An art museum or art gallery is a building or space for the display of art, usually from the museum's own collection. It might be in public or private ownership, be accessible to all, or have restrictions in place. Although primarily concerned with visual art, art museums are often used as a venue for other cultural exchanges and artistic activities, such as lectures, jewelry, performance arts, music concerts, or poetry readings. Art museums also frequently host themed temporary exhibitions, which often include items on loan from other collections.

Terminology

An institution dedicated to the display of art can be called an art museum or an art gallery, and the two terms may be used interchangeably. This is reflected in the names of institutions around the world, some of which are considered art galleries, such as the National Gallery in London and Neue Nationalgalerie in Berlin, and some of which are considered museums, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Museum of Modern Art in New York City and the National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo.

The phrase "art gallery" is also sometimes used to describe businesses which display art for sale, but these are not art museums.

History

Private collections

Throughout history, large and expensive works of art have generally been commissioned by religious institutions or political leaders and been displayed in temples, churches, and palaces. Although these collections of art were not open to the general public, they were often made available for viewing for a section of the public. In classical times, religious institutions began to function as an early form of art gallery. Wealthy Roman collectors of engraved gems and other precious objects, such as Julius Caesar, often donated their collections to temples. It is unclear how easy it was in practice for the public to view these items.

In Europe, from the Late Medieval period onwards, areas in royal palaces, castles, and large country houses of the social elite were often made partially accessible to sections of the public, where art collections could be viewed. At the Palace of Versailles, entrance was restricted to people of certain social classes who were required to wear the proper apparel, which typically included the appropriate accessories, silver shoe buckles and a sword, could be hired from shops outside. The treasuries of cathedrals and large churches, or parts of them, were often set out for public display and veneration. Many of the grander English country houses could be toured by the respectable for a tip to the housekeeper, during the long periods when the family were not in residence.

Special arrangements were made to allow the public to see many royal or private collections placed in galleries, as with most of the paintings of the Orleans Collection, which were housed in a wing of the Palais-Royal in Paris and could be visited for most of the 18th century. In Italy, the art tourism of the Grand Tour became a major industry from the 18th century onwards, and cities made efforts to make their key works accessible. The Capitoline Museums began in 1471 with a donation of classical sculpture to the city of Rome by the Papacy, while the Vatican Museums, whose collections are still owned by the Pope, trace their foundation to 1506, when the recently discovered Laocoön and His Sons was put on public display. A series of museums on different subjects were opened over subsequent centuries, and many of the buildings of the Vatican were purpose-built as galleries. An early royal treasury opened to the public was the Green Vault of the Kingdom of Saxony in the 1720s.

Privately funded museums open to the public began to be established from the 17th century onwards, often based around a collection of the cabinet of curiosities type. The first such museum was the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, opened in 1683 to house and display the artefacts of Elias Ashmole that were given to Oxford University in a bequest.

Public museums

The Kunstmuseum Basel, through its lineage which extends back to the Amerbach Cabinet, which included a collection of works by Hans Holbein the Younger and purchased by the city of Basel in 1661, is considered to be the first museum of art open to the public in the world.

In the second half of the 18th century, many private collections of art were opened to the public, and during and after the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars, many royal collections were nationalized, even where the monarchy remained in place, as in Spain and Bavaria.

In 1753, the British Museum was established and the Old Royal Library collection of manuscripts was donated to it for public viewing. In 1777, a proposal to the British government was put forward by MP John Wilkes to buy the art collection of the late Sir Robert Walpole, who had amassed one of the greatest such collections in Europe, and house it in a specially built wing of the British Museum for public viewing. After much debate, the idea was eventually abandoned due to the great expense, and twenty years later, the collection was bought by Tsaritsa Catherine the Great of Russia and housed in the State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg.

The Bavarian royal collection (now in the Alte Pinakothek, Munich) was opened to the public in 1779 and the Medici collection in Florence around 1789 (as the Uffizi Gallery). The opening of the Musée du Louvre during the French Revolution in 1793 as a public museum for much of the former French royal collection marked an important stage in the development of public access to art by transferring the ownership to a republican state; but it was a continuation of trends already well established.

The building now occupied by the Prado in Madrid was built before the French Revolution for the public display of parts of the royal art collection, and similar royal galleries were opened to the public in Vienna, Munich and other capitals. In Great Britain, however, the corresponding Royal Collection remained in the private hands of the monarch, and the first purpose-built national art galleries were the Dulwich Picture Gallery, founded in 1814 and the National Gallery, London opened to the public a decade later in 1824. Similarly, the National Gallery in Prague was not formed by opening an existing royal or princely art collection to the public, but was created from scratch as a joint project of some Czech aristocrats in 1796.

The Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. is generally considered to have been the first art museum in the United States. It was originally housed in the Renwick Gallery, built in 1859. Now a part of the Smithsonian Institution, the Renwick houses William Wilson Corcoran's collection of American and European art. The building was designed by James Renwick, Jr. and finally completed in 1874. It is located at 1661 Pennsylvania Avenue NW. Renwick designed it after the Louvre's Tuileries addition. At the time of its construction, it was known as "the American Louvre".

University museums and galleries

University art museums and galleries constitute collections of art developed, owned, and maintained by all kinds of schools, community colleges, colleges, and universities. This phenomenon exists in the West and East, making it a global practice. Although easily overlooked, there are over 700 university art museums in the US alone. This number, compared to other kinds of art museums, makes university art museums perhaps the largest category of art museums in the country. While the first of these collections can be traced to learning collections developed in art academies in Western Europe, they are now associated with and housed in centers of higher education of all types.

Galleries as a specific section in museums

The word gallery being originally an architectural term, the display rooms in museums are often called public galleries. Also frequently, a series of rooms dedicated to specific historic periods (e.g. Ancient Egypt) or other significant themed groupings of works (e.g. the gypsotheque or collection of plaster casts as in the Ashmolean Museum) within a museum with a more varied collection are referred to as specific galleries, e.g. Egyptian Gallery or Cast Gallery.

Visual art not shown in a gallery
Works on paper, such as drawings, pastels, watercolors, prints, and photographs are typically not permanently displayed for reasons of conservation. Instead, public access to these materials is provided by a dedicated print room located within the museum. Murals or mosaics often remain where they have been created (in situ), although many have also been removed to galleries. Various forms of 20th-century art, such as land art and performance art, also usually exist outside a gallery. Photographic records of these kinds of art are often shown in galleries, however. Most museums and large art galleries own more works than they have room to display. The rest are held in reserve collections, on or off-site.

A sculpture garden is similar to an art gallery, presenting sculpture in an outdoor space. Sculpture has grown in popularity with sculptures installed in open spaces on both a permanent and temporary basis.

Architecture

Most larger paintings from about 1530 onwards were designed to be seen either in churches or palaces, and many buildings built as palaces now function successfully as art museums. By the 18th century additions to palaces and country houses were sometimes intended specifically as galleries for viewing art, and designed with that in mind.  The architectural form of the entire building solely intended to be an art gallery was arguably established by Sir John Soane with his design for the Dulwich Picture Gallery in 1817. This established the gallery as a series of interconnected rooms with largely uninterrupted wall spaces for hanging pictures and indirect lighting from skylights or roof lanterns.

The late 19th century saw a boom in the building of public art galleries in Europe and America, becoming an essential cultural feature of larger cities. More art galleries rose up alongside museums and public libraries as part of the municipal drive for literacy and public education.

Over the middle and late twentieth century, earlier architectural styles employed for art museums (such as the Beaux-Arts style of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City or the Gothic and Renaissance Revival architecture of Amsterdam's Rijksmuseum) succumbed to modern styles, such as Deconstructivism. Examples of this trend include the Guggenheim Museum in New York City by Frank Lloyd Wright, the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao by Frank Gehry, Centre Pompidou-Metz by Shigeru Ban, and the redesign of the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art by Mario Botta. Some critics argue these galleries defeat their purposes because their dramatic interior spaces distract the eye from the paintings they are supposed to exhibit.

Cultural aspects
Museums are more than just mere 'fixed structures designed to house collections.' Their purpose is to shape identity and memory, cultural heritage, distilled narratives and treasured stories. Many art museums throughout history have been designed with a cultural purpose or been subject to political intervention. In particular, national art galleries have been thought to incite feelings of nationalism. This has occurred in both democratic and non-democratic countries, although authoritarian regimes have historically exercised more control over administration of art museums. Ludwig Justi was for example dismissed as director of the Alte Nationalgalerie (Old National Gallery) in Berlin in 1933 by the new Nazi authorities for not being politically suitable.

The question of the place of the art museum in its community has long been under debate. Some see art museums as fundamentally elitist institutions, while others see them as institutions with the potential for societal education and uplift. John Cotton Dana, an American librarian and museum director, as well as the founder of the Newark Museum, saw the traditional art museum as a useless public institution, one that focused more on fashion and conformity rather than education and uplift. Indeed, Dana's ideal museum would be one best suited for active and vigorous use by the average citizen, located near the center of their daily movement. In addition, Dana's conception of the perfect museum included a wider variety of objects than the traditional art museum, including industrial tools and handicrafts that encourage imagination in areas traditionally considered mundane. This view of the art museum envisions it as one well-suited to an industrial world, indeed enhancing it. Dana viewed paintings and sculptures as much less useful than industrial products, comparing the museum to a department store. In addition, he encouraged the active lending-out of a museum's collected objects in order to enhance education at schools and to aid in the cultural development of individual members of the community. Finally, Dana saw branch museums throughout a city as a good method of making sure that every citizen has access to its benefits. Dana's view of the ideal museum sought to invest a wider variety of people in it, and was self-consciously not elitist.

Since the 1970s, a number of political theorists and social commentators have pointed to the political implications of art museums and social relations. Pierre Bourdieu, for instance, argued that in spite the apparent freedom of choice in the arts, people's artistic preferences (such as classical music, rock, traditional music) strongly tie in with their social position. So called cultural capital is a major factor in social mobility (for example, getting a higher-paid, higher-status job). The argument states that certain art museums are aimed at perpetuating aristocratic and upper class ideals of taste and excludes segments of society without the social opportunities to develop such interest. The fine arts thus perpetuate social inequality by creating divisions between different social groups. This argument also ties in with the Marxist theory of mystification and elite culture.

Furthermore, certain art galleries, such as the National Gallery in London and the Louvre in Paris are situated in buildings of considerable emotional impact. The Louvre in Paris is for instance located in the former Royal Castle of the ancient regime, and is thus clearly designed with a political agenda. It has been argued that such buildings create feelings of subjugation and adds to the mystification of fine arts. Research suggests that the context in which an artwork is being presented has significant influence on its reception by the audience, and viewers shown artworks in a museum rated them more highly than when displayed in a "laboratory" setting

Online museums

Museums with major web presences
Most art museums have only limited online collections, but a few museums, as well as some libraries and government agencies, have developed substantial online catalogues. Museums, libraries, and government agencies with substantial online collections include:

The British Museum has over 4,000,000 objects of all types available online, of which 1,018,471 have one or more images (as of June 2019).
Library of Congress, prints (C19 on) and photographs collection (several million entries).
Metropolitan Museum of Art has "406,000 hi-res images of public-domain works from the collection that can be downloaded, shared, and remixed without restriction".
Rijksmuseum has 399,189 objects available online, of which 153,309 have one or more images.
National Portrait Gallery, with over 215,000 works, 150,000 of which are illustrated, including paintings, prints and photographic portraits.
MOMA (Museum of Modern Art), with holdings that include more than 150,000 individual pieces in addition to approximately 22,000 films.
Boston Museum of Fine Arts, with over 330,000 works, most with images. Good for prints.
Fine Art Museums of San Francisco, with over 85,000 works.
Harvard Art Museums, with over 233,000 works online.
Louvre, with over 80,000 works in various databases, with a large number of images, as well as another 140,000 drawings.
National Gallery of Art, with over 108,000 works catalogued, though with only 6,000 images.
 The Mona Lisa Database of French Museums – Joconde *(from the French Ministry of Culture)
Gallery Photoclass South Korea Art Gallery – since 2002
Museum of Art & Photography (MAP), Bengaluru, India, with over 18,000+ artefacts online, including paintings, photographs, textiles, sculptures and prints.

Online art collections
There are a number of online art catalogues and galleries that have been developed independently of the support of any individual museum. Many of these, like American Art Gallery, are attempts to develop galleries of artwork that are encyclopedic or historical in focus, while others are commercial efforts to sell the work of contemporary artists.

A limited number of such sites have independent importance in the art world. The large auction houses, such as Sotheby's, Bonhams, and Christie's, maintain large online databases of art which they have auctioned or are auctioning. Bridgeman Art Library serves as a central source of reproductions of artwork, with access limited to museums, art dealers, and other professionals or professional organizations.

Folksonomy
There are also online galleries that have been developed by a collaboration of museums and galleries that are more interested with the categorization of art. They are interested in the potential use of folksonomy within museums and the requirements for post-processing of terms that have been gathered, both to test their utility and to deploy them in useful ways.

The steve.museum is one example of a site that is experimenting with this collaborative philosophy. The participating institutions include the Guggenheim Museum, the Cleveland Museum of Art, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art.

Museum lists
List of museums (listing links to articles on many specific museums, worldwide, sorted by country)
List of most visited museums
List of most visited art museums
List of most visited museums by region
List of largest art museums in the world

International and national lists
World: World Heritage Site (s) (per UNESCO)
World (modern art): Museums of modern art
Latin America: Museums in Latin America, on the website of the Latin American Network Information Center (LANIC) of the University of Texas at Austin
United States: :Category:Institutions accredited by the American Alliance of Museums, alphabetical list with links.
United States: ART MUSEUMS, ART CENTERS, and NON-PROFIT ART ORGANIZATIONS web page, sorted by state, on the website Art Collecting.com.
United States: Museums page, listing (with links) the national museums of the United States, in the "History, Arts, and Culture" subsection of the "Citizens" section of the U.S. federal government's general information website USA.gov

Organizations
There are relatively few local/regional/national organizations dedicated specifically to art museums. Most art museums are associated with local/regional/national organizations for the arts, humanities or museums in general. Many of these organizations are listed as follows:

International and topical organizations
UNESCO – the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization—the leading global organization for the preservation and presentation of world cultures and arts.
International Council of Museums
Association of Art Historians
Association of Art Museum Curators
Association of Art Museum Directors
Independent Curators International
International Association of Curators of Contemporary Art (IKT)
College Art Association (CAA)
Small Museum Association, an all-volunteer organization serving small museums in the mid-Atlantic region and beyond.
North American Reciprocal Museum Association (NARM)
The Artists' Materials Center: An applied research organization at Carnegie Mellon University dedicated to helping museums, libraries, and archives improve the ways of caring for their collections.
International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM): an intergovernmental organization dedicated to the conservation of cultural heritage.
International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (IIC)

National organizations
Australia: Australian Museums and Galleries Association
Canada: Canadian Art Museum Directors Organization (CAMDO)
Canada: Canadian Museums Association
Japan: Japan Association of Art Museums (English language page)
Japan: Japanese Association of Museums (English language page)
United States: American Alliance of Museums, formerly the American Association of Museums
United States: American Federation of Arts
United States: National Art Education Association, and specifically their Museum Education Division
United States: American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (AIC)
United Kingdom: The Museums Association (MA) is a professional membership organisation based in London for museum, gallery, and heritage professionals, museums, galleries and heritage organisations, and companies that work in the museum, gallery, and heritage sector of the United Kingdom. It also offers international membership. Started in 1889, it is the oldest museum association in the world, and has over 5,000 individual members, 600 institutional members, and 250 corporate members.

Other organizations (for multiple museums)

Regional, provincial, and state museum organizations
Canada, Ontario: Ontario Museum Association and Ontario Association of Art Galleries
United States, western states:  Western Museums Association
United States, western states:  Museums West Consortium, an association of 13 museums of the American West.
United States, western states: Western Association for Art Conservation (WAAC)
United States, California: California Association of Museums
United States, Florida: Florida Art Museum Directors Association—an affiliate of the Florida Association of Museums

District, local and community museum organizations
United States, Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, the official national museum, and controlling organization for most major art and cultural museums in Washington, D.C., national museums with major art collections, as well as other national historic and cultural facilities nationwide. The Smithsonian also—directly or indirectly, and through traveling exhibits—coordinates some federal government support of museums (art and other), nationally. Also partners with many museums throughout the United States, each designated as a "Smithsonian Affiliate" institution.
United States, Florida, Miami Miami Art Museums Alliance
United States, New Mexico, Taos: Taos art colony
United States, New York, New York City:  Art Museum Partnership
United States, New York, New York City:  Museums Council of New York City
United States, Texas, Houston: Houston Museum District Association

See also
Art exhibition
Artist cooperative
Artist-run initiative
Artist-run space
Arts centre
Contemporary art gallery
List of largest art museums
List of most visited art museums
List of national galleries
List of single-artist museums
Pop-up exhibition
Vanity gallery
Virtual museum

References

Further reading

Articles containing video clips
Types of art museums and galleries
Types of museums

Art museum


Jacob Michailovitch Gordin (Yiddish: יעקב מיכאַילאָװיטש גאָרדין; May 1, 1853 – June 11, 1909) was a Russian-American playwright active in the early years of Yiddish theater. He is known for introducing realism and naturalism into Yiddish theater.

The Cambridge History of English and American Literature characterizes him as "the acknowledged reformer of the Yiddish stage." At the time of his rise, professional Yiddish theater was still dominated by the spirit of the early (1886–1888) plays of its founder, Abraham Goldfaden, which derived in no small measure from Purim plays, often spectacles more than dramas; Goldfaden's later works were generally operettas on more serious subjects, perhaps edifying, but not naturalistic. Again quoting the Cambridge History, after his 1892 arrival in New York City, "Gordin took the Yiddish drama in America from the realm of the preposterous and put a living soul into it," bringing it up to the level of "realistic melodrama."

Life and career
Gordin was born in Myrhorod, Russian Empire, and received a liberal though irregular education at home.  He was recognized as a reformer and a  Russian writer. He had also been a farmer, a journalist, a shipyard worker in Odessa, and, reportedly, an actor.

He migrated to New York in July 1891, and tried to make a living writing for Russian-language newspapers and the Yiddish socialist Arbayter Tsaytung (the precursor to the Forverts, The Forward), but his acquaintanceship with the noted Jewish actors Jacob Adler and Sigmund Mogulesko prompted him to try his hand at play-writing.

His first play, Siberia, was based on a true story about a man sent as a prisoner to Siberia and who escaped, lived out a normal life for many years, and was then exiled again. Although initially it met a rocky reception (as did his second play, Two Worlds), it was a critical success. His third play The Pogrom in Russia was produced in January 1892 by the actor Boris Thomashefsky. In June 1892, Gordin signed a contract with Jacob Pavlovich Adler, and later that year, for Adler and his troupe, he wrote Der yidisher kenig lir (The Jewish King Lear), loosely adapted from Shakespeare  and the Russian writer Ivan Turgenev's King Lear of the Steppes, and set in 19th century Russia. It laid the foundation of his career as a Yiddish playwright. The play drew a new audience of Russian-Jewish intellectuals to the Yiddish theater and constituted a defining moment in Adler's career as well as Gordin's. It is widely seen as ushering in the first "Golden Age" of Yiddish theater in New York.

To some extent he had to compromise his modernist vision with the theatrical conventions of the time. As in the plays of Goldfaden, Moses Horowitz (Hurvitz), and Joseph Lateiner, dancing and songs unrelated to the plot still occupied a prominent part in the play, but Gordin's plots were naturalistic and the characters were living persons. Under the influence of his plays, Jewish actors began to regard their profession as one which calls for study and an earnest attitude.

Gordin is noted more for bringing naturalism and realism into the Yiddish theater than as an intrinsically great dramatist. Again quoting the Cambridge History, "With all the realism of his situations, with all the genuineness of his characters, he was rather a producer of plays for a particular theatrical troupe than a writer of drama. That his comic characters generally stand in organic relation to the play is one of his chief merits. Of his many pieces (about 70 or 80) only a score or so have been published." They single out as some of his best Mirele Efros, Got, Mentsh un Tayvl (God, Man, and Devil, based on Goethe's Faust), and Der Umbakanter (The Unknown).

Partial list of works
Some of these plays may have earlier dates than indicated: it is possible that sources are referring to publication dates or revivals.
 Siberia, 1891
 Der pogrom in rusland (The Pogrom in Russia), 1892
 Tsvey veltn, oder Der groyser sotsialist (Two Worlds, or The Great Socialist). According to B. Gorin, 1892; according to Z. Zylbercweig, 1896
 Der yidisher kenig lir (The Jewish King Lear), 1892
 Der vilder mentsh (The Wild Man), 1893
 Captain Dreyfus; Pogrom, 1893
 "Di litvishe brider lurie" (The Lurie Brothers from Lithuania), 1894
 Zelig itzik, der fidler, free adaptation of Schiller's Intrigue and Love (Kabal und Liebe)
 "Der folks faynd" (An Enemy of the People), an adaptation from Henrik Ibsen, 1896
 Medea: a historishe tragedye, adapted from Franz Grillparzer, no later than 1897
 Mirele Efros, oder di yidishe kenigin lir (Mirele Efros or the Jewish Queen Lear), 1898
 Di shkhite (The Slaughter — the title refers to ritual slaughter, in accord with Kosher laws), 1899
 Shloime khokhem (Solomon the Wise, Solomon Kaus), 1899-1900
 Di shvue (The Oath), 1900
 Got, mentsh un tayvl (God, Man, and Devil), 1900
 Safo (Sappho), 1900
 Der momzer (The Bastard), a reworking of Victor Hugo's Lucrezia de Borgia, 1901
 Di makht fun finsternish, translation of  The Power of Darkness by Leo Tolstoy 1902; Gorin lists as 1905
 Di Kreytser sonata (The Kreutzer Sonata), 1902
 Khasye di yesoyme (Khasia the orphan), 1903
 Der emes or  Die varhayt (The Truth), 1903
 Ta'ares-hamishpokhe (Family Purity), 1904
 Di emese kraft (The True Power), 1904
 Tkhies-hameysim (Resurrection), adapted from the Tolstoy novel, 1904
 Elisha Ben Abuyah, 1906
 Der unbekanter (The Stranger), 1905
 Der meturef (The Worthless), 1905
 Der fremder (The Foreigner), 1906
 On a heym (Homeless), 1907
 Di sheyne Miryam, no later than 1908
 Dementia Americana, 1908
 Dovid'l meshoyrer (David the Choir Singer), 1907

Footnotes

Further reading
 Joel Berkowitz, Shakespeare on the American Yiddish Stage.  Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2002
 Melech Epstein, Profiles of Eleven: Profiles of Eleven Men Who Guided the Destiny of an Immigrant Society and Stimulated Social Consciousness Among the American People. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1965

 Beth Kaplan, Finding the Jewish Shakespeare: The Life and Legacy of Jacob Gordin, University of Syracuse Press, 2007
 Lulla Rosenfeld, "The Yiddish Idol," New York Times Magazine, June 12, 1977, p. 32 ff. (in the New York Times digital archive edition, p. 205-207, 210). The article is an excerpt from Rosenfeld's book Bright Star of Exile: Jakob Adler and the Yiddish Theatre (New York: Crowell, 1977).
 Zalmen Zylbercweig (ed.), "Gordin, Yankev," in Leksikon fun yidishn teater, vol. 1, Farlag "Elisheve," New York, 1931, p. 392–461

1853 births
1909 deaths
People from Myrhorod
People from Poltava Governorate
Ukrainian Jews
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Bundists
Yiddish-language playwrights
Jewish dramatists and playwrights
Dramatists and playwrights from the Russian Empire
Jewish American dramatists and playwrights
19th-century American dramatists and playwrights

Jacob Gordin


The Île-de-France (, ; literally "Isle of France") is the most populous of the eighteen regions of France, with an official estimated population of 12,271,794 residents on 1 January 2023. Centred on the capital Paris, it is located in the north-central part of the country and often called the Paris Region (, ). Île-de-France is densely populated and retains a prime economic position on the national stage: though it covers only , about 2% of metropolitan French territory, its 2017 population was nearly one-fifth of the national total.

The region is made up of eight administrative departments: Paris, Essonne, Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis, Seine-et-Marne, Val-de-Marne, Val-d'Oise and Yvelines. It was created as the "District of the Paris Region" in 1961. In 1976, when its status was aligned with the French administrative regions created in 1972, it was renamed after the historic province of Île-de-France. Residents are sometimes referred to as Franciliens, an administrative word created in the 1980s. The GDP of the region in 2019 was nearly one-third of the French, and 5% of the European Union's. It has the highest per capita GDP of any French region and the third highest of any region in the European Union.

Beyond the city limits of Paris, the region has many other important historic sites, including the palaces of Versailles and Fontainebleau, as well as the most-visited tourist attraction in France, Disneyland Paris. Though it is the richest French region, a significant number of residents live in poverty: the official poverty rate in the Île-de-France was 15.9% in 2015. The region has witnessed increasing income inequality in recent decades and rising housing prices have pushed the less affluent outside Paris.

Etymology

Although the modern name Île-de-France literally means "Island of France", its etymology is in fact unclear. The "island" may refer to the land between the rivers Oise, Marne and Seine, or it may also have been a reference to the Île de la Cité, where the French royal palace and cathedral were located.

Alternatively, the name may refer to the lands that were under the direct rule of the Capetian kings during the Middle Ages; thus, the lands were an "island" in a sea of various feudal territories ruled by vassals of the king.

History

The Île-de-France was inhabited by the Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, from around the middle of the 3rd-century BC. One of the area's major north–south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité; the meeting place of land and water trade routes gradually became an important trading centre. The Parisii traded with many river towns (some as far away as the Iberian Peninsula) and minted their own coins for that purpose.

The Romans conquered the area in 52 BC and began their settlement on Paris's Left Bank. It became a prosperous city with a forum, baths, temples, theatres, and an amphitheatre. Christianity was introduced in the middle of the 3rd century AD by Saint Denis, the first Bishop of Paris. According to legend, when Denis refused to renounce his faith before Roman authorities, he was beheaded on the hill that became known as Mons Martyrum (Latin "Hill of Martyrs"), later "Montmartre". The legend further states that Denis walked headless from this hill to the north of the city. The place that he finally fell and was buried became an important religious shrine, the Basilica of Saint-Denis.

Clovis the Frank, the first king of the Merovingian dynasty, made the city his capital in 508. As the Frankish domination of Gaul began, there was a gradual immigration by the Franks to Paris and the Parisian Francien dialects were born. Fortification of the Île de la Cité failed to avert sacking by Vikings in 845, but Paris's strategic importance—with its bridges preventing ships from passing—was established by successful defence in the Siege of Paris (885–86). In 987, Hugh Capet, Count of Paris (comte de Paris) and Duke of the Franks (duc des Francs), was elected King of the Franks (roi des Francs). Under the rule of the Capetian kings, Paris gradually became the largest and most prosperous city in France.

The Kings of France enjoyed getting away from Paris and hunting in the game-filled forests of the region. They built palatial hunting lodges, most notably Palace of Fontainebleau and the Palace of Versailles. From the time of Louis XIV to the French Revolution, Versailles was the official residence of the Kings and the seat of the French government. Île-de-France became the term used for the territory of Paris and the surrounding province, which was administered directly by the King.

During the French Revolution, the royal provinces were abolished and divided into departments, and the city and region were governed directly by the national government. After World War II, as Paris faced a major housing shortage, hundreds of massive apartment blocks for low-income residents were built around the edges of Paris. In the 1950s and the 1960s, thousands of immigrants settled in the communes bordering the city. In 1959, under President Charles De Gaulle, a new region was created out of six departments, which corresponded approximately with the historic region, with the name District de la région de Paris ("District of the Paris Region"). On 6 May 1976, as part of the process of regionalisation, the district was reconstituted with increased administrative and political powers and renamed the Île-de-France region.

Geography
Île-de-France is in the north of France, neighboring Hauts-de-France to the north, Grand Est to the east, Bourgogne-Franche-Comté to the southeast, Centre-Val-de-Loire to the southwest, and Normandy to the west.

Departments
Île-de-France has a land area of . It is composed of eight departments centred on its innermost department and capital, Paris. Around the department and municipality of Paris, urbanisation fills a first concentric ring of three departments commonly known as the petite couronne ("small ring"); it extends into a second outer ring of four departments known as the grande couronne ("large ring"). The former department of Seine, abolished in 1968, included the city proper and parts of the petite couronne.

The petite couronne consists of the departments of Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis and Val-de-Marne; the grande couronne consists of those of Seine-et-Marne, Yvelines, Essonne and Val-d'Oise. Politically, the region is divided into 8 departments, 25 arrondissements, 155 cantons and 1,276 communes, out of the total of 35,416 in metropolitan France.

Topography
The outer parts of the Île-de-France remain largely rural. Agricultural land, forest and natural spaces occupy 78.9 percent of the region, and 28 percent of the region's land is in urban use. the remaining 24 percent is rivers, forests, woods, and ponds.

The River Seine flows through the middle of the region, which is crisscrossed by its tributaries and sub-tributaries, including the Rivers Marne, Oise and Epte. The River Eure does not cross the region but receives water from several rivers in the Île-de-France, including the Drouette and the Vesgre. The major rivers are navigable, and, because of the modest variations of altitude in the region (between 10 and 200 meters), they have a tendency to meander and curve. They also create many lakes and ponds, some of which have been transformed into recreation areas, including Moisson-Mousseaux, Cergy-Neuville and Villeneuve-Saint-Georges.

Economy

Paris region (Île-de-France) produced €742 billion (Gross domestic product) or around 1/3 of the economy of France in 2019.

The regional economy has gradually shifted toward high-value-added service industries (finance, IT services, etc.) and high-tech manufacturing (electronics, optics, aerospace, etc.). In 2014, industry represented just under five percent of active enterprises in the region, and 10.2 percent of salaried workers. Commerce and services account for 84 percent of the business establishments in the region, and have 83.3 percent of the salaried employees.

Financial services and insurance are important sectors of the regional economy; the major French banks and insurance companies, including BNP Paribas, Société Générale, and Crédit Agricole, all have their headquarters in the region. The region also hosts the headquarters of the top French telecom companies and utilities, including Orange S.A., Veolia, and EDF. The French stock market, the Bourse de Paris, now known as Euronext Paris, occupies a historical building in the center of Paris and is ranked fourth among global stock markets, after New York, Tokyo and London.

Other major sectors of the regional economy include energy companies (Orano, Engie, Électricité de France, and Total S.A.). The two major French automobile manufacturers, Renault at Flins-sur-Seine and Groupe PSA at Poissy, do much of their assembly work outside of France but still have research centre and large plants in the region. The leading French and European aerospace and defense companies, including Airbus, Thales Group, Dassault Aviation, Safran Aircraft Engines, the European Space Agency, Alcatel-Lucent, and Arianespace, have a large presence in the region.

The energy sector is also well established in the region. The nuclear power industry, with its major firm Orano, has its headquarters in Île-de-France, as does the main French oil company Total S.A., the top French company in the Fortune Global 500, and the main electric utility, Électricité de France. The energy firm Engie also has its main offices in the region at La Défense.

Employment
In 2018 just 7.2 percent of employees in the region were engaged in industry; 62.3 percent were engaged in commerce and market services; 25.5 percent in non-market services, including government, health and education; 4.8 percent in construction; and 0.2 percent in agriculture.

The largest non-government employers in the region as of the end of 2015 were the airline Air France (40,657); the SNCF (French Railways, 31,955); the telecom firm Orange S.A. (31,497); the bank Société Générale (27,361); the automotive firm Groupe PSA (19,648); EDF (Electricité de France, 18,199); and Renault (18,136). While the Petite Couronne, or departments closest to Paris, previously employed the most industrial workers, the largest number is now in the Grande Couronne, the outer departments.

The unemployment rate in the region stood at 8.6% at the end of 2016. It varied within the region from 7.8 percent in the city of Paris, to a high of 12.7 percent in Seine-Saint-Denis, and 10 percent in Val-d'Oise; to regional lows of 7.4 percent in Yvelines; 7.5 percent in Hauts-de-Seine; 7.7 percent in Essonne; 7.9 percent in Seine et Marne, and 8.8 percent in Val de Marne.

Agriculture
In 2018, 48 percent of the land of the Île-de-France was devoted to agriculture; 569,000 hectares were cultivated. The most important crops are grains (66 percent), followed by beets (7 percent), largely for industrial use, and grass for grazing. In 2014, 9,495 hectares were devoted to bio-agriculture. However, the number of persons employed in agriculture in the region dropped 33 percent between 2000 and 2015 to just 8,460 persons in 2015.

Tourism
The Île-de-France is one of the world's top tourist destinations, with a record 23.6 million hotel arrivals in 2017, and an estimated 50 million visitors in all types of accommodation. The largest number of visitors came from the United States, followed by England, Germany and China.
 The top tourist attraction in the region in 2017 was Disneyland Paris, which received 14.8 million visitors in 2017, followed by the Cathedral of Notre-Dame (est. 12 million) and the Basilica of Sacre-Coeur at Montmartre (est. 11.1 million visitors).

Notable historic monuments in the Region outside of Paris include the Palace of Versailles (7,700,000 visitors), the Palace of Fontainebleau (500,000 visitors), the chateau of Vaux-le-Vicomte (300,000 visitors), and the Château de Malmaison, Napoleon's former country house; and the Basilica of Saint-Denis, where the Kings of France were interred before the French Revolution.

Regional government and politics

The Regional Council is the legislative body of the region. Its seat is in Paris, at 33 rue Barbet-de-Jouy in the 7th arrondissement. On 15 December 2015, a list of candidates of the Union of the Right, a coalition of centrist and right-wing parties, led by Valérie Pécresse, narrowly won the regional election, defeating the Union of the Left, a coalition of socialists and ecologists. The socialists had governed the region for the preceding seventeen years.

Since 2016 the regional council has 121 members from the Union of the Right, 66 from the Union of the Left and 22 from the far-right National Front.

Holders of the executive office
 Delegates General for the District of the Paris Region
 1961–1969: Paul Delouvrier (civil servant) – Very influential term. Responsible for the creation of the RER express subway network in the Île-de-France and beyond.
 1969–1975: Maurice Doublet (civil servant)
 1975–1976: Lucien Lanier (civil servant)
 Presidents of the Regional Council of Île-de-France
 1976–1988: Michel Giraud (RPR politician) – (1st time)
 1988–1992: Pierre-Charles Krieg (RPR politician)
 1992–1998: Michel Giraud (RPR politician) – (2nd time)
 1998–2015: Jean-Paul Huchon (PS)
 2016– Valérie Pécresse (Union of the Centre-Right)

Demographics

Population density
, the population density of the region was 1010.9 inhabitants per square kilometer. The densest department is Paris itself, with 21,066 inhabitants per square kilometer. The least dense département is Seine-et-Marne with 239 residents per square kilometer.

Wealth and poverty
 according to the official government statistics agency INSEE, 15.9 percent of residents of the region had an income below the poverty level; for residents of the city of Paris, this proportion was 16.2 percent. Poverty was highest in the departments of Seine-Saint-Denis (29 percent), Val-d'Oise (17.1 percent), and Val-de-Marne (16.8 percent). It was lowest in Yvelines (9.7 percent); Seine-et-Marne (11.8 percent), Essonne (12.9 percent), and Hauts-de-Seine (12.4 percent). The department of Hauts-de-Seine is the wealthiest in France in terms of per capita GDP.

Immigration

At the 2019 census, 75.1% of the inhabitants of Île-de-France were natives of Metropolitan France, 1.7% were born in Overseas France, and 23.1% were born in foreign countries. A quarter of the immigrants living in the Île-de-France were born in Europe (38% of whom in Portugal), 29% were born in the Maghreb and 22% in the rest of Africa (in particular West and Central Africa), 3% were born in Turkey and 15% in the rest of Asia, 5% were born in the Americas (not counting those born in the French overseas departments in the Americas, who are not legally immigrants), and 0.1% in Oceania (not counting those born in the French territories of the South Pacific, who are not legally immigrants).

In 2013, 2,206,000 residents of the Île-de-France were immigrants, born outside of France. This amounted to 18.5% of the population of the region, twice the national average. Four out of ten immigrants living in France reside in the region. The immigrant population of the Île-de-France has a higher proportion of non-Europeans, as well as a higher proportion of immigrants with an advanced level of education, than the rest of France. The population of immigrants is more widely distributed throughout the region than it was in the early 2000s, though the concentrations remain high in certain areas, particularly Paris and the department of Seine-Saint-Denis. The proportion of residents born outside of Metropolitan France rose between the 1999 (19.7%) and 2019 censuses (24.9%).

Petite Couronne

The Petite Couronne (literally "Little Crown" or inner ring) is formed by the three departments bordering Paris, forming a geographical crown around it. These departments, until 1968 part of the disbanded Seine department, are Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis and Val-de-Marne. The most populated towns of the Petite Couronne are Boulogne-Billancourt, Montreuil, Saint-Denis, Nanterre and Créteil.

The Métropole du Grand Paris is an administrative structure that comprises Paris and the three departments of the Petite Couronne, plus seven additional communes in the Grande Couronne.

The table below shows some statistical information about the area including Paris:

Grande Couronne
The Grande Couronne (Large Crown, i.e. outer ring) includes the outer four departments of Île-de-France not bordering Paris. They are Seine-et-Marne (77), Yvelines (78), Essonne (91) and Val-d'Oise (95). The last three departments formed the Seine-et-Oise department until this was disbanded in 1968. The city of Versailles is part of this area.

Historical population

Notable people

 Until there is such an article, use this category instead:
Category:People from Île-de-France

International relations

Twin regions
Île-de-France is twinned with:
  Comunidad de Madrid in Spain (since 2000)
  Yerevan in Armenia (since 2011)
  Hanoi in Vietnam (since 2013)

See also

 List of European Union regions by GDP
 Véligo
 Kalos, a fictional region in the Pokémon franchise based on Île-de-France and surrounding provinces.

References

Bibliography

External links

 Paris Region Map, the interactive economic map of Paris Region
 Regional Council of Île-de-France

Regions of France
NUTS 1 statistical regions of the European Union
NUTS 2 statistical regions of the European Union
Former provinces of France
History of Île-de-France
History of Centre-Val de Loire
History of Hauts-de-France
History of Grand Est
History of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté
History of Aisne
History of Ardennes (department)
History of Essonne
History of Eure-et-Loir
History of Hauts-de-Seine
History of Loiret
History of Oise
History of Paris
History of Seine-et-Marne
History of Seine-Saint-Denis
History of Somme (department)
History of Val-de-Marne
History of Val-d'Oise
History of Yonne
History of Yvelines

Île-de-France


Gofraid mac Sitriuc (died 951), in Old Norse Guðrøðr Sigtryggsson , was King of Dublin. He was the son of Sihtric ua Ímair and a great-grandson of Ímar, founder of the Uí Ímair kindred which dominated much of the Norse-Gael and Scandinavianised parts of Britain and Ireland in the 10th century.

Gofraid became ruler of Dublin on the death of his cousin Blácaire mac Gofrith in a battle against Congalach mac Máel Mithig, the High King of Ireland, in 948. The men of Dublin suffered heavy losses in this battle, over a thousand being killed or captured.

An even bloodier defeat followed in 950 when Gofraid allied with Congalach against the would-be High King Ruaidrí ua Canannáin. Gofraid attacked Ruaidrí at an unidentified place called Móin Brocaín, somewhere between the River Boyne and the River Liffey, on 30 November 950. Although Ruaidrí and one of his sons were killed in the battle, Gofraid was heavily defeated and fled. The Annals of Ulster say that some two thousand of the Dublin force were killed, while other, less reliable Irish annals claim as many as six thousand. It may be that Congalach betrayed Gofraid, as some sources present him as the victor.

Gofraid's fortunes improved in 951. Raids from Dublin targeted the Abbey of Kells and other churches in the Irish midlands. The Annals of Ulster say that from Kells alone "three thousand men or more were taken captive and a great spoil of cattle and horses and gold and silver was taken away". The prisoners would be ransomed or sold into slavery, the cattle would feed Dublin as the city depended on importing mature beasts, and the rest would strengthen the city's defences.

Neither walls nor money nor soldiers were of any protection when, as the annals report, plague appeared in Dublin later in 951. This is described as leprosy and dysentery. According to the Chronicon Scotorum Gofraid was among the dead, and his death is reported as divine vengeance for the sacking of Kells.

Gofraid's brother Amlaíb Cuarán succeeded him as king in Dublin in 952.

Notes

References

 The Annals of Ulster, Annals of the Four Masters and the Chronicon Scotorum are available with translations at CELT: The Corpus of Electronic Texts (University College Cork)

Monarchs of Dublin
951 deaths
Uí Ímair
Year of birth unknown
10th-century Irish monarchs

Gofraid mac Sitriuc


Clean-in-place (CIP) is an automated method of cleaning the interior surfaces of pipes, vessels, equipment, filters and associated fittings, without major disassembly. CIP is commonly used for equipment such as piping, tanks, and fillers. CIP employs turbulent flow through piping, and/or spray balls for large surfaces. In some cases, CIP can also be accomplished with fill, soak and agitate.

Up to the 1950s, closed systems were disassembled and cleaned manually. The advent of CIP was a boon to industries that needed frequent internal cleaning of their processes. Industries that rely heavily on CIP are those requiring high levels of hygiene, and include: dairy, beverage, brewing, processed foods, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics.

The benefit to industries that use CIP is that the cleaning is faster, less labor-intensive and more repeatable, and poses less of a chemical exposure risk. CIP started as a manual practice involving a balance tank, centrifugal pump, and connection to the system being cleaned. Since the 1950s, CIP has evolved to include fully automated systems with programmable logic controllers, multiple balance tanks, sensors, valves, heat exchangers, data acquisition and specially designed spray nozzle systems. Simple, manually operated CIP systems can still be found in use today.

Depending on soil load and process geometry, the CIP design principle is one of the following:
 deliver highly turbulent, high flow-rate solution to effect good cleaning (applies to pipe circuits and some filled equipment).
 deliver solution as a low-energy spray to fully wet the surface (applies to lightly soiled vessels where a static spray ball may be used).
 deliver a high energy impinging spray (applies to highly soiled or large diameter vessels where a dynamic spray device may be used).
Elevated temperature and chemical detergents are often employed to enhance cleaning effectiveness.

Factors affecting the effectiveness of the cleaning agents
Temperature of the cleaning solution. Elevating the temperature of a cleaning solution increases its dirt removal efficiency. Molecules with high kinetic energy dislodge dirt faster than the slow moving molecules of a cold solution.

Concentration of the cleaning agent. A concentrated cleaning solution will clean a dirty surface much better than a dilute one due to the increased surface binding capacity.

Contact time of the cleaning solution. The longer the detergent contact period, the higher the cleaning efficiency. After some time, the detergent eventually dissolves the hard stains/soil from the dirty surface.

Pressure exerted by the cleaning solution (or turbulence). The turbulence creates an abrasive force that dislodges stubborn soil from the dirty surface.

Groundwater sources

Originally developed for cleaning closed systems as described above, CIP has more recently been applied to groundwater source boreholes used for high end-uses such as natural mineral/spring waters, food production and carbonated soft drinks (CSD).

Boreholes that are open to the atmosphere are prone to a number of chemical and microbiological problems, so sources for high end-use are often sealed at the surface (headworks). An air filter is built into the headworks to permit the borehole to inhale and exhale when the water level rises and falls quickly (usually due to the pump being turned on and off) without drawing in airborne particles or contaminants (spores, molds, fungi, bacteria, etc.).

In addition, CIP systems can be built into the borehole headworks to permit the injection of cleaning solutions (such as sodium hypochlorite or other sanitizers) and the subsequent recirculation of the mix of these chemicals and the groundwater. This process cleans the borehole interior and equipment without any invasive maintenance being required.

Biomanufacturing Equipment

CIP is commonly used for cleaning bioreactors, fermenters, mix vessels, and other equipment used in biotech manufacturing, pharmaceutical manufacturing and food and beverage manufacturing. CIP is performed to remove or obliterate previous mammalian cell culture batch components. It is used to remove in-process residues, control bioburden, and reduce endotoxin levels within processing equipment and systems. Residue removal is accomplished during CIP with a combination of heat, chemical action, and turbulent flow.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration published a CIP regulation in 1978 applicable to pharmaceutical manufacturing. The regulation states, "Equipment and utensils shall be cleaned, maintained, and sanitized at appropriate intervals to prevent malfunctions or contamination that would alter the safety, identity, strength, quality or purity of the drug product beyond the official or other established requirements."

Repeatable, reliable, and effective cleaning is of the utmost importance in a manufacturing facility. Cleaning procedures are validated to demonstrate that they are effective, reproducible, and under control. In order to adequately clean processing equipment, the equipment must be designed with smooth stainless steel surfaces and interconnecting piping that has cleanable joints. The chemical properties of the cleaning agents must properly interact with the chemical and physical properties of the residues being removed.

A typical CIP cycle consists of many steps which often include (in order):
 Pre-rinse with WFI (water for injection) or PW (purified water) which is performed to wet the interior surface of the tank and remove residue. It also provides a non-chemical pressure test of the CIP flow path.
 Caustic solution single pass flush through the vessel to drain. Caustic is the main cleaning solution.
 Caustic solution re-circulation through the vessel.
 Intermediate WFI or PW rinse
 Acid solution wash – used to remove mineral precipitates and protein residues.
 Final rinse with WFI or PW – rinses to flush out residual cleaning agents.
 Final air blow – used to remove moisture remaining after CIP cycle.

Critical parameters must be met and remain within the specification for the duration of the cycle. If the specification is not reached or maintained, cleaning will not be ensured and will have to be repeated. Critical parameters include temperature, flow rate/supply pressure, chemical concentration, chemical contact time, and final rinse conductivity (which shows that all cleaning chemicals have been removed).

See also
Effluent guidelines (U.S. wastewater regulations)
Effluent limitation
Good manufacturing practice
Ice pigging
Washdown
Wastewater

References

External links
 Clean-in-place in pictures and diagrams
 Clean in Place Sensors
 Cleaning-in-place

Cleaning methods
Environmental engineering

Clean-in-place


Paleobotany (Palaeobotany) is part of paleontology (palaeontology).  Paleophytology (Palaeophytology) is a synonym.

Paleobotanists study plant fossils from the past. Paleobotany is also about trying to understand past environments and the history of agriculture. Fossil pollen and spores are important for studying the history of plants. Micropaleontology and palynology both include studying fossil plant pollen and spores.

Note: terms starting with Paleo- are spelt Palaeo- in the English version of the English language.

Related pages
Coal, a black rock, and a solid fossil fuel formed from fossil plants
Coal balls, plant remains form strange balls in coal deposits, but are not made of coal
Rhynie chert, a fossil deposit with extraordinary plant fossils

Subfields of paleontology
Branches of botany

Paleobotany


William Langland (c. 1332 – c. 1386) was an English poet. He wrote a long and complicated poem called Piers Plowman. The poem is an allegory about the difficulty of leading a good Christian life when the institution of the Church is often corrupt.

We do not know for sure that this poem was written by Langland. The strongest evidence we have is one manuscript which says that the poem was written by 'Willielmi de Langlond', son of 'Stacy de Rokayle, who died in Shipton-under-Wichwood, a tenant of the Lord Spenser in the county of Oxfordshire'. Other manuscripts also name the author as 'Robert or William langland', or 'Wilhelmus W.' (probably an abbreviation for 'William of Wichwood', since Wychwood is the village he probably came from). Another piece of evidence is within the poem itself. At one stage the narrator says: 'I have lyved in londe...my name is longe wille'. Scholars agree that this is a code for the poet's name: Longe-Land, and Wille meaning Will, short for William. This may seem unlikely, but this method of hiding the poet's name within a poem was used in Roman times, and was quite common in late-medieval literature.

1330s births
1380s deaths
English poets

William Langland


Samuel Joseph Dolin (22 August 1917 – 13 January 2002) was a Canadian composer, music educator, and arts administrator. An associate of the Canadian Music Centre and a founding member of the Canadian League of Composers (CLC), he served as the CLC's vice president from 1967 to 1968 and president from 1969 to 1973. He was also vice-president of the International Society for Contemporary Music (ISCM) from 1972 to 1975 and chairman of the ISCM's Canadian Chapter from 1970 to 1974. From 1945 to 2001 he taught music composition, music theory, and piano at The Royal Conservatory of Music where he trained dozens of notable Canadian composers.

Early career and education
Born in Montreal, Dolin received his early musical training in his native city where he studied piano and music theory with Tania and Vladmir Elgart, Vladimir Emenitov, and Stanley Gardner. He entered the University of Toronto in the late 1930s where he earned a Bachelor of Music in 1942. From 1942 to 1945 he taught music at Trinity College School and was also music supervisor for the public schools in Durham and Northumberland counties in Ontario.

In 1945, Dolin began graduate studies in music composition under John Weinzweig at the Toronto Conservatory of Music (now The Royal Conservatory of Music). At the same time, he joined the conservatory's faculty. He eventually returned to the University of Toronto where he earned a Doctor of Music in composition in 1958. His other teachers included Weldon Kilburn, Reginald Godden, E. Robert Schmitz, and Ernst Krenek.

Work as a composer
Dolin's compositional output includes orchestral music, chamber music, choral music, works for solo piano, vocal art songs, and a number of dramatic works. His music encompasses a variety of styles, from traditional romanticism to chromaticism and other modern compositional techniques. An example of one of his more traditional works is his Serenade for Strings which was premiered by the CBC Symphony Orchestra at the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo, Norway. One of his more experimental works is Drakkar (1972), a stage work about the first Viking sightings of the New World. The work uses a chamber ensemble with electronic music, three vocal soloists, a multimedia slideshow, dancers, and a narrator.

The majority of Dolin's larger scale works date from his early to mid career. Half of his orchestral works were written during the 1950s, including the first two of his three symphonies. His only opera Casino 'Greed''' premiered in 1967. He wrote the film score for the 1970 movie Machina. He also contributed music to Canadian radio and television during the 1970s.

From the 1980s on, Dolin wrote mostly smaller scale works such as his well-known Two Vocalises for Two Celli (1990). Two notable exceptions are his last symphonic works, Concerto for Oboe and Violoncello with Orchestra (1989) and Double Concerto for Oboe, Cello and Orchestra. The latter work was premiered on 31 March 1988 in a concert honoring the composer's 70th birthday at the Jane Mallett Theatre, St Lawrence Centre which was broadcast on the CBC Radio program Two New Hours. The soloists for the performance included Dolin's daughter, cellist Elizabeth Dolin, and oboist Patricia Morehead.

Work as an educator
Dolin taught music composition, music theory, and piano at The Royal Conservatory of Music (RCMT) for 56 years. In 1966 he founded the RCMT's electronic music studio after touring similar facilities in the United States and Europe. He also completely revamped the associate degree programs for composition and music theory at the RCMT. In May 1984 he established the Canadian Contemporary Music Workshop (CCMW) at the RCMT. The annual workshop consisted of lectures, readings, and concert performances of new orchestral and chamber music. Historically most of the works presented have been by Canadians but the workshop is open to anyone. Dolin served as the artistic director of the workshop until his retirement from the RCMT in 2001. The school currently awards the "Dr. Samuel J. Dolin Scholarship in Composition" annually.

Dolin's teaching career at the RCMT produced an impressive roster of composers. The success of his students is attributed to not only his pedagogical methods but also to his advocacy of their work. Dolin often performed his students' compositions in faculty recitals or arranged public concerts exhibiting their work at the conservatory. The compositional style of his pupils is highly varied, which demonstrates Dolin's remarkable ability to adapt his teaching to the interests of each individual student. Some of his notable pupils are: Milton Barnes, Stuart Broomer, Brian Cherney, Steven Gellman, Herbie Helbig, Jim Hiscott, Paul Hoffert, Scott Irvine, Lorraine Johnson, Moe Koffman, Gary Kulesha, Larysa Kuzmenko, Joseph Lerner, Michel Longtin, Gene Martynec, John Mills-Cockell, Michael Pepa, Allan Rae, Eric Robertson, John Robertson, Clark Ross, Ann Southam, Ben Steinberg, Timothy Sullivan, Roman Toi, Alan Torok, Ben Trowell, Ruth Watson Henderson, John Welsman, Wes Wraggett, and Jack Zaza.

References

External links
 Samuel Dolin: Biography by Leslie Dolin. Canadian Music Centre''. 2003. Retrieved 2019-04-06.

1917 births
2002 deaths
20th-century Canadian composers
20th-century Canadian male musicians
20th-century musicologists
Canadian arts administrators
Canadian classical composers
Canadian male classical composers
Canadian opera composers
Canadian music academics
Canadian music educators
Male opera composers
Musicians from Montreal
Pupils of Ernst Krenek
Academic staff of The Royal Conservatory of Music
University of Toronto alumni

Samuel Dolin


Li Tang (, courtesy name Xigu 晞古; c. 1050 – 1130) was a Chinese landscape painter who practised at Kaifeng and Hangzhou during the Song dynasty. He forms a link between earlier painters such as Guo Xi, Fan Kuan and Li Cheng and later artists such as Xia Gui and Ma Yuan. He perfected the technique of "axe-cut" brush-strokes.

Biography
Li Tang was born ca. 1050, a native of Heyang. Already in his early years he earned his living by painting. Sometime after 1100, under Emperor Huizong, he earned the highest rank in the Painting Academy at the court in Bianjing (now Kaifeng).

He survived the invasion by the Jurchen Jin dynasty in 1126–27, and, together with the court, moved to Qiantang (now Hangzhou), which became the capital city of the newly established Southern Song Dynasty. He continued to serve as painter in the court under Emperor Gaozong, and died circa 1130.

Character of his art

Li was among the most influential of the early Southern Song landscape artists and had many followers. He represented a vital link between the Northern Song school (Guo Xi, Fan Kuan, Li Cheng, and others), and the later Southern Song painters, such as Xia Gui and Ma Yuan, both of whom studied Li's art. He developed and perfected the technique of the so-called "ax-cut" brushstrokes, which gave rocks and mountains a particularly fine quality.

"Wind in Pines Among a Myriad Valleys"
As with most Song artists, few of Li Tang's paintings survive, and most are of questionable authorship. The large hanging scroll Wind in Pines Among a Myriad Valleys (also known as Whispering Pines in the Mountains; National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan) is the only painting that bears a clear signature by the artist, which is placed on one of the peaks in the top section. It reads: "Painted by Li Tang of Ho-yang in Spring of the chia-ch'en year of the Hsüan-ho Reign of the Great Song [Dynasty]." The texture of the rocks in this painting is a standard example of the "ax-cut" strokes technique.

Other attributed works

Other works commonly attributed to Li Tang are Intimate Scenery of River and Mountains, a long landscape scroll, and Sitting on Rocks Gazing at the Mist, both in the possession of the National Palace Museum.

See also
Chinese art
Chinese painting
Culture of the Song Dynasty
History of Chinese art

Notes

References
 Barnhart, R. M. et al. (1997). Three thousand years of Chinese painting. New Haven, Yale University Press.
Richard Edwards: The Landscape Art of Li T'ang. Archives of the Chinese Art Society of America, Volume 12, 1958, pp. 48–60 (JSTOR)
Richard Barnhart: Li T'ang (c.1050-c.1130) and the Kōtō-In Landscapes. The Burlington Magazine, volume 114, issue 830, May 1972 (special edition for Chinese landscape painting), pp. 304–311, 313-314 (JSTOR)
Dorothy Perkins: Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture. Routledge, 2013, , p. 280 ()

External links

Landscapes Clear and Radiant: The Art of Wang Hui (1632-1717), an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Li Tang (see index)
Sung and Yuan paintings, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Li Tang (see list of paintings)
Brief biography

1130 deaths
1050s births
11th-century Chinese painters
12th-century Chinese painters
Painters from Henan
People from Jiaozuo
Song dynasty landscape painters

Li Tang (painter)


"Money" is a song by the English progressive rock band Pink Floyd. The song was on their 1973 album The Dark Side of the Moon. It was  written by their bassist/co-lead singer Roger Waters, and it was the first song on the second side of the original album. Money is the only song on the album to enter the top 20 on the Billboard Hot 100. "Money" is noted for its unusual 7/4–4/4 time signature, and the sounds of money-related objects that begins the song.

Composition
One of Gilmour's ideas for the solo section was that, for the second chorus of the solo, all special effects would be completely off (referred to as "dry"), creating the sense of just four musicians playing in a small room. For this "dry" chorus, all musicians played softly and subtly, with Gilmour's solo, now one single guitar, playing very little. Then, for the third chorus, the dynamics would suddenly rise, with heavy use of reverb and echo (a "wet" sound), additional rhythm-guitar parts in the background, and the drums becoming heavy and almost chaotic.

The notes and chords are based on the regular twelve-bar blues in the musical key of B minor, with the sung melody and nearly all of Gilmour's solo based on the pentatonic and blues scales. Two twelve-bar verses are followed by a twenty-bar instrumental section that features a blues-style tenor saxophone solo (played by Dick Parry) along with keyboard, bass and drums and a further two-bar intro in 4/4 leading to the guitar solo, which is structured like a twelve-bar blues, but doubled to a twenty-four-bar length.

The lyrics are quickly talked about in the movie Pink Floyd The Wall, when the main character, Pink, is caught writing poems in class by his teacher. The teacher takes the poem from him and reads it in a very mean manner, wanting Pink's classmates to laugh. The poem is a part of the lyrics to "Money".

Recording
The first rough recordings of the song, including some of the sound effects, were recorded in a small recording studio Roger Waters had in his garden shed. As recorded by the band, the song has a sad feel, unlike Waters' original version, which he later talked about as "prissy and very English". As heard on Classic Albums: Pink Floyd – The Making of The Dark Side of the Moon, the demo is in G-sharp minor, as opposed to the B minor of the final version. The instrumental section was worked on by both Gilmour and Waters, with Gilmour overseeing the time change as well as his own guitar and voice work, and Richard Wright and Nick Mason making up their own parts. Dick Parry added the tenor saxophone solo that comes before the guitar solo. Gilmour's advice is also seen in the final mix, which features "wet" and "dry" sections. To produce the special high notes that make up the final chorus of his solo, Gilmour played a special Lewis guitar with twenty-four frets, allowing a large variety of notes.

One of the special elements of "Money" are the sound effects that begin the song. These were made by putting together recordings Waters had made of clinking coins, a ringing cash register, tearing paper, a clicking counting machine and other items.

In the video Classic Albums: Pink Floyd – The Making of The Dark Side of the Moon, engineer Alan Parsons talked about the recording of the band's first backing track for the song: They used the sound-effect tape loop as a sort of metronome, but Parsons gradually faded out the loop before the vocals started. As the song went on, the band slowly sped up, yet later, between the second verse and the saxophone solo, Parsons briefly raised up the volume of the effects loop, and just by coincidence, it turned out to fit the beat. After this point, the loop is not heard again.

Re-recording
The song was re-recorded for the 1981 Pink Floyd album, A Collection of Great Dance Songs, because Capitol Records refused to let Columbia Records have the track in the US. With the help of producer James Guthrie, Gilmour re-recorded the song, providing vocals and playing all the instruments except saxophone (resulting in a much simpler drum part). Parry again added the sax solo, redoing his role on the original recording.

The music video for "Money" features scenes of various ways of making and spending money, and includes brief closeups of a coin spinning.

Personnel
David Gilmour - guitars, vocals
Roger Waters - music, lyrics, bass guitar, tape effects
Richard Wright - Wurlitzer electric piano
Nick Mason - drums

with:

Dick Parry - tenor saxophone

Charts

References

Other websites
[ AMG review]
"Money" Songfacts

1973 songs
Pink Floyd songs

Money (Pink Floyd song)


In physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a particle that is not made of other particles.

An elementary particle can be one of two groups: a fermion or a boson. Fermions are the building blocks of matter and have mass, while bosons behave as force carriers for fermion interactions and some of them have no mass. The Standard Model is the most accepted way to explain how particles behave, and the forces that affect them. According to this model, the elementary particles are further grouped into quarks, leptons, and gauge bosons, with the Higgs boson having a special status as a non-gauge boson.

Of the particles that make up an atom, only the electron is an elementary particle. Protons and neutrons are each made of 3 quarks, which makes them composite particles, particles that are made of other particles. The quarks are bound together by the gluons. The nucleus has boson pion fields responsible for the strong nuclear force binding protons and neutrons against the electrostatic repulsion between protons. Such virtual pions are composed of quark antiquark pairs again held together by gluons.

There are three basic properties that describe an elementary particle: 'mass', 'charge', and 'spin'. Each property is assigned a number value. For mass and charge the number can be zero. For example, a photon has zero mass and a neutrino has zero charge. These properties always stay the same for an elementary particle.
 Mass: A particle has mass if it takes energy to increase its speed, or to accelerate it. The table to the right gives the mass of each elementary particle. The values are given in MeV/c2s (that is pronounced megaelectronvolts over "c" squared), that is in units of energy over the speed of light squared. This comes from special relativity, which tells us that energy equals mass times the square of the speed of light. All particles with mass-produce gravity. All particles are affected by gravity, even particles with no mass like the photon (see general relativity).
 Electric charge: Particles may have positive charge, or negative, or none. If one particle has a negative charge, and another particle has a positive charge, the two particles are attracted to each other. If the two particles both have negative charge, or both have positive charge, the two particles are pushed apart. At short distances, this force is much stronger than the force of gravity which pulls all particles together. An electron has charge -1. A proton has charge +1. A neutron has an average charge 0. Normal quarks have charge of ⅔ or -⅓.
 Spin: The angular momentum or constant turning of a particle has a particular value, called its spin number. Spin for elementary particles is one or ½. The spin property of particles only denotes the presence of angular momentum. In reality, the particles do not spin.

Mass and charge are properties we see in everyday life, because gravity and electricity affect things that humans see and touch. But spin affects only the world of subatomic particles, so it cannot be directly observed.

Fermions
Fermions (named after the scientist Enrico Fermi) have a spin number of ½, and are either quarks or leptons. There are 12 different types of fermions (not including antimatter). Each type is called a "flavor". The flavors are:
 Quarks: up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom. Quarks come in three pairs, called "generations". The 1st generation (up and down) is the lightest and the third (top and bottom) is the heaviest. One member of each pair (up, charm and top) has a charge of ⅔. The other member (down, strange and bottom) has charge -⅓.
 Leptons: electron, muon, tau, electron neutrino, muon neutrino, tau neutrino. The neutrinos have charge 0, hence the neutr- prefix. The other leptons have charge -1. Each neutrino is named after its corresponding original lepton: the electron, muon, and tauon.

Six of the 12 fermions are thought to last forever: up and down quarks, the electron, and the three kinds of neutrinos (which constantly switch flavor). The other fermions decay. That is, they break down into other particles a fraction of a second after they are created. Fermi-Dirac statistics is a theory that describes how collections of fermions behave.

Bosons
Bosons, named after the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose. Bosonic particles have spin 1 (integral spin). Although most bosons are made of more than one particle, there are two kinds of elementary bosons:
 Gauge bosons: gluons, W+ and W- bosons, Z0 bosons, and photons. These bosons carry 3 of the 4 fundamental forces, and have a spin number of 1;
 Gluon: Gluons are massless and chargeless particles, and they are the carriers of the strong force interaction. They, along with quarks, join together to make composite particles called hadrons, which include protons and neutrons.
 W and Z bosons: W and Z bosons are particles that carry the weak force. The W boson has a matter particle (W+) and an antimatter particle (W-), whereas the Z boson is its own anti-particle. The W boson is produced in beta decay, but almost immediately turns into a neutrino and an electron. The W and Z bosons were both discovered in 1983.
 Photon: Photons are massless and chargeless particles that carry the electromagnetic force. Photons can have a certain frequency that determines what electromagnetic radiation they are. Like all other massless particles they travel at the speed of light (300,000 km/s).
 Higgs boson: Physicists believe that massive particles have mass (that is, they are not pure bundles of energy like photons) because of the Higgs interaction.

The photon and the gluons have no charge, and are the only elementary particles that have a mass of 0 for certain. The photon is the only boson that does not decay. Bose-Einstein statistics is a theory that describes how collections of bosons behave. Unlike fermions, it is possible to have more than one boson in the same space at the same time.

The Standard Model includes all of the elementary particles described above. All these particles have been observed in the laboratory.

The Standard Model does not talk about gravity. If gravity works like the three other fundamental forces, then gravity is carried by the hypothetical boson called the graviton. The graviton has yet to be found, so it is not included in the table above.

The first fermion to be discovered, and the one we know the most about, is the electron. The first boson to be discovered, and also the one we know the most about, is the photon. The theory that most accurately explains how the electron, photon, electromagnetism, and electromagnetic radiation all work together is called quantum electrodynamics.

References

Basic physics ideas

Elementary particle


The genre known as Spy-fi is a cross-over between the genres of spy fiction and science fiction. The story usually involves a spy with advanced technological weapons or gadgets, and sometimes the villain is a mad scientist or evil genius with robots or advanced technological weapons and gadgets. The film and novel series James Bond was a popularizer of the genre, as well as such TV shows as The Man from UNCLE, Mission: Impossible, and I Spy.

Science fiction

Spy-fi


Astraphobia, also called astrapophobia, brontophobia, keraunophobia, or tonitrophobia, is a fear of thunder and lightning. It is a type of specific phobia. Both humans and animals can have this type of phobia.

A person with astraphobia often feels fear during a thunderstorm even if there is a low chance that they will be hurt during the storm. They will sometimes look for better shelter during the storm. They might hide under a bed, under blankets, in a closet, in a basement, or anywhere else where they feel safe. A sign that a person has astraphobia is if they are very interested in weather forecasts. A person with astraphobia will want to hear news of storms that are coming by watching the weather on television or watching the storms on the internet.

Phobias

Astraphobia


Oil refining is the name for a number of processes from chemical engineering, which transform crude oil into useful products such as different fuel oils, Liquefied petroleum gas, gasoline, kerosene or  diesel oil. These transformation occur in plants called petroleum refineries. The transformations are done in many steps. The refineries are large industrial complexes, that have many different sub-units, and facilities. Each refinery has its own unique arrangement and combination of refining processes. The exact setup of the refinery is largely determined by the its location, desired products and economic considerations.

Modern petroleum refineries process as much as 800,000 to 900,000 barrels (127,000 to 143,000 cubic meters) per day of crude oil.

Industries

Oil refining


Stephan Adrian Shakespeare (né Kukowski; born 9 April 1957) is the German-British co-founder and Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the British Internet-based market research and opinion polls company YouGov.

In 2012, Shakespeare was appointed as Chairman of the Data Strategy Board (DSB), the advisory body that was set up by the government to maximise value of data for users across the UK. In October 2012, the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills and Cabinet Office ministers announced that he would lead an independent review of Public Sector Information; the "Shakespeare Review: an Independent Review of Public Sector Information" was published in 2013. He has been a member of the Government's Public Sector Transparency Board and a trustee of the National Portrait Gallery, London.

He is the former owner of the websites ConservativeHome (now owned by Lord Ashcroft) and PoliticsHome (now owned by Dods Parliamentary Communications Ltd) which he launched in April 2008 after closing down his Internet television channel 18 Doughty Street.

In 2015, Shakespeare was named one of the Top 20 Most Influential People in Politics in the Debrett's 500.

Early life
Shakespeare was born  as Stephan Kukowski in 1957 in Mönchengladbach, where his German father, a journalist, was the German Press Liaison Officer of Headquarters British Army of the Rhine. When he was five years old, the family moved to the UK, where he was educated at Christ's Hospital school near Horsham, West Sussex. Stephan was also an artist (as Stephan Kukowski) creating the imaginary "The Brunch Museum", together with the fluxus artist George Brecht, first exhibited in London in 1976. After graduating from Oxford, he took a one-year teaching course in Kingston upon Thames, during which time he was a member of the Socialist Workers' Student Society. He became a teacher and headmaster in Los Angeles, California in the 1980s. After marrying Rosamund Shakespeare, he exchanged his surname for that of his wife.

After returning home to the UK from the US, he taught at Charles Edward Brooke girls secondary school in Lambeth where he used his original family name. He was critical of educational practices in 1990s' Lambeth and the Evening Standard published his educational criticisms. He became involved in politics, using the name Shakespeare, first as a political commentator and then as Jeffrey Archer's Campaign Director during and after his failed London mayoral campaign. He was also a Conservative Party pollster.

In the 1997 general election, Shakespeare was the Conservative candidate for Colchester though he was defeated by Bob Russell with a majority of 1,551. During the campaign, Margaret Thatcher, against whom he had demonstrated as a student 17 years earlier, came to Colchester in order to support his attempt to win the seat for the Conservatives.

YouGov

In 2000, Shakespeare founded YouGov with Nadhim Zahawi. In 2001, YouGov predicted Labour's 10-point general election victory to within one percentage point. YouGov expanded its business in 2006–2007 by acquiring market research businesses in the Middle East, the United States, Germany and Scandinavia. The company further expanded in 2010 and 2011, acquiring two further businesses in the United States. In 2011, the company established itself in Paris. In 2014, YouGov acquired Asia-Pacific based business, Decision Fuel.

After a spell as the joint CEO with co-founder Zahawi, Shakespeare took the title of Chief Innovations Officer until he became sole CEO in May 2010, when Zahawi resigned from the board in order to stand for election to the House of Commons. As of October 2014, Shakespeare owned about 6 percent of YouGov's shares. In July 2008, The Guardian listed Shakespeare as among the top 100 media personalities in the UK, calling him "the pollster with the uncanny ability of getting it right."

In 2022, the media reported Shakespeare would be departing YouGov and become Non-Exec Chair.

References

1957 births
Living people
Emigrants from West Germany to the United Kingdom
People educated at Christ's Hospital
British political consultants
Conservative Party (UK) officials
British technology company founders
Conservative Party (UK) parliamentary candidates

Stephan Shakespeare


Comparison, in grammar, is a property of adjectives and adverbs.

Adjectives and adverbs take three degrees, such as kind, kinder, kindest. The central degree is comparative, since for example Bill is kinder than Joe. whereas the first and third degrees make no comparison. Likewise the use of more as in more quickly is comparative, where quick and quickest are not.

Grammar

Comparison (grammar)


A regular expression (abbreviated regexp or regex) is a way to describe sets of characters using syntactic rules. Many programming languages use or support regular expressions. A regular expression is then used by a special program or part of a programming language. This program will either generate a parser that can be used to match expressions or it will match such expressions itself.

A regular expression processor is used for processing a regular expression statement in terms of a grammar in a given formal language, and with that examines a text string.

A few examples of what can be matched with regular expressions:
 The sequence of characters "car" appearing consecutively in any context, such as in "car", "cartoon", or "bicarbonate"
 The sequence of characters "car" occurring in that order with other characters between them, such as in "Icelander" or "chandler"
 The word "car" when it appears as an isolated word
 The word "car" when preceded by the word "blue" or "red"
 The word "car" when not preceded by the word "motor"
 A dollar sign immediately followed by one or more digits, and then optionally a period and exactly two more digits (for example, "$10" or "$245.99"). This does not match "$ 5", because of the space between the dollar sign and the digit, nor "€25", because there is no dollar sign.

Regular expressions can be much more complex than these examples. Many regular expression languages also support "wildcard" characters.

References

Other websites

 Official website

Theoretical computer science

Regular expression


Quiroga () is a municipality in the province of Lugo, part of the autonomous community of Galicia, northwestern Spain.

The main economic activities are agriculture (emphasis on the cultivation of the grapevine), animal breeding and mining.

The olive tree is growing also in this area, which is quite unusual in Galicia. Oil is made by artisans.

The municipality of Quiroga is an interesting natural area (more than 50% of the total area is protected).

The great location of the valley, makes it suitable for sports such as paragliding, hiking, rafting, etc.

Municipalities in the Province of Lugo

Quiroga, Galicia


Nakseongdae is a park in Gwanak, Seoul. It is the birthplace of the famous Goryeo-Era general, Gang Gam-chan (강감찬, 姜邯贊 ; 948-1031). Legend says that when Gang Gam-chan was born, a star fell from Heaven.  Because of this, his birthplace was named "Site of the Falling Star" (Nakseongdae).

The people of the Goryeo Kingdom (918-1392) built a three-story pagoda at the house of Gang Gam-chan's birth to praise him for his great deeds.  He defeated 400,000 invading Khitan soldiers. Damaged parts of this pagoda were rebuilt by the Seoul Metropolitan Government in 1964, and the pagoda was named Seoul Tangible Cultural Property No. 4 in 1972. Two years later, a shrine was built for Gang Gam-chan. The pagoda, which was originally at 218 Bongcheon-dong, was moved to be with the shrine.

Related pages
 Nakseongdae Station
 Nakseongdae Park

Buildings and structures in Seoul

Nakseongdae


Birgit Hogefeld (born 27 July 1956) is a former member of the West German Red Army Faction (RAF).

Early life
Born in 1956 in Wiesbaden, Hogefeld joined the RAF in 1984, once she turned clandestine, long after its founding members Andreas Baader, Gudrun Ensslin and Ulrike Meinhof were dead. She became the girlfriend of fellow RAF member Wolfgang Grams and moved in with him.

Arrest
On 27 June 1993, Hogefeld and Grams arrived at a train station in Bad Kleinen where a group of GSG 9 officers were waiting to arrest them (the officers had received a tip-off from a fellow GSG 9 officer who had infiltrated the RAF). According to the GSG 9 men, Hogefeld and Grams started firing at them on sight; Grams fatally shot an officer named Michael Newrzella. According to the police Grams committed suicide and fell on the train tracks. However, it was suspected that Grams did not commit suicide but was shot by GSG 9 officers. The Staatsanwaltschaft Schwerin investigated these allegations and concluded in January 1994 that they were incorrect. Grams' parents challenged this conclusion in court, but it was upheld by five different courts, including the European Court of Human Rights in 1999. Interior Minister Rudolf Seiters took responsibility for the poor conducting and postprocessing of the operation and resigned in July of the year, as well as Chief Federal Prosecutor, Alexander von Stahl.

Sentencing
Several terrorist activities that Hogefeld was later found guilty of by a Higher Court in Germany were;

The murder of a young GI, Edward Pimental, in 1985 to obtain his I.D. to access the grounds of the U.S. Rhein-Main Air Base near Frankfurt. Supposedly Hogefeld lured him to her home after meeting him in a bar, where he was then shot through the neck and killed. Eva Haule was also involved with Pimental's murder.
A bomb attack on the aforementioned U.S. airbase, which killed A1C Frank Scarton and Becky Jo Bristol and left twenty others injured.
A failed assassination attempt on Hans Tietmeyer, former President of the Deutsche Bundesbank.
The destruction of a jail.
Involvement in a terrorist organisation.

In November 1996, she was given a life imprisonment sentence.

In 2008, federal president Horst Köhler denied her clemency request.

Hogefeld was released on parole in June 2011.

References

1956 births
Living people
20th-century criminals
German female murderers
German people convicted of murder
German prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Members of the Red Army Faction
People convicted on terrorism charges
People from Wiesbaden
People convicted of murder by Germany
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Germany
People paroled from life sentence

Birgit Hogefeld


The Hawaii-Aleutian time zone subtracts ten hours from UTC during standard time (UTC-10) and nine hours during daylight saving time (UTC-9).

This time zone is called Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time (HST) during standard time (Winter). It is called Hawaii-Aleutian Daylight Time (HDT) during daylight saving time (Summer).

Places that are in Hawaii-Aleutian Time Zone

United States

-Hawaii (No DST)

-Alaska (Western Aleutian Islands west of 169.5 degrees W)

France

Most of french polynesia.

Time zones

Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone


The Brooks Range is a mountain range in Alaska. The range runs from northern Alaska into Canada, east-west for about 700 miles (1,100 km). The tallest mountain is Mount Chamberlin, which is 9,020 feet (2,749 m) tall. The Kobuk River begins in this range and flows to the Bering Strait,  away.

Related pages
Alaska Range

Mountain ranges of Alaska

Brooks Range


Ameinu (, "our people") is an American Jewish Zionist organization. Established in 2004 as the successor to the Labor Zionist Alliance, it is the continuation of Labor Zionist activity in the United States that began with the founding of Poale Zion, which came together in the period 1906.

Ameinu is headquartered in New York City and is governed by an elected national board, led by its president, Kenneth Bob. Local activity is carried out through its chapters in New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Detroit, St. Louis, Washington, D.C., the San Francisco Bay Area, and Philadelphia.

Activities

Ameninu's tagline is "Liberal Values: Progressive Israel," expressing their progressive orientation and engagement with political and grassroots activists in Israel and the United States. Through its website, electronic newsletter, print publications, and local programming, Ameinu educates around issues of Middle East peace, environmental concerns, Jewish-Arab relations, the social gap in Israel and America, and more. In addition, the organization sponsors educational missions to Israel.

Israeli strategic partners
Ameinu has established strategic partnerships with Israeli organizations to foster a deeper connection between American Jews and Israel and to financially support the organization's work. NISPED (the Negev Institute for Strategic of Peace Development) addresses economic development and cooperation between Arabs and Jews living inside Israel as well as between Israelis and Palestinians. Yedid: The Association for Community Empowerment, operates self-empowerment centers in towns and small cities throughout Israel serving the weakest populations of Israeli society.

Advocacy
Ameinu advocates within the American Jewish community around a variety of issues. In the past, Ameinu has taken positions in support of Israeli–Palestinian peace initiatives such as the Geneva Accord and the People's Voice, in support of the Israeli disengagement from Gaza, opposing divestment from Israel, condemning calls by Iran's president, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, for the destruction of Israel, in opposition to the destruction of Bedouin villages in Israel, criticising Reverend John Hagee's anti-Catholicism, and on other issues. In 2007 Ameinu took a leading role in organising a pro-peace rally in Annapolis at the time of the Annapolis Peace Conference convened by President George W. Bush. In 2008, the organization published a booklet entitled "Progressive Zionist Answers to the Anti-Israel Left" for use in communities and on campuses.

Youth and student affiliates
Ameinu provides funding for Habonim Dror North America, a Zionist youth movement. Ameinu co-founded the Union of Progressive Zionists student organization and provides funding for its activities as well.

National and international associations

Ameinu is a member of a number of the umbrella organizations including the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations, American Zionist Movement, Inter-Agency Task Force on Israeli Arab Issues, and the American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC). Ameinu is the United States affiliate of the World Labor Zionist Movement and cooperates actively with its sister organization, Ameinu Australia.

External links
Official website

References

American Israel Public Affairs Committee
American Zionist Movement
Zionist organizations in the United States
Jewish-American political organizations
Organizations
Progressive organizations in the United States
Labor Zionism

Ameinu