The White Night riots were a series of violent events sparked by an announcement of a lenient sentencing of Dan White for the assassinations of George Moscone, the mayor of San Francisco, and of Harvey Milk, a member of the city's Board of Supervisors who was one of the first openly gay elected officials in the United States. The events took place on the night of May 21, 1979 in San Francisco. Earlier that day White had been convicted of voluntary manslaughter, the lightest possible conviction for his actions. The lesser conviction outraged the city's gay community, setting off the most violent reaction by gay Americans since the 1969 Stonewall riots in New York City.

The gay community of San Francisco had a longstanding conflict with the San Francisco Police Department. White's status as a former police officer intensified the community's anger at the SFPD. Initial demonstrations took place as a peaceful march through the Castro district of San Francisco. After the crowd arrived at the San Francisco City Hall, violence began. The events caused hundreds of thousands of dollars worth of property damage to City Hall and the surrounding area, as well as injuries to police officers and rioters.

Several hours after the riot had been broken up, police made a retaliatory raid on a gay bar in San Francisco's Castro District. Many patrons were beaten by police in riot gear. Two dozen arrests were made during the course of the raid, and several people later sued the SFPD.

In the following days, gay leaders refused to apologize for the events of that night. This led to increased political power in the gay community, which culminated in the election of Mayor Dianne Feinstein to a full term the following November. In response to a campaign promise, Feinstein appointed a pro-gay Chief of Police, which increased recruitment of gay people in the police force and eased tensions.

Background

Gay history of San Francisco
The American settlers who moved west toward California in the 18th and 19th centuries were largely male prospectors and miners.  Events such as the California Gold Rush created a broadly male society in that region. Romantic friendships were common, and often tolerated.  As San Francisco was settled the ratio of men to women remained disproportionately high, resulting in the growth of a culture that was more open-minded towards homosexuality.  The city's notorious brothel district – named the Barbary Coast – earned the city a reputation as a lawless and amoral society leading to San Francisco becoming known as "Sodom by the Sea."

The end of Prohibition prompted the opening of several gay bars along North Beach. The most notable of these were the Black Cat where female impersonation shows became the main draw, and a lesbian bar known as Mona's.

During World War II, San Francisco became a major debarkation point for servicemen stationed in the Pacific Theater. The U.S. military, which was concerned about male homosexuality, had a policy of dismissing servicemen caught in known gay establishments with blue discharges. As many of these men faced ostracism from their communities and families, they chose to remain in the city. The number of men that remained was a significant factor in the creation of a homosexual community in San Francisco.

Gay activism in San Francisco
In 1951, the California Supreme Court affirmed in Stoumen v. Reilly the right of homosexuals to assemble peacefully. To assist homosexuals with legal problems, in 1951 labor activist Harry Hay started the Mattachine Foundation from his living room in Los Angeles. Two years later, the Mattachine Society had expanded to several cities through the organizational skills of Chuck Rowland and under the leadership of less radical leaders Ken Burns in Los Angeles, Hal Call in San Francisco, and Curtis Dewees, Joe McCarthy, and Tony Segura in New York, and Prescott Townsend of Boston. A few years later, Phyllis Lyon and Del Martin started the Daughters of Bilitis with six other women in San Francisco, initially to have a place to socialize without fear of harassment or arrest. Within a few years, both organizations learned of each other and grew to have similar goals: helping assimilate homosexuals into general society, working for legal reform to repeal sodomy laws, and assisting those who were arrested. Both groups were headquartered in San Francisco by 1957, where The Ladder was edited by Lyon and Martin while The Mattachine Review was edited by Hal Call. Both publications were printed by Call's Pan Graphic Press.

Police continued to arrest homosexuals in large numbers, routinely bringing paddy wagons to gay bars and arresting their patrons. Charges were usually dismissed, but those arrested often lost their anonymity when newspapers printed their names, addresses and places of employment. Officers also notified the employer and family of the accused, causing serious damage to their reputations.

In 1964, a New Year's Eve benefit event was held for the Council on Religion and the Homosexual. Police stood outside with large floodlights, and in an effort to intimidate took photographs of anyone entering the building. Later, several officers demanded that they be allowed inside. Three lawyers explained to them that under California law, the event was a private party and they could not enter unless they bought tickets. The lawyers were then arrested. Several ministers who were in attendance held a press conference the next morning, likening the SFPD to the Gestapo. Even the Catholic archbishop strongly condemned the actions of the police. In an attempt to reduce such harassment two officers were tasked with improving the police department's relationship with the gay community.

The Mattachine Society and Daughters of Bilitis promoted non-confrontational education for homosexuals and heterosexuals, hoping to prove that homosexuals were respectable and normal. Living beyond the mostly white, middle class scope of these groups was an active community of cross-dressers, hustlers, and "street queens" who worked primarily in the Tenderloin district of the city. After being denied service at Gene Compton's Cafeteria, a few activists picketed the restaurant in 1966. A few days later, early in the morning, the police arrived to arrest patrons in drag.  A riot ensued when a drag queen threw the contents of a cup of coffee in the face of a police officer in response to the officer's grabbing of her arm. The cafe's plate glass windows were shattered in the melée, and then again a few days later after they had been replaced. Although three years later the Stonewall Riots would have a more significant impact, the Compton's Cafeteria riots were among the first in American history where homosexuals and the newly forming transgender community fought against the authorities.

Political clout
San Francisco continued to grow as a haven for homosexuals. North Beach and Polk Street had been quiet neighborhoods each with a large homosexual population, but in the 1960s the growth of the Castro District outpaced either of them. Thousands of gay men migrated to San Francisco, turning the quiet Irish working-class neighborhood around Castro Street into a bustling center of activity. Meanwhile, many lesbians moved their homes and businesses to  nearby Valencia Street in the Mission District.  New Yorker Harvey Milk resettled on Castro Street in 1972, and opened Castro Camera the following year.  Dissatisfied with the level of bureaucratic apathy and indifference toward the gay community, Milk decided to run for city supervisor. Through his multiple campaigns, culminating in his 1977 election, he became the political voice for the gay community, promoting himself as the "Mayor of Castro Street." By 1977, 25 percent of the population of San Francisco was reported to be gay.

On Labor Day of 1974, tensions between the gay community and the SFPD came to a head when a man was beaten and arrested while walking down Castro Street. Police reinforcements suddenly appeared on the street, their badge numbers hidden, and beat dozens of gay men. Of these, 14 were arrested and charged with obstructing a sidewalk. Harvey Milk dubbed them the "Castro 14", and a $1.375 million lawsuit was filed against the police.

In 1975, after George Moscone had been elected Mayor, he appointed Charles Gain as his Chief of Police. Gain, whose conciliatory position towards African Americans had branded him as one of the most liberal law enforcement officers in the country, soon earned the ire of the police force. Gain implemented policies that proved unpopular with his staff, such as painting police cars powder blue, and barring officers from drinking on the job. His lenient policies towards gays also angered the police force. When asked what he would do if a gay police officer came out, Gain replied "I certainly think that a gay policeman could be up front about it under me. If I had a gay policeman who came out, I would support him 100 percent." This statement sent shock waves through the police department, and made national headlines. Made during the first week of Gain's tenure, the remark also made Mayor Moscone extremely unpopular with the police. The two were so intensely disliked by the police that in 1977 rumors circulated about a plan by right-wing police officers to assassinate Gain, and a year later similar plans formed targeting Mayor Moscone. Upon being informed of this threat, Moscone hired a bodyguard.

Assassinations

Dissatisfied with city politics, and in financial difficulty due to his failing restaurant business and low annual salary of $9,600, former police officer and Supervisor Dan White resigned from the San Francisco Board of Supervisors on November 10, 1978. However, after a meeting with the Police Officers' association and the Board of Realtors, White announced that he wanted his seat back. Liberal Supervisors saw this as an opportunity to end the 6-5 split on the Board that blocked progressive initiatives they wanted to introduce. After intense lobbying by Supervisors Milk and Silver, as well as State Assemblyman Willie Brown, Moscone announced on November 26, 1978, that he would not be reappointing Dan White to the seat he had vacated.

The next morning White went to City Hall armed with his police .38 Smith & Wesson revolver and 10 extra cartridges in his coat pocket. To avoid the metal detector he entered the building through a basement window, and proceeded to the office of Mayor George Moscone.  Following a brief argument, White shot the Mayor in the shoulder and chest, and then twice in the head. White then walked to his former office, reloading his gun, and asked Milk to join him. White then shot Milk in the wrist, shoulder and chest, and then twice in the head. Supervisor Dianne Feinstein heard the gunshots and called the police, who found Milk on his stomach, bleeding out from his head wounds.

Dan White verdict
White was charged with first-degree murder with "special circumstances", which would have permitted the death penalty under the terms of 1978 California Proposition 7. The circumstances alleged in this case were that Mayor Moscone had been killed in order to block the appointment of someone to fill the City Supervisor seat from which Dan White had resigned, and also that multiple people were killed.

White's sentence was reduced due in part to the so-called Twinkie defense. White's defense was that he suffered diminished capacity as a result of his depression, a symptom of which was a change in diet from healthy food to Twinkies and other sugary foods. Contrary to contemporary reports, White's attorneys did not argue that the Twinkies were the cause of White's actions, but that their consumption was symptomatic of his underlying depression. The product itself was only mentioned in passing during the trial.

The jury heard a tape recording of White's confession, which consisted of highly emotional ranting about the pressure he was under, and members of the jury wept in sympathy for the defendant.
White represented the "old guard" of San Francisco, who were wary of the influx of minority groups into the city and represented a more conservative, traditional view that the more liberal forces in the city, like Moscone and Milk, were perceived to be eroding. Members of the San Francisco Police and Fire Departments raised more than $100,000 to defend White and some wore shirts reading "Free Dan White."

On May 21, 1979, White was found guilty of the voluntary manslaughter of Mayor Moscone and Supervisor Milk. He was sentenced to seven years and eight months in Soledad prison. With good behavior he had the chance to be released after serving two-thirds of his sentence, about five years. Upon hearing the verdict, District Attorney Joseph Freitas, Jr., said "It was a wrong decision. The jury was overwhelmed by emotions and did not sufficiently analyze the evidence that this was deliberate, calculated murder." In defense of his client, White's attorney Douglas Schmidt stated that White "is filled with remorse and I think he's in a very bad condition."

White would later confirm that the killings were premeditated. In 1984, he told former police Inspector Frank Falzon that not only had he planned to kill Moscone and Milk, but also had plans to kill Assemblyman Willie Brown and Supervisor Carol Ruth Silver. He believed that the four politicians were attempting to block his reinstatement as Supervisor.
  Falzon quoted White as having said, "I was on a mission. I wanted four of them. Carol Ruth Silver, she was the biggest snake ... and Willie Brown, he was masterminding the whole thing."

Riots

March through the Castro

When told of the verdict, Milk's friend and activist Cleve Jones addressed an audience of about 500 people that had gathered on Castro Street, telling them of the verdict. With shouts of "Out of the bars and into the streets" Jones led a crowd down Castro Street, its numbers bolstered by people emerging from each bar. The crowd circled around and marched through the Castro again, by now numbering about 1,500 people.

In a 1984 interview, Jones gave a voice to the feeling in the crowd as they began to group together on Castro Street after news of the verdict spread, stating, "The rage in people's face—I saw people I'd known for years, and they were so furious. That to me was the scariest thing. All these people I'd know from the neighborhood, boys from the corner, these people I'd ridden the bus with, just out there, screaming for blood."

Violence at City Hall

By the time the crowd reached City Hall its numbers had increased to over 5,000. Protesters shouted slogans such as "Kill Dan White!" and "Dump Dianne!", a reference to Mayor Dianne Feinstein. The handful of police officers on duty at the scene were uncertain about how to deal with the situation, and the Police Department, which was unaccustomed to an angry gay crowd, was similarly uncertain of how to proceed. The protesters were convinced that the police and prosecution had conspired to avoid a severe sentence for White, although Prosecutor Thomas Norman denied this repeatedly until his death.

Members of the crowd tore gilded ornamental work from the building's wrought iron doors and then used it to break first floor windows. Several of Harvey Milk's friends monitored and attempted to hold back the crowd, including Milk's long term partner Scott Smith. A formation of police appeared on the north side of the Civic Center Plaza, and those attempting to hold back the mob sat down, grateful for the reinforcements.  The officers however did not restrain themselves to holding back the crowd, and instead attacked them with night sticks.

One young man used a metal signpost to smash the window of a police car, and two of his companions threw burning toilet paper on the upholstery, setting it on fire. A dozen more police cars would be destroyed in a similar fashion by these three young men, while others burned eight more non-police vehicles. The photo on the front cover of the Dead Kennedys 1980 album Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables, which shows several police cars on fire, was taken that night. Several crowd members threw tear gas, which they had stolen from police vehicles. Riots began to break out, with one mob disrupting traffic. Electric trollies were disabled when their overhead wires were pulled down, and violence broke out against the police officers, who were outnumbered. Police Chief Charles Gain, standing inside City Hall, ordered officers not to attack and to simply stand their ground.

Mayor Feinstein and Supervisor Carol Ruth Silver addressed the demonstrators in an attempt to defuse the situation. Mayor Feinstein said that she had received news of the verdict "with disbelief", and Supervisor Silver stated, "Dan White has gotten away with murder. It's as simple as that." Silver was injured when struck by a flying object. More than 140 protesters were also injured.

Police retaliation
After nearly three hours of shouts from the angry crowd, officers moved in to quell the riot. Police reportedly covered their badges with black tape—preventing any identification—and attacked rioters. Dozens of police officers swept into the crowd, using tear gas to force protesters away from the building. Police were surprised at the resistance they faced from the protesters, who attempted to push them back using tree branches, chrome torn off city buses, and asphalt ripped from the street, as weapons. As one man ignited the last police car he shouted to a reporter "Make sure you put in the paper that I ate too many Twinkies." Sixty officers were injured, and about two dozen arrests were made.

The second stage of the violence was a police raid/riot hours later in the predominantly gay Castro neighborhood, which vandalized the Elephant Walk bar and injured many of its occupants.  After order was restored at City Hall, SFPD cars carrying dozens of officers headed into the Castro District.  Officers entered a gay bar called the Elephant Walk, despite their orders not to do so. They shouted "dirty cocksuckers" and "sick faggots", shattered the large plate glass windows of the bar, and attacked patrons. After 15 minutes police withdrew from the bar and joined other officers who were indiscriminately attacking gays on the street. The incident lasted nearly two hours.

When Police Chief Charles Gain heard about the unauthorized Elephant Walk raid, he immediately went to the location and ordered his men to leave.  Later that night, freelance reporter Michael Weiss saw a group of police officers celebrating at a downtown bar. "We were at City Hall the day [the killings] happened and we were smiling then," one officer explained. "We were there tonight and we're still smiling."

At least 61 police officers and an estimated 100 members of the public were hospitalized in the course of the riot. A civil grand jury convened to find out who ordered the attack, but it ended inconclusively with a settlement covering personal injury claims and damages.

Aftermath
The next morning gay leaders convened in a committee room in the Civic Center. Supervisor Harry Britt, who had replaced Milk, along with members of the Harvey Milk Democratic Club, made it clear that nobody was to apologize for the riots. Britt informed a press conference, "Harvey Milk's people do not have anything to apologize for. Now the society is going to have to deal with us not as nice little fairies who have hairdressing salons, but as people capable of violence. We're not going to put up with Dan Whites anymore." Reporters were surprised that a public official would condone the violent acts of the previous night, expecting an apology from Britt. Subsequent attempts to find a gay leader who would give an apologetic statement proved unsuccessful.

That evening, May 22, would have been the 49th birthday of Harvey Milk. City officials had considered revoking the permit for a rally planned for that night, but decided against it for fear of sparking more violence. Officials stated that the rally could channel the community's anger into something positive. Police from San Francisco and its neighboring towns were placed on alert by Mayor Feinstein, and Cleve Jones coordinated contingency plans with the police, and trained 300 monitors to keep an eye on the crowd. Approximately 20,000 people gathered on Castro and Market streets, where the mood was "angry, but subdued." Officers monitored the crowd from a distance, however the crowd engaged in a peaceful celebration of Milk's life. Attendees danced to popular disco songs, drank beer, and sang a tribute to Milk.

On the same night, for over three hours about a hundred people held a demonstration at Sheridan Square in Manhattan, to protest the verdict. About 20 officers observed the protest, which began at 8 pm, but no arrests were made. A candlelight vigil was planned for two days later, sponsored by the Coalition for Lesbian and Gay Rights and the National Gay Task Force.

On October 14, 1979, between 75,000 and 125,000 people marched on Washington for gay rights. Many carried portraits of Milk, and placards honoring his legacy. The rally, something that Milk had intended to organize, was instead a tribute to his life.

Dan White was released from prison on January 14, 1984 after serving five years of a seven-year, eight-month sentence. On the evening following his release, 9,000 people marched down Castro street and burned his effigy.  State authorities reportedly feared an assassination attempt, and in response Scott Smith urged people not to retaliate with violence. He stated, "Harvey was against the death penalty. He was a nonviolent person."

White committed suicide by carbon monoxide poisoning on October 21, 1985. He connected a rubber hose to his car's exhaust system and routed it to the interior of the vehicle, which he let fill with carbon monoxide. Mayor Feinstein said, "This latest tragedy should close a very sad chapter in this city's history." According to Orange County lawyer Jeff Walsworth, White had expressed remorse for the killings in February 1984. White reportedly stated that it would always cause him inner turmoil. Inspector Falzone said the contrary, however, commenting that at no time did White express remorse in any form at the deaths of Moscone and Milk.

Analysis

Causes

The community had a long history of conflict with the San Francisco Police Department. Following World War II, gay bars were subject to frequent raids and attempts by the California Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control to revoke their alcohol licenses. They were accused of serving alcohol to homosexuals, a criminal act at the time.

The growing political and economic power of the city's gay community conflicted with the established but dwindling numbers of the conservative institutions, such as the police and fire departments. By 1971, police were arresting an average of 2,800 men per year on public sex charges; by contrast, 63 such arrests were made in New York City, although up to a quarter of San Francisco was reported to be gay at the time. Many charges were dismissed due to entrapment, but several men were given harsh sentences. In March, 1979, an attack on a lesbian bar by off-duty police officers made the national news and highlighted  the tension between the LGBT community and police. The Washington Post  cited the incident when it reported a week before the White Night riots that anti-homosexual violence had  "increased to a level unparalleled in San Francisco's recent history", including what the gay community perceived as "increasing harassment and abuse directed toward homosexuals by the police themselves,"  as well as indifference by city officials.

When Dan White was found guilty of involuntary manslaughter, his successful diminished capacity defense enraged the gay community. That the police and fire departments had raised money for his defense gave their anger a focus, turning it against the city government and especially the SFPD.

Effects on San Francisco politics
With the 1979 municipal elections occurring only months after the riot, prominent gay leaders feared a backlash at the polls. The elections continued without incident, and the gay community fared better than expected, wielding unprecedented influence. Although the virtually unknown gay Mayoral candidate David Scott finished third in the election, his showing was strong enough to force Mayor Feinstein into a runoff election against conservative City Supervisor Quentin Kopp. Feinstein's promises to appoint more gay people to public office, and her heavy campaigning in the Castro, ensured that she won enough support from the gay community to give her a full term as Mayor.

One of Mayor Feinstein's first actions upon being elected was to announce the appointment of Cornelius Murphy as the new Chief of Police. Murphy declared that police cars would no longer be colored powder blue, but instead would be repainted as "macho black-and-whites." This pleased the rank and file, and restored confidence in police leadership.  Murphy also vowed to maintain the progressive policy towards gays that his predecessor had implemented. By 1980, one in seven new police recruits was either gay or lesbian. In one of his last public appearances, outgoing Police Chief Charles Gain stated that he fully expected to see the day when San Francisco would have both a gay mayor and Chief of Police. By October 1985, an organization for gay law enforcement personnel in California, the Golden State Peace Officers Association, had incorporated as a non-profit organization. It was founded by Art Roth, an Oakland police officer who was present on the night of the riots.

Thirty years after the announcement of Dan White's guilty verdict, the Supreme Court of California prepared their decision on Strauss v. Horton.  The case was an attempt to overturn Proposition 8, which had added the statement "Only marriage between a man and a woman is valid or recognized in California" to Article I, section 7.5 of the California State Constitution. This ballot initiative, which was approved in 2008, eliminated the right of same-sex couples to marry in the state.

In late May 2009, while the Court was preparing its announcement, rumors surfaced on the Internet that San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom had asked the court not to announce the decision on May 21. They suggested that he made this request so that the announcement would not coincide with the 30th anniversary of the White Night riots.  On May 26, the court upheld the validity of Proposition 8, but ruled that the 18,000 marriages that had already been performed would remain valid. In 2013, same-sex marriage again became legal when that voter initiative was ruled unconstitutional by the U.S.
Supreme Court in Hollingsworth v. Perry.

Effects on the AIDS movement

Cleve Jones played a major role in the investigation of the riots, and had since become a prominent activist. He dropped out of school to work as a legislative consultant to California State Assembly Speakers Leo McCarthy and Willie Brown. He also spent time organizing political campaigns. In 1981, while working as a consultant to the California State Assembly Health Committee, he became aware of gay men in San Francisco contracting unusual diseases, such as Kaposi's sarcoma. The gay community was eventually seriously affected by the AIDS epidemic, and Jones became a key AIDS activist. Jones co-founded the Kaposi's Sarcoma Research & Education Foundation, which in 1982 became the San Francisco AIDS Foundation. On November 27, 1985, at a candlelight vigil on the anniversary of the Moscone-Milk assassinations, Jones learned that 1,000 people had died of AIDS. He proposed the creation of a quilt, in remembrance of those who had died. In 1987, Jones, by then HIV-positive himself, launched the NAMES Project AIDS Memorial Quilt. As of 2009, the quilt consists of over 44,000 individual panels. In a 2004 interview, Jones said "I thought, what a perfect symbol; what a warm, comforting, middle-class, middle-American, traditional-family-values symbol to attach to this disease that's killing homosexuals and IV drug users and Haitian immigrants, and maybe, just maybe, we could apply those traditional family values to my family."

See also

 Gay Power, Gay Politics, an episode of CBS Reports about the San Francisco LGBT community, produced in the aftermath of the riots
 LGBT history
 The Times of Harvey Milk, a 1984 documentary which describes the White Night riots
 List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

 Video of the White Night riots
 White Night riots account

LGBT-related riots
Riots and civil disorder in California
History of LGBT civil rights in the United States
LGBT history in San Francisco
1979 riots
1979 in LGBT history
Politics of San Francisco
Harvey Milk
Castro District, San Francisco
Crimes in San Francisco
1979 crimes in the United States
May 1979 events in the United States
1979 in San Francisco
Protests in the San Francisco Bay Area
Police brutality in the United States

White Night riots


Mošovce () is one of the largest villages in the historical region of Turiec, currently in the Turčianske Teplice District in the Žilina Region of northern Slovakia.

History
Many preserved historical buildings are the evidence of the 770 years of its existence. It was mentioned for the first time in 1233 in the deed of donation by King Andrew II.
Originally, Mošovce was made up of two settlements: The first one, Machyuch, was located in the area of today's Starý Rad, and the second one, Terra Moys, which gave the village its current name, occupied the place of the present day Vidrmoch. And it is the name of the second settlement meaning The Land of Mojš, which makes us believe that the whole village once belonged to certain Mr. Mojš, whose name might have been an abbreviation of a compound Slavic name Mojtech, similar to the names Vojtech or Mojmír. Throughout history the name of the village has undergone many variations ranging from Mossovych, Mosocz, Mossowecz, villa regia Mayos alio nomine Mossovych, oppidioum Mayus sue Mosocz, Mosocz olim Mayus to the present-day Mošovce.
The name of a separate ancient part of Mošovce, a former settlement Chornukov, has been preserved in the modern form of Čerňakov. Yet another part of the village bears the name of Mazan.

Mošovce first developed as a royal settlement with a free advocacy, and from the middle the 14th century as a privileged town subjected to the royal castle of Blatnica. In 1527 it fell into the hands of the Révay family, who suppressed the town privileges of Mošovce for almost 400 years.

In the past, Mošovce was an important craft center of the Turiec region. Crafts experienced a surprising expansion, and there were around 15 guilds active in the town; the bootmaker and the most famous furrier guild were the ones to survive for the longest time. The present-day Mošovce can be characterized as an important tourist area with many sights.

Geography
The surroundings of Mošovce are truly unique. A complex of historic tree avenues and groves creates an aesthetic and impressive landscape, which works as an extension to the woodland scenery of the Veľká Fatra Mountains with its peaks of Tlstá, Ostrá and Drienok. This mountain range belongs to the most attractive ones in Slovakia. Limestone and dolomite rock formations of fantastic shapes, as well as the beautiful nature in the nearby Blatnická and Gaderská Valleys attract people from all parts of the world.

A stream called Mošovka flows through Mošovce, and is divided into two distributaries: the main stream, and the so-called Upper Stream, which was in the past used to propel the mill.

The northern part of the town, next to its part Čerňakov, hosts a system of ponds fed by the Čierna Voda stream. Originally the ponds belonged to the Révay manor, while today they are used predominantly for breeding trout.

Sights
One of the most remarkable monuments is a Rococo-Classical Manor House from the 2nd half of the 18th century with an extensive English park. Other sites in the town include: The birthplace of Ján Kollár, a Neo-Gothic Catholic church with a valuable altar built on the spot of its ancient predecessor, a Lutheran church built in 1784, a Mausoleum now hosting the Museum of Crafts, an Art-Nouveau greenhouse, and a garden pavilion from 1800.

Demographics
According to the 2001 census, the municipality had 1,380 inhabitants, confirming a slight 4,7% decrease of the town population in the last 7 years. 98.62% of inhabitants were Slovaks, 0.72% Czechs and 0.14% Hungarian. The religious make-up was 54.78% Lutherans, 30.36% Roman Catholics and 12.97% people with no religious affiliation.

Notable residents
Mošovce has produced several notable personalities, including Frico Kafenda (1883–1963), composer and pedagogue; Anna Lacková-Zora (1899–1988), writer; Štefan Krčméry (1892–1955), literary critic, historian, and poet; Jur Tesák Mošovský, Baroque playwright, church dignitary, and a religious writer, whose works belong to the period of Humanism; and Miloslav Schmidt, the founder of the amateur fire brigades in Slovakia or a successful footballer Alexander Horváth.

However, the most well known person born in Mošovce is likely the Slavic poet, philosopher, and Lutheran preacher, Ján Kollár (1793–1852), who greatly influenced the literature of at least two nations with his poetic composition Slávy Dcera. His work is often cited as the basis and motive for contemporary patriots and national activists. It has been translated into various Slavic, as well as non-Slavic languages.

In addition to that, the following personalities were born or lived in Mošovce:
 Izák Abrahamides - author and religious activist
 Dušan Čajka - doctor
 Ján Emanuel Dobrucký - Sorbian national activist, poet
 Rudolf Fraštacký - businessman, politician, vice-president of the Board of Commissioners and a member of the anti-nazi resistance
 Dušan Jamriška - military officer
 Daniel Krman - author and translator
 Daniel Láni - church author
 Eliáš Láni - poet and author
 Gregor Láni - Lutheran dignitary and author
 Viliam Lenčo - pedagogue
 Karol Lilge - national activist and author
 Matej Lochman - priest and chronicler
 Matej Miškóci - national activist and pedagogue
 Matej Polereczky - military officer
 Ján Sturmayr - architect
 Ján Šikura - historian
 Ondrej Šoltýs - encyclopedian
 Samuel Štarke - national activist
 Jozef Tatár - author and teacher
 Ladislav Zgúth - national activist and journalist

Daily life

The village hosts the Associated School of Farming and Fishery, which belongs to only a few of its kind in Central Europe. As for annual events, the traditional Michael's Mošovce Fair, which takes place in early October, is one of the largest fairs in Slovakia. In addition to the New Year's fireworks and a classical Maypole celebrations, another event worth mentioning is a Fire Brigade ball organized during the Carnival period and connected to a Mask March. In the past, until the beginning of the 1990s, a half-marathon with the name of The SNP Run was held in the town annually. In addition to that, at the end of August Mošovce becomes the site of the ŠRZ Drienok Cup Volleyball tournament - the largest amateur volleyball tournament in Slovakia, founded in 1977, with the participation of around 90 teams. At the same time, a solemn wreath-laying takes place under the Slovak National Uprising monument.

Town economy
Until the beginning of the 1990s the town had a hide-processing factory together with the connecting fur-processing industry. Later the inhabitants changed focus to provision of tourist services (local thermal springs and nature are used), food industry (baking facilities), construction field (production of concrete prefabricates, house kits, as well as traditional construction industry) and fishery (Mošovce ponds). Agriculture still keeps its importance, with an increasing significance of forestry.

It is, however, necessary to emphasize, that the town's function is still predominantly residential and the majority of economically active inhabitants commute to the nearby Turčianske Teplice or Martin.

Twin towns
Mošovce is twinned with:
 Dwikozy, Poland
 Kozy, Poland
 Lalić (Odžaci), Serbia

Gallery

See also

 Révay
 Manor House in Mošovce
 Mošovce Park
 Church of Holy Trinity in Mošovce
 Lutheran Church in Mošovce
 Neogothic chapel in Mošovce

External links
Official site
Tourist Brochure
Information about Mošovce
Drienok

References

BEŇOVSKÝ, J. a kol.: Mošovce v premenách času. Martin: Osveta, 1984. 304 pp.
LIPPAN, M. a kol.: Mošovce. Banská Bystrica: Stredoslovenské vydavateľstvo, 1971. 405 pp.
REŤKOVSKÝ, P.: The Tourist Guide of Sites in Mošovce. Mošovce: Obecný úrad Mošovce, 2004. 38 pp.,
TATÁR, J.: Mošovce v historickej, kultúrnej a prírodnej mozaike. Mošovce: Obecný úrad Mošovce, 2003. 124 pp.,
TATÁR, J.: Živý poklad (Povesti z Mošoviec). Mošovce: Obecný úrad Mošovce, 1994. 64 pp.

Villages and municipalities in Turčianske Teplice District

Mošovce


Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky (11 November 1821 – 9 February 1881) was a Russian novelist. The most popular novels are Crime and Punishment, The Idiot and The Brothers Karamazov. He is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time.

In his 20s he joined a group of radicals in St Petersburg. They were into French socialist ideas. A police agent reported the group to the authorities. On 22 April 1849, Dostoyevsky was arrested and imprisoned with the other members. After months of questioning and investigation they were tried. They were found guilty of planning to distribute subversive propaganda and condemned to death by firing squad.

The punishment was changed to a sentence of exile and hard labour, but not before they were forced to go through a mock execution.  In 1859 a new tsar allowed Dostoyevsky to end his Siberian exile. A year later he was back in St Petersburg. The experience had cost him ten years of his life. It is the root of all his writing.

"Dostoyevsky's experience had altered him profoundly... He was particularly scornful of the ideas he found in St Petersburg when he returned from his decade of Siberian exile. The new generation of Russian intellectuals was gripped by European theories and philosophies [which] were melded together into a peculiarly Russian combination that came to be called 'nihilism' ".

Religion
Raised in an educated and religious family, Dostoyevsky's beliefs changed through his life. In prison, he focused intensely on the figure of Christ and on the New Testament, the only book allowed in prison. In a letter to the woman who had sent him the New Testament, Dostoyevsky wrote that he was a "child of unbelief and doubt up to this moment, and I am certain that I shall remain so to the grave". He also wrote that "even if someone were to prove to me that the truth lay outside Christ, I should choose to remain with Christ rather than with the truth".

From an analysis of religious ideas in Crime and Punishment, The Idiot, The Demons (The Possessed), and The Brothers Karamazov, James Townsend thinks Dostoyevsky held orthodox Christian beliefs except for his view of salvation from sin. According to Townsend, "Dostoevsky almost seemed to embrace an in-this-life purgatory", in which people suffer to pay for their sins, rather than the Christian doctrine of salvation through Christ. Malcolm Jones sees elements of Islam and Buddhism in Dostoyevsky's religious convictions. Colin Wilson in The Outsider describes him as a "tormented half-atheist-half-Christian".

His work
Many scholars see Dostoyevsky as one of the greatest psychologists in literature. His works have had a big effect on twentieth-century fiction. Very often, he wrote about characters who live in poor conditions. Those characters are sometimes in extreme states of mind. They might show both a strange grasp of human psychology as well as good analyses of the political, social and spiritual states of Russia of Dostoevsky's time. Many of his best-known works are prophetic. He is sometimes considered to be a founder of existentialism, most frequently for Notes from Underground, which has been described as "the best overture for existentialism ever written". He is also famous for writing The Brothers Karamazov, which many critics, such as Sigmund Freud, have said was one of the best novels ever written.

Demons
His attack on nihilism is in his great novel Demons, or The Possessed. Published in 1872, it is a "dark comedy, cruelly funny in its depiction of high-minded intellectuals toying with revolutionary notions without understanding anything of what revolution means in practice".

The plot is a version of actual events at the time. A former teacher of divinity turned terrorist, Sergei Nechaev, had written a pamphlet, The Catechism of a Revolutionary, which argued that any means (including blackmail and murder) could be used to advance the cause of revolution. Nechaev planned to kill a student who questioned his ideas.

One of the characters in Demons confesses: "I got entangled in my own data, and my conclusion contradicts the original idea from which I start. From unlimited freedom, I conclude with unlimited despotism". This suggests that the result of abandoning morality for the sake of an idea will be tyranny more extreme than any in the past.

List of works
English versions of titles come after the Russian title.

Novels
1846 - Bednye lyudi (Бедные люди); Poor Folk
1846 - Dvojnik (Двойник. Петербургская поэма); The Double: A Petersburg Poem
1849 - Netochka Nezvanova (Неточка Незванова); Netochka Nezvanova (this is a feminine name)(Unfinished)
1859 - Dyadushkin son (Дядюшкин сон); The Uncle's Dream
1859 - Selo Steanchikovo i ego obitateli (Село Степанчиково и его обитатели); The Village of Stepanchikovo
1861 - Unizhennye i oskorblennye (Униженные и оскорбленные); The Insulted and Humiliated
1862 - Zapiski iz mertvogo doma (Записки из мертвого дома); The House of the Dead
1864 - Zapiski iz podpolya (Записки из подполья); Notes from Underground
1866 - Prestuplenie i nakazanie (Преступление и наказание); Crime and Punishment
1867 - Igrok (Игрок); The Gambler
1869 - Idiot (Идиот); The Idiot
1870 - Vechnyj muzh (Вечный муж); The Eternal Husband
1872 - Besy (Бесы); various English titles: The Possessed; The Devils; Demons
1875 - Podrostok (Подросток); The Raw Youth
1881 - Brat'ya Karamazovy (Братья Карамазовы); The Brothers Karamazov

Novellas and short stories
1846 - Gospodin Prokharchin (Господин Прохарчин); Mr. Prokharchin
1847 - Roman v devyati pis'mah (Роман в девяти письмах); Novel in Nine Letters
1847 - Hozyajka (Хозяйка); The Landlady
1848 - Polzunkov (Ползунков); Polzunkov
1848 - Slaboe serdze (Слабое сердце); A Weak Heart
1848 - Chestnyj vor (Честный вор); An Honest Thief
1848 - Elka i svad'ba (Елка и свадьба); A Christmas Tree and a Wedding
1848 - Chuzhaya zhena i muzh pod krovat'yu (Чужая жена и муж под кроватью); The Jealous Husband
1848 - Belye nochi (Белые ночи); White nights
1849 - Malen'kij geroj (Маленький герой); A Little Hero
1862 - Skvernyj anekdot (Скверный анекдот); A Nasty Story
1865 - Krokodil (Крокодил); The Crocodile
1873 - Bobok (Бобок); Bobok
1876 - Krotkaja (Кроткая); A Gentle Creature
1876 - Muzhik Marej (Мужик Марей); The Peasant Marey
1876 - Mal'chik u Hrista na elke (Мальчик у Христа на ёлке); The Heavenly Christmas Tree
1877 - Son smeshnogo cheloveka (Сон смешного человека); The Dream of a Ridiculous Man
The last five stories (1873-1877) are included in A Writer's Diary.

Non-fiction
 Winter Notes on Summer Impressions (1863)
 A Writer's Diary (Дневник писателя) (1873–1881)
 Letters

Related pages
List of Russian-language novelists
List of Russian novelists

References

Other websites

1821 births
1881 deaths
Christian writers
Deaths from emphysema
Disease-related deaths in Russia
Russian novelists
Russian Orthodox Christians
Writers from Moscow

Fyodor Dostoyevsky


Charles Hirsch Barris (June 3, 1929 - March 21, 2017) was an American game show creator, producer, and host. He was best known as the creator of many popular television game shows. Some of his most famous shows were The Dating Game, The Newlywed Game and The Gong Show. These shows appeared on American television from the mid-1960s until the early 1980s.

Early life
Barris was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He studied at Drexel University.

Early career
Early in his career, Barris tried songwriting. One of his songs, "Palisades Park", was a hit record for Freddy Cannon, a popular singer.

Barris got his start in television as a page and later staffer at NBC in New York, and eventually worked backstage at the TV music show American Bandstand.

Barris was promoted to the daytime programming division at ABC in Los Angeles and was put in charge of deciding which game shows ABC would air. Before long, Barris admitted to his bosses that he disliked all the shows he was given to choose from, and believed he could make better ones. They suggested that he quit his programming job and become a show producer himself.

Game Show Career
Barris first became successful during 1965 with his first game show creation The Dating Game on ABC.  The next year Barris began The Newlywed Game.

He went on to create several other short-lived games for ABC in the 1960s and for syndication in the 1970s, all of which revolved around a common theme: the game play normally derived its interest (and oftentimes, humor) from the excitement, vulnerability, embarrassment, or anger of female contestants or participants in the game.

Barris became a public figure in a big way in 1976, when he produced - and served as the host of the talent contest spoof The Gong Show, which he packaged in partnership with TV producer Chris Bearde. The show's cult stature far outstripped the two years it spent on NBC (1976-78) and the four years it ran in syndication (1976-1980).

Later years
After The Gong Show went off the air, Barris kept a lower profile (did not attract as much attention), but still worked in television. In the 1980s, he published a memoir, Confessions of a Dangerous Mind. Barris claimed in the book to have been a CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) agent and assassin, who regretted his earlier life. He also regretted making "puerile" (childish) television shows, that catered to poor taste. It was republished in the 1990s.

Many people believe Confessions does not tell a true story. Others are not sure if it is fact or fiction. Some, including celebrities who knew Barris, do not know or care, and enjoy his stories as entertainment. The CIA itself denies Barris ever worked for them.

George Clooney made Confessions into a movie, starring Sam Rockwell, Drew Barrymore and Julia Roberts.

Personal life
Barris was married to Lyn Levy from 1957 until they divorced in 1976. He later married Robin Altman from 1980 until they divorced in 1999. He later married Mary Rudolph in 2000. Barris had one child with Levy.

Death
Barris died on March 21, 2017 of natural causes at his home in Palisades, New York at the age of 87.

References

Other websites
"Was Chuck Barris a hit man for the CIA?"  from The Straight Dope
Chuck Barris page on MySpace

1929 births
2017 deaths
Disease-related deaths in New York (state)
American television producers
American television presenters
Television personalities from Pennsylvania
American songwriters
American game show hosts
Actors from Philadelphia
Writers from Philadelphia

Chuck Barris


Garfield at Large is the first compilation book of Garfield comic strips. The book was originally published by Ballantine Books in the United States in 1980 and the strips date from June 19, 1978, to January 22, 1979. This book introduced the "Garfield Format" to the comic book market. Prior to its publication, comic strip compilations were most commonly formatted like a standard paperback book with the panels running down the page. Jim Davis, Garfield's author, disliked the idea and convinced Ballantine to print the strips from left to right, as they would have appeared in the newspaper. This resulted in the final product being shorter from top to bottom and much wider from side to side than the average paperback book. The book was #1 on The New York Times bestseller list for almost two years.

In the original editions, the strips were published in black and white, including the Sunday strips, which appeared in color originally in their newspaper format. Garfield at Large has since been republished in full color in 2001 as part of the "Garfield Classics" series and as part of a "Fat Cat 3-Pack" (pack containing the first three books for a discounted price) in 1993 and 2001, the latter with its strips in full color. The colorized editions correct an error present in all previous editions: the July 23, 1978 strip originally had the first panel (Garfield hopping down the stairs) printed as the fourth panel.

References

Garfield at Large (1980–2001 edition)
Garfield: Fat Cat 3-Pack (1993–2001 edition)

Garfield mass media and merchandise
1980 books
Ballantine Books books
Books about cats
Children's books

Garfield at Large


Thomas Judson Saffell (July 26, 1921 – September 10, 2012) was an American professional baseball outfielder. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Pittsburgh Pirates and Kansas City Athletics.

Early life
Saffell grew up in Etowah, Tennessee, playing sports, especially fast-pitch softball. His team won the state tournament and played in a national tournament in Detroit. After completing high school in 1940, Saffell enrolled at Maryville College, where he injured his knee playing football. Saffell signed as a baseball player in 1941 with the Newport Canners in the Appalachian League, but reinjured his knee and was released. He tried out with the Kingsport Cherokees, but was cut after two weeks because of a sore knee, playing 23 games in all while hitting .231.

Saffell returned home and worked for a railroad until serving in World War II. He enlisted with the Army Air Corps in late 1942 and joined them in 1943. Saffell flew 61 missions over Europe in a P-47 Thunderbolt, and was discharged in 1946.

Career synopsis
Saffell played for the Pittsburgh Pirates and Kansas City Athletics in parts of four seasons spanning 1949–1955. He batted left-handed, threw right-handed, and was a fleet baserunner. He wore #18 and #21 for Pittsburgh. Saffell averaged .238 in the major leagues and .286 in 1,576 minor league contests. He spent time with the Indianapolis Indians and Hollywood Stars.  He also served as a pitcher for the television series Home Run Derby.

Major and minor league outfielder
In 1946, he batted .270 for Class A Charleston of the South Atlantic League. In a month the parent club, the Atlanta Crackers, sent him to the Burlington Bees of the Class C Carolina League, where he hit .370 with 5 homers, 42 RBIs, and 28 stolen bases. Saffell went to spring training with the Crackers in 1947. After three weeks the club sent him to the Selma Cloverleafs of the Class B Southeastern League. He was passed over by Atlanta, which signed All-American football player, Charley Trippi, and gave him a $10,000 bonus.

Saffell was recalled by the Pirates from the Indianapolis Indians of the American Association on June 26, 1949. He batted .299 for Indianapolis in 1948 and was hitting .278 for them in 68 games in 1949. He played center field, batted leadoff, third, and pinch hit for Pittsburgh, in the second half of 1949 with a .322 average. Saffell was released by Pittsburgh before the end of spring training in 1950. Saffell was again recalled by the Pirates on July 28, 1951, after playing 42 games for Indianapolis with a batting average of .304.

Saffell was purchased by the Athletics from the Pirates for the $10,000 waiver price on September 14, 1955. On April 16, 1956 Saffell was acquired from the Athletics by the Brooklyn Dodgers, along with right-handed pitcher LeRoy Wheat, for rookie catcher Charley Thompson. Saffell was assigned to the Portland Beavers of the Pacific Coast League and never again appeared in the majors, although he played in the Dodgers' farm system until 1959, after which he played in 17 games over the years 1962-64 in the Pirates' system.

Minor league manager
Saffell was replaced by Homer "Dixie" Howell as manager of the Class A Jacksonville Jets of the South Atlantic League, on July 18, 1961. In May 1964 Saffell was suspended for 30 days and fined $250 by Eddie Mulligan, President of the California League. As manager of the Reno Silver Sox, he refused to let his team take the field for a game at the Fresno Giants. Saffell disputed a call by umpire Joe Carrington at home plate on the previous night. When he found out that Carrington was to umpire again, he pulled the Silver Sox off the field following batting and infield practice. He was given five minutes to bring out his lineup card before the game was forfeited.

Saffell served as President of the Gulf Coast League in Sarasota, Florida. In 1999 he was presented with the King of Baseball award given by Minor League Baseball.

References

External links

1921 births
2012 deaths
People from Etowah, Tennessee
Major League Baseball outfielders
Pittsburgh Pirates players
Kansas City Athletics players
Newport Canners players
Kingsport Cherokees players
Charleston Rebels players
Burlington Bees players
Atlanta Crackers players
Selma Cloverleafs players
Indianapolis Indians players
Hollywood Stars players
Portland Beavers players
Los Angeles Angels (minor league) players
Spokane Indians players
Grand Forks Chiefs players
Reno Silver Sox players
Baseball players from Tennessee
Minor league baseball managers
Maryville University alumni

Tom Saffell


Chéng Hào (, 1032–1085), Courtesy name Bóchún (), was a Chinese philosopher and politician from Luoyang, China. In his youth, he and his younger brother Cheng Yi were students of Zhou Dunyi, one of the architects of Neo-Confucian cosmology. His philosophy was dualistic (between all that is tangible and all that is intangible) and pantheistic (believing that all that is intangible is the same thing, such as god, the human nature, feelings, actions (we see things acting, but not the action itself), movement (likewise), social roles and relations (likewise), chance, etc., and that such a unified, universal principle is in everything that is sensible [rather than in an external reality as in Platonism]); among his quotes are "outside dao there are no things and outside things there is no dao", "we call it god to emphasize the wonderful mystery of principle in ten thousand things, just as we call it lord (di) to characterize its being the ruler of events" and "in terms of the reality, it is change; in terms of principle, it is dao; in terms of its function, it is god; in terms of its destiny in a human being, it is human nature".

Life
Hao's grandfather was a county magistrate in Huangpi and died there while in that capacity.  Hao's father Cheng Xiang () was still young at the time and was unable to return to Luoyang, so he was forced to grow up in Huangpi instead. He later became county magistrate (), at which time his two sons Hao and Yi were born.  In 1057 Hao passed the Imperial examinations and became an entered scholar.  He successively served as an administrative clerk in Hu County, Shaanxi, as an administrative clerk in Shangyuan County (an area now in Nanjing), as an administrative director in Zezhou, as well as a minister of ceremony, a Censor, a tax and tariff official, a ceremony minister to the military, and various other positions.

Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi were among the pioneers of Song dynasty Neo-Confucianism, and they are often credited with its formal creation along with Zhu Xi and several other scholars.  The two brothers were sometimes referred to as "The Two Chengs" (), or individually as "Cheng the Elder" () and "Cheng the Younger" ().  They dealt extensively with cosmology in their studies, applying Neo-Confucian principles to their studies of celestial bodies.  In particular, the brothers identified and applied the principle of Divine or Natural Order, called li, to that of Tian, the Heavens, as their original and guiding power.  Hao established schools at Fugou and Songyang (in modern Dengfeng).  Throughout his life he promoted the view that study and scholarship were means to making men sages, once writing: "The studies of a superior man must arrive at sagacity [sage-hood] and then upon his own intellect; in the case of not arriving at sage-hood but upon his own intellect, all is lost."  Hao died in 1085 at the age of fifty-three.

Legacy

Hao was known as an outgoing, laid-back, and lively man, in contrast to his stern and severe younger brother.  As Neo-Confucianism's popularity grew throughout the early second millennium AD, the two Cheng brothers along with Zhou Dunyi, Zhang Zai, Shao Yong, and Sima Guang became known as "The Six Masters of Northern Song" for their philosophical contributions.

Hao also received several posthumous titles: in 1220 he was given the posthumous name "Lord of Purity" () by the emperor.  In 1241 he was given the posthumous title of "Bo [Earl] of Henan".  In 1330, an imperial decree made Hao the posthumous "Lord of Yu Kingdom [Henan]".

Cheng Hao's offspring held the title of Wujing Boshi (五經博士; Wǔjīng Bóshì).

In 1452 Wujing Boshi was bestowed upon the offspring of Mengzi-Meng Xiwen 孟希文 56th generation and Yan Hui-Yan Xihui 顔希惠 59th generation, the same was bestowed on the offspring of Zhou Dunyi-Zhou Mian 週冕 12th generation, the two Cheng brothers (Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi-Chen Keren 程克仁 17th generation), Zhu Xi-Zhu Ting 朱梴  9th generation, in 1456–1457, in 1539 the same was awarded to Zeng Can's offspring-Zeng Zhicui 曾質粹 60th generation, in 1622 the offspring of Zhang Zai received the title and in 1630 the offspring of Shao Yong.

References

1032 births
1085 deaths
11th-century Chinese philosophers
Chinese Confucianists
Educators from Henan
Educators from Hubei
Neo-Confucian scholars
Philosophers from Henan
Philosophers from Hubei
Politicians from Wuhan
Song dynasty philosophers
Song dynasty government officials

Cheng Hao


A weather front is a boundary in between two masses of air of different densities, and is the main cause of significant weather. In surface weather analyses, fronts are depicted using various colored lines and symbols.  The air masses separated by a front usually differ in temperature and humidity.

Cold fronts may feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines.  Warm fronts are usually preceded by layered precipitation and fog.  The weather usually quickly clears after a front passes.  Some fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness, although there is usually a wind shift.

Meteorology

Weather front


Blenda is the heroine of a Swedish legend () from Småland. Blenda led the rural women of Värend in an attack on a pillaging Danish army and annihilated the invaders.

Legend
According to the legend, the events took place in the time of Alle (Anglo-Saxon ), King of the Geats, when this king led the Geats in an attack against Norway. King Alle had marshalled not only the West Geats, but also the South Geats (or Riding Geats) of Småland, and so many men had left for Norway that the region was virtually defenseless.

When the Danes learned of Småland's precarious situation, they took advantage of it and attacked the defenseless small lands. Blenda was a woman of noble descent in the Konga Hundred and she decided to send the fiery cross to rally all the womenfolk in the hundreds of Konga, Albo, Kinnevald, Norrvidinge and Uppvidinge. The women armies assembled on the Brávellir, which according to Smålandish tradition is located in Värend and not in Östergötland.

The women approached the Danes and told them how much they were impressed with the Danish men. They invited the men to a banquet where they were provided with food and drink. After a long evening, the Danish warriors fell asleep and the women killed every single one of them with axes and staffs.

When King Alle returned, he bestowed new rights on the women. They acquired equal inheritance with their brothers and husbands, the right always to wear a belt around their waists as a sign of eternal vigilance, the right to beat the drum at weddings, and so forth. The five hundreds were combined into the land of Värend, which means the "defense", since it was a bulwark for Geatland. Blenda's village was called Värnslanda and a location near the battle ground was called Bländinge.

Historicity

The first printed text, where the legend has been connected with the inheritance rights, appeared in Johan Stiernhöök's  (1672). He wrote that the inheritance rights were awarded by King Hakon Ring (Sigurd Hring) to the women after the Battle of Brávellir, in which they had shown valour against Harald Wartooth. The legend appears in embellished form in the various pleas made in the 1680s and 1690s in order to defend the equal inheritance and the Church's new prohibitions against church drums.

The final form probably comes from local historian,  (1660–1710) since both the oldest editions of it are reminiscent of Rudebeck's methodology and language. Petter Rudebeck gathered and wrote down peasant customs, practices, myths and legends of nearly every province of Småland. In 1813, the legend was rendered in the romantic poem Blenda in the first major poem by Erik Johan Stagnelius.

If the events did take place under the reign of King Alle, it would have happened about the year 500, which would make it less surprising, as female soldiers were allowed in Sweden before Christianity. So-called Shieldmaidens, three hundred female soldiers were recorded having served during the great Battle of Bråvalla () in 750.

Several attempts have been made to support or discredit the legend's historicity. Some authors have proposed that it took place during the battles before the meeting of the three kings Inge I of Sweden, Magnus III of Norway and Eric I of Denmark at Kungahälla in 1101, or at the time of Sigurd I of Norway's attack on Kalmar in 1123. Sven Lagerbring (1707–1787) proposed that it would have taken place during King Sweyn III of Denmark's attack on Sweden in the 1150s. Olof von Dalin (1708–1763) conjectured that the event may have taken place in the 1270s when King Eric V of Denmark attacked Småland. Carl Johan Schlyter (1795–1888) suggested that the legend was invented to explain why the women of Värend had equal share in the inheritance with the men.

Sources
Nordisk familjebok (upplagan, 1905)
Lagerbring, Sven  Swea Rikes Historia: Ifrån De Äldsta Tider Til De Närwarande (1769)
Henrikson, Alf  Antikens historier: Rom (Albert Bonniers förlag, 1958)
von Dalin, Olaf  Svea rikes historia (Volumes 1–4, 1747–1762)

Legendary Swedish people
Geats
Småland
Women in medieval European warfare
Women in war in Sweden

Blenda


Paris green, which has the chemical name copper(II) acetoarsenite, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Cu(C2H3O2)2 · 3 Cu(AsO2)2. It has copper, acetate, and arsenite ions in it. The copper is in its +2 oxidation state.

Properties
Paris green is a blue-green solid. It is extremely toxic. It has a very bright blue-green color. It darkens in air.

Preparation
It is made by reacting copper(II) acetate with arsenic trioxide and water.

Uses
Paris green was first used to kill rats in sewers in Paris. This is where it got its name from. It was used as an insecticide. It was dropped from airplanes to stop malaria in Italy. It was used as a bright green pigment. It was painted on ships to prevent barnacles from growing. In many places, Paris green is banned because it is so toxic. It is only used in a very few places.

Safety
Paris green is extremely toxic. It used to be common and so was a common poison.

Related pages
 Copper sulfate
 Lead arsenate

Copper compounds
Arsenic compounds

Paris green


Roy Daniells,  (April 6, 1902 – April 13, 1979) was a Canadian poetry professor. He helped build the University of British Columbia's creative writing department and fostered the careers of several major Canadian writers.

Education and career
Daniells was born in London (UK) on April 6, 1902, but received the bulk of his education in Canada following his family's relocation to Victoria, BC in 1910. He attended University of British Columbia (UBC) and University of Toronto, receiving a Ph.D. from the latter in 1936. Thereafter, he worked at the University of Manitoba, heading its English department until 1946 when he took a position at his alma mater UBC. When Garnet Sedgewick retired in 1948, Daniells became department head, holding that post until 1965. During that time, he helped establish a Creative Writing Department at UBC and also promoted the university's funding of studies in Canadian Literature.

In 1965, Daniells was named the first University Professor of English Language and Literature. Daniells helped the writing careers of Margaret Avison, Earle Birney, Joy Coghill, Daryl Duke, Roderick Haig-Brown, Eli Mandel, Margaret Laurence, Eric Nicol, Sheila Watson, Phyllis Webb, Adele Wiseman, and George Woodcock, among others. He retired in 1974.

There is a biography of Daniells by author Sandra Djwa.

Publications
As an academic, Daniells had broad focus, specializing in John Milton and seventeenth century English literature, but also published widely on Canadian literature and history, including the 1969 volume Alexander Mackenzie and the North West (Great Travellers Series, London, Faber and Faber). He was also a poet with two published volumes.

Awards and honours
 first University Professor of English Language and Literature (1965)
 Lorne Pierce Medal (1970)
 Companion of the Order of Canada (1971)

Further reading

Sources
 Roy Daniells Fonds
 BC Bookworld: Roy Daniells

External links
 Roy Daniells at The Canadian Encyclopedia

1902 births
1979 deaths
Canadian literary critics
Companions of the Order of Canada
British emigrants to Canada
Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada
Writers from London
University of British Columbia alumni
Academic staff of the University of British Columbia
Academic staff of the University of Manitoba
University of Toronto alumni

Roy Daniells


Green Shield Stamps was a British sales promotion scheme that rewarded shoppers with stamps that could be used to buy gifts from a catalogue or from any affiliated retailer.  The scheme was introduced in 1958 by Richard Tompkins, who had noticed the success of the long-established Sperry & Hutchinson Green Stamps in America.

For just a few years, the scheme was so widely adopted that it was referenced in rock songs.  But it suffered when Tesco ceased to use it, as part of a price-cutting policy that became standard nationwide.  To retain business, Green Shield allowed customers to buy gifts from the catalogue with a mix of stamps and cash, but soon the catalogue became cash-only, and the operation was re-branded as Argos.  Stamps were withdrawn altogether in 1991 and the company entered voluntary liquidation in 2002.

History
Trading stamps first became popular in the United States. Sperry & Hutchinson began offering stamps to United States retailers in 1896. The retailers bought stamps from S&H and gave them as bonuses with every purchase based on the amount purchased. The stamps were given away at filling stations, corner shops and supermarkets. When the customer had collected sufficient stamps in collectors' books, the shopper claimed merchandise from a catalogue or S&H Green Stamps shop.

Richard Tompkins purchased the name Green Shield from a luggage manufacturer and founded Green Shield Trading Stamp Co in 1958, along similar lines to S&H Green Stamps. They were popular during the 1960s and 1970s. Competing trading stamp schemes included Pink Stamps (a UK operation of S&H Green Stamps), British consumer co-operatives' dividend stamps, Blue Chip and the short-lived UK operation of King Korn.

In the early 1960s, Green Shield built a new headquarters office block in Station Road, Edgware, Middlesex (a suburb on the north-west London fringe). With the end of Green Shield Stamps, the block was renamed Premier House.

Tesco founder Jack Cohen was an advocate of stamps; he signed up in 1963, shortly after his competitor Fine Fare adopted S&H Pink Stamps, and Tesco became one of the company's largest clients. But Cohen was a fan of pile it high and sell it cheap, and in the mid-1970s Tesco faced cost problems associated with not integrating its stores. In 1977 Tesco launched Operation Checkout, price-cutting aimed at countering the new discounters such as Kwik Save. A decision was made to abandon Green Shield stamps, saving £20m a year and helping to finance price reductions.

In the context of a price war, and higher prices where the stamps were sold, consumers prices were rising to cover costs – and as inflation was high, the value of the stamps was going down. On the high street the main suppliers of Green Shield stamps became the filling stations. Aimed at company drivers, who didn't care about the cost of fuel, competing stations began to offer double, triple, quadruple and even greater multiples of stamps. As sales slowed and other retailers abandoned the scheme, Green Shield Stamp catalogue shops began to offer part stamp-redemption and part cash for the goods in their catalogue. The proportion of cash accepted was slowly increased until the goods could be purchased, outright, without the need for any stamps. With this groundwork laid, the catalogue stores, warehouses and vehicle fleet were re-branded Argos in July 1973. The company suspended sale of stamps in 1983, then had a short revival in 1987 involving 2,500 shops, finally ceasing in 1991.

Green Shield Stamp issue value
One stamp was typically issued for each 6d (2½ new pence) spent on goods, so large numbers of stamps had to be stuck into the books. At a later stage, a second denomination of stamp was added, worth 10 of the original stamps, which somewhat alleviated this problem.

Finally, towards the end, there was a single large stamp worth 40 standard stamps.  This was printed with a carmine background around the traditional green shield logo.

Popular culture
Progressive rock band Genesis, in the song "Dancing with the Moonlit Knight" from their 1973 album Selling England by the Pound, invented the "Knights of the Green Shield" to allow the pun "Knights of the Green Shield stamp and shout". This was part of a comic theme related to supermarkets and encapsulated in the album's title.

British comedy rock group Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band references a woman who runs a fictional "Green Shield Library" in the song "Piggy Bank Love," written by Neil Innes on their 1967 debut album "Gorilla."

Jethro Tull, another progressive rock band, also mentioned Green Shield stamps in the song "Broadford Bazaar", which was about a town on the Scottish Isle of Skye which band leader Ian Anderson lived near:
"We'll take pounds, francs, and dollars from the well-heeled,
And stamps from the Green Shield".

Nikki Sudden wrote a song called "Green Shield Stamps" for his last official album The Truth Doesn't Matter. It describes his childhood in Britain, and how his mother used to save the Green Shield stamps. There is also an acoustic solo version from the Cake Shop, New York, on 24 March 2006, recorded two days before his unexpected passing.

Michael Flanders makes reference to them in the opening patter to the Flanders and Swann song "Sounding Brass": "We now turn to number two on your song sheets. Don't strain your eyes trying to read them, though, because I shall be telling you exactly what comes next; in any case, these rather fanciful titles that we print on the programmes bear no relation to what we're going to sing. It's a dead waste of a shilling, is what I say. You don't even get green stamps. Well worth collecting, those stamps, my goodness; you know that really is a very nice suit."

In "Waldorf Salad," a 1979 episode of British sitcom Fawlty Towers, an American tourist sarcastically asks Basil Fawlty, "What do you get for living in a climate like this? Green Stamps?"

In "Oh What a Beautiful Mourning," a 1972 episode of Steptoe and Son, Harold reminds the vendor that he is due treble green stamps after taking his horse and cart through a car wash, then later hands the six stamps to his father saying jokingly "Another half million and you can get that motor bike you always wanted."

In "The Class of '62", a 1991 episode of Only Fools and Horses, it is mentioned that Roy Slater planted three thousand stolen Green Shield stamps on Trigger, which led to Trigger spending 18 months in a young offenders' centre.

References

External links
 'Tompkins, (Granville) Richard Francis (1918–1992)', Richard Davenport-Hines, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004
 1975 debate in the Irish Parliament re monopolistic practices
 Scotsman article on the "House of Cards"

Retailing in the United Kingdom
Customer loyalty programs
Supermarkets of the United Kingdom
Tesco
Retail companies established in 1958
Retail companies disestablished in 1991
Cinderella stamps
1958 establishments in England
1991 disestablishments in England

Green Shield Stamps


An object–relational database (ORD), or object–relational database management system (ORDBMS), is a database management system (DBMS) similar to a relational database, but with an object-oriented database model: objects, classes and inheritance are directly supported in database schemas and in the query language.  In addition, just as with pure relational systems, it supports extension of the data model with custom data types and methods.

An object–relational database can be said to provide a middle ground between relational databases and object-oriented databases. In object–relational databases, the approach is essentially that of relational databases: the data resides in the database and is manipulated collectively with queries in a query language; at the other extreme are OODBMSes in which the database is essentially a persistent object store for software written in an object-oriented programming language, with a programming API for storing and retrieving objects, and little or no specific support for querying.

Overview
The basic need of object–relational database arises from the fact that both Relational and Object database have their individual advantages and drawbacks. The isomorphism of the relational database system with a mathematical relation allows it to exploit many useful techniques and theorems from set theory. But these types of databases are not optimal for certain kinds of applications. An object oriented database model allows containers like sets and lists, arbitrary user-defined datatypes as well as nested objects. This brings commonality between the application type systems and database type systems which removes any issue of impedance mismatch. But object databases, unlike relational do not provide any mathematical base for their deep analysis.

The basic goal for the object–relational database is to bridge the gap between relational databases and the object-oriented modeling techniques used in programming languages such as Java, C++, Visual Basic .NET or C#.  However, a more popular alternative for achieving such a bridge is to use a standard relational database systems with some form of object–relational mapping (ORM) software.  Whereas traditional RDBMS or SQL-DBMS products focused on the efficient management of data drawn from a limited set of data-types (defined by the relevant language standards), an object–relational DBMS allows software developers to integrate their own types and the methods that apply to them into the DBMS.

The ORDBMS (like ODBMS or OODBMS) is integrated with an object-oriented programming language.  The characteristic properties of ORDBMS are 1) complex data, 2) type inheritance, and 3) object behavior. Complex data creation in most SQL ORDBMSs is based on preliminary schema definition via the user-defined type (UDT). Hierarchy within structured complex data offers an additional property, type inheritance.  That is, a structured type can have subtypes that reuse all of its attributes and contain additional attributes specific to the subtype. Another advantage, the object behavior, is related with access to the program objects. Such program objects must be storable and transportable for database processing, therefore they usually are named as persistent objects.  Inside a database, all the relations with a persistent program object are relations with its object identifier (OID).  All of these points can be addressed in a proper relational system, although the SQL standard and its implementations impose arbitrary restrictions and additional complexity

In object-oriented programming (OOP), object behavior is described through the methods (object functions). The methods denoted by one name are distinguished by the type of their parameters and type of objects for which they attached (method signature). The OOP languages call this the polymorphism principle, which briefly is defined as "one interface, many implementations". Other OOP principles, inheritance and encapsulation, are related both to methods and attributes.  Method inheritance is included in type inheritance.  Encapsulation in OOP is a visibility degree declared, for example, through the public, private and protected access modifiers.

History
Object–relational database management systems grew out of research that occurred in the early 1990s. That research extended existing relational database concepts by adding object concepts. The researchers aimed to retain a declarative query-language based on predicate calculus as a central component of the architecture. Probably the most notable research project, Postgres (UC Berkeley), spawned two products tracing their lineage to that research: Illustra and PostgreSQL.

In the mid-1990s, early commercial products appeared. These included Illustra (Illustra Information Systems, acquired by Informix Software, which was in turn acquired by IBM), Omniscience (Omniscience Corporation, acquired by Oracle Corporation and became the original Oracle Lite), and UniSQL (UniSQL, Inc., acquired by KCOMS).  Ukrainian developer Ruslan Zasukhin, founder of Paradigma Software, Inc., developed and shipped the first version of Valentina database in the mid-1990s as a C++ SDK.  By the next decade, PostgreSQL had become a commercially viable database, and is the basis for several current products that maintain its ORDBMS features.

Computer scientists came to refer to these products as "object–relational database management systems" or ORDBMSs.

Many of the ideas of early object–relational database efforts have largely become incorporated into SQL:1999 via structured types. In fact, any product that adheres to the object-oriented aspects of SQL:1999 could be described as an object–relational database management product. For example, IBM Db2, Oracle database, and Microsoft SQL Server, make claims to support this technology and do so with varying degrees of success.

Comparison to RDBMS
An RDBMS might commonly involve SQL statements such as these:
   CREATE TABLE Customers  (
       Id          CHAR(12)    NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
       Surname     VARCHAR(32) NOT NULL,
       FirstName   VARCHAR(32) NOT NULL,
       DOB         DATE        NOT NULL   # DOB: Date of Birth
    );
    SELECT InitCap(C.Surname) || ', ' || InitCap(C.FirstName)
      FROM Customers C
     WHERE Month(C.DOB) = Month(getdate())
       AND Day(C.DOB) = Day(getdate())
Most  SQL databases allow the crafting of custom functions, which would allow the query to appear as:
    SELECT Formal(C.Id)
      FROM Customers C
     WHERE Birthday(C.DOB) = Today()

In an object–relational database, one might see something like this, with user-defined data-types and expressions such as BirthDay():
    CREATE TABLE Customers (
      Id           Cust_Id     NOT NULL  PRIMARY KEY,
      Name         PersonName  NOT NULL,
      DOB          DATE        NOT NULL
    );
    SELECT Formal( C.Id )
      FROM Customers C
     WHERE BirthDay ( C.DOB ) = TODAY;

The object–relational model can offer another advantage in that the database can make use of the relationships between data to easily collect related records. In an address book application, an additional table would be added to the ones above to hold zero or more addresses for each customer. Using a traditional RDBMS, collecting information for both the user and their address requires a "join":

     SELECT InitCap(C.Surname) || ', ' || InitCap(C.FirstName), A.city
       FROM Customers C join Addresses A ON A.Cust_Id=C.Id -- the join
      WHERE A.city="New York"

The same query in an object–relational database appears more simply:

    SELECT Formal( C.Name )
      FROM Customers C
     WHERE C.address.city="New York" -- the linkage is 'understood' by the ORDB

See also
 Document-oriented database
 SQL
 Comparison of object–relational database management systems
 Structured Type
 Object database
 Object–relational mapping
 Relational model
 Language Integrated Query
 Entity Framework

References

External links

 .
  comparison of Java JPA ORM Products (Hibernate, EclipseLink, OpenJPA, DataNucleus).
  shows the performance trade-offs for solutions in the object–relational impedance mismatch context.

Database management systems

Object–relational database


Hnevank (, means old monastery) is a 7th century Armenian Apostolic Church monastery. It is near the city of Stepanavan in the Lori marz of Armenia. The monastery is on a hill within a gorge, near where the Dzoraget and Gargar rivers join.

The monastery was all rebuilt by lord Smbat of the House of Orbelian, a branch of the Liparitids who were removed to Armenia in the late 12th century from Georgia. Liparitids were themselves a branch of the Mamikonians. Smbat was the ancestor of the Armenian princes of Syunik. Georgian writings around the drum attests his name. The monastery has a gavit and various service buildings around the site. The government of Armenia has recently begun fixing the monastery. The broken dome of the main church has been restored entirely.

Churches in Armenia
7th-century buildings and structures

Hnevank


Adenophorea or Aphasmidia was a class of nematodes (roundworms). It has been by and large abandoned by modern taxonomy, because there is strong evidence for it being a motley paraphyletic group of unrelated lineages of roundworms.

Characteristics supposed to distinguish Adenophorea are:
 amphids always post-labial,  shape, pore-like to elaborate
 deirids are not seen
 phasmids are generally absent
 hypodermal glands present (excretory?) uninucleate
 simple non-tubular excretory system when present
 three caudal glands commonly opening through a spinneret at the tail tip
 male generally has two testes
 caudal alae are rare
 male with supplement glands in a single ventro-median row
 sensory papillae in cephalic region and along the body
 generally there are five esophageal glands
 marine, freshwater, terrestrial

As it seems, a number of these traits are plesiomorphic, and thus unsuitable to discern relationships.

Footnotes

References

  (2002): Nematoda. Version of 2002-JAN-01. Retrieved 2008-NOV-02.

Nematode taxa
Obsolete animal taxa
Protostome classes
Paraphyletic groups

Adenophorea


The Epistle to the Hebrews or Letter to the Hebrews is one of the letters of the New Testament. Although it is believed by many to be written by the Apostle Paul, many others think it might have been written by one group of early Christians to a general group of Jews (also called Hebrews), or to a church with Jewish members.

The letter explains that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, is the perfect sacrifice for human sinners. He is superior to angels and is our High priest in the order of Melchizedek. Jesus is the Messiah whose coming gives us the superior New Covenant, as compared to the Old Covenant of Abraham and
Moses. The writers state that if the Old Covenant was faultless, God would not have sent his Son to start a new one.

By stating that people are called righteous through their faith and belief in God's ways, the writers urge the readers to receive God's grace by accepting Jesus Christ.

Pauline epistles
New Testament books

Epistle to the Hebrews


Arsenate is an ion. Its chemical formula is AsO43-. It has arsenic in its +5 oxidation state.

Arsenates are salts of arsenic acid. They are oxidizing agents. Sometimes, not all of the protons are taken away from the arsenic acid and then hydrogen arsenate salts are formed. Their chemical formulas are HAsO42- or H2AsO4-.

Arsenate can replace phosphate in the cells but it does not work like a phosphate does. The cell dies, and that is why arsenates are toxic. Some bacteria can use arsenate instead of phosphate, though. They are called arsenic bacteria.

Occurrence
Arsenates occur naturally in a variety of minerals. Those minerals may contain hydrated or anhydrous arsenates. Unlike phosphates, arsenates are not lost from a mineral during weathering. Examples of arsenate-containing minerals include adamite, alarsite, annabergite, erythrite and legrandite.

Arsenic compounds
Ions

Arsenate


The 2002 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting was the 17th Meeting of the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations. It was held in Coolum, Queensland, Australia, between 2 and 5 March 2002, and hosted by the Prime Minister of Australia, John Howard.

Planned to have been hosted in Brisbane on 6 October 2001, the CHOGM was postponed only nine days before it was due to be held, on account of the 11 September terrorist attacks on the United States. When the meeting was finally held, three issues loomed large on the agenda: security, the future of the Commonwealth, and (most prominently) Zimbabwe's upcoming presidential election.

The meeting was attended by representatives of 51 countries out of the Commonwealth's 54 members (suspended member Pakistan was not invited, whilst Antigua and Barbuda and Grenada sent no representatives). Of those, 35 were represented by their head of state or head of government.

Security
Originally slated to be hosted in Canberra, Australian Capital Territory the plan was changed so it would be held in Brisbane on 6 October 2001, making it two years since the previous meeting. However, on 28 September, in the wake of the 11 September terrorist attacks, it was postponed, to allow for improved security. Instead of the October summit, the Heads of Government issued a statement on terrorism and established the Commonwealth Committee on Terrorism, which met on 29 January 2002, reported in March, and recommended annual reviews of the Commonwealth's counter-terrorism strategy.

The postponement dealt a big blow to the Commonwealth, both in piling up costs on an already over-stretched budget and undermining the celebration and promotion of Commonwealth culture and values to Australia that the Heads of Government had hoped the CHOGM would be. The postponement ultimately raised questions of how credible and practical the CHOGM, and thus the present Commonwealth, could be. However, the civil society celebration went on as planned, except without the Heads of Government and media presence, and were deemed to be a great success, despite the surreal circumstances.

The CHOGM itself was highly security-conscious, due to the concerns raised by the attacks. The hotel compound was ringed by an electric fence, whilst the media representatives were transported by coach between venues. Security, originally budgeted at A$11.4m, was ramped up to include 4,000 Queensland Police, 2,000 Australian Defence Force, and over 100 Federal Police personnel. This, combined with the presence of only 30 accredited NGO representatives, gave the entire CHOGM the feel of a 'retreat without a retreat', rather than accessible conference.

Zimbabwe
At the CHOGM, the Commonwealth made final arrangements for its election observer mission to Zimbabwe, which would consist of 42 observers and 19 staff from 26 countries. With the earlier withdrawal of the European Union's observers, the Commonwealth's delegation was to be the only fully international group judging the election's fairness. The CHOGM gave the 'troika' of Chairperson-in-Office John Howard, Thabo Mbeki, and Olusegun Obasanjo a mandate to assess whether the report of the observers met the Harare Declaration, and (if it didn't) the punishment under the Millbrook Programme. The observers' initial report was received by the troika on 14 March, and explicitly stated that 'conditions in Zimbabwe did not adequately allow for free expression of will by the electors'. In response, the troika, announced on 19 March 2002 that Zimbabwe was to be suspended from the Commonwealth immediately.

Two other countries that had been suspended were deemed to have shown progress. Fiji's suspension had been lifted by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG) on 20 December 2001, allowing Fiji to take part in the CHOGM. Nevertheless, it would stay on the CMAG's agenda until Laisenia Qarase's government had been ruled constitutional by the Supreme Court. Even though Pakistan's suspension was not lifted in time for the CHOGM, the CMAG meeting on 30 January accepted Pervez Musharraf's plans for the elections in October, and recommended that the Commonwealth should send observers, with a view to lifting the suspension if the election was free of fraud or intimidation.

Footnotes

External links
 Commonwealth Secretariat webpage on CHOGM 2002

2002
2002 in Australia
History of Queensland
Diplomatic conferences in Australia
21st-century diplomatic conferences (Commonwealth)
2002 in international relations
Australia and the Commonwealth of Nations
Royal visits to Australia
2002 conferences
2000s in Queensland
March 2002 events in Australia


The Old Dutch Church of Sleepy Hollow (), listed on the National Register of Historic Places as Dutch Reformed Church (Sleepy Hollow), is a 17th-century stone church located on Albany Post Road (U.S. Route 9) in Sleepy Hollow, New York, United States. It and its three-acre (1.2 ha) churchyard feature prominently in Washington Irving's 1820 short story "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow". The churchyard is often confused with the contiguous but separate Sleepy Hollow Cemetery.

It is the second oldest extant church and the 15th oldest extant building in the state of New York, renovated after an 1837 fire. Some of those renovations were reversed 60 years later, and further work was done in 1960. It was listed on the Register in 1966, among the earliest properties so recognized. It had already been designated a National Historic Landmark in 1961. It is still the property of the Reformed Church of the Tarrytowns, which holds summer services there, as well as on special occasions such as Christmas Eve.

Building
The building was designed and funded by Frederick Philipse I, Lord of Philipse Manor, a wealthy merchant trader and landowner. It is located on the east side of Albany Post Road, opposite the Devries Road intersection, just north of downtown Sleepy Hollow. The neighborhoods to the west are residential. A wooded area to the southeast buffers the church from residential areas in that direction. Approximately 300 ft (100 m) to the south is the mill pond at Philipsburg Manor House, another National Historic Landmark. The churchyard and Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, itself listed on the Register, are to the north.

The structure is rectangular, with a three-sided projecting rear apse on the east end. It has two-foot–thick (60 cm) fieldstone walls. They give way to clapboard above the roofline, within the fields of the Flemish-style gambrel roof, with its lower segments flaring outward like a bell. On the west end of the roof is an octagonal wooden open belfry. Within it is the original bell, with an engraved verse from Romans 8:31, "Si Deus Pro Nobis, Quis Contras Nos?" ("If God be for us, who can be against us") and "VF", Philipse's initials. The latter monogram is also on the wrought iron weathervane atop the belfry.

To the west a stone retaining wall raises the church above grade level. A few shrubs flank the stone steps that lead up to the main entrance, paneled wooden double doors recessed within a Gothic archway. Above it is a glass transom with curved, intersecting muntins. It is set within a brick surround. The north and south side elevations have double-hung sash windows, as do the two side facets of the apse. At the roofline is a molded wooden cornice.

The interior has its wooden pews, with two side aisles, arranged so all can focus on the pulpit. The pulpit is located on a raised platform in the rear, directly opposite the main entrance. A balustrade with turned wooden posts, open at the aisles, sets the platform off from the rest of the wide-planked floor. Behind it is a table, with a lectern on the north and an enclosed pew along the south side. The ornate wooden pulpit is raised further above the table level; access is provided by a short spiral stair. A pipe organ is located at the rear.

History
Frederick Philipse I, Lord of Philipse Manor, owned the vast stretch of land spanning from Spuyten Duyvil in the Bronx to the Croton River. After swearing allegiance and later being granted his Manorship from the English, he chose to establish his country seat at what was then known as North Tarrytown, where the Pocantico River flowed into the Hudson River. A small community had already been established there when he arrived in 1683, with 50 burials in the small cemetery. He built the first church for them at the southern end of the cemetery.

Philipse's wife, Margaret Hardenbroek DeVries Philipse died in 1691, and he soon remarried. His second wife,  Catharine Van Cortlandt Derval, urged him to build a more permanent stone church for his tenants, and later in the decade he obliged her, being its architect, financier,  and aid in its construction (said to have built the pulpit with his own hands). A marble tablet in front of the church gives its completion date as 1699. The tablet was placed in the 19th century, however, and it is seen as more likely that the church was finished by 1697. The congregation was organized that year, the same year the first pastor began serving.

The early history of the church and its members was recorded by Dirck Storm, in his book Het Notite Boeck der Christelyckes Kercke op de Manner of Philips Burgh. It continued to serve as the church of Philipse Manor through the Revolution, when the family's lands were confiscated by the state for siding with the Crown. At that time the special pews for the Lord of the Manor were removed and the plain oak benches for the tenants were replaced with pine pews.

Thereafter it continued without the patronage. Washington Irving, whose Sunnyside estate was a few miles to the south, made the church famous when he gave it prominent mention in his early 19th-century Halloween short story "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" as both a setting and a site connected with the Headless Horseman. Irving later gave yellow bricks from the church to outline the construction date on the wall above the door at Bolton Priory in Pelham Manor, New York.

In 1837 a fire damaged the church. During the repairs some significant changes were made to the building. The main entrance was moved from the south facade to its current location on the west, the windows and door entry were changed to the Gothic arches then in style and given brick surrounds. Inside, the north gallery was removed and the west one enlarged. The original ceiling beams and pulpit were replaced.

Sixty years later the church was renovated again for its bicentennial. That work reversed the 1837 renovations by restoring the original ceiling and reproducing the original pulpit. The Tarrytowns had grown through the 19th century, and a branch church had been built in Tarrytown to minister to the expanded congregation. Eventually that church became the main church, and the original building was used only for special occasions, a practice that continued until the most recent renovation in the 1990s. Currently, worship services are held from June through September.

Notable burials

 Wolfert Acker (1667–1753), former deacon of the church, Collector of Philipsburg Manor, and subject of Washington Irving's Wofert's Roost. His wife Maretje Sibouts and his brother Jan Acker, the church's first deacon, was also buried here (supposedly in the church).
 William Paulding Jr. (1770–1854), U.S. Representative from New York and mayor of New York City
 Frederick Philipse (1626–1702) – formerly held 52,000 acres (210 km²) of land along the Hudson River, Philipsburg Manor; builder of the church of Sleepy Hollow
 Dirck Storm (1630–1715) – author of Het Notite Boeck der Christelyckes Kercke op de Manner of Philips Burgh, a book about the early years of the Old Dutch Church.  He also served as Town Clerk in the early years of many New Amsterdam communities, including New Lots, Flatbush and Bedford, as well as Tax Collector for Frederick Philipse.
 Catriena Ecker Van Tessel – a possible model for Katrina in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" and her Revolutionary War hero husband Petrus Van Tessel
Samuel Youngs (1760–1839) – Friend of Washington Irving and one of several possible models for the character of Ichabod Crane of the Legend of Sleepy Hollow. His remains were later removed to Ossining's Dale Cemetery.

See also
Historic Hudson Valley
 List of National Historic Landmarks in New York
 List of the oldest buildings in New York
 National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Westchester County, New York
 Oldest churches in the United States

References

External links

The Reformed Church of the Tarrytowns

 Philipsburg Manor House

Cemeteries in Westchester County, New York
Churches in Westchester County, New York
Former Dutch Reformed churches in New York (state)
Historic American Buildings Survey in New York (state)
National Historic Landmarks in New York (state)
National Register of Historic Places in Westchester County, New York
New Netherland
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Protestant Reformed cemeteries
Reformed Church in America churches in New York (state)
Sleepy Hollow, New York
Stone churches in New York (state)
U.S. Route 9
1697 establishments in the Province of New York
17th-century churches in the United States
Churches completed in 1697
Washington Irving
The Legend of Sleepy Hollow
New York State Register of Historic Places in Westchester County

Old Dutch Church of Sleepy Hollow