Sengkang Community Hub (Simplified Chinese: 盛港社区中心) is an amenity centre in Sengkang, within the North-East Region of  Singapore.

The amenity centre is located in the town centre of Sengkang New Town. It serves to provide a one-stop access to community, educational, health care, security and counselling services for the residents of Sengkang New Town. The building, which was completed in 2004, houses a neighbourhood police centre, a Singapore Post post office, a People's Association community club, a SingHealth polyclinic, a Kandang Kerbau Women's and Children's Hospital women's clinic, and a Singapore Anti-Narcotics Association office.

Sengkang Community Hub, and its community club and neighbourhood police centre, were officially opened by Teo Chee Hean, Minister for Defence and Member of Parliament for Pasir Ris-Punggol Group Representation Constituency, on 10 December 2005.

Sengkang Community Hub is well-served by public transport, being located near the Sengkang MRT/LRT station, the Sengkang Bus Interchange and the Compassvale Bus Interchange. It is located next to Compass One Shopping Centre.

Facilities
Sengkang Community Hub currently houses the following community facilities:
 KK Women's Clinic @ Sengkang - opened in April 2005
 Sengkang Central Constituency Office
 Sengkang Polyclinic (Singhealth) - started operations on 12 January 2005
 Sengkang Neighbourhood Police Centre - opened on 4 October 2004
 Sengkang Community Club - began operations in December 2004
 Singapore Anti-Narcotics Association (SANA) - opened on 29 January 2005
 Singapore Post - opened on 7 February 2005

Notes and references

External links

Community buildings in Singapore
Buildings and structures completed in 2004
Buildings and structures in Sengkang
Sengkang
Sengkang Town Centre

Sengkang Community Club


Olga Appell Avalos (born August 2, 1963, in Durango) is an American long-distance runner from Mexico, best known for winning the gold medal in the women's marathon at the 1991 Pan American Games in Havana, Cuba. She ran at the 1992 Summer Olympics the following year, but failed to finish the race. She competed for Mexico until February 25, 1994, at which point she switched allegiance to the United States. She represented her adopted country at the 1996 Summer Olympics. There she was eliminated in the qualifying heats of the women's 10,000 metres event.

She won the USA Cross Country Championships in 1994. Among her wins on the road running circuit were the 1993 Sapporo Half Marathon, 1994 Lilac Bloomsday Run and 1995 Vancouver Sun Run. She won the Hokkaido Marathon on two occasions, 1992 and 1995 (the second time as a naturalized U.S. citizen) and was the 1996 winner of the Twin Cities Marathon. Olga Appell is the 12th best marathoner in USA History.

References

External links

1963 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Durango
People from Durango City
American female long-distance runners
American female cross country runners
Mexican female long-distance runners
Mexican female cross country runners
American sportspeople of Mexican descent
Mexican emigrants to the United States
Olympic athletes for Mexico
Olympic track and field athletes for the United States
Athletes (track and field) at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Pan American Games track and field athletes for the United States
Pan American Games gold medalists for Mexico
Pan American Games medalists in athletics (track and field)
Athletes (track and field) at the 1991 Pan American Games
World Athletics Championships athletes for Mexico
Medalists at the 1991 Pan American Games
21st-century American women

Olga Appell


Ethelbert Woodbridge Nevin (born near Pittsburgh, November 25, 1862; died in New Haven, Connecticut, February 17, 1901) was an American pianist and composer.  He is remembered for a small number of romantic songs and piano pieces which became extremely popular in the early 20th century.

Life

Nevin was born  in 1862, at Vineacre, on the river Ohio, near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.  He grew up there.  His father was a newspaper editor and he taught the young boy most subjects.  His mother played the piano.  The family bought a grand piano, which was the first grand piano ever to be taken across the Allegheny Mountains.

Ethelbert showed musical promise when he was very young.  His brother and cousins were also musical.  When he was four he was playing the piano with cushions on the floor so that he could reach the pedals.  His father took him to Dresden for two years to study music.  He also studied in Pittsburgh and in Boston.

He started his career giving piano lessons.  When he had earned enough money he went to Berlin where he had lessons from Karl Klindworth, who was a good teacher for him.  He showed Nevin how important it was to have a good general knowledge, and not just to spend hours and hours practising the piano.  This helped Nevin, who had good tastes in literature and he chose some good poems to make into songs.

In 1885 he was invited to join a group who had lessons from  Hans von Bülow.  He played works by of Brahms, Liszt, and Raff. Cosima Wagner and Joseph Joachim often came to the concerts given by this group.

In 1887 he went back to America and lived in Boston, where he taught and played in some concerts.  He asked Richard Strauss to teach him composition but Strauss did not accept him.

In 1892 he went to Paris, where he taught singing, and helped many American and French opera singers to learn their parts for singing in operas.   He worked very hard and his health got bad.  He spent his last years in several European places and then he went back to America.  He died in 1901.

His music

Nevin's music is romantic, and sometimes rather sentimental for modern tastes.  His best known piece is "Narcissus" from Water Scenes.  These pieces were used by the dancer Isadora Duncan to dance to.  He also wrote a famous song called "The Rosary" and "Mighty Lak' a Rose".

Nevin was pictured on a 1940 ten cent U.S. postage stamp.

Bibliography
New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; 1980,

Other websites
  online book

1862 births
1901 deaths
American composers
American pianists

Ethelbert Nevin


Growth platforms are specific initiatives selected by a business organization to increase their revenue and earnings growth. There are two types of growth platforms: strategic or tactical. Strategic growth platforms usually take from 3 to 6 years to implement and give the desired results being long term initiatives. On the other hand, Tactical growth platforms take less time to implement as they are shorter term initiatives and both the initiative and the results are based on the current budget year of the particular business.

Stages of growth strategy
There are three stages in implementing a growth planning process which are based on three basic questions:
 "Where are we now?"
 "Where do we want to go?"
 "How do we get to here?"

Strategic analysis: referred to the environment (which could either be internal, external and marketing) where the business operated. It also looked at the resources possessed by the business or that it could possibly have and at the expectations and objectives of its main stakeholders and owners.

Strategic choice: it basically generates options which have to do with the strategic analysis. This process evaluates the options based on acceptability, feasibility and suitability and then selects the suitable strategy

Strategic implementation: this process focus on achieving the correct organisational structure, planning the resources (physical and financial) and sorting out the systems and the people by implementing the change process. This process has been developing and it can be considered one of the few "big company" management theories which can be used effectively and simply.

Most businesses have a growth strategy which is based on "acquisitions and partnerships that create shareholder value by creating or reinforcing platforms for long-term growth".

Growth sustainability
When a business is in a high-growth industry it is able to maintain high growth rates for a longer period of time. However, many investors take this high growth as granted which usually lead to much slower growth rates once the industry stops booming. It is believed that 65% of acquisitions which businesses buy in order to grow in size have destroyed more value than they actually created, an acquisition can't be a substitute for a growth platform.

New growth platforms help companies grow as they created families of products, services, and businesses and extend their capabilities into multiple new domains. The NGPs acted as a method of growth in which each business was acquiring new capabilities and further market knowledge. The size of the growth platform is strategic to the corporation. Small scaled businesses can only have a NGP when provided through a partnership or government funding, usually these exist in the agricultural sector and improve the knowledge and infrastructure ensuring better food security.

New growth platforms (NGPs)

Creating a new growth platform
Rediscovering the technology and the talent present in an organization a company or exploring its external networks, a business is able to find capabilities needed to create a new growth platform. Then a company should evaluate the potential capabilities which it needs to develop. Companies tend to undermine the number of possible growth platforms that could be created to increase customer needs. This is a consequence of senior managers not thinking more broadly and only thinking about a product or service that would beat the competition.
After identifying suitable new areas of growth, a business needs to quantify and evaluate the opportunities to generate the lines of the business. In order to meet a new or uncovered customer need a new growth platform has to form as a result of a force of change which include new technologies, social pressures or changes in the legal system.

Possible places for growth
In order to generate an opportunity for sustained growth a business needs to widen its capabilities into innovative domains. NGPs provide a structure for creating business processes, services and even families of products. The size of each NGP is essential to the strategy of the organization. A successful NGP requires "a well tried process, high quality information and external insights – often from well outside the company's own market space".

Difficulties in finding a new growth platform
Some studies have shown that more than 90% of companies are not able to find new possible sources of growth. Through the understanding of these difficulties, it makes it simpler to deal with the problem. Many argue that poor processes and skills lead to this high failure rate. Consequently, the main advice given to these companies is to be willing to take more risks and do the same "approaches used in the venture capital industry and build a pipeline of new businesses". It has been detected that the success of companies lies in new growth areas which have existing mindsets fitting the critical success factors of the business. Therefore, failure results when the company involves with factors that do not fit when the company is trying to grow in different new areas. The low success rate of finding a new growth platform can also be explained by the shortage of opportunities theory, which suggests a new way of resolving the problem. This theory proposes that "efforts to generate additional ideas or to experiment with a portfolio of new ventures are likely to be fruitless". In addition, failure can also be caused by less risk aversion and more broadmindedness of entrepreneurship. In order to resolve this issue the corporate mindsets need to change or investing only in cases that match with what is needed having a high chance of succeeding.

Examples of growth platforms
Examples of strategic growth platforms which in these cases are using specific and innovative product areas or entering into a new distribution channel:
In order to increase growth, Apple Computers targeted "personal music systems" using its personal business of computers
IBM invented the term "e-business" and used it as the organizing theme of what the company did during the late 1990s

Examples of tactical growth platforms include specific new sales force programs or a new emphasis for the advertising for the year.

See also
Growth investing
Strategic management
Strategy of unbalanced growth

References

External links

Strategic management

hy:Մենեջմենթ
tr:İşletme

Growth platforms


MD5 is a special algorithm, a mathematical process, used to make computer information secure and safe. MD5 stands for Message Digest, and was made to replace the MD4 standard.

It is mainly used for security in database systems. The algorithm generates a unique hash code for every piece of data (strings, text etc.). Any change to the data, either deliberate or accidental, will mean the hash code will also change. By comparing the codes, it is easy to see if a change has been made. MD5 was invented by Ron Rivest of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1991. An MD5 hash code provides a 32-digit hexadecimal number. By 1996, methods were developed to break the security of an MD5 algorithm. This was done by getting another program to make the same hash number for different sets of data. MD5 is no longer considered acceptable for protecting against intentional malicious changes to data, but it is still considered OK to protect from accidental changes, for example single-bit changes caused by noise on a network connection. An MD5 hash could look like: 9c677286866aad38f8e9b660f5411814. This is the hash of the string "Wikipedia".

Algorithms

MD5


Chemistry education is the study of the teaching and learning of chemistry. Topics in chemistry education include understanding how students learn chemistry and how best to teach chemistry. Researchers in chemistry education try to improve learning results by improving teaching methods and training chemistry teachers. Researchers study many teaching modes, including: classroom lecture, demonstrations, and laboratory activities.

There is a world-wide shortage of chemistry teachers. This is because people with science training can get jobs that pay more outside of teaching. It is hard to keep science teachers. More than 45,000 math and science teachers left teaching in the United States just after the 1999–2000 school year.

Overview

There are several different ways of thinking about chemistry education. One is a practitioner's perspective. The people who teach chemistry define chemistry education by their actions.

Another is defined by a self-identified group of chemical educators (faculty members and instructors who focus on teaching rather than focus on chemical research). Dr. Robert L. Lichter, then-Executive Director of the Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation, speaking in a plenary session at the 16th Biennial Conference on Chemical Education (recent BCCE meetings:  ,), posed the question "why do terms like 'chemical educator' even exist in higher education, when there is a perfectly respectable term for this activity, namely, 'chemistry professor.'"  One criticism of this view is that few professors bring any formal preparation in education or background about education to their jobs. Most chemistry professors do not have a professional perspective on teaching and learning efforts. They may not know about effective teaching methods and how students learn.

A third perspective is chemical education research (CER).  Following the example of physics education research (PER), CER tends to take the theories and methods developed in pre-college science education research and applies them to understanding comparable problems in post-secondary settings. (CER also tries to improve pre-college chemistry instruction). Like science education researchers, CER practitioners tend to study the teaching practices of others as opposed to focusing on their own classroom practices. Chemical education research is typically carried out in situ using human subjects from secondary and post-secondary schools. Chemical education research collects both quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative methods typically involve collecting data that can then be analyzed using various statistical methods. Qualitative methods include interviews, observations, journaling, and other methods common to social science research.

References

Other websites
Welcome to ChemConnections

Education by subject
Chemistry

Chemical education


Guckkasten (Hangul: 국카스텐) is a South Korean Indie rock group that is known for psychedelic music.  The members are Ha Hyun-woo (Hangul: 하현우, vocal), Jeon Kyu-ho (Hangul: 전규호), Lee Jung-gil (Hangul: 이정길) and Kim Ki-bum (Hangul: 김기범).  The group formed in 2003 and their band was called "The C.O.M" at the time.  In 2007, they renamed their band "Guckkasten," a German word that means "Chinese-style kaleidoscope".  The renaming of the band as "Guckkasten" was to reflect how their psychedelic music is like looking through a Chinese-style kaleidoscope with its beautiful and constantly changing pictures. This band tries to express their experimental mindset by playing music like psychedelic videos hidden under an analogous style.

Members
Ha Hyun-woo (하현우) : vocals, guitar
Jeon Kyu-ho (전규호) : guitar
Lee Jung-gil (이정길) : drums
Kim Ki-bum (김기범) : bass guitar

History of Guckkasten
Lee Jung-gil and Ha Hyun-woo started a school band together. After quitting school, they moved to Seoul. Then they scouted Jeon Kyu-ho through the Internet and started a band "New Unbalance".
In 2003, they realigned their members and created a band named  "The C.O.M".  However, "The C.O.M" broke up that year after the "Ssamji sound festival".
Then in 2007, they formed the band again, but changed the name to "Guckkasten," a German word for Chinese-style kaleidoscope.  A year later, in 2008, Kim Ki-bum joined the band.
Since then, they have performed as the band "Guckkasten" and never looked back.

Musical style and artistry
The music of Guckkasten can be classified as psychedelic. They try to express their music as psychedelic videos which is hidden under analogue.It is because their music is inspired by Hague's piece called Art and Fire. Although their music can be classified as psychedelic music in some points, their genre can't be defined clearly. Their music is expressed in various ways and the songs are very changeable.They are skilled guitar players, and their sound is guitar focused. But they have said that this will change on their 2nd album.

Other websites

South Korean musical groups
2003 establishments in South Korea

Guckkasten


Prince George of Greece and Denmark (; 24 June 1869 – 25 November 1957) was the second son and child of George I of Greece and Olga Konstantinovna of Russia, and is remembered chiefly for having once saved the life of his cousin the future Emperor of Russia, Nicholas II in 1891 during their visit to Japan together.  He served as high commissioner of the Cretan State during its transition towards independence from Ottoman rule and union with Greece.

Youth
From 1883, George lived at Bernstorff Palace near Copenhagen with Prince Valdemar of Denmark, his father's younger brother. The queen had taken the boy to Denmark to enlist him in the Danish royal navy and consigned him to the care of Valdemar, who was an admiral in the Danish fleet. Feeling abandoned by his father on this occasion, George would later describe to his fiancée the profound attachment he developed for his uncle from that day forward.

In 1891, George accompanied his cousin the Tsesarevich Nicholas on his voyage to Asia, and saved him from an assassination attempt in Japan, in what became known as the Ōtsu Incident.

Greek endeavours

George, along with his brothers Constantine and Nicholas, were involved with the organization of the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens. George served as president of the Sub-Committee for Nautical Sports. He served as a judge for the weightlifting competition, and demonstrated his strength by clearing the weights at the end of the event.

Although much of modern Greece had been independent since the 1820s, Crete remained in Ottoman hands. For the rest of the 19th century, there had been many rebellions and protests on the island. A Greek force arrived to annex the island in 1897 and the Great Powers acted, occupying the island and dividing it into British, French, Russian and Italian areas of control.

In 1898, Turkish troops were ejected and a national government was set up, still nominally under Ottoman suzerainty. Prince George, not yet thirty, was made High Commissioner, and a joint Muslim-Christian assembly was part-elected, part-appointed. However, this was not enough to satisfy Cretan nationalists.

Eleftherios Venizelos was the leader of the movement to unite Crete with Greece. He had fought in the earlier revolts and was now a member of the Assembly, acting as minister of justice to Prince George. They soon found themselves opposed. George, a staunch royalist, had assumed absolute power. Venizelos led the opposition to this. In 1905, however, he summoned an illegal revolutionary assembly in Theriso, in the hills near Chania, the then capital of the island, the "Theriso revolt".

During the revolt, the newly created Cretan Gendarmerie remained faithful to George. In this difficult period, the Cretan population were divided: in the 1906 elections the pro-Prince parties took 38,127 votes, while pro-Venizelos parties took 33,279. But the Gendarmerie managed to execute its duties without taking sides. Finally, British diplomats brokered a settlement and in September 1906 George was replaced by former Greek prime minister Alexandros Zaimis, and left the island. In 1908, the Cretan Assembly unilaterally declared enosis (union) with Greece.

In October 1912 George returned from Paris to Athens so that he could join the naval ministry as Greece prepared for war against Turkey. Later he served as aide-de-camp to King George who, however, was assassinated in March 1913. George went to Copenhagen to settle his father's financial affairs there, as he had never ceased to be a Prince of Denmark.

Marriage and family

Following a Parisian luncheon between King George and Prince Roland Bonaparte in September 1906 during which the king agreed to the prospect of a marriage between their children, George met Roland's daughter, Marie Bonaparte (2 July 1882 – 21 September 1962) on 19 July 1907 at the Bonapartes' home in Paris. A member of one of the non-imperial branches of the Bonaparte dynasty, she was an heiress to the Blanc casino fortune through her mother.

Although a homosexual, who lived most of the year with his uncle Prince Valdemar of Denmark with whom he had a life-long relationship, he dutifully courted her for twenty-eight days. He confided to her that he had experienced major disappointments when his roles in the Otsu incident and the Cretan governorship were misconstrued and under-appreciated by both individuals and governments who he felt should have known better. He also admitted that, contrary to what he knew were her hopes, he could not commit to living in France permanently since he had to remain prepared to undertake royal duties in Greece or Crete if summoned to do so. Once his proposal of marriage was tentatively accepted, the bride's father was astonished when George waived any contractual clause guaranteeing an allowance or inheritance from Marie; she would retain and manage her own fortune (a trust yielding 800,000 francs per annum) and only their future children would receive legacies.

George wed Marie civilly in Paris on 21 November 1907, and in a Greek Orthodox ceremony in Athens the following December, during which George's uncle Valdemar served as the koumbaros. By March Marie was pregnant and, as agreed, the couple returned to France to take up residence. When George brought his bride to Bernstorff for the first family visit, Valdemar's wife Marie d'Orléans was at pains to explain to Marie Bonaparte the intimacy which united uncle and nephew, so deep that at the end of each of George's several yearly visits to Bernstorff, he would weep, Valdemar would take sick, and the women learned the patience not to intrude upon their husbands' private moments. During the first of these visits, Marie Bonaparte and Valdemar found themselves engaging in the kind of passionate intimacies she had looked forward to with her husband who, however, only seemed to enjoy them vicariously, sitting or lying beside his wife and uncle. On a later visit, Marie Bonaparte carried on a passionate flirtation with Prince Aage, Valdemar's eldest son. In neither case does it appear that George objected, or felt obliged to give the matter any attention. However, George criticized Marie d'Orléans to his wife, alleging that she drank too much and was having an affair with his uncle's stablemaster. But Marie Bonaparte found no fault with her husband's aunt, rather, she admired the forbearance and independence of Valdemar's wife under circumstances which caused her bewilderment and estrangement from her own husband.

From 1913 to early 1916, George's wife carried on an intense flirtation, then an affair until May 1919 with French prime minister Aristide Briand. In 1915 Briand wrote to Marie that, having come to know and like Prince George, he felt guilty about their secret passion. George tried to persuade him that Greece, officially neutral during World War I but suspected of sympathy for the Central Powers, really hoped for an Allied victory: He may have influenced Briand to support the disastrous Allied expedition against the Turks at Salonika. When the prince and princess returned in July 1915 to France following a visit to the ailing King Constantine I in Greece, her affair with Briand had become notorious and George expressed a restrained jealousy. By December 1916 the French fleet was bombing Athens and in Paris Briand was suspected, alternately, of having seduced Marie in a futile attempt to bring Greece over to the Allied side, or of having been seduced by her to oust Constantine and set George upon the Greek throne.

Although he was on friendly terms with his wife's mentor, Sigmund Freud, in 1925 George asked Marie to give up her work as a psychoanalyst to devote herself to their family life, but she declined. When he learned from the newspapers in 1938 that his only son had married a Russian commoner, George forbade him to return home and refused ever to meet his wife.

Prince George and Princess Marie had two children, Petros and Evgenia.
 Prince Peter of Greece and Denmark (1908–1980); an anthropologist, who forfeited his dynastic rights in Greece upon marriage to a twice-divorced commoner. No children.
 Princess Eugénie of Greece and Denmark (1910–1988); married, firstly, Prince Dominic Radziwill (1939), whom she divorced in 1946. Her second husband was HSH Prince Raimondo della Torre e Tasso, Duke of Castel Duino, whom she married in 1949 and divorced in 1965. She had children from both marriages.

In 1948, Prince George was named as one of the sponsors/godparents of his grandnephew Prince Charles of the United Kingdom (later King Charles III) along with King George VI, King Haakon VII of Norway, Queen Mary, Princess Margaret, the Dowager Marchioness of Milford Haven, Pamela, Lady Brabourne, and David Bowes-Lyon.

Death
On 21 November 1957 Princess Marie and her husband celebrated their golden wedding anniversary. Prince George died 25 November 1957, aged eighty-eight, the longest-living dynast of the House of Oldenburg of his generation. He was buried at Tatoi Royal Cemetery with Danish and Greek flags, his wedding ring, a lock of Valdemar's hair, a photo of Valdemar, and earth from Bernstorff. Prince George was the last living child of King George and Queen Olga.

Georgioupolis, a coastal resort between Chania and Rethimno, was named after Prince George.

Honours

 :
 Knight of the Order of the Elephant, 25 November 1888
 Cross of Honour of the Order of the Dannebrog, 3 August 1889
 Grand Commander of the Order of the Dannebrog, 10 July 1920
 Commemorative Medal for the Golden Wedding of King Christian IX and Queen Louise
 King Christian IX Centenary Medal
 Navy Long Service Medal
 King Christian X's Liberty Medal
 : Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum, 14 May 1891
 : Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of Saint Stephen, 1896
 : Grand Cross of the Grand Ducal Hessian Order of Ludwig, 18 April 1904
 : Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation, 2 May 1893
 : Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of Saint Olav, with Collar, 19 March 1929
 : Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle
 : Knight of the Imperial Order of Saint Andrew the Apostle the First-called
 : Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim, 20 May 1919
 : Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (civil division), 29 June 1900
: Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order

Ancestry

See also
 International Squadron (Cretan intervention, 1897–1898)

References

1869 births
1957 deaths
George of Greece, Prince
George of Greece, Prince
House of Glücksburg (Greece)
High Commissioners of Crete
Greek people of Danish descent
Burials at Tatoi Palace Royal Cemetery
Nobility from Corfu
Hellenic Navy admirals
Danish admirals
Recipients of the Cross of Honour of the Order of the Dannebrog
Grand Commanders of the Order of the Dannebrog
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Sons of kings
LGBT royalty

Prince George of Greece and Denmark


Argos is a city in south Greece, the capital of Argos-Mycenae Municipality. It is in the Argolis prefecture, which is on the Peloponnese peninsula. It is named after the child of Zeus and Niobe in Greek mythology. It is the biggest city in Argolida prefecture but the capital of prefecture is Nauplion. Argos is very historical city. The first residents arrived more than 7,000 years ago. It is considered the oldest city in Greece from ancient Greek writers.

The city houses numerous archaeological monuments. Agriculture is an important sector of the local economy.

Cities in Greece

Argos


The Joseph Meyerhoff Symphony Hall, often referred to simply as the Meyerhoff, is a music venue that opened September 16, 1982, at 1212 Cathedral Street in the Mount Vernon neighborhood of Baltimore, Maryland, United States.  The main auditorium has a seating capacity of 2,443 and is home to the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra.  It is named for Joseph Meyerhoff, a Ukrainian-Jewish Baltimore businessman, philanthropist, and arts patron who served as president of the Baltimore Symphony from 1965 to 1983.

Architecture

The modern style structure was designed by the architectural firms of Pietro Belluschi, Inc. and Jung/Brannen Associates. Ground was broken November 10, 1978.  Acoustical design was by Bolt, Beranek and Newman and uses a series of convex curves to avoid flat surfaces or ninety-degree angles inside the hall.

The auditorium is oval, its cylindrical wall extends the entire height of the building with the roof sloping down over the stage area.  The exterior surface of the cylinder is covered in brown brick and rises through the lobby to be clearly discernible on the exterior of the building.  Backstage areas are housed in a concentric oval which projects from the rear of the building while the lobby and patron areas are housed under a sloping metal roof which extends from the building's front.  The exterior lobby walls feature large expanses of glass to open the building to the plaza which surrounds it.

The auditorium ceiling ranges from a height of  above the stage to  at the rear wall.  The walls of the stage are covered in a light-colored wood and feature box seats.  Suspended above the stage originally were 52 precast concrete "clouds" which helped diffuse sound.  In 1990, management added an extensive set of sound diffusers to improve the sound that the musicians heard on stage.  These were removed as unsatisfactory after several seasons, and replaced in 2001 as part of a renovation project.  The five-year project began in 1997 and also included a new stage lighting system, new stage risers and equipment lift, expanded storage and performer dressing rooms, increased patron washrooms and improved access for patrons with physical disabilities.

The stage is  wide and  deep.  To accommodate a chorus, the rear wall moves to provide an additional  of space.

In addition to the main auditorium, the facility includes the John Gidwitz Recital Hall, reception and meeting rooms and administrative offices.

The Meyerhoff is immediately adjacent to the Cultural Center Station on the Baltimore Light Rail, and within walking distance of the State Center Station on the Baltimore Metro Subway.

History
The idea of a new home for the Orchestra was first raised in 1969 by then conductor Sergiu Comissiona and executive director Joseph Leavitt.  The orchestra's home at the time was the Lyric Opera House and frequent scheduling conflicts forced the musicians to rehearse in school gymnasiums and prepare for concerts in dark and cramped backstage areas of the Opera House.  Major funding for construction came from a donation by Meyerhoff and grants from the State of Maryland and City of Baltimore.

At the opening concert, Comissiona led the Orchestra in a world premiere performance of Housewarming by Morton Gould which was commissioned for the occasion.  Other works on the program included Symphonic Variations by César Franck featuring pianist Leon Fleisher and Ein Heldenleben by Richard Strauss

See also

List of concert halls

References

External links
 About the Meyerhoff
 Meyerhoff Symphony Hall on Google Street View

Pietro Belluschi buildings
Concert halls in the United States
Tourist attractions in Baltimore
Music venues in Baltimore
Mount Vernon, Baltimore

Joseph Meyerhoff Symphony Hall


Agave murpheyi is a species of agave. It is a succulent plant that is found growing only at a few dozen archaeological sites of the ancient Hohokam Indians in southern Arizona and northern Sonora, Mexico. In 1935 there were reported half a dozen sites and in 1970 only two were known.  It appears to be a cultivar grown by the Hohokam for food and fiber. Its common names include Hohokam agave, Murphey agave, and Murphey's century plant.

Description
This agave produces a rosette of leaves up to 80 centimeters long by 20 centimeters wide in shades of green to blue-green with pale banding. They develop a red coloration during flowering. The leaves may curl slightly toward the center. They are lined with small, straight teeth and tipped with a spine up to 2 centimeters long. The plant produces an inflorescence 3 to 4 meters tall with many flowers along the branches. The flowers are greenish with purple or brown tips and are up to 7.5 centimeters long. The fruit is a woody capsule 5 to 7 centimeters long containing seeds but these are rarely produced with the flowers aborting before the fruits form. Despite being untended for more than 500 years Hohokam agave continue to grow at a few old archaeological sites.  This agave produces only by bulbils and hybridizes with Agave chrysantha in Arizona (almost all species labeled as Murphey agave are in fact hybrids with the Murphey agave being a hybrid of Agave palmeri x vivipara).

Uses
Agave murpheyi was cultivated by the Hohokam and possibly other Native Americans for both food and fiber.  For food the basal rosette was harvested just before the Hohokam agave sent up a flower stalk.  At this time the concentration of sugars in the rosette is at its highest. The rosettes, weighing about , were cooked for two or three days in a pit filled with hot stones and covered with hot coals and dirt. The baked rosette, compared in taste to a sweet potato (although containing inedible fiber), is nutritious with 347 calories and 3.5 grams of protein per 100 grams.

Cultivation

Agaves collected from the wild were an important source of food for Native Americans for thousands of years. However, in the 1980s archaeologists discovered that large areas of agave especially Agave murpheyi had been cultivated by the Hohokam people in the Tucson Basin, near the city of Marana. Seventy-eight square kilometers (almost 20,000 acres) of former agave fields have been discovered mostly between Phoenix and Tucson indicating that the agave was a major source of food for the Hohokam who numbered in the tens of thousands.  Undoubtedly many other fields have been destroyed or are undetected by archaeologists.

Agave was cultivated by the Hohokam in the desert of the Tucson basin in rocky areas above the floodplain of the Santa Cruz river where more water-dependent crops were grown.  The Hohokam planted agave in rockpiles about  across and  high.  The pile of rocks around the base of the agave plant act as a mulch to help preserve moisture and prevent rodent predation. Check dams and contour terraces help channel the runoff from precipitation to the agave plants. About one-tenth of the Hohokam agave plants flowered each year and were harvested. The fields are dotted with the remains of large roasting pits for the agave. Rockpile cultivation began about 600 AD.  Large-scale production characterized the classic period of Hohokam culture from 1150 to 1450.

In one representative area, Marana, cultivation totalled . The production of agave in Marana is estimated to have been sufficient to provide 20% of the daily caloric needs of 775 people and the daily protein needs of 550 people. Moreover, because of its hardiness and low demand for moisture the agave was probably a very reliable crop in the drought-prone desert.

Hohokam agave was apparently bred for human consumption by Native Americans over many generations. It has several advantages as a plant and food source over other agaves. The acidic juice in its leaves is less caustic than that of many agave species; the Hohokam agave is ready for consumption in late winter and early spring when other agricultural crops are not productive.

Botanics
Plants acaulescent, freely suckering; rosettes cespitose, 6–12 × 8–14 dm, open. Leaves ascending, 50–80 × 6–10 cm; blade light glaucous green to yellow green, frequently lightly cross-zoned, spatulate, firm, adaxially concave toward apex, abaxially convex toward base; margins undulate, armed, teeth single, well defined, mostly 3–4 mm, ca. 1–2 cm apart; apical spine dark brown to grayish, conical, 1.2–2 cm. Scape 3–4 m. Inflorescences narrowly paniculate, prolifically bulbiferous; bracts persistent, triangular, 10–15 cm; lateral branches 10–16, slightly ascending, comprising distal 1/4 of inflorescence, longer than 10 cm. Flowers 12–21 per cluster, erect, (5.1–)6–7.5 cm; perianth cream, apex purplish or brownish, tube urceolate, 14–20 × (11–)14–19 mm, limb lobes erect, unequal, (14–)15–20 mm; stamens long-exserted; filaments inserted unequally at or slightly above mid perianth tube, erect, yellow, (3.3–)4.5–5 cm; anthers yellow, (16–)22–25 mm; ovary (1.8–)2.2–4 cm, neck slightly constricted, (0.5–)4–6 mm. Capsules short-pedicellate, obovate to oblong or ovate, 5–7 cm, apex short-beaked. Seeds (7–)9–11 mm. 2n = 60.

References

External links

NatureServe. 2014. Agave murpheyi. NatureServe Explorer. Accessed September 14, 2014.
"Agave Harvest and Roast", Desert Botanical Garden. (YouTube)

murpheyi
Crops originating from the Americas
Southwestern United States
Plants used in Native American cuisine
Plants described in 1935
Flora of Arizona
Flora of Sonora

Agave murpheyi


The Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), formerly Arts and Humanities Research Board (AHRB), is a British research council, established in 1998, supporting research and postgraduate study in the arts and humanities.

History
The Arts and Humanities Research Board (AHRB) was founded in 1998 and became a Research Council in April 2005.

Description
The AHRC is a non-departmental public body that provides approximately £102 million from the UK government  to support research and postgraduate study in the arts and humanities, from languages and law, archaeology and English literature to design and creative and performing arts. In any one year, the AHRC makes approximately 700 research awards and around 1,350 postgraduate awards. Postgraduate funding is organised through Doctoral Training Partnerships in 10 consortia that bring together a total of 72 higher education institutions throughout the UK. Awards are made after a rigorous peer review process, to ensure that only applications of the highest quality are funded.

Governance
The AHRC is one of seven research councils in the UK.

Professor Christopher Smith is the current Executive Chair of the AHRC. He succeeded Professor Andrew S. Thompson who served as Interim Chief Executive from December 2015 until August 2020. His predecessor was Professor Rick Rylance who took up the post on 1 September 2009 and served until August 2017.

The current Council Chair is Sir Drummond Bone who succeeded Sir Alan Wilson who retired in December 2013.

Recently funded research

Stonehenge Riverside Project (2009–14)
The Stonehenge Riverside Project was a major five-year AHRC-funded archaeological research study, announced in 2009, focusing on the development of the Stonehenge landscape in Neolithic and Bronze Age Britain. In particular, the project was interested in the relationship between the stones and surrounding monuments and features including; the River Avon, Durrington Walls, the Cursus, the Avenue, Woodhenge, burial mounds, and nearby standing stones. In August 2009 the project discovered a new stone circle, which was named Bluestonehenge by the research team, about one mile away from Stonehenge in Wiltshire, England. The project is run by a consortium of university teams.  It was directed by Mike Parker Pearson of Sheffield University, with co-directors Josh Pollard (University of Southampton), Julian Thomas (Manchester University), Kate Welham (Bournemouth University) and Colin Richards (Manchester University).

Medieval Soldier Database
Researchers at the University of Reading and University of Southampton analysed historic sources such as muster rolls records in the National Archives at Kew and the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris (for records of English garrisons in France). The resulting Medieval Soldier online database was launched in 2009 which enables people to search for soldiers by surname, rank or year of service. The online database contains 250,000 service records of soldiers who saw active duty in the latter phases of the Hundred Years' War (1369–1453).

British slave-ownership (2013–15)
Between 2013 and 2015, the AHRC co-funded a project known as the Structure and significance of British Caribbean slave-ownership 1763-1833 project at the Centre for the Study of the Legacies of British Slave-ownership, along with the Economic and Social Research Council. This work continues to be built upon, creating Legacies of British Slave-ownership database, which is free for public use.

Heritage in War
A project funded by AHRC looking at the circumstances in which belligerent parties in wars may intentionally or foreseeably damage sites of cultural property.

Old Bailey Proceedings Archive
An AHRC research grant enabled academics from the University of Hertfordshire, University of Sheffield and the Open University to double in size the Old Bailey trial proceedings available to view on the Old Bailey Proceedings Online website and provide access to the largest single source of searchable information about ordinary British lives and behaviour ever published.

The Old Bailey Proceedings Online makes available a fully searchable, digitised collection of all surviving editions of the Old Bailey Proceedings from 1674 to 1913, and of the Ordinary of Newgate's Accounts, 1679 to 1772. It allows access to over 197,000 trials and biographical details of approximately 2,500 men and women executed at Tyburn.

Publications
The AHRC publish reviews and reports on arts and humanities subjects, as well as corporate publications. Research news and findings are communicated in website features, press releases, and multimedia content such as podcasts.

Between 2005 and 2010, the AHRC published a magazine called Podium twice a year, which contained news and case studies based on research that they have funded.

References

External links

Research councils
Cultural organisations based in the United Kingdom
Arts in the United Kingdom
Humanities organizations
Non-departmental public bodies of the United Kingdom government
Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy
1998 establishments in the United Kingdom
Arts organizations established in 1998

Arts and Humanities Research Council


Stora Enso is a Finnish-Swedish cellulose and paper making corporation. It is the one of the largest paper making firms in the world. It was formed by the merger of Swedish mining and forestry products company Stora and Finnish forestry products company Enso-Gutzeit Oy in 1998.

Its head office is in Helsinki, and it has some 46,000 employees. In 2002 it was the fifth largest pulp and paper maker in money income and in 2005 it was the world's largest pulp and paper manufacturer in terms of tonnes. The Finnish State is the biggest owner in the company.

The Stora corporation originally began as a copper mine (whole name Stora Kopparbergs Bergslag (Big Copper Mountain's Mining Works)). It was founded in 1288 and it is the oldest corporation in the world. It later became also a paper and cellulose maker. Enso-Gutzeit was founded by Mr. Hans Gutzeit in a small town called Enso in Finland. It was founded in 19th century. Both companies were the largest paper and cellulose makers of both countries. It is the second largest corporation in Scandinavia after Nokia.

Other websites
 Stora Enso

Companies of Finland
Helsinki

Stora Enso


Aulnay-sous-Bois is a town and commune in the northeast suburb of Paris, France. It is in the Île-de-France region and the Seine-Saint-Denis department. About 80,000 people lived there in  1999. The people who live there are called the Aulnaysiens.

In October and November 2005, it was badly affected by riots.

Communes in Seine-Saint-Denis

Aulnay-sous-Bois


A glacial lake is a lake that is made as a glacier melts. The glacier erodes the land, and then as it melts, water fills the hole or space that has been created.

Background
Near the end of the last glacial period, about 10,000 years ago, glaciers began to retreat. A retreating glacier often left behind large amounts of ice in hollows between drumlins or hills. As the ice age ended, these melted to create lakes. This can be seen in the Lake District in Northwestern England.   Glacial lakes are often surrounded other evidence of the glacier including drumlins, moraines, eskers, striations and chatter marks.

The glaciers crush minerals in the rock as they pass over them. These minerals become sediment at the bottom of the lake, and some of the rock flour becomes suspended in the water. These minerals support a large population of algae, making the water look green.

These lakes can be seen in aerial photos of landforms in:
 Canada
 U.S.
 Russia
 Argentina
 Iceland
 Spain
 New Zealand
 Tibet
 United Kingdom
 Norway
 Sweden
 Australia

The coastlines near these areas are often very irregular, formed by the same geological process. Other areas have fewer lakes that often are part of river systems. Their coastlines are smoother. These areas were carved more by erosion.

Related pages
 Great Lakes

References

Lakes

Glacial lake


Generational accounting is a method of measuring the fiscal burdens facing current and future generations.  Generational accounting considers how much each adult generation, on a per person basis, is likely to pay in future taxes net of transfer payments, over the rest of their lives.

Laurence Kotlikoff's individual and co-authored work on the relativity of fiscal language demonstrates that conventional fiscal measures, including the government's deficit, are not well defined from the perspective of economic theory. Instead, their measurement reflects economically arbitrary fiscal labeling conventions.

"Economics labeling problem," as Kotlikoff calls it, has led to gross misreadings of the fiscal positions of different countries.  This starts with the United States, which has a relatively small debt-to-GDP ratio, but is, arguably, in worse fiscal shape than any developed country. Kotlikoff's identification of economics labeling problem, beginning with his 1984 Deficit Delusion article in The Public Interest led him to push for generational accounting, a term he coined and that provides the title for his 1993 book, Generational Accounting.

History
In 1991, Kotlikoff, together with Alan Auerbach and Jagadeesh Gokhale, produced the first set of generational accounts for the United States. Their study demonstrated a major fiscal gap separating future government spending commitments and its means of paying for those commitments, portending dramatic increases in the lifetime net tax burdens facing young and future generations. The generational accounting and fiscal gap accounting developed by Auerbach, Gokhale, and Kotlikoff has become an increasingly standard means of assessing the sustainability of fiscal policy and how different countries intend to treat their next generations. Recent generational accounting by the International Monetary Fund and fiscal gap accounting by Kotlikoff confirm the truly severe long-run fiscal problems facing the US.

Aggregating these remaining lifetime net tax payments of adults and subtracting them from the fiscal gap reveals how much today's and tomorrow's children must pay to resolve the country's fiscal gap if current adults don't pay more, on net. This residual burden facing today's and tomorrow's children is allocated to them in proportion to their projected levels of lifetime labor income. I.e., if each successive generation of children is expected to experience, on average, a 1 percent higher level of lifetime earners, generational accounting allocates to successive generations net lifetime tax payments that are 1 percent higher.

Neither fiscal gap accounting nor generational accounting are perfect measures of fiscal sustainability.  Neither suffers from economics severe labeling problem.  But both raise the thorny issue of how to discount future taxes and transfers when they are uncertain.  The Social Security Trustees Report, in Table IVB6, provides an infinite horizon fiscal gap analysis each year for the Social Security System by itself in which the actuaries use a 3 percent real discount rate.  The size of the fiscal gap can be sensitive to the choice of the discount rate.  But so is the size of the present value of future GDP against which it is compared.  Hence, the ratio of the fiscal gap to the present value of GDP is much less sensitive to the choice of discount rate.   It is this ratio that determines what adjustment is needed to eliminate the fiscal gap.  In the US case, the fiscal gap is now 12 percent of the present value of GDP, suggesting that an immediate and permanent fiscal adjustment equal to 12 percent of GDP would be required to eliminate the fiscal gap.

Criticism
Fiscal gap and generational accounting have their critics.  Some commentators believe the government faces no intertemporal budget, which is the foundation of the fiscal gap and generational accounting frameworks.  They believe the government can meet its obligations by either cutting taxes and raising spending to stimulate the economy by enough such that the endogeneous increase in taxes will more than pay for the initial loss in net revenues.

Other critics believe generational accounting is based on specious arguments and a fundamental misunderstanding of government debt.  Once such critique of generational accounting was published in 2009, stating that, "There is no evidence, nor any economic theory, behind the proposition that government's spending ever need match receipts," and:

...Social Security as a (national) liability is an asset to the public, but claims have focused on liabilities without acknowledging the corresponding assets. Since the public debt can be eternal and need never be paid off, a net debt position for Social Security and Medicare can likewise be eternal. We now have two centuries' experience of accumulated federal budget shortfalls with, predictably, no suggestion of government insolvency.

See also
 Demographic economics
 Dependency ratio
 Distribution (economics)
 Pensions crisis
 Retirement age, international comparisons

 Welfare

References

Footnotes

Bibliography

 Laurence J. Kotlikoff, 1987. "Social security," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 4, pp. 418–20.
 _, 1992. Generational Accounting: Knowing Who Pays, and When, for What We Spend, The Free Press. Description and review  extract .
 Alan J. Auerbach, Jagadeesh Gokhale and Laurence J. Kotlikoff, 1994. "Generational Accounting: A Meaningful Way to Evaluate Fiscal Policy ," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 8(1), pp. 73–94.
 Robert Haveman, 1994. "Should Generational Accounts Replace Public Budgets and Deficits?" Journal of Economic Perspectives, 8(1), pp. 95–111.
 John Sturrock, 1995. Who Pays and When? An Assessment of Generational Accounting. US Congressional Budget Office.  Preface, contents, & links by chapter.
 Peter Diamond,  1996. "Generational Accounting and Generational Balance: An Assessment," National Tax Journal, 49(4), pp. 597–607.
 Laurence J. Kotlikoff, 1997. "Reply to Diamond's and Cutler's Reviews of Generational Accounting,  National Tax Journal, 52(2).  pp. 303–14.
 Willem H. Buiter, 1997. "Generational Accounts, Aggregate Saving and Intergenerational Distribution," Economica, N.S., 64(256), pp. 605–26.
 Laurence J. Kotlikoff and Bernd Raffelhüschen, 1999. "Generational Accounting around the Globe," American Economic Review, 89(2), pp. 161–66.
 Alan J. Auerbach, Laurence J. Kotlikoff, and Willi Leibfritz, 1999. Generational Accounting Around the World. 534 pp. Preview.
 Rowena A. Pecchenino1 & Kelvin R. Utendorf, 1999. "Social Security, Social Welfare and the Aging Population," Journal of Population Economics, 12(4), pp. 607–23.  Abstract.
 Holger Bonin, 2001.  Generational Accounting: Theory and Application.  Springer. Preview.
 World Bank, 2001. "Generational Accounting." as lecture outline. Simple as ABC.
 Laurence J. Kotlikoff and Scott Burns, 2005. The Coming Generational Storm: What You Need to Know about America's Economic Future. MIT Press. Description and chapter-preview links, p. vii.
 Jagadeesh Gokhale & Kent A. Smetters, 2006. "Fiscal and Generational Imbalances: An Update" in James M. Poterba, ed., Tax Policy and the Economy, v. 20, ch. 6, pp. 193–223. MIT Press.
 Rudy Penner, 2007. "Taxes and the Budget: What is Generational Accounting?" in The Tax Policy Briefing Book: A Citizens' Guide for the 2008 Election and Beyond. Tax Policy Center.
 US Government Accountability Office.  2008 Financial Report of the United States Government, p. 40, Note 23 , with estimated present value of future expenditures in excess of future revenue. Chapter links.
 John B. Shoven, ed., 2011. Demography and the Economy'', University of Chicago Press. Scroll-down description and preview, ch. 4–6 & 8.

External links
 relativity of fiscal language
 first set of generational accounts

Demographic economics
Fiscal policy
National accounts
Public economics
Retirement
Social security in the United States

Generational accounting


Semen, kent as seminal fluid forby, is an organic fluid that mey conteen spermatozoa. It is secretit bi the gonads (sexual glands) an ither sexual organs o male or hermaphroditic ainimals an can fertilize female ova. In humans, seminal fluid conteens several components besides spermatozoa: proteolytic an ither enzymes as weel as fructose are elements o seminal fluid that promote the survival o spermatozoa, an provide a medium throu that thay can muive or "soum".

Semen is produced an originates frae the seminal vesicle, that is locatit in the pelvis. The process that results in the dischairge o semen is cried ejaculation.

Semen is a form o genetic material an aw. In ainimals, semen haes been collectit for cryoconservation. Cryoconservation o ainimal genetic resources is a practice that cries for the collection o genetic material in efforts for conservation o a pairteecular breed.

Penis
Bouk fluids
Men's heal

Semen


The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Christian Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these military expeditions are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were intended to conquer Jerusalem and its surrounding area from Muslim rule. Beginning with the First Crusade, which resulted in the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099, dozens of military campaigns were organised, providing a focal point of European history for centuries. Crusading declined rapidly after the 15th century.

In 1095, Pope Urban II proclaimed the first expedition at the Council of Clermont. He encouraged military support for Byzantine emperor AlexiosI Komnenos and called for an armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Across all social strata in western Europe there was an enthusiastic response. Participants came from all over Europe and had a variety of motivations, including religious salvation, satisfying feudal obligations, opportunities for renown, and economic or political advantage. Later expeditions were conducted by generally more organized armies, sometimes led by a king. All were granted papal indulgences. Initial successes established four Crusader states: the County of Edessa; the Principality of Antioch; the Kingdom of Jerusalem; and the County of Tripoli. A European presence remained in the region in some form until the fall of Acre in 1291. After this, no further large military campaigns were organised.

Other church-sanctioned campaigns include crusades against Christians not obeying papal rulings, against the Ottoman Empire, and for political reasons. The struggle between Christians and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula was proclaimed a crusade in 1123, but eventually became better known as the Reconquista, and only ended in 1492 with the fall of the Emirate of Granada. From 1147, campaigns in Northern Europe against pagan tribes were considered crusades. In 1199, Pope Innocent III began the practice of proclaiming crusades against what the Latin Church considered heretic Christian communities. Crusades were called against the Cathars in Languedoc and against Bosnia; against the Waldensians in Savoy and the Hussites in Bohemia; and in response to the rise of the Ottoman Empire. Unsanctioned by the church, there were also several popular Crusades.

The crusades started as a fight for control over the Holy Land.  This is the land now called Israel.  The Holy Land is very important for the three major monotheistic religions: Islam, Judaism, and Christianity.  Muslims believe the Prophet Mohammed visited the Holy Land and rose to Heaven from Jerusalem.  Christians believe Jesus was born, crucified, and resurrected in the Holy Land.  The Dome of the Rock, the Western Wall, the Temple Mount, and the Mount of Olives are all located there.  So are many other important religious sites.

During the Caliphate of Umar in the 7th century, Muslim forces had taken control of Jerusalem, Nazareth, Bethlehem, and other important religious sites.  In the crusades, Christian armies tried to re-take control of the Holy Land.

There were many different crusades.  The biggest and most important happened between the 11th century and the 13th century.  During this time, there were 9 large crusades.  They are numbered 1 through 9.

There were also many smaller crusades. These continued through the 16th century, until the Renaissance and Reformation. Some crusades were within Europe. For example, the Teutonic Knights fought in the Prussian Crusade against the Lithuanians and Old Prussians, and the Albigensian Crusade was in France. There were also crusades in Austria and Scandinavia.

The word "crusade" is related to the word "cross", and means a Christian holy war.

First Crusade
In 1095 the ruler of the Byzantine Empire, Alexius I, called for help to defend his empire against the Seljuk Turks. Pope Urban II asked all Christians to join a war against the Turks. The Pope told Christians that fighting the war would repay God for their sins. He said that anyone who died on a crusade would go straight to heaven.

The Christian soldiers who joined the crusade were called "crusaders". They marched to Jerusalem, attacking several cities on their way. In 1099 they won the battle for Jerusalem.

As a result of the First Crusades, four crusader states were created. These were the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli and the Kingdom of Jerusalem.

Second Crusade
After about 50 years of peace, Bernard of Clairvaux called for a new crusade after the Turks attacked the town of Edessa. French and German armies marched to the Holy Land in 1147, but were defeated. However, on the way, the Crusaders helped the Portuguese capture Lisbon from Al-Andalus as part of the Reconquista.

Third Crusade
In 1187, after Saladin recaptured Jerusalem, Pope Gregory VIII called for a new crusade. Three of Europe's kings led this Third Crusade: Philip II of France, Richard I of England and Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor.

The Third Crusade was partially successful. The Crusaders took back control of Arsuf and Jaffa, two important cities in the Holy Land. However, they did not have enough soldiers to try to recapture Jerusalem. Instead, they made a truce with Saladin that let Christians travel safely through Jerusalem. The Crusaders then re-established the Kingdom of Jerusalem in Acre.

In 1190, Frederick drowned in Cilicia. In 1192, Richard left the Holy Land. On his way home, his ship was wrecked, leading him to Austria. There, he was captured and ransomed by his enemy, Duke Leopold.

Fourth Crusade
Pope Innocent III started the Fourth Crusade in 1202. His plan was to attack the Holy Land through Egypt. To do this, he needed a fleet of ships. The Venetians agreed to build ships and train sailors for the crusade. The Venetians then changed the goal of the crusade, and went to the Christian city of Constantinople, where they tried to place a Byzantine exile on the throne. After a series of misunderstandings and outbreaks of violence, the city was sacked in 1204.

Albigensian Crusade

The Albigensian Crusade was started in 1209 to eliminate the Cathars of southern Europe

Children's Crusade
The Children's Crusade is a crusade of 1212. An outburst of the old popular enthusiasm led a gathering of children in France and Germany. A boy, from either France or Germany, said that Jesus had visited him, and told him to peacefully convert Muslims to Christianity. Following this vision, many children formed bands, and marched to Italy. There, they were put onto ships which either capsized in a storm, or which went to Morocco. Most of the children either starved to death or were sold into slavery.

More recent research
In the first movement, Nicholas, a shepherd from Germany, led a group across the Alps and into Italy in the early spring of 1212. About 7,000 arrived in Genoa in late August. However, their plans did not bear fruit when the waters failed to part as promised and the band broke up. Some left for home, others may have gone to Rome, while still others may have travelled down the Rhône to Marseille where they were probably sold into slavery. Few returned home and none reached the Holy Land.

The second movement was led by a "shepherd boy" named Stephen de Cloyes near the village of Châteaudun. In June of that year, the boy said that he had a letter for the king of France from Jesus. He could gather a crowd of over 30,000 and went to Saint-Denis. There he was seen to work miracles. On the orders of Philip II, on the advice of the University of Paris, the crowd was sent home, and most of them went. None of the contemporary sources mentions plans of the crowd to go to Jerusalem.

Later chroniclers elaborated on these events. Recent research suggests those taking part were not children, at least not the very young. In the early 1200s, bands of wandering poor started cropping up throughout Europe. These were people displaced by economic changes at the time which forced many poor peasants in northern France and Germany to sell their land. These bands were referred to as pueri (Latin for "boys") in a condescending manner, in much the same way that people from rural areas in the United States are called "country boys."

In 1212, a young French puer named Stephen and a German puer named Nicholas separately began claiming that they had each had similar visions of Jesus. This resulted in these bands of roving poor being united into a religious protest movement which transformed this forced wandering into a religious journey. The pueri marched, following the Cross. They associated themselves with Jesus's biblical journey. This, however, was not a prelude to a holy war.

At that time, chronicles were mostly kept by the Catholic Church. They were written in Latin.

Thirty years later, chroniclers read the accounts of these processions and translated pueri as "children" without understanding the usage. So, the Children's Crusade was born. The resulting story illustrates how ingrained the concept of Crusading was in the people of that time— the chroniclers assumed that the pueri must have been Crusaders. In their innocence, they returned to the foundations of crusading characteristic of Peter the Hermit, and met the same sort of tragic fate.

According to Matthew Paris, one of the leaders of the Children's Crusade became "Le Maître de Hongrie," the leader of the Shepherds' Crusade in 1251.

Fifth Crusade
During 1213, Pope Gregory IX pushed Frederick II into leading the Fifth Crusade.
The Church tried another crusade to retake the Holy Land. A crusading force from Hungary, Austria, and Bavaria captured Damietta, a city in Egypt, in 1219. The crusaders had to surrender, due to losing the battle for Cairo.

Sixth Crusade
In 1228, Emperor Frederick II set sail from Brindisi for Syria. He did this after the Pope excommunicated him. By talking to the Turks he had success, and Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem was given to the Crusaders for ten years without fighting. This was the first major crusade not started by the Papacy, a trend that was to continue for the rest of the century. This crusade only lasted for a year, from 1228 to 1229.

Seventh Crusade
The Templars argued with Egypt in 1243. In 1244, Egypt attacked Jerusalem. Louis IX of France started a crusade against Egypt from 1248 to 1254. It was a failure and Louis spent much of the crusade living in the city of Acre. In the midst of this crusade was the first Shepherds' Crusade in 1251.

Eighth Crusade
The Eighth Crusade was organized by Louis IX of France in 1270, to help the Crusader states in Syria. However, the crusade got as far as Tunis, where Louis died a month later.

Ninth Crusade
Before he was the king, Edward I of England started a crusade in 1271. He retired the following year after a truce.

The end of the Crusades
In time, the people went on Crusades for other purposes. The Crusades ended two centuries after they had begun, achieving mixed results. The crusades ended with the Mamluk Fall of Acre in 1291. (the link is not yet started).

References

Books and texts

 Frederick Russell, "Children's Crusade", Dictionary of the Middle Ages, 1989,
 Peter Raedts, "The Children's Crusade of 1212", Journal of Medieval History, 3 (1977), summary of the sources, issues and literature.
 Chronica Regiae Coloniensis, a (supposedly) contemporary source for the Children's crusade. From the Internet Medieval Sourcebook.
 The Children's Crusade: Fact or fable? , from The Straight Dope.

Other websites
 Crusade Siege  Siege of a Mohammedan fortification during the crusades
 Crusades Citizendium

11th century
12th century
13th century

Crusades


Myopia, also called near-sightedness or short-sightedness, is a problem with the focusing ability of the eye. It is when the eye is not able to focus properly on objects in the distance. This condition is very common and it often occurs with many members of the same family. It happens when the lens becomes a different shape (too curved) from usual, or when the eye is longer than normal, so light entering the eye focuses on a point in front of the retina, rather than right on it. This makes distant objects look blurry. People with myopia often squint while watching television or trying to see distant objects. Sudden myopia can often be the first symptom of Type II Diabetes.

In most cases, it can be fixed easily using glasses, contact lenses, or surgery.

Diseases and disorders of the eye

Myopia


John IV, Duke of Brabant (11 June 1403 – 17 April 1427) was the son of Antoine of Burgundy, Duke of Brabant, Lothier and Limburg and his first wife Jeanne of Saint-Pol. He was the second Brabantian ruler from the House of Valois. He is best known for founding the University of Louvain (Leuven) in 1425.

Succession as Duke of Brabant
John was born in Arras, and succeeded as duke of Brabant in 1415, after his father's death at the Battle of Agincourt. However, his succession was not immediately accepted by everyone. The holy Roman emperor Sigismund contested his succession, as he wished to curb the Valois influence (read: the influence of the duke of Burgundy, John's uncle) in the region. John the Fearless, the duke of Burgundy, naturally supported his nephew, as did the States of Brabant. Their joint support prevented a second succession war in the duchy. Furthermore, through their support of John as the new duke, the States of Brabant gained regency over the duchy until the coming of age of the still underage duke.

Marriage to Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut
In 1418, he married Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut. Jacqueline's supporters hoped that the marriage would provide a protector - in the person of John IV of Brabant - of Jacqueline's inheritance against the claims of her uncle John III. Through their marriage, the counties of Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut and the duchies of Brabant and Limburg were united in a personal union.

However, the marriage did not provide the stability sought after by Jacqueline and her supporters and eventually led to estrangement of the couple in 1420. One of the reasons was his incapability to protect her rights in Holland and Zeeland. His attempts in the first year of their marriage, such as the disastrous Siege of Dordrecht (summer of 1418), were insufficient against the force of Jacqueline's uncle, John III. Another reason why their marriage and John's attempts to defend Jacqueline's rights in Holland and Zeeland did not succeed was that John's closest advisors were all part of the Cod faction, while Jacqueline's supporters were of the Hook faction in the Hook and Cod disputes. This meant an inevitable political struggle. Under influence of his advisors, John appointed Jacqueline's uncle, John III, as regent (Dutch: ruwaard) of Holland in 1420. This open support of her uncle caused Jacqueline to flee her husband's court and declared their marriage annulled.

After the death of John III in 1425, the county of Holland once again fell to John IV. However, he immediately appointed his cousin Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, as the new regent as well as his heir in case he died without issue.

Tensions in the Duchy of Brabant

That John's advisors were of the Cod faction did not only cause friction in John's marriage to Jacqueline, but also caused tensions in the Duchy of Brabant. There was a great discontent amongst the cities and the aristocracy who had been powerful under his father's reign against these powerful advisors. When Jacqueline left her husband in 1420, the States of Brabant sided with her. They appointed John's brother, Philip of Saint-Pol, regent of Brabant.

A forceful reaction of the duke against these measures was prevented by the uprising of the Brussels guilds. This meant that, for the time being, John had to bend to their wishes. A reconciliation treaty was made in 1421 and John was restored to his full ducal powers. In return, he expanded the city privileges and the powers of the States of Brabant in 1422, a measure called the Nieuw Regiment. With this reconciliation, the States of Brabant supported their duke in his fight against Jacqueline and her new husband, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester. He never accepted the annulment of their marriage, and was post-mortem backed up by the pope in 1428.

John died in Brussels in 1427, aged 23, without issue. This meant his claims on Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut, as husband of Jacqueline, were transferred to Philip the Good. His duchies of Brabant and Limburg were inherited by his younger brother, Philip of Saint-Pol.

Legacy
He is often typified as a weak prince, who was easily influenced by more shrewd and politically able men, such as Philip the Good and John III of Holland. His age and inexperience would have played a major role in this characterization.

Ancestors

Notes

1403 births
1427 deaths
People from Arras
Dukes of Brabant
House of Valois-Burgundy-Brabant
15th-century dukes in Europe
Annulment

John IV, Duke of Brabant


Olga Tañón (born April 13, 1967) is a two-time Grammy Award and three-time Latin Grammy-winning Merengue and Latin Pop artist. Tañón has earned 5 Latin Grammy Awards and 28 Premios Lo Nuestro awards during her career.

Biography
Tañón is the youngest of four children born to José Tañón and Carmen Gloria Ortíz in the Santurce district of San Juan, Puerto Rico. She was raised in Levittown, a suburb of San Juan, in the municipality of Toa Baja, Puerto Rico, where she received her primary and secondary education.

In 1992, Tañón signed a contract with the WEA Latina record label to record a solo album. Her first recorded album was titled "Sola" (Alone). Among the songs in the album were, "Me Cambio por Ella" (I Change Places With Her), and "Quiero estar contigo" (I Want To Be With You). In 1993, she recorded her second album for WEA Latina, "Mujer de Fuego" (Woman of Fire). Tañón also debuted as a composer with the song, "Presencié tu Amor" (I Witnessed Your Love).[3] That year, Tañón received three Lo Nuestro Awards nominations in the Tropical/Salsa field: Album of the Year (Sola), Female Artist and New Artist.[4]

In 1994, Tañón earned her first double platinum record and in 1995, she earned 3 more platinum records with her album, "Siente el Amor" (Feel the Love). This album also included another of her compositions, "Unicornio" (Unicorn), which was written to the rhythm of Salsa and also included the unforgettable Merengue song, "Es Mentiroso" (He's a Liar). Tañón had gained fame and recognition throughout Latin America.

Tañón recorded a Tex-Mex CD with Mexican singer Marco Antonio Solís, "Nuevos Senderos". She was now being heard internationally, and with that recording she became the first Puerto Rican musician to be certified by the RIAA to sell over half a million records. The lead single, the ballad "Basta Ya!" topped the U.S. Billboard Top Latin Tracks for several weeks and became Tañón's first #1.[3] For the album Tañón earned 3 Lo Nuestro Awards nominations for Pop Album of the Year, Pop Song of the Year and Pop Singer of the Year.[5]

In 1997 Tañón debuted as an actress in the Puerto Rican version of the popular production of "Jesus Christ Superstar", produced by Rafo Muñiz. She played the part of Mary Magdalene. This version had a tropical feel to it and included some of Tañón's songs. In 1998, Tañón married Juan González a Puerto Rican major-league baseball star. They had a daughter, Gabriella Marie, but divorced in 1999.[3]

In 2000 Tañón, now known as the "Woman of Fire" or "Mujer de Fuego" by her fans, recorded her first concert, titled, "Olga Viva...Viva Olga" in the House of Blues in Orlando, Florida. This production was named by the National Foundation of Popular Culture as one of the year's top 20 productions. The record went platinum and Tañón earned her first Grammy Award. In August 2000, Tañón sold out 12 shows in the Antonio Paoli Hall at the Luis A. Ferre Center of the Fine Arts in San Juan. Later that month she debuted in the Bass Performance Hall in Fort Worth, Texas. Her performances received rave reviews in the Fort Worth Star Telegram and the Dallas Morning News. At the end of 2000, Tañón presented her musical spectacular at Panama's Anayansi Theater and toured the southeastern United States with Mexican singer Alejandro Fernández.[3]

In 2001 Tañón recorded a CD titled, "Yo por Ti" (Me for You), which won both American and Latin Grammys. The first single, Como Olvidar, topped the U.S. Billboard Top Latin Tracks. The CD became a best-seller in Puerto Rico, Latin America, and among the Hispanic population in the United States. In 2002 Tañón toured many countries, including Venezuela, Panama and the United States. That year she became the first merengue artist to successfully score a chart topper in the Middle East when her partnership with Egyptian music singer Hakim yielded the highly successful Arabian hit, Ah Ya Albi. In 2003, Tañón toured Europe and made a total of ten recordings for WEA Latina. In 2003 she released Sobrevivir and won her fourth Grammy. She also married Billy Denizard, with whom she had two sons, Indiana Noa and Ian Nahir.[3]

As part of an international tour called "Evolution Tour 2008", Tañón traveled to Italy where she made a presentation at the Festival Latinoamericano on July 5, 2008.[6] In 2005, Tañón released her hit album, "Una Nueva Mujer", which won Best Contemporary Tropical Album at the 2006 Latin Grammys.

In support of Latin American immigrants in the U.S., in 2006 Tañón recorded, "Nuestro Himno" in collaboration with Pitbull, Carlos Ponce, and Wyclef Jean. On May 2, 2010, Tañón first performed in Iquitos a concert where presented her classic songs. The concert was part of her tour, which started in Peru.[7][8]

On February 22, 2007 Tañón won 3 awards at the 19th edition of Premio Lo Nuestro.[9] During the 2006 show, she won in the categories: "Album of the Year", "Female Artist" and "Song of the Year". She holds the record as the artist who has won the most "Premio Lo Nuestro Awards", with a total of 29.

In June 2009, Tañón released a new hit single called "Amor Entre Tres" which is the theme song for the new soap opera in Venezuela called "La Vida Entera." That month, WEA Latina released "25 Exitos de Fuego Vol. 1 & Vol. 2." Each CD has a set of greatest hits through her entire career of merengue and Latin pop. In September 2009 participated, next to Juanes and other internationally acclaimed artists, in "Concierto por la Paz" at Plaza de la Revolucion in La Habana, Cuba.[3]

In 2011 the first of three Tañon albums was released on the Mia Musa Label: "Ni Una Lagrima más'". In 2013 "Una Mujer" was released, and in 2017 "Olga Tañon y Punto".

Discography

Studio Albums
1992: Sola
1993: Mujer de Fuego
1994: Siente el Amor...
1996: Nuevos Senderos
1997: Llévame Contigo
1998: Te Acordarás de Mí
2001: Yo por Ti
2002: Sobrevivir
2005: Una Nueva Mujer
2006: Soy Como Tú
2007: Exitos en 2 Tiempos
2011: Ni Una Lagrima Más
EPs
2009: 4/13
Compilations
1995: Éxitos y Más
2003: Puro Fuego
2005: Como Olvidar: Lo Mejor de Olga
2006: 100% Merengue
2006: 25 Exitos de Fuego / Vol. 1
2006: 25 Exitos de Fuego / Vol. 2

Live albums
1999: Olga Viva, Viva Olga (Live)
2008: Fuego En Vivo / Vol.1  "Solo Exitos" (Live)
2008: Fuego En Vivo / Vol.2  "Solo Exitos" (Live)

DVDs
2002: Olga Viva, Viva Olga
2005: Como Olvidar: Lo Mejor de Olga (CD+DVD)
2005: Exitos en Video
2009: 4/13 (CD+DVD)

Concerts
2010: Incomparable Tour

1967 births
Living people
Latin singers
Grammy Award winners
Singers from San Juan, Puerto Rico
Latin Grammy Award winners
Puerto Rican composers

Olga Tañón


The soursop, also known as the zuurzak, is the fruit of the tree Annona muricata. The tree is from warm parts of the Americas. At first it was only found in the Caribbean islands, parts of Central America and parts of South America. Now it is grown in other warm and wet places, such as the Pacific Islands, Florida and Southeast Asia.

This fruit is large. It has a spiky green skin, which is not eaten. The inside of the fruit is white. It contains a sweet but sharp-tasting juice. The soursop contains black or brown seeds that are not eaten. The fruit can be eaten raw, or it can be made into juice for drinking. The juice is used to make candy and ice cream.

Some people use the soursop fruit or leaves as a medicine. Although the fruit contains sugars and a lot of vitamins, it may not be good to eat a lot of it. Scientists think that the soursop may make some people ill.

Annona

Soursop


The Apache trout or Arizona trout, Oncorhynchus apache, is a species of freshwater fish in the salmon family (family Salmonidae) of order Salmoniformes. It is one of the Pacific trouts.

Description
The Apache trout measures in length from , and weighs between . It rarely exceeds , but can reach up to  in its native, headwater streams. Apache trout are a yellowish-gold color with a golden belly and have medium-sized dark spots that are evenly spaced and that may extend below the lateral line and onto the dorsal and tail fins. The top of its head and back are dark olive in color, and it has the appearance of having a black stripe/mask through each of its eyes, due to two small black dots on either side of the pupil. There can be a throat mark below the lower jaw, ranging in color from yellow to gold.

Distribution
The Apache trout is the state fish of Arizona, and is one of only two species of trout native to that state, with the other being the gila trout (O. g. gilae). It natively lives in clear, cool streams in the White Mountains that flow through coniferous forests and marshes, but has been introduced into several lakes in the area. The Apache trout is native to the upper Salt River watershed (Black and White rivers) and the upper Little Colorado River watershed. Apache trout have been introduced into isolated streams outside of their historic range in the Pinaleño Mountains and the North Rim of the Grand Canyon. Apache trout exist in their most pure form within headwater streams at an elevation of 2,100m or higher in the White Mountain Apache Reservation.

Life history
The Apache trout spawns from March to the middle of June, and varies with elevations. Maturity was found to occur in three years, and fecundity is based on the size of trout. One female typically produces from 72 to 240 eggs in  fish and from 646 to 1,083 eggs in  fish. The eggs hatch after 30 days. The Apache trout eats both terrestrial and aquatic insects, such as Trichoptera and Diptera. In lakes, they also eat small fishes and zooplankton.

Conservation

Recovery and management efforts for Apache trout have been ongoing since the 1940s. Apache trout are raised in federal and state hatcheries, and reared fish have been used to assist with recovery and to maintain populations for sport fishing in certain streams and reservoirs.

While the IUCN considers the Apache trout to be critically endangered, it is listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act. Around 100 years ago, they could be found in  of streams in the White Mountains. By the late 1960s, their range had been reduced to around  of these streams. Once the Endangered Species Act of 1969 was passed, they became one of the first species listed under it. When this act was replaced by the Endangered Species Act of 1973, they became one of the first fish species protected under the newer Act. Population numbers for this species are still rising.

Today, major risks to the Apache trout are its easy hybridization with the rainbow trout and major forest fires. Cutthroat trout are also genetically similar and cross-breed with Apache trout, compromising the genetic purity of each species. The range of the Apache trout remains limited, which puts it at risk, but it is now common enough that limited fishing is permitted.

Ongoing conservation efforts by the White Mountain Apache Tribe have helped to preserve the subspecies.

Many of the Mount Baldy headwater streams that are the stronghold of Apache trout are entirely closed to fishing. Catch and release fishing opportunities for wild (stream born), pure-strain Apache trout exist in a limited number of areas. Additionally, there are numerous consumptive fishing opportunities for Apache trout in waters where natural reproduction is not occurring and the Apache trout population is the result of stocking efforts.

The 2011 Wallow Fire resulted in the loss of stream barriers erected to prevent hybridization and the extirpation of Apache trout from Coleman Creek and likely of hybridized populations elsewhere, while the 2017 Frye Fire destroyed a stocked population in Ash Creek in the Pinaleño Mountains.  Climate change causing rising temperatures and increasing frequency and intensity of wildfires threatens the existence of Apache trout.

Notes

References

  Trinomial from Behnke, 2002.

External links

 Apache Trout Recovery

Oncorhynchus
Trout, Apache
Trout, Apache
Trout, Apache
Trout, Apache
Trout, Gila
Natural history of Arizona
Symbols of Arizona
White Mountains (Arizona)
Fish described in 1972

Apache trout


The Isartor at the Isartorplatz in Munich is one of four main gates of the medieval city wall. It served as a fortification for the defence and is the most easterly of Munich's three remaining gothic town gates (Isartor, Sendlinger Tor and Karlstor). The gate (German: Tor) is located close to the Isar and was named after the river.

Architecture

The Isartor was constructed in 1337 within the scope of the enlargement of Munich and the construction of the second city wall between 1285 and 1337 which was completed under the Emperor Louis IV. The gate first consisted of a  main gate tower. Only with the construction of the moat wall of the gate tower the two flanking side towers were added and served as barbican. The Isartor is today the only medieval gate in Munich which has conserved its medium main tower and the restoration in 1833-35 by Friedrich von Gärtner has recreated the dimensions and appearance close to the original structure. The frescos, created in 1835 by Bernhard von Neher, depict the victorious return of Emperor Louis after the Battle of Mühldorf in 1322.

The Isartor today houses a humorous museum which is dedicated to the comedian and actor Karl Valentin. A café for visitors has been integrated.

The Isartortheater, which produced Singspiele and spoken plays in the early 19th century, was destroyed in the Second World War. After being heavily damaged by shelling, the medieval gate was rebuilt.

The Isartorplatz is served by the S Bahn station which is named  Isartor after the gate as well as 2 tram lines.

References

Buildings and structures completed in 1337
Buildings and structures in Munich
Gothic architecture in Munich
Tourist attractions in Munich
Gates of Munich

Isartor


Events
 Khan Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde, overruns Moscow as punishment for Grand Prince Dmitri Donskoi's resistance to Khan Mamai of the Blue Horde in the 1370s. Dmitri Donskoi pledges his loyalty to Tokhtamysh and is allowed to remain as ruler of Moscow & Vladimir.
 John Wyclif's teachings are condemned by the Synod of London.
 The Ottomans take Sofia from the Bulgarians.
 August: The iconic painting The Black Madonna of Czestochowa is brought from Jerusalem to the Jasna Góra monastery in Poland.
 September, 30: The inhabitants of Trieste (now in northern Italy) donate their city to Duke Leopold III of Austria
 After a five-year revolt, Berkuk deposes Hajji II as Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, marking the end of the Bahri dynasty and the start of the Burji dynasty.
 Death of Louis I of Hungary and Poland.
 Louis' daughter Mary becomes Queen of Hungary.
 The Poles, who did not wish to be ruled by Mary's fiancée, the future Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, choose Mary's younger sister, Jadwiga, to become ruler of Poland. After two years of negotiations, Jadwiga is eventually crowned "King" in 1384.
 Charles of Durazzo executes the imprisoned Joan I of Naples and succeeds her as Charles III of Naples.
 Ibrahim I is selected to succeed Husheng as Shah of Shirvan (now Azerbaijan).
 Kęstutis, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, is taken prisoner by former Grand Duke Jogaila whilst meeting him to hold negotiations. Kęstutis is subsequently murdered and Jogaila regains rule of Lithuania.
 Ahmad deposes his brother, Husain, as ruler of the Jalayirid dynasty in western Persia.
 James I succeeds his nephew, Peter II, as King of Cyprus.
 Rana Lakha succeeds Rana Kshetra Singh as ruler of Mewar (now part of western India).
 Konrad III Zöllner von Rotenstein succeeds Winrich von Kniprode as Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights.
 Balša II of Zeta (now Montenegro) conquers Albania.
 Dawit I succeeds his brother, Newaya Maryam, as Emperor of Ethiopia.
 Winchester College is founded in England.

Births
 Duke Frederick IV of Austria (died 1439)
 Eric of Pomerania, King of Norway, Sweden and Denmark (died 1459)
 Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick (died 1439)
 Lope de Barrientos, a powerful bishop in Castile

Deaths
 April 5 – Janusz Suchywilk, Polish nobleman
 May 12 – Queen Joan I of Naples (born 1327)
 August 3 – Kestutis, Grand Duke of Lithuania (born 1297)
 August 13 – Eleanor of Aragon, queen of John I of Castile (born 1358)
 October 13 – King Peter II of Cyprus
 Philip van Artevelde, Flemish patriot (born 1340)
 King Louis I of Hungary (born 1326)
 Nicole Oresme, French philosopher (born 1325)

1382


Pierre Brissaud (23 December 1885 – 17 October 1964) was a French Art Deco illustrator, painter, and engraver. He was born in Paris and trained at the École des Beaux-Arts and Atelier Fernand Cormon in Montmartre, Paris. His father was Dr. Édouard Brissaud, a student of Dr. Jean-Martin Charcot. His fellow students at Cormon were his brother Jacques, André-Édouard Marty, Charles Martin, and Georges Lepape. Students at the workshop drew, painted and designed wallpaper, furniture and posters. Earlier, Toulouse-Lautrec, van Gogh, and Henri Matisse had studied and worked there. Pierre's older brother Jacques Brissaud was a portrait and genre painter and his uncle Maurice Boutet de Monvel illustrated the fables of La Fontaine, songbooks for children and a life of Joan of Arc. A first cousin was the celebrated artist and celebrity portrait painter Bernard Boutet de Monvel.

Brissaud is known for his pochoir (stencil) prints for the fashion magazine Gazette du Bon Ton published by Lucien Vogel in Paris. Many of Brissaud's illustrations are realistic leisure scenes of the well-to-do. They illustrate the designs of Paris fashion houses such as Jeanne Lanvin, Chéruit, Worth, and Doucet. Brissaud's illustrations appeared in Vogue after it bought Bon Ton in 1925, as well as House & Garden and Fortune, and in books like Madame Bovary, Manon Lescaut, Mémoires de Saint-Simon, the autobiographical novels of Anatole France, Two gentlemen of Verona and many others.

In 1907 he exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants and the Salon d'Automne.

Bibliography
 Dictionnaire critique et documentaire des peintres, sculpteurs, dessinateurs et graveurs, Emmanuel Bénézit, Pub, Paris, Gründ, 1999
 Dizionario della moda by Mariella Azzali, Pub. Calderini;
 Exposition de peintures... Pierre Brissaud..., Louis Vauxcelles, pub. Devambez, (art dealers), Paris, 1909, (N. Y. Pub. Lib.)
 French Fashion Plates in Full Colour from the Gazette du Bon Ton (1912–1925), Lepape et al., N. Y., Dover, 1979
 Les Petits Maitres de la Peinture valeur de demain 1820-1920 by Gérald Schurr, pub. Les Editions de l'Amateur, Paris, 1975
 Pierre Brissaud Jean Dulac, pub. Henri Babou, 1929, Paris, (Getty Mus. Lib. & N. Y. Pub. Lib.)
 Pierre Brissaud: La grande époque, Paris 1909 - 1929, l'art et la

External links

 Pochoir gallery
Salon des Artistes Indépendants
Salon d'Automne
Art Deco prints and posters
Pierre Brissaud artwork can be viewed at American Art Archives web site

1885 births
1964 deaths
20th-century French painters
20th-century French male artists
French male painters
French illustrators
Art Deco artists
École des Beaux-Arts alumni
Fashion illustrators
Painters from Paris
20th-century French printmakers

Pierre Brissaud


Bertell Ollman (born April 30, 1935, in Milwaukee) is a professor of politics at New York University. He teaches both dialectical methodology and socialist theory. He is the author of several academic works relating to Marxist theory.

Ollman attended the University of Wisconsin, receiving a BA in political science in 1956 and an MA in political science in 1957. He went on to study at Oxford University, earning a B.A. in Philosophy, Politics and Economics in 1959, an MA in political theory in 1963, and a PhD in political theory in 1967. He already had gained much teaching experience before receiving his PhD, and began teaching at NYU in 1967, immediately after earning his PhD.

Class Struggle board game
Ollman is also the creator of Class Struggle, a board game based on Marxism, and from 1978 to 1983, he was president of Class Struggle, Inc., the company that initially produced and marketed the game. The game was later released by a major board game company, Avalon Hill. It received publicity for its political theme.

Career
Ollman's early work Alienation has been called the definitive work on the topic, described by Peter Singer as "more readable than most works on alienation" and hailed as a brilliant and original study not only of Marx's concept of alienation but also of Marx's seemingly cavalier use of language, which, Ollman argued, cannot be adequately understood unless it is read as constantly relational.

In 1978, after having his offer of chairmanship of the Government Department at the University of Maryland College Park rescinded, Ollman sued columnists Robert Novak and Rowland Evans, alleging that a column they authored had libeled him, resulting in the rescinding of his offer. The column had characterized his teaching style as indoctrination, including an anonymous quote from another professor saying, "Ollman has no status within the profession, but is a pure and simple activist." Ollman's suit was defeated in the D.C. Circuit Court, which held that Novak and Evans's column was protected speech.

In 2001, he won the first Charles McCoy Life Achievement Award from the New Political Science section of the American Political Science Association.

In 2005, as a protest against Israel, Ollman wrote and published a Letter of Resignation from the Jewish People, stating: "Socialist and ex-Jew that I am, I guess I still have too much respect and love for the Jewish tradition I left behind to want the world to view it in the same way as they rightly view and condemn what the ex-Jews who call themselves Zionists are doing in its name. And if changing my status from ex-Jew (current) to non-Jew (projected) stirs even ten good people (God's minyan) into action against the Zionist hijacking of the Jewish label, then this is a sacrifice I am ready to make."

Sean Hannity dispute
Ollman appeared on "Hannity & Colmes" to face the accusation that as Sean Hannity's professor in the 1980s, he had given Hannity a lower grade for being a politically conservative supporter of Ronald Reagan. Ollman pointed out that he had been a professor of Political Science at New York University for 40 years and claimed that had he discriminated against conservative students, he "would not have lasted long." Ollman gave a detailed account of his teaching and an explanation of why his non-Marxist students "do at least as well as the rest of the class" in a 1978 letter to the editor of the Washington Post.

Works
 Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society, Cambridge University Press, 1971; 2nd ed., 1976 (This book has gone through thirteen printings, sold close to 30,000 copies, and been translated into Spanish, Italian, and Korean)
 (co-ed.), Studies in Socialist Pedagogy, Monthly Review Press, 1978
 Social and Sexual Revolution: Essays on Marx and Reich, South End Press, 1978
 Class Struggle Is the Name of the Game: True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman, Wm. Morrow Pub., 1983; 2nd expanded ed. entitled Ball Buster? True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman, Soft Skull Press, 2003
 (co-ed.), The Left Academy: Marxist Scholarship on American Campuses, vol. I, McGraw Hill, 1982
 (co-ed.), The Left Academy (...), vol. II, Praeger Pub., 1984
 (co-ed.), The Left Academy (...), vol. III, Praeger Pub., 1986
 (co-ed.), The U.S. Constitution: 200 Years of Anti-Federalist, Abolitionist, Feminist, Muckraker, Progressive, and Especially Socialist Criticism, New York Uiniversity Press, 1990
 Marxism: an Uncommon Introduction, New Delhi: Stirling Pub., 1991
 Dialectical Investigations, Routledge, 1993 (A French translation is forthcoming)
 (ed. and co-author), Market Socialism: the Debate Among Socialists, Routledge, 1998 (A Chinese translation appeared in 2000)
 (co-ed.)Dialectics: the New Frontier, Special Issue of "Science and Society", Fall 1998 (An expanded version of this issue will soon be published as a book)
 How to Take an Exam...and Remake the World, Montreal: Black Rose Books, Spring 2001
 BALL BUSTER? True Confessions of a Marxist Businessman, Soft Skull Press, 2002
 Dance of the Dialectic: Steps in Marx's Method, University of Illinois Press, 2003 (Turkish translation has been completed in February 2007 and a Chinese translation is being prepared)

References

External links
 DIALECTICAL MARXISM The Writings of Bertell Ollman - Archived version
 The Dialectic and ideas on alienation by Bertell Ollman
 The Dialectic by Bertell Ollman
 Supreme Court's denial of cert in Ollman v. Evans

 Ollman v. Evans

1936 births
Living people
Writers from Milwaukee
20th-century American Jews
American Marxists
American political philosophers
American political scientists
American socialists
Jewish anti-Zionism in the United States
Jewish philosophers
Jewish socialists
Marxist writers
University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Letters and Science alumni
New York University faculty
Alumni of the University of Oxford
Scientists from Milwaukee
21st-century American Jews

Bertell Ollman