William Ellsworth "Elzy" Lay (November 25, 1869 – November 10, 1934) was an outlaw of the Old West in the United States. He was a member of Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch, gang, operating out of the Hole-in-the-Wall Pass in Johnson County, Wyoming. Lay was Cassidy's best friend and assisted Cassidy in leading the Wild Bunch gang.

Early life
Lay was born in Mount Pleasant, an unincorporated community in Vinton County, Ohio , the son of James Landon Lay and Mary Jane Bellew. He had a brother Encil Lay and a sister Maggie Lay Sprigg. Shortly after his birth, the family moved to northeastern Colorado. At the age of 18, Lay left home looking for adventure with his childhood friend William McGinnis. McGinnis soon returned home, claiming he was homesick. Later, Lay used the name "McGinnis" as an alias when working as a ranch hand.

Outlaw life
In the autumn of 1889, Lay met outlaw Butch Cassidy while in Utah. The two became close friends, and Lay began dating Josie Bassett, the daughter of a rancher that often sold beef and horses to the outlaws, while Cassidy began dating her sister, 15‑year-old future female western outlaw Ann Bassett. He worked briefly on the ranch of cattleman Matt Warner, and it was Warner who gave Lay his first tip for a robbery. From Warner, Lay learned that a shopkeeper nearby had a large sum of cash. Warner, his nephew Lew McCarty, and Lay robbed the man and split the money.

Lay then opened up a gambling house in Vernal, Utah. For a time, it was profitable, until it was shut down by Uintah County Sheriff John T. Pope. Following his business being closed, Lay moved back to Matt Warner's ranch, where he renewed his relationship with Josie Bassett. He remained there until Butch Cassidy was released from an eighteen-month prison sentence he had been serving. During that time, Lay became involved with another girl, Maude Davis, whose brother Albert Davis was a smalltime outlaw. Outlaw Ben Kilpatrick began dating Cassidy's girlfriend Ann Bassett during that time. Cassidy and Lay, after Cassidy's prison release, obtained their own cabin on the Green River. Ann Bassett ended her relationship with Kilpatrick, and returned to her involvement with Cassidy.

In August, 1896, Matt Warner killed two prospectors named Dick Staunton and Dave Milton, during a shootout near Vernal. Warner had been employed by E.B. Coleman to intimidate Staunton and Milton away from a mining claim. The intimidation turned into a gun battle. Warner, Coleman, and hired gunman Bill Wall were arrested, and eventually transported to Ogden, Utah, where they were held in jail. In a plea for help to Butch Cassidy, Warner said he needed a lawyer. Cassidy and Lay then robbed a bank in Montpelier, Idaho, using the funds to secure an attorney for Warner. Warner and Wall were convicted of manslaughter, and received a five-year sentence, while Coleman was found not guilty.

The Wild Bunch gang
Cassidy and Lay began hiding out at what was called "Robbers Roost", in Utah. Girlfriends Maude Davis and Ann Bassett joined them there, Lay having ended his relationship with Ann's sister, Josie, who by that time was involved in a relationship with Lay's outlaw friend Will "News" Carver. In April 1897, the two women were sent home, while Cassidy and Lay began planning the robbery of a payroll shipment in Castle Gate, Utah. In a recent September 26, 2006 History Channel documentary on the Old West, this robbery is described as Cassidy's boldest. On April 21, 1897, the payroll arrived, and Cassidy and his gang members simply walked out in broad daylight and took it at gunpoint. In the robbery they took $7,000. A gang member named Joe Walker is alleged to have disabled the telegraph lines to prevent word of the robbery being put out to nearby law enforcement.

By this time, Maude and Elzy had married and Maude was pregnant with Lay's child. After the birth of their daughter, Marvel, Maude insisted he leave the outlaw life and settle down. He refused. Cassidy and Lay traveled to New Mexico, and by this time were calling their gang the "Wild Bunch". There, they worked for a short time on the "WS Ranch", before heading north to Wyoming. They committed their most famous robbery on June 2, 1899, by robbing a Union Pacific train near Wilcox, Wyoming. Following the robbery, they fled to the Hole-in-the-Wall, successfully evading posses that were in pursuit. Kid Curry, who was by this time a member of the gang, killed Converse County Sheriff Josiah Hazen  during that pursuit. The gang split up in different directions for a time, which was a common action following any of their robberies.

Killing of Sheriff Farr, Deputy Kearney and Deputy Love
Cassidy, Lay, Kid Curry, and other gang members Sam Ketchum and Bill Carver headed to New Mexico. On July 11, 1899, without Cassidy, Lay led Curry, Ketchum and Carver in the robbery of a train near Folsom, New Mexico. The robbery was successful, but a well led posse under the direction of Huerfano County (Colorado) Sheriff Ed Farr soon cornered them near an area known as Turkey Creek. In the first gun battle that followed, Doña Ana County Deputy Kent Kearney was shot, dying the next day. Another deputy was wounded and outlaw Sam Ketchum was badly wounded.

The gang escaped this immediate threat, but Ketchum's bad wounds held them up, and again they were cornered in the same area on July 16, 1899. They engaged Sheriff Farr and Colfax County Deputy Henry Love in a gun battle, resulting in Sheriff Farr being killed and Love dying a few days later from his wounds.  Lay was also wounded, but escaped (as did Curry and Carver). Ketchum however, was captured and died in custody from his wounds.

Captured, convicted and pardoned
On August 16, 1899, while gathering supplies, Lay was cornered in Carlsbad, New Mexico and captured. He was subsequently charged and convicted of the killings and the robbery. He received a life sentence which he served in the New Mexico State Penitentiary. Maude divorced Elzy.

Lay spent seven years in prison, where he became a trustee to the warden. In this role, he once accompanied the warden to Santa Fe.  Upon their return, they found that the inmates had taken the warden's wife and daughter hostage inside the prison. Lay was able to convince the prisoners to release the women,   and for this act he was pardoned by Governor Miguel Antonio Otero on January 10, 1906.

Retirement from crime
Upon his release he found his way to Baggs, Wyoming, a small ranch town just north of the Colorado border.  There he worked as an oil explorer and saloon owner without much success. There he met and married Mary Calvert. He and Mary then moved to Southern California where he supervised the building of the All American Canal system in Riverside and Imperial Valley just north of the border with Mexico. He and Mary raised two children, a son and a daughter.

The end of the Wild Bunch
When Lay was captured, Cassidy, Kid Curry, and Bill Carver all left New Mexico. The loss of Lay deeply affected Cassidy, who for a time made attempts at getting amnesty from the Governor of Utah. Several killings committed by Kid Curry and other robberies committed by the gang made this impossible.

No objective proof exists that Lay had contact with Wild Bunch members after his release, but there is suggestive testimony.  Josie Bassett on separate occasions told her cousin, her neighbor, and local historians she had been visited by Butch Cassidy and Elza Lay "in 1930 in Baggs, Wyoming".    Before that Cassidy and the Sundance Kid had gone to South America, where they were alleged to have been killed while committing a robbery in Bolivia. During Lay's imprisonment, Kid Curry was killed during a shootout with lawmen in Colorado. Ben Kilpatrick and Laura Bullion were captured in St. Louis, Missouri, and George "Flat Nosed" Curry was killed by lawmen in Utah. Several other members of other gangs that had been a part of the Hole in the Wall Gang were also by that time either dead or in prison.

Lay died on November 10, 1934 in Los Angeles. He is buried at Forest Lawn in Glendale, California, near Los Angeles.

References

External links
 William Ellsworth Lay at www.butchandsundance.com

1868 births
1934 deaths
People from Mount Pleasant, Vinton County, Ohio
American bank robbers
Cowboys
American people convicted of murder
American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Outlaws of the American Old West
People convicted of murder by the United States federal government
Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by the United States federal government
Recipients of American gubernatorial pardons
Train robbers

Elzy Lay


Bologna Football Club 1909, commonly referred to as Bologna (), is an Italian professional football club based in Bologna, Emilia-Romagna that plays in Serie A, the top flight of Italian football. The club have won seven top-flight titles, two Coppa Italia titles, and one UEFA Intertoto Cup.

Founded in 1909, Bologna were founding members of Serie A, and won many of their league championships during the late 1930s. The club ceded any league dominance by 1964, when they won their last league title to date. They won their two Coppa Italia titles in the 1970s, before battling relegation throughout the latter part of the 20th century. Bologna changed ownership multiple times during the early 2000s and 2010s, due to financial mismanagement, and later stabilized under the guise of a Canadian consortium led by Joey Saputo.

Bologna have participated in 75 Serie A seasons, which is the ninth-most in Italian football history. The club have played in the Stadio Renato Dall'Ara since 1927, which is the tenth-largest stadium by capacity in Serie A.

History

Bologna Football Club's formation was orchestrated by Emilio Arnstein, an Austrian who became interested in football at university in Vienna and Prague. He and his brother had previously founded another football club, Black Star, in Austria.

The club was founded on 3 October 1909, in the Northern Italian city of Bologna. Upon its formation, Carlo Sandoni was the club's sponsor and general manager, Swiss Louis Rauch became president, nobleman Guido Della Valle was the vice-president, Enrico Penaglia secretary, Sergio Lampronti cashier, while Emilio Arnstein and Leone Vincenzi were appointed councilmen.

On 20 March 1910, Bologna played their first ever game, against Virtus, who wore white shirts. Bologna outclassed their opponents, winning 9–1. The first football squad featured; Koch, Chiara, Pessarelli, Bragaglia, Guido Della Valle, Nanni, Donati, Rauch, Bernabeu, Mezzano, and Gradi.

Their formative season was spent in the regional league under Arrigo Gradi as captain, Bologna won their league gaining promotion to a league named Group Veneto-Emiliano. They spent four seasons in this league, never finishing lower than fifth. Bologna were entered into the Northern League before all football leagues were postponed for World War I.

Champions: 1920s and 1930s
After the first war, Bologna began to become more successful. First reaching the semi-finals of the Northern Italian competition in 1919–20, they went one better the following season by reaching the Northern League finals, going out 2–1 to Pro Vercelli. They would equal this again in 1923–24, coming runner up to eventual national champions Genoa.

Bologna became Northern and National League champions for the first time during 1924–25, beating Genoa CFC after five hard-fought final matches to take the championship. The finals against the Ligurian giants were marred by heavy crowd troubles. A few seasons later Bologna became champions of Italy for the second time in 1928–29 giving them a foothold in Italian football, building up a legacy, this was the last time the league was competed in the old system, Serie A was instated the following year.

Bologna won the Scudetto three more times before World War II, in 1935–36, 1936–37 and 1938–39, and once during the war (1940–41).

Post-World War II
After World War II, the club was less successful. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the club generally floated between fourth, fifth and sixth position in the league, until they took the league title back in 1963–64. To date this remains their last Serie A championship, bringing the club's total to seven. This qualified Bologna to the 1964–65 European Cup (today UEFA Champions League), but they were eliminated in the preliminary round against Anderlecht.

It was not all doom and gloom for the club, however; in the 1970s, they won the Italian Cup twice, the second of which was disputed against Palermo. The game was tense and finished 1–1 before going to a penalty shootout, where Bologna won 4–3.

Climbing down and back up the Leagues
Beginning in the 1981–82 season, the club began to slide. First, they were relegated from Serie A after battling it out for survival with Cagliari and Genoa. They were relegated twice in succession and slid into Serie C1. They won their way out of C1 the next year, and returned to Serie A for the 1988–89 season after four years of fighting it out in Serie B.

They did not remain long, however, being relegated in 1991 and returning to Serie C1 in 1993. The club returned to Serie A for 1996. Two years later, Bologna tasted a slice of success on the European stage, winning the UEFA Intertoto Cup and playing in the UEFA Cup. The club remained in Serie A until the 2004–05 campaign, losing to Parma in the playoffs.

Serie B
Despite losing some key players, Bologna expected to be challenging strongly for promotion from Serie B in the 2005–06 campaign. Despite its ambition, however, Bologna had a poor start to the season, causing the sacking of experienced coach Renzo Ulivieri, replaced by former Internazionale defender Andrea Mandorlini.

During this time, the team was sold by Giuseppe Gazzoni Frascara to Alfredo Cazzola, a local entrepreneur. Mandorlini, however, was not either able to bring Bologna up the Serie B table, and was fired on 5 March 2006; Ulivieri was then appointed back as team coach, after having been sacked a few months before. Bologna ended the 2005–06 Serie B campaign in eighth place. In the 2006–07 season, Bologna ended with the seventh place: there were several clashes between chairman Cazzola and head coach Ulivieri, who was ultimately fired on 14 April 2007 and replaced by caretaker and former assistant coach Luca Cecconi. For the 2007–08 season, Bologna was led by Daniele Arrigoni, who helped the rossoblù achieve automatic promotion back to the top flight after finishing second in Serie B.

Serie A
During the summer of 2008, a club takeover was agreed between Cazzola and an American-based consortium; this was, however, cancelled in the end, following disagreements between the parties, and the club was successively sold to a local group led by new chairman Francesca Menarini, who thus became the second female chairman in the whole Serie A. Arrigoni was confirmed as head coach by the new group, and the start appeared to be particularly impressive, with a surprising 2–1 win at San Siro against Milan thanks to a winning goal scored by Francesco Valiani. The next weeks saw Bologna struggling in the league, however, with eight losses in nine matches. A disappointing 5–1 loss to Cagliari ultimately led the club management to sack Daniele Arrigoni on 3 November 2008 and appoint Siniša Mihajlović as new rossoblù boss.

On 14 April 2009, Giuseppe Papadopulo was appointed as the new manager, and successfully managed to raise the team spirit avoiding relegation to Serie B only in the last match of the season. In the 2009–10 season, Bologna played in Serie A for the 65th time, and escaped relegation again despite financial issues under new head coach Franco Colomba.

In June 2010, a club takeover was completed, with the club being sold by the Menarini family to Sardinian entrepreneur Sergio Porcedda. Franco Colomba was sacked right before the 2010–11 season opener on 29 August 2010, despite surviving relegation with the team in the 2009–10 season. The president of the club, Sergio Porcedda, said that the decision was made mostly "because he [Colomba] was skeptical of the team."

The consortium "Bologna 2010"

On 23 December 2010, the consortium Bologna 2010 led by banker Giovanni Consorte and coffee businessman Massimo Zanetti acquired the club from Sergio Porcedda, after the latter failed to pay wages for the club during his short-tenured ownership and put Bologna in threat of bankruptcy. The company also owed agent fee to Leonardo Corsi in the Andrea Raggi's transfer. Zanetti also became the new club chairman, with popular Italian musician and long-time Bologna supporter Gianni Morandi appointed as honorary president.

On 21 January 2011, chairman Massimo Zanetti and CEO Luca Baraldi, after only 28 days, resigned because of irreconcilable differences with the other personal and financial partners.
Stefano Pedrelli became the new director general. For 76 days, the chairman was Marco Pavignani.

From 7 April 2011, after the resignation of Pavignani and having paid €2.5m of capital increase, the new chairman was Albano Guaraldi, the second largest shareholder of the consortium "Bologna 2010" with the 17% of the quotas, behind the outgoing Zanetti.

The 2013–14 season saw Bologna once again relegated to the Serie B, and also gave light to a number of financial problems involving the club and its ownership of Albino Guaraldi, who was considerably criticized by the team supporters also for a number of controversial decisions, including the sale of star player Alessandro Diamanti to Chinese club Guangzhou Evergrande. A new head coach was then found in former Cagliari boss Diego López for the new season, whereas Guaraldi clearly stated his intention to hand over his Bologna stakes to a new owner. A North American group headed by Joe Tacopina and Joey Saputo (owner of CF Montréal, also the team of former Bologna hero Marco Di Vaio) then stated its interest in acquiring the club; this was followed by another offer coming from former chairman Massimo Zanetti. On 15 October 2014, the board of directors ratified the sale of the club to BFC 1909 Lux SPV, and Tacopina became the new club chairman.

The consortium "BFC 1909 Lux Spv"
Under the new ownership of which BFC 1909 Lux Spv S.A. of Luxemburg is an intermediate holding company, Bologna was promoted back to Serie A in 2015. Saputo also succeeded Tacopina as the new chairman of the board of directors of Bologna on 17 November 2014.

In their first season back in Serie A, Bologna finished 14th avoiding relegation.  In the following two seasons, Bologna finished in 15th place on the table. In the 2018-19 Serie A season, Bologna finished in a creditable 10th position on the table.
Over the next three seasons, Bologna continued to finish mid table in Serie A coming 12th two campaigns in a row followed by a 13th placed finish in the 2021/2022 season.

Stadium

The official stadium of Bologna is the Stadio Renato Dall'Ara. Dall'Ara is the biggest sports building of Bologna and its name is taken from an ex-chairman of the club, Renato Dall'Ara, who died three days before the final for Serie A's Scudetto. Its capacity is 38,500. The curva Bulgarelli (in English, Bulgarelli curve), the curve of Bologna's ultras, is dedicated to player Giacomo Bulgarelli, who died on 21 February 2009. The other curve, part of which is reserved for the away fans, is dedicated to Árpád Weisz, coach of Bologna's winning pre-war team, and killed by the Nazis in a concentration camp during WWII.

Players

Current squad

Primavera squad

Other players under contract

Out on loan

Chairmen history
Bologna have had numerous Chairmen over the course of their history, some of which have been the owners of the club, others have been honorary chairmen. Here is a complete list of Bologna chairmen from 1909 until the present day.

Club staff

Managerial history
Bologna have had many managers and trainers, some seasons they have had co-managers running the team. Here is a chronological list of them from 1920 onwards.

Sponsors

Kit sponsors
 1978–1979: Admiral
 1980–1982: Tepa Sport
 1982–1988: Ennerre
 1988–1993: Uhlsport
 1993–1996: Erreà
 1996–2000: Diadora
 2000–2001: Umbro
 2001–present: Macron

Official sponsors
 1981–1982: Febal
 1982–1983: Pasta Bertagni
 1983–1984: Pasta Corticella
 1984–1985: Ebano
 1985–1986: Idrolitina
 1986–1989: Segafredo
 1989–1992: Mercatone Uno
 1992–1993: Sinudyne
 1993–1994: Buona Natura
 1994–1997: Carisbo
 1997–2001: Granarolo
 2001–2004: Area Banca
 2004–2005: Amica Chips
 2005–2006: Europonteggi
 December 2006: Motor Show
 January–March 2007: Woolrich
 March–June 2007: Volvo
 December 2007 – March 2008: Joe Marmellata
 April–June 2008: Carisbo
 September 2008 – June 2009: Unipol
 August–September 2009: Cogei
 October–November 2009: Cerasarda
 November 2009 – June 2010: BIGPoker.it
 October 2010 – Cerasarda
 October 2009 – Ceramica Serenissima
 August 2014 – June 2015: +energia
 August 2011 – June 2015: NGM
 September 2015 – June 2018: FAAC – Illumia
 June 2018–June 2020: Liu·Jo
 September 2020–June 2022: Facile Ristrutturare – Selenella – Illumia
 June 2022–Present: Cazoo – Lavoropiù

Statistics

Honours

Domestic

League
Serie A
Winners (7): 1924–25, 1928–29, 1935–36, 1936–37, 1938–39, 1940–41, 1963–64
Serie B
Winners (2): 1987–88, 1995–96
Serie C1
Winners : 1994–95

Cups
Coppa Italia
Winners (2): 1969–70, 1973–74

International
Mitropa Cup
Winners (3): 1932, 1934, 1961
UEFA Intertoto Cup
Winners (1): 1998
Anglo-Italian League Cup
Winners (1): 1970

Divisional movements

References

External links

Football clubs in Italy
Football clubs in Emilia-Romagna
Sport in Bologna
Association football clubs established in 1909
Italian football First Division clubs
Serie A clubs
Serie B clubs
Serie C clubs
Serie A winning clubs
Coppa Italia winning clubs
1909 establishments in Italy
UEFA Intertoto Cup winning clubs

Bologna FC 1909


The Unbearable Lightness of Being is a 1988 American romantic drama film, an adaptation of the 1984 novel of the same name by Milan Kundera. It was directed by Philip Kaufman, who co-wrote the screenplay with Jean-Claude Carrière, and stars Daniel Day-Lewis, Juliette Binoche and Lena Olin. The film portrays Czechoslovak artistic and intellectual life during the Prague Spring, and the effect on the main characters of the communist repression that resulted from the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968.

Plot
Tomas, a successful brain surgeon in communist Czechoslovakia, is pursuing an affair with equally carefree Sabina, an artist in Prague. Tomas takes a trip to a spa town to conduct a specialized surgery. There he encounters dissatisfied waitress Tereza, who desires intellectual stimulation. She later tracks him down in Prague and moves in with him, complicating Tomas's affairs.

Tomas asks Sabina to help Tereza find work as a photographer. Tereza is both fascinated and jealous when she grasps that Sabina and Tomas are lovers, but nevertheless still develops an affectionate friendship with Sabina. Tomas marries Tereza in a simple ceremony, with both perpetually laughing. She continues to be distressed by Tomas's promiscuity, and though she considers leaving him, she becomes more attached when the Soviet Army invades Czechoslovakia. Amid the confusion, Tereza photographs demonstrations against the Soviet forces, then hands the rolls of film to foreigners to smuggle to the West. Unwilling to face the stultifying reality that is replacing the Prague Spring, Tomas, Sabina, and Tereza flee Czechoslovakia for Switzerland; Sabina leaves first, later followed by the hesitant Tomas and Tereza.

In Geneva, Sabina meets Franz, a married university professor; they begin a love affair. He eventually decides to abandon his wife and family for her. After hearing his plans, Sabina abandons him, feeling he would emotionally weigh her down. Meanwhile, Tereza and Tomas attempt to adapt to Switzerland, but Tereza finds the people inhospitable. When she discovers that Tomas continues to womanize, she leaves him and returns to Czechoslovakia. Upset by her leaving, Tomas follows Tereza to Czechoslovakia, where his passport is confiscated, preventing him from leaving again; his return elates Tereza, and they are reunited.

Tomas attempts to resume his practice, but a scathing article he wrote before the invasion, criticizing the Soviet-backed Czech régime, has rendered him a political dissident. The régime demands his signature to a letter repudiating the article, claiming that Tomas's article fueled anti-communist sentiment. Tomas refuses and is apparently blacklisted from practicing medicine. He finds work as a window washer and continues to womanize, seducing the daughter of a high-ranking official.

As a waitress, Tereza meets an engineer who propositions her. Aware of Tomas's infidelities, she engages in a single, passionless sexual liaison with the engineer. Remorseful, she fears the engineer might have been a secret agent for the régime, who might denounce her and Tomas. She contemplates suicide at a canal bank; by chance, Tomas passes by Tereza and woos her back.

Stressed by city life, Tereza convinces Tomas to leave Prague for the country; they go to a village where an old patient of Tomas's welcomes them. In the village, they live an idyllic life, far from the political intrigues of Prague. In contrast, Sabina has gone to the US, where she continues her detached bohemian lifestyle. Later, Sabina is shocked by a letter that informs her Tereza and Tomas have been in a fatal automobile accident.

The movie ends with a short scene of Tomas and Tereza driving down the country road in the rain just before their accident, and Tomas peacefully expresses to Tereza how happy he is.

Cast

Production
The film was an American production with an American director, Philip Kaufman, but it features a largely European cast. It was filmed in France; in the scenes depicting the Soviet invasion, archival footage is combined with new material shot in Lyon. The scene in which Tomas has sex with a woman while cleaning windows was shot in the then unrestored Hôtel de Beauvais in the 4th arrondissement of Paris (now the Administrative Appeal Court).

Adaptation
Kundera served as an active consultant during the making of the film. Kundera wrote the poem that Tomas whispers into Tereza's ear as she is falling asleep specifically for the film.

In a note to the Czech edition of the book, Kundera remarks that the movie had very little to do with the spirit either of the novel or the characters in it. In the same note Kundera goes on to say that after this experience he no longer allows any adaptations of his work. Many critics have focused on how much of the book was successfully captured, or could be captured, on film. Some commentators, such as Cattrysse Patrick, have argued that the film must be viewed in a different light, with the book as only one source of inspiration.

Reception
The film garnered high praise from critics. It holds an approval rating of 86% on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 28 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "Exploring sexual mores against the backdrop of real-life social upheaval, The Unbearable Lightness of Being artfully blends the political and the erotic."

The film was nominated for two Academy Awards: Jean-Claude Carrière and Philip Kaufman for Best Adapted Screenplay and Sven Nykvist for Best Cinematography. The film was listed 87th by the American Film Institute in its 2002 list AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions.

Home media
A digitally restored version of the film was released on DVD by The Criterion Collection in November 1999. The release includes audio commentary by director Philip Kaufman, co-writer Jean-Claude Carrière, editor Walter Murch, and actress Lena Olin. It was re-released on DVD by Warner Home Video as a 2-disc special edition on February 28, 2006.

Soundtrack

The film makes extensive use of classical pieces by Czech composer Leoš Janáček, especially his "On an Overgrown Path" piano compositions. It also features a performance of the Beatles' song "Hey Jude" by Marta Kubišová in Czech as well as the traditional Czechoslovakian folk song "Joj, Joj, Joj", performed by Jarmila Šuláková and Vojtěch Jochec.

Preservation
The Unbearable Lightness of Being was preserved by the Academy Film Archive in 2019.

References

External links

The Unbearable Lightness of Being an essay by Michael Sragow at the Criterion Collection
 Movie Stills at Virtual History
 Excerpt about the film by film scholar Annette Insdorf from her book, Philip Kaufman

1988 films
Films with atheism-related themes
1988 drama films
1980s English-language films
American erotic drama films
Films based on Czech novels
Films based on French novels
Films directed by Philip Kaufman
Films set in 1968
Films set in Switzerland
Films shot in Switzerland
Orion Pictures films
American political drama films
Films set in Geneva
Films set in Prague
Films shot in France
Films shot in the Czech Republic
Films produced by Saul Zaentz
Films critical of communism
Films with screenplays by Jean-Claude Carrière
Films whose writer won the Best Adapted Screenplay BAFTA Award
Films about invasions
1980s erotic drama films
1980s political drama films
National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Film winners
1980s American films
Films with screenplays by Philip Kaufman
Films about surgeons
Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in popular culture

The Unbearable Lightness of Being (film)


The history of the Calvinist–Arminian debate begins in early 17th century in the Netherlands with a Christian theological dispute between the followers of John Calvin and Jacobus Arminius, and continues today among some Protestants, particularly evangelicals. The debate centers around soteriology, or the study of salvation, and includes disputes about total depravity, predestination, and atonement. While the debate was given its Calvinist–Arminian form in the 17th century, issues central to the debate have been discussed in Christianity in some form since Augustine of Hippo's disputes with the Pelagians in the 5th century.

Quinquarticular Controversy

The Quinquarticular Controversy is a term used to refer to the purely theological Calvinist–Arminian clashes of the period 1609 to 1618, a time in which the debate had serious political overtones in the Netherlands. This controversy was addressed by the Dutch Reformed churches at the Synod of Dort in 1618–1619, a meeting to which Protestant representatives from Reformed churches in other countries were invited. Quinquarticular (i.e. "having to do with five points") refers to points of contention raised by the Arminian party in its publication of five articles of Remonstrance in 1610. These were rejected by the Synod in the Canons of Dort, the essence of which is commonly referred to as the Five Points of Calvinism.

The Controversy marked the transformation of the Arminian movement into a separate, persecuted church organization in the Netherlands. For Arminians it was the start of full persecution after the imposition of an edict, while for Calvinists it resulted in the settling in clear points of doctrine that were initiated by John Calvin and clarified by Theodore Beza. For Lutherans the controversies saw the ending of any possibility of unification with the Calvinists.

Theological background

Augustine and Pelagius

Pelagius was a British monk who journeyed to Rome around the year 400 A.D. and was appalled at what he perceived as the improper behavior within churches. To combat this lack of holiness, he preached a Gospel that began with justification through faith alone (it was actually Pelagius, not Luther, who first added the word alone to Paul's phrase) but finished through human effort and morality. He had read Augustine's Confessions and believed it to be a fatalistic and pessimistic view of human nature. Pelagius' followers, including Caelestius, went further than their teacher and removed justification through faith, setting up the morality- and works-based salvation known as Pelagianism. The only historical evidence of the teachings of Pelagius or his followers is found through the writings of his two strongest opponents—Augustine and Jerome.

In response to Pelagius, Augustine adopted a theological system that included not only original sin (which Pelagius denied), but also a form of predestination. Some authors maintain that Augustine taught the doctrines of limited atonement and of irresistible grace, later associated with classic Calvinism; however, others insist that Augustine's writings conflict with these doctrines. Critics maintain that part of Augustine's philosophy might have stemmed from his expertise in Greek philosophy, particularly Platonism and Manichaeism, which maintained a high view of a man's spirit and low view of a man's body. Against the Pelagian notion that man can do everything right, he taught that man could do little right. Thus, he reasoned, man cannot even accept the offer of salvation — it must be God who chooses for himself individuals to bring to salvation.

A group of Italian bishops, led by Julian, defended the Pelagian view against the Augustinian concept of predestination but was rejected by the Council of Ephesus in 431. Later a monastic movement in Southern Gaul (modern-day France) also sought to explain predestination in light of God's foreknowledge, but a flurry of writings from Augustine (Grace and Free Will, Correction and Grace, The Predestination of the Saints and The Gift of Perseverance) helped maintain the papal authority of his doctrines.

Semi-Pelagianism and Semi-Augustinianism
After the death of Augustine, a more moderate form of Pelagianism persisted, which claimed that man's faith was an act of free will unassisted by previous internal grace. The Second Council of Orange (529) was convened to address whether this moderate form of semi-Pelagianism could be affirmed, or if the doctrines of Augustine were to be affirmed.

The determination of the Council could be considered "semi-Augustinian". It defined that faith, though a free act, resulted even in its beginnings from the grace of God, enlightening the human mind and enabling belief. However, it also denied strict predestination, stating, "We not only do not believe that any are foreordained to evil by the power of God, but even state with utter abhorrence that if there are those who want to believe so evil a thing, they are anathema." The document received papal sanction.

Calvinist Reformers used the Council's canons to demonstrate that their formulations of original sin and depravity had already been taught much earlier in the church. Arminian theologians also refer to the Council of Orange as a historical document that strongly affirms man's depravity and God's prevenient grace but does not present grace as irresistible or adhere to a strictly Augustinian view of predestination.

Middle Ages

Augustine's teaching on divine grace was considered a touchstone of orthodoxy within the western church throughout the Middle Ages. Nevertheless, within an Augustinian context, theologians continued to debate the precise nature of God and man's participation in salvation, as well as attempting to work out a place for the church's emerging system of sacraments in the overall scheme of salvation.

Thomas Aquinas, the most influential Catholic theologian of the Middle Ages, taught that, from man's fallen state, there were three steps to salvation:
 Infusion of grace (infusio gratiae) – God infuses grace into the human soul – the Christian now has faith and, with it, the ability to do good – this step is entirely God's work and is not done by man, and once a man has faith, he can never entirely lose it – however, faith alone is not enough for salvation;
 Faith formed by charity (fides caritate formata) – with man's free will restored, man must now do his best to do good works in order to have a faith formed by charity; and then;
 Condign merit (meritum de condigno) – God then judges and awards eternal life on the basis of these good works which Aquinas called man's condign merit.

Aquinas believed that by this system, he had reconciled Ephesians 2:8 ("By grace are ye saved through faith, and that not of yourselves: it is the gift of God") and James 2:20 ("faith without works is dead") and 2:24 ("by works a man is justified and not by faith only"), and had provided an exposition of the Bible's teaching on salvation compatible with Augustine's teachings.

A second stream of medieval thought, commonly referred to as the Ockhamists after William of Ockham and also including Duns Scotus and Gabriel Biel rejected Aquinas' system as destroying man's free will. The Ockhamists argued that if a man loved God simply because of "infused grace", then man did not love God freely. They argued that before a man received an infusion of grace, man must do his best in a state of nature (i.e. based on man's reason and inborn moral sense). They argued that just as God awards eternal life on the basis of man's condign merit for doing his best to do good works after receiving faith as a gift from God, so too, the original infusion of grace was given to man on the basis of "congruent merit", a reward for man's doing his best in a state of nature. (Unlike condign merit, which is fully deserved by man, congruent merit is not fully deserved, and includes a measure of grace on God's part. Congruent merit is therefore also sometimes called "semimerit". According to the Ockhamists, a gracious God awards an individual with congruent merit when he or she does the best that he or she is able to do.)

Aquinas' followers, commonly referred to as the Thomists, accused the Ockhamists of Pelagianism for basing the infusion of grace on man's works. The Ockhamists defended themselves from charges of Pelagianism by arguing that, in the Ockhamist system, God was not bound to award the infusion of grace on the basis of congruent merit; rather, God's decision to award the infusion of grace on the basis of congruent merit was an entirely gracious act on God's part.

Martin Luther's condemnation of "justification by works" clearly condemned Ockhamism. Some proponents of ecumenism argue that the Thomist view of salvation is not opposed to Luther's view of grace, and, since Ockhamism was rejected as Semipelagian by the Catholic Church at the Council of Trent, theology of salvation need not pose a bar to Protestant-Catholic reunion. (The major streams of modern Catholic thought on the theology of salvation are Thomism and Molinism, a theology developed by Jesuit theologian Luis Molina in the 16th century and also held today by some Protestants such as William Lane Craig and Alvin Plantinga.)

However, since the Catholic Church's rejection of Jansenism in the bull Unigenitus (1713), it has been clear that Calvinism could not be accommodated within Catholicism. Arminianism, on the other hand, while it might not square entirely with Catholic theologies of salvation, probably could be accommodated within the Catholic Church, a fact which Arminianism's Protestant opponents have often pointed out. (Augustus Toplady, for example, famously claimed that Arminianism was the "Road to Rome.")

Martin Luther and Erasmus of Rotterdam

Martin Luther was an Augustinian friar in Erfurt. In his Disputation Against Scholastic Theology of 4 September 1517, Luther entered into the medieval debate between the Thomists and the Ockhamists by attacking the Ockhamist position and arguing that man by nature lacks the ability to do good that the Ockhamists asserted he had (and thus denying that man could do anything to deserve congruent merit). Modern scholars disagree about whether Luther in fact intended to criticize all scholastics in this Disputation or if he was concerned only with the Ockhamists. Arguing in favor of a broader interpretation is the fact that Luther went on to criticize the use of Aristotle in theology (Aristotle was the basis of Thomist as well as Ockhamist theology). If this is the case, it is likely that Luther saw Aquinas' fides caritate formata as merely a more cautious form of Pelagianism (or as Semipelagianism).

Luther continued to defend these views. In 1520, Pope Leo X issued the papal bull Exsurge Domine, which condemned a position which Luther had maintained at the 1518 Heidelberg Disputation, namely that "After the Fall free will is something in name only and when it does what is in it, it sins mortally." Luther subsequently defended the proposition in his Defense and Explanation of All the Articles Unjustly Condemned by the Roman Bull of Leo X (1520), in the process stating that "free will is really a fiction...with no reality, because it is in no man's power to plan any evil or good. As the article of Wycliffe, condemned at Constance, teaches: everything takes place by absolute necessity."

Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam, though first sympathetic to Luther, reacted negatively to what he saw as Luther's determinism. In his De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio (A Disquisition on Freedom of the Will) (1524), Erasmus caricatures the limitations of free will that he saw Luther espousing. Though at times in the Diatribe, Erasmus sounded like an Ockhamist, for the most part he attempted to espouse a middle course between grace and free will, attempting to avoid on the one hand the errors of the Pelagians and the Ockhamists, and on the other hand, the "Manichaean" error of Luther and other strict Augustinians.

Luther responded with his De Servo Arbitrio (On the Bondage of the Will) (1525) in which he argued that man was not free to do good. Rather, man's fallen nature is in bondage to sin and to Satan and man can only do evil. The only way an individual can be saved is if God freely chooses to give that person the gift of faith. Luther's position in On the Bondage of the Will became the position adopted by the Protestant movement.

Jacobus Arminius and the Synod of Dort

Jacobus Arminius enrolled at Leiden University, and after five years of education traveled in the early 1580s to study in Geneva. Theodore Beza was the chairman of theology at the university there. Beza later defended Arminius by saying "let it be known to you that from the time Arminius returned to us from Basel, his life and learning both have so approved themselves to us, that we hope the best of him in every respect…" In late 1587, at the age of 28, Arminius returned to Amsterdam to fulfill his desire to be a pastor.

Arminius' entry into the predestination debate in Amsterdam was two years after his return, when he was asked by city officials to refute a modified form of Beza's Lapsarianism. According to historic tradition, Arminius' study of the Scriptures led him to the conclusion that the Bible did not support Calvinism. Other scholars believe that Arminius never accepted Beza's views, even while a student at Geneva. Arminius avoided adding to the controversy apart from two incidents regarding sermons on Romans 7 and Romans 9.

When Arminius received his doctorate and professorship of theology at Leiden in 1603, the debate over Calvinism came back to life. Conflicts over predestination had appeared early in the Dutch Reformed Church, but "these had been of a local nature, occurring between two fellow ministers, for instance, but since the appointment of Jacobus Arminius as a professor at Leyden University (1603) the strife had moved to the place where the education of future ministers took place."

Arminius taught that Calvinist predestination and unconditional election made God the author of evil. Instead, Arminius insisted, God's election was an election of believers and therefore was conditioned on faith. Furthermore, Arminius argued, God's exhaustive foreknowledge did not require a doctrine of determinism.

Arminius and his followers believed that a national synod should confer, to win tolerance for their views. His opponents in the Dutch Reformed Church maintained the authority of local synods and denied the necessity of a national convention. When the States of Holland called together the parties, Arminius's opponents, led by his colleague Franciscus Gomarus, accused him not only of the teaching of the doctrines characteristic of Arminianism as it would become (see below), but also of errors on the authority of Scripture, the Trinity, original sin, and works salvation. These charges Arminius denied, citing agreement with both Calvin and Scripture.

Arminius was acquitted of any doctrinal error. He then accepted an invitation to a "friendly conference" with Gomarus but his health caused the conference to end prematurely. Two months later, on 19 October 1609, Jacobus Arminius died.

The Remonstrants and Calvinist reaction

After the death of Arminius, the Hague court chaplain, Johannes Wtenbogaert, one of the professor's followers "who dogmatically and theologically was on one line with him, but who in the field of Church politics was a much more radical supporter of state influence championed his cause". This was seen as a betrayal on Gomarus' side, for earlier in his career (as a minister of Utrecht) Wtenbogaert "had resisted state influence with all his might".

Gradually Arminian-minded candidates for ordination into the ministry ran into ever greater difficulties. In their classes examinations, not only was subscription to the Dutch Confession and the Heidelberg Catechism demanded (which most were willing to do), "but they were asked questions that were formulated in such a way that ambiguous answers were no longer possible."

In reaction to this growing pressure Wtenbogaert drew up a petition to the State General, called a Remonstrance in late 1609, early 1610. The "Remonstrants" highlighted five aspects of their theology: (1) election was conditional on foreseen faith; (2) Christ's atonement was unlimited in extent; (3) total depravity; (4) prevenient and resistible grace; and (5) necessity of perseverance and the possibility of apostasy. The Remonstrants first expressed an uncertainty about the possibility of apostasy. They removed it latter in the document they presented officially at the Synod of Dort, The Opinion of The Remonstrants (1618), holding to conditional preservation of the saints.

Forty-four ministers (mostly from the province of Holland) signed onto the Remonstrance, and on 14 January 1610 it was submitted to the Grand Pensionary, Johan van Oldenbarnevelt. (Due to this document the followers of Arminius became known as Remonstrants.) Oldenbarnevelt held onto the Remonstrance for an unusually long period and it was not until June 1610 that it was submitted in an altered form to the States of Holland. "The States sent the five articles to all classes, forbidding them to go 'higher' in their examinations of ordinands than what was expressed in the articles. Needless to say, most classes did not take the slightest notice of this prohibition."

In another attempt to avoid a provincial synod, the States held The Hague Conference which lasted from 11 March to 20 May 1611 (with intermissions). It was at this conference that the delegates of Arminius' opponents submitted a response to the Remonstrance, called the Counter-Remonstrance (from which the name Contra- or Counter-Remonstrants was given them).

Leading influences among Arminius' followers (now called Remonstrants) were Arminius' close friend and Roman Catholic-turned-Reformed pastor Johannes Wtenbogaert, lawyer Hugo Grotius, and a scholar named Simon Episcopius. Due to the Remonstrants' view of the supremacy of civil authorities over church matters, King James I of England came out in support of the Remonstrance (later he would join with their opponents against Conrad Vorstius).

Behind the theological debate lay a political one between Prince Maurice, a strong military leader, and his former mentor Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, Grand Pensionary of Holland and personification of civil power. Maurice, who had Calvinist leanings, desired war with Holland's enemy, Roman Catholic Spain. Oldenbarnevelt, along with Arminius and his followers, desired peace.

Numerous historians hold that many of the civic officials that sided with the Remonstrants did so because of their shared position of State supremacy over the Church and not because of other doctrinal ideas, saying "the alliance between the regents and the Remonstrants during the years of the Truce is merely a coalition suited to the occasion, not the result of principal agreement...the magistracy of Delft was Counter-Remonstrant-minded, but in the States of Holland the city supported Oldenbarnevelt's policy regarding the convocation of a National Synod [to avoid calling one]. Incidentally, suspectedly Calvinistic opinions went together in Oldenbarnevelt's person."

In the years after Arminius' death, Maurice became convinced that Oldenbarnevelt (and by association, Arminians) had strong Catholic sympathies and were working to deliver Holland to Spain. As insurance, Maurice and his militia systematically and forcibly replaced Remonstrant magistrates with Calvinist ones. Thus, when the State General called for a synod in 1618, its outcome was predetermined. Oldenbarnevelt and Grotius were arrested, and the synod, held at Dordrecht (Dort), was convened.

This Synod of Dort included Calvinist representatives from Great Britain, Switzerland, Germany, and France, though Arminians were denied acceptance. Three Arminian delegates from Utrecht managed to gain seats, but were soon forcibly ejected and replaced with Calvinist alternates.

The Synod was a six versus six style of representation that lasted over six months with 154 meetings. The synod ultimately ruled that Arminius' teachings were heretical, reaffirming the Belgic Confession and Heidelberg Catechism as its orthodox statements of doctrine. One of the results of the synod was the formation of the five points of Calvinism in direct response to the five articles of the Remonstrants.

Robert Picirilli gives this summary of the aftermath of the Synod of Dort:

Somewhat later, after Maurice died, the Remonstrants were accorded toleration by the state and granted the freedom to follow their religion in peace, to build churches and schools. The Remonstrant Theological Seminary was instituted in Amsterdam, and Episcopius and Grotius were among its first professors. Today both the seminary and the church have shifted from their founders' theology.

Seventeenth century English politics

Early Stuart society was religious, and religion at that time was political. King James I managed religious conflicts for most of the 1610s, but most Protestants maintained a fear of Catholicism. Though Arminians were Protestant, they were perceived as being less antagonistic to Catholicism than the Calvinists were. James I initially moved to keep them out of his realm, and supported the official position of the Synod of Dort.

In 1618, the Thirty Years' War began. It was a religious war, and many of James's subjects (particularly in Parliament) wanted his kingdom to go to war on the side of the king's son-in-law, Frederick V, Elector Palatine. James, however, preferred diplomacy. The loudest of the supporters for war were Puritans, a term presenting difficulties of definition but who doctrinally were in general orthodox Calvinists. Some scholars believe that the Arminians' support for the king's efforts to prevent war led to him promoting a number of them in order to balance out the Puritans. Others argue that these promotions were simply the result of meritocratic considerations: 'James promoted Arminians because they were scholarly, diligent and able men in their diocese.' In 1625, James I died, leaving the throne to his son, Charles I.

Charles I supported the Arminians, and continued the trend of promoting them; Charles tended to promote only Arminians. The religious changes which Charles imposed on his subjects, in the form of Laudianism, were identified (rightly or wrongly) with Arminian theology. They brought him into direct conflict with the Scottish Presbyterian Calvinists of the Church of Scotland. The resulting Bishops' Wars were a trigger for the English Civil War, both of them part of the larger Wars of the Three Kingdoms which had complex roots, among which religious beliefs were a major factor.

Four-point Calvinists

The so-called "four-point Calvinists" claim that the doctrine of limited atonement is non-scriptural and that it was never endorsed by Calvin or the Synod of Dort.

The four-point Calvinists, like five-point Calvinists, accept a distinction initially made by Peter Lombard and subsequently adopted by Thomas Aquinas that the atonement was sufficient for the whole world but efficient only to the elect. Put another way, Christ's death atones for the whole world (it is sufficient to atone for the sins of the whole world), but the benefits of Christ's death are applied only to the elect (it is efficient only to atone for the sins of the elect).

The four-point Calvinists argue that Calvin adopted this position when he wrote that "It is also a fact, without controversy, that Christ came to atone for the sins 'of the whole world.'" They also believe that the four-point position was endorsed by the Synod of Dort under Article 3 of the Second Main Point of Doctrine where the synod proclaimed that "This death of God's Son is the only and entirely complete sacrifice and satisfaction for sins; it is of infinite value and worth, more than sufficient to atone for the sins of the whole world."

This is the position which the leader of the English Presbyterians, Richard Baxter, asserted in his controversy with the leader of the English Congregationalists, John Owen.

Early Methodism

These theological issues played a divisive part in the early history of Methodism in the 18th century. Heated discussions on Arminianism took place between Methodist ministers John Wesley and George Whitefield. From 1740 Wesley broke with Calvinism. His position caused initially the rupture with the Welsh Calvinistic Methodists under Howell Harris in 1742–1743; and then the creation of the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion in 1756, about the same time when Wesley broke with James Hervey. In the 1770s a sharp debate occurred between Wesley and Augustus Montague Toplady.

Wesley was a champion of the teaching of Arminius, defending his soteriology in a periodical entitled The Arminian and writing articles such as Predestination Calmly Considered. He defended Arminius against charges of semi-Pelagianism, holding strongly to beliefs in original sin and total depravity. At the same time, Wesley attacked the determinism that he claimed characterized unconditional election and maintained a belief in the ability to lose salvation. Whitefield debated Wesley on every point (except for their agreement on total depravity) but did not introduce any additional elements into the Calvinists' conclusions set forth at Westminster.

Denominational Views

Protestant denominations
To this day, Methodism and offshoots of the denomination: Pentecostals, and Third Wave, along with General Baptists, usually are the ones to subscribe to Arminianism, while Presbyterians, Reformed Churches, Reformed Baptists, and others subscribe to Calvinism. Largely because of its origins in Germany and Scandinavia rather than the British Isles or Holland, Lutheranism was uninvolved in the dispute, and official Lutheran doctrine does not fully support either group, preferring instead its own doctrinal formulations about the relation of human freedom to divine sovereignty. This is also true of Primitive Baptist belief.

Restorationist fellowships are customarily free will in their soteriology. Within this trend, Churches of Christ are prone to cite Biblical passages in support of the view while often intensely locked in contention with Presbyterians and (usually Calvinistic) Baptists. The doctrinal components, in small towns particularly in the United States, often ally the Churches of Christ with their Methodist neighbors on opposition to "once-saved-always-saved" doctrine despite the similarity between Churches of Christ and Baptists on immersion baptism.

Roman Catholic views
Post-reformation Roman Catholicism has remained largely outside the debate, although Thomist and Molinist views continue within the church. Augustinian theodicy, including those elements wherein Calvin was influenced by Augustine of Hippo, continues to be the prevalent soteriology in Roman Catholicism. Also, Jansenism has been seen by many as similar to Calvinist doctrine, and was condemned as such by the Catholic Church in the late 17th century.

Eastern Orthodox views
A Synod of Eastern Orthodox Churches was called in Jerusalem in 1672 to refute attempted encroachments of Protestant Calvinism. The Synod of Jerusalem (1672) also referred to as The Confession of Dositheus in 1672, strongly rejected Calvinistic formulations and named them heresy. In part, it stated,

In the same document, the synod renounced Calvin by name and pronounced an anathema upon anyone teaching that God predestined anyone to evil or Hell.

References

Citations

Sources

Arminianism
Calvinist theology
Calvinist-Arminian debate
Salvation in Protestantism
Protestantism-related controversies
Jacobus Arminius
Calvinism in the Dutch Republic
Philosophy and thought in the Dutch Republic
Synod of Dort
Debates

History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate


Shah () is a Persian word which means the king or ruler of a country. This word is used in different countries in the world, including Iran, India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Presently the term "Shah" is used as a surname commonly by many people in India, Pakistan and Afghanistan who  are Hindu, Muslim and Jain. Many Indian names which have Shah in them; the most famous of them is Shah Jahan, who as the Emperor of India ordered the creation of Taj Mahal. One possible etymology of the chess term checkmate is the Persian shah mat, meaning "the king cannot escape"

The term "Shah" often means Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran from 1949 to 1979.

References

Heads of state

Shah


Lucius Cornelius Alexander Polyhistor (; flourished in the first half of the 1st century BC; also called Alexander of Miletus) was a Greek scholar who was enslaved by the Romans during the Mithridatic War and taken to Rome as a tutor. After his release, he continued to live in Italy as a Roman citizen. He was so productive as a writer that he earned the surname Polyhistor (very learned). The majority of his writings are now lost, but the fragments that remain shed valuable light on antiquarian and eastern Mediterranean subjects.
Among his works were historical and geographical accounts of nearly all the countries of the ancient world, and the book Upon the Jews () which excerpted many works which might otherwise be unknown.

Life
The Suda is the main source of information about Alexander's life.  He was born in Miletus between 110 and 105 BC and educated by Crates of Mallus in Pergamon, before being captured in the Mithridatic War and brought to Rome as a slave.  He was owned by a Cornelius Lentulus, and became his tutor.  Alexander was subsequently freed, and given Roman citizenship by Sulla in 81 BC.  He taught Hyginus, and according to the Suda wrote books "beyond number"..  Sometime after 40 BC he died in a fire at Laurentum.

Works
The 10th-century Suda makes no attempt to list his works, asserting that he composed books "beyond number."

Alexander's most important treatise consisted of forty-two books of historical and geographical accounts of nearly all the countries of the ancient world. These included five books On Rome, the Aigyptiaca (at least three books), On Bithynia, On the Euxine Sea, On Illyria, Indica and a Chaldæan History.  Another notable work is about the Jews: this reproduces in paraphrase relevant excerpts from Jewish writers, of whom  nothing otherwise would be known (see below). As a philosopher, Alexander wrote Successions of Philosophers, mentioned several times by Diogenes Laërtius in his Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers. None of Alexander's works survive as such: only quotations and paraphrases are to be found, largely in the works of Diogenes Laertius. Eusebius extracted a large portion in his Chaldean Chronicle.

One of Alexander's students was Gaius Julius Hyginus, Latin author, scholar and friend of Ovid, who was appointed by Augustus to be superintendent of the Palatine library. From what Laërtius describes or paraphrases in his work, Alexander recorded various thoughts on contradictions, fate, life, soul and its parts, perfect figures, and different curiosities, such as advice not to eat beans.

Upon the Jews
Louis Ginzberg wrote of Alexander's work: "Although these excerpts reveal their author as nothing but a compiler without taste or judgment, and bereft of all literary ability, they possess, even in their meagerness, a certain value." In his compilation Jewish and non-Jewish sources are cited indiscriminately side by side; and to Alexander, therefore, the world is indebted for information on the oldest Jewish, Hellenic, and Samaritan elaboration of Biblical history in prose or poetry. The epic poet Philo, the tragic writer Ezekiel, the historian Eupolemus, the chronicler Demetrius, the so-called Artapanus, the historian Aristeas, and Theodotus the Samaritan, as well as an unnamed fellow countryman of the latter often confused with Eupolemus, the rhetorician Apollonius Molon (an anti-Jewish writer)—all of these authors are known to posterity only through extracts from their works which Alexander embodied verbatim in his. Of some interest for the ancient history of the Jews is his account of Assyria-Babylonia, frequently drawn upon by Jewish and Christian authors; in it extracts are given, especially from Berossus, and also from the Chronicles of Apollodoros and the Third Book of the Sibyllines. Josephus made use of the work, and likewise Eusebius in his Chronicles. Probably only Alexander's account of the Flood is taken from Berossus, who is confirmed by the newest Assyrian discoveries, while his account of the Confusion of Tongues is probably of Jewish-Hellenic origin. Another work of his seems to have contained considerable information concerning the Jews. What Eusebius quotes would seem to have been taken from this work, which is no longer extant, except indirectly through Josephus. It may be noted that Alexander twice mentions the Bible, which, however, he knew only superficially, as appears from his curious statement that the Law of the Jews was given to them by a woman named Moso, and that Judea received its name from Judah and Idumea, children of Semiramis.

The text of the fragments preserved is in very unsatisfactory shape, owing to insufficient collation of the manuscripts. How much of his originals Alexander himself omitted is difficult to say, in view of the corrupt state of the text of Eusebius, where most of his fragments are to be found. Abydenus—the Christian editor of Alexander's works—evidently had a different text before him from that which Eusebius possessed.

Text of the fragments  is to be found in Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica, ix. 17; Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromata i. 21, 130, and Müller, Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum, iii. 211–230; prose extracts, from a new collation of the manuscripts, in Freudenthal, "Alexander Polyhistor," pp. 219–236.

Notes

References

 citing:
Freudenthal, Alexander Polyhistor, Breslau, 1875 (Hellenistische Studien, i. and ii.);
Unger, "Wann Schrieb Alexander Polyhistor?" in Philologus, xliii. 28-531, ib.xlvii. 177–183;
Susemihl, Gesch. der Griechischen Literatur, ii. 356–364;
Schürer, Gesch. 3d ed., iii. 346–349.
An English translation of the fragments is to be found in Cory's Ancient Fragments, London, 1876;
a French translation in Reinach, Textes d'Auteurs Grecs et Romains Relatifs au Judaisme, 1895, pp. 65–68.

Further reading
 W. Adler, "Alexander Polyhistor's Peri Ioudaiôn and Literary Culture in Republican Rome," in Sabrina Inowlocki & Claudio Zamagni (eds), Reconsidering Eusebius: Collected papers on literary, historical, and theological issues (Leiden, Brill, 2011) (Vigiliae Christianae, Supplements, 107),

External links

Life and Works
Example of Alexander's Work

1st-century BC Greek philosophers
1st-century BC Romans
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1st-century BC writers
Ancient Greek geographers
Ancient Jewish Greek history
Greek-language historians from the Roman Empire
Hellenistic-era historians
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Republican era slaves and freedmen
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Historians from Roman Anatolia
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Cornelii
Year of birth unknown
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1st-century BC geographers

Alexander Polyhistor


Francesco Cavalli (born Crema, Lombardy, 14 February 1602; died 14 January 1676) was an Italian composer.  He lived in the early part of the Baroque music period. His real name was Pietro Francesco Caletti-Bruni, but he is better known as Cavalli, which was the name of his patron, a Venetian nobleman.  He is remembered for his operas.

Life
Cavalli was born at Crema, Lombardy. He became a singer at St Mark's in Venice in 1616, then he was organist there, and in 1668 he became maestro di cappella.

He began to write for the theatre in 1639. Soon after that the first public opera house opened in Venice. Cavalli became so famous that he was invited to Paris in 1660 where he performed his opera Xerxes. He visited Paris again in 1662. He died in Venice at the age of 73.

Music and influence
Cavalli lived at the time that opera had just been invented by Jacopo Peri.  Claudio Monteverdi composed the first really good operas.  Cavalli became the most important Italian writer of operas in the middle of the 17th century.  His operas use small orchestras, unlike those of Monteverdi, who was writing for the court in Mantua where there was lots of money for big orchestras.  Cavalli had a good sense of drama and he wrote lovely melodies.

He wrote 57 operas, of which 27 survived.  He also wrote some church music and some instrumental music.

1602 births
1676 deaths
17th-century Italian composers
Baroque composers
People from Lombardy

Francesco Cavalli


The Odenwald is a mountain chain in the south of Hesse, in the north of Bavaria and the north of Baden-Württemberg.

Geography
In the south of the Odenwald there is the Neckar River. In the east there is the Main River . In the west there is the valley of the Rhine River. The highest mountain is the Katzenbuckel (literally "cat's hump", 626 m).

Neighboring cities
The big cities Mannheim and Frankfurt am Main are near to the Odenwald. People of these cities like to go there at holidays. It is known for its clean thin air. There are many marked hiking paths. You can find wild blueberries, strawberries and mushrooms in the forests.

Several small towns are very beautiful like Weinheim on the Bergstraße and Michelstadt.  The mild climate of the area is well known.

Geography of Baden-Württemberg
Geography of Bavaria
Geography of Hesse
Mountain ranges of Germany

Odenwald


Thomas Head Raddall  (13 November 1903 – 1 April 1994) was a Canadian writer of history and historical fiction.

Early life
Raddall was born in Hythe, Kent, England in 1903, the son of an Army officer, also named Thomas Head Raddall, and Ellen (née Gifford) Raddall. In 1913 the family moved to Nova Scotia, where his father had taken a training position with the Canadian Militia. The elder Raddall then saw active service during the First World War and was killed in action at Amiens  in August 1918.

Raddall attended Chebucto School in Halifax until 6 December 1917, when the school was converted into a temporary morgue in the wake of the Halifax Explosion. The Raddall family survived the explosion and Raddall wrote about it in his memoirs, In My Time.

At the age of fifteen, Raddall trained at the Canadian School of Telegraphy in Halifax and shortly thereafter started working at the age of 18 as a marine telegraph operator for the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company.

Raddall's first job was as a wireless operator on seagoing ships, including the CS Mackay-Bennett, and stationed on land at Camperdown Signal Station and at isolated wireless posts such as Sable Island. He later took a job as a clerk at a pulp and paper mill in Liverpool, Nova Scotia, where he began his writing career. There, Raddall came in contact with the master American swindler and fugitive from justice, Leo Koretz, who was using the alias, Lou Keyte.

Career as a writer
Raddall was a prolific, award-winning writer. He received Governor General's Awards for three of his books, The Pied Piper of Dipper Creek (1943), Halifax, Warden of the North (1948) and The Path of Destiny (1957). He was made an Officer of the Order of Canada in 1971.

Raddall is best known for his historical fiction, but he also published numerous non-fictional historical works. His interest in historical research grew when he was stationed at historical locations as a wireless operator, and he received crucial encouragement and assistance from Harry Piers, Curator of the Nova Scotia Museum, who became his mentor. Raddall's early works included studies of privateering, civic and marine history, and Canada during the War of 1812. His history of Halifax, Warden of the North, remains influential.

Historical preservation and restoration
Raddall worked with the Queens County Historical Society, the Historic Sites Advisory Council of Nova Scotia, and the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada. He played a role in preserving the diary of Simeon Perkins, an early colonial document published in three volumes (the fourth has yet to be published) between 1948 and 1978 by the Champlain Society, and edited by Harold Innis, D. C. Harvey and C. B. Ferguson. Raddall helped to restore and preserve Perkins House Museum, a colonial house built by Simeon Perkins that is now a part of the Nova Scotia Museum system.

Legacy
An exact replica of Raddall's study, furnished with his possessions, is on view at the Thomas Raddall Research Centre, administered by the Queens County Historical Society, of which Raddall was a founding member in 1929.

His correspondence is housed at the Dalhousie University Archives, which also runs the Thomas Raddall Electronic Archive Project, currently digitizing his published and unpublished writings.

The Thomas Head Raddall Award is a literary award administered for the best work of adult fiction published in the previous year by a writer from Canada's Atlantic provinces.

The Thomas Raddall Provincial Park is a park in Nova Scotia named for Raddall.

Bibliography
At the Tide's Turn and Other Stories
The Cape Breton Giant and Other Writings
Courage in the Storm
The Dreamers
The Governor's Lady - 1960
Footsteps on Old Floors: True Tales of Mystery - 1968
Halifax, Warden of the North - 1948; revised edition - 1971
Hangman's Beach
His Majesty's Yankees - 1942
In My Time: A Memoir - 1976
The Markland Sagas, With a Discussion of Their Relation to Nova Scotia
The Mersey Story
A Muster of Arms and Other Stories
The Nymph and the Lamp - 1950
Path of Destiny: Canada From the British Conquest to Home Rule - 1957
A Pictorial Guide to Historic Nova Scotia, Featuring Louisbourg, Peggy's Cove, Sable Island
The Pied Piper of Dipper Creek and Other Tales
Pride's Fancy - 1948
Roger Sudden - 1946
The Rover: The Story of a Canadian Privateer - 1958
The Saga of the "Rover"
Son of the Hawk  - 1950
Tambour and Other Stories
This Is Nova Scotia, Canada's Ocean Playground
Tidefall - 1953
The Wedding Gift and Other Stories
 , in Kanadische Erzähler der Gegenwart. Hgg. Armin Arnold, Walter E. Riedel. Manesse, Zürich 1967, 1986, p 11 – 38
West Novas: A History of the West Nova Scotia Regiment
The Wings of Night - 1957

References

External links
Thomas Raddall Electronic Archive Project

1903 births
1994 deaths
Canadian historical novelists
Canadian male novelists
Members of the United Church of Canada
Writers from Nova Scotia
Officers of the Order of Canada
British emigrants to Canada
People from Hythe, Kent
People from Queens County, Nova Scotia
Governor General's Award-winning fiction writers
Governor General's Award-winning non-fiction writers
20th-century Canadian novelists
20th-century Canadian historians
20th-century Canadian male writers
Canadian male non-fiction writers

Thomas Head Raddall


The ankh was the Egyptian hieroglyphic character that stood for the word ʿnḫ, meaning life. Egyptian gods are often portrayed carrying it by its loop, or bearing one in each hand, arms crossed over their chest. It is also known as the Egyptian Cross, or as crux ansata, Latin for "cross with a handle".
"Ankhs" are viewed as a protective symbol. Many Ancient Egyptian Gods are seen holding this item.

Religious symbols
Ancient Egypt

Ankh


Yuletide is a pagan holiday also known as the Winter solstice. Generally celebrated by Wiccans and Northern European Christians. "Yuletide" celebrates the birth of the Sun and also celebrates the "Mother" at the height of her "Greatness".
Pagans celebrate Yuletide in many ways, most will decorate a "Yuletide" tree, keep it in their homes until most of the leaves fall off then burn the Yule log. Many Wiccans will decorate their alters with Yule colours and items and generally just honour the Goddess.

Yuletide in Christianity

The Christian holiday, Christmas, was created by the Christian Romans based around the polytheistic (many Gods) Sun God festival (Sol Invictis) on the winter solstice, and people in northern Europe combined it with their Yule festival.  Yule is celebrated on the 25th of December by most Northern Europeans and the 21st of December, by Wiccans and many non religious groups. For them, Yule is celebrated as the longest night of the year. It is the night when the sun sets earliest and rises latest the next day. The Wiccan ritual includes thanking the Goddess for the past year and asking for a happiness in the year to come.

References
Rouche, Michel, "Private life conquers state and society," in A History of Private Life vol I, Paul Veyne, editor, Harvard University Press 1987
Farrar, Janet and Stewart ([1989] 1998).  The Witch's God, "IX Oak King and Holly King".  35-38.  Phoenix Publishing, Inc.  Blaine, Washington.

Other websites
Stone, John Robert, Observing Bede's Anglo-Saxon Calendar

So Amal was born in 2006, May 31th

Religious holidays

Yule


Matt Riddle (born April 5, 1967 ) is an American punk rock bassist. He was the original bass player for Face to Face, which was founded in Victorville, California in the early 1990s.  After the band's 2nd album Big Choice was released in 1995, Riddle parted ways with Face to Face due to personal conflicts with singer/guitarist Trever Keith.

He then joined No Use for a Name in 1996 after the band's fourth full-length, Leche Con Carne (1995), and made his recording debut on the band's Making Friends record in 1997.

He also played briefly for the punk bands Pulley and 22 Jacks.

Riddle and Keith have reportedly reconciled their differences, and Riddle provided liner notes for a Face to Face collection entitled Shoot the Moon in 2005. Riddle was not, however, part of the Face to Face reunion in 2008.

On December 3, 2010 No Use for a Name notified fans through their Myspace page that Riddle had been hospitalized with severe pancreatitis. He had his gallbladder removed and was eventually released from the hospital.

On August 1, 2012, No Use for a Name frontman Tony Sly was reported dead at age 41, putting an end to the band's career.

Riddle currently resides in the Victorville area with his family.

On February 20, 2015, punk supergroup Implants announced on Facebook that Matt Riddle had joined the band.

In mid 2020 during the pandemic, Christopher Swinney formerly of The Ataris announced that Matt Riddle had joined his new band, Fire Sale.

References

1967 births
Living people
American punk rock bass guitarists
American male bass guitarists
No Use for a Name members
Face to Face (punk band) members
20th-century American bass guitarists
20th-century American male musicians

Matt Riddle (musician)


The Fourth Council of Toledo was held in 633. It was convened by Visigothic king Sisenand and took place at the church of Saint Leocadia in Toledo.

Probably under the presidency of the noted Isidore of Seville, the council regulated many matters of discipline, decreed uniformity of liturgy throughout the Visigothic kingdom and took stringent measures against baptized Jews who had relapsed into their former faith.

At this council, begun 5 December 633, all the bishops of Hispania were in attendance. Isidore, though elderly, presided over its deliberations, and was the originator of most of its enactments.

The council probably expressed with tolerable accuracy the mind and influence of Isidore. The position and deference granted to the king is remarkable. The church is free and independent, yet bound in solemn allegiance to the acknowledged king: nothing is said of allegiance to the bishop of Rome.

It was at the Fourth National Council of Toledo and through his influence that a decree was promulgated commanding and requiring all bishops to establish seminaries in their cathedral cities, along the lines of the school associated with Isidore already existing at Seville. Within his own jurisdiction he had availed himself of the resources of education to counteract the growing influence of Gothic barbarism. His was the quickening spirit that animated the educational movement of which Seville was the centre. The study of Greek and Hebrew as well as the liberal arts, was prescribed. Interest in law and medicine was also encouraged. Through the authority of the fourth council this policy of education was made obligatory upon all the bishops of the kingdom.

Sources
Thompson, E. A. (1969) The Goths in Spain. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Concilium Toletanum quartum, minutes from the Collectio Hispana Gallica Augustodunensis (Vat. lat. 1341)

Fourh
633
7th century in the Visigothic Kingdom
7th-century church councils
Christianity and Judaism

Fourth Council of Toledo


A structural isomer or constitutional isomer of a compound is another compound whose molecule has the same number of atoms of each element, but with logically distinct bonds between them. The opposite of structual isomerism is stereoisomerism. There are many words that represents structual isomers.

There are three kinds of constitutional isomers. They are skeletal isomers, positional isomers, and functional isomers. Positional isomers are also called regioisomers. Tautomers are also a kind of functional isomers.

Skeletal isomerism
In skeletal isomerism, or chain isomerism, components of the skeleton (usually carbon) are re-ordered to make different structures. Pentane has three isomers. They are n-pentane (often called simply "pentane"), isopentane (methylbutane) and neopentane (dimethylpropane).

Position isomerism
In position isomerism, a functional group or other substituent changes its position on a parent structure. In the table below, the hydroxyl group can stay in three different positions on an n-pentane chain to make three different compounds.

Many aromatic isomers exist because substituents can be positioned on different parts of the benzene ring. Only one isomer of phenol or hydroxybenzene exists but cresol or methylphenol has three isomers where the additional methyl group can be placed on three different positions on the ring. Xylenol has one hydroxyl group and two methyl groups and a total of 6 isomers exist.

Functional group isomerism
Functional isomers are one of the structural isomers. Two compounds in functional isomerism have the same molecular formula (the number of each atom is the same, like cyclohexane: and 1-hexene:). But, the atoms are connected in other ways so that the groupings are different. We call these groups of atoms functional groups, functionalities, or moieties. Another way to say this is that two compounds that have the same molecular formula, but have different functional groups, are functional isomers.

For example, the chemical formula of cyclohexane and 1-hexene are C6H12. We call them functional group isomers because cyclohexane is a cycloalkane and hex-1-ene is an alkene.

For two molecules to be functional isomers, they must contain key groups of atoms arranged in particular ways. Some of the best examples come from organic chemistry. C2H6O is a molecular formula. Depending on how the atoms are arranged, it can represent two different compounds dimethyl ether CH3-O-CH3 or ethanol CH3CH2-O-H. Dimethyl ether and ethanol are functional isomers. The first is an ether. The carbon chain-oxygen-carbon chain functionality is called an ether. The second is an alcohol. The carbon chain-oxygen-hydrogen functionality is called an alcohol.

If the functionalities stay the same, but their locations change, the structural isomers are not functional isomers. 1-Propanol and 2-propanol are structural isomers, but they are not functional isomers. Both of them are alcohols. The functional group (carbon chain-O-H) is present in both of these compounds, but they are not the same.

While some chemists use the terms structural isomer and functional isomer interchangeably, not all structural isomers are functional isomers.

Functional isomers are most often identified in chemistry using infrared spectroscopy. Infrared radiation corresponds to the energies associated primarily with molecular vibration. The alcohol functionality has a very distinct vibration called OH-stretch that is due to hydrogen bonding. All alcohols in liquid and solid form absorb infrared radiation at certain wavelengths.

Compounds with the same functional groups will all absorb certain wavelengths of infrared light because of the vibrations associated with those groups. In fact, the infrared spectrum is divided into two regions. The first part is called the functional group region. Dimethyl ether and ethanol would have dissimilar infrared spectra in the functional group region.

The second part of the infrared spectrum is called the fingerprint region; it is associated with types of motion allowed by the symmetry of the molecule and influenced by the bond energies. The fingerprint region is more specific to an individual compound. Even though 1-propanol and 2-propanol have similar infrared spectra in the functional group region, they differ in the fingerprint region.

In simple terms, functional isomers are structural isomers that have different functional groups like alcohol and ether.

Isomer counting
As an example of isomer counting, 7 structural isomers exist with molecular formula C3H6O, each with  different bond connectivities and air-stable at ambient temperature. An additional two structural isomers are the enol tautomers of the carbonyl isomers, but these are not stable.

References

Chemistry

Structural isomer


King in Prussia was the title used by the rulers of Prussia from 1702 to 1772.

The rulers, who were also Princes and Margraves of Brandenberg wanted to be Kings, but knew that the Holy Roman Emperor would not allow them the title.

In return for support in the War of the Spanish Succession Emperor Leopold I allowed Frederick to call himself King in Prussia.  The Duchy of Prussia was outside the Empire, and he was only regarded as King outside the Empire.

In 1772 Frederick II annexed most of Poland and decided to call himself King of Prussia.  The Holy Roman Emperor was not as strong as they had been, and in 1806 the Empire ceased to exist.

Prussia

King in Prussia


Aderemi Raji-Oyelade (born 1961) is a Nigerian poet, writing in English. He is popularly known by his pen name, Remi Raji.

Career
A Salzburg Fellow and visiting professor and writer to a number of institutions, among them Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville, the Universities of California at Riverside and Irvine, University of Cape Town, South Africa, and Cambridge University, UK, Raji has had scholarly essays published in journals including Research in African Literatures and African Literature Today. He has read his poems widely in Africa, Europe and America. In 2005, he served as the Guest Writer to the City of Stockholm, Sweden.

His volumes of poetry include Webs of Remembrance (2001), Shuttlesongs America: A poetic guided tour (2003), Lovesong for My Wasteland (2005), Gather My Blood Rivers of Song (2009) and Sea of My Mind (2013). Raji's works have been translated into French, German, Catalan, Swedish, Ukrainian, Latvian, Croatian and Hungarian. He has been an Alexander von Humboldt Scholar to Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany.

Remi Raji was elected as the Publicity Secretary of the Oyo State chapter of the Association of Nigerian Authors (ANA) in 1989. His second elective position was as Vice-Chair of the ANA in 1997. He became the substantive Chairman of the ANA from 1998 to 2000, at the election of Dr. Wale Okediran to the national executive committee of the ANA. Raji served as the Year 2000 Editor of the ANA Review, the official journal of the association. On 3 December 2011, during the 30th-anniversary celebration of the founding of the Association of Nigerian Authors, Remi Raji was elected as the ANA's 11th President.

Raji was the National Coordinator of the resuscitated Nigerian PEN Centre in 1999 before he was elected as the Secretary of the Centre, a position he held till February 2010. During this period, Raji facilitated international workshops and strategic meetings of African PEN Centres within Africa and in Europe. He was unanimously elected as the first Coordinating Secretary of PAN, the Congress of PEN African Centres, at a special meeting of the group on 22 November 2003 in Mexico City.

At his university, University of Ibadan, the Professor of English and African Literatures and Creative Writing has served in many administrative capacities which culminated in his appointment as the Head of the Department of English in 2011. Over a year after that substantive position, he was elected as the Dean of the Faculty of Arts.

Bibliography
 A Harvest of Laughters, 1997, joint winner of the Association of Nigerian Authors/Cadbury Poetry Prize and winner of the Association of West African Young Writers' VOCA Award for Best First Published Book
 Webs of Remembrance, 2001
 Shuttlesongs America: A Poetic Guided Tour, 2001–2003
 Lovesong for My Wasteland, 2005
 Gather My Blood Rivers of Song, 2009.
 Sea of My Mind, 2013.
 Wanderer Cantos, 2021.

References

External links
 Remi Raji's Selected Poems in the Dublin Quarterly.
 Sule E. Egya, "The Nationalist Imagination in Remi Raji's Lovesong for My Wasteland", in Research in African Literatures, Winter 2007, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 111–126.

Living people
1961 births
20th-century male writers
21st-century male writers
Academic staff of the University of Ibadan
Nigerian poets

Remi Raji


The Hebrides (Gaelic: Innse Gall) is a group o islands aff the wast coast o Scotland, an in geological terms are makkit up o the auldest stane in the Breetish Isles. Thay can be sindert intae twa main groups:

 Inner Hebrides, includin Islay, Jura, Skye, Mull, Raasay, Staffa and the Smaw Isles
 Ooter Hebrides, includin Barra, Berneray, Harris, Lewis, North Uist, Sooth Uist, an St Kilda

Whiles the Hebrides aw thegither is referred tae as the Wastren Isles, but this term is for ordinar uised tae mean juist the Ooter Hebrides, that were kent as The Lang Island lang syne.

Islands o Scotland

Hebrides


Vikings (Dens an ; Swadish an ; ), frae Auld Norse , war Nordic seafarers, mainly speakin the Auld Norse leid, wha raidit an tradit frae thair Northren European hamelands atort wide auries o northren, central an eastren Europe, during the late 8t tae late 11t centuries. The term is an aa commonly extendit in modren Scots an other vernaculars tae the indwallers o Viking hame commonties during whit haes acome kent as the Viking Age. This period o Nordic militar, mercantile an demografic expansion constitutes an important element in the early medieval history o Scandinavie, Estonie, the Breetish Isles, France, Kievan Rus' an Sicily.

Facilitatit bi advanced seafarin skills, an chairacterised bi the langship, Viking activities at times an aa extendit intae the Mediterranean littoral, North Africae, the Middle East an Central Asie. Follaein extendit phases o (primarily sea- or river-borne) sploration, expansion an settlement, Viking (Norse) commonties an polities war established in diverse auries o north-wastren Europe, European Roushie, the North Atlantic islands an as far as the north-eastren coast o North Americae. This period o expansion witnessed the wider dissemination o Norse cultur, while simultaneously introducin strang foreign cultural influences intae Scandinavie itsel, wi profoond developmental implications in baith directions.

Popular, modren conceptions o the Vikings—the term frequently applied casually tae thair modren stryndants an the indwallers o modren Scandinavie—eften strangly differ frae the complex pictur that emerges frae airchaeology an historical soorces. A romanticised pictur o Vikings as noble savages began tae emerge in the 18t century; this developed an acame widely propagatit during the 19t-century Viking revival. Perceived views o the Vikings as alternatively violent, piratical heathens or as intrepid adventurers awe much tae conflictin varieties o the modren Viking meeth that haed taken shape bi the early 20t century. Current popular representations o the Vikings are teepically based on cultural clichés an stereotypes, complicatin modren appreciation o the Viking legacy.

References

Vikings


The British Rail Class 85 is an electric locomotive built during the early 1960s, as part of BR's policy to develop a standard electric locomotive. Five prototype classes (81-85) were built and evaluated, which eventually led to the development of the Class 86 locomotive. The locomotives of Class 85 were Originally fitted with germanium rectifiers which were eventually replaced by silicon rectifiers. Forty of these locomotives were built from 1961-64 by BR at Doncaster Works. The class were used to haul trains on the then newly electrified West Coast Main Line, from Birmingham,  to Crewe, Manchester Piccadilly, Liverpool and later Preston. By 1965, electrification had spread south to London Euston.

Under the earlier BR classification, the type was given the designation AL5 (meaning the 5th design of 25 kV AC Locomotive), and locomotives were numbered E3056-E3095. In 1968, this was changed to Class 85, when BR introduced a new computer numbering system. From 1971 onwards, locomotives were progressively renumbered into the 85001-040 series. Fifteen locomotives were converted for freight only use, numbered in the 85/1 series. These locomotives were restricted to 80 mph.

85

British Rail Class 85


Mackinac Island is an island in Lake Huron.  It is part of the U.S. state of Michigan and is 8 miles (13 kilometers) around.

Many people go to see Mackinac Island in the summer because the island passed a local law that says that no one can use a car on the island.  Everybody has to ride a horse or a bicycle.  In recent years, young people have been using roller skates or roller blades to get around the island.  There is a narrow paved road that follows the 8 miles of shoreline.  This road is for horses (and their buggies), bicycles, skaters and joggers or just people taking a long walk.

In order to get to Mackinac Island, visitors have to buy a ticket on a ferry boat.  The boat ride has views of Lake Huron and the Mackinac Bridge.  After they get to Mackinac Island, many visitors buy locally made fudge.

Islands of the United States
Geography of Michigan

Mackinac Island


Dinitrogen pentoxide is a chemical compound. It is made by removing water from nitric acid. Its chemical formula is N2O5. It is a powerful oxidizing agent. It is a white solid. It is made by reacting phosphorus(V) oxide with nitric acid. The phosphorus(V) oxide removes the water from the nitric acid. It can be dissolved in chloroform to add the NO2+ group to some chemical compounds. It is toxic as it can make nitrogen dioxide gas.

Related pages
List of nitrogen compounds
Nitrogen triiodide
Ammonia

Nitrogen compounds
Oxides

Dinitrogen pentoxide


Virginia Mary Kendall (born January 25, 1962) is an American attorney and jurist serving as a United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois. President George W. Bush appointed her to the bench on January 3, 2006. In addition to serving on the bench, Judge Kendall is also a noted expert on child exploitation and human trafficking, as well as an adjunct law professor and author.

Early life and education
Born in Evanston, Illinois, Kendall graduated from Northwestern University with her Bachelor of Arts degree in 1984. She received a Master of Arts degree in Writing from Northwestern in 1987 and her Juris Doctor from Loyola University Chicago School of Law in 1992 where she attended night school while raising her three preschool-aged children.

Career
Following law school graduation, she worked as a law clerk for Judge George M. Marovich of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois from 1992 to 1995.

U.S. Department of Justice
Prior to joining the bench, Kendall worked for the United States Attorney's Office in Chicago and tried numerous federal jury trials involving white collar crime, insurance fraud, police corruption, public corruption, child molestation, and racketeering. While at the United States Attorney's Office in Chicago, she served as Deputy Chief in the Criminal Division, Child Exploitation Coordinator, and Coordinator of Project Safe Neighborhoods. Kendall helped to create and then served on the Attorney General's Advisory Committee which reviewed all child exploitation cases that impacted multiple jurisdictions.

Federal judicial career
Kendall was nominated to the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois on September 28, 2005, by President George W. Bush. She was confirmed by the United States Senate on December 21, 2005 on a voice vote and received her commission on January 3, 2006. Kendall served for six years on the Judicial Conference's Judicial Codes of Conduct Committee where she was responsible for drafting changes to the Codes of Conduct in a number of areas, most notably on social media. Kendall holds leadership roles in numerous bar organizations including the Federal Bar Association, the International Bar Association, the American Bar Association and the Federal Circuit Bar Association. Her leadership positions have included Co-Chair of the Human Trafficking Committee, the Jury Innovations Committee, and the Access to Justice Committee with the Litigation Section of the ABA; co-chair of the Human Trafficking Committee with the Criminal Justice Section of the ABA; serving on the presidential task force for both the ABA and the IBA; and serving on the Federal Judiciary Committees of both the Federal Bar Association and the Federal Circuit Bar Association. Kendall also serves on the Executive Committee of the Federal Judges Association. Kendall is committed to opening her courtroom regularly to students where she encourages young students to strive to practice law through her role on the Judicial Advisory Committee of Just the Beginning Foundation, the Cristo Rey Network, and numerous local schools dedicated to integrating students of color and of other underrepresented groups into the practice of law. Kendall is an active member of Cornell University's Avon Global Center for Women and Justice, as well as the Vital Voices Global Partnership, an organization dedicated to the empowerment of women in impoverished and politically underrepresented environments around the world.

Domestic and international training
Kendall travels extensively both domestically and internationally to train judges, trial attorneys and investigators in the areas of trial law, rule of law, ethics, terrorism trials, crimes against women and children, human trafficking and public corruption. Internationally, she has traveled through the State Department, the Department of Justice, Lawyers Without Borders, and various bar associations to Kenya, Zambia, Liberia, Cyprus, India, Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Italy, the UK, and Japan to teach judges and trial attorneys. Domestically, she created a human trafficking training module for task forces and for judges and she regularly holds seminars to educate them and the public. She also regularly presents ethics training to the federal judiciary and judicial employees.

Teaching and writing
Kendall has been an adjunct professor of law for over twenty years and currently teaches law courses in trial practice, federal litigation, and human trafficking at University of Chicago Law School, Northwestern University School of Law and Loyola University Chicago School of Law. She has authored numerous articles on a variety of topics including international human rights, human trafficking, and transnational investigations. Kendall is the co-author of the treatise, Child Exploitation and Trafficking: Examining the Global Challenges and U.S. Responses. Aside from her own writing, she also serves as an editor of Litigation Magazine and is a member of the American Law Institute where she is currently working as an Advisor to the drafting of a model penal code for sexual offenses. She currently lectures extensively both domestically and internationally in the areas of trial practice, public corruption, ethics, electronic discovery, patent litigation, social media, internet and computer investigations, intellectual property case management, child exploitation, human trafficking and judicial training.

Awards and honors
For her work as a federal prosecutor, Kendall received the Chicago Crime Commission's Star of Distinction Award in 2005; the Department of Justice's Service Award in 2003; and the FBI Director's Letter of Recognition in 1998.

Kendall has received numerous other awards including both the St. Robert Bellarmine Award and the Damen Award from Loyola University for her distinguished legal work and her service to the community; the Rape Victim Advocate's Visionary Award for her work with victims of sexual violence; the Eleanor Roosevelt Leadership Award for her being a courageous and compassionate role model, the Women and Gender Rights Leadership Award from DePaul University School of Law, and an honorary degree from Dominican University, which she received with her husband for their dual work serving the community. Judge Kendall also received the 2015 Women of Achievement award from the YWCA Lake County for her role in combating human trafficking.

References

Sources

1962 births
Living people
Assistant United States Attorneys
Judges of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois
Loyola University Chicago School of Law alumni
Loyola University Chicago School of Law faculty
Northwestern University alumni
United States district court judges appointed by George W. Bush
21st-century American judges
Lawyers from Evanston, Illinois
American women legal scholars
American legal scholars
21st-century American women judges

Virginia Mary Kendall