Bayesian inference nyaéta inferensi statistik nu mana sagala kamungkinan di-interpretasi lain salaku frékuénsi atawa proporsi atawa sabangsana, tapi leuwih condong kana tingkat kapercayaan. Ngaran ieu asalna ku sabab remenna ngagunakeun Téoréma Bayes keur matotoskeun hiji perkara. Téorema Bayes, ngaran téori nu dipaké sanggeus Thomas Bayes anu mimiti ngawanohkeun ieu métodeu .

Kajadian jeung metoda ilmiah

Ahli statistik Bayes ngaku yén métodeu  kaputusan Bayes mangrupa bentuk formal tina metoda ilmiah kaasup dina ngumpulkeun evidence nu mana ka hareupna atawa jalan keur nangtukeun hiji hypothesis.  Dina hal ieu bisa jadi teu pasti salawasna, sanajan kitu lobana kumpulan kajadian bakal ngajadikeun naekna tingkat kapercayaan hipotesa pangluhurna (salawasna 1) atawa panghandapna (salawasna 0).  Téorema Bayes nyadiakeun métodeu  keur naksir tingkat kapercayaan dina waktu informasi anyar ngan saeutik. Bayes' theorem nyaéta

Keur kaperluan urang, (A) dijadikeun hipotesa induced tina sababaraha susunan observasi. (e) dijadikeun hipotesa konfirmasi tina observasi.
Watesan P(A|e) disebut posterior probability ti A, given e.
Watesan P(A) disebut prior probability ti A.
Watesan P(e) disebut prior probability ti e.
Faktor Likelihood: Pecahan

mangrupa faktor skala, probabilitas observasi hasil tina hipotesa dibagi ku probabilitas hipotesa observasi nu mangrupa kajadian independen dina hipotesa. Hasil ukuran ieu ngakibatkeun yén hipotesa ayana dina probabilitas nu dijieun tina observasi. ku lantaran kitu hasil observasi bakal jadi teu sahadé lamun hipotesa bener, sarta faktor skala bakal jadi gedé.

Perkalian faktor skala ieu ku probabilitas observasi nu bener bakal ngahasilkeun probabilitas hipotesa nu bener oge, saperti nu dibérékeun ku observasi.

Pagawéan konci dina nyieun kaputusan tangtuna ngararancang prior probabiliti dina observasi jeung hipotesa. Lamun prior probabiliti nembongkeun nilai objektif, maka bisa digunakeun keur nangtukeun ukuran objektif hipotesa probabiliti. Tapi, taya jalan nu jelas keur nangtukeun objektif probabiliti. Hal anu teu mungkin keur migawe pamarekandina nangtukeun hiji probabilitas bis nangtukeun sakabéh hipotesa nu mungkin.

Alternatifna, jeung sering dipaké, probabiliti dicokot salaku tingkat kapercayaan subjektif ti bagian partisipan. Téori saterusna nangtukeun ukuran rasio kepercayaan tina observasi nu dijadikeun subjek kapercayaan dina hipotesa. Tapi hasil dina kasus ieu masih kénéh nyesakeun subjektif dina posterior probabiliti. Sabab kitu téorema bisa digunakeun keur ngarasionalkeun kapercayaan dina sababaraha hipotesa, tapi nolak objektifitas. Sababaraha skema teu bisa dipaké, contona, sifat objektif dina nangtukeun konflik paradigma sain.

Dina loba kasus, akibat kajadian bisa disimpulkeun dina rasio likelihood, nu digambarkeun dina the law of likelihood. Hal ieu bisa dikombinasikeun jeung prior probability keur ngagambarkeun tingkat kapercayaan asli sarta kajadian pangtukangna nu dicokot dina perhitungan. saméméh kaputusan dijieun, loss function ogé diperlukeun keur nimbangkeun gambaran akibat tina kasalahan nangtukeun kaputusan.

Conto sederhana Kaputusan Bayes

Kueh tina mangkok nu mana?

Keur conto, aya dua mangkok pinuh ku kueh. Dina mangkok ka #1 aya sapuluh coklat 10 hias jeung 30 coklat polos, sedengkeun dina mangkok kadua #2 aya 20 coklat hias jeung 20 coklat polos. Kandar milih dua mangkok éta sacara acak sarta nyokot kue coklat sacara acak oge. Asumsina taya alesan keur percaya yén Kandar milih-milih éta mangkok atawa kue coklat téa. Kue coklat nu kacokot téh coklat polos. Sabaraha kamungkinna yén Kandar nyokot tina mangkok ka #1?

Intuitively, it seems cléar that the answer should be more than a half, since there are more plain cookies in bowl #1. The precise answer is given by Bayes' théorem. Let H1 corresponds to bowl #1, and H2 to bowl #2.
It is given that the bowls are identical from Fred's point of view, thus P(H1) = P(H2), and the two must add up to 1, so both are equal to 0.5.
The "data" D consists in the observation of a plain cookie. From the contents of the bowls, we know that P(D | H1) = 30/40 = 0.75 and P(D | H2) = 20/40 = 0.5. Bayes' formula then yields

Before observing the cookie, the probability that Fred chose bowl #1 is the prior probability, P(H1), which is 0.5.
After observing the cookie, we revise the probability to P(H1|D), which is 0.6.

False positives in a medical test

False positives are a problem in any kind of test: no test is perfect, and sometimes the test will incorrectly report a positive result.  For example, if a test for a particular disease is performed on a patient, then there is a chance (usually small) that the test will return a positive result even if the patient does not have the diséase.  The problem lies, however, not just in the chance of a false positive prior to testing, but determining the chance that a positive result is in fact a false positive.  As we will demonstrate, using Bayes' théorem, if a condition is rare, then the majority of positive results may be false positives, even if the test for that condition is (otherwise) réasonably accurate.

Suppose that a test for a particular diséase has a very high success rate:
 if a tested patient has the diséase, the test accurately reports this, a 'positive', 99% of the time (or, with probability 0.99), and
 if a tested patient does not have the diséase, the test accurately reports that, a 'negative', 95% of the time (i.e. with probability 0.95).
Suppose also, however, that only 0.1% of the population have that diséase (i.e. with probability 0.001).  We now have all the information required to use Bayes' théorem to calculate the probability that, given the test was positive, that it is a false positive.

Let A be the event that the patient has the diséase, and B be the event that the test returns a positive result.  Then, using the second alternative form of Bayes' théorem (above), the probability of a true positive is

and hence the probability of a false positive is about  (1 − 0.019) = 0.981.

Despite the apparent high accuracy of the test, the incidence of the diséase is so low (one in a thousand) that the vast majority of patients who test positive (98 in a hundred) do not have the diséase.  (Nonetheless, this is 20 times the proportion before we knew the outcome of the test!  The test is not useless, and re-testing may improve the reliability of the result.)  In particular, a test must be very reliable in reporting a negative result when the patient does not have the diséase, if it is to avoid the problem of false positives.  In mathematical terms, this would ensure that the second term in the denominator of the above calculation is small, relative to the first term.  For example, if the test reported a negative result in patients without the diséase with probability 0.999, then using this value in the calculation yields a probability of a false positive of roughly 0.5.

In this example, Bayes' théorem helps show that the accuracy of tests for rare conditions must be very high in order to produce reliable results from a single test, due to the possibility of false positives.  (The probability of a 'false negative' could also be calculated using Bayes' théorem, to completely characterise the possible errors in the test results.)

In the courtroom
Bayesian inference can be used to coherently assess additional evidence of guilt in a court setting.

Let G be the event that the defendent is guilty.
Let E be the event that the defendent's DNA matches DNA found at the crime scene.
Let p(E | G) be the probability of seeing event E assuming that the defendent is guilty. (Usually this would be taken to be unity.)
Let p(G | E) be the probability that the defendent is guilty assuming the DNA match event E
Let p(G) be the probability that the defendent is guilty, based on the evidence other than the DNA match.

Bayesian inference tells us that if we can assign a probability p(G) to the defendent's guilt before we take the DNA evidence into account, then we can revise this probability to the conditional probability p(G | E), since

p(G | E) = p(G) p(E | G) / p(E)

Suppose, on the basis of other evidence, a juror decides that there is a 30% chance that the defendent is guilty. Suppose also that the forensic evidence is that the probability that a person chosen at random would have DNA that matched that at the crime scene was 1 in a million, or 10−6.

The event  E can occur in two ways. Either the defendent is guilty (with prior probability 0.3) and thus his DNA is present with probability 1, or he is innocent (with prior probability 0.7) and he is unlucky enough to be one of the 1 in a million matching péople.

Thus the juror could coherently revise his opinion to take into account the DNA evidence as follows:

p(G | E) = 0.3 × 1.0 /(0.3 × 1.0 + 0.7 × 10-6) = 0.99999766667.

In the United Kingdom, Bayes' théorem was explained by an expert witness to the jury in the case of Regina versus Denis Adams. The case went to Appéal and the Court of Appéal gave their opinion that the use of Bayes' théorem was inappropriate for jurors.

Search theory

In May 1968 the US nucléar submarine Scorpion (SSN 589) failed to arrive as expected at her home port of Norfolk, Virginia. The US Navy was convinced that the vessel had been lost off the éastern séabord but an extensive séarch failed to discover the wreck. The US Navy's deep water expert, John Craven, believed that it was elsewhere and he organised a séarch south west of the Azores based on a controversial approximate triangulation by hydrophones. He was allocated only a single ship, the USNS Mizar, and he took advice from a firm of consultant mathematicians in order to maximise his resources. A Bayesian séarch methodology was adopted. Experienced submarine commanders were interviewed to construct hypotheses about what could have caused the loss of the Scorpion. The séa aréa was divided up into grid squares and a probability assigned to éach square, under éach of the hypotheses, to give a number of probability grids, one for éach hypothesis. These were then added together to produce an overall probability grid. The probability attached to éach square was then the probability that the wreck was in that square. A second grid was constructed with probabilities that represented the probability of successfully finding the wreck if that square were to be séarched and the wreck were to be actually there. This was a known function of water depth. The result of combining this grid with the previous grid is a grid which gives the probability of finding the wreck in éach grid square of the séa if it were to be séarched. This séa grid was systematically séarched in a manner which started with the high probability regions first and worked down to the low probability regions last. éach time a grid square was séarched and found to be empty its probability was réassessed using Bayes' theorem. This then forced the probabilities of all the other grid squares to be réassessed (upwards), also by Bayes' théorem. The use of this approach was a major computational challenge for the time but it was eventually successful and the Scorpion was found in October of that yéar. Suppose a grid square has a probability p of containing the wreck and that the probability of successfully detecting the wreck if it is there is q. If the square is séarched and no wreck is found then, by Bayes, the revised probability of the wreck being in the square is given by

More mathematical examples

Naive Bayes classifier

See: naive Bayesian classification.

Posterior distribution of the binomial parameter

In this example we consider the computation of the posterior distribution for the binomial paraméter.
This is the same problem considered by Bayes  in Proposition 9 of his essay.

We are given m observed successes and n observed failures in a binomial experiment.
The experiment may be tossing a coin, drawing a ball from an urn, or asking soméone their opinion, among many other possibilities.
What we know about the paraméter (let's call it a) is stated as the prior distribution, p(a).

For a given value of a,
the probability of m successes in m+n trials is

Since m and n are fixed, and a is unknown,
this is a likelihood function for a.
From the continuous form of the law of total probability we have

For some special choices of the prior distribution p(a),
the integral can be solved and the posterior takes a convenient form.
Dina minangkaan,
lamun p(a) mangrupa sebaran beta nu mibanda paraméter m0 sarta n0,
mangka posterior ogé sebaran beta nu mibanda paraméter m+m0 jeung n+n0.

A conjugate prior is a prior distribution, such as the beta distribution in the above example, which has the property that the posterior is the same type of distribution.

What is "Bayesian" about Proposition 9 is that Bayes presented it as a probability for the paraméter p. That is, not only can one compute probabilities for experimental outcomes, but also for the paraméter which governs them, and the same algebra is used to maké inferences of either kind. Interestingly, Bayes actually states his question in a way that might maké the idéa of assigning a probability distribution to a paraméter palatable to a frequentist. He supposes that a billiard ball is thrown at random onto a billiard table, and that the probabilities p and q are the probabilities that subsequent billiard balls will fall above or below the first ball. By making the binomial paraméter p depend on a random event, he cleverly escapes a philosophical quagmire that he most likely was not even aware was an issue.

Aplikasi komputer
Kaputusan Bayesian geus dipaké dina widang artificial intelligence jeung expert system.  téhnik kaputusan Bayesian geus dijadikeun dasar dina minangkaan tenik komputer pattern recognition mimiti taun 1950 katompernakeun.

Mimiti tumuwuhna dina ngagunakeun kaputusan Bayesian keur filter spam. Contona: Bogofilter, SpamAssassin jeung Mozilla.

In some applications fuzzy logic is an alternative to Bayesian inference.  Fuzzy logic and Bayesian inference, however, are mathematically and semantically not compatible: You cannot, in general, understand the degree of truth in fuzzy logic as probability and vice versa.

Tempo oge:
 Thomas Bayes
 Bayesian model comparison
 Bayesian probability
 Occam's Razor
 Minimum description length
 Gaussian process regression

Tumbu kaluar
 On-line textbook: Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms, by David MacKay, has many chapters on Bayesian methods, including introductory examples; compelling arguments in favour of Bayesian methods; state-of-the-art Monte Carlo methods, message-passing methods, and variational methods; and examples illustrating the intimate connections between Bayesian inference and data compression.
 Naive Bayesian learning paper
 A Tutorial on Learning With Bayesian Networks

Statistika

Inferensi Bayes


A Neighbour (or neighbor in American English) is a person who lives nearby, normally in a house or apartment that is next door or, in the case of houses, across the street. Some people form friendships with their neighbours, and help them by sharing their tools and helping with gardening tasks. Other people become frustrated with their neighbours, if the neighbour makes a lot of noise or a mess

A group of people living close together in a small community is called a neighbourhood. Some neighbourhoods have many community organizations, where people volunteer and do charitable activities. Other neighbourhoods in poor communities may have no community organizations, and there may be many problems in the community, such as illegal drugs, prostitution, and homelessness.

Relationships

Neighbour


A music critic is someone who writes about concerts that have taken place or new music that has been written. They write reviews about this in newspapers or journals. What they write is called musical criticism.

When people write about the history of music or compare musical styles, this is called musicology. Musical criticism is about what is going on in the musical world at the moment.

Responsibilities
Music critics can have a lot of influence on a musician's success. If a musician gets a bad review people may not bother to go and hear him. If he has a very good review people will think he must be good and they will all want to hear him.

Occasionally it can happen that a new piece of music has such a terrible review that everyone wants to go and hear how terrible it is. They may then find that they like it and the music might become famous. This is called a "succès de scandale" (French for "scandalous success"). Stravinsky's Rite of Spring (1913) is a good example.

Example of music critics
Music critics will spend a lot of time listening to music. They often do other jobs with music such as teaching. Some famous music critics include:

 The German composer Robert Schumann. He published a music journal called Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. He wrote an article which has become famous called Neue Bahnen (New Paths) in which he said that there was a young man called Johannes Brahms who would become a great composer. Schumann was right.
 The French composer Hector Berlioz was a good music critic. He wrote a lot of music reviews in order to earn some money.
 The Austrian musicologist Eduard Hanslick. He became famous for saying that Johannes Brahms was a good composer and Wagner, Liszt and Bruckner were bad composers.
 The Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw. He wrote some interesting musical criticisms using the pseudonym (made-up name) Corno di Bassetto. There were some musicians he did not like and he said so. This made him quite a few enemies.

Other websites
 International Federation of Music Journalists - an international group of media professionals who treat any aspect of music on any media. Publishes the "Directory of Music Journalists" and confers "Music Journalist Award".
 Music Media Directory - an international publication with over 40.000 contacts of music journalists and music media.

Entertainment occupations

Music critic


Bobcaygeon is a community on the Trent–Severn Waterway in the City of Kawartha Lakes, east-central Ontario, Canada.

Bobcaygeon was incorporated as a village in 1876, and became known as the "Hub of the Kawarthas". Its recorded name bob-ca-je-wan-unk comes either from the Mississauga Ojibway word baabaagwaajiwanaang "at the very shallow currents", giishkaabikojiwanaang "at the cliffed cascades" or obaabikojiwanaang "at currented rocky narrows", or from the French beau bocage "beautiful hedged farmland". The first lock in the Trent-Severn Waterway was built in Bobcaygeon in 1833.

The town is situated on three islands, along with the main land.

Bobcaygeon's chief industry is tourism, particularly related to recreational fishing. Bobcaygeon is a hub for the region, providing many of the services unavailable in the smaller neighbouring communities.

History

French explorer Samuel de Champlain, during his 1615 military expedition through the French colony of Canada in New France, passed through the area that would later become Bobcaygeon. In 1763, France ceded the colony to Great Britain, and it continued as the British colony of the Province of Quebec. In 1791, the colony was divided, with the area including the future Bobcaygeon becoming part of Upper Canada.

By the early 1830s, the colonial government of Upper Canada had completed its survey of the Township of Verulam and the area began to attract settlers. Thomas Need, who arrived in 1832, is recognized as one of the earliest settlers of the Township of Verulam and is the founder of Bobcaygeon. With his purchase of  of land, Need built a sawmill, gristmill, and the first store.

In 1833, the government began construction of a lock and canal at the narrows between Pigeon Lake and Sturgeon Lake. This was the first lock constructed on the Trent–Severn Waterway. The community began to develop around the lock, sawmill and gristmill. Need became the first postmaster of the growing community.

The government had reserved and surveyed a town site on the north bank of Bobcaygeon River between Sturgeon and Pigeon Lakes, which was named Rokeby by visiting Lieutenant Governor John Colborne. Need laid out streets and plotted lots on the island, which was named Bobcaygeon. Today, Bobcaygeon designates an area on both sides of the Bobcaygeon River, after the post office was established on the island by postmaster Need.

In 1841, the colony of Upper Canada merged into the new colony of the Province of Canada. In 1844, Need sold his profitable business interests to Mossom Boyd, and returned to England. In the 1850s, the economic development of Bobcaygeon was stimulated by Boyd's lumbering business, as he and his sons built up a logging enterprise that was recognized as the third largest logging operation in Upper Canada. In addition to timbering, the Boyds also operated a system of steamboats under the name Trent Valley Navigation Company, as well as an experimental beefalo herd on Boyd Island. Descendants of this herd remain in Alberta.

With Canadian Confederation in 1867, Bobcaygeon became part of the province of Ontario in the new country of Canada. By 1869, Bobcaygeon was a village with a population of 800 in the Township of Verulam, Victoria County. There was a good trade in lumber, limestone, hides, grain and the GalKay lead mine. There were stagecoaches to the Ontario communities of Lindsay, Peterborough and Minden. In summer, boats travelled to Lindsay and Peterborough. The average price of land was $20 per acre (equivalent to $ in ).

Bobcaygeon, with a population of about 1,000, was incorporated as a village by a Victoria County by-law in 1876.

A group of local businessmen worked for many years to bring a railway into Bobcaygeon. Sir Sam Hughes sat on the board of the Lindsay, Pontypool & Bobcaygeon Railway.  The line was leased to the Canadian Pacific Railway on completion. In July 1904 the first passenger train steamed into town. The service lasted until 1957, the railway lands becoming the Beach Park.

The village government joined with the Township of Verulam in 1999. In 2000, it was amalgamated with the other municipalities of Victoria County by the provincial government following the recommendations of the Victoria County Restructuring Commission, led by commissioner Harry Kitchen. Now Bobcaygeon exists as a community within the City of Kawartha Lakes.

Education
Bobcaygeon Public School

Media
The Bobcaygeon Independent was the local newspaper, established in 1869. Its last issue was printed in December 2004.
The Central Ontario Visitor (another local publication) was printed and released weekly with the Bobcaygeon Independent between the months of May through October from 1985 to 1999.
The Promoter (another local publication) and one of the few remaining independent newspapers, published its first issue on March 15, 1991.

In popular culture
The Tragically Hip released a song entitled "Bobcaygeon" in 1998. Although it was not specifically written about the town (which was chosen to complete a rhyme), the song has still been culturally associated with Bobcaygeon. In 2011, as part of Big Music Fest, the Tragically Hip performed a concert in Bobcaygeon. In 2016, a viewing event for the band's final concert in Kingston was held on Bobcaygeon's main street. The crowd of roughly 5,000 made it the largest public event in the community's history, with attendance boosted by fans who travelled specifically to Bobcaygeon. A candlelight vigil was held in Bobcaygeon on the night following the death of the band's lead singer and lyricist, Gord Downie.

In 2001, Bobcaygeon hosted an episode of the OLN reality television series Drifters: The Water Wars as they passed through the Trent–Severn Waterway.

Events
The village's Canada Day festivities are held at Tommy Anderson Park, and its fireworks display is held at Beach Park.
During the last weekend in May or the first weekend in June, Bobcaygeon hosts an "Unlock The Summer" Event, as a kick off for summer, and the first opening of the locks of the season.
Bobcaygeon hosts the annual Ontario Open Fiddle & Stepdance Competition during the last weekend of July. The first was held in October 1970, as part of the annual Fall Fair. It became the Ontario Open Fiddle Contest in 1971, and became a separate event with a July event date in 1973. In 1974, with the addition of step-dancing to the contest, it became the "Ontario Open Fiddle & Stepdance Competition".
The annual Bobcaygeon Fall Fair takes place during the last weekend of September. The first was held in 1858.
Bobcaygeon hosts an annual cruisefest for classic and custom cars in the second week of September. The first was held in 1996.
The Kawartha Settlers' Village in Bobcaygeon holds the town's annual Festival of Trees in the second week of November. The first was held in 1997.
Sponsored by local churches & merchants, the annual Bobcaygeon House Tour takes place in mid-June, where six Bobcaygeon homes are toured, along with an art show at the Trinity United Church. The first was held in 1992.
The Canada/US Walleye Tournament takes place in May, with weigh-in and outdoors show hosted at the Bobcaygeon-Verulam Community Centre.

Notable people
Brady Austin, professional hockey player
Allan Stanley, professional hockey player

References

External links

Bobcaygeon & Area Chamber of Commerce

Former villages in Ontario
Communities in Kawartha Lakes
1876 establishments in Ontario

Bobcaygeon


George Henry Gordon (July 19, 1823 – August 30, 1886) was an American lawyer and a Union general in the American Civil War.

Early life
Gordon was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts. He moved to Framingham, Massachusetts, at the age of five with his widowed mother. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1846, 43rd in a class of 59 cadets. He served under Lt. Gen. Winfield Scott in the Mexican–American War, earning the brevet of first lieutenant for gallantry at Cerro Gordo. He resigned from the army in 1854. After taking a course in the Harvard Law School, he practiced law in Boston.

Civil War

When the Civil War erupted in 1861, Gordon organized and became colonel of the 2nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry. The regiment served guarding the upper Potomac River and Frederick, Maryland, and in the spring of 1862, Gordon served under Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks, unsuccessfully opposing Maj. Gen. Stonewall Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley. Gordon was appointed a brigadier general of volunteers on June 12, 1862, to rank from June 9, 1862.

Gordon commanded a brigade in XII Corps, Army of the Potomac, at the Battle of Antietam, becoming acting division commander when Brig. Gen. Alpheus S. Williams became acting corps commander. He also took command of 1st Division, XI Corps, following the Battle of Gettysburg and was transferred with it to the Department of the South. There he commanded troops on Folly Island, South Carolina. Starting in November 1864, Gordon served in the Department of Virginia. He commanded the Eastern District of that department from February 1865 until he left the army.

Gordon served in the army until August 24, 1865. On January 13, 1866, President Andrew Johnson nominated Gordon for the award of the honorary grade of brevet major general, United States Volunteers, to rank from April 9, 1865, and the U.S. Senate confirmed the award on March 12, 1866.

Postbellum career
After the war, Gordon practiced law in Boston. He was one of the founders of the Military Historical Society of Massachusetts. He published the following books:

 History of the Second Massachusetts Regiment (1876)
 History of the Campaign of the Army of Virginia under Gen. John Pope from Cedar Mountain to Alexandria (1880)
 A War Diary of the Events of the War of the Great Rebellion, 1863-65 (1882)
 Brook Farm to Cedar Mountain (1883)

Gordon died in Framingham, Massachusetts, and is buried in Framingham Centre.

See also

List of American Civil War generals (Union)
List of Massachusetts generals in the American Civil War
Massachusetts in the American Civil War

Footnotes

References
Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, .
Warner, Ezra J., Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders, Louisiana State University Press, 1964, .

External links

1823 births
1886 deaths
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
American male writers
Harvard Law School alumni
People of Massachusetts in the American Civil War
Lawyers from Boston
People from Framingham, Massachusetts
Union Army generals
United States Military Academy alumni
19th-century American lawyers

George Henry Gordon


The Frieda and Henry J. Neils House is a house in Minneapolis, Minnesota, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. The home was designed for Henry J. Neils, a stone and architectural materials distributor, and his wife Frieda. It is unusual for a Wright-designed home both in the type of stone used as well as in its aluminum window framing.

The Neils approached Wright in 1949 to help build a new home on property adjacent to their existing home, overlooking Cedar Lake. The home was designed through close collaboration between the architect and the Neils who were knowledgeable about architecture. It was Wright's only home to use marble walls: the small marble blocks were left over from other marble projects, and Henry Neil, who was a trustee of a marble company, was able to acquire them at a good price and convince Wright to use the material; however, the color of the completed walls did not satisfy either Wright or the Neils, and some of the blocks were later stained. Unlike Wright's normal use of wooden window frames, the home used aluminum frames made by Neils' company.

The house was designed in Wright's post-World War II Usonian architecture, with the goal of "affordable, beautiful housing for a democratic America." The L-shaped, one-story home's floor plan features a dominant living room and social and spatial separation into "active" and "quiet" areas. The short side of the L consists of the "active" portion, centering on a living room with -high vaulted ceiling and views of Cedar Lake; the "quiet" portion is the long side ending in a three-car carport and has bedrooms as well as a gallery leading to a hidden main entrance.

Located on 2801 Burnham Boulevard, the home is visible from public streets but remains privately owned by members of the Neils family.

See also
 List of Frank Lloyd Wright works

References

 Storrer, William Allin. The Frank Lloyd Wright Companion. University Of Chicago Press, 2006,  (S.314)

National Register of Historic Places in Minneapolis
Frank Lloyd Wright buildings
Houses in Minneapolis
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Minnesota

Frieda and Henry J. Neils House


Elisheva or Elisheba was a wife of the priest Aaron. They are mentioned in the Bible. Aaron was a brother of the prophet Moses.

She is known as Alishahda in Islam.

Her father was Amminadab and her brother was Nahshon.

Her sons were Nadab and Abihu, Ithamar and Eleazar.

She was buried in the Tomb of the Matriarchs.

Old Testament people
Ancient Israeli people
15th-century BC deaths

Elisheva


The World's Columbian Exposition (the official shortened name for the World's Fair: Columbian Exposition, also known as The Chicago World's Fair) was a World's Fair held in Chicago in 1893 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus' arrival in the New World in 1492.

Chicago won the honor of hosting the fair and defeated New York City; Washington, D.C.; and St. Louis of hosting the fair.

The fair was an influential social and cultural event. At the fair many inventors such as Thomas Edison, Milton S. Hershey, Nikola Tesla, George Ferris, and Marshall Field were there. Many other famous people were there too such as President Grover Cleveland, Mark Twain, Buffalo Bill, Sitting Bull, Scott Joplin, Mayor Carter Harrison, Sr., and Daniel Burnham.

The exposition was where many famous inventions were first presented and many modern items such as the Ferris wheel, Quaker Oats, Hershey's, the Frontier thesis was presented, and the United States Mint, in the United States of America, offered its first commemorative coins.

1893
1890s in Illinois

19th century in Chicago

World's Columbian Exposition


Chemical kinetics, also called reaction kinetics, is the branch of physical chemistry connected  with study of  how fast chemical reactions go. This includes studying how different conditions such as temperature, pressure or solvent used, affect the speed of a reaction. Chemical kinetics can also be used to find out about reaction mechanisms and transition states.

The basic idea of chemical kinetics is called collision theory. This states that for a reaction to happen, the molecules must hit each other. Ways of increasing the speed of the reaction must therefore increase the number of hits. This can be done in many ways.

With experiments it is possible to calculate reaction rates from which you can get rate laws and rate constants. A rate law is a mathematical expression with which you can calculate the speed of a reaction given the concentration of the reagents.

Order of a reaction
the equilibrium is dynamic in nature

There are many types of rate laws, but the most common are:
zero-order reaction: the speed does not depend on the concentration
first-order reaction: the speed depends on the concentration of only one reactant
second-order reaction: the speed depends on the concentration of two reactants, or on the concentration of one reactant squared.

From this data, it is possible to think about the mechanism of the reaction. If it is second-order, for example, then it is likely that both molecules in the reaction are coming together during the rate-determining step. This is the most difficult step in the mechanism to go through, because it has the highest activation energy.

Chemical kinetics

Chemical kinetics


Ductile iron, also known as ductile cast iron, nodular cast iron, spheroidal graphite iron, spheroidal graphite cast iron and SG iron, is a type of graphite-rich cast iron discovered in 1943 by Keith Millis. While most varieties of cast iron are weak in tension and brittle, ductile iron has much more impact and fatigue resistance, due to its nodular graphite inclusions.

On October 25, 1949, Keith Dwight Millis, Albert Paul Gagnebin and Norman Boden Pilling received US patent 2,485,760 on a cast ferrous alloy for ductile iron production via magnesium treatment.  Augustus F. Meehan was awarded a patent in January 1931 for inoculating iron with calcium silicide to produce ductile iron subsequently licensed as Meehanite, still produced .

Metallurgy

Ductile iron is not a single material but part of a group of materials which can be produced with a wide range of properties through control of their microstructure. The common defining characteristic of this group of materials is the shape of the graphite. In ductile irons, graphite is in the form of nodules rather than flakes as in grey iron. Whereas sharp graphite flakes create stress concentration points within the metal matrix, rounded nodules inhibit the creation of cracks, thus providing the enhanced ductility that gives the alloy its name. Nodule formation is achieved by adding nodulizing elements, most commonly magnesium (magnesium boils at 1100 °C and iron melts at 1500 °C) and, less often now, cerium (usually in the form of mischmetal). Tellurium has also been used. Yttrium, often a component of mischmetal, has also been studied as a possible nodulizer.

Austempered ductile iron (ADI; i.e., austenite tempered) was discovered in the 1950s but was commercialized and achieved success only some years later.  In ADI, the metallurgical structure is manipulated through a sophisticated heat treating process.

Composition

Elements such as copper or tin may be added to increase tensile and yield strength while simultaneously reducing ductility. Improved corrosion resistance can be achieved by replacing 15–30% of the iron in the alloy with varying amounts of nickel, copper, or chromium.
Other ductile iron compositions often have a small amount of sulfur as well.

Silicon as a graphite formation element can be partially replaced by aluminum to provide better oxidation protection.

Applications
Much of the annual production of ductile iron is in the form of ductile iron pipe, used for water and sewer lines. It competes with polymeric materials such as PVC, HDPE, LDPE and polypropylene, which are all much lighter than steel or ductile iron; being softer and weaker, these require protection from physical damage.

Ductile iron is specifically useful in many automotive components, where strength must surpass that of aluminum but steel is not necessarily required. Other major industrial applications include off-highway diesel trucks, class 8 trucks, agricultural tractors, and oil well pumps. In the wind power industry ductile iron is used for hubs and structural parts like machine frames. Ductile iron is suitable for large and complex shapes and high (fatigue) loads.

Ductile iron is used in many grand piano harps (the iron plates to which high-tension piano strings are attached).

Ductile iron is used for vises.  Previously, regular cast iron or steel was commonly used.  The properties of ductile iron make it a significant upgrade in strength and durability from cast iron without having to use steel, which is more expensive.

See also
Malleable iron

References

Bibliography

External links

 Ductile Iron Society
 Ductile Iron Pipe Research Association

Cast iron
Ferrous alloys

Ductile iron


Karl Philipp Sebottendorf van der Rose (17 July 1740 – 11 April 1818) enrolled in the Austrian army at the age of 18, became a general officer during the French Revolutionary Wars, and commanded a division against Napoleon Bonaparte in several notable battles during the Italian campaign of 1796.

Early career
Sebottendorf was born in Luxembourg in the Austrian Netherlands on 17 July 1740 of parents Oberst (Colonel) Johann Moritz Sebottendorf van der Rose (d. 1760) and Maria Anna Bodek von Ellgau (d. 1791). After military studies at the Wiener-Neustadt Academy, he joined the Austrian Waldeck Infantry Regiment # 35 in 1758. By the time of the War of the Bavarian Succession he had risen in rank to Captain. In 1779 an inquiry acquitted him after he was accused of cowardice. He earned promotion to Major in 1784, Oberst-Leutnant in March 1787, and Oberst in October 1787.

French Revolutionary Wars

General officer
In early 1793, Sebottendorf became a General-Major and led a brigade in Luxembourg. On 2 September 1794, he distinguished himself in a minor action near Öttringen.

Montenotte
On 4 March 1796, Sebottendorf received promotion to Feldmarschall-Leutnant in the Austrian army defending the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont. Johann Peter Beaulieu appointed him commander of the left wing, including the brigades of Wilhelm Kerpen, Anton Schübirz von Chobinin, Franz Nicoletti, and Gerhard Rosselmini. In early April, Beaulieu initiated the Montenotte Campaign by sending two columns to attack Voltri, now a suburb of Genoa. Sebottendorf led one column of 3,200 troops south across the Turchino Pass, while Philipp Pittoni von Dannenfeld took 4,000 soldiers over the Bochetta Pass farther east. The campaign ended with Napoleon Bonaparte's French Army of Italy forcing Piedmont to sue for peace. The Austrian army fell back to defend the Duchy of Milan.

Lodi
In early May, Bonaparte turned Beaulieu's southern flank and won the Battle of Fombio. This forced a major part of the Austrian army to retreat east across the Adda River at Lodi. Beaulieu left Sebottendorf and 10,000 men in the vicinity of Lodi to cover his withdrawal. After the French advance guard under Claude Dallemagne drove the Austrian rear guard through Lodi, Sebottendorf prepared to defend the bridge that spanned the Adda on the east side of the town. The French artillery bombarded the Austrian position for several hours, as Bonaparte waited for André Masséna's division to arrive. In the ensuing Battle of Lodi on 10 May, the French defeated the outnumbered Austrians. Sebottendorf managed to carry out an orderly withdrawal, though his force lost 14 cannons and 2,036 soldiers killed, wounded, or missing.

Borghetto
During the Battle of Borghetto on 30 May, Sebottendorf commanded the Austrian left-center. Beaulieu's illness on the previous day threw the Austrian high command into disarray. With no overall coordination, each subordinate looked to his own sector. Sebottendorf focused upon a feint attack while the main French effort seized Valeggio sul Mincio. Later in the day, he tried to retake Valeggio but was unable to evict the French. His division remained intact and rejoined the rest of the army in the upper Adige River valley.

Castiglione
During Dagobert von Wurmser's first relief of the Siege of Mantua, Sebottendorf led a sub-unit of Michael von Melas' Right-Center Column consisting of the brigades of Nicoletti and Pittoni. On 29 July, Sebottendorf captured French positions at Madonna della Corona and Brentino Belluno. This success allowed him to link up with Paul Davidovich and the Left-Center Column from the Adige valley. On 5 August, he fought in the Battle of Castiglione.

Bassano
In the second relief of Mantua, Sebottendorf led a 4,086-man division down the Brenta River valley. He participated in the Battle of Bassano, after which his division "was reduced to only one and a third battalions, four and a half companies, and two squadrons." He subsequently joined Wurmser in a dash for Mantua. The bulk of the Austrians reached the fortress intact, but Sebottendorf and his soldiers were cooped up in Mantua for the duration of the long siege, during which many of the men died.

Later career
Sebottendorf served as assistant to the commanding generals in Inner Austria and the Tyrol during the period 1801 to 1806. He was deputy to the President of the Military Appellate Court from 1813 to 1818. He died in Vienna on 11 April 1818 with the noble title of Freiherr.

Family
Two younger Sebottendorf brothers, Franz Ludwig (1741–1822) and Ignaz Anton (1749–1821) also served in the Austrian army and achieved general officer rank. Franz commanded a brigade at the Battle of Stockach in 1799. At the beginning of the 1809 campaign, Ignaz led the Graz Landwehr infantry. Ignaz also commanded a brigade at the Battle of the Piave on 7–8 May 1809 and at the Battle of Raab on 14 June.

References

Books
 Bowden, Scotty & Tarbox, Charlie. Armies on the Danube 1809. Arlington, Texas: Empire Games Press, 1980.
 Boycott-Brown, Martin. The Road to Rivoli. London: Cassell & Co., 2001.
 Chandler, David. The Campaigns of Napoleon. New York: Macmillan, 1966.

 Smith, Digby. The Napoleonic Wars Data Book. London: Greenhill, 1998.

External links
 Karl Sebottendorf by Martin Boycott-Brown
 Franz Sebottendorf by Digby Smith, compiled by Leopold Kudrna
 Ignaz Sebottendorf by Digby Smith, compiled by Leopold Kudrna
 Karl Sebottendorf by Digby Smith, compiled by Leopold Kudrna

Footnotes

Austrian soldiers
Austrian generals
Military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars
Austrian Empire military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars
1740 births
1818 deaths

Karl Philipp Sebottendorf


Open Season is a 2006 animated-comedy movie that was directed by Jill Culton, Roger Allers, and Anthony Stacchi and produced by Michelle Murdocca, Amy Jupiter, Steve Moore, and John B. Carls. The movie was released on September 29, 2006 and received mixed reviews from reviewers.

Release Dates

Plot
In the tranquil town of Timberline, 900-pound grizzly bear Boog (Martin Lawrence) enjoys a captive, but happy existence. He spends his day as the star attraction of the town's nature show and spends his nights living the life of luxury in the garage of the park ranger Beth (Debra Messing), who raised Boog since he was a cub.

One day, the hunting fanatic Shaw (Gary Sinise) drives into town with the one-antlered buck mule deer, Elliot (Ashton Kutcher) strapped to the hood of his truck. Boog accidentally wakes him and the two scream in terror. With Boog reluctant to intervene, Elliot begs Boog to help. At the last minute and against his better judgement, Boog frees Elliot before Shaw can go after him. Boog never expects to see his "buddy" again.

Elliot follows Boog home and finds him sleeping in the garage and starts to throw rabbits at the window to wake him. Elliot tells Boog the he is intent on returning the favor by "freeing" him from his garage captivity. Boog refuses to go with Elliot, but he still goes with Elliot when Elliot shows him a chocolate bar (which he calls a Woo Hoo Bar) and tells him that they can get more outside. Elliot begins to introduce Boog to a world of sweet temptations outside of the garage that he has never known. The two head for "Puni Mart", a convenience store. Boog and Elliot ransack the Puni Mart, causing a mess. Elliot escapes before Boog is caught by a friend of Beth, Sheriff Gordy (Gordon Tootoosis). Back home, Gordy tells Beth that it would be better if Boog were released into the wild.

During the nature show, Elliot, chased by Shaw, runs backstage and locks the door. Boog gets mad remembering the events Elliot made him go through.  Boog attacks the buck, making the audience panic (because it looks as of Boog is killing Elliot behind the curtain) before Boog threatens to kill Elliot. The two crash out of the curtains. Shaw prepares to shoot Boog, but the bear is instead tranquilized by Beth; she tranquilizes Elliot as well (six times in the butt). The duo are released into the Timberline National Forest, only three days before the start of open season.

Boog wakes up and realizes he has been released into the forest, and threatens to throw Elliot off a cliff, stating that Elliot drove him to this. Boog eventually throws Elliot into the air rather than throwing him off the cliff. Elliot's antlers get stuck in the ground, and while Boog goes around the forest in circles in search of Timberline, Elliot tries to break free. Boog decides to get familiar with the forest and tries to climb up a tree, but is attacked by a Scottish red squirrel called McSquizzy (Billy Connolly) and his gang. Soon, Boog gives up and frees Elliot and takes him as his hapless guide to get him back home to Timberline to reunite with Beth. But in the woods, they quickly learn that it's every animal for itself. The two run into their share of the forest animals including hot-tempered skunks (Nika Futterman and Michelle Murdocca), psychotic ducks (Danny Mann and Maddie Taylor) and panic-stricken rabbits. They also run into critters such as Reilly (Jon Favreau) and his beaver construction worker team, and a porcupine (Maddie Taylor) who's in search of a buddy. With each adverse encounter, Boog learns a little about self-reliance and Elliot gains self-respect. Elliot finds his herd crush, a pretty female, Giselle (Jane Krakowski), but is also found by the herd leader, Ian (Patrick Warburton), a "jock" mule deer who had forced Elliot out of the herd before. They walk away from Ian's taunting, realizing that they've obtained true friendship.

Elliot tries to lead Boog out of the forest, but gets lost. Boog realizes they are meeting the same animals again and again. After winding up at Reilly's dam, Boog and Elliot are confronted by Shaw. Boog tries to run over the dam, but it's not a "load bearing structure". It breaks under his weight and the rush of water washes everyone in the forest, including Shaw, to the clearing below the 'falls.

Everyone blames Boog, but he accuses Elliot of lying to him about leading him home. Elliot confesses, saying he wanted Boog as a friend and thought if they just spent time together it would work out. Angry, Boog leaves, attempting to find Timberline on his own. He unwittingly find Shaw's log cabin. Shaw discovers him and pursues him. Boog flees to the city road where he finds trucks with hunters in them, zooming past him and he soon finds the glowing lights of Timberline.  Instead of deserting his companions, Boog decides to take Elliot with him, but the other animals want to live in the garage too, but they realize there is no way out because the hunters have already gathered around the forest. Boog decides that they should defend themselves, and they collect supplies from Bob and Bobby's (two scientists) RV while their pet dachshund Mr. Weenie (Cody Cameron) joins the animals.

The following day, Boog witnesses the hunters coming, and sends a signal to the animals by flinging one of the mule deers of the herd in the air. Elliot receives the signal and sends out the ducks, who are carrying skunks, into the air, causing stinky green air to flow around the forest. Meanwhile, Elliot and the squirrels ride on the mule deers and charge. On the other side, Boog and the other animals charge too, causing a big rampage. The ducks drop a tank of gas (called "Mr. Happy" by McSquizzy) onto one of the hunters trucks, but it goes out, so McSquizzy flings some dynamite into the air, and all the trucks blow up, and the hunters all run away. All the animals start celebrating. Suddenly, Shaw appears, and attempts to kill Boog with his gun, but Elliot shoots things that they had stolen from the RV. One of the objects hits the gun, and the gun falls out of reach. Shaw then proceeds to attack Boog with his hunting knife. Boog beats him with a golf club Elliot had shot. Shaw, within reaching distance of his gun, grabs it, and attempts to shoot Boog. Elliot takes the bullet meant for Boog, enraging Boog who tackles Shaw, roars loudly in his face, then ties him up with his own gun. Boog finds that Elliot survived the wound, only losing his second antler in the fight. Beth returns to take Boog back home where he will be safe, but he instead stays with his friends. They both realize that the bear is at home in the forest. Earlier, the animals attack Shaw, pouring honey and putting feathers on Shaw. Finally, Shaw is free and with panic runs into the forest.

Cast
 Martin Lawrence as Boog
 Ashton Kutcher as Elliot
 Gary Sinise as Shaw
 Debra Messing as Beth
 Billy Connolly as McSquizzy
 Jon Favreau as Reilly
 Patrick Warburton as Ian
 Jane Krakowski as Giselle
 Gordon Tootoosis as Gordy
 Georgia Engel as Bobbie
 Cody Cameron as Mr. Weenie
 Danny Mann as Serge
 Matthew W. Taylor as Deni and Buddy
 Nika Futterman as Rosie
 Michelle Murdocca as Maria
 Fergal Reilly as O'Toole
 Jack McGee as Hunter
 Frank Welker as Animals' vocal effects (uncredited)

Production
The idea for the movie came from cartoonist Steve Moore, known for his comic strip In the Bleachers. Moore and producer John Carls submitted the story to Sony in June 2002, and the movie immediately went into development. On February 29, 2004, Sony Pictures Animation announced the beginning of the production on its first CGI animated feature, Open Season.

The movie location was inspired by the towns of Sun Valley, Idaho and McCall, Idaho, and the Sawtooth National Forest. References to the Lawn Lake, Colorado, Dam flood, Longs Peak, and other points of interest in the area are depicted in the movie.

The Sony animation team developed a digital tool called shapers that allowed the animators to re-shape the character models into stronger poses and silhouettes and subtle distortions such as squash, stretch, and smears, typical of traditional, hand-drawn animation.

Martin Lawrence and Ashton Kutcher, the voices of Boog and Elliot, never met during production.

Reception
Open Season received mixed reviews from critics. Critics of Rotten Tomatoes gave the movie 48% with the consensus "Open Season is a cliched palette of tired jokes and CG animal shenanigans that have been seen multiple times this cinematic year."

Kevin Smith gave the movie a good review during an appearance as a guest critic on At the Movies with Ebert and Roeper saying "If your kids like poop jokes as much as I do, Open Season will put a big smile on their faces." However, Richard Roeper gave the movie a mixed review saying "It's just okay, the animation is uninspired."

The movie opened #1 with $23 million on its opening weekend. It grossed $85.1 million in the United States and $104.8 million in foreign countries making $189.9 million worldwide.

Rolling Stone gave the movie's soundtrack three stars out of five, as did Allmusic.

Home media
Open Season was released on DVD, Blu-ray, and UMD Video on January 30, 2007. It was later released on 3D Blu-ray on November 16, 2010.

Television series
A TV show, Boog and Elliot's Big Adventure, was to air in March 2012.

Video game

A video game based on the movie was released on many platforms in 2006/2007.

Sequels

Open Season was given two direct-to-video sequels: Open Season 2 (which was in 2009), and Open Season 3 (which was in 2011).

References

Other websites
 Open Season at sonypictures.com

2006 animated movies
2006 comedy movies
2000s 3D movies
2006 computer-animated movies
American animated movies
American comedy movies
Movies about bears
Buena Vista International movies
Columbia Pictures movies
Open Season (franchise)

Open Season (movie)


Rosita Serrano (born María Martha Esther Aldunate del Campo, 10 June 1912 – 6 April 1997) was a Chilean singer who had her biggest success in Nazi Germany between the 1930s and the early 1940s. Because of her bell-like voice and pitch-perfect whistling she received the nickname Chilenische Nachtigall (Chilean Nightingale).

Life
Rosita Serrano was born in Quilpué, Chile on 10 June 1912. Her father Héctor Aldunate was in the diplomatic service. With her mother Sofía del Campo who was a popular opera singer she moved to Europe in the early 1930s. Initially they lived in Portugal and France but by 1936 they moved to Berlin.

Serrano had her first successes in the Wintergarten and the Metropol Theater where she performed Chilean folk songs. During that time she was discovered by German composer Peter Kreuder who managed that she got a record contract at the German Telefunken. Henceforth she performed in the German language including popular songs like Roter Mohn (Red poppy), Schön die Musik (Beautiful Music), Küß mich, bitte, bitte, küß mich (Kiss me, please, please kiss me), Und die Musik spielt dazu (And the Music plays to it), Der Onkel Jonathan (The uncle Jonathan), and Der kleine Liebesvogel (The little love bird). By 1938 she received roles in the revue films Es leuchten die Sterne (1938), Bel Ami (1939), Der vierte kommt nicht (1939), Die kluge Schwiegermutter (1939), Herzensfreud – Herzensleid (1940) and Anita und der Teufel (1941). Her appearance in Herzensfreud – Herzensleid was in a co-starring role with actor Paul Hoerbiger. Between film shoots, she went on tour with two popular dance orchestras, one led by Kurt Hohenberger and the other by Teddy Stauffer. Due to the intercession of Minister Joseph Goebbels, she got gigs in the radio show Wunschkonzert für die Wehrmacht (musical request programme for the Wehrmacht). In 1940 she recorded the very popular song La Paloma, heard throughout Germany.

Her voice style was mainly operatic coloratura soprano with a deep, fast vibrato. She added frequent embellishments such as soaring arpeggiation and melisma. Some songs were recorded with a few words whispered or spoken, and she occasionally emphasized words with a gritty, growling jazz style reminiscent of African-American blues singer Ethel Waters. She was a pitch-perfect whistler in the manner of Bing Crosby. The songs she recorded in German and Spanish varied from folk to pop, including flamenco, rumba, tango and mambo.

In 1943 while on tour in Sweden, Serrano was accused by Germany of being a spy—she had donated a benefit performance to Jewish refugees. Rather than returning to Germany to be arrested, she traveled to Chile. Her songs were subsequently banned in Nazi Germany. Serrano attempted a tour in the United States, but her German repertoire was not popular. She appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show in 1950, but little came of the publicity. In 1951, she went to West Germany to take part in the film Schwarze Augen (Dark Eyes), in which she played a Cuban singer, and the next year she sang in the film Saison in Salzburg. Beyond these appearances, she saw little success in Germany, her comeback attempt ending with a poorly received tour with Kurt Hohenberger in 1957.

In her native Chile, where she spent the last years of her life, the public never forgave her for performing in Nazi Germany. She died in poverty in Santiago on 6 April 1997.

Legacy
Serrano's performance of La Paloma was used in the 1981 film Das Boot by Wolfgang Petersen, and in the 1993 production of the film The House of the Spirits, after the novel by Chilean author Isabel Allende.

Selected filmography
 Dark Eyes (1951)

References

Biography (German)
BIOGRAFÍA DE ROSITA SERRANO (Spanish)
Biography and audio samples of her songs (Spanish)

External links
Photographs at Virtual History

1912 births
1997 deaths
20th-century women opera singers
Chilean operatic sopranos
Flamenco singers
Spanish-language singers
German-language singers
Traditional pop music singers
Whistlers
Musicians from Viña del Mar
Chilean expatriates in France
Chilean expatriates in Germany
Chilean expatriates in Portugal

Rosita Serrano


Momchil (, , ;  – 7 July 1345) was a 14th-century Bulgarian brigand<ref>Prince Marko: The Hero of South Slavic Epics, Tanya Popovic, Syracuse University Press, 1988,  , p. 25: ...it is generally accepted he was a Bulgarian... ...p. 45. The historical Momcilo, a Bulgarian, who was somewhere between an outlaw and a lord...</ref>Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994), The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, University of Michigan Press,  pp. 303-305.   and local ruler. Initially a member of a bandit gang in the borderlands of Bulgaria, Byzantium and Serbia, Momchil was recruited by the Byzantines as a mercenary. Through his opportunistic involvement in the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347, where he played the various sides against each other, he became ruler of a large area in the Rhodopes and western Thrace.

Momchil achieved initial successes against Turks and Byzantines alike, setting Turkish ships on fire and almost managing to kill one of his main opponents at the time, John VI Kantakouzenos. Despite this, he was defeated and killed by a joint Byzantine–Turkish army in 1345. Due to his opposition to the Turks, he is remembered in popular South Slavic legend as a fighter against the Turkish invasion of the Balkans.

Brigandage and role in the Byzantine civil war

Contemporary and near-contemporary accounts describe Momchil physically as "imposing in appearance", "as tall as two men" and, in the words of a Turkish poet, "resembling a minaret". According to a contemporary source, Momchil was a native of the "border area of Bulgarians and Serbs", which at the time straddled the Rhodopes and the Pirin mountains. The claim that Momchil was born in that region may be reinforced by 15th-century Ottoman registers, according to which his name was the most popular male name in that area. There exist at least a few legends which tie his birth to a particular place, for example the village of Fakia in Strandzha, though evidence is nonexistent.  In any case, Momchil was born of humble origin. This was a main factor in his decision to join a band of brigands (hajduks) which was active in the scarcely governed border areas between Bulgaria, Byzantium and Serbia.Павлов (2005)

Persecuted by the Bulgarian authorities, some time before 1341 Momchil fled to Byzantium. He was accepted into the service of Emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos (r. 1328–1341) as a mercenary and tasked with the protection of the territories he previously plundered. However, his brigand activities did not cease. Momchil regularly raided Bulgarian lands, which negatively impacted Byzantine–Bulgarian relations. Undesired by the Byzantines and "detestable to the Bulgarians", he deserted the Byzantine army and fled to Serbia to serve its ruler Stephen Dušan.Soulis (1984), p. 149 In Serbia, he formed a company of 2,000 trusted men, both Bulgarians and Serbs.

During the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347, Momchil joined the forces of John VI Kantakouzenos (r. 1341–1354), who had perhaps known Momchil during his flight to Serbia in 1342, at the beginning of the war. In 1343, as per the wishes of the local population, Kantakouzenos gave Momchil governance of the region of Merope in the Rhodope Mountains, a virtual no man's land plagued by nomadic Slavic brigands.Soulis (1984), p. 149 In the words of Kantakouzenos himself, the appointment was because "[Momchil] was of the same race these nomads would be favourably disposed toward him, but also because he was not lacking in courage and boldness in battle and was a first-rate expert in robbery and plunder." As the governor of Merope, Momchil gathered of an army of 300 cavalry and 5,000 infantry from different nationalities. Though he considered himself able to "set against any side in the Byzantine war", along with Umur Bey's Turkish forces he nevertheless assisted Kantakouzenos in his campaigns in 1344.Fine (1994), p. 304

At the time, Momchil was approached by agents of Kantakouzenos' opponents, the Constantinopolitan regency, and persuaded to turn against him. Thinking that Kantakouzenos and his Turkish allies from the Emirate of Aydin were far away in eastern Thrace, he attacked a Turkish fleet of 15 ships near Portolagos and sank three of them. He then overcame another Turkish force that arrived to exact retribution near the fortress of Peritheorion (also known as Burugrad), and plundered several cities in the area that refused to surrender.Fine (1994), p. 304 Afterwards, Momchil along with 1,000 horsemen attacked Kantakouzenos, who had set camp near Komotini with only 60 horsemen to protect him. The Byzantines were thoroughly routed: Kantakouzenos' horse was killed and he received a powerful hit to the head, which he survived thanks to his helmet. Momchil captured many of Kantakouzenos' men, but the claimant to the throne himself managed to escape in the turmoil.

Soon, however, Momchil sent messages to Kantakouzenos asking for forgiveness. The latter, loath to alienate Momchil and open another front in his rear, pardoned him in exchange for promises of future good conduct, and even awarded him the title of sebastokrator. Momchil nevertheless continued to entertain parallel ties with the regency, and even secured the title of despotes from the Empress Anna of Savoy.Soulis (1984), pp. 149–150

Ruler in the Rhodopes and death
In the summer of 1344, Momchil finally broke with both parties and seceded from the Byzantine Empire. He proclaimed himself an independent ruler in the Rhodopes and the Aegean coast, "capturing cities and villages and appearing all-powerful and invincible". With his army he captured Xanthi, which became the capital of his domain.Kazhdan (1991), pp. 1390–1391 Bulgarian historian Plamen Pavlov theorises that Momchil was in friendly relations with Bulgarian emperor Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–1371), with whom he shared a lengthy border, and believes the two may have acted in co-ordination against the Byzantines.

In late spring 1345 however, Kantakouzenos, reinforced with allegedly 20,000 troops from Aydin under their ruler Umur Bey, marched against Momchil. Momchil tried to prevent this by asking again for pardon and offering to submit to Kantakouzenos, but the emperor refused to heed him.Soulis (1984), p. 150

The two armies met near Peritheorion on 7 July 1345. Momchil tried to seek refuge behind the city's walls — scholars debate whether he actually held the city or not — but they were shut against him and his men by the locals.Kazhdan (1991), p. 1391 The locals did let in Momchil's cousin Rayko along with 50 men, which they hoped would persuade Momchil not to take vengeance on the city if he defeated his opponents. In the subsequent battle before the city walls, Momchil's forces used the Peritheorion's ruined old fortifications as a first line of defence, with the city walls behind them.

After the foremost Turkish troops crossed the fortifications and dealt with the Bulgarian defenders, they began plundering the vicinity. However, to the surprise of Kantakouzenos and Umur Bey, the majority of Momchil's men were standing in front of the city walls and had not yet participated in the skirmishes. As the Byzantine–Turkish force advanced towards the defenders, Momchil led his troops ahead into battle. His cavalry was promptly eliminated by Turkish sharpshooters and his remaining troops were surrounded on three sides by heavily armed horsemen. Momchil's remaining men continued the fight on foot and for the most part did not surrender until Momchil himself perished.

Out of respect for Momchil, Kantakouzenos spared his wife, a Bulgarian woman he had captured during his conquest of Xanthi. He allowed her to flee to Bulgaria along with all of her property. However, it is unknown whether Momchil had any children from this marriage or a previous one, if any. Pavlov presents the hypothesis that Momchil's wife was a noblewoman from the Bulgarian capital Tarnovo, whom he married as part of an agreement with the Bulgarian court.

In popular culture
In Bulgarian and South Slavic folklore in general, Momchil is glorified in numerous songs and epic tales as a brigand, defender of the people and a prominent fighter against the Turks.Kazhdan (1991), p. 1391 Indeed, some of the earliest heroic songs in Bulgarian folklore tradition deal with Momchil's exploits. In some folklore material, Momchil, referred to as a duke, acts as the uncle of Prince Marko, another legendary figure who in epic poetry is a fighter against the Turks. In the folklore version of Momchil's last battle, Vidosava, his wife, and not the citizens of Peritheorion, betrays him and is to blame for his death. On the other hand, Momchil's legendary sister Yevrosima is described as the mother of Prince Marko as well as a major influence on him.

The town of Momchilgrad and the village of Momchilovtsi in southern Bulgaria, as well as Momchil Peak on Greenwich Island of the South Shetland Islands in Antarctica are named after Momchil. His life served as the basis for an opera piece, eponymously named Momchil and written by Bulgarian composer Lyubomir Pipkov. Momchil's biography also inspired a 1988 children's comic book, The Lord of Merope'', which tells a largely fictionalised version of his story.

References

Sources

External links
Who was Duke Momcilo?, Dusko Lopandic, No 3114, 2011

1345 deaths
14th-century births
14th-century Bulgarian people
Medieval Bulgarian military personnel
Medieval Serbian military leaders
Byzantine mercenaries
Byzantine governors
Byzantine rebels
People from the Serbian Empire
Medieval Thrace
Rhodope Mountains
Sebastokrators
Bulgarian military personnel killed in action
Medieval mercenaries
Medieval rebels
14th-century soldiers
Boyars of Stefan Dušan

Momchil


The Indian Sociologist was an Indian nationalist journal in the early 20th century. Its subtitle was An Organ of Freedom, and Political, Social, and Religious Reform,mouthpiece of the nationalist revolutionaries.

The journal was edited by Shyamji Krishna verma from 1905 to 1914, then between 1920 and 1922. It was originally produced in London until May 1907, when Krishna verma moved to Paris. The journal was edited in Paris from June 1907, but the change of address was only announced in the September 1907 issue. Publication continued in Paris until 1914, when Krishnavarma moved to Geneva on account of the First World War. While in Geneva, he abandoned the publication under pressure from the Swiss authorities. He recommenced publication in December 1920 and continued until September 1922.

Political origin
The first issue contained the following statement:
The appearance of a journal conducted by an Indian sociologist in England is an event likely to cause surprise in some quarters; but there are many weighty grounds to justify such a publication. The political relations between England and India urgently require a genuine Indian interpreter in the United Kingdom to show, on behalf of India, how Indians really fare and feel under British rule. No systematic attempt has, so far as our knowledge goes, ever been made in this country by Indians themselves to enlighten the British public with regard to the grievances, demands, and aspirations of the people of India and its unrepresented millions before the bar of public opinion in Great Britain and Ireland. This journal will endeavour to inculcate the great sociological truth that "it is impossible to join injustice and brutality abroad with justice and humanity at home." It will from time to time remind the British people that they can never succeed in being a nation of freedom and lovers of freedom so long as they continue to send out members of the dominant classes to exercise despotisms in Britain's name upon the various conquered races that constitute Britain's military empire.

The Indian Sociologist will not be identified with any political party. It will be guided in its policy by the fundamental truths of social science, the first principle of which is that "every man has freedom to do all that he wills, provided he infringes not the freedom of any other man". In discussing political, social, and religious questions, we shall frequently appeal to sociology, which, as expounded by the founder of that new and profound science, proves conclusively that "all despotisms, whether political or religious, whether of sex, of caste, or of custom, may be generalised as limitations to individuality, which it is the nature of civilisation to remove."

The journal also featured two quotes from Herbert Spencer, an important influence on it:
"Every man is free to do that which he wills, provided he infringes not the equal freedom of any other man." (Principles of Ethics, Section 272).
"Resistance to aggression is not simply justifiable but imperative. Non-resistance hurts both altruism and egoism" (The Study of Sociology, Chapter 8)

The journal was very strongly influenced by Spencer and Krishnavarma used it to advertise the Herbert Spencer Indian Fellowships, five travelling scholarships he set up to enable Indian graduates to study in England. They had the prevision that the fellowship holder "shall not accept any post, office, emoluments, or service under the British government after his return to India", a condition which caused some debate.

The journal became a significant conduit for the ideas of Herbet Spencer across India.

1907: radicalisation and repression

Starting with quite a mild stance in that "India and England should sever their connection peaceably and part as friends", it became more radical in 1907, actively advocating Swaraj (Home Rule) and organisation of the Society of Political Missionaries of India. This incurred police surveillance, a debate in the British House of Commons (30 July 1907) and a ban on import and sale of the journal in India from 19 September 1907. Krishnavarma had already departed in June 1907, remarking in the September issue: "On the earnest advice of some of our friends, we left England, practically for good, during the early part of June last, seeing that mischief was brewing". It was not banned in England and continued to be printed there.

However, two of the printers were arrested for sedition for printing it in 1909. Arthur Fletcher Horsley was arrested and tried for printing the May, June and July issues. He was tried and sentenced on the same day as Madan Lal Dhingra for the assassination of Sir William Hutt Curzon Wyllie. The trial was very prominent, with the remarks by the Lord Chief Justice to indicate anyone printing this sort of material would be liable for prosecution. Nevertheless, Guy Aldred, a 22-year-old anarchist advocate of the free press, published it bearing his own name. The police obtained a warrant and seized 396 copies of the issue. At the trial, the prosecution was led by William Robson, Baron Robson, the Attorney General at the Central Criminal Court. Robson highlighted parts of the journal which Aldred had himself written, particularly focusing on a passage which touched on the execution of Dhingra:
In the execution of Dhingra that cloak will be publicly worn, that secret language spoken, that solemn veil employed to conceal the sword of Imperialism by which we are sacrificed to the insatiable idol of modern despotism, whose ministers are Cromer, Curzon and Morley & Co. Murder-which they would represent to us as a horrible crime, when the murdered is a government flunkey- we see practised by them without repugnance or remorse when the murdered is a working man, a Nationalist patriot, an Egyptian fellaheen or half-starved victim of despotic society's bloodlust. It was so at Featherstone and Denshawai; it has often been so at Newgate: and it was so with Robert Emmett, the Paris communards, and the Chicago martyrs. Who is more reprehensible than the murderers of these martyrs? The police spies who threw the bomb at Chicago; the ad hoc tribunal which murdered innocent Egyptians at Denshawai; the Asquith who assumed full responsibility for the murder of the workers at Feathersone; the assassins of Robert Emmett? Yet these murderers have not been executed! Why then should Dhingra be executed? Because he is not a time serving executioner, but a Nationalist patriot, who, though his ideals are not their ideals, is worthy of the admiration of those workers at home, who have as little to gain from the lick-spittle crew of Imperialistic blood-sucking, capitalist parasites at as what the Nationalists have in India.

Aldred also remarked that the Sepoy Mutiny, or Indian Mutiny, would be described as the Indian War of Independence. Aldred received a sentence of twelve months hard labour.

References
 Azadi Jangnu Patrakaratva: Landanman Indian Sociologist (Journalism of the Freedom Struggle: Indian Sociologist in London), by Pandya and Pandya (2003) reproduces issues from 1905 to 1908 - 48 issues of 4 pages each all in English, along with 22 of the Sedition Committee Report of 1918.

External links
 'Self, Swaraj and Spencer: Nationalist Though and Critiques of Liberalism', Modern Intellectual History, 4, 1, 2007, pp. 109-127

Revolutionary movement for Indian independence
Literature of Indian independence movement
India House

The Indian Sociologist


The customs gold unit (CGU) was a currency issued by the Central Bank of China between 1930 and 1948. In Chinese, the name of the currency was 關金圓 (guānjīnyuán; ) but the English name given on the back of the  notes was "customs gold unit". It was divided into 100 cents (關金分). As the name suggests, this currency was initially used for customs payments, but in 1942 it was put into general circulation for use by the public at 20 times its face value in terms of the first Chinese yuan.

History

The customs gold unit was adopted on 1 February 1930 to replace the Haikwan (Hǎiguān) or Customs  tael (海關両 hǎiguān liǎng) as the standard for customs payments. It was defined as equal to 601.866 mg fine gold or US$0.40. CGU notes were fully backed by silver and were legal tender for paying import duties. The CGU replaced the Haikwan tael at CGU150 = HkT100.

The CGU's value, fixed against the US dollar, fluctuated against the Chinese yuan,  based on the current yuan–dollar and yuan–sterling market exchange rates. After the UK abandoned gold in September 1931, only the yuan–dollar rate was used until 1933, when the sterling price of gold in the London market determined the value of the CGU.   Central Bank of China sold CGU notes at the prevailing quotation so that businessmen could minimize exchange risks resulting from changes in the yuan–dollar and yuan–sterling exchange rates. Use of this currency was very limited, with only about CGU375,000–475,000 outstanding at the time of the 1935 currency reform.

The Chinese currency reform of 3 November 1935, which created the Chinese national yuan or dollar (CNC$), commonly known as the Chinese legal tender dollar or fapi in English (), also  fixed an  exchange rate of CGU100 = CNC$226.

The CGU's role in paying custom duties disappeared in 1941 when the government set ad valorem customs rates. On 1 April 1942 the custom gold unit's theoretical gold content was raised to 888.671 mg fine gold, equal to one US dollar. In practice, the customs gold unit lost all its special features and simply became equivalent to 20 Chinese legal tender dollars  (CGU1 = CNC$20).

When Nationalist troops and officials arrived in Shanghai in 1945, they brought with them newly printed notes of 20 and 50 customs gold units. These notes proved more popular locally than Chinese legal tender notes and, due to a mistaken belief in the existence of a gold-redemption clause, they commanded a premium when exchanged for Central Reserve Bank notes of the Nanking National Government. CGU notes circulated alongside ordinary legal tender notes until 1948, when both were replaced by the gold yuan at the rate of 1 gold yuan = 3,000,000 Chinese legal tender dollars = 150,000 customs gold units.

Banknotes

On 1 May 1930, the Central Bank of China put into circulation notes in denominations of 0.10, 0.20, 1, 5, and 10 customs gold units. These notes were printed by American Bank Note Company and dated 1930.

On 1 April 1942, the Central Bank of China began to put into circulation its unissued stock of about CGU100 million in 1930-dated notes, including 20 and 50 denominations, not circulated previously.

In January 1947, the Central Bank of China released notes of 250 and 500 customs gold units. Although dated 1930, these notes had been printed by American Bank Note Company in 1946. Inflation led to yet higher denominations: 1000, 2000, 5000 in December 1947, and 10,000, 25,000, 50,000, and 250,000 in July 1948, shortly before the currency reform of that year.

Several note types were produced by nine different printers, with slight differences in guilloche and size, but maintaining the same general design, with Dr. Sun Yat-sen on the face and the Shanghai Customs House on the back. The back of some of the notes bore the following English text preceding the denomination: "The Central Bank of China promises to pay the bearer on demand at its office here." Printers included the American Bank Note Company, Waterlow and Sons, the Security Banknote Company, the Chung Hua Book Company, Thomas De La Rue, The HongKong Printing Press Ltd. and the China Engraving and Printing Works.

Other uses
The Flying Tigers, an American Volunteer Group of pilots and ground crew that operated within the Chinese Air Force in 1941 and 1942 during World War II, were also paid in this currency .

See also

 History of Chinese currency
 Chinese yuan
 Economy of China
 Economic history of China (Pre-1911)
 Economic history of China

References

Currencies of China
Modern obsolete currencies
1930 establishments in China
1948 disestablishments in China

Chinese customs gold unit


The  series is a series of popular platform games by Nintendo. They feature Nintendo's mascot Mario and, in most of the games, his brother Luigi. The Mario series has been running for more than 40 years. More than 200 video games have been released in the series. The series has been named the best-selling video game series in history, with over 262 million combined units sold.

The series started out in 1981 with the arcade video game, Donkey Kong, and has since then taken off into its own series. It was created by Shigeru Miyamoto. Mario, going under the name Jumpman when Donkey Kong was first released, is the main protagonist throughout most of the series. The main antagonist of the series is Bowser, the King of all Koopas. Most of the games have something to do with jumping and defeating enemies. The games usually feature simple storylines. The most common theme in the series is Bowser, the main villain, taking away Princess Peach, who the Mario brothers try to save during the games.

Related pages
 List of video games featuring Mario

References

Notes

Mario (series)


首相嘅問題(Prime Minister's Questions,PMQ),正式叫做向首相嘅問題(Questions to the Prime Minister)係聯合王國嘅一種憲政傳統(constitutional convention);每逢星期三下議院開會時首相會用半個鐘頭來答議員("MPs")嘅問。

響加拿大,對等嘅習慣叫問題時段(Question Period),而且聯邦議院同省議院都會咁做;響澳洲同紐西蘭就叫做問題時間(Question Time);響蘇格蘭議院同威爾斯議會叫 首相嘅問題(First Minister's Questions);響印度嘅下議院(Lok Sabha)有問題鐘頭(Question Hour)。

聯合王國
呢種逢一定時辰就揾個首相來問嘅習慣始於1950年代。

想問嘢嘅後排議員要響張 Order Paper 上填名。之後啲名會響個ballot 度洗勻,來決定出講者(Speaker,有人叫議長)叫問題嘅次序。講者會叫啲MP 提問,通常會畀政府同反對黨議員交替住咁問。無被選中嘅 MP 都有機會被講者叫來發問,如果渠「捉到講者嘅眼」(catch the eye of the Speaker):渠要剛啱響首相回答之前企起身然後即刻坐低。傳統上,主要反對黨魁會係第三或第四個被叫嘅;而次要反對黨魁就會係第五或第六。

The first formal question on the Order Paper, posed by simply saying "Number One, Mr. Speaker", is to ask the Prime Minister if he/she will list his/her engagements for the day. The current Prime Minister, Tony Blair, usually replies:

This morning I had meetings with ministerial colleagues and others. In addition to my duties in the House, I will have further such meetings later today.
The Prime Minister may also take a moment before giving the answer to extend condolences or congratulations after significant events. After this, the MP may ask a supplementary question about any subject which might occupy the Prime Minister's time. The reason for asking the Prime Minister about his engagements is because, until recently, any member of the cabinet could answer the posed question, allowing the Prime Minister to avoid answering questions themselves, but once someone answers a question, they are obliged to answer follow up questions (on any topic). The only question that the Prime Minister had to answer personally was his list of engagements for the week; hence he is asked this question first, and all subsequent questions are follow up questions, forcing the Prime Minister to answer the questions himself.

The Leader of the Opposition is allowed six supplementary questions (which he will normally use as two groups of three), and the leader of the third largest party (currently the Liberal Democrats) has two. The Speaker tries to alternate between government and opposition questioners, and MPs who have drawn a low number or did not enter the ballot can be called in order to provide this balance.

If the Prime Minister is away on official business then a substitute will answer questions. This is usually the Deputy Prime Minister, or if unavailable, the Leader of the House of Commons. It is customary on occasions where the Leader of the Opposition or the leader of the third party is absent for them to also send a substitute.

Since the televising of Parliament, Prime Minister's Questions (or "PMQs") have formed an important part of British political culture. Because of the natural drama of this confrontation, it is the most well-known piece of Parliamentary business. Tickets to the Strangers Gallery (public gallery) for Wednesday are the most sought-after Parliamentary tickets. One of Tony Blair's first acts as Prime Minister was to replace the two 15-minute sessions, held on a Tuesday and Thursday, with a single 30 minute session on a Wednesday—a move for which he was criticised.

PMQs has also been a popular feature on the US cable channel C-SPAN, and has been spoofed by sketches on Saturday Night Live. It is also currently being re-broadcast on CPAC in Canada.

Leaders at the Dispatch boxes during Prime Minister's questions since 1945
The most high-profile contributors at Prime Minister's Questions are, of course, the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition—who speak opposite each other at the Dispatch box. Regular, fixed sessions have taken place since the 1950s, and the list below shows all the Prime Ministers since 1945 and all the Opposition Leaders they faced across the floor of the House of Commons;

 Clement Attlee, faced by Winston Churchill 1945–1951

 Winston Churchill, faced by Clement Attlee 1951–1955

 Anthony Eden, faced by Clement Attlee 1955, Hugh Gaitskell 1955–1957

 Harold Macmillan, faced by Hugh Gaitskell 1957–1963, George Brown 1963 and Harold Wilson 1963

 Alec Douglas-Home, faced by Harold Wilson 1963–1964

 Harold Wilson, faced by Alec Douglas-Home 1964–1965, Edward Heath 1965–1970 and 1974–1975, and Margaret Thatcher 1975–1976

 Edward Heath, faced by Harold Wilson 1970–1974

 James Callaghan, faced by Margaret Thatcher 1976–1979

 Margaret Thatcher, faced by James Callaghan 1979–1980, Michael Foot 1980–1983, and Neil Kinnock 1983–1990

 John Major, faced by Neil Kinnock 1990–1992, John Smith 1992–1994, Margaret Beckett 1994 and Tony Blair 1994–1997

 Tony Blair, faced by John Major 1997, William Hague 1997–2001, Iain Duncan Smith 2001–2003, Michael Howard 2003–2005 and David Cameron since 2005

連出去
 唐寧街10號網址 首相嘅問題嘅錄影同筆錄
 BBC 關於PMQ嘅紀錄片 (Real Player)
 BBC 關於PMQ嘅紀錄片 (Windows Media Player)
 BBC PMQs 錄影 podcast
 貝理雅最後一次答PMQ,2007年6月27號 /

政治制度
英國政治

首相嘅問題


Pete Seeger (Peter Seeger; May 3, 1919 – January 27, 2014) was an American folk musician and songwriter. He was a longtime friend of Woody Guthrie, and founder of The Almanac Singers and The Weavers, two famous folk bands. Seeger's usual musical instrument is a banjo.

Early life
Seeger was born Peter Seeger on May 3, 1919 in Manhattan, New York City. His parents were Protestants. His parents enrolled him at Avon Old Farms Boarding School in Avon, Connecticut. Seeger studied for a short while at Harvard University. He soon dropped out. In 1943, Seeger married his wife Toshi Aline.

Early career

He organized or played at many benefit concerts, to help people who had been hurt by bad business practices or governmental policies, or sometimes by disasters. He also wrote songs to promote the things he believed in, and to protest things he opposed.

Seeger was a leftist, not afraid to speak his views openly, or to support unpopular causes such as Communism. Seeger's musical career was sometimes limited by his views. The American Federal Bureau of Investigation kept a dossier on Seeger, and the House Un-American Activities Committee put pressure on him, because of his beliefs. He refused to change his views, or to stop doing what he believed was right. Because of this, Seeger was blacklisted in many places, and could not play music there. He was also not allowed to appear on television for most of the 1950s and 1960s.

One rare appearance, on the Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, was censored because the song he played, "Waist Deep In The Big Muddy", was an allegory against the Vietnam War, which most Americans supported at the time.

Music
Seeger's original songs include "Where Have All The Flowers Gone?", "The Hammer Song" (also called "If I Had A Hammer"), and "Turn, Turn, Turn", whose words were adapted from Ecclesiastes in the Bible. Other musicians played and recorded his songs, including Judy Collins, Peter, Paul and Mary, and The Byrds. Seeger started Broadside, a magazine devoted to folk music, and also Sing Out! to promote music and singing by the public.

Later career

As years went by, social trends changed in America, and Seeger's views became more acceptable. He was finally able to make television appearances, and was admired for his dedication to folk music, and to causes. He played music together with Arlo Guthrie, the son of Woody Guthrie, performing Woody's old songs and others. He received awards for his music, including the American National Medal for the Arts, and a Kennedy Center Honor. He was also inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame, and even the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, as an influence to rock musicians.

Personal life
Seeger and Toshi had four children. He was an active as a musician and as a spokesperson for important matters, like the environment, alternative fuels, and people who need a champion to support them. His wife Toshi Seeger died on July 9, 2013. Seeger lived in New York City.

Death
Seeger died in New York City on January 27, 2014, of natural causes, aged 94. His remains were cremated.

References

Other websites

 "Pete Seeger: How Can I Keep From Singing?" Website by Seeger biographer David Dunaway
 Pete Seeger Appreciation Page, a site originally created by Jim Capaldi
 "Pete Seeger: The Power of Song" documentary filmmaker Jim Brown interview on The Alcove with Mark Molaro, 2007
 Folk Legend Pete Seeger Looks Back – National Public Radio interview, July 2, 2005
Peter Seeger interviewed by Australian composer Andrew Ford (MP3 of interview first broadcast in 1999)
 "Legendary Folk Singer & Activist Pete Seeger Turns 90, Thousands Turn Out for All-Star Tribute Featuring Bruce Springsteen, Joan Baez, Bernice Johnson Reagon and Dozens More" on Democracy Now!, May 2009 (video, audio, and print transcript)
 1-hour Internet radio interview- Seeger discusses the music industry, the world in general, and more (August 2007).

1919 births
2014 deaths
American activists
American folk singers
American guitarists
American pianists
Singer-songwriters from New York City
American television presenters
American banjo players
American mandolinists

Pete Seeger


Deimos (;  - "dread" or "terror") is the god of terror in Greek mythology. He is one of the sons of Ares and Aphrodite. He is the twin brother of Phobos, god of fear. He and his brother would often go with their father as he rode into battle in his chariot. Deimos, the smaller of Mars' two moons, is named after him.

Greek gods and goddesses

Deimos