper may be accessible only by reaching up into the fireplace by hand or with a woodpoker, or sometimes by a lever or knob that sticks down or out.  On a wood-burning stove or similar device, it is usually a handle on the vent duct as in an air conditioning system.  Forgetting to open a damper before beginning a fire can cause serious smoke damage to the interior of a home, if not a house fire.

Automated zone dampers

A zone damper (also known as a Volume Control Damper or VCD) is a specific type of damper used to control the flow of air in an HVAC heating or cooling system. In order to improve efficiency and occupant comfort, HVAC systems are commonly divided up into multiple zones. For example, in a house, the main floor may be served by one heating zone while the upstairs bedrooms are served by another. In this way, the heat can be directed principally to the main floor during the day and principally to the bedrooms at night, allowing the unoccupied areas to cool down.

Zone dampers as used in home HVAC systems are usually electrically powered. In large commercial installations, vacuum or compressed air may be used instead. In either case, the motor is usually connected to the damper via a mechanical coupling.

For electrical zone dampers, there are two principal designs.

In one design, the motor is often a small shaded-pole synchronous motor combined with a rotary switch that can disconnect the motor at either of the two stopping points ("damper open" or "damper closed"). In this way, applying power to the "open damper" terminal causes the motor to run until the damper is open while applying power at the "close damper" terminal causes the motor to run until the damper is closed. The motor is commonly powered from the same 24 volt AC power source that is used for the rest of the control system. This allows the zone dampers to be directly controlled by low-voltage thermostats and wired with low-voltage wiring. Because simultaneous closure of all dampers might harm the furnace or air handler, this style of damper is often designed to only obstruct a portion of the air duct, for example, 75%.

Another style of electrically powered damper uses a spring-return mechanism and a shaded-pole synchronous motor. In this case, the damper is normally opened by the force of the spring but can be closed by the force of the motor. Removal of electrical power re-opens the damper. This style of damper is advantageous because it is "fail safe"; if the control to the damper fails, the damper opens and allows air to flow. However, in most applications "fail safe" indicates the damper will close upon loss of power thus preventing the spread of smoke and fire to other areas.  These dampers also may allow adjustment of the "closed" position so that they only obstruct, for example, 75% of the air flow when closed.

For vacuum-operated or pneumatically operated zone dampers, the thermostat usually switches the pressure or vacuum on or off, causing a spring-loaded rubber diaphragm to move and actuate the damper. As with the second style of electrical zone dampers, these dampers automatically return to the default position without the application of any power, and the default position is usually "open", allowing air to flow. Like the second style of electrical zone damper, these dampers may allow adjustment of the "closed" position.

Highly sophisticated systems may use some form of building automation such as BACnet or LonWorks to control the zone dampers. The dampers may also support positions other than fully open or fully closed and are usually capable of reporting their current position and, often, the temperature and volume of the air flowing past the smart damper.

Regardless of the style of damper employed, the systems are often designed so that when no thermostat is calling for air, all dampers in the system are opened. This allows air to continue to flow while the heat exchanger in a furnace cools down after a heating period completes.

Comparison to multiple furnaces/air handlers

Multiple zones can be implemented using either multiple, individually controlled furnaces/air handlers or a single furnace/air handler and multiple zone dampers. Each approach has advantages and disadvantages.

Multiple furnaces/air handlers
Advantages:
 Simple mechanical and control design ("SPST thermostats")
 Redundancy: If one zone furnace fails, the others can remain working

Disadvantages:
 Cost. Furnaces cost much more than zone dampers
 Power consumption. Operating furnaces draw power whereas a zone damper only draws power while in motion from one state to the other (or, in some cases, a very small amount of power while holding closed)

Zone dampers
Advantages:
 Cost.
 Power consumption.

Disadvantages:
 New US residential building codes require permanent access to dampers through ceiling access panels.
 Zone dampers are not 100% reliable. Most styles of motor-to-open/motor-to-closed electrically operated zone dampers aren't "fail safe" (that is, they do not fail to the open condition).  However, zone dampers that are of the "Normally Open" type are fail-safe, in that they will fail to the open condition.
 No inherent redundancy for the furnace. A system with zone dampers is dependent upon a single furnace. If it fails, the system becomes completely inoperable.
 Low total flow when only some dampers are open can cause inefficient operation.
 Supply and return ducts need dampers to avoid pressurization of portions of the building.
 The system can be harder to a design, requiring both "SPDT" thermostats (or relays) and the ability of the system to withstand the fault condition whereby all zone dampers are closed simultaneously.
Pneumatic actuation is preferred for these dampers. It is easier to provide zone-classified solenoid valves for pneumatic actuation, as compared to electrical actuation. The physical size of such solenoid valves have come down very considerably over the years.

Fire dampers
Fire dampers are fitted where ductwork passes through fire compartment walls and fire curtains as part of a fire control strategy. In normal circumstances, these dampers are held open by means of fusible links. When subjected to heat, these links fracture and allow the damper to close under the influence of the integral closing spring. The links are attached to the damper such that the dampers can be released manually for testing purposes. The damper is provided with an access door in the adjacent ductworks for the purpose of inspection and resetting in the event of closure.

See also
 Zone valve
 Variable air volume (VAV)
 Testing, adjusting, balancing
 Air-mixing plenum

References

External links

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
Mechanical engineering

Damper (flow)


Kurt Everett Miller (born August 24, 1972) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He played parts of five seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB), between 1994 and 1999, for the Chicago Cubs and Florida Marlins. He also played in two seasons in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB), in 1999 and 2000, for the Hanshin Tigers.

Playing career

Early career
Miller was drafted by the Pittsburgh Pirates out of West High School in Bakersfield, California, with the 5th overall pick in the 1990 MLB Draft. A little over a year later, he was traded to the Texas Rangers with fellow pitching prospect Héctor Fajardo for third baseman Steve Buechele. He spent nearly two seasons in the Rangers organization before being traded again, this time to the expansion Marlins, again with another pitching prospect, this time Robb Nen, for pitcher Cris Carpenter.

Marlins
Miller finished the 1993 season with the Edmonton Trappers, the Marlins' Triple-A farm team. He began the 1994 season with Edmonton as well, but was called up to the major leagues in June to replace the injured Mark Gardner in the starting rotation. He made his MLB debut at age 20 on June 11 against the team that had drafted him, the Pirates. He gave up 7 runs on 9 hits in just 4 innings pitched. He improved substantially in his next start, throwing 8.2 innings against the New York Mets and giving up just 4 hits. However, after two more bad starts he was returned to the minor leagues.

Miller's minor league numbers in 1994 were not impressive, either. He won 7 games and lost 13 while posting an ERA of 6.88. The next season, with the Marlins' new top farm club the Charlotte Knights, Miller's numbers improved to 8–11 with a 4.62 ERA.

Miller began the 1996 season back in Charlotte, but he was called up in early May. After pitching one game in relief, the first time he had appeared in the majors as a reliever and just his fifth professional relief appearance, he was moved back into the rotation to replace Chris Hammond. His first start was a good one, giving up just one run in eight innings against the Colorado Rockies, but after two less-successful starts he was sent back to the bullpen. He was subsequently returned to Charlotte in mid-July, where he returned to starting. He came back to the majors a month later, made two more starts, then spent September in the bullpen. In 26 major league games, Miller posted a record of 1–3 with an ERA of 6.80.

Miller spent most of 1997 in Charlotte, missing a chunk of the season due to an elbow injury. He returned to the Marlins to pitch 7 games in September, but gave up 8 runs in 7.1 innings. After the season, he was traded to the Cubs.

Remaining career
Miller was assigned to the Triple-A Iowa Cubs to start the 1998 season, and he responded with his best season at that level, going 14–3 with a 3.81 ERA. He was brought up to the majors in late September, and pitched four scoreless innings over three games. He made the 1999 Cubs out of spring training, but pitched in just four games before suffering a ribcage injury. He came back to pitch in eight games in Iowa, and in June, he was allowed to go to Japan and sign with Hanshin.

Miller returned to starting with the Tigers, appearing in 11 games and posting a 2–4 record with a 5.98 ERA. The next season, the Tigers tried to use him as their closer, and he posted 6 saves in his first 17 games, but he also gave up 15 runs on 17 hits and 11 walks with a 7.41 ERA. He was released after the season.

Notes

External links

 Foreign Pitching Stats K-M at Japan Baseball Daily

1972 births
Living people
American expatriate baseball players in Canada
American expatriate baseball players in Japan
Augusta Pirates players
Baseball players from Tucson, Arizona
Brevard County Manatees players
Charlotte Knights players
Charlotte Rangers players
Chicago Cubs players
Edmonton Trappers players
Florida Marlins players
Hanshin Tigers players
Iowa Cubs players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Nippon Professional Baseball pitchers
Tulsa Drillers players
Welland Pirates players

Kurt Miller


Whistler is a village in the British Columbian province of Canada. The population as of 2006 is 9,248 and the mayor of Whistler is Nancy Wilhelm-Morden. It is located on the Sea to Sky Highway (Highway 99), which goes from the Peace Arch Border Crossing in Surrey, British Columbia to the Cariboo Highway (Highway 97) 10 kilometres north of Cache Creek, British Columbia. Over two million people visit Whistler annually, and it is usually for alpine skiing and mountain biking at the Whistler-Blackcomb ski resort. Whistler was the host Mountain Resort of the Vancouver 2010 Winter Olympics and Paralympic Games.

Other websites
Whistler's Official website
Whistler Tourism

Ski areas and resorts in Canada
Settlements in British Columbia

Whistler, British Columbia


Dr. Dalhatu Umaru Sangari was elected Senator for the Taraba South constituency of Taraba State, Nigeria at the start of the Nigerian Fourth Republic, running on the All People's Party (APP) platform. He took office on 29 May 1999.

Sangari gained a doctoral degree in Land Resources Development from the University of Ibadan.
He was a lecturer in geography and researcher at Bayero University, Kano for 16 years before entering politics.
He became Deputy Dean of the University's Post Graduate School (1996–1998).
He was elected as a senator during the Sani Abacha transition regime, but did not take his seat before Abacha's death.

After taking his seat in the Senate in June 1999 Sangari was appointed to committees on Environment, Labor, Water Resources (vice chairman), Education, Information and Government Affairs.
He was appointed a member of the panel led by Senator Idris Ibrahim Kuta that probed possible financial irregularities in contract awards between June 1999 and July 2000, which indicted several Senators.

References

Living people
People from Taraba State
All People's Party (Nigeria) politicians
Peoples Democratic Party members of the Senate (Nigeria)
20th-century Nigerian politicians
21st-century Nigerian politicians
Year of birth missing (living people)

Dalhatu Umaru Sangari


Osvaldo Nicolás Ferraro Gutiérrez (7 September 1934 – 28 March 1977) better known as Waldo de los Ríos was an Argentine composer, conductor and arranger.

De los Ríos was born in Buenos Aires into a musical family; his father was a musician and his mother a well known folk singer; he studied composition and arranging at the National Conservatory of Music under Alberto Ginastera, Teodoro Fuchs, and Lita Spena. He was inspired by an eclectic range of music and formed a musical group called "The Waldos" which crossed folk music with electronic sounds. De los Ríos turned to work in cinema and film sound tracks where his compositions were heard in the 1967 film Savage Pampas, for which he received a prestigious award from the Argentine Academy of Cinematography Arts and Sciences. He relocated to the US in 1958 and then to Spain in 1962.

He is best remembered for his ability to transform European classical music into pop music. His 1971 arrangement of Mozart's Symphony No. 40, recorded with the Manuel de Falla orchestra, reached the top spot in the Dutch charts and scored a top 10 hit in several other European countries. (In the U.S. it peaked at #67 on the Billboard charts, released through United Artists Records.) In 1970, prior to this success, Waldo de los Ríos had already climbed the charts around Europe and America with Ludwig van Beethoven's Ode To Joy, which he arranged and conducted for Miguel Ríos "Song of Joy".

His record Mozart in the Seventies rearranged famous Mozart pieces in a contemporary style, with a large percussion section. Several tracks from it were used as theme tunes to BBC programmes of that era, including the theme to the BBC's coverage of the Horse of the Year Show (his reworking of Mozart's A Musical Joke). His re-working of Eine kleine Nachtmusik, used for many years as the theme to the Radio 4 quiz show Brain of Britain, was the subject of frequent complaints from classical music fans (with whom the show was popular) and presenter Robert Robinson described it on air as "Mozart plus sacrilege".

He also issued an album Symphonies for the Seventies which included Mozart's Symphony no. 40 and other major composers including Dvořák's New World. He arranged and conducted the Spanish entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 1971, "En un mundo nuevo" for Karina. The song landed a respectable second position and hit the charts in several European countries.

He was married to actress turned journalist/author Isabel Pisano (born in Montevideo, Uruguay, 1944). Pisano later documented part of his life in her autobiography El amado fantasma (Plaza y Janés, 2002).

A victim of an acute depression while working on "Don Juan Tenorio", De los Ríos committed suicide in Madrid in 1977.

Los Waldos

Los Waldos were a folk group from Argentina based in Spain, formed by Waldo de los Rios. They played folk songs from Argentina with modern instruments, such as electric guitars, electric bass, drums, piano and synthesizers, sometimes accompanied by an orchestra. They started in the mid sixties and released various albums in Spain. The band was made up of five members:

 Waldo de los Rios (arranger, piano)
 Cecar Gentili (keyboards)
 Willy Rubio (guitars)
 Roberto Stella (drums)
 Alberto Carbia (bass guitar)

They disbanded in the late sixties when Waldo started his solo career.

Discography
All his records were released under the Hispa-Vox Label. His first recordings were made with his folk group "Los Waldos". During late 60s and mid 70s he made several arrangements for many Spanish and international famous artists such as: Raphael, Mari Trini, Alberto Cortez, Facundo Cabral, Tony Landa, Jeanette Dimech, Miguel Ríos, Los Pekenikes, Maria Ostiz, Karina, Paloma San Basilio, Los Payos, etc.

On his discography as soloist:

 "Los Waldos", 1965 (With "Los Waldos")
 "Waldo de los Rios en Europa", 1965 (With "Los Waldos")
 "España Electrodinámica Vol. 1",  1966
 "Folklore Dinámico", 1966 (With "Los Waldos")
 "España en 3era Dimensión" 1967
 "Suite SudAmericana - Argentina•Paraguay•Peru•Uruguay" 1968
 "Waldo en la TVE",  1968
 "El Sonido Mágico Vol. 1", 1969
 "El Sonido Mágico Vol. 2", 1970
 "Sinfonías", 1970
 "Mozartmania", 1971
 "Symphonies for the Seventies", 1971
 "Operas", 1973
 "Navidad Con Waldo de Los Rios" 1973
 "Sinfonías 2", 1974
 "Oberturas", 1974
 "Concierto Para La Guitarra Criolla", with Ernesto Bitetti, 1974
 "Conciertos", 1976
 "Corales", 1977 (Postum Release)

Film work

Alias Gardelito (Alias Big Shot) (1961)
The Blonde from Buenos Aires (1961), with Mamie Van Doren
 Savage Pampas (1966), with Robert Taylor
La residencia (The House That Screamed) (1969), with Lilli Palmer
A Town Called Bastard (1971), with Telly Savalas
Bad Man's River (1971), with James Mason, Gina Lollobrigida
Murders in the Rue Morgue (1971), with Jason Robards, Herbert Lom
The Corruption of Chris Miller (1973), with Jean Seberg, Barry Stokes
Boquitas pintadas (1974)
Who Can Kill a Child? (1976), with Lewis Fiander, Prunella Ransome

In popular culture
De Los Ríos's version of Schubert's Unfinished Symphony No. 8 was used extensively in the series The Smurfs as the background music for Gargamel, the series' lead villain.

On 10 March 2010 The Rush Limbaugh Show played an AM radio optimized mix of de los Ríos's version of Symphony No. 40 in G Minor. The exposure propelled the song and the CD's popularity from No, 136,705 to No. 1 on Amazon.com's rankings.

References

External links

1934 births
1977 suicides
Musicians from Buenos Aires
Argentine composers
Eurovision Song Contest conductors
Suicides by firearm in Spain
Burials at La Chacarita Cemetery
20th-century conductors (music)
20th-century composers
1977 deaths

Waldo de los Ríos


The Ford Anglia is a British car from Ford in the United Kingdom. It is related to the Ford Prefect an the later Ford Popular. The Ford Anglia name was applied to following models of 1939 an 1967.

1,594,486 Anglias were produced, after it was replaced by the new Ford Escort.

Super Anglia 123E (1962–1967)

Frae 1962, the 123E Anglia Super wis available alangside the 105E, replacin the last o the line o Prefects, wi a lairger 1198 cc ingine an ither refinements.

The same caur wis an aa sauld in Europe. Ane Europe-ae variant wis the Anglia Sportsman that carried its spare tyre on the back, somewha seemilar tae the continental kit aften seen in the Unitit States. Chrome bumper owerriders, broad whitewall tyres, an optionally a side stripe kickin up at the end intae the tail-lichts/fin wur an aa fittit.

Towards the end o the run Ford experimentit wi twa colours o metallic paint on the Anglia, "Blue Mink" an "Venetian Gold".  250 wur made in the Blue an 500 wur made in the Gowd, sae thay are baith quite rare.

Anglia saloons wur providit wi various levels o trim. The base model wis the Standard, an this sportit nae chromework, paintit rear licht surroonds, steel slattit grille an leemitit interior trim. The deluxe haed a chrome side strip, chrome rear lichts, glovebox lid, sun visor an full width chrome radiator grille. The tap o the range wis the Super, which haed twin chrome side strips, contrastin coloured ruif an side flash, plusher interior trim, tohegither wi the 1198 cc ingine an a gearbox wi synchromesh on first gear.

Optional extras wur the mechanical upgrade o a Deluxe tae a Super, retainin the Deluxe trim, or the upgrade o a Deluxe tae a Super trim, but retainin the 997 cc ingine, an option rarely taken up.

Anglia
Station wagons
Rally caurs
Vehicles introduced in 1939
Vehicles introduced in 1949
Vehicles introduced in 1953
Vehicles introduced in 1959
1940s automobiles
1950s automobiles
1960s automobiles

Ford Anglia


Christoph Sauer  (1695 – September 25, 1758) was the first German-language printer and publisher in North America.

Johann Christoph Sauer was born in 1695 in Ladenburg (near Heidelberg), the son of a Reformed pastor. He came to the county (Graftschaft) of Wittgenstein in central Germany as a child with his widowed mother some time between 1700 and 1710.  He was a graduate of a German university, and studied medicine at the University of Halle. At the time, its rulers were tolerant of a variety of Pietists and other religious dissenters, most notably Alexander Mack, who would found the Schwarzenau Brethren and later emigrate to the United States. Most Brethren denominations descend from this original congregation. Johann Christoph Sauer married the widowed Maria Christina (born Gruber) in 1720. The family lived in the village of Schwarzenau, which now belongs to the town of Berleburg though had ties to Laasphe as well.

Pennsylvania
The family emigrated to Pennsylvania in 1724, settling in Germantown. Sauer worked as a tailor before moving in 1726 to Lancaster where he had a  farm. In 1731, Sauer's wife, Maria Christina, joined Johann Conrad Beissel's Seventh Day Baptist community at Ephrata, the Ephrata Cloister. She was known in Ephrata as "Sister Marcella," and eventually became sub-prioress of the community, which was dedicated to celibacy. Maria Christina's decision disabled Sauer's farming operation, and he moved with his son to Germantown where that same year he built a large dwelling for his residence.

In order to supply the needs of other German-speaking people in the colonies who were liberally educated, especially in theology, he obtained Bibles and religious works from Germany.

Around 1735, Sauer took up the idea of becoming a printer and publisher. Benjamin Franklin dominated this trade at the time, and was a supplier of printed materials to the large German community around Pennsylvania. Significantly, Franklin used only Roman typefaces. Sauer obtained Fraktur type from a foundry in Nuremberg originally purchased by Jacob Gass of the Ephrata Cloister. In 1738 Sauer began to publish almanacs, calendars, books and newspapers in 1739 using a type face that his German readers could more easily read.

The press itself is believed to have come from Berleburg in Wittgenstein, with which he had remained in contact. It had been used by Pietist printers there. Sauer also made his own ink, which he eventually sold as "Sauer's Curious Pennsylvania Ink-Powder."

In 1739 he brought out the first number of Der Hoch-Deutsch Pensylvanische Geschichts-Schreiber, a religious and secular journal, a small folio,  by , which attained a circulation of nearly 10,000, and had great influence among his countrymen. It was the first of its kind that was published in a non-English  language in Pennsylvania.

Bible
In 1743, Sauer published the first German-language Bible to be printed in North America (the first in any European language).  It was a quarto edition of the Bible in high German, Luther's translation, which was limited to 1,200 copies of 1,284 pages.  All pages were hand-set and printed one sheet at a time. It bore the title "Biblia, Das ist: Die Heilige Schrift Alten und Neuen Testaments, Nach der Deutschen Übersetzung D. Martin Luther". (Bible: The Holy Scripture of the Old and New Testaments following the translation of Dr. Martin Luther). Another 40 years would pass before an English-language Bible would appear in North America. It was three years in press, the largest work as yet issued in the colonies, and was the first Bible printed in the American colonies, with the exception of John Eliot's Indian Bible.

Sauer's Bible emphasized passages most in sympathy with Anabaptist and Pietist beliefs. It was rapidly accepted among the Mennonites, Amish and Brethren. It was well received by the German churches of Pennsylvania, who were in turn influential in what became the Universalist church in the Middle Atlantic and New England states. George de Benneville (1703–1793) was an important influence on the early Universalists and, like Sauer, had sojourned among the Wittgenstein Pietists before coming to America.

Sauer remained active as a printer up until his death on September 25, 1758, in Germantown, but none of his other publications had the impact of the "Sauer Bible." The latter was re-published in 1763 and again in 1776 by his son.

See also
 German American journalism

Further reading
 Durnbaugh, Donald F. (1958) "Christopher Sauer Pennsylvania-German Printer: His Youth in Germany and Later Relationships with Europe." Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography (1958): 316–340.
 Durnbaugh, Donald F. (1969) "Was Christopher Sauer a Dunker?" Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography (1969): 383–391. onlineonline
 Frantz, John B.  (1999). "Sower, Christopher, II". American National Biography New York: Oxford University Press; online
 Genzmer, George Harvey. "Sower, Christopher (1693 – September 25, 1758)". Dictionary of American Biography (Charles Scribner's Sons)
 Leaman, Hans. (2014) "Johann Christoph Sauer was the most active publisher of German-language print in colonial America. Through his publishing work, based in Germantown, Pennsylvania, he became the mouthpiece for many German immigrants' opinions on the political and religious controversies of the mid-eighteenth century." online
 Oller, Anna Kathryn. (1963) "Christopher Saur, Colonial Printer: A Study of the Publications of the Press, 1738–1758," Ph.D. diss. (University of Michigan, 1963)
 Steckel, William R. Pietist in Colonial Pennsylvania: Christopher Sauer, Printer, 1738–1758 (Stanford., 1949)

References

External links

German language printing in America

1695 births
1758 deaths
People from Ladenburg
German printers
German emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies
People of colonial Pennsylvania
American members of the Church of the Brethren
Colonial American printers
Businesspeople from Philadelphia
German artisans
American artisans

Christoph Sauer


WASP-12b is an extrasolar planet orbiting the star WASP-12. It is said by NASA one of the hottest planet known, much hotter than Venus. It is extremely close to its star, about 2 million miles away from it. It is a gas giant and is bigger than Jupiter. The average temperature
there can get up to 1500 degrees Celsius. For comparison, Mercury in our solar system's average temperature is around 427 degrees Celsius. WASP-12b is so close to its star, that the star pulls mass from the planet creating a comet-like trail behind it.

References

Exoplanets

WASP-12b


The Bat Cave mine was a bat guano mine in a natural cave located in the western Grand Canyon of Arizona at river mile 266,  above Lake Mead.

Mining
The cave was apparently discovered in the 1930s by a passing boater. Several unsuccessful early attempts were made to mine the nitrogen-rich guano deposit within the cave for fertilizer. The U.S. Guano Corporation bought the property around 1957. Based on a reputable mining engineer's estimate that the cave contained 100,000 tons of guano, the company constructed an elaborate plan to extract it. A small airstrip was built on a nearby sandbar in the Colorado River, and all supplies and machinery needed were flown in. An aerial tramway was built from the mine to Guano Point on the South Rim, with the cable headhouse built on land leased from the Hualapai Native American tribe. The cableway crossed the river, with a main span of , and a vertical lift of . About  of  1.5 inch (38 mm) steel cable were used, to support and pull a cable car large enough to transport  of guano. The same car was used to transport the miners to and from work. The guano was mined using a large industrial "vacuum-cleaner" with  ten-inch hoses. From the cablehead, the guano was hauled by truck to Kingman, Arizona and packaged for retail sale.

During construction of the cableway, which took 14 months, the first of several mishaps occurred. When first tensioning the main cable, a clutch-lever broke, dropping  of cable into the canyon. A new cable was ordered and strung, and mining began. The  pull-cable wore out after a few months use and had to be replaced, bringing the company's total investment up to USD $3,500,000.

The mining engineer's estimate of the potential size of the guano deposit proved wildly optimistic: the cave contained only about 1,000 tons of minable material. Most of the cave was filled with valueless limestone rubble.

In 1959, the cableway was used for the film Edge of Eternity, with the climax of the film involving a fight atop a cable car.

Mining ceased in early 1960. Guano sold for about $100 a ton then, sufficient to generate only a $100,000 gross revenue..

Scientific study
Paleontologist Paul S. Martin and a colleague visited the mine in 1958, after reading a report in  the New York Times that mentioned the guano came from "giant, meat-eating bats millions of years ago." The guano actually came from free-tailed bats, Tadarida brasiliensis, which eat insects. Martin collected a sample from 7 ft (2m) below the surface of the guano, which yielded a radiocarbon date of 12,900 ± 1,500 years ago. The miners reported finding "bat graveyards," some with mummified free-tail bats. No giant meat-eating bats were discovered. Martin had hoped to find fossil pollen, his research interest at that time, but found none in his samples. <ref> Martin, P. S. (2005), Twilight of the Mammoths: Ice Age Extinctions and the Rewilding of America'.'  University of California Press. . </ref>

Post mine activity
A few months after closure of the mine, a US Air Force jet, illegally "hot-dogging" down the canyon, clipped the cable, damaging the plane's wing and severing the cable. The plane survived, and U.S. Guano successfully sued the Air Force for damaging their property, offsetting some of their losses.

In 1975 the abandoned mine became part of Grand Canyon National Park. The National Park Service later proposed removing the tramway remnants within the park, but there was public protest against demolition of these interesting historic relics. As of 2007, some remnants of the old operation remain at Bat Cave, and on the West Rim in the Hualapai Indian Reservation.

Guano Point is still a popular stop for air tours from Las Vegas, Nevada. Tourists can inspect the remnants of the old mining operation. Tour operators pay use-fees to the Hualapai tribe, and the tribe offers a barbecue lunch near the old tramway head house, as part of their Grand Canyon West business venture.

 References

The primary source of this article is the "Bat Cave" article in Billingsley et al., 1997, Quest for the Pillar of Gold: The Mines and Miners of the Grand Canyon'', Grand Canyon Association, .

Grand Canyon history
Mines in Arizona
Buildings and structures in Mohave County, Arizona
Hualapai
Aerial tramways in the United States
Colorado River
Caves of Arizona
Underground mines in the United States
Landforms of Mohave County, Arizona
History of Mohave County, Arizona
Tourist attractions in Mohave County, Arizona
1950s establishments in Arizona
1960 disestablishments in Arizona

Bat Cave mine


British Railways Class D16/2 was a class of prototype diesel locomotive built by BR at Ashford Works and introduced in  1950–1951, with a third example being introduced in 1954.  They had been designed by Oliver Bulleid for the Southern Railway before the 1948 nationalisation but did not appear until after nationalisation.  The diesel engine and transmission were supplied by the English Electric company but the Bulleid influence was obvious.  The box-like body style closely resembled Bulleid's electric locomotives and was quite different from the usual English Electric style, typified by British Rail Class D16/1.

D16/2

British Rail Class D16/2


The  Special Operations Aviation Squadron (427SOAS') (french:427e Escadron d'opérations spéciales d'aviation) is a helicopter squadron of Canada responsible to provide support to the Joint Task Force 2 and the Canadian Special Operations Regiment. It operates the CH-146 Griffon. The squadron is part of the Canadian Special Operations Forces Command of the Canadian Forces.

Military of Canada

427 Special Operations Aviation Squadron