Sergey Sergeyeviç Prokofyev, (Rusça: Серге́й Серге́евич Проко́фьев; Sergey Sergeyeviç Prokofyev; (d. 23 Nisan 1891 Sontsovka, Rusya, şimdi Ukrayna – ö. 5 Mart 1953 Moskova, Rusya) birçok değişik müzik türünü ustalıkla icra edebilen, bu özelliği ile 20. yüzyılın en önemli yorumcularından sayılan ünlü piyanist ve besteci.

Yaşamı

Çocukluk ve gençlik yılları
Prokofyev; Sontsovka, o zamanlar Rusya İmparatorluğu'nda şu an ise Donetsk Oblast, Ukrayna'da bulunan bir köyde dünyaya geldi. Annesi bir piyanist babası ise zengin bir ziraat mühendisi idi.

Prokofyev'in olağan dışı müzik yeteneği 5 yaşında ortaya çıktı. Müzik eğitimi, annesinden aldığı piyano dersleriyle başladı. Bir süre sonra, dinleyicilerini aile dostları ve komşuların oluşturduğu konserler vermeye başladı. Üzerine eserler yazmak amacıyla temalarını not aldığı, küçük köpek yavruları adını verdiği bir not defteri tutmaktaydı. Annesi, St. Petersburg da oturan babasını ziyarete gittiğinde, büyük şehrin müzik ortamını görmesi için Sergei'yi de yanında götürürdü. Bu geziler sayesinde Prokofyev, Rus bestecilerinin büyük çaplı yapıtlarını dinleme fırsatı bulmuştu. 7 yaşında ise satranç oynamayı öğrendi ve bu oyunu zamanındaki şampiyonlarla boy ölçüşebilecek kadar ustaca oynadı. Prokofyev'in hayatı boyunca bu ikili (müzik ve satranç) bir tutku olarak kaldı.

1902 yılında yorum dersleri almadan önce bile birkaç tane yenilikçi eser bestelemişti. İlk zamanlarında ürettiği bir Fa majör eserinde siyah notalara dokunmayı sevmediğinden si bemolü kullanmamıştı. Yeteri kadar teorik alt yapıyı öğrendikten sonra kendi tarzını oluşturacak denemelere başladı.

1910 yılında babasının ölmesi ile birlikte ekonomik desteği de sona erdi, ama bu süreye kadar edindiği ünü ile kendi yaşamını geçindirebilecek kadar para kazanabildi.

1918 yılının Mayıs ayında hem Rusya'daki devrimin etkisi ile huzursuz ortamdan kaçmak hem de kendi deneysel müziğini yapabileceği daha rahat bir ortam bulmak için kalıcı bir süreliğine olmak üzere Amerika'ya doğru hareket etti.

Yurt dışındaki yaşamı
Müziğinin olgunlaşmasında önemli bir yere sahip olan film müziğine duyduğu ilgiden dolayı film endüstrisinde bulundu. Kendine ve diğer birtakım Rus bestecilerine ait kaydı bulunmayan piyano eserlerinin kayıtlarını yaptı.

San Fransisko'ya ulaştıktan sonra hemen diğer ünlü Rus sığınmacılarla karşılaştırıldı. Bundan sonra da New York'ta bir solo konser vermek üzere yolculuğa çıktı. Bunu diğer konserler izledi. Bir opera bestelemek için bir anlaşma imzalamasına rağmen çeşitli sorunlardan dolayı bu opera macerası başarıya ulaşamadı ve bu başarısızlık Prokofyev'in Amerika macerasının da sonu oldu. 1920 yılında Rusya'ya başarısız bir şekilde dönmek istemediğinden dolayı Paris'e gitti. Burada kendisinin müziğine daha hazır olan bir ortam bulan Prokofyev yarım bıraktığı işlerine geri döndü ve onları bitirdi.

1930'lu yılların başında Prokofyev'in evine duyduğu özlemin artması ile eserlerinin prömiyerlerini daha sık olarak kendi ülkesinde yapmaya başladı.

Sovyetler Birliği'ne geri dönüş
1934 yılında Prokofyev kalıcı olarak Sovyetler Birliği'ne geri döndü. Ailesi ise kendinden bir yıl sonra geri dönebildi. Sovyetler Birliği'ndeki değişen politikalar sayesinde kendine daha özgür bir alan bulabildi, yalnız bu politikalar Rus yorumcuların neredeyse tümüyle dışarı ile olan ilişkisini koparıyordu.

1941 yılında geçirdiği ilk kalp krizi ile bozulmaya başlayan sağlığı savaş ve savaş sonrası yıllarda giderek bozularak 5 Mart 1953 günü 62 yaşında iken ölmesine neden oldu.

Eserleri

 Re minör Toccata, Op. 11, Piyano
 Piyano Sonatı No. 2 Re minör, Op. 14
 Piyano konçertosu No. 2 Sol minör, Op. 16
 Keman konçertosu No. 1 in Re major, Op. 19
 Gambler, Op. 24, 4 sahnelik opera
 Senfoni No.1 Re majör, Op. 25, neo - klasik eser
 Piyano Konçertosu No. 3 Do majör, Op. 26
 Quintet, Op. 39, obua, klarnet, keman, viyola, kontrabas
 Senfoni No. 2 Re majör, Op. 40
 Divertimento, Op. 43
 Senfoni No. 3 in Do minör, Op. 44
 Senfoni No. 4 in Do majör, Op. 47 (revised as Op. 112)
 Yaylı Quartet No. Si minör, Op. 50
 Senfonik şarkı, Op. 57
 Keman konçertosu No. 2 in Sol minör, Op. 63
 Romeo ve Juliet, Op. 64, 4 sahnelik bale, en ünlü bölümü "Dance of the Knights" bölümüdür.
 Keman sonatı No. 1 in fa minör, Op. 80
 Piyano sonatı No. 6 La majör, Op. 82
 Piyano sonatı No. 7 Sib majör, Op. 83
 Piyano sonatı No. 8 Sib majör, Op. 84
 Cinderella, Op. 87, 3 sahnelik bale
 Savaş ve Barış, Op. 91, 13 sahnelik opera
 Yaylı Quartet No. 2 Fa majör, Op. 92
 Flüt sonatı No.1 Re majör, Op. 94
 Senfoni No. 5 Sib majör, Op. 100
 Piyano sonatı No. 9 Do majör, Op. 103
 Senfoni No. 6 Mib majör, Op. 111
 Senfoni No. 7 in Do# minör, Op. 131

Dipnotlar

Ayrıca bakınız

 Opera bestecileri listesi

Dış bağlantılar

 "Serge Profkoviev" Vakfi websitesi   (Erişme:3.11.2010)
  IMSLP websitesi "Prokofiev,_Sergei" maddesi   (Erişme:3.11.2010)

1891 doğumlular
1953 yılında ölenler
20. yüzyıl klasik müzik bestecileri
Rus opera bestecileri
Rus klasik piyanistler
Sovyet besteciler
Stalin Ödülü sahipleri
Film müziği bestecileri
Modernizm
Beyin kanamasından ölenler
Moskova'da defnedilenler
En İyi Çocuk Müziği Albümü Grammy Ödülü sahipleri
Grammy Ödülü sahipleri

Sergey Prokofyev


Umberto Locati, né à Castel San Giovanni dans la province de Plaisance le  et mort à Plaisance (Italie) le , est un évêque et chroniqueur italien du .

Biographie
Né de parents obscurs, dans un bourg du Plaisantin, il entre en 1520 dans l'Ordre des Prêcheurs à Plaisance, et acquiert en peu de temps une connaissance approfondie du latin et de l'italien : il suit cependant les cours de philosophie et de théologie. Sa réputation ne tarda pas à franchir les murs de son couvent : il est nommé inquisiteur de la foi à Pavie ; et quelques années après il revient exercer les mêmes fonctions à Plaisance. En 1566, le pape Pie V le nomme commissaire général de l'inquisition à Rome, et le choisit en même temps pour son confesseur. Umberto est élevé, en 1568, sur le siège épiscopal de Bagnorea ; et l'on assure que le souverain pontife avait l'intention de l'honorer de la pourpre, mais qu'il en est détourné par le cardinal Alexandre Farnèse. Quoi qu'il en soit, Umberto gouverne son diocèse avec beaucoup de sagesse. Étant tombé malade à Rome et croyant sa fin prochaine, il se fait élever un tombeau dans l'église Santa Sabina, avec une inscription fort modeste. Il recouvre cependant la santé ; mais ne se sentant pas en état de continuer ses fonctions pastorales, il se démet de son évêché, et se retire en 1581 au couvent de son ordre, à Plaisance, où il passe ses dernières années dans la retraite et la prière. Il y meurt le 17 octobre 1587.

Œuvres
 De Placentinæ urbis origine, successu et laudibus seriosa narratio, Crémone, 1564, in-4°, ibid., 1614. Grævius a inséré cet ouvrage dans le Thesaurus antiquitatum Italiæ, . L'auteur l'avait traduit lui-même en italien. Sa chronique commence à l'an 70, sous le règne de Vespasien : elle est remplie de fables et de détails si peu intéressants, qu'elle ne mérite plus d'être consultée depuis qu'on a l'Histoire de Plaisance par Poggiali.
 Italia travagliata, etc., Venise, 1576, in-4°. C'est une histoire des guerres dont l'Italie a été le théâtre depuis la descente d'Énée dans le Latium jusqu'au . Cette compilation, dit Tiraboschi, a peu de lecteurs et n'en mérite aucun (Istor. litter., , ).
 Opus judiciale inquisitorum ex diversis theologis et juris doctoribus extractum, Rome, 1570, Venise, 1583, in-4°.

Bibliographie

Liens externes

Évêque de Bagnoregio
Évêque catholique italien du XVIe siècle
Décès en octobre 1587
Décès à Plaisance (Italie)

Umberto Locati


Johann Christian Friedrich Harleß (født 11. juli 1773 i Erlangen, død 13. marts 1853 i Bonn) var en tysk læge. Han var søn af Gottlieb Christoph Harleß samt farbror til Adolf og Emil Harleß.

Harleß tog først den filosofiske doktorgrad, derefter den medicinske 1794 (Dissertatio historiam physiologiæ sanguinis antiquissimæ exhibens, senere udgivet som Versuch einer Geschichte der Physiologie des Blutes im Altertume). Han nedsatte sig i sin fødeby, blev privatdocent der (Neurologiæ primordia) og derefter ekstraordinær professor 1794, og nåede en sådan berømmelse for sin lærdom, at mange universiteter søgte at knytte ham til sig, men han blev i Erlangen, hvor han 1814 blev ordentlig professor. Da universitetet i Bonn oprettedes 1818, kaldtes han til det og indrettede der de kliniske anstalter. Præmium Harlessianum stiftedes ved hans 50 års doktorjubilæum.

Harleß' arbejder er dels historiske, dels intern-medicinske (epidemiologiske). Han skrev dysenteriens historie; forfattade arbejder om Archigenes og Apollonius samt om Asklepiaderne. Harleß udgav Servilius Democrates' værker på latin og græsk (1833). Desuden publicerede han sine egne undersøgelser over gul feber (1805) og kolera (1831). Væsentlig er hans Handbuch der ärztlichen Klinik (1817—26) og hans oversættelser af medicinske klassiske værker (Antonio Scarpa, Valeriano Luigi Brera).

Kilder

Medicinhistorikere
Læger fra Tyskland
Ansatte ved Erlangens Universitet
Ansatte ved Bonns Universitet
Faglitterære forfattere fra Tyskland
Tyskere i 1700-tallet
Tyskere i 1800-tallet
Personer fra Erlangen

Johann Christian Harleß


I solitari (Los solitarios, en español) es un melodramma di sentimento en un acto con música de Carlo Coccia y libreto en italiano de Gaetano Rossi. Se estrenó el 1 de noviembre de 1811 en el Teatro San Moisè de Venecia.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Óperas de Carlo Coccia
Óperas en italiano
Óperas de 1811
Óperas estrenadas en Venecia

I solitari


Katarina af Navarra (født 1468, død 12. februar 1517) var regerende dronning af Navarra fra 1483 til 1517.

Hun var datter af Gaston af Foix, fyrste af Viana og Magdalena af Frankrig, søster til Ludvig 11. af Frankrig. Hun var sønnedatter af dronning Eleonora af Navarra, gift med Jean d'Albret, der blev hendes medregent i 1484, og mor til kong Henrik 2. af Navarra.

Eksterne henvisninger

Regerende dronninger af Navarra
Huset Foix

Katarina af Navarra


7549 Woodard este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
7549 Woodard este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Observatorul Palomar de Carolyn S. Shoemaker și Eugene M. Shoemaker. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 3,00 ua, o excentricitate de 0,09 și o înclinație de 9,7° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 7001-8000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1980
Centura de asteroizi

7549 Woodard


Guru Gobind Singh (; born Gobind Das; 22 December 1666 – 7 October 1708) was the tenth and last human Sikh Guru. He was a warrior, poet, and philosopher. In 1675, at the age of nine he was formally installed as the leader of the Sikhs after his father Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed by Emperor Aurangzeb. His four biological sons died during his lifetime – two in battle and two executed by the Mughal governor Wazir Khan.

Among his notable contributions to Sikhism are founding the Sikh warrior community called Khalsa in 1699 and introducing the Five Ks, the five articles of faith that Khalsa Sikhs wear at all times. Guru Gobind Singh is credited with the Dasam Granth whose hymns are a sacred part of Sikh prayers and Khalsa rituals. He is also credited as the one who finalized and enshrined the Guru Granth Sahib as Sikhism's primary scripture and the eternal Guru.

Family and early life

Gobind Singh was the only son of Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh guru, and Mata Gujri. He was born into the Sodhi clan of the Punjabi Khatri community. He was born in Patna, Bihar on 22 December 1666 while his father was visiting Bengal and Assam. His birth name was Gobind Das, and a shrine named Takht Sri Patna Harimandar Sahib marks the site of the house where he was born and spent the first four years of his life. In 1670, his family returned to Punjab, and in March 1672, they moved to Chakk Nanaki in the Himalayan foothills of north India, called the Sivalik range, where he was schooled.

Tegh Bahadur was petitioned by Kashmiri Pandits in 1675 for protection from the fanatic persecution by Iftikar Khan, the Mughal governor of Kashmir under Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. Tegh Bahadur considered a peaceful resolution by meeting Aurangzeb, but was cautioned by his advisors that his life may be at risk. The young Gobind Das – to be known as Gobind Singh after 1699 – advised his father that no one was more worthy to lead and make a sacrifice than him. His father made the attempt, but was arrested then publicly beheaded in Delhi on 11 November 1675 under the orders of Aurangzeb for refusing to convert to Islam and the ongoing conflicts between Sikhism and the Islamic Empire. Before dying, Tegh Bahadur wrote a letter to Gobind Das (the letter was called Mahalla Dasven and it is part of the Guru Granth Sahib) as one last test to find the next Guru, after his father's martyrdom he was made the tenth Sikh Guru on Vaisakhi on 29 March 1676.

The education of Gobind Singh continued after he became the 10th Guru, both in reading and writing as well as martial arts such as horse riding and archery. The Guru learned Farsi in a year and at the age of 6 started training in martial arts. In 1684, he wrote the Chandi di Var in Punjabi language – a legendary war between the good and the evil, where the good stands up against injustice and tyranny, as described in the ancient Sanskrit text Markandeya Purana. He stayed in Paonta, near the banks of river Yamuna, until 1685.

Guru Gobind Singh had three wives:
At age 10, he married Jito on 21 June 1677 at Basantgaṛh, 10 km north of Anandpur. The couple had three sons: Jujhar Singh (b. 1691), Zorawar Singh (b. 1696), and Fateh Singh (b. 1699).
At age 17, he married Sundari on 4 April 1684 at Anandpur. The couple had one son, Ajit Singh (b. 1687).
At age 33, he married Sahib Devan on 15 April 1700 at Anandpur. They had no children, but she had an influential role in Sikhism. Guru Gobind Singh proclaimed her as the Mother of the Khalsa. The Guru initially rejected her marriage proposal as he was already married and had four sons. The Sangat and the Guru's family agreed to the marriage. However, Gobind Singh made it clear that his relationship with Sahib Diwan will be spiritual and not physical.

The life example and leadership of Gobind Singh have been of historical importance to the Sikhs. He institutionalized the Khalsa (literally, Pure Ones), who played the key role in protecting the Sikhs long after his death, such as during the nine invasions of Panjab and the attacks by Ahmad Shah Abdali from Afghanistan between 1747 and 1769.

Founding the Khalsa

In 1699, Guru Gobind Singh requested the Sikhs to congregate at Anandpur on Vaisakhi (the annual spring harvest festival). According to the Sikh tradition, he asked for a volunteer. One came forward, whom he took inside a tent. The Guru returned to the crowd alone, with a bloody sword. He asked for another volunteer, and repeated the same process of returning from the tent without anyone and with a bloodied sword four more times. After the fifth volunteer went with him into the tent, the Guru returned with all five volunteers, all safe. He called them the Panj Pyare and the first Khalsa in the Sikh tradition.

Gobind Singh then mixed water and sugar into an iron bowl, stirring it with a double-edged sword to prepare what he called Amrit ("nectar"). He then administered this to the Panj Pyare, accompanied with recitations from the Adi Granth, thus founding the khande ka pahul (baptization ceremony) of a Khalsa – a warrior community. The Guru also gave them a new surname "Singh" (lion). After the first five Khalsa had been baptized, the Guru asked the five to baptize him as a Khalsa. This made the Guru the sixth Khalsa, and his name changed from Guru Gobind Das to Guru Gobind Singh. This initiation ceremony replaced the charan pahul ritual practiced by the previous gurus, in which an initiate would drink the water either the Guru or a masand of the guru had dipped their right toe in.

Gobind Singh initiated the Five K's tradition of the Khalsa,
 Kesh: uncut hair.
 Kangha: a wooden comb.
 Kara: an iron or steel bracelet worn on the wrist.
 Kirpan: a sword.
 Kacchera: short breeches.

He also announced a code of discipline for Khalsa warriors. Tobacco, eating 'halal' meat (a way of slaughtering in which the animal's throat is slit open and it is left to bleed before being slaughtered), fornication and adultery were forbidden. The Khalsas also agreed to never interact with those who followed rivals or their successors. The co-initiation of men and women from different castes into the ranks of Khalsa also institutionalized the principle of equality in Sikhism regardless of one's caste or gender. Gobind Singh's significance to the Sikh tradition has been very important, as he institutionalized the Khalsa, resisted the ongoing persecution by the Mughal Empire, and continued the defence of dharma, by which he meant True Religion, against the assault of Aurangzeb.

He introduced ideas that indirectly challenged the discriminatory taxes imposed by the Mughal authorities. For example, Aurangzeb had imposed taxes on non-Muslims that were collected from the Sikhs as well, the jizya (poll tax on non-Muslims), pilgrim tax, and Bhaddar tax – the last being a tax to be paid by anyone following the Hindu ritual of shaving the head after the death of a loved one and cremation. Guru Gobind Singh declared that Khalsa does not need to continue this practice, because Bhaddar is not dharam, but a bharam (illusion). Not shaving the head also meant not having to pay the taxes by Sikhs who lived in Delhi and other parts of the Mughal Empire. However, the new code of conduct also led to internal disagreements between Sikhs in the 18th century, particularly between the Nanakpanthi and the Khalsa.

Gobind Singh had a deep respect for the Khalsa and stated that there is no difference between the True Guru and the sangat (panth). Before his founding of the Khalsa, the Sikh movement had used the Sanskrit word Sisya (literally, disciple or student), but the favored term thereafter became Khalsa. Additionally, prior to the Khalsa, the Sikh congregations across India had a system of Masands appointed by the Sikh Gurus. The Masands led the local Sikh communities, local temples, and collected wealth and donations for the Sikh cause. Gobind Singh concluded that the Masands system had become corrupt, he abolished them and introduced a more centralized system with the help of Khalsa that was under his direct supervision. These developments created two groups of Sikhs, those who initiated as Khalsa, and others who remained Sikhs but did not undertake the initiation. The Khalsa Sikhs saw themselves as a separate religious entity, while the Nanakpanthi Sikhs retained their different perspective.

The Khalsa warrior community tradition started by Guru Gobind Singh has contributed to modern scholarly debate on pluralism within Sikhism. His tradition has survived into the modern times, with initiated Sikh referred to as Khalsa Sikh, while those who do not get baptized referred to as Sahajdhari Sikhs.

Sikh scriptures

Piara Singh Padam in his Sri Guru Gobind Singh Ji de Darbari Ratan highlights that Guru Gobind Singh gave as much regard to the pen as to the sword.
Guru Gobind Singh is credited in the Sikh tradition with finalizing the Kartarpur Pothi (manuscript) of the Guru Granth Sahib – the primary scripture of Sikhism. The final version did not accept the extraneous hymns in other versions, and included the compositions of his father Guru Tegh Bahadur. Gobind Singh also declared this text to be the eternal Guru for Sikhs.

Gobind Singh is also credited with the Dasam Granth. It is a controversial religious text considered to be the second scripture by some Sikhs, and of disputed authority to other Sikhs. The standard edition of the text contains 1,428 pages with 17,293 verses in 18 sections. The Dasam Granth includes hymns, mythological tales from Hindu texts, a celebration of the feminine in the form of goddess Durga, fables dealing with sexuality, an autobiography, secular stories from the Puranas and the Mahabharata, letters to others such as the Mughal emperor, as well as reverential discussion of warriors and theology.

In his writings Guru Gobind Singh uses a variety of pen names such as Shyam, Raam, Kaal, Gobind Das, Gobind Singh, Nanak, and Shah Gobind.

According to the Bansavlinama, written in 1755 by Kesar Singh Chibbar, Sikhs requested that Gobind Singh merge Dasam Granth with the Guru Granth Sahib. Gobind Singh responded to the request by saying, "This is the Adi Guru Granth; The root book. That one (Dasam Granth) is only for my diversion. Let this be kept in the mind and let the two stay separate."

The Dasam Granth has a significant role in the initiation and the daily life of devout Khalsa Sikhs. Parts of its compositions such as the Jaap Sahib, Tav-Prasad Savaiye and Benti Chaupai are the daily prayers (Nitnem) and sacred liturgical verses used in the initiation of Khalsa Sikhs.

Wars

The period following the execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur – the father of Guru Gobind Singh, was a period where the Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb was an increasingly hostile enemy of the Sikh people. The Sikh resisted, led by Gobind Singh, and the Muslim-Sikh conflicts peaked during this period. Both Mughal administration and Aurangzeb's army had an active interest in Gobind Singh. Aurangzeb issued an order to exterminate Gobind Singh and his family.

Gobind Singh believed in a Dharamyudh (war in defence of righteousness), something that is fought as a last resort, neither out of a wish for revenge nor for greed nor for any destructive goals. To the Guru, one must be prepared to die to stop tyranny, end persecution, and to defend one's own religious values. He led fourteen wars with these objectives, but never took captives nor damaged anyone's place of worship.

Battles

Guru Gobind Singh fought 21 battles against the Mughal Empire and the kings of Siwalik Hills.
 Battle of Anandpur (1682) Bhim Chand attacks Gobind Singh.
 Battle Of Anandpur (1685) Bhim Chand attacks Gobind Singh once again
 Battle of Bhangani (1688), which states chapter 8 of Gobind Singh's Bicitra Natak, when Fateh Shah, along with mercenary commanders Hayat Khan and Najabat Khan, attacked his forces without any purpose. The Guru was aided by the forces of Kripal (his maternal uncle) and a Brahmin named Daya Ram, both of whom he praises as heroes in his text. The Guru's cousin named Sango Shah was killed in the battle, a cousin from Guru Hargobind's daughter.
 Battle of Nadaun (1691), against the Islamic armies of Mian Khan and his son Alif Khan, who were defeated by the allied forces of Gobind Singh, Bhim Chand and other Hindu kings of Himalayan foothills. The non-Muslims aligned to the Guru had refused to pay tribute to the Islamic officials based in Jammu.
 In 1693, Aurangzeb was fighting the Hindu Marathas in the Deccan region of India, and he issued orders that Guru Gobind Singh and Sikhs should be prevented from gathering in Anandpur in large numbers.
 Battle of Anandpur (1695) Mughals attack Gobind Singh at Anandpur
 Battle of Guler (1696), first against the Muslim commander Dilawar Khan's son Rustam Khan, near Sutlej river, where the Guru teamed up with the Hindu king of Guler and routed the Muslim army. The commander sent his general Hussain Khan against the armies of the Guru and the Guler kingdom, a war fought near Pathankot, and Hussain Khan was defeated and killed by the joint forces.
After the creation of the Khalsa the Hill Rajas, who had previously lost in battle to Guru Gobind Singh, sent a petition to Delhi requesting they act immediately and join them in battle against the Guru.l
 Battle of Anandpur (1699), was against two Rajas of the hills.
 Battle of Anandpur (1700), against the Mughal army of Aurangzeb, who had sent 10,000 soldiers, in response to the Hill Rajas letter, under the command of Painda Khan and Dina Beg. In direct combat between Gobind Singh and Painda Khan, the latter was killed. His death led to the Mughal army fleeing the battlefield.
 First siege of Anandpur, The hill Rajas of northern Punjab regrouped after defeat at Anandpur the previous year and resumed their campaign against Gobind Singh, joining forces with Gujar and other tribesmens to besiege Anandpur, northeast of Ludhiana. Gujar leader Jagatullah was killed on the first day and the Rajas were driven off after a brilliant defence led by the Guru's son Ajit Singh.
 Battle of Taragarh was a battle fought in defence during the Siege of Anandpur.
 Battle of Nirmohgarh (1702), against the forces of Aurangzeb, led by Wazir Khan reinforced by the hilly Rajas of the Sivalik Hills on the banks of Nirmohgarh. The battle continued for two days, with heavy losses on both sides, and Wazir Khan's army left the battlefield.
 Battle of Basoli (1702), against the Mughal army; named after the kingdom of Basoli whose Raja Dharampul supported the Guru in the battle. The Mughal army was supported by rival kingdom of Kahlur led by Raja Ajmer Chand. The battle ended when the two sides reached a tactical peace.
 First Battle of Chamkaur (1702), Mughal Army was repulsed.
 Battle of Anandpur (1703) was fought between the Sikhs and the Hill Rajas. The Sikh won.
 First Battle of Anandpur (1704), Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb sent a fresh force into northern Punjab under General Saiyad Khan, later replaced by Ramjan Khan. Ramjan was mortally wounded in further very heavy fighting around the Sikh stronghold at Anandpur, northeast of Ludhiana, and his force again withdrew.
 Second siege of Anandpur, According to scholars, this siege was triggered by the proliferation of armed Sikhs in Anandpur, the increasing numbers creating a shortage of supplies. This led the Sikhs to raid local villages for supplies, food, and forage, which in turn dramatically frustrated the local pahari rajas who forged alliances and mounted an attack on Guru Gobind Singh's patrimony. The Mughal general was fatally wounded by Sikh soldiers, and the army withdrew. Aurangzeb then sent a larger army with two generals, Wazir Khan and Zaberdast Khan in May 1704, to destroy the Sikh resistance. The approach the Islamic army took in this battle was to lay a protracted siege against Anandpur, from May to December, cutting off all food and other supplies moving in and out, along with repeated battles. Some Sikh men deserted the Guru during the Anandpur siege in 1704 and escaped to their homes where their women shamed them and they rejoined the Guru's army and died fighting with him in 1705. Towards the end, the Guru, his family, and followers accepted an offer by Aurangzeb of safe passage out of Anandpur. However, as they left Anandpur in two batches, they were attacked, and one of the batches with Mata Gujari and Guru's two sons – Zorawar Singh aged 8 and Fateh Singh aged 5 – were taken captive by the Mughal army. Both his children were executed by burying them alive into a wall. The grandmother Mata Gujari died there as well.
 Battle of Sarsa (1704), against the Mughal army led by general Wazir Khan; the Muslim commander had conveyed Aurangzeb's promise of a safe passage to Guru Gobind Singh and his family in early December. However, when the Guru accepted the offer and left, Wazir Khan took captives, executed them and pursued the Guru. The retreating troops he was with were repeatedly attacked from behind, with heavy casualties to the Sikhs, particularly while crossing the Sarsa river.
 Battle of Chamkaur (1704) Regarded as one of the most important battles in Sikh history. It was against the Mughal army led by Nahar Khan; the Muslim commander was killed, while on Sikh side the remaining two elder sons of the Guru – Ajit Singh and Jujhar Singh, along with other Sikh soldiers were killed in this battle.
 Battle of Muktsar (1705), the Guru's army was re-attacked by the Mughal army, being hunted down by general Wazir Khan, in the arid area of Khidrana-ki-Dhab. The Mughals were blocked again, but with many losses of Sikh lives – particularly the famous Chalis Mukte (literally, the "forty liberated ones"), and this was the last battle led by Guru Gobind Singh. The place of battle called Khidrana was renamed about a 100 years later by Ranjit Singh to Mukt-sar (literally, "lake of liberation"), after the term "Mukt" (moksha) of the ancient Indian tradition, in honour of those who gave their lives for the cause of liberation.
 Battle of Baghaur (1707) was fought against the Raja of Bhghaur and the locals of the area. It began over a dispute when some camels of the Guru went and ate the trees of a local gardener. The gardener took the camels and the rider hostage. Sikh negotiated for the release but he refused which led to a battle.
 Battle of Jajau (1707) was fought between Azam Shah and Bhadur Shah over the Mughal throne. Bahdur Shah sought Guru Gobind Singh's assistance. Gobind Singh provided assistance and is said to have killed Azam Shah in battle.

Mughal accounts
The Muslim historians of the Mughal court wrote about Guru Gobind Singh as well as the geopolitics of the times he lived in, and these official Persian accounts were readily available and the basis of colonial era English-language description of Sikh history.

According to Dhavan, the Persian texts that were composed by Mughal court historians during the lifetime of Gobind Singh were hostile to him but presented the Mughal perspective. They believed that the religious Guru tradition of Sikhs had been corrupted by him, through the creation of a military order willing to resist the Imperial army. Dhavan writes that some Persian writers who wrote decades or a century after the death of Gobind Singh evolved from relying entirely on court histories of the Mughals which disparage the Guru, to including stories from the Sikh gurbilas text that praise the Guru.

The Mughal accounts suggest that the Muslim commanders viewed the Sikh panth as one divided into sects with different loyalties.

Relationship with other religious groups

As a result of the violent hostility between the Sikhs and the Mughal armies, Guru Gobind Singh ordered the social segregation between the Khalsa and the Muslims, the sentiments of which are reiterated in the contemporary and posthumous rahit-namas. To a lesser extent, injunctions were also made prohibiting the partake in certain Hindu rituals and beliefs as well as against schismatic Sikh factions opposed to the orthodox Khalsa community.

Post-War years

After the Second Battle of Anandpur in 1704, the Guru and his remaining soldiers moved and stayed in different spots including hidden in places such as the Machhiwara jungle of southern Panjab.

Some of the various spots in north, west, and central India where the Guru lived after 1705, include Hehar with Kirpal Das (maternal uncle), Manuke, Mehdiana, Chakkar, Takhtupura, and Madhe and Dina (Malwa region). He stayed with relatives or trusted Sikhs such as the three grandsons of Rai Jodh, a devotee of Guru Har Gobind.

Zafarnama

Guru Gobind Singh saw the war conduct of Aurangzeb and his army against his family and his people as a betrayal of a promise, unethical, unjust, and impious. After all of Gobind Singh's children had been killed by the Mughal army and the battle of Muktsar, the Guru wrote a defiant letter in Persian to Aurangzeb, titled Zafarnama (literally, "epistle of victory"), a letter which the Sikh tradition considers important towards the end of the 19th century.

The Guru's letter was stern yet conciliatory to Aurangzeb. He indicted the Mughal Emperor and his commanders in spiritual terms, and accused them of a lack of morality both in governance and in the conduct of war. The letter predicted that the Mughal Empire would soon end, because it persecutes, and is full of abuse, falsehood, and immorality. The letter is spiritually rooted in Gobind Singh's beliefs about justice and dignity without fear.

Death of family members

Guru Gobind Singh's four sons, also referred to as Chaar Sahibzaade (the four princes), were killed during his lifetime – the elder two in a battle with Mughals, and the younger two executed by the Mughal governor of Sirhind. The Guru and his two elder sons had escaped the siege of Anandpur in December 1704 and reached Chamkaur, but they were pursued by a large Mughal army. In the ensuing battle, Guru's elder sons, also called the 'Vaade Sahibzaade' fought bravely, but the Mughal army was much larger and well equipped.
While the Guru was taken to a safe place, his elder sons, Sahibzada Ajit Singh aged 17, and Jujhar Singh aged 13 were killed in the Battle of Chamkaur in December 1704 against the Mughal army.

Gobind Singh's mother Mata Gujri and his two younger sons got separated from him after escaping the Mughal siege of Anandpur in December 1704; and were later arrested by the forces of Wazir Khan, the Mughal governor of Sirhind. The younger pair, called the 'Chotte Sahibzaade', along with their grandmother were imprisoned in an Open Tower (Thanda Burj), in chilling winter days. Around 26 and 27 December 1704, the younger sons, Sahibzada Fateh Singh aged 6 and Zorawar Singh aged 9, were offered a safe passage if they converted to Islam, which they refused; and subsequently, Wazir Khan ordered them to be bricked alive in the wall. Gujri fainted on hearing about her grandsons' death and died shortly thereafter.

His adopted son Zorawar Singh Palit whose real name is unknown died in 1708 near Chittorgarh Fort in a skirmish with local soldiers. According to Sainapati, Zorawar Singh Palit had managed to escape in the Battle of Chamkaur and later met the Guru in Rajputana after which he got in a minor scuffle at Chittorgarh and died.

According to Sikh historians, Guru Gobind Singh took the harsh news about the execution of his sons, Fateh Singh and Zorawar Singh, with stoic calm, and wrote "What use is it to put out a few sparks when you raise a mighty flame instead?".

Final days

Aurangzeb died in 1707, and immediately a succession struggle began between his sons who attacked each other. Guru Gobind Singh supported Bahadur Shah I in the Battle of Jajau by sending 200–300 Sikhs under Bhai Dharam Singh and later joining the battle themselves. According to Sikh sources it was Guru Gobind Singh who killed Azam Shah. The official successor Bahadur Shah invited Guru Gobind Singh with his army to meet him in person in the Deccan region of India for reconciliation. Guru Gobind Singh hoped to get Anandpur, his former stronghold back, and remained close to the imperial camp for nearly a year. His appeals for the restoration of his lands turned out to be ineffectual however as Bahadur Shah went on postponing any restoration to the status quo ante as he was not willing to offend either the Guru or the hill rajas.

Wazir Khan, a Mughal army commander and the Nawab of Sirhind, against whose army the Guru had fought several wars, commissioned two Afghans, Jamshed Khan, and Wasil Beg, to follow the Guru's army as it moved for the meeting with Bahadur Shah, and then assassinate the Guru. The two secretly pursued the Guru whose troops were in the Deccan area of India, and entered the camp when the Sikhs had been stationed near river Godavari for months. They gained access to the Guru and Jamshed Khan stabbed him two times resulting in a fatal wound at Nanded. Some scholars state that the assassin who killed Guru Gobind Singh may not have been sent by Wazir Khan, but was instead sent by the Mughal army that was staying nearby.

According to Senapati's Sri Gur Sobha, an early 18th-century writer, the fatal wounds of the Guru was one below his heart. The Guru fought back and killed the assassin, while the assassin's companion was killed by the Sikh guards as he tried to escape.

The Guru died of his wounds a few days later on 7 October 1708. His death fuelled a long and bitter war of the Sikhs with the Mughals.

According to the Bansavalinama by Kesar Singh Chibber written in 1768, the Guru's last words were, "The Granth is the Guru and it will bring you to Akal. The Guru is the Khalsa and the Khalsa is the Guru. The seat has been given to Sri Sahib Mata Devi. Love each other and expand the community. Follow the words of the Granth. The Sikh that follows Sikhi shall be with the Guru. Follow the conduct of the Guru. Always remain with Waheguru."

Dohra Mahalla Dasvan (10)

While it is generally believed that Guru Gobind Singh did not add any of his own compositions to the Guru Granth Sahib, there are some who argue that a single rhyming couplet, known as a Dohra, of the tenth Guru, titled Dohra Mahalla Dasvan (10), near the end of the scripture on page 1429 is the work of Guru Gobind Singh.

The composition in-question is as follows:

According to Trilochan Singh, Guru Tegh Bahadur sent a letter in the form of a sloka to the young Gobind Das while incarcerated in Delhi by Aurangzeb, delivered personally to the young child by Bhai Uda and Pundit Kirpa Ram:

It was a test of the potential successor to the Guruship. Gobind Das, who was writing from Anandpur, replied with a dohra, which affirmed his readiness to succeed as the next Sikh guru and calmed any apprehensions that the Sikhs of the time felt about the prospect. Guru Tegh Bahadur knew his son was prepared to the take the reins and lead the Sikh community after his death. After reading his son's reply, Guru Tegh Bahadur sent a final message to his son:

This story is recorded in the account of Bhai Mani Singh written in his Sikhan di Bhagat Mal composition. The story is further recounted in other historical sources, such as Suraj Prakash, Mehma Prakash, and Kesar Singh Chibber's Bansavalinama. The SGPC, for unknown reasons, decided to not ascribe the dohra to Guru Gobind Singh when it standardized the Guru Granth Sahib, which it subsequently publishes without it, despite the dohra being ascribed to the tenth Guru in many 17th and 18th century manuscripts of the Guru Granth Sahib, including many of which bear a signature of the tenth Guru.

In popular culture
While Sikh Gurus are generally not portrayed on screen due to certain beliefs in Sikhism, a number of Indian films surrounding Guru Gobind Singh's life have been made. These include:
Sarbans Dani Guru Gobind Singh, a 1998 Indian Punjabi-language drama film directed by Ram Maheshwari. The film follows Guru's life but he is not directly portrayed by an actor.
Chaar Sahibzaade, a 2014 Indian computer-animated film by Harry Baweja. It is based on the sacrifices of the sons of Guru Gobind Singh – Ajit Singh, Jujhar Singh, Jorawar Singh, and Fateh Singh.
Chaar Sahibzaade: Rise of Banda Singh Bahadur, a 2016 Indian computer-animated film by Harry Baweja. It is a sequel to Chaar Sahibzaade and follows Baba Banda Singh Bahadur's fight against the Mughals under the guidance of Guru Gobind Singh.

See also

 List of places named after Guru Gobind Singh
 The 52 Hukams of Guru Gobind Singh
 Bhai Jiwan Singh
 Banda Singh Bahadur

References
Informational notes

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

 Singh, Prof. Surinderjit, Guru Gobind Singh's Zafarnamah Transliteration and Poetic Rendering in English. Singh Brothers, Amritsar. 2003. .
 Sri Dasam Granth Sahib: Questions and Answers: The book on Sri Dasam Granth Sahib

External links

1666 births
1708 deaths
Sikh warriors
Gobind Singh
Punjabi people
Writers from Patna
Poets from Bihar
17th-century Indian poets
18th-century Indian poets

Guru Gobind Singh


Le riz à la valencienne (en espagnol : , en valencien : ) est un nom qui désigne une multitude de plats à base de riz de différentes cuisines du monde, issus de la tradition rizicole de la communauté valencienne, dans l'est de l'Espagne.

La paella moderne est issue du riz à la valencienne, et non l'inverse, car la méthode de préparation du riz à la valencienne est pratiquée depuis l'époque coloniale et se retrouve dans les gastronomies argentine, colombienne, cubaine, nicaraguayenne, uruguayenne, vénézuélienne On trouve même de l' dans la cuisine philippine. En revanche, la paella valencienne, telle qu'on la connaît aujourd'hui, n'est apparue qu'à la fin du , chez les paysans de la  valencienne. En Espagne, lorsqu'une paella contient des ingrédients autres que ceux « proprement valenciens », elle est familièrement et péjorativement appelée  (« riz avec des trucs »).

Bien qu'il existe une grande variété de recettes de riz à la valencienne, elles ont toutes en commun que le riz est sec (sans bouillon) et coloré avec diverses épices (à l'origine du safran), et qu'il comprend des légumes, de la viande et des fruits de mer.

Histoire
Bien que le riz ait probablement été produit à Valence avant la période andalouse, ce sont les Arabes qui ont étendu sa culture et diversifié son utilisation. Cela se reflète dans les livres de recettes médiévaux, tant chrétiens que musulmans, qui montrent que le riz était déjà aromatisé au safran à cette époque ; un exemple en est l (). Au fil du temps, la culture du riz s'est imposée à Valence, en y ajoutant des légumes et de la viande. À l'époque impériale, l s'est répandu dans les colonies espagnoles du Nouveau Monde. C'est pourquoi il est possible de trouver l au Nicaragua et aux Philippines. La recette a été adaptée à de nouveaux ingrédients et aux goûts américains.

La première référence écrite au riz à la valencienne se trouve dans le manuscrit du  , du moine franciscain Josep Orri. Peu après, Fray Gerónimo de San Pelayo, dans son livre de cuisine publié à Mexico en 1780, parle de larroz a la valenciana. Dans un autre livre de cuisine mexicain intitulé  (1836), d'Antonia Carrillo, on trouve également une recette de riz à la valencienne qui comprend des piments verts et du safran.

Dans un autre livre de cuisine publié à La Havane en 1862, on trouve une recette darroz a la valenciana.

En 1883, José Castro y Serrano commente qu'« aucune province ne sait faire de riz à la valencienne comme Valence. Lors d'un événement religieux à Bergara en 1889, du riz à la valencienne a été servi aux invités. Ángel Muro, dans son  de 1892, inclut une recette de riz à la valencienne pour « rendre hommage au pays du riz ». À partir des années 1890, le « riz à la paella » (« dans la poêle à frire ») a commencé à être utilisé comme synonyme de riz à la valencienne.

Dans la cuisine classique
Urbain Dubois (1868) donne une Garniture de riz à la Valenciennes qui est un riz au gras blondit dans l'huile avec oignon cuit dans un bouillon avec chipolata et poivre rouge d'Espagne, fonds d'artichauts et champignons, jambon cuit en dés. En 1889, il donne une nouvelle version (avec du poulet et des tomates) de riz à la valencienne (sans s). Le riz à la Valenciennes conserve son statut de garniture chez Auguste Escoffier (1903), il est cité comme garniture de suprêmes de poulet aux truffes dans Le Guide culinaire. Joseph Favre (1905) donne la recette de ce riz « comme on prépare le riz à Valence : faire cuire le riz à grande eau, en le conservant entier ; l'égoutter dans une passoire et le faire légèrement essuyer à l'étuve ; le remettre dans une casserole, avec une quantité suffisante de beurre fin et du sel ».

Parallèlement, le riz à la valencienne à la manière espagnole apparait dans les sources francophones en 1884 (« sorte de pillaw fait avec du poulet ou du poisson »).

Différence avec la paella valencienne
Les deux noms sont souvent utilisés de manière interchangeable pour désigner des préparations de riz similaires et en fait la paella peut être considérée comme une variété de riz valencien.

Le chef valencien Rafael Vidal en 2000 a obtenu l'approbation du gouvernement valencien pour sa recette de paella valencienne traditionnelle de dix ingrédients : , tomate, haricot , poulet, lapin, sel, huile d'olive, riz rond, eau et safran en vue d'obtenir un label de qualité européen, il reconnait que sa recherche de la paella authentique doit admettre la diversité des variantes locales. Le riz à la valencienne n'est pas davantage standardisé et plutôt qu'une recette, il s'agit d'une « famille de recettes » ou d'une méthode de cuisson du riz .

Dans la culture populaire espagnole, les Valenciens sont connus pour leur animosité à l'égard des paellas étrangères qui n'incluent pas les ingrédients « traditionnels ». , ces préparations sont appelées péjorativement , car elles « ne méritent pas d'être appelées paella ».

Par régions

Bolivie
En Bolivie, le riz à la valencienne est un plat très populaire qui comprend du poulet, parfois du chorizo, divers légumes tels que des petits pois, des oignons, des tomates, des haricots verts, des carottes et des pommes de terre de la variété locale imilla. La couleur du riz est obtenue par l'utilisation de paprika ou de safran, et daji panca (piment doux et fruité), qui lui donne un certain piquant.

Chili
Le style chilien de préparation du riz à la valencienne diffère par l'utilisation du curry ou du curcuma pour colorer le riz, bien qu'il est usuel de trouver parfois préparé avec du safran, comme dans la recette espagnole originale. Elle est parfois appelée « paella chilienne », et contient principalement un assortiment de fruits de mer : palourdes, crevettes, moules et clams. Selon le goût de chaque foyer, il est courant d'ajouter des chorizos (saucisses) ou du poulet. Si est utilisé uniquement des légumes, ce plat est appelé .

Colombie
Le riz à la valencienne est un plat typique de la cuisine côtière colombienne. En plus du porc ou du poulet, il comprend souvent du poisson et des fruits de mer. Le principal colorant est le safran.

Nicaragua

La recette nicaraguayenne du riz à la valencienne diffère de l'original espagnol, en ce qu'elle inclut du beurre au lieu de l'huile, de l'oignon, de la sauce tomate, des tomates pimentées et d'autres légumes selon le goût du cuisinier. Quant à la viande, elle comprend généralement du poulet, du jambon ou des . C'est l'un des plats de riz les plus typiques du Nicaragua, et il est parfois trouvé sous le nom de , en raison de son caractère festif.

Philippine
Aux Philippines, le riz à la valencienne ( en orthographe tagalog) est surnommé  (paella du pauvre), car il contient des ingrédients de moindre quantité et qualité. Une variété locale de riz gluant, appelée malagkit, est utilisée. Les légumes varient d'un endroit à l'autre, mais comprennent généralement toujours des oignons et des poivrons. Le lait de coco est également utilisé.

Il est d'usage, comme dans certaines régions d'Amérique latine, de parfumer le plat avec un peu d'alcool, par exemple en ajoutant du vin blanc ou de la bière dans la poêle, et le beurre est utilisé à la place de l'huile. Il comprend également des morceaux de poulet, parfois du chorizo Bilbao, une variante locale du chorizo.

Portugal
Le  ou paella n'est pas comparable au arroz portugais cuits à couvert et qui ne mélange pas viande et de produits de la mer. Mais il est parfois cuit dans une casserole et fait au riz Carolino portugais. C'est selon le Dictionnaire Espagnol-Portugais de 1864 « celui qui est mijoté avec des poivrons et des tomates ». Il est également possible de rencontrer parfois en portugais des paellas au (poulet et/ou porc, ou saucisses) et aux fruits de mer et des calmars, ainsi que divers légumes tels que des pois (ervilhas), des poivrons rouges La couleur du riz est due à l'utilisation du safran. L'ail est un autre arôme courant.

Salvador
Au Salvador, le riz à la valencienne comprend généralement des œufs durs et divers morceaux de poulet, comme des poitrines, des gésiers ou même des foies. En outre, divers légumes sont ajoutés, tels que des oignons, des pois, du maïs ou des carottes. Le curry ou le paprika sont couramment utilisés comme colorant.

Îles Mariannes
La recette du riz à la valencienne a fait son chemin jusqu'aux îles Mariannes, situées dans le Pacifique, qui étaient autrefois une colonie espagnole et sont maintenant une colonie américaine. Chez les Chamorros, il est connu sous le nom de  et est coloré à l'achiote.

Notes et références

Cuisine valencienne
Spécialité à base de riz

Riz à la valencienne


An Cyperus constanzae in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Ignatz Urban. An Cyperus constanzae in nahilalakip ha genus nga Cyperus, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Cyperus

Cyperus constanzae


Mændenes 400 meter hækkeløb ved sommer-OL 2016 i Rio de Janeiro fandt sted i perioden 15. august til 18. august 2016 på Olympic Stadium.

Referencer

400 meter hækkeløb (herrer)

Atletik under sommer-OL 2016 - 400 meter hækkeløb (herrer)


RFA Robert Middleton (A241) was a Dundas-class coastal stores carrier of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary. Launched in June 1938 and commissioned in August 1938, Robert Middleton was active from 1938 until 1975. Decommissioned in March 1975 Robert Middleton was sold commercially the same year and renamed Myrina.

References

Ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary
1938 ships

RFA Robert Middleton


أم السعد (1925 - 9 أكتوبر 2006) أشهر امرأة معاصرة في قراءات القرآن الكريم، تعتبر السيدة الوحيدة التي تخصصت في القراءات العشر، وظلَّت طوال نصف قرن تمنح إجازاتها في القراءات العشر.

الميلاد والنشأة
ولدت «أم السعد» في عام 1925 في قرية البندارية مركز تلا بمحافظة المنوفية شمال القاهرة، داهم المرض عينيها ولم تتجاوز العام الأول من عمرها، واتجه أهلها للعلاج الشعبي بالكحل والزيوت التي كانت سبباً في فقدان بصرها بالكلية، وكعادة أهل الريف مع العميان نذرها أهلها لخدمة القرآن الكريم حتى حفظت القرآن الكريم في مدرسة (حسن صبح) بالإسكندرية في الخامسة عشرة.
عاشت «أم السعد» بحارة الشمرلي بحي بحري العريق بالإسكندرية.

في خدمة القرآن
أتمت «أم السعد» حفظ القرآن الكريم وهي في الخامسة عشرة من عمرها وحينها ذهبت إلى الشيخة «نفيسة بنت أبو العلا» «شيخة أهل زمانها» كما توصف، لتطلب منها تعلم القراءات العشر، فاشترطت عليها شرطًا عجيبًا وهو: ألا تتزوج أبدًا، فقد كانت ترفض بشدة تعليم البنات؛ لأنهن يتزوجن وينشغلن فيهملن القرآن الكريم، وقد «أم السعد» شرط شيختها التي كانت معروفة بصرامتها وقسوتها على السيدات ككل اللواتي لا يصلحن –في رأيها– لهذه المهمة الشريفة !.. ومما شجعها على ذلك أن «نفيسة» نفسها لم تتزوج رغم كثرة من طلبوها للزواج من الأكابر، وماتت وهي بكر في الثمانين، انقطاعًا للقرآن الكريم !
 قد أتمت (أم السعد) المهمة الشريفة وحصلت من شيختها (نفيسة) على إجازات في القراءات العشر وهي في الثالثة والعشرين

زواجها
تزوجت (أم السعد) أقرب تلاميذها إليها الشيخ "محمد فريد نعمان الذي كان من أشهر القراء في إذاعة الإسكندرية وهو صاحب أول إجازة تمنحها (أم السعد)، وتقول عن قصة زواجها: "لم أستطع الوفاء بالوعد الذي قطعته لشيختي (نفيسة) بعدم الزواج.. كان يقرأ علي القرآن بالقراءات.. ارتحت له.. كان مثلي ضريرًا وحفظ القرآن الكريم في سنّ مبكرة.. درَّست له خمس سنوات كاملة وحين أكمل القراءات العشر وأخذ إجازاتها طلب يدي للزواج فقبلت". واستمر زواجهما أربعين سنة كاملة لم تنجب فيها أولادًا.. وتعلق قائلة: "الحمد لله.. أشعر بأن الله يختار لي الخير دائمًا.. ربما لو أنجبت لانشغلت بالأولاد عن القرآن وربما نسيته".

سلسلة أم السعد
بينها وبين النبي صلي الله عليه وسلم برواية حفص عن عاصم عن طريق الشاطبية 27 راوياً تبدأ بها وتنتهي بالنبي الأكرم الذي تلقي عن جبريل. وقد تلقت الشيخة المسندة المعلمة المقرئة أم السعد الإسكندرانية القراءات العشر من الشاطبية والدرة عن:
 الشيخة نفيسة بنت أبو العلا وهي عن
 عبد العزيز علي كحيل وهو قرأ علي
 عبد الله الدسوقي وهو عن
 الشيخ علي الحدادي
 شيخ القراء بالديار المصرية الشيخ إبراهيم العبيدي الذي قرأ على
 شيخ الجامع الأزهر محمد بن حسن السمنودي المنير الذي قرأ على
 علي الرميلي الذي قرأ على
 شيخ قراء زمانه محمد بن قاسم البقري الذي قرأ على
 شيخ قراء مصر عبد الرحمن ابن شحاذة اليمني الذي قرأ على
 علي بن غانم المقدسي الذي قرأ على
 محمد بن إبراهيم السمديسي الذي قرأ على
 الشهاب أحمد بن أسد الأميوطي الذي قرأ على
 الإمام الحافظ حجة القراء محمد بن محمد بن محمد بن الجزري الشافعي مؤلف النشر والطيبة وغيرهما من المؤلفات وهو قد قرأ على
 عبد الرحمن بن أحمد البغدادي الذي قرأ على
 شيخ القراء بمصر محمد بن أحمد الصائغ الذي قرأ على
 علي بن شجاع الكمال الضرير صهر الإمام الشاطبي الذي قرأ على
 الإمام أبي القاسم الشاطبي الذي قرأ على
 الإمام علي بن محمد بن هذيل البلنسي الذي قرأ على
 أبي داود سليمان بن نجاح الذي قرأ على
 الإمام أبي عمرو الداني الذي قرأ برواية حفص على
 طاهر بن غلبون قال قرأت على
 علي بن محمد الهاشمي قال قرأت على
 أحمد بن سهل الأشناني قال قرأت على
 أبي محمد عبيد بن الصباح قال قرأت على
 حفص بن سليمان الذي قرأ على، # عاصم ابن بهدلة بن أبي النجود الذي قرأ على
 أبي عبد الرحمن عبد الله بن حبيب السلمي الذي أخذ عن
 عثمان وعلي وعبد الله بن مسعود وأبي بن كعب وزيد بن ثابت وأخذ هؤلاء عن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم الذي تلقى القرآن عن جبريل عن رب العزة جل شأنه.

التلاميذ
تردد عليها لحفظ القرآن ونيل إجازات القراءات صنوف شتى من جميع الأعمار، والتخصصات، والمستويات الاجتماعية والعلمية (كبار وصغار، رجال ونساء، مهندسون، وأطباء، ومدرسون، وأساتذة جامعات وطلاب في المدارس الثانوية والجامعات... إلخ).

وهي تخصص لكل طالب وقتًا، لا يتجاوز ساعة في اليوم يقرأ عليها الطالب ما يحفظه فتصحح له قراءته جزءاً جزءاً حتى يختم القرآن الكريم بإحدى القراءات، وكلما انتهى من قراءة منحته إجازة مكتوبة ومختومة بخاتمها تؤكد فيها أن هذا الطالب (خادم القرآن) قرأ عليها القرآن كاملاً صحيحًا دقيقًا وفق القراءة التي تمنحه إجازتها. ومن مشاهير من منحتهم الإجازة
الشيخ المقريء«عبد الحميد يوسف منصور» نزيل الإسكندرية، وشيخ مقرأة سيدي تمراز سابقًا.
و القارئ الطبيب «أحمد نعينع» الذي قرأ عليها وأخذ عنها وكذلك الشيخ المقريء الدكتور مفتاح السلطني والذي اجازته الشيخة في القراآت العشر وحفص من الطيبة، وكذا عدد من أساتذة وشيوخ معهد القراءات بالإسكندرية

ومن الإسكندرية الشيخ احمد محروس البحيري مدرس القرءات في كلية المعلمين بالمملكة العربية السعودية وشيخ مقرئة مسجد ابي العباس المرسي وسيدي الاباصيري.

ومن الإسكندرية (أبو عبد الله عاطف محمد جادو) ويعمل مدرسا للغة العربية والقرآن الكريم بالرياض وأجازته الشيخة أم السعد برواية حفص من الطيبة وعاصم براوييه من الشاطبية

ومن الإسكندرية أيضا (محمد سعد عبد القادر حسين السواح) الشهير بـ (محمد سعد السواح) ويعمل محاسب بوزارة الأوقاف بدولة قطر وقد أجازته الشيخة أم السعد بقراءة عاصم بروايتيه حفص وشعبة عن طريق الشاطبية ومن شدة تقديره لها لم يجعل خاتمه مقصورا على اسمه فقط بل جعل خاتمة يحتوي على اسمه واسم معلمته الفاضلة معا

ومن محافظة الدقهلية ((مدينة المنصورة)) ((مصطفى عبد الغني الباز البطراوي)) الأزهري ويعمل إماما وخطيبا ومدرسا بوزارة الأوقاف المصرية وأجازته الشيخة أم السعد رحمها الله بالقراءات العشر من الشاطبيه والدرة والذين لا يعطون إجازة في حفظ القرآن إلا ويضعون اسمها في أول السند المتصل إلى النبي -صلى الله عليه وسلم.

انتقالها للرياض
أهدى إليها أحد التلاميذ هدية عبارة عن رحلة حج وعمرة واستضافة سنة كاملة في الأراضي الحجازية، وهناك منحت إجازات في القراءات المختلفة لعشرات الحفاظ من كل البلاد الإسلامية: السعودية، باكستان، السودان، فلسطين، لبنان، تشاد، أفغانستان.. وأحب إجازة منحتها لطالبة سعودية لم تتجاوز السابعة عشرة من عمرها..".

الوفاة
توفيت أم السعد في فجر يوم السادس عشر من رمضان من العام 1427 هجرية الموافق 9 / 10 / 2006 عن عمر يناهز واحد وثمانون عاماً وقد شيعت جنازتها من مسجد ابن خلدون بمنطقة بحري بالإسكندرية.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 وداعاً أم السعد.. محمد بن إسماعيل المقدم
 أم السعد بالقراءات العشر علمت الرجال

أشخاص من الإسكندرية
إسلاميون
دعاة مصريون
مكفوفون
مواليد 1925
مصريات في القرن 20
وفيات 1427 هـ
وفيات 2006
مصريات في القرن 21
مواليد في الإسكندرية
وفيات في الإسكندرية

أم السعد


Parada de Gatim Portekiz'de Vila Verde belediyesine bağlı olan, 4,39 km2 yüzölçümüne sahip, 781 nüfuslu (2001) bir bucaktır (Portekizce: freguesia).

Vila Verde'nin bucakları

Parada de Gatim


Íslam í Georgíu (georgíska: ისლამი საქართველოში, rómanískt: islami sakartveloshi) var tekinn upp árið 654 þegar her sendur af þriðja páskakalífanum í Georgíu og Georgíu, sendur af þriðju páskakalífanum, T. Sem stendur eru múslimar um það bil 9,9% af íbúum Georgíu. Samkvæmt öðrum heimildum eru múslimar 10-11% íbúa Georgíu.

Í júlí 2011 samþykkti þing Georgíu ný lög sem leyfa trúarlegum minnihlutahópum með "söguleg tengsl við Georgíu" að skrá sig. Í lagafrumvarpinu er sérstaklega minnst á íslam og fjögur önnur trúfélög.

Moskur í Georgíu starfa undir eftirliti múslimadeildar Georgíu, stofnað í maí 2011. Fram að því hafði málefnum múslima í Georgíu verið stjórnað erlendis frá af Kákasus-múslimadeild í Bakú.

Árið 2010 undirrituðu Tyrkland og Georgía samkomulag þar sem Tyrkland mun veita fjármagn og sérfræðiþekkingu til að endurreisa þrjár moskur og endurreisa þá fjórðu í Georgíu, en Georgía mun endurreisa fjögur georgísk klaustur í Tyrklandi. Samkomulagið milli Georgíu og Tyrklands mun leyfa endurbyggingu hinnar sögulegu Azize mosku í Batumi í Ajaria sem var rifin um miðja síðustu öld. Tyrkland mun endurbyggja moskurnar í Samtskhe-Javakheti og Akhaltsikhe héruðum, Kobuleti District, byggja Azize moskuna sem brann árið 1940 og endurreisa tyrkneska baðhúsið í Batumi.

Tengt efni
 Íslam
 Íslam í Evrópu
 Íslam á Íslandi
 Evrabía

Tilvísanir

Íslam í Evrópu

Íslam í Georgíu


Crkva sv. Mihovila bila je rimokatolička crkva kod Budve. Nalazila se na rtu Mogrenu. Posvetio ju je prvi biskup Budvanske biskupije za kojeg se zna, Silvestar 1143. godine. Stradala je u potresu 1667. godine.

Izvori

Građevine u Budvi
Katoličke crkve u Crnoj Gori
Budva

Crkva sv. Mihovila u Budvi


Kosmos 2393, ruski satelit sustava ranog upozorenja o raketnom napadu, iz programa Kosmos. Vrste je Oko (br. 6039).
Lansiran je 24. prosinca 2002. godine u 12:20 s kozmodroma Pljesecka u Rusiji. Lansiran je u visoku orbitu oko planeta Zemlje raketom nosačem Molnija-M 8K78M. Orbita mu je 528 km u perigeju i 39.173 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija mu je 62,85°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 27613. COSPARova oznaka je 2002-059-A. Zemlju je obilazio u 704,56 minuta. Pri lansiranju bio je mase kg.

Iz te misije još su tri objekta bila u orbiti, koja su se vratila u atmosferu, dva iz niske orbite - BOZ i 11S510 te blok 2BL iz visoke orbite. 20. prosinca 2013. satelit se vratio u atmosferu.

Izvori
А.Железняков. Энциклопедия "Космонавтика". Хроника освоения космоса. 1999 год. (rus.)
Heavens-above (engl.)
NASA (engl.)
Planet4589.org Tablični prikaz podataka o satelitima (engl.)

Vanjske poveznice
N2YO.com Search Satellite Database
Celes Trak SATCAT Format Documentation (engl.)
Kunstman  Satellites in Orbit (engl.)

Sateliti Kosmos

Kosmos 2393


Landdistrikternes Fællesråd er en dansk interesseorganisation, der varetager fælles opgaver og interesser for danske landdistrikter og yderområder. Landdistrikternes Fællesråd har hovedsæde i Odder samt en afdeling på Roberthus i Egtved og ledes af en bestyrelse med Steffen Damsgaard som formand.

Landdistrikternes Fællesråd anses som den overordende landdistriktsorganisation i Danmark og er praktisk ekspert i at samle, dele og kommunikere viden og erfaring på området.

Organisationen blev etableret i 1997. Stifterne var Komité for Landsbyer og Landdistrikter, Landsforeningen af Landsbysamfund og foreningen Landsbyerne i Danmark i samarbejde med Indenrigsministeriet. Thorkild Ljørring Pedersen var formand for fællesrådet i flere år. Efter ham fulgte Lone Andersen, nuværende viceformand i Landbrug & Fødevarer, mens formanden siden 2008 er Steffen Damsgaard, tidligere landsformand for ungdomsorganisationen LandboUngdom.

Landdistrikternes Fællesråd har en bred medlemskreds, herunder 55 danske kommuner og en række større organisationer bl.a. Danske Rederier, Landbrug & Fødevarer, Coop og SMVdanmark. Endvidere er en række landsbyer, landdistriktsråd samt lokale aktionsgrupper en del af organisationen.

Interessevaretagelse
Landdistrikternes Fællesråd arbejder for bedre rammevilkår for danske landdistrikter og yderområder. Der sker ud fra en fempunktsplan, der har følgende fokusområder: bosætning, erhverv, infrastruktur, uddannelse og sundhed. Fempunktsplanen dannede grundlag for flere elementer i regeringens udspil, som blev præsenteret i 2015.

Venstres landdistriktsordfører Thomas Danielsen bekræftede i et interview til Berlingske, at flere elementer i regeringens udspil "Vækst og udvikling i hele Danmark" var baseret på forslag fra Landdistrikternes Fællesråd.

Fællesrådet er bl.a. fortaler for udflytning af statslige arbejdspladser. Forud for folketingsvalget 2015 igangsatte Landdistrikternes Fællesråd en kampagne sammen med 40 borgmestre for at sikre en udflytning efter valget. Efterfølgende fik rådet og borgmestrene opbakning fra Hans Christian Schmidt, Troels Lund Poulsen, Lars Christian Lilleholt og Søren Gade, der lancerede en underskriftsindsamling for at få flere statslige arbejdspladser ud af København. Umiddelbart efter folketingsvalget gik regeringen i gang med udflytningsplanerne. Landdistrikternes Fællesråd foreslog at udflytte 10 konkrete styrelser, hvoraf regeringen valgte at flytte 8 af styrelserne.

Som partipolitisk neutral interesseorganisation samarbejder Landdistrikternes Fællesråd med alle partier i Folketinget. I 2011 var organisationen med til at etablere Ministeriet for By, Bolig og Landdistrikter samt et folketingsudvalg for landdistrikter og øer. Samtlige partier i Folketinget har i dag en landdistrikts- og øordfører.

Endvidere arrangerer Landdistrikternes Fællesråd hvert år Landdistrikternes Dag på Christiansborg samt en række medlemsrelaterede arrangementer, herunder et årligt topmøde for borgmestre i landdistrikter samt netværk for kommunale medarbejdere.

National sparringspartner
Udover funktionen som interesseorganisation fungerer Landdistrikternes Fællesråd som national sparringspartner for Folketinget og centraladministrationen i sager, der vedrører udviklingen af landdistrikter og øer i henhold til aftale med Erhvervsministeriet.

Organisationen har flere gange organiseret høringer, konferencer og debatter i samarbejde med Folketingets Udvalg for Landdistrikter og Øer. Derudover deltager Landdistrikternes Fællesråd aktivt i forskellige politiske arbejdsgrupper samt i en række råd, nævn og udvalg, herunder Regeringens rådgivende udvalg på landdistriktsområdet (DRUPL), som ledes af erhvervsminister Rasmus Jarlov, der har ressortansvaret for landdistriktsområdet. I 2017 kom det frem, at regeringen ikke havde afholdt møde i det rådgivende udvalg siden 2014. Erhvervsministeren valgte på opfodring fra Landdistrikternes Fællesråd og Landbrug & Fødevarer at genoptage mødeaktiviteterne i 2017.

Derudover har fællesrådet plads i overvågningsudvalgene for en række EU-programmer, bl.a. Landdistriktsprogrammet, Hav- og Fiskeriudviklingsprogrammet samt Regional- og Socialfonden.

Landdistrikternes Fællesråds næstformand Grethe Saabye blev i 2017 udpeget som formand for Det Rådgivende Udvalg for Erhvervsministeriets Landdistriktspulje af daværende erhvervsminister Brian Mikkelsen. Puljen uddeler hvert år ca. 18 mio. kr. til tre typer projekter: forsøgsprojekter, forsknings- og informationsprojekter samt projekter på de små øer.

Landdistrikternes Fællesråd deltager ligeledes i udvalgsrejser med Folketingets Udvalg for Landdistrikter og Øer. I forbindelse med Folkemødet på Bornholm er udvalget en del af fællesrådets stand.

Fællesrådets formand Steffen Damsgaard sidder i bestyrelsen for Center for Landdistriktsforskning under Syddansk Universitet i Esbjerg.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Landdistrikternes Fællesråd

Organisationer fra Danmark
Etableret i 1998

Landdistrikternes Fællesråd


Nirj Deva (* 11. Mai 1948 in Colombo, Sri Lanka) ist ein britischer Politiker der Conservative Party.

Leben
Deva entstammt einer katholischen Familie aus Sri Lanka und besuchte in Colombo das St.Joseph's College. Deva studierte an der Loughborough University in Loughborough, Leicestershire.
Vom 9. April 1992 bis 1. Mai 1997 war Deva als Nachfolger von Barney Hayhoe Abgeordneter im britischen Unterhaus. Die Wahlen von 1997 zum britischen Unterhaus verlor er gegen die Labour-Politikerin Ann Keen. Seit 10. Juni 1999 war Deva Abgeordneter im Europäischen Parlament.
Seit der Periode ab 2009 war Deva stellvertretender Vorsitzender im Entwicklungsausschuss und Mitglied im Unterausschuss für Menschenrechte und in der Delegation für die Beziehungen zu den Ländern Südasiens

Deva ist verheiratet und hat einen Sohn.

Weblinks

Quellen

Mitglied des Europäischen Parlaments für das Vereinigte Königreich
Abgeordneter des House of Commons (Vereinigtes Königreich)
Conservative-Party-Mitglied
Politiker (21. Jahrhundert)
Politiker (20. Jahrhundert)
Brite
Sri-Lanker
Person (Colombo)
Geboren 1948
Mann

Nirj Deva


වර්සයිල්ස් මාලිගය ප්‍රංශ: ප්‍රංශයේ  පිහිටි 21 වාසස්ථානයකි. ප්‍රංශයේ පැරිස් නගරයට බටහිරින් සැතපුම් (19 km) මාලිගය ප්‍රංශ ජනරජයට අයත් වන අතර 1995 සිට ප්‍රංශ සංස්කෘතික අමාත්‍යාංශයේ මඟපෙන්වීම යටතේ මාලිගාව, කෞතුකාගාරය සහ වර්සායිල් ජාතික වතුයායේ මහජන ආයතනය විසින් කළමනාකරණය කරනු ලැබේ.[2] සෑම වසරකම මිනිසුන් 15,000,000 ක් මාලිගය, උද්‍යානය හෝ වර්සායිල් උද්‍යානය නැරඹීමට පැමිණෙන අතර එය ලෝකයේ වඩාත්ම ජනප්‍රිය සංචාරක ආකර්ෂණයක් බවට පත් කරයි.[3] කෙසේ වෙතත්, COVID-19 වසංගතය හේතුවෙන්, චැටෝ වෙත ගෙවන නරඹන්නන් සංඛ්‍යාව 2019 දී මිලියන අටේ සිට 2020 දී මිලියන දෙක දක්වා සියයට 75 කින් පහත වැටුණි. ගෙවන නරඹන්නන්ගෙන් සියයට අසූවක් පමණ වන විදේශීය අමුත්තන් අතර පහත වැටීම විශේෂයෙන් තියුණු විය. .[4]

වර්සෙල්ස් මාලිගාව


The Narmer Palette, also known as the Great Hierakonpolis Palette or the Palette of Narmer, is a significant Egyptian archaeological find, dating from about the 31st century BC, belonging, at least nominally, to the category of cosmetic palettes. It contains some of the earliest hieroglyphic inscriptions ever found. The tablet is thought by some to depict the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the king Narmer. Along with the Scorpion Macehead and the Narmer Maceheads, also found together in the main deposit at Nekhen, the Narmer Palette provides one of the earliest known depictions of an Egyptian king. On one side, the king is depicted with the bulbed White Crown of Upper (southern) Egypt, and the other side depicts the king wearing the level Red Crown of Lower (northern) Egypt, which also makes it the earliest known example of a king wearing both types of headdress. The Palette shows many of the classic conventions of Ancient Egyptian art, which must already have been formalized by the time of the Palette's creation. The Egyptologist Bob Brier has referred to the Narmer Palette as "the first historical document in the world".

The Palette, which has survived five millennia in almost perfect condition, was discovered by British archeologists James E. Quibell and Frederick W. Green, in what they called the Main Deposit in the Temple of Horus at Nekhen, during the dig season of 1897–98. Also found at this dig were the Narmer Macehead and the Scorpion Macehead. The exact place and circumstances of these finds were not recorded very clearly by Quibell and Green. In fact, Green's report placed the Palette in a different layer one or two yards away from the deposit, which is considered to be more accurate on the basis of the original excavation notes. It has been suggested that these objects were royal donations made to the temple. Nekhen, or Hierakonpolis, was one of four power centers in Upper Egypt that preceded the consolidation of Upper Egypt at the end of the Naqada III period. Hierakonpolis's religious importance continued long after its political role had declined. Palettes were typically used for grinding cosmetics, but this palette is too large and heavy (and elaborate) to have been created for personal use and was probably a ritual or votive object, specifically made for donation to, or use in, a temple. One theory is that it was used to grind cosmetics to adorn the statues of the deities.

The Narmer Palette is part of the permanent collection of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. It is one of the initial exhibits which visitors have been able to see when entering the museum.  It has the Journal d'Entrée number JE32169 and the Catalogue Général number CG14716.

Description

The Narmer Palette is a , shield-shaped, ceremonial palette, carved from a single piece of flat, soft dark gray-green siltstone. The stone has often been wrongly identified, in the past, as being slate or schist. Slate is layered and prone to flaking, and schist is a metamorphic rock containing large, randomly distributed mineral grains. Both are unlike the finely grained, hard, flake-resistant siltstone, whose source is from a well-attested quarry that has been used since pre-dynastic times at Wadi Hammamat. This material was used extensively during the pre-dynastic period for creating such palettes and also was used as a source for Old Kingdom statuary. A statue of the 2nd dynasty pharaoh Khasekhemwy, found in the same complex as the Narmer Palette at Hierakonpolis, also was made of this material.

The Palette is carved in low relief. At the top of both sides is an identical royal insignia called a serekh, which is "a composite hieroglyphic symbol standing for the king/crown/state and the state's property." The serekhs bear the rebus symbols n'r (catfish) and mr (chisel) inside, being the phonetic representation of Narmer's name. Both serekhs are flanked by a pair of bovine heads with highly curved horns, thought to represent the cow goddess Bat. She was the patron deity of the seventh nome of Upper Egypt, and was also the deification of the cosmos within Egyptian mythology during the pre-dynastic and Old Kingdom periods of Ancient Egyptian history.

Recto side

As on the other side, two human-faced bovine heads, thought to represent the patron cow goddess Bat, flank the serekhs. The goddess Bat is, as she often was, shown in portrait, rather than in profile as is traditional in Egyptian relief carving. Hathor, who shared many of Bat's characteristics, is often depicted in a similar manner. Some authors suggest that the images represent the vigor of the king as a pair of bulls.

The largest relief on this side depicts Narmer, who lifts a royal mace in his right hand while with his left he pulls up a kneeling captive by the hair. In contrast to the verso depiction of Narmer, where he is shown with the Red Crown of Lower Egypt, on this side he wears the White Crown of Upper Egypt. His pose reflects the  Ancient Egyptian convention of showing an important figure from multiple perspectives at once. His feet, legs and head are shown in profile, while the torso and hips turn slightly and his shoulders face the front. One eye, even though it would normally not be seen if this were an actual profile head, is also shown from the front. The purpose was to provide the most complete information possible about a person on a flat surface. The Palette also shows the Egyptian canon of body proportions. Based on an established unit correlating to the distance across the knuckles of human fist, this conventional form of measurement was a means of standardizing the proportions of important figures in Egyptian art. The standard measurement, which is already apparent in the Palette, was 18 fists from the ground to the hairline on the forehead. Both artistic conventions remained in use until at least the conquest by Alexander the Great over 3,000 years later. The minor figures in active poses, such as the king's captive, the corpses and the handlers of the serpopard beasts, are much more freely depicted.

Attached to the belt worn by Narmer are four beaded tassels, each capped with an ornament in the shape of the head of the goddess Hathor. They also are the same heads as those that adorn the top of each side of the palette. At the back of the belt is attached a long fringe representing a lion's tail.

On the left of the king is a man bearing the king's sandals, flanked by a rosette symbol. To the right of the king is a kneeling prisoner, who is about to be struck by the king. A pair of symbols appear next to his head perhaps indicating his name (Wash) or indicating the region where he was from. Above the prisoner is a falcon, representing Horus, perched above a set of papyrus flowers, the symbol of Lower Egypt. In his talons, he holds a rope-like object which appears to be attached to the nose of a man's head that also emerges from the papyrus flowers.

Verso side

Below the bovine heads is what appears to be a procession. Narmer is significantly larger than anyone else on that register, an artistic convention known variously as hierarchical proportion, hierarchic scale or hierarchy of scale. As on the recto, his disproportionate size reinforces the ideas of conquest and political power as a god-like leader. He wears a Red Crown of Lower Egypt, symbolized by a papyrus. He holds a mace and a flail, two traditional symbols of kingship. To his right are the hieroglyphic symbols for his name, though not contained within a serekh. Behind him is his sandal-bearer, whose name may be represented by the rosette appearing adjacent to his head, and a second rectangular symbol that has no clear interpretation, but which has been suggested may represent a town or citadel.

Immediately in front of the pharaoh is a long-haired man, accompanied by a pair of hieroglyphs that have been interpreted as his name: Tshet (this assumes that these symbols had the same phonetic value used in later hieroglyphic writing). Before this man are four standard bearers, holding aloft an animal skin, a dog, and two falcons. At the far right of this scene are ten decapitated corpses with their heads at their feet and their severed genitals protruding from their mouths. These figures are generally understood to be victims of Narmer's conquest. Above them are the symbols for a ship, a falcon, and a harpoon, which may indicate the names of the towns that were conquered.

Below the procession, two men are holding ropes tied to the outstretched, intertwining necks of two serpopards confronting each other. The serpopard is a mythological creature, a mix of serpent and leopard. The circle formed by their curving necks is the central part of the Palette, which is the area where the cosmetics would have been ground. Upper and Lower Egypt each worshipped lioness war goddesses as protectors; the intertwined necks of the serpopards may thus represent the unification of the state. Similar images of such mythical animals are known from other contemporaneous cultures, and there are other examples of late-predynastic objects (including other palettes and knife handles such as the Gebel el-Arak Knife) which borrow similar elements from Mesopotamian iconography, suggesting Egypt-Mesopotamia relations.

At the bottom of the verso, a bull is seen knocking down the walls of a city while trampling on a fallen foe. Head lowered, Narmer is shown here as a stylized, two-dimensional beast who will vanquish his enemies. Bulls had an ideological connection to Egyptian kingship. "Bull of his Mother," for example, was a common epithet given to an Egyptian king as the son of the patron cow goddess. This posture of a bovine has the meaning of "force" in later hieroglyphics.

Scholarly debate
The Palette has raised considerable scholarly debate over the years. In general, the arguments fall into one of two camps: scholars who believe that the Palette is a record of an important event, and other academics who argue that it is an object designed to establish the mythology of united rule over Upper and Lower Egypt by the king.
It had been thought that the Palette either depicted the unification of Lower Egypt by the king of Upper Egypt, or recorded a recent military success over the Libyans, or the last stronghold of a Lower Egyptian dynasty based in Buto. More recently, scholars such as Nicholas Millet have argued that the Palette does not represent a historical event (such as the unification of Egypt), but instead represents the events of the year in which the object was dedicated to the temple. Whitney Davis has suggested that the iconography on this and other pre-dynastic palettes has more to do with establishing the king as a visual metaphor of the conquering hunter, caught in the moment of delivering a mortal blow to his enemies. John Baines has suggested that the events portrayed are "tokens of royal achievement" from the past and that "the chief purpose of the piece is not to record an event but to assert that the king dominates the ordered world in the name of the gods and has defeated internal, and especially external, forces of disorder".

In popular culture
The Narmer Palette is featured in the 2009 film Watchmen as one of the Egyptian objects that are present in Ozymandias's office. The Australian author Jackie French used the Palette, and recent research into Sumerian trade routes, to create her historical novel Pharaoh (2007). The Palette is featured in manga artist Yukinobu Hoshino's short story "The temple of El Alamein". The Palette is also featured in The Kane Chronicles by Rick Riordan where the palette is fetched by a magical shawabti servant. In Ubisoft's 2017 game Assassin's Creed Origins, the Palette is a quest item and minor plot point toward the end of the main quest's storyline.
The Narmer Palette is a main plot point in Lincoln Child's The Third Gate novel, in which they attempt to find the tomb of king Narmer in the Sudd.

See also
List of ancient Egyptian palettes
Libyan Palette (another well-known Predynastic Egyptian palette)
Warka Vase (a comparable contemporaneous work of narrative relief sculpture from the Sumerian civilisation)
Kish tablet

References

Bibliography

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Further reading
Bard, Kathryn A., ed. Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge, 1999.
Brewer, Douglas J. Ancient Egypt: Foundations of a Civilization. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2005.
Davis, Whitney. Masking the Blow: The Scene of Representation In Late Prehistoric Egyptian Art. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
Lloyd, Alan B., ed. A Companion to Ancient Egypt. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014.
Málek, Jaromír. In the Shadow of the Pyramids: Egypt during the Old Kingdom. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986.
Redford, Donald B., ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 3 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Shaw, Ian. Ancient Egypt: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Shaw, Ian, and Paul Nicholson. The British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt. Rev. ed. London: British Museum, 2008.
Wengrow, David. The Archaeology of Early Egypt: Social Transformation in North-East Africa, 10,000 to 2650 BC. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Wenke, Robert J. The Ancient Egyptian State: The Origins of Egyptian Culture (c 8000–2000 BC). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Wilkinson, Toby. Early Dynastic Egypt. London: Routledge, 2001.

External links

 Good images of Narmer Palette Scroll down to the drawing of the Palette and take the link to the photographs published by Francesco Rafaele.
 The Narmer Palette: The victorious king of the south
 Narmer Palette (weber.ucsd.edu)
 Narmer Palette (ancient-egypt.org)
 Corpus of Egyptian Late Predynastic Palettes Images of more than fifty such palettes with various motifs
  Narmer Catalog (Narmer Palette)

Ancient Egyptian literature
Ancient Egyptian palettes
Egyptian Museum
Narmer
War art
Horus

Narmer Palette


An Lepanthes mimetica in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Leslie Andrew Garay ngan Galfrid Clement Keyworth Dunsterville. An Lepanthes mimetica in nahilalakip ha genus nga Lepanthes, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Venezuela. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Lepanthes

Lepanthes mimetica


Harwichgade er en gade i Århusgadekvarteret i Nordhavnen i København, der ligger mellem Helsinkigade og Fortkaj. Gaden er opkaldt efter den engelske havneby Harwich.

Historie og bebyggelse
Gaden ligger ligesom resten af Århusgadekvarteret i et område, der indtil 2014 var en del af Københavns Frihavn med begrænset adgang for offentligheden. I denne del af området mellem Lüdersvej, nu Helsinkigade, og Fortkaj lå der en større lagerbygning, der imidlertid efterfølgende blev revet ned. Derimod var der ingen egentlige veje på tværs her.

I forbindelse med kvarteret ophør som frihavn blev det imidlertid besluttet at omdanne det til en ny bydel med boliger og erhverv. Det medførte blandt andet anlæg af flere nye gader, heriblandt fire i denne del af området med nye erhvervsbygninger og karreer imellem. Københavns Kommunes Vejnavnenævnet ønskede at følge traditionen med at give gadenavne efter et bestemt tema, i dette tilfælde internationale havnebyer, hvilket for de fire gader her ville resultere i navnene Harwichgade, Calaisgade, Dover Passage og Dunkerquegade. Indstillingen blev godkendt på Teknik- og Miljøudvalgets møde 21 januar 2014 med virkning fra 1. marts 2014, hvor de nye gadenavne trådte i kraft. I praksis eksisterede gaderne dog knap nok i virkeligheden på det tidspunkt, men der blev efterfølgende sat gang i arbejdet med dem.

De to sider er Harwichgade er ubebyggede, idet en mindre lagerbygning på den vestlige side blev revet ned i 2015. Det er imidlertid meningen, at der skal opføres boliger til begge sider.

Eksterne henvisninger

 Navngivning af veje og pladser i Nordhavnens første etape , Teknik- og Miljøudvalgets møde 21. januar 2014, Københavns Kommune.
 Interaktivt kort over Århusgadekvarteret , Nordhavn.

Noter

Gader i Nordhavnen

Harwichgade


روبرت موينيت  (25 مارس 1930 في طولون) لاعب كرة قدم فرنسي معتزل كان يجيد اللعب في خط الوسط . تم استدعائه للمشاركة مع منتخب فرنسا في بطولة كأس العالم لكرة القدم 1958 التي أقيمت في السويد ولكنه لم يلعب أي مباراة .

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية فرنسيون
مدافعو كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو تولوز
لاعبو كأس العالم 1958
لاعبو كرة قدم فرنسيون
لاعبو أولمبيك ليون
مواليد 1930
مواليد في تولوز

روبرت موينيت


Eureka henfører ofte til:
 Heureka – eller eureka – et kendt udråb der tilskrives Arkimedes.

Eureka kan også henvise til:

Steder

Canada
 Eureka, Nova Scotia
 Eureka, Nunavut
 Eureka Pass, Axel Heiberg Island, Nunavut
 Eureka Sound, Nunavut

USA
 Eureka, Californien, større amerikanske by med navnet
 Eureka, Nevada County, Californien
 Eureka, Colorado
 Eureka, Illinois
 Eureka College
 Eureka, Lawrence County, Indiana, et kommunefri område
 Eureka, Spencer County, Indiana, et kommunefri område
 Eureka, Kansas
 Eureka, Missouri
 Eureka, Perry County, Missouri
 Eureka, Montana
 Eureka, Nevada
 Eureka, North Carolina
 Eureka, Pennsylvania
 Eureka, South Carolina
 Eureka, South Dakota
 Eureka, Texas
 Eureka, Utah
 Eureka (Baskerville, Virginia)
 Eureka, Washington
 Eureka, West Virginia
 Eureka, Polk County, Wisconsin, en by
 Eureka, Winnebago County, Wisconsin, et kommunefri område
 Eureka Center, Minnesota
 Eureka Center, Wisconsin
 Eureka County, Nevada
 Eureka Springs, Arkansas
 Eureka Township, Adair County, Iowa
 Eureka Township, Michigan
 Eureka Township, Dakota County, Minnesota
 Eureka Township, Valley County, Nebraska
 Eureka Valley (Inyo County), Californien
 Eureka Valley, San Francisco, Californien

Andre Steder
 Eureka, Victoria
 Eureka! (museum) i Halifax, West Yorkshire

Medier
 Eureka (tv-serie) – amerikansk tv-serie skabt af Andrew Cosby og Jaime Paglia
 Eureka (film fra 1983) – britisk-amerikansk dramafilm af Nicolas Roeg

Andet
 (5261) Eureka – trojansk asteroide ved Mars

Eureka


Popma steht für:

 Popma (Familie), friesisches Adelsgeschlecht

Popma ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Alardo de Popma (vor 1617–1641), flämischer Kupferstecher
 Ausonius von Poma (1563–1613), friesischer Klassischer Philologe und Jurist
 Cyprianus von Poma (1550–1582), friesischer Klassischer Philologe
 Klaas Jan Popma (1903–1986), niederländischer Philosoph
 Sixtus von Popma (1550–1611), friesischer Jurist
 Titus von Popma (vor 1550–1620), friesischer Astronom und Jurist

Popma


Ensete ventricosum, a falsa-banana ou bananeira-da-abissínia, é uma espécie do gênero Ensete e um parente próximo da banana.

É indígena em Etiópia, onde 20 milhões de pessoas o comem como alimento básico.

Num clima de seca extrema, a planta é capaz de viver sete anos sem água. Além de atingir a maturação em cinco anos, cresce até 12 metros e tem potencial para se expandir e alimentar 100 milhões de africanos. Apesar de o fruto não ser comestível, os caules e raízes são usados para fazer papas e pão.

Referências

Ensete ventricosum


Sipadan (Pulau Sipadan) es una isla perteneciente a Malasia situada en el Mar de Célebes al este de Borneo. Forma parte del estado federado malasio de Sabah. Esta isla alcanzó notoriedad por el secuestro de Abu Sayyaf en el año 2000 en el que algunos turistas extranjeros fueron secuestrados por terroristas islamistas.

Fauna
Sipadan es conocida como zona de buceo. La riqueza de su vida marina es enorme e incluye tiburones de arrecife, barracudas, peces loro cototo verde, mantarrayas, rayas águila, tiburones martillo y tiburones ballena. Además pueden avistarse tortugas verdes y carey en grandes cantidades.

Las zonas de buceo más importantes de Sipadan son:

En el año 2004, la isla fue declarada reserva natural y se clausuró la estación turística (resort) existente. Las estaciones turísticas más cercanas se encuentran en las vecinas islas de Mabul o Kapalai. Desde entonces, la isla sólo puede visitarse durante el día por un número limitado de personas y ya no se permite pernoctar en ella. Asimismo, se ha limitado el acceso a gran parte de la isla. Tan sólo está habitado por un pequeño destacamento del ejército y de la policía.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Buceo en Sipadan
 Fabio Spadi (2003): Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan: New Parameters for the Concept of Dependency in the Maritime Environment?. En: The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 18: págs. 295-310.

Archipiélagos e islas de Malasia
Archipiélagos e islas del océano Pacífico
Sabah
Frontera Indonesia-Malasia

Sipadan


Hanna Wiktoriwna Wassylenko (, auch Anna Wasilenko; * 21. Februar 1986) ist eine ukrainische Ringerin. Sie wurde 2011 Weltmeisterin und 2012 Europameisterin in der Gewichtsklasse bis 59 kg Körpergewicht.

Werdegang

Hanna Wassylenko begann als Jugendliche im Jahre 2001 mit dem Ringen. Sie ist Studentin und gehört dem Sportclub Dynamo Kiew an. Ihre wichtigsten Trainer waren bzw. sind Ignat Georgijewitsch und Andrei Panaitow. Die 1,63 Meter große Athletin rang zunächst in der Gewichtsklasse bis 63 kg und ringt seit 2009 in der Gewichtsklasse bis 59 kg Körpergewicht, die nicht olympisch ist. Wenn sie bei den Olympischen Spielen 2012 in London an den Start gehen will, muss sie entweder in die Gewichtsklasse bis 55 kg abtrainieren oder wieder in der Gewichtsklasse bis 63 kg an den Start gehen. In beiden Gewichtsklasse hat sie allerdings in der Ukraine in Natalja Sinischin und in Julija Ostaptschuk sehr große Konkurrentinnen.

Ihre internationale Karriere begann Hanna Wassylenko bei der Junioren-Europameisterschaft 2005 in Wrocław, wo sie auf Anhieb den Titel in der Gewichtsklasse bis 63 kg gewann. Bei der Junioren-Weltmeisterschaft 2006 in Guatemala-Stadt kam sie in der Gewichtsklasse bis 59 kg hinter Larissa Kanajewa, Russland und Jaqueline Renteria aus Kolumbien auf den 3. Platz.

2007 startete sie erstmals bei einer internationalen Meisterschaft bei den Damen. Sie kam dabei bei der Europameisterschaft in Sofia auf den 3. Platz. Sie verlor dort nach drei gewonnenen Kämpfen im Halbfinale gegen Stefanie Stüber aus Deutschland und erkämpfte sich in der Trostrunde mit einem Sieg über Agoro Papavasiliou aus Griechenland eine Bronzemedaille.

Ihr nächster Start bei einer internationalen Meisterschaft erfolgte dann erst wieder bei der Weltmeisterschaft 2009 in Herning/Dänemark in der Gewichtsklasse bis 59 kg. Auch hier gewann sie zunächst drei Kämpfe, um dann im Halbfinale gegen Agata Pietrzyk aus Polen zu unterliegen. Die Bronzemedaille erkämpfte sie sich dann durch einen Sieg über Katie Patroch aus Kanada.

Bei der Europameisterschaft 2010 in Baku war Hanna Wassylenko in keiner guten Form und unterlag gegen Tajbe Jusein aus Bulgarien und Natalja Smirnowa aus Russland und kam deswegen nur auf den 8. Platz. Bei der Weltmeisterschaft dieses Jahres wurde sie dann gar nicht eingesetzt.
2011 kehrte sie aber in die Erfolgsspur zurück. Sie gewann zunächst bei der Europameisterschaft in Dortmund wieder eine Bronzemedaille. Wobei allerdings ihre Niederlage gegen Georgiana Narcisa Paic aus Rumänien im Halbfinale überraschend kam. Die Bronzemedaille sicherte sie sich durch einen Sieg über Adelina Vescan aus Frankreich.

Zum Höhepunkt ihrer bisherigen Laufbahn wurden dann die Weltmeisterschaften 2011 in Istanbul. Sie kam dort zu Siegen über Amanda Gerhart aus Kanada, Chen Yang aus der Volksrepublik China und Sona Ahmadli aus Aserbaidschan und stand damit im Endkampf gegen Sofia Mattsson aus Schweden. In diesem Kampf gelang ihr ein knapper Punktsieg über die Schweden (2:0 Runden bei 2:2 und 2:1 Punkten), mit dem sie Weltmeisterin in der Gewichtsklasse bis 59 kg Körpergewicht wurde.

2012 gewann sie dann bei der Europameisterschaft in Belgrad ihren nächsten Titel. Auf dem Weg dorthin besiegte sie Sona Ahmadli, Mirjana Martinovic, Montenegro, Nadeschda Michalkowa, Belarus und Anastasija Grigorjeva, Lettland. Da die Gewichtsklasse, in der sie rang 2012 nicht olympisch war, musste sie versuchen, sich in der Gewichtsklasse bis 63 kg für die Spiele zu qualifizieren, was ihr aber nicht gelang.

Hanna Wassylenko blieb danach noch bis 2016 aktiv. In diesen Jahren gewann sie bei internationalen Meisterschaften noch zweimal eine Bronzemedaille. 2013 in Tiflis in der Gewichtsklasse bis 63 kg und 2016 in Riga in der Gewichtsklasse bis 60 kg Körpergewicht. Für die Teilnahme an den Olympischen Spielen 2016 in Rio de Janeiro konnte sie sich aber wieder nicht qualifizieren.

Internationale Erfolge

 Erläuterungen

 alle Wettbewerbe im freien Stil
 WM = Weltmeisterschaft, EM = Europameisterschaft

Literatur

 Fachzeitschrift Der Ringer

Weblinks
 Endkampf bei der Weltmeisterschaft 2011 zwischen Hanna Wassylenko (blau) und Sofia Mattsson, Schweden

Ringer (Ukraine)
Weltmeister (Ringen)
Europameister (Ringen)
Ukrainischer Meister (Ringen)
Ukrainer
Geboren 1986
Frau

Hanna Wassylenko


Luis Alberto Monge Álvarez (December 29, 1925 – November 29, 2016) was the President of Costa Rica from 1982 to 1986. He also served as Costa Rica's first Ambassador to Israel from 1963 until 1966.

Biography

Early and personal life
Monge was born on December 29, 1925, in Palmares, Alajuela Province, to Gerardo Monge Quesada and Elisa Álvarez Vargas.

He married his first wife, Flora Rojas Alvarez, on March 9, 1946, but the marriage was dissolved in January 1960. Luis and Flora had 5 children: Flora, Myriam, Luis Alberto, Jorge, and Alfredo. He met his second wife, Doris Yankelewitz Berger, while both were attending a luncheon at the University of Costa Rica. At the time, Yankelewitz was a college student while Monge was serving as Ambassador to Israel. Monge and Yankelewitz married at a ceremony in San José on November 25, 1965. They had one daughter, Lena.

Monge and Yankelewitz later separated at the end of his presidency in 1986. The couple divorced in June 1988.

Career
Before becoming President in 1982, Monge served as Costa Rica's first ambassador to Israel from 1963 to 1966 and was one of the founding members of the National Liberation Party (PLN) in 1951. He was also named a deputy in the Legislative Assembly, at age 24, making him one of the youngest to have reached such rank. He was the President of the Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica from 1973 to 1974.

Monge inherited an impoverished and distraught nation. The biggest issues his presidency dealt with were: the unmanageable economic crisis, the mounting foreign debt and the Sandinista-Contra crisis involving Nicaragua, the United States and Costa Rica's northern border region.

In dealing with the country's economic situation, he began austere programs on public spending, eliminated many government subsidies to various activities and promoted exports and receptive tourism. He eliminated export and production taxes. Monge also reformed monetary law, and forced all foreign currencies to go through the national bank system. A lot of his efforts paid off, reducing inflation and unemployment. During Monge's term, Costa Rica declared an alignment with all "western democracies" and began to work closely with the governments of Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala, while its relationship with Nicaragua continued to deteriorate.

By then, the United States was involved in suppressing further socialist revolts in the region and saw Costa Rica as a stable ally in which to base their operations against Nicaragua's Sandinista government. The U.S. imposed a commercial embargo against Nicaragua, facilitating the deepening of the rift between Costa Rica and its northern neighbor. Unwillingly, Costa Rica became too involved in the United States' struggle to topple the Sandinistas and in an attempt to pull away, proclaimed Costa Rica as an active, neutral nation. With Costa Rica still in the midst of a terrible economic recession, Monge opted to exchange sovereignty for economic stability: he gave in to pressure from the United States and accepted American financial assistance in exchange for allowing the CIA to set up small "unofficial" strategic outposts along the northern border.

Shortly after becoming President, Monge traveled to Israel, where, without knowing about the United Nations Security Council Resolution 478, he raised the national flag on Costa Rica's embassy building  in Jerusalem. He defined his actions as "exercising sovereignty".

Death
On November 29, 2016, Monge suffered a cardiorespiratory arrest at his home in Santa Ana. He was rushed to the San Juan de Dios hospital, where he was declared dead aged 90.

References

External links

  Biography on the PLN website
  Biography by CIDOB Foundation

1925 births
2016 deaths
People from Palmares (canton)
National Liberation Party (Costa Rica) politicians
Presidents of Costa Rica
Presidents of the Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica
Ambassadors of Costa Rica to Israel
People of the Costa Rican Civil War
Collars of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
20th-century Costa Rican politicians

Luis Alberto Monge