Pembunuhan No Gun Ri ialah suatu insiden yang menyayat hati dalam sejarah peperangan dunia. Pembunuhan beramai-ramai ini telah terjadi ketika Perang Korea. Seramai 8 hingga 300 orang awam Korea Selatan yang tidak berdosa telah dibunuh dengan kejam oleh tentera Amerika Syarikat. Pembunuhan telah dilakukan oleh para askar Regimen Kavalri ke-7 Amerika Syarkat (U.S. 7th Cavalry Regiment) di antara tanggal 1950-07-26 dan 1950-07-29 berdekatan perkampungan yang dikenali sebagai No Gun Ri. Insiden kekejaman tentera Amerika ini telah mendapat liputan hebat dan perhatian yang serius daripada Associated Press (sebuah syarikat akhbar terkenal Amerika Syarikat). Rencana pendedahan ini telah dikeluarkan secara bersiri pada tahun 1999 dan akhirnya berjaya memenangi Hadiah Pulitzer untuk anugerah laporan penyiasatan terbaik. Perkampungan No Gun Ri terletak di Hwanggan-myeon, Kaunti Yeongdong, Chungcheongbuk-do, di pedalaman Korea Selatan.

Dalam hari-hari pertama dalam tragedi Perang Korea, kumpulan pelarian telah bergerak bebas untuk melalui jalan awam bagi aktiviti harian mereka seperti ke kebun, kedai dan sebagainya. Namun tentera Amerika Syarikat telah menahan mereka (orang awam) supaya jangan melalui kawasan tersebut kerana atas alasan tentera Amerika telah menandakan kawasan sempadan diantara laluan tentera Amerika dan penduduk awam sedangkan tiada perjanjian yang pernah dibuat untuk dipersetujui atas perkara tersebut. Pihak tentera Amerika Syarikat sengaja membina garis Amerika tanpa keizinan dari penduduk tempatan.  Askar Amerika Syarikat dalam pada itu telah berperasangka buruk dengan mengesyaki bahawa kumpulan-kumpulan seperti itu (orang awam) telah disusupi oleh tentera Korea Utara, namun itu tidak benar. Walaubagaimanapun jumlah kematian yang dicatatkan akibat pembuhan kejam oleh Amerika Syarikat tidak dicatatkan secara tepat kerana sumber sebenar jumlah kematian tepat di No Gun Ri disimpan oleh pemerintah Amerika Syarikat dan tidak di khabarkan pada umum, berdasarkan laporan terkini dari New York Times. Pada tahun 1999, sebuah rencana dalam Associated Press telah menuduh tentera Amerika Syarikat telah membunuh, mengebom dan menembak para pelarian di No Gun Ri dari arah udara dan darat dengan menggunakan mesin penembak dari jarak dekat yang dibuat di bawah arahan dasar ketenteraan di Korea Selatan oleh Jabatan Ketenteraan Amerika Syarikat. Tuduhan ini amat berasas,  kerana terdapat bukti yang kuat yang dapat ditentu sahihkan dalam perkara ini misalnya terdapatnya pengakuan langsung dari askar vateran Amerika Syarikat yang menganjurkan dan melakukan pembunuhan, saksi yang melihat kejadian dan mengalami sendiri tragedi dari kalangan penduduk No Gun Ri yang terselamat dari pembunuhan dan surat arahan yang dikeluarkan dari Jabatan Ketenteraan Amerika Syarikat yang masih tersimpan di Perpustakaan Washington. (berdasarkan penayangan laporan dari History (saluran TV Asia Tenggara)), namun begitu, pemerintah Amerika Syarikat di Rumah Putih terus menafikan perihal tersebut dengan mengatakan bahawa laporan AP itu sebahagiannya berdasarkan akaun langsung yang dipalsukan oleh Edward Daily. Rekod tentera Amerika Syarikat pula membuat cadangan bahawa Daily bukannya seorang penembak Machine gun dan tidak pernah datang ke No Gun Ri. Surat AP seterusnya telah membetuli kenyatan salah yang dikeluarkan oleh Daily dan apa-apa artikel berkenaan dengan insiden pembunuhan di No Gun Ri.

Pada tahun 2001, tentera AS telah memberi respon terhadap akaun AP dengan laporan yang terperinci termasuk foto udara yang diambil pada tarikh 6 Ogos 1950 dan September 19, 1950. Menurut analisis citra hawa Tentera Darat Amerika Syarikat menyimpulkan tidak ada sebarang bukti tubuh (mayat) atau perkuburan semasa, walaupun ada bukti pemberondongan dari serangan udara pada tarikh yang tak tentu di tempat berkenaan. Kerana pihak tentera Amerika memberi alasan bahawa kematian yang besar yang melibatkan ramai kematian bukan mudah untuk diurai dengan cepat, pihak tentera Amerka Syarikat dalam laporannya telah menganggarkan jumlah kematian yang berlaku dalam insiden No Gun Ri tidak lebih  daripada 50 orang pelarian awam yang terbunuh. Laporan AP memberi respon bahawa tubuh badan yang selebihnya mungkin telah diletakkan di bawah jambatan dan di bawa lari oleh penduduk selepas pembunuhan yang berlaku selama 3 hari 3 malam. Surat khabar Korea Utara dalam rencananya telah melaporkan sebanyak 400 orang awam yang tidak berdosa telah dibunuh dengan sengaja oleh tentera Amerika Syarikat. Laporan akhbar ini telah dibuat selepas 3 minggu pembunuhan beramai-ramai berakhir. Laporan dari Tentera Korea Utara telah menganggarkan lebih daripada 150 orang awam telah dibunuh dengan sengaja oleh tentera Amerika Syarikat.

Kontroversi yang timbul akibat Insiden

Berikut adalah judul buku yang bersaing dalam mengeluarkan versi fakta berkenaan insiden kekejaman di No Gun Ri:
 The Bridge at No Gun Ri: A Hidden Nightmare from the Korean War - ISBN 0-8050-7183-0
 No Gun Ri: A Military History of the Korean War Incident - ISBN 0-8117-1763-1

The Bridge at No Gun Ri menegaskan bahawa dasar ketenteraan Amerika Syarikat dibenarkan menembak dengan menggunakan senjata kepada warga awam yang damai dan bebas (merupakan suatu keadaan) yang tidak menimbulkan ancaman bagi pasukan Amerika.

Pekerjaan kali kedua Major Robert Bateman, telah memenangi Anugerah Colby Colby Award pada April 2004, Robert telah membuat panggilan penegasan yakni menyangkal laporan sebuah AP yang didakwanya memutar belitkan kebenaran atas dasar bahawa, dasar ketenteraan AS adalah tidak jelas dan, dalam hal apapun, tidak diketahui askar di lapangan (medan pertempuran) pada saat kejadian di No Gun Ri. Para wartawan, pada gilirannya, menuduh Bateman sebagai "suatu kempen percubaan dalam melelahkan perihal laporan kewartawanan yang kebal yang padanya pertama dibawa kezaman kavalri ke-7  semasa pembunuhan para pelarian Korea Selatan di No Gun Ri." akaun Bateman's yang didahului pada April 2007 memerihalkan dokumen keluaran Tentera menetapkan dasar formal menembak pelarian adalah "suatu bonus tambahan" keatas tentera Amerika Syarikat.

Kini kita boleh mengetengahkan lima soalan kunci tentang penglibatan AS dalam kerja-kerja pembunuhan di No Gun Ri:
 Dalam keadaan apa yang menyebabkan tentera AS di Korea Selatan menyerang para pelarian? Apakah para pelarian orang awam telah mengambil kesempatan terhadap tentera AS atau menyerang tentera? Dalam keadaan apa (situasi) yang menyebabkan tentera Amerika di Korea Selatan menyerang pelarian?
 Apakah penyusup bersenjata tentera Korea Utara berada di antara warga awam Korea yang telah dibunuh?
 Apakah dasar/polisi ketenteraan AS yang membenarkan serangan terhadap penduduk awam yang tidak berdosa, dan adakah tentera darat yang terjebak dalam insiden itu menyedari hal tersebut?
 Apakah orang awam atau strafed dibom oleh serangan udara AS di sekitar No Gun Ri?
 Apakah bahan yang menjadi sumber bukti dan adakah responden saksi dan pelaku (pesalah jenayah perang) telah diperiksa dengan berhati-hati dan tepat untuk dibentangkan bagi mencapai pemahaman yang seimbang berkenaan fakta yang berbangkit?

Keluaran artikel daripada Associated Press

Cerita berkenaan skandal jenayah peperangan ini pada mulanya telah dibangkitkan oleh Associated Press dalam tahun 1999 dalam artikel bersiri dimana keputusan laporan telah disiasat oleh wartawan AP yang bernama Charles J. Hanley, Sang-Hun Choe, dan Martha Mendoza dan pengkaji AP yang bernama Randy Herschaft, kemudian laporan ini diperbesarkan dengan penerbitan judul buku yang bertajuk, The Bridge at No Gun Ri. Himpunan laporan AP, sebelumnya dokumen yang diwartakan oleh AP sebagai suatu keputusan yang berada di dalam permintaan Akta Kebebasan Informasi. Wartawan AP telah menemubual ramai saksi pembunuhan, termasuk rakyat Korea yang masih terselamat dan askar vateran Regimen Kavalri ke-7 Amerika Syarkat yang masih hidup.

A memo, dated July 25, 1950, from the U.S. Fifth Air Force regarding "Policy on Strafing Civilian Targets", written by USAF Colonel Turner C. Rogers recalls that, "[t]he army has requested that we strafe all civilian refugee parties that are noted approaching our positions," and that, "to date, we have complied with the army request in this respect." The memo says that bands of civilians have either been infiltrated by or are under the control of North Korean soldiers, but recommends that official policy be discriminate in targeting civilians only when "they are definitely known to contain North Korean soldiers or commit hostile acts." Though a similar naval document was located, the first official U.S. Army inquiry, in 2001, did not report turning up such a document. In April 2007, a letter from the U.S. ambassador in South Korea to the State Department in Washington acknowledging the policy order to shoot civilians was revealed by the team of Associated Press reporters .

The book by the AP reporters describes the soldiers as, "green recruits of the U.S. occupation army in Japan thrown unprepared into the frontlines of war, teenagers who viewed unarmed farmers as enemies, led by officers who had never commanded men in battle." The soldiers were wary of civilians as being potential (North) Korean People's Army (NKPA) fighters; there were reports of captured enemy fighters as well as of Russian and Japanese weapons.

No Army documents were found suggesting that an order was given to the regiment at No Gun Ri to shoot civilians, though the AP contends in The Bridge At No Gun Ri that a communications log book which would have evidence of such an order was conveniently missing from the National Archives at the time of their investigation. The AP therefore relied on the testimony of witnesses. AP reporter Martha Mendoza states:

"Some of the veterans recall hearing orders, and we quoted them as hearing those orders to fire on civilians. We also in our reporting described some veterans who did not hear orders. Where those orders came from, we've tried to track down as best we could, and we're looking forward to the Pentagon getting to the bottom of it."

The AP editor of the story, J. Robert Port, said he was demoted after championing the story for more than a year within the AP hierarchy. The AP special assignment division, which Port headed, was dissolved. Port resigned in June 1999. In September 1999, seventeen months after reporting on the story began, the AP published the series of stories. It is the AP's only Pulitzer Prize for investigative reporting.

Challenges to AP articles

An article in U.S. News & World Report by military reporter Joseph L. Galloway questioned the credibility of a witness in the AP report. Using the same Army records as those used by the AP, Galloway demonstrated fraudulent claims by Edward Daily, who had said he both saw the killings at No Gun Ri and heard an order to carry them out. Based on military records, Galloway reported that Daily misrepresented his role to the AP: that he was not a machine gunner and was neither part of the unit at No Gun Ri nor anywhere near the village during the period in question. The AP initially stuck by Daily, who had reaffirmed his statements to numerous media outlets, including an appearance on a Dateline NBC interview with then NBC anchor Tom Brokaw:

Tom Brokaw: You heard that order?

Edward Daily: Yes, sir.

Brokaw: "Kill them all?"

Edward Daily: Yes, sir.

The AP then re-interviewed Daily who, when confronted with army records that conflicted with his statements, admitted he could not have been present during the incident, and instead had heard of it second hand. Daily had been a mechanic during the war and did not join the 2nd Battalion of the 7th Cavalry until 1951. In January 2002 he pleaded guilty to defrauding the government by collecting over $400,000 in benefits over 15 years for combat-related trauma from combat he never saw. Daily served a 21-month prison sentence.

In follow-up stories, the AP reporters interviewed other servicemen including Lawrence Levine and James Crume, who worked at the headquarters of the 7th Cavalry Regiment. Both said they believed that orders to shoot civilian refugees came from headquarters, though neither said he'd seen or heard such orders. In interviews, some of the American soldiers at No Gun Ri said they had been ordered to fire on the refugees because their commanders believed that North Korean troops, wearing white so as to look like peasants, had infiltrated the refugee column and were shooting at Americans. Others quoted by the AP referred repeatedly to receiving fire from among the refugees.

The New York Times reporter Felicity Barringer reported that Herman Patterson, a rifleman in the 2nd Battalion, said: "Unfortunately, the incident took place. Numbers are not known exactly." She also reviewed the conflicting news accounts of the events that transpired at No Gun Ri, concluding that at that point (spring, 2000) "in the end, the crucial centerpiece of The A.P. report, the American soldiers killed at least 100 Korean civilians — possibly under direct orders — has been chipped but hardly shattered by the latest revelations." Mr. Hanley also says that arguments about on-the-scene orders overlook two general orders from top commanders. The First Cavalry Division headquarters on July 24 had issued an order saying: "No refugees to cross the front line. Fire everyone trying to cross lines. Use discretion in case of women and children." in fact, the "General Order" was nor an order, just a radio log entry by a Major in a different regiment, unconnected to the 7th Cavalry, and not at No Gun Ri.

The most contested estimates concern the body count. A report of the Yeongdong County Office in South Korea, based upon self-reporting by present-day inhabitants, stated the total number of civilian casualties (injured, missing, or killed) to be 248. Some Korean victims have stated numbers in the hundreds. It's not clear what happened to the remains of those who were killed. Bateman speculates that between eight and 35 Koreans were killed at No Gun Ri, with two to three times that number wounded, due to mortar rounds and then a short bursts (30-90 seconds) of gunfire from the troops which occurred when the troops panicked and believed they were under fire themselves. Bateman wrote that declassified reconnaissance photos revealed no mass of bodies nor graves. Bateman, however, used only U.S. military reconnaissance and did not examine the village or interview any Koreans for his book. AP reporter Hanley has suggested that the dead were not in the open because they were stacked by local villagers beneath soil under parts of the bridge. Bateman contends that the soil required for burying hundreds of corpses even at a shallow level would have meant an excavation of soil so large (the remains alone for 300 small humans would be, roughly, 20 tons) that it would be visible in the photos. The AP contends that Korean witnesses testified to stacking bodies, but Bateman contends that the number of victims are conflated with other incidents in the vicinity during the war, and in the same timeframe. Citing the psychiatric studies, he speculates that none of the Koreans may believe they are lying, and he believes many if not most were fired upon by U.S. troops (he cites at least nine incidents that he found, and suspects dozens of other times where U.S. troops fired upon civilians in that period), just not all at the same time, and in the same place, at No Gun Ri.

As mentioned above, Edward Daily falsely corroborated the AP story and provided colorful descriptions of the incident, although he was not mentioned in the AP report until the 56th paragraph. During their defense of their Pulitzer story, the AP argued Daily was not central to their story, and merely was one witness among sixty they had interviewed. Bateman's book includes e-mails from Hanley which demonstrate that not only did the AP reporters refuse to recognize the flaws in Daily's testimony, but that Daily was more important than the AP suggested. Bateman believes that Daily, as a prominent member of the 7th Cavalry regimental association, had strong influence over other witnesses and that by virtue of his statements, the retired mechanic "contaminated" the views and recollections of other veterans. Additionally, it appears that Daily was central to guiding the AP to the American sources that the AP used, providing them with names, phone numbers, and addresses. Leaning upon the works of academic psychiatrist Elizabeth Loftus, Bateman described what he said was "the plasticity of memory" and susceptibility of some "memories" to outside suggestions from influential figures such as Daily, who had written two books on the history of the unit. Another AP witness inadvertently demonstrated Bateman's point in a front-page article in The New York Times. Veteran Eugene Hesselman denied the charge that Daily was not at No Gun Ri. He said, "I know that Daily was there. I know that. I know that." Bateman is skeptical of the recollections of Hesselman and Private First Class Delos Flint. Bateman claimed they were not present at No Gun Ri after he found records that they had been medically evacuated from the area on July 24th, one day before the events in question. Bateman said the AP did not quote any military men at No Gun Ri who heard an order to fire at civilians, the closest being those who "believed" that there "must have" been an order (Levine and Crume).

Bateman says compelling refugees to halt their advance by firing on them is "the dumbest possible action that could have been taken." Some Korean witnesses describe being strafed and bombed as they walked along the railway. Pictures taken on August 6, 1950, reveal strafing damage. Hanley, the AP reporter, argues that the U.S. forces called in strikes. Bateman argues that this was impossible because of the incompatibility between army and air force radios (AM vs. FM) and the fact that the same unit could not stop a U.S. Air Force strafing of their own position the very next day due to the lack of such radios. Bateman speculates that witnesses may have confused the mortars for bombs, and that the strafing shown in the photographs could have been from that period, or could have been from a later period.

U.S. Army Inspector General report of 2001

Following the release of the AP account of No Gun Ri, the U.S. and the R.O.K. began independent parallel investigations.  At the direction of the U.S. Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of the Army instructed the Inspector General of the Army to research and report on the No Gun Ri incident.  In January 2001 the Inspector General released Report on the No Gun Ri Review.
The primary judgments of the review were:
 The evacuation of South Koreans to the site of the No Gun Ri incident was not at the direction of 7th Cavalry U.S. soldiers, though U.S. involvement cannot be ruled out
 The strafing of refugees in the No Gun Ri vicinity appears to have occurred either July 26 or July 27, 1950; however, the air strikes were the result of misidentification and not preplanned attacks on civilians
 There were an undetermined number of civilians killed in the area around No Gun Ri; not all the killings were concentrated at the double rail bridge
 The deaths and injury of civilians were inherent to war and not a deliberate killing
 Despite some conflicting evidence, U.S. commanders did not issue oral or written orders to shoot civilians in the vicinity of No Gun Ri

The following is a detailed list of the review's findings:
 U.S. forces were inadequately trained to deal with mass refugees, an inadequacy that was causing problems on the battlefield.
 Official policy emphasized the role of South Korean authorities in dealing with refugees.
 Policies enacted regarding refugees were that they were prohibited from crossing battle lines (positions where there is contact or expectation of contact with the enemy) as well as being subject to a night curfew.
 The 2nd Battalion of the 7th Cavalry Regiment withdrew from a position east of Yongdong to Nogeun-ri, believing they were under attack; the withdraw was highly disorganized.
 The 1st Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment showed up in the afternoon of the 26th to the east of the 2nd Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment, relieving the 2nd Battalion, 5th Cavalry Regiment.
 During July 27 to 29, the forces believed they were under enemy attack.
 Official policy discouraged large evacuations so as not to clog roads and supply lines; it is unknown why so many were evacuated.
 U.S. forces were not responsible for the large evacuations in the vicinity; they may have evacuated Imgae-ri but if so they were not 7th Cavalry Regiment soldiers.
 There were no airstrikes in the afternoon of July 26 in the vicinity of Nogeun-ri. The only airstrikes during this period were a friendly fire incident on July 27 which caused the cavalry commander to request a Tactical Air Control Party (TACP) and a strike on NKPA forces on July 28 near the 1st Battalion.
 Only TACPs had the ability to communicate with aircraft; there were none in the vicinity during the time period of July 26 to 29.
 No USAF veterans interviewed participated in the strafing of civilians in the vicinity of Nogeun-ri in late July.
 The Navy found no evidence of its aircraft in the vicinity except on July 28, when it "attacked a railroad tunnel occupied by enemy troops and other targets forward of the 7th Cavalry in the direction of Yongdong with bombs and machine guns."
 Images dated August 6 and September 19 show no signs of bombing but, "some patterns near the tracks approximately 350 yards from the double railroad overpass show "an imagery signature of probable strafing"", the same location identified by witnesses as being where they were strafed.
 No evidence of an air strike on July 26 but number of eyewitnesses shows it can not be precluded.
 Separate strikes on July 27 and 28 (on friendly and enemy targets, respectively) could have caused civilian casualties.
 A strike could have occurred in this period which killed civilians but it did not target them.
 Veterans heard various types of fire near unidentified individuals in civilian clothing outside of the tunnels and bridges in the vicinity; some reported seeing or receiving hostile fire from civilians; other civilians had shots fired near them to prevent them from moving.
 "Although the U.S. Review Team cannot determine what happened near Nogeun-ri with certainty, it is clear, based upon all available evidence, that an unknown number of Korean civilians were killed or injured by the effects of small-arms fire, artillery and mortar fire, and strafing that preceded or coincided with the NKPA's advance and the withdrawal of U.S. forces in the vicinity of Nogeun-ri during the last week of July 1950. These Korean deaths and injuries occurred at different locations in the vicinity of Nogeun-ri and were not concentrated exclusively at the double railroad overpass."
 Estimates of the time length of fire range from a few minutes to four days.
 U.S. commanders did not issue orders to fire on civilians in Nogeun-ri during July 25-29.
 Pilots were not ordered to kill civilians in the vicinity of Nogeun-ri.
 Interviewed veterans said deadly force was not authorized against civilians who posed no threat, and they were not given orders to shoot and kill civilians.
 Some veterans believed they had the ability to use deadly force if civilians did not halt from passing their position.
 Some veterans believed there was an order to fire on civilians because the weapons used may have hit civilians; they did not hear any such order and do not know who would have given it or when; other veterans maintain there was no such order.
 There was a reference to firing upon civilians who refused to stop in an army log of the 8th Cavalry Regiment; this regiment was not in the vicinity during the time period and there is nothing suggesting this message was transmitted to other regiments.
 The number of casualties is unascertainable by witnesses; the 248 figure is unverified.

The summary concludes:

Neither the documentary evidence nor the U.S. veterans' statements reviewed by the U.S. Review Team support a hypothesis of deliberate killing of Korean civilians. What befell civilians in the vicinity of Nogeun-ri in late July 1950 was a tragic and deeply regrettable accompaniment to a war forced upon unprepared U.S. and ROK forces.

Aftermath
In 1999 the New York Times reported that 30 South Korean survivors and relatives of victims had filed a lawsuit in 1997 that "described a three-day period of killing, saying that American planes had strafed hundreds of refugees who were fleeing from North Korean troops, leaving about 100 people dead. The survivors fled under the bridge, where they said they were pinned by American troops who shot and killed almost all the refugees." Their suit was rejected on a technicality.

President Bill Clinton expressed U.S. regret over Korean civilian deaths. The United States and South Korea issued a joint "statement of mutual understanding" in January 2001, which stated that there were no orders to fire on civilians. It concluded the following:

Ongoing research
On February 23, 2004, the History News Network hosted an online debate between Robert Bateman and the AP reporters who wrote the series of investigative articles in 1999.
 Robert Bateman criticized the AP report.
 The Associated Press reporters replied.
 Bateman's reply to the AP reporters.
 Associated Press reporter Hanley's reply to Bateman.
 Bateman replied to Hanley.

According to historian Sahr Conway-Lanz, the position taken by the Pentagon after its 1999-2001 investigation — that the U.S. military did not order the refugees shot — is untenable. In an April 2006 book, Conway-Lanz published a letter from then U.S. Ambassador to South Korea, John J. Muccio, informing the State Department that U.S. troops were authorized to shoot at refugees. The letter referred to policy set down on July 25, 1950.

On May 29, 2006, the Associated Press reported in a story that was printed in The Washington Post that the letter, cited by Conway-Lenz, which had not previously been known, "is the strongest indication yet that such a policy existed for all U.S. forces in Korea, and (is) the first evidence that that policy was known to upper ranks of the U.S. government."

The Associated Press reported on April 12, 2007, that the Army has acknowledged it found — but did not divulge in 2001 when it issued its official inquiry — that a high-level document revealed the U.S. military had a policy of shooting approaching civilians in South Korea. The article said the document was one of numerous omissions of documents and testimony pointing to a policy of firing on refugee groups in the army's investigation.

Bateman's 2002 book, however, reproduced the entire military order which came out of that same high-level US-ROK meeting, and did so verbatim. These were the instructions that went from that highest level down to the divisions, and from there to the regiments, and from there to the battalions, over the next days. The letter, from the U.S. Ambassador to Korea to the State Department, describing the meeting out of which the orders flowed does not matter to military events on the ground at No Gun Ri. The AP articles on the topic try to suggest conspiracy on the part of the historians working on President Clinton's investigation. The State Department, however, did not command military troops in the field in Korea, and so the letter serves only as evidence impugning the credibility of any other government statement saying that orders had not been given.  The Ambassador's letter may be irrelevant to the investigation of events that occurred the next day at No Gun Ri beyond establishing the mere existence of discussion of general orders at a high level regarding shooting refugees feared to contain hostile forces.

Lihat juga
 Sejarah Korea Utara
 Sejarah Korea
 Senarai rencana berkaitan Korea

Rujukan

Bacaan lanjut

 Port, J. Robert The Story No One Wanted to Hear in
  Some of the Associated Press stories.

  2006 winner of Stuart L. Bernath Award of the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations
  Expands on the article in Diplomatic History revealing the letter from the U.S. ambassador to Seoul, informing the U.S. State Department that American soldiers would shoot refugees approaching their lines.

Perang Korea
Pembunuhan di Korea Selatan
Pembunuhan beramai-ramai dilakukan oleh Amerika Syarikat
Skandal ketenteraan Amerika Syarikat
Pembunuhan beramai-ramai

Pembunuhan beramai-ramai di No Gun Ri


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The editable wikicode for the template's documentation is often placed on a separate subpage of the template itself, which is then transcluded at the end of the template page. This separates the often complex template code from the documentation, making the documentation easier to edit and reducing the number of accidental editing errors in the template code. It also allows templates to be protected where necessary, limiting editing access to important templates' code while allowing anyone to edit those templates' documentation. This method is sometimes referred to as the "template-doc page pattern".

How to create a documentation subpage

Put documentation in the template
You must put  when creating (publishing) a template. Then a documentation page is created with [view] [edit] [history] [purge] links. You can create and edit the template documentation clicking in this pane [edit] link.

Template documentation subpages using  are named and formatted using the following general pattern, for consistency.

Suppose your template is named Template:X. Edit the template and append the following at the end of the template code, or use :

 <noinclude>
{{Documentation}}
<!-- Add categories to the /doc subpage and interwikis in Wikidata, not here! -->
</noinclude>

This will transclude  at the bottom of the template page.

Important: Make sure the opening  begins immediately after the last character of the template code or text and not on a new line, nor with any intervening spaces. Otherwise, extra space will be inserted below the template when it is used, which is usually not wanted.

If the template is already protected, ask an administrator to do this or request an edit by using an  on the template's talk page. If documentation and categories already exist in a section, enclosed within a  container, move them into the documentation subpage (where they should be enclosed in ), as it is best not to have documentation split across two separate pages.

Automatic creation

Use [create] link at the bottom of the empty documentation box to automatically create a preloaded documentation subpage. Insert the documentation after the top line and categories under the appropriate comment line – leaving the comment in place, so that the layout is preserved when the page is edited in future. Related templates, policy page, projects, etc. can be linked to by adding a "See also" section. Save the subpage.

Manual creation
To create the documentation subpage manually, create a subpage with the name Template:X/doc. See the details at  or start the page by copy-pasting the following standard wikitext:

{{Documentation subpage}}
<!-- Add categories where indicated at the bottom of this page and interwikis at Wikidata -->
== Usage ==

<includeonly>{{sandbox other||
<!-- Categories below this line; interwikis at Wikidata -->

}}</includeonly>

The top line will display a message explaining the current page and a link to the template page. Save the subpage and follow instructions in section "Use Template:Documentation".

With TemplateData
Instead of manually writing a lead graf and a usage table, the  template can do most of the job. Simply write your TemplateData in the table interface, and then wrap it into a template call like {{Format TemplateData|1=<templatedata>...</templatedata>}} at the top of the page.

Notes
You may wish to redirect the talk page of the /doc subpage to the talk page of the template itself. Then all talk relating to the template and its documentation will end up on the same talkpage. For example, redirect Template talk:X/doc to Template talk:X.

A documentation page can also be redirected to the /doc subpage of another template, if that covers the usage for both templates. In this case, clicking the links to view or edit the documentation will directly open the target of the redirect. If it is necessary to access the redirect itself (e.g. to remove the redirect and create a separate doc page), go to the template URL by clicking in the location bar at the top of your browser, and add /doc at the end.

Blank

To generate a blank template, which may then be copied from the documentation and pasted into another page, use:

{{subst:#tag:pre|{{subst:Parameters|code|base={{subst:BASEPAGENAME}}}}|style=overflow: auto;}}

Examples

To generate an instance of the template, populated with its own property names, use:

{{subst:Parameters|demo|base={{subst:BASEPAGENAME}}|_base=}}

Categories and interwiki links
 To place the template itself into a category, add the [[Pubu:Category name]] code inside an  section on the doc subpage.
 To create an interwiki link for the template itself, go to Wikidata and follow the instructions for adding links to pages.
 To place the doc subpage into a category, add the [[Pubu:Category name]] code inside a  section on the doc subpage.
 To make the template place an article into a category (when the article includes the template), add the [[Pubu:Category name]] code inside an  section on the template page. Exact placement within the template code may affect how the category code is executed.

/sandbox and /testcases
Before doing changes to a template it can be good to first copy the template code to a sandbox and run some testcases, since the template might be visible on thousands or even millions of pages. If you create subpages named exactly "/sandbox" and "/testcases" to a template then the green  box on the template auto-detects this and will show links to those pages in its header.  See Wikipedia:Template sandbox and test cases for more information.

Several templates, one documentation page
When several templates work together or are very similar then it is often clearer and easier to maintain one single documentation page that documents them together. The simplest way to do this is to make a full documentation page at one of the templates, and then make "soft redirects" from the other templates. See, for instance: .

Directly on a template page
When a documentation subpage has not been created, and the  template is being used with a  parameter on the actual template page, then to place the template itself into a category, add [[Pubu:Category name]] inside the documentation template, after the content. For example, for placement on the actual template page:

<!--Last line of your template code--><noinclude>
{{Documentation
 | content =
<!-- template documentation -->

[[Pubu:Category name]]
[[Pubu:Category name2]]
}}</noinclude>

When no documentation is needed

When a template as displayed will link to a page that can serve as the documentation, then separate documentation is superfluous and does not need to be created. For instance, a stub template, using the  template as a base, will already display pre-loaded common documentation for all stub templates using that template, and will not need additional documentation.

Tips and tricks
Here are some tips to facilitate writing documentations:
 Links to templates like  can be inserted by writing . See  for similar templates.
 HTML tags like  can be easily inserted with . This example is written as
 Equals sign = can be inserted with . For example,  is made by {{tlp|tlp|Citation needed|date{{=}}1900-02-29}}. Avoid the equivalent notation = which is not easy to read for other editors.
 Don't forget the single  tag. [[example]] becomes [[example]], and [http://en.wikipedia.org no link] is [http://en.wikipedia.org no link]. See WP:NOWIKI for the details.
 For a link to a category, use . For example,  becomes .
 To suppress categorization of the /sandbox and /testcases pages of the template (if they exist), use this code at the bottom of the documentation subpage:
<includeonly>{{sandbox other||{{testcases other||
<!-- Categories below this line, please; interwikis at Wikidata -->

}}}}</includeonly>

 When the template is a child infobox, documentation appears broken. Prevent this by adding the <includeonly> tag:
{{Some infobox (child) template
|  child = <includeonly>yes</includeonly>
| label1 = Hello
|  data1 = World
}}<noinclude>{{documentation}}</noinclude>

See also

  – Transcludes the documentation on the template page, and provides documentation view, edit and history links
  – Explains that what follows is documentation, and links to the documented page
  and

  – global use

  – for WikiProject templates
 Wikipedia:High-risk templates
 Wikipedia:Template sandbox and test cases
 :Category:Documentation assistance templates

Wikipedia template help

Documentation


Mike Reiss (born September 15, 1959 in Bristol, Connecticut) is an American television comedy writer. He went to Harvard University. He was co-president with Jon Vitti of the Harvard Lampoon. He has frequently collaborated with his writing partner Al Jean as a writer for The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson, and writers/producers for many episodes of The Simpsons. The duo created and executive produced The Critic and Teen Angel, which was cancelled in its first season.  Reiss independently produced a short internet cartoon series entitled Queer Duck for Icebox.com. In 2002, the series was picked up by Showtime, where it aired as a supporting feature to Queer as Folk.  Queer Duck: the Movie was released on DVD July 18, 2006. The feature film reunites the Queer Duck cast.  As a professional speaker, Reiss has lectured on comedy and the Simpsons at colleges. He has published six children's books, including How Murray Saved Christmas. He also won an Edgar Award for his mystery story "Cro-Magnon PI".

Other websites
 Reiss feature in The Tattoo Teen Newspaper, including audio about writing for "The Simpsons"
 Channel4 - 100 Greatest Cartoons

1959 births
Living people
American screenwriters
Writers from Connecticut

Mike Reiss


A financial institution, sometimes called a banking institution, is a business entity that provides service as an intermediary for different types of financial monetary transactions. Broadly speaking, there are three major types of financial institution:

 Depository institution – deposit-taking institution that accepts and manages deposits and makes loans, including bank, building society, credit union, trust company, and mortgage broker;
 Contractual institution – insurance company and pension fund
 Investment institution – investment bank, underwriter, and other different types of financial entities managing investments.

Financial institutions can be distinguished broadly into two categories according to ownership structure:
 commercial bank
 cooperative bank

Some experts see a trend toward homogenisation of financial institutions, meaning a tendency to invest in similar areas and have similar business strategies. A consequence of this might be fewer banks serving specific target groups, and small-scale producers may be under-served. This is why a target of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10 is to improve the regulation and monitoring of global financial institutions and strengthen such regulations.

Standard settlement instructions
Standard Settlement Instructions (SSIs) are the agreements between two financial institutions which fix the receiving agents of each counterparty in ordinary trades of some type. These agreements allow the related counterparties to make faster operations since the time used to settle the receiving agents is conserved. Limiting each subject to an SSI also lowers the likelihood of a fraud. SSIs are used by financial institutions to facilitate fast and accurate cross-border payments.

Regulation
Financial institutions in most countries operate in a heavily regulated environment because they are critical parts of countries' economies, due to economies' dependence on them to grow the money supply via fractional-reserve banking. Regulatory structures differ in each country, but typically involve prudential regulation as well as consumer protection and market stability. Some countries have one consolidated agency that regulates all financial institutions while others have separate agencies for different types of institutions such as banks, insurance companies and brokers.

Countries that have separate agencies include the United States, where the key governing bodies are the Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council (FFIEC), Office of the Comptroller of the Currency - National Banks, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) State "non-member" banks, National Credit Union Administration (NCUA) - Credit Unions, Federal Reserve (Fed) - "member" Banks, Office of Thrift Supervision - National Savings & Loan Association, State governments each often regulate and charter financial institutions.

Countries that have one consolidated financial regulator include: Norway with the Financial Supervisory Authority of Norway, Germany with Federal Financial Supervisory Authority and Russia with Central Bank of Russia.

Merits
Merits of raising funds through financial institutions are as follows:
 Financial institutions provide long term finance, which are not provided by commercial banks;
 The funds are made available even during periods of depression, when other sources of finance are not available;
 Obtaining loan from financial institutions increases the goodwill of the borrowing in the capital market . Consequently, such a company can raise funds easily from other sources as well;
 Besides providing funds, many of these institutions provide financial, managerial and technical advice and consultancy to business firms;
 As repayment of loan can be made in easy installments, it does not prove to be much of burden on the business.

See also

Bank
Consumer Credit Act 1974 (UK law)
Credit union
Capital market
Ethical banking
Financial economics
Fractional-reserve banking
International financial institutions
List of financial regulatory authorities by country
Non-bank financial institution
Savings and loan association
Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication
Cooperative banking

References

Financial institution

Financial institution


Debra Lynn Messing (born August 15, 1968) is an American actress. She is kent for her mony telly roles, maist notably her aicht-year run playin Grace Adler on the NBC sitcom Will & Grace.

1968 births
Livin fowk
Actresses frae Rhode Island
American film actresses
American fowk o Pols-Jewish strynd
American fowk o Roushie-Jewish strynd
American stage actresses
American televeesion actresses
American vyce actresses
Brandeis Varsity alumni
Jewish American actresses
Ootstaundin Performance bi a Lead Actress in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Awaird winners
Fowk frae East Greenwich, Rhode Island
Tisch School of the Arts alumni
20t-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses

Debra Messing


A lamp is a device that makes light and heat. Lamps usually work with electricity, using a lightbulb.  In the United States, a lamp is usually considered a desk lamp or floor lamp. Other sources of light are called 'lights', such as streetlights, flashlights, and headlights, which in some countries are called streetlamps, torches and headlamps.

Before electric lamps were invented, gas lamps, oil lamps or candles were used.

Related pages
 Compact fluorescent lamp
 Gas discharge lamp
Lava lamp (mostly used for decoration rather than lighting a room)

References

Furniture
Lamps

Lamp


Alexander Meigs Haig, Jr. (December 2, 1924 – February 20, 2010) was a United States Army general and diplomat.

He was the United States Secretary of State under President Ronald Reagan. He was also White House Chief of Staff under Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. He also was Vice Chief of Staff of the Army. This is the second-highest ranking officer in the Army. He was in charge of all US and NATO forces in Europe.

Haig was a veteran of the Korean War and Vietnam War. He received the Distinguished Service Cross, the Silver Star with oak leaf cluster, and the Purple Heart.

On February 20, 2010, Haig died from complications from a staphylococcal infection, aged 85.

Life and career

Haig was born in Pennsylvania and had two siblings. His father died when he was young and he was raised by his mother. Haig went to college at Notre Dame University for two years before switching to the United States Military Academy. He later attended Columbia and Georgetown to get his masters. While in the army, he served in the Korean War in several major battles. He served as a commander in the Vietnam War. At one point, his helicopter was shot down and he saw two days of violent hand-to-hand combat. He was awarded the Purple Heart and Distinguished Flying Cross for his notable bravery in wartime.

In 1969, President Richard Nixon made him a national security advisor. Haig helped negotiate the ceasefire in the Vietnam War. Nixon promoted him to White House Chief of Staff after H. R. Haldeman resigned facing criminal charges. Haig has been praised by many people by keeping the government running during the Watergate scandal that brought down Nixon. Haig has even been called an "acting president" during the last days of Nixon's administration. When Nixon was forced to resign, Haig helped the new president Gerald Ford. He remained Chief of Staff during Ford's administration.

In 1974, Haig became Supreme Allied Commander of Europe, a job that made him the head of all NATO forces. In 1979 he survived an assassination attempt. In 1979, he retired from the army as a four star general. After this he was on the board of a number of companies. In 1981, Ronald Reagan appointed him as Secretary of State. In this new job, Haig was the head of US foreign policy. Haig believed that the US should take a strong stand against the Soviet Union.

In March 1981, Reagan was shot by John Hinckley, Jr., a mentally ill man in Washington DC. Vice President George Bush was on a plane, and Haig was put in charge of the government until Bush could be reached. He told reporters that "I am in control here." Reagan made a full recovery.

In 1982, after Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, Haig tried to solve the crisis peacefully by bringing UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and Argentinian dictator Leopoldo Galtieri to negotiate. No solution was reached and the crisis ended with the full blown Falklands War between the two countries. The British won the war, and Galtieri's regime collapsed. In July 1982, Haig retired from the State Department. Reagan nominated George Schultz as the new Secretary of State.

Haig ran for President in 1988, but George Bush beat him. Haig was involved in a number of businesses after leaving office. He also advised several presidents, who wanted his expertise in foreign policy. In 2006, President George W. Bush held a meeting of ten former State and Defense Secretaries. Haig was at the meeting. He published his memoirs in 1992.

Haig died of natural causes on February 20, 2010. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery.

References

Other websites

 The Day Reagan was Shot article on Haig
 The Falklands: Failure of a Mission  critique of Haig's mediation efforts
 Portrait of Alexander Haig  by Margaret Holland Sargent

 Obituary -The Economist.
 Burial site of Alexander Haig -Find A Grave.

1924 births
2010 deaths
Deaths from staphylococcal infection
Infectious disease deaths in Maryland
Politicians from Philadelphia
Purple Heart recipients
United States Secretaries of State
1988 United States presidential candidates
Republican Party (United States) politicians
White House Chiefs of Staff
American Roman Catholics
Businesspeople from Philadelphia
American diplomats
American generals
American military personnel of the Korean War
American military personnel of the Vietnam War
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Columbia University alumni
Members of the Cabinet of the United States
United States Department of State
Military people from Pennsylvania

Alexander Haig


The Subcutaneous tissue is sometimes also called the hypodermis. It is the bottom layer of skin of an animal or plant, right below the dermis, which is below the epidermis.

The diagram is incorrect by a typo error: The stratum germinativum is the stratum granulosum layer, the stratum basale is also called the stratum germinativum. The stratum lucidum is located below the stratum corneum. The stratum spinosum is also the stratum mucosum. Below the basal later is the papilla, then the dermis layers, below that is hypodermis also known as subcutaneous later which is the adipose (fat) location just above the vessels of lymph and veins and arteries, attaching to the muscles. However, adipose can become expansive and encapsulate around vessels of the lymphatic, veins and the arteries.

In humans, this is where the body mostly stores fat cells, called adipocyte, and there are also white blood cells and blood vessels.

The hypodermis also connects the muscles of the body to the skin, with something called deep fascia, or connective tissue.

Integumentary system

Subcutaneous tissue


The national flag of Antigua and Barbuda was started on February 27, 1967.  It was designed by artist and sculptor, Sir Reginald Samuel. The rising sun is for the dawning of a new era. The colours have different meanings. The black is for the African ancestry of the people.  The blue is for hope.  The red is for energy or dynamism of the people. The colouring of yellow, blue, and white (from the sun down) is for the sun, sea, and sand. The blue also is for the Caribbean Sea.  The V-shape is the symbol of victory.

National symbols of Antigua and Barbuda
Antigua and Barbuda

Flag of Antigua and Barbuda


Monaro (pronounced "mon-air'-ro")  is the name of a region in the south of New South Wales, Australia. It also includes a small area of Victoria near Snowy River National Park. The Australian Capital Territory is often considered part of the region. Most towns in the region have very close links with Canberra.

The Monaro region is a large plateau about  above sea level. It lies between the valley of the Murrumbidgee River in the north, and the Errinundra Plateau in the south. It drops steeply to the coast on its eastern side. Much of the region is an ancient highland, but there is basaltic bedrock near Cooma and Nimmitabel. This produces the only true chernozems in Australia. These are some of the best soils in the whole country. Elsewhere on the Monaro the granitic soils are very infertile. They supported dry forest vegetation before clearing for farming.

Because it is located east of the Snowy Mountains, the rain-bearing westerly winds drop rain and snow on the mountains leaving the Monaro region in a rain shadow. Annual rainfall ranges from  around Dalgety to  at the eastern edge of the plateau. Occasional storms can produce very heavy rainfall. On one day in June 1975, Nimmitabel received  of rain. Temperatures in summer are warm to very warm. The average maximum temperatures range from  around Canberra and Queanbeyan to  on the highest parts of the plateau. Nights in summer can be cool, but in winter the region is the coldest part of mainland Australia outside the Alps The with July minimum temperatures averaging  in Canberra and  in Bombala.

The Monaro region features rolling hills that rise to very rugged peaks in the Tinderry Mountains. There are shallow valleys in the upper Murrumbidgee. The basaltic Monaro Range separates the Snowy and Murrumbidgee drainages. Because the climate in the basaltic areas is too cold for crops, the main industry is raising sheep and beef cattle.

The Monaro Highway is the main State highway from Canberra to the Monaro region. The main towns in the region are Cooma and Bombala, others include Berridale, Adaminaby, Delegate, Dalgety, Nimmitabel and Jindabyne.

Regions of New South Wales

Monaro (New South Wales)


Albert Lester (c. 1803 – March 14, 1867) was an American lawyer and politician.

Life
Lester removed from Litchfield, Connecticut, to Canandaigua.

He was a Democratic member of the New York State Senate (7th D.) from 1844 to 1847, sitting in the 67th, 68th, 69th and 70th New York State Legislatures. On February 12, 1847, Lester was elected President pro tempore of the State Senate, to preside during the absence of the Lieutenant Governor. In May 1847, Lt. Gov. Addison Gardiner was elected to the New York Court of Appeals and took office on July 5. Gardiner thus vacated the office of lieutenant governor—who is ex officio President of the State Senate—and Lester became Acting Lieutenant Governor of New York. Urged by Governor John Young, the State Legislature passed on September 27 a law to hold a special election for lieutenant governor at the New York state election, 1847 to fill the vacancy, and Hamilton Fish was elected to take office on January 1, 1848.

Lester died in Canandaigua (town), New York, on March 14, 1867. He was buried at the West Avenue Cemetery in Canandaigua.

Sources
The American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge by Jared Sparks, Francis Bowen & George Partridge Sanger (Gray and Bowen, 1847; page 245)
The New York Civil List compiled by Franklin Benjamin Hough (pages 32, 134ff and 143; Weed, Parsons and Co., 1858)
 Political Graveyard
 Gravestone info, transcribed at NY GenWeb
Political History of the State of New York from January 1, 1841, to January 1, 1847, Vol III, including the Life of Silas Wright by Jabez Delano Hammond (Hall & Dickson, Syracuse NY, 1848; pages 367f)
The Regents of the University of the State of New York: 1784-1959 compiled by Albert Bickmore Corey (University of the State of New York, 1959; pages 23 and 33)

1800s births
Year of birth uncertain
1867 deaths
19th-century American politicians
Lieutenant Governors of New York (state)
New York (state) state senators
Politicians from Canandaigua, New York
Politicians from Litchfield, Connecticut

Albert Lester


A condenser is a device used in the laboratory to cool hot gases into liquids. It is usually a long, circular glass tube. Inside the tube there is another, smaller tube. The hot gas goes through the smaller, inside tube, while in the outside one cold water goes around. Water can be put in from the tap, and goes from the bottom to exit at the top. This makes sure the tube is always full of water, so that cooling is quick.

A condenser is used for example in distillation, where the hot vapour needs to be cooled down back to liquid to be collected. It is also used in reflux where it makes sure that the solvent used does not boil and go away.

Laboratory equipment

Condenser (apparatus)


Granite domes are domical hills composed of granite with bare rock exposed over most of the surface. Generally, domical features such as these are known as bornhardts. Bornhardts can form in any type of plutonic rock but are typically composed of granite and granitic gneiss. As granitic plutons cool kilometers below the Earth's surface, minerals in the rock crystallize under uniform confining pressure. Erosion brings the rock closer to Earth's surface and the pressure from above the rock decreases; as a result the rock fractures. These fractures are known as exfoliation joints, or sheet fractures, and form in onionlike patterns that are parallel to the land surface. These sheets of rock peel off the exposed surface and in certain conditions develop domical structures. Additional theories on the origin of granite domes involve scarp-retreat and tectonic uplift.

Sheet fractures
Sheet fractures are arcuate fractures defining slabs of rock that range from 0.5 to 10 meters thick. They normally form in sets parallel to the Earth's surface but may form in convex-upward or concave-upward sets. There are several possible explanations for the formation of sheet fractures. The most popular hypothesis is that they are the result of expansion and tangential fracturing consequent on erosional offloading or pressure release. There is evidence that supports this hypothesis when looking at granitic landforms that have sheet fractures. Granite forms deep in the Earth's crust under conditions of high ambient or lithostatic pressure. In order for the granite to be exposed at the Earth's surface a considerable thickness of rock must be eroded. This unloading allows the granite to expand radially and sheet fractures form tangentially to the radial stress. This indicates that the shape of the pre-existing land surface determines the geometry of the sheet fractures.

Other theories of origin
One hypothesis is that granite domes are uplifted blocks. This is the case with some granite domes but the fracture related exfoliation joints are what controls the steep slopes. Another theory that regards isolated bornhardts is that they remain after long-distance scarp recession. Moisture related weathering is what causes scarp recession. In the case of granite in a dissected landscape the dry granite high on a slope remains stable and acts as caprock. Granite below this is more easily weathered and eroded because it has been exposed to moisture and has weathered. This ultimately leads to the steepening of the slope and the collapse of higher slope elements as well as the maintenance of scarps of essentially constant inclination and morphology during backwearing.

See also

, Australia
, Brazil
, United States

, United States
, United States
, Australia
Granite Dome, California, US
, United States
 China
, United States
, Canada
, United States
, United States

References

External links

Granite domes of the Cairngorms

Granite dome


North West Cape is a large piece of land on the north west coast of Western Australia. There are mountains called the Cape Range through the middle of the peninsula and Ningaloo Reef is on the western edge. The town of Exmouth is also on the North West Cape.

In 1618, Dutch East India Company captain Lenaert Jacobszoon and Willem Janszoon from the boat Mauritius landed in the area. Phillip Parker King visited in 1818 and named it North West Cape. He also named Exmouth Gulf after a Royal Navy officer, Edward Pellew, First Viscount Exmouth (1758 -1833).

Later, pearl boats visited the area from Broome.

Other websites
 http://www.exmouthwa.com.au/pages.asp?code=22

Geography of Western Australia
Capes

North West Cape


The smooth-fronted caiman (Paleosuchus trigonatus), also known as Schneider's dwarf caiman or Schneider's smooth-fronted caiman, is a crocodilian from South America, where it is native to the Amazon and Orinoco Basins. It is the second-smallest species of the family Alligatoridae, the smallest being Cuvier's dwarf caiman, also from tropical South America and in the same genus. An adult typically grows to around  in length and weighs between . Exceptionally large males can reach as much as  in length and  in weight.

Etymology
The smooth-fronted caiman was first described by the German classicist and naturalist Johann Gottlob Schneider in 1801. The genus name Paleosuchus is derived from the Greek palaios meaning "ancient" and soukhos meaning "crocodile". This refers to the belief that this crocodile comes from an ancient lineage that diverged from other species of caimans some 30 million years ago. The specific name trigonatus is derived from the Greek trigonos meaning "three-cornered" and Latin atus meaning "provided with" and refers to the triangular shape of the head.

Description
The head of the smooth-fronted caiman is similar in appearance to that of the spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus), but no bony ridge or "spectacle" occurs between the eyes. The scutes on the back of the neck and the tail are large, triangular, and sharp. It has heavily ossified body armour on both its dorsal and ventral surfaces. The relatively short tail is broad at its base and flattened dorsoventrally in contrast to most species of crocodilians which have laterally flattened tails. The bony scutes on the tail have sideways projections; and the tail is so well armoured, that it is relatively inflexible. This caiman is a dark greyish-brown with mid-brown eyes. Males grow to about  long, with the largest recorded specimen being . Females do not often exceed . It is a robust crocodilian, strong for its size, and tends to carry its head high with its neck angled upwards.

Distribution and habitat

The smooth-fronted caiman is native to the Amazon and Orinoco Basins in South America and is found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. It inhabits small streams in forested areas where in some cases, the water may be insufficiently deep for it to completely submerge itself. It is seldom seen in open areas and does not usually bask in the sun, even in captivity.

Behaviour and life history

The adult smooth-fronted caiman has cryptic habits and is seldom observed by day because it hides in underwater burrows or may spend much of its time up to  away from water, concealed in dense undergrowth, in hollow logs, or under fallen trees. Males are territorial and females have small home ranges. Adults are semiterrestrial and mainly feed on such animals as porcupines, pacas, snakes, birds, and lizards, consuming few fish or molluscs. Hatchlings feed mainly on insects and other arthropods in their first few weeks, graduating to larger prey as they grow, such as small fish, birds, and reptiles. Juvenile mortality is high, but adult mortality is low, although large carnivores such as the jaguar sometimes prey on them.

Females become mature and start to breed at about 11 years and males at about 20. The female builds a large mound nest out of leaf litter and soil at the end of the dry season or may use a pre-existing nest. A clutch of 10 to 15 eggs is laid and covered with further nesting material. Some heat is generated by the decaying vegetation and good insulation helps to retain this. The nests are often built against the sides of termite mounds and metabolic heat generated by the termites helps to maintain the clutch at a near constant temperature. The eggs need to be maintained at a temperature of  for the production of male offspring. The incubation period is about 115 days and the female caiman remains near the nest for at least the earlier part of this time, providing protection against predators. During incubation, roots may grow through the nest, and soil from the termite mound may cement the eggs together. This means parental assistance is necessary when the eggs hatch to enable the hatchlings to escape from the nest chamber. Having transported the newly emerged juveniles to a nursery area, the female stays with them for a few weeks after which time they disperse. The female may miss a year before breeding again.

Status and conservation

The smooth-fronted caiman is not extensively hunted because its skin contains many bony scutes, which make it of little use for leather. The animals are collected in Guyana, however, for the pet trade. The main threats to this species are destruction of its forest habitat and pollution of its environment by gold mining activities. Over one million individuals are estimated to remain in the wild, and the species is rated by the IUCN as being of least concern. It is listed on Appendix II of CITES which is designed to limit overexploitation through international trade.

References

External links

Alligatoridae
Crocodilians of South America
Reptiles of Bolivia
Reptiles of Brazil
Reptiles of Colombia
Reptiles of Ecuador
Reptiles of French Guiana
Reptiles of Guyana
Reptiles of Peru
Reptiles of Suriname
Reptiles of Venezuela
Fauna of the Amazon
Reptiles described in 1801
Taxobox binomials not recognized by IUCN

Smooth-fronted caiman


The Battle of Tricamarum took place on December 15, 533 between the armies of the Byzantine Empire, under Belisarius, and the Vandal Kingdom, commanded by King Gelimer, and his brother Tzazon. It followed the Byzantine victory at the Battle of Ad Decimum, and eliminated the power of the Vandals for good, completing the reconquest of North Africa under the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. The main contemporary source for the battle is Procopius, De Bello Vandalico, which occupies Books III and IV of his magisterial Wars of Justinian.

Prelude
After the great Byzantine victory at the Battle of Ad Decimum, Belisarius and his army captured Carthage. Vandal king Gelimer set up at Bulla Regia in Numidia, about  to the west of Carthage (at what is now the western border of modern Tunisia). He knew that in his current state he would not be able to face Belisarius's forces, so he sent messengers to his brother Tzazon who was then campaigning in Sardinia. When he received the message, Tzazon set about returning to Africa to join Gelimer.

Meanwhile, Gelimer also attempted to divide the forces helping Belisarius. He offered rewards to the local Punic and Berber tribes for every Byzantine head they could bring, and sent agents to Carthage to attempt to have the Byzantine Hun mercenaries—vital to his success at Ad Decimum—betray him.

Tzazon and his army joined Gelimer early in December, at which point Gelimer felt his forces were strong enough to take the offensive. With the two brothers at the head of the army, the Vandal force paused on the way to Carthage to destroy the great aqueduct which supplied the city with most of its water.

Belisarius had fortified the city in the twelve weeks since Ad Decimum, but knew about Gelimer's agents and could no longer trust the Huns in his forces. Instead of waiting for a possible treachery during a siege, he formed up his army and marched out with the cavalry at the front, the Byzantines in the center, and the Huns at the rear of the column.

Battle
The two forces met at Tricamarum, some  west of Carthage, and the Byzantine cavalry immediately charged the Vandal lines, reforming and attacking two more times. The Byzantine infantry then furiously attacked the Vandal infantry, and the Byzantines gained the advantage. During the third Byzantine cavalry charge Tzazon was killed within sight of Gelimer. As had happened at Ad Decimum, Gelimer lost heart. The Vandal lines began to retreat, and soon were in rout. Gelimer fled back into Numidia with what remained of his army, having lost 800 men. Belisarius then marched on the city of Hippo Regius, which opened its gates to him.

Aftermath
Gelimer realized that his kingdom was lost, and attempted to flee to Spain, where some Vandals still remained, not having followed the main forces when they crossed into North Africa years earlier. However, the Byzantines heard of his plans and intercepted him. He was forced to abandon his belongings and take refuge in the mountains of Tunis with the Berbers. The next year he was found and surrounded by Roman forces led by Pharas the Herulian. At first he refused to surrender, even after promises of being allowed to rule. After a particularly nasty winter, he eventually gave up and surrendered to Belisarius. The Vandal Kingdom ended, and their provinces in Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Islands came under the control of Justinian.

Importance
Paul K. Davis writes, "With this victory, the Byzantines regained control of North Africa for the Eastern Roman Empire. This position became a springboard for the Byzantine invasion of Italy, and that invasion reincorporated, temporarily, the Eastern and Western Roman Empire."

References

Sources

533
Tricamarum
Tricamarum
Tricamarum
530s in the Byzantine Empire
Tricamarum
Tricamarum
Belisarius

Battle of Tricamarum


Vadodara is the Second largest city in Gujarat, India. It used to be called Baroda. It is the administrative capital or headquarters of Vadodara district in Gujarat. The city is on the banks of Vishwamitri River. The city is famous for Lakshmi Vilas Palace, an excellent architectural palace. It is also the place for the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda (Vadodara), the largest university in the state.

The city is an important place of industrial, educational and cultural centre in India. Vadodara has its own airport. The Vadodara Airport has good connectivity with Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata and other main airports. An international terminal was built and was inaugurated by PM Narendra Modi in 2016. Vadodara Railway Station is one of the busiest railway station in Gujarat. It deals with about 150 trains daily.

As of the 2011 census, Vadodara metropolitan area had a population of 3,565,771. Gujarati, Urdu, Marathi and Hindi are the widely spoken languages in Vadodara. Vadodara has the oldest cricket ground in Asia, the Moti Baug Stadium. Vadodara is the birthplace of cricketers like Yusuf Pathan, Irfan Pathan, Nayan Mongia, Deepak Hooda, Hardik Pandya, Krunal Pandya, Ambati Rayudu and Kiran More.

Reference

Cities in Gujarat

Vadodara


Tatyana Ivanovna Zaslavskaya (, April 9, 1927 – August 23, 2013) was a Russian economic sociologist and a theoretician of perestroika. She was the prime author of the Novosibirsk Report and several books on the economy of the Soviet Union (specializing in agriculture) and in sociology of the countryside. She was a member of the Consulting Committee to the President of Russia from 1991 to 1992 and also a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Zaslavskaya was the founder of RPORC and also its director in the years from 1987 to 1992. In 2000 she was the Laureate of the Demidov Prize and the honorary president of the Levada Center.

Biography
Tatyana Zaslavskaya was born in Kyiv in 1927 and brought up in Moscow. She studied at the Physics Department of Moscow State University for three years, and then graduated from the Economics Department of the University in 1950. She finished her post-graduate study at the Institute of Economics of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union with the degree of Kandidat in 1956 under the supervision of Professor Vladimir Venzher (Владимир Григорьевич Венжер). In 1963 she joined the Novosibirsk Institute of Economics headed by Abel Aganbegyan (Абел Аганбегян) to work in a command of young and talented scientists. In 1965 she did her Doctorate in Economics and in 1968 she was elected an Associate Member (член-корреспондент) of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union.

Research

The analysis of the economic situation in Soviet agriculture led Zaslavskaya to the conclusion that the revealed problems cannot be explained without sociological analysis, which bordered with blasphemy within the canonical Marxist science, which postulated that the development of the society is derived from the economical relations, and not vice versa. At these times Soviet sociology was under the tight scrutiny of the Communist Party (from the position of bourgeois pseudoscience through a brief period of liberalisation during the Khrushchev Thaw to sharp criticism during the Leonid Brezhnev era). The remoteness and relative scientific freedom of the young department of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union at Novosibirsk allowed Zaslavskaya to do her research in sociology of the agricultural sector by studying the Siberian countryside, Altai Krai in particular.

In the later years of the Soviet Union accurate detailed information regarding conditions in Soviet agriculture was considered a state secret when not censored outright. A major breach in security occurred in 1983 when the details of a classified paper, "for internal use only", the report from the closed conference in Novosibirsk by Tatyana Zaslavskaya regarding the crisis in Soviet agriculture, were published in The Washington Post. It was called "" ("About the perfection of socialist relations of production and problems of economic sociology") and was next to the United States also published in Germany. In the USSR all copies of the "Novosibirsk manifesto" were withdrawn by the KGB. Later it became known as the Novosibirsk Report in the West and was often considered one of the first signs of perestroika. Although expressed in terms of Marxist theory, this paper—an outline of a proposed research project to study the social mechanisms of economic development as exemplified in Siberian agriculture—was sharply critical of current conditions. Zaslavskaya was the author of a number of works in Russian which deal with economics and social conditions in Soviet agriculture although some of her work was suppressed by Soviet censors. For example, The Methodology of Comparing Labour Productivity in Agriculture in the USSR and the USA, written together with M.I. Sidorova, was suppressed due to its pessimistic results.

In 1988 Zaslavskaya came back to Moscow for the formation of the Russian Public Opinion Research Center, which she was the director of until 1992. Afterwards she became the honorable president of RPORC and later the honorable president of the Analytical Center of Yuri Levada (the Levada Center since 2004).

In 1993 she became the co-president of the Interdisciplinary academic center of social sciences (Russian: ). Since 1993 the "Intercenter" has been carrying out ten annual international conferences concerning the question: "Where is Russia going?" under Zaslavskaya's direction. Many representatives of different sciences (historians, jurists, sociologists, economists, political scientists, culturologists, and philosophers) participate in these conferences debating topics such as a better judgment of the post-communist transformation processes or modern problems and prospects of development of the Russian society.

Zaslavskaya's arguments evolved over time. In the Second Socialist Revolution she imagined the possibility that the USSR was experiencing a democratic revolution that would make Russia genuinely socialist. In the next two decades she puzzled over the form and nature of the transition that actually took place in Russia arguing in 1999 that it was some kind of revolution but then in 2002 concluding that "there was no new social revolution in Russia." She saw social change as occurring through crises involving "random transformation" as in the 1990s the Yelt'sin group lost control of the situation. This led her to try to devise various analyses of social groupings and models of change which tended to description and classification.

She died in 2013 having left her role as a member of parliament twenty years before to teach and write. She was survived by her husband Mikhail and her daughter Oksana.

Memberships and awards

 Member of: Academy of Europe, European-Mediterranean Academy, honorary member of the Polish Academy of Sciences, the doctor of philosophy of Oberlin college, member of the International sociological institute.
 Winner of: the   (Fund Tyopfera, 1989, Germany), the Demidov Prize (Demidovsky fund, 2000, Russia, Yekaterinburg), founder of the Novosibirsk economic-sociological school.
 She received Soviet orders: Order of the Badge of Honour (1972), Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1975), Order of Friendship of Peoples (1981), and Order of the October Revolution (1987).

References

Publications

 Tatyana Zaslavskaya, The Second Socialist Revolution: An Alternative Soviet Strategy, US edition: (in "The Second World" book series) Indiana University Press, (1990), 241 pages, ,  (paperback)
 "The Novosibirsk Report", Survey, vol. 28 (1984), no. 1 pp. 83–109.
 "The structure of social change in Russia. The purpose and the results of Russian reforms," Russian Social Science Review, vol. 43 no.3, (2002) Translation from Obshchestvo i ekonomika, 1999 (3-4).
 "The socio-structural aspect of the transformation of Russian society", Sociological Research, vol. 41 no. 6, (2002). Translation from Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia, 2001(8) of Demidov lecture.
 "On the social mechanism of post communist transformation in Russia",Sociological Research, vol. 42 no. 6, (2003). Translation from Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia, 2002(8).
 "Contemporary Russian society", Sociological Research, vol. 45 no. 4, (2006). Translation from Obschestvennye nauki i sovremennost, 2004(5).

1927 births
2013 deaths
20th-century Russian economists
21st-century Russian economists
Politicians from Kyiv
Academicians of the Russian Academy of Agriculture Sciences
Academicians of the VASKhNIL
Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
Full Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Full Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Members of Academia Europaea
Moscow State University alumni
Academic staff of Novosibirsk State University
Demidov Prize laureates
Recipients of the Order of Friendship of Peoples
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Russian political scientists
Russian women economists
Russian women sociologists
Soviet economists
Soviet sociologists
Institute of Economics and Industrial Engineering scientists

Tatyana Zaslavskaya


A skatepark is a recreational park for skateboarders and BMXers. A skatepark usually features some quarter pipes, some spines, some flat banks, some wall rides or vert walls, some mini ramps, some hips, some funboxes, some pyramids, some launches, some roll-ins, a euro or euro gap, a halfpipe, a bowl, a pool, foam pits, some hand rails, a flat bar and some stairs. The very first skatepark was made in 1976 in Carlsbad, California. The largest skatepark in the world is located in Shanghai, China.

References

Other websites
a list of skateboard parks around the world

Skateboarding

Skatepark


Missionary's kids (or MKs) are the children of missionary parents, and thus born or raised abroad (that is, on the "mission-field"). They form a subset of third culture kids (TCKs). The term is more specifically applied when these children return to their "home" or passport country (the country of their citizenship), and often experience various difficulties identifying with fellow citizens and integrating "back" into their "home" culture. The resulting feeling is described as "reverse culture shock".

There is some confusion between the terms MK and TCK. According to the definition developed by Ruth Hill Useem, TCKs are people who have spent a significant part of their developmental years outside their parents' culture. TCK is a broad term that encompasses all children who have grown up abroad (i.e. military kids, diplomats' kids, immigrants). Missionary kids are just one of the many categories of kids who qualify as TCKs. Therefore, while all MKs are TCKs, not all TCKs are MKs.

In the past MKs usually were thought of only as American or European, but there is  a growing number of MKs from other countries, especially Protestant Christian MKs from South Korea and from Latin America. Generally, this term applies to Protestant Christians; however, it can be applied to any denomination of a religion.

Definition

Life overseas
While MKs often identify more with the culture or country where they were raised (and this could be multiple cities, countries, or continents) than with where their parents were raised, they are not fully at home in any one culture. David C. Pollock and Van Reken attribute this feeling of displacement, or rootlessness, to a lack of emotional connection to their home culture (where they "should" feel connected). Many MKs find it difficult to answer questions about where they are from or where home is as they may feel more of an emotional connection to their host culture than to their "home" culture. However, at the same time many MKs are completely aware that they can never fully fit into their host culture. This is especially obvious to MKs growing up in countries where they look different from the local population. Pollock and Van Reken developed the PolVan Cultural Identity Model to explain cultural identity in relationship to the surrounding culture. The Model names four categories into which a person can fall based on how they look and think compared to the culture around them:
Foreigner  look different, think different
Adopted  look different, think alike
Hidden Immigrant  look alike, think different
Mirror  look alike, think alike

When MKs first transition to their new or "host" culture, they are in the foreigner category. As they continue the transition and begin to acclimate and feel at home in their host culture, MKs move into the adopted category, often to the point where MKs feel more at home in the host culture than in their passport culture. At this point, the host culture becomes the MK's home culture. Upon returning to their passport culture, MKs often find themselves in the hidden immigrant category. Because they look like their peers, their extended family remembers how they were prior to their international move and expect them to hold similar views and to act as a typical citizen of that passport country would act. However, as hidden immigrants, MKs look like their family and friends, but more often than not hold many differing views and opinions. Additionally, MKs may not be aware of many of the pop culture influences within their passport country, yet are aware of world and regional issues, which most citizens of their passport country are unaware of. This cultural disconnect can cause awkwardness when they return to their passport country.

Children in the MKs' passport countries often find it difficult to relate to missionary children, and vice versa. While MKs may find the lives of their peers in their passport countries to be boring, sometimes creating challenging social situations, passport country kids may be intimidated by MKs' experience abroad. Cultural miscommunications are common and interesting. While MKs often find it difficult to relate to people from their home culture or target culture, they get along with other MKs very well, even those who are missionaries to (or from) a completely different country. It is the commonality of differences that draws MKs together.

MKs tend to be open-minded and tolerant of many diverse cultures. They often feel more at home in culturally rich environments and can be "homesick" for their foreign home. Their knowledge of a country and its culture typically exceeds language fluency. Upon returning to their passport country, MKs possess unique skills that can be helpful to academics and governments. Because of their international experience, they often have a much broader worldview than their peers. This broader worldview can also lead to mixed emotions about their passport country and its foreign policies.

Return to passport country
Children who immigrate to the United States have similar experience to MKs when it comes to learning a new culture and making cross-cultural transitions. But according to Pollack and Van Reken, what truly distinguishes MKs from children who immigrate to the United States or other countries is "the full expectation that after living for a significant period of their developmental years outside their passport culture, there will  come the day when TCKs make a permanent return to that country and culture." MKs return to their passport country for many reasons, including the beginning of their college education, a shift in their parents' career, and even evacuation in more extreme cases. Extended family and friends's excitement at MKs' return does not usually carry over to the MK. The events surrounding an MK's return may be traumatic (such as in the event of an evacuation due to political unrest), but even under normal circumstances MKs' return to their country of citizenship is a cause of stress and grief. Anxiety and depressions are the two emotions most commonly associated with cross-cultural transitions, caused by a sense of vulnerability and loss of control.

To help MKs cope with the transition back to the United States, many colleges, particularly Christian colleges, have chapters of a student organization called "Mu Kappa International". Mu Kappa aims to help MKs and other TCKs with the transition to American culture and college life. Mu Kappa was founded in 1985 at Taylor University, and has since spread to more than forty other American colleges and universities.

Another frequently used method of helping MKs cope with transitioning from their foreign home to their passport culture is through transition seminars. These seminars typically take place during the summer before an MK's freshman year of college and teach MKs the basics of everyday life in America, including putting gas in a car, opening a bank account, grocery shopping, and many other every day tasks. Additionally, these seminar can help MKs understand how to deal with the grief of permanently transitioning back to their passport country in a healthy way, and how to manage the stress of a new environment and reverse culture shock.

See also

 Preacher's kid
 Third culture kid
 Military brat

Sources

References

Further reading
 Kingsolver B (1999). The Poisonwood Bible: A Novel, Perennial. .
 Matthiessen P (1965). At Play in the Fields of the Lord, Vintage. .
 Godshalk CS (1999). Kalimantaan, Owl Publishing Company. .
 Gardner M (2018) Worlds Apart: A Third Culture Kid's Journey, Doorlight Publications
 Gardner M (2014) Between Worlds: Essays on Culture and Belonging, Doorlight Publications
 Pollock DC and Van Reken R (2001). Third Culture Kids. Nicholas Brealey Publishing/Intercultural Press. Yarmouth, Maine. .
 Parker E and Rumrill-Teece K (2001). Here Today There Tomorrow. Foreign Service Youth Foundation, Wash. D.C. .
 Hess DJ (1994). The Whole World Guide to Culture Learning. Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, ME.
 Kalb R and Welch P (1992). Moving Your Family Overseas. Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, ME.
 Kohls RL (1996). Survival Kit for Overseas Living. Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, ME.
 Pascoe R (1993). Culture Shock: Successful Living Abroad. Graphic Arts, Portland, OR.
 Shames GW (1997). Transcultural Odysseys: The Evolving Global Consciousness. Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, ME.
 Storti C (1997). The Art of Coming Home. Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, ME.
 Hayward B (2005). My Diary.

External links
 MK Ministries
 MKs Club
 TCKID

Christianity and children
Christian terminology
Childhood-related stereotypes
Cultural concepts

Missionary kid


Joseph Abraham Mendenhall (January 15, 1920 – January 5, 2013) was a United States State Department official, known for his advisory work during the Kennedy administration on policy towards Vietnam and Laos. He was best known for his participation in the Krulak Mendenhall mission to South Vietnam in 1963 with General Victor Krulak. Their vastly divergent conclusions led U.S. President John F. Kennedy to ask if they had visited the same country. Mendenhall continued his work in the Indochina region after Lyndon B. Johnson assumed the presidency in wake of Kennedy's assassination.

Early life and education
Born in Calvert, Maryland, Mendenhall graduated from the University of Delaware in 1940. Mendenhall also studied at Harvard Law School. He then served in the United States Army during World War II and was commissioned captain. Mendenhall served in the United States Foreign Service and was stationed in Turkey, Iceland, Switzerland, South Vietnam, and worked at the U.S. State Department in Washington, D.C. Mendenhall also studied at the National War College in 1962 and 1963.

Krulak Mendenhall mission

Background

In May, civil unrest broke out in South Vietnam following the Hue Vesak shootings. Nine Buddhists were gunned down by the regime of President Ngo Dinh Diem after defying a government ban on the flying of Buddhist flags on Vesak, the birthday of Gautama Buddha and marching in an anti-government protest. Following the shootings, Buddhist leaders began to lobby Diem for religious equality and compensation and justice for the families of the victims. With Diem remaining recalcitrant, the protests escalated. The self-immolation of Buddhist monk Thich Quang Duc at a busy Saigon intersection was a public relations disaster for the Diem regime, and as protests continued, the Army of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces loyal to his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu, raided pagodas across the country on August 21, killing hundreds and causing extensive damage under the declaration of martial law. Universities and high schools were closed amid mass pro-Buddhist protests. In the meantime, the fight against the Vietcong insurgency had begun to lose intensity as rumours spread of sectarian infighting among Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) troops. This was compounded by coup plotting by various  ARVN officers which distracted attention from fighting the Vietcong insurgency. In the aftermath of the pagoda raids, the Kennedy administration sent Cable 243 to the US Embassy, Saigon, ordering it to explore alternative leadership possibilities.

Expedition
A fact finding expedition dispatched by the Kennedy administration to South Vietnam in early September 1963. The stated purpose of the expedition was to investigate the progress of the war by South Vietnam and the American military advisers against the Vietcong insurgency. The mission was led by U.S Marine Corps Major General Victor Krulak and Mendenhall. The four-day whirlwind trip was dispatched on the same day of a National Security Council meeting on September 6 and came in the wake of increasingly strained relations between the United States and South Vietnam. Civil unrest gripped that nation as Buddhist demonstrations against the religious discrimination of President Ngo Dinh Diem escalated. Following the raids on Buddhist pagodas on August 21 which left an estimated triple figure death toll, the US had authorised investigations into a possible coup in a cable to US Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. as South Vietnam descended into chaos. The report of the conclusion was that Krulak presented an extremely optimistic report on the progress of the war, while Mendenhall presented an extremely bleak picture of military failure and public discontent. The divergent reports led US President John F. Kennedy to famously ask his two advisers whether they had visited the same country. The inconclusive report saw a follow-up mission sent to Vietnam, the McNamara Taylor mission, led by U.S. Defense Secretary Robert McNamara and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Maxwell Taylor.

Later career
In January 1964, Mendenhall became director of the State Department's Vietnam Working Group and in July he became the director of the Office of Far Eastern Regional Affairs. In 1965, he was named director of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) Mission in Laos, then the second largest such agency in the world. In 1968, he returned to Washington as deputy director, and later head of the USAID Vietnam Bureau.  Mendenhall served as American ambassador to Madagascar from 1972 to 1975.

References

Bibliography

Ariz. couple had adventures, role in history

1920 births
2013 deaths
People from Cecil County, Maryland
Military personnel from Maryland
United States Army personnel of World War II
Harvard Law School alumni
National War College alumni
American people of the Vietnam War
University of Delaware alumni
United States Department of State officials
Ambassadors of the United States to Madagascar
Ambassadors of the United States to the Comoros
United States Foreign Service personnel
United States Army officers
20th-century American diplomats

Joseph A. Mendenhall


Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) is a species of krill that lives in the Antarctic waters of the Southern Ocean. They are shrimp-like and belong to the invertebrates.

They live in large groups, called swarms. Sometimes these swarms have a density of 10,000–30,000 individual animals per cubic meter.

They feed directly on very small phytoplankton, so they can use the energy that the phytoplankton originally got from the sun in order to sustain their life in the open ocean. They grow to a length of 6 cm, weigh up to 2 g, and can live for up to six years. They are a key species in the Antarctic ecosystem and are, in terms of biomass, probably the most successful animal species on the planet (approximately 500 million tonnes).

In aquaria, krill have been observed to eat each other.

References

Further reading
 Hempel, G.: The krill-dominated pelagic system of the Southern Ocean. Envir. Inter. 13, pp. 33 – 36; 1987.
 Hempel, G.: Life in the Antarctic sea ice zone. Polar Record 27(162); pp. 249 – 253; 1991
 Hempel, G.; Sherman, K.: Large marine ecosystems of the world: trends in exploitation, protection, and research. Elsevier, Amsterdam: Large marine ecosystems 12, 423 pp; 2003
Nicol, S. & de la Mare, W. K. Ecosystem management and the Antarctic krill. American Scientist 81 (No. 1), pp. 36–47. Biol 9:129–135; 1993.
 Nicol, S.; Foster, J.: Recent trends in the fishery for Antarctic krill , Aquat. Living Resour. 16, pp. 42 – 45; 2003.
 Sahrhage, D.: Antarctic Krill Fisheries: Potential Resources and Ecological Concerns. In Caddy, J. F. (ed.): Marine Invertebrate Fisheries; their assessment and management; pp. 13 – 33. Wiley, 1989.
Ikeda, T. (1984) The influence of feeding on the metabolic activity of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba Dana). Polar Biology 3(1)
Clarke, A. (1983) Towards an energy budget for krill: The physiology and biochemistry of Euphausia superba Dana. Polar Biology 2(2)

Other websites

 Euphausia superba  from MarineBio.
 "Virtual microscope"  of Antarctic krill for an interactive tour of their morphology and behavior, along with other peer-reviewed information.
 "Krill fights for survival as sea ice melts" from the NASA's "Earth Observatory".
 "Antarctic Wildlife at Risk From Overfishing, Experts Say", from National Geographic News, August 5 2003.
  Diary  of the RRS James Clark Ross, giving a popular introduction to the Antarctic krill.
"Less krill for predators in the Southern Ocean"  from the British Antarctic Survey. See also "Climate row touches blue whales", from the BBC, July 19 2001.
 A time to krill
 Extensive bibliography.
 Krill Count Project
 WIKIversity Lecture "Biology of Antarctica"

Krill

Antarctic krill


The 1922 Locomotive Cyclopedia of American Practice, published by Simmons-Boardman, is the most recent Locomotive Cyclopedia to be in the public domain.  At 1141 pages of main text, plus indices, front matter, and other content, it is a substantially sized book.  It is basically a combined catalog for all the major builders of railroad locomotives and associated equipment in North America.  It contains photographs and scale drawings of several hundred locomotive types as examples of the locomotives that North American builders can produce, as well as chapters on all manner of locomotive components, appliances and equipment, with material provided by the major builders of such.

Picture gallery
Illustrations from the 1922 Locomotive Cyclopedia

References

Reference works in the public domain
Specialized encyclopedias