The American eel (Anguilla rostrata) is a facultative catadromous fish found on the eastern coast of North America. Freshwater eels are fish belonging to the elopomorph superorder, a group of phylogenetically ancient teleosts. The American eel has a slender, supple, snake-like body that is covered with a mucus layer, which makes the eel appear to be naked and slimy despite the presence of minute scales. A long dorsal fin runs from the middle of the back and is continuous with a similar ventral fin. Pelvic fins are absent, and relatively small pectoral fins can be found near the midline, followed by the head and gill covers. Variations exist in coloration, from olive green, brown shading to greenish-yellow and light gray or white on the belly. Eels from clear water are often lighter than those from dark, tannic acid streams.

The eel lives in fresh water and estuaries and only leaves these habitats to enter the Atlantic Ocean to make its spawning migration to the Sargasso Sea. Spawning takes place far offshore, where the eggs hatch. The female can lay up to 4 million buoyant eggs and dies after egg-laying. After the eggs hatch and the early-stage larvae develop into leptocephali, the young eels move toward North America, where they metamorphose into glass eels and enter freshwater systems where they grow as yellow eels until they begin to mature.

The American eel is found along the Atlantic coast including the tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay, the Delaware River, and the Hudson River, and as far north as the Saint Lawrence River. It is also present in the river systems of the eastern Gulf of Mexico and in some areas further south. Like all anguillid eels, American eels hunt predominantly at night, and during the day they hide in mud, sand, or gravel very close to shore, at depths of roughly . They feed on crustaceans, aquatic insects, small insects, and probably any aquatic organisms that they can find and eat.

American eels are economically important in various areas along the East Coast as bait for fishing for sport fishes such as the striped bass, or as a food fish in some areas. Their recruitment stages, the glass eels, are also caught and sold for use in aquaculture, although this is now restricted in most areas.

Eels were once an abundant species in rivers, and were an important fishery for aboriginal people. The construction of hydroelectric dams has blocked their migrations and locally extirpated eels in many watersheds. For example, in Canada, the vast numbers of eels in the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers have dwindled.

Etymology
The American eel Anguilla rostrata was first described in 1817 by Lesueur.  is Latin for eel, and  is a Latin word that can mean either "beaked or curved" or "long nose". , .

Description

American eels can grow to  in length and to  in weight. Females are generally larger than males, lighter in color, with smaller eyes and higher fins. The body is elongate and snake-like. Its dorsal and anal fins are confluent with the rudimentary caudal fin. It lacks ventral fins but pectoral fins are present. The lateral line is well-developed and complete. The head is long and conical, with rather small, well-developed eyes. The mouth is terminal with jaws that are not particularly elongated. The teeth are small, pectinate or setiform in several series on the jaws and the vomer. Minute teeth also present on the pharyngeal bones, forming a patch on the upper pharyngeals. Tongue present with thick lips that are attached by a frenum in front. Nostrils are superior and well separated. Gill openings are partly below pectoral fins, relatively well-developed and well separated from one another. Inner gill slits are wide.

The scales are small, rudimentary, cycloid, relatively well embedded below the epidermis and therefore often difficult to see without magnification. The scales are not arranged in overlapping rows as they often are in other fish species but are rather irregular, in some places distributed like "parquet flooring". In general, one row of scales lies at right angle to the next, although the rows immediately above and below the lateral line lie at an angle of approximately 45°. Unlike other bony fishes, the first scales do not develop immediately after the larval stage but appear much later on.

Several morphological features distinguish the American eel from other eel species. Tesch (1977) described three morphological characteristics which persist through all stages from larvae to maturing eels: the total number of vertebrae (mean 107.2), the number of myomeres (mean 108.2), and the distance between the origin of the dorsal fin to the anus (mean 9.1% of total length).

Distribution and natural habitat

Geographic range
The distribution of the American eel encompasses all accessible freshwater (streams and lakes), estuaries and coastal marine waters across a latitudinal range of 5 to 62 N. Their natural range includes the eastern North Atlantic Ocean coastline from Venezuela to Greenland and including Iceland. Inland, this species extends into the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River and its tributaries as far upstream as Minnesota and Wisconsin.

Nonindigenous occurrences of this species in the United States were recorded from Lake Mead on the Colorado River and on the Arizona border. It was stocked on a few occasions in Sacramento and San Francisco bay, California, in the late 1800s. No apparent evidence of survival on these occasions was noted. It was also stocked and unintentionally introduced in various states, including Illinois, Indiana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Carolina, Ohio and Pennsylvania. Stockings of this species also occurred in Utah in the late 1800s, but soon disappeared.

Natural habitat

Eels are bottom dwellers. They hide in burrows, tubes, snags, masses of plants, other types of shelters. They are found in a variety of habitats including streams, rivers, and muddy or silt-bottomed lakes during their freshwater stage, as well as oceanic waters, coastal bays and estuaries. Individuals during the continental stage occasionally migrate between fresh, salt and brackish water habitats and have varying degrees of residence time in each. During winter, eels burrow under the mud and enter a state of torpor (or complete inactivity) at temperatures below . although they may occasionally be active during this period. Temperature requirements are suggested to be flexible. It has been found that American eels during elver stage can survive temperature as low as . Barila and Stauffer (1980) reported a final mean temperature preference at . Karlsson et al. (1984) disagreed with this interpretation and found the final temperature preference of 17.4 ± 2.0 °C with a 95% confidence interval.

Seasonal patterns described by Fletcher and Anderson (1972) generalize annual movements from freshwater to estuaries and coastal bays to feed during spring, then either a return during the fall to overwinter (juvenile and immature adults), or a southward migration to the spawning grounds (silver eels Continental phase eels appear highly plastic in habitat use. Eels are extremely mobile and may access habitats that appear unavailable to them, using small watercourses or moving through wet grasses. Small eels (<100 mm total length) are able to climb and may succeed in passing over vertical barriers. Habitat availability may be reduced by factors such as habitat deterioration, barriers to upstream migration (larger eels), and barriers (i.e. turbines) to downstream migration that can result in mortality.

Life cycle

The American eel's complex life history begins far offshore in the Sargasso Sea in a semelparous and panmictic reproduction. In 1926 Marie Poland Fish described the collection of eggs that she observed hatch into eels, which she expanded in her taxonomic description of the larval egg development. From there, young eels drift with ocean currents and then migrate inland into streams, rivers and lakes. This journey may take many years to complete with some eels travelling as far as 6,000 kilometers. After reaching these freshwater bodies they feed and mature for approximately 10 to 25 years before migrating back to the Sargasso Sea in order to complete their life cycle.

Life stages are detailed below.

1. Eggs:
The eggs hatch within a week of deposition in the Sargasso Sea. McCleave et al. (1987) suggested that hatching peaks in February and may continue until April. Wang and Tzeng (2000) proposed, on the basis of otolith back-calculations, that hatching occurs from March to October and peaks in August. However, Cieri and McCleave (2000) argued that these back-calculated spawning dates do not match collection evidence and may be explained by resorption. Fecundity for many eels is between about 0.5 to 4.0 million eggs, with larger individuals releasing as many as 8.5 million eggs. The diameter of egg is about 1.1 mm. Fertilization is external, and adult eels are presumed to die after spawning. None has been reported to migrate up rivers.

2. Leptocephali:
The leptocephalus is the larval form, a stage strikingly different from the adult form the eels will grow into. Leptocephali are transparent with a small pointed head and large teeth and are frequently described "leaf-like". The laterally compressed larvae are passively transported west and north to the coastal waters on the eastern coast of North America, by the surface currents of the Gulf Stream system, a journey that will last between 7 and 12 months. Vertical distribution is usually restricted to the upper 350 m of the ocean. Growth has been evaluated at about 0.21 to 0.38 mm per day.

3. Glass eel:
As they enter the continental shelf, leptocephali metamorphose into glass eels (juveniles), which are transparent and possess the typical elongate and serpentine eel shape. The term glass eel refers to all developmental stages between the end of metamorphosis and full pigmentation. Metamorphosis occurs when leptocephali are about 55 to 65 mm long. Mean age at this metamorphosis has been evaluated at 200 days and estuarine arrival at 255 days; giving 55 days between glass eel metamorphosis and estuarine arrival. Young eels use selective tidal stream transport to move up estuaries. As they enter coastal waters, the animals essentially transform from a pelagic oceanic organism to a benthic continental organism.

4. Elvers:
Glass eels become progressively pigmented as they approach the shore; these eels are termed elvers. The melanic pigmentation process occurs when the young eels are in coastal waters. At this phase of the life cycle, the eel is still sexually undifferentiated. The elver stage lasts about three to twelve months. Elvers that enter fresh water may spend much of this period migrating upstream. Elver influx is linked to increased temperature and reduced flow early in the migration season, and to tidal cycle influence later on.

5. Yellow eels:
This is the sexually immature adult stage of American eel. They begin to develop a yellow color and a creamy or yellowish belly. In this phase, the eels are still mainly nocturnal. Those remained in estuarine environment continue to go through their life cycle more quickly than those traveled into freshwater. Those in freshwater, however, tend to live longer and attain much larger sizes. Sexual differentiation occurs during the yellow stage and appears to be strongly influenced by environmental conditions. Krueger and Oliveira (1999) suggested that density was the primary environmental factor influencing the sex ratio of eels in a river, with high densities promoting the production of males. From life history traits of four rivers of Maine, Oliveira and McCleave (2000) evaluated that sexual differentiation was completed by 270 mm total length.

6. Silver eels:
As the maturation process proceeds, the yellow eel metamorphoses into a silver eel. The silvering metamorphosis results in morphological and physiological modifications that prepare the animal to migrate back to the Sargasso Sea. The eel acquires a greyish colour with a whitish or cream coloration ventrally. The digestive tract degenerates, the pectoral fins enlarge to improve swimming capacity, eye diameter expands and visual pigments in the retina adapt to the oceanic environment, the integument thickens, percentage of somatic lipids increases to supply energy for migrating and spawning, gonadosomatic index and oocyte diameter increase, gonadotropin hormone (GTH-II) production increases, and osmoregulatory physiology changes.

Feeding
Eels are nocturnal and most of their feeding therefore occurs at night. Having a keen sense of smell, eels most likely depend on scent to find food. The American eel is a generalist species which colonizes a wide range of habitats. Their diet is therefore extremely diverse and includes most of the aquatic animals sharing the same environment. The American eel feeds on a variety of things such as worms, small fish, clams and other mollusks, crustaceans such as soft-shelled crabs and a lot of macroinvertebrate insects. A study on gastric examination of eels revealed that "macroinvertebrates, predominantly of the Class Insecta, were eaten by 169 eels (99% of feeding eels)" and "the stonefly Acroneuria was the single most numerically dominant taxon observed in the diet, occurring in 67% of eel stomachs that contained food".

Leptocephalus
Little is known about the food habits of leptocephali. Recent studies on other eel species (Otake et al. 1993; Mochioka and Iwamizu 1996) suggest that leptocephali do not feed on zooplankton but rather consume detrital particles such as marine snow and fecal pellets or particles such as discarded houses of larvacean tunicates.

Glass eel and elver
Based on laboratory experiments on European glass eels, Lecomte-Finiger (1983) reported that they were morphologically and physiologically unable to feed. However, Tesch (1977) found that elvers at a later stage of pigmentation, stage VIA4, were feeding. Stomach examination of elvers caught during their upstream migration in the Petite Trinité River on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence revealed that elvers fed primarily on insect larvae.

Yellow eel
The yellow eel is essentially a nocturnal benthic omnivore. Prey includes fishes, molluscs, bivalves, crustaceans, insect larvae, surface-dwelling insects, worms, frogs and plants. The eel prefers small prey animals which can easily be attacked. Food type varies with body size. Stomachs of eels less than 40 cm and captured in streams contained mainly aquatic insect larvae, whereas larger eels fed predominantly on fishes and crayfishes. Insect abundance decreased in larger eels. The eel diet adapts to seasonal changes and the immediate environment. Feeding activity decreases or stops during the winter, and food intake ceases as eels physiologically prepare for the spawning migration.

Predation
Little information about predation on eels has been published. It was reported that elvers and small yellow eels are prey of largemouth bass and striped bass, although they were not a major parts of these predators' diet. Leptocephali, glass eels, elvers, and small yellow eels are likely to be eaten by various predatory fishes. Older eels are also known to eat incoming glass eels. They also fall prey to other species of eels, bald eagles, gulls, as well as other fish-eating birds. American eels also make up the entirety of the diet of adult rainbow snakes, lending the species one of their common names; eel moccasin.

Commercial fisheries

The major outlet for US landings of yellow and silver eels is the EU market.

In the 1970s, the annual North Atlantic harvest averaged 125,418 kg, with an average value of $84,000. In 1977, the eel landings from Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts were about 79,700, 2,700, and 143,300 kg, valued at $263,000, $5,000, and $170,000, respectively (US Department of Commerce 1984)

During the 1980s and early 1990s, the American eel was one of the top three species in commercial value to Ontario's fishing industry. At its peak, the eel harvest was valued at $600,000 and, in some years, eel accounted for almost half of the value of the entire commercial fish harvest from Lake Ontario. The commercial catch of American eel has declined from approximately 223,000 kilograms (kg) in the early 1980s to 11,000 kg in 2002.

Conservation

According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, the American eel is at very high risk of extinction in the wild.

Substantial decline in numbers and fishery landings of American eels over their range in eastern Canada and the US was noted, raising concerns over the status of this species. The number of juvenile eels in the Lake Ontario area decreased from 935,000 in 1985 to about 8,000 in 1993 and was approaching zero levels in 2001. Rapid declines were also recorded in Virginia, as well as in New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island in Canada.

Because of its complex life cycle, the species face a broad range of threats, some of which are specific to certain growth stage. Being catadromous, the eels' reproductivity success depends heavily on free downstream passage for spawning migration. It also depends on the availability of diverse habitats for growth and maturation.

Sex ratio in the population can also be affected because males and females tend to utilize different habitats. Impacts on certain regions may greatly impact the number of either sex.

Despite being able to live in a wide range of temperatures and different levels of salinity, American eels are very sensitive to low dissolved oxygen level, which is typically found below dams. Contaminations of heavy metals, dioxins, chlordane, and polychlorinated biphenyls as well as pollutants from nonpoint source can bioaccumulate within the fat tissues of the eels, causing dangerous toxicity and reduced productivity. This problem is exacerbated due to the high fat content of eels.

Construction of dams and other irrigation facilities seriously decreases habitat availability and diversity for the eels. Dredging can affect migration, population distribution and prey availability. Overfishing or excessive harvesting of juveniles can also negatively impact local populations.

Other natural threats come from interspecific competition with exotic species like the flathead catfish (Pylodictis olivaris) and blue catfish (Ictalurus furcatus), pathogens and parasites, and changes in oceanographic conditions that can alter currents—this potentially changes larval transport and migration of juveniles back to freshwater streams.

Conservation measures
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reviewed the status of the American eel both in 2007 and in 2015, finding both times that Endangered Species Act protection for the American eel is not warranted.

The Canadian province of Ontario has cancelled the commercial fishing quota since 2004. Eel sport fishery has been closed. Efforts have been made to improve the passage in which eels migrate across the hydroelectric dams on St. Lawrence River.

As of August 2023, A. rostrata is under consideration for protection under the Canadian Species at Risk Act.  The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada reported that the species was threatened in 2012.

Sustainable consumption
In 2010, Greenpeace International has added the American eel to its seafood red list. "The Greenpeace International seafood red list is a list of fish that are commonly sold in supermarkets around the world, and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries."

References

External links

 ESA protection

American eel
Amphibious fish
Fish of the Western Atlantic
Fish of the Great Lakes
Fish of the Eastern United States
Freshwater fish of the Southeastern United States
Taxa named by Charles Alexandre Lesueur
American eel
Fish of Cuba
Fish of the Dominican Republic

American eel


Sports 2000 is a restricted-rules class of two-seat, mid-engined, open-cockpit, full-bodied sports-prototype racecar used largely in amateur road racing. Sometimes known as S2000 or S2, the class was developed by John Webb, then of the Brands Hatch racing circuit in England, as an affordable form of sports car racing, essentially a sports car version of Formula Ford 2000. The key attributes of the class were a body design reminiscent of two-liter Group 6 sports racing cars like the Chevron B21 and Lola T-212 but with an ultra-reliable and inexpensive drivetrain comprising a two-liter "Pinto" overhead camshaft engine with very limited allowed modifications and the well-proven, VW-based Hewland Mk 9 transaxle. S2000 aerodynamics continued to evolve beyond their 1970s Group 6 roots, with very 'slippery' cars featuring spats over the wheels becoming the norm.

In the UK S2000 was largely seen as an alternative to front-engined Clubmans racing, a class for amateurs who were often deeply involved in developing their own cars over periods of years. The category suffered due to the demise of FF2000 in the late 1980s, and further when Clubmans transformed into the rear-engined National Supersports category, but it has recently undergone something of a revival in both historic and contemporary forms as a  (relatively) low-cost form of sports car racing.

In the US, while it continues to have popularity as an amateur race class within SCCA competition in the US, at one point in the late 1980s and early 1990s, professional Sports 2000 racing was prevalent. One such series was the American Cities Racing League (ACRL) where the teams represented cities (primarily on the US West Coast) much as in stick-and-ball sports. Rather than individual drivers running for the championship, the two team drivers earned points for their sponsor city, a concept revived for the A1GP, where teams represent countries rather than cities. This series used the uprated Cosworth/Ford YAC engine. Another series was the North American Pro Series or NAPS which visited many of the classic roadrace circuits in the U.S. and was often a support race for IMSA weekends. Later this series became the Oldsmobile Pro Series running the Oldsmobile Quad 4 engine.

Three classes of Sports 2000 racing are currently common in the eastern US and Canada, S2, VS2 (vintage), and HS2 (historic).  Racing with the Vintage Sports 2000 North America club frequently has fields of more than 20 cars of varying vintages.

In Sports 2000 racing in the UK, the Pinto engine has recently been replaced with the Mazda-based Ford Duratec engine, although Pintos continue to compete as a separate class.  The primary group for UK Sports 2000 racing is Sports Racing Car Club(SRCC).

In South Africa, an innovative transverse engined version of the Sports 2000 participated in a highly successful national series throughout the 1990s. Notable drivers (and series organizers) are Neville Jordan and Alan Eve who now own the A1GP cars and have set up Afrix Motorsport.

Early Sports 2000 cars are now of a sufficient age that they are being welcomed by several vintage racing sanctioning bodies in the US.

Companies that manufactured Sports 2000 chassis include: Apache, Carbir, Chevron, Crossle, Doran, Gunn, Lola, March, MCR, Ocelot, Pratt & Miller, Reynard, Royale, Shannon, Shrike, Swift, Tiga Race Cars and Van Diemen.

References

External links

Sports 2000 Racing Championship

Sports car racing series
Sports prototypes
Racing car classes

Sports 2000


Mtiuleti (; literally, "the land of mountains") is a historical province in eastern Georgia, on the southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus Mountains. It primarily comprises the White Aragvi Valley, and is bordered by Gudamakari on the east, Khando on the south, Tskhrazma on the west, and Khevi on the north. Mtiuleti occupies parts of modern-day districts of Dusheti and Kazbegi, Mtskheta-Mtianeti region (mkhare). A townlet (daba) Pasanauri, famous for its khinkali, is a traditional center of the region.

In its original and narrower sense, Mtiuleti comprises a small historic mountainous community called Tskhavati. Since the 13th century, the neighboring valleys of Khado and Gudamakari have also been frequently viewed as parts of Mtiuleti.

According to a historic tradition, St. Nino, a female baptizer of Georgians, preached Christianity here in the early 4th century. Next heard of Mtiuleti and its people were in connection with the Georgian campaign by the Arab commander Bugha al-Kabir, whose army assaulted the mountains of Iberia/Kartli in the 850s, but failed to force the Mtiuletians into submission. In the subsequent centuries, the Mtiuletians remained loyal subjects to the Georgian crown and joined the expedition sent by Queen Tamar to subdue the rebellious mountainous clans in the early 13th century. Under Tamar, due its strategic location, Mtiuleti was placed under the administration of high-ranking Georgian officials such as Abulasan, a viceroy of Kartli, and Tchiaber, a chancellor of Georgia. Later, in the early 14th century, Mtiuleti was contested between two powerful feudal houses, the eristavis of the Ksani and the Aragvi. Initially supported by the kings of Georgia, the former prevailed, but for a short time. Eventual winners, the eristavs of Aragvi, ruled the area until being dispossessed by the king of Georgia in 1743. From May to September 1804, Mtiuleti was a scene of an uneasy revolt against Imperial Russia, which had annexed eastern Georgia in 1801. The uprising quickly spread to the neighboring mountainous regions, but was eventually suppressed by the Russian commander Pavel Tsitsianov after heavy fighting.

References
 Dj. Gvasalia, "Mtiuleti." In: Georgian Soviet Encyclopedia, Vol. 6, p. 673. Tbilisi: 1983. (in Georgian)
 Kurtsikidze, Shorena & Chikovani, Vakhtang, Ethnography and Folklore of the Georgia-Chechnya Border: Images, Customs, Myths & Folk Tales of the Peripheries, Munich: Lincom Europa, 2008
 Mtiuleti. Georgian Tourism and Recreation Information System. Accessed on December 11, 2006.

Former provinces of Georgia (country)
Historical regions of Georgia (country)

Mtiuleti


Sabbath in Christianity is the day of rest and service to God.  The idea of the Sabbath in Christianity comes directly from the idea
of the Sabbath (or Shabbat) in Judaism.  In fact, the word Sabbath itself comes from the Hebrew word Shabbat.  Like the Jewish Sabbath (Shabbat), the Sabbath in Christianity comes from the Genesis story of Creation.  But unlike Jews, most Christians have Sabbath on Sunday, not Saturday. They also rest, but not the same way as Jews. The exact way depends on the church denomination.

Differing views

Most Christians honor the Sabbath on Sunday to remember the Resurrection of Jesus on the first day of the week on the Jewish calendar. They say that there is an analogy between the obligation of the Christian day of worship and the Sabbath-day ordinance. These two rules are not literally identical though. They say that this ordinance is no longer valid, because God has replaced his old creation by a new one. For this reason, the obligation to keep the Sabbath is not the same for Christians as for Jews. They say there are examples in the New Testament, and in other writings surviving from the first few centuries.

Some conservative Christians are "Sabbatarians". Most of these follow the Reformed traditions. Sabbatarians think the first day of the week or Lord's Day is the new Sabbath. This is because the 4th commandment has never been revoked and Sabbath-keeping is in any case a creation ordinance.

Still others believe that the Sabbath remains as a day of rest on the Saturday, reserving Sunday as a day of worship. In reference to Acts 20:7, the disciples came together on the first day of the week (Sunday) to break bread and to hear the preaching of the apostle Paul. This is not the first time Christians assembled together on a Sunday; Jesus appeared to the Christians on the "first day of the week" while they were in hiding. One can maintain this argument in that Jesus himself maintained the Sabbath, although not within the restrictions that were mandated by Jewish traditions;  the Pharisees often tried Jesus by asking him if certain tasks were acceptable according to the Law. This would seem to show that while the Sabbath was still of importance to the Jews, Sunday was a separate day for worship and teaching from Scriptures.

The Seventh-day Adventists and other churches disagree with some of these views. They argue that the custom of meeting for worship on Sunday originated in paganism, specifically Sol Invictus and Mithraism (in which sun god worship took place on Sunday). This is therefore an explicit rejection of the commandment to keep the seventh day holy. Instead, they keep Saturday as the Sabbath as a memorial to God's work of creation believing that none of the Ten Commandments can ever be destroyed. Seventh-day Sabbatarians claim that the seventh day Sabbath was kept by the majority of Christian groups until the 2nd and 3rd century, by most until the 4th and 5th century, and a few thereafter, but because of opposition to Judaism after the Jewish-Roman wars, the original custom was gradually replaced by Sunday as the day of worship. The history of these changes is certainly not altogether lost regardless of any belief in a suppression of the facts by a conspiracy of the pagans of the Roman Empire and the clergy of the Catholic Church.

Jews had come to be hated in the Roman Empire after the Jewish-Roman wars. This led to the criminalization of the Jewish Sabbath. Hatred of Jews is apparent in the Council of Laodicea (4th Century AD) where Canon 37–38 states: "It is not lawful to receive portions sent from the feasts of Jews or heretics, nor to feast together with them." and "It is not lawful to receive unleavened bread from the Jews, nor to be partakers of their impiety."  In keeping with this rejection of the Jews, this Roman council also criminalized the Jewish Sabbath as can be seen in Canon 29 of the Council Laodicea: "Christians must not Judaize by resting on the Sabbath, but must work on that day, rather honoring the Lord's Day; and, if they can, resting then as Christians. But if any shall be found to be judaizers, let them be excommunicated from Christ."

In the Gospel of Mark 2:28 Jesus says 'the Son of Man is lord even of the sabbath'.

References

Liturgical calendar

Sabbath in Christianity


The term Communion comes from Latin communio (sharing in common).  The corresponding term in Greek is κοινωνία, which is often translated as "fellowship".

In Christianity, the basic meaning of the term communion is an especially close relationship of Christians, as individuals or as a Church, with God and with other Christians.

Derived meanings in Christianity
But the term is also used of a group of Christian Churches that have this close relationship of communion with each other. An example is the Anglican Communion.

If the relationship between the Churches is complete, involving fulness of "those bonds of communion - faith, sacraments and pastoral governance - that permit the Faithful to receive the life of grace within the Church",  it is called full communion. But the term "full communion" is often used as well in that sense that these Christian Churches are not united, but have only an arrangement where members of each Church have certain rights within the other.

If a Church recognizes that another Church, with which it lacks bonds of pastoral governance, shares with it some of the beliefs and essential practices of Christianity, it may speak of "partial communion" between it and the other Church.

The communion of saints is the relationship that, according to the belief of Christians, exists between them as people made holy by their link with Christ. This relationship is generally understood to mean not only those still in earthly life, but also to those who have gone past death to be "at home with the Lord" (2 Corinthians 5:8).

In a special way the term communion is applied to sharing in the Eucharist.

Biblical usage
In the Bible, the Greek term κοινωνία is only used in the New Testament. It does not appear at all in the ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint. As a noun, or in its adjectival or verbal forms, it is found in 43 verses of the New Testament. In addition, the noun is found in some manuscripts (used for producing the English translation known as the King James Version, but not for more recent translations) in Ephesians 3:9.

The word is applied,  according to the context, to communion, sharing or fellowship with:
the divine nature (2 Pt 1:4), God (1 Jn 1:6), the Trinity (1 Jn 1:3), Jesus, Son of God (1 Co 1:9), his sufferings (Ph 3:10; 1 Pt 4:13), his future glory (1 Pt 5:1), the Holy Spirit (2 Co 13:14; Ph 2:1)
the blood and the body of Christ (1 Co 10:16), pagan sacrifices and gods (1 Co 10:18, 20)
fellow Christians, their sufferings and the faith (Ac 2:42; Ga 2:9; 1 Jn 1:3, 7; Heb 10:33; Rv 1:9; Phm 6, 17)
a source of spiritual favours (Rm 11:17), the gospel (1 Co 9:23), light and darkness (2 Co 6:14)
others' sufferings and consolation (2 Co 1:7; Ph 4:14), their evangelizing work (Ph 1:5), their graces or privileges (Rm 15:27; Ph 1:7), their material needs, to remedy which assistance is given (Rm 12:13, 15:26-27; 2 Co 8:4, 9:13; Ga 6:6; Ph 4:15; 1 Tm 6:18; Heb 13:16)
the evil deeds of others (Mt 23:30; Ep 5:11; 1 Tm 5:22; 2 Jn 11; Rv 18:4)
the bodily human nature all have in common (Heb 2:14)
a work partnership, secular or religious (Lk 5:10; 2 Co 8:23)

Related pages
Communion of Saints
Full communion

Christian theology

Communion (Christian)


Bust-A-Move 2 is the first sequel to Bust-A-Move, and is also known as Puzzle Bobble 2 outside Europe and North America. Released into the arcades in 1995, PlayStation, Sega Saturn, Nintendo 64 and PC conversions followed. The game was included in Taito Legends 2, but the US arcade version was included on US PS2 version instead. The game is a spin-off from Bubble Bobble.

The game builds on the original by adding a tournament style variation on the two player game for play against the computer and by adding a branching map to the one player game, allowing the player to periodically select one of two groups of five levels to play next, leading to different game endings. Some of the contestants in the new tournament mode are based on characters from Bubble Bobble, including variations on a Monsta and a Mighta.

Some versions of the game, including the PlayStation, feature time trial competitions in which a single player attempts to finish simple rounds quickly enough to beat previous time records or two players simultaneously attempt to beat the records and each other.

Completion of the single player game gives the player a code which can be entered to unlock 'Another World' for the single player game, which features subtle changes to the existing levels to increase their difficulty and changes to all backdrops to resemble levels from Bubble Bobble. The various enemies from Bubble Bobble also make an appearance in the background of the credits sequence.

Bust-A-Move 2X
Taito later repacked Bust-A-Move 2 with an optional alternative set of levels and some new attract mode animations (including holiday-themed ones) as Bust-A-Move 2X (Also known as Puzzle Bobble 2X).

Ports of Bust-A-Move 2 to the PC and Sega Saturn are of Bust-A-Move 2X and additionally include a level editor/designer. A port of 2X was made to the PlayStation but was not released until some time after a port of Bust-A-Move 2 was released; therefore, it is not so well known.

Cover art
This game has become notorious for one version of its cover art. The original US version of the Saturn edition featured a picture of several large balls with screaming, blue, human faces with white sticks forcing their eyes open. This cover earned it a place on Gamespy.com's Top Ten Worst Covers list.

References

1995 video games
Arcade games
Game Boy games
Nintendo 64 games
PlayStation games
Puzzle video games
Sega Saturn games
Video games developed in Japan
Windows games
PlayStation Network games

Puzzle Bobble 2


The Morro Bay kangaroo rat, Dipodomys heermanni morroensis, is endemic to San Luis Obispo County, California.

This subspecies of  "Heermann"  kangaroo rat today lives only in a restricted 2 km area south of Morro Bay in San Luis Obispo County, California. With 22 species, kangaroo rats can be found from the southeastern United States to Panama. They live in warm and semidesert areas, and like gerbils and pyramid rats resemble little kangaroos, with well-developed hind limbs for jumping, short front limbs, and a long tail used for balance  during the leap. Being nocturnal animals, their eyes are very large; their ears are average in size. Their hair on the back varies between brown and yellow, while the belly is white. The Morro Bay kangaroo rat is 11 to 13 cm long and its tail measures between 16 and 19 cm. It weighs between 60 and 80g.

Description
The Morro Bay kangaroo rat subspecies is unique to Baywood fine sands, a soil type found in Morro Bay, Los Osos, and Montana de Oro State Park on the Central Coast of California.  Their burrows enter the ground at an angle. The Morro Bay subspecies is the smallest of all subspecies. The male is measured to be 300.4 mm while the females are about 295.1 mm long.

Their primary food is seeds.

Dipodomys heermanni morroensis have 2 to 3 litters a year. In each litter they have between one and seven pups, but the average amount of pups per litter is two. They are born with no hair, eyes and ears closed, and toothless.

Endangered and missing
The Morro Bay kangaroo rat is federally endangered.

References

Dipodomys
Endemic fauna of California
Endemic mammals of the United States
Morro Bay
Fauna of the California chaparral and woodlands
Natural history of San Luis Obispo County, California
Endangered fauna of California
ESA endangered species

Morro Bay kangaroo rat


Orewa Surf Life Saving Club, or Orewa SLSC, is a surf lifesaving club in New Zealand. It is one of 17 such clubs in the Northern Region of New Zealand.

History
Orewa SLSC was formed in 1950 by members of Milford SLSC which had fallen into recess. At this time the estuary outflow travelled north along the beach and ended about where the club now sits. This made the beach quite dangerous and was the reason that the club is sited where it is. In the late 1950s the Air Force bombed the channel in the estuary and this changed the river out flow straight out to sea.

Club members originally stayed in a tent in the camping ground and later built a small shed about where the public toilets are to the south of the club. The first proper clubhouse was opened in 1960. Funds were raised by the club building and operating a skating rink on the domain. This was closed in the early 1990s and the remains can still be seen to the left of the domain entry drive. The original clubhouse structure is still incorporated into the building and is roughly where the lounge/restaurant is. An upstairs addition was added in the late 1970s and further additions made in the early 1990s to give the clubhouse its existing area.

Women were allowed to join as active members for the first time in 1972/73 and the club added a Junior Surf section in 1974/75. In the early years members mainly came from Auckland. This has changed since the late 1970s, when the local population started to grow significantly. Most of the club's members are now local.

Over the years, the club has performed over 1100 rescues, in addition to countless other actions such as first aids, preventative actions, and so on.

External links
Orewa Surf Life Saving Club web site

Surf Life Saving New Zealand clubs

Orewa Surf Life Saving Club


A protein isoform is any of several different forms of the same protein. Different forms of a protein may be produced from related genes, or may be made from the same gene by alternative splicing. A large number of isoforms are caused by single-nucleotide polymorphisms or SNPs, small genetic differences between alleles of the same gene. These occur at specific individual nucleotide (building block of dna-strand) positions within a gene.

Molecular biology
Proteins

Isoform


This is a chronological list of games in the Alien,  Predator and Alien vs. Predator science fiction horror franchises. There have been thirty-eight officially licensed video games, one trading card game, and one tabletop miniatures game released as tie-ins to the franchises.

The first video game of the Alien franchise was released in 1982 for the Atari 2600, based on the 1979 film Alien. Subsequent games were based on that film and its sequels Aliens (1986), Alien 3 (1992), and Alien Resurrection (1997). The first video game in the Predator franchise was released in 1987, the same year as the Predator film on which it was based. Subsequent Predator games were based on that film and its sequels Predator 2 (1990) and Predators (2010). The first game to cross the two franchises was Alien vs. Predator, released in September 1993 and based on an earlier comic book series. Since then the characters and storylines of the two franchises have been officially crossed over in comic books, video games, and the feature films Alien vs. Predator (2004) and Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem (2007). To date, there have been seventeen officially licensed video games released in the Alien franchise, six in the Predator franchise, and fourteen in the Alien vs. Predator franchise. These have been created by various developers and released for a variety of platforms including video game consoles, handheld game consoles, personal computers, and mobile phones. The Aliens vs. Predator Collectible Card Game published in 1997 and the Alien vs. Predator themed sets for HorrorClix released in 2006 are the only non-video games in the franchises.

The stories of the games are set in a fictional universe in which alien races and species have dangerous conflicts with humans and with each other. The games pit human, Alien, and Predator characters against one another in various fights for survival. The settings of the games vary, with most of the stories taking place far in the future.

Video games

Titles released in the 1980s

Titles released in the 1990s

Titles released in the 2000s

Titles released in the 2010s

Titles released in the 2020s

Cancelled titles

Related titles

Card games

Board games

Role-playing games

Miniatures games

References

Alien games
Predator games
Alien, Predator and Alien vs. Predator games
Video games developed in Japan
Alien vs. Predator (franchise) games
Games
Games

List of Alien, Predator, and Alien vs. Predator games


Accession is the attainment or acquisition of a position of rank or power, typically that of monarch or president. Eg."the queen's accession to the throne".

Accession day is a celebration. It is usually the anniversary of when a monarch takes office. The earliest record of accession celebrations are from the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England.

Accession is not the same as coronation or inauguration. Coronation and inauguration are both ceremonies which take place after the accession.

Politics

Accession


Samuele Bersani (born 1 October 1970, in Rimini, Italy) is an Italian singer-songwriter. He received the "Mia Martini" Critics Award at the Sanremo Music Festival in 2000 and in 2012, with the songs "Replay" and "Un pallone", respectively.
His best known songs also include "Giudizi universali", released in 1997 and certified in 2017 as a platinum-selling single by the Federation of the Italian Music Industry, and "Spaccacuore", which was later covered by Italian singer Laura Pausini.

In 2000, Bersani recorded the soundtrack of the film Chiedimi se sono felice, by Aldo, Giovanni & Giacomo.
In 2007, he won the Amnesty International Italy "Voci per la liberta" Award for "Occhiali rotti", a song included in his album L'aldiqua (2006) and written in memory of journalist Enzo Baldoni. His record Cinema Samuele received the Targa Tenco for Best Album in 2021.

Biography

1970–1991: childhood and early beginnings
Samuele Bersani was born on 1 October 1970 in Rimini, in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. His father was a music teacher, while his mother was an employee, and she also became the vice-mayor of Cattolica, the town in which he grew up. He studied at the classical lyceum, but he left school a few months before his "maturity exam".
While he was a teenager, Bersani played in several local bands and took part in local singing competitions. In 1991, he met Italian singer-songwriter Lucio Dalla before a concert Dalla was going to give in San Benedetto del Tronto, in Central Italy. Bersani asked Dalla to listen to a recording of his original song "Il mostro", and a few minutes later Dalla's producer, Renzo Cremonini, told him to open the concert performing the song. Bersani was then chosen as the opening act for the remaining concerts of Dalla's Cambio tour.

1992–1996: C'hanno preso tutto and Freak
Bersani's debut album, C'hanno preso tutto, was released in November 1992. The album included the song "Il mostro", as well as the single "Chiccho e Spillo", which allowed Bersani to receive media attention, becoming a radio hit and supporting sales of the album, which sold more than 20,000 copies in Italy.
In 1995, Bersani released his second album, Freak. The album's lead single, "Freak", was released in February of the same year, but some Italian radio stations decided not to air it as a consequence of a line referring both to the Italian conservative coalition and to the Italian Communist Party, which was considered a violation of the "par condicio law", which introduced fees for those stations giving airplay to songs including political messages during the electoral campaign preceding the Italian regional elections. As a consequence, Bersani's label decided to anticipate the release of the second single from the album, "Spaccacuore". Both "Freak" and "Spaccacuore" were later performed by Bersani during the itinerant television show Festivalbar, during the summer of 1995.
The album was a commercial success, and it was certified platinum, selling more than 130,000 copies in Italy.

Discography
C'hanno preso tutto (1992)
Freak (1995)
Samuele Bersani (1997)
L'oroscopo speciale (2000)
Che vita! Il meglio di Samuele Bersani (2002)
Caramella smog (2003)
L'aldiqua (2006)
Manifesto abusivo (2009)
Nuvola numero nove (2013)
La fortuna che abbiamo – Live (2016)
Cinema Samuele (2020)

References

External links
 Official website (in Italian)
 Famous Riminese – Samuele Bersani (in English)

Italian male singer-songwriters
Italian singer-songwriters
Living people
1970 births
Italian pop singers
People from Rimini
21st-century Italian male  singers

Samuele Bersani


Louis Émond (born November 9, 1969) is a Quebec writer.

Biography
Émond was born in Lévis, Quebec, Canada and earned his International Baccalaureate at the Petit Séminaire in Quebec City, where he studied under such teachers as Monique Ségal and Albert Dallard. At this time he discovered Noam Chomsky and wrote a thesis on the social satire in Les demis-civilisés, the Jean-Charles Harvey novel which for a long time was banned. Accepted into the Honours Program in the Department of Physics at McGill University, he soon lost interest in his courses and instead took to spending his time in the library, where he read voraciously the works of Friedrich Nietzsche, Milan Kundera and Stéphane Mallarmé. After briefly studying political science and art history at Université de Montréal, he entered the literature program at Université Laval.

After a year, he left university life behind, finding it insufficiently challenging, and devoted himself to writing his first novel, Le manuscrit (The Manuscript), at age 20. It was published 12 years later, after the author had worked his way through a string of jobs, was twice involved in legal proceedings, spent a night in jail for public disorder, and was rejected by publishers no fewer than 200 times. Suddenly, after a review by Réginald Martel, the respected critic with La Presse, who wrote: "Our national literature is in need of his immense talent," Émond found himself in the media spotlight amid comparisons with Hubert Aquin and the observation that his libertine tone echoed the spirit of Denis Diderot. Thus it was that Hoc and "my character" became part of literary consciousness. He was soon awarded two Canada Council for the Arts grants. Preferring solitude to the drudgery of media commitments, he left the country when the opportunity arose, and spent two years in Southeast Asia. Upon his return, he submitted his second novel, Le conte (The Tale), to prolific author and publisher Victor-Lévy Beaulieu who, seeing in it shades both of Yves Thériault and Maurice Blanchot, was so taken with it that he purchased the rights to the first novel and published the new one.

Highly critical of the world of publishing, Émond wrote a short story in the form of an anonymous blog that shone a light on some of the practices engaged in by publishers in France and Quebec. In 2009 he published the text, entitled Le sottisier de l'édition (Publishers' Howlers), on MySpace. Then, in early 2010, out of a desire to continue breaking down the boundaries imposed by traditional publishing, he offered a temporary version of his third novel, L'aide-mémoire (The Mnemonic), as a free download.

Works
On the fringes of the literary mainstream, the novels of Louis Émond are linked together by an intimate logic. They are part of a cycle, entitled Le scripte, which is set within an abstract geography peopled by characters who belong more to the realm of fantasy than to that of genetics and who reappear from one work to the next. They are defined primarily in relation to "my character", the narrator's double, including Hoc, who is a distorted reflection, almost a negative, of "my character". Although its manner may seem complex, the writing is precise and carefully rhymed, so that Louis Émond's novels encourage the reader to avoid being duped by the falsities of the narration. Each of his works opens up the references to a variety of other types of texts.
 His first novel, The Manuscript (2002), is the starting point for a meditation on the human condition which begins with the destruction of all ideals: "for a long time I thought I had to start over again, start everything over again," says the narrator. This is the story of a man endeavouring to remain objective as he contemplates the thing that preoccupies him, his own downfall, but gradually he loses the equanimity, the objectivity, the distance he had created.
 His next novel, The Tale (2005), tells the story of an outing in the snow which soon turns into a sort of inward road trip. The act of birth becomes a metaphor for exploring a life change that leads to doubt and a searching of the soul. Here the author examines the idea of a "profane quest for that which may appear sacred".
 His third novel, The Aide-Memoire (forthcoming), is closer in style to The Manuscript than it is to The Tale and brings to a conclusion the triptych formed by these three works. In it the author explores the themes of perception, violence and alienation. The novel tells of the misfortunes of a character who, ultimately, seeks to transform them into life. The Aide-Memoire is written using the new French spelling.

External links
 (fr) le scripte.net, Louis Émond's official web site
 (fr) L'Île, Quebec Writers' Literary Infocentre

1969 births
Canadian male novelists
French Quebecers
Living people
People from Lévis, Quebec
Université Laval alumni
Writers from Quebec
Canadian novelists in French

Louis Émond


Earthwind C. Moreland (born June 13, 1977) is a former National Football League (NFL) cornerback for the New England Patriots and Arena Football League cornerback and wide receiver for the Las Vegas Gladiators. He was drafted by Team Alabama of the AAFL in 2008.

High school years
Moreland attended Grady High School in Atlanta and was a letterman in football, basketball, and baseball. In football, he garnered All-City honors.

College years
Moreland attended Georgia Southern University and was a letterman in football. In football, he was a two-time All-Southern Conference selection (junior and senior seasons), he also garnered third-team All-America honors from the Sporting News during his senior year.  Over the course of his college career, he played in 52 games with 42 starts as Georgia Southern won 3 consecutive Southern Conference titles and finished with the NCAA Division I-AA championship.

Professional career
Initially signed as an undrafted rookie free agent by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 2000, he was waived and claimed off waivers by the New York Jets in the same off-season, and a year later was traded, along with a sixth-round pick in 2002, to the New Orleans Saints for running back Chad Morton in August 2001, only to be waived by the Saints just over a week later and claimed off waivers by the Jacksonville Jaguars the following day.  Moreland spent about one month with the team before an ultimate release from their practice squad, landing with the Cleveland Browns in the same capacity, and was mostly inactive.  Allocated by the Cleveland Browns to the Rhein Fire of NFL Europe in 2002, where Moreland earned All-League honors as the Fire went on to lose in World Bowl X.  Moreland remained with the team when he returned, then landed on injured reserve with a groin injury.

After being signed and released within a month from August to September 2004 by the New England Patriots, he had a brief stint on the Minnesota Vikings practice squad and was again signed by the Patriots.  He was promoted from the practice squad and found some playing time with the New England Patriots in 2004 due to injuries to the Patriots' secondary (including starters Ty Law and Tyrone Poole), making 2 starts in 9 games.  By the end of the season and during the playoffs, Moreland was the 4th cornerback on the depth chart, behind Asante Samuel, Randall Gay, and wide receiver Troy Brown.  Moreland was released after the season. He spent about 3 weeks over August 2006 attempting to make the cut with the Houston Texans, but did not make the team. He recorded 15 career tackles (14 solo) in the NFL.

In 2008, Moreland joined the upstart All-American Football League as a protected player with Team Alabama.  However, neither the team nor the league as a whole ever played even a single game.

Personal life
Moreland was named after his mother's favorite band, Earth, Wind & Fire.

External links
Bio page
AFL stats
NFL stats

1977 births
Living people
Players of American football from Atlanta
American football cornerbacks
Georgia Southern Eagles football players
Tampa Bay Buccaneers players
New York Jets players
New Orleans Saints players
Jacksonville Jaguars players
Cleveland Browns players
Rhein Fire players
New England Patriots players
Minnesota Vikings players
Houston Texans players
Georgia Force players
Las Vegas Gladiators players

Earthwind Moreland


Yuli Rachmawati (15 July 1980 – 10 June 2017), better known as Julia Perez (abbreviated as Jupe), was an Indonesian actress, singer, model, announcer, and businesswoman. In the early 2010s, she became known for her outspoken statements against conservative Muslim clerics, who deemed her too sexy or "pornographic" for Indonesian audiences.

In 2014, she revealed that she had been diagnosed with Stage 2 cervical cancer. By 2016, the cancer had reached Stage 4 and she died in June 2017.

Biography
Julia Perez was born Yuli Rachmawati in on 15 July 1980 in Jakarta, Indonesia, as the oldest daughter to Sri Wulansih (b. 25 May 1963) and Angkasa Djaya (7 August 1961 – 2 December 2013). Her father played football for a club in Bandar Lampung city, and her mother, who played women's football for Caprina Cijantung Club in Jakarta She was of mixed Sunda and Betawi ancestry. Her parents divorced some time around 1988, when Julia was still a child. Her mother had to take on odd jobs to support the family. Her mother later married Sakib 'Sammy' Mahri, who owns a welding business and rental properties.

After leaving high school, Julia studied at InterStudi Secretarial Academy in Jakarta, at the behest of an older female friend, who also paid for her tuition and advised her to find a bule (white foreigner) boyfriend. She then worked for a furniture company run by a Dutchman. She began dating the owner's son, who invited her to work in the Netherlands. She accepted the offer and spent three years in the Netherlands, studying Dutch and working as a secretary.

On a holiday to Spain, she met French model Damien Perez. They were married in France on 7 October 2002. They had no children. Jupe said she was putting her career before starting a family. She suffered a miscarriage in 2007. In 2009, she became close to an Argentine soccer player, Gaston Castaño, who then played for Indonesian club Persiba Balikpapan and went on to play for several other Indonesian clubs. In 2010, Julia and Damien were divorced. She blamed the failure of their marriage on Damien's alleged womanizing.

In 2013, Julia and Gaston announced their engagement. They were quietly married in Sydney, Australia, on 26 September 2013. Their wedding was kept a virtual secret from Indonesia's media. Julia's mother had opposed the idea of her daughter marrying a football player. On 12 May 2016, South Jakarta District Court granted Julia a divorce and awarded her alimony of Rp15 million per month.

Julia's biological father, Angkasa Jaya, was arrested in 2012 for alleged possession of drugs. He died in December 2013.

In 2015, Julia Perez earned her Sarjana Hukum (Bachelor of Law) from Universitas Bung Karno.

Career
After starting out as a secretary in Jakarta, Julia moved to the Netherlands for further secretarial work. Her ensuing relationship with Damien Perez opened doors for her to model for FHM and Maxim magazines in France. Following her layouts in FHM and Maxim, Jupe was nominated as one of the 100 Sexiest Women in the World.

Around 2002, she returned to Indonesia for a holiday to help her younger sister attend a casting session for a soap opera, but the director ended up recruiting Julia, who embarked upon an acting career. She appeared in late-night ribald comedy shows, with titles such as Komedi Nakal (Naughty Comedy). She gained further exposure and popularity by starring as a lifeguard dressed in a red swimsuit in an unofficial Indonesian version of Baywatch called Penjaga Pantai (Beach Guards).

She went on to appear in local soap operas, variety shows and horror movies, and also became a popular dangdut singer. Her debut album Kamasutra, released in 2008, included a free condom, which upset conservative Islamic organizations and resulted in her being banned from performing in several cities. In 2008, she was banned from performing at a concert commemorating Indonesia's 17 August Independence Day at a red-light area in Pekanbaru, Riau province.

In 2012, Perez launched a chicken fast-food chain called Jupe Fried Chicken (JFC).

Politics
In March 2010, Julia Perez told the press that eight political parties had asked her to run for the position of Regent of Pacitan regency in East Java province, even though she had never visited Pacitan. She said the parties courting her for the December 2010 local election included the People's Conscience Party (Hanura), the Great Indonesia Movement Party (Gerindra) and the National Mandate Party (PAN). Her candidacy led to accusations that political parties were putting personalities before policies and experience, whereas her supporters countered that her inexperience in political corruption and her opposition to conservative Islam made her a worthy candidate. In August 2010, Julia announced she had pulled out of the election, saying it was her own decision.

In the run-up to Indonesia's 2014 presidential election, contested between populist Joko 'Jokowi' Widodo and former general Prabowo Subianto, Jupe publicly offered to marry Prabowo, who had never remarried since divorcing former president Suharto's second daughter, Titiek Suharto. Julia tweeted on 19 May 2014: "Dear Mr Prabowo, Jupe is ready for a marriage proposal whenever you want.. You want to be president [and] need a wife, Jupe is ready sir." Prabowo responded on Twitter by thanking Julia for her support. Julia later said her offer did not mean that she supported Prabowo's presidential bid as she was neutral. On 5 June 2014, Jupe said she had decided to support Jokowi because Prabowo had broken her heart as he already had a girlfriend.

Ahead of Jakarta's 2017 gubernatorial election, Jupe voiced support for the incumbent, Basuki Tjahaja Purnama, better known as Ahok, who ended up losing the election and was then jailed for blasphemy against Islam. Jupe had initially considered Ahok to be fierce and creepy, but upon meeting him in March 2016 she declared him to be warm and friendly. She praised his urban planning and efforts to combat Jakarta's notorious floods and traffic. She also lauded his honesty, saying it was very difficult to find honest leaders in Indonesia.

Other activities
In 2006, Julia became an ambassador for the All Indonesia Chess Association (PERCASI), which held the "Julia Perez Rapid Chess Open Tournament" in Jakarta on 5 October 2006.

In 2010, Julia founded the Champions Soccer School (CSS) in Jakarta, with the aim of improving the football prowess of Indonesian children by providing "Latin American-style" training from Argentine and Chilean coaches. She said CSS was not intended to be a money-making operation, but was inspired by her love of football. She fondly recalled playing football as a child with her parents and siblings in Cijantung, East Jakarta. CSS was based in Kuningan, South Jakarta, and subsequently opened coaching clinics at Bung Karno Stadium and in Simprug, South Jakarta. The school's first batch of 14 participants received free training. Subsequent participants, who had an average age of 10 to 13 years, were required to pay a Rp 1 million registration fee, plus an additional Rp 1 million for a 10-week course. Former participants recall Jupe often monitoring the training, encouraging them to exercise and sharing her passion for the game.

Julia Perez served as manager of Indonesia's Team Garuda at the 21st President's Cup International Amateur Boxing Tournament held in Jakarta over 3–9 July 2011. Jupe said her presence fired up the team's performance. She was also enthusiastic about the team, commenting: "The other day, I wanted to see the boxers being weighed. When I went in the room, why are they all naked? Apparently, one has to strip to be weighed. What can I say, that's my luck."

One million followers
On 7 August 2012, Julia Perez performed a pole dance at a traffic light in Kuningan, Central Jakarta, to keep a promise after reaching one million Twitter followers. She was not dressed too skimpily as it was the Muslim fasting month of Ramadhan, although she still displayed some of her ample cleavage.

Controversies

Porn star accusation by MUI
The Indonesia Ulema Council (MUI), Indonesia's top Muslim authority, in October 2011 accused Julia of being a porn star. Rather than start wearing a Muslim headscarf, she responded by demanding a meeting with MUI and challenged the clerics to show any evidence of pornography. She also jokingly apologized for being sexy.

Physical clash and jail
On 11 October 2011, East Jakarta District Court sentenced Perez to three months in jail with six months probation for assaulting Dewi Persik during a cat-fight on the set of the horror film Arwah Goyang Karawang (The Dancing Spirit of Karawang). Perez filed an appeal to the Supreme Court, which rejected the appeal and annulled her probation period. She was ordered to begin serving her sentence on 14 February 2013, but she disappeared. On 18 March 2013, officers forcibly removed her from her house and took her to Pondok Bambu women's penitentiary in East Jakarta. She was released on 17 June 2013, after which she distributed korans at seven mosques.

Perez name
In August 2013, Julia told the press she should pay Rp1 billion ($95,200) per year, if she still wanted to use the Perez name after her divorce from Damien Perez. She said she would change her name, but she remained known as Julia Perez.

Censorship
In January 2012, the Indonesian Broadcasting Commission (KPI) sent an official warning letter to commercial television network ANTV over 28 December 2011 broadcast of talk-show Tri Angels, which featured a close-up of co-host Julia Perez's cleavage and a discussion about sex. KPI warned the network not to produce any more content of "excessive sexual exploitation".

In February 2012, Julia's song Jupe Paling Suka 69 (Jupe Likes 69 Best) was among 10 dangdut songs banned by the West Nusa Tenggara Regional Broadcasting Commission (KPID) from radio and television airplay on the grounds of having "pornographic" lyrics. In 2016, the same song was banned by West Java's KPID. Banten province in western Java also banned the song in 2016.

Condom ambassador
In 2013, Julia was named ambassador for Indonesia's National Condom Week, an event aimed at raising awareness for the prevention of HIV/AIDS. The event was canceled after conservative Islamic groups claimed it promoted promiscuity.

Relationship with FPI
In December 2010, the Islamic Defenders Front (FPI) threatened to report female celebrities to police over "vulgar" online photos. Jupe said she would not make any drastic changes to her appearance as she wanted to remain sensual. FPI then praised Jupe for promising to improve her appearance.

In December 2011, FPI members in the West Java capital of Bandung branded Julia a "temptress" and demanded she be banned from performing in the city.

Julia's spiritual adviser was Habib Selon (real name: Salim Al Athas, 1969–2015), who was head of the Jakarta chapter of FPI. When deadly floods hit Jakarta in mid-January 2013, Julia accompanied Selon on a visit to the inundated neighborhood of Kampung Bukit Duri to hand out food and water aid. Some Muslims later criticized Selon because Julia had been wearing a figure-hugging T-shirt, whereas Selon and the FPI had in 2012 successfully campaigned to have Lady Gaga banned from performing in Jakarta because of her "indecent" clothes. Julia had in 2012 urged Lady Gaga to ignore the ban, tweeting: "Dear mother @ladygaga please come to JKT! I dont care if they will hurt ME with bamboo or weapons! My blood is ur blood..please come i beg u *ban down*." She said she had personally made a bra from the thorny durian fruit as a gift for Gaga.

After Selon died of a heart attack in 2015, Jupe said he was like an older brother to her, and often gave her advice. She said they had planned to perform an umroh (minor haj pilgrimage) together in February 2016. She had also asked him to act as her guardian in the event she were to remarry.

Illness and death
In early October 2014, Perez announced she had visited Singapore to consider her options for having a baby via sperm donation—a prohibited procedure in Indonesia. There was speculation at the time that she was suffering cancer and wanted to have a baby before the cancer advanced. Later that same month, Perez revealed that seven months previously (around March 2014) she had been diagnosed with Stage 2a cervical cancer. She later clarified the cancer had been identified at Stage 1b. In Singapore, she underwent chemotherapy, radiation treatment and ovarian removal. In January 2015, she announced she was looking forward to returning to showbiz work, declaring she had completely recovered from the cancer. In April 2016, she appeared publicly with her head shaved, saying it was an act of support for cancer sufferers, especially women. Despite her treatment, the cancer spread and by December 2016 had reached Stage 4. In 2017, Perez was being treated in Jakarta's Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital. She had become reliant on donations from friends and supporters to cover her heavy medical bills for chemotherapy and other treatment. Among those helping to pay her bills was Basuki Tjahaja Purnama, better known as Ahok, who had served as Jakarta governor. During Ahok's last visit to Julia in April 2017, he said she should not worry about paying her bills.

It was announced on 10 June 2017 that Perez had died of Stage 4 cervical cancer.

Filmography

Film

Television

Discography

Studio album

Soundtrack albums

Awards
In 2013, Julia was honored with three awards:
 Honorable Best Actress for Gending Sriwijaya film in Bandung Film Festival 2013
 Chosen Best Actress in Maya Cup 2013
 Best Female Actress for Gending Sriwijaya film in Royal Bali Film Festival

References

External links
  Profile in KapanLagi.com

1980 births
2017 deaths
Indonesian dangdut singers
Indonesian female models
21st-century Indonesian women singers
Indonesian film actresses
Deaths from cervical cancer
Betawi people
Sundanese people
Deaths from cancer in Indonesia
Actresses from Jakarta
Singers from Jakarta
21st-century Indonesian actresses

Julia Perez


The Temple of Artemis ( or  Latin: Artemisium), was a temple dedicated to the goddess Artemis. It was also known as the Temple of Diana (Diana was a Roman goddess).

It was completed around 350 BC at Ephesus (in present-day Turkey). The area was under the Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian Empire, but some of its cities were Greek. Only ruins of the temple remain. It was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Location

The Temple of Artemis was near the ancient city of Ephesus, about 50 km south from the modern port city of İzmir, in Turkey.

Architecture and art
Most of the description of the Temple of Artemis comes from Pliny, though there are different accounts that give different sizes.

Pliny said the temple was 115 meters long and 55 meters wide. He said it was made almost completely of marble. It was about three times as big as the Parthenon by area. The Temple has 127 Ionic-styled columns. Each is 17.5 meters in height.

The Temple of Artemis had many fine artworks. Bronze sculptures by famous Greek sculptors Polyclitus, Pheidias, Cresilas, and Phradmon were in the temple. Paintings and gilded columns of gold and silver were also in it. The sculptors often competed at creating the best sculpture. Many of these sculptures were of Amazons, who are said to have founded the city of Ephesus.

Pliny said that Scopas, who also worked on the Mausoleum of Mausollos, worked carved reliefs into the temple's columns.

Athenagoras of Athens names Endoeus, a student of Daedalus, as the sculptor of the main statue of Artemis in Ephesus.

Cult and influence
The Temple of Artemis was at a flourishing region. It was used as a religious institute. Merchants and travellers came to it from all over Asia Minor. The temple was influenced by many beliefs. It can be seen as a symbol of faith for many different peoples. The Ephesians worshiped Cybele. They joined many of their beliefs into the worship of Artemis. Artemisian Cybele became very different from the Roman goddess Diana. The cult of Artemis attracted thousands of worshipers from far-off lands. They all gathered at the site and worshipped her.

References
 Anton Bammer, "A Peripteros" of the Geometric Period in the Artemision of Ephesus" Anatolian Studies 40 (1990), pp. 137–160.
 Lynn R. LiDonnici, "The Images of Artemis Ephesia and Greco-Roman Worship: A Reconsideration" The Harvard Theological Review 85.4 (October 1992), pp 389–415.

Other websites

 UnMuseum's The Temple of Artemis
 Seven Wonders' Temple of Artemis
 Florence Mary Bennett, Religious Cults Associated with the Amazons: (1912): Chapter III: Ephesian Artemis (text)
 James Grout: Temple of Artemis, part of the Encyclopædia Romana
 Diana's Temple at Ephesus (W. R. Lethaby, 1908)

Seven Wonders of the World

Ancient Greek architecture
4th-century BC buildings and structures

Temple of Artemis


In the criminal common law of England and Wales, a common scold was a type of public nuisance. The term was applied to a woman who caused trouble and who disturbed the peace by arguing and fighting with her neighbours all the time. The Latin language name for this type of woman was communis rixatrix. This name's grammar only applies to females. This makes it clear that only women could commit this type of crime.

When British people first went to the North America, they took this crime with them.

The crime was often punished by "ducking". Ducking meant that the offender was placed in a chair over a river or pond. They were then lowered into the water, until they were all in the water. This was done several times. Few people were actually convicted of being a common scold, but it remained a crime listed on the law books of England and Wales until 1967. Because it applied only to women, it was eventually banned in the United States. This was because the U.S. Constitution (the highest law in the U.S.) does not allow people to be treated differently from each other. This comes from a section of the Constitution called the Equal Protection Clause.

Crime and punishment
In the Commentaries on the Laws of England, William Blackstone says of this crime:
Lastly, a common scold, communis rixatrix, (for our law-latin confines it to the feminine gender) is a public nuisance to her neighbourhood. For which offence she may be indicted; and, if convicted, shall be sentenced to be placed in a certain engine of correction called the trebucket, castigatory, or cucking stool, which in the Saxon language signifies the scolding stool; though now it is frequently corrupted into ducking stool, because the residue of the judgement is, that, when she is so placed therein, she shall be plunged in the water for her punishment.——Commentaries on the Laws of England, IV:13.5.8, p. *169

The common punishment for being a common scold was forcing the woman found guilty under water over and over. This was done using a piece of furniture called a "cucking stool".  The cucking stool, according to Blackstone, later was called  a ducking stool.

Other writers disagree with Blackstone. They say that the cucking stool and the ducking stool are really two different types of punishment devices. The Domesday Book mentions the use of a cucking stool in the town of Chester. The stool was also known as cathedra stercoris. This Latin word translates to "dung chair". It is thought that the punishment involved letting everyone see the punished woman's buttocks.  This type of chair was used to punish not only common scolds, but also people who make beer (brewers) and bakers who sold bad beer or bread. Francois Maximilian Misson, a French traveler and writer, wrote down the way the ducking chair was used in England in the early 1700s:
"The way of punishing scolding women is pleasant enough. They fasten an armchair to the end of two beams twelve or fifteen feet long, and parallel to each other, so that these two pieces of wood with their two ends embrace the chair, which hangs between them by a sort of axle, by which means it plays freely, and always remains in the natural horizontal position in which a chair should be, that a person may sit conveniently in it, whether you raise it or let it down. They set up a post on the bank of a pond or river, and over this post they lay, almost in equilibrio, the two pieces of wood, at one end of which the chair hangs just over the water. They place the woman in this chair and so plunge her into the water as often as the sentence directs, in order to cool her immoderate heat."——Francois Maximilian Misson

The ducking stool was not always tied down to one spot next to a river or pond. Sometimes it had wheels on it. The woman found guilty would be taken through the streets before punishment was done. Another way of ducking was to use a device called a "tumbrel". The tubmrel was a chair on two wheels. It had two long shafts on its axles. The tumbrel would be pushed into the ducking pond and the shafts would be released. This would tip the chair up backwards, ducking the victim.

A scold's bridle was another punishment device. It was known in Scotland as a brank. A scold's bridle was a metal mask that locked around a person's head. For that reason it was sometimes called a "head cage". The scold's bridle had a tab that went into the victims mouth to make it difficult to talk. Some people say that common scolds had to wear a scold's bridle to stop them from scolding. Some say they were used only to punish. No legal source known mentions the use of scold's bridals to punish a common scold. However, some less formal sources do tell of scolds being punished with scold's bridles. In the United States, scolds, or people found guilty of similar crimes, were sometimes punished using a cleft stick. A cleft stick was similar to a scold's bride, but they were easier to make. The ducking stool was taken to the U.S. when British people went to live there during colonial times.

Historical prosecutions

A piece of writing mounted on the Fye Bridge in Norwich, England says it marks the place where a "cucking" stool had been in place from 1562–1597. It also says that "strumpets" (prostitutes) and common scolds were ducked there. In the Percy Anecdotes, published in 1820, the authors state that "How long the ducking-stool has been in disuse in England does not appear." The Anecdotes also suggest that the ducking stool stopped being used because it did not work well. The text talks about a Mrs. Finch. It says of her that in about 1681, she had been found guilty of being a common scold for a third time. Each time she was found guilty she was ducked. When she was found guilty a fourth time, the King's Bench (a court) did not order her punished by ducking. Instead, they ordered her to pay a money fine and that she be imprisoned until she paid the fine.

The Percy miscellany also quotes a poem by John Gay (1685–1732), who wrote that:

I'll speed me to the pond, where the high stool
On the long plank, hangs o'er the muddy pool,
That stool the dread of ev'ry scolding quean.

and also a 1780 poem by Benjamin West, who wrote that:

There stands, my friend, in yonder pool,
An engine call'd a ducking-stool;
By legal pow'r commanded down,
The joy and terror of the town.
If jarring females kindle strife. . .

These poems do not prove that the punishment took place at the time they were written. However, they do show that ducking had not been forgotten.

In a 1704 legal case called The Queen v. Foxby, 6 Mod. 11, the lawyer for the person accused of being a scold said that he did not know of any law allowing the ducking of scolds.  Lord Chief Justice John Holt (the person trying to have the judge find Foxby guilty) said this was not correct. He said that it was "better ducking in aTrinity, than a Michaelmas term", meaning it was better that a person be ducked in summer than in winter. The way he said it, however, suggests that he thought the punishment was an old custom and something of a joke. The last written record of stools being used for ducking involved a Mrs. Ganble at Plymouth in 1808, and one Jenny Pipes from Leominster (a town in Herefordshire) in 1809. In 1817, Sarah Leeke, also from Leominster, was sentenced to be ducked. However, the water in the pond was too low. The authorities instead wheeled her around the town in the ducking chair.

The common law of England—law made by court precedent, rather than through legislation—was adopted by the United States in its early days. The common law included the offence of being a common scold. In 1829, a Philadelphia, Pennsylvania court found American writer and journalist Anne Royall guilty of being a common scold. Royall had objected to a firehouse, built with federal money, being used by a small church for their services. She thought this violated the U.S. Constitution's separation between church and state. The local clergymen campaigned to have her punished as a common scold. Hoping the court would sentence Royall to ducking, sailors at the Navy Yard built a ducking stool. However, the Pennsylvania court ruled that the punishment was not to be used any longer. They instead fined Royall ten dollars. In 1972, in the case of State v. Palendrano, 293 A.2d 747, New Jersey State prosecutors charged a woman with being a common scold for a disturbance she had caused. The New Jersey Superior Court ruled that the law was improper because of it was too vague.

Current status of the law
In England and Wales, the only parts of the United Kingdom where the law was in use, no prosecutions of common scolds have occurred for a long time. The lawyers in Sykes v. Director of Public Prosecutions [1962] AC 528, described the offence as "obsolete".  Section 13(1)(a) of the Criminal Law Act 1967 did away with it.

The offence of being a common scold has also become obsolete in the United States because only women could commit it. This was found to violate the U.S. Constitution's Equal Protection Clause. Many states have laws restricting public profanity, loud noise in public, and disorderly conduct. None of these laws have any punishment similar to those traditionally used for the common scold.

References

Other websites
 James v. Commonwealth, 12 Serg. & Rawle 220 (Penn., 1824).  Judge Duncan rules the punishment of ducking a common scold obsolete and a cruel and unusual punishment.
Crime

Common scold


In all vertebrates, including human beings, the cerebellum is one of the main divisions of the brain.

The cerebellum works mainly to control balance and coordinate movement. It combines signals from eyes, muscle spindles, and ears with motor commands from the forebrain and helps to coordinate control of the body. More advanced regions of the human cerebellum may be crucial to language and mental dexterity. Bands of axons extend from the cerebellum into the pons.

Anatomy of the brain

Cerebellum


Greetings are nice things to say when people meet each other. Greetings may be different from culture to culture. These are some greetings used a lot in the English language:
 "Hello" Formal, Neutral and Informal
"Hi" Neutral and Informal
 "Hey" Informal
 Good Bye,greeting used while leaving each other
 "Good [morning, afternoon, evening,night], Formal , which changes with the time of day
 "What's up?", "Yo", "What's up?", "'Sup" and "What's happening?", which are not formal
 "G'day", a greeting used a lot in Australia
 "Howdy", an informal greeting used a lot in rural areas of the United States
 "How do you do", which is used as a question in some places and a normal greeting in others

There are also ways to greet without talking, such as these:
 Handshakes
 Bowing
 Waving
 Hat-raising or tipping
 Kissing on the hand or cheek
 Hongi
 Kowtow
 Namaste common greeting in Asia
 Roman salute
 Hugging is another one which is used all around the world
 clapping hands

Human communication

Greeting


Saint Cuthbert (c. 634 – 20 March 687) was an Anglo-Saxon monk, bishop and hermit associated with the monasteries of Melrose and Lindisfarne in the Kingdom of Northumbria, at that time including, in modern terms, northern England as well as south-eastern Scotland as far north as the Firth of Forth. Afterwards he became one of the most important medieval saints of England, his cult being centred at Durham Cathedral. Cuthbert is regarded as the patron saint of northern England. His feast day is 20 March.

Biography
In 676 he began the life of a hermit and retired to a cave on Lindisfarne. After a time he settled on one of the Farne Islands, south of Lindisfarne, and made his life more simple.

In 684, Cuthbert was chosen to be bishop of Lindisfarne, at a synod at Twyford (believed to be present-day Alnmouth), but was unwilling to leave his retirement and take up his charge. It was only after a visit from a large group, including King Ecgfrith, that he agreed to return and take up the duties of bishop. He was consecrated at York on 26 March 685. After Christmas, 686, however, he returned to his cell on Inner Farne Island, which was where he eventually died on 20 March 687 AD. He was buried at Lindisfarne, and his remains later moved to Durham Cathedral.

References

Christian monks
Christian saints
630s births
680s deaths
People from Northumberland
Lindisfarne

Cuthbert


The term Cistercian is used to refer to an order of Roman Catholic monks. Officially the order is called Ordo Cisterciensis (OCist), or Sacer Ordo Cisterciensis (SOC). These people follow the same rules as the Benedictines, that is to say those of St Benedict. Over time, the Benedictines made some changes to the rules and the way of life.

The Cistercians reject these. They went back to what St Benedict had taught. Sometimes their rules were more strict than those St Benedict had given. They also went back to manual labour, especially work in the fields. Because of this, the Cistercians helped spread technologies around Medieval Europe. In 1882 certain monasteries formed a new order, called the Trappists. With time, they split completely from the Cistercians.

Roman Catholic religious orders

Cistercian


Jötunheimr (or Jotunheim) is the land of the giants in the Norse mythology. Two kinds of giants (or Jotuns) live in Jötunheimr, rock giants and frost giants. From here they can attack the humans in Midgard and the gods in Asgard. Jotunheim is ruled by King Thrym.

Places in Norse mythology

Jotunheim


Omaha Road Bridge Number 15 is a swing bridge that spans the Mississippi River in St. Paul, Minnesota, United States.  It was built in 1915 by the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway (Omaha Road), though it, and the line from St. Paul to Mendota, was jointly owned with the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway (Milwaukee Road). The causeway curves around Pickerel Lake in Lilydale, Minnesota, before crossing into St. Paul.

The bridge was designed by I.F. Stern of Chicago. It is unusually shaped, because the swing span is asymmetrical.  According to local legend, the original bridge design had equal length spans on either side of the center pivot.  Once the bridge was completed, the owner of the property on the south side of the river did not want the swing span crossing his land.  In response, the owner removed most of the south end of the swing span and added a concrete counterweight to compensate for the lost material.

Legends aside, the reason for the "bobtail" configuration of the bridge is that the section of the river deep enough for navigation at that point is not wide enough to accommodate a full-sized swing bridge.  The counterweight is necessary to keep both ends of the bridge in balance over the center pier, which is near the right descending bank.  While the legend may be an appealing one, it cannot withstand the fact that no qualified bridge engineer would lavish the material and effort required to build a swing span over land.

The bridge forces barge traffic heading up river to cross over to their respective port (south) shore of the river, while those heading downstream are able to maintain their normal traffic pattern.

An earlier bridge in this location, built in 1869, was a wooden Howe truss design.  This was one of the original 15 bridges spanning the Mississippi River.  The first bridge was an 8-span drawbridge, but much of the superstructure had to be replaced in 1877 because of decay in the original pine chords. It was a joint bridge of the Minnesota Valley Railroad Company (predecessor of the Omaha Road) and the Minnesota Central Railroad Company (predecessor of the Milwaukee Road)

See also
List of crossings of the Upper Mississippi River

References

Bibliography

Bridges completed in 1916
Bridges in Saint Paul, Minnesota
Bridges over the Mississippi River
Canadian Pacific Railway bridges in the United States
Chicago and North Western Railway
Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad
Railroad bridges in Minnesota
Swing bridges in the United States
Union Pacific Railroad bridges
1916 establishments in Minnesota
Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway

Omaha Road Bridge Number 15


Pokémon Gold and Silver are two role-playing video games made by Game Freak and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy Color handheld. They are the second games in the Pokémon series, and increased the number of Pokémon to 251. The Pokémon Ho-oh and Lugia, respectively, are featured in the boxart. A special version named Pokémon Crystal, which had the Pokémon Suicune on the cover, was released around a year later. Pokemon Gold and Silver are backward-compatible with the original Game Boy (except in Korea), but Pokemon Crystal requires a Game Boy Color or Game Boy Advance.

Gameplay

The games added many new things, such as breeding and a new bag system. There were also one hundred new Pokémon added.

Plot
The games take place in a region named Johto. The player is a ten year old kid from a small town, who is sent on a mission from Professor Elm. After completing the mission, the player gets to choose a starter Pokémon, and start a journey. During this journey, the player fights an villainous team, Team Rocket, who is coming back after being defeated by the player of Pokémon Red and Blue.

Known issues
The cartridges use a CR2025 lithium battery to keep track of the time and to power the sRAM save mechanism. As these games were released over 15 years ago, the original battery is usually depleted by now. It is possible to replace it, but it requires a special screwdriver bit to open the cartridge and soldering in a tabbed replacement battery. Replacing the battery will erase the game save on the cartridge, if any, unless special precautions (such as backing up and restoring the save file using special hardware, or wiring a temporary battery in parallel with the original while removing it) are taken.

Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver
 and  are remakes of Pokémon Gold and Silver, developed by Game Freak for the Nintendo DS. They were released on September 12, 2009 in Japan, and were released on March 14, 2010 in North America, March 25, 2010 in Australia and March 26, 2010 in Europe. There are many new features. Like Pokémon Yellow, the player's Pokémon can follow them. The games come with a pedometer-like device, called the Pokéwalker, that can let players walk with their Pokémon, and gain Watts, which can be used to battle Pokémon, or dowse for items.

References

2000 video games
Game Boy Color games
Game Boy Color-only games
Pokémon RPGs

Pokémon Gold and Silver


Token passing is a communication protocol used in telecommunications. The system uses a signal called a token to limit when a device can transmit on the network. Only the device with the token can transmit. When that device is done, the token is sent to the next device. With large transmissions, the token may move to the next station before the transmission is finished. The device has to wait until it gets the token back before it can continue to send data. The most well known examples of token passing are token ring and ARCNET.

The rules of the system say how long a device may keep the token, how long it can transmit for and how to create a new token if there is not one in use.

Computer networking
Telecommunications

Token passing


Sodium azide, also known as sodium trinitride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is NaN3.

Properties
It is a white crystalline solid. It is an explosive. It can be detonated by an electric spark. It contains sodium and azide ions. It reacts with acids to produce hydrazoic acid. It can be destroyed by reacting it with nitrous acid. This reaction produces nitric oxide, nitrogen, and sodium hydroxide. It is a powerful reducing agent, which makes it explosive. It contains nitrogen in its -1/3 oxidation state.

Preparation
It is made by reacting ammonia with sodium to make sodium amide. The sodium amide then reacts with nitrous oxide to make sodium azide. It can also be made by reacting sodium nitrate with sodium amide. Another process is reacting sodium nitrite with hydrazine.

Uses
It is used in airbags. It makes the airbags puff out. A computer detects that the car is crashing and ignites the sodium azide. This makes sodium metal and a lot of nitrogen gas. The nitrogen gas inflates the airbag. It can be used to make other explosives, such as lead azide.

Safety
Sodium azide is very toxic. It reacts with acids to make the explosive hydrazoic acid, which also is a very toxic gas. It is similar to cyanide poisoning. It attacks the respiratory system and the circulatory system.

Related pages
Lithium nitride, Li3N (sodium nitride does not exist)
Nitrate
Nitrite

Sodium compounds
Nitrogen compounds

Sodium azide


The Upper Silesian Industrial Region (, , Polish abbreviation: GOP ; ) is a large industrial region in Poland. It lies mainly in the Silesian Voivodeship, centered on Katowice.

It is situated in the northern part of Upper Silesian Coal Basin a home of altogether 5 million people (Silesian metropolitan area), the southwest border of the Rybnik Coal Area (Polish: Rybnicki Okręg Węglowy, ROW) and west borders with the Ostrava urban area. Covers 3,200 km² and about 3 million people.

The Upper Silesian Industrial Region is located in the province of Upper Silesia and Zagłębie Dąbrowskie in southern Poland in a basin between the Vistula and Oder rivers.

Upper Silesian Industrial Region is an area with enormous concentration of industry. Dominates here:
 Mining industry (more than a dozen active coal mines, mainly as Katowicki Holding Węglowy, Kompania Węglowa, JSW,Węglokoks
 Iron and steel industry (more than a dozen active iron and nonferrous metals)
 Transport industry (example General Motors Manufacturing Poland and Fiat Auto Poland, Konstal, Bumar Łabędy)
 The energy industry (more than a dozen plants)
 Mechanical engineering
 Chemical industry

See also
Upper Silesian Metropolis
Rybnik Coal Area

References

Literature
 "Katowice i Górnośląski Okręg Przemysłowy" - Krystyna Szaraniec & Lech Szaraniec & Karol Szarowski, Katowickie Towarzystwo Społeczno-Kulturalne, Katowice 1980
 "Górnośląski Okręg Przemysłowy: liczby, fakty, problemy" - Marek Grabania, Wydawnictwo Śląsk, Katowice 1964
 "Górnośląski Okręg Przemysłowy w świetle nowych opracowań zachodnioniemieckich" - Marian Frank, Silesian Institute in Katowice, Katowice 1960

Silesian Voivodeship
Economy of Poland

Upper Silesian Industrial Region


Qeqertarsuaq () is a port and town in Qeqertalik municipality, located on the south coast of Disko Island on the west coast of Greenland. Founded in 1773, the town is now home to a campus of the University of Copenhagen known as Arctic Station. Qeqertarsuaq is the Kalaallisut name for Disko Island and is also now used for several other islands on Greenland, including those formerly known as Upernavik and Herbert Island. Qeqertarsuaq means 'the big island' in Kalaallisut ().

In 2020, the town had 839 inhabitants. The remainder of the population of the island (less than 50 people) lives in the Kangerluk settlement, a few hours by boat to the northwest.

Geography
The total area of Disko Island and its satellite islands (mainly Qeqertarsuatsiaq Island  northwest of the northern coast and Qeqertaq on the southwest coast at the mouth of Disko Fjord) is . Blæsedalen valley is to the north of the town.

Kangerluk is the location where researchers found a 'galloping' glacier in 1999 that moves up to  a day.

History

Traces of settlement between five and six thousand years ago have been found at Qeqertarsuaq. The settlers were paleo-Eskimos wandering south.

During the 18th century, the first whalers came to Qeqertarsuaq, where they found a suitable anchorage. The town was founded as Godhavn by the whaler Svend Sandgreen in 1773. The name was sometimes anglicized as Guthaven and the settlement was also known as Lievely or Leifly. It served as the northernmost point in the enforcement of the Danish rights to whaling in the region. Whaling has been of great importance to the town over the past two centuries. Hunting and fishing are still the primary occupations for the island's inhabitants.

From an early date, Godhavn shared the administration of Greenland with Godthåb (modern Nuuk). Godhavn served as the capital for North Greenland while Godthåb directed South Greenland. In 1862, a new law on municipalities was passed and the so-called Directions were introduced in Greenland.  The primary task of the Directions was the administration of the means set apart for social purposes: support for widows, orphans, and others in need. The Directions also functioned as inferior courts in case of theft and other petty crimes. The Directions also took active part in the fight against the spreading of distemper. In Godhavn, they founded a kayak school for boys and a sewing school for girls.

The Councils of Northern and Southern Greenland were summoned to a meeting in Godhavn on 3 May 1940. Following this meeting, administration for the entire island was concentrated in Godthåb.  The Chief Administrative Office was abolished in 1950 at the establishment of the National Council of Greenland. With the end of government positions in town, the local economy focused more directly on hunting and fishing.

On 1 January 2009, the former Qeqertarsuaq municipality was merged into the new Qaasuitsup municipality. This in turn was partitioned on 1 January 2018, at which time Qeqertarsuaq became part of the new municipality of Qeqertalik.

Tourism
Many of the flat basaltic mountains found on Disko Island are covered with perpetual snow. The largest is called Sermersuaq ("Grand Glacier"). Sermersuaq is situated rather far from the coast and is difficult to reach in the summer. Lyngmarksbræen ("Lyngmark Glacier") is much smaller, covering only about 10 km, but can be reached more easily in a few hours' walk. From Lyngmarksfjeld, a panoramic view of Disko Bay allows viewers to see the icebergs at Ilulissat almost  away.

Qeqertarsuaq has a dog sled rental.

Transport

During the winter, Air Greenland operates air services from Qeqertarsuaq Heliport to Ilulissat, Qasigiannguit, and Aasiaat.

When the waters of Disko Bay are navigable during summer and autumn, the heliport is closed and communication between settlements occurs only by sea via Diskoline. The ferry links Qeqertarsuaq with Ilulissat, Aasiaat, Qasigiannguit, and Kitsissuarsuit.

Notable current/former residents
 Rasmus Lerdorf, creator of the computer programming language PHP, was born in Qeqertarsuaq.

Population
With 839 inhabitants in 2020, Qeqertarsuaq was the smallest town in the then-municipality of Qaasuitsup. The population has decreased by more than 22% relative to the 1990 levels and by nearly 15% relative to the 2000 levels.

Sister cities
 Húsavík, Iceland

References

External links
 greenland.com Map of Qeqertarsuaq area

Disko Island
Populated places in Greenland
Populated places of Arctic Greenland
Populated places established in 1773
1773 establishments in North America
18th-century establishments in Greenland
Qeqertalik

Qeqertarsuaq