A biosensor is an analytical device, used for the detection of a chemical substance, that combines a biological component with a physicochemical detector.
The sensitive biological element, e.g. tissue, microorganisms, organelles, cell receptors, enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, etc., is a biologically derived material or biomimetic component that interacts with, binds with, or recognizes the analyte under study. The biologically sensitive elements can also be created by biological engineering.
The transducer or the detector element, which transforms one signal into another one, works in a physicochemical way: optical, piezoelectric, electrochemical,
electrochemiluminescence etc., resulting from the interaction of the analyte with the biological element, to easily measure and quantify.
The biosensor reader device connects with the associated electronics or signal processors that are primarily responsible for the display of the results in a user-friendly way. This sometimes accounts for the most expensive part of the sensor device, however it is possible to generate a user friendly display that includes transducer and sensitive element (holographic sensor). The readers are usually custom-designed and manufactured to suit the different working principles of biosensors.

Biosensor system

A biosensor typically consists of a bio-receptor (enzyme/antibody/cell/nucleic acid/aptamer), transducer component (semi-conducting material/nanomaterial), and electronic system which includes a signal amplifier, processor & display. Transducers and electronics can be combined, e.g., in CMOS-based microsensor systems. The recognition component, often called a bioreceptor, uses biomolecules from organisms or receptors modeled after biological systems to interact with the analyte of interest. This interaction is measured by the biotransducer which outputs a measurable signal proportional to the presence of the target analyte in the sample. The general aim of the design of a biosensor is to enable quick, convenient testing at the point of concern or care where the sample was procured.

Bioreceptors

In a biosensor, the bioreceptor is designed to interact with the specific analyte of interest to produce an effect measurable by the transducer. High selectivity for the analyte among a matrix of other chemical or biological components is a key requirement of the bioreceptor. While the type of biomolecule used can vary widely, biosensors can be classified according to common types of bioreceptor interactions involving: antibody/antigen, enzymes/ligands, nucleic acids/DNA, cellular structures/cells, or biomimetic materials.

Antibody/antigen interactions
An immunosensor utilizes the very specific binding affinity of antibodies for a specific compound or antigen. The specific nature of the antibody-antigen interaction is analogous to a lock and key fit in that the antigen will only bind to the antibody if it has the correct conformation. Binding events result in a physicochemical change that in combination with a tracer, such as fluorescent molecules, enzymes, or radioisotopes, can generate a signal. There are limitations with using antibodies in sensors: 1. The antibody binding capacity is strongly dependent on assay conditions (e.g. pH and temperature), and 2. the antibody-antigen interaction is generally robust, however, binding can be disrupted by chaotropic reagents, organic solvents, or even ultrasonic radiation.

Antibody-antigen interactions can also be used for serological testing, or the detection of circulating antibodies in response to a specific disease. Importantly, serology tests have become an important part of the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Artificial binding proteins
The use of antibodies as the bio-recognition component of biosensors has several drawbacks. They have high molecular weights and limited stability, contain essential disulfide bonds and are expensive to produce. In one approach to overcome these limitations, recombinant binding fragments (Fab, Fv or scFv) or domains (VH, VHH) of antibodies have been engineered. In another approach, small protein scaffolds with favorable biophysical properties have been engineered to generate artificial families of Antigen Binding Proteins (AgBP), capable of specific binding to different target proteins while retaining the favorable properties of the parent molecule. The elements of the family that specifically bind to a given target antigen, are often selected in vitro by display techniques: phage display, ribosome display, yeast display or mRNA display. The artificial binding proteins are much smaller than antibodies (usually less than 100 amino-acid residues), have a strong stability, lack disulfide bonds and can be expressed in high yield in reducing cellular environments like the bacterial cytoplasm, contrary to antibodies and their derivatives. They are thus especially suitable to create biosensors.

Enzymatic interactions
The specific binding capabilities and catalytic activity of enzymes make them popular bioreceptors. Analyte recognition is enabled through several possible mechanisms: 1) the enzyme converting the analyte into a product that is sensor-detectable, 2) detecting enzyme inhibition or activation by the analyte, or 3) monitoring modification of enzyme properties resulting from interaction with the analyte. The main reasons for the common use of enzymes in biosensors are: 1) ability to catalyze a large number of reactions; 2) potential to detect a group of analytes (substrates, products, inhibitors, and modulators of the catalytic activity); and 3) suitability with several different transduction methods for detecting the analyte. Notably, since enzymes are not consumed in reactions, the biosensor can easily be used continuously. The catalytic activity of enzymes also allows lower limits of detection compared to common binding techniques. However, the sensor's lifetime is limited by the stability of the enzyme.

Affinity binding receptors
Antibodies have a high binding constant in excess of 10^8 L/mol, which stands for a nearly irreversible association once the antigen-antibody couple has formed. For certain analyte molecules like glucose affinity binding proteins exist that bind their ligand with a high specificity like an antibody, but with a much smaller binding constant on the order of 10^2 to 10^4 L/mol. The association between analyte and receptor then is of reversible nature and next to the couple between both also their free molecules occur in a measurable concentration. In case of glucose, for instance, concanavalin A may function as affinity receptor exhibiting a binding constant of 4x10^2 L/mol. The use of affinity binding receptors for purposes of biosensing has been proposed by Schultz and Sims in 1979  and was subsequently configured into a fluorescent assay for measuring glucose in the relevant physiological range between 4.4 and 6.1 mmol/L. The sensor principle has the advantage that it does not consume the analyte in a chemical reaction as occurs in enzymatic assays.

Nucleic acid interactions
Biosensors employing nucleic acid based receptors can be either based on complementary base pairing interactions referred to as genosensors or specific nucleic acid based antibody mimics (aptamers) as aptasensors. In the former, the recognition process is based on the principle of complementary base pairing, adenine:thymine and cytosine:guanine in DNA. If the target nucleic acid sequence is known, complementary sequences can be synthesized, labeled, and then immobilized on the sensor. The hybridization event can be optically detected and presence of target DNA/RNA ascertained. In the latter, aptamers generated against the target recognise it via interplay of specific non-covalent interactions and induced fitting. These aptamers can be labelled with a fluorophore/metal nanoparticles easily for optical detection or may be employed for label-free electrochemical or cantilever based detection platforms for a wide range of target molecules or complex targets like cells and viruses. Additionally, aptamers can be combined with nucleic acid enzymes, such as RNA-cleaving DNAzymes, providing both target recognition and signal generation in a single molecule, which shows potential applications in the development of multiplex biosensors.

Epigenetics
It has been proposed that properly optimized integrated optical resonators can be exploited for detecting epigenetic modifications (e.g. DNA methylation, histone post-translational modifications) in body fluids from patients affected by cancer or other diseases. Photonic biosensors with ultra-sensitivity are nowadays being developed at a research level to easily detect cancerous cells within the patient's urine. Different research projects aim to develop new portable devices that use cheap, environmentally friendly, disposable cartridges that require only simple handling with no need of further processing, washing, or manipulation by expert technicians.

Organelles
Organelles form separate compartments inside cells and usually perform functions independently. Different kinds of organelles have various metabolic pathways and contain enzymes to fulfill its function. Commonly used organelles include lysosome, chloroplast and mitochondria. The spatial-temporal distribution pattern of calcium is closely related to ubiquitous signaling pathway. Mitochondria actively participate in the metabolism of calcium ions to control the function and also modulate the calcium related signaling pathways. Experiments have proved that mitochondria have the ability to respond to high calcium concentrations generated in their proximity by opening the calcium channels. In this way, mitochondria can be used to detect the calcium concentration in medium and the detection is very sensitive due to high spatial resolution. Another application of mitochondria is used for detection of water pollution. Detergent compounds' toxicity will damage the cell and subcellular structure including mitochondria. The detergents will cause a swelling effect which could be measured by an absorbance change. Experiment data shows the change rate is proportional to the detergent concentration, providing a high standard for detection accuracy.

Cells
Cells are often used in bioreceptors because they are sensitive to surrounding environment and they can respond to all kinds of stimulants. Cells tend to attach to the surface so they can be easily immobilized. Compared to organelles they remain active for longer period and the reproducibility makes them reusable. They are commonly used to detect global parameter like stress condition, toxicity and organic derivatives. They can also be used to monitor the treatment effect of drugs. One application is to use cells to determine herbicides which are main aquatic contaminant. Microalgae are entrapped on a quartz microfiber and the chlorophyll fluorescence modified by herbicides is collected at the tip of an optical fiber bundle and transmitted to a fluorimeter. The algae are continuously cultured to get optimized measurement. Results show that detection limit of certain herbicide can reach sub-ppb concentration level. Some cells can also be used to monitor the microbial corrosion. Pseudomonas sp. is isolated from corroded material surface and immobilized on acetylcellulose membrane. The respiration activity is determined by measuring oxygen consumption. There is linear relationship between the current generated and the concentration of sulfuric acid. The response time is related to the loading of cells and surrounding environments and can be controlled to no more than 5min.

Tissue
Tissues are used for biosensor for the abundance of enzymes existing. Advantages of tissues as biosensors include the following:

 easier to immobilize compared to cells and organelles
 the higher activity and stability from maintaining enzymes in the natural environment
 the availability and low price
 the avoidance of tedious work of extraction, centrifuge, and purification of enzymes
 necessary cofactors for an enzyme to function exists
 the diversity providing a wide range of choices concerning different objectives.

There also exist some disadvantages of tissues, like the lack of specificity due to the interference of other enzymes and longer response time due to the transport barrier.

Microbial biosensors
Microbial biosensors exploit the response of bacteria to a given substance. For example, arsenic can be detected using the ars operon found in several bacterial taxon.

Surface attachment of the biological elements

An important part of a biosensor is to attach the biological elements (small molecules/protein/cells) to the surface of the sensor (be it metal, polymer, or glass). The simplest way is to functionalize the surface in order to coat it with the biological elements. This can be done by polylysine, aminosilane, epoxysilane, or nitrocellulose in the case of silicon chips/silica glass. Subsequently, the bound biological agent may also be fixed—for example, by layer by layer deposition of alternatively charged polymer coatings.

Alternatively, three-dimensional lattices (hydrogel/xerogel) can be used to chemically or physically entrap these (whereby chemically entrapped it is meant that the biological element is kept in place by a strong bond, while physically they are kept in place being unable to pass through the pores of the gel matrix). The most commonly used hydrogel is sol-gel, glassy silica generated by polymerization of silicate monomers (added as tetra alkyl orthosilicates, such as TMOS or TEOS) in the presence of the biological elements (along with other stabilizing polymers, such as PEG) in the case of physical entrapment.

Another group of hydrogels, which set under conditions suitable for cells or protein, are acrylate hydrogel, which polymerizes upon radical initiation. One type of radical initiator is a peroxide radical, typically generated by combining a persulfate with TEMED (Polyacrylamide gel are also commonly used for protein electrophoresis), alternatively light can be used in combination with a photoinitiator, such as DMPA (2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone). Smart materials that mimic the biological components of a sensor can also be classified as biosensors using only the active or catalytic site or analogous configurations of a biomolecule.

Biotransducer

Biosensors can be classified by their biotransducer type. The most common types of biotransducers used in biosensors are:

 electrochemical biosensors
 optical biosensors
 electronic biosensors
 piezoelectric biosensors
 gravimetric biosensors
 pyroelectric biosensors
 magnetic biosensors

Electrochemical
Electrochemical biosensors are normally based on enzymatic catalysis of a reaction that produces or consumes electrons (such enzymes are rightly called redox enzymes). The sensor substrate usually contains three electrodes; a reference electrode, a working electrode and a counter electrode. The target analyte is involved in the reaction that takes place on the active electrode surface, and the reaction may cause either electron transfer across the double layer (producing a current) or can contribute to the double layer potential (producing a voltage). We can either measure the current (rate of flow of electrons is now proportional to the analyte concentration) at a fixed potential or the potential can be measured at zero current (this gives a logarithmic response). Note that potential of the working or active electrode is space charge sensitive and this is often used. Further, the label-free and direct electrical detection of small peptides and proteins is possible by their intrinsic charges using biofunctionalized ion-sensitive field-effect transistors.

Another example, the potentiometric biosensor, (potential produced at zero current) gives a logarithmic response with a high dynamic range. Such biosensors are often made by screen printing the electrode patterns on a plastic substrate, coated with a conducting polymer and then some protein (enzyme or antibody) is attached. They have only two electrodes and are extremely sensitive and robust. They enable the detection of analytes at levels previously only achievable by HPLC and LC/MS and without rigorous sample preparation. All biosensors usually involve minimal sample preparation as the biological sensing component is highly selective for the analyte concerned. The signal is produced by electrochemical and physical changes in the conducting polymer layer due to changes occurring at the surface of the sensor. Such changes can be attributed to ionic strength, pH, hydration and redox reactions, the latter due to the enzyme label turning over a substrate. Field effect transistors, in which the gate region has been modified with an enzyme or antibody, can also detect very low concentrations of various analytes as the binding of the analyte to the gate region of the FET cause a change in the drain-source current.

Impedance spectroscopy based biosensor development has been gaining traction nowadays and many such devices / developments are found in the academia and industry. One such device, based on a 4-electrode electrochemical cell, using a nanoporous alumina membrane, has been shown to detect low concentrations of human alpha thrombin in presence of high background of serum albumin. Also interdigitated electrodes have been used for impedance biosensors.

Ion channel switch

The use of ion channels has been shown to offer highly sensitive detection
of target biological molecules. By embedding the ion channels in supported or tethered bilayer membranes (t-BLM) attached to a gold electrode, an electrical circuit is created. Capture molecules such as antibodies can be bound to the ion channel so that the binding of the target molecule controls the ion flow through the channel. This results in a measurable change in the electrical conduction which is proportional to the concentration of the target.

An ion channel switch (ICS) biosensor can be created using gramicidin, a dimeric peptide channel, in a tethered bilayer membrane. One peptide of gramicidin, with attached antibody, is mobile and one is fixed. Breaking the dimer stops the ionic current through the membrane. The magnitude of the change in electrical signal is greatly increased by separating the membrane from the metal surface using a hydrophilic spacer.

Quantitative detection of an extensive class of target species, including proteins, bacteria, drug and toxins has been demonstrated using different membrane and capture configurations. The European research project Greensense develops a biosensor to perform quantitative screening of drug-of-abuse such as THC, morphine, and cocaine  in saliva and urine.

Reagentless fluorescent biosensor
A reagentless biosensor can monitor a target analyte in a complex biological mixture without additional reagent. Therefore, it can function continuously if immobilized on a solid support. A fluorescent biosensor reacts to the interaction with its target analyte by a change of its fluorescence properties. A Reagentless Fluorescent biosensor (RF biosensor) can be obtained by integrating a biological receptor, which is directed against the target analyte, and a solvatochromic fluorophore, whose emission properties are sensitive to the nature of its local environment, in a single macromolecule. The fluorophore transduces the recognition event into a measurable optical signal. The use of extrinsic fluorophores, whose emission properties differ widely from those of the intrinsic fluorophores of proteins, tryptophan and tyrosine, enables one to immediately detect and quantify the analyte in complex biological mixtures. The integration of the fluorophore must be done in a site where it is sensitive to the binding of the analyte without perturbing the affinity of the receptor.

Antibodies and artificial families of Antigen Binding Proteins (AgBP) are well suited to provide the recognition module of RF biosensors since they can be directed against any antigen (see the paragraph on bioreceptors). A general approach to integrate a solvatochromic fluorophore in an AgBP when the atomic structure of the complex with its antigen is known, and thus transform it into a RF biosensor, has been described. A residue of the AgBP is identified in the neighborhood of the antigen in their complex. This residue is changed into a cysteine by site-directed mutagenesis. The fluorophore is chemically coupled to the mutant cysteine. When the design is successful, the coupled fluorophore does not prevent the binding of the antigen, this binding shields the fluorophore from the solvent, and it can be detected by a change of fluorescence. This strategy is also valid for antibody fragments.

However, in the absence of specific structural data, other strategies must be applied. Antibodies and artificial families of AgBPs are constituted by a set of hypervariable (or randomized) residue positions, located in a unique sub-region of the protein, and supported by a constant polypeptide scaffold. The residues that form the binding site for a given antigen, are selected among the hypervariable residues. It is possible to transform any AgBP of these families into a RF biosensor, specific of the target antigen, simply by coupling a solvatochromic fluorophore to one of the hypervariable residues that have little or no importance for the interaction with the antigen, after changing this residue into cysteine by mutagenesis. More specifically, the strategy consists in individually changing the residues of the hypervariable positions into cysteine at the genetic level, in chemically coupling a solvatochromic fluorophore with the mutant cysteine, and then in keeping the resulting conjugates that have the highest sensitivity (a parameter that involves both affinity and variation of fluorescence signal). This approach is also valid for families of antibody fragments.

A posteriori studies have shown that the best reagentless fluorescent biosensors are obtained when the fluorophore does not make non-covalent interactions with the surface of the bioreceptor, which would increase the background signal, and when it interacts with a binding pocket at the surface of the target antigen. The RF biosensors that are obtained by the above methods, can function and detect target analytes inside living cells.

Magnetic biosensors
Magnetic biosensors utilize paramagnetic or supra-paramagnetic particles, or crystals, to detect biological interactions. Examples could be coil-inductance, resistance, or other magnetic properties. It is common to use magnetic nano or microparticles. In the surface of such particles are the bioreceptors, that can be DNA (complementary to a sequence or aptamers) antibodies, or others. The binding of the bioreceptor will affect some of the magnetic particle properties that can be measured by AC susceptometry, a Hall Effect sensor, a giant magnetoresistance device, or others.

Others
Piezoelectric sensors utilise crystals which undergo an elastic deformation when an electrical potential is applied to them. An alternating potential (A.C.) produces a standing wave in the crystal at a characteristic frequency. This frequency is highly dependent on the elastic properties of the crystal, such that if a crystal is coated with a biological recognition element the binding of a (large) target analyte to a receptor will produce a change in the resonance frequency, which gives a binding signal. In a mode that uses surface acoustic waves (SAW), the sensitivity is greatly increased. This is a specialised application of the quartz crystal microbalance as a biosensor

Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) is nowadays a leading technique in biosensors. Since the excited species are produced with an electrochemical stimulus rather than with a light excitation source, ECL displays improved signal-to-noise ratio compared to photoluminescence, with minimized effects due to light scattering and luminescence background. In particular, coreactant ECL operating in buffered aqueous solution in the region of positive potentials (oxidative-reduction mechanism) definitively boosted ECL for immunoassay, as confirmed by many research applications and, even more, by the presence of important companies which developed commercial hardware for high throughput immunoassays analysis in a market worth billions of dollars each year.

Thermometric biosensors are rare.

Biosensor MOSFET (BioFET)

The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959, and demonstrated in 1960. Two years later, Leland C. Clark and Champ Lyons invented the first biosensor in 1962. Biosensor MOSFETs (BioFETs) were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure physical, chemical, biological and environmental parameters.

The first BioFET was the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET), invented by Piet Bergveld for electrochemical and biological applications in 1970. the adsorption FET (ADFET) was patented by P.F. Cox in 1974, and a hydrogen-sensitive MOSFET was demonstrated by I. Lundstrom, M.S. Shivaraman, C.S. Svenson and L. Lundkvist in 1975. The ISFET is a special type of MOSFET with a gate at a certain distance, and where the metal gate is replaced by an ion-sensitive membrane, electrolyte solution and reference electrode. The ISFET is widely used in biomedical applications, such as the detection of DNA hybridization, biomarker detection from blood, antibody detection, glucose measurement, pH sensing, and genetic technology.

By the mid-1980s, other BioFETs had been developed, including the gas sensor FET (GASFET), pressure sensor FET (PRESSFET), chemical field-effect transistor (ChemFET), reference ISFET (REFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET). By the early 2000s, BioFETs such as the DNA field-effect transistor (DNAFET), gene-modified FET (GenFET) and cell-potential BioFET (CPFET) had been developed.

Placement of biosensors
The appropriate placement of biosensors depends on their field of application, which may roughly be divided into biotechnology, agriculture, food technology and biomedicine.

In biotechnology, analysis of the chemical composition of cultivation broth can be conducted in-line, on-line, at-line and off-line. As outlined by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) the sample is not removed from the process stream for in-line sensors, while it is diverted from the manufacturing process for on-line measurements. For at-line sensors the sample may be removed and analyzed in close proximity to the process stream. An example of the latter is the monitoring of lactose in a dairy processing plant. Off-line biosensors compare to bioanalytical techniques that are not operating in the field, but in the laboratory. These techniques are mainly used in agriculture, food technology and biomedicine.

In medical applications biosensors are generally categorized as in vitro and in vivo systems. An in vitro, biosensor measurement takes place in a test tube, a culture dish, a microtiter plate or elsewhere outside a living organism. The sensor uses a bioreceptor and transducer as outlined above. An example of an in vitro biosensor is an enzyme-conductimetric biosensor for blood glucose monitoring. There is a challenge to create a biosensor that operates by the principle of point-of-care testing, i.e. at the location where the test is needed. Development of wearable biosensors is among such studies. The elimination of lab testing can save time and money. An application of a POCT biosensor can be for the testing of HIV in areas where it is difficult for patients to be tested. A biosensor can be sent directly to the location and a quick and easy test can be used.

An in vivo biosensor is an implantable device that operates inside the body. Of course, biosensor implants have to fulfill the strict regulations on sterilization in order to avoid an initial inflammatory response after implantation. The second concern relates to the long-term biocompatibility, i.e. the unharmful interaction with the body environment during the intended period of use. Another issue that arises is failure. If there is failure, the device must be removed and replaced, causing additional surgery. An example for application of an in vivo biosensor would be the insulin monitoring within the body, which is not available yet.

Most advanced biosensor implants have been developed for the continuous monitoring of glucose. The figure displays a device, for which a Ti casing and a battery as established for cardiovascular implants like pacemakers and defibrillators is used. Its size is determined by the battery as required for a lifetime of one year. Measured glucose data will be transmitted wirelessly out of the body within the MICS 402-405 MHz band as approved for medical implants.

Biosensors can also be integrated into mobile phone systems, making them user-friendly and accessible to a large number of users.

Applications

There are many potential applications of biosensors of various types. The main requirements for a biosensor approach to be valuable in terms of research and commercial applications are the identification of a target molecule, availability of a suitable biological recognition element, and the potential for disposable portable detection systems to be preferred to sensitive laboratory-based techniques in some situations. Some examples are:

 glucose monitoring in diabetes patients, other medical health related targets,
 environmental applications, e.g. the detection of pesticides, detection and determining of organophosphate, and river water contaminants, such as heavy metal ions,
 remote sensing of airborne bacteria, e.g. in counter-bioterrorist activities,
 remote sensing of water quality in coastal waters by describing online different aspects of clam ethology (biological rhythms, growth rates, spawning or death records) in groups of abandoned bivalves around the world,
 detection of pathogens,
 determining levels of toxic substances before and after bioremediation,
 routine analytical measurement of folic acid, biotin, vitamin B12 and pantothenic acid as an alternative to microbiological assay,
 determination of drug residues in food, such as antibiotics and growth promoters, particularly meat and honey,
 drug discovery and evaluation of biological activity of new compounds,
 protein engineering in biosensors, and
 detection of toxic metabolites such as mycotoxins.

A common example of a commercial biosensor is the blood glucose biosensor, which uses the enzyme glucose oxidase to break blood glucose down. In doing so it first oxidizes glucose and uses two electrons to reduce the FAD (a component of the enzyme) to FADH2. This in turn is oxidized by the electrode in a number of steps. The resulting current is a measure of the concentration of glucose. In this case, the electrode is the transducer and the enzyme is the biologically active component.

A canary in a cage, as used by miners to warn of gas, could be considered a biosensor. Many of today's biosensor applications are similar, in that they use organisms which respond to toxic substances at a much lower concentrations than humans can detect to warn of their presence. Such devices can be used in environmental monitoring, trace gas detection and in water treatment facilities.

Glucose monitoring

Commercially available glucose monitors rely on amperometric sensing of glucose by means of glucose oxidase, which oxidises glucose producing hydrogen peroxide which is detected by the electrode. To overcome the limitation of amperometric sensors, a flurry of research is present into novel sensing methods, such as fluorescent glucose biosensors.

Interferometric reflectance imaging sensor
The interferometric reflectance imaging sensor (IRIS) is based on the principles of optical interference and consists of a silicon-silicon oxide substrate, standard optics, and low-powered coherent LEDs. When light is illuminated through a low magnification objective onto the layered silicon-silicon oxide substrate, an interferometric signature is produced. As biomass, which has a similar index of refraction as silicon oxide, accumulates on the substrate surface, a change in the interferometric signature occurs and the change can be correlated to a quantifiable mass. Daaboul et al. used IRIS to yield a label-free sensitivity of approximately 19 ng/mL. Ahn et al. improved the sensitivity of IRIS through a mass tagging technique.

Since initial publication, IRIS has been adapted to perform various functions. First, IRIS integrated a fluorescence imaging capability into the interferometric imaging instrument as a potential way to address fluorescence protein microarray variability. Briefly, the variation in fluorescence microarrays mainly derives from inconsistent protein immobilization on surfaces and may cause misdiagnoses in allergy microarrays. To correct for any variation in protein immobilization, data acquired in the fluorescence modality is then normalized by the data acquired in the label-free modality. IRIS has also been adapted to perform single nanoparticle counting by simply switching the low magnification objective used for label-free biomass quantification to a higher objective magnification. This modality enables size discrimination in complex human biological samples. Monroe et al. used IRIS to quantify protein levels spiked into human whole blood and serum and determined allergen sensitization in characterized human blood samples using zero sample processing. Other practical uses of this device include virus and pathogen detection.

Food analysis
There are several applications of biosensors in food analysis. In the food industry, optics coated with antibodies are commonly used to detect pathogens and food toxins. Commonly, the light system in these biosensors is fluorescence, since this type of optical measurement can greatly amplify the signal.

A range of immuno- and ligand-binding assays for the detection and measurement of small molecules such as water-soluble vitamins and chemical contaminants (drug residues) such as sulfonamides and Beta-agonists have been developed for use on SPR based sensor systems, often adapted from existing ELISA or other immunological assay. These are in widespread use across the food industry.

Detection/monitoring of pollutants
Biosensors could be used to monitor air, water, and soil pollutants such as pesticides, potentially carcinogenic, mutagenic, and/or toxic substances and endocrine disrupting chemicals.

For example, bionanotechnologists developed a viable biosensor, , that can detect levels of diverse water pollutants.

Ozone measurement
Because ozone filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation, the discovery of holes in the ozone layer of the earth's atmosphere has raised concern about how much ultraviolet light reaches the earth's surface. Of particular concern are the questions of how deeply into sea water ultraviolet radiation penetrates and how it affects marine organisms, especially plankton (floating microorganisms) and viruses that attack plankton. Plankton form the base of the marine food chains and are believed to affect our planet's temperature and weather by uptake of CO2 for photosynthesis.

Deneb Karentz, a researcher at the Laboratory of Radio-biology and Environmental Health (University of California, San Francisco) has devised a simple method for measuring ultraviolet penetration and intensity. Working in the Antarctic Ocean, she submerged to various depths thin plastic bags containing special strains of E. coli that are almost totally unable to repair ultraviolet radiation damage to their DNA. Bacterial death rates in these bags were compared with rates in unexposed control bags of the same organism. The bacterial "biosensors" revealed constant significant ultraviolet damage at depths of 10 m and frequently at 20 and 30 m. Karentz plans additional studies of how ultraviolet may affect seasonal plankton blooms (growth spurts) in the oceans.

Metastatic cancer cell detection

Metastasis is the spread of cancer from one part of the body to another via either the circulatory system or lymphatic system. Unlike radiology imaging tests (mammograms), which send forms of energy (x-rays, magnetic fields, etc.) through the body to only take interior pictures, biosensors have the potential to directly test the malignant power of the tumor. The combination of a biological and detector element allows for a small sample requirement, a compact design, rapid signals, rapid detection, high selectivity and high sensitivity for the analyte being studied. Compared to the usual radiology imaging tests biosensors have the advantage of not only finding out how far cancer has spread and checking if treatment is effective but also are cheaper, more efficient (in time, cost and productivity) ways to assess metastaticity in early stages of cancer.

Biological engineering researchers have created oncological biosensors for breast cancer. Breast cancer is the leading common cancer among women worldwide. An example would be a transferrin- quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). As a biosensor, quartz crystal microbalances produce oscillations in the frequency of the crystal's standing wave from an alternating potential to detect nano-gram mass changes. These biosensors are specifically designed to interact and have high selectivity for receptors on cell (cancerous and normal) surfaces. Ideally, this provides a quantitative detection of cells with this receptor per surface area instead of a qualitative picture detection given by mammograms.

Seda Atay, a biotechnology researcher at Hacettepe University, experimentally observed this specificity and selectivity between a QCM and MDA-MB 231 breast cells, MCF 7 cells, and starved MDA-MB 231 cells in vitro. With other researchers she devised a method of washing these different metastatic leveled cells over the sensors to measure mass shifts due to different quantities of transferrin receptors. Particularly, the metastatic power of breast cancer cells can be determined by Quartz crystal microbalances with nanoparticles and transferrin that would potentially attach to transferrin receptors on cancer cell surfaces. There is very high selectivity for transferrin receptors because they are over-expressed in cancer cells. If cells have high expression of transferrin receptors, which shows their high metastatic power, they have higher affinity and bind more to the QCM that measures the increase in mass. Depending on the magnitude of the nano-gram mass change, the metastatic power can be determined.

Additionally, in the last years, significant attentions have been focused to detect the biomarkers of lung cancer without biopsy. In this regard, biosensors are very attractive and applicable tools for providing rapid, sensitive, specific, stable, cost-effective and non-invasive detections for early lung cancer diagnosis. Thus, cancer biosensors consisting of specific biorecognition molecules such as antibodies, complementary nucleic acid probes or other immobilized biomolecules on a transducer surface. The biorecognition molecules interact specifically with the biomarkers (targets) and the generated biological responses are converted by the transducer into a measurable analytical signal. Depending on the type of biological response, various transducers are utilized in the fabrication of cancer biosensors such as electrochemical, optical and mass-based transducers.

Pathogen detection

Biosensors could be used for the detection of pathogenic organisms.

Embedded biosensors for pathogenic signatures – such as of SARS-CoV-2 – that are wearable have been developed – such as face masks with built-in tests. See also: COVID-19 public transport R&D

New types of biosensor-chips could enable novel methods "such as drone-deployed pathogen sensors actively surveying air or wastewater". Protein-binding aptamers could be used for testing for infectious disease pathogens. Systems of electronic skins (or robot skins) with built-in biosensors (or chemical sensors) and human-machine interfaces may enable wearable as well as remote sensed device- or robotic-sensing of pathogens (as well as of several hazardous materials and tactile perceptions).

Types

Optical biosensors
Many optical biosensors are based on the phenomenon of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) techniques. This utilises a property of and other materials; specifically that a thin layer of gold on a high refractive index glass surface can absorb laser light, producing electron waves (surface plasmons) on the gold surface. This occurs only at a specific angle and wavelength of incident light and is highly dependent on the surface of the gold, such that binding of a target analyte to a receptor on the gold surface produces a measurable signal.

Surface plasmon resonance sensors operate using a sensor chip consisting of a plastic cassette supporting a glass plate, one side of which is coated with a microscopic layer of gold. This side contacts the optical detection apparatus of the instrument. The opposite side is then contacted with a microfluidic flow system. The contact with the flow system creates channels across which reagents can be passed in solution. This side of the glass sensor chip can be modified in a number of ways, to allow easy attachment of molecules of interest. Normally it is coated in carboxymethyl dextran or similar compound.

The refractive index at the flow side of the chip surface has a direct influence on the behavior of the light reflected off the gold side. Binding to the flow side of the chip has an effect on the refractive index and in this way biological interactions can be measured to a high degree of sensitivity with some sort of energy. The refractive index of the medium near the surface changes when biomolecules attach to the surface, and the SPR angle varies as a function of this change.

Light of a fixed wavelength is reflected off the gold side of the chip at the angle of total internal reflection, and detected inside the instrument. The angle of incident light is varied in order to match the evanescent wave propagation rate with the propagation rate of the surface plasmon polaritons. This induces the evanescent wave to penetrate through the glass plate and some distance into the liquid flowing over the surface.

Other optical biosensors are mainly based on changes in absorbance or fluorescence of an appropriate indicator compound and do not need a total internal reflection geometry. For example, a fully operational prototype device detecting casein in milk has been fabricated. The device is based on detecting changes in absorption of a gold layer. A widely used research tool, the micro-array, can also be considered a biosensor.

Biological biosensors
Biological biosensors, also known as optogenetic sensors, often incorporate a genetically modified form of a native protein or enzyme. The protein is configured to detect a specific analyte and the ensuing signal is read by a detection instrument such as a fluorometer or luminometer. An example of a recently developed biosensor is one for detecting cytosolic concentration of the analyte cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate), a second messenger involved in cellular signaling triggered by ligands interacting with receptors on the cell membrane. Similar systems have been created to study cellular responses to native ligands or xenobiotics (toxins or small molecule inhibitors). Such "assays" are commonly used in drug discovery development by pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies. Most cAMP assays in current use require lysis of the cells prior to measurement of cAMP. A live-cell biosensor for cAMP can be used in non-lysed cells with the additional advantage of multiple reads to study the kinetics of receptor response.

Nanobiosensors use an immobilized bioreceptor probe that is selective for target analyte molecules. Nanomaterials are exquisitely sensitive chemical and biological sensors. Nanoscale materials demonstrate unique properties. Their large surface area to volume ratio can achieve rapid and low cost reactions, using a variety of designs.

Other evanescent wave biosensors have been commercialised using waveguides where the propagation constant through the waveguide is changed by the absorption of molecules to the waveguide surface. One such example, dual polarisation interferometry uses a buried waveguide as a reference against which the change in propagation constant is measured. Other configurations such as the Mach–Zehnder have reference arms lithographically defined on a substrate. Higher levels of integration can be achieved using resonator geometries where the resonant frequency of a ring resonator changes when molecules are absorbed.

Electronic nose devices

Recently, arrays of many different detector molecules have been applied in so called electronic nose devices, where the pattern of response from the detectors is used to fingerprint a substance. In the Wasp Hound odor-detector, the mechanical element is a video camera and the biological element is five parasitic wasps who have been conditioned to swarm in response to the presence of a specific chemical. Current commercial electronic noses, however, do not use biological elements.

DNA biosensors
DNA can be the analyte of a biosensor, being detected through specific means, but it can also be used as part of a biosensor or, theoretically, even as a whole biosensor.

Many techniques exist to detect DNA, which is usually a means to detect organisms that have that particular DNA. DNA sequences can also be used as described above. But more forward-looking approaches exist, where DNA can be synthesized to hold enzymes in a biological, stable gel. Other applications are the design of aptamers, sequences of DNA that have a specific shape to bind a desired molecule. The most innovative processes use DNA origami for this, creating sequences that fold in a predictable structure that is useful for detection.

Scientists have built prototype sensors to detect DNA of animals from sucked in air, "airborne eDNA".

"Nanoantennas" made out of DNA – a novel type of nano-scale optical antenna – can be attached to proteins and produce a signal via fluorescence when these perform their biological functions, in particular for distinct conformational changes.

Graphene-based biosensor
Graphene is a two-dimensional carbon-based substance with superior optical, electrical, mechanical, thermal, and mechanical properties. The ability to absorb and immobilize a variety of proteins, particularly some with carbon ring structures, has proven graphene to be an excellent candidate as a biosensor transducer. As a result, various graphene-based biosensors have been explored and developed in recent times.
 Graphene has been employed as a biosensor in various formats especially electrochemical sensors and field effect transistors. Amongst them graphene field effect transistors (GFETs) especially have shown excellent performance as rapid point of care (PoC) diagnostics as observed through a surge in number of research articles reporting COVID-19 diagnostics using GFETs. They have been reported to have some of the lowest limit of detection whilst also having a rapid turn around time of a few seconds along with multiplexing abilities. These capabilities allow for immediate disease detection especially in cases with overlapping symptoms which are hard to distinguish at the outset, thus allowing for better patient outcomes especially in resource strained medical settings.

See also

 Bioactive paper
 Bioelectronics
 Biointerface
 Biomarker
 DNA field-effect transistor
 Dual-polarization interferometry
 Electro-switchable biosurfaces
 Electrochemiluminescence
 Impedance microbiology
 Lanthanide probes
 Magnotech
 Microphysiometry
 Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance
 Nanobiotechnology
 Optogenetic methods to record cellular activity
 Plasmon
 Small molecule sensors
 Surface plasmon resonance
 Bio-FET
 Nanopore

References

Bibliography

External links
Scratching at the surface of biosensors – an Instant Insight discussing how surface chemistry lets porous silicon biosensors fulfil their promise from the Royal Society of Chemistry

Biosensor


Enalapril este un medicament folosit în tratamentul hipertensiunii arteriale (antihipertensiv) și insuficienței cardiace congestive. Din punct de vedere farmaceutic, face parte din grupa medicamentelor active pe sistemul renină-angiotensină-aldosteron, fiind un inhibitor al enzimei de conversie a angiotensinei. Pentru tratamentul insuficienței cardiace, este de obicei utilizat împreună cu un diuretic, precum furosemida. Poate fi administrat oral sau intravenos.

Referințe

Inhibitori ai enzimei de conversie a angiotensinei
Medicamente esențiale listate de OMS
Esteri etilici
Promedicamente

Enalapril


Revelations peti je studijski album poljskog thrash/death metal-sastava Vader objavljen 3. lipnja 2002. godine. Posljednji je album s bubnjarom Krzysztofom Raczkowskim i jedini s basistom Konradom Karchutom.
Kao gost na pjesmi "Whisper" pjeva Adam "Nergal" Darski, pjevač sastava Behemoth. Za pjesmu "Epitaph" snimljen je i spot.

Popis pjesama

Osoblje

Vader
 Peter - vokali, gitara, produkcija
 Mauser - gitara
 Saimon - bas-gitara
 Doc - bubnjevi
Dodatni glazbenici
 Nergal - prateći vokali (na pjesmi "Whisper")
 Ureck – klavijature (na pjesme 6., 9.)

Ostalo osoblje
 Piotr Łukaszewski - inženjer zvuka
 Bartłomiej Kuźniak - mastering
 Jacek Wiśniewski - naslovnica albuma, dizajn
 Massive Management - fotografije

Izvori

Albumi sastava Vader
Albumi iz 2002.

Revelations


Dänischenhagen Almanya'nın kuzeyinde Schleswig-Holstein eyaletinde, Rendsburg-Eckernförde iline bağlı bölge. 15,71 km² yüzölçümüne sahiptir. Nüfusu, 30 Haziran 2005 itibarıyla yaklaşık 3369 olarak tespit edilmiştir. Belediye Başkanlığı Wolfgang Steffen tarafından yürütülmektedir.

Dış bağlantılar
 www.amt-daenischenhagen.de

Rendsburg-Eckernförde iline bağlı yerleşim birimleri

Dänischenhagen


ميتشيهيرو ياسودا  من مواليد 20 ديسمبر 1987 في كوبي في اليابان، لاعب كرة قدم ياباني. يلعب مع نادي غامبا أوساكا.

سيرته
لعب في كأس العالم للشباب تحت 20 سنة 2007 في كندا. كما أنه عضو المنتخب الياباني المشارك في ألعاب أولمبية صيفية 2008.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في هولندا
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية يابانيون
مدافعو كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من سويتا (أوساكا)
أعلام كرة قدم من محافظة أوساكا
أعلام كرة قدم من محافظة هيوغو
رياضيون من كوبه
رياضيون يابانيون مغتربون في هولندا
لاعبو آلبيركس نيغاتا
لاعبو الدوري الهولندي الدرجة الأولى
لاعبو الدوري الياباني للدرجة الأولى
لاعبو الدوري الياباني للدرجة الثانية
لاعبو جوبيلا إيواتا
لاعبو جيف يوناتيد إيتشيهارا تشيبا
لاعبو ساغان توسو
لاعبو غامبا أوساكا
لاعبو كرة قدم أولمبيون يابانيون
لاعبو كرة قدم في الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 2008
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في هولندا
لاعبو كرة قدم يابانيون
لاعبو كرة قدم يابانيون مغتربون
لاعبو منتخب اليابان لكرة القدم
لاعبو منتخب اليابان لكرة القدم لدرجة الشباب
لاعبو نادي فيتيس أرنهايم
لاعبو نادي فيسيل كوبه
لاعبو ناغويا غرامبوس
مواليد 1987
مواليد في كوبه

ميتشيهيرو ياسودا


Helmut Nitzsche (* 22. Januar 1914 in Oelsnitz/Vogtland; † 20. Juli 2002 in Fulda) war ein deutscher bildender Künstler und  Glasmaler.

Leben
Nitzsche studierte von 1928 bis 1933 an der staatlichen Kunstschule in Plauen in der Malklasse von Wilhelm Heckrott und Otto Lange. Beide Professoren waren Expressionisten der Dresdner Sezession Gruppe 1919, einer Weiterführung der Künstlergruppe "Brücke". Die Zeit in der Meisterklasse bei Lange prägte seine künstlerische Entwicklung entscheidend. In dieser Zeit gestaltete Nitzsche die St.-Katharinen-Kirche in Eichigt.

Nach der Machtergreifung der Nationalsozialisten wurde auf Anordnung des Gauleiters Mutschmann die Schule geschlossen, die Lehrer verhaftet, den Schülern das Abschlusszeugnis verweigert und ihnen von der "Entartungskommission" jegliche künstlerische Betätigung verboten. Nitzsche arbeitete nach einer Lehrausbildung als Dekorationsmaler, vorwiegend auf der Wanderschaft durch Süddeutschland. Durch Empfehlung eines Bauingenieurs kam er 1939 auf Umwegen als Zeichner in die Generalbauinspektion für die Reichshauptstadt. Der Generalbauinspektor Albert Speer versteckte hinter der Aufgabe einer Studie für den monströsen Kuppelbau der geplanten Kongresshalle für die Welthauptstadt Germania eine ganze Gruppe von Individualisten.

Nitzsche wurde 1942 zum Kriegsdienst einberufen und verbrachte vier Jahre in sowjetischer Kriegsgefangenschaft, aus der er erst 1949 nach West-Berlin entlassen wurde. 1950 bis 1955 setzte er seine Ausbildung mit einem Studium an der Werkakademie Berlin-Charlottenburg in der Klasse für angewandte Kunst (Schwerpunkt: Kunst am Bau) mit dem Diplom-Abschluss fort. In der Wiederaufbauphase West-Berlins bekam er viele Aufträge im Bereich Kunst am Bau. Zu den bedeutendsten Werken aus dieser Schaffensperiode zählen ein großes Wandbild in der Eingangshalle des Finanzamts Berlin-Spandau und ein plastisches Wandbild im Postamt Heerstraße.

In der Folge beschäftigte ihn mehr und mehr der Werkstoff Glas mit dem Aufschmelzverfahren, der Reiz der Schöpfung im Sinne des "bedingt vorausberechenbaren künstlerischen Experiments". In den folgenden Jahren schuf er, seit 1974 in einem alten Bauernhaus in Schwarzenfels in der hessischen Vorderrhön lebend, mehr als 30 Kirchenfenster, vor allem in Berlin. Dazu gehören 1984 Himmlisches Jerusalem in der katholischen Kirche Mater Dolorosa in Berlin-Lankwitz und 1993 Erschaffung der Welt, Eucharistie Brot und Wein und Mosesfenster in der Pfarrkirche Heilige Familie in Berlin-Lichterfelde.

Zu den Kirchenfenstern gesellten sich zahlreiche Glasarbeiten, in denen Kunsthandwerk und freies Arbeiten ineinander fließen. Zu den Besten zählen "Der geschundene Planet I und II (1991), "Filigrane Glaskollage" und "Glaskollage mit aufgeschmolzenen Fäden".
In der freien künstlerischen Arbeit widmete er sich neben der Temperamalerei auch anderen Maltechniken, wie der Acrylmalerei, Putzmosaiken sowie Spachtel- und Gazetechniken.

Werke (Auswahl)

 Das Unheil kündigt sich an
 Stillleben
 Weberhäuser
 Jüdischer Friedhof Gelnhausen
 Pferde auf der Koppel
 Urfisch
 Pilzvariationen
 Ölpest am Golf
Taufe und Abendmahl (Chorfenster) und Deckenlampen in der ev. Kirche zu Schwarzenfels

In Ausstellungen in Kleinsassen, Schlüchtern und Fulda wurde das Lebenswerk von Helmut Nitzsche gewürdigt.

Literatur
 Katalog Kunststation Kleinsassen: Helmut Nitzsche – Farbe . Feuer . Licht – Entdecken – Abstrahieren-Verschmelzen, 1992
 Lutz Hergert: Lebenslinien in Glas und Farbe..., Lebenswege von Oelsnitz über Berlin in die Rhön. Freie Presse, 8./9. August 1998
 Karl Ulrich: Hohe Glasmalkunst – Helmut Nitzsche wird heute 85 Jahre alt. Main-Kinzigtal-Nachrichten, 22. Januar 1999
 Ronny Hager: Biographisches Kalenderblatt (78). In: Stadtanzeiger., Oelsnitz, Nr. 7, vom 27. Juli 2012, S. 3

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Bildender Künstler (Deutschland)
Glasmaler (Deutschland)
Deutscher
Geboren 1914
Gestorben 2002
Mann

Helmut Nitzsche


El Paralelo 40 Sur es el paralelo que está 40° grados al sur del plano ecuatorial terrestre.

A esta latitud el día dura 9 horas con 19 minutos en el solsticio de junio y 15 horas con 1 minuto en el solsticio de diciembre.

Comenzando por el meridiano de Greenwich y tomando la dirección este, el paralelo 40 sur pasa por:
{|class="wikitable"
! País, territorio o mar
! Notas
|-
|style="background:#b0e0e6;" |Océano Atlántico
|style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
|style="background:#b0e0e6;" |Océano Índico
|style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
|
|Isla King, Tasmania
|-
|style="background:#b0e0e6;" |Estrecho de Bass
|style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
|
|Isla Flinders, Tasmania
|-
|style="background:#b0e0e6;" |Océano Pacífico
|style="background:#b0e0e6;" |Mar de Tasmania
|-
|
|Isla Norte
|-
|style="background:#b0e0e6;" |Océano Pacífico
|style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
|
|Región de Los Ríos, Valdivia
|-
|
|Neuquén, Río Negro en Viedma, Buenos Aires en Carmen de Patagones
|-
|style="background:#b0e0e6;" |Océano Atlántico
|style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|}

Véase también
 Paralelo 30 Sur
 Paralelo 41 Sur
 Paralelo 42 Sur
 Paralelo 50 Sur

Referencias
Mapa de todas las coordenadas desde Google (en inglés).
Mapa de todas las coordenadas desde Bing (en inglés).

S40

Paralelo 40 sur


Cykelmagt er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 1978, der er instrueret af Leif Larsen efter eget manuskript.

Handling
Første del af filmen blev optaget i slutningen af 70'erne og indeholder klip fra københavnske gader, der ikke levner megen plads og undertiden kan give cyklisten angst for at komme helskindet igennem trafikken. Holland fremhæves som et godt eksempel på, hvad der kan gøres for cyklisterne. Anden del er fra slutningen af 80'erne: Der er sket resultater, holdninger er ændret, forbedringer er sket.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1978

Cykelmagt


Virola sebifera est une espèce d'arbres néotropicaux de la famille des Myristicaceae (famille du muscadier). Il s'agit de l'espèce type du genre Virola Aubl.

En Guyane, on il est connu sous les noms de Yayamadou (Créole), Muscadier porte-suif (Français désuet), Virola (Kali'na), Ucuùba, Ucuúba vermelha (Portugais),  Baboun, Djadja, ajamadou (Nenge tongo yaya signifiant "droit" et udu "bois", donc diadia udu, yayamadou, "bois droit", "tronc droit"), Grand bouchi-moulomba, Yayamadou de marécage.

Au Suriname, on l'appelle Baboenhout (Hollandais du Suriname).

Au Guyana, c'est Hill dalli (Créole), Dalli (Arawak), Warushiran (Caribe).

Au Venezuela, il porte les noms de Ayoco, Yopo (), Ayuku, Guachinakua (Yekwana), Erika-bai-yek, Ibirkabá (Arekuna), Camaticaro, Camaticaro rojo, Carpeto, Cozoiba, Cuajo, Cuajo negro, Cuajo pequeño, Lancetillo, Masarico, Piassám, Sangrino blanco, Sangrito blanco, Tártago (Espagnol).

Description
Virola sebifera est un arbre haut de , avec un port caractéristique avec de fines branches perpendiculaires au tronc, étagées en pseudo-verticilles.
Son tronc est droit et cylindrique, dépourvu de contreforts (ou alors très petits), atteignant rarement une hauteur totale de  pour un diamètre de .
Son écorce externe écailleuse (marquée de fines côtes longitudinales), de couleur grise à brun rougeâtre (le rhytidome brun clair à lenticelles saillantes).
L'écorce interne est rosâtre.
En cas de blessure, il exsude une abondante sève rouge, un peu aqueuse.
Ses rameaux sont cylindriques, souvent striés lorsqu'ils sont secs, ferrugineux-tomenteux (lorsqu'ils sont jeunes) devenant glabrescents, brun foncé.
Le bois est beige clair, à grain fin et fil très droit, léger (densité : 0,40 à 0,65). On compte 6 à 8 vaisseaux par mm², mesurant en moyenne . Les perforations des vaisseaux sont uniques ou parfois en grilles de 1 à 7 barreaux. Les ponctuations inlervasculaires sont de l'ordre de .

Les feuilles de Virola sebifera sont reconnaissables sur l'arbre ou au sol : la base cordée, sans acumen bien individualisé, tomenteuses roussâtres sur la face inférieure, avec des nervures d'ordre 3 distinctes grossièrement parallèles.
Elles sont simples, alternes, subcoriaces, de forme ovale ou oblongue (généralement plus large vers la base), aiguës ou acuminées à l'apex, à base plus ou moins cordée, longues de ±  pour  de large.
On note un indumentum étoilé, dense, ferrugineux, sur les deux faces, devenant glabre avec l'âge sur la face adaxiale, et des trichomes dendritiques abondants sur les rameaux, les inflorescences et les fleurs.
La face adaxiale (au-dessus) est glabrescente souvent brillante, la nervure médiane et secondaires imprimée à légèrement saillante.
La face abaxiale (en dessous) (sub)tomenteuses, gris-roussâtre, avec les nervures médiane et secondaires nettement saillantes.
Les 10-21 paires de nervures secondaires sont droites, confluent vers la marge.
Les nervures tertiaires sont ± distinctement parallèles.
Le pétiole est long de .

Dioïque, les pieds mâles et femelle sont séparés.
Les inflorescences sont des panicules axillaires et terminaux, ramifiés, tomenteux de couleur rouille.
Inflorescences staminées (mâles), plus courtes que les feuilles, atteignent , largement paniculées, ramifiées librement, à nombreuses fleurs.
Les inflorescences femelles, généralement plus courtes que les mâles, moins ramifiées, atteignent .

Les fleurs sont fasciculées, dorées-ferrugineuses, en forme d'entonnoir.
Les tépales sont longs de , avec une pubescence étoilée dense sur la face adaxiale.

Les fleurs staminées (mâles), ont un pédicelle long de .
Le périanthe en entonnoir, est long de , avec 3(4) lobes courts.
Les 3(4) anthères sont longues de , soit 3 à 4 fois plus longues que la partie découverte de la colonne staminale, trapue, longue de .
Le conjonctif apiculé, fait saillie au-delà des anthères.

Les fleurs pistillées (femelles) ont un pédicelle long de .
Le périanthe urcéolé, est long de .
L'ovaire ovale ou (sub)globuleux, est tomenteux, et porte un stigmate sessile, discoïde, peu fendu, légèrement oblique, à 2 lobes.

Le fruit, de même structure que chez la muscade, est globuleux ou globuleux-ellipsoïde, relativement petit, long de  pour  de large.
Il s'agit d'une capsule bleu-vert, densément pubescente brun ferrugineux à tomenteuse rouille (lorsqu'immature), devenant glabrescente.
Il contient une graine, recouverte d'un arille lacinié violet à rouge.

Répartition
Virola sebifera est présent du Nicaragua, au Brésil, en passant par le Costa Rica, le Panama, la Colombie, le Venezuela, le Guyana, le Suriname, la Guyane, l'Équateur, le Pérou, la Bolivie.

Écologie
Virola sebifera pousse principalement en forêt de terre ferme, dans les régions côtières et dans les formations secondaires en Guyane, dans les forêts marécageuses ou montagneuses du Suriname, dans les forêts secondaires et mixtes au Guyana, et dans les forêts sempervirentes de plaine ou de montagne, et les savanes, autour de  d'altitude au Venezuela.

En Guyane, il fleurit en mai, et fructifie en juillet/août/novembre.

Les fruits de Virola sebifera tiennent une place important dans l'alimentation des communautés d'oiseaux au Panama (Toucan de Swainson, Toucans à carène, Tityre masqué, Trogon de Masséna, Motmot roux, Araçari à collier), qui eux-mêmes jouent un rôle important dans sa dissémination.

Sa dissémination a aussi été étudiée en Bolivie,
ainsi que la biologie de sa reproduction,
et ses loci microsatellites.

Les feuilles de Virola sebifera contiennent des composés phytotoxiques (sésamine, kobusine, quercitrine) à l'origine des proriétés allélopathiques de sa litière.

Usage

En Guyane, Fusée-Aublet rapporte que l'on extrayait autrefois des graines des Virola un "suif jaunâtre" âcre, employé pour fabriquer des chandelles.

Chez les amérindiens du Guyana, le bois de Virola sebifera est utilisé dans la construction de maisons. La sève rouge est frottée sur les plaies buccales.

Au Venezuela, certains chamans Yanomam et d'autres populations vivant dans la région des sources de l'Orénoque, organiseraient des danses cérémonielles destinées à soigner les fièvres au cours desquelles ils fumeraient ou priseraient l'écorce interne hallucinogène de Virola sebifera. Ils en feraient aussi une décoction destinée à éloigner les mauvais esprits.
Ces propriétés hallucinogènes seraient liées à la présence de diméthyltryptamine et ses dérivés.
Des analyses de cette écorce rapportent qu'elle contient principalement de la N,N-diméthyltryptamine,
ainsi que des N-méthyl-N-formyltryptamine et de la N-méthyl-N-acétyltryptamine.

Le bois tendre de Virola sebifera est propice pour le déroulage et fourni un placage connu.

Virola sebifera est utilisé dans le traitement des rhumatismes, de l'arthrite, de la dyspepsie, du paludisme, des douleurs musculaires et de l'érysipèle.

Les extraits de Virola sebifera présentent une activité antibactérienne significative contre des souches Staphylococcus aureus résistantes à la méthicilline,
et des propriétés antioxydantes,
antiproliférative,
cytotoxique sur des lignées cellulaires tumorales humaines.

Les composés antioxydants et antimicrobiens extraits de Virola sebifera présentent une activité significative sur Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Salmonella typhimurium et Escherichia coli

Du fait de sa composition chimique, l'extrait de Virola sebifera présente un potentiel insecticide contre la fourmi-manioc Atta sexdens rubropilosa et fongicide contre son champignon symbiotique Leucoagaricus gongylophorus.

Chimie
Le fruit de Virola sebifera contient des butyrolactones (du (2R, 3S)-3-(3,4-dimethoxybenzyl)-2-(3,4-methylenedioxybenzyl)-butyrolactone dans ses graines, et du (2R, 3R)-3-(3,4-dimethoxybenzyl)-2-(3,4-methylenedioxybenzyl)-butyrolactone, (2R, 3R)-2,3-di-(3, 4-dimethoxybenzyl)-butyrolactone et (2R, 3R)-2,3-di-(3,4-methylenedioxybenzyl)-butyrolactone dans son péricarpe),
ainsi que des tétralines et néolignanes de naphtalène (2,3-Dimethyl-4-piperonyl-4-veratrylbutan-1-ol),
des composés de ω-phenylundecanoyl (2,6-dihydroxybenzene, 2,6-dihydroxy-4-methoxybenzene et 3-hydroxycyclohexan-2,6-dione),
des néolignanes de tétralone (dont 2,4-dihydroxy-6,7-methylenedioxy-2,3-dimethyl-4-veratryltetralin-1-one),
des analogues des podophyllotoxines,
une lignane hydroxy-otobaine,
des lignanes de dibenzylbutane ( diacétate de rac-(8a,8′P)-4,4′-dihydroxy-3,3′-dimethoxylignan-9,9′-diyl et diacétate de rac-(8a,8′P)-4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-3′,4′-methylenedioxylignan-9,9′-diyl).

On a extrait du bois de Virola sebifera du 3-indolcarboxaldéhyde, et des diarylpropanes : 1-(4'-hydroxy-2'-méthoxyphényl-3-(3"-hydroxy-4"-méthoxyphényl)-propane, Virolanol B et Virolanol C.

Plusieurs de ces composés ont pu être synthétisés artificiellement.

Protologue

En 1775, le botaniste Aublet propose le protologue suivant :

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Liste des plantes décrites par Fusée-Aublet
 Virola surinamensis

Liens externes

Espèce de Myristicaceae (nom scientifique)
Plante décrite par Aublet
Plante psychotrope
Hallucinogène

Virola sebifera


Esta é uma lista de Estados e dinastias, históricas e contemporâneas, onde o confucionismo (incluindo suas diversas derivações) é ou foi a ideologia estatal ou exerce ou exerceu uma significante influência política e cultural. Sua posição pode ter sido dividida com outras ideologias ou religiões como taoismo, budismo ou religiões tradicionais chinesas.

O confucionismo foi desenvolvido durante o período das Primaveras e Outonos da história chinesa a partir dos ensinamentos do filósofo chinês Confúcio. O confucionismo foi adotado como ideologia estatal pela primeira vez pelo imperador Wu de Han, aconselhado pelo estadista Gongsun Hong. O confucionismo foi mais tarde difundido pela esfera cultural da Ásia Oriental.

Lista de regimes confucionistas históricos
As datas referidas correspondem à duração da dinastia ou Estado em questão, e não à sua adoção do confucionismo como religião estatal. Exceto quando notado, todas os anos se referem a datas depois de Cristo. Os itens estão listados alfabeticamente e, quando há nomes idênticos, cronologicamente.

China

 Cao Wei (220–266)
 Dinastia Chen (557–589)
 Dinastia Chi do Norte (550–577)
 Dinastia Chi do Sul (479–502)
 Dinastia Chou (690–705)
 Dinastia Chou do Norte (557–581)
 Dinastia Chou Oriental (770 a.C.–256 a.C.)
 Dinastia Chou Posterior (951–960)
 Dinastia Han do Norte (951–979)
 Dinastia Han Ocidental (202 a.C.–9 d.C.)
 Dinastia Han Oriental (25–220)
 Dinastia Han Posterior (947–951)
 Dinastia Jin (1115–1234)
 Dinastia Jin Ocidental (266–316)
 Dinastia Jin Oriental (317–420)
 Dinastia Jin Posterior (936–947)
 Dinastia Jin Posterior (1616–1636)
 Dinastia Liang (502–557)
 Dinastia Liao (916–1125)
 Dinastia Liao Ocidental (1124–1218)
 Dinastia Ming (1368–1644)
 Dinastia Ming do Sul (1644–1662)
 Dinastia Qing (1636–1912)
 Dinastia Song do Norte (960–1127)
 Dinastia Song do Sul (1127–1279)
 Dinastia Sui (581–619)
 Dinastia Tang (618–690, 705–907)
 Dinastia Wei do Norte (386–535)
 Dinastia Wu Oriental (222–280)
 Dinastia Xia Ocidental (1038–1227)
 Dinastia Xin (9–23)
 Liu Song (420–479)
 Shu Han (221–263)

Coreia

 Baekje (18 a.C.–660)
 Goryeo (918–1392)
 Hubaekje (892–936)
 Império Coreano (1897–1910)
 Joseon (1392–1897)
 Koguryo (37 a.C.–668 d.C.)
 Silla (57 a.C.–935 d.C.)
 Taebong (901–918)

Japão

 Período Asuka (538–710)
 Período Azuchi-Momoyama (1568–1600)
 Período Heian (794–1185)
 Período Kamakura (1185–1333)
 Período Muromachi (1335–1573)
 Período Nara (710–794)
 Período Tokugawa (1600–1868)
 Reino de Ryukyu (1429–1879)

Vietnã

 Dinastia Hồ (1400–1407)
 Dinastia Lê (1428–1527, 1533–1789)
 Dinastia Lý (1009–1225)
 Dinastia Mạc (1527–1677)
 Dinastia Nguyễn (1802–1945)
 Dinastia Tây Sơn (1778–1802)
 Dinastia Trần (1225–1400)
 Senhorio Nguyễn (1557–1777)
 Senhorio Trịnh (1545–1787)
 Vietnã do Norte (1945–1976)
 Vietnã do Sul (1955–1975)

Outros
Estados ou dinastias que compreendiam um território pertencente a múltiplos países atuais ou a nenhum dos citados acima.

 Balhae (698–926 d.C.)
 Dinastia Iuã (1271–1368)
 Dinastia Iuã do Norte (1368–1635)

Lista de Estados atuais com influências confucionistas
Itens listados alfabeticamente.

Ver também

 Confucionismo
 Neoconfucionismo
 Novo confucionismo
 Confúcio
 Cultura da China
 Esfera cultural da Ásia Oriental
 Dinastias chinesas

Listas de países
Confucionismo
Cultura da China
Cultura da Ásia
Cultura do Japão
Cultura da Coreia
Cultura da Mongólia
Cultura do Vietname
Listas de história

Lista de Estados e dinastias confucionistas


Cricqueville-en-Auge (, literally Cricqueville in Auge) is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France.

Population

See also
Cricqueville-en-Bessin
Communes of the Calvados department

References

Communes of Calvados (department)
Calvados communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia

Cricqueville-en-Auge


RR, Rr or rr may refer to:

Arts and entertainment
 RR (film), a 2008 experimental film by James Benning
 Randy Rhoads (1956–1982), American guitarist
 Jackson "Randy Rhoads", electric guitar design by Randy Rhoads, Grover Jackson, and Mike Shannon
 Rec Room (video game), a virtual reality massively multiplayer online game
 The Red Ribbon Army, a fictional army in the Dragon Ball series
 Ruff Ryders Entertainment, a record label and East Coast rap collective
 RR, the production code for the 1968 Doctor Who serial Fury from the Deep
 RR (EP), a 2023 collaborative EP by Rosalía and Rauw Alejandro

Businesses and organizations
 Railroad Retirement, retirement benefits railroad workers
 Rashtriya Rifles, an Indian counter-insurgency force
 Rekords Rekords (logo), an American record label
 Rhodesia Regiment, Rhodesian Army unit
 Royal Air Force (IATA airline designator)
 Richard Rohac (logo), an Austrian art metal firm
 ITU Radio Regulations

Language
 rr (digraph)
 Revised Romanization of Korean, the official Korean language romanization system in South Korea
 Revised Romanization of Hangeul, the former official Hangeul language romanization system in South Korea

Science and technology

Biology and medicine
 RR, an Rh factor phenotype
 RR, abbreviation for blood pressure measurements taken with a sphygmomanometer invented by Scipione Riva-Rocci
 RR, abbreviation for the Relaxation Response, a natural autonomic response of the body induced by gently staying focused on a repetitive mental repetition of a word or phrase
 RR interval (R wave to R wave interval), the inverse of heart rate
 Risk ratio, or relative risk, in statistics and epidemiology
 Respiratory rate, a vital sign

Other uses in science and technology
 Rapid Refresh, a short-range numerical weather prediction model
 Rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout, a term used in automotive technology
 Recoilless rifle
 Resource record, in the Domain Name System
 Round-robin scheduling, an algorithm for coordinating processes in an operating system
 Roundup Ready, for genetically modified crops resisting to glyphosate
 Route reflector, a Border Gateway Protocol configuration
 rr (debugging), a record and replay debugger for userspace Linux programs

Sports
 Rajasthan Royals, an Indian Premier League franchise
 Ranchi Rhinos, a defunct Hockey India League franchise
 Run rate, an average number of runs a batsman (or the batting side) scores in an over of 6 balls in cricket

Transportation
 Railroad
 Raritan River Railroad
 Regional Road, a class of road in Ontario
 Rhodesia Railways, former Zimbabwean railway company
 Rhymney Railway, former British railway company
 Rolls-Royce Holdings (LSE code and logo)
 Rolls-Royce

 RR, a predecessor of the R (New York City Subway service)

Other uses
 Roraima (ISO 3166 code BR-RR), a state in Brazil

See also
 R&R (disambiguation)
 R (disambiguation)
 RRR (disambiguation)
 RRRR (disambiguation)

RR


The Royal Shrovetide Football Match is a "medieval football" game played annually on Shrove Tuesday and Ash Wednesday in the town of Ashbourne in Derbyshire, England. Shrovetide ball games have been played in England since at least the 12th century from the reign of Henry II (1154–89). The Ashbourne game also known as "hugball" has been played from at least c.1667 although the exact origins of the game are unknown due to a fire at the Royal Shrovetide Committee office in the 1890s which destroyed the earliest records. One of the most popular origin theories suggests the macabre notion that the 'ball' was originally a severed head tossed into the waiting crowd following an execution. Although this may have happened, it is more likely that games such as the Winchelsea Streete Game, reputedly played during the Hundred Years' War with France, were adaptations of an original ball game intended to show contempt for the enemy.

One of the earliest references to football in the county of Derbyshire comes in a poem called "Burlesque upon the Great Frost" from 1683, written after the English Civil War by Charles Cotton, cousin to Aston Cockayne, Baronet of Ashbourne (1608–84):

Shrovetide football played between "Two towns" in Derby is often credited with being the source of the term "local derby". A more widely accepted origin theory is The Derby horse race. Whatever the origins the "local derby" is now a recognised term for a football game played between local rivals and a Derby is a horse race.

 A previously unknown tentative link between Royal Shrovetide football and La soule played in Tricot, Picardy was established in 2012 by history and sociology of sport lecturer Laurent Fournier from the Universite de Nantes. Whilst undertaking a study of "folk football", he noticed that the Coat of arms of the Cockayne family (seated in Ashbourne from the 12th century) painted on a 1909 Shrovetide ball displayed in the window of the Ashbourne Telegraph office contained three cockerels in its heraldic design. He recognised this matched the emblem of Tricot (also carrying three cockerels) where La soule is played on the first Sunday of Lent and Easter Monday. He was welcomed to Ashbourne by the Royal Shrovetide Committee and was a guest at the Shrovetide luncheon. Research into Royal Shrovetide Football's lost history is ongoing (August 2012).

History
The concept of the ball game was understood in the Early Middle Ages (600–1066). Writing in the 9th century, Welsh monk and historian Nennius makes reference in his book Historia Brittonum to "the field of Ælecti, in the district of Glevesing, where a party of boys were playing at ball". This account was attributed to a 5th-century source that has not survived. Ball games may have been played throughout the 1st millennium despite a lack of documented evidence. Oral traditions from the West Country and South East Wales assert that the games of Cornish "Hurling to Country" and "Hurling to Goals", Devon "Out-Hurling" and Welsh "Cnapan" played during Christian festivals have more ancient Celtic origins. The wooden balls used in these games are only found in regions where Celtic culture is still venerated. These communal events may even have started with prehistoric workers hurling forward carved wooden balls or stone balls that archaeologists have theorised could have been used to move megaliths in stone circle construction. Records from antiquity have survived relating to various ball games played by the Romans, notably Harpastum which contained many elements that feature in the Shrovetide ball game. These influences were available to a Catholic Church Clergy familiar with native customs and educated in Latin when a ball game was introduced to Shrovetide festivities.

The earliest recorded Shrovetide ball game comes during the High Middle Ages (1066–1272) from the cleric William Fitzstephen in his description of London Descriptio Nobilissimae Civitatis Londoniae (c.1174–83). The game he witnessed was played at Carnival, an alternative name for Shrovetide, from the Latin Carnilevaria, a word variant of carne levare meaning to "leave out meat" an act of abstinence for Lent. Then as now games were played in the afternoon. His account suggests playing ball at Carnival had been an annual event for at least a generation.

…"every year on the day called Carnival—to begin with the sports of boys (for we were all boys once)—scholars from the different schools bring fighting-cocks to their masters, and the whole morning is set apart to watch their cocks do battle in the schools, for the boys are given a holiday that day. After dinner all the young men of the town go out into the fields in the suburbs to play ball. The scholars of the various schools have their own ball, and almost all the followers of each occupation have theirs also. The seniors and the fathers and the wealthy magnates of the city come on horseback to watch the contests of the younger generation, and in their turn recover their lost youth: the motions of their natural heat seem to be stirred in them at the mere sight of such strenuous activity and by their participation in the joys of unbridled youth."

The location given for the "suburbs" was to the north of London. The area described of open fields and rivers is typical of the terrain still used for current games played in Ashbourne and in Workington, Cumbria, where "Uppies and Downies" games take place on Good Friday, Easter Tuesday and Easter Saturday.

…"Everywhere outside the houses of those living in the suburbs, and adjacent to them, are the spacious and beautiful gardens of the citizens, and these are planted with trees. Also there are on the north side pastures and pleasant meadow lands through which flow streams
wherein the turning of mill-wheels makes a cheerful sound"….

Although the names of the schools that participated were not stipulated, a previous reference to St. Paul's, Holy Trinity, Aldgate and St. Martin-le-Grand College indicates these Church schools were integral to celebrating this holy-day.

…"St. Paul, the church of the Holy Trinity, and the church of St. Martin have famous schools by special privilege and by virtue of their ancient dignity. But through the favour of some magnate, or through the presence of teachers who are notable or famous in philosophy, there are also other schools"….

By the Late Middle Ages (1272–1485) there were many incarnations of the ball game being played at Shrovetide, Eastertide and Christmastide in and around the British Isles. All were played in a similar manner with localized innovations. Some of the other better-understood games, a few of which are still played, include the Ba' game (ba''' being an abbreviation of "ball"), the Atherstone Ball Game, the Sedgefield Ball Game, Bottle-kicking (usually with a leather bottle as a substitute for the ball), Caid (an Irish name for various ball games and an animal-skin ball), Camp-ball (late medieval includes "kicking camp"), Football (late medieval), The Shrove Tuesday Football Ceremony of the Purbeck Marblers (Masonic ceremonial), Haxey Hood ("Hood" being the name given to a leather tube used instead of a ball), La soule (soule being the name for the ball in northern France), and Scoring the Hales (an alternative name for goals used in Cumbria and the Scottish borders). A contemporary collective term coined for these games is "Mob football".

During the early modern period public schools open to the paying public (an alternative to private home education) adopted the ball game as a sports activity. The version they developed was called football and was played using a bladder-inflated ball. Scholars from these schools wrote the first standard codes for football. These inspired the development of modern codes of football, many created by the descendants of emigrants who spread the concept of football around the world.

 Table showing codes of conduct development to modern football

The Ashbourne game

The game is played over two days on Shrove Tuesday and Ash Wednesday, starting each day at 2:00 pm and lasting until 10:00 pm. If the goal is scored (in local parlance, the ball is goaled) before 6pm a new ball is released and play restarts from the town centre, otherwise play ends for the day. The ball is rarely kicked, though it is legal to kick, carry or throw it. Instead it generally moves through the town in a series of hugs, like a giant scrum in rugby, made up of dozens if not hundreds of people. When the ball is goaled, the scorer is carried on the shoulders of his colleagues into the courtyard of the Green Man Royal Hotel (this ceremony returned to its recognised spiritual home in 2014 after an absence in 2013 due to the closure of the hotel).

The two teams that play the game are known as the Up'Ards and the Down'Ards (local dialect for "upwards and downwards"). The Up'Ards are traditionally those town members born north of Henmore Brook, which runs through the town, and Down'Ards are those born south of the river. Each team attempts to carry the ball back to their own goal from the turn-up, rather than the more traditional method of scoring at/in the opponents goal. There are two goal posts  apart, one at Sturston Mill (where the Up'Ards attempt to score), the other at Clifton Mill (where the Down'Ards score). Although the mills have long since been demolished, part of their millstones still stand on the bank of the river at each location and indeed themselves once served as the scoring posts. In 1996 the scoring posts were replaced once again by new smaller millstones mounted onto purpose-built stone structures, which are still in use to this day and require the players to actually be in the river in order to 'goal' a ball, as this was seen as more challenging.

The actual process of 'goaling' a ball requires a player to hit it against the millstone three successive times. This is not a purely random event, however, as the eventual scorer is elected en route to the goal and would typically be someone who lives in Ashbourne or at least whose family is well known to the community. The chances of a 'tourist' goaling a ball are very remote, though they are welcome to join in the effort to reach the goal. When a ball is 'goaled' that particular game ends.

The game is played through the town with no limit on the number of players or the playing area (aside from those mentioned in the rules below). Thus shops in the town are boarded up during the game, and people are encouraged to park their cars away from the main streets. The game is started from a special plinth in the town centre where the ball is thrown to the players (or "turned-up" in the local parlance), often by a visiting dignitary. Before the ball is turned-up, the assembled crowd sing "Auld Lang Syne" followed by "God Save the King". The starting point has not changed in many years, although the town has changed around it; as a consequence, the starting podium is currently located in the town's main car park, which is named Shaw Croft, this being the ancient name of the field in which it stands.

The game has been known as "Royal" since 1928, when the then–Prince of Wales (later King Edward VIII) turned up the ball. The prince suffered a bloody nose. The game received royal assent for a second time in 2003, when the game was once again started by the Prince of Wales, in this instance Prince Charles (later king Charles III). On this occasion, the prince threw the ball into play from a raised plinth. It is traditional for the dignitary of the day to be raised aloft near Compton Bridge, as the turner-up is escorted into the Shawcroft en route from the luncheon at the Leisure centre.

The goals

The Up'Ards' traditional goal was Sturston Mill in Sturston village east of Asbourne and the Down'Ards' goal was Clifton Mill in the village of Clifton west of Ashbourne. Clifton Mill was demolished in 1967. A stone obelisk with commemorative plaque marking the site was unveiled in 1968. This became the Down'Ards goal for the next 28 years. Sturston Mill was demolished in 1981. A timber post salvaged from the mill was erected on the site of the old mill to act as a goal for the Up'Ards.
The purpose-built goals erected in 1996 on the banks of Henmore Brook are located  apart. The Up'Ards goal is upstream from Shawcroft adjacent to the site of the former Sturston Mill and the Down'Ards goal is downstream from Shawcroft adjacent to the site of the former Clifton Mill. The ball is goaled when tapped three times against a millstone incorporated in the goals.

The ball

 The game is played with a special ball, larger than a standard football, which is filled with Portuguese cork to help the ball float when it ends up in the river. It is now hand-painted by local craftsmen specially for the occasion, and the design is usually related to the dignitary who will be turning-up the ball. Once a ball is goaled it is repainted with the name and in the design of the scorer and is theirs to keep. If a ball is not goaled it is repainted in the design of the dignitary that turned it up and given back to them to keep. Many of the balls are put on display in the local pubs during the game for the public to view; traditionally these pubs are divided by team (The Wheel Inn being a popular Down'Ard base, and the Old Vaults for the Up'ards, for example).

The rules

There are very few rules in existence. The main ones are:

 Committing murder or manslaughter is prohibited. Unnecessary violence is frowned upon.
 The ball may not be carried in a motorised vehicle.
 The ball may not be hidden in a bag, coat or rucksack, etc.
 Cemeteries, churchyards and the town memorial gardens are strictly out of bounds.
 Playing after 10 pm is forbidden.
 To score a goal the ball must be tapped three times in the area of the goal.

Results

Scores
2006: 1–1 Draw
2007: Up'ards win 1–0
2008: Up'ards win 2–0
2009: 1–1 Draw
2010: Down'ards win 1–0
2011: 2–2 Draw
 2012: Draw
 2013: Draw
 2014: Up'ards win 2–0
 2015: Up'ards win 1–0
 2016: Draw 1–1
 2017: Up'ards win 1–0
 2018: Draw 1–1
 2019: Down'ards win 1–0
 2020: Draw 1 (Leighton) – 1 (Frith)
 2021: Cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic
 2022: Up'ards win 3–1 Day 1: 1st James Lyon (U) 2nd Nathan Harrison (D) Day 2: 3rd Mark Maznenko (U) 4th Ben Western (U)
 2023: Up'ards win 1–0

Roll of Honour

Since 1891 a "Roll of Honour" has been kept, documenting both the turner-up and scorer of each game played. It can be seen from the list that the event has only been cancelled three times during that time, once in 1968, again in 2001, both times due to the outbreak of Foot-and-mouth disease and in 2021 due to the outbreak of Covid-19. Even during both World Wars the games were played; indeed, the Ashbourne Regiment even played a version of the game in the German trenches during the First World War.

On 7 March 1916 the 1/6th Battalion of the Sherwood Foresters (Notts and Derby) Regiment played a game whilst stationed in the French village of Ivergny. The ball was presented by the Ashbourne Committee and the first goal was scored by Private Robinson of "C" Company.

Visitors to Ashbourne can now view the series of wooden display frames carrying the names that are updated yearly at the new Ashbourne Library on Compton. The boards were originally in the entrance foyer of the function room at the Green Man, but were removed from there after the hotel shut in 2012.

Local dialect
The following are words and phrases used at the game, with a brief explanation of their meaning:

Turner-up
The person who starts that day's game.
Turning up
The act of throwing the ball from the "plinth" into the crowd of waiting players to start a game.
Hug
The scrum-like formation that naturally forms as the Up'Ards and Down'Ards battle for the ball.
Break
When the ball is released from the hug and play moves quickly.
Runners
Players that wait on the outside of the hug for the ball to break in order to collect the ball and cover as much ground as possible in the direction of their team's goal. There are selected runners for each team and they train regularly throughout the year, usually by running from goal to goal.
River play
As the name suggests, this is a reference to the sections of the game played in the river; as with runners there will be members of the team that specialise in river play. It is possible for the entire game to be played solely in the river.
Clifton
The Down'ards goal location.
Sturston
The Up'ards goal location.
Duck
Local colloquialism used as a friendly greeting, for example "Do you know where the ball is, duck?"  Comparable words from other regions would include "mate" or "pet'".
The Green Man Royal Hotel
Name of the pub/hotel where the pre-game dinner was hosted and speeches given; the turner-up was carried from here on the shoulders of the players and over to the Shawcroft. This function and ceremony has now moved to the Leisure Centre due to the closure of the Green Man in 2012. For 2014, it has been agreed with the new owner that the goal confirmation ceremony will return to the Green Man courtyard.
Shrovie
Slang for Shrovetide.
"Down wi' it"
Often shouted by many onlookers supporting the Up'ards or Down'ards, mainly women. To force the ball down in the centre of the "hug" thus slowing down the progress of the opposing team who are trying to throw the ball clear to their "runners" so they can make a "break" towards goal. This would typically happen when a team has won that day or the previous day and wish to force a draw in the game becoming overall winners that year.
Plinth
From where the ball is "turned up" (thrown) to start a game.

The anthem

The anthem is sung at a pre-game ceremony in a local hotel. It was written in 1891 for a concert held to raise money to pay off the fines ordered for playing the game in the street.

There's a town still plays this glorious game
Tho' tis but a little spot.
And year by year the contest's fought
From the field that's called Shaw Croft.
Then friend meets friend in friendly strife
The leather for to gain,
And they play the game right manfully,
In snow, sunshine or rain.

Chorus

'Tis a glorious game, deny it who can
That tries the pluck of an Englishman.

For loyal the Game shall ever be
No matter when or where,
And treat that Game as ought but the free,
Is more than the boldest dare.
Though the ups and downs of its chequered life
May the ball still ever roll,
Until by fair and gallant strife
We've reached the treasur'd goal.

Chorus

'Tis a glorious game, deny it who can
That tries the pluck of an Englishman.

Films and media
The event is often attended by reporters and documentary makers from several European countries, along with those from the United States and Japan. Appearances on UK television include Blue Peter, where the presenters experienced the game for themselves, and gameshow They Think It's All Over, where it was featured as the "Unusual Sport" and later in the show some local Down'Ards appeared on the "Feel the Sportsman" round.

The 2006 game was attended by a Los Angeles film company acquiring footage for a documentary titled Wild in the Streets'', produced and co-directed by Peter Baxter and narrated by Sean Bean. The film premiered at the 2012 Slamdance Film Festival in Park City, Utah, USA. The film was released online and on-demand in the US in April 2013.

See also
 Knattleikr, a Viking ball game.
 Caid, an early Irish ball game.
 Kirkwall Ba game
 La soule, a Norman ball game also played in Brittany and Cornwall.
 Medieval football in Europe.
 Haxey Hood, a similar game from Lincolnshire.
 Bottle-kicking, a similar game played in Leicestershire.
 Lelo burti, a similar game played in Georgia.
 Sedgefield Ball Game, a similar game played in County Durham

References

External links

Review of Shrovetide 2013– Footage captured for the official players committee. Recorded and viewable in 1080p HD.
Tuesday Up'ard Goal Shrovetide 2012– Footage captured for the official players committee. Recorded and viewable in 1080p HD.
Wednesday Down'ard Goal Shrovetide 2012– Footage captured for the official players committee. Recorded and viewable in 1080p HD.
Video of Tuesdays 2012 game in four parts. Recorded and viewable in 1080p HD Quality.
Video of Tuesdays 2010 game in two parts. Recorded and viewable in HD Quality.
Interactive Map of the playing area with ball parade route, goal locations etc
Ashbourne Shrovetide pictures by Warren Elkes
Shrovetide.net Guide to Ashbourne Shrovetide
Photos of the 2008 game from BBC Derby
Videos from BBC Derby: "An Introduction to Shrovetide Football" and "Shrovetide Football – Game on!"
Interactive Map of the playing area with goal locations etc
Video of Tuesdays 2009 game showing the build up to the start, the ball procession, the turning up and much actual game play.
Video of Tuesdays 2007 game showing the build up to the start, the ball procession, the turning up and much actual game play.
Photographs from the 2008 game on DerbyPhotos
Photographs from the 2007 game on DerbyPhotos
Photographs from the 2006 game on DerbyPhotos
Photographs from the 2005 game on DerbyPhotos
Photographs from the 2004 game on DerbyPhotos
Photographs from the 2002 game on DerbyPhotos
Prince starts 'maddest' game BBC news story, (5 March 2003)
Wild In The Streets USA Sports Illustrated article, (18 March 2002)
Doctor Danger review of Shrovetide Football
British Pathe Film Archive Footage of games dating between the 1920s to 1960's.
Ashbourne News Telegraph Micro Site
Copy of the Roll of Honour up to 2010

Wild In The Streets Official Movie Site Adobe Systems Flash Player 9 required
Derbyshire customs
Ashbourne Shrovetide Football T-Shirts

Football in Derbyshire
Traditional football
Derbyshire folklore
English traditions
Ashbourne, Derbyshire

Royal Shrovetide Football


İlyuşin İl-2 (''Rusça: Ил-2 Штурмовик) veya diğer adıyla Sturmovik, yer hedeflerine yönelik bir Sovyet II. Dünya Savaşı uçağıdır.

Sergey İlyuşin tarafından 1938'de tasarlanmıştır. 36183 adetle, II. Dünya Savaşı'nın en çok üretilen ve Cessna 172'den sonra tüm zamanların en çok üretilen üçüncü uçağıdır.

Tasarım özellikleri

İlk tasarlanan Il-2'ler yer hedeflerine yapılan saldırılarda uçaksavar silahlarına karşı korunmak için kalın bir ön zırhla kaplanmışlardır. Sonraları Il2'lerin arkadan açılan avcı uçakları atışlarına karşı son derece savunmasız olduğu anlaşılmış ve Il-2M modeli ile arka tarafa bir makineli tüfekçi personel konmuş, aynı zamanda arka tarafın zırhı da artırılmıştır. Il-2'ler mürettebatı, motoru, radyatörleri ve yakıt tankını koruyan kalın bir zırha sahipti. Bu sayede en yoğun düşman ateşi altında bile üslerine dönmeyi başarabiliyorlardı. Il-2'ler sağlam zırhlı Alman tanklarına karşı çaresiz kaldıkları gibi birçoğu Bf-109 a hedef olmaktan kurtulamamıştır. Ancak yine de birçok Alman tankını etkisiz hale getirmiştir.

Ayrıca Bakınız

 En çok üretilen uçaklar listesi
 Polikarpov Po-2
 Messerschmitt Bf 109

İl-002
II. Dünya Savaşı'nda kullanılan uçaklar
Rus savaş uçakları
Tanksavar uçakları
Alçak kanatlı uçaklar
Tek motorlu pervaneli uçaklar
İlk  uçuşunu 1939'da yapan hava araçları

İlyuşin İl-2