Rolls-Royce Holdings plc is a British multinational aerospace and defence company incorporated in February 2011. The company owns Rolls-Royce, a business established in 1904 which today designs, manufactures and distributes power systems for aviation and other industries. Rolls-Royce is the world's second-largest maker of aircraft engines (after General Electric) and has major businesses in the marine propulsion and energy sectors.

Rolls-Royce was the world's 16th largest defence contractor in 2018 when measured by defence revenues.

Rolls-Royce Holdings plc is listed on the London Stock Exchange, where it is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index. At the close of London trading on 28 August 2019, the company had a market capitalisation of £4.656bn, the 85th-largest of any company with a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange.

The company's registered office is at Kings Place, near Kings Cross in London.

History

Ownership
Rolls-Royce grew from the engineering business of Henry Royce, which was established in 1884 and ten years later began to manufacture dynamos and electric cranes. Charles Rolls established a separate business with Royce in 1904 because Royce had developed a range of cars which Rolls wanted to sell. A corporate owner was incorporated in 1906 with the name Rolls-Royce Limited.

In 1971 the same company, Rolls-Royce Limited, entered voluntary liquidation because it was unable to meet its financial obligations. It remains in existence today, still in liquidation. Its business and assets were bought by the government using a company created for the purpose named Rolls-Royce (1971) Limited. Rolls-Royce Motors was separated out in 1973.  Rolls-Royce (1971) Limited currently carries on the business under the name Rolls-Royce plc.

Rolls-Royce plc returned to the stock market in 1987 under the government of Margaret Thatcher. In 2003 ownership of Rolls-Royce plc was passed to Rolls-Royce Group plc. In the same way, Rolls-Royce Group plc passed ownership on 23 May 2011 to Rolls-Royce Holdings plc. Throughout these corporate changes Rolls-Royce plc has remained the principal trading company.

Growth
The 1980s saw the introduction of a policy to offer an engine fitment on a much wider range of civil aircraft types, with the company's engines now powering 17 different airliners (and their variants) compared to General Electric's 14 and Pratt & Whitney's 10.

The civil engines business represents the company's main area of growth. Between 2010 and 2018, Rolls-Royce invested £11 billion in facilities and R&D and launched six new civil engines including the Trent XWB and the Pearl 15 for the business aviation market. It secured orders for 2,700 engines for wide-body aircraft and business jets. It expects to produce over 600 wide-body engines a year and should power over half of the world's wide-body fleet within a few years, up from 22% a decade before.

In 2023, Rolls-Royce entered into an agreement for $3.52 million of funding with the UK Space Agency for the creation of a nuclear reactor on the moon. The project is intended to provide power for space missions.

Restructuring
In 2014 and 2015, Rolls-Royce issued at least four profit warnings due to US defence cuts, a downturn in the offshore oil and gas market and its civil aerospace business, the company initiated job cuts of over 3,000 in response. Rolls-Royce had been selling many of its aero-engines in combination with long-term service contracts. Even though the company booked profits in part with the delivery of the engine, actual payments only came in over time. Between 2003 and 2015, it sold a majority of its engines with these "TotalCare" contracts. The company announced it would no longer be able to move its revenues forward from its long-term service contracts to compensate for its contracts being unprofitable in the early stages after the introduction of IFRS 15 in 2018 and its profits for 2015 would have been £900m lower than the £1.4bn it reported if it had followed the new accounting standard.

In February 2017 Rolls-Royce posted its largest ever pre-tax loss of £4.6 billion; This included a £4.4 billion writedown on financial hedges that the company uses to protect itself against currency fluctuations, and a £671 million penalty to settle bribery and corruption charges with the Serious Fraud Office (SFO), the US Department of Justice, and Brazilian authorities.

On 14 June 2018 the company announced a restructuring of the business to create three simpler decentralised units (civil aerospace, defence and power systems), to rationalise back office functions and to remove middle management functions. The cost savings should amount to £400 million per year by 2020, with an up-front restructuring cost of £500 million. Some 4,600 people are likely to leave the business out of 55,000 employed worldwide, 3,000 job losses from the UK and the rest from elsewhere in the world (15,700 of the employees work in Derby and 10,300 work elsewhere in the United Kingdom).

In August 2018 Rolls-Royce announced it was taking a charge of £554 million to cover faults with some Trent 1000 engines on Boeing 787 Dreamliners. Rather than going thousands of hours between inspections, the faults with turbine blades mean the engines currently require inspection every 300 hours of flight. In the same announcement Rolls-Royce said it would spend £450m fixing faults on the Trent 1000 in 2018, £450m in 2019 and £350m in 2020, with the work complete by 2022.

In May 2020, the company announced its intention to cut 20% of its workforce (approximately 9,000 staff) worldwide as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. Around 3,000 job losses were expected in the UK, half of them in Derby.

In February 2021, Rolls-Royce started talks concerning an operational shutdown of its civil aerospace unit that might last for two weeks due to the impact of Covid-19 and its restrictions.

Rolls-Royce announced, in October 2023, that it would cut 2,500 jobs, or 6 per cent of its total workforce.

Senior leadership

 Chairman: Anita Frew (since October 2021)
 Chief Executive: Tufan Erginbilgic (since January 2023)

List of former chairmen

 Sir Simon Robertson (2011–2013)
 Sir Ian Davis (2013–2021)

List of former chief executives

 John Rishton (2011–2015)
 Warren East (2013–2022)

Facilities

Testing
Rolls-Royce's £90 million test bed 80 will be the largest of its kind, sized for engines of up to  of thrust. Design started in 2017, construction began in 2018 and it should be commissioned by mid-2020. The  facility is  long, has a  tall intake tower and a  tall exhaust stack. Built from 3,450 tons of steel and  of concrete, it has a  tall and wide enclosed space and it can handle a 66 tons engine including its carrier.

X-ray imaging allows to visualize the position of seals and clearances in real time while an engine is running. While it was retrofitted on Rolls' test bed 57, test bed 80 is the first to be purpose-designed for industrial radiography. To protect from external X-ray like 30 cm (11.8 in.) of lead, double walls are up to 8.9 ft. (2.7 m) thick (a 5.6-ft. interior wall and 3.3-ft. exterior wall) and provide acoustic insulation. Canadian prime contractor MDS Aero Support is responsible for design and management, test systems supply, engine adapters, support systems and data acquisition and control while construction is done by Buckingham Group Contracting.

Acquisitions
Northern Engineering Industries / broken up and sold
In 1988, Rolls-Royce acquired Northern Engineering Industries (NEI), based in the North East of England, a group of heavy engineering companies mainly associated with electrical generation and power management. The group included Clarke Chapman (cranes), Reyrolle (now part of Siemens) and Parsons (now part of Siemens steam turbines). The company was renamed Rolls-Royce Industrial Power Group. It was sold off piecemeal over the next decade as the company re-focused on its core aero-engine operations following the recession of the early 1990s.

Allison Engine Company/Rolls-Royce Corporation
On 21 November 1994, Rolls-Royce announced its intention to acquire the Allison Engine Company, an American manufacturer of gas turbines and components for aviation, industrial and marine engines. The two companies had a technical association dating back to the Second World War. Rolls-Royce had previously tried to buy the company when General Motors sold it in 1993, but GM opted for a management buyout instead for $370 million. Owing to Allison's involvement in classified and export restricted technology, the 1994 acquisition was subject to investigation to determine the national security implications. On 27 March 1995, the US Department of Defense announced that the "deal between Allison Engine Co. and Rolls-Royce does not endanger national security." Rolls-Royce was, however, obliged to set up a proxy board to manage Allison and had also to set up a separate company, Allison Advanced Development Company, Inc., to manage classified programmes "that involve leading-edge technologies" such as the Joint Strike Fighter programme. In 2000, this restriction was replaced by a more flexible Special Security Arrangement. In 2001, Rolls-Royce and its LiftSystem was among the group that won the JSF contract for the F-35.

The Allison acquisition, at $525 million (equivalent to £328 million), brought four new engine types into the Rolls-Royce civil engine portfolio on seven platforms and several light aircraft applications. Allison is now known as Rolls-Royce Corporation, part of Rolls-Royce North America.

Vickers/Vinters
In 1999 Rolls-Royce acquired Vickers plc for its marine businesses. The portion retained is now Vinters Engineering Limited. Rolls-Royce sold Vickers Defence Systems (the other major Vickers area of business) to Alvis plc in 2002.

BMW joint venture / Rolls-Royce Deutschland
Rolls-Royce has established a leading position in the corporate and regional airline sector through the development of the Tay engine, the Allison acquisition and the consolidation of the BMW Rolls-Royce joint venture. In 1999, BMW Rolls-Royce was renamed Rolls-Royce Deutschland and became a 100% owned subsidiary of Rolls-Royce plc.

SAIC joint venture / Optimized Systems and Solutions
Optimized Systems and Solutions Limited (formerly known as Data Systems & Solutions) was founded in 1999 as a joint venture between Rolls-Royce plc and Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC). In early 2006, SAIC exited the joint venture agreement, making Rolls-Royce plc the sole owner.

Tognum joint venture with Daimler / Rolls-Royce Power Systems Holding GmbH
In March 2011, Rolls-Royce and Daimler AG launched a $4.2 billion public tender offer for 100 per cent of the share capital of Tognum AG, the owner of MTU Friedrichshafen – a leading high-speed industrial and marine diesel engine manufacturer, which was completed using a 50:50 joint venture company. Rolls-Royce and Daimler AG intend that the joint venture company, which also now incorporates Rolls-Royce's existing Bergen engine business, is listed on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange.

Aero Engine Controls / Rolls-Royce Controls and Data Services
Following the acquisition of Goodrich by United Technologies Corporation in July 2012, Rolls-Royce announced it would purchase Goodrich's 50% share of Aero Engine Controls to become wholly owned by Rolls-Royce.

At the June 2019 Paris Air Show, Rolls-Royce announced its acquisition of Siemens' electric propulsion branch (while they are partners on the E-Fan X demonstrator), to be completed in late 2019, employing 180 in Germany and Hungary.

Divestment

Siemens
In May 2014, Rolls-Royce sold its energy gas turbine and compressor business to Siemens for £785 million.

Kongsberg
In July 2018, Rolls-Royce sold its commercial marine business to Kongsberg for £500 million.

Nuclear services businesses
In September 2019, Rolls-Royce agreed to sell its civil nuclear services businesses in the U.S., Canada, Mondragon France, and Gateshead UK to the Westinghouse Electric Company for an undisclosed sum. These businesses had a revenue of $70 million and about 500 employees in 2018.  Rolls-Royce is keeping its nuclear new build and small modular reactor (SMR) business in the UK. In November 2020, the company announced plans to build up to 16 Rolls-Royce SMR nuclear plants across the UK, continuing its nuclear division operations. In December 2020 Rolls-Royce announced it would sell other foreign parts of its civil nuclear instrumentation and control business to Framatome as part of its post-COVID recovery plan, completing the deal involving over 550 employees in November 2021.

Major sales

Airbus A380
In 1996, Rolls-Royce and Airbus signed a memorandum of understanding, specifying the Trent 900 as the engine of choice for the then A3XX, now the Airbus A380.

In 2011, Rolls-Royce faced questions concerning incidents with its Trent 900 Turbofan used to power the Airbus A380 aircraft. One of the engines suffered a partial power loss during a Qantas flight in February 2011. This followed an incident in November 2010 in which an engine disintegrated in flight causing Qantas Flight 32 to make an emergency landing in Singapore. The aircraft was extensively damaged and the airline grounded its fleet of A380s. The problem was traced to a fatigue crack in an oil pipe requiring the replacement of some engines and modifications to the design. Trent-powered A380s operated by Lufthansa and Singapore Airlines were also affected. Qantas gradually returned its A380s to service over several months. In June 2011 the airline announced it had agreed to compensation of US$100m from Rolls-Royce.

On 17 April 2015, it was announced that Rolls-Royce had received its largest order to date worth £6.1bn ($9.2bn) to supply engines for 50 Emirates A380 planes.

Boeing
On 6 April 2004, Boeing announced that it had selected both Rolls-Royce and General Electric to power its new 787. Rolls-Royce submitted the Trent 1000, a further development of that series.

Airbus A350
In July 2006, Rolls-Royce reached an agreement to supply a new version of the Trent for the revised Airbus A350 (XWB) jetliner. This engine, the Trent XWB is an engine developed from the Trent 1000, a variant of which was offered for the original A350 proposal. As of July 2015, over 1,500 engines of this type have been supplied to 40 customers.

In October 2006, Rolls-Royce suspended production of its Trent 900 engine because of delays by Airbus on the delivery of the A380 superjumbo. Rolls-Royce announced in October 2007 that production of the Trent 900 had been restarted after a twelve-month suspension caused by delays to the A380.

Panavia Tornado, Eurofighter Typhoon and Lightning II
On the military side, Rolls-Royce, in co-operation with other European manufacturers, has been a major contractor for the RB199 which in several variants powers the Panavia Tornado, and also for the EJ200 engine for the Eurofighter Typhoon. Rolls-Royce has matured the Rolls-Royce LiftSystem invented by Lockheed Martin for the F-35 Lightning II to production level; The F-35 is planned to be produced in significant numbers.

Air China
At the 2005 Paris Air Show, Rolls-Royce secured in excess of $1 billion worth of orders. The firm received $800m worth of orders from Air China to supply its 20 Airbus A330 jets.

Qatar Airways
On 18 June 2007, Rolls-Royce announced at the 2007 Paris Air Show that it had signed a large contract with Qatar Airways for the Trent XWB to power 80 A350s on order from Airbus worth $5.6 billion at list prices.

Emirates airlines
On 11 November 2007, Rolls-Royce announced at the Dubai Airshow that it had signed its largest ever contract with Emirates for Trent XWBs to power 50 A350-900 and 20 A350-1000 aircraft with 50 option rights. Due to be delivered from 2014, the order is potentially worth up to 8.4 billion US Dollars at list prices.

On 20 November 2007, Rolls-Royce announced plans to build its first Asian aero engine facility in the Seletar Aerospace Park, Singapore. The $562m (£355m) plant complements its existing facility at Derby by concentrating on the assembly and testing of large civil engines, including Trent 1000 and Trent XWB. Productivity will be higher than at Derby, as the plant is fully integrated, as opposed to manufacturing occurring across five sites in the UK: a Trent 900 will take only 14 days to manufacture, as opposed to 20 in the UK. Originally expected to provide employment for 330 people, by the start of production in 2012, 1,600 employees were based in Singapore.

Nuclear submarines
In May 2012, Rolls-Royce Marine Power Operations won a Ministry of Defence contract worth more than £400 million for the integration of the reactor design, the PWR3, for UK's next generation nuclear-armed submarines.

Corruption allegations

Rolls-Royce has been accused numerous times of corrupt practices and bribery. Most recently, in 2014, facing allegations of bribery in the aftermath of the Sudhir Choudhrie affair, Rolls-Royce offered to return money to the Indian government. The Serious Fraud Office (SFO) also investigated allegations of bribery in Indonesia and China.

In February 2015 Rolls-Royce was accused of bribing an employee of Brazil's state-controlled oil company to win a $100 million contract to provide gas turbines for oil platforms.

In October 2016 a joint Guardian and BBC investigation alleged widespread corruption by Rolls-Royce through middlemen in foreign countries including Brazil, India, China, Indonesia, South Africa, Angola, Iraq, Iran, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Nigeria and Saudi Arabia. Rolls-Royce became subject to a major SFO investigation.

Alleged defects
In 2013 media reported allegations from two American ex-employees that thousands of the company's new jet engines were assembled with used parts.

Settlement with SFO
In January 2017 Rolls-Royce came to an agreement with the SFO to pay £671 million under a deferred prosecution agreement to avoid prosecution for bribery to obtain export contracts. As part of this agreement, a $170 million fine was paid to US authorities to end a bribery investigation, and $25 million to the Brazilian authorities.

Subsequent to the settlement, Private Eye reported that some of Rolls-Royce's contracts under the scope of the SFO investigation had been supported by the British government's UK Export Finance department, using taxpayers' money. The government department underwrote multimillion-pound liabilities under Rolls-Royce contracts secured with the help of bribes and "facilitation" commissions. It has also been highlighted in the press that Rolls-Royce's auditor since 1995, KPMG, had failed to identify any corrupt practices throughout the 1990s and 2000s. This is notable considering judge Brian Leveson's statement that Rolls-Royce's offending was "multi-jurisdictional, numerous", "persistent and spanned from 1989 until 2013", and it "involved substantial funds being made available to fund bribe payments".

Governance
 the board of directors consists of:

 Sir Ian Davis, Chairman
 Warren East, Chief Executive
 Panos Kakoullis, Chief Financial Officer
 Paul Adams, Independent Non-Executive Director
 George Culmer, Independent Non-Executive Director
 Irene Dorner, Independent Non-Executive Director
 Anita Frew, Independent Non-Executive Director and Chair Designate
 Beverly Goulet, Independent Non-Executive Director
 Lee Hsien Yang, Independent Non-Executive Director
 Nick Luff, Independent Non-Executive Director
 Sir Kevin Smith, Senior Independent Director
 Dame Angela Strank, Independent Non-Executive Director
 Pamela Coles, Company Secretary and Chief Governance Officer

Products

Rolls-Royce's aerospace business makes commercial and military gas turbine engines for military, civil, and corporate aircraft customers worldwide. In the United States, the company makes engines for regional and corporate jets, helicopters, and turboprop aircraft. Rolls-Royce also constructs and installs power generation systems. Its core gas turbine technology has created one of the broadest product ranges of aero-engines in the world, with 50,000 engines in service with 500 airlines, 2,400 corporate and utility operators and more than 100 armed forces, powering both fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft. Rolls-Royce Marine Power Operations (a subsidiary company) manufactures and tests nuclear reactors for Royal Naval submarines.

Aerospace

In 2019, Rolls-Royce delivered 510 Trent powerplants, while 5,029 large engines were installed, including 32% Trent 700s.
For business jets, research and development in the market niches is a $2 billion annual investment, for a predicted market of 8,500 to 9,000 aircraft over the 2020 decade.

Turbojets
 Rolls-Royce Avon
 Rolls-Royce Viper
 Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593
 Rolls-Royce RB162

Turbofans
 Eurojet EJ200
 General Electric/Rolls-Royce F136 (not developed)
 International Aero Engines V2500
 Rolls-Royce AE 3007
 Rolls-Royce BR700
 Rolls-Royce Conway
 Rolls-Royce RB211
 Rolls-Royce RB282 (not developed)
 Rolls-Royce Spey
 Rolls-Royce Tay
 Rolls-Royce Pegasus
 Rolls-Royce Trent
 Rolls-Royce/Turbomeca Adour
 Turbo-Union RB199

Turboshafts
 LHTEC T800 (with Honeywell)
 MTR390 (with MTU and Turbomeca)
 Rolls-Royce Gem
 Rolls-Royce Model 250
 Rolls-Royce RR300
 Rolls-Royce RR500
 Rolls-Royce T406/AE 1107C-Liberty
 Rolls-Royce/Turbomeca RTM322

Turboprops
 Europrop TP400-D6 (as part of Europrop International)
 Rolls-Royce AE 2100
 Rolls-Royce T56

Rocket engines
 Larch
 RB545 (HOTOL)
 RZ.2

Marine

Gas turbines
 AG9140
 MT7
 MT30
 MT50
 RR4500
 Spey SM1A and improved SM1C
 Olympus TM1, TM1A and improved TM3B
 Tyne RM1A and improved RM1C
 WR-21

Propulsion
 Kamewa and Bird-Johnson Waterjets
 Kamewa Tunnel thruster
 MerMaid pod propulsion
 Ulstein Aquamaster Azimuth thruster
 Rolls-Royce MTU Engines

Submarine
 Nato Submarine Rescue System
 PWR1 reactor
 PWR2 reactor
 PWR3 reactor
 Zebra (battery)

Stabilisers
 Brown Brothers Legacy Stabilizers
 Brown Brothers Neptune or VM Stabilizers
 Brown Brothers Aquarius Stabilizers

See also

 Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom
 GE Aviation, competing engine manufacturer
 Pratt & Whitney, competing engine manufacturer
 Power by the Hour

References

Notes

Bibliography
 Gunston, Bill. Development of Piston Aero Engines. Cambridge, UK. Patrick Stephens Limited, 2006. .
 Newhouse, John. The Sporty Game: The High-Risk Competitive Business of Making and Selling Commercial Airliners. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982. .
 Pugh, Peter. The Magic of a Name: The Rolls-Royce Story, The First 40 Years. London: Icon Books, 2000. .
 Pugh, Peter.  The Magic of a Name: The Rolls-Royce Story, Part 2, The Power Behind the Jets.  London: Icon Books, 2001. .
 Pugh, Peter.  The Magic of a Name: The Rolls-Royce Story, Part 3, A Family of Engines.  London: Icon Books, 2002. .

Footnotes

External links

 Rolls-Royce's annual report archive

Technology companies established in 1906
Manufacturing companies established in 1906
British companies established in 1906
1906 establishments in England
Aerospace companies of the United Kingdom
Aircraft engine manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Gas turbine manufacturers
Defence companies of the United Kingdom
Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange
Engineering companies of the United Kingdom
Rolls-Royce
British brands
Manufacturing companies based in London
Holding companies established in 2003
Holding companies of the United Kingdom
Collier Trophy recipients
Former nationalised industries of the United Kingdom
Marine engine manufacturers

Rolls-Royce Holdings


Barska nutrija ili nutrija (latinski: Myocastor coypus) veliki je biljojedski glodavac. Barska nutrija jedini je pripadnik roda  Myocastor. Rod Myocastor dugo je vrijeme smatran jedinim pripadnikom porodice Myocastoridae, danas on pripada porodici Echimyidae. Barske nutrije žive u jazbinama uz vodu te se hrane stabljikama riječnih biljaka. Barske nutrije prvotno su nastanjivala suptropska i umjerena područja Južne Amerike. Introducirane su u Sjevernoj Americi, Europi, Aziji i Africi. Na ta područja većinski su ih introducirali krznari. U Hrvatskoj su invazivna vrsta.

Opis
Barska nutrija posjeduje zdepasto tijela obraslo dugom grubom dlakom. Duljina barske nutrije može iznositi do 51 cm. Rep je gol te njegova duljina iznosi oko 35 cm. S leđne su strane kestenjastosmeđe, a s trbušne sivosmeđe boje. Na stražnjim nogama imaju plivaće kožice. Izvrsni su plivači. Ženke godišnje kote od 5 do 7 mladih. Uzgajaju se zbog krzna.

Izvori

Vidi još
 Bizamski štakor

Vanjske poveznice

Invazivne vrste
Glodavci

Barska nutrija


تعد سبيكة وود من المعادن ذات الاستخدام الكبير في الكهرباء، حيت يتم صناعة الفيوز منه والذي يمتاز بدرجة انصهار منخفضة.

صناعته
هو سبيكة تتكون من عناصر القصدير البزموث الرصاص الكادميوم

استخداماته
صناعة الفيوز والقواطع الكهربائية وفي وحدات إنذار الحريق والمرشات الاوتوماتيكية

المصادر

انظر أيضاً
 سبيكة روز
 سبيكة فيلد
 غالينستان

وصلات خارجية
 ألعاب علمية: معادن تنصهر بالماء الحار

سبائك سهلة الانصهار

سبيكة وود


El reflejo corneal, es un parpadeo involuntario provocado por la estimulación sobre la córnea, al ser tocado por un examinador o por un cuerpo extraño, por ejemplo, aunque podría resultar de cualquier estímulo periférico. La estimulación debe provocar tanto una respuesta directa y consensual, es decir, una respuesta similar del ojo opuesto al estimulado. El reflejo ocurre una rápida velocidad de 0,1 segundos. El propósito de este reflejo es proteger los ojos de los cuerpos extraños y las luces brillantes (este último conocido como el reflejo óptico). El reflejo corneal se puede producir ante sonidos de más de 40-60 dB.

Trayecto nervioso
El reflejo está mediado por la rama nasociliar de la rama oftálmica (V1) del quinto par craneal, el nervio trigémino. Es el nervio que detecta el estímulo a nivel de la córnea o de la conjuntiva, es decir, que es el nervio que envía la ruta aferente del reflejo.

Por su parte, el séptimo par craneal o nervio facial da iniciación a la respuesta motora, es decir, que es la vía eferente, posiblemente mediado por un núcleo medular.

El uso de lentes de contacto puede disminuir o anular la prueba de este reflejo.

El reflejo óptico ocurre ante el estímulo de una luz brillante. El reflejo óptico es más lento y es mediado por la corteza visual, que reside en el lóbulo occipital del cerebro. El reflejo está ausente en los bebés menores de 9 meses.

Examen físico
El estudio del reflejo corneal es parte de algunos exámenes neurológicos, como el estado de coma. El daño a la rama oftálmica (V1) del 5º par craneal da como resultados una ausencia de reflejo de la córnea cuando se estimula al ojo afectado. La estimulación de una córnea normalmente tiene una respuesta consensuada, con el cierre de ambos párpados.

Referencias

Corneal
Semiología clínica

Reflejo corneal


Chameleon is a computer workstation design produced at ETH Zurich running the Oberon operating system.

The Seequa Chameleon was also an older luggable computer from the early 1980s, distinguished by being able to run both the MS-DOS and CP/M-80 operating systems.

References

Computer workstations

Chameleon (computing)


අන්තර්ජාල ආරක්‍ෂාව පරිගණක ආරක්ෂාවේ කොටසක් ලෙසද  විශේෂයෙන්ම අන්තර්ජාලයේ කොටසක් ලෙසද දක්විය හැකිය. එහි අරමුණ වන්නේ අන්තර්ජාල හැරහා සිදුවන ආක්‍රමණ වලට විරුද්දව අවශ්‍ය නීති රීති හා ක්‍රියාමාර්ග පිහිටුවීමයි.  අන්තර්ජාලය බලාත් ප්‍රවේශය,තතුබෑම වැනි වංචා නිසා තොරතුරු හුවමාරු කරගැනීමේ අවිශ්වාස දායක මාධ්‍යක් වී ඇත. මෙනිසා ගුප්ත ඛේතනය යොදාගනිමින් දත්ත හුවමාරු කරගැනීම සඳහා විවිධ විධික්‍රම යොදාගෙන ඇත.

ආරක්‍ෂණ මාදිලි

ජාලක ස්ථරයේ (Network layer) ආරක්‍ෂාව

සම්ප්රේෂණ පාලන ප්‍රොටෝකෝලය (TCP) සහ අන්තර්ජාල ප්‍රොටෝකෝලය ගුප්ත ඛේතන ක්‍රම මගින් හා ප්‍රොටෝකෝලන් මගින් ආරක්‍ෂා කළ හැකිය. මෙම ප්‍රොටෝකෝල අතර ආරක්‍ෂිත කෙවෙනි ස්තරය ( SSL) (SSL), ජාල ගමනාගමනය සඳහා Transport Layer Security (TLS), විද්‍යුත් තැපෑල සඳහා  Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) දැක්විය හැකිය.

මූලාශ්‍ර

බාහිර සබැදි
 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST.gov) - Information Technology portal with links to computer- and cyber security
  National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST.gov) -Computer Security Resource Center -Guidelines on Electronic Mail Security, version 2
The Internet Engineering Task Force.org - UK organization -IP Authentication Header 1998
The Internet Engineering Task Force.org - UK organization -Encapsulating Security Payload
 Wireless Safety.org - Up to date info on security threats, news stories, and step by step tutorials
 PwdHash Stanford University - Firefox & IE browser extensions that transparently convert a user's password into a domain-specific password.
 Internet security.net  - by JC Montejo & Goio Miranda (free security programs), est 2007.
 Internet and Data Security Guide UK anonymous membership site
 Cybertelecom.org Security - surveying federal Internet security work
 DSL Reports.com- Broadband Reports, FAQs and forums on Internet security, est 1999

අන්තර්ජාල ආරක්‍ෂාව


Island er den anden største ø i Europa og den 18. største ø i verden.

Areal og grænser
Island har et areal på omtrent 103.000 km2. Hvor øen er bredest er den 500 km fra øst til vest.
Dens nærmeste nabo er Grønland, som ligger 286 km væk. Hernæst kommer Færøerne (420 km), Skotland (795 km) og Norge (950 km).

Demografi
Lang størstedelen af befolkningen bor i hovedstaden Reykjavík i den sydøstlige ende af øen. Kópavogur og Hafnarfjörður ligger i samme region, Höfuðborgarsvæðið, som Reykjavík. På nordkysten findes øens fjerde største by, Akureyri. Næsten 80 % af øen af ubeboet.

Topografi
Islands terræn består af fjelde, højslette og frugtbart kystlavland. Lange, dybe fjorde og gletsjere er karakteristiske for det islandske landskab.

Vulkaner
På Europas anden største ø findes der en del vulkaner, hvoraf cirka 30 er navngivet, men man kender ikke det reelle antal. På Island finder man nogle af verdens mest aktive vulkaner.

Gletsjere
Den største gletsjer på øen er Vatnajökull, der dækker omkring 7764 km². Langjökull (868 km²), Hofsjökull (827 km²) og Mýrdalsjökull (542 km²) er de andre store gletsjere på Island.

Referencer

Islands geografi


කුරුස යුද්ධයක් සඳහා එක් තනි අර්ථදැක්වීමක් පිළිබඳ හෝ කුමන විශේෂිත හමුදාමය මෙහෙයුම් එයට අඩංගු කල යුතුද යන්න පිළිබඳ හෝ ඉතිහාසඥයින්ට එකඟ විය නොහැකි මුත්, කුරුස යුද්ධ යන්නෙහි පුළුල්ම අර්ථදැක්වීම වන්නේ  ප්‍රමුඛ ලෙසින්  11වන සහ 15වන සියවස් අතර සිදුවූ  හා ලතින් සභාව විසින් මෙහෙයවූ  ආගමික යුද්ධ මාලාවක් යන්න දැක්විය හැකිය.

කුරුස යුද්ධ යනු  ජෙරුසලෙම තුල හා එය  අවට ශුද්ධවූ ස්ථාන වෙත ක්‍රිස්තියානිවරුන්ට සම්ප්‍රවේශය ප්‍රතිෂ්ඨාපනය කෙරුමෙහි ප්‍රකාශිත අරමුණ සහිතව,  දෙවන අර්බන් පාප් වහන්සේ සහ  කතෝලික සභාව විසින් පිරිනැමුණු ආශිංසනය ලත්,  ආගමික කාර්ය සාධක යුද්ධ මාලාවකි. යුදෙව්, ක්‍රිස්තියානි සහ මුස්ලිම් යන්නාවූ ආබ්‍රහමික ලබ්ධීන් තුනම සඳහා ජෙරුසලෙම ශුද්ධවූ නගරයක් වූ අතර දැනුදු එසේ වෙයි.

සෙල්ජුක් තුර්කිවරුන් විසින් 1071 දී  බයිසැන්ටයින් යුද්ධ හමුදාව තීරණාත්මක ලෙසින් පරාජය කිරීමත් හා සමගම  කුරුස යුද්ධ ඇතිවීමේ සිද්ධි මාලාව ඇරඹිණි. සමස්ත  සුළු ආසියාව අභිඝාතයකට ලක්වේ යැයි, බයිසැන්ටයින් අධිරාජ්‍යයාවූ  පළමුවන අලෙක්සිස්  බියට පත් විය .

කුරුස යුද්ධ යනු ක‍්‍රිස්තියානි යුරෝපයේ අභ්‍යන්තරික හා පිටස්තර තර්ජන වලට එරෙහිව පැන නැගි ආගමික ස්වරූපයක් ගත් යුද ගැටුම් සංකීර්ණයකි. කුරුස යුද්ධ මුස්ලිම් ජාතිකයනට, පැරණි ආගම් ඇදහූ ස්ලොවික් ජාතිකයනට, රුසියානු හා ග‍්‍රීක ඕතඩොක්ස් කිතුනුවන්ට, මොංගොලීය ජාතිකයන්ට හා පාප් වහන්සේලාගේ දේශපාලනික සතුරන්ට එරෙහිව සිදු කරන ලදී. කුරුස යුධ භටයෝ දිවුරීමක් සිදු කළ අතර ඔවුනගේ පෙර පව් ක්ෂමා කරනු ලැබුණි.

කුරුස යුද්ධ මූලිකව ඇරඹියේ යෙරුසලම සහ ශුද්ධ වූ දේශය මුස්ලිම් පාලනයෙන් මුදාගැනීමට වන අතර මුලින්ම එය පෙරදිග ඕතඩොක්ස් බයිසැන්තින් අධිරාජ්‍යයේ ඉල්ලීමකට අනුව මුස්ලිම් සෙල්ජුක් තුර්කිවරු ඇනටෝලියාවට ගමන් කිරීම වැලැක්වීමට සිදුකරන ලදී. එසේම මෙය සමකාලීනව හා ඉන්පසු 16 වන සියවස දක්වා ලැවෙන්ට් ප‍්‍රදේශයෙන් පිටත ප‍්‍රදේශවල සිදුකෙරුනු යුද ව්‍යාපාරය සඳහාද යෙදේ. එම යුද්ධ බොහෝ විට සිදුකරනු ලැබුයේ පැරණි ආගම් අදහන්නන්ට, මිත්‍යා දෘෂ්ටිකයනට සහ ආගමික ආර්ථික හා දේශපාලනික හේතූන් මිශ‍්‍රණයක් මත නෙරපාහරිනු ලැබූ මිනිසුන් ට එරෙහිවය. ක‍්‍රිස්තියානි සහ මුස්ලිම් බල කඳවුරු අතර තරගය ඇතැම් ආගමික කල්ලි වලට තම සතුරාට එරෙහි බල කඳවුරු හා එක්වීමට මග පෑදීය. පස්වන කුරුස යුද්ධයේ දී ක‍්‍රිස්තියානු බල කඳවුර රම් හි සුල්තාන්වරයා සමග එක්වීම එයට උදාහරණයකි.

කුරුස යුද්ධ සුවිශාල දේශපාලනික ආර්ථික හා සමාජයීය බලපෑමක් ඇතිකල අතර ඇතැම් බලපෑම් වර්තමානය දක්වාම බල පැවැත්වීය. ක‍්‍රිස්තියානි රාජධානි වල අභ්‍යන්තර ආරවුල් සහ දේශපාලනික බලපෑම් ඇතැම් කුරුස යුද්ධ ඒවායේ මුල් අරමුණින් බැහැර කරවීමට සමත් විය. ක‍්‍රිස්තියානි කොන්ස්තන්තිනෝපලය අල්ලා ගෙන බයිසැන්තින් අධිරාජ්‍යය වෙනීසිය සහ කුරුස යුධකරුවෝ අතර බෙදාගැනීමෙන් කෙලවර වූ හතරවැනි කුරුස යුද්ධය එබන්දකි. පාප් තුමාගේ නිල ආශිර්වාදය නොමැතිව ආරම්භවූ පළමු කුරුස යුද්ධය හයවැනි කුරුස යුද්ධය වූ අතර එමගින් පාප් වහන්සේ හැර වෙනත් නායකයන්ට ද කුරුස යුද්ධ ආරම්භ කළ හැකි බව තහවුරු විය.

ලැයිස්තුව

පළමුවන කුරුස යුද්ධය 1095–1099

පළමු දශකය තුල කුරුස යුද භටයෝ මුස්ලිමුන් හා යුදෙව්වන් තුල භීතිය පැතිරවූ ක‍්‍රියාවලි සිදුකළ අතර සමූහ ඝාතන ගසා දැමූ හිස් වැටලූ නගරවල පවුරු උඩින් විසි කිරීම්, ප‍්‍රදර්ශනය කිරීම් හා නිරුවත් මෘත දේහ විකෘති කිරීම්  සිදුකල අතර මාරාට් හා වැටලීම5 මාර්තුවඅයෙකුගේ සියලූපව් ක්ෂමා කරන බවට පොරොන්දු විය. නෝර්වේ හි පළමුවන සයිගර්ඞ් කුරුස යුද්ධ සඳහා සහභාගි වූ පළමු යුරෝපීය රජු වන අතර කුරුස යුද හමුදා ඩොරිලියම් හා ඇන්ටියොක් හි දී විශාල තුර්කි හමුදා දෙකක් පරාජය කිරීමට සමත් විය.

පළමුවන කුරුස යුද්ධයේ ඇන්ටියොක් වටලෑම සිදුවූයේ යෙරුසලම වටලෑමට සුලූ මොහොතකට පෙරය. 1098 දී ඇන්ටියොක් ෆ‍්‍රෑන්ක් වරුන් අතට පත්වුවද ඊට පෙර දීර්ඝ වටලෑමක් සිදුවිය. ඇන්ටියොක් හි පාලකයාට තම නගරය තුල ජීවත් වන කිතුනුවන් මෙයට ප‍්‍රතිචාර හැකි ආකාරය පිළිබඳ සැක පැවති බැවින් වටලාසිටි කාලය තුල ඔහු ඔවුන්ට නගරයෙන් පිටත සිටීමට අණ කළ අතර ඔවුනගේ අඹු දරුවන් රැක ගැනීමට පොරොන්දු විය. එමනිසා යුදෙව්වන් හා මුස්ලිම් ජාතිකයන් පමණක් එක්ව යුද වැදීම සිදු කළෝය වටලෑම කෙළවර වූයේ නගරය පාවාදීමෙනි. ෆ‍්‍රෑන්ක්වරු දියකඩඉමක් හරහා නගරයට පැමිණි අතර නායකයාට පළා පැමිණි වහාම එකල පැවති සම්මත යුද තත්වය යටතේ ෆ‍්‍රෑන්ක්වරු සාමාන්‍ය ජනතාව සමූලඝාතනය කළ අතර දේවස්ථාන විනාශ කර නගරය කොල්ලකෑමට ලක් කරන ලදී. කුරුස යුධ භටයෝ අවසන යෙරුසලමේ බිත්ති කරා ගමන් කළේ ඔවුනගේ මුල් භට කණ්ඩායමෙන් ස්වල්ප දෙනෙක් පමණක් අතැතිවය.
යෙරුසලම වටලෑම

මෙහෙයුම්

ජෙරුසලෙම වටලෑම
ගොඞ්ෆ්රොයි ඩි බුලියන් ප‍්‍රංශ නයිට් වරයෙකි පළමු කුරුස යුද්ධයේ නියමුවා වන අතර යෙරුසලම් රාජධානියේ නිර්මාතෲවරයා වෙයි.
ආක‍්‍රමණික ෆ‍්‍රෑන්ක් වරුන්ට එරෙහිව යුදෙව්වෝ සහ මුස්ලිම් ජාතිකයෝ එක්ව සටන් කළෝය. ඔවුනගේ අසාර්ථක භාවය සනිටුහන් කරමින් 1099 ජූලි 15 වන දින කුරුස යුද භටයෝ නගරයට ඇතුළු වූහ. නැවත වරක් ඔවුහු ඉතිරි ව සිටි යුදෙව් හා මුස්ලිම් ජනතාව සමූල ඝාතනය කළ අතර දේවස්ථානය හා නගරය විනාශ කළෝ ය. තම උපන් බිමෙන් ක් උසුලයි.
කුරුස යුධ භටයෝ ටයර් නගරය අත්පත් කර ගැනීමට උත්සාහ කළ නමුත් මුස්ලිමුන් අතින් පරාජයට පත්විය. ටයර් නගර වැසියෝ දමස්කසයෙහි නායක සහීර්-අල්-දින් අටාබෙක් ගෙන් ෆ‍්‍රෑන්ක් වරුනට එරෙහි වීමට උදව් ඉල්ලා සිටි අතර ඔහුට නගරය පවරා දීමට පොරොන්දු විය. ෆ‍්‍රෑන්ක් වරු පරාජය වූ පසු ටයර් නගර වැසියෝ ඔහුට බාර නොවුනි. නමුත් සහීර්- අල්- දින් ඉතා සරලව "මා කළ සියලූ දේ කළේ දෙවියන් හා මුස්ලිමුන් වෙනුවෙන් විනා වස්තුව හෝ රාජ්‍ය ලෝභය සඳහා නොවේ" යැයි ප‍්‍රකාශ කළේ ය.
යෙරුසලමේ බලය අල්ලා ගත් පසු කුරුස යුද හමුදා එහි කුරුස යුද ප‍්‍රාන්ත හතරක් ඇති කළෝය. ඒවා යෙරුසලම් රාජධානිය, එඩෙස්සා ජනපදය, ඇන්ටියොක් රාජ්‍යය සහ ටි‍්‍රපොලි ජනපදය විය. අභ්‍යන්තර ආරවුල් නිසා මුල් කාලයේ දී මුස්ලිම් ජාතිකයෝ මෙම ප‍්‍රාන්ත සමග පැවැත්වූයේ ඉතා සුළු සම්බන්ධකම් කිහිපයක් පමණි. නමුත් ඔවුන් ඉමාද් අල්-දින් සැන්ජි යටතේ නැවත එක් වූ අතර 1144 ඔහු එඩෙස්සා නැවත ලබා ගත්තේය. මෙය කුරුස යුද භටයන්ට යටත් වූ පළමු නගරය වූ අතර මුස්ලිම් වරුන් නැවත අත්පත් කරගත් පළමු නගරය බවටද පත් විය. මෙම සිද්ධිය පාප් වහන්සේ ට දෙවන කුරුස යුද්ධයක් කැඳවීමට හේතු විය.

කුරුස යුද්ධ භටයන්ගේ  පර්යාලෝක

විද්වත් විවාද

1101 දී වූ කුරුස යුද්ධය

නෝර්වේජියානු කුරුස යුද්ධය 1107–1110

දෙවන කුරුස යුද්ධය 1147–1149

ක්‍රිස්තියානි සහ මුස්ලිම් වරුන් ශුද්ධ භූමියේ එකට සාමයෙන් ජීවත් වූ කාලයෙන් පසු මුස්ලිම්වරුන් එඩෙස්සා නගරය යටත් කර ගත්තේය. විවිධ වූ ආගමික දේශකයන් විසින් විශේෂයෙන් ක්ලෙවෝහි බර්නාඩෝ  (Bernsrdo of Clairvaux) අලුත් යුද්ධයකට කැඳවනු ලැබීය.ප්‍රංශ සහ දකුණු ජර්මන් හමුදා බලකායන් VII වන ලුවිස් සහ තුන්වන කොන්රුඩ් (Louis VII / III Conrad) ගේ මෙහෙයවීම යටතේ 1147 ජෙරුසලම් ඉදිරියට ගමන් කලත් ඔවුනට කිසිදු මූලික විජයග්‍රහණයක් ලබා ගැනීමට නොහැකි විය. ඩැටස්කස් හි දී නිරන්තර ප්‍රහාර එල්ල කිරීම්, වැටලීම්,සතුරන් නිෂ්ක්‍රීය කිරීමට මෙහෙයුම් දියත් කළත් එයද අසාර්ථක විය. එහිදී නිදහස් නගරය , කුරුස යුද්ධයේ ප්‍රධාන සතුරාවන නූර් - අදි- දින් යටතට පත්විය. මධ්‍යධරණියේ අනෙක් පැත්ත වන, කෙසේ වුවත් උතුරු යුරෝපීය කුරුස කරුවන් කණ්ඩායම් ලෙස විශාල සාර්ථකත්වයක් ලබා ගත්තේය. ඔවුන් පෘතුග්‍රීසියේදී නතර වූ අතර එහිදී    පෘතුග්‍රීසීන් සමග එකතු වී 1147 දී ලිස්බන් නගරය මුස්ලිම් වරුන්ගෙන් නැවත අල්ලා ගනු ලැබීය. 1150 දී මෙම ශුද්ධ භූමියේදී ප්‍රංශයේ සහ ජර්මනියේ රජවරු දෙදෙනාම කිසිදු ප්‍රතිඵලයක් නොමැතිව තම රටවලට පැමිණීමට සිදු විය. දේශන මගින් දෙවන කුරුස යුද්ධය ධෛර්යමත් කරනු ලැබූ ශාන්ත ක්ලෙයාර්වෝහි බර්නාර්ඩ් වැරදි ලෙස මෙහෙයවූ ප්‍රචණ්ඩත්වය සහ රින්ලන්ඩ් හිදී (Rhinland) හිදී යුදෙව් ජනගහනය සමූල ඝාතනය වූ ගණන පිළිබඳව සසල විය.උතුරු ජර්මනිය සහ ඩෑන්ස් 1147 දී වෙන්ඩිෂ් (Wendish)  කුරුස යුද්ධයේදී වෙන්ඩ්ස්වලට පහර දුන් අතර එයද අසාර්ථක විය.

තෙවන කුරුස යුද්ධය 1187–1192
ක්‍රි.ව 1187 දී හැටින් වල පැවති යුද්ධයෙන් අනතුරුව ඊජිප්තු රජු සලාදින් ජෙරුසලම අත්පත් කරගන්නා ලදි. ජේරුසරම ක්‍රිස්තියානුවන්ගේන් අත්පත් කරගත් පසුව සාමාන්‍ය පුරවැසියන්ට හා පුරවැසියන්ට හානියක් නොවන අයුරින් ඉස්ලාම් ලබ්ධිකයන් කටයුතු කරන ලදි. සලාදින් තමන් විසින් දෙන ලද වචනටම අනුව ක්‍රියා කරන පුද්ගලයෙකු ලෙස ප්‍රචලිතය. සලාදින්ගේ ජයග්‍රහණය පිළිබද යුරෝපය කැළඹිමට ලක්විය. එවකට සිටි ග්‍රෙගරි VIII විසින් කුරුස යුද්ධයක් කැදවන ලදි. ඒ අනුව යුරෝපයේ සිටි බලවත්ම නායකයන් තිදෙනෙකු වන ප්‍රංශයේ පිලිප් II රජු එංගලන්තයේ රිවඩ් I රජු සහ රෝමානු අධිරාජ්‍යයා ෆෙඩ්රික් Iරජු කුරැස යුද්ධයේ සටන් වැදිමට තිරණය කරන ලදි. ප්‍රංශය සහ එංගලන්තය අතර අශ්ඨායී සබදතාවයක් ඉතිරි කරමින් ක්‍රි.ව 1190 දී ෆෙඩ්රික් රජු සිසියෙදි මියගියේය. ක්‍රි.ව 1191 දි රිචඩ් රජු සයිප්‍රසය යටත් කරගන්නා ලදි.  ඉන්පසු කුරුස යුධ භටයන් අතර නගරය මුස්ලිම් ජාතින්ගෙන් මුදවා ගත්හ. පිලිප් II රජු කුරුස යුද්ධය අතහැර දමා නැවත ප්‍රංශයට ගියේය ප්‍රංශයේ සහයෝගය නොමැතිව කුරැස යුද්ධය ජයගත නොහැකි බව දුටු රිචඩ් රජු සලාදින් රජු සමග ගිවිසුමකට පැමිණියේය. ඒ අනුව නිරායුධ ක්‍රිස්තියානි වන්දනාකරුවන් හට හානියකින් තොරව ජේරුසලමයට යාමට ඉඩදිමට සලාදින රජු එකග විය. රිචඩ් රජු නැවත එංගලන්තයට යාමේ දි ඔහුගේ නැව අනතුරට පත්ව ඔහු ඔස්ට්‍රේලියාවට ගෙනියන ලදි. එහිදි ඔහුගේ සතු‍රෙකු වු ලියෝ පොල් ආදී කතෘවරයා රිචඩ් රජු තුමාව සිරභාරයට ගෙන හෙන්රි VI අදිරාජ්‍යාට ඔහුව බාරදෙන ලදී. ක්‍රි.ව 1197 දි හෙන්ඩි රජු කුරුස යුද්ධයකට සුදානම් විය. නමුත් එම වසරේදිම මැලෙරියාවෙන් ඔහු මරණයටපත් විය. යුරෝපයේදි පැවති සටන් වලින් රිචඩ් රජුද මරණයට පත්විය. එම නිසා 3 වන කුරුස යුද්ධ රජවරුන්ගේ කුරුස යුද්ධය ලෙසද හදුන්වනු ලබයි.

සතරවන කුරුස යුද්ධය 1202–1204

අල්බිජින්සියානු කුරුස යුද්ධය

දරුවන්ගේ කුරුස යුද්ධය

පස්වන කුරුස යුද්ධය 1217–1221

සයවන කුරුස යුද්ධය 1228–1229

සත්වන කුරුස යුද්ධය 1248–1254

අටවන කුරුස යුද්ධය 1270

නවවන කුරුස යුද්ධය 1271–1272

ප්‍රතිඵලය

උතුරු කුරුස යුද්ධ

ටියුටොනික් සංවිධානයේ කුරුස යුද්ධ

ස්වීඩන කුරුස යුද්ධ

වෙනත්

වෙන්ඩ්යානු කුරුස යුද්ධය

ස්ටෙඩින්ජර් කුරුස යුද්ධය

අරගොනීස් කුරුස යුද්ධය

ඇලෙක්සැන්ඩ්‍රියානු කුරුස යුද්ධය

නොර්විච් කුරුස යුද්ධය

මාහ්ඩියානු කුරුස යුද්ධය

බෝල්කන් ප්‍රදේශයන්හී කුරුස යුද්ධ

ටාටර්වරුන්ට එරෙහිව කුරුස යුද්ධය

හුසිට් කුරුස යුද්ධය

අධෝසටහන්

කුරුස යුද්ධ


Naugahyde is an American brand of artificial leather. Naugahyde is a composite knit fabric backing and expanded polyvinyl chloride (PVC) coating. It was developed by Byron A. Hunter, a senior chemist at the United States Rubber Company, and is now manufactured and sold by the corporate spin-off Uniroyal Engineered Products LLC.

Its name, first used as a trademark in 1936, comes from the name of Naugatuck, Connecticut, where it was first produced. It is now manufactured in Stoughton, Wisconsin.

Uses
The primary use for Naugahyde is as a substitute for leather in upholstery. In this application it is very durable and can be easily maintained by wiping with a damp sponge or cloth.  Being a synthetic product, it is supplied in long rolls, allowing large sections of furniture to be covered seamlessly, unlike animal hides.

General Motors for several decades used the material in several of its vehicles, with the term  "Cordaveen" and later "Madrid-grain vinyl" for Buick, "Morocceen" for Oldsmobile, "Morrokide" for Pontiac vehicles while Chevrolet didn't use a brand name and simply listed it in sales brochures as "vinyl interior".

Marketing

A marketing campaign of the 1960s and 1970s asserted humorously that Naugahyde was obtained from the skin of an animal called a "Nauga". The claim became an urban myth. The campaign emphasized that, unlike other animals, which must typically be slaughtered to obtain their hides, Naugas can shed their skin without harm to themselves. The Nauga doll, a squat, horned monster with a wide, toothy grin, became popular in the 1960s and is still sold today.

References

External links
 The Naugahyde Company

Artificial leather

Naugahyde


St. Urban ist ein exklusives, traditionsreiches Apartmenthaus in New York City in der Upper West Side, das zwischen der 88th Street und der 89th Street sowie dem Central Park West, im Upper West Side-Central Park West Historic District liegt. Die Hauptadresse lautet 285 Central Park West und die Nebenadresse 2 West 89th Street. Das Nebengebäude ist das Apartmenthaus 279 Central Park West. Das Beaux-Arts-Gebäude mit einer Fassade aus Kalksandstein hat 12 Stockwerke, ein Mansarddach mit Kupferfassade über einem Stahlrahmen und einen Turm in der nordöstlichen Ecke.

Hintergrund
Die reinen Baukosten des Gebäudes lagen bei 800.000 US-Dollar, nicht mitberechnet sind dabei die Ausstattung und das Grundstück. Man erhoffte sich, die Wohnungen für jährlich zwischen 3000 und 4500 US-Dollar vermieten zu können. Da die Preise aber zu hoch angesetzt wurden, wurde das Gebäude zwangsvollstreckt. Der Anwalt Albert Forsch ersteigerte es später für 1,13 Mio. US-Dollar und verkaufte es im August 1906 an die Barstun Realty Company, die es fortan erfolgreich, hauptsächlich an deutsch-jüdische Geschäftsleute und Unternehmer, vermieten konnte.

1987 scheiterte das Vorhaben, das Gebäude den Status als Wahrzeichen anerkennen zu lassen.

Weitere Ansichten

Literatur
 Andrew Alpern: Luxury apartment houses of Manhattan: an illustrated history, Dover Publications 1993, ISBN 0-486-27370-9, Seite 67–71
 D. Fitzgerald: Window on the Park: New York's Most Prestigious Properties on Central Park, Images Publishing Dist Ac 2009, ISBN 1-86470-276-1, S. 228–234
 Jenny Lawrence: A Centennial history of the St. Urban, ISBN 978-0-615-14926-4, 205 Seiten

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Wohngebäude in Manhattan
Erbaut in den 1900er Jahren
Bauwerk des Historismus in New York City

St. Urban (Manhattan)


L'Étoile de Bessèges 2022 est la  de cette course cycliste masculine. Elle se déroule dans le Gard, en France entre le 2 et le 6 février 2022 entre Bellegarde et Alès sur un parcours de 628,76 kilomètres et fait partie du calendrier UCI Europe Tour 2022 en catégorie 2.1. Elle a été remportée par le Français Benjamin Thomas de l'équipe Cofidis.

C'est la première édition de l'épreuve dont le parcours n'a pas été dessiné par Roland Fangille, président-créateur de l'Étoile de Bessèges décédé en novembre 2020.

Présentation

Parcours
Comme ces dernières années, l'Étoile de Bessèges est tracée sur cinq étapes dont un contre-la-montre. Cette édition est placée sous le signe du renouveau avec quatre arrivées inédites et quatre arrivées en côte.

La première étape traditionnellement disputé autour de Bellegarde. Le tracé de cette première étape est relativement différent des années passée, seul le premier tour est identique avec un passage dans les communes d'Aramon et Beaucaire notamment, la seconde boucle est tracé près de Saint-Gilles autour de l'étang de Scamandre avant de revenir sur Bellegarde et disputer une dernière boucle vers Fourques avant de se disputer la victoire à Bellegarde dans la côte des Ferrières (0,59 km, 9,1 %)  qui remplace la petite côte de la Tour (0,30 km, 11,1 %) qui sera franchit lors de chaque passage sur la ligne d'arrivée. Ce seront sans nul doutes les puncheurs-sprinteurs qui se disputeront la victoire et le premier maillot corail de leader.

La seconde étape sera disputée entre Saint-Christol-lèz-Alès et Rousson. Une première boucle sera disputé près d'Anduze, les coureurs grimperons la côte de Lassale (9 km, 2,2 %) avant de partir vers Rousson et disputer une dernière boucle avec la côte du Pradel (6,3 km, 4,4 %) suivi du Plateau du Castellas  (1,5 km, 6,6 %) juge de paix et arrivée de cette étape. Les baroudeurs et les puncheurs devraient être à l'honneur.

La troisième étape sera traditionnellement disputé autour de Bessèges la première partie de l'étape sera très vallonnée avec la côte de Dieusses (5 km, 4,4 %) et le col de Portes (6,6 km, 3,8 %) à gravir. Le reste de l'étape sera ponctuée de quelques difficultés dont la côte de Tharaux (4,45 km, 4,2 %). Pour le peloton ou les échappées, la victoire devraient se jouer dans les cols de Brousses (4,3 km, 4 %) et de Trélis (3,50 km, 6 %) où les puncheurs et les grimpeurs tenteront de s'extirper.

La quatrième étape est la principale attraction de cette édition. Le départ sera donné de Saint-Hilaire-de-Brethmas. Les coureurs vivront une étape plutôt tranquille avec un parcours assez peu difficile dans le pays d'Uzès avant de remonter vers Alès et gravir le mont Bouquet (4,6, 9 %) qui avait déjà été gravit lors de l'édition de 2020 et qui est de retour, au sommet de cette difficulté idéal pour les grimpeurs et puncheurs pourrait figer le classement général.

La dernière étape est un contre-la-montre disputé comme chaque année dans la ville d'Alès, malgré un petit changement pour le départ le tercé ne change pas et les coureurs longeront le Gardon avant d'attaquer la côte de l'Ermitage (2,2 km, 5,5 %), la dernière occasion à certain de renverser le classement général sur ces un peu plus de 10 kilomètres de chrono.

Équipes
Classé en catégorie 2.1 de l'UCI Europe Tour, la course est par conséquent ouverte aux WorldTeams dans la limite de 50  % des équipes participantes, aux ProTeams, aux équipes continentales et aux équipes nationales.

Principaux coureurs présents
L'année passée, l'Étoile de Bessèges avait été privilégié par des coureurs de renommés en raison de l'annulation de nombreuses courses par étapes en Espagne et en Amérique Latine notamment. Cette année, malgré l'annulation de quelques courses l'Étoile de Bessèges aura encore du beau monde sur la ligne de départ à Bellegarde. Même si le parcours ne leur est pas très favorable, les sprinteurs ont fait le déplacement, présents l'an passé, Pascal Ackermann (UAE-TEam Emirates) et Mads Pedersen (Trek-Segafredo) seront de retour. On note aussi la présence de Hugo Hofstetter (Arkéa-Samsic) et Bryan Coquard (Cofidis) côté français.

Du côté du classement général et pour les étapes vallonnées, les habitués sont de nouveau présent comme Lilian Calmejane (AG2R Citroën) qui avait remporter l'édition 2017, ou encore Alexys Brunel (UAE-Team Emirates) qui avait terminé sur le podium en 2020. Quant à Magnus Cort Nielsen, Alberto Bettiol (EF Education-EasyPost), Bruno Armirail (Groupama-FDJ), Pierre Latour (Team TotalEnergies) ou encore Bauke Mollema (Trek Segafredo) auront à cœur de s'adjuger la course à leur palmarès.

Enfin, c'est l'équipe INEOS Grenadiers qui fait honneur à l'épreuve Gardoise, présente pour la seconde année consécutive, l'équipe Britannique amène du beau monde avec le vainqueur du Giro 2019, Richard Carapaz et Filippo Ganna l'actuel champion du monde de contre-la-montre qui s'était adjugé deux étapes l'an passé.

Thibaut Pinot (Groupama-FDJ) un temps annoncé au départ pourrait être de la partie à moins de "privilégier du temps d'entraînement en stage", sa participation est finalement officialisé après un stage à Tenerife concluant.

Diffusion
C'est la chaîne l'Équipe qui diffuse en direct l'édition 2022 de l'Étoile de Bessèges comme ses dernières années sur le canal 21 de la TNT.

Étapes

Déroulement de la course

étape

étape

étape

étape

Classements finals

Classement général

Classements annexes

Classement par points

Classement de la montagne

Classement des jeunes

Classement par équipes

Classements UCI
La course attribue des points aux coureurs pour le Classement mondial UCI 2022 selon le barème suivant :

Évolution des classements

Liste des participants

Références

Liens externes

 Site officiel
 Étoile de Bessèges Tour du Gard 2022 sur https://www.procyclingstats.com/

2022
Cyclisme en France en 2022
Cyclisme sur route en 2022
Cyclisme en février 2022
Sport en France en février 2022

Étoile de Bessèges-Tour du Gard 2022


TV8, Türk televizyon kanalı
 TV8, İskandinav televizyon kanalı
 TV8 int, Avrupa'daki Türklere yonelik yayin yapan televizyon kanalı

TV8 (anlam ayrımı)


කෙළ හෙවත් ඛෙටය ක්‍ෂීරපායීන්ගේ ඛේට ග්‍රන්ථි තුල නිපදවා ජලය සහ වෙනත් සංඝටක සහිත දියරයකි.

ශරීර දියර

කෙළ


Japonic or Japanese–Ryukyuan, sometimes also Japanic, is a language family comprising Japanese, spoken in the main islands of Japan, and the Ryukyuan languages, spoken in the Ryukyu Islands. The family is universally accepted by linguists, and significant progress has been made in reconstructing the proto-language, Proto-Japonic. The reconstruction implies a split between all dialects of Japanese and all Ryukyuan varieties, probably before the 7th century. The Hachijō language, spoken on the Izu Islands, is also included, but its position within the family is unclear.

Most scholars believe that Japonic was brought to the Japanese archipelago from the Korean peninsula with the Yayoi culture during the 1st millennium BC. There is some fragmentary evidence suggesting that Japonic languages may still have been spoken in central and southern parts of the Korean peninsula (see Peninsular Japonic) in the early centuries AD.

Possible genetic relationships with many other language families have been proposed, most systematically with Koreanic, but none have been conclusively demonstrated.

Classification
The extant Japonic languages belong to two well-defined branches: Japanese and Ryukyuan.
Most scholars believe that Japonic was brought to northern Kyushu from the Korean peninsula around 700 to 300 BC by wet-rice farmers of the Yayoi culture and spread throughout the Japanese archipelago, replacing indigenous languages.
The former wider distribution of Ainu languages is confirmed by placenames in northern Honshu ending in  (from Ainu  'river') and  (from Ainu  'stream').
Somewhat later, Japonic languages also spread southward to the Ryukyu Islands. There is fragmentary placename evidence that now-extinct Japonic languages were still spoken in central and southern parts of the Korean peninsula several centuries later.

Japanese

Japanese is the de facto national language of Japan, where it is spoken by about 126 million people. The oldest attestation is Old Japanese, which was recorded using Chinese characters in the 7th and 8th centuries.
It differed from Modern Japanese in having a simple (C)V syllable structure and avoiding vowel sequences. The script also distinguished eight vowels (or diphthongs), with two each corresponding to modern i, e and o. Most of the texts reflect the speech of the area around Nara, the eighth-century Japanese capital, but over 300 poems were written in eastern dialects of Old Japanese.

The language experienced a massive influx of Sino-Japanese vocabulary after the introduction of Buddhism in the 6th century and peaking with the wholesale importation of Chinese culture in the 8th and the 9th centuries. The loanwords now account for about half the lexicon. They also affected the sound system of the language by adding compound vowels, syllable-final nasals, and geminate consonants, which became separate morae.
Most of the changes in morphology and syntax reflected in the modern language took place during the Late Middle Japanese period (13th to 16th centuries).

Modern mainland Japanese dialects, spoken on Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and Hokkaido, are generally grouped as follows:
 Eastern Japanese, including most dialects from Nagoya east, including the modern standard Tokyo dialect.
 Western Japanese, including most dialects west of Nagoya, including the Kyoto dialect.
 Kyushu dialects, spoken on the island of Kyushu, including the Kagoshima dialect/Satsugū dialect, spoken in Kagoshima Prefecture in southern Kyushu.

The early capitals of Nara and Kyoto lay within the western area, and their Kansai dialect retained its prestige and influence long after the capital was moved to Edo (modern Tokyo) in 1603. Indeed, the Tokyo dialect has several western features not found in other eastern dialects.

The Hachijō language, spoken on Hachijō-jima and the Daitō Islands, including Aogashima, is highly divergent and varied. It has a mix of conservative features inherited from Eastern Old Japanese and influences from modern Japanese, making it difficult to classify. Hachijō is an endangered language, with a small population of elderly speakers.

Ryukyuan

The Ryukyuan languages were originally and traditionally spoken throughout the Ryukyu Islands, an island arc stretching between the southern Japanese island of Kyushu and the island of Taiwan. Most of them are considered "definitely" or "critically endangered" because of the spread of mainland Japanese.

Since Old Japanese displayed several innovations that are not shared with Ryukyuan, the two branches must have separated before the 7th century. The move from Kyushu to the Ryukyus may have occurred later and possibly coincided with the rapid expansion of the agricultural Gusuku culture in the 10th and 11th centuries. Such a date would explain the presence in Proto-Ryukyuan of Sino-Japanese vocabulary borrowed from Early Middle Japanese. After the migration to the Ryukyus, there was limited influence from mainland Japan until the conquest of the Ryukyu Kingdom by the Satsuma Domain in 1609.

Ryukyuan varieties are considered dialects of Japanese in Japan but have little intelligibility with Japanese or even among one another. They are divided into northern and southern groups, corresponding to the physical division of the chain by the 250 km-wide Miyako Strait.

Northern Ryukyuan languages are spoken in the northern part of the chain, including the major Amami and Okinawa Islands. They form a single dialect continuum, with mutual unintelligibility between widely separated varieties. The major varieties are, from northeast to southwest:
 Kikai, on the island of Kikaijima.
 Northern Amami Ōshima, spoken in most of Amami Ōshima
 Southern Amami Ōshima, spoken in Setouchi on the southern end of Amami Ōshima.
 Tokunoshima, on the island of Tokunoshima.
Okinoerabu, on the island of Okinoerabujima
Yoron, on the island of Yoronjima.
Kunigami or Northern Okinawan, spoken in the northern part of Okinawa Island, including the cities of Nakijin and Nago.
 (Central) Okinawan, spoken in the central and southern parts of Okinawa Island, and neighboring islands. The prestige dialect is spoken in Naha, and the former city of Shuri. The Shuri dialect was the lingua franca of the Ryukyuan Kingdom, and was first recorded in the 16th century, particularly in the Omoro Sōshi anthology.

There is no agreement on the subgrouping of the varieties. One proposal, adopted by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger, has three subgroups, with the central "Kunigami" branch comprising varieties from Southern Amami to Northern Okinawan, based on similar vowel systems and patterns of lenition of stops. Pellard suggests a binary division based on shared innovations, with an Amami group including the varieties from Kikai to Yoron, and an Okinawa group comprising the varieties of Okinawa and smaller islands to its west.

Southern Ryukyuan languages are spoken in the southern part of the chain, the Sakishima Islands. They comprise three distinct dialect continua:
 Miyako is spoken in the Miyako Islands, with dialects on Irabu and Tarama.
 Yaeyama is spoken in the Yaeyama Islands (except Yonaguni), with dialects on each island, but primarily Ishigaki Island, Iriomote Island, and Taketomi Island.
 Yonaguni, spoken on Yonaguni Island, is phonologically distinct but lexically closer to other Yaeyama varieties.
The southern Ryukyus were settled by Japonic-speakers from the northern Ryukyus in the 13th century, leaving no linguistic trace of the indigenous inhabitants of the islands.

Alternative classifications
An alternative classification, based mainly on the development of the pitch accent, groups the highly divergent Kagoshima dialects of southwestern Kyushu with Ryukyuan in a Southwestern branch.
Kyushu and Ryukyuan varieties also share some lexical items, some of which appear to be innovations.
The internal classification by Elisabeth de Boer includes Ryukyuan as a deep subbranch of a Kyūshū–Ryūkyū branch:

Japonic
Eastern
Central
Izumo–Tōhoku
Kyūshū–Ryūkyū

She also proposes a branch consisting of the Izumo dialect (spoken on the northern coast of western Honshu) and the Tōhoku dialects (northern Honshu), which show similar developments in the pitch accent that she attributes to sea-borne contacts.

Another alternative classification, proposed by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology as part of their Glottolog project, splits the Hachijō language into an independent branch of Japonic, in addition to splitting the divergent Kagoshima and Tsugaru dialects into independent branches of a "Japanesic" family.

Japonic
 Hachijo
 Japanesic
 Japan−Taiwan Japanese
 Japanese
 Yilan Creole Japanese
 Kagoshima
 Old Japanese
 Tsugaru
 Ryukyuan

Peninsular Japonic

There is fragmentary evidence suggesting that now-extinct Japonic languages were spoken in the central and southern parts of the Korean peninsula. Vovin calls these languages Peninsular Japonic and groups Japanese and Ryukyuan as .

The most-cited evidence comes from chapter 37 of the  (compiled in 1145), which contains a list of pronunciations and meanings of placenames in the former kingdom of Goguryeo. As the pronunciations are given using Chinese characters, they are difficult to interpret, but several of those from central Korea, in the area south of the Han River captured from Baekje in the 5th century, seem to correspond to Japonic words. Scholars differ on whether they represent the language of Goguryeo or the people that it conquered.

Traces from the south of the peninsula are very sparse:
 The Silla placenames listed in Chapter 34 of the  are not glossed, but many of them can be explained as Japonic words.
 Alexander Vovin proposes Japonic etymologies for two of four Baekje words given in the Book of Liang (635).
 A single word is explicitly attributed to the language of the southern Gaya confederacy, in Chapter 44 of the . It is a word for 'gate' and appears in a similar form to the Old Japanese word , with the same meaning.
 Vovin suggests that the ancient name for the kingdom of Tamna on Jeju Island, , may have a Japonic etymology  'valley settlement' or  'people's settlement'.

Proposed external relationships

According to Shirō Hattori, more attempts have been made to link Japanese with other language families than for any other language. None of the attempts has succeeded in demonstrating a common descent for Japonic and any other language family.

The most systematic comparisons have involved Korean, which has a very similar grammatical structure to Japonic languages. Samuel Elmo Martin, John Whitman, and others have proposed hundreds of possible cognates, with sound correspondences. However, Alexander Vovin points out that Old Japanese contains several pairs of words of similar meaning in which one word matches a Korean form, and the other is also found in Ryukyuan and Eastern Old Japanese, suggesting that the former is an early loan from Korean. He suggests that to eliminate such early loans, Old Japanese morphemes should not be assigned a Japonic origin unless they are also attested in Southern Ryukyuan or Eastern Old Japanese. That procedure leaves fewer than a dozen possible cognates, which may have been borrowed by Korean from Peninsular Japonic.

Typology
Most Japonic languages have voicing opposition for obstruents, with exceptions such as the Miyako dialect of Ōgami. Glottalized consonants are common in North Ryukyuan languages but are rarer in South Ryukyuan.
Proto-Japonic had only voiceless obstruents, like Ainu and proto-Korean.
Japonic languages also resemble Ainu and modern Korean in having a single liquid consonant phoneme.
A five-vowel system like Standard Japanese , , ,  and  is common, but some Ryukyuan languages also have central vowels  and , and Yonaguni has only , , and .

In most Japonic languages, speech rhythm is based on a subsyllabic unit, the mora. Each syllable has a basic mora of the form (C)V but a nasal coda, geminate consonant, or lengthened vowel counts as an additional mora. However, some dialects in northern Honshu or southern Kyushu have syllable-based rhythm.

Like Ainu, Middle Korean, and some modern Korean dialects, most Japonic varieties have a lexical pitch accent, which governs whether the moras of a word are pronounced high or low, but it follows widely-different patterns. In Tokyo-type systems, the basic pitch of a word is high, with an accent (if present) marking the position of a drop to low pitch. In Kyushu dialects, the basic pitch is low, with accented syllables given high pitch. In Kyoto-type systems, both types are used.

Japonic languages, again like Ainu and Korean, are left-branching (or head-final), with a basic subject–object–verb word order, modifiers before nouns, and postpositions. There is a clear distinction between verbs, which have extensive inflectional morphology, and nominals, with agglutinative suffixing morphology.
Mainland varieties have adjectives of both types, while Ryukyuan languages inflect all adjectives in the same way as verbs.

Most Japonic languages mark singular and plural number, but some Northern Ryukyuan languages also have the dual.
Most Ryukyuan languages mark a clusivity distinction in plural (or dual) first-person pronouns, but no Mainland varieties do so.
The most common type of morphosyntactic alignment is nominative–accusative, but neutral (or direct), active–stative and (very rarely) tripartite alignment are found in some Japonic languages.

Proto-Japonic

The proto-language of the family has been reconstructed by using a combination of internal reconstruction from Old Japanese and by applying the comparative method to Old Japanese (including eastern dialects) and Ryukyuan. The major reconstructions of the 20th century were produced by Samuel Elmo Martin and Shirō Hattori.

Proto-Japonic words are generally polysyllabic, with syllables having the form (C)V. The following proto-Japonic consonant inventory is generally agreed upon, except that some scholars argue for voiced stops  and  instead of glides  and :

The Old Japanese voiced consonants b, d, z and g, which never occurred word-initially, are derived from clusters of nasals and voiceless consonants after the loss of an intervening vowel.

Most authors accept six Proto-Japonic vowels:

Some authors also propose a high central vowel .
The mid vowels  and  were raised to i and u respectively in Old Japanese, except word-finally.
Other Old Japanese vowels arose from sequences of Proto-Japonic vowels.

It is generally accepted that a lexical pitch accent should be reconstructed for Proto-Japonic, but its precise form is controversial.

Notes

References

Works cited

Further reading

External links
 Databases of dialectical and historical linguistics at the National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics
 『日本言語地図』地図画像 (Linguistic Atlas of Japan)

Language families

Japonic languages


Mletačka opsada Zadra bila je oružani sukob kojeg je vodila Mletačka Republika protiv Hrvatske i Ugarske, a zbio se u razdoblju od 12. kolovoza 1345. do 21. prosinca 1346. godine. Sukob je posljedica vjekovnih težnji stanovnika Zadra za autonomijom i upornih namjera Mlečana da grad podvrgnu svojoj izravnoj vlasti, što je trajalo više stoljeća unatrag i u kojem je razdoblju Zadar nekoliko puta na dulje ili kraće vrijeme potpadao pod mletačku upravu i nekoliko puta se od nje oslobodio. Mlečani su pokrenuli opsadu nakon što je početkom ljeta 1345. zadarsko poslanstvo krenulo u Bihać kako bi iskazalo svoju odanost kralju Ludoviku, što je procijenjeno kao izdaja i bilo povod za opsadu. Opsada je potrajala više od 16 mjeseci i sastojala se od niza zasebnih pomorsko-kopnenih okršaja i bitaka, a završila je mletačkim zauzimanjem Zadra.

Povijesna pozadina

Kada je mladi Ludovik I. Anžuvinac 1342. godine stupio na hrvatsko-ugarsko prijestolje, odlučio je uspostaviti punu kontrolu nad cijelim južnim i jugoistočnim područjem svoga kraljevstva, uključujući Jadransku obalu i otoke, u kojem su razmjerno samostalno na svojim posjedima vladale hrvatske plemićke obitelji (Šubići, Frankopani, Kurjakovići, Nelipići i drugi) i kojim su djelomično upravljali Mlečani, a uključivao je jadransku obalu i otoke. Žitelji Zadra su, u skladu sa svojim nastojanjima da sami upravljaju gradom, pokušali odmah iskoristiti prigodu i 1344. iskazali vjernost hrvatsko-ugarskom vladaru, zatraživši od njega pomoć.

U cilju provedbe svog cilja o preuzimanju vlasti u svoje ruke, kralj je u rujnu 1344. poslao svoju vojsku pod zapovjedništvom slavonskog bana Nikole Banića (mađ. Bánffy) na jug, ali ona nije došla do samog Zadra, kako su Zadrani priželjkivali, nego samo do Knina, gdje je nakon opsade toga grada pod upravom članova obitelji Nelipić došlo do utanačenja primirja i kompromisnog rješenja, pa su se kraljeve trupe vratile na sjever. Budući da se dogovor nije realizirao, Ludovik I. je u lipnju 1345. ponovno pod Knin poslao bana Banića, kojem se pridružio i bosanski ban Stjepan II. Kotromanić, a sam je s velikom vojskom (oko 30.000 ljudi) došao u kraljevski grad Bihać. Namjera mu je bila da prisili Nelipiće da mu predaju Knin, što se i dogodilo u srpnju 1345.

Čuvši da je kralj u Bihaću, vodstvo Zadra odlučilo je tamo potajno poslati svoje tročlano poslanstvo, koje se sastojalo od plemićâ Martina Butovana, Miha Sopića i Nikole Galetića, kako bi se kralju poklonili kao svom vladaru i diskretno ga zamolili za pomoć u njihovoj namjeri da se othrvaju pritiscima Mlečana i njihovoj namjeri preuzeti vlast u Zadru. Dok su poslanici bili na putu prema Bihaću, kralj je u međuvremenu, riješivši pitanje preuzimanja Knina i izdavši u Bihaću povelje tamošnjim plemićima, krajem srpnja sa svojom vojskom napustio grad i otišao natrag u Ugarsku, a Zadrane nije ni primio.

O povratku trojice zadarskih poslanika neobavljena posla saznali su i Mlečani te odlučili skršiti težnje Zadra za autonomijom. Odmah početkom kolovoza 1345. pripremili su velike vojne snage, i to pomorske i kopnene, te ih poslali prema Zadru.

Opsada

12. kolovoza 1345. mletačke su galije pred Zadrom blokirale ulaz u grad, a sljedećeg dana su njihove trupe počele s napadom na gradske zidine, luku i obrambene utvrde oko grada. Pomorskim snagama je zapovijedao Pietro de Canale, a kopnenima, koje su stigle iz pravca Nina, Marco Giustiniani. Na čelu branitelja bio je zadarski knez (principe) Marko Corner, a među zapovjednicima pojedinih postrojbi ili sektora obrane poznati su Zoilo Uršulin i Ivan Škrbec. Braniteljima je snažnu podršku davao zadarski nadbiskup Nikola Matafar.

Opsada je imala tri faze, pri čemu je prva, u okviru koje su se odvijale brojne krvave bitke na moru i na kopnu, trajala do kraja siječnja 1346., kada su Mlečani uspjeli slomiti debeli željezni lanac, koji je sprječavao neželjenim brodovima ulaz u luku. To im je omogućilo da se sasvim približe gradskim zidinama i zadarskim brodovima u luci, kako bi ih napali. Premda je upravo u to vrijeme na dužnost stupio novi mletački glavni zapovjednik Pietro Civrano, mletačke snage kroz cijelu zimu i proljeće te godine, usprkos žestokim bojevima, nisu uspjele slomiti žilav otpor Zadrana.

Druga faza opsade obilježena je aktivnijim ulaskom kralja Ludovika I. Anžuvinca u događanja oko Zadra, i to najprije pismima potpore braniteljima grada (3. i 26. ožujka), s obećanjem da će njegova vojska stići uskoro, a zatim i kraljevim osobnim dolaskom. Kralj je stigao tijekom mjeseca lipnja na čelu brojne vojske, koja je trebala osloboditi Zadar od opsade. Jedan od kroničara tog vremena navodi da je Ludovik raspolagao s 100.000 konjanika (što je zacijelo prevelika brojka koja je malo vjerojatna, ali realnija je da je imao oko 30.000 ljudi), koji su su se utaborili kod Zemunika. Mlečani su imali oko 20.000 – 25.000 ljudi, dijelom ulogorenih (već od ranije) oko uvale Dražanica, sjeverno od grada, te razmještenih u utvrdama i kulama, koje su se nalazile na kopnenom dijelu prilaza Zadru.

Glavna bitka počela je ujutro 1. srpnja 1346. napadom hrvatsko-ugarske vojske na veliku drveno-kamenu opsadnu utvrdu, takozvanu bastidu, u kojoj su se nalazile glavne mletačke snage, a izgradili su ju Mlečani s istočne strane zadarskih zidina, kako bi mogli kontrolirali ulaz i izlaz iz grada. Borbe su trajale do sljedećeg dana, a završile neuspjehom po Zadrane i kraljeve snage, koje su se povukle. Uzroci tome bili su nepristupačnost terena i stiješnjenost Ludovikovih vojnika između bastide i mora, s kojeg su ih napadale mletačke galije, zatim manjak opsadnih strojeva, odnosno sprava, i nedostatak brodovlja, te nedovoljna organiziranost i moguća potkupljenost nekih kraljevih vojskovođa od strane mletačkih doušnika i uhoda (spominjani su Stjepan I. Lacković i Stjepan II. Kotromanić). Nakon poraza, Ludovik je naredio da se raspreme šatori u vojnom logoru, te je ubrzo sa svojom vojskom krenuo na sjever, ostavivši Zadrane da se bore sami.

Tijekom ljeta i jeseni 1346. odvijala se treća faza opsade, u kojoj su vođeni daljnji teški okršaji između Mlečana i Zadrana, s vremenom koje je radilo protiv potonjih. Zalihe hrane u Zadru bile su sve manje i zaprijetila je glad, jer je grad bio blokiran, pa je opskrba namirnicama, streljivom i drugim potrepštinama bila nemoguća. Ostavši pri kraju snaga, Zadrani su bili prisiljeni odlučiti se na kapitulaciju, koja je uglavljena 15. prosinca, te na predaju grada u mletačke ruke, što se dogodilo 21. prosinca 1346. ulaskom opsadnih trupa u Zadar.

Zadar nakon opsade

Grad Zadar ostao je pod mletačkom upravom sljedećih desetak godina. Kralj Ludovik I. Anžuvinac poduzeo je od 1356. godine veliki ratni pohod protiv Mletačke Republike kako bi oslobodio priobalni teritorij svojeg kraljevstva, u čemu je i uspio. U sklopu tog pohoda, hrvatsko-ugarske postrojbe ušle su u Zadar, a na kraju neprijateljstava u njemu je 18. veljače 1358. potpisan i mirovni ugovor poznat pod nazivom Zadarski mir. Prema njemu se Mletačka Republika odrekla Dalmacije i Hrvatskog primorja, odnosno okupiranog teritorija od  Kvarnerskog zaljeva na sjeverozapadu do grada Drača (u današnjoj Albaniji) na jugoistoku.

Sljedećih pedesetak godina Zadar je imao svoju samoupravu unutar Hrvatsko-Ugarskog Kraljevstva, sve dok godine 1409. kralj Ladislav Napuljski, vidjevši da će izgubiti borbu za prijestolje sa Žigmundom Luksemburškim, nije Mlečanima prodao svoja prava na cijelo jadransko priobalno područje (osim Dubrovnika) za iznos od 100.000 dukata. Od tada je Zadar postao administrativno sjedište mletačke vlasti u Dalmaciji.

Vidi još

 Dodatak:Popis bitaka 601. – 1400.
 Hrvatsko-mletački ratovi
 Hrvatske zemlje pod mletačkom vlašću
 Zadarski mir

Vanjske poveznice

 Detaljan opis opsade Zadra iz pera anonimnog suvremenika
 Opsidio Iadrensis – srednjovjekovno djelo o opsadi Zadra
 Napad vojske kralja Ludovika Anžuvinca na mletačku opsadnu utvrdu
 Diplomatske aktivnosti Zadrana u vrijeme opsade Zadra 1345./1346. godine
 Opis opsade Zadra u Oxfordskoj enciklopediji srednjovjekovnog ratovanja i vojne tehnologije (engleski)

Zadar
Zadar
Mletačka opsada
Hrvatske zemlje pod mletačkom vlašću
Zadar
Zadar
Zadar
Zadar
Zadar

Mletačka opsada Zadra


Košenil crveno A ili Ponceau 4R je umjetno crveno bojilo (indeks boje C.I. 16255) iz skupine azo-bojila, dodatak hrani ili prehrambeni aditiv označen E-brojem E124. Na temelju kemijske srodnosti s azo-bojilima pretpostavlja se da može izazvati alergiju, posebno ako je riječ o osobama osjetljivima na salicilnu i benzojevu kiselinu (E210) ili onima koje boluju od astme. U kombinaciji s benzojevom kiselinom (E210) može uzrokovati sindrom hiperaktivnosti kod djece. Odlukom Europskog parlamenta koja je od godine 2010. obvezujuća za sve zemlje članice Europske unije, na deklaraciji namirnica kojima je dodano jedno od sljedećih bojila: E102, E104,E110, E122, E124, E129, mora stajati upozorenje: "Može uzrokovati poremećaj aktivnosti i pažnje djece". Izbjegavati!

Prihvatljivi dnevni unos ili ADI
U svrhu zaštite potrošača i s ciljem smanjenja zdravstvenih rizika za aditive se određuje prihvatljivi dnevni unos - ADI (eng. Acceptable Daily Intake). To je količina aditiva za koju se smatra da je potrošač može unositi u organizam bez štetnih posljedica po zdravlje. ADI se izražava u miligramima nekog aditiva po kilogramu tjelesne težine, a temelji se na rezultatima pokusa na životinjama u kojima se izračunavaju količine aditiva koje ne narušavaju zdravlje laboratorijskih životinja, to jest takozvani Observed Adverse Effective Level (NOAEL). Te vrijednosti preračunavaju se u dnevnu dozu za ljude (ADI/PDU) tako da se obično umanjuju sto puta.

Prihvatljivi dnevni unos za košenil crvenu A je 0,7 mg/kg tjelesne težine.

Košenil

Košenil ili košenilska uš, lat. Dactylopius cacti (fra. cochenille od španj. cochinilla) je kukac iz reda polukrilaca (lat. Hemiptera), porodica crvaca (Coccoidae). Živi na kaktusu Nopalea coccinellifera ili na opunciji (indijska smokva). Podrijetlom je iz Meksika, a prenesen je i u druge tople krajeve (Kanarski otoci, Alžir, Java). Od osušenih tijela ženki dobiva se karminska boja košenila, koja služi za proizvodnju karmina i karminske kiseline; prije se upotrebljavala za bojenje vunenih i svilenih tkanina.

Slike

Izvori

Prehrambeni aditivi
Pigmenti

Košenil crveno A


Pär Holmgren, né le  à Gävle, est un homme politique suédois. Membre du Parti de l'environnement Les Verts. Il est élu député européen en 2019.

Biographie

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Liste des députés européens de Suède de la  - Liste des députés européens de la

Liens externes

Personnalité du Parti de l'environnement Les Verts
Député européen membre du Parti de l'environnement Les Verts
Député européen du groupe Les Verts/Alliance libre européenne 2019-2024
Député européen élu en Suède 2019-2024
Naissance en octobre 1964
Naissance à Gävle

Pär Holmgren


Mixed Martial Arts Sport Association Austria (kurz MMA-Austria) ist der österreichische Verband für gemischte Kampfsportarten.

Verband
Im Jahr 1999 wurde durch die Brüder Gerhard und Michael Ettl, Predrag Krsikapa, Klaus Leutgeb (der die Veranstaltung moderierte) und Markus Schurian das erste öffentliche MMA-Event organisiert. In Österreich wird jedoch der Name "Free Fight" dem Begriff "MMA" oft vorgezogen. In Österreich gab es ab 2000 die sogenannte "AFVA – Austrian Freefight und Vale Tudo Association", welche Mixed Martial Arts Veranstaltungen sanktionierte. Dieser Verband wurde aber 2004 geschlossen und erst 2007 begann die neue Ausrichtung des Sportes in Österreich. Daraus resultierend wurde 2009 die MMA-Austria gegründet und begann die Kampfsport-Szene professionell zu organisieren. Derzeit gibt es in Österreich nur zwei aktive Organisationen im Bereich Mixed Martial Arts, dies ist der MMA-Austria Verband und die FFA-Austria (Freefight Association Austria). Die MMA-Austria ist spezialisiert und zuständig für Wettkämpfe auf professioneller Ebene, die FFA-Austria hingegen stellt den österreichischen Amateurverband dar. Die beiden Verbände arbeiten jedoch eng zusammen, um gemeinsam die Mixed Martials Arts eine seriöse und reglementierte Plattform in Österreich zu bieten. Im Oktober 2009 wurden in Köln (Deutschland) durch eine internationale Kommission die International Rules of MMA als Standard für offiziellen Mixed-Martial Arts-Veranstaltungen in Deutschland, Österreich, Tschechien, Frankreich und der Schweiz festgelegt. Im Februar 2010 entschlossen sich sieben Veranstalter, ihr eigenes Regelwerk und Titelstruktur auf Grundlage des eben erwähnten Reglements in Österreich zu verwenden. Diese Entwicklung führte zur Gründung des MMA-Verbandes Österreich durch Gerhard Ettl, Fritz Treiber und Stefan Helmreich. Der Verband stellt eine Dachorganisation für gemischte Kampfsportarten in Österreich dar. Die Anzahl der Mitglieder wächst; über 20 Kampfsportvereine sind bereits bei der MMA Austria registriert. Es werden Veranstaltungen organisiert und in ganz Österreich durchgeführt, wobei auch viele internationale Gastkämpfer teilnehmen. Die MMA-Austria selbst veranstaltet keine Events, die Hauptaufgabe ist es Veranstaltungen aus ihrem Bereich zu überwachen und sanktionieren.

Wettkampfregeln
Es gibt offizielle Wettkampfregeln, die bei den Veranstaltungen der MMA-Austria angewendet werden. Sie behandeln die Themen: das MMA-Kampfgericht, internationale Kommandos, Abwaage der Kämpfer, die Kampfdauer im MMA-Kampf, die Kampfbekleidung, die Gewichtsklassen, erlaubte Techniken, verbotene Techniken, die Bewertung des Kampfes und Dopingbestimmungen.

Erlaubte Techniken
Grundlegend sind die Techniken aller Kampfsportarten erlaubt, korrekte Kampfhandlungen können stehend kämpfend, aber auch im Bodenkampf ausgetragen werden. Ein Kampf ist einwandfrei, wenn sich beide Gegner in Halb- oder Nahdistanz oder Bodenkampf sportlich korrekt ohne verbotene Handlungen messen. Bei verbotenen Kampfhandlungen wird vom Ringrichter eine Verwarnung ausgesprochen und bei der dritten Verwarnung erfolgt die Disqualifikation des betreffenden Kämpfers. Befinden sich beide Kämpfer in einer aussichtslosen Bodenposition, die beiden die Fortsetzung des Kampfes unmöglich macht, muss der Ringrichter den Kampf unterbrechen und ihn stehend in der Ringmitte fortsetzen lassen.

Verbotene Techniken

Die einzelnen Ausführungen zu allen Themen befinden sich im offiziellen Reglement der MMA-Austria.

Kämpfer-Lizenz
Um an Wettkämpfen der MMA-Austria teilzunehmen zu können, benötigen Kampfsportler die Kämpferlizenz (Wettkampflizenz), welche ausschließlich durch den Verband ausgestellt wird. Es können internationale Sportpässe sowie Reserve-Sportpässe ausgestellt werden. Voraussetzung für die Registrierung ist die Inskription bei einem offiziellen Verein, der Mitglied im Verband MMA-Austria ist. Für die Zulassung zu Wettkämpfen müssen amtliche Dokumente abgegeben werden. Alle Kampfteilnehmer sind verpflichtet, sich jährlich ärztlichen Untersuchungen zu unterziehen.

Kampfrichter
Der Verband betreibt selbst die Schiedsrichterausbildung, um so die Umsetzung der Kampfregeln zu gewährleisten. Jährlich werden offizielle Kampfrichterseminare angeboten; bei diesen wird der Umgang mit den Kämpfern und den Regeln gelehrt. Die Schiedsrichter werden auch von der MMA-Austria für den Promotor bzw. Veranstalter für offiziell anerkannte Wettkämpfe zu Verfügung gestellt.
Der Chef Referee des Verbandes ist Nebil Sebai aus Wien.

Ranglisten
Um in die Rangliste aufgenommen zu werden muss der Kämpfer eine Kämpfer-Lizenz besitzen und einem Verein angehören, der beim Verband registriert ist.

Gewichtsklassen
Innerhalb des Verbandes werden sechs Ranglisten, unterteilt in Gewichtsklassen, geführt. Hierbei handelt es sich um:

 Federgewicht (–66 kg)
 Leichtgewicht (–70 kg)
 Weltergewicht (–77 kg)
 Mittelgewicht (–84 kg)
 Halbschwergewicht (–93 kg)
 Schwergewicht (–120 kg)

Einstufung
Das Ranking-System richtet sich nicht nur nach dem Kampfrekord des Kämpfers, sondern wird auch durch folgende Parameter ermittelt:
 Stärke der Gegner
 Teilnahme an bedeutenden Turnieren
 Kampfrekord
 Kampfaktivitäten der letzten Monate
 Überlegenheit des Kämpfers bzw. dessen Kampfverläufe

Aktuelle Profi-Champions
Die aktuellen Titelträger können sich in unterschiedlichen Abständen ändern. Ein Wettkämpfer muss Herausforderung annehmen und seinen Titel verteidigen, wobei die Voraussetzung für eine Herausforderung gegeben sein müssen. Der Fordernde muss unter den besten 5 der Rangliste sein und in Österreich seinen Lebensmittelpunkt haben. Des Weiteren muss ein Promotor oder Veranstalter den Titelkampf finanzieren (Gagen der beiden Kämpfer und Verbandsgürtel). Die Herausforderung muss schriftlich durch den Kämpfer oder dessen Manager an das Verbandsbüro der MMA-Austria gerichtet werden und dann dem Titelhalter weitergeleitet. Das Datum der Herausforderung sowie der Abnahme sind im Einvernehmen mit dem Verband zu klären. Jeder Champion seiner Gewichtsklasse muss seinen Titel innerhalb 12 Monate ab Erlangen mindestens einmal verteidigen. Sollte es in einem Titelkampf zur Disqualifizierung des Titelträgers kommen, so verliert er seinen Titel, jedoch wird dem Gegner der Titel nicht automatisch zuerkannt, sondern gilt als vakant.

Weblinks
 Webpräsenz der Mixed Martial Arts Sport Association Austria
 Reglement der MMA Austria (PDF; 443 kB)

Einzelnachweise

Sportverband (Österreich)
Sportveranstalter
Mixed Martial Arts


Kızılkum (Özbekçe: Qyzylqum), Kazakistan ve Özbekistan arasında bulunan bir çöl. Yaklaşık olarak 300 bin km² yüz ölçümüyle dünyanın en büyük çölleri arasında yer alır. Orta Asya'nın iki büyük nehri (Seyhun ve Ceyhun) arasında yer alan Kızılkum Çölü, Aral Gölü'nün de güneyindedir. Kış ve İlkbahar mevsimlerinde olmak üzere yıllık olarak 100–200 mm arası yağış almaktadır. Çölün kuzeybatıya eğimli bir düzlüklerinde izole olarak yükselen 3000 metreye varabilen yükseltiler bulunur.

Coğrafya
Klâsik çöl panoraması sunan Kızılkum çölünün genel topoğrafyasına düzlükler hâkimdir. Denizden yüksekliği 980 metre olan bu düzlük üzerinde çeşitli yer şekilleri bulunmaktadır ve en önemli yer şekilleri kumullardır. Büyük kumullar tepecikler oluşturmaktadır. Bölgenin kuzeybatısı kille kaplı kum taneleri içerir (clay coating). Bölgede çok sayıda akarsu ve vaha olması da su ihtiyacı konusunda insan yaşamı ve ekolojik sisteme katkı sağlamaktadır. Kızılkum Çölü'nde sıcaklık rekoru 1983 yılının Temmuz ayında 52.22 santigrat derece olarak ölçülmüştür.

Ekosistem
Klâsik çöl ekosistemi özelliklerini gösteren Kızılkum Çölü, görece ortalama bir hayvan varlığına sahiptir. Çölde, önemli türler olarak Rus kaplumbağası (Orta Asya adına endemik bir türdür), çöl kertenkelesi, Transcaspian yaban koyunu bölgede yaşamaktadır. Ayrıca sayısı azalmakta olan Saiga Tatarica adlı antilop türü de çölde önemli bir yer tutar. 1971'de bölgenin korunması adına ilk adım olarak buhara şehrinde Kızılkum koruma programı başlatıldı. Özellikle sülün, altın kartal ve buhara geyiği koruma altına alındı. Bununla birlikte Buhara'nın 47 km doğusundaki Ceyran bölgesindeki koruma sahası da 1977 yılında oluşturuldu ve toy kuşu, Pers gazeli ve Moğol yaban atı bu yaban hayatı alanında koruma altına alındı. Kıt ve dağınık bir bitki örtüsüne sahip çölde çalılar ve ufak ağaçlar; evcil deve, koyun ve atların otlatılması amacıyla kullanılmaktadır.

Ayrıca, 2016 yılında bölgede Mezozoyik Devri'ne ait çok önemli bir keşif yapılmıştır. Tyrannosauroidea üst familyasına ait Timurlengia Euotica adlı bir Tiranozor'un kalıntıları Kızılkum Çölü'nde bulundu. Bu canlı, yaklaşık 90 milyon yıl önce geç Kretase devrinde yaşamış ve Albertosaurus ile T-Rex'in de ait olduğu dinozor ailesi içindeki önemli bir boşluğunu doldurmaktadır. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences adlı dergide yayımlanan makaleye göre Kızılkum Çölü'ndeki kalıntılar paleontolojik olarak büyük değere sahip ve özellikle dinozor tarihi ile ilgili pek çok ayrıntıyı gözler önüne sermektedir.

Ekonomi
İçerisinde fazla yaşam barındırmasa da çöl ekonomik alanda ciddi potansiyel taşımaktadır, zira yakın zamanda sadece petrol ve gaz kaynakları değil aralarında altın, gümüş, alüminyum, bakır ve uranyum gibi minerallerin de bulunduğu büyük bir yer altı zenginliği bulunmaktadır. Bölgede madencilik ve döküm ve işleme tesisleri meydana getirilmiştir ve Gazli ile Mübarek şehirlerinde gaz üretim merkezleri kurulmuştur. Bu yer altı zenginlikleri yanında özellikle su ve kuraklığa dayanıklı bitki örtüsü hayvancılık faaliyetleri için önemli doğal kaynakları oluşturmaktadır.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Özbekistan fotoları
 Özbekistan'da Doğa
 Özbekistan'de Çevre
 Kızılkum fotoları

Kazakistan'daki çöller
Türkmenistan'daki çöller
Özbekistan'daki çöller
Kum çölleri

Kızılkum Çölü


علامة الأربعة  رواية من تأليف آرثر كونان دويل نشرت عام 1890 وهي ثاني رواية تظهر فيها شخصية شارلوك هولمز.

الحبكة
تدور أحداث الرواية في عام 1888. تملك الرواية حبكة معقدة تتضمن الخدمة في الهند، والثورة الهندية لعام 1857، وكنزًا مسروقًا، واتفاقًا سريًا بين أربعة مدانين واثنين من حراس السجن الفاسدين، وتعاطي المحقق المخدرات وإضفاء الطابع الإنساني عليه بطريقة لم تُستخدم في الرواية السابقة دراسة بالقرمزي (1887). تقدم الرواية أيضًا زوجة الدكتور واتسون المستقبلية والتي تُدعى ماري مورستان.

قالت ماري في ديسمبر عام 1878 إن والدها بلغها فور عودته سالمًا من الهند، وطلب منها مقابلته في فندق لانغهام في لندن. وصلت ماري إلى الفندق حيث قيل لها إن والدها خرج في الليلة السابقة ولم يعد. لم يُعثر على أي أثر له رغم كل الجهود التي بُذلت خلال البحث. اتصلت ماري بصديق والدها الوحيد الذي كان في نفس الفوج وتقاعد منذ ذلك الحين وانتقل إلى إنجلترا، وهو الرائد جون شولتو، لكنه نفى معرفته بعودة والدها. بدأ اللغز الثاني بتلقيها ست لآلئ في البريد من متبرع مجهول واستلمتها واحدة تلو الأخرى بدءًا من عام 1882 بعد إجابتها على استفسار من صحيفة مجهولة تستفسر عنها. تلقت مع آخر لؤلؤة استلمتها رسالةً توضح تعرضها للظلم مع طلب للقائها. يتولى هولمز القضية وسرعان ما يكتشف أن الرائد شولتو توفي في عام 1882 وربط ذلك باستلام ماري للآلئ بعد فترة قصيرة من وفاته. كان الدليل الوحيد الذي تستطيع ماري تقديمه لهولمز هو خريطة للقلعة الموجودة في مكتب والدها مع أسماء مثل جوناثان سمول، وماهوميت سينغ، وعبد الله خان، ودوست أكبر.

يلتقي هولمز وواتسون ووماري مع ثاديوس شولتو ابن الرائد الراحل شولتو والمرسل المجهول للؤلؤ. يؤكد ثاديوس رؤية الرائد والدَ ماري في الليلة التي مات فيها، وأنهم رتبوا اجتماعًا لتقسيم كنز لا يقدر بثمن أحضره شولتو من الهند. تعرض الكابتن مورستان ذو الصحة السيئة لأزمة قلبية في أثناء تشاجره على الكنز. تخلص شولتو من الجثة وأخفى الكنز كي لا يلفت الانتباه إلى موضوع المشاجرة وأيضًا بسبب شعوره بالقلق من توجيه أصابع الاتهام إليه، خاصة أن رأس مورستان قد ضرب زاوية الصندوق في أثناء سقوطه. عانى شولتو أيضًا من حالة صحية سيئة وتضخم في الطحال (ربما بسبب الملاريا، إذ توجد زجاجة كينين بجانب سريره دائمًا). ازدادت صحته سوءًا بعد تلقيه رسالة من الهند في أوائل عام 1882. كان شولتو على فراش الموت عندما استدعى ولديه واعترف بموت مورستان، وكان على وشك الكشف عن موقع الكنز عندما بكى فجأة قائلًا «أبقيه خارجًا» قبل لفظه أنفاسه الأخيرة. لمح الأبناء المشوشون وجهًا من النافذة، ولم يكن هناك إلا أثر خطوة واحدة في التراب. وُجد على جثة والدهم مذكرة مكتوب عليها «علامة الأربعة». تشاجر كل من الأخوين حول ما إذا كان ينبغي ترك إرث لماري مورستان، وترك ثاديوس شقيقَه بارثولوميو وأخذ المسبحة وأرسل اللآلئ لماري. كان السبب وراء إرسال الرسالة هو إيجاد بارثولوميو الكنزَ وتوقعه مطالبة ثاديوس وماري بتقسيمه بينهما.

عُثر على بارثولوميو مسمومًا في منزله والكنز مفقود. أخذت الشرطة ثاديوس مشتبهًا به، ولكن هولمز استنتج أن هناك شخصان متورطان في جريمة القتل: رجل بساق واحدة، وهو جوناثان سمول، إلى جانب شريك آخر. تبعهم هولمز إلى مكان هبوط القوارب حيث استأجر سمول لنجًا كُتب عليه اسم أورورا. تتبع هولمز وفرقة شارع بيكر اللنج وذلك بمساعدة الكلب توبي. طارد هولمز وواتسون الأورورا وتمكنوا من القبض عليه، وتسببت هذه العملية بمقتل شريك سمول بعد محاولته قتل هولمز بسهم سام. حاول سمول الهرب، ولكن قُبض عليه في النهاية. وُجد صندوق الكنز فارغًا وزعم سمول أنه ألقى الكنز على ضفة النهر في أثناء المطاردة.

يعترف سمول أنه قبل سنوات كان جنديًا من جنود باف (فوج المشاة الثالث) في الهند وفقد ساقه اليمنى في حادث سباحة بسبب تمساح. حدثت ثورة الهند لعام 1857 بعد مرور بعض الوقت عندما كان مشرفًا على زراعة الشاي هناك، واضطر إلى الفرار لإكمال حياته في قلعة أغرا. تعرض سمول حينها إلى هجوم اثنين من جنود السيخ الذين أعطوه خيارين، إما القتل أو أن يكون شريكًا في قتل خادم متنكر من خدم الراجا (الملك) الذي أرسله مع ثروة قيّمة مكونة من اللؤلؤ والمجوهرات إلى البريطانيين للاحتفاظ بها وحمايتها. نُفِّذت عمليتا السرقة والقتل، ولكن كُشفت ملابسات الجريمة بعدها ما عدا المجوهرات. حُكم على سمول بعقوبة جزائية في جزر أندامان، وسمع بعد 20 عامًا أن جون شولتو خسر الكثير من أمواله في القمار ولا يمكنه حتى بيع تكليفه؛ ولهذا سيتعين عليه الاستقالة. استغل سمول فرصته وعقد صفقة مع شولتو وآرثر مورستان، وبدأت الصفقة باستعادة شولتو الكنز وإرسال قارب لنقل سمول والسيخ في المقابل.

لم يلتزم شولتو بالصفقة وترك كلًا من مورستان وسمول وسرق الكنز لنفسه بعد أن ورث ثروة من عمه. تعهد سمول بالانتقام، فتمكن بعد أربعة أعوام من الهروب من جزر أندامان مع أحد سكان الجزيرة المسمى تونجا بعد أن قتل كلاهما حارس السجن. صدم خبر هروبه شولتو ما أدى إلى إصابته بمرضه القاتل. وصل سمول متأخرًا وعرف بموقع الكنز، ولكنه ترك ملاحظة تشير إلى اسم الاتفاق بينه وبين شركائه السيخ الثلاثة. عثر بارثولوميو على الكنز بعدها، فخطط سمول لسرقته فقط، وبرر قتل تونجا لبارثولوميو بسوء تفاهم حصل في أثناء العملية. ادعى سمول أن كنز أغرا لم يجلب سوى الحظ السيئ لأي شخص كان على تماس معه، فقُتل الخادم وعاش شولتو مع الخوف والشعور بالذنب، وخضع سمول للعبودية مدى الحياة، فقضى نصف حياته يبني الحواجز في جزر أندامان، وبقية حياته وهو يحفر في سجن دارتمور.

تُركت ماري مورستان دون الجزء الأكبر من كنز أغرا، رغم حصولها على بقية المسبحة. وقع جون واتسون في حب ماري لاحقًا وطلب الزواج منها ووافقت.

الفصول
تحتوي الرواية على 12 فصلاً وهي:

 علم الاستنتاج
 بيان القضية
 البحثُ عن حل
 قصة ذي الرأس الأصلَع
 مأساة بونديتشيري لودج
 شيرلوك هولمز يُقدِّم شرحًا
 حادثة البرميل
 قوات شارع بيكر غير النظامية
 الحلقة المفقودة
 نهاية رجل الجزيرة
 كنز أجرا العظيم
 قصة جوناثان سمول الغريبة

الترجمة العربية

 علامة الأربعة، مؤسسة هنداوي، ترجمة سارة ياقوت ومراجعة زينب عاطف.
 عصابة الأربعة، ترجمة سمية فلو عبود، دار صوت الناس.
 الكنز المفقود، دار الهلال.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

الخيال في 1888
الكلاب في الأدب
تاريخ جزر أندمان ونيكوبار
روايات العصر الفكتوري
روايات بريطانية أنتجت سينمائيا
روايات بريطانية حولت إلى عروض تلفزيونية
روايات بريطانية حولت إلى مسرحيات
روايات بريطانية في 1890
روايات تقع أحداثها في عقد 1880
روايات حولت إلى برامج إذاعية
روايات رسائلية
روايات عن الكلاب
روايات متلفزة
كنوز دفينة

علامة الأربعة


Dirty Harry går amok (originaltitel Magnum Force) er en amerikansk actionfilm fra 1973. Det er den anden film i Dirty Harry-serien med Clint Eastwood i hovedrollen som politimanden Harry Callahan. Den første film, Dirty Harry, udkom i 1971, og Dirty Harry går amok blev efterfulgt af Dirty Harry renser ud i 1976 og senere Dirty Harry vender tilbage i 1983.

Ted Post, der også instruerede Eastwood i tv-serien Rawhide og filmen Hang 'Em High, var instruktør på filmen. Manuskriptet blev skrevet af John Milius (som også omskrev manuskript til den oprindelige Dirty Harry-film) og Michael Cimino. Filmen inkluderer tidlige optrædender fra David Soul, Tim Matheson og Robert Urich. Med en spilletid på 124 minutter og er den længste af Dirty Harry-filmene.

Handling
En selvtægts-gruppe klædt i politiuniformer har begyndt at myrde San Franciscos mest kendte gangstere. En efter en får kæltringene som er undsluppet tiltale, den straf de fortjener. Harry Callahan (Clint Eastwood) bliver sat på sagen og desto nærmere han kommer løsningen, skønner han, at hans eget liv er i fare. Efterhånden viser det sig at finskytter i politiets rækker står bag drabene, men det stopper ikke her.

Callahan bruger som altid sin .44 Magnum revolver til at håndhæve loven.

Medvirkende
Clint Eastwood som SFPD Homicide Inspector Harry Callahan
Hal Holbrook som SFPD Homicide Lt. Neil Briggs
David Soul som SFPD Traffic Officer John Davis
Tim Matheson som SFPD Traffic Officer Phil Sweet
Kip Niven som SFPD Traffic Officer Alan "Red" Astrachan
Robert Urich som SFPD Traffic Officer Mike Grimes
Felton Perry som SFPD Stakeout Inspector Earlington "Early" Smith
Mitch Ryan som SFPD Traffic Officer Charlie McCoy
Margaret Avery som prostitueret
Bob McClurg som taxachauffør
John Mitchum som SFPD Stakeout Inspector Frank DiGiorgio
Albert Popwell som alfons, J.J. Wilson
Richard Devon som Carmine Ricca
Christine White som Carol McCoy
Tony Giorgio som Frank Palancio
Suzanne Somers som pool-pige med en ny ring
Jack Kosslyn som Walter
Bob March som Estabrook
Adele Yoshioka som Sunny

Modtagelse
I åbningsweekenden indspillede Dirty Harry går amok for $6.871.011. I USA indspillede den for sammenlagt $44.680.473, hvilket gjorde den mere succesfuld end den første film og den sjettemest indbringende film i 1973.

New York Times kritikere som Nora Sayre kritiserede de modstridende moralske temaer i filmen, og Frank Rich mente at det "var det samme gamle materiale". Pauline Kael, der har været en hård kritiker af Eastwoods arbejde i mange år, hånede hans præstation som Dirty Harry, og kommenterede at "Han er ikke en skuespiller, så man kan dårligt kalde ham en skidt skuespiller. Han ville blive nødt til at gøre noget, før at vi kunne opfatte ham som dårlig til det. Og skuespil er ikke krævet af ham i Magnum Force". Rotten Tomatoes har samlet 20 anmeldelser og vurderet at 80% af dem var positive.

Referencer

Litteratur

Eksterne henvisninger

Amerikanske film fra 1973
Actionfilm fra USA
Går amok

Dirty Harry går amok


La concentración de mercado, a veces también llamada concentración horizontal, se refiere a la concentración o reducción del número de empresas participantes en un mercado determinado.

Este concepto está ligado al de concentración industrial, que concierne a la repartición de la producción en una industria.

Las medidas corrientes de esta noción son el índice de Herfindahl-Hirschmann (IHH, HHI, índice de Herfindahl, o simplemente índice H), así como la llamada tasa de concentración (en inglés, concentration ratio o CR).

Utilización
Cuando las autoridades nacionales evalúan la violación de las reglas de legítima competencia por parte de una o de varias empresas, generalmente se estima el mercado involucrado y se trata de medir la concentración del mismo, es decir, el grado de concurrencia (competencia) real que se da en ese mercado.

Ciertos modelos de la teoría de juegos predicen que un aumento de la concentración en un mercado tienden a hacer subir los precios, en perjuicio de los consumidores, y aun cuando la colusión explícita o formal pueda estar ausente. Ejemplos: Oligopolios de Cournot y de Bertrand.

Y obviamente, lo antedicho justifica la aplicación de alguna normativa tendiente a evitar los monopolios de hecho o los oligopolios, en base por ejemplo a leyes antitrust (leyes de competencia).

En Brasil, un ejemplo claro de concentración horizontal es AMBEV (las compañías cerveceras Antártica y Brahma se unieron formando AMBEV, una gran empresa que controla un único sector).

En muchos países hay cierta tendencia a la concentración horizontal en sectores tales como la metalurgia y la agropecuaria, aunque por cierto, los citados sectores son demasiado grandes y allí las inversiones de capital no se completan, aunque a veces intentan abarcar varios eslabones de la cadena, para asegurarse materias primas y/o para tener cierta incidencia en los precios.

Referencias

Véase también
 Concentración horizontal
 Desigualdad de ingreso
 Índice de Herfindahl-Hirschmann
 Índice C4 (economía)
 Ley Sherman Antitrust de los Estados Unidos de América
 Ley Clayton Antitrust de los Estados Unidos de América
 Monopolio

Enlaces externos

Capitalismo
Economía de mercado

Concentración de mercado


Otto von Estorff ist der Name folgender Personen:

* Otto von Estorff (Architekt) (1896–1974), deutscher Architekt
 Otto von Estorff (Dompropst), Otto (VII.) von Estorff (1566–1637), auf Barnstedt und Veerßen, Domherr und ab 1618 Dompropst im Stift Schwerin
 Otto von Estorff (Ingenieur) (* 1957), deutscher Ingenieurwissenschaftler und Hochschullehrer

Otto von Estorff


Super Bowl XXXII je bio završna utakmica 78. po redu sezone nacionalne lige američkog nogometa. U njoj su se sastali pobjednici AFC konferencije Denver Broncosi i pobjednici NFC konferencije Green Bay Packersi. Pobijedili su Broncosi rezultatom 31:24, kojima je to bio prvi osvojeni naslov.

Utakmica je odigrana na Qualcomm Stadiumu u San Diegu u Kaliforniji, kojem je to bilo drugo domaćinstvo utakmice Super Bowla (nakon Super Bowla XXII 1988. godine).

Tijek utakmice

Statistika utakmice

Statistika po momčadima

Statistika po igračima

Napomena: * - broj kompletiranih dodavanja/ukupno dodavanja, ** - ukupno jardi dodavanja, *** - broj touchdownova (polaganja), **** - broj izgubljenih lopti

Izvori

1997

Super Bowl XXXII


An Platanthera longifolia in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Achille Richard ngan Henri Guillaume Galeotti. An Platanthera longifolia in nahilalakip ha genus nga Platanthera, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Platanthera

Platanthera longifolia


Anton Gebert (né le  à Heiligenkreuz, mort le  au camp de concentration de Dachau) est un prêtre catholique sudète.

Biographie
Fils de paysan, après des études de théologie catholique, Anton Gebert est ordonné prêtre le  à Prague. Il est d'abord chanoine du chapitre de la cathédrale Saint-Guy de Prague. Le , il obtient son doctorat en théologie. Il est professeur de catéchèse à la Faculté de théologie de l'université allemande de Prague. Il est aussi recteur de l'église Saint-Sauveur de Prague qui dépend de l'université.

En , Gebert et le prélat Josef Grüner approchent le chargé d'affaires allemand à Prague, , avec une demande de nouveaux diocèses allemands en Bohême. Cette demande est justifiée par la plus forte "fiabilité nationale" du clergé sudète-allemand, qui est supérieure à celle des Allemands de l'ancien Reich et des Autrichiens, qui est . Après l'occupation du reste de la Tchéquie et l'établissement du protectorat de Bohême-Moravie le , Gebert devient l'aumônier local de la Wehrmacht. Il vit dans une maison, Burgplatz 6 dans Prague 4.

En 1940, le cardinal Karel Kašpar, archevêque de Prague, charge Gebert de la pastorale des prêtres tchèques arrêtés. Aux premières heures du , il est lui-même arrêté et conduit à la prison de Pankrác. Le mandat d'arrêt est émis le  par le juge de district Seidl. Le , le procureur en chef du Sondergericht de , , accuse Gebert d'avoir tenu des propos haineux, incendiaires et malveillants, des déclarations sur des personnalités de premier plan de l'État ou du NSDAP  et l'écoute de radiodiffuseurs étrangers. Le , Gebert est condamné à un an de prison. Au lieu d'être libéré par la suite, il est emprisonné dans le Kleine Festung Theresienstadt puis déporté vers le camp de concentration de Dachau le  au sein du Pfarrerblock. Il y meurt 17 jours plus tard.

L'urne avec ses cendres, enfermée dans un cercueil en bois, est enterrée dans sa commune natale de Heiligenkreuz. L'emplacement ne fut pas conservé.

Son oncle est  (1867-1943), abbé d'Osek dans le nord de la Bohême.

La Conférence épiscopale allemande a inscrit Anton Gebert dans le .

Notes et références

Annexes

Articles connexes
 Liste de résistants allemands au nazisme

Liens externes

Prêtre catholique allemand
Naissance en avril 1885
Naissance dans la région de Plzeň
Naissance dans le royaume de Bohême
Décès en mai 1942
Personnalité morte au camp de concentration de Dachau
Décès à 57 ans

Anton Gebert