Northern soul is a music and dance movement that emerged in Northern England and The Midlands in the early 1970s. It developed from the British mod scene, based on a particular style of Black American soul music with a heavy beat and fast tempo (100 bpm and above).

The Northern soul movement generally eschews Motown or Motown-influenced music that has had significant mainstream commercial success. The recordings most prized by enthusiasts are by lesser-known artists, released in limited numbers on labels such as VeeJay, Chess, Brunswick, Ric-Tic, Gordy Records, Golden World Records (Detroit), Mirwood Records (Los Angeles), Shout Records and Okeh.

Northern soul is associated with dance styles and fashions that grew out of the underground rhythm and soul scene of the late 1960s at venues such as the Twisted Wheel in Manchester. This scene and the associated dances and fashions quickly spread to other dancehalls and nightclubs like the Wigan Casino, Blackpool Mecca (the Highland Room), and Golden Torch (Stoke-on-Trent).

As the favoured beat became more uptempo and frantic in the early 1970s, northern soul dancing became more athletic, resembling the later dance styles of disco and break dancing. Featuring spins, flips, karate kicks and backdrops, club dancing styles were often inspired by the stage performances of touring American soul acts such as Little Anthony and the Imperials and Jackie Wilson.

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, popular northern soul records generally dated from the mid-1960s. This meant that the movement was sustained (and "new" recordings added to playlists) by prominent DJs discovering rare and previously overlooked records. Later on, certain clubs and DJs began to move away from the 1960s Motown sound and began to play newer releases with a more contemporary sound.

History

1960s

The term "northern soul" emanated from the record shop Soul City in Covent Garden, London, which was run by the soul music collector Dave Godin. It was first publicly used in Godin's weekly column in Blues & Soul magazine in June 1970. In a 2002 interview with Chris Hunt of Mojo magazine, Godin said he had first come up with the term in 1968, to help employees at Soul City differentiate the more modern funkier sounds from the smoother. Godin referred to the latter's requests as "northern soul":
I had started to notice that northern football fans who were in London to follow their team were coming into the store to buy records, but they weren't interested in the latest developments in the black American chart. I devised the name as a shorthand sales term. It was just to say "if you've got customers from the north, don't waste time playing them records currently in the U.S. black chart, just play them what they like – 'Northern Soul'".

The music style most associated with northern soul is the heavy syncopated beat and fast tempo of the mid-1960s Motown Records, usually combined with soulful vocals. These types of records, which suited the athletic dancing that was prevalent, became known on the scene as "stompers". Notable examples include Tony Clarke's "Landslide" (popularised by Ian Levine at Blackpool Mecca) and Gloria Jones' "Tainted Love" (purchased by Richard Searling on a trip to the United States in 1973 and popularised at Va Va's in Bolton, and later, Wigan Casino). According to Northern soul DJ Ady Croadsell, viewed retrospectively, the earliest recording to possess this style was the 1965 single "I Can't Help Myself (Sugar Pie Honey Bunch)" by the Four Tops. Although that record was never popular in the Northern soul scene because it was too mainstream. The venue most commonly associated with the early development of the northern soul scene was the Twisted Wheel in Manchester. The club began in the early 1950s as a beatnik coffee bar called The Left Wing, but in early 1963, the run-down premises were leased by two Manchester businessmen (Ivor and Phil Abadi) and turned into a music venue. Initially, the Twisted Wheel mainly hosted live music on the weekends and Disc Only nights during the week.  DJ Roger Eagle, a collector of imported American soul, jazz and rhythm and blues, was booked around this time, and the club's reputation as a place to hear and dance to the latest American R&B music began to grow. Pubs such as the Eagle in Birmingham were frequented by young blue-eyed soul singers such as Steve Winwood, who released songs similar to the early U.S. soul music.

By 1968 the reputation of the Twisted Wheel and the type of music being played there had grown nationwide, and soul fans were travelling from all over the United Kingdom to attend the Saturday all-nighters. Until his departure in 1968, resident 'All Niter' DJ Bob Dee compiled and supervised the playlist, utilising the newly developed slip-cueing technique to spin the vinyl. Rarer, more up-tempo imported records were added to the playlist in 1969 by the new younger DJs like Brian "45" Phillips up until the club's eventual closure in 1971. After attending one of the venue's all-nighters in November 1970, Godin wrote: "it is without doubt the highest and finest I have seen outside of the USA ... never thought I'd live to see the day where people could so relate the rhythmic content of Soul music to bodily movement to such a skilled degree!" The venue's owners had successfully filled the vacancy left by Eagle with a growing roster of specialist soul DJs including Brian Rae, Paul Davies and Alan 'Ollie' Ollerton.

In America, after the doo-wop boom was over, Northern soul started. Motown, Chess, and Vee-Jay records were notable northern soul labels. By the mid-1960s, Motown got good songwriters and producers such as Robinson, A&R chief William "Mickey" Stevenson, Brian Holland, Lamont Dozier, and Norman Whitfield.

From 1961 to 1971, Motown had 110 top-10 hits. Top artists on the Motown label during that period included the Supremes featuring Diana Ross, the Four Tops, and the Jackson 5, while Stevie Wonder, Marvin Gaye, the Marvelettes, and the Miracles had hits on the Tamla label. The company had several labels in addition to the Tamla and Motown. A third label, which Gordy named after himself, featured the Temptations, the Contours, Edwin Starr, and Martha and the Vandellas. A fourth label, V.I.P., released recordings by the Spinners, and the Monitors. A fifth label, Soul, featured Jr. Walker & the All Stars, Jimmy Ruffin, Shorty Long, the Originals, and Gladys Knight & The Pips.

The Sapphires, especially their songs "Slow Fizz", "Gotta Have Your Love" (which reached number 33 on the R&B charts), "Evil One", and "Gonna Be a Big Thing", became popular in the northern soul scene, including during the early days at the Twisted Wheel Club.

Chicago label Vee-Jay Records became a major soul label with Jerry Butler, Gene Chandler, Dee Clark, and Betty Everett hitting singles on both the pop and R&B charts. Vee-Jay was also the first label to nationally issue a record by Gladys Knight & the Pips.

Vee-Jay had significant success with pop/rock acts, such as the Four Seasons (their first non-black act) and the Beatles. Vee-Jay acquired the rights to some of the early recordings by the Beatles through a licensing deal with EMI, as the American affiliate Capitol Records was initially uninterested in the group. Calvin Carter later said, "There was a number one record over in England at the time. The group turned out to be the Beatles and we got a five-year contract on the Beatles as a pickup on the Frank Ifield contract".

1970s

In America, Holland-Dozier-Holland's successful acts on '70s Invictus Records were Freda Payne and Chairmen of the Board. They also released Parliament's first album, Osmium.  The label was distributed by Capitol Records from 1969 to 1972 and then by Columbia Records from 1973 onwards.

In September 1970, the British music magazine NME reported that Invictus had the UK's top two singles. Freda Payne's "Band of Gold" was #1, while Chairmen of the Board's "Give Me Just a Little More Time" was #3 on the UK Singles Chart. Both records were million-sellers in the US, but neither topped the pop or R&B charts. Invictus had two other gold records: Freda Payne's "Bring the Boys Home" and 8th Day's "She's Not Just Another Woman", both in 1971.
Northern soul reached the peak of its popularity in the mid- to late-1970s. At this time, there were soul clubs in virtually every major town in the Midlands and the North of England. Some nightclubs regarded as the most important in this decade were the Golden Torch, and Wigan Casino (1973 to 1981).

Although Wigan Casino is now the most well-known, the best-attended northern soul all-night venue at the beginning of the decade was actually the Golden Torch, where regular Friday night soul "all-nighters" began during the latter months of 1970. Chris Burton, the owner, stated that by 1972, the club had a membership of 12,500 and had hosted 62,000 separate customer visits.

In 1972, white soul group the Four Seasons released the song "The Night" from their May 1972 album Chameleon, a disco song which appealed to the northern soul scene, and as a result, it was successfully re-released in the UK in the spring of 1975.

Wigan Casino began its weekly soul all-nighters in September 1973. Wigan Casino had a much larger capacity than many competing venues and ran its events from 2am until 8am. There was a regular roster of DJs, including Russ Winstanley, Kev Roberts and Richard Searling. By 1976, the club had a membership of 100,000 people, and in 1978, it was voted the world's number-one discotheque by Billboard. This was during the heyday of the Studio 54 nightclub in New York City. By the late 1970s, the club had its own spin-off record label, Casino Classics.

By this time, Wigan Casino was coming under criticism from many soul fans about selling out the format and playing anything that came along. The contemporary black American soul was changing with the advent of funk, disco and jazz-funk, and the supply of recordings with the fast-paced northern soul sound began to dwindle rapidly. As a result, Wigan Casino DJs resorted to playing any kind of record that matched the correct tempo. Also, the club was subjected to intense media coverage and began to attract many otherwise uninterested people of whom the soul purists did not approve.

The northern soul movement between Wigan Casino's fans and Blackpool Mecca's wider approach accepted the more contemporary sounds of Philly soul, early disco and funk. Ian Levine broke from the northern soul mould by playing a new release by the Carstairs ("It Really Hurts Me Girl") in the early 1970s:
Back in England I found this dealer called John Anderson who'd moved from Scotland to Kings Lynn. I told him I wanted this Carstairs record and he'd just had a shipment in from America of 100,000 demo records from radio stations. We went through this collection, me, Andy Hanley, and Bernie Golding, and we found three copies of the Carstairs record. Went back to Blackpool, played the record and changed the whole scene. Blackpool Mecca suddenly became the home of this new Northern soul sound. I would've heard this record in 1973, when it was supposedly released, but not obtained it until 1974.

Other major northern soul venues in the 1970s include the Catacombs in Wolverhampton, Va Va's in Bolton, the Talk of the North all-nighters at the Pier and Winter Gardens in Cleethorpes, Tiffany's in Coalville, Samantha's in Sheffield, Neil Rushton's Heart of England soul club all-dayers at the Ritz in Manchester and the Nottingham Palais. As the 1970s progressed, the northern soul scene expanded even further nationally. There was a notable scene in the east of England: Shades Northampton was one of the leading venues in this area of the country during the early 1970s until it closed in 1975. Later came the all-nighters at the St Ivo Centre in St Ives, the Phoenix Soul club at the Wirrina Stadium in Peterborough and the Howard Mallett in Cambridge.  Other towns with notable northern soul venues at this time included Kettering, Coventry, Bournemouth, Southampton and Bristol.

1980s and later
When Wigan Casino closed in 1981, many believed the northern soul scene was on the verge of disintegrating. However, the late 1970s mod revival, the thriving scooterboy subculture, and the late 1980s acid jazz movement were popular among music fans. The popularity of the music was introduced by a wave of reissues and compilation albums from minor independent record labels. The rare groove boom started in the late 1980s with underground DJ Barrie Sharpe and Lascelles Gordon. Both played that brand of obscure American import records, singles and albums ("looking back retrospectively"), that they had in their collection.  These were bought from specialist import record shops such as Moondogs in East Ham and Contempo record shop at 42 Hanway Street in the West end of London, owned by John Abbey, founder of Blues & Soul magazine. The magazine also had its own record label (also called Contempo), releasing music from the 1970s, which, starting in 1984, played at a club previously known as Whisky-A-Go-Go, founded by Rene Gelston in Wardour Street.

Norman Jay's show was a collaboration with DJ Judge Jules, featuring a mainly urban soundtrack from the 1970s and 1980s mixed with early house music. Tracks similar to "rare grooves" had begun to see a following in the 1970s northern soul movement, which curated a collection of rare and obscure soul. Many of these labels were set up by DJs and collectors who had been part of the original northern soul scene. The 1980s – often dismissed as a low period for Northern soul by those who had left the scene in the 1970s — featured almost 100 new venues in places such as Bradford, London, Peterborough, Leighton Buzzard, Whitchurch, Coventry and Leicester. Pre-eminent among the 1980s venues were Stafford's Top of the World and London's 100 Club.

Today there are regular northern soul events in various parts of the United Kingdom, such as the Nightshift Club all-nighters at the Bisley Pavilion in Surrey and the Prestatyn Weekender in North Wales. In an August 2008 article in The Times, broadcaster Terry Christian argued that northern soul was undergoing a distinct revival in the late 2000s. Christian cited the popularity of regular revivals of Twisted Wheel soul all-nighters at the original venue (in Whitworth Street, Manchester) plus the Beat Boutique northern soul all-nighters at the Ruby Lounge and MMUnion in Manchester. Many who ceased their involvement in the late 1970s have now returned to the scene and regularly participate in such events. In 2009, Paul O'Grady included a Northern Soul Triple in his weekly BBC Radio 2 show. He played three Northern soul hits, often at the request of his listeners.

The Northern soul movement inspired the film Soulboy (2010), directed by Shimmy Marcus, and at least one novel: Do I Love You? (2008) by Paul McDonald. In June 2010, theatre director Fiona Laird wrote and directed Keeping the Faith, a musical based on the Wigan Casino scene and featuring northern soul music. It was staged at the Central School of Speech and Drama's Webber Douglas Studio, with a revival at the same venue in September 2010.

According to Will Hermes of Rolling Stone, the 2008 Raphael Saadiq album The Way I See It is an original evocation of "classic Northern soul". The music of Yorkshire singer John Newman has also been described as 'northern soul', including his No. 1 hit "Love Me Again". One version of the video for the song features stereotypical Northern soul dancing; additionally, the track samples the famous soul drum break from James Brown's "Funky Drummer", performed by Clyde Stubblefield.

Northern soul music

In the book Last Night a DJ Saved My Life: the history of the DJ, the authors describe northern soul as "a genre built from failures", stating: "... Northern soul was the music made by hundreds of singers and bands who were copying the Detroit sound of Motown pop. Most of the records were complete failures in their own time and place ... but in Northern England from the end of the 1960s through to its heyday in the middle 1970s, were exhumed and exalted."

Music style
Other related music styles also gained acceptance in the northern soul scene. Slower, less-danceable soul records were often played, such as Barbara Mills' "Queen of Fools" (popular in 1972 at the Golden Torch) and the Mob's "I Dig Everything About You". Every all-nighter at Wigan Casino ended with the playing of three well-known northern soul songs with a particular going home theme. These came to be known as the "3 before 8" and were: "Time Will Pass You By" by Tobi Legend, "Long After Tonight is Over" by Jimmy Radcliffe and "I'm on My Way" by Dean Parrish. Commercial pop songs that matched the up-tempo beat of the stompers were also played at some venues, including the Ron Grainer Orchestra's instrumental "Theme From Joe 90" at Wigan Casino and the Just Brothers' surf-guitar song "Sliced Tomatoes" at Blackpool Mecca.

As the scene developed in the mid and late 1970s, the more contemporary and rhythmically sophisticated sounds of disco and Philly Soul became accepted at certain venues following its adoption at Blackpool Mecca. This style is typified musically by the O'Jays' "I Love Music" (UK No. 13, January 1976), which gained popularity before its commercial release at Blackpool Mecca in late 1975. The record that initially popularised this change is usually cited as the Carstairs "It Really Hurts Me Girl" (Red Coach), a record initially released late in 1973 on promotional copies but quickly withdrawn due to lack of interest from American radio stations. The hostility towards any contemporary music style from northern soul traditionalists at Wigan Casino led to the creation of the spin-off modern soul movement in the early 1980s.

Rarity of northern soul records
Some northern soul records were so rare that only a handful of copies were known to exist, so specific DJs and clubs became associated with particular records that were almost exclusively in their own playlists. Keith Rylatt and Phil Scott wrote: As venues such as the Twisted Wheel evolved into northern soul clubs in the late 1960s and the dancers increasingly demanded newly discovered sounds, DJs began to acquire and play rare and often deleted US releases that had not gained even a release in the UK. These records were sometimes obtained through specialist importers or, in some cases, by DJs visiting the US and purchasing old warehouse stock. Many of the original singers and musicians remained unaware of their newfound popularity for many years.

As the scene increased in popularity, a network of UK record dealers emerged who could acquire further copies of the original vinyl and supply them to fans at prices commensurate with their rarity and desirability. Later on, several UK record labels capitalised on the booming popularity of northern soul and negotiated licences for certain popular records from the copyright holders and reissue them as new 45s or compilation LPs. Among these labels were Casino Classics, PYE Disco Demand, Inferno, Kent Modern and Goldmine.

The notoriety of DJs on the northern soul scene was enhanced by the possession of rare records, but exclusivity was not enough on its own. The records had to conform to a certain musical style and gain acceptance on the dance floor. Northern soul collectors seek rare singles by artists such as Holly Maxwell, Gene Chandler, Barbara Acklin, the Casualeers, and Jimmy Burns. Frank Wilson's "Do I Love You (Indeed I Do)" has been rated the rarest and most valuable northern soul single. In December 2014, collectors were bidding over £11,000 for a copy of the London Records version of Darrell Banks' "Open the Door to Your Heart", thought to be the only copy in circulation. It had previously been thought that all the original versions had been destroyed when rival label EMI won the rights to release the single.

Hits and favourites
The northern soul movement spawned an active market in reissuing older soul recordings in the UK, several of which became popular enough to make the UK charts several years after their original issue. Dave Godin is generally credited with being the first UK entrepreneur to start this trend, setting up the Soul City label in 1968, and striking a deal with EMI to license Gene Chandler's 1965 recording "Nothing Can Stop Me", which had been popular for several years at the Twisted Wheel. Issued as a 45 on Soul City, the track peaked at UK No. 41 in August 1968, becoming the first northern soul-derived chart hit. A few months later, in January 1969, Jamo Thomas' 1966 single "I Spy (For the FBI)" was similarly licensed and reissued, hitting UK No. 44.

The trend continued into the 1970s, as songs from the 1960s that were revived on the northern soul scene were reissued by their original labels and became UK top 40 hits. These include the Tams' 1964 recording "Hey Girl Don't Bother Me" (UK No. 1, July 1971) – which was popularised by Midlands DJ Carl Dene – the Fascinations' 1966 single "Girls Are Out to Get You" (UK No. 32, 1971), the Elgins' "Heaven Must Have Sent You" (UK No. 3 July 1971), the Newbeats' 1965 American hit "Run, Baby Run (Back Into My Arms)" (UK No. 10, October 1971), Bobby Hebb's "Love Love Love" which was originally the B-side of "A Satisfied Mind" (UK No. 32, August 1972), Robert Knight's "Love on a Mountain Top" recorded in 1968 (UK No. 10, November 1973) and R. Dean Taylor's "There's a Ghost in My House" from 1967 (UK No. 3, May 1974).

The northern soul scene also spawned lesser chart hits, including Al Wilson's 1968 cut "The Snake" (UK No. 41 in 1975), Dobie Gray's "Out on the Floor" (UK No. 42, September 1975) and Little Anthony & the Imperials' "Better Use Your Head" (UK No. 42, July 1976).

Various recordings were made later in the 1970s specifically aimed at the northern soul scene, which also went on to become UK top 40 hits. These included: the Exciters' "Reaching For the Best" (UK No. 31, October 1975), L. J. Johnson's "Your Magic Put a Spell on Me" (UK No. 27, February 1976), and Tommy Hunt's "Loving On the Losing Side" (UK No. 28, August 1976). "Goodbye Nothing To Say", by the white British group the Javells, was identified by Dave McAleer of Pye's Disco Demand label as having an authentic northern soul feel. McAleer gave acetates to Wigan Casino DJs Russ Winstanley, Kev Roberts, Richard Searling (a Wigan Casino DJ and promoter), and the tune became popular among the dancers at the venue. The song was also the subject of potential legal action against the writers of Maxine Nightingale's "Right Back Where We Started From". Disco Demand then released the song as a 45 rpm single, reaching UK No. 26 in November 1974. To promote the single on BBC's Top of the Pops, the performer was accompanied by two Wigan Casino dancers.

In at least one case, a previously obscure recording was specially remixed to appeal to northern soul fans: the 1968 recording "Footsee" by Canadian group the Chosen Few was sped up, overdubbed and remixed to emerge as the 1975 UK No. 9 hit "Footsee", now credited to Wigan's Chosen Few. In addition, the northern soul favourite "Skiing in the Snow", originally by the Invitations, was covered by local band Wigan's Ovation, and reached No. 12 in the UK Singles Chart. These versions were not well received by the northern soul community as their success brought wider awareness to the subculture.

The first domestic disco hit, "Kung Fu Fighting" (UK No. 1, 1974), which was created by singer Carl Douglas and producer Biddu in Britain, was influenced by the northern soul scene.

In 2000, Wigan Casino DJ Kev Roberts compiled The Northern Soul Top 500, which was based on a survey of northern soul fans. The top ten songs were: "Do I Love You (Indeed I Do)" by Frank Wilson, "Out on the Floor" by Dobie Gray, "You Didn't Say a Word" by Yvonne Baker, "The Snake" by Al Wilson, "Long After Tonight is Over" by Jimmy Radcliffe, "Seven Day Lover" by James Fountain, "You Don't Love Me" by Epitome of Sound, "Looking for You" by Garnet Mimms, "If That's What You Wanted" by Frankie Beverly & the Butlers and "Seven Days Too Long" by Chuck Wood.

Fashion and imagery

A large proportion of northern soul's original audience came from the 1960s mod subculture. In the late 1960s, when some mods started embracing freakbeat and psychedelic rock, other mods – especially those in Northern England – stuck to the original soundtrack of soul and Blue Beat. From the latter category, two strands emerged: skinheads and the northern soul scene.

Early Northern soul fashion included strong elements of the classic mod style, such as button-down Ben Sherman shirts, blazers with centre vents and unusual numbers of buttons, trickers and brogue shoes and shrink-to-fit Levi's jeans. Some non-mod items, such as bowling shirts, were also popular. Later, northern soul dancers started to wear light and loose-fitting clothing for reasons of practicality. This included high-waisted, baggy Oxford bags and sports vests. These were often covered with sew-on badges representing soul club memberships.

The clenched raised fist symbol that has become associated with the northern soul movement emanates from the 1960s Black Power movement in the United States. On his visit to the Twisted Wheel in 1971, Dave Godin recalled that "...very many young fellows wore black "right on now" racing gloves ... between records one would hear the occasional cry of "right on now!" or see a clenched gloved fist rise over the tops of the heads of the dancers!"

In 2014, the clenched fist logo was subject to a trademark dispute in the UK after a bag retailer in Manchester tried to register the logo. The IPO refused the trademark, considering it generic. The ruling was unusual as it considered not just the usage from other manufacturers, but also its wide usage by members of the public to be relevant.

Drugs
In 2007, Andrew Wilson (lecturer in criminology at the University of Sheffield) published the extensively researched sociological study Northern Soul: Music, drugs and subcultural identity. This work details the lifestyles associated with the northern soul scene and the extensive use of amphetamines (otherwise known as speed) by many involved. Wilson argues that, although many did not use drugs, their usage was heavily ingrained in the fast-paced culture of the northern soul scene, contributing to participants' ability to stay up all night dancing. Many clubs and events were closed down or refused licences due to the concern of local authorities that soul nights attracted drug dealers and users. Roger Eagle, DJ at the Twisted Wheel club in Manchester, cited amphetamine usage among participants as his reason for quitting the club in 1967. Of the regular attendees, he said, "All they wanted was fast-tempo black dance music... [but they were] too blocked on amphetamines to articulate exactly which Jackie Wilson record they wanted me to play." According to Hillegonda C. Rietveld, northern soul "dancers were fuelled by...Dexedrine tablets".

Cultural legacy
The northern soul scene has notably influenced DJ culture and certain musicians and has been portrayed in literature, theatre and cinema.

Influence on DJ culture
The Northern soul movement is cited by many as being a significant step towards the creation of contemporary club culture and the superstar DJ culture of the 2000s. Two of the most notable DJs from the original northern soul era are Russ Winstanley and Ian Levine. As in contemporary club culture, northern soul DJs built up a following based on satisfying the crowd's desire for music they could not hear anywhere else. The competitiveness between DJs to unearth 'in-demand' sounds led them to cover up the labels on their records, giving rise to the modern white label pressing. Many argue that northern soul was instrumental in creating a network of clubs, DJs, record collectors and dealers in the UK. It was the first music scene to provide the British charts with records that sold entirely on the strength of club play.

A technique employed by northern soul DJs in common with their later counterparts was the sequencing of records to create euphoric highs and lows for the crowd. DJ, Laurence 'Larry' Proxton is known for this method. DJ personalities and their followers involved in the original Northern soul movement went on to become important figures in the house and dance music scenes. Notable among these are Mike Pickering, who introduced house music to the Haçienda in Manchester in the 1980s, the influential DJ Colin Curtis, Neil Rushton the A&R manager of the house music record label Kool Kat Music and the dance record producers Pete Waterman, Johnathan Woodliffe, Ian Dewhirst and Ian Levine.

Radio
Former Casino DJ Richard Searling presents a weekly radio show on BBC Radio Manchester, BBC Radio Stoke and SOLAR Radio (Sunday at 10am UK time) dedicated to northern soul, whilst John Kane's Northern Soul is broadcast across various BBC local radio stations in the North of England.

"Northern soul with Tony Deller" is broadcast each week on Cambridge community radio station Cambridge 105.

Australian DJ and PBS FM radio presenter Vince Peach absorbed the northern soul culture at the Twisted Wheel, where he also DJed, and took it to Australia in 1982. He started a dedicated Northern soul radio programme called Soul Time in 1984, which continues and is believed to be the longest-running Soul program in the World.

The Northern Soul Show with Stuart Blackburn has been broadcast weekly across various internet radio stations since 2010.

Craig Charles represents Northern soul in The Craig Charles Funk and Soul Show on BBC's Radio 6 Music.

Former Wigan Casino DJ Dave Evison presents the "Rolling Back the Carpets" northern soul show every Sunday from 5pm until 7pm in the UK on The Hitmix 107.5.

Influence on musicians

Northern soul has influenced several notable musicians. In his 2008 article about Northern soul for The Times, Terry Christian wrote: "There's an instant credibility for any artist or brand associated with a scene that has always been wild, free and grassroots".
 Soft Cell had chart success in the early 1980s with covers of two popular northern soul songs, "Tainted Love" (originally recorded by Gloria Jones) and "What?" (originally recorded by Melinda Marx on VJ, 1965, Judy Street 1966 and Tina Mason 1967). Soft Cell member Dave Ball to attend soul nights at Blackpool Mecca and Wigan Casino occasionally.
 The Fall's 1981 song "Lie Dream of a Casino Soul" is about the northern soul scene. Writer and singer Mark E. Smith said in an interview published in the NME on 1 October 1983: "That song actually did create quite a bit of resentment in the North because people thought it was being snobby and horrible about the old soul boys, which it was never about anyway. Because I was brought up with people that were into northern soul five years before anybody down here [London] had even heard about it. But they've all grown out of it, which is what the song is about, but it wasn't putting them down at all. If anything, it was glorifying them, but not in the format of, where are those soul boys that used to be here?"
 Moloko's "Familiar Feeling" video is set against a northern soul backdrop and directed by Elaine Constantine, a longstanding northern soul enthusiast. The video was choreographed by DJ Keb Darge, who rose to prominence at the Stafford Top of the World all-nighters in the 1980s.
 Fatboy Slim's 1998 big beat single "The Rockafeller Skank" samples the Just Brothers' "Sliced Tomatoes". The song reached number 6 in the UK Singles Chart and also had success in many other countries.
 The music video for Duffy's 2008 song "Mercy" features Duffy singing on a platform, accompanied by northern soul dancers performing elaborate moves.
 Plan B's 2010 album, The Defamation of Strickland Banks, displays a significant northern soul influence. The video for "Stay Too Long" features Northern soul-style dance moves such as spins, flips and backdrops. The album sleeve features Northern soul-style sew-on patches.
 The video for John Newman's "Love Me Again" featured northern soul dancing as a backdrop to a Romeo and Juliet-style romance.
 The video for the Courteeners' Are You in Love with a Notion? featured Northern soul dancing.
 The video for Above & Beyond's "Sun & Moon" contained Northern soul dancing.
Paul Stuart Davies recorded Northern Soul Reimagined EP in 2015, with guidance from Russ Winstanley, presenting classic northern soul tracks in a new light.
 Above & Beyond's 2017 release "Northern Soul" contains lyrics describing Detroit and the northern soul scene and also alludes to the decline of Detroit in the late 20th century.

Literature
The Northern soul subculture has spawned several memoirs, novels and short stories. Maxwell Murray's
Crackin Up: A Tale of Sex Drugs and Northern Soul was published in 1999. Ian Snowball and Pete McKenna published In the Blood in 2012 and a volume including their All Souled Out short stories and Nightshift memoir in 2013. Both focus on the East London scene. Chris Rose's 2014 Wood, Talc and Mr J takes a more literary approach and is based on the Sheffield scene. The "Mr J" in the title is Chuck Jackson. Northern soul also features in Nick Hornby's Juliet, Naked.

Several academic texts have been written on the topic of the northern soul scene, including The Northern Soul Scene (2019, Equinox) by Prof. Tim Wise (Birmingham City University), Dr Nicola Watchman Smith (Liverpool/ Advance HE) and Dr Sarah Raine.

Theatre
Northern Soul is the title of a 2012 theatre piece by the British visual and performance artist Victoria Melody. According to a description on the Solo Theatre website, 'Victoria, an untrained dancer, has been travelling the dance halls and living rooms of England being taught to dance by Northern Soul's ex-champions. Northern Soul draws on those investigations and explores the 'soul of the north' using film and original Northern Soul dance moves.'

Film
Films set in the northern soul scene include 2010's Soulboy and 2014's Northern Soul.

See also
 Southern soul
 Popcorn (music style)
 Funk
 Blues
 Gospel

References

Bibliography

External links
 Source Events Guide - Northern Soul Motown Funk Music Clubs - Upcoming soul events worldwide
 Soul Or Nothing – paper given at Manchester University in 2006
 Land of a Thousand Dances – by Dave Godin, published in Blues & Soul, issue 50, January 1971
 For Dancers Only: The story of Wigan Casino by Chris Hunt, published in Mojo, Spring 2002
 The Northern Soul Top 500 Copy of the lists from Kev Roberts' book 'The Northern Soul Top 500'.
 The Northern Soul Scene; Sarah Raine; Tim Wall; Nicola Watchman Smith The Northern Soul Scene, Wall, Watchman Smith, Raine.
 The Manchester Wheelers  – book about the Twisted Wheel club

Soul music genres
Music scenes
Musical subcultures
History of subcultures
Youth culture in the United Kingdom
Northern England
English styles of music
Mod (subculture)

Northern soul


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Today, Trusts & Estates publishes articles contributed by practitioners in the fields of estate planning and taxation, fiduciary professionals, family offices, insurance, investments, philanthropy, retirement benefits and valuations. According to trustsandestates.com, articles are generally peer-reviewed by an editorial advisory board. The journal is published 12 times per year with a Wealth Management Resource Guide bonus issue in December.

History
Christian A. Luhnow founded Trust Companies in March 1904 in response to the rise of the trust banking industry in the United States. Most of the 1,300 United States trust companies then in existence had been formed in the previous 25 years. Yet, according to the magazine back then, "no other financial institutions of comparatively recent growth have made such giant strides and at the same time are so little understood outside of those immediately interested."trusts in the 1800 were used as business techniques during the industrial growth these ways were often used by large companies

References
 Edward Ten Broeck Perine, "The Story of Trust Companies," at p. 216 (https://books.google.com/books?id=mGHYkxJBrhcC&pg=PA216&lpg=PA216&dq=Christian+A.+Luhnow&source=web&ots=MAH3a0pdl_&sig=Z1itUoHDEAO-ZNPbZ7WfKIj2nFg#PPA216,M1)
 Trusts & Estates-About Us (http://trustsandestates.com/about/)
 Sherman, Rorie, "Federal Tax Timeline," at p. 68 (http://subscribers.trustsandestates.com/mag/estate_federal_tax_timeline/index.html)

External links

Wills and trusts
Publications established in 1904

Trusts & Estates (journal)


Clovis I (variously spelled Chlodowech or Chlodwig, giving modern French Louis and modern German Ludwig) (c. 466 – November 27, 511) was the first king of the Franks who united that nation. He succeeded his father Childeric I in 481 as King of the Salian Franks, one of two main groups of Frankish tribes, They were occupying the area west of the lower Rhine at that time, with their centre around Tournai and Cambrai along the modern frontier between France and Belgium. Clovis conquered the neighbouring Frankish tribes and established himself as sole king before his death.

Clovis converted to Catholicism, as opposed to the Arian Christianity that was common among Germanic peoples, because his wife, the Burgundian Clotilde, was a Catholic. He was baptized in the Cathedral of Reims. This act was very important in the following history of France and Western Europe in general, because he expanded his reign over almost all of the old Roman province of Gaul (roughly modern France). He is considered to be the founder both of France (which his state closely resembled geographically at his death) and the Merovingian dynasty, which ruled the Franks for the next two centuries.

Notes

Sources

 Daly, William M., "Clovis: How Barbaric, How Pagan?" Speculum 69.3 July 1994, pp. 619–664.
 James, Edward. The Origins of France: Clovis to the Capetians 500-1000. Macmillan, 1982.
 Kaiser, Reinhold. Das römische Erbe und das Merowingerreich. München 2004. (Enzyklopädie deutscher Geschichte 26)
 Oman, Charles. The Dark Ages 476-918. Rivingtons: London, 1914.
 Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. The Long-haired Kings. London, 1962.
 The Oxford Merovingian Page.

466 births
511 deaths
Converts to Christianity
Kings and Queens of France

Clovis I


In photography, filmography and other visual arts, lead room, or sometimes nose room, is the space in front, and in the direction of, moving or stationary subjects. Well-composed shots leave space in the direction the subject is facing or moving. When the human eye scans a photograph for the first time it will expect to see a bit in front of the subject.

For example, moving objects such as cars require lead room. If extra space is allowed in front of a moving car, the viewer can see that it has someplace to go; without this visual padding, the car's progress will seem impeded.

See also

Headroom (photographic framing)
Rule of thirds

References

Photographic techniques
Rules of thumb
Composition in visual art

Lead room


Cave diving is scuba diving which is done in underwater caves. Cave divers dive for adventure but also to find fossils and gather data (dirt samples, water temperature, etc.) that helps scientists better understand the earth and the environment.

Cave diving is more dangerous than diving in open water:
 cave-ins can bury divers and drown them
 divers can panic from being in a small, enclosed space (a panic which is called "claustrophobia")
 divers use a guide line from the entrance to find the way out
 divers must take care not to run out of air inside the cave

References
 Nova: Extreme Cave Diving

Diving
Caves

Cave diving


Swatch Internet Time is a way to measure time invented in 1998 by the Swatch manufacturing firm in Biel/Bienne, Switzerland. Time is shown as an "@" mark with three numerals. The day starts with @000 for midnight. Noon is @500. Just before midnight is @999. The thousand parts which make up a day are called "dot beats" (.beats). Each dot beat is one minute and 26.4 seconds long. Midnight is the same as Central European Winter Time (UTC+1)and Internet Time is the same all over the world. It does not change during the Summer. People can use it to plan phone calls or Internet meetings. Most types of Linux can show Internet Time as the desktop clock.

time

Swatch Internet Time


A paladin or paladine was a person with a lot of power in many countries during the medieval and in early modern Europe.

The word paladin was first used in Ancient Rome for a chamberlain of the Emperor, and also for the imperial palace guard, called the Scholae Palatinae by Constantine. In the early Middle Ages, the meaning changed and the word was used for one of the highest officials of the Catholic Church in the pope's service and also for one of the big nobles of the Holy Roman Empire, who was then named Count Palatine. The word paladin was also used in 19th century Hungary and in the German Empire and United Kingdom during the early 20th century.

In medieval literature, the paladins or Twelve Peers were known in the Matter of France as the retainers of Charlemagne. Because of the way that this word was used in books, paladin was then known to be a knight with honor.

History

Ancient Rome
The paladins of the imperial guard were named after the Scholae Palatinae.

In the beginning, the word paladin was applied to the Chamberlains and to some soldiers guarding the palace of the Roman emperor. In Constantine's time, the word was also used for the best infantry of the army, the Praetorian Guard, that might guard the Roman Emperor during wars.

Holy Roman Empire
After the Middle Ages, the word palatine was put onto many different people of power across Europe. The most important of these was the comes palatinus, the count palatine, who in Merovingian and Carolingian times, was an official of the lords' household and court of law.

During the 800s, Carolingean rule came to an end and the title of Holy Roman emperor with it. About a century later, the title was made alive again by Otto I, though the new empire was now centered in Germany rather than France. The term palatine is found again under Charles IV, but they were less powerful than the previous palatines.

Modern usage
In the early days of England, the word palatinate, or county palatine, was also used in counties of lords who could use powers normally used by the crown.

In Britain and Germany, paladin was an official rank and was a very good title for one in the service of the emperors. It was a Knight with additional honours, they were allowed to use powers normally used by the crown.

Present day
The word "paladin" is still used to describe a good, heroic person, or a defender of a good cause.

Some role playing games now use paladins as a character class that you can choose when starting a new game.

References

Knights

Paladin


Dragnet was an American radio series, enacting the cases of a dedicated Los Angeles police detective, Sergeant Joe Friday, and his partners. The show took its name from the police term "dragnet", meaning a system of coordinated measures for apprehending criminals or suspects.

Dragnet is perhaps the most famous and influential  police procedural drama in media history. The series gave audience members a feel for the boredom and drudgery, as well as the danger and heroism, of police work. Dragnet earned praise for improving the public opinion of police officers.

Actor and producer Jack Webb's aims in Dragnet were for realism and unpretentious acting. He achieved both goals, and Dragnet  remains a key influence on subsequent police dramas in many media.

The show's cultural impact is such that after seven decades, elements of Dragnet are familiar to those who have never seen or heard the program. The ominous, four-note introduction to the brass and tympani theme music (titled "Danger Ahead"), composed by Walter Schumann, is instantly recognizable.  It is derived from Miklós Rózsa's score for the 1946 film version of The Killers. Another Dragnet trademark is the show's opening narration: "Ladies and gentlemen: the story you are about to hear is true. Only the names have been changed to protect the innocent." This underwent minor revisions over time. The "only" and "ladies and gentlemen" were dropped at some point. Variations on this narration have been featured in subsequent crime dramas, and in parodies of the dramas (e.g. "Only the facts have been changed to protect the guilty").

The radio series was the first entry in a Dragnet media franchise encompassing film, television, books and comics.

History and creation
Dragnet was created and produced by Jack Webb, who starred as stoic Sergeant Joe Friday.  Webb had starred in a few mostly short-lived radio programs, and Dragnet would make him a major media personality in his era.

Dragnet origins were in Webb's small role as a police forensic scientist in the 1948 film He Walked by Night, itself inspired by the violent 1946 crime spree of Erwin Walker, a disturbed World War II veteran and former Glendale, California, police department employee.  The film was depicted in semidocumentary style, and Marty Wynn (an LAPD sergeant from the Robbery Division) was a technical advisor on the film.  Inspired by Wynn's accounts of actual cases and criminal investigative procedure, Webb convinced Wynn that day-to-day activities of police officers could be realistically depicted in a broadcast series, without the forced melodrama heard in the numerous private-detective serials then common in radio programming. (The film contained two elements that would transfer over to the Dragnet television series: the opening text overlay containing the phrase mentioning that the story is true and "only the names are changed—to protect the innocent", which was then immediately followed by various shots of Los Angeles with a narrator beginning with the phrase "This is the city.  Los Angeles, California.")

Webb frequently visited police headquarters, rode along on night patrols with Sgt. Wynn and his partner Officer Vance Brasher, and attended Police Academy courses to learn authentic jargon and details that could be featured in a radio program. When he proposed Dragnet to NBC officials, they were not especially impressed; radio was aswarm with private investigators and crime dramas, such as Webb's earlier Pat Novak for Hire. That program didn't last long, but Webb received high marks for his role as the titular private investigator, and NBC agreed to a limited run for Dragnet.

With writer James E. Moser, Webb prepared an audition recording, then sought the LAPD's endorsement; he wanted to portray cases from official files to demonstrate the steps taken by police officers during investigations. The official response was initially lukewarm, but in 1949 LAPD Chief Clemence B. Horrall gave Webb the endorsement he sought. Police wanted control over the program's sponsor, and insisted that police not be depicted unflatteringly. This would lead to  criticism, as less flattering departmental aspects, such as LAPD's racial segregation policies, were never addressed.

Premiere

Dragnet debuted inauspiciously. The early months were bumpy, as the program was sustaining (as yet unable to attract a sponsor) and the budget was limited, forcing Webb to employ relatively few radio actors per episode. The network originally stressed a shrill, strident tone as popularized on rival show Gang Busters (the earliest Dragnet episodes mimic the Gang Busters opening, with an announcer shouting "Draaaaag...net!"). Webb put a stop to this after only a few episodes, with a different announcer adopting a more neutral delivery. Webb also discovered how versatile his actors were, and kept them on hand week after week. Barton Yarborough was there for every episode as Webb's partner, with character roles played variously by Harry Bartell, Vic Perrin, Virginia Gregg, Herb Butterfield, Jack Kruschen, Peggy Webber, Herb Ellis, Barney Phillips, and Clarence Cassell. All of these radio performers remained with Dragnet when it became a television series. During the radio show's first year, Raymond Burr was on board to play chief of detectives Ed Backstrand.

Jack Webb and company worked out the format and eventually grew somewhat comfortable with their characters (Friday was originally portrayed as more brash and forceful than his later, usually flat demeanor). Gradually, Friday's deadpan, fast-talking persona emerged, described by John Dunning as "a cop's cop, tough but not hard, conservative but caring." Friday's first partner was Sergeant Ben Romero, portrayed by Barton Yarborough, a longtime radio actor. After Yarborough's death in 1951 (and therefore Romero's, who died of a heart attack on the December 27, 1951 episode "The Big Sorrow"), Friday was partnered with Sergeant Ed Jacobs (December 27, 1951 – April 10, 1952, subsequently transferred to the police academy as an instructor), played by Barney Phillips; Officer Bill Lockwood (Ben Romero's nephew, April 17, 1952 – May 8, 1952), played by Martin Milner (with Ken Peters taking the role for the June 12, 1952 episode "The Big Donation"); and finally Frank Smith (introduced in "The Big Safe", May 1, 1952), played originally by Herb Ellis (1952), then Ben Alexander (1952–1959). Alexander would reprise the role of Smith for the initial television version and the 1954 film, making him Friday's longest-serving partner in all the franchise's media.

When Dragnet hit its stride, it was one of radio's top-rated shows. Webb insisted on realism. The dialogue was clipped, understated, and sparse, influenced by the hardboiled school of crime fiction. Scripts were fast-moving but did not seem rushed. Every aspect of police work was chronicled, step by step: from patrols and paperwork, to crime scene investigation, lab work, and questioning witnesses or suspects. The detectives' personal lives rarely took center stage. (Friday was a bachelor who lived with his mother; Romero, a Mexican-American from Texas, was an ever-fretful husband and father.) "Underplaying is still acting", Webb told Time. "We try to make it as real as a guy pouring a cup of coffee." Los Angeles police chiefs Clemence B. Horrall, William A. Worton, and (later) William H. Parker were credited as consultants, and many police officers were fans.

Most later episodes were entitled "The Big _", where the key word denoted a person or object in the plot. In numerous episodes, this would be the principal suspect, victim, or physical target of the crime, but in others was often a seemingly inconsequential detail eventually revealed as key evidence in solving the crime. For example, in "The Big Streetcar" the background noise of a passing streetcar helps establish the location of a phone booth used by the suspect.

Throughout the series' radio years, one can find glimpses of pre-renewal Downtown L.A., with working-class residents and the cheap bars, cafes, hotels, and boarding houses that served them. At the climax of the early episode "James Vickers" (September 17, 1949), the chase leads to the Subway Terminal Building, where the robber flees into a tunnel—only to be killed by an oncoming train. By contrast, in episodes set in outlying areas, it is clear that the locations are far less built up than they are today. Today, the Imperial Highway, extending 40 miles east from El Segundo to Anaheim, is a heavily used boulevard lined with low-rise commercial development. In the episode "The Big Chance" (February 4, 1954) scenes along the Highway, at "the road to San Pedro," clearly indicate that it retained much of the character of a country highway at that time.

Verisimilitude
Webb was a stickler for accurate details, and Dragnet used authentic touches, such as the LAPD's actual radio call sign (KMA367), and the names of actual department officials, such as Ray Pinker and Lee Jones of the crime lab or Chief of Detectives (and later LAPD Chief from 1967 to 1969) Thad Brown.

Two announcers were used.  Episodes began with announcer George Fenneman intoning the series opening ("The story you are about to hear is true; only the names have been changed to protect the innocent.") and Hal Gibney describing the premise of the episode. "Big Saint" (April 26, 1951) for example, begins with "You're a detective sergeant. You're assigned to auto theft detail. A well organized ring of car thieves begins operations in your city. It's one of the most puzzling cases you've ever encountered. Your job: break it."

After the first commercial, Gibney would officially introduce the program: "Dragnet, the documented drama of an actual crime. For the next thirty minutes, in cooperation with the Los Angeles Police Department, you will travel step-by-step on the side of the law through an actual case transcribed from official police files. From beginning to end—from crime to punishment—Dragnet is the story of your police force in action." The earliest episodes had an elaborate preamble: "Dragnet, the documented drama of an actual crime, investigated and solved by the men who unrelentingly stand watch on the security of your home, your family and your life," followed by the standard opening.

The story usually began with footsteps, followed by Joe Friday reporting the date and the local weather conditions, followed by the assignment of the day: "We were working the day watch out of Robbery Division. My partner's Ben Romero. The boss is Ed Backstrand, chief of detectives. My name's Friday." Friday would then narrate where he or both he and his partner were going, then the time he/they arrived at the location followed by a door opening and an elaboration of the location: "I was on my way in to work, and it was 4:58 PM when I got to Room 42 ... (door opening) Homicide." ("The Big String", January 18, 1953)

Friday offered voice-over narration throughout the episodes, noting the time, date and place of every scene as he and his partners went through their day investigating the crime. The events related in a given episode might occur in hours, or might span a few months. At least one episode unfolded in real time: in "City Hall Bombing" (July 21, 1949), Friday and Romero had less than thirty minutes to stop a man who was threatening to destroy the City Hall with a bomb. In one episode, "The Big Ben" (March 15, 1951), after Friday was shot and hospitalized Romero took over the voice-over narration for the remainder of the episode.

At the end of the episode, usually after a brief endorsement by Jack Webb for the sponsor's product, announcer Hal Gibney would relate the fate of the suspect, usually tried in "Department 187 of the Superior Court of the State of California, in and for the City and County of Los Angeles", convicted of a crime and sent (in most episodes) to "the State Penitentiary, San Quentin California" or "examined by [#] psychiatrists appointed by the court", judged mentally incompetent and "committed to a state mental hospital for an indefinite period".  Murderers were often "executed in the manner prescribed by law" or "executed in the lethal gas chamber at the State Penitentiary, San Quentin California". Occasionally, police pursued the wrong suspect, and criminals sometimes avoided justice or escaped, at least on the radio Dragnet. In 1950, Time quoted Webb: "We don't even try to prove that crime doesn't pay ... sometimes it does."

Specialized terminology was mentioned in every episode but rarely explained. Webb trusted the audience to determine the meanings of words or terms by their context, and Dragnet tried to avoid awkward, lengthy exposition that people would not use in daily speech. Some specialized terms such as "A.P.B." for "All Points Bulletin" and "M.O." for "Modus Operandi" were rarely used in popular culture before Dragnet introduced them to everyday America.

While most radio shows used one or two sound-effect experts, Dragnet used five: a script clocking in at just under 30 minutes could require up to 300 effects. Accuracy was underlined: The exact number of footsteps from one room to another at Los Angeles police headquarters were mimicked, and when a telephone rang at Friday's desk, the listener heard the same ring as the telephones in Los Angeles police headquarters. A single minute of ".22 Rifle for Christmas" is a representative example of the evocative sound effects featured on Dragnet. While Friday and others investigate bloodstains in a suburban backyard,  the listener hears a series of overlapping effects: a squeaking gate hinge, footsteps, a technician scraping blood into a paper envelope, the glassy chime of chemical vials, bird calls, and a dog barking in the distance.

Sometimes the mundane intruded. When shows ran short, directors stalled for time. In "The Big Crime", Dragnet interrupted a scene while a real-estate agent spent a full minute answering and explaining a phone call, simply filling in time.

The earliest radio programs ended each week with a remembrance  of fallen officers who died on the job. The remembrance would be read over somber organ music, and would be officers from all over the country. This remembrance was eventually phased out.

Topics and themes
Scripts tackled topics ranging from the thrilling (murders, missing persons and armed robbery) to the mundane (check fraud and shoplifting), yet Dragnet made them all interesting due to fast-moving plots and behind-the-scenes realism. In "The Garbage Chute" (December 15, 1949), they even had a locked room mystery.

Though tame by modern standards, Dragnet—especially on the radio—handled controversial subjects such as sex crimes and drug addiction with unprecedented and even startling realism.  In one such example, Dragnet broke an unspoken (and rarely broached) taboos of popular entertainment in the episode ".22 Rifle for Christmas" which aired December 22, 1949 and repeated at Christmastime for the next three years. The episode followed the search for two young boys, Stanley Johnstone and Stevie Morheim, only to discover Stevie had been accidentally killed while playing with a rifle that belonged to Stanleywho was supposed to receive it as a Christmas present but opened the box early. Stanley finally told Friday that Stevie had been running while holding the rifle when he tripped and fell, causing the gun to discharge, fatally wounding Morheim. NBC received thousands of letters, most of which were positive, according to the book My Name's Friday. There was a protest by the National Rifle Association. Webb forwarded their letter over to police chief Parker who promised "ten more shows illustrating the folly of giving rifles to children".

".22 Rifle for Christmas" was replaced as the series' Christmas story on December 22, 1953 with "The Big Little Jesus", which followed the detectives' investigation of the theft of a statue of the baby Jesus from a church Nativity scene. With its happier ending than ".22 Rifle", this episode was repeated at Christmastime the following year. The late-1960s TV version of Dragnet included a newly produced version of "The Big Little Jesus", which featured Barry Williams (later of The Brady Bunch) as one of the altar boys.

Another episode dealt with high school girls who, rather than finding Hollywood stardom, fall in with fraudulent talent scouts and end up in pornography and prostitution. Both this episode and ".22 Rifle for Christmas" were adapted for television, with few script changes, when Dragnet moved to that medium. An episode, "The Big Trio" (July 3, 1952), detailed three cases in one episode, including reckless and dangerous (in this case, fatal) driving by unlicensed juveniles. With regard to drugs, Webb's strident anti-drug statements, continuing through the TV run, would be derided as camp by later audiences; yet his character later showed concern and sympathy for addicts as victims, especially in the case of juveniles.

The tone was usually serious, but with moments of comic relief: Romero was something of a hypochondriac and often seemed henpecked; Frank Smith continually complained about his brother-in-law Armand; though Friday dated, he usually dodged women who tried to set him up with marriage-minded dates.

Due in part to Webb's fondness for radio drama, Dragnet persisted on radio until 1957 (the last two seasons were repeats) as one of the last old time radio shows to give way to television's growing popularity. A total of 314 original episodes were broadcast from 1949 through 1957. In fact, the TV show proved to be a visual version of the radio show, as the style was virtually the same [including the scripts, as the majority were adapted from radio]. The TV show could be listened to without watching, with no loss of understanding of the storyline.

The radio show was also adapted into a comic strip by Mel Keefer.

"Just the facts, ma'am"
While "Just the facts, ma'am" is known as Dragnet'''s catchphrase (it has been parodied many times by other productions), that precise phrase was never actually uttered by Joe Friday. The closest lines were "All we want are the facts, ma'am" and "All we know are the facts, ma'am".  The "Just the facts, ma'am" phrase did appear in the parody St. George and the Dragonet, a 1953 short audio satire by Stan Freberg. The phrase was spoken by Ben Alexander in a 1966 cameo appearance on Batman. The phrase was used in the film L.A. Confidential, a reference to Badge of Honor, a fictitious TV show similar to Dragnet.

Main cast
 Jack Webb as Los Angeles Police Department (L.A.P.D) Detective Sergeant Joseph "Joe" Friday
 Barton Yarborough as  Friday's partner, Los Angeles Police Department (L.A.P.D) Sergeant Benjamin "Ben" Romero (1949–1951)
 Martin Milner/Ken Peters as Friday's partner Los Angeles Police Department (L.A.P.D.) Detective William "Bill" Lockwood (1951)
 Barney Phillips as Friday's partner, Los Angeles Police Department (L.A.P.D) Sergeant Edward "Ed" Jacobs (1952)
 Harry Bartell/Herb Ellis/Vic Perrin/Ben Alexander as Friday's longest serving partner in the entire franchise, Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) Officer Franklin "Frank" Smith (1952–1959) (Ellis also played Smith in five episodes of the TV series, before being replaced by Alexander, who reprised his role alongside Webb for both the 1954 film and in most of the episodes of the original 1951 television show)
 Charles McGraw/Raymond Burr as Los Angeles Police Department (L.A.P.D.) Chief of Detectives Ed Backstrand. (ep 1–28)
 Tol Avery as Los Angeles Police Department (L.A.P.D.) Chief of Detectives Thaddeus "Thad" Franklin Brown (ep 29+)
 Herb Butterfield as Los Angeles Police Department (L.A.P.D.) Scientific Investigation Division (S.I.D) Crime lab technician Lieutenant Leland "Lee" Jones/Various
 Olan Soule as Los Angeles Police Department (L.A.P.D.) Scientific Investigation Division (S.I.D) Crime lab technician Raymond "Ray" Pinker.
 Peggy Webber as Ma Friday, Joe's Mother/Various.

Other Principal Actors:	Frank Lovejoy, Paul Frees, Ted DeCorsia, Hans Conried, Homer Welch, Parley Baer, Harry Morgan, Betty Lou Gerson, Herb Vigran, Jeff Chandler, William Johnstone, Tony Barrett, William Conrad, Richard Boone, Whitfield Connor, George McCluskey, Stacy Harris, Charles Smith, Eddie Firestone, Virginia Gregg, Ralph Moody, Helen Kleeb, Jack Kruschen, Marion Richman, Martin Milner, Victor Rodman, Inge Jollos, June Whitley, Gil Stratton, Sam Edwards, Joyce McCluskey, Ken Patterson, Gwen Delano, Cliff Arquette, Sarah Selby, Edwin Bruce, Sammy Ogg, June Whitley, Peter Leeds, Lee Marvin, Carolyn Jones, Jean Tatum, Art Gilmore, Paul Richards, Lillian Buyeff, Irene Tedrow, Michael Ann Barrett, Vivi Janiss, Georgia Ellis & Bert Holland.

Episodes

References

Sources
John Dunning, On The Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio'', Oxford University Press, 1998, .

External links

Dragnet Radio Show on Old Time Radio Outlaws

Dragnet (franchise)
1949 radio programme debuts
1957 radio programme endings
1940s American radio programs
1950s American radio programs
American radio dramas
Detective radio shows
Radio programs adapted into television shows
Radio programs adapted into comics
Fictional portrayals of the Los Angeles Police Department
NBC radio programs

Dragnet (radio series)


The denarius was a small silver coin used by the Roman Empire and Roman Republic. The denarius weighed about 3 to 4.5 grams. It was the main coin of Ancient Rome. It became the most common coin produced for circulation but was slowly debased in weight and silver content. The coin was then sometimes made of copper and painted silver in color. During the Empire the front side usually had a picture of the emperor on it.

The denarius was introduced in 211 BC, and was last made in 275 AD. By then it was made of bronze.

Roman coins
3rd-century BC establishments
3rd-century disestablishments

Denarius


Battery Park City is a 92-acre (0.4 km²) planned community at the southwestern tip of Lower Manhattan in New York City, United States. The land upon which it stands was created on the Hudson River using 1.2 million cubic yards (917,000 m3) of dirt and rocks excavated during the construction of the World Trade Center and certain other construction projects, as well as from sand dredged from New York Harbor off Staten Island. The neighborhood, which is the site of the World Financial Center along with many housing, commercial, and retail buildings, is named for adjacent Battery Park.

Battery Park City is owned and managed by the Battery Park City Authority (BPCA), a public-benefit corporation created by New York State under the authority of the Urban Development Corporation. It was founded and ran by Charles J. Urstadt. Excess revenue from the area was to be contributed to other housing efforts, typically low-income projects in the Bronx and Harlem.

Other websites

Battery Park Blog - Covering Battery Park City, the Financial District, and Tribeca
Battery Park City News, Events & Food
Battery Park City Authority

Manhattan

Battery Park City


Religious Zionism (Hebrew: ציונות דתית - Tziyonut Datit) is a branch of Zionism. It is a combination of Zionism and Judaism.

Religious Zionists are in favour of a State of Israel, that is mainly populated by Jews and dominated by Judaism.

In their view the State of Israel should encompass the entire Land of Israel (Eretz Yisrael). This includes the so-called Palestinian territories (West Bank, Gaza Strip) and also the Golan Heights.

Religious Zionism dominates Modern Orthodox Judaism in Israel.

Politically Religious Zionists can especially be found in HaBayit HaYehudi (The Jewish Home) but also in HaLikud.

Jewish denominations
Judaism in Israel
Zionism

Religious Zionism


Wilhelm Normann (16 January 1870, in Petershagen – 1 May 1939, in Chemnitz) (sometimes also spelled Norman) was a German chemist who introduced the hydrogenation of fats in 1901. This invention, protected by German patent 141,029 in 1902, had a profound influence on the production of margarine and vegetable shortening.

Early life and education
His father, Julius Normann, was the principal of the elementary school and Selekta in Petershagen. His mother was Luise Normann, née Siveke.

Normann attended primary school from 31 March 1877. At Easter of his sixth grade he moved to the Friedrichs Gymnasium in Herford. After his father applied for a teacher's job at the municipal secondary school in Kreuznach, Wilhelm changed to the Royal Secondary School in Kreuznach. He passed his examinations and left school at the age of 18.

Career
Normann began work at the Herford machine fat and oil factory Leprince & Siveke in 1888. The founder of that company was his uncle, Wilhelm Siveke. After running a branch of the company in Hamburg for two years, he started studying chemistry at the laboratory of Professor Carl Remigius Fresenius in Wiesbaden. From April 1892 Normann continued his studies at the department of oil analytics at the Berlin Institute of Technology under the supervision of Professor D. Holde. From 1895 to 1900 he studied chemistry under supervision of Prof. Claus and Prof. Willgerod and geology under supervision of Prof. Steinmann at the Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg. There he received his doctorate in 1900 with a work about Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Reaktion zwischen unterchlorigsauren Salzen und primären aromatischen Aminen ("Contributions to the knowledge of the reactions of hypochlorite salts and primary aromatic amines"). In 1901 Normann was appointed as correspondent of the Federal Geological Institute.

Primary work
From 1901 to 1909 he was head of the laboratory at Leprince & Siveke, where conducted investigations of the properties of fats and oils.

In 1901 Normann heard about Paul Sabatier publishing an article, in which Sabatier stated that only with vaporizable organic compounds it is possible to bind catalytic hydrogen to fluid tar oils. Normann investigated and disproved Sabatier's assertion. He was able to transform liquid oleic acid into solid stearic acid by the use of catalytic hydrogenation with dispersed nickel. This was the precursor of saturated fat hardening.

On 27 February 1901 Normann invented what he called fat hardening, which was the process of producing saturated fats. On 14 August 1902 the German Imperial patent office granted patent 141,029 to the Leprince & Siveke Company, and on 21 January 1903 Normann was granted the British patent, .

During the years 1905 to 1910 Normann built a fat hardening facility in the Herford company. In 1908 the patent was bought by Joseph Crosfield & Sons Limited of Warrington, England. From the autumn of 1909 hardened fat was being successfully produced in what in a large scale plant in Warrington. The initial year's production was nearly .

When Lever Brothers produced a rival process Crosfield took them to court over patent infringement, which Crosfield lost.

From 1911 to 1922, Normann was scientific director of Ölwerke Germania (Germania Oil Factory) in Emmerich am Rhein, which was established by the Dutch Jürgens company.

From 1917, Normann built a fat hardening factory in Antwerp for the margarine company SAPA Societe anonyme des grasses, huiles et produits africaines, which operated in India. He served as technical director by order of the Belgian Colonial Society.

On 25 April 1920 he filed for German patent 407180 Verfahren zur Herstellung von gemischten Glyceriden (Procedure for the production of mixed glycerides), which was approved on 9 December 1924.

On 26 June 1920 the Firma Oelwerke Germania and Dr Wilhelm Normann filed for German patent 417215, Verfahren zur Umesterung von Fettsaurestern. (Procedure for the transesterification of fatty esters), which was approved on 27 September 1925.

From 1924 to 1927 Normann was a consultant for fat hardening facilities for foreign companies.

On 30 October 1926 Normann and the Volkmar Haenig & Comp, Metallochemische Werk Rodlebe company filed for German patent 564894, for Elektrisch beheizter Etagenroester (Electrically heated esters), approved 24 November 1932.

On 14 May 1929 he applied for German patent 582266, Verfahren zur Darstellung von Estern (Procedure for the representation of esters), which was approved on 11 August 1933.

Personal life
Normann married Martha Uflerbäumer of Herford on 12 September 1916.

On 1 January 1939 Normann retired, and he died on 1 May 1939 after an illness in the Küchwald Hospital in Chemnitz. He was entombed on 5 May 1939 in the family grave at the old cemetery on Hermannstrasse in Herford.

Awards
 8 June 1922: Award of the Liebig Medal by the German Chemical Society.
 February 1939: awarded an honorary doctorate of natural sciences by the Faculty of Natural Sciences and the senate of the University of Münster in Westfalen.
 1939: awarded honorary membership in the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Fettforschung (DGF; German Society for Fat Research), today Deutsche Gesellschaft für Fettwissenschaft (German Society for Fat Science), Münster.

In commemoration of the inventor of fat hardening the DGF donated the Wilhelm Normann Medal on 15 May 1940. Since 1940 it has been irregularly awarded.

The Wilhelm-Normann-Berufskolleg (Wilhelm Normann Professional College) in Herford was named after Normann.

See also
 Timeline of hydrogen technologies

References

External links
 Portrait and life
 Chronology of his life, in German
 Life history, in German

1870 births
1939 deaths
Food chemists
People from Petershagen
People from Lidzbark Warmiński
Catalysis
University of Freiburg alumni

Wilhelm Normann


Magic User's Club is an anime created by Junichi Sato. There were two manga released for it. One is for girls and the other is for boys.

Plot
A huge spaceship called "the Bell" comes to Earth. People try to stop the Bell, but they are not able to. A group of high school students called the "Magic User's Club" fight the Bell using magic.

Characters
Sae Sawanoguchi: Sae is a new member in the Magic Club. She wants to do magic, but she is very clumsy. She loves Takeo, but she is too shy to tell him.

Nanaka Nakatomi: Nanaka is a new member of the Magic Club. She is Sae's best friend. Nanaka does not want to be in the Magic Club. She stays in the Magic Club because Sae loves the Magic Club. Nanaka loves Aburatsubo, but she doesn't think he will love her back.

Akane Aikawa: Akane is a new member of the Magic Club. She is rich and pretty. She thinks magic is easy. She works as a model.

Takeo Takakura: Takeo is the leader of the Magic Club. He is a pervert. He loves Sae, but he is too nervous to tell her.

Ayanojyo Aburatsubo: Aburatsubo is a member of the Magic Club. He is good at magic. He is good at tennis and acting too. He loves Takeo, but Takeo doesn't love him back.

Anime

Magic User's Club


The Central Committee of the Liberated Jews (ZK) was an organization which represented Jewish displaced persons in the American Zone of the post-World War II Germany, during 1945–1950.

The organization was founded on July 1, 1945, through the efforts of Dr. Zalman Grinberg, former director of the Kovno ghetto hospital; rabbi Abraham Klausner, a chaplain of the US Army; and others. On September 7, 1946, the committee was recognized as "the legal and democratic representation of the liberated Jews in the American zone" by the  American military government in Germany.

The first chairman was Zalman Gringberg, succeeded by David Treger (in 1946) after Grinberg's emigration to Palestine and then by Abraham Treger. Abraham Treger served as the committee's chairman between 1946 and 1948 and then emigrated with his wife Ida to Haifa, Israel.

History

In the American sector, the Jewish community across many Displaced Persons camps organized itself rapidly for purposes of representation and advocacy. Working committees were established in each DP camp, and on July 1, 1945, the committees met for a founding session of a federation for Jewish DP camp committees in Feldafing. The session also included representatives of the Jewish Brigade and the Allied military administration. It resulted in the formation of a provisional council and an executive committee chaired by Zalman Grinberg.

The Central Committee  declared its dissolution on December 17, 1950, at its headquarters, the Deutsches Museum in Munich. Of the original group that founded the committee, only rabbi Samuel Snieg remained for the dissolution. All the others had already emigrated, most of them to Israel. Rabbi Snieg had remained to complete the first full edition of the Talmud published in Europe after the Holocaust, the so-called Survivors' Talmud.

See also
Bricha

References

Further reading
From the CCLJ webpage:
Bauer, Yehuda. "The Organization of Holocaust Survivors," Yad Vashem Studies, vol. 8 (1970)
Hyman, Abraham S. The Undefeated, Jerusalem, 1993
Mankowitz, Zev. "The Formation of She'erit Hapleita," Yad Vashem Studies, vol. 20 (1990)
Schwarz, Leo. The Redeemers, New York, 1953

Organisations based in Munich
Jewish organisations based in Germany
Aftermath of World War II
Organizations established in 1945
Jewish refugee aid organizations

Central Committee of the Liberated Jews


Inflection (or inflexion) is a piece added to a word to express variations in grammar. The added bits are called affixes. They are prefixes (in front), suffixes (at the end) and infixes (in the middle). They are added to the root, the part of the word which does not change.

Some languages such as Latin or Sanskrit have complex inflections that they apply to most of their words. Others, such as English, are less inflected. Some, such as Mandarin Chinese, use no inflections.

Examples in English:

 Write, writes, wrote, written are tenses of the verb to write. Inflecting a verb is called conjugation.
 Sing, sang, sung
 Dog, dogs is a noun inflected for number. Inflecting a noun is called declension.
 Foot, feet
 Mouse, mice
 Child, children
 Dog's, dogs are nouns in the genitive case, which means that the word after are owned by the dog or dogs.
 I, me, and myself are all cases', or different word forms, of the first-person pronoun.
my can be used as adjective and mine can be used as pronoun. Hence can be considered as use of inflection apart from example of derivation

Grammar

Inflection


The windshield (American English) or windscreen (Commonwealth English) is the front window of a vehicle. It lets drivers see out while at the same time protecting passengers and the driver from weather. Aircraft, cars, buses, motorbikes or trams can all have windshields.

Windshields on cars and aircraft are designed to protect the vehicle against wind and flying debris (such as dust, rocks, and insects). Windshields on motorbikes are designed to shield the driver from wind, though it doesn't protect as much as other vehicle windshields do.

Modern windshields are generally made of laminated safety glass, a type of treated glass. The laminated safety glass used for vehicles is made of two curved sheets of glass with a plastic layer between them. This laminated safety glass is then joined into the window frame.

Motorbike windshields are different to the ones found on cars or aircraft. Motorbike windshields are often made of high-impact polycarbonate or acrylic plastic.

History

Before laminated safety glass, vehicles used ordinary window glass as a windshield. However, ordinary window glass can shatter if the vehicle had a massive physical impact, which would produce flying sharp pieces of glass that can injure people. On 1917, Henry Ford developed the laminated safety glass from the French, which would help prevent broken glass from shattering. Modern windshields were developed from Ford's developments.

Other websites

Vehicles
Windows (architecture)

Windshield


Radar Records was a UK-based record label formed in late 1977 by Martin Davis (managing director) who had previously worked at United Artists Records, and Andrew Lauder, who had previously been head of A&R at the UK divisions of Liberty Records and United Artists. The label's first records were released in early 1978.

Overview
Radar was distributed in most of the world by WEA Records (now known as Warner Music Group). In the United States, three Radar artists (the Inmates, Bram Tchaikovsky and Yachts)  were signed to Polydor Records through a licensing deal.

Nick Lowe released both the first Radar single ("I Love the Sound of Breaking Glass"/"They Called It Rock", ADA 1) and its first album (Jesus of Cool, RAD 1). Lowe had previously been signed to Stiff Records, as had several other Radar acts, including Yachts, Richard Hell and the Voidoids,  and Radar's major act, Elvis Costello and the Attractions. Costello and Lowe were brought to Radar by their manager Jake Riviera when Riviera left Stiff, which he had co-founded.

Other prominent Radar acts included La Düsseldorf, the Pop Group, Loudon Wainwright III, Pere Ubu, Clive Langer and the Boxes, 999, Wayne Kramer, the Soft Boys, Bette Bright and the Illuminations, Tanz Der Youth, Visage and Métal Urbain. Several of Radar's early releases (including Iggy Pop and James Williamson's Kill City, National Lampoon's That's Not Funny, That's Sick!, the Good Rats' From Rats to Riches and Pezband's Laughing in the Dark) were licensed from independent American labels. Radar also released new albums by original 1950s rockabilly singers Ray Campi and Mac Curtis through an arrangement with Rollin' Rock Records.

Some Radar releases were reissues of garage rock and psychedelic rock bands from the 1960s. Through its WEA connections, Radar was able to rerelease recordings by the Shadows of Knight (originally on the Atlantic-distributed Dunwich Records) and the Electric Prunes (originally on the Warner Bros.-distributed Reprise Records). In addition, Radar licensed the International Artists catalog, allowing them to reissue albums by the 13th Floor Elevators and the Red Krayola. Radar also released new recordings by the Red Krayola's late 1970s lineup.

The original Radar label put out its last release in 1981, but it was revived with a new roster between 1995 and 1998. Notable bands signed to the second version of Radar included Midget,  Prolapse, Acacia, Morning Glories, Heave, Unsophisticates and Pure Morning, a precursor of Clinic.

See also
 List of record labels

References

External links
 Discography (scroll down)

Defunct record labels of the United Kingdom
Record labels established in 1978
Record labels disestablished in 1981
Record labels established in 1995
Record labels disestablished in 1998
Re-established companies
New wave record labels
Rock record labels
Warner Music labels

Radar Records


Rock Lodge Club is a naturist club located on  of privately owned land located in the Stockholm area of the Hardyston Township, New Jersey, which is situated on the New Jersey Highlands of North Jersey, about  from Manhattan, New York. Rock Lodge Club and  Sky Farm, also based in New Jersey, were founded in 1932 as the first permanent nudist communities in the United States. Both clubs are active today.

History

The eponymous Rock Lodge Stone House was built as a model fireproof farm house by engineer A. L. A. Himmelwright in 1907, and presently used as a residence and overnight rental facility at Rock Lodge Club. In the late nineteenth century, A. L. A. Himmelwright, an engineer at the Roebling Construction Company, bought the land that today is used by Rock Lodge nudist club. Prior to this, the property in the New Jersey Highlands, was used for timber and agriculture. There is also evidence of iron prospecting, possibly connected to a Thomas Edison mine works located nearby.

In 1904–1905, Himmelwright used oxen to dredge a swamp, and built a dam to create a lake fed by a stream located near the lake, as well as by 17 underwater springs. This main spring is mentioned in deeds and early leases as a water supply for surrounding neighbors as well as for Rock Lodge.

In 1907, Himmelwright erected a "model fireproof farmhouse", now known as the Stone House,  which features a poured concrete roof, stained glass, a basement with coal furnace, and a state-of-the-art (in its day) water supply system which pumped water from the spring to a holding tank on the third floor. In 2007, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the Stone House, the original plans for the construction of the building were reproduced.

Other historic buildings that are maintained and in use today included a stable (now known as the Hacienda that houses the Club's office), an ice house, where, prior to the availability of refrigeration, ice harvested from the lake in the winter was stored for use through the summer. Around 1919, Himmelwright built a bungalow (clubhouse), when the property was being used as a training camp for boxers—during the Roaring Twenties the property was a training camp for Jack Dempsey, boxers and wrestlers. Ben Roller, a physician and world class professional wrestler, ran the Rock Lodge Health Farm as per display advertisement in the NY Times 1921. Display ads also ran in the Magazine of Wall Street in 1922. Amenities included an indoor world class handball court and coal heat, with a fireplace and living room. Two historic cabins from the 1940s build from kits produced by the E. F. Hodgson Company are on the grounds and used as residences.

During the Great Depression, Herman Shoshinsky leased the property as the proprietor of the American Gymnosophical Association (A.G.A.), and nudism came to Rock Lodge.

In 1938 or 1939, the property was bought by Francis E. dePaolo, a chiropractor who lived across Rock Lodge Road near the spring. In 1942, Dr. dePaolo and Shoshinsky had a falling out, and the A.G.A. moved to Newfoundland, New Jersey. Rock Lodge as a cooperative nudist club began that year with a one-year lease. In  1946, a 10-year lease was negotiated with dePaolo, and summer cabins began to appear, though some may have been built in the 1930s. In 1957, a 40-year lease was signed, and a building boom occurred. Along with summer cabins, much of the club infrastructure was built in the late 1950s and 1960s.

By the late 1980s, the end of a 40-year lease was in the near future, and several attempts were made to organize a purchase by members. In 1990, Rock Properties Inc. was formed as a non-profit organization, and money was raised by members for the purchase of . Another land purchase was made in 1995, bringing the total present club to .

Rock Lodge Club is a member of the American Association for Nude Recreation.

References

External links

The Hidden Gem of Rock Lodge. A review by The History Girl Blog (accessed 09/15/2017)
Young Naturists review of a visit to  Rock Lodge Club
NaturistMusings Blog review of Rock Lodge Club

Buildings and structures in Sussex County, New Jersey
Hardyston Township, New Jersey
Naturism in the United States
Naturist resorts

Rock Lodge Club


Lead(II) sulfate, also known as plumbous sulfate, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is PbSO4. It contains lead and sulfate ions. The lead is in its +2 oxidation state.

Properties
Lead(II) sulfate is a white solid. It does not dissolve in water. It is toxic because it has lead in it. It does not dissolve in sulfuric acid.

Preparation
Lead(II) sulfate is made in a lead acid battery by normal usage. It can be made by reacting lead(II) acetate or lead(II) nitrate with any sulfate. It is found as a mineral named anglesite. This mineral is made when galena is oxidized.

Related pages
Lead(II) sulfide
Lead(IV) acetate

Lead compounds
Sulfur compounds

Lead(II) sulfate


Protocol III is a 2005 amendment protocol to the Geneva Conventions relating to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem. Under the protocol, the protective sign of the Red Crystal may be displayed by medical and religious personnel at times of war, instead of the traditional Red Cross or Red Crescent symbols. People displaying any of these protective emblems are performing a humanitarian service and must be protected by all parties to the conflict.

History

By the middle of the 19th century, modern warfare had become increasingly indiscriminate. It was not uncommon for a combat medic on the field of battle to be fired upon and to die while collecting and caring for the wounded. There was a growing recognition of the need to distinguish medical personnel from combatants, to make it easier for military commanders to avoid and protect them. Allowing each country to develop its own emblem would have led to confusion. What was needed to save lives was a single neutral emblem that all countries recognized and used equally.

The 1864 Geneva Convention establishes that a distinctive emblem should be worn by medical personnel on the field of battle as an indication of their humanitarian mission and their non-combatant status. At that time, the chosen symbol was a red cross on a white background. Muslim nations have objected to this symbol due to its resemblance to the Christian cross. As early as 1876, the Ottoman Empire introduced the Red Crescent as an alternative, less Christian emblem. Additional emblems have been proposed, including the red lion and sun of Persia, the double emblem (both the red cross and red crescent together) by the Red Cross Society of Eritrea, and the red Star of David by Magen David Adom of Israel.

Over time the adoption of a single, universal emblem has been met with two recurrent difficulties:

 They may be perceived as having religious, cultural or political connotations. This perception conflicts with neutral, humanitarian status of medical personnel in armed conflicts.
  These emblems are tied to membership in the National Societies. Members are required to use the red cross or red crescent emblem. Since Magen David Adom was unwilling to give up their red Star of David, they were not granted membership. Without membership, they were not eligible for certain protections under the Geneva Conventions.

In 2005, an international delegation finally achieved a comprehensive solution to these difficulties with the adoption of Protocol III. Magen David Adom is granted protections under the Geneva Conventions as long as they display the Red Crystal in the context of international conflict. As of July 2020, Protocol III has been ratified or acceded to by 78 countries and signed by a further 20. The treaty came into force on 14 January 2007.

Governing rules

Article 2 of this brief protocol recognizes an additional distinctive emblem, the Red Crystal, that may be used in addition to, and for the same purposes as, the Red Cross and Red Crescent symbols. All three emblems are appointed the same legal status.

There are two distinct uses that are recognized for all three emblems:

 Protective use. Medical and religious personnel may mark themselves, their vehicles, ships and buildings as a sign of their humanitarian mission and protected status under the Geneva Conventions, particularly the First Geneva Convention. The protections of the Geneva Convention do not depend on the wearing of the emblem. The emblems are merely a visible sign of the protected status of individuals. Members of the armed forces may use these markings at all times. Civilian institutions such as hospitals may use these markings temporarily, within the context of an armed conflict.
 Indicative use. Members of the movement may wear the emblems in both times of conflict and times of peace as an indication of their membership.

Misuse of these emblems is prohibited by international law. Misuse may diminish their protective value and undermine the effectiveness of humanitarian workers. Use of one of the emblems to protect combatants and military equipment with the intent of misleading an adversary is perfidy and is considered a war crime.

See also
List of parties to the Geneva Conventions: includes a list of states that signed and a list of states that have ratified Protocol III
 Protocol I, a 1977 amendment adopted addressing the protection of victims in international conflicts.
 Protocol II,  a 1977 amendment adopted relating to the protection of victims of non-international armed conflicts.

References

External links
Committee of the Red Cross: Full text of Protocol III with commentaries
List of countries that have ratified Protocol III
List of countries that have signed but not yet ratified Protocol III
Press release from the International Committee of the Red Cross welcoming the signing of Protocol III

Geneva Conventions
Treaties concluded in 2005
Treaties entered into force in 2007
Treaties of Albania
Treaties of Argentina
Treaties of Armenia
Treaties of Australia
Treaties of Austria
Treaties of Belarus
Treaties of Belize
Treaties of Brazil
Treaties of Bulgaria
Treaties of Canada
Treaties of Chile
Treaties of the Cook Islands
Treaties of Costa Rica
Treaties of Croatia
Treaties of Cyprus
Treaties of the Czech Republic
Treaties of Denmark
Treaties of the Dominican Republic
Treaties of El Salvador
Treaties of Estonia
Treaties of Fiji
Treaties of Finland
Treaties of France
Treaties of Georgia (country)
Treaties of Germany
Treaties of Greece
Treaties of Guatemala
Treaties of Guyana
Treaties of Honduras
Treaties of Hungary
Treaties of Iceland
Treaties of Israel
Treaties of Italy
Treaties of Kazakhstan
Treaties of Kenya
Treaties of Latvia
Treaties of Liechtenstein
Treaties of Lithuania
Treaties of North Macedonia
Treaties of Mexico
Treaties of Moldova
Treaties of Monaco
Treaties of Nauru
Treaties of the Netherlands
Treaties of New Zealand
Treaties of Nicaragua
Treaties of Norway
Treaties of the State of Palestine
Treaties of Panama
Treaties of Paraguay
Treaties of the Philippines
Treaties of Poland
Treaties of Portugal
Treaties of San Marino
Treaties of Serbia
Treaties of Singapore
Treaties of Slovakia
Treaties of Slovenia
Treaties of South Sudan
Treaties of Spain
Treaties of Suriname
Treaties of Sweden
Treaties of Switzerland
Treaties of East Timor
Treaties of Uganda
Treaties of Ukraine
Treaties of the United Kingdom
Treaties of the United States
Treaties of Uruguay
Treaties extended to Greenland
Treaties extended to the Faroe Islands
Treaties extended to the Netherlands Antilles
Treaties extended to Aruba
Treaties extended to Anguilla
Treaties extended to Guernsey
Treaties extended to Bermuda
Treaties extended to the British Antarctic Territory
Treaties extended to the British Indian Ocean Territory
Treaties extended to the British Virgin Islands
Treaties extended to the Cayman Islands
Treaties extended to the Falkland Islands
Treaties extended to the Isle of Man
Treaties extended to Montserrat
Treaties extended to the Pitcairn Islands
Treaties extended to South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Treaties extended to Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
Treaties extended to the Turks and Caicos Islands
Treaties extended to Akrotiri and Dhekelia
Treaties extended to Jersey

Protocol III


Tribunes of the plebs were important officials in Ancient Rome. The plebeians (plebs) were the free Roman people who were not patricians.

The tribunes provided a balance between the power of the Senate and the needs of the people. There were ten tribunes at any time, and they could act separately or together.

These tribunes had the power to use the People's Assembly (the Concilium Plebis) to support the common people. They could summon the Senate, propose legislation and intervene on the behalf of plebeians in legal matters. Most important of all was the power to veto the actions of the Consuls and other magistrates, to protect the interests of the plebeians. An assault on any plebian tribune was against the law.

Tribunes of the plebs were elected by the People's Assembly alone. They could be commoners, unlike all the other officials of the Roman Republic. Their role lasted for about 800 years, but under the Roman Empire they did not have real powers. They were in origin and style, a working part of the Roman Republic.

Although a tribune could veto any action of the magistrates, Senate, or other assemblies, he had to be physically present in order to do so. Once the tribune was no longer present, the action could be completed as if the veto had not occurred. This meant that the tribunes' powers were limited to Rome itself, not the Republic in general.

References

Ancient Rome

Tribune of the plebs