Cecilia, subtitled "Memoirs of an Heiress", is an 18th century novel by Frances Burney. It is a comical, satirical love story. It was admired by people like Edmund Burke, Mary Wollstonecraft, and Choderlos de Laclos.

Background

Cecilia was published in July 1782. Frances Burney started work on it in 1780. Her father, Dr. Charles Burney and her mentor, Samuel Crisp stopped her from writing a play for the stage, to be titled The Witlings. Frances Burney tried to change their minds, but Dr. Burney insisted she stop and continue writing the more ladylike novels instead. "In the Novel way, there is no danger," he said. The stress of this made Burney unhappy. Critics believe this may be why Cecilia is sadder than her first novel.

Plot

Cecilia Beverley is a young heroine, who leaves her country home to travel to London. She will live with a guardian, Mr. Harrel. Cecelia is an orphan heiress. To inherit her money, when she marries, her husband must take her surname and become "Mr. Beverley".  In London, she is invited to a friend's house  (Mr. Monckton), for breakfast, who has married for money. But he loves Cecilia and hopes to marry her when his wife dies. He is afraid Cecilia might fall in love with someone else. At his house she meets Mr. Morrice, a young lawyer; Captain Aresby and Mr. Belfield, who can't seem to settle down. Mr. Monckton's wife, Lady Margaret and her servant, Miss Bennet, are also there. Cecilia notices Albany, an old man sitting quietly in the corner, who behaves strangely. She also notices that Lady Margaret dislikes her.

Mr. Harrel is married to Cecelia's childhood friend, Priscilla. So, Priscilla gives parties to introduce Cecelia to new friends: Sir Robert Floyer, Mrs. Harrel's shy brother Mr. Arnott, Mr. Gosport, silly Miss Larolles; and proud, silent Miss Leeson.  Mr. Monckton visits her and she greets him happily. At an opera, Cecelia sees Albany, the strange old man again. He shouts a warning that she is in danger from the people around her and that she should help the poor. The next morning, she sees a poor woman, Mrs. Hill, who comes to beg for her starving family. Mr. Harrel has refused to pay them. Cecilia tries to make him pay, but he will not. Finally, Mr. Arnott, feeling sorry for the Hills, lends him the money to pay them. Cecilia, shocked at how mean Mr. Harrel is, wants to go stay with another guardian. But, they seem just as bad. While Mr. Harrel spends and gambles his money; Mr. Briggs is a selfish miser and Mr. Delvile is a vain man.

Mrs. Harrel has a masquerade ball. Mr. Monckton is in disguise as a black demon and fights anyone who comes near Cecelia.. A person dressed like a white domino tries to help her, as do Mr. Arnott, Mr. Gosport, and Mr. Belfield. Cecilia is surprised at how well the domino knows the faults of her guardians. She wonders who he could be. Later, Cecelia goes to the opera again with Mrs. Harrel. There, she meets Mr. Belfield, who is courteous; but Sir Floyer acts rudely. The two men get angry and have an argument that leads to a duel. Afraid, Cecilia hurries to her house, and worries over the duel.

The next morning, Cecelia is told that Mr. Belfield is a little injured, but Sir Floyer is well. Cecilia finds out that the white domino she saw at the masquerade party is Mortimer, Mr. Delvile's son. Soon after, she meets Mrs. Delvile, who she likes. Now she wants to stay with them, instead of with the Harrels. But, she discovers that Mortimer thinks that she is in love with Mr. Belfield. Or perhaps, that she is engaged to Sir Floyer, who has asked her to marry him. Even though she has refused him, Mr. Harrel tells everyone they will be married soon. Later, she meets Mr. Albany again, who introduces her to Belfield's sister, Henrietta, and asks Cecilia to help her. Cecilia finds out that Mr. Belfield's wound is serious, but because he does not have enough money he could not call a doctor. She helps the Belfields, begins a friendship with Henrietta, and finds out that Mortimer Delvile, too, is helping them. Disgusted with Sir Floyer's rudeness and the Harrels' silliness, she stays for a while with Mrs. Delvile, whom she has become fond of, and Mortimer. But, Mr. Monckton tells lies about them because he sees Cecelia likes them. But Cecilia does not believe him, and she realizes that she is in love with Mortimer, who still thinks she is engaged to Sir Floyer.

Mr. Harrel threatens her with his own suicide, so Cecilia lends him money for his debts.  Mr. Delvile is suddenly called away, and Mortimer is happy and surprised to find out that Cecelia loves him. But, when she meets him again she is hurt by his coldness to her. Mr. Harrel loses more money by gambling and his violent behavior to his wife frightens Cecilia. After drinking, he suddenly kisses his wife and shoots himself. Terrified and upset, Cecilia meets Mortimer, who forgets to be cold. He travels with her and Mrs. Harrel to Delvile Castle, where Cecilia finds Mortimer's behavior confusing, and Mrs. Delvile makes it clear that she does not want Cecilia to marry her son. Lady Honoria, a relative of Mrs. Delvile's, comes and teases her about Mortimer. At last, Mortimer says that he cannot marry her, because he would have to change his name from Delvile to Beverley. He is too sad to see her anymore and he leaves the country. Cecilia says goodbye to him coolly. Mrs. Delvile, instead of going to see her son, goes to her family friend, Mrs. Charlton, and stays with her instead. While there, Mr. Biddulph, a friend of Mortimer's, sees with surprise that she is embarrassed whenever he talks about his friend, and tells that to Mortimer in a letter. Confused, Mortimer decides to find out for himself. Lady Honoria steals Mortimer's dog, Fidel, and gives it to Cecilia to tease her. One day, Cecilia, patting the dog, talks to him about her love for Mortimer, and how much she misses him – and looking up, sees—Mortimer!

Amazed that she loves him, he asks her to marry him. Cecelia is confused, and cannot hide how much she loves him; but she is angry when he suggests that they marry in secret.  He explains that his parents will never allow their marriage. So, even though Cecilia is afraid and feels guilty, she says yes. She innocently tells Mr. Monckton about her plans. He becomes furious and tries his best to break them up. During the wedding, he sends Miss Bennet, Lady Margaret's servant, and his helper, to interrupt it. Mrs. Delvile, hearing of it, comes and tells Cecilia that what Mortimer says is true – she will never let them marry. Cecilia is unhappy, but she loves Mrs. Delvile too much to make her hate her, and finally agrees that she will not marry Mortimer. but he insists on seeing her again. Because of this, all three came together for a last meeting. Mortimer begs Cecilia to be his wife, and says he doesn't care if he is Mr. Beverley or not.  Mrs. Delvile, horrified, suddenly falls very sick. Both Mortimer and Cecilia are frightened, so they decide to do as she says, and never meet again.

Mrs. Delvile, after kissing Cecilia goodbye, leaves as soon as she is better. The next day Mrs. Charlton suddenly dies. These events cause Cecelia to be sad and lonely, so she leaves for London.  Because she is now old enough to have her fortune, she buys a quiet house in her neighborhood and lives there with Henrietta Belfield. Mortimer suddenly visits them. Cecelia finds out that Mrs. Delvile has said that if she will give up her fortune, so Mortimer will not be Mr. Beverley, but Mr. Delvile, she can marry her son. Mortimer happily says that they can marry with just her personal fortune. Cecilia, horrified, tells him that she has none of her personal fortune left. She has lent most of it to Mr. Harrel, and used the rest for other things, such as helping the Hills. Cecilia also finds out that somebody has told this to Mr. Delvile already, but with lots of lies. She begins to suspect Mr. Monckton. Mrs. Delvile says yes and Cecilia and Mortimer marry quietly and happily.

Later, Mrs. Matt, one of the poor people she has helped, tells her who stopped her first wedding—Miss Bennet! Cecilia decides that the person who sent her must have been Mr. Monckton. She also realizes that he, too, must have been the one who lied so bitterly about her to Mr. Delvile. Shortly after, a servant comes and tells her that Mr. Monckton is dead.  Soon after, Mortimer comes and says he too had found out Mr. Monckton's meanness, and he had angrily told Mr. Monckton to tell Mr. Delvile the truth about Cecilia. Mr. Monckton angrily said no, and they shot each other in a furious fight. Mortimer was safe, but Mr. Monckton was badly hurt. Cecilia tells him to leave England with his mother before she can hear about the fight, and agreeing, he goes. However, her marriage has been discovered, so her fortune is taken away from her while Mortimer is gone. Now unable to live in the house she bought, she tells Henrietta to live with Mrs. Harrel and Mr. Arnott while she looks for Mortimer.  Cecelia goes to Mr. Belfield to ask for help; but while there, Mortimer suddenly walks into the room and sees them together.

Angry, surprised, and jealous, he leaves. Cecilia starts to become crazy. She tries to go to Mr. Delvile for help, but he proudly refuses to see her. At last, some people, thinking she has escaped from a hospital for crazy people, lock her up in a room and write in a newspaper about her. Albany recognizes her, and calls Mortimer to come quickly.  Henrietta, too, reads the newspaper, recognizes her, and hurries to see her. Mortimer sees her and quickly calls his old friend, Dr Lyster, to heal Cecilia. Even though she grows crazier while in a fever, she finally gets well. She and Mortimer forgive each other and explain what really happened. Mr. Delvile, feeling guilty when he hears that Cecilia almost died, finally lets her and Mortimer come to his house and see him again.  In the end, they live happily together. Mrs. Delvile's sister gives Cecilia a lot of money when she dies.  Cecilia can begin helping the poor again with Albany, who is happy that she did not die.  Mrs. Harrel marries again, and soon begins to have parties and friends again. Mr. Arnott and Henrietta marry. Mr. Belfield still cannot settle down to a job, but finally, with the help of Mortimer, goes into the army and is happy.

Characters

Cecilia Beverley: the heroine of the story. She is a beautiful, clever, self-sacrificing young lady. She is honest and sympathizes with other people's troubles, especially poor people like the Hill family.
Mortimer Delvile: the son of Cecilia's proud guardian, Mr. Delvile. He is not handsome but his face shows feeling. Though at first he tries not to love Cecilia because he is too proud to be Mr. Beverley, when he finds out she loves him, too, he decides to marry her secretly. He is passionate but very loving: he loves his mother and Cecilia and because of this he is unhappy.
Priscilla Harrel: Cecilia's friend. She is sweet tempered, but not as clever as Cecilia. When she marries Mr. Harrel and moves to town, she gets sillier and sillier. She loves parties and people too much, and doesn't love Cecilia anymore after she marries. She is a bit selfish.
Mr. Harrel: Cecilia's guardian. He is a gambler and selfish. He does not care about poor people, and tries to make Cecilia and Mr. Arnott loan him money. He likes parties, too, just like his wife.
Mr. Briggs: Cecilia's guardian. He is a short, strong man who loves money too much. He likes to laugh at Mr. Delvile.
Mr. Delvile: Cecilia's guardian, and the father of Mortimer. He is very proud and selfish. He cares too much about his family and his castle. However, he really loves his son, and when Cecilia almost dies, he becomes much nicer to her.
Mrs. Augusta Delvile: a kind, clever and charming woman. She is nice to Cecilia, who loves her. She is proud, and so does not want her son to be "Mr. Beverley".
Mr. Monckton: Cecilia's "friend." He married an ugly and old woman when he was young, for her money, but now wants to marry Cecilia as soon as his wife dies. Because of this, he hates Mortimer and later fights with him. Cecilia, not knowing that he likes her, is friendly to him at first because she thinks he is clever and nice.
Lady Margaret: Mr. Monckton's angry, jealous, old, and ugly wife.
Sir Robert Floyer: a selfish man who wants to marry Cecilia because she is pretty and has a lot of money. Cecilia does not like him at all, but Mr. Harrel tries to make them marry.
Mr. Belfield: a good-hearted man, but cannot find a job he likes. He is proud, and does not want anybody to know he is a tradesman's son.
Henrietta Belfield: Mr. Belfield's sister. She is grateful, loving, and honest. She thinks more about her brother and Cecilia than herself. She is fond of Mortimer Delvile and is sad when he marries Cecilia. She later marries gentle Mr. Arnott.
Mr. Arnott: the gentle, shy, and serious brother of Mrs. Harrel. He wants to marry Cecilia, and he is the only person she really feels sorry for when she says no. He is not as brave as Cecilia, but he still has a good heart (he helps the Hills, and feels sorry for his sister).
Albany: a gruff old man who tries to help poor people. He is surprised at how kind Cecilia is.
Lady Honoria Pemberton: a relative of Mrs. Delvile. She likes to gossip and tease Cecilia. Her teasing hurts Cecilia. She also likes to laugh at Mr. Delvile and his castle.
Fidel: Mortimer's dog. Cecilia loves Fidel and talks to him about how much she loves Mortimer.

Other writers and Cecilia
Jane Austen, a famous writer, talked about Cecilia in her novel, Northanger Abbey: "'And what are you reading, Miss — ?' 'Oh! It is only a novel!' replies the young lady, while she lays down her book with affected indifference, or momentary shame. 'It is only Cecilia, or Camilla, or Belinda'''; or, in short, only some work in which the greatest powers of the mind are displayed, in which the most thorough (complete) knowledge of human nature, the happiest delineation of its varieties, the liveliest effusions of wit and humour, are conveyed (shown) to the world in the best–chosen language."

The title of Austen's Pride and Prejudice is probably from Dr Lyster's speech at the end of Cecilia: "remember: if to pride and prejudice you owe your miseries, so wonderfully is good and evil balanced, that to pride and prejudice you will also owe their termination."

In her last novel, Persuasion, Anne Elliot talks about "the inimitable Miss Larolles."

In Thackeray's Vanity Fair, Rebecca Sharp writes to Amelia Sedley and says they "used to read Cecilia at Chiswick."

Related pagesNorthanger AbbeyFrances BurneyCamillaEvelina''

References

Other websites

Cecilia at Project Gutenberg

English novels
1780s books

Cecilia (Burney novel)


LSD is the shorter name for a chemical called lysergic acid diethylamide. LSD is often called by the slang name acid. LSD is a psychedelic drug that causes people who take it to witness illusions. It also alters their thought processes.

LSD was investigated as an adjunct to psychiatric therapies for disorders such as alcoholism. Currently, LSD is being investigated as a clinical tool for treating people with anxiety and depression associated with having a terminal illness. Since there is no recognized medical use for LSD, its use in medicine is experimental. The vast majority of LSD use is illegal and thus considered "drug abuse" according to some definitions.

History
LSD does not occur in nature, so it must be chemically synthesized. It was invented in 1938 by a Swiss chemist, Albert Hofmann, at the Sandoz Laboratories in Switzerland. Hofmann was trying to produce a new circulatory and respiratory stimulant (an 'analeptic'). He produced LSD because of its similarity to nicotinic acid diethylamide, a known respiratory stimulant.

One day in 1943, Hofmann accidentally ate a small amount of LSD, and noticed strange light patterns in the sky as he went home. He believed that what he had experienced were the effects of the drug. He tried a larger amount next. He ended up with a much stronger reaction to the drug than he expected. Hofmann lay on a couch, afraid he had made himself insane for life. When a neighbor came, found him in trouble, and stayed to look after Hofmann, he was able to calm down, and even said he began to enjoy the plays of colorful shapes and patterns that occurred behind his closed eyes. The next day Hofmann reported to have waken up refreshed and clear-headed, though somewhat physically tired. He also noted that his breakfast tasted unusually delicious that morning.

Sandoz began to offer LSD to doctors and therapists. Sandoz saw it as a help to doctors and therapists so they could get a chance to gain insight into how someone who was mentally ill might see the world. It is known today, that the effects of LSD are very different from those of delusional mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia. For their patients, it was a chance to uncover hidden feelings and thoughts, which could be dealt with in therapy. LSD showed promise in the treatment of problems like alcoholism. Some alcoholics who tried the drug found their need to drink alcohol lessened or went away. They understood better why they had abused alcohol. Unlike other drugs, the desire for alcohol was not replaced by a craving for LSD. The study showed a 50% success rate, compared to 10% for "cold turkey" methods, which is when the person suddenly stops drinking alcohol completely.

In the United States, the Central Intelligence Agency tested the drug on subjects for different reasons. The name for one of these test projects was MK-ULTRA. Subjects did not know they were given the drug. It was used in interrogations to see if it would make people tell the truth, or remember things they had forgotten. It was also used to convince people they were becoming insane, or that things had happened which really had not, such as an invasion from outer space, or a Communist takeover of the country, or that their bodies were transformed in some way. The CIA supposedly felt it was important to learn how ordinary citizens might react to such things if they happened. The drug sometimes made the scenarios more believable. The effects of these experiments were often harmful to the subjects, even years later, because of the intense anxiety or fear caused when someone unknowingly takes a drug like LSD.

LSD first became popular in the 1960s. A Harvard psychology professor, Timothy Leary, began to encourage people to try the drug then. College students willingly took part in LSD experiments. These experiments were made by psychologists and other professionals. Leary and two of the people he worked with, Richard Alpert and Ralph Metzner, thought the transforming effects of the drug could be a kind of 'rebirth' of users, in the same way as many religions offered them. They wrote a book, The Psychedelic Experience, which was based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead. Leary eventually became well known in the 1960s hippie movement for his slogan about LSD: "Turn on, tune in, drop out". The Hippies were a countercultural movement. A number of famous rock bands, including the Beatles and the Grateful Dead, became known for their use of LSD, and even a new type of rock music, called "acid rock", was born from the fad.

LSD quickly became a popular drug outside of the medical profession. Many people began using or giving LSD out casually. "Acid parties" and "acid tests" became a social fad. The drug would sometimes be slipped to persons unknowingly, often through "spiked" punch or drinks. Some problems developed, as some casual users began to experience side effects, such as "flashbacks" and psychotic symptoms, though both of these are rare. Sometimes signs of depression and instability were seen. Due to the spread of LSD use outside of the medical community, the United States government banned LSD (made it against the law to make, have or use) in 1967. Other countries soon followed.

Dangers of using LSD
The most common danger of taking LSD is having a bad experience, which is called a "bad trip". During a bad trip, people may feel very scared and worried, and they may have very sad thoughts. A bad trip can lead to lasting bad memories and even mental harm. Users who get out of control, or who try to harm themselves, should be taken for medical help.

Storing LSD in an improper manner could end up destroying the blotter and cause adverse effects like nausea and brain fatigue. The safest method to store LSD is wrapping it in aluminum foil or in a Mylar bag. Avoid storing it in books, papers, or box packaging as it could drastically lower the dosage of the blotter and potentially cause unwanted effects upon ingesting it.

Many illegal drugs, such as heroin and cocaine, are very addictive. This means that people who start taking the drug will want to keep taking it, even if it is damaging their physical and mental health. LSD is not addictive to the body or to the mind.

Another danger from using LSD is that it makes a person impaired (intoxicated). When people are impaired, they may have accidents or do things that they would not normally do. In some rare cases, people taking LSD develop a psychosis.

Frequent or regular use of LSD can result in flashbacks. In a flashback, the person feels the drug beginning to affect him or her again, even though he or she has not taken a dose that day. This can be brought on by stress. Note that over 75% of LSD users claimed never to have "flashed back".

It has been said that some people who use LSD can end up with damage to their chromosomes, but this is a myth based on one wrong report that was disproven soon after it was published.

Legal status
LSD is illegal in the United States, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and most of Europe. Some countries enforce the laws against LSD very harshly. Other countries do not enforce the law very much. LSD has been manufactured illegally since the 1960s.

Notes

Other websites

Media
 Belfast Telegraph Dr Albert Hofmann - The father of LSD
 Pickard And Apperson Sentenced On LSD Charges Official DEA press release on the "Largest LSD Lab Seizure In DEA History"
 Tripping the light fantasmic, The Age, February 4, 2006

Video

 "LSD being tested on British Troops ", a strange (if humorous) piece of historical footage of military experiments testing LSD's potential as an incapacitating (non-lethal) weapon.
 "Spontaneous pattern formation in large scale brain activity: what visual migraines and hallucinations tell us about the brain", lecture by Jack Cowan (via the Internet Archive)

School
 A Critical Review of Theories and Research Concerning LSD and Mental Health
 Definitions of Addiction, Physical Dependence, and Tolerance
 The Effects of LSD on the Human Brain

Trivia
 Artist under influence of LSD
 A nearly complete LSD Slang term list as defined by the White House Drug Policy

Illegal drugs
Organonitrogen compounds
Psychoactive drugs

Lysergic acid diethylamide


Common Sense is a pamphlet (short book) written by Thomas Paine.  It was first published on January 10, 1776.  Paine wrote the pamphlet to change the minds of people who wanted to peacefully settle their differences with the British government to fight for independence instead.

The pamphlet said that the British government and other European monarchies were tyrannical, meaning they did not acknowledge the rights of people. Paine called the pamphlet Common Sense because he wrote that it was against common sense for an island to rule a larger nation.  Therefore, the colonies should overthrow the British government.

The pamphlet was one of the bestselling works of the 18th century in America.  Thomas Paine wrote in a style that was easy for most people to understand, instead of the hard to understand writing common in the Enlightenment Era.  He also referenced the Bible and used idioms that many of the Protestant colonists understood.

The document was an important part of the American Revolutionary War.  It lead to the Declaration of Independence, which the Second Continental Congress wrote and signed into law later that year.  Common Sense helped by creating mass support.
and it was published in 1776

American Revolutionary War
1776
1770s books

Common Sense (pamphlet)


Seal or SEAL may refer to articles connected to a variety of meanings:

A marine mammal
a pinniped, a large ocean mammal. There are three main groups:
Earless seals (or true seals)
Eared seals (or walking seals)
Walrus
Seal hunting, both personal and commercial hunting of seals
Seal brown is a rich dark brown color RGB(50, 20, 20) (from the colour of dyed Fur seal fur)

Fixing or closing to give a tight fit
Seal (mechanical), a device to contain pressure.
Diaphragm seal, a flexible membrane that seals and isolates an enclosure

Symbol of authentication
Seal (device), a device used to produce an official stamp as a symbol of authority, or the impression left by a seal in sealing wax. (Origin: Latin sigillum = "small symbol", a diminutive of signum)
Cylinder seal, cylinder engraved with a picture story, used in ancient times to roll an impression onto a sheet of wet clay
Great Seal of the United States used since 1782 to authenticate some documents issued by the United States government
Great Seal of the Realm, a British institution for authorising the monarch's official documents a personal signature
Great Seal of Scotland allows the monarch to authorise documents without signing
Imperial Seal of Japan, called 菊の御紋 in Japanese, meaning "Noble Symbol of Chrysanthemum"
Lord Privy Seal or Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal is one of the traditional sinecure offices of state in the United Kingdom
Knights Templar Seal used to validate documents approved by the order
Seal of Solomon, a legendary magical signet ring said to have belonged to King Solomon
LMLK seal, stamped on handles of large storage jars around Jerusalem about 700 BC
Nintendo Seal of Quality is a gold seal used by Nintendo to show that a game is properly licensed to run on their game consoles

As a person's name
Barry Seal (Adler Berriman Seal), pilot and drug smuggler turned DEA informant
 Brajendra Nath Seal (born 1864), Indian philosopher of the Brahmo Samaj, Vice Chancellor of Visva Bharati University
David Seal (born 1972), an Australian football (soccer) player
Jaynie Seal (born 1973), an Australian television presenter
Lou Seal (Luigi Francisco Seal, Jr.), the official mascot of the San Francisco Giants team in Major League Baseball
Manuel Seal, a staff songwriter and producer at Jermaine Dupri's So So Def Recordings
Pu Tong Seal (1346 AD), legendary Burmese hero
 Seal (musician) (Henry Olusegun Olumide Adeola Samuel), an Afro-European soul singer who has released three albums named "Seal":
Seal (1991 album)
Seal (1994 album)
Seal (2003 album)

As a place name
Some of these names referred originally to the marine mammal.
 Seal Bay Conservation Park, on Kangaroo Island, South Australia
 Seal Beach, a city in Orange County, California, United States of America
 Naval Weapons Station Seal Beach, a United States Navy weapons and munitions loading, storage and maintenance facility in Seal Beach, California
 Seal Island, a small islet about 5.7 km off the northern beaches of False Bay near Cape Town in South Africa
 Seal Island (South Shetland Islands), a group of small islands and rocks lying 3 to 6 miles northwest of Elephant Island in the South Shetland Islands
 Machias Seal Island at  under disputed sovereignty between the United States and Canada
 Seal Island Bridge, an arch truss bridge crossing the Great Bras d'Or channel in Victoria County, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia
 Seal Rock, a prominent rock offshore at the North end of Ocean Beach, San Francisco, United States
 Seal Rocks, a small settlement in New South Wales, Australia
 Seal, Kent, a village in Kent, England. (Origin: probably Anglo-Saxon sēale = "copse of sallow-trees")
 Seals, Georgia

As an acronym
 United States Navy SEALs, special forces of the United States Navy. (Origin: acronym from "SEa, Air, Land")
Advanced SEAL Delivery System, a midget submarine providing stealthy submerged transportation for special forces, primarily U.S. Navy SEALs
SEAL Recon Rifle, rifle developed to provide SEAL snipers with a portable, lightweight system with greater lethality
 Semantics-directed Environment Adaptation Language, a computer programming language
 SEAL (cipher), (Software-Optimized Encryption Algorithm), a fast cryptographic cipher
 Safety Evidence Assurance Level, US government
 SEAL (Computer Language), the Semantics-directed Environment Adaptation Language
 SEAL (Sea Scout Leadership Training), a leadership training course for Sea Scouts youth in the Boy Scouts of America
 Software Engineering and Ada Lab, NASA

Ships
 HMS Seal (N37), a submarine of the Royal Navy
 USS Seal has been used as the name of two submarines of the United States Navy
 Red seal ships (朱印船), Japanese armed merchant sailing ships with a red-sealed patent (early 17th century)

In computers
SEAL GUI, an open source Graphical User Interface for DOS

Seal


Wulfhere or Wulfar (died 675) was King of Mercia from 658 until 675 AD. He was the first Christian king of all of Mercia, though it is not known when or how he converted from Anglo-Saxon paganism. His accession marked the end of Oswiu of Northumbria's overlordship of southern England, and Wulfhere extended his influence over much of that region. His campaigns against the West Saxons led to Mercian control of much of the Thames valley. He conquered the Isle of Wight and the Meon valley and gave them to King Æthelwealh of the South Saxons. He also had influence in Surrey, Essex, and Kent. He married Eormenhild, the daughter of King Eorcenberht of Kent.

Wulfhere's father, Penda, was killed in 655 at the Battle of Winwaed, fighting against Oswiu of Northumbria. Penda's son Peada became king under Oswiu's overlordship but was murdered six months later. Wulfhere came to the throne when Mercian nobles organized a revolt against Northumbrian rule in 658 and drove out Oswiu's governors.

By 670, when Oswiu died, Wulfhere was the most powerful king in southern England. He was effectively the overlord of England south of the Humber from the early 660s, although not overlord of Northumbria as his father had been. In 674, he challenged Oswiu's son Ecgfrith of Northumbria, but was defeated. He died, probably of disease, in 675. Wulfhere was succeeded as King of Mercia by his brother, Æthelred. Stephen of Ripon's Life of Wilfrid describes Wulfhere as "a man of proud mind, and insatiable will".

Mercia in the 7th century

England in AD 600 was ruled almost entirely by the Anglo-Saxon peoples who had come to Britain from northwestern Europe over the previous 200 years. The monk Bede, writing in about AD 731, considered the Mercians to be descended from the Angles, one of the invading groups; the Saxons and Jutes settled in the south of Britain, while the Angles settled in the north. Little is known about the origins of the kingdom of Mercia, in what is now the English Midlands, but according to genealogies preserved in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the Anglian collection the early kings were descended from Icel; the dynasty is therefore known as the Iclingas.  The earliest Mercian king about whom definite historical information has survived is Penda of Mercia, Wulfhere's father.

According to Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, a history of the English church, there were seven early Anglo-Saxon rulers who held imperium, or overlordship, over the other kingdoms.  The fifth of these was Edwin of Northumbria, who was killed at the Battle of Hatfield Chase by a combined force including Cadwallon, a British king of Gwynedd and Penda. At the time of this victory, Penda was probably not yet king of Mercia. His children included two future kings of Mercia: Wulfhere and Æthelred.

After Edwin's death, Northumbria briefly fell apart into its two constituent kingdoms - Bernicia and Deira. Within a year Oswald killed Cadwallon and reunited the kingdoms, and subsequently re-established Northumbrian hegemony over the south of England.  However, on 5 August 642, Penda killed Oswald at the Battle of Maserfield, probably at Oswestry in the northwest midlands. Penda is not recorded as overlord of the other southern Anglo-Saxon kings, but he became the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kings after he defeated Oswald.  On Oswald's death, Northumbria was divided again: Oswald's son Oswiu succeeded to the throne of Bernicia, and Osric's son Oswine to Deira, the southern of the two kingdoms.

The main source for this period is Bede's History, completed in about 731. Despite its focus on the history of the church, this work also provides valuable information about the early pagan kingdoms. For other kingdoms than his native Northumbria, such as Wessex and Kent, Bede had an informant within the ecclesiastical establishment who supplied him with additional information. This does not seem to have been the case with Mercia, about which Bede is less informative than about other kingdoms.  Further sources for this period include the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, compiled at the end of the 9th century in Wessex. The Chronicle'''s anonymous scribe appears to have incorporated much information recorded in earlier periods.

Ancestry

Wulfhere was the son of Penda of Mercia. Penda's queen, Cynewise, is named by Bede, who does not mention her children; no other wives of Penda are known and so it is likely but not certain that she was Wulfhere's mother.Bede, HE, III, 24, pp. 183–5.  The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle gives Penda's age as fifty in 626, and credits him with a thirty-year reign, but this would put Penda at eighty years old at the time of his death, which is generally thought unlikely as two of his sons (Wulfhere and Æthelred) are recorded as being young when he was killed. It is thought at least as likely that Penda was 50 years old at his death, rather than at his accession.Kirby, Earliest English Kings, p. 82.  Wulfhere's date of birth is unknown, but Bede describes him as a youth at the time of his accession in 658, so it is likely he was in his middle teens at that time; Penda would then have been in his thirties at the time Wulfhere was born.

Nothing is known of Wulfhere's childhood. He had two brothers, Peada and Æthelred, and two sisters, Cyneburh and Cyneswith;Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, sub anno 656, p. 29 it is also possible that Merewalh, king of the Magonsæte, was Wulfhere's brother.   He married Eormenhild of Kent; no date is recorded for the marriage and there is no record of any children in the earliest sources, though Coenred, who was king of Mercia from 704 to 709, is recorded in John of Worcester's 12th-century chronicle as Wulfhere's son.  Another possible child is Berhtwald, a subking who is recorded as a nephew of Æthelred, and a third child, Werburh, is recorded in an 11th-century manuscript as a daughter of Wulfhere.  An 11th-century history of St. Peter's Monastery in Gloucester names two other women, Eadburh and Eafe, as queens of Wulfhere, but neither claim is plausible.

Accession and overlordship

In 655 Penda besieged Oswiu of Northumbria at Iudeu, the location of which is unknown but which may have been Stirling, in Scotland. Penda took Oswiu's son, Ecgfrith, as hostage, and Oswiu paid tribute, in the form of treasure, to secure Penda's departure. On the way back to Mercia, Oswiu overtook Penda and on 15 November 655 Oswiu and Penda fought on the banks of the (unidentified) River Winwaed.  Penda was killed and beheaded by Oswiu, who divided Mercia into northern and southern halves.  The northern portion was kept under direct Northumbrian control; the southern kingdom was given to Penda's son Peada, who had married Oswiu's daughter Ealhflæd ca 653.

Peada did not remain king long. He was murdered at Easter in 656, perhaps with the connivance of his wife, Oswiu's daughter. Oswiu then ruled all Mercia himself. Bede lists Oswiu as the seventh and last king to hold imperium (or bretwalda in the language of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle) over the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Overlordship was a common relationship between kingdoms at this time, often taking the form of a lesser king under the domination of a stronger one. Oswiu went further than this, however, and installed his own governors in Mercia after the deaths of Penda and Peada. This attempt to establish close control of Mercia failed in 658 when three Mercian leaders, Immin, Eafa and Eadbert, rebelled against the Northumbrians. Bede reports that they had kept Wulfhere in hiding, and when the revolt succeeded Wulfhere became king. It has been suggested that the Mercian revolt succeeded because Oswiu may have been occupied with fighting in Pictland, in northern Britain. His nephew the Pictish king Talorgan, son of Eanfrith, had died in 657.

How much direct control Oswiu exerted over the southern kingdoms during his imperium is unclear. Bede describes Oswiu's friendship and influence over Sigeberht of the East Saxons, but generally the pattern in the southeast is of more local domination, with Oswiu's influence unlikely to have been particularly strong. Wulfhere appears to have taken over Oswiu's position in many instances.  Bede does not list him as one of the rulers who exercised imperium, but modern historians consider that the rise to primacy of the kingdom of Mercia began in his reign. He seems to have been the effective overlord of Britain south of the Humber from the early 660s, though not overlord of Northumbria as his father had been.

A document called the Tribal Hidage may date from Wulfhere's reign. Drawn up before many smaller groups of peoples were absorbed into the larger kingdoms, such as Mercia, it records the peoples of Anglo-Saxon England, along with an assessment in hides, a unit of land. The Tribal Hidage is difficult to date precisely; it may have been written down in Wulfhere's reign, but other suggested origins include the reign of Offa of Mercia, or Edwin or Oswiu of Northumbria.Peter Featherstone, "The Tribal Hidage and the Ealdormen of Mercia" in Brown and Farr, Mercia, p. 29

A convert king

Britain had been Christianised under the Romans, but the incoming Anglo-Saxons practiced their indigenous religion (Anglo-Saxon paganism) and the church in Great Britain was limited to the surviving British kingdoms in Scotland and Wales, and the kingdom of Dumnonia in the southwest of England. Missionaries from Rome began converting the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity at the end of the 6th century, and this process was well under way in Penda's reign, though Penda himself remained pagan throughout his life.  Records survive of the baptism of other kings at this time—Cynegils of Wessex was baptised in about 640, for example, and Edwin of Northumbria was converted in the mid 620s.  However, later kings, such as Cædwalla of Wessex, who ruled in the 680s, are recorded as pagan at their accession.

Bede writes that after Wulfhere became king: "Free under their own king, they [the Mercians] gave willing allegiance to Christ their true king, so that they might win his eternal kingdom in heaven". While Wulfhere's father had refused to convert to Christianity, and Peada had apparently converted in order to marry Oswiu's daughter, the date and the circumstances of Wulfhere's conversion are unknown. It has been suggested that he adopted Christianity as part of a settlement with Oswiu. Bede records that two years before Penda's death, his son Peada converted to Christianity, influenced partly by Oswiu's son Ealhfrith, who had married Peada's sister Cyneburh. Peada brought a Christian mission into Mercia, and it is possible that this was when Wulfhere became a Christian. Wulfhere's marriage to Eormenhild of Kent would have brought Mercia into close contact with the Christian kingdoms of Kent and Merovingian Gaul, which were connected by kinship and trade. The political and economic benefits of the marriage may therefore also have been a factor in Wulfhere's Christianisation of his kingdom.Zaluckyj, Mercia, p. 37.

Wulfhere's relationship with Bishop Wilfrid is recorded in Stephen of Ripon's Life of Wilfrid. During the years 667–69, while Wilfrid was at Ripon, Wulfhere frequently invited him to come to Mercia when there was need of the services of a bishop. According to Stephen, Wulfhere rewarded Wilfrid with "many tracts of land", in which Wilfrid "soon established minsters for servants of God".

According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Wulfhere endowed a major monastery at Medeshamstede, in modern Peterborough. The monastery had initially been endowed by Peada; for the dedication of Wulfhere's gift both Archbishop Deusdedit (died 664), and Bishop Jaruman (held office from 663), were present. The endowment was signed by Wulfhere and Oswiu, and by Sigehere and Sæbbi, the Kings of Essex.

West Saxons, South Saxons and Hwicce

In 661, Wulfhere is recorded in the Chronicle as harrying Ashdown, in West Saxon territory. The Gewisse, thought to be the original group from which the West Saxons came, appear to have originally settled in the upper Thames valley, and what records survive of the 6th century show them active in that region. The Mercian resurgence under Wulfhere placed them under severe pressure. Also in the early 660s, the West Saxon see of Dorchester, in the same area, was divided, and a new bishopric set up at Winchester. This decision was probably a reaction to the advance of the Mercians into the traditional heartland of the West Saxons, leaving Dorchester dangerously close to the border. Within a few years, the Dorchester see was abandoned; the exact date is not known, but it was probably in the mid 660s.

In addition to the attack on Ashdown, Wulfhere raided the Isle of Wight in 661. He subsequently gave both the island and the territory of the Meonware, which lay along the river Meon, on the mainland north of the Isle of Wight, to his godson King Æthelwealh of the South Saxons. It seems likely that the ruling dynasty on the island found these arrangements acceptable to some degree, since the West Saxons, under Cædwalla, exterminated the whole family when they launched their own attack on the island in 686.  After the conquest of the Isle of Wight, Wulfhere ordered the priest Eoppa to provide baptism to the inhabitants. According to the Chronicle, this was the first time Christian baptism had reached the island.

In the early 670s, Cenwealh of Wessex died, and perhaps as a result of the stress caused by Wulfhere's military activity the West Saxon kingdom fragmented and came to be ruled by underkings, according to Bede.  Eventually these underkings were defeated and the kingdom reunited, probably by Cædwalla but possibly by Centwine. A decade after Wulfhere's death, the West Saxons under Cædwalla began an aggressive expansion to the east, reversing much of the Mercian advance.

In addition to being Wulfhere's godson, King Æthelwealh of the South Saxons had a connection to the Mercians via marriage. His wife was Queen Eafe, the daughter of Eanfrith of the Hwicce, a tribe whose territory lay to the southwest of Mercia. The Hwicce had their own royal family, but it appears that at this date they were already subordinate to Wulfhere: the marriage between Æthelwealh and Eafe may well have taken place at Wulfhere's court, since it is known Æthelwealh was converted there.  The kingdom of the Hwicce is sometimes regarded as a creation of Penda's, but it is equally likely that the kingdom existed independently of Mercia, and that Penda and Wulfhere's increasing influence in the area represented an extension of Mercian power rather than the creation of a separate entity.Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms, pp. 108–9.

East Anglia and the East Saxons
In 664, Æthelwald of East Anglia died, and was succeeded by Ealdwulf, who reigned for fifty years. Almost nothing is known of Mercian relations with East Anglia during this time; East Anglia had previously been dominated by Northumbria, but there is no evidence that this continued after Wulfhere's accession. Swithhelm of the East Saxons also died in 664; he was succeeded by his two sons, Sigehere and Sæbbi, and Bede describes their accession as "rulers ... under Wulfhere, king of the Mercians".  A plague the same year caused Sigehere and his people to recant their Christianity, and according to Bede, Wulfhere sent Jaruman, the bishop of Lichfield, to reconvert the East Saxons. Jaruman was not the first bishop of Lichfield; Bede mentions a predecessor, Trumhere, but nothing is known about Trumhere's activities or who appointed him.

It is apparent from these events that Oswiu's influence in the south had waned by this time, if not before, and that Wulfhere now dominated the area. This becomes even clearer in the next few years, as some time between 665 and 668 Wulfhere sold the see of London to Wine, who had been expelled from his West Saxon bishopric by Cenwealh. London fell within the East Saxons' territory in that period.  From the archaeological evidence, it appears to be about this time that the Middle Saxon settlement in London began to expand significantly; the centre of Anglo-Saxon London was not at the old Roman centre, but about a mile west of that, near what is now the location of the Strand. Wulfhere may have been in control of the city when this expansion began.

Kent, Surrey and Lindsey
Eorcenberht was the king of Kent at Wulfhere's accession, and the two families became connected when Wulfhere married Eorcenberht's daughter Eormenhild.  In 664 Eorcenberht's son Egbert succeeded to the Kentish throne. The situation in Kent at Egbert's death in 673 is not clearly recorded. It appears that a year passed before Hlothhere, Egbert's brother, became king. Wulfhere may have had an interest in the succession, as through his marriage to Eormenhild he was the uncle of Egbert's two sons, Eadric and Wihtred. It has been speculated that Wulfhere acted as the effective ruler of Kent in the interregnum between Egbert's death and Hlothhere's accession. Another Mercian connection to Kent was through Merewalh, the king of the Magonsæte, and hence a subking under Wulfhere. Merewalh, who may have been Wulfhere's brother, was married to Hlothhere's sister, Eormenburh.

Surrey is not recorded as ever having been an independent kingdom, but was at least a province that was under the control of different neighbours at different times. It was ruled by Egbert until the early 670s, when a charter shows Wulfhere confirming a grant made to Bishop Eorcenwald by Frithuwold, a sub-king in Surrey, which may have extended north into modern Buckinghamshire.Whitelock, English Historical Documents, p. 440.  Frithuwold himself was probably married to Wilburh, Wulfhere's sister.  The charter, made from Thame, is dated between 673 and 675, and it was probably Egbert's death that triggered Wulfhere's intervention. A witness named Frithuric is recorded on a charter in the reign of Wulfhere's successor, Æthelred, making a grant to the monastery of Peterborough, and the alliteration common in Anglo-Saxon dynasties has led to speculation that the two men may have both come from a Middle Anglian dynasty, with Wulfhere perhaps having placed Frithuwold on the throne of Surrey. The charter is witnessed by three other subkings, named Osric, Wigheard, and Æthelwold; their kingdoms are not identified but the charter mentions Sonning, a province in what is now eastern Berkshire, and it may be that one of these subkings was a ruler of the Sunningas, the people of that province. This would in turn imply Wulfhere's domination of that province by that time.

Wulfhere's influence among the Lindesfara, whose territory, Lindsey, lay in what is now Lincolnshire, is known from information about episcopal authority. At least one of the Mercian bishops of Lichfield is known to have exercised authority there: Wynfrith, who became bishop on Chad's death in 672.Williams, Kingship and Government p. 21.  In addition it is known that Wulfhere gave land at Barrow upon Humber, in Lindsey, to Chad, for a monastery.  It is possible that Chad also had authority there as bishop, probably no later than 669.  It may be that the political basis for Mercian episcopal control of the Lindesfara was laid early in Wulfhere's reign, under Trumhere and Jaruman, the two bishops who preceded Chad.

Defeat and death
When Wulfhere attacked Oswiu's son Ecgfrith in 674, he did so from a position of strength. Stephen of Ripon's Life of Wilfrid says that Wulfhere "stirred up all the southern nations against [Northumbria]". Bede does not report the fighting, nor is it mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, but according to Stephen, Ecgfrith defeated Wulfhere, forcing him to surrender Lindsey, and to pay tribute.

Wulfhere survived the defeat but evidently lost some degree of control over the south as a result; in 675, Æscwine, one of the kings of the West Saxons, fought him at Biedanheafde. It is not known where this battle was, or who was the victor. Henry of Huntingdon, a 12th-century historian who had access to versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle now lost, believed that Mercians had been the victors in a "terrible battle" and remarks upon Wulfhere having inherited "the valour of his father and grandfather". Kirby, however, presumes Æscwine was sufficiently successful to break Wulfhere's hold over Wessex.

Wulfhere died later in 675. The cause of death, according to Henry of Huntingdon, was disease.  He would have been in his mid-thirties. His widow, Eormenhild, is thought to have later become the abbess of Ely. Æthelred, Wulfhere's brother, succeeded to the throne and reigned for nearly thirty years. Æthelred recovered Lindsey from the Northumbrians a few years after his accession, but he was generally unable to maintain the domination of the south achieved by Wulfhere.

Marriage and children
At an unrecorded date Wulfhere married Eormenhild (alias Ermenilda, etc.), a daughter of  Eorcenberht, King of Kent, who survived him and is thought after his death to have become the Abbess of Ely. No issue from the marriage are recorded in the earliest sources, however the following children are recorded by various other sources:
Coenred, King of Mercia from 704 to 709, is recorded in John of Worcester's 12th-century chronicle as Wulfhere's son.
Berhtwald, a sub-king who is recorded as a nephew of Æthelred,
Werburh (alias Werburga, etc.), recorded in an 11th-century manuscript as a daughter of Wulfhere.
Saint Wulfad, who having been led by a white hart whilst out hunting in a forest with his brother Ruffin, to the hermitage of Saint Chad, was converted by that saint to Christianity. This caused great displeasure of his father, who had relapsed to paganry, and slew both his sons for their actions. Wulfad was slain by his father at Stone, in Staffordshire, and Ruffin at Burston. Their mother founded Stone Priory on the spot of the burial of both her sons.
Ruffin, slain by his father at Burston, for having converted to Christianity.

References

Sources

Primary sources
 Bede, Ecclesiastical History of the English People.'' (c. 731 A.D.) Translated by Leo Sherley-Price, revised R.E. Latham, ed. D.H. Farmer. London: Penguin, 1990.

Secondary sources

External links

Anglo-Saxon warriors
Converts to Christianity from pagan religions
Mercian monarchs
7th-century English monarchs
675 deaths
Year of birth unknown
Iclingas

Wulfhere of Mercia


The emblem of Bhutan (Dzongkha: རྒྱལ་ཡོངས་ལས་རྟགས་;Wylie: rgyal-yongs las-rtags) maintains several elements of the flag of Bhutan, with slightly different artistry, and contains much Buddhist symbolism.

The official description is as follows:

"The national emblem, contained in a circle, is composed of a double diamond-thunderbolt (dorji) placed above a lotus, surmounted by a jewel and framed by two dragons. The thunderbolt represents the harmony between secular and religious power. The lotus symbolizes purity; the jewel expresses sovereign power; and the two dragons, male and female, stand for the name of the country which they proclaim with their great voice, the thunder."

Bhutan

National symbols of Bhutan

Emblem of Bhutan


Babylon was a  city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, in present-day Iraq, about 85 kilometers (55 mi) south of Baghdad. All that remains of the original ancient city of Babylon today is a mound of broken mud-brick buildings and debris in the fertile Mesopotamian plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

Babylon was at first a small town which sprung up at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BCE. The town flourished and became well-known and important. Babylon eclipsed Nippur as the 'holy city' of Mesopotamia. This was about from 612 to 539 BCE. It was the time Hammurabi first unified the Babylonian Empire. Babylon became the capital city of the Neo-Babylonian Empire .

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Assyrian period
During the reign of Sennacherib of Assyria, Babylonia was in a constant state of revolt,  It was only pacified by the complete destruction of the city of Babylon. In 689 BCE, its walls, temples and palaces were razed, and the rubble was thrown into the Arakhtu, the river on the south side of the city.  This act shocked the religious conscience of Mesopotamia.  After the murder of Sennacherib by two of his sons, his successor Esarhaddon hurried to rebuild the old city.  He was crowned there, and it was where he lived for part of the year.

In the later overthrow of the Assyrian Empire, the Babylonians saw another example of divine vengeance.

Neo-Babylonian Chaldean Empire
Babylon threw off the Assyrian rule in 612 BCE and became the capital of the Neo-Babylonian Chaldean Empire.

With the recovery of Babylonian independence, a new era of building followed, and Nebuchadnezzar II (604–561 BCE) made Babylon into one of the wonders of the ancient world.  Nebuchadnezzar ordered the complete reconstruction of the imperial grounds, including rebuilding the Etemenanki ziggurat and the construction of the Ishtar Gate — the most spectacular of eight gates that ringed the perimeter of Babylon. All that was ever found of the Original Ishtar gate was the foundation and scattered bricks.

Nebuchadnezzar is also credited with the construction of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the seven wonders of the ancient world), said to have been built for his homesick wife Amyitis. Whether the gardens did exist is a matter of dispute. Historians disagree about the location, and some believe it may have been confused with gardens in Nineveh.

Persia captures Babylon
In 539 BCE, the Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to Cyrus the Great, the king of Persia, in the Battle of Opis. The walls of Babylon were very high and very thick. The only way into the city was through one of its many gates.  The Euphrates flowed next to the  walls and Cyrus decided to use the river to get into the city. Cyrus' troops diverted the Euphrates river. This caused the level of the river to drop allowing soldiers to enter the city.

The Babylonians had held a celebration that evening. The Persian Army took over most of the city before the Babylonians had become aware that the Persians had gotten into the city. The account was reported by Herodotus, and is also mentioned in the Hebrew Bible. Cyrus claimed the city by walking through the gates of Babylon with little or no resistance from the drunken Babylonians.

Cyrus later issued a decree allowing people, including the Jews, to return to their own land. This is mentioned in the Old Testament. It allowed Jews' temple to be rebuilt in Jerusalem.

Under Cyrus and the subsequent Persian king Darius the Great, Babylon became the capital city of the 9th Satrapy (Babylonia in the south and Athura in the north). It was a centre of learning and scientific advancement. In Achaemenid Persia, the Babylonian arts of astronomy and mathematics were revitalised. Babylonian scholars made maps of constellations. The city was the administrative capital of the Persian Empire. This empire was the most powerful of the then known world. Many important archaeological discoveries have been made that improve our understanding of that era.

The early Persian kings had tried to keep the religious ceremonies of Marduk. By the reign of Darius III, over-taxation and numerous wars had led to a deterioration of Babylon's main shrines and canals, and the disintegration of the region. Despite three rebellions in 522 BCE, 521 BCE and 482 BCE, the land and city of Babylon remained under Persian rule for two centuries. In 331 BCE, Alexander the Great took over. Under the Parthian Empire, Babylon continued to shrink and lose importance.

References

Mesopotamia

Babylon


The Social Democratic Party of Austria (German: Sozialdemokratische Partei Österreichs, shortened to SPÖ) is one of the oldest political parties in Austria. Its politics are center-left. This means it has a strong stance in labour unions. The party rejects neoliberalism. They like moderate socialism and social democracy. A well known politician of this party was Bruno Kreisky. Their current motto is "Freedom, Equality, Justice and Solidarity" (German: Freiheit, Gleichheit, Gerechtigkeit und Solidarität).

Since the end of the Second World War, the party has been the strongest, or second-strongest party in Austria, by vote. The other party that they share this status with are the ÖVP.

Their main points in the 2006 elections were:
To get rid of inscription and tuition fees in Austrian universities
To lower unemployment
Change the schooling system to have a common curriculum for all students until the age of 14.
Common social security system and pension plans, of at least 800 € (euro)

Socialist International
Social democratic parties in Europe
Political parties in Austria

Social Democratic Party of Austria


The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the highest legislative body in the United Kingdom and British overseas territories. It alone has parliamentary sovereignty over all other political bodies. The parliament has an upper house, the House of Lords, and a lower house, the House of Commons. At its head is the monarch, King Charles III. The monarch is the third part of Parliament. The British people choose the people in the lower house (members of parliament) in elections.

The development of parliament started with the councils of bishops and earls that advised the kings and queens of the Middle Ages. In 1707, during the early modern period, the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland joined to become the Parliament of Great Britain. The first Parliament of the United Kingdom came into existence in 1801, after the Irish Parliament joined with the Parliament of Great Britain. Between 1801 and 1927, the British legislature's name was the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

How the British Parliament works
The Parliament of the United Kingdom is split into three separate parts, the House of Commons (the lower house), the House of Lords (the upper house) and the monarch. Most legislative power is concentrated in the House of Commons. It is made up of 650 members of parliament (MPs). These people are elected by the people of the United Kingdom to represent them in the House of Commons. The leader of the political party who commands a majority of MPs is usually made the prime minister of the United Kingdom, the head of government. The head of state is always the monarch.

The House of Commons starts most bills. Other bills start in the House of Lords. The House of Commons decides rates of taxation.

The House of Lords has the power to reject bills, except money bills (tax bills), and make the House of Commons reconsider them. If the House of Lords vetoes a bill twice or delays a public Bill for more than one year then the House of Commons can force the Bill through under the terms of the Parliament Acts, unless it started in the House of Lords.

The monarch (now King Charles III) is the sovereign in a constitutional monarchy and, theoretically, is the fount of all power in the United Kingdom. Bills must receive the Royal Assent before becoming Acts of Parliament and the monarch is responsible for summoning, proroguing and dissolving Parliament, normally upon the advice of the incumbent Prime Minister. It is now very rare for a monarch to object, but the sovereign still retains this prerogative for use if necessary.

How a Bill becomes an Act of Parliament

Bills may start their passage in either the House of Commons or House of Lords

Pre-legislative Scrutiny: Joint committee of both houses review bill and vote on amendments that government can accept or reject. Reports are influential in later stages as rejected committee recommendations are revived to be voted on.

First Reading: No vote occurs. Bill is presented, printed, and in private members' bills, a Second Reading date is set.

Second Reading: A debate on the general principles of the bill is followed by a vote.

Committee Stage: A committee considers each clause of the bill, and may make amendments.

Report Stage: An opportunity to amend the bill. The House consider clauses to which amendments have been tabled.

Third Reading: A debate on final text as amended. In the Lords, further amendments may be tabled at this stage.

Passage: The bill is then sent to the other House which may amend it.

First Reading: Same procedures

Second Reading: Same procedures

Committee Stage: Same procedures

Report Stage: Same procedures

Third Reading: Same procedures

Passage: The bill is then returned to the original House.

Pre-legislative Scrutiny: To consider all amendments.

The bill is then processed for Royal Assent, if accepted, the bill becomes an Act.

History
In the Middle Ages and early modern period there were three kingdoms within the British Isles — England, Scotland and Ireland — and these developed separate parliaments. The 1707 Acts of Union brought England and Scotland together under the Parliament of Great Britain, and the 1800 Act of Union included Ireland under the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The parliament at Westminster in London is sometimes called the "Mother of all Parliaments"

Parliament of England

The English Parliament has its origins in the Anglo-Saxon . In 1066, William of Normandy brought a feudal system, where he sought the advice of a council before making laws. In 1215, this council got the Magna Carta from King John, which established that the king may not levy or collect any taxes (except the feudal taxes to which they were hitherto accustomed), save with the consent of his royal council, which slowly developed into a parliament.

In 1265, Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester called the first elected Parliament. The Laws in Wales Acts of 1535–42 annexed Wales as a part of England and brought Welsh representatives to Parliament.

When Elizabeth I was succeeded in 1603 by the Scottish King James VI of Scotland (James I of England) the countries both came under his rule, but each kept its own Parliament.

Parliament of Scotland

In Scotland in the High Middle Ages the King's Council of Bishops and Earls was the beginning of the Parliament of 1235.

Parliament of Ireland

The Irish Parliament was founded to represent the English community in the Lordship of Ireland, but the native or Gaelic Irish were not allowed to vote or stand for office, the first known meeting being in 1264.
In 1541 Henry VIII declared the Kingdom of Ireland. The Gaelic Irish lords were now entitled to attend the Irish Parliament as equals of the majority of English descent.

Related pages

 MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005
 Parliament of England
 List of Parliamentary constituencies in the United Kingdom
 Parliamentary procedure

References

Further reading
 Blackstone, Sir William 1765. Commentaries on the Laws of England. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
 Davies M. 2003. Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the proceedings of the House of Lords, 19th ed.
 Farnborough, Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron 1896. Constitutional history of England since the Accession of George the Third, 11th ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
 "Parliament." (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.

Other websites
 The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Official website.
 The Parliamentary Archives of the United Kingdom. Official website.
 History of Parliament. Official website.
 The British Constitution  A general introduction to the principles underlying the UK Constitution
 The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Parliament Live TV.
 Provides online viewing of debates in The House of Lords, House of Commons and Westminster Hall debates. In addition, committee meetings can be viewed live or viewed from beginning to end. Using a 56k dial up connection streamed debates can be followed, though with erratic video and sound prone to disruption.
 The British Broadcasting Corporation. (2005).  "A–Z of Parliament."
 Information links to Government, political parties and statistics.
 The Guardian. (2005).  "Special Report: House of Commons."
 The Guardian. (2005).  "Special Report: House of Lords."
 Parliamentary procedure site at Leeds University

Parliament of the United Kingdom

Parliament of the United Kingdom


Phenotypic screening is a type of screening used in biological research and drug discovery to identify substances such as small molecules, peptides, or RNAi that alter the phenotype of a cell or an organism in a desired manner. Phenotypic screening must be followed up with identification (sometimes referred to as target deconvolution) and validation, often through the use of chemoproteomics, to identify the mechanisms through which a phenotypic hit works.

Historical context

Phenotypic screening historically has been the basis for the discovery of new drugs.  Compounds are screened in cellular or animal disease models to identify compounds that cause a desirable change in phenotype.  Only after the compounds have been discovered are efforts made to determine the biological targets of the compounds - a process known as target deconvolution.  This overall strategy is referred to as "classical pharmacology", "forward pharmacology" or "phenotypic drug discovery" (PDD).

More recently it has become popular to develop a hypothesis that a certain biological target is disease modifying, and then screen for compounds that modulate the activity of this purified target.  Afterwards, these compounds are tested in animals to see if they have the desired effect.  This approach is known as "reverse pharmacology" or "target based drug discovery" (TDD). However recent statistical analysis reveals that a disproportionate number of first-in-class drugs with novel mechanisms of action come from phenotypic screening which has led to a resurgence of interest in this method.

Types

In vitro

The simplest phenotypic screens employ cell lines and monitor a single parameter such as cellular death or the production of a particular protein.  High-content screening where changes in the expression of several proteins can be simultaneously monitored is also often used. High-content imaging of dye-labeled cellular components can also reveal effects of compounds on cell cultures in vitro, distinguishing the phenotypic effects of a broad variety of drugs.

In vivo

In whole animal-based approaches, phenotypic screening is best exemplified where a substance is evaluated for potential therapeutic benefit across many different types of animal models representing different disease states. Phenotypic screening in animal-based systems utilize model organisms to evaluate the effects of a test agent in fully assembled biological systems.  Example organisms used for high-content screening include the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster), zebrafish (Danio rerio) and mice (Mus musculus). In some instances the term phenotypic screening is used to include the serendipitous findings that occur in clinical trial settings particularly when new and unanticipated therapeutic effects of a therapeutic candidate are uncovered.

Screening in model organism offers the advantage of interrogating test agents, or alterations in targets of interest, in the context of fully integrated, assembled, biological systems, providing insights that could otherwise not be obtained in cellular systems.  Some have argued that cellular based systems are unable to adequately model human disease processes that involve many different cell types across many different organ systems and that this type of complexity can only be emulated in model organisms.  The productivity of drug discovery by phenotypic screening in organisms, including serendipitous findings in the clinic, are consistent with this notion.

Use in drug repositioning

Animal based approaches to phenotypic screening are not as amenable to screening libraries containing thousands of small molecules.  Therefore, these approaches have found more utility in evaluating already approved drugs or late stage drug candidates for drug repositioning.

A number of companies including Melior Discovery, Phylonix, and Sosei have specialized in using phenotypic screening in animal disease models for drug positioning. Many other companies are involved in phenotypic screening research approaches, including Eurofins Discovery Phenotypic Services, Evotec, Dharmacon, Inc., ThermoScientific, Cellecta, and Persomics.

Collaborative research

The pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly has formalized collaborative efforts with various 3rd parties aimed at conducting phenotypic screening of selected small molecules.

References

Further reading

Drug discovery

Phenotypic screening


Hermione Jean Granger (born September 19, 1979) is a character from the Harry Potter series. She met Harry Potter and Ron Weasley  for the first time on the Hogwarts Express. She was then looking for Neville's toad. She is referred to as the smartest witch of her age. In the Harry Potter movies, the character is played by Emma Watson.

Character
Hermione is one of Harry Potter's best friends. She knows nearly every thing in the magical world. She spends a lot of time with Harry and Ron. Her parents are Muggles (not magical) but she is the brightest witch of her class. She was born on September 19, 1979 and when she arrived at Hogwarts for the very first time, she was almost 12, since she was born after September 1st, she has to wait a year later. Her parents are dentists. She is intelligent and her special skill is the ability to remember all that she has read. Because of this, Hermione is successful in her tests. Although she is smart, she also is brave and has street-smarts. She cares about house-elves  and has made the club S.P.E.W., the Society for the Promotion of Elfish Welfare, which Ron mockingly calls "Spew." She made scarfs and garments to liberate the elves of the slavery of the wizards. But none of the elves took the garments and Dobby (the old house elf of the Malfoy family) gathered them.  She is one of the prefects of Gryffindor with Ron. Her appearance is made up of bushy brown hair, dark brown eyes, and huge front teeth, which Draco Malfoy enlarged it in her fourth year. It is also noted at the end of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows that she marries Ron and they have two children together called Rose and Hugo, to which the children has taken after their parents' initials. Although in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire she was the dance partner of Viktor Krum. She belongs to Gryffindor house, which is known for bravery. The Sorting Hat thought about putting her in Ravenclaw house, which is known for wisdom, but finally it put her in Gryffindor. Hermione has a pet cat named Crookshanks, which Ron told her it was like a hairy pig.

In the first book Hermione had the personality of a snob, and a geek, and she is not very friendly but with the time she improves that. Hermione was teased as Mudblood (Witch/ Wizard born with no Magical parents, also known as an offensive insult on Muggle Born Witch/ Wizard) by many Slytherins, especially Draco Malfoy. Her name refers to The Winter's Tale, by William Shakespeare, and was the daughter of Helen of Troy from Ancient Greek Mythology.

Hermione Granger is in love with Ron Weasley and has 2 kids called Hugo Granger-Weasley and Rose Granger-Weasley

References

Fictional characters introduced in 1997
Harry Potter characters

Hermione Granger


Willie Lee Brown (1899 or August 6, 1900 – December 30, 1952) was an American blues guitar player and vocalist. He performed and recorded with other blues musicians, including Son House and Charlie Patton, and influenced Robert Johnson and Muddy Waters. Brown is considered one of the pioneering musicians of the Delta blues genre.

Brown worked as a side player, performing mostly with House, Patton, and Johnson. He recorded six sides for Paramount Records in Grafton, Wisconsin in 1930, which were subsequently released on 78-rpm discs. He made three recordings for the Library of Congress in 1941, accompanied by House. In 1952, Brown briefly joined House in Rochester, New York, but soon returned to Tunica, Mississippi, where he died the same year.

Although normally an accompanist, Brown recorded three highly rated solo performances: "M & O Blues", "Make Me a Pallet on the Floor" and "Future Blues". He disappeared from the music scene during the 1940s, together with House, and died before the blues revival of the 1960s.

In Blues & Rhythm May 2022 the respected Blues researcher Bob Eagle makes a very strong case for another Willie Brown being the "Future Blues" artist.

Life and career
He learned to play the guitar as a teenager. He played with such notables as Charley Patton, Son House and Robert Johnson. He was not a self-promoting frontman, preferring to "second" other musicians.  Little is known for certain about the man whom Johnson called "my friend Willie Brown" (in his "Cross Road Blues") and whom Johnson once indicated should be notified in event of his death.

Brown played with Patton on "M & O Blues" and "Future Blues", recorded for Paramount Records in 1930. Both songs appear on the album Son House & the Great Delta Blues Singers 1928–1930 (Document Records, 1994) and are also included in the JSP box set of Patton's recordings. At least four other songs Brown recorded for Paramount have never been found.

There has been speculation and some dispute about whether Brown played backup on "Rowdy Blues", and "Mississippi Bottom Blues", 1929 songs credited to Kid Bailey, or recorded it himself using the name of Kid Bailey.

The musicologist David Evans reconstructed the early biography of a Willie Brown living in Drew, Mississippi, until 1929. He was married by 1911, when he was 10 or 11(?), to a proficient guitarist named Josie Mills. He is recalled as singing and playing guitar with Patton and others in the neighborhood of Drew. Informants with conflicting memories led Gayle Dean Wardlow and Steve Calt to conclude that this was a different Willie Brown. Evans rejected this conclusion, believing that the singing and guitar style of the 1931 recordings is in the tradition of other performers from Drew, such as Patton, Tommy Johnson, Kid Bailey, Howlin' Wolf and artists not commercially recorded.

Alan Lomax, writing in 1993, suggested that the William Brown he recorded in Arkansas in 1942 was the same man as the Paramount artist. The recording was for a joint project between Fisk University and the Library of Congress documenting the music of Coahoma County, Mississippi, in 1941 and 1942. Writing over fifty years later, Lomax seemed to have forgotten that he had actually recorded Brown the previous summer with Son House, Fiddlin' Joe Martin and Leroy Williams. Brown played second guitar on three performances by the group and recorded one solo, "Make Me a Pallet on the Floor". Willie Brown also played "Ragged & Dirty". According to Lomax, after Willie played "Ragged & Dirty" for him, Brown quoted, "That's the blues, that's the Delta blues."

The later biography is more clear. Brown lived in Robinsonville, Mississippi from 1929 and moved to Lake Cormorant, Mississippi by 1935. He performed occasionally with Charley Patton and continually with Son House until his death.

Brown died of heart disease in Tunica, Mississippi, in 1952.

Discography
Brown recorded six sides at a 1930 recording session in Grafton, Wisconsin. They were released on three 78-rpm shellac discs, of which only one has been found.
 Paramount 13001: "Grandma Blues" / "Sorry Blues" (no copy has been found)
 Paramount 13090: "M & O Blues" / "Future Blues" (only six copies are known)
 Paramount 13099: "Window Blues" / "Kicking in My Sleep Blues" (no copy has been found)
 Library of Congress recording by Lomax: "Make Me a Pallet on the Floor"

See also
Crossroads (1986 film)
 List of Delta blues musicians

References

External links
 "Cross Road Blues" lyrics
 Illustrated Willie Brown discography
  Willie Brown biography

1900 births
1952 deaths
Musicians from Clarksdale, Mississippi
African-American guitarists
American blues guitarists
American male guitarists
American blues singers
Blues musicians from Mississippi
Country blues musicians
Delta blues musicians
Paramount Records artists
20th-century African-American male singers
20th-century American guitarists
Guitarists from Mississippi
People from Drew, Mississippi
People from Tunica, Mississippi

Willie Brown (musician)


The Gastrotricha, often called hairy backs, are a phylum of microscopic (0.06-3.0 mm) animals abundant in fresh water and marine environments. Marine species are found mostly in between sediment particles, while terrestrial species live in the water films around grains of soil. Adults have a fixed cell number. About 700 species have been described.

Anatomy
Gastrotrichs are bilaterally symmetric, with a transparent body and a flat underside. Many species have a pair of short projections at the rear end. The body is covered with cilia, especially about the mouth and on the lower surface. Its two end projections have cement glands. This is a double-gland system where one gland secretes the glue and another secretes a de-adhesive.  Like many microscopic animals, their movement is mainly powered by hydrostatics.

Gastrotrichs develop to a particular number of cells; further growth comes only from an increase in cell size. As is typical for such small animals, there are no respiratory or circulatory organs. Nitrogenous waste is probably excreted through the body wall, as part of respiration. The nervous system is relatively simple. The brain consists of two ganglia, one on either side of the pharynx. Each ganglion gives rise to a single nerve cord, which runs the length of the body and includes further, smaller ganglia. The main sense organs are the bristles and ciliated tufts of the body surface. Some gastrotrichs also possess light sensitive cells in the brain that work as primitive ocelli (eye spots).

Reproduction
Gastrotrichs are simultaneous hermaphrodites: they have both male and female sex organs. Once the sperm are produced, they are picked up by an organ on the tail that functions as a penis, and transferred to the partner. Fertilisation is internal, and the eggs are released by rupture of the body wall.

Many species reproduce entirely by parthenogenesis. In these species the male portions of the reproductive system are non-functional or entirely absent.

Some species can lay eggs that can remain dormant during times of desiccation (drought) or cold. These species produce regular eggs during good environmental conditions, which hatch in one to four days. The eggs hatch into miniature versions of the adult. The young typically reach sexual maturity in about three days, and gastrotrichs can live up to ten days under laboratory conditions.

Eutely
Gastrotrichs are eutelic: each species has a genetically fixed number of cells as adults. Cell division stops at the end of embryonic development and further growth is only by cell enlargement.

References

Minor phyla
Invertebrates

Gastrotrich


Celluloid is the name of a group of compounds made from nitrocellulose and camphor, plus dyes and other agents. It was the first thermoplastic. It was first called Parkesine in 1856,  then Xylonite in 1869 and then Celluloid in 1870. Celluloid is easily molded and shaped.

It was first widely used as an ivory replacement, in billiard balls for example. In the early 20th century it was used in most photographic film. Celluloid catches fire very easily and also easily breaks down, and is no longer widely used. Its most common uses today are for making table tennis balls and guitar picks.

References

Organic compounds
Thermoplastics

Celluloid


A minbar (also called mimbar sometimes, ) is a special place in a mosque. It is used by the Imam to speak to the congregation, to deliver sermons. Usually, minbars are raised (to be higher than the crowd, much like pulpits); These sermons are usually called khutbah ( خطبه ). In a minbar, the speaker is standing while he is giving the lecture. An alternative to this is to have a Hussainia where the speaker can sit down while giving the lecture.

Very often, the minbar is shaped like a small tower. The minbar is located to the right of the mihrab, the niche that indicates the direction of prayer (i.e. towards Mecca).

Other websites

Islamic architecture

Minbar


The Jensen S-V8 is the maist recent in a series o Jensen caurs.

Efter a £9 million investment the caur wis launched at the 1998 Breetish Internaitional Motor Show, wi an initial production run o 300 deposit paid vehicles planned at a sellin price o £40,000 each, troubles wi manufacture production ceased wi ae 20 iver leavin the factory an anither 18 caurs left partially completed.

The Jensen name an partially completed caurs wur later sold tae an ingineerin firm, who decidit tae complete the build o 12 o the caurs, retainin the ithers for spares, an finally sellin them for £38,500.

External links
The tragic tale of the Jensen S-V8

S-V8

Jensen S-V8


Forseti is a god of justice and reconciliation in Norse mythology. He oversaw courts and mediation. He is one of the Æsir gods. Forseti's name means "the presiding one" in Old Norse. He is often identified with Fosite, a god in the mythology of the Frisians. Forseti was the son of Nanna and Baldur.

Norse gods and goddesses

Forseti


Eligiusz Niewiadomski (December 1, 1869 – January 31, 1923) was a Polish modernist painter and art critic who sympathized with the right-wing National Democracy movement. In 1922 he assassinated Poland's first President, Gabriel Narutowicz, in his first week in office as president.

Life
Niewiadomski was born into a family of gentry descent. His father, Wincenty Niewiadomski, of the Prus coat-of-arms, was a veteran of the January Uprising and a worker at the Warsaw mint. At the age of two, Eligiusz lost his mother Julia, and was raised by his elder sister Cecylia. After graduating from a local trade school in 1888, Niewiadomski moved to St. Petersburg, where he continued his studies at the Imperial Academy of Arts. He graduated in 1894 with honors, and won a scholarship to the École Supérieure des Beaux-Arts in Paris. After his return to Warsaw, he became a student of Wojciech Gerson, one of the best-known Polish artists of the age.

After 1897, he taught drawing at the Warsaw Polytechnic. He also collaborated with a number of Warsaw-based magazines and newspapers as a journalist and art critic, which gave him considerable notoriety, mostly among the artists themselves. He became involved in various artistic movements, among them the "re-discovery" of the Tatra Mountains, which at the time attracted some of the most renowned Polish painters, poets and writers as a source of inspiration. Niewiadomski prepared and published a map of the Tatras, one of the first tourist maps of the area. He also prepared a set of historical maps of Poland, Album of the History of Poland (1899). He also became involved in the reorganization of the Zachęta art society. Using contacts acquired there, he promoted the idea of creating a separate Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw. However, when the school was finally opened in 1903, Niewiadomski was not invited to teach there.

Politically, Niewiadomski was a strong supporter of nationalism, particularly the National League. In 1901 he was arrested by the Tsarist police for smuggling nationalist propaganda booklets from Galicia into Vistula Land. Though released after several months in the Pawiak Prison, he lost his job at Warsaw Polytechnic and fell into an impoverished state. This further radicalized his political beliefs. During the Russo-Japanese War he promoted the idea of perpetrating anti-Russian sabotage, for which he was excluded from the National League.

To make a living, Niewiadomski began teaching art classes at numerous schools and churches in Poland. He also made frescoes in Konin's St. Bartholomew's Church. However, his two-volume monograph On Mediaeval Art sold poorly, and Niewiadomski was on the verge of being forgotten by his contemporaries.

After the outbreak of World War I he remained in Warsaw, where he published brochures and manifestos describing his views on the role of art. He also continued teaching art history and artistic technique at various schools. On March 1, 1918, he was appointed director of painting and sculpture at the Regency Council's Ministry of Culture, a post that had previously been turned down by numerous artists.

After Poland regained independence, Niewiadomski joined the newly reborn country's Ministry of Culture. In 1920, during the Polish-Soviet War, he tried to join the Polish Army but was turned down as too old. However, he was accepted by Polish intelligence and served as a translator of Russian documents. During the last months of the war, he finally managed to convince his superiors to transfer him to front-line service and fought in the 5th Legions' Infantry Regiment.

Demobilized in 1921, Niewiadomski returned to the Ministry of Culture and continued his work there as a clerk. However, on November 8, 1921, after Antoni Ponikowski's government refused to grant Niewiadomski's department a higher budget, he resigned his post.  He then devoted himself to writing and prepared several monographs on 19th- and 20th-century Polish painting, and on the theory of art. He made his living illustrating books.

Assassin

On December 9, 1922, Gabriel Narutowicz was elected by the National Assembly as the first President of Poland. After a heated debate, Narutowicz's candidacy managed to gather 289 votes, including 113 votes of various national minority MPs. The defeated candidate of the National Democratic Party Maurycy Zamoyski gathered 227 votes, yet the National Democrats decided to boycott the President and announced that he was elected by the "Reds, Jews, and Germans" rather than Poles. This started a period of civil unrest in Warsaw, where the supporters of nationalist ideas protested against the election of their president.

On December 16, 1922, the newly elected president attended the opening of an art exhibition at the Zachęta Art Gallery. Niewiadomski, a frequent guest at such gatherings, pulled out his revolver, approached Narutowicz and shot him. The president died instantly. Arrested on December 30, he demanded a death penalty for himself, and was sentenced to death by firing squad, and the sentence was carried out at the Warsaw Citadel on January 31, 1923. He was 53 years old. His body was interred at Warsaw's Powązki Cemetery.

After his execution, Niewiadomski remained a controversial figure. His funeral was attended by 10,000 people.

See also
List of Poles

Notes

References

1869 births
1923 deaths
1922 murders in Poland
Artists from Warsaw
Burials at Powązki Cemetery
National League (Poland) members
19th-century Polish painters
19th-century Polish male artists
20th-century Polish painters
20th-century Polish male artists
Polish assassins
Nationalist assassins
Academic staff of the Warsaw University of Technology
Executed assassins
Executed people from Masovian Voivodeship
Polish people convicted of murder
People convicted of murder by Poland
People executed by the Second Polish Republic
People executed by Poland by firing squad
Assassins of presidents
20th-century Polish criminals
Polish male painters
Polish nationalists
Polish people of the Polish–Soviet War
People from Congress Poland

Eligiusz Niewiadomski