Sir Syed Ahmad Khan KCSI  (17 October 1817 – 27 March 1898), also spelled Sayyid Ahmad Khan, was an Indian Muslim reformer, philosopher, and educationist in nineteenth-century British India. Though initially espousing Hindu–Muslim unity, he later became the pioneer of Muslim nationalism in India and is widely credited as the father of the two-nation theory, which formed the basis of the Pakistan movement. Born into a family with strong ties to the Mughal court, Ahmad studied science and the Quran within the court. He was awarded an honorary LLD from the University of Edinburgh in 1889.

In 1838, Syed Ahmad entered the service of East India Company and went on to become a judge at a Small Causes Court in 1867, retiring from 1876. During the Indian Mutiny of 1857, he remained loyal to the British Raj and was noted for his actions in saving European lives. After the rebellion, he penned the booklet The Causes of the Indian Mutiny – a daring critique, at the time, of various British policies that he blamed for causing the revolt. Believing that the future of Muslims was threatened by the rigidity of their orthodox outlook, Sir Ahmad began promoting Western–style scientific education by founding modern schools and journals and organising Islamic entrepreneurs.

In 1859, Syed established Gulshan School at Muradabad, Victoria School at Ghazipur in 1863, and a scientific society for Muslims in 1863. In 1875, founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, the first Muslim university in Southern Asia. During his career, Syed repeatedly called upon Muslims to loyally serve the British Raj and promoted the adoption of Urdu as the lingua franca of all Indian Muslims. Syed criticized the Indian National Congress.

Sir Syed maintains a strong legacy in Pakistan and among Indian Muslims. He became a source of inspiration for the Pakistan Movement and its activists, including Allama Iqbal and Muhammad Ali Jinnah. His advocacy of Islam's rationalist tradition, and a broader, radical reinterpretation of the Quran to make it compatible with science and modernity, continues to influence the global Islamic reformation. Many universities and public buildings in Pakistan bear Sir Syed's name. Aligarh Muslim University celebrated Sir Syed's 200th birth centenary with much enthusiasm on 17 October 2017. Former President of India Pranab Mukherjee was the chief guest.

Early life

Syed Ahmad Taqvi 'Khan Bahadur' was born on 17 October 1817 to Syed Muhammad Muttaqi and Aziz-un-Nisa in Delhi, which was the capital of the Mughal Empire during the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar II. Many generations of his family had been highly connected with the Mughal administration. His maternal grandfather Khwaja Fariduddin served as Wazir in the court of Emperor Akbar Shah II. His paternal grandfather Syed Hadi Jawwad bin Imaduddin held a mansab (lit. General) – a high-ranking administrative position - and the honorary name of "Mir Jawwad Ali Khan" in the court of Emperor Alamgir II. Sir Syed's father, Syed  Muhammad Muttaqi, was personally close to Emperor Akbar Shah II and served as his personal adviser. However, Syed Ahmad was born at a time when his father was involved in regional insurrections aided and led by the East India Company, which had replaced the power traditionally held by the Mughal state, reducing its monarch to a figurehead.

Syed Ahmad was the youngest of three siblings. With his elder brother Syed Muhammad bin Muttaqi Khan and elder sister Safiyatun Nisa, Sir Syed was raised in the house of his maternal grandfather in a wealthy area of the city. They were raised in strict accordance with Mughal noble traditions and exposed to politics. Their mother Aziz-un-Nisa played a formative role in Sir Syed's early life, raising him with rigid discipline and a strong emphasis on modern education.

Education
Sir Syed's education was initiated by Shah Ghulam Ali, his father's spiritual mentor in 1822. He was taught to read and understand the Qur'an by a female tutor Areeba Sehar. He received an education traditional to Muslim nobility in Delhi. He attended a maktab run by a learned scholar, Moulvi Hamiduddin, in a house adjacent to his ancestral home and started learning Persian and Arabic. He read the works of Muslim scholars and writers such as Sahbai, Zauq and Ghalib. Other tutors instructed him in mathematics, astronomy and algebra. He also pursued the study of medicine for several years under Hakim Ghulam Haider Khan. Sir Syed was also adept at swimming, shooting and other sports. He took an active part in the Mughal court's cultural activities and attended parties, festivals and recitations.

Syed Ahmad's elder brother launched a weekly, "Syedul Akhbar", from Delhi, which was one of the earliest Urdu newspapers in northern India. Until the death of his father in 1838, Sir Syed had lived a life customary for an affluent young Muslim noble. Upon his father's death, he inherited the titles of his grandfather and father and was awarded the title of Arif Jung by the emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar. Financial difficulties put an end to Sir Syed's formal education, although he continued to study in private, using books on a variety of subjects.

Career

Having recognized the steady decline in Mughal political power, Sir Syed decided to enter the service of the East India Company. He could not enter the colonial civil service because it was only in the 1860s that Indians were admitted. His first appointment was as a  Serestadar (lit. Clerk) of the Criminal Department in the Sadr Amin's office in Delhi, responsible for record-keeping and managing court affairs. In February 1839, he was transferred to Agra and promoted to the title of Naib Munshi or deputy reader in the office of the Commissioner. In 1841 he was appointed as the Munsif or Sub-Judge of Fatehpur Sikri and later transferred to Delhi in 1846. He remained in Delhi until 1854 except for two short-term postings to Rohtak as officiating Sadr Amin in 1850 and 1853. In 1855 he was promoted to the post of Sadr Amin in Bijnor.

Acquainted with high-ranking British officials, Sir Syed obtained close knowledge about British colonial politics during his service at the courts. At the outbreak of the Indian rebellion, on 10 May 1857, Sir Syed was serving as the chief assessment officer at the court in Bijnor. He stood by the British officers of Bijnor and saved the lives of many officers and their family members from the revolting soldiers. The conflict had left large numbers of civilians dead. Erstwhile centres of Muslim power such as Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and Kanpur were severely affected. He lost several close relatives who died in the violence. Although he succeeded in rescuing his mother from the turmoil, she died in Meerut, owing to the privations she had experienced.

In 1858, he was appointed as Sadarus Sudoor, a high-ranking post at the court in Muradabad, where he began working on his most famous literary work, The Cause of the Indian Revolt. In 1862, he was transferred to Ghazipur, and later to Aligarh in 1864. In 1864 he was sent to Banaras and elevated to the position of a Sub-Judge of Small Causes.

In April 1869, he accompanied his two son Syed Mahmood, who had obtained a scholarship for study in England and Syed Hamid to England.

Sir Syed retired from government service in 1876 and settled in Aligarh. In 1878, he was nominated as an additional member of the Imperial Legislative Council, which he served from July 1878 to July 1880. He also served a second term that lasted until 1883. He served the Legislative Council of the Lieutenant Governor of the North- Western Provinces for two terms from 1887 until 1893.

Influences
Sir Syed's early influences were his mother Aziz-un-Nisa and maternal grandfather Khwaja Fariduddin both of whom took special interest in his education. Apart from serving as a Wazir in the Mughal court, Khwaja Fariduddin was also a teacher, mathematician and astronomer. He was also disposed towards Sufism, which left its impact on Sir Syed since his early childhood. His maternal uncle Khwaja Zainuddin Ahmad, who was an expert in music and mathematics, also influenced him in his early days.

Sir Syed's early theological writings demonstrate the influence of three school of religious though on his outlook - the Naqshbandi tradition of Shah Ghulam Ali Dahlavi, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi and his teachings, and the Mujahidin movement of Syed Ahmad Barelvi and his earliest disciple Shah Ismail Dehlvi. While Sir Syed shared the desire for religious forms in India with the Mujahidin movement, he was opposed to the Indian Wahhabi movement.

During his formative years in Delhi he came in contact with Ghalib and Zauq whose exquisite style of prose and poetry influenced Sir Syed's style of writing. He would often visit Imam Baksh Sahbai and Sadruddin Khan Azurda Dehlawi in his learning years. Another influence on him was his teacher and friend in Agra, Nur al Hasan of Kandhala, a teacher in Arabic at Agra College in the early 1840s who encouraged and corrected his early works.

He was also influenced by the works of the Tunisian reformer Hayreddin Pasha and adopted his approach of utilising freedom of expression for bringing reforms in the Muslim community.

The western writers who most influenced his political thoughts were the Utilitarians such as John Stuart Mill, whose works he often quoted in his own writings. He was also influenced by the essays of Joseph Addison and Richard Steele and modelled his own journals after their Tatler and Spectator.

Literary works
While continuing to work as a junior clerk, Sir Syed began focusing on writing, from the age of 23 (in 1840), on various subjects (from mechanics to educational issues), mainly in Urdu, where he wrote, at least, 6000 pages. He also wrote a well known book on archaeology called Athar-ul-Sandeed. He also developed interest in literature as he met a few of India's well known writers.

Religious works

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan's career as an author began when he published a series of treatises in Urdu on religious subjects in 1842. In his early religious writings his religious thoughts were more orthodox; over time, with his increasing contact with the West, his views gradually became more independent. His early works show the influence of Sufism and his upbringing in Delhi. The main themes of these works are popularization of the practices of the Islamic prophet Muhammad as the one true path and the desire to reform the lives of Indian Muslims from religious innovations, thus endeavoring for the purity of Islamic belief in India.

His later religious writings, such as his commentary on the Torah and Gospel and his essays on Muhammad, were stimulated in response to Christian missionary activities in India and the aggressive view of British historians towards Islam.

Early treatises
His first treatise published in 1842 was a biographical sketch of Muhammad, called Jila al-Qulub bi Zikr al-Mahbub (Delight of the Hearts in Remembering the Beloved), in line with the reformist ideas of Shah Waliullah. It was prose for recitation on Mawlid written in idiomatic Urdu. He published his second treatise Tuhfa-i Hasan (The Gift to Hasan) in 1844 on the encouragement of his friend Nur al Hasan. It is an Urdu translation of the tenth and twelfth chapter of Shah Abdul Aziz Dehlavi's Tuhfah-i Ithna Ashariyya (A treatise on the 12 Imams), which was a critique of Shia beliefs. The tenth chapter deals and answers the Shia accusations against the Sahabi and Hazrat Aisha and the twelfth deals with the Shia doctrines of tawalli and tabarri.

His third treatise, entitled Kalimat al-Haqq (The True Discourse), was published in 1849. It is a critique of the prevalent Sufi practices around pir–murid relationships. The first part of the work is devoted to the concept of piri. In this part, he argues that Muhammad is the only valid pir. The work's second part is focused on muridi and the notion of bay'ah. He calls for reforms in the pir-murid relationship and the associated practises. Rah i Sunna dar radd i Bid'a (The Sunna and the Rejection of Innovations), his fourth treatise, was published in 1850. In this work, he expressed his opposition to certain religious practices and beliefs of his fellow Muslims, which he felt were mixed with innovation and deviated from the true Sunnah. In 1852 he published Namiqa dar bayan masala tasawwur-i-Shaikh (A Letter Explaining the Teaching of tasawwur i shaikh), in which he defended tasawwur-i-Shaikh, the Sufi practice of visualizing within, the image of one's spiritual guide. In 1853 he translated some passages of al-Ghazali's Kimiya al Sa'ada (The Alchemy of Happiness).

Commentary of the Torah and Gospel
In 1862 while stationed at Ghazipur, Sir Syed started working on a commentary on the Bible and its teaching, with the aim to explain them in terms of Islam. It was published in Urdu and English in three parts from 1862 to 1865 under the title Tabin al-al-kalam Fi tafsir altawrat Wa 'I-injil'ala millat al Islam (Elucidation of the World in Commentary of the Torah and Gospel According to the Religion of Islam). While the first part deals with the Islamic approach towards biblical writings, the second and third part contains commentary on the Book of Genesis and the Gospel of Matthew respectively.

Essays on the Life of Muhammad
In 1869 he wrote Al-Khutbat al-Ahmadiya fi'l Arab wa'I Sirat al-Muhammadiya (A Series of Essays on the Life of Prophet Muhammad and Subjects Subsidiary Therein) as a rejoinder to William Muir's widely known four-part book, The Life of Mahomet published in 1864. He was deeply distressed by Muir's portrayal of Islam and the character of Muhammad. He was concerned that the book might create doubts among the younger generation of Muslims. In order to prepare for the book, he accompanied his son to England, as he wanted to get a first-hand impression of Western civilisation.

He was also a reader of Darwin and, while not agreeing with all of his ideas, he could be described as a sort of theistic evolutionist like his contemporary Asa Gray. Syed Ahmad was one of the first in the Islamic world to adopt this view. His arguments in favour of the idea were based on both findings from his own scientific research and quotes from earlier Islamic scholars like Al-Jahiz, Ibn Khaldun and Shah Waliullah.

Tafsir-ul-Quran
Sir Syed started working on a tafsir, or commentary on the Quran, in 1877. It was published as Tafsir ul-Quran in seven volumes; the first volume appeared in 1880 and the last volume was published six years after his death in 1904. In this work, he analysed and interpreted 16 paras and 13 surahs of the Quran. In the first volume, he also included a detailed article titled Tahrir fi Usool al-Tafsir (The Notes on the Principles of Commentary), in which he laid down 15 principles on which he based his commentary.

Historical works
History was Sir Syed's preferred area of study and in 1840, Sir Syed compiled a book of chronological tables about the Timurid rulers of Delhi from Timur to Bahadur Shah Zafar at the behest of Robert N. C. Hamilton, his patron. It was later published under the title Jam-i-Jum (Jamshed's Cup). In Silsilat-ul-Mulk he compiled the biographical data of all the rulers of Delhi in history. During his stay in Bijnor, he wrote a history on the city of Bijnor, but it was destroyed during the 1857 rebellion. He also wrote critical editions of books like Ziauddin Barani's Tarikh-e-Firoz Shahi published in 1862, and Tuzk-e-Jahangiri published in 1864. However, his most important historical works that brought him fame as a scholar were the two editions of Asar-us-Sanadid and that of the Ain-e-Akbari.

Asar-us-Sanadid
In 1847 he published the book Asar-us-Sanadid (The Remnants of Ancient Heroes) documenting antiquities of Delhi dating from the medieval era. The work is divided into four sections: the first describes the buildings outside the city of Delhi; the second describes the buildings around the Delhi Fort; the third describes the monuments in Shahjahanabad; and the last section presents a brief historical account of the various settlements of Delhi as well as the prominent inhabitants of Delhi, including Sufis (such as Shah Ghulam Ali and Saiyid Ahmad Shahid), physicians, scholars, poets, calligraphers, and musicians. It also contained around 130 illustrations drawn by Faiz Ali Khan and Mirza Shahrukh Beg, which were the first lithographically produced book illustrations in India. Syed Ahmad released the second edition of Ansar-as-sanadid in 1854. However, the second edition was radically different from the first – the second was abbreviated and more factual. This work brought Sir Syed a wider fame and earned him the reputation of a cultured scholar. In 1861, it was translated into French by Gracin de Tassy in Paris. The book was also presented to the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland in London, which made him an honorary fellow.

Ain-e-Akbari

In 1855, he finished his scholarly, and illustrated edition of Abul Fazl's A'in-e Akbari. The first and the third volume of the work were both published in 1855. The second volume, sent to the publisher in 1857, was destroyed in the rebellion that took place that year. Having finished the work to his satisfaction, and believing that Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib was a person who would appreciate his labours, Syed Ahmad approached the great Ghalib to write a taqriz (in the convention of the times, a laudatory foreword) for it. Ghalib obliged, but what he did produce was a short Persian poem castigating the A'in-e Akbari, and by implication, the imperial, sumptuous, literate and learned Mughal culture of which it was a product. The least that could be said against it was that the book had little value even as an antique document. Ghalib practically reprimanded Syed Ahmad Khan for wasting his talents and time on dead things. Worse, he praised sky-high the "sahibs of England" who at that time held all the keys to all the a'ins in this world.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan never again wrote a word in praise of the A'in-e Akbari and in fact gave up taking an active interest in history and archaeology. He did edit another two historical texts over the next few years, but neither of them was anything like the A'in: a vast and triumphalist document on the governance of Akbar.

Political works
During the uprising of 1857, Sir Syed was posted as a chief assessment officer at the court in Bijnor. He recorded the history of the mutiny in Tarikh i Sarkashi-ye Bijnor (History of the Bijnor Rebellion), which was published in 1858. He was deeply worried about the consequences of the mutiny for his fellow Muslims in particular. He wrote a number of articles and pamphlets such as Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind (The Causes of the Indian Revolt), Loyal Muhammadans of India,  and Review on Dr Hunter's Indian Musalmans: Are They Bound in Conscience to Rebel Against the Queen? to defend Muslims and Islam and create a cordial relations between the British authorities and the Muslim community.

Causes of the Indian Revolt
Sir Syed supported the East India Company during the 1857 uprising, a role which has been criticised by some nationalists such as Jamaluddin Afghani. In 1859 Sir Syed published the booklet Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind (The Causes of the Indian Revolt) in Urdu in which he studied the causes of the Indian revolt. In this, his most famous work, he rejected the common notion that the conspiracy was planned by Muslim elites, who resented the diminishing influence of Muslim monarchs. He blamed the East India Company for its aggressive expansion as well as the ignorance of British politicians regarding Indian culture. Sir Syed advised the British to appoint Muslims to assist in administration, to prevent what he called 'haramzadgi' (a vulgar deed) such as the mutiny.

Maulana Altaf Hussain Hali wrote in the biography of Sir Syed that: "As soon as Sir Syed reached Muradabad, he began to write the pamphlet entitled The Causes of the Indian Revolt (Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind), in which he did his best to clear the people of India, and especially the Muslims, of the charge of Mutiny. In spite of the obvious danger, he made a courageous and thorough report of the accusations people were making against the Government and refused theory which the British had invented to explain the causes of the Mutiny."

When the work was finished, without waiting for an English translation, Sir Syed sent the Urdu version to be printed at the Mufassilat Gazette Press in Agra. Within a few weeks, he received 500 copies back from the printers. One of his friends warned him not to send the pamphlet to the British Parliament or to the Government of India. Rae Shankar Das, a great friend of Sir Syed, begged him to burn the books rather than put his life in danger. Sir Syed replied that he was bringing these matters to the attention of the British for the good of his own people, of his country, and of the government itself. He said that if he came to any harm while doing something that would greatly benefit the rulers and the subjects of India alike, he would gladly suffer whatever befell him. When Rae Shankar Das saw that Sir Syed's mind was made up and nothing could be done to change it, he wept and remained silent. After performing a supplementary prayer and asking God's blessing, Sir Syed sent almost all the 500 copies of his pamphlet to England, one to the government, and kept the rest himself.

When the government of India had the book translated and presented before the council, Lord Canning, the governor-general, and Sir Bartle Frere accepted it as a sincere and friendly report. The foreign secretary Cecil Beadon, however, severely attacked it, calling it 'an extremely seditious pamphlet'. He wanted a proper inquiry into the matter and said that the author, unless he could give a satisfactory explanation, should be harshly dealt with. Since no other member of the Council agreed with his opinion, his attack did no harm.

Later, Sir Syed was invited to attend Lord Canning's durbar in Farrukhabad and happened to meet the foreign secretary there. He told Sir Syed that he was displeased with the pamphlet and added that if he had really had the government's interests at heart, he would not have made his opinion known in this way throughout the country; he would have communicated it directly to the government. Sir Syed replied that he had only had 500 copies printed, the majority of which he had sent to England, one had been given to the government of India, and the remaining copies were still in his possession. Furthermore, he had the receipt to prove it. He was aware, he added, that the view of the rulers had been distorted by the stress and anxieties of the times, which made it difficult to put even the most straightforward problem in its right perspective. It was for this reason that he had not communicated his thoughts publicly. He promised that for every copy that could be found circulating in India he would personally pay 1,000 rupees. At first, Beadon was not convinced and asked Sir Syed over and over again if he was sure that no other copy had been distributed in India. Sir Syed reassured him on this matter, and Beadon never mentioned it again. Later he became one of Sir Syed's strongest supporters.

Many official translations were made of the Urdu text of The Causes of the Indian Revolt. The one undertaken by the India Office formed the subject of many discussions and debates. The pamphlet was also translated by the government of India and several members of parliament, but no version was offered to the public. A translation which had been started by Auckland Colvin, a government official was finished by Sir Syed's friend, Colonel G.F.I. Graham, and finally published in 1873.

Loyal Muhammadans of India
In 1860 Sir Syed wrote a series of bilingual pamphlets called the Risala Khair Khwahan-e Musalmanan-e-Hind (An Account of the Loyal Mohammedans  of India) from Meerut containing episodes in the life of those Muslims who stood by the British during the 1857 uprising. It was published in three issues, the first and second issues appeared in 1860, while the third was published in 1861. The first issue highlighted the bravery of those Muslims who stood by the British while the second issue carried an article on jihad in which he makes a clear distinction between jihad and rebellion.

Review on Hunter's Indian Musalmans
In August 1871 William Wilson Hunter, a Scottish historian and member of the Indian Civil Service published Indian Musalmans: Are They Bound in Conscience to Rebel Against the Queen? in which he discussed the Indian Wahabi movement, its role in the rebellion and argued that the Muslims were a threat to the Empire. Hunter links Wahhabism with rebellion and terms them as self-stylised jihadis. His accusations led to the prosecution of Muslims in India especially in the North Western Provinces and those associated with Wahhabism were severely punished. Many Muslims found his arguments one-sided and this prompted Sir Syed to write a  rejoinder of the book. He reviewed the book in The Pioneer in a series of articles which were reprinted in Aligarh Institute Gazette from 24 November 1871, to 23 February 1872. They were later collected and published in a book in England by Hafiz Ahmad Hasan, the Vakil of Tonk. Sir Syed based his arguments upon Muhammad's own conduct during holy wars.

Muslim reformer

Through the 1850s, Syed Ahmad Khan began developing a strong passion for education. While pursuing studies of different subjects including European jurisprudence, Sir Syed began to realise the advantages of Western-style education, which was being offered at newly established colleges across India. Despite being a devout Muslim, Sir Syed criticised the influence of traditional dogma and religious orthodoxy, which had made most Indian Muslims suspicious of British influences. Sir Syed began feeling increasingly concerned for the future of Muslim communities. A scion of Mughal nobility, Sir Syed had been reared in the finest traditions of Muslim elite culture and was aware of the steady decline of Muslim political power across India. The animosity between the British and Muslims before and after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 threatened to marginalise Muslim communities across India for many generations.

Scientific Society
Sir Syed intensified his work to promote co-operation with British authorities, promoting loyalty to the Empire amongst Indian Muslims. Committed to working for the upliftment of Muslims, Sir Syed founded a modern madrassa in Muradabad in 1859; this was one of the first religious schools to impart scientific education. Sir Syed also worked on social causes, helping to organise relief for the famine-struck people of North-West Province in 1860. While posted in Ghazipur in 1863, he established a madrasa which later became the Victoria High school. He also formed the Scientific Society in Ghazipur to promote educational reforms across the country. He wrote an insightful tract on education titled Iltimas Ba Khidmat-e-Sakinan-e-Hind Dar Bab-e- Taraqqi Taleem in Ahl-e-Hind (Address to the natives of Hindoostan on education).

Upon his transfer to Aligarh in 1864, Sir Syed began working wholeheartedly as an educator. The Scientific Society was transferred from Ghazipur to Aligarh and rechristened as the Scientific Society of Aligarh. Modelling it after the Royal Society and the Royal Asiatic Society, Sir Syed assembled Muslim scholars from different parts of the country. The Society held annual conferences, disbursed funds for educational causes and regularly published a journal on scientific subjects in English and Urdu. Sir Syed felt that the socio-economic future of Muslims was threatened by their orthodox aversions to modern science and technology. He published many writings promoting liberal, rational interpretations of Islamic scriptures, struggling to find rational interpretations for jinn, angels, and miracles of the prophets.
One example was the reaction to his argument – which appeared in his tafsir (exegesis) of the Quran – that riba referred to interest charges when lending money to the poor, but not to the rich, nor to borrowers "in trade or in industry", since this finance supported "trade, national welfare and prosperity". While many jurists declared all interest to be riba, (according to Sir Syed) this was based "on their own authority and deduction" rather than the Quran.

Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College
On 1 April 1869 he went, along with his sons Syed Mahmood and Syed Hamed, to England, where he was awarded the Order of the Star of India from the British government on 6 August. Travelling across England, he visited its colleges and was inspired by the culture of learning established after the Renaissance. Sir Syed returned to India in the following year determined to build a school modelled on Cambridge and Oxford imparting modern education to Indians. Upon his return, he established the Khwastgaran-i-Taraqqi-i-Talim-i-Musalman (Committee for the Better Diffusion and Advancement of Learning among Muhammadans) on 26 December 1870. By 1872, it was converted into a Fund Committee for the establishment of a school. Sir Syed described his vision of the institution he proposed to establish in an article written sometime in 1872 and re-printed in the Aligarh Institute Gazette of 5 April 1911:

I may appear to be dreaming and talking like Shaikh Chilli, but we aim to turn this MAO College into a University similar to that of Oxford or Cambridge. Like the churches of Oxford and Cambridge, there will be mosques attached to each College... The College will have a dispensary with a Doctor and a compounder, besides a Unani Hakim. It will be mandatory on boys in residence to join the congregational prayers (namaz) at all the five times. Students of other religions will be exempted from this religious observance. Muslim students will have a uniform consisting of a black alpaca, half-sleeved chugha and a red Fez cap... Bad and abusive words which boys generally pick up and get used to, will be strictly prohibited. Even such a word as a "liar" will be treated as an abuse to be prohibited. They will have food either on tables of European style or on chaukis in the manner of the Arabs... Smoking of cigarette or huqqa and the chewing of betels shall be strictly prohibited. No corporal punishment or any such punishment as is likely to injure a student's self-respect will be permissible... It will be strictly enforced that Shia and Sunni boys shall not discuss their religious differences in the College or in the boarding house. At present it is like a day dream. I pray to God that this dream may come true."

He began publishing the journal Tehzeeb-ul-Akhlaq (Social Reformer) on 24 December 1870 to spread awareness and knowledge on modern subjects and promote reforms in Muslim society. Sir Syed worked to promote reinterpretation of Muslim ideology in order to reconcile tradition with Western education. He argued in several books on Islam that the Qur'an rested on an appreciation of reason and natural law, making scientific inquiry important to being a good Muslim.

By 1873, the committee under Sir Syed issued proposals for the construction of a college in Aligarh. Maulvi Samiullah Khan was appointed as the secretary of the sub-committee of the proposed school. Members of the committee toured the country in order to raise funds for the school, which was finally  established on 24 May 1875 in Aligarh as the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental Collegiate School. Two years later, in 1877, the school was converted into the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College. He retired from his career as a jurist the following year, concentrating entirely on developing the college and on religious reform. Sir Syed's pioneering work received support from the British. Although intensely criticised by orthodox religious leaders hostile to modern influences, Sir Syed's new institution attracted a large student body, mainly drawn from the Muslim gentry and middle classes. However, MAO College was open to all communities, and had a sizeable number of Hindu students. The first graduate of the college was a Hindu. The curriculum at the college involved scientific and Western subjects, as well as Oriental subjects and religious education. The first chancellor was Sultan Shah Jahan Begum, a prominent Muslim noblewoman, and Sir Syed invited an Englishman, Theodore Beck, to serve as the first college principal. The college was originally affiliated with Calcutta University but was transferred to the Allahabad University in 1885. Near the turn of the 20th century, it began publishing its own magazine and established a law school. In 1920, the college was transformed into Aligarh Muslim University.

Muhammadan Educational Conference
After founding the Anglo-Oriental College, Sir Syed felt the need of a pan-India organisation to propagate the ideas of his movement. To this cause, he established the All India Muhammadan Educational Congress with its headquarters in Aligarh. The first session of the Congress was held at Aligarh in 1886 under the presidency of Maulvi Samiullah Khan. The main objective of the organisation was to promote educational development among Muslims through conferences throughout India and transform the Anglo-Oriental College to the status of university. The name of the organisation was changed to All India Muhammadan Educational Conference to avoid confusion with the Indian National Congress.

Opposition and criticism
Sir Syed's Aligarh Movement and his desire to open institutions for Western education was opposed by the orthodox Indian Muslims. Imdad Ali, the then deputy collector of Kanpur condemned the foundation of Anglo-Oriental College. Several periodicals such as Noor-ul-Afaq, Noor-ul-Anwar, and Taed-ul-Islam were started by his opponents in opposition to Tehzeeb-ul-Akhlaq to dissuade Muslims from joining the Aligarh Movement. Many other orthodox Islamic schools condemned him as out of the fold of Islam (i.e. a kafir). According to J.M.S. Baljon his ideas created "a real hurricane of protests and outbursts of wrath" among the local clerics "in every town and village" in Muslim India, who issued fatawa "declaring him to be a kafir" (unbeliever). He was also accused of having converted to Christianity. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the Ahmadiyya movement criticised some of his writings in a polemic titled Barakat al Dua. Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, the Pan-Islamic ideologue, launched a vitriolic attack on him through his periodical calling him a "Naturist".

Many of his own friends, like Nawab Muhsin ul Mulk, expressed their significant reservations at his religious ideas (many of which were expounded in his commentary of Qur'an). Syed Ahmad Khan's controversial views such as his rejection of miracles, denial of the existence of angels, downplaying the status of prophethood, etc. arose disdain also from orthodox adherents of Waliullahi reform trends, such as Ahl-e Hadith and Deobandis. Ahl-i Hadith were particularly severe in their condemnation of Ahmad Khan; with many of its leaders like Muḥammad Ḥusayn Baṭālvī (d. 1920 C.E/ 1338 A.H) declaring Takfir (excommunication) of Sir Syed as an apostate.

Maulana Qasim Nanautawi, the founder of Darul Uloom Deoband, expressed in a letter to an acquaintance of his and Sir Syed's:

"No doubt, I greatly admire, as per what I've heard, Syed (Ahmad) Sahab's courage (Ūlul Azmi) and concern for the Muslims (Dardmandi e Ahl e Islam). For this if I shall express my affection for him, it will be rightful. However, similar to this (or rather more than this), upon hearing about his disturbed (Fāsid) beliefs, I have deep complains and sorrow for him"

Maulana Qasim Nanautawi wrote directly to Sir Syed as well, explaining him some of his "noteworthy" mistakes. This correspondence was published as "Tasfiyat ul Aqaaid" in 1887 C.E

Political thoughts and activities
Shan Muhammad in his book Sir Syed Ahmad Khan: a political biography notes that Sir Syed was foremost an educationist and reformer and not an academic thinker, and so his political philosophy is related to the circumstances of his times. Important events that shaped his political outlook includes the 1857 Rebellion, the premiership of William Ewart Gladstone in England (which started in 1868) and the viceroyalty of Lord Ripon in India.

Sir Syed was deeply religious. His political views were centered on Islam and an Islamic viewpoint.

In 1878, Sir Syed was nominated to the Viceroy's Legislative Council. He testified before the education commission to promote the establishment of more colleges and schools across India. At the start of his political career, Sir Syed was an advocate of Hindu–Muslim unity and India's composite culture, wanting to empower all Indians. In the same year, Sir Syed founded the Muhammadan Association to promote political co-operation amongst Indian Muslims from different parts of the country. In 1886, he organised the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference in Aligarh, which promoted his vision of modern education and political unity for Muslims. His works made him the most prominent Muslim politician in 19th century India, often influencing the attitude of Muslims on various national issues.

Opposition to active politics
Sir Syed discouraged the active involvement of Muslims in politics. He regarded the attainment of higher English education, not political pursuits, as the first priority for the upliftmeant of the Muslim community. He declined to lend support to the National Muhammadan Association, a political organisation founded by Syed Ameer Ali in 1887 and refused to participate in the Muhammedan National Conference at Lahore which he regarded as a political agitation.

When the Indian National Congress was established in 1885 he did not express any opinion about it but later he became an active critic of the organisation and expressed his active opposition to the Congress.

Sir Syed's opposition received criticism from Maulvi Sharaf-ul-Haqq who criticised his views about the Congress demands in a risala titled Kalam Mufid-al-Anam. Lala Lajpat Rai wrote a series of open letters expressing grief and surprise at his change in attitude towards Congress.

Sir Syed advocated the use of constitutional machinery, such as participation in administration, for expressing grievances to the British government.
He supported the efforts of Indian political leaders Surendranath Banerjee and Dadabhai Naoroji to obtain representation for Indians in the government and civil services. In 1883, he founded the Muhammadan Civil Service Fund Association to encourage and support the entry of Muslim graduates into the Indian Civil Service (ICS). In 1883, he established the Muhammedan Association to put forward grievances of the Muslims to the Imperial Legislative Council. He was nominated as a member of the Civil Service Commission in 1887 by Lord Dufferin. In 1888, he along with Raja Shiv Prasad of Benaras established the United Patriotic Association at Aligarh to promote political co-operation with the British and Muslim participation in the British government.

Hindu–Muslim unity
At the start of his career, Syed Ahmad Khan advocated for Hindu–Muslim unity in Colonial India. He stated: "India is a beautiful bride and Hindus and Muslims are her two eyes. If one of them is lost, this beautiful bride will become ugly." Being raised in the diverse city of Delhi, Syed Ahmad Khan was exposed to the festivals of both Hindus and Muslims. He collected Hindu scriptures and "had a commitment to the country's composite culture", being close friends with Swami Vivekanand to Debendranath Tagore. In the 19th century, he opposed cow slaughter, even stopping a fellow Muslim from sacrificing one for Eid al-Adha to promote peace between Muslims and Hindus. Addressing a large gathering in Gurdaspur on 27 January 1884, Sir Syed said:

When he founded Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, he opened its admissions to Indians of all faiths, with its first principal Henry Siddons being a Christian and one of its patrons Mahendra Singh of Patiala being a Sikh. Shafey Kidwai notes that Sir Syed promoted "advocacy of the empowerment of all Indians".

In his book Causes of the Indian Revolt, which was originally published in Urdu in 1858, he referred to Hindus and Muslims as 'two antagonistic races' when highlighting the British folly of bringing them together in a single unit, thereby endangering the British position.

Advocacy of Urdu

The onset of the Hindi–Urdu controversy of 1867 saw the emergence of Sir Syed as a champion for cause of the Urdu language. He became a leading Muslim voice opposing the adoption of Hindi as a second official language of the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh). Sir Syed perceived Urdu as the lingua franca of the United Provinces which was created as a confluence of Muslim and Hindu contributions in India. Having been developed during the Mughal period, Urdu was used as a secondary language to Persian, the official language of the Mughal court. Since the decline of the Mughal dynasty, Sir Syed promoted the use of Urdu through his own writings. Under Sir Syed, the Scientific Society translated Western works only into Urdu. The schools established by Sir Syed imparted education in the Urdu medium. The demand for Hindi, led largely by Hindus, was to Sir Syed an erosion of the centuries-old Muslim cultural domination of India. Testifying before the British-appointed education commission, Sir Syed controversially exclaimed that "Urdu was the language of gentry and Hindi that of the vulgar." His remarks provoked a hostile response from Hindu leaders, who unified across the nation to demand the recognition of Hindi.

The success of the Hindi movement led Sir Syed to further advocate Urdu as the symbol of Muslim heritage and as the language of all Indian Muslims. His educational and political work grew increasingly centred around and exclusively for Muslim interests. He also sought to persuade the British to give Urdu extensive official use and patronage. His colleagues such as Mohsin-ul-Mulk and Maulvi Abdul Haq developed organisations such as the Urdu Defence Association and the Anjuman Taraqqi-i-Urdu, committed to the perpetuation of Urdu. All these colleagues led efforts that resulted in the adoption of Urdu as the official language of the Hyderabad State and as the medium of instruction in the Osmania University. To Muslims in northern and western India, Urdu had become an integral part of political and cultural identity. However, the division over the use of Hindi or Urdu further provoked communal conflict between Muslims and Hindus in India.

Two-nation theory
Sir Syed is considered as the first person to theorize the idea of separate nationhood for Muslims in subcontinent. In a speech at Meerut in 1888 he presented on overall scenario of post colonial phase in which he described Muslims and Hindus as two nations. He's regarded as the father of two-nation theory and the pioneer of Muslim nationalism which led to the partition of India.

Urdu-Hindi controversy is seen as the transformation of Sir Syed's views towards Muslim nationhood which he expressed in his speeches during later days. While fearful of the loss of Muslim political power owing to the community's backwardness, Sir Syed was also averse to the prospect of democratic self-government, which would give control of government to the Hindu-majority population:

"At this time our nation is in a bad state in regards education and wealth, but God has given us the light of religion and the Quran is present for our guidance, which has ordained them and us to be friends. Now God has made them rulers over us. Therefore we should cultivate friendship with them, and should adopt that method by which their rule may remain permanent and firm in India, and may not pass into the hands of the Bengalis... If we join the political movement of the Bengalis our nation will reap a loss, for we do not want to become subjects of the Hindus instead of the subjects of the "people of the Book..."

Later in his life he said:
 "Suppose that the English community and the army were to leave India, taking with them all their cannons and their splendid weapons and all else, who then would be the rulers of India?...

Is it possible that under these circumstances two nations—the Mohammedans and the Hindus—could sit on the same throne and remain equal in power? Most certainly not. It is necessary that one of them should conquer the other. To hope that both could remain equal is to desire the impossible and the inconceivable. But until one nation has conquered the other and made it obedient, peace cannot reign in the land."

Personal life

In 1836, he married Parsa Begum, alias Mubarak Begum. They had two sons, Syed Hamid and Syed Mahmood, and a daughter, Ameena, who died at a young age.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan Bahadur lived the last two decades of his life in Aligarh, regarded widely as the mentor of 19th and 20th century Muslim entrepreneurs. Battling illnesses and old age, Sir Syed died on 27 March 1898. He was buried in Sir Syed Masjid at the campus of  Aligarh Muslim University.

Legacy and influence

Syed Ahmad is widely commemorated across South Asia as a great Muslim social reformer and visionary. His educational model and progressive thinking inspired Muslim elites who supported the All India Muslim League. He founded the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference in 1886 in order to promote Western education, especially science and literature, among India's Muslims. The conference, in addition to generating funds for Ahmad Khan's Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, motivated Muslim elites to propose expansion of educational uplift elsewhere, known as the Aligarh Movement. In turn, this new awareness of Muslim needs helped stimulate a political consciousness among Muslim elites, who went on to form the AIML, which led Muslims of India towards the formation of Pakistan.

He was an influence on several political leaders, thinkers and writers such as Muhammad Iqbal, Abul Kalam Azad, Sayyid Mumtaz Ali Altaf Hussain Hali, Shibli Nomani, Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk, Chiragh Ali, and Nazir Ahmad Dehlvi.

The university he founded remains one of India's most prominent institutions and served as the arsenal of Muslim India. Prominent alumni of Aligarh include Muslim political leaders Maulana Mohammad Ali Jouhar, Abdur Rab Nishtar, Maulana Shaukat Ali and Maulvi Abdul Haq. The first two Prime Ministers of Pakistan, Liaquat Ali Khan and Khawaja Nazimuddin, as well as Indian President Dr. Zakir Husain, are amongst Aligarh's most famous graduates. His birth anniversary is celebrated as Sir Syed Day every year by the university and its alumni.

Several educational institutions in India and Pakistan such as Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology, Sir Syed CASE Institute of Technology and Sir Syed College, Taliparamba are named after him.

Honours
On 2 June 1869, Syed Ahmad Khan was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Star of India (CSI), for his service as Principal Sadr Amin. He was appointed a fellow of the Calcutta and Allahabad Universities by the Viceroy in the years 1876 and 1887 respectively.

Syed Ahmad was later bestowed with the suffix of 'Khan Bahadur' and was subsequently knighted by the British government in the 1888 New Year Honours as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India (KCSI). for his loyalty to the British crown, through his membership of the Imperial Legislative Council and in the following year he received an LL.D. honoris causa from the Edinburgh University.

India Post issued commemorative postage stamps in his honour in 1973 and 1998.

Pakistan Postal Services also issued a commemorative postage stamp in his honour in 1990 in its 'Pioneers of Freedom' series.

In 1997 Syed Ahmad Khan was commemorated with an English Heritage blue plaque at 21 Mecklenburgh Square in Bloomsbury, where he lived in 1869–70.

On 2017, commemorative Rs. 50 coin featuring Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was revealed by State Bank of Pakistan on his 200th birth anniversary.

On 14 August 2022, marking the diamond jubilee celebrations of Pakistan's independence, State Bank of Pakistan revealed a commemorative Rs.75 note featuring Syed Ahmed Khan along with other founding fathers signifying their struggle for country's independence.

Bibliography

Legal works
 Act No. 10 (Stamp Act) 1862.
 Act No. 14 (Limitation Act )1859–1864.
 Act No. 16 (Regarding registration documents) – Allyson, 1864.
 Act No. 18 (Regarding women's rights) 1866.

Religious works
 Jila al- Qulub bi Zikr al-Mahbub (Delight of the Hearts in Remembering the Beloved), Delhi, 1843.
 Tuhfa-i Hasan (The Gift to Hasan), 1844
 Tarjama fawa'id al-afkar fi amal al-farjar, Delhi 1846.
 Mazumm ba nisbat tanazzul ulum-i-diniya wa Arabiya wa falsafa-i-Yunaniya, Agra, 1857.
 Risala Tahqiq Lafzi-i-Nassara, 1860.
 Ahkam Tu'am Ahl-Kitab, Kanpur, 1868.
 Risala ho wal Mojud, 1880.
 Kimiya-i-Sa'dat, 2 fasl, 1883.
 Namiqa fi Bayan Mas'ala Tasawwur al-Shaikh, Aligarh, 1883.
 Rah-i-Sunnat dar rad-i-bid'at, Aligarh, 1883.
 Tarqim fi qisa ashab al-kahf wal-Raqim, Agra, 1889.
 Izalat ul-Chain as Zi'al Qarnain, Agra, 1889.
 Khulq al-Insan ala ma fi al-Quran, Agra, 1892.
 Al-Du'a Wa'l Istajaba, Agra, 1892.
 Tahrir fi Usul al-Tafsir, Agra, 1892.
 Al-Nazar Fi Ba'z Masa'il Imam Al-Ghazzali, Agra.
 Risala Ibtal-i-Ghulami, Agra, 1893.
 Tafsir al-Jinn Wa'l Jan ala ma fi al-Qur'an, Rahmani Press, Lahore, 1893, Agra, 1891.
 Tabyin-ul-Kalam fi Tafsir-al-turat-wa'l Injil ala Mullat-al-Islam (The Mohomedan Commentary on the Holy Bible).
 Tafsir-ul-Qura'n
 Vol. I Aligarh, 1880,
 Vol. II Aligarh, 1882, Agra, 1903.
 Vol. III Aligarh, 1885
 Vol. IV Aligarh, 1888
 Vol. V Aligarh, 1892.
 Vol. VI Aligarh, 1895
 Vol. VII Agra, 1904.
 Tafsir-a-Samawat, Agra.
 Tasfiyad al'Aquid (Being the correspondence between Syed Ahmad Khan and Maulana Muhammad Qasim of Deobund).

Historical works

 A'in-e-Akbari (Edition with Illustration), Delhi.
 Asrar-us-Sanadid (i) Syed-ul-Akhbar, 1847, (II) Mata-i-Sultani, 1852.
 Description des monument de Delhi in 1852, D'a Pre Le Texte Hindostani De Saiyid Ahmad Khan (tr. by M. Garcin De Tassy), Paris, 1861.
 Jam-i-Jum, Akbarabad, 1940.
 Silsilat-ul-Muluk, Musaraf ul Mataba', Delhi, 1852.
 Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi (Edition), Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 1862.
 Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (edition Aligarh, 1864).

Biographical works
 Al-Khutbat al-Ahmadiya fi'l Arab wa'I Sirat al-Muhammadiya : Aligarh, 1900, English translation, London, 1869–70.
 Sirat-i-Faridiya, Agra, 1896.

Political works
 Asbab-i-Baghawat-e-Hind, Urdu 1858 and English edition, Banaras.
 Lecture Indian National Congress Madras Par, Kanpur, 1887.
 Lectures on the Act XVI of 1864, delivered on 4 December 1864 for the Scientific Society, Allygurh, 1864.
 Musalmanon ki qismat ka faisla (Taqarir-e-Syed Ahmad Khan wa Syed Mehdi Ali Khan etc.) Agra, 1894.
 On Hunter's: Our Indian Mussulmans' London, 1872.
 Present State of Indian Politics (Consisting of lectures and Speeches) Allahabad, 1888.
 Sarkashi Zilla Binjor, Agra 1858.

Lectures
 Iltimas be Khidmat Sakinan-i-Hindustan dar bad tarraqi ta' lim ahl-i.Hind, Ghazipore, 1863.
 Lecture dar bab targhib wa tahris talim itfal-i-Musalmanan, in 1895, Agra 1896.
 Lecture Madrasaat ul-Ulum Aligarh Key Tarikhi halat Par, Agra. 1889.
 Lecture Ijlas Dahum Muhammadan Educational Conference, Agra, 1896.
 Lecture Muta'liq Ijlas Yazdahum Muhammadan Educational Conference, Agra, 1896.
 Majmu'a Resolution Haye dah sala (Resolutions passed by the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental Educational Conference from 1886 to 1895) ed. by Sir Syed Ahmad, Agra, 1896.
 Report Salana (Annual Report of the Boarding House of Madrasat-ul-Ulum 1879–1880).
 Khutbat-e-Ahmadia in the reply to "The Life of Mohamed" by William Muir, was penned in 1870.

Collected works
 Khutut-i-Sir Syed, ed Ross Masud, 1924.
 Majuma Lecture Kaye Sir Syed ed. Munshi Sirajuddin, Sadhora 1892.
 Maqalat-i-Sir-Syed ed. by 'Abdullah Khvesgri, Aligarh, 1952.
 Maqalat-i-Sir Syed, ed. By Muhammad Ismail, Lahore,
 Makatib-i-Sir Syed, Mustaq Husain, Delhi, 1960.
 Maktubat-i-Sir Syed, Muhammad Ismail Panipati, Lahore, 1959.
 Makummal Majumua Lectures wa speeches. ed. Malik Fazaluddin, Lahore, 1900.
 Muktubat al-Khullan ed. Mohd. Usman Maqbul, Aligarh 1915.
 Tasanif-i-Ahmadiya (Collection of Syed Ahmad Khan's works on religions topics) in 8 parts.
 Stress on Holy Quran.
 Reformation of Faith.

Miscellaneous
 On the Use of the Sector (Urdu), Syed-ul-Akbar, 1846.
 Qaul-i-Matin dar Ibtal-i-Harkat i Zamin, Delhi, 1848.
 Tashil fi Jar-a-Saqil, Agra, 1844.
 Ik Nadan Khuda Parast aur Dana dunyadar Ki Kahani, Badaon, 1910.
 Kalamat-ul-Haqq, Aligarh

Journals, reports, and proceedings
 Tehzeeb-ul-Ikhlaq.
 Aligarh Institute Gazette.
 Proceedings of the Muhammadens Educational Conference.
 An Account of the Loyal Muhammadans of India, Parts I, II, III, Moufussel Press, Meerut, 1860.
 Proceedings of the Scientific Society.
 By-Laws of the Scientific Society.
 Addresses and speeches relating to the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh (1875–1898) ed. Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk, Aligarh, 1898.

See also
Aligarh Muslim University
Aligarh Movement
All India Muhammadan Educational Conference
Two-nation theory
Muslim nationalism in South Asia
All India Muslim League
Islamic Modernism

References

Cited sources

Further reading

The Glowing Legend of Sir Syed – A Centennial Tribute (1998), Ed. Syed Ziaur Rahman, Non-Resident Students' Centre, Aligarh Muslim University (Aligarh)
Prof. Iftikhar Alam Khan. Sir Syed aur Faney TameerSir Syed Academy, AMU. Aligarh
Prof. Iftikhar Alam Khan. Muslim University ki Kahani, Imarton ki zubani Educational publications, civil Lines, (Aligarh)
Prof. Iftikhar Alam Khan. Sir Syed aur Scientific SocietyPub by Sir Syed Academy, AMU.Aligarh.
Prof. Iftikhar Alam Khan. Sir Syed tahreek ka siyasi aur samaji pas manzarEducational Publishing house, Dhula Kounan, Delhi
Prof. Iftikhar Alam Khan. Sir Syed House ke Mah Wasal  (Aligarh)
Prof. Iftikhar Alam Khan. Sir Syed Daroon e Khana Educational Publications, Civil Lines. Aligarh
Prof. Iftikhar Alam Khan   " Sir Syed aur Jadeedyat" Pub. by Educational Publications, Delhi 012.
Prof. Iftikhar Alam Khan  " Sir Syed aur Hindustani Nizam-e-zaraat " Educational Publishing. Delhi.
Prof, Iftikhar Alam Khan  "Sir Syed Ka Nazaria-e-Talim". Educational Publishing House, Delhi, 2017.

Prof, Shafey Kidwai"Sawaneh-e-Sirsyed: Ek Bazdeed(2017), Brown Book House, Shmashad Market, Aligarh,202002
Prof.Shafey Kidwai; Aligarh   Aligarh  Institute Gazette Ek Tajziyati Mutaala,(2019)Brown Book House, Shamshad Market, Aligarh

External links

 Comprehensive detail about Aligarh Movement
 "Sir Seyyed Ahmad, Khan Bahadur, L.L.D, K.C.S.I." By Afzal Usmani

The Rich Legacy of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (Gulf News)
 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan His Life and Contribution (NewAgeIslam)
 Pioneers of the Nation (Mai Nahi Manta)
 Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan's speech at Meerut, 16 March 1888

1817 births
1898 deaths
Pakistan Movement
Leaders of the Pakistan Movement
19th-century Indian educational theorists
19th-century Muslim scholars of Islam
Indian people of Arab descent
19th-century Indian Muslims
Indian reformers
19th-century Indian judges
19th-century Indian philosophers
Muslim reformers
People of the Victorian era
Mughal nobility
Scholars from Delhi
People from British India
People from Aligarh
Knights Commander of the Order of the Star of India
Indian knights
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
University of the Punjab people
Works by Syed Ahmed Khan
Founders of Indian schools and colleges
Aligarh Muslim University people
Indian philanthropists
Theistic evolutionists
Aligarh Movement

Syed Ahmad Khan


Eugeniu Coșeriu (ou Eugenio Coseriu, nascido em 27 de julho de 1921, comuna de Mihăileni, condado entre guerras de Bălți, Romênia, hoje na República da Moldávia - d. 7 de setembro de 2002 , Tübingen , Alemanha ) foi um linguista romeno no exílio, membro de honra da Academia Romena (desde 1991)  . Ele é o fundador da primeira escola de idiomas da América do Sul e da Tübingen Language School. Eugeniu Coșeriu, o pai do que hoje é chamado de linguística integral, é um dos linguistas mais importantes do século XX.  Em 1970 ele cunhou os termos diatópico , diastrágico e diafásico para descrever a variação linguística.

Estudos
Ele se formou na escola secundária "Ion Creangă" em Bălți, na Romênia, depois continuou seus estudos em filologia nas universidades de Iași; ele também estudou filosofia na Universidade de Milão. Entre 1950 e 1963 lecionou na Universidade da República de Montevidéu, no Uruguai, entre 1961 e 1963 foi professor visitante na Universidade de Bonn, Alemanha . De 1963 até o final de sua vida foi professor na Universidade de Tübingen. Várias gerações de discípulos de Eugen Coseriu criaram a Escola de Lingüística de Tübingen. Ele foi um Doutor Honorário (doutor honoris causa) de quase 50 universidades ao redor do mundo.

Após seus estudos na Universidade de Iaşi , ele foi para a Itália em 1940 com uma bolsa do Instituto Italiano de Cultura e continuou a estudar na Universidade Sapienza de Roma, onde obteve seu doutorado em 1944 sob a direção de Giovanni Maver, com uma dissertação sobre a influência do "Chanson de geste" (canção de gestos) sobre a poesia folclórica dos povos eslavos do sul. Em 1944-1945 Coseriu esteve na Universidade de Pádua , depois de 1945 a 1949 na Universidade de Milão , onde obteve um doutorado em filosofia, sob a supervisão de Antonio Banfi.

Coseriu foi ativo na Universidade da República no Uruguai como Professor de Linguística Geral e Indo-Europeia de 1950 a 1958. Ele então ocupou cargos de visitante na Universidade de Málaga e na Universidade de Navarra e um cargo de professor na Universidade de Coimbra. De 1961 a 1963 foi professor convidado na Universidade de Bonn e na Universidade de Frankfurt , após o que se mudou definitivamente para a Universidade de Tübingen , onde ocupou o cargo de Professor de Lingüística Românica até sua aposentadoria em 1991. Ele foi eleito membro honorário da Academia Romena em 1991.

Em 1951 estabeleceu-se em Montevidéu como professor de linguística na Universidade da República até 1958. Ali demonstrou grande atividade intelectual e deixou uma marca profunda. Em agradecimento ao Uruguai, país que lhe permitiu recuperar a cidadania, condição que havia perdido ao deixar a Romênia comunista, ele manteria o passaporte emitido pelas autoridades uruguaias até o fim de seus dias. Nesse período, publicou algumas de suas obras mais importantes em espanhol, como Sincronia, Diacronia e História (1958), um dos clássicos da linguística contemporânea, e Teoria da Linguagem e Lingüística Geral.(1962), um conjunto de artigos entre os quais «Sistema, norma e discurso» se destaca pelas nuances que introduz à dicotomia saussuriana língua-fala e «Determinação e ambiente», onde está em germe a sua linguística textual (1956).

Em 1963 obteve a cadeira de linguística românica na Universidade de Tübingen , onde foi nomeado professor emérito em 1991. Em 1981, coincidindo com seu sexagésimo aniversário, os cinco volumes de homenagem intitulados Logos semantikos: linguistic studia in honorem Eugenio Coseriu: 1921 foram publicado -1981 , coordenado por Horst Geckeler e outros linguistas de destaque e publicado pela Editorial Gredos em Madrid, uma editora que desempenhou um papel fundamental na divulgação da obra de Coseriu em espanhol.

Além de cerca de 40 doutorados honorários em universidades de todo o mundo, em 2001 recebeu a Grã-Cruz de Alfonso X el Sabio. Ele também foi presidente entre 1980 e 1983 da Sociedade de Linguística Românica . É Membro honorário da Academia Romena.  O Arquivo Eugenio Coseriu (Página Web) , localizado na Universidade de Tübingen, abriga suas cartas, livros e documentos originais (muitos inéditos) e atualmente é administrado pelo professor de Romanística da Universidade de Tübingen Johannes Kabatek, seu discípulo, e Óscar Loureda, professora da Universidade de Heidelberg.

Por ocasião do centenário de seu nascimento (julho de 2021), foram realizados alguns congressos e publicados alguns esboços que valorizam a riqueza e a permanência de sua contribuição à linguística e à teoria e filosofia da linguagem.

Atividade científica
Doutor em Filologia e Filosofia, autor de mais de 50 volumes e milhares de páginas de exegese, de novas teorias sobre os princípios fundamentais da filologia, contribui para o enriquecimento da metodologia das disciplinas linguísticas.

O trabalho científico de Eugen Coșeriu não possuía muitas edições em romeno, a maioria dos trabalhos do cientista apareceu em italiano, espanhol, alemão, francês e outros idiomas. A tradução romena de Lições de Linguística Geral foi um evento importantíssimo na vida acadêmica de Chisinau e Bucareste. A obra é uma referência no campo, sua aparência marca, na opinião do discípulo de Coseriu, o linguista Mircea Borcilă,"Um momento importante no processo histórico de recuperação do pensamento científico do grande cientista e emancipação da teoria linguística romena", dado que "no contexto de inúmeros livros do mesmo tipo publicados em várias línguas no último meio século, Estas Lições de linguística geral distinguem-se, de forma particularmente marcante, pela altitude epistemológica e vastidão do horizonte investigativo, pelo rigor sem paralelo com que são avaliadas as grandes doutrinas da linguística contemporânea e, por último, mas não menos importante, pela clareza e clareza com que os contornos da abordagem sobre o fenômeno linguístico".  No entanto, obviamente, a concepção coseriana deve ser estudada como um todo, como um sistema. Foi isso que os discípulos do grande filólogo se propuseram a fazer.

Eugen Coseriu manteve laços estreitos com a comunidade científica romena e com sua terra natal, muitas vezes retornando tanto para sua aldeia natal quanto para Bucareste, Cluj , Chisinau . Como cientista, ele não hesitou em apoiar firmemente suas crenças, mesmo quando elas contradiziam um regime ou outro. Referindo-se às práticas de "purificação linguística" utilizadas pelas autoridades de Chisinau, promovendo a ideia da existência de uma língua moldava, durante a conferência científica "A unidade da língua romena - com especial referência à Bessarábia e à Bucovina",  Eugen Coseriu reiterou a opinião, que sempre apoiou, de que "promover de qualquer forma uma língua moldava, diferente da língua romena é, do ponto de vista de vista estritamente linguística, ou um erro ingênuo, ou uma fraude científica. Do ponto de vista histórico e prático, é um absurdo, uma utopia e, do ponto de vista político, é uma anulação da identidade étnica e cultural de um povo e, portanto, um ato de genocídio etnocultural".

Na comunicação realizada no V Congresso de Filólogos Romenos (Iaşi-Chişinău, 6 a 9 de junho de 1994) Eugen Coseriu dá uma visão geral da tipologia das línguas românicas, com foco no lugar da língua romena entre as línguas românicas e o estado atual do dialeto daco-romeno. A comunicação contém ainda uma argumentação rigorosa (em termos de genealogia , tipologia e área ) da tese sobre a unidade do dialecto daco-romeno.

O linguista insiste na fraude científica cometida pelos proponentes de teorias que negam sua unidade. A questão que interessa a Coseriu em particular é a manutenção desta unidade, aspecto que aborda noutra comunicação, apresentada na Sessão Científica."A língua romena e suas variedades locais" ( Bucareste , 31 de outubro de 1994 ). Uma das conclusões é que: "língua da cultura e língua do estado é a língua romena para toda a área Carpatho-Danubian-Dniester, uma verdade que não pode prejudicar a independência da República da Moldávia como um estado, assim como não mina a independência da Austrália, Canadá ou Estados Unidos reconhece o reconhecimento do inglês como a língua oficial do estado desses países", porque, lembra Coseriu a seus oponentes, "as fronteiras políticas não coincidiam e não podem coincidir com as linguísticas".

De acordo com Mircea Borcilă (Universidade de Cluj), Eugen Coseriu foi "o mais brilhante expoente da cultura romena no plano universal das ciências humanas".

Eugen Coseriu utilizou várias línguas na sua atividade docente e de investigação, alterando facilmente a língua em que ensinava. Quanto à sua língua materna, a ordem é a seguinte: "romeno e italiano, depois espanhol e alemão (...). Mas também depende das circunstâncias e do tipo de textos: escrevo letras em romeno, escrevi prosa em italiano, e meus estudos de linguística foram desenvolvidos em espanhol, francês e alemão".

"Tornou-se um axioma dizer que a linguística do nosso milênio se desenvolverá sob o signo do gênio de Kosher, mas ao mesmo tempo pode se tornar um axioma descobrir que um milênio pode ser insuficiente para a recepção e uso completo do trabalho de Kosher avaliação completa de seu impacto benéfico na ciência da linguagem O próprio Mestre, que lançou as bases e projetou o status "final" da linguística integral, estava mais do que convencido de que a fundação da ciência da linguagem (...) e o futuro "A necessidade de Coseriu" (Lucia Cifor) é e será não apenas uma circunstância salvadora para os linguistas, mas também um guia que indicará no futuro a direção das investigações científicas e não apenas no campo da linguística.A passagem do tempo enfatizará a oportunidade de capitalizar toda a herança kosheriana, com textos pouco conhecidos ou inéditos matizando o valor inestimável da doutrina kosheriana".

Linguística Geral
Coseriu define a linguagem como uma atividade humana universal, uma vez que é realizada individualmente, segundo técnicas historicamente determinadas (línguas). Estabelece, ao mesmo tempo, três níveis de linguagem, autônomos até certo ponto, e três outros pontos de vista dela. Esses níveis são o universal , o histórico e o individual . Os pontos de vista, por outro lado, referem-se à linguagem como conhecimento , atividade e como produto. Coseriu descreve os níveis de funcionalidade ou conteúdo linguístico em cada um dos níveis e define três ramos da gramática, também correspondentes a um determinado nível.

Coseriu revisou a dicotomia língua-fala saussuriana, acrescentando a norma ao eixo: Fala/Norma/Linguagem.

 Fala: uma pessoa que diz que comprei uma motocicleta , essa comunicação naturalmente pertence à fala, pois ela a disse, mas também pertence à norma, pois é a maneira usual de dizer.

 Norma: se um falante diz que comprei uma moto , será um fato de fala, mas a forma a moto permanecerá fora da norma linguística, pois não é uma realização comum ou "normal".

 Sistema: O sistema inclui apenas as características essenciais, as funcionais, as leis abstratas que regem as relações de suas unidades e que originam o funcionamento desse sistema. De acordo com o exemplo do jogo de xadrez que Saussure fornece, as leis que regem o jogo pertencem ao sistema e cada jogada corresponde a um fato atualizado dessas leis do sistema.

Faz parte dos estudos de Saussure, mas expressa a necessidade de que linguagem e fala não sejam tão separadas. A fala não é tão individual e existe um passo intermediário entre a fala e a linguagem: a norma.

A norma implica os usos habituais repetidos em um determinado grupo. Ou seja, tomamos características linguísticas características do nosso ambiente. A norma é classificada em três tipos e se manifestam na pronúncia, no léxico, na morfossintática, revelando-se na situação comum em que nos encontramos:

 Norma diatópica : Critério de natureza espacial, os usos linguísticos normais e habituais em um determinado grupo geográfico. Está relacionado com a dialetologia (por exemplo no Chile diz-se «teste» e na Argentina «probá») e a nível lexical (no sul do Chile diz-se «pão francês» e no norte diz-se «marraqueta »). Eles são comumente chamados de dialetos. Estas são as variedades de uma língua que estão localizadas em diferentes áreas geográficas. Por exemplo, o espanhol de Porto Rico.
 Norma diastrática : Critério de natureza social, usos linguísticos normais e habituais em um conjunto de traços sociais em comum, como idade, nível econômico, sexo, etc. Está relacionado com a sociolinguística . (A cerveja se chamava pilsen e agora chela). Às vezes são chamados de jargões ou socioletos e são diferentes variedades de uma língua que se localizam em discursos típicos de diferentes esferas sociais, dentro de uma mesma comunidade linguística. Por exemplo, o discurso dos soldados.
 Norma diafásica : Critério de natureza contextual, usos linguísticos normais e habituais utilizados por falantes em determinadas situações comunicativas. Está relacionado com a pragmática . (Tem a ver com classes sociais, formas de pronunciar ou dizer palavras, de expressões idiomáticas). Eles às vezes são chamados de registros e são várias variedades linguísticas que são usadas em várias situações sociais. Por exemplo, fala culta versus fala coloquial.

Trabalho linguístico

 O chamado latim vulgar e as primeiras diferenciações românicas: uma breve introdução à linguística românica. Montevidéu: Universidade da República , 1954 .
 Teoria da linguagem e linguística geral , Madrid, 1973 .
 Sincronía, diacronía e historia, Madrid, 1973 (traduzido para o romeno: Sincronie, diacronie și istorie , Bucareste, 1997 ).
 Principios de semántica estructural, Madrid, 1978.
 O homem e sua linguagem , Madrid, 1977 .
 Tradição e novidade na ciência da linguagem, Madrid, 1977 .
 Gramática e Semântica Universal, Madrid, 1978 .
 Competência Linguística e Critérios de Correção , ed. por Alfredo Matus și José Luis Samaniego, Sevilha: Universidade de Sevilha , 2019 .
 Eugenio Coseriu şi Uwe Petersen (org.). Teoria da linguagem e linguística geral: 5 estudos. Munique: Fink, 1975 .
 O sistema verbal romeno. Editado e editado por Hansbert Bertsch (= Contribuições de Tübingen para a linguística. Volume 66). Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 1976 .
 Para uma semântica diacrônica estrutural. Darmstadt: WTB, 1978 .
 Tendências em semântica estrutural , scris cu Horst Geckeler. (Contribuições de Tübingen para a Linguística, 158). Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 1981 .
 Competência linguística: fundamentos da teoria da fala. Francke: UTB, 1988 .
 Introdução à linguística, Echinox Publishing House, Cluj, 1999, traduzido por Elena Ardeleanu e Eugenia Bojoga, prefácio de Mircea Borcilă.
 Lições de linguística geral , Chisinau, ARC Publishing House, 2000 .
 Linguagem e política , em "Journal of Linguistics and Literary Science", n. 5, 1996, Instituto de Linguística e Instituto de História e Teoria Literária da Academia de Ciências da Moldávia, 1996.
 Latinidade Oriental, na coleção A língua romena é minha pátria. Estudos. Comunicações. Documents, Chisinau, 1996 , pp. 15-31.
 A unidade da língua romena - planos e critérios, ibidem , pp. 205-121.

Referências

Linguistas da Roménia
Linguagem

Eugen Coşeriu


Blackbeard's Tea Party er et moderne folkrockband fra York i Storbritannien. Gruppen består af seks medlemmer og spiller en blanding af traditionnelle folkesange samt coverversioner af mere moderne sange i folkemusik-stil. De er kendt for deres instrumentale arrangementer og moderne folkemelodier, samt deres selvskrevne instrumentale numre. Blackbeard's Tea Party spiller både til koncerter og ceilidh, og de er blevet kendte på engelske festivaler, hvor de bl.a. har optrådt på Glastonbury Festival, Larmer Tree Festival og Bingley Music Live, samt folkemusikfestivaler som Fairport's Cropredy Convention, Towersey Festival og Cambridge, Shrewsbury & Sidmouth.

Diskografi

Album
 Tomorrow We'll Be Sober (2011)
 Whip Jamboree (2013)
 Reprobates (2015)

EP'er
 Heavens To Betsy (2009)
 Leviathan! (2018)

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Musikgrupper fra Storbritannien
Musikgrupper fra 2009
Folkrockgrupper

Blackbeard's Tea Party


Felipe Galindo Chávez y Pineda (13 de julho de 1641 - 12 de julho de 1694) foi um prelado católico romano que serviu como bispo de Guadalajara (1695–1702).

Biografia
Felipe Galindo Chávez y Pineda nasceu em Veracruz, México, e foi ordenado sacerdote na Ordem dos Pregadores. A 30 de maio de 1695, foi nomeado pelo Rei da Espanha e confirmado pelo Papa Inocêncio XII como Bispo de Guadalajara.

No dia 30 de novembro de 1695, foi consagrado bispo por Manuel Fernández de Santa Cruz y Sahagún, bispo de Tlaxcala. Serviu como Bispo de Guadalajara até à sua morte a 7 de março de 1702.

Mortos em 1702
Nascidos em 1632
Bispos católicos
Bispos nomeados pelo Papa Inocêncio XII

Felipe Galindo Chávez y Pineda


Mamerco Emilio Escauro (en latín Mamercus Aemilius M. f. Scaurus) fue un retórico, poeta y senador romano, hijo de Marco Emilio Escauro. Fue miembro del Senado romano en 14 al momento del ascenso de Tiberio al trono. En 21, fue cónsul.

Primero se casó con Emilia Lépida y luego con Sextia.

Fue acusado de escribir una tragedia, algunos de cuyos versos retrataban negativamente a Tiberio, aunque los cargos que le fueron imputados se redujeron a adulterio y práctica de magia. Se suicidó tras ser acusado de traición bajo la lex maiestas en 34.

Referencias

Senadores de la Antigua Roma del siglo I
Rétores de la Antigua Roma
Suicidas de la Antigua Roma
Cónsules sufectos del Imperio romano
Poetas de la Antigua Roma
Dramaturgos de la Antigua Roma
Emilios Escauros
Patricios

Mamerco Emilio Escauro


Laponya sözcüğü ile şunlardan biri kastedilmiş olabilir:

 Finlandiya'daki Laponya Vilayeti (Lappi)
 Laponya, İsveç (Lappland)
 Sápmi, Kuzey Avrupa'da, Samiler tarafından yaşanan bölge.
 Laponya Bölgesi, bir yaban hayatı koruma alanı, ayrıca Dünya Mirası alanı.

Laponya (anlam ayrımı)


The IDS Center is an office skyscraper located at 80 South 8th Street in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Completed in 1973, it is the tallest building in Minneapolis, and the tallest building in the state at a height of . It originally stood , though a  garage for window washing equipment was added between 1978 and 1979. The structure rises to  when including communications spires on the roof, indisputably the highest points in the city. The IDS was constructed as the headquarters of Investors Diversified Services, Inc.—now Ameriprise Financial. It also housed the headquarters of Dayton Hudson Corporation (now Target Corporation) from 1972 until 2001.

The complex consists of five parts: the 57-story IDS Tower itself at 8th Street & Nicollet Mall, an eight-story annex building along Marquette Avenue, the 19-story Marquette Hotel at 7th Street & Marquette Avenue, and a two-story retail building that was originally dominated by Woolworth's. These four buildings are joined by the seven-story Crystal Court.

The 57-story IDS became the tallest skyscraper in Minneapolis when it surpassed the height of the 32-story Foshay Tower in 1972, ending that building's 43-year reign over the city skyline. Construction of the building was followed with great interest, and the topping-off ceremony was a major civic event in the city. In addition to being taller, IDS occupies a much larger footprint than the obelisk-like Foshay. It was the 16th tallest building in the world on completion, and the third tallest constructed that year.

Design and environment
A lobby and shopping area at the bottom of the tower is known as the Crystal Court and provides skyway connections between the tower and four adjacent blocks. The Concourse level is occupied by Globe College and University; originally this floor was an extension of the Crystal Court retail space and included a single-screen movie theater and shops. The building had a 51st floor observation deck until 1984; thousands of people came for one last visit on December 31, 1983. This floor is now office space. The 50th floor contained an east-facing "Orion Room" restaurant, a north-facing bar and cocktail lounge, a private south-facing dining club ("Tower Club"). The west-facing "University of Minnesota Alumni Club" closed to the public in 1994. Today, the entire 50th floor consists of four large ballrooms with a single central kitchen. The rooms are collectively known as "Windows on Minnesota," and they serve as banquet space for the Marquette Hotel.

Because of the IDS Center's peculiar and unique stepback design, termed "zogs" by its architect, Philip Johnson, each floor has up to 32 corner offices. The area of Nicollet Mall in front of the IDS Center is familiar to television viewers: the character of Mary Richards on The Mary Tyler Moore Show was seen on Nicollet Mall looking at an IDS shop in the opening montage of the show. Across South 7th Street from the IDS was Donaldson's Department Store, in front of which she tossed her hat in the air at the end of the opening sequence. A statue commemorating that shot stands approximately at the camera location of the view, created and maintained by TVLand. She is also seen in the show opening dining with then-husband Grant Tinker at what is now the terrace of Jolliet House on the hotel's third floor, overlooking the Crystal Court. Until a renovation in 2017, diners could sit at the "Mary Tyler Moore Table."

The IDS Tower has an eight-story annex extending along the Marquette Avenue side of the building. This building is a true annex; the fourth through eighth floors can only be reached through the IDS Tower elevators, and the third floor can only be reached through the Marquette Hotel elevators.

The building has not been without structural problems. Since soon after its construction, the Crystal Court had issues with water leaking through the roof after rain or snow due to effects of Minnesota's extreme freeze-thaw cycle. There are also frequent problems in the winter when ice falls from the tower and onto the court's glass roof panels, often breaking through. Occasionally the court will be roped off to prevent injury to the public. The Center and Crystal Court were devastated by a summer wind storm in June 1979 that led to much glass breakage. The entire Crystal Court was sealed off by plywood barriers while this was repaired.

The battle for tallest status

The owners of the Capella Tower (formerly First Bank Place) and the architects behind the design stated that it rose  tall upon its completion in 1992. However, the height had been increased due to an engineering need, according to Tom O'Mara, one of the construction managers at the time of Capella Tower construction. There were some ventilation ducts near the roof that required about 14 more inches (36 cm) of height. The construction team added an extra  to that, bringing the building to a total of .

In the years following completion, the actual height eventually became known as it was published in almanacs and other listings of building height. The owners of the Capella Tower were hesitant to claim that their building was taller than IDS, and usually deferred the honor to the more well-known structure. As area journalists reported on the sale of the IDS Center to the John Buck Company in 2004 and the death of designer Philip Johnson in 2005, they came face-to-face with the fact that the roof of the tower was one foot lower than its neighbor.

Emporis.com restored the IDS Center to first-place status in the city in February 2005 by including the height of the window-washing garage, although that has not completely ended the dispute. A spokesperson for the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, which sometimes handles height disputes, stated that it would be unlikely for the garage to be included in the official height because many would not consider it to be an integral part of the building's design.

It is unclear if the height of the Capella Tower reaches to the top of the "halo" surrounding the screen walls (walls designed to hide cooling towers on the roof), so the height of the flat roof might be somewhat shorter, or that building might similarly be able to add to its height by including the additional structure. Presently, the IDS is considered to be  taller than the former First Bank Tower.

It is also important to note that height measurements are sometimes incorrectly reported due to conversion from U.S. customary units to the metric system and back again. The IDS was often reported as  in height because of this problem, occasionally appearing to be two feet shorter than its competitor.

Mechanical floors
The building has two mechanical floors between the 8th and 9th floor and two mechanical floors between 51 and the roof level. They are known as 8A, 8B and 51A, 51B. They are not accessible from any of the building's passenger elevators and contain HVAC equipment. As a result, the 9th floor is really the 11th floor and the 51st floor is really 53rd. This can be seen from the outside of the building or by walking down the stairwell from the 9th floor or higher. There is also a floor 2A which is inaccessible except from the freight elevators. There are also three floors beneath the IDS called P1, P2, and P3. These are storage levels for tenants and also are connected to the parking ramp below the IDS. Neither 2A, or P's 1, 2, and 3 are counted as actual floors. Half of the space of the complex (floors 9 to 57 of the Tower) is located above the 8th floor and half (including the retail, hotel, and floors 1 to 8 of the Tower and annex building) is located below the 8th floor.

Ownership
The building was purchased by the John Buck Company in December 2004 for US$225 million. Just over a year later in January 2006, the company began looking for new buyers. In August 2006 it was sold to The Inland Real Estate Group of Companies, Inc., for approximately $277 million. Beacon Investment Properties of Hallandale Beach, FL purchased the building from Inland in April 2013 for approximately $253 million.

Broadcasting
Communication spires on top of the building tower to , the highest point in Minneapolis. A number of major FM radio stations which formerly broadcast from the site now use the IDS as a backup in case their primary location in Shoreview, Minnesota were to fail. One of the most notable broadcasters was 99.5 WLOL until the pop format signed off in late February 1991. In fact, one well-known reference was "From the top-top-top of the IDS Center, 99 and 1/2 WLOL Minneapolis-Saint Paul!"  In 2009 the equipment was removed and digital towers were added for the national digital switch. Some television broadcasters using the towers include Univision affiliate WUMN-LD and KMBD-LD, which broadcasts HSN programming, while the area's major television stations use them for their STL towers and microwave relays to Shoreview and their studios and live trucks.

FM

Television

Tenants
The tower is leased to smaller businesses. The IDS has 1.4 million square feet (120,000 m2) of office and retail space. Tenants include:

 Taft
 Gray Plant Mooty
 Dady & Gardner, P.A.
 Hubert White
 Lindquist & Vennum
 Merchant & Gould
 U.S. Bancorp
Hall Law

Owners of IDS Center

 Investors Diversified Services (now Ameriprise Financial) 1972-1981 Construction cost US$13.5 million
 Oxford Development 1981–2004. Purchase price US$200 million
 John Buck Company 2004–2006. Purchase price US$225 million
 Inland American Real Estate Trust Inc 2006–2013. Purchase price US$277 million
 Beacon Investment Properties (Now Accesso Partners, LLC)  2013–Present. Purchase price $253 million.
 Joint Venture with Harel Insurance Investments & Financial Services Ltd & Menora Mivtahim Insurance Ltd., both based in Tel Aviv.

In popular culture
 Mary Tyler Moore's character was shown dining in the restaurant overlooking the Crystal Court in the introduction to The Mary Tyler Moore Show.
 The Crystal Court is featured in the video of Hüsker Dü's cover of the Mary Tyler Moore Show theme song.
 The building was briefly mentioned by Steve Buscemi in Fargo - "IDS Building, the big glass one, tallest skyscraper in the Midwest after the Sears - uh, Chicago...John Hancock building whatever..."
 The building appeared in Remy Zero's music video, "Save Me."
 The Hold Steady's song "Party Pit" (off their album Boys and Girls in America) contains the lyrics, "I saw her walking through the Crystal Court./She made a scene by the revolving doors."
 David Treuer's novel The Hiawatha describes the role of American-Indian labor in building the tower.
 In the movie Purple Rain, Prince is seen looking in the window of a store on the Skyway Level of the Crystal Court.
 In the movie Monty Python's The Meaning of Life and the short film The Crimson Permanent Assurance, the IDS Tower is among a group of buildings creating a large financial district.
 In an establishing shot from the movie Shazam!, the IDS Tower stands in for Doctor Sivana's business headquarters.

Deadly falls
There have been three deaths as a result of falls from the IDS Tower, one by accident and two by suicide. In 2007, Fidel Danilo Sanchez-Flores, a worker removing snow from the IDS Center's Crystal Court roof, slipped and fell three stories through the glass canopied atrium to his death.

In 2001, a 30-year-old man jumped to his death from the 51st floor, crashed through the Crystal Court, and landed by the fountain near Basil's restaurant. In 1996, a 32-year-old man knocked out a window in the 30th floor of the IDS Center and jumped to his death.

See also
 List of tallest buildings by U.S. state
 List of tallest buildings in Minnesota

References

 Katherine Glover (May 2004). Public Icon, Private Property. The Rake.
 Rick Bronson (February 17, 2005). IDS Tower restored to tallest status. Emporis.com.
 Business Wire (August 21, 2006).

External links

 Emporis.com: IDS Tower
 IDS Tower photos

Skyscraper office buildings in Minneapolis
Philip Johnson buildings
John Burgee buildings
Postmodern architecture in the United States
Target Corporation
Office buildings completed in 1974
1974 establishments in Minnesota

IDS Center