Alfred Thaddeus Crane Pennyworth is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, most commonly in association with the superhero Batman.

Pennyworth is depicted as Bruce Wayne's loyal and tireless butler, legal guardian, best friend, aide-de-camp, and surrogate father figure following the murders of Thomas and Martha Wayne. As a classically trained British butler and an ex-Special Operations Executive operative of honor and ethics with connections within the intelligence community, he has been called "Batman's batman". He serves as Bruce's moral anchor while providing comic relief with his sardonic and cynical attitude. A vital part of the Batman mythos, Alfred was nominated for the Wizard Fan Award for Favorite Supporting Male Character in 1994. Bane killed Alfred in 2019 during the City of Bane storyline, and he  remains dead as of 2023.

In non-comics media, the character has been portrayed in live action and voiced by actors William Austin, Eric Wilton, Michael Gough, Michael Caine, Jeremy Irons, Douglas Hodge, and Andy Serkis on film, and by Alan Napier, Efrem Zimbalist Jr., Ian Abercrombie, David McCallum, and Sean Pertwee on television, among others. Ralph Fiennes provided the voice of Alfred in the animated Lego Movie franchise, and Martin Jarvis voiced the character in the Batman: Arkham video game series. A young version of Pertwee's Alfred, played by Jack Bannon, depicts the character before he became the butler to the Wayne family in the television series Pennyworth.

Publication history
The character first appeared in Batman #16 (April 1943), by writer Don Cameron and artist Bob Kane. Evidence suggests that Alfred was created by the writers of the 1943 Batman serial—Victor McLeod, Leslie Swabacker, and Harry Fraser—and that DC Comics asked Don Cameron to write the first Alfred story, which was published prior to the serial's release.

Fictional character biography
In Alfred's first appearance, he was overweight and clean-shaven; however, when the 1943 Batman serial was released, William Austin, the actor who played Alfred, was trim and sported a thin moustache. DC editors wanted the comic Alfred to resemble his cinematic counterpart, so in Detective Comics #83 (January 1944), Alfred vacationed at a health resort, where he slimmed down and grew a mustache. This look has remained with the character ever since, even surviving his apparent "death" and resurrection.

Alfred was originally conceived as a comedic foil for Batman and Robin; he spoke with a Cockney accent, and simply arrived on Wayne Manor's doorstep to announce that he was beginning his duties. In most early tales, he made bungling attempts to be a detective on a par with the young masters. He was given a four-page feature of his own, "The Adventures of Alfred", in Batman #22 (April–May 1944) and the feature lasted 13 issues, skipping Batman #35, with the last story in Batman #36. The stories followed a simple formula, with Alfred solving a crime and catching the culprits entirely by accident. In later years, the comedic aspects of the character were downplayed.

Pre-Crisis
The Pre-Crisis comics (the comics that were published by DC Comics between 1938 and 1984) established Alfred as a retired actor and intelligence agent who followed the deathbed wish of his dying father (identified only as "Jarvis") to carry on the tradition of serving the Wayne family. To that end, Alfred introduced himself to Bruce Wayne and Dick Grayson at Wayne Manor and insisted on becoming their butler. Although the pair did not want one, especially since they did not want to jeopardize their secret identities with a servant in the house, they did not have the heart to reject Alfred. (The name "Pennyworth" was first used for Alfred in 1969, and thereafter it has been assumed that his father was named Jarvis Pennyworth; as it is customary for British domestic servants to be called by surname it might have been implied on Alfred's introduction that Jarvis was the surname he shared with his father. The surname "Beagle" was explicitly used for Alfred starting in 1945 and on the introduction of "Pennyworth" this is treated as having always been their name by retcon.)

Initially, Alfred discovered their identities by accident; while fighting a burglar in Batman #16 (Alfred's first appearance), he accidentally hit a switch and opened a sliding panel leading to the Batcave. He is helpful to the duo, following them to a theater where they had been captured, bound, and gagged by a criminal gang, and rescues them after Batman attracts his attention by knocking a rope down before the crooks return. This was revised in Batman #110 (September 1957); during his first night at Wayne Manor, Alfred awoke to moaning and followed the sound to the secret passage to the staircase leading to the Batcave and met his would-be employers in their superhero identities with Batman wounded in the field. As it turned out, the wounds were actually insignificant, but Alfred's care convinced the residents that their butler could be trusted. Since then, Alfred cheerfully included the support staff duties of the Dynamic Duo on top of his regular tasks.

Ironically, Alfred's loyalty would lead him to become a member of Batman's rogue's gallery: While pushing Batman and Robin out of the way of a falling boulder, Alfred was seemingly killed in Detective Comics #328 (June 1964). It was revealed in Detective Comics #356 (October 1966) that he had been revived by a scientist named Brandon Crawford. His attempt at regeneration resulted in a dramatic change: Alfred awoke from his apparent death with pasty white skin with circular markings, superhuman powers, including telekinesis, and a desire to destroy Batman and Robin. Calling himself the Outsider, he indirectly battled the Dynamic Duo on a number of occasions, using others as his puppets—the Grasshopper Gang in Detective #334, Zatanna in Detective #336, and even the Batmobile itself in Detective #340—and generally only appeared as a mocking voice over the radio. He did not physically appear in the comics until Detective #356, when he is bathed again in the rays of the regeneration machine during a struggle with Batman, and returns to normal, with no memory of his time as a supervillain. His time as the Outsider is collected in Showcase Presents: Batman Volumes 1 and 2.

Alfred was later reunited with his long-lost daughter, Julia Remarque, though this element was not included in Post-Crisis comics. Her mother was the war heroine Mademoiselle Marie, whom Alfred had met while working as an intelligence agent in occupied France during World War II.

Post-Crisis and Zero Hour
In the Post-Crisis comics continuity, Alfred has been the Wayne family butler all of Bruce's life and had helped his master establish his superhero career from the beginning. In addition, he was Bruce's legal guardian and father figure following the murder of the boy's parents. Alfred's history has been modified several times over the years, creating assorted versions. In one such version, Alfred was hired away from the British Royal Family by Bruce's parents, and he virtually raised Bruce after they were murdered.

Meanwhile, another version of Alfred's Post-Crisis life was slightly more closely linked to his Pre-Crisis counterpart. In this version, Alfred is an actor on the English stage who agrees to become the Waynes' butler to honor his father's dying wish that he continue the "family business" of serving the Waynes, his father having been butler for Bruce's grandparents. At the time he begins working for the Waynes, Bruce is a young child. After several months, Alfred voices the desire to quit and return home to continue his life as an actor. However, these plans are momentarily forgotten when young Bruce returns home after getting into a fight with a school bully. Alfred teaches Bruce to outsmart the bully, rather than use brute force. When Alfred's advice works, Bruce asks him to stay, and he agrees without a second thought. Shortly afterward, Bruce's parents are murdered, and Alfred steps in as the boy's legal guardian.

Alfred later helps Bruce raise his adopted wards Dick Grayson, Jason Todd, and Tim Drake, all of whom also become his crimefighting partner, Robin. He also has close friendships with other members of the Batman family, including Barbara Gordon and Cassandra Cain. Alfred often acts as a father figure to Bruce, and a grandfather to Dick, Jason, and Tim. He is also highly respected by Batman's fellow superheroes, including Superman, Wonder Woman, Green Lantern, and the original Teen Titans.

Alfred has also been romantically linked to Dr. Leslie Thompkins, a Wayne family friend who is also aware of Bruce's secret identity. He ends the relationship after she apparently allows Stephanie Brown to die from neglect. He also develops feelings for Tim Drake's stepmother, but again, nothing comes of it.

In the Knightfall story arc, Alfred watches helplessly as Batman slowly crumbles under the pressure of fighting every escaped criminal in Arkham Asylum, who were set free by Bane. When Bane breaks Batman's back, Alfred tries to treat the injury, but Batman remains paraplegic and a wheelchair user. During the events of Knightquest, Alfred accompanies Bruce to England and becomes enraged when he insists on endangering his own health. This is the culmination of several weeks of Bruce's self-destructive behavior, and when Bruce returns to Gotham City, Alfred remains in England, tendering his resignation. He spends some time vacationing in Antarctica and the Bahamas before returning to England. Dick Grayson tracks him down several months later and convinces him to return to Wayne Manor. In that story, it is revealed he had walked out of his own wedding years earlier.

His resourcefulness comes to the fore in the No Man's Land storyline, especially in Legends of the Dark Knight #118. Batman goes missing for weeks, leaving Alfred alone to watch his city for him. He uses his skills as an actor, storyteller, medic, and spy to survive and collect information on the recently destroyed Gotham City. Alfred even uses hand-to-hand combat in a rare one-panel fight sequence between him and a pair of slavers that ends with his rescue by Batman.

In Batman #677, agents of Batman's mysterious enemy Black Glove attack and beat Alfred in front of Bruce and Jezebel Jet, severely injuring him. In the same issue, a reporter from The Gotham Gazette suggests to Commissioner Jim Gordon that Alfred may be Bruce's biological father and that this may be a reason for the murder of Bruce's mother Martha. Alfred later denies the entire story, agreeing with Bruce that it was a fabrication. In the Batman and the Outsiders Special, Alfred is seen apologizing at the graves of Thomas and Martha Wayne for Bruce's death, commenting that he grieves as a parent, regarding Bruce as his son. Later, a secret panel in Alfred's room opens, the result of a fail-safe planted by Bruce in the event of his death. Bruce leaves him one final task and also bids him an emotional goodbye, telling Alfred he considered him as a father.

Alfred is left emotionally shattered, commenting more than once that, even if his biological fatherhood is a fabrication, in a deeper sense he actually was Bruce Wayne's father, having watched over him for years and feeling he failed him in the last moments.

After the event of Final Crisis, when Batman is apparently killed in action, Alfred finds himself with the task of raising Bruce's biological son Damian with Grayson. Batman: Battle for the Cowl sees Alfred allowing Damian to take on his first mission as Robin, giving Damian a Robin tunic and calling on the Squire to assist the new Boy Wonder in finding Tim Drake, who had gone missing while hunting down Jason Todd. Alfred also assists Grayson in his role as Gotham's new Dark Knight.

After discovering that the original Batman was actually lost in time after his battle with Darkseid, Alfred immediately seeks clues to his whereabouts. Eventually, Bruce finds his way to the present. After Batman successfully expands his mission globally with Batman Inc., Bruce assumes full responsibility as a father, and Alfred assists him in raising Damian.

The New 52

In The New 52, it is revealed that Alfred's father Jarvis Pennyworth was the butler of the Wayne family before Alfred when Bruce was a child. Jarvis was blackmailed by the Court of Owls to set a trap for the pregnant Martha Wayne. Despite declining, the Court managed to cause a car accident that caused the child to be born prematurely and eventually to have died. Jarvis attempted to resign from his service and write a letter to his son in which he describes the manor as a cursed place, and tells Alfred that he should not begin his service under the Wayne family. However, Jarvis was unable to send the letter as he was murdered that night.

During Batman: Eternal, Alfred is reunited with his long-absent daughter, Julia Pennyworth, an agent of the Special Reconnaissance Regiment, when Batman finds her in Hong Kong and takes her back to Wayne Manor for medical treatment after she is stabbed with a samurai sword through the chest by a Chinese gang boss she was hunting. Julia is initially hostile to Alfred, feeling that he has wasted his life going from a soldier to tending to a "fop" like Bruce Wayne. However, after Alfred is attacked by Hush and infected with a fear toxin, she discovers the Batcave and takes on her father's role to coordinate the Bat-Family's efforts against their foes. Alfred is briefly transferred to Arkham Asylum before it is attacked as part of the conspiracy, but he manages to survive the explosion and trick Bane into helping him reach an emergency cave Batman had installed under Arkham, the cave's defenses knocking Bane out and allowing Alfred to call for help.

When Hush was briefly kept prisoner in the Batcave, he managed to break out of his cell and lock Alfred in it before sabotaging the Batman Family's equipment via the Batcomputer as they fought various villains, including crashing the Batwing with Batman still in it. However, he was swiftly returned to captivity when Alfred escaped the cell and knocked Hush out, Alfred harshly informing Tommy that he was hardly going to be locked up in his own home.

During the Batman: Endgame arc, the Joker broke into the Batcave, and during a confrontation with Alfred, cut off Alfred's right hand. Julia confirms to Bruce later in the issue that Alfred survived the encounter and is in a stable condition. Following the death of Bruce Wayne, Julia says that with current medical technology, they can have Alfred's hand reattached without any complications. However Alfred refuses, stating that with Bruce dead, he no longer has need of it as he has no one left to serve.

Even with the loss of Bruce as Batman, Alfred still assists the Batman Family in the Batcave along with Julia. After Bruce is discovered to be alive but with no memory of who he is or of his life as Batman, Alfred tells Bruce everything that had happened in his life up to the point of the creation of Batman, but accepts Bruce's request not to learn any more. Alfred did this so that, after years of service to the people of Gotham and the world, Bruce could finally accept his reward of a life without pain and the burning desire to be Batman, allowing his life as Bruce Wayne to finally begin. However, when the new villain Mr. Bloom launches a mass attack that apparently kills Jim Gordon—the new Batman—the amnesic Bruce pieces together enough information to deduce that he was once Batman, and convinces Alfred to subject him to a machine that will theoretically download all of his memories as Batman into his mind.

Bruce's original plan was for the machine to be used to create a series of clones of himself that could be programmed to continue his mission, but although the process failed because simulations confirmed that the human mind could not handle Batman's trauma, Bruce comes through the process by having Alfred take him to the point of brain-death and then download his memories onto his blank brain. With his master restored, Alfred's hand is subsequently reattached, Bruce joking that they used a random hand from the reserves rather than keeping Alfred's hand on ice all this time.

DC Rebirth

Following the 2016 DC Rebirth continuity reboot, Alfred appears in Detective Comics and the third volume of Batman, as well as in All-Star Batman. In the latter, Alfred is among the many Gotham citizens blackmailed by Two-Face into stopping Batman from providing Two-Face's former self, Harvey Dent, a cure for his split personality; Alfred in particular reluctantly shoots down the Batwing as Batman is flying it. When asked, Alfred reveals his secret; years earlier, he had hired a hitman to kill the Joker after the villain murdered Jason Todd and disabled Barbara Gordon. Alfred soon cancelled the hit, however, after realizing that committing cold-blooded murder would betray Batman's ideals.

In Batman #77 (part of the "City of Bane" storyline), an evil version of Thomas Wayne from an alternate dimension invades Gotham City and defeats Batman, and uses Alfred as a hostage to keep the rest of the Bat-Family out. At Thomas' behest, Bane breaks Alfred's neck, killing him after Robin sneaks into Gotham City to rescue him and defeat Bane. When Bruce comes back to Gotham, he is captured and shown Alfred's body, but a recorded message reveals that he arranged for his own death so that Bruce could come back and stop Thomas, the message reaffirming Alfred's faith in Bruce as the true Batman. In Nightwing #78, Barbara visits Dick Grayson and reveals that Alfred was a billionaire, due to stock from Wayne Industries after Alfred became Bruce's legal guardian. Barbara then tells Dick that Alfred has left his fortune to Dick in his will.

As part of Joker's mass assault on Gotham, he managed to temporarily reanimate Alfred's corpse to taunt Batman, but a hallucination of Alfred Batman was experiencing due to exposure to a new form of Joker toxin reminded Bruce that this body wasn't him.

When the demon Nezha used Damian Wayne to attack Lazarus Island, he reanimated Alfred's corpse to spy on Batman, using a portion of Alfred's real soul to make the impersonation convincing. However, Batman soon realised that this version of Alfred wasn't his true self, keeping "Alfred" in play so that he could feed Nezha false information. When "Alfred" is killed as Batman uses him as a body shield against an attack by a possessed Nightwing, enough of Alfred's real self manifests to assure Batman that he didn't kill Alfred again as he wasn't actually alive now anyway.

After Penguin's faked death activated Failsafe, a robot created by the Batman of Zur-En-Arh personality to go after Batman if he broke his rule, it was revealed that Failsafe could only be deactivated if Alfred confirmed that Batman had not crossed the line, but there was no protocol in place for what might happen if Alfred died before Failsafe was activated.

Characterization

Name
In 1945, Alfred's name was given officially as Alfred Beagle. This name was subsequently given to an alternative version of the character from the world of Earth-Two, and Pennyworth became Alfred's accepted surname in the mainstream continuity. Alfred has also used the alias "Thaddeus Crane", which is derived from his middle names. His full name of Alfred Thaddeus Crane Pennyworth was depicted on his tombstone in Superman/Batman: Generations. Grant Morrison's run has referred to the Beagle surname as a possible stage name.

Family
 Jarvis Pennyworth: Alfred's father in both Pre-Crisis and New 52 continuity. In the TV series, Pennyworth he is named Arthur instead.
 Mary Pennyworth: Alfred's mother in the TV series, Pennyworth.
 Wilfred Pennyworth: Alfred's brother, Wilfred is referenced in the late 1960s and early 1970s and is mentioned in the 1997 film Batman & Robin.
 Daphne Pennyworth: Alfred Pennyworth's niece, daughter of Wilfred Pennyworth, Daphne briefly appeared in the late 1960s/early 1970s.
 Mademoiselle Marie: A war heroine with whom Alfred (while working as an intelligence agent in France) has a daughter in Pre-Crisis continuity.
 Julia Remarque: Alfred's daughter by Mademoiselle Marie. Appears as Julia Pennyworth in New 52 continuity as well as on Batwoman.
 Margaret Wilson née Pennyworth: Alfred and Wilfred Pennyworth's sister in the 1997 film Batman & Robin.
 Barbara Wilson: Alfred's niece, daughter of Margaret Wilson née Pennyworth in the 1997 film Batman & Robin. In traditional comics, her name is Barbara Gordon and is the daughter of James Gordon, with no relation to Alfred other than her place as Batgirl.
 Theobald: Alfred's second cousin in Earth-One continuity.

Skills, resources, and abilities
A highly intelligent and resourceful man, Alfred runs the day-to-day operations of Wayne Manor and maintains much of the equipment of the Batcave beneath it. A former actor, he can use his acting and disguise skills to help Batman in the field when necessary, and is even capable of impersonating Bruce Wayne on the telephone convincingly, as well as giving Bruce various lessons that help him maintain his covers. He has also provided first aid up to and including suturing wounds and removing bullets, as well as occasional tactical support. He is also able to perform arthroscopy and other advanced medical procedures, thus limiting, if not eliminating, the need for hospital medical treatment even in the face of grievous injuries, helping to maintain Batman's secret identity by ensuring that Bruce Wayne has no need to visit hospitals for wounds inflicted on Batman. Nevertheless, Batman still requires professional medical treatment when Bane breaks his back (Batman: Knightfall) and Hush's machinations result in him sustaining a skull fracture (Batman: Hush). On these occasions, Alfred admits that his own skills are inadequate for such medical procedures.

While not as skilled at martial arts as Bruce Wayne, Alfred is still nearly as resourceful. In one story in which he is kidnapped, he readily escapes and overcomes his captors without disturbing the cut of his suit. It was later mentioned that he had been kidnapped unsuccessfully 27 times (these events take place in the Gotham Adventures comics, based on the animated adventures of Batman, and not within the standard DCU continuity). During Batman: The Resurrection of Ra's al Ghul, Ubu, Ra's al Ghul's musclebound bodyguard, attempts to use Alfred as a hostage, only to be disabled by a well timed sucker punch from Alfred.

Presumably due to his lack of superpowers, the advanced combat training Bruce's other associates have, and Alfred's age, Alfred is the only member of the "Batman Family" that Bruce does not mind using a firearm, in his case favoring a shotgun when dealing with direct attacks on his person.

Current issues of the various Batman comics seem to indicate that Alfred is a pioneer in and has also mastered several fields of rose breeding (even creating his own, the "Pennyworth Blue"), computer programming, electrical engineering, chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, nanotechnology, and biotechnology as he singlehandedly builds, programs, and maintains much of Batman's next-generational technology such as the Batcomputer.

Other versions

All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder

In Frank Miller and Jim Lee's All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder, Alfred is a tougher individual with a different backstory. Following Batman's assault on the corrupt Gotham City police, Alfred and Vicki Vale are caught in the devastating car wreckage Batman creates (not aware of their presence) and Vale is badly hurt. Alfred is seen, shirtless and muscled, applying a tourniquet and generally taking control of the situation. He is described as having been a Royal Air Force combat medic and as ex-British Secret Service.

Batman: The Dark Knight Returns

In Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, an elderly Alfred still acts as Bruce's butler, mourning Bruce's diminished social contacts while continuing to loyally serve his master even after Bruce becomes Batman once again after a ten-year retirement. At the story's conclusion, having set Wayne Manor to self-destruct to protect Bruce Wayne's full secrets after his faked death during his fight with Superman, Alfred dies of a stroke, his last thoughts being to consider how utterly proper it is that he should die as Wayne Manor ceases to exist.

In the sequel, Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again, the Batcave computer has been programmed with an artificial intelligence named and apparently patterned after Alfred, to the point that it refers to Bruce as "Sir".

DCeased
In DCeased, Alfred became the newest host for The Spectre as he was the last survivor of the Bat Family after a plague claimed most of the heroes. The Spectre himself was defeated in battle with Mxyzptlk and Corrigan was killed, thus possessing a rage-filled Alfred to battle the corrupted New Gods.

Earth One

Alfred appears as a main character in Geoff Johns' and Gary Frank's Batman: Earth One. In this incarnation, Alfred was a member of the Royal Marines. Alfred met Thomas Wayne during a tour of duty in the Middle East and the two became good friends. During a battle, Alfred saved Thomas' life but lost his right leg in the process. It is also implied that both he and Thomas are keeping a traumatic secret. Discharged back to his home in London, Alfred received a gift from Thomas in the form of a very expensive prosthetic leg.

He later traveled to Gotham City to visit his friend and found himself arriving on the night of a campaign party for Thomas' bid at the mayoral office. Afraid for his friend after hearing of the death threats on his life, Alfred tried to talk Thomas out of going to the movies with his wife and son, but Thomas refused to allow threats to keep him from enjoying his weekly movie night with Martha and Bruce. Later that night, Alfred was called to the police station. Thomas and Martha had been killed by a mugger outside the theatre and Bruce had been orphaned. To Alfred's shock, he discovered that Thomas and Martha had named him Bruce's legal guardian some time ago. Unsure of himself, Alfred still made it his mission to look out for Bruce as he grew up. When Bruce took on his costumed persona of Batman and began his war on crime, Alfred reluctantly took on the role of confidant and advisor, often telling Bruce to simply carry a gun instead of a belt full of untested gadgets. Alfred later saved Bruce's life by shooting Mayor Oswald Cobblepot.

Though Alfred introduced himself to the eight-year-old Bruce as his butler, it is obvious he never serves as a manservant in the story otherwise as Bruce's guardian and mentor. However, he is recruited by Thomas as his family's head of security prior to Thomas and his wife's deaths. He is also a skilled martial artist, and trains Bruce the combat skills he would eventually utilize as Batman. He has a daughter living in Seoul, South Korea with her mother, where Alfred had previously worked at a security firm, implying Julia Remarque's existence in this continuity.

Elseworlds
 Alfred appears in the Elseworlds series Superman & Batman: Generations. He serves the Wayne family before dying in 1967, but his spirit remains around to give Bruce advice. In Generations 2, he makes his final appearance in 1975, when he convinces the ghost of Dick Grayson not to kill the Joker. He manages to convince Dick to pass over, but in the process his own soul crosses over, meaning he cannot come back.
 In Batman: Castle of the Bat, Alfred is reimagined as the hunchbacked Alfredo, the "Igor" to Doctor Bruce Wayne, whose experiments see him reviving his father's brain in the body of the giant "Bat-Man". In keeping with his role as "Igor", Alfredo is often forced to bear the brunt of his master's frustrations with the situation as the revived Thomas Wayne escapes to stalk highwaymen as the monstrous "Bat-Man".
 In Batman: Dark Allegiances, Alfred is still Bruce Wayne's butler as Bruce faces various fascist-themed versions of his rogues gallery, but after the government asks Bruce to become an official American agent during World War II, Alfred joins Bruce and Selina Kyle in the field as the new Robin.
 In Batman: Dark Knight Dynasty, in a timeline where the Waynes were never killed, Alfred assists Bruce in investigating his parents' deaths when they apparently fall out of their penthouse (revealed to have been done due to the influence of Vandal Savage's henchwoman the Scarecrone when the Waynes threatened his plan to acquire the meteor that gave him his powers). While studying available information on the meteor, Alfred discovers a record of the unusual energy reading it emits, but triggers a booby-trap that destroys Wayne Manor and kills him. Five centuries later, Bruce's descendant Brenda Wayne discovers a fragmented recording of Alfred and the energy reading that assists her in her own investigations into Savage's activities.
 In League of Justice, where the Justice League exists in a world where magic is prominent, Alfred is reinvented as a zombie-like figure, reinforcing Bruce's idea that science is more reliable than magic despite its greater potential power.
 Alfred plays a prominent role in the "Vampire Batman" trilogy, in which Batman is turned into a vampire to fight Count Dracula, forging Batman's weapons to use against the remaining members of Dracula's "family" and subsequently working with Commissioner Gordon after Batman succumbs to his vampiric instincts and begins to kill his old enemies. At the conclusion of the trilogy, with Gordon being hunted by Two-Face and Killer Croc in the remains of the Batcave, Alfred sacrifices his life to allow the currently weakened Batman to drink his blood, giving his old master the strength to save Gordon and the people of Gotham one last time before he allows himself to die to end the threat that he has become.

Earth-3

During the "Trinity War" event of The New 52, it is revealed that the leader of the Secret Society is Alfred from Earth-3 who serves Owlman of the Crime Syndicate of America. Flashbacks reveal that Alfred helped Thomas Wayne Jr. kill his parents and brother when he was a child, Owlman reflecting that Alfred was the only member of his family that he could control.

Injustice tie-ins

Injustice: Gods Among Us
In the comic book tie-in series to the video game, Alfred remained loyal to Bruce even when Bruce began the Insurgency and opposed Superman and had his secret identity exposed. When Superman invades the Batcave and breaks Batman's back, Alfred ingests the 5-U-93-R pill (which gives a person superhuman strength and durability) and subdues Superman, breaking his nose and beating him down. Alfred takes Bruce to the Tower of Fate, where Zatanna and Doctor Fate are hiding and will heal Bruce. For over seven months, Alfred oversees Bruce's slow recovery. When the Insurgency began their attack on Superman's Regime, Alfred provided a kryptonite-tipped bullet to the Black Canary for her to face Superman.

In the following years, Alfred remained the caretaker of Wayne Manor despite Bruce's absence, and still maintained a close relationship with Damian Wayne despite Damian's earlier betrayal of his father and decision to join Superman. He is visited by Superman in Year Five, the Kryptonian wanting to know the ever-elusive Batman's location. Alfred, unaware where Batman is and not willing to help nonetheless, ignores Superman. He is eventually killed by Victor Zsasz, whom Superman sent to get information on Batman's location. His death pushes Batman out of hiding to confront Zsasz and Damian killing Zsasz out of revenge. In the game's sequel, Injustice 2, Zsasz is killed in Year One by Damian, leaving Alfred's death in the continuity unexplained, but his takedown of Superman is referenced by Harley Quinn.

Injustice 2
In the prequel comic to Injustice 2, Ra's enacts a plan to bring the world balance and has Damian kidnap Alfred's corpse and resurrects him through the Lazarus Pit to use as a hostage against Batman. Due to Alfred being dead for a long time, he is brought back in a zombie-like state and requires constant medical attention from Damian. Upon recovering, around the same time he witnessed Batman and Damian attempt to kill each other, a fully recovered Alfred stops them and lecture them that his death was neither Damian nor Bruce's faults, attempting to reconcile them. Unfortunately, when Jaime Reyes/the current Blue Beetle and El Diablo unintentionally destroys all supposed extinct animals, Alfred is now under the Insurgency's safety. Upon returning to Wayne Manor for his recovery, it is revealed that the side-effect of Alfred's resurrection somehow caused him to have completely forgotten about the previous casualties he remembered during Superman's downfall and the five year regime, such as Damian's accidental murder of Dick Grayson, only for Batman to remind him about this. Alfred eventually leaves Bruce and Wayne Manor as he has felt incomplete since his resurrection.

Tangent Comics
Alfred makes a very brief appearance in the 1997 Tangent Comics one-shot issue Green Lantern in a story revolving around the Tangent versions of King Faraday and Roy Raymond. In this version, Alfred Pennyworth is the head of a publishing empire that owned "the House Of Mystery".

Tiny Titans
Alfred appears in Tiny Titans, and often has to make Robin stand in the corner because he has misbehaved.

Batman: The Murder Machine
In an alternate reality depicted in the Metals crossover, Alfred is killed by Bane, prompting Bruce to request Cyborg's help in completing 'the Alfred Protocol', an artificial intelligence version of Alfred, created to allow Batman to keep some aspect of his 'father' with him. Once the Alfred Protocol is completed, its fixation on protecting its 'son' results in the A.I. version of Alfred murdering all of Batman's rogues gallery, permanently merging with his 'son' as part of this goal.

The Batman Who Laughs
The Batman Who Laughs – a monstrous version of Batman contaminated by the same chemicals that drove the Joker insane – claims that Alfred is the only member of his old family he left alive back on his world. The villain claims that he drove his own version of Alfred insane by implying that his original self is still "alive" within him until Alfred chose to serve the Batman Who Laughs on his own, but the "prime" Alfred denies that any version of him could do this.

Nightwing: The New Order
In this alternate reality, Nightwing ends an ongoing feud between superpowered beings by activating a device that de-powers 90 percent of the super powered population. This builds to a future where superpowers are outlawed and any superpowered being must take inhibitor medications or be imprisoned. When Bruce is killed during the feud, Alfred inherits his estate and moves to Arizona, while allowing Dick Grayson and his son Jake to stay in Wayne Manor. Though Alfred does not approve of Grayson's crusade against superhumans after Bruce's death, he still occasionally visits him. When Grayson discovered that Jake is beginning to develop powers, his house is invaded by his own police force, the Crusaders, to take Jake away. Alfred attempts to strike one of the Crusaders, who then shoots him dead.

Collected editions

In other media

Television

Live-action

 Alfred appears in the 1960s Batman series, portrayed by Alan Napier. No surname was given for this version, as "Pennyworth" was not introduced in the comics until after the series had ended production.
 Alfred appeared in Birds of Prey, portrayed by Ian Abercrombie. Abercrombie had previously portrayed the character in a 1997 television commercial promoting the home media release of the film Batman & Robin.
 A younger version of Alfred appears in Gotham, portrayed by Sean Pertwee.
 An even younger version of the character appears in Pennyworth, portrayed by Jack Bannon. The series is a prequel that serves as an origin story for Alfred and explores his past as a soldier in the SAS.
 Alfred appears in Titans, portrayed by an uncredited actor. This version died sometime before the start of the third season.

Animation
 Alfred appears in The Batman/Superman Hour, voiced by Olan Soule.
 Alfred appears in Challenge of the Super Friends, voiced by William Callaway.
 Alfred appears in The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guardians, voiced by Andre Stojka.
 Alfred appears in television series set in the DC Animated Universe. In the first three produced episodes for Batman: The Animated Series he is voiced by Clive Revill (before his departure due to a previous commitment) and by Efrem Zimbalist Jr. throughout the rest of the series as well as the subsequent shows The New Batman Adventures, Superman: The Animated Series, Static Shock, and Justice League). In Batman Beyond, Bruce Wayne confirms to Terry McGinnis that Alfred died sometime before 2019.
 Alfred appears in The Batman, voiced by Alastair Duncan.
 Alfred appears in Batman: The Brave and the Bold, voiced by James Garrett. Additionally, the episode "The Super-Batman of Planet X!" features a robot inspired by Alfred named Alpha-Red (voiced by James Arnold Taylor) who serves as the robotic butler of Batman of Zur-En-Arrh.
 Alfred appears in the Young Justice episode "Downtime", voiced by Jeff Bennett.
 Alfred appears as a main character in Beware the Batman, voiced by JB Blanc. This version is a former member of MI6, is more physically active and skilled in combat, and is Katana's godfather, having previously been forced to kill her father Edogawa by Ra's al Ghul.
 Alfred appears in the short film Lego DC Comics: Batman Be-Leaguered, voiced by Nolan North.
 Alfred appears in Teen Titans Go!, voiecd by Fred Tatasciore.
 Alfred appears in the Scooby-Doo and Guess Who? episode "What a Night for a Dark Knight!", voiced by Steven Weber. This version is a friend of Daphne Blake's family.
 Alfred appears in Harley Quinn, voiced by Tom Hollander. This version temporarily operated as the vigilante Macaroni, using a wig equipped with various gadgets, after Batman was gravely injured in the season one finale.
 Alfred appears in DC Super Hero Girls, voiced again by Keith Ferguson.

Film

Live-action

 Alfred appears in the 1943 serial Batman, portrayed by William Austin.
 Alfred appears in the 1949 serial Batman and Robin, portrayed by Eric Wilton.
 Alfred appears in the 1966 Batman film based on the 1960s TV series of the same name, with Alan Napier reprising his role from said series.
 Alfred appears in the Tim Burton/Joel Schumacher Batman film series, portrayed by Michael Gough. This version is the uncle of Barbara Wilson.
 Gough also portrayed Alfred in a 1989 Diet Coke commercial, in the BBC radio-drama presentation of the "Knightfall" story arc from the Batman comics, and in a series of OnStar commercials featuring Batman. In flashbacks depicted in Batman & Robin, Jon Simmons portrays a young Alfred.
 Alfred appears in Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight Trilogy, portrayed by Michael Caine. This version is a former senior NCO in the elite SAS of the British Army and a veteran of tours of duty in Malaya, Cyprus, Borneo, Aden, West Germany, and twice in Northern Ireland.
 In Batman Begins, he becomes Bruce Wayne's (Christian Bale) legal guardian after Thomas and Martha Wayne are murdered by Joe Chill (Richard Brake). When Bruce vanishes for seven years, Wayne Enterprises' CEO William Earle (Rutger Hauer) attempts to take over the company, but is thwarted because Bruce left everything to Alfred. After Bruce returns from training with the League of Shadows, Alfred learns of Bruce's goal to become the vigilante Batman to fight the criminals of Gotham City, and encourages him to project a playboy image to deflect suspicion. When the League of Shadows, led by Ra's al Ghul (Liam Neeson), destroys Wayne Manor, Alfred saves Bruce's life and rallies him to save Gotham City.
 In The Dark Knight, Alfred and Bruce have moved to a downtown penthouse while Wayne Manor is being rebuilt. When the Joker (Heath Ledger) begins killing people to force Batman to reveal his true identity, Alfred entreats Bruce to keep fighting and accept the price of being Batman. Bruce's love interest Rachel Dawes (Maggie Gyllenhaal) gives Alfred the task of giving Bruce a letter "when the time is right". After Rachel is killed and her boyfriend, Gotham District Attorney Harvey Dent (Aaron Eckhart), is disfigured and becomes the criminal Two-Face, Alfred reads the letter and discovers that Rachel planned to marry Dent. He later burns the letter, reflecting that, just as the people of Gotham would need to believe in Dent, Bruce needed to believe that Rachel loved him.
 In The Dark Knight Rises, set eight years later, Alfred continues to serve Bruce, who has become a recluse since Rachel's death. He also reveals that during Bruce's absence, he frequently visited a restaurant in Florence, Italy with the fantasy that he would one day see Bruce there, settled down and happy. Alfred reluctantly assists Bruce in uncovering information on the mercenary Bane (Tom Hardy) and stands by as Bruce resumes his career as Batman. Following Batman's first encounter with Bane, Alfred fears that Bruce will get himself killed, and resigns to dissuade him; when Bruce protests, Alfred reveals the truth about Rachel. Angry and hurt, Bruce orders Alfred to leave. After Batman apparently sacrifices his life to save Gotham, Alfred tearfully apologizes at Thomas and Martha Wayne's graves for failing to save their son. When Alfred returns to the Florentine restaurant, however, he sees Bruce alive and in a relationship with Selina Kyle (Anne Hathaway), and they exchange knowing smiles before Alfred leaves, happy that Bruce has finally moved on with his life.
 Alfred appears in films set in the DC Extended Universe, portrayed by Jeremy Irons.
 First appearing in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, Alfred worries about the effect Bruce Wayne's (Ben Affleck) crusade as Batman has on him, and attempts to serve as a humanizing influence when Bruce goes on a crusade to kill Superman (Henry Cavill). After Bruce accepts Superman as an ally and realizes that Lex Luthor (Jesse Eisenberg) had manipulated them both, Alfred assists Bruce in rescuing Martha Kent (Diane Lane).
 In Justice League and its 2021 director's cut Zack Snyder's Justice League, Alfred, with the help of Diana Prince / Wonder Woman (Gal Gadot) assists Bruce in finding Barry Allen / The Flash (Ezra Miller), Victor Stone / Cyborg (Ray Fisher), and Arthur Curry / Aquaman (Jason Momoa) and provides assistance to them as they face Steppenwolf (Ciarán Hinds) and his Parademon army. Following Steppenwolf's defeat, Alfred, Bruce, and Diana begin plans to reconstruct Wayne Manor into the Justice League's headquarters.
 Alfred makes his final DCEU appearance in The Flash (2023). He contacts Barry Allen to request his help in assisting Batman to rescue Gotham citizens endangered by Al Falcone's terrorist crew.
 Alfred appears in Joker, portrayed by Douglas Hodge. He tries to protect the young Bruce from mentally ill loner Arthur Fleck (Joaquin Phoenix), who believes that Thomas Wayne (Brett Cullen) is his biological father and, thus, that and he Bruce are half-brothers.
 Andy Serkis portrays Alfred in The Batman. This version has a hostile relationship with Bruce, and as a result they rarely speak to one another. Alfred is later hospitalized after opening a letter bomb addressed to Bruce. When Bruce learns about his father's connections to crime boss Carmine Falcone (John Turturro), he confronts Alfred, who confirms the allegations but maintains that Thomas only asked Falcone to threaten the journalist into silence, and planned to turn himself and Falcone over to the police once he found out the journalist was murdered. Alfred believes that Falcone had Thomas and Martha killed to prevent this. With Bruce fearing the loss of another person he cares about, the two reconcile.

Animation

 Efrem Zimbalist Jr. voiced Alfred in the DC Animated Universe films Batman: Mask of the Phantasm, Batman & Mr. Freeze: SubZero and Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman.
 Alastair Duncan voiced Alfred in The Batman vs. Dracula, Batman Unlimited: Animal Instincts, Batman Unlimited: Monster Mayhem, and Batman Unlimited: Mechs vs. Mutants.
 David McCallum voiced Alfred in Batman: Gotham Knight, Son of Batman, and Batman vs. Robin.
 Alan Oppenheimer voiced Alfred in Superman/Batman: Public Enemies.
 Jim Piddock voiced Alfred in the animated film Batman: Under the Red Hood.
 Jeff Bennett reprises his role as Alfred in Batman: Year One.
 Robin Atkin Downes voiced Alfred in Justice League: Doom.
 Michael Jackson voiced Alfred in Batman: The Dark Knight Returns.
 Alfred makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Lego Batman: The Movie - DC Super Heroes Unite, an adaptation of the video game of the same name.
 Martin Jarvis reprises his role as Alfred from the Batman: Arkham video games in Batman: Assault on Arkham.
 James Garrett reprises his role as Alfred in Batman: Bad Blood.
 Brian George voiced Alfred in Batman: The Killing Joke, Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, and Batman: The Doom That Came to Gotham.
 Steven Weber voiced Alfred in Batman: Return of the Caped Crusaders and Batman vs. Two-Face.
 Ralph Fiennes voiced Alfred in the animated films The Lego Batman Movie and The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part.
 Frogman voiced Alfred in DC Super Heroes vs. Eagle Talon.
 Anthony Head voiced Alfred in Batman: Gotham by Gaslight.
 Hōchū Ōtsuka and Adam Croasdell voiced Alfred in the Japanese and English version of Batman Ninja respectively.
 Alfred makes a non-speaking appearance in Teen Titans Go! To the Movies.
 Alfred makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in The Death of Superman.
 Alfred appears in the animated film adaptation of Batman: The Long Halloween, voiced again by Alastair Duncan.

Video games
 Alfred appears in the Batman Begins film tie-in game, with Michael Caine reprising his role from the film.
 Alfred appears in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure, voiced by Jim Piddock.
 Alfred appears as a supporting character in Gotham Knights, voiced by Gildart Jackson. He provides technical assistance and moral support to the Gotham Knights—Barbara Gordon, Dick Grayson, Jason Todd, and Tim Drake—after Batman's death, becoming a surrogate father figure to them, much like he did to Bruce after his parents' death.

Lego series
 Alfred appears as a playable character in Lego Batman for the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Nintendo DS and Wii, voiced by Keith Ferguson.
 Alfred appears as a playable character in Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes, voiced by Steven Blum.
 Alfred appears as a playable character in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, voiced by Robin Atkin Downes. Another version of the character based on his appearance in the 1960s Batman TV series can be unlocked by completing the "Same Bat Time, Same Bat Channel" level.
 Alfred appears in Lego Dimensions, voiced again by Robin Atkin Downes.
 Alfred makes a non-playable appearance in Lego DC Super-Villains that can be created within the customizer. The version of Alfred seen the start of The Lego Movie 2 was later added as a playable character via a DLC pack.

Arkham series
Alfred Pennyworth is a supporting character in the Batman: Arkham franchise, voiced by Martin Jarvis in the main series and Hugh Fraser in the VR game.

 While Alfred does not appear in the first installment, Batman: Arkham Asylum, the player can unlock his biography.
 Alfred has a voice-only role in Batman: Arkham City, remaining in constant radio contact with Batman and Oracle as the former investigates the eponymous Arkham City.
 Alfred makes his first physical appearance in the prequel game Batman: Arkham Origins. Throughout the game, he disapproves of Batman's techniques, to which Batman responds by holding his butler at a distance and taking advantage of him. When hired assassins target Batman, Alfred pleads the latter to abandon his vigilante persona, but his words fall on deaf ears. Having deduced Batman's secret identity, Bane later attacks Wayne Manor and beats Alfred to near-death so Batman can watch him die. Refusing to accept this, the Dark Knight uses the Electrocutioner's gauntlets to revive Alfred. This event leaves Batman shaken and on the verge of quitting, but Alfred, his understanding of Batman renewed, convinces him to keep fighting.
 In Batman: Arkham Knight, Alfred contacts Batman through a holographic projector throughout the game to give him valuable information. After Batman's secret identity is revealed to the world, Alfred assists him in enacting the "Knightfall Protocol" before they are both apparently killed in a large explosion at Wayne Manor.
 In Batman: Arkham VR, Alfred attempts to wake up Bruce while the latter suffers a nightmare due to the Joker's poisoned blood in his system.

Telltale's Batman
Alfred Pennyworth appears in both Batman: The Telltale Series and its sequel Batman: The Enemy Within, voiced by Enn Reitel.

 In the first game, like most interpretations, Alfred is Bruce's close friend and guardian. However, after Thomas Wayne's ties to corruption are revealed, their friendship is fractured when Bruce learns Alfred knew of Thomas' crimes, but never told him. Despite this, Alfred continues to support Bruce in the field and helps him in his battle against the Children of Arkham. Alfred is later kidnapped and tortured by the group and their leader, Lady Arkham, as part of retribution against the Wayne family, though he leaves clues for Bruce to find him and is rescued during Batman's final confrontation with Lady Arkham. Alfred may also lose an eye if the player chooses to have Batman attack Lady Arkham rather than unmask himself to protect Alfred.
 In the second game, Alfred continues to support Bruce, despite developing post-traumatic stress disorder following his kidnapping and torture. Due to the death of Lucius Fox, he becomes Bruce's closest ally, but suggests bringing another person onto the team. After falling unconscious however, Alfred decides to step away from helping Bruce as a vigilante, leading to him realizing that Bruce is going down the same self-destructive path as his father. Depending on whether Bruce decides to retire as Batman or continue his war on crime, Alfred will either stay with him or return to Great Britain.

Miscellaneous
 Alfred Pennyworth appears in the Smallville Season 11 digital comic based on the TV series of the same name.
 Alfred Pennyworth appears in the musical Holy Musical B@man! by StarKid Productions, portrayed by Chris Allen.

Parodies

A character based on Alfred Pennyworth called Alfred Copperworth appears in World of Warcraft: Wrath of the Lich King.
 A character based on Alfred called Aloysius Pennyworth appears in the Danganronpa franchise, depicted as Byakuya Togami's butler.

References

Plot summary citations

External links
 Alfred Pennyworth at DC Comics' official website
 Alfred Pennyworth on IMDb

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Characters created by Jerry Robinson
Comics characters introduced in 1943
DC Comics martial artists
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Alfred Pennyworth


Tokanui steht für:

 Tokanui (Southland), Ortschaft in der Region Southland, Neuseeland
 Tokanui (Waikato), Ortschaft in der Region Waikato, Neuseeland

Tokanui


O termo remensa, do latim redimentia, era utilizado durante Idade Média, no Principado da Catalunha, para referir-se ao pagamento que os camponeses deviam dar ao seu senhor para ter a permissão para sair da terra.

Posteriormente, o termo foi aplicado para designar os produtores sujeitos a essa condição. Desse modo, os camponeses de remensa, ou simplesmente "los remensas", eram lavradores de terras que lhes foram atribuídas de forma forçada e hereditária. Legalmente, eram homens livres, mas essa liberdade era limitada pelos laços que os ligavam à terra que cultivavam e, por meio dela, ao senhor. Sua condição não diferia substancialmente da dos camponeses de outros territórios peninsulares e no resto da Europa medieval, que eram denominados como servos. Mas as circunstâncias políticas, sociais e econômicas especiais da Catalunha medieval davam notável proeminência a essa classe social.

Quantidade e distribuição geográfica

Estima-se que no século XV existiam entre 15.000 e 20.000 famílias remensas na Catalunha, o que representaria cerca de 100.000 pessoas, que se concentravam na "Catalunha Antiga", que incluía as dioceses de Barcelona, Girona e de Vich. Por outro lado, era raros os remensas na Nova Catalunha, ao sul do Rio Llobregat. Segundo Jaume Vicens Vives, essa maior incidência do instituto na região da Velha Catalunha decorre do fato de que aquela região teve maior influência do Império Carolíngio e, portanto, foi onde o regime feudal encontrou seu máximo desenvolvimento.

Na Antiga Catalunha, a maior concentração de remensas ocorria nas regiões de Ampurdán, Selva, Gironès, Pla de l'Estany e Osona, além do que na época se chamava La Montaña, que corresponde à área atual de "Sierra de las Guillerías", e que incluia também Garrotxa e Ripollès. Havia também uma importante população de remensas nas regiões de Vallés, Maresme e Baix Llobregat. Segundo Jaume Vicens Vives, os remensas que que estavam submetidos às mais duras condições eram os da Serra, com base no fato de que essa região foi o principal foco das duas guerras dos remensas.

História

A condição de remessa foi ampliada entre meados do século XI e meados do século XIII - momento a partir do qual se agravou a condição servil dos camponeses do nordeste do Principado da Catalunha - quando os senhores intensificaram a sujeição pessoal daqueles que habitavam o território sob sua jurisdição. Foi nesse contexto que surgiram os chamados "maus usos senhoriais", dentre os quais se destacava a "remensa", que, em um primeiro momento, afetavam apenas alguns camponeses.

Os senhores feudais estabeleceram a "remensa" para evitar que os "seus" camponeses pudessem abandonar livremente as propriedades e ir para as cidades ou para as terras da Nova Catalunha, conquistadas dos árabes a partir do século XII.

Em um documento escrito em 1123, observa-se o uso da palavra "redemptiones" para designar os lotes de terra atribuídos às famílias de servos e para os servos que cultivavam tais lotes. Na segunda metade do século XIII, o termo "remensa" já estava consolidado social e legalmente.

Em 1283, as Cortes de Barcelona ratificaram o estatuto jurídico da "remensa", estabelecendo o resgate obrigatório para as pessoas estabelecidas nas propriedades ou locais "onde é costume se redimir".

Em 1370, o Conselho Provincial de Tarragona proibiu que a ordenação sacerdotal dos camponeses "remensas", pois esses eram considerados uma mera "coisa" propriedade de seu senhor.

Luta pela emancipação

O movimento emancipatório dos "remensas" teve início no século XIV, quando a situação econômica se agravou devido à crise iniciada em 1333 e ao impacto da Peste Negra, que atingiu a região da Catalunha, entre 1348 e 1351.

Após a Peste Negra, os senhores feudais reduziram as exigências sobre os camponeses para garantir que as terras continuassem a ser cultivadas. Desse modo, os "remensas" vislumbraram a possibilidade de alcançar sua emancipação, entretanto, em pouco tempo, os senhores, restabeleceram o patamar de exigências que existia antes da peste. Segundo Vicens Vives, esse foi o contexto que deu causa à radicalização do movimento dos remessas nas últimas décadas do século XIV e primeiras do século XV.

O objetivo do movimento de emancipação dos "remensas" era conseguir a liberdade pessoal sem perder seus direitos de cultivar seus lotes de terra.

Para os "remensas", era muito difícil conseguir o pagar o resgate, pois sua aceitação dependia da vontade e anuência do senhor feudal, pois não havia dispositivo legal que estipulasse as condições e forma como poderia ser efetuado o resgate, desse modo, o valor a pagar era arbitrariamente fixado pelo senhor feudal.

Intervenção dos monarcas

A partir de 1388, o Rei João I de Aragão começou a buscar contato com os que lutavam por melhores condições para os remensas. Nesse ano os líderes dos remensas dirigiram-se ao monarca para criticar os maus usos senhoriais.

Posteriormente, Maria de Luna, que foi Rainha consorte de Aragão, entre 1396 e 1406, em decorrência do casamento com o Rei Martim I de Aragão, declarou que a situação à qual estavam submetidos os "remensas" era de uma "servidão execrável e abominável", decorrente de "costumes maus e detestáveis", "o pior, mais opressor e vil estado e condição sofrida no mundo pelos homens oprimidos pelo jugo da servidão", "males injustos, práticas ignominiosas contra Deus e a justiça", "servidão não devida de cristão a cristão e muito menos honesta", "mancha da pátria" e "infâmia da nação catalã".

Com base nesse entendimento, Maria de Luna enviou uma carta ao Antipapa Bento XIII, pedindo-lhe que publicasse uma bula  que pusesse fim a tais "servidões pestilentas e reprovadas" nos feudos eclesiásticos, transformando-as em censos perpétuos a serem pagos pelos camponeses beneficiados, mas a tal bula nunca foi publicada.

O Rei Afonso V de Aragão, que reinou entre 1416 e 1458, continuou com a política favorável aos remensas, autorizando, em julho de 1448, a formação do "Grande Sindicato Remensa", onde os camponeses puderam reunir para discutir a o combate contra os abusos senhoriais e nomear curadores para representá-los. Em troca, o sindicato deveria arrecadar 100.000 florins que seriam entregues ao tesouro real. As reuniões do sindicato eram presididas por um oficial do Rei que trazia homens armados para garantir a segurança de tais reuniões. Por meio desse instrumento, a monarquia pretendia que as demandas dos remensas fossem resolvidas por meios pacíficos.

Por outro lado, os senhores feudais tentaram sabotar as reuniões dos Remensas e, consequentemente, a tentativa da monarquia para alcançar uma solução pacífica para o conflito. Para isso, tiveram apoio nas instituições catalãs que eles controlavam como a "Diputación del General del Principado de Cataluña" (Generalitat) e o Conselho dos Cem da cidade de Barcelona, que contava com diversos latifundiários que possuíam remensas, dentre seus integrantes.

Por sua vez, em 1450, o sindicado dos "remensas" já representava cerca de 20.000 famílias e, nessas circunstâncias, apresentaram um pedido à Coroa para libertá-los dos maus usos senhoriais.

Em 1454, Rei Afonso V de Aragão, nomeou seu irmão, que posteriormente seria o Rei João II de Aragão, como novo governante da Catalunha, que deu continuidade à política de apoio à emancipação dos remensas. Desse modo, ganhou a oposição dos nobres da Velha Catalunha.

Após assumir o trono, em 1425, o Rei João II de Aragão deu continuidade à política de apoio à emancipação dos remensas, mesmo quando o confronto com as instituições catalãs ocorreu na Revolução Catalã de 1460-1461 e quando após a morte do Príncipe Carlos de Viana, em setembro de 1461, nomeou como a Rainha consorte Joana Henriques como governante da Catalunha em nome do Príncipe Fernando, que futuramente, seria o Rei Fernando II de Aragão.

Em dezembro de 1461, a Rainha Joana Henriques ordenou aos senhores feudais e eclesiásticos, que cumprissem as disposições que suspendiam os maus usos senhoriais, ao mesmo tempo em que ordenava aos remensas que fizessem os pagamentos devidos.

Guerras Remensas

Ver: Guerras Remensas

Ambas as "guerras remensas" ocorreram no Principado da Catalunha.

A primeira ocorreu, entre 1462 e 1472, coincidindo com a Guerra Civil Catalã. Foi uma rebelião camponesa liderada pelos remensas que queriam acabar com a servidão a que estavam submetidos pelos senhores feudais.

Nesse conflito, os Remensas, liderados por Francesc de Verntallat, ficaram do lado do Rei João II de Aragão em seu confronto contra as instituições catalãs que se rebelaram contra ele. A guerra terminou com a vitória do lado fiel ao Rei, mas isso não significou o fim da opressão contra os remensas, pois o Rei João II de Aragão preferiu cumprir os compromissos com alguns senhores feudais que o apoiaram na disputa e, portanto, não atendeu às reivindicações dos remensas.

A segunda guerra ocorreu entre 1484 e 1485. Nesse conflito, os rebeldes eram liderados por Pere Joan Sala, que também participou da primeira guerra remensa, liderado por Francesc de Verntallat. Por sua vez, Francesc de Verntallat preferiu não combater nesse novo conflito e sim liderar um setor moderado dos remensas que procurou uma solução para o conflito através da mediação do Rei Fernando II de Aragão.

Nesse conflito, os rebeldes foram derrotados, no dia 24 de março de 1485, na Batalha de Llerona, na qual Pere Joan Sala foi feito prisioneiro.

No dia 21 de abril de 1486, foi publicada a Sentencia arbitral de Guadalupe que libertou os remensas dos maus usos senhoriais.

História da Catalunha
Idade Média
Servidão

Remensa


An Pentaschistis tomentella in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Otto Stapf. An Pentaschistis tomentella in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pentaschistis, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Pentaschistis

Pentaschistis tomentella


Max Pleikies (* 24. März 1945) ist ein ehemaliger deutscher Fußballspieler.

Bis 1971 war Max Pleikies für den SSV Reutlingen 05 und die LG Achalm in verschiedenen Disziplinen als Leichtathlet aktiv.

Ab der Saison 1971/72 spielte Pleikies als Abwehrspieler für die erste Fußballmannschaft des SSV Reutlingen 05. Nachdem er in der Regionalliga Süd für die Reutlinger insgesamt 33 Spiele absolviert hatte, stieg er mit dem SSV in der Saison 1972/73 ab und trat mit seiner Mannschaft in der Folge in der 1. Amateurliga Schwarzwald-Bodensee an. In der Amateurligasaison 1973/74 nahm Max Pleikies mit dem SSV Reutlingen als Gewinner der Württembergischen Amateurmeisterschaft an der Endrunde um die Deutsche Fußball-Amateurmeisterschaft 1974 teil und wurde mit dem SSV Deutscher Amateurmeister. Als Meister der Schwarzwald-Bodensee-Liga in der Spielzeit 1974/75 nahm Max Pleikies mit dem SSV Reutlingen an der Aufstiegsrunde zur 2. Bundesliga teil. Mit 5 Siegen in 6 Gruppenspielen besiegelte Pleikies mit dem SSV den Aufstieg. In der Zweitligaspielzeit 1975/76 war Max Pleikies in 18 Profispielen für die Reutlinger Fußballmannschaft im Einsatz und verfehlte mit dem SSV den Klassenerhalt.

1981 war Max Pleikies Spielertrainer des TSV Dettingen/Rottenburg.

Einzelnachweise

Fußballspieler (SSV Reutlingen 05)
Deutscher
Geboren 1945
Mann

Max Pleikies


Stadsfries or Town Frisian (Dutch: , ; , ) is a set of dialects spoken in certain cities in the province of Friesland in the northern Netherlands, namely Leeuwarden, Sneek, Bolsward, Franeker, Dokkum, Harlingen, Stavoren, and to some extent in Heerenveen.  For linguistic reasons, the outlying and insular dialects of Midsland (Terschelling), Ameland, Het Bildt, and Kollum are also sometimes tied to Stadsfries.

The vocabulary of Stadsfries is derived primarily from Dutch.  The dialects began in the late 15th century, when Frisia lost its political independence to the Netherlands.  For many living in Frisia, learning Dutch became a necessity.  The result was a mixture of Hollandic dialect vocabulary and West Frisian grammar and other language principles. Since this process began, the West Frisian language itself has evolved, such that Stadsfries is further away from modern Frisian than it is from Old Frisian. Norval Smith states that Stadsfries is a Frisian–Dutch mixed language.

The name of the dialect group, Stadsfries, is not an endonym but is instead a Dutch term for the language.  Stad (German: Stadt) is a Germanic term for "city" or "town", seen in English place names such as "Hempstead".  In Stadsfries, the term for the dialect group is Stadsfrys or Stads, or each dialect is known simply by a name derived from the particular city name, such as Liwwarders for the dialect of Leeuwarden.  In West Frisian, the dialects are known as stedsk ("city-ish"), which does not indicate the idea that Stadsfries is a form of Frisian.

Vocabulary

The vocabulary of Stadsfries is mainly Dutch though the West Frisian language influence is notable. Furthermore, a set of word forms are used that are clearly West Frisian, not Dutch.
Examples:

The language also has typical West Frisian words that don't exist (in that sense) in Dutch, usually this concerns domestic words and words from the mainly West Frisian language agricultural sector.
Examples:

Other differences between Dutch and West Frisian can be traced back to the Dutch dialect of the 16th century.
Example:

Finally, several words have survived in the Stadsfries language due to Dutch influence that have since disappeared from the West Frisian language.
Examples:

Grammar

Stadsfries phonology deviates from Dutch in the absence of the voiced sounds  and  at the beginning of words.  Dutch words like this often have an equivalent Stadsfrisian translation that instead starts with the unvoiced sounds  and .  The Dutch sounds sequence  does not exist in Stadsfries, but is often replaced with .  Stadsfries has these properties in common with West Frisian, as well as several Dutch dialects.

The plurals match West Frisian (skip-skippen), as do the diminutives (popke, autootsje, rinkje), except those in Stavers (poppy, autootsy, rinkje), where Hollands rules are followed.

The verbs are missing two West Frisian weak classes, but do use West Frisian rules for forming past participles: they never get the affix ge- (ik hew maakt; hest dou dat sien?).  Stadsfrisian kept the West  Frisian pronouns do, jo and jimme (informal you, formal you, plural you), although do and jo are almost always written as dou and jou.  These words can in fact be used as criteria for deciding whether a Hollandic-West Frisian mixed dialect can still be considered Stadsfries.  The Dutch dialect called "West Frisian" spoken in the West Friesland region of North Holland for example does not have these words and is therefore considered Hollandic.

Spelling

There is no standardized, officially recognized spelling for Stadsfries.  The very few authors that write in it each use their own spelling conventions.  The most commonly used spelling is that in the Woordenboek fan ut Liwwarders (Leeuwarden Dictionary).  This spelling convention is closely related to, but more phonetic than West Frisian, and does not use the letter û.

Speakers

The use of Stadsfries is declining rapidly, especially in Leeuwarden.  No more than a quarter of the city's population (approximately 20,000 people) speaks the language, although that percentage is higher in smaller towns.  In the first half of the twentieth century the town of Heerenveen had a local strand of Stadsfries known as Haagjes Fries, spoken especially around Oranjewoud, near the country home of the Frisian stadhouder.

Use of most dialects (as well as the West Frisian language) is declining, but because West Frisian is considered prestigious and even recognized as a Dutch national language, Stadsfries has become a sociolect of the lower classes, especially in the cities.   The transition from dialect to sociolect happened primarily in the 20th century.  Around 1900, the Stadsfries dialects were still considered regional strands of Dutch and given a much higher status than Frisian.  With the rise of Standard Dutch in society's upper classes, brought on particularly by education and mass media, Stadsfries stopped being considered a strand of Dutch.  Since the lower classes had less exposure to Standard Dutch, they remained as some of the only speakers of Stadsfries.

References

External links
 http://lowlands-l.net/anniversary/stadsfrys-info.php
 http://www.lowlands-l.net/talk/nld/index.php?page=stadsfries

West Germanic languages
Languages of the Netherlands
Mixed languages

Stadsfries dialects


Yosef Haddad ( Haifa, Israel, 3 de setembro de 1985) é árabe-israelense, ativista de advocacy israelense, jornalista, ativista social no setor árabe-israelense, celebridade da internet e CEO da associação "Juntos – fiadores uns dos outros" que trabalha para conectar o setor árabe à sociedade israelense. Ele é um Forças de Defesa de Israel desabilitado da Guerra do Líbano de 2006.

Biografia
Yosef Haddad é um árabe cristão-católico, nascido em Haifa, filho de professor mãe e sacerdote pai, um empresário e um piloto civil, o segundo de quatro irmãos. A família mudou-se posteriormente para Nazaré, onde estudou na escola tecnológica Dom Bosco. Em 2003, ele se ofereceu para o FDI e serviu na . Terminou o curso comandante de grupo de combate com louvor e serviu como comandante de pelotão e sargento no 51º Batalhão.

Antes de sua libertação, em julho de 2006, estourou a Guerra do Líbano de 2006. Durante a guerra, seu batalhão lutou na Batalha de Bint Jbeil, onde oito soldados israelenses foram mortos, incluindo o major , e como resultado, o batalhão foi citado. Em 10 de agosto de 2006, no final da guerra, um míssil 9M133 Kornet disparado pelas forças do Hezbollah atingiu uma parede perto de Haddad. Com o golpe e os estilhaços, seu pé direito foi amputado e ele ficou ferido em outros locais. Haddad foi evacuado sob fogo e passou por tratamento e reabilitação por cerca de um ano, durante o qual seu pé foi recolocado e ele foi determinado como deficiente do FDI.

Árabes israelenses
Ativistas de Israel
Nascidos em 1985

Yosef Haddad


Događaji

Rođenja

Smrti
 8. rujna – Sergije I., papa

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

701.


Maddalena (en cirílico, Маддалена) es una ópera en un acto con música de Serguéi Prokófiev, quien también escribió el libreto basado en una obra de Magda Gustavovna Lieven-Orlov bajo el nombre de pluma Baron Lieven. Se estrenó de manera póstuma en la Opernhaus de Graz el 28 de noviembre de 1981.

Historia
Aunque Prokófiec había escrito ya cuatro óperas (siendo la primera de ellas El gigante que él compuso a la edad de ocho años y fue escrita por la madre del compositor), Maddalena es la primera de sus obras en este género al que él dio número de opus (op. 13). La ópera se escribió en el verano de 1911 mientras Prokófiev era aún un estudiante en el Conservatorio de San Petersburgo y lo abandonó tras haber orquestado solo una de sus cuatro escenas.

La partitura fue publicada por Boosey and Hawkes en Londres en 1960. La viuda del compositor, Lina Prokófiev, que era la legítima propietaria del manuscrito, pidió al músico inglés Edward Downes que crease una versión para representarse en escena. En origen iba a ser estrenada por el Teatro de Ópera de San Luis en 1980. Pero debido a los problemas contractuales, tras el estreno de Maddalena en una transmisión grabada en estudio por BBC Radio 3 el 25 de marzo de 1979, su primera representación fue en la Opernhaus, Graz, Austria el 28 de noviembre de 1981, dirigida por Downes.

Referencias
Notas

Licencia

Enlaces externos

Óperas de Serguéi Prokófiev
Óperas en ruso
Óperas de 1911
Óperas de 1981
Óperas estrenadas en Austria
Óperas inacabadas

Maddalena


Metalik bir element olan Krom'un atom numarası 24, atom ağırlığı 51,996'dır. İsmi Yunanca renk anlamına gelen "krıma"dan gelmektedir. Parlak ve yansıtıcı özelliğe sahiptir.

Tarihi
Johann Gottlob Lehmann, 1762 yılında Rusya'da, Ural Dağları'nda kromun izine rastladı ve 1797'de Louis Nicolas Vauquelin bu cehveri çözümlemeyi başarınca elemente renk konusundaki kuvvetinden dolayı bu adı verdi.

Osmanlı'da Krom
Anadolu'da krom ilk kez 1848'de Harmancık yakınlarındaki Kozluca Köyü civarında Lawrence Smith tarafından keşfedildi. 1850'de Yüzbaşı Mehmet Efendi, Dağardı Kazası'nda ikinci bir krom madeni keşfetti. İlerleyen yıllarda ek krom madenleri keşfedilmeye devam edildi. 19. yüzyılın ortalarında Osmanlı dünyada krom üreten tek devletti.

Özellikleri

Krom çok sert olması ve erime noktasının 1857 °C olması nedeniyle, metallere sertlik sağlanması ve zırhlı araç yapımı için kullanılır. En önemli kullanım alanı Nikel ile beraber paslanmaz çeliklerdedir. Oluşturdugu kromoksit tabakası çelik yüzeyini film tabakası gibi kaplar ve kimyasal korozyona karşı dayanıklılık sağlar.

Krom doğada +3 yüklüdür, indirgenme reaksiyonuyla +6 değerlik alır. Toz formdaki krom, deri tabaklamada uzun yıllardır kullanılmaktadır. Deriye uzun süre dayanma özelliği kazandırır. Ayrıca 118 elementten 24. sıradadır. Latincesi Chromium'dur ve simgesi Cr'dir.

Krom kandaki şekerin hücrelere aktarılmasına yardımcı olur. Krom yer fıstığı, yumurta sarısı, peynir, üzüm suyu, maya, istiridyede bulunur. Kemiklere de faydası vardır.

Krom sanayi ortamında iş parçalarının hareket ettiği yataklar içerisinde aşınmasını da engellemektedir. Bir piston ve piston yatağının krom kaplama işlemi yapıldıktan sonra çalışması ile ömrü ortalama 4 - 8 ay arası artmaktadır. (Tabii ki parçadan parçaya değişir) Yani kısaca krom korozyonu da engellemekte ve kayganlığı sağlamaktadır.

Bilim adamları tarafından yapılan araştırmalar sonucunda Cr+6 iyonu ve bileşiklerinin kanser yaptığı yönündeki bilgilere ulaşıldı ve IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) tarafından Grup 1 (İnsanlar için Kanserojen) olarak sınıflandırıldı.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Krom izotopları

Kaynakça

Elementler
Besinsel mineraller
İş sağlığı ve güvenliği
Geçiş metalleri

Krom


Valentín Parera Mora (Granada, 15 de julio de 1895 – Madrid, 5 de abril de 1986) fue un actor de cine español.

Tras finalizar el bachillerato, desempeñó trabajos de representante comercial, empleado en una compañía de seguros y vendedor de automóviles.

Interesado en el cine, interpretó pequeños papeles en películas producidas en Francia. Fue Benito Perojo quien vio en él aptitudes para representar un papel destacado en El negro que tenía el alma blanca (1927), película con la que se reveló como artista de cine. Poco después, el éxito de otra película del mismo director, La condesa María, lo consagraría como figura del cine mudo español.

Fue contratado por la MGM para rodar en Hollywood la versión castellana de la película Paid, en la que no llegó a intervenir porque se suspendió el rodaje. En 1931, durante el viaje de regreso en barco, conoció a la soprano y actriz estadounidense Grace Moore, con la que contrajo matrimonio en Cannes el 15 de julio del mismo año.

Aunque actuó con éxito en varias películas más, a partir de su matrimonio se dedicó a gestionar los contratos de Grace hasta el fallecimiento de esta en accidente de aviación en Copenhague. Desde entonces se ocupó de negocios propios de cine y televisión, alternando su residencia entre Nueva York y Madrid, donde falleció el 5 de abril de 1986.

Filmografía
 El negro que tenía el alma blanca (1927)
 La condesa María (1928)
 Corazones sin rumbo (1928)
 Los claveles de la Virgen (1929)
 La bodega (1930)
 Un hombre de suerte (1930)
 El amor solfeando o El profesor de mi mujer (1930)
 Yo, tú y ella u ¡Ojo, solteros! (1933)
 Granaderos del amor (1934)
 Dos más uno, dos (1934)
 Señora casada necesita marido (1934)

Enlaces externos

Fotografía de Valentín Parera en la Biblioteca Digital Hispánica.

Actores de cine de España
Actores de cine mudo
Actores de la provincia de Granada
Nacidos en Granada
Fallecidos en Madrid

Valentín Parera


Die Abendmahlsvergiftung oder Nachtmahlvergiftung war eine Massenvergiftung am Bettag, dem 12. September 1776, in Zürich.

Die Vergiftung
Bei der Einnahme des Abendmahlweines am Bettag 1776 im Zürcher Grossmünster traten Unverträglichkeiten auf. Der Wein wurde laut Samuel Hahnemann mit der sogenannten "Würtenbergischen Probe" untersucht, bei der der Zusatz von Schwefelleber einen schwarzen Niederschlag auslöste. Diese Reaktion wurde als sicherer Nachweis einer Zusetzung von Bleizucker in krimineller Absicht gewertet. Das Verfahren wurde später wegen seiner geringen Spezifität obsolet. Es reagierte auch auf andere Schwermetalle sowie auf Eisenverbindungen. Nach Lavaters Dossier zur Abendmahlsvergiftung soll der Wein dagegen mit einem  toxischen Gebräu, dessen Bestandteile unter anderem Stechapfel, Schwertlilie und Arsenik waren, versetzt worden sein. Die Aussagen der Zeitzeugen und die geklagte Symptomatik lassen jedoch retrospektiv am ehesten auf eine akzidentelle Verunreinigung oder auf eine bakterielle Zersetzung oder Toxinbildung schliessen.

Der Vorfall wurde umgehend durch die Zürcher Geistlichkeit aufgegriffen, die ihn durch eine besondere Verderbnis der Zürcher bedingt sah. Das Ereignis wurde von den Stadtpfarrern über Wochen in den Predigten der vier Hauptkirchen thematisiert und verbreitete sich über die Zeitungspresse in Europa. Johann Kaspar Lavater ging in seinen mehrfach gedruckten beiden Predigten zur Nachtmahlvergiftung so weit, dass er die Ausführung der vermeintlichen Tat einem einzelnen kriminellen und gottlosen Verbrecher aus der Stadtbevölkerung zuschrieb. In der Konsequenz versuchte man 1780 dem straffällig gewordenen Johann Heinrich Waser die Tat unterzuschieben, wogegen Waser jedoch heftig widersprach. Lavater veröffentlichte 1777 im Teutschen Merkur ein umfangreiches Dossier, das auch separat unter dem Titel Wahrhaffte Geschichte, der den 12ten Herbstmonat 1776, als in der Nacht auf den allgemeinen Bet-Buß und Fast-Tag, verübten Greuel-That, bey Vergifftung des Nachtmahl-Weins, verfaßt von Herrn Joh. Caspar Lavater, Pfarrern an der Waysen-Kirche zu Zürich erschien. Die Reaktion des europäischen Publikums blieb lange gespalten. Christoph Meiners liess sich bei seinem Besuch in Zürich von der Anschlagstheorie überzeugen. Lavaters Postulat des "radikalen Bösen" wurde dagegen von Friedrich Nicolai in der Allgemeinen Teutschen Bibliothek ironisch widerlegt. Auch Gottlieb Emanuel von Haller distanzierte sich in seiner Rezension der Lavaterschen Predigten ebenfalls eindeutig:

Literatur
 Jeffrey Freedman: Die Abendmahlsvergiftung in Zürich: Nicolai und Lavater über das radikal Böse. Presented to an international conference on "Public Debates in the German Enlightenment," sponsored by the University of Potsdam, Germany, December 2004.

Roman
 Dominik Bernet: Das Gesicht. Cosmos-Verlag, Muri bei Bern 2012, ISBN 978-3-305-00422-5.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks
 Zwei Predigten von Lavater nach der Abendmahlsvergiftung (Google Books)

Geschichte des Protestantismus
Theologische Kontroverse
Aufklärung
Vergiftung
Reformierte Kirche (Schweiz)
Eucharistie
Christentum in Zürich
Ereignis 1776
Christentum (18. Jahrhundert)
Religion (Essen und Trinken)
Lebensmittelvergiftung

Abendmahlsvergiftung


Amerigo Vespucci (9 Mart 1454 – 22 Şubat 1512), İtalyan kâşif, kartograf.

Hayatı

Amerigo Vespucci 9 Mart 1454'te dünyaya gelmiştir. İtalyan kâşif Amerika kıtasını bulduğuna inanıp İtalya'ya yazdığı mektuplarda bildirmektedir. Amerika kıtasına bugünkü adını vermiştir.

Özellikle iki mektubunun: "Mundus Novus" (Yeni Dünya) ve "Lettera" (ya da "Dört Deniz Yolculuğu") güvenilirliğine gölge düşmüş olması nedeniyle Vespucci'nin rolü çok tartışılmıştır. Bazıları Vespucci'nin kendi rolünü abarttığı ve kasıtlı olarak sahte kanıtlar ürettiğini, diğerleri iki mektubun da sahte olduğu ve aynı dönemde başkaları tarafından yazıldığı düşüncesini savunurlar. Amerigo, Güney Amerika kıyısı açıklarına vardıktan sonra İtalya'ya yazdığı mektupta, keşif yaptığı kara parçalarının beklenenden çok daha geniş olduğunu, daha önce Avrupalıların anlattıkları Asya gibi bir yer olduğunu ve bu yüzden de bir Yeni Dünya, yani Avrupa'da önceden bilinmeyen dördüncü bir kıta (Asya ve Afrika'dan sonra) olması gerektiğini yazdı.

Amerigo'nun mektuplarının yayımlanarak yaygın bir şekilde benimsenmesi Martin Waldseemüller'ın 1507 yılındaki "Universalis Cosmographia" (ya da Waldseemüller Haritası) isimli dünya haritasında bu yeni kıtaya Amerika adını koymasına yol açtı. Vespucci, Latince yazdığı yazılarını kendi adının Latincesi olarak düşündüğü Americus Vespucius adıyla imzalamıştı. Waldseemüller o yüzden bu yeni kıtaya, Vespucci'nin ilk adının Latince formundan yola çıkarak, feminin şekli olan America ismini koydu. Amerigo isminin kendisi Orta Çağ Latincesindeki Emericus isminin İtalyanca hali olup, Almancadaki Heinrich yoluyla (İngilizcedeki Henry), Cermence bir ad olan Haimrich'den türemiştir.

Bu tartışmalı iki mektup Vespucci'nin Amerika'ya toplam dört deniz yolculuğu yaptığını iddia ederken bunlardan ancak ikisi diğer kaynaklarca doğrulanabilmektedir. Tarihçiler genel olarak 1497'de hiçbir keşif yolculuğu yapılmadığı konusunda birleşmektedirler (İspanya'nın Cádiz limanından aynı yılın 10 Mayıs'ında başladığı iddia edilen yolculuk).

Amerigo'nun bundan sonraki yolculuğu 1499 yılında Hojeda'nın komutasındaki bir İspanyol filosuyla gerçekleşti. Venezuela sahili boyunca seyretti. Kesin bilinen en son yolculuğu Portekiz hizmetinde 1501-1502 yılları arasında gerçekleşti ve sonradan Rio de Janeiro kentinin kurulduğu körfeze kadar ulaştı. Bu seferki yolculuğun lideri Gonçalo Coelho'ydu. Bu yolculuk sırasında Güney Amerika sahilleri boyunca güneye kadar indi. Yazılarına inanılacak olursa geriye dönüş yapmadan önce Patagonya enlemine kadar ulaştı. Ancak bu şüpheyle karşılanmalıdır; çünkü o kadar güneye inseydi, Río de la Plata halicini görmüş olması gerekirdi. Ancak yazılarında bundan hiç söz edilmemiştir. Coelho ve Vespucci'nin bu yolculuğundan sonra Portekiz'de yapılan Güney Amerika haritalarında 25º güney enleminde bulunan bugünkü Cananéia'dan daha güneyde hiçbir kara parçası gösterilmemektedir ve bu noktanın gittikleri en güney nokta olduğu düşünülebilir. 1501'deki seferlerinin ilk yarısında, Vespucci gökteki iki yıldızı haritasında belirledi, Alfa Centauri ve Beta Centauri ve ayrıca Crux takımyıldızına ait yıldızları işaretledi. Bu yıldızlar Eski Yunanlar tarafından bilinmesine rağmen, aşamalı takaddüm dolayısıyla bu yıldızlar Avrupa ufuklarının altına kaydı ve bu yüzden de unutulmuşlardı. 1503-1504 yılları arasındaki deniz seyahati hakkında çok az bilgi mevcuttur. Hatta bu yolculuğun gerçekten yapıldığı dahi şüphelidir. Amerigo Vespucci 1512 yılında İspanya'nın Sevilla kentinde 58 yaşında öldü.

Vespucci'nin tarihteki önemi, yaptığı keşiflerden ziyade, kendi yazmış olsun veya olmasın, mektuplarında yatmaktadır. Bu mektuplardan dolayı Avrupalı halk Amerika hakkında ilk kez bilgi sahibi oldu. Amerika'nın varlığı bu mektupların yayımlanmasından sonraki birkaç yıl içinde Avrupa'da yaygın olarak bilinir hale geldi.

Dış bağlantılar

 Canaday, James A. "Amerigo Vespucci'nin Hayatı"

 Vespucci, Amerigo. "İlk Yolculuğunun Hikayesi 1497 (Floransa Cumhuriyeti Gonfalonier'den Pier Soderini'ye Mektup)" . İnternet Modern Tarih Kaynak Kitabı-Fordham Üniversitesi (ABD)
 Mason, Wyatt, 'Ben Amerika'yım. (Yani?)'  "The New York Times", 12 Aralık 2007.
 Martin Waldseemüller, Franz Wieser (Ritter von), Edward Burke (çev.), The Cosmographiæ Introductio of Martin Waldseemüller'in tıpkıbasımı: ardından Amerigo Vespucci'nin Dört Yolculuğu , Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Katolik Tarih Derneği, 1908.
 1507 Waldseemüller Haritası  ABD'den Library of Congress
 Kongre Kütüphanesinde TOPS Dersi, Dr. Fransa ve Easton
 World Digital Library Kongre Kütüphanesi'ndeki 1507 Waldseemüller Haritası sunumu]. Bu, 1.000 kopyasının basıldığına inanılan duvar haritası baskısının bilinen tek kopyasıdır. 1507 dünya gore haritasının dört orijinali Almanya, İngiltere ve ABD'de mevcuttur.
 Çevrimiçi Galeriler, Bilim Tarihi Koleksiyonları, University of Science Oklahoma Libraries Amerigo Vespucci'nin eserlerinin ve/veya portrelerinin .jpg ve .tiff formatındaki yüksek çözünürlüklü görüntüleri.
 Soderini Mektupları  Giovanni Battista Ramusio, Primo Volume delle Nauigationi et Viaggi , Venedik, 1550, fol.138–140.

1454 doğumlular
Floransa doğumlular
1512 yılında ölenler
15. yüzyılda İtalyanlar
16. yüzyılda İtalyanlar
16. yüzyıl kartografları
Rönesans'ta kişiler
İtalyan kâşifler
İtalyan denizciler
İtalyan kartograflar
Güney Amerika kâşifleri
Amerika'nın kolonileştirilmesi

Amerigo Vespucci


Erich Eduard Hugo Rudolf von Redern (Berlin, 14. prosinca 1861. – Potsdam, 18. siječnja 1937.) je bio njemački general i vojni zapovjednik. Tijekom Prvog svjetskog rata zapovijedao je 80. i 82. pričuvnom divizijom, te LIX korpusom na Istočnom i Zapadnom bojištu.

Obitelj
Erich von Redern je rođen 14. prosinca 1861. u Berlinu. Sin je Ernsta von Rederna, inače general poručnika u pruskoj vojsci, i Anne Unzelmann von Fransecky. Prvi brak je sklopio 1886. s Idom Hostmann. Nakon razvoda, sklopio je 1906. novi brak s Elsom Adelheid Sophiom Kaempf, kćeri predsjednika Reichstaga Johannesa Kaempfa

Vojna karijera
U prusku vojsku stupa u travnju 1880. služeći u 2. hannoverskoj pješačkoj pukovniji u Celleu u kojoj u siječnju 1885. postaje pobočnikom bojne. Od siječnja 1886. nalazi se na službi u 18. pješačkoj pukovniji "von Grolamnn". Tijekom službe u predmetnoj pukovniji promaknut je u čin poručnika. U lipnju 1890. premješten je u 22. pješačku brigadu u Breslauu gdje obnaša dužnost pobočnika brigade. Od ožujka 1892. služi u Glavnom stožeru, dok je u prosincu 1893. unaprijeđen u čin satnika. U siječnju 1894. imenovan je zapovjednikom satnije u 85. pješačkoj pukovniji "Herzog von Holstein" gdje se nalazi na službi do ožujka 1897. kada je premješten u na službu u stožer 33. pješačke divizije smještene u Metzu. Tu služi do siječnja 1899. kada je premješten na službu u stožer 22. pješačke divizije sa sjedištem u Kasselu. U stožeru navedene divizije služi svega tri mjeseca, do travnja 1899., kada je ponovno premješten, ovaj put u stožer 38. pješačke divizije smještene u Erfurtu.

U siječnju 1900. promaknut je u čin bojnika, te raspoređen na službu u stožer I. korpusa u Königsbergu. Od rujna 1901. služi u Glavnom stožeru u Berlinu, i to do travnja 1904., kada postaje zapovjednikom bojne u 75. pješačkoj pukovniji u Bremenu. U svibnju 1904. upućen je u Njemačku Jugozapadnu Afriku gdje kao pripadnik Zaštitnih snaga (Schutztruppe) sudjeluje u gušenju ustanka Herera. Tijekom službe u Africi, u travnju 1906., unaprijeđen je u čin potpukovnika. U Njemačku se vraća u ožujku 1907. te postaje načelnikom odjela u Glavnom stožeru. Navedenu dužnost obnaša do kolovoza 1908. kada postaje načelnikom stožera X. korpusa koji je imao sjedište u Hannoveru. Iduće, 1909. godine u travnju, promaknut je u čin pukovnika, nakon čega je u prosincu 1911. imenovan zapovjednikom 9. württemberške pješačke pukovnije smještene u Ulmu. U siječnju 1913. imenovan je zapovjednikom 11. pješačke brigade sa sjedištem u Brandenburgu. Istodobno s tim imenovanjem unaprijeđen je u čin general bojnika. U siječnju 1914. premješten je na službu u Glavni stožer gdje obnaša dužnost načelnika odjela.

Prvi svjetski rat
Tijekom Prvog svjetskog rata Redern je u veljači 1915. imenovan zamjenikom načelnika stožera XVII. korpusa koji se nalazio na Istočnom bojištu. S istim sudjeluje u Narevskoj ofenzivi, nakon čega u studenom 1915. postaje zapovjednikom 80. pričuvne divizije. Zapovijedajući istom u ožujku 1916. sudjeluje u Bitci na Naročkom jezeru. U kolovozu 1916. promaknut je u čin general poručnika, da bi u prosincu te iste godine bio imenovan zapovjednikom 82. pričuvne divizije zamijenivši na tom mjestu Eberharda von Hofackera. Navedenom divizijom koja je na Istočnom bojištu držala dio bojišta kod Pripjata, zapovijedao je godinu dana, do studenog 1917., kada je imenovan zapovjednikom LIX. korpusa kojim je do tada zapovijedao Hermann Brecht. Predmetnim korpusom koji se nalazio na Zapadnom bojištu u sastavu Armijskog odreda A, te je držao dio bojišta u Loreni, zapovijedao je do kraja rata.

Poslije rata
Nakon završetka rata Redern se umirovio, te je živio u okolici Berlina. Preminuo je 18. siječnja 1937. u 76. godini života u Potsdamu. Pokopan je na groblju Südwestkirchhof Stahnsdorf.

Izvori
   Erich von Redern na stranici Prussianmachine.com
   Erich von Redern na stranici Deutschland14-18.de

Njemački vojni zapovjednici u Prvom svjetskom ratu

Erich von Redern


På en dag som i dag er en kortfilm fra 2004 instrueret af Søren Balle efter manuskript af Søren Balle, Lærke Sanderhoff.

Handling
Det bos store dag - bryllupsdagen. Morgenen bliver mere dramatisk en forventet, og bo indser at inden han kan gå op ad kirkegulvet må han frigøre sig fra sin dominerende mor og overvinde barndommens traume.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2004

På en dag som i dag


Emna Louzyr (parfois orthographié Louzir), née le  à Tunis, est une poétesse et journaliste tunisienne.

Biographie
Elle a obtenu une maîtrise en lettres françaises à la faculté des sciences humaines et sociales de Tunis.

Elle est animatrice ainsi qu'une productrice d'émissions littéraires et culturelles de Radio Tunis chaîne internationale.

Elle est parallèlement une poétesse de langue arabe ayant publié quatre recueils : Ranin (2003), Samt Al Barakin (2008), Sabra (Éditions Arabesques, 2010), Khabbaratni Aria (Éditions Arabesques, 2018). En 2009, elle obtient le Prix Zoubeida-Bchir du CREDIF. Sabra a fait l'objet d'une traduction en italien et a également été mis en musique par Chedly Khomsi.

En 2015, elle est désignée avec Myriam Belkadhi et Wajiha Jendoubi comme représentante de la Tunisie dans le cadre des activités de la Convention sur l'élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination à l'égard des femmes. Elle est aussi membre du jury du prix littéraire Comar d'or en 2016 et 2017.

Publications
 .
  – Prix Zoubeida-Bchir 2009.
 .
 .
  – avec Moëz Majed.

Notes et références

Liens externes

 .
 .
 .

Poétesse tunisienne
Poétesse du XXIe siècle
Journaliste tunisienne
Animatrice tunisienne de radio
Étudiant de l'université de Tunis
Naissance en mars 1976
Naissance à Tunis

Emna Louzyr


Fort Oglethorpe est une ville principalement située dans le comté de Catoosa avec quelques portions dans le comté de Walker, dans l'État américain de Géorgie. D'après le recensement de 2020, la ville compte 10 423 habitants. Elle fait partie de la zone statistique métropolitaine de Chattanooga.

Notes et références

Liens externes
 City of Fort Oglethorpe official website
 6th Cavalry Regiment Museum
 Chickamauga & Chattanooga National Military Park

Municipalité en Géorgie (États-Unis)

Fort Oglethorpe (Géorgie)


Unión Progreso y Democracia Comunidad Valenciana (UPyD-CV) era la agrupación territorial de UPyD en la Comunidad Valenciana.

Funcionamiento interno
El máximo órgano de gobierno de UPyD en las comunidades autónomas es el Consejo Territorial. En cada provincia puede haber un Delegado Provincial, designado por el Consejo Territorial. El Consejo Territorial de UPyD en la Comunidad Valenciana, elegido el 7 de mayo de 2016, está formado por las siguientes personas:

 Coordinador Territorial: Manuela Nicolás Amorós
 Responsable de Organización: Raimundo García Olcina
 Vocal: Arturo Ortigosa Blanch
 Vocal: Beatriz Rabasa Sanchis
 Vocal: María Cerdán Mateo
 Vocal: María José Costa Medrano
 Vocal: Pascual Muñoz Muñoz
 Vocal: Richard Muñoz Martínez
 Vocal: Vidal ortega Calvo

Resultados electorales
Tras las Elecciones Generales de 2011, uno de los diputados en el Congreso es el actor valenciano Toni Cantó, elegido por la circunscripción de Valencia. Durante la campaña electoral, Cantó fue entrevistado en el programa de Canal 9 La Tertulia. Dos días más tarde se sabría que UPyD, sin presencia en las Cortes Valencianas, no participaría en los debates de la cadena, hecho justificado por RTVV por la falta de "arraigo político" de la formación en la comunidad. Cantó, por su parte, calificó la decisión de la televisión pública valenciana de "atropello".

Elecciones autonómicas

Elecciones municipales
En las elecciones municipales de 2011, UPyD obtuvo representación en la provincia de Alicante, donde entró con un concejal en los ayuntamientos de Alicante, Elda y obtuvo tres en el de Novelda.

En junio de 2014 el concejal de Elda, César González, abandonó la formación, pasando a ser un concejal no adscrito.

En las elecciones municipales de 2015, UPyD obtuvo representación en la provincia de Alicante, donde entró con un concejal en los ayuntamientos de Albatera, San Fulgencio,  Callosa de Ensarriá, dos en San Miguel de Salinas y obtuvo seis en el de Novelda.

Elecciones generales
En las Elecciones generales de España de 2011 UPyD fue la cuarta fuerza política más votada de la comunidad, y obtuvo un escaño en el Congreso de los Diputados por la circunscripción de Valencia, para el actor Toni Cantó. En aquella provincia, UPyD fue quinta fuerza política, por detrás de Compromís.

Referencias

Bibliografía

Valencia
Partidos políticos de la Comunidad Valenciana