Religion in Canada  encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs that historically has been dominated by Christianity. The constitution of Canada refers to God and the monarch carries the title of Defender of the Faith,  however Canada has no official church and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism. Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals to assemble and worship without limitation or interference.

Before the European colonization, a wide diversity of Indigenous religions and belief systems were largely animistic or shamanistic. The French colonization beginning in the 16th century established a Roman Catholic francophone population in New France, especially Acadia. British colonization brought waves of Anglicans and other Protestants to Upper Canada, now Ontario. The settlement of the West brought significant Eastern Orthodox immigrants from Eastern Europe and Mormon and Pentecostal immigrants from the United States. The Jewish,  Islamic, Jains, Sikh, Hindu, and Buddhist communities—although small—are as old as the nation itself. Rates of religious adherence have steadily decreased since the 1970s.  After having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life, Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state.  Although the majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives, they still believe in God. The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state.

According to the 2021 census, Christianity is the largest religion in Canada, with Roman Catholics representing 29.9 percent of the population having the most adherents. Christians overall representing 53.3 percent of the population, are followed by people reporting irreligion or having no religion at 34.6 percent. Other faiths include Islam (4.9 percent), Hinduism (2.3 percent), Sikhism (2.1 percent), Buddhism (1.0 percent), Judaism (0.9 percent), and Indigenous spirituality (0.2 percent). Canada has the second-largest national Sikh population, behind India.

Religious pluralism

Canada today has no state religion, and the Government of Canada is officially committed to religious pluralism. While the Canadian government's official ties to religion, specifically Christianity are few, the Preamble to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms makes reference to "the supremacy of God." The national anthem in both official languages also refers to God. Nevertheless, the rise of irreligion within the country and influx of non-Christian peoples has led to a greater separation of government and religion, demonstrated in forms like  "Christmas holidays" being called "winter festivals" in public schools. Some religious schools are government-funded as per Section Twenty-nine of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

Canada is a Commonwealth realm in which the head of state is shared with 14 other countries. As such, Canada follows the United Kingdom's succession laws for its monarch, which bar Roman Catholics from inheriting the throne. Within Canada, the monarch's title includes the phrases "By the Grace of God" and "Defender of the Faith."

Christmas and Easter are nationwide holidays, and while Jews, Muslims, and other religious groups are allowed to take their holy days off work, they do not share the same official recognition. In 1957, the Parliament declared Thanksgiving "a day of general thanksgiving to almighty God for the bountiful harvest with which Canada has been blessed."

There was an ongoing battle in the late 20th century to have religious garb accepted throughout Canadian society, mostly focused on Sikh turbans. The Canadian Armed Forces authorized the wearing of turbans in 1986, eventually the Royal Canadian Mounted Police followed in 1988 and eventually other federal government agencies accepted members wearing turbans.

In 2023, the country was scored 3 out of 4 for religious freedom; it was noted that in 2019, a new law was put in place stating that some government employees in positions of authority were not allowed to wear religious symbols.

History

Before 1800s

Before the arrival of Europeans, the ndigenous peoples followed a wide array of mostly animistic religions and spirituality; "including the presence of creation stories, the role of tricksters or of supernatural beings in folklore and the importance of sacred organizations". The first Europeans to settle in great numbers in Canada were French Catholics, including a large number of Jesuits who established several missions in North America. They were dedicated to converting the Indigenous peoples; an effort that eventually proved successful.

The first large Protestant communities were formed in the Maritimes after they were conquered by the British. Unable to convince enough British immigrants to go to the region, the government decided to import continental Protestants from Germany and Switzerland to populate the region and counterbalance the Roman Catholic Acadians. This group was known as the Foreign Protestants. This effort proved successful and today the South Shore region of Nova Scotia is still largely Lutheran. After the Expulsion of the Acadians beginning in 1755 a large number of New England Planters settled on the vacated lands bringing with them their Congregationalist belief. During the 1770s, guided by Henry Alline, the New Light movement of the Great Awakening swept through the Atlantic region converting many of the Congregationalists to the new theology. After Alline's death many of these Newlights eventually became Baptists, thus making Maritime Canada the heartland of the Baptist movement in Canada.

The Quebec Act of 1774 acknowledged the rights of the Roman Catholic Church throughout Lower Canada in order to keep the French Canadians loyal to Britannic Crown. Roman Catholicism is still the main religion of French Canadians today.

The American Revolution beginning in 1765 brought a large influx of Protestants to Canada when United Empire Loyalists, fleeing the rebellious United States, moved in large numbers to Upper Canada and the Maritimes.

1800s to 1900s

While Anglicans consolidated their hold on the upper classes, workingmen and farmers responded to the Methodist revivals, often sponsored by visiting preachers from the United States. Typical was Rev. James Caughey, an American sent by the Wesleyan Methodist Church from the 1840s through 1864. He brought in the converts by the score, most notably in the revivals in Western Canada from 1851 to 1853. His technique combined restrained emotionalism with a clear call for personal commitment, coupled with follow-up action to organize support from converts. It was a time when the holiness movement caught fire, with the revitalized interest of men and women in Christian perfection. Caughey successfully bridged the gap between the style of earlier camp meetings and the needs of more sophisticated Methodist congregations in the emerging cities.

In the early nineteenth century in the Maritimes and Upper Canada, the Anglican Church held the same official position it did in England. This caused tension within English Canada, as much of the populace was not Anglican. Increasing immigration from Scotland created a very large Presbyterian community and they and other groups demanded equal rights. This was an important cause of the 1837 Rebellion in Upper Canada. With the arrival of responsible governments, the Anglican monopoly was ended.

In Lower Canada, the Roman Catholic Church was officially pre-eminent and had a central role in the colony's culture and politics. Unlike English Canada, French Canadian nationalism became very closely associated with Roman Catholicism. During this period, the Roman Catholic Church in the region became one of the most reactionary in the world. Known as Ultramontane Catholicism, the church adopted positions condemning all manifestations of liberalism.

In politics, those aligned with the Roman Catholic clergy in Quebec were known as les bleus (the blues). They formed a curious alliance with the staunchly monarchist and pro-British Anglicans of English Canada (often members of the Orange Order) to form the basis of the Canadian Conservative Party. The Reform Party, which later became the Liberal Party, was largely composed of the anti-clerical French Canadians, known as les rouges (the reds) and the non-Anglican Protestant groups. In those times, right before elections, parish priests would give sermons to their flock where they said things like  ("the sky (heaven) is blue and hell is red").

In 1871, national census revealed 56.45% as Protestants, 42.80% as Roman Catholic, 0.05% as Pagans, 0.03% as Jewish, 0.02% as Mormons, 0.15% as irreligious and 0.49% as unspecified.

By the late nineteenth century, Protestant pluralism had taken hold in English Canada. While much of the elite were still Anglican, other groups, including the Methodists, had become very prominent as well. The schools and universities created at this time reflected this pluralism with major centres of learning being established for each faith. One, King's College, later the University of Toronto, was set up as a non-denominational school. The influence of the Orange Order was strong, especially among Irish Protestant immigrants, and comprised a powerful anti-Catholic force in Ontario politics; its influence faded away after 1920.

The late nineteenth century also saw the beginning of a large shift in Canadian immigration patterns. Large numbers of Irish and Southern European immigrants were creating new Roman Catholic communities in English Canada. Western Canada saw the arrival of significant Eastern Orthodox immigrants from Eastern Europe as well as Mormon and Pentecostal immigrants from the United States and Ireland.

1900s to 1960s

In 1919–20 Canada's five major Protestant denominations (Anglican, Baptist, Congregational, Methodist, and Presbyterian) cooperatively undertook the "Forward Movement." The goal was to raise funds and to strengthen Christian spirituality in Canada. The movement invoked Anglophone nationalism by linking donations with the Victory Loan campaigns of the First World War, and stressed the need for funds to Canadianize immigrants. Centred in Ontario, the campaign was a clear financial success, raising over $11 million. However the campaign exposed deep divisions among Protestants, with the traditional Evangelists speaking of a personal relationship with God and the more liberal denominations emphasizing the Social Gospel and good works. Both factions (apart from the Anglicans) agreed on prohibition, which was demanded by the WCTU.

As of 1931, Roman Catholics were the largest religious body in Canada, with 4 million people. Following it were the United Church of Canada (including Methodists, Congregationalists and Presbyterians), with 2 million; the Anglican Church, with nearly 2 million; and the Presbyterian Church, with approximately 870,000. The Canada Year Book 1936 reported that "of the non-Christian sects, 155,614 or 1.50% were Jews, 24,087 or 0.23% were Confucians, 15,784 or 0.15% were Buddhists and 5,008 or 0.05% were pagans.

Domination of Canadian society by Protestant and Roman Catholic elements continued until well into the 20th century. Until the 1960s, most parts of Canada still had extensive Lord's Day laws that limited what one could do on a Sunday. The English Canadian elite were still dominated by Protestants, and Jews and Roman Catholics were often excluded. A slow process of liberalization began after the Second World War in English Canada. Overtly Christian laws were expunged, including those against homosexuality. Policies favouring Christian immigration were also abolished.

In 1951, a nationwide census was taken after incorporation of predominantly Protestant province of Newfoundland and Labrador.

According to statistics provided by Statistics Canada, Protestants held a slight majority in the country between 1871 and 1961. Despite Canada's large Roman Catholic population, this fact is confirmed by nine consecutive national censuses. By 1961, Roman Catholics overtook Protestants as the most numerous religious group, although—unlike Protestants—they never reached the absolute majority status (>50%).

1960s and after
The most overwhelming change was the Quiet Revolution in Quebec in the 1960s. Up through the 1950s, the province was one of the most traditional Roman Catholic areas in the world. Church attendance rates were high, and the schools were largely controlled by the Church. In the 1960s, the Catholic Church lost most of its influence in Quebec, and religiosity declined sharply. While the majority of Québécois are still professed Latin Church Catholics, rates of church attendance have decreased dramatically. Since then, common-law relationships, abortion, and support for same-sex marriage are much more common in Quebec than previously,  exceeding levels in some other areas of Canada.

English Canada also underwent secularization. The United Church of Canada, the country's largest Protestant denomination, became one of the most liberal major Protestant churches in the world. Flatt argues that in the 1960s Canada's rapid cultural changes led the United Church to end its evangelical programs and change its identity. It made revolutionary changes in its evangelistic campaigns, educational programs, moral stances, and theological image. However, membership declined sharply as the United Church affirmed a commitment to gay rights including marriage and ordination, and to the ordination of women.

In 1971, Canada was 47% Catholic, 41% Protestant, 4% other religion and 4% unaffilliated.

Meanwhile, a strong current of evangelical Protestantism emerged. The largest groups are found in the Atlantic provinces and Western Canada, particularly in Alberta, Southern Manitoba and the Southern interior and Fraser Valley region of British Columbia, also known as the "Canadian Bible Belt", as well as parts of Ontario outside the Greater Toronto Area. The social environment is more conservative, somewhat more in line with that of the Midwestern and Southern United States, and same-sex marriage, abortion, and common-law relationships are less widely accepted. The evangelical movement has grown sharply after 1960, and increasingly influences public policy. Nevertheless, the overall proportion of evangelicals in Canada remains considerably lower than in the United States, and the polarization much less intense. There are very few evangelicals in Quebec and in the largest urban areas, which are generally secular, although there are several congregations above 1000 members in most large cities.

Abrahamic religions

Christianity

The majority of Canadian Christians attend church services infrequently. Cross-national surveys of religiosity rates such as the Pew Global Attitudes Project indicate that, on average, Canadian Christians are less observant than those of the United States but are still more overtly religious than their counterparts in Western Europe. In 2002, 30% of Canadians reported to Pew researchers that religion was "very important" to them. A 2005 Gallup poll showed that 28% of Canadians consider religion to be "very important" (55% of Americans and 19% of Britons say the same). Regional differences within Canada exist, however, with British Columbia and Quebec reporting especially low metrics of traditional religious observance, as well as a significant urban-rural divide, while Saskatchewan and rural Alberta saw high rates of religious attendance. The rates for weekly church attendance are contested, with estimates running as low as 11% as per the latest Ipsos-Reid poll and as high as 25% as per Christianity Today magazine. This American magazine reported that three polls conducted by Focus on the Family, Time Canada and the Vanier Institute of the Family showed church attendance increasing for the first time in a generation, with weekly attendance at 25 per cent. This number is similar to the statistics reported by premier Canadian sociologist of religion, Prof. Reginald Bibby of the University of Lethbridge, who has been studying Canadian religious patterns since 1975. Although lower than in the US, which has reported weekly church attendance at about 40% since the Second World War, weekly church attendance rates are higher than those in Northern Europe.

As well as the large churches – Roman Catholic, United, and Anglican, which together count more than half of the Canadian population as nominal adherents – Canada also has many smaller Christian groups, including Eastern Orthodoxy. The Egyptian population in Ontario and Quebec (Greater Toronto in particular) has seen a large influx of the Coptic Orthodox population in just a few decades. The relatively large Ukrainian population of Manitoba and Saskatchewan has produced many followers of the Ukrainian Catholic and Ukrainian Orthodox Churches, while southern Manitoba has been settled largely by Mennonites. The concentration of these smaller groups often varies greatly across the country. Baptists are especially numerous in the Maritimes. The Maritimes, prairie provinces, and southwestern Ontario have significant numbers of Lutherans. Southwest Ontario has seen large numbers of German and Russian immigrants, including many Mennonites and Hutterites, as well as a significant contingent of Dutch Reformed. Alberta has seen considerable immigration from the American plains, creating a significant Mormon minority in that province. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints claimed to have 178,102 members (74,377 of whom in Alberta) at the end of 2007. And according to the Jehovah's Witnesses year report there are 111,963 active members (members who actively preach) in Canada.

Canada as a nation is becoming increasingly religiously diverse, especially in large urban centres such as Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal, where minority groups and new immigrants who make up the growth in most religious groups congregate. Two significant trends become clear when the current religious landscape is examined closely. One is the loss of 'secularized' Canadians as active and regular participants in the churches and denominations they grew up in, which were overwhelmingly Christian, while these churches remain a part of Canadians' cultural identity. The other is the increasing presence of ethnically diverse immigration within the religious makeup of the country.

As Mainline Protestants and Roman Catholics have experienced drastic losses over the past 30 years, others have been expanding rapidly: overall by 144% in 'Eastern' religions during the 1981–1991 decade. Considering Canada's increasing reliance on immigration to bolster a low birth rate, the situation is only likely to continue to diversify. This increased influx of ethnic immigrants not only affects the types of religions represented in the Canadian context but also the increasingly multicultural and multilingual makeup of individual Christian denominations. From Chinese Anglican or Korean United Church communities, to the Lutheran focus on providing much needed services to immigrants new to the Canadian context and English language, immigration is making changes. Much as many Roman Catholics in Quebec ignore the Church's stance on birth control, abortion, or premarital sex, the churches do not dictate much of the daily lives of regular Canadians.

For some Protestant denominations, adapting to a new secular context has meant adjusting to their non-institutional roles in society by increasingly focusing on social justice. However the pull between conservative religious members and the more radical among the church members is complicated by the numbers of immigrant communities who may desire a church that fulfils a more 'institutionally complete' role as a buffer in this new country over the current tension filled debates over same-sex marriage, ordination of women and homosexuals, or the role of women in the church. This of course will depend on the background of the immigrant population, as in the Hong Kong context where ordination of Florence Li Tim Oi happened long before women's ordination was ever raised on the Canadian Anglican church level.

As well a multicultural focus on the churches part may include non-Christian elements (such as the inclusion of a Buddhist priest in one incident) which are unwelcome to the transplanted religious community. Serving the needs and desires of different aspects of the Canadian and newly Canadian populations makes a difficult balancing act for the various mainline churches which are starved for money and active parishioners in a time when 16% of Canadians identify as non-religious and up to two-thirds of those who do identify with a denomination use the church only for its life-cycle rituals governing birth, marriage, and death. The church retains that hold in their parishioners' lives but not the commitment of time and energy necessary to support an aging institution.

Evangelical portions of the Protestant groups proclaim their growth as well but as Roger O'Tool notes they make up 7% of the Canadian population and seem to gain most of their growth from a higher birthrate. What is significant is the higher participation of their members in contrast to Mainline Protestants and Roman Catholics. This high commitment would seem to translate into the kind of political power evangelicals in the United States enjoy but despite Canada's historically Christian background as Beaman notes neatly "...[forming] the backdrop for social process" explicit religiosity appears to have not effectively moved the government towards legal discrimination against gay marriage.

There was a major religious revival in Toronto in the nineties known as the Toronto Blessing at a small Vineyard Church near the Toronto Pearson International Airport. This religious event was the largest tourist attraction to Toronto in 1994. This event was characterized by unusual religious ecstasy such as being slain in the Spirit, laughing uncontrollably, and other odd behaviour.

A 2015 study estimates some 43,000 believers in Christ from a Muslim background in Canada, most of whom belong to the evangelical tradition.

Anglican Church of Canada
Anglican Church of Canada is the only official church of the Anglican Communion in Canada. Across Canada there are approximately 1,700 individual churches or parishes, which are organized into 30 different dioceses, each led by a bishop. The national church office is known as the General Synod. The Primate is the Archbishop Linda Nicholls, national pastoral leader.

Evangelicalism
The Evangelical Fellowship of Canada, a national evangelical alliance, member of the World Evangelical Alliance was founded in 1964 in Toronto. It brings together 43 Evangelical Christian denominations.

The Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada were founded in 1914.

The Canadian Baptist Ministries were founded in 1944.

Anabaptism

Hutterites

In the mid-1870s Hutterites moved from Europe to the Dakota Territory in the United States to avoid military service and other persecutions. During World War I Hutterites suffered from persecutions in the United States because they are pacifist and refused military service. They then moved almost all of their communities to Canada in the Western provinces of Alberta and Manitoba in 1918. In the 1940s, there were 52 Hutterite colonies in Canada.

Today, more than 75% of the world's Hutterite colonies are located in Canada, mainly in Alberta, Manitoba and Saskatchewan, the rest being almost exclusively in the United States. The Hutterite population in North America is about 45,000 people.

Mennonites

First Mennonites arrived in Canada in 1786 from Pennsylvania, but following Mennonites arrived directly from Europe. The Mennonite Church Canada had about 35,000 members in 1998.

Catholicism

The Catholic Church in Canada, under the spiritual leadership of the Pope and the Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops, has the largest number of adherents to a religion in Canada, with 38.7% of Canadians (13.07 million) reported as Catholics in the 2011 National Household Survey, in 72 dioceses across the provinces and territories, served by about 8,000 priests. It was the first European faith in what is now Canada, arriving in 1497 when John Cabot landed on Newfoundland and raised the Venetian and Papal banners, claiming the land for his sponsor King Henry VII of England, while recognizing the religious authority of the Roman Catholic Church.

The entire Catholic Church in Canada is placed under the Primate of Canada which corresponds to the Archdiocese of Quebec and its bishop, the Primate of Canada. Currently, Gérald Cyprien Lacroix is the Primate of Canada. The Pope is represented in Canada by the Apostolic Nunciature in Canada (Ottawa).

Eastern Orthodoxy

Adherents of Eastern Orthodox Christianity in Canada belong to several ecclesiastical jurisdictions. Historically, Eastern Orthodoxy was introduced to Canada during the course of 19th century, mainly through emigration of Christians from Eastern Europe and the Middle East. Honouring such diverse heritage, Eastern Orthodoxy in Canada is traditionally organized in accordance with patrimonial jurisdictions of autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Churches, each of them having its own hierarchy with dioceses and parishes.

According to 2011 census data, there were 550,690 Orthodox Christians. The Greek Orthodox community constitutes the largest Eastern Orthodox community in Canada, with 220,255 adherents, followed by other communities: Russian Orthodox (25,245), Ukrainian Orthodox (23,845), Serbian Orthodox (22,780), Romanian Orthodox (7,090), Macedonian Orthodox (4,945), Bulgarian Orthodox (1,765), Antiochian Orthodox (1,220) and several other minor communities within Eastern Orthodoxy. A number of  207,480 adherents reported only as Christian Orthodox.

Oriental Orthodoxy

Adherents of Oriental Orthodox Christianity in Canada also belong to several ethnic communities and ecclesiastical jurisdictions. According to 2011 census data, Coptic Orthodox community constitutes the largest Oriental Orthodox community in Canada, with 16,255 adherents. It is followed by other communities: Armenian Orthodox (13,730), Ethiopian Orthodox (3,025), Syriac Orthodox (3,060) and several other minor communities within Oriental Orthodoxy.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) has had a presence in Canada since its organization in New York State in 1830. Canada has been used as a refuge territory by members of the LDS Church to avoid enforcement of anti-polygamy laws by the United States government. The first LDS Church in Canada was established in 1895 in what would become Alberta; it was the first stake of the Church to be established outside the United States. The LDS Church has founded several communities in Alberta.

In the 2021 census sampling, about 0.2% of the population (equal to about 87,725 people) claimed to be members of the LDS Church.
In 2021, the LDS Church claimed around 200,000 members in Canada; It has congregations in all Canadian provinces and territories and possesses at least one temple in six of the ten provinces, including the oldest LDS temple outside the United States. Alberta is the province with the most members of the LDS Church in Canada, having approximately 40% of the total of Canadian LDS Church members and representing 2% of the total population of the province (the National Household survey of 2011 has Alberta with over 50% of the Canadian Mormons and 1.6% of the province's population), followed by Ontario and British Columbia.

Islam

Four years after Canada's founding in 1867, the 1871 Canadian Census found 13 Muslims among the population.  The first Canadian mosque was constructed in Edmonton in 1938, when there were approximately 700 Muslims in the country.  This building is now part of the museum at Fort Edmonton Park. The years after World War II saw a small increase in the Muslim population. However, Muslims were still a distinct minority. It was only with the removal of European immigration preferences in the late 1960s that Muslims began to arrive in significant numbers.

According to Canada's 2001 census, there were 579,740 Muslims in Canada, just under 2% of the population. In 2006, the Muslim population was estimated to be 0.8 million or about 2.6%. In 2010, the Pew Research Centre estimated there were about 0.9 million Muslims in Canada. In the 2011 National Housing Survey, Muslims constituted 3.2% of the population making them largest religious adherents after Christianity. Sunni Islam is followed by the majority while there are significant numbers of Shia Muslims. Ahmadiyya also has a significant proportion with more than 25,000 Ahmadis living in Canada. There are also non-denominational Muslims. As of the 2021 census, the percentage of Muslims in Canada is 4.9%.

In 2007, the CBC introduced a popular television sitcom called Little Mosque on the Prairie, a contemporary reflection and critical commentary on attitudes towards Islam in Canada. In 2008, the Prime Minister of Canada, Stephen Harper, visited the Baitun Nur Mosque, the largest mosque in Canada for its inaugural session with the Head of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.

Judaism

The Jewish community in Canada is almost as old as the nation itself. The earliest documentation of Jews in Canada is British Army records from the Seven Years' War from 1754. In 1760, General Jeffrey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst attacked and won Montreal for the British. In his regiment there were several Jews, including four among his officer corps, most notably Lieutenant Aaron Hart who is considered the father of Canadian Jewry. In 1807, Ezekiel Hart was elected to the legislature of Lower Canada, becoming the first Jew in the British Empire to hold an official position. Hart was sworn in on a Hebrew Bible as opposed to a Christian Bible. The next day an objection was raised that Hart had not taken the oath in the manner required for sitting in the assembly – an oath of abjuration, which would have required Hart to swear "on the true faith of a Christian". Hart was expelled from the assembly, only to be re-elected two more times. In 1768, the first synagogue in Canada was built in Montreal, the Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue of Montreal. In 1832, partly because of the work of Ezekiel Hart, a law was passed that guaranteed Jews the same political rights and freedoms as Christians.

The Jewish population saw a growth during the 1880s due to the pogroms of Russia and growing anti-Semitism. Between the years of 1880 and 1930 the Jewish population grew to 155,000. In 1872, Henry Nathan, Jr. became the first Jewish Member of Parliament, representing the Victoria, BC area in the newly created House of Commons. The First World War halted the flow of immigrants into Canada, and after the War there was a change in Canada's immigration policy to limit the immigration of people from "non-preferred nations", i.e., those not from the United Kingdom or otherwise White Anglo-Saxon Protestant nations. In June 1939 Canada and the United States were the last hope for 907 Jewish refugees aboard the steamship SS St. Louis which had been denied landing in Havana although the passengers had entry visas. The Canadian government ignored the protests of Canadian Jewish organizations. King said the crisis was not a "Canadian problem" and Blair added in a letter to O.D. Skelton, Undersecretary of State for External Affairs, dated June 16, 1939, "No country could open its doors wide enough to take in the hundreds of thousands of Jewish people who want to leave Europe: the line must be drawn somewhere." The ship finally had to return to Germany. During the Second World War almost twenty thousand Canadian Jews volunteered to fight overseas. Nearly 40,000 Holocaust survivors moved to Canada in the late 1940s to rebuild their lives.

In 2010, the Canadian Jewish community was the fourth largest in the world and practises in both of the official languages of Canada. There is an increase in the number of people that use Hebrew, other than for religious ceremonies, while there is a decline in the Yiddish language. Most of Canada's Jews live in Ontario and Quebec, with Toronto being the largest Jewish population centre. In 2009, anti-Semitic incidents jumped fivefold.

Bahá'í Faith

The Canadian community is one of the earliest western communities of Bahá'ís, at one point sharing a joint National Spiritual Assembly with the United States, and is a co-recipient of `Abdu'l-Bahá's Tablets of the Divine Plan.  The first North American woman to declare herself a Bahá'í was Kate C. Ives, of Canadian ancestry, though not living in Canada at the time. Moojan Momen, in reviewing "The Origins of the Bahá'í Community of Canada, 1898–1948" notes that "the Magee family... are credited with bringing the Bahá'í Faith to Canada. Edith Magee became a Bahá'í in 1898 in Chicago and returned to her home in London, Ontario, where four other female members of her family became Bahá'ís. This predominance of women converts became a feature of the Canadian Bahá'í community..."

Druze Faith
In 2018, there were 25,000 Druze living in Canada, and fewer than 5,000 of them live in the Greater Toronto Area. They are mostly of Lebanese and Syrian descent. Druze practise Druzism, a monotheistic religion encompasses aspects of Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, Judaism and Greek philosophy, among influences.

Indian religions

Hinduism

Hinduism is a minority religion followed by 2.3% of the population of the Canada. According to the 2021 census, there are 828,195 Hindus in Canada.

Hindus in Canada are generally Indian immigrants (mainly Punjabi, Gujarati, and Haryanvi) from India who began arriving in British Columbia about 100 years ago and continue to immigrate today. There is a significant number of Sri Lankan Tamil Hindus in Canada who immigrated from Sri Lanka during the 1983 communal riots in Sri Lanka. Nepali Hindus, Caribbean Hindus from Trinidad and Tobago, Suriname and Guyana and Mauritian Hindus represent sizeable subgroups . There are also Canadian converts to the various sects of Hinduism through the efforts of the Hare Krishna movement, the Gurus during the last 50 years, and other organizations.

The vast majority of Hindus reside in Ontario (primarily in Toronto, Scarborough, Brampton, Hamilton, Windsor and Ottawa), Quebec (primarily around the Montreal area) and British Columbia, (primarily around the Vancouver area).

Buddhism

According to the 2011 Census, Buddhism is followed by 1.1% of the population of the Canada.

Buddhism has been practised in Canada for more than a century and in recent years has grown dramatically. Buddhism arrived in Canada with the arrival of Chinese labourers in the territories during the 19th century. Modern Buddhism in Canada traces to Japanese immigration during the late 19th century. The first Japanese Buddhist temple in Canada was built at the Ishikawa Hotel in Vancouver in 1905. Over time, the Japanese Jōdo Shinshū branch of Buddhism became the prevalent form of Buddhism in Canada and established the largest Buddhist organization in Canada.

Sikhism

Sikhism has nearly 800,000 adherents who account for 2.1% of Canada's population as of 2021, forming the country's fastest-growing and fourth-largest religious group. The largest Sikh populations in Canada are found in Ontario, followed by British Columbia and Alberta. As of the 2021 Census, more than half of Canada's Sikhs can be found in one of four cities: Brampton (163,260), Surrey (154,415), Calgary (49,465), and Edmonton (41,385).

Canada is home to the largest national Sikh proportion in the world (2.1%), and also has the second-largest Sikh population in the world, after India. British Columbia has the third-largest Sikh proportion (5.9%) amongst all global administrative divisions, behind only Punjab and Chandigarh in India. British Columbia, Manitoba, and Yukon hold the distinction of being three of the only four administrative divisions in the world with Sikhism as the second most followed religion among the population.

Jainism

The first official Jain temple was established in Toronto in 1988. This temple served both the Digambar and Svetambara communities.

Other religions

Modern Paganism

Census data showed Modern Paganism grew by 281 per cent between 1991 and 2001, making it the fastest growing religion in Canada during that decade.

Neo-Druidism
In Neo-Druid history a notable community was the Reformed Druids of North America, one of whose four founders was Canadian, which served both the US Druid community and the Canadian Druid community. Neo-Druidism largely spread in Canada through the Ancient Order of the Druids during the 19th century.

Irreligion

Irreligious Canadians include atheists, agnostics, and humanists. The surveys may also include those who are spiritual, deists, and pantheists.  According to Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance, among those estimated 4.9 million Canadians of no religion, an estimated 1.9 million would specify atheist, 1.8 million would specify agnostic, and 1.2 million humanist. In 1991 the irreligious made up 12.3% of the Canadian population. The 2021 Canadian census reported that 34.6% of Canadians declare no religious affiliation, which is up from 23.9% in the 2011 Canadian census and 16.5% in the 2001 Canadian census. Some non-religious Canadians have formed associations, such as the Humanist Association of Canada, Toronto Secular Alliance or the Centre for Inquiry Canada, as well as a number of University Campus Groups.

Age and religion
According to the 2001 census, the major religions in Canada have the following median age. Canada has a median age of 37.3.

Presbyterian 46.1
United Church 44.1
Anglican 43.8
Lutheran 43.3
Jewish 41.5
Greek Orthodox 40.7
Baptist 39.3
Buddhist 38.0
Roman Catholic 37.8
Pentecostal 33.5
No religion 31.9
Hindu 30.2
Sikh 29.7
Muslim 28.1

Census results

Historical trends since 1900
Sources: Based on National trajectory Census since end´s XIX Century, specially 1991, 2001 and 2011 Census, Catholic membership evolution since 1901, Overall Muslim membership evolution since 1901, Pew Center Research and Historical information from the Canadian Encyclopedia

Raw data
In the Canada 2011 National Household Survey (the 2011 census did not ask about religious affiliation but the survey sent to a subset of the population did), 69% of the Canadian population list Roman Catholicism or Protestantism or another Christian denomination as their religion, down 8% from the Canada 2001 Census, where 77% of the population listed a Christian religion. Representing two out of five Canadians, the Roman Catholic Church in Canada is by far the country's largest single denomination. Secularization has been growing since the 1960s. In 2011, 23.9% declared no religious affiliation, compared to 16.5% in 2001.

In recent years there have been substantial rises in non-Christian religions in Canada. From the 1991 to 2011, Islam grew by 316%, Hinduism 217%, Sikhism 209%, and Buddhism 124%. The growth of non-Christian religions expressed as a percentage of Canada's population rose from 4% in 1991 to 8% in 2011. In terms of the ratio of non-Christians to Christians, it rose from 19 Christians (95% of religious population) to 1 non-Christian (5% of religious population) in 1991 to 8 Christians (89%) to 1 non-Christian (11%) in 2011, a rise of 135% of the ratio of non-Christians to Christians, or a decline of 6.5% of Christians to non-Christians, in 20 years.

By province

1Includes Pagan, Wicca, Unity – New Thought – Pantheist, Scientology, Rastafarian, New Age, Gnostic, Satanist, etc.

See also

Humanist Canada
List of prime ministers of Canada by religious affiliation
Mouvement laïque québécois

Notes

References

Further reading

  Kevin N. Flatt. After Evangelicalism: The Sixties and the United Church of Canada (2013)  excerpt and text search

 J. Gordon Melton (1988). The Encyclopedia of American Religions: Religious Creeds: A Compilation of More Than 450 Creeds, Confessions, Statements of Faith, and Summaries of Doctrine of Religious and Spiritual Groups in the United States and Canada. Vol. 1–2. Detroit, Mi: Gale Research.

 Jamie S. Scott (2012) The Religions of Canadians. University of Toronto Press

External links

Canadian encyclopedia – Religion (in Canada)
Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops
Anglican Church of Canada

Religion in Canada


أرسلت الولايات المتحدة المهمة الفضائية المأهولة أبولو 7 في أكتوبر عام 1968. كانت المهمة الأولى ضمن برنامج الولايات المتحدة أبولو التي تحمل طاقمًا إلى الفضاء. كانت أيضًا مركبة الولايات المتحدة الفضائية الأولى التي تحمل رواد فضاء منذ رحلة جمناي 12 في نوفمبر عام 1966. هدفت المهمة إيه إس-204 والمعروفة أيضًا باسم «أبولو 1» إلى أن تكون الرحلة المأهولة الأولى في برنامج أبولو الفضائي. كان من المقرر أن تُطلق في فبراير عام 1967، ولكن قُتل الطاقم بسبب حريق في المقصورة خلال اختبار في يناير عام 1967.عُلِّقت بعد ذلك الرحلات المأهولة لمدة 21 شهرًا، بينما جرى التحقيق في سبب الحادث وأُدخلت التحسينات إلى المركبة الفضائية وإلى إجراءات السلامة، وأُجريت رحلات تجريبية غير مأهولة لصاروخ ساتورن 5 ولوحدة أبولو القمرية (مركبة الهبوط على القمر). أنجزت أبولو 7 الاختبار الخاص بمهمة أبولو 1 فيما يتعلق بمركبة القيادة ووحدة الخدمة في مدار أرضي منخفض.

ترأس والي شيرا طاقم أبولو، وتكون الطاقم أيضًا من الطيار الأول والملّاح دون إف آيزيل، والطيار ومهندس الأنظمة والتر كانينغهام. جرى تنسيق ألقاب فريق الطاقم الرسمية بشكل ينسجم مع تلك المُستخدمة لمهام الهبوط القمري المأهول: كان آيزيل طيّار وحدة القيادة، وكان كانينغهام طيار الوحدة القمرية. كان اسم مهمتهم أبولو سي، وهي عبارة عن رحلة اختبار في مدار أرضي مدتها 11 يوم للتحقق من مركبة القيادة ووحدة الخدمة بلوك 2 المُعادة التصميم مع طاقم على متنها. كانت المرة الأولى التي تنقل فيها مركبة الإطلاق ساتورن آي بي طاقمًا إلى الفضاء. كانت أبولو 7 المهمة الفضائية الأمريكية الأولى المكونة من ثلاثة أشخاص، والمهمة الأولى التي تضمنت بثًا مباشرًا على التلفاز من المركبة الفضائية. أُطلقت في 11 أكتوبر عام 1968 من ما كان معروفًا وقتها بقاعدة كيب كانافيرال للقوات الجوية في فلوريدا. نجحت المهمة تقنيًا بصورة كاملة على الرغم من التوتر بين الطاقم والمتحكمين الأرضيين، وهذا ما أعطى ناسا الثقة لإرسال أبولو 8 في مدار حول القمر بعد ذلك بشهرين. كانت هذه الرحلة الأخيرة للثلاثة أشخاص المكونين للطاقم، والرحلة الوحيدة لكل من آيزيل و كانينغهام، هبطت المركبة الفضائية في المحيط الأطلسي في 22 أكتوبر عام 1968. كانت آخر رحلة مأهولة تُطلق من مجمع الإطلاق 34، بالإضافة لكونها آخر إطلاق من المجمع.

خلفية
سُمّي كل من شيرا، وآيزيل، و كانينغهام طاقمًا لأبولو لأول مرة في 29 سبتمبر عام 1966. كان سيتوجب عليهم إجراء اختبار مداري أرضي ثاني لمركبة القيادة ووحدة الخدمة الأصلية بلوك 1 (غير مصممة للالتحام مع الوحدة القمرية الخاصة بالرحلة القمرية) بعد الرحلة المأهولة الأولى أبولو 1، التي كان طاقمها مكونًا من غوس غريسوم، وإدوارد هيغنز وايت، وروجر بي.شافي. في ديسمبر عام 1966، اعتُبرت المهمة الثانية زائدة وجرى إلغاؤها، وجرى إعادة تعيين طاقم شيرا بمثابة الطاقم الاحتياطي لطاقم غريسوم.

توقفت خطط رحلات أبولو المأهولة الأولى تمامًا في 27 يناير عام 1967 بسبب حريق في المقصورة أدى إلى مقتل غريسوم، ووايت، وشافي. سُمِّي كل من شيرا، وآيزيل، وكانينغهام في وقتٍ لاحق الطاقم الرئيسي للرحلة المأهولة الأولى، والتي كانت ستستخدم المركبة الفضائية بلوك 2 المصممة من أجل المهمات القمرية. جرى إعادة تصميم وحدة القيادة (سي إم) وبدلات رواد الفضاء بشكل شامل من أجل تقليل وإلغاء فرصة تكرار الحادث الذي قتل الطاقم الأول. وهكذا أصبح شيرا رائد الفضاء الوحيد الذي حلّق في مهمات ميركوري، وجمناي، وأبولو. وكان طاقمه سيقوم باختبار أنظمة دعم الحياة، والدفع، والتوجيه، والتحكم خلال هذه الرحلة «ذات النهاية المفتوحة» (أي أنها ستُمدد عند اجتيازها لكل اختبار). حُددت مدة المهمة ب 11 يوم، وهي مُخفضة من المدة الأصلية الخاصة بمهمة أبولو1 التي بلغت 14 يوم. أُطلقت أبولو 7 بواسطة صاروخ ساتورن آي بي عوضًا عن ساتورن 5 الأكبر والأقوى، وذلك لأنها حلقت في مدار أرضي منخفض ولم تكن تتضمن الوحدة القمرية (إل إم).

الطاقم

الطاقم الأساسي
 القائد: والتر شيرا - جولته الفضائية الثالثة
 قبطان وحدة القيادة: دون إيزيل - جولته الفضائية الأولى
 قبطان المركبة القمرية: والتر كونينغهام - جولته الفضائية الأولى
كان الطاقم هو الطاقم الاحتياطي الثاني لأبولو 1.

الطاقم الاحتياطي
 القائد: توماس ستافورد
 قبطان وحدة القيادة: جون يونغ
 قبطان المركبة القمرية: يوجين سيرنان اختير الطاقم لاحقاً لقيادة أبولو 10.

الرحلة
كانت رحلة أبولو 7 رحلة تجريبية ولبناء الثقة في الرحلات القادمة، فبعد حادثة احتراق وحدة القيادة في أبولو 1 استلزم الأمر إعادة تصميم للوحدات الفضائية لتجنب مثل هذه الحوادث. كانت هذه الرحلة التجريبية في مدار الأرض المنخفض بقيادة والتر شيرا وهو الرائد الوحيد الذي شارك في البرامج  وميركوري وجيمني. واستخدمت مركبة الإطلاق ساتورن 1ب بدلاً من المركبة ساتورن 5 الأكثر قوة نظراً لعدم إشراك المركبة القمرية بالرحلة التجريبية. أراد شيرا إعطاء هذه الرحلة رمز النداء "فينيكس"، وهو طائر الفينيق الأسطوري الذي يعود للحياة من رماده بعد احتراقه، كذكرى لرواد فضاء أبولو 1، ولكن جاء هذا الاقتراح بالرفض من قبل إدارة ناسا.

في صورة نادرة للطاقم أبولو 7 يرتدون بذلات A1C المستخدمة في بلوك 1 المركبة الفضائية. (شيرا، إيزيل كننغهام وكانت من قبل طاقم احتياطية لالمشؤومة رحلة أبولو 1).

عملت أجهزة أبولو وجميع عمليات البعثة دون أي مشاكل كبيرة، كما قام نظام الدفع (SPS) وجميع المحركات الهامة -التي من شأنها أن تضع المركبة داخل وخارج مدار القمر- بالعمل دون أي مشاكل تذكر.

على الرغم من كون كابينة القيادة في أبولو أكبر حجماً وأكثر راحة من تلك المستخدمة في برنامج جيمني، إلا أحد عشر يوماً في الفضاء كان له أثره على رواد الفضاء. بدأ التوتر لدى القائد شيرا مع قرار الإطلاق عندما قرر مديرو الرحلة إطلاق المركبة مع خيارات هروب في مرحلة الصعود المبكر أقل من العدد المثالي. ولمرة واحدة في المدار، سببت المقصورة الفسيحة لأبولو داء الحركة لبعض أفراد الطاقم، والتي لم تحدث لأي من الرواد في المركبات الأصغر حجماً. كما عانى الطاقم أيضا من سوء المواد الغذائية. لكن أسوأ مشكلة وقعت عندما أصيب شيرا بزكام حاد، وأصبح ونتيجة لذلك سريع الانفعال مع الطلبات المقدمة من بعثة مراقبة الأرضية، وبدأ الرواد الثلاثة بالتحدث مع المراقبة الأرضية دون الأخذ باعتبارات التسلسل القيادي.
و أدى ذلك إلى تجاهل ناسا استخدام الطاقم لرحلات فضائية قادمة. رغم المشاكل التي حصلت إلا أن المهمة نجحت من حيث إثبات قدرة مركبة أبولو في القيام بالرحلات الفضائية بشكل آمن، مما حذى ناسا إطلاق أبولو 8 بعد هذه الرحلة بشهرين فقط.

المراجع

الولايات المتحدة في 1968
أحداث أكتوبر 1968
مركبات فضائية أطلقت في 1968
مهام برنامج أبولو
والي شيرا

أبولو 7


Vespertine is the fourth studio album by Icelandic recording artist Björk. It was released on 27 August 2001 in the United Kingdom by One Little Independent Records and in the United States by Elektra Entertainment. Production on the album began during the filming of Dancer in the Dark. With Vespertine, Björk aspired to create an album with an intimate and domestic feeling, deviating from the brash sonority of her previous studio album Homogenic (1997).

The musical style of the album reflected Björk's newfound interest in the minimal and intricate electronic music of producers such as Opiate, Console and the duo Matmos, all of whom were enlisted for the album. Taking into account the rising popularity of Napster and music downloads, Björk also composed arrangements with thin-sounding instruments whose quality would not be compromised when downloaded and played on a computer, including the harp, the celesta, clavichord, strings and custom music boxes. Assisted by Matmos, Björk created "microbeats" from various commonplace sounds, such as that of shuffling cards and ice being cracked. Lyrically, the album revolves around sex and love—sometimes explicitly—inspired by her at the time new relationship with Matthew Barney; other lyrical sources include the poetry of E. E. Cummings and British playwright Sarah Kane's Crave.

Vespertine peaked at number 19 on the US Billboard 200 selling 75,000 copies in its first week and at number 8 on the UK Albums Chart. It was widely acclaimed by critics, with praise centred on its erotic, intimate mood and sonic experimentation. The album appeared on several publications' lists of the best albums of 2001 and of the decade, and has often been considered Björk's best album to date. It was certified gold in Canada, France, and the United Kingdom. Three singles were released from Vespertine: "Hidden Place", "Pagan Poetry", and "Cocoon". In 2001, she enlisted Zeena Parkins, Matmos, and a choir of Inuit women to embark on the Vespertine World Tour, which took place at theatres and small venues, in favor of acoustics over audience numbers. Björk, a self-titled coffee table book containing photographs of the artist throughout her career, was released simultaneously with the album.

Background and development

Björk had released her previous studio album, Homogenic, in 1997. The album's style differed from her previous two releases, described by her as "very emotionally confrontational and [...] very dramatic". She also described "All Is Full of Love"—Homogenics closing track—as the first song on Vespertine, as it opposed the rest of the album's "aggressive, macho" aesthetic. In 2000, she starred in Lars von Trier's Dancer in the Dark, and composed its soundtrack, Selmasongs. Her performance was praised: the film was awarded the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival and she received the Best Actress award. On 25 March 2001, Björk attended the 73rd Academy Awards—as "I've Seen It All" was nominated for Best Original Song—wearing a swan dress designed by Marjan Pejoski that caused a media frenzy and was widely criticised.

While she worked on the film, she also began producing her next album, writing new music, and teaming with new collaborators. She has said "Selmasongs was the day job and Vespertine was the hobby". The earliest sessions took place in Spain with programmer Jake Davies. Her new relationship with artist Matthew Barney, and the tension while filming Dancer in the Dark, have been referred to as the two major forces that shaped what would become Vespertine. As the process of filming demanded that she be extroverted, the new music she was creating became hushed and tranquil as a way to escape. Björk commissioned Valgeir Sigurðsson to relocate some of his studio equipment from Iceland to Denmark where Dancer in the Dark was being filmed. While living in Copenhagen, she also contacted the electronic musician Thomas Knak (also known as Opiate), after having enjoyed his 1999 album Objects for an Ideal Home. Björk's musical taste shifted from the "clang and clatter" and "thumping techno" that characterised Homogenic, as she grew tired of "big beats".

Björk then set about making a record with a domestic mood featuring "everyday moods and everyday noises translating into melodies and beats", hence its working title Domestika. Marius de Vries told Sound on Sound that the project was driven by an "overriding aesthetic of being homely and comfortable", which had "all to do with Björk wanting to make a record as a reaction to the wanderings and the pain she experienced making Dancer in the Dark, and how much that had taken out of her, to make a record about the place you come back to after you've wandered." During this time, she also began to use her new laptop to write music, and Vespertine has been retrospectively referred to as "her laptop album". In 2022, she recalled the impact this technology had on the record:
It was [...] the time when I got my first laptop, in '99, and I had total freedom from the studio, which is kind of a huge moment for me and also for women, because [as an author] you can always write wherever you are, but musicians couldn't really do this, you know. If you wanted to have more than just you and your accordion or piano or acoustic guitar, you had to go in a studio and that's very expensive. And then you had to also go into the patriarchy system and work with the engineers, the producers... [...] What was amazing for me was to get the laptop and realize that I could do it all [with it]. Now we have forgotten what this feeling is like, but it was like somebody had come with a space shuttle and delivered you all the tools you wanted when you were a 5-year-old.
For the string and music box arrangements, she used Sibelius scorewriter software. In Iceland, programmers Jake Davies and Marius de Vries joined Björk for a writing session, laying down more tracks, in addition to nine already mixed. Then, she "set up camp [...] during summer" in a New York City loft, and began to work with harpist Zeena Parkins. Much of Vespertine was "composed, crafted and edited" in that loft, in what has been called the "Domestika sessions". Some tracks were recorded as an overdub "on top of a slave mixdown" of the Spanish sessions. As she wanted to write her own songs on music boxes, Björk contacted a music box company requesting transparent acrylic boxes because she wanted the sound to be "as hard as possible, like it was frozen". Björk decided to use instruments whose sound would not be compromised when downloaded from sites such as Napster. She explained:
I use micro-beats, a lot of whispery vocals, which I think sound amazing when they're downloaded because of the secrecy of the medium. The only acoustic instruments I would use would be those that sound good after they've been downloaded, so the harp, the music box, celeste and clavichord. They're plucky sounds. [...] And the strings [...] ended up being more panoramic textures in the background. It's all about being in a little house, on your own. [...] The strings would be like white mountains outside.

On Homogenic, every track was built around a loud beat, but in Vespertine Björk wanted to make a "microcosmos of thirty or forty beats interacting". To do this, she recorded noises around her house to make beats out of them. Once the songs were almost finished, Björk contacted the duo Matmos, who she considered "virtuosos" in the field, and sent them various songs to work with. They added beats made from the noise of crushing ice and shuffling cards, among others. In her documentary Minuscule, Björk explained that this process consisted of "taking something very tiny and magnifying it up to big", intending to convey the "sensation that you've been told a secret", that is also present in micrographs. Marius de Vries and Björk did a lot of the sound design on Vespertine with a text-based synthesizer called Supercollider. Although he described it as "horrendous and impenetrable once you first get it", de Vries admitted: "There is something about typing commands in and hearing the noises come out which is very different from tweaking knobs and it really does take you in surprising directions. It's a way of disrupting the normal circuitry between you and the sound-making machinery."

Her relationship with Barney influenced her lyrics, which were now more intimate, detailed, and revealing as opposed to those of her past works. A particular example is "Cocoon", which is sexually explicit. The eventual title change of the record reveals its changing nature. Writer and critic Mark Pytlik notes that, "where [Domestika] signified a focus of extracting magic from the platitudes of everyday life, [Vespertine] [...] suggested a creation of magic through much more powerful forces. In fine style, Björk had set out to write an album about making sandwiches. She'd ended up with an album about making love". A stylistic antecedent was her poem "Techno Prayer", published in Details magazine in July 1996, which would later be used as part of the lyrics of "All Neon Like". It featured thematic ideas such as cocooning and thread-weaving that she would later explore on Vespertine.

"Heirloom" was based on an existing instrumental track from electronic musician Console's album Rocket in the Pocket (1998), titled "Crabcraft" (which itself samples Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark's "Sacred Heart"). Björk contacted Console in early 2000 and they met in London; she then added her vocals on top. "Undo" was written during a two-week session with Knak that January in Reykjavík. Björk recorded her vocals on top of Knak's minimalist rhythmic backbone, and months later she had added a full choir and string section. "Cocoon", also produced by Knak, was one of the last songs to be written for the album; its melody came to Björk in a sudden rush and she contacted him. Knak took it as a chance to make a more minimal track, similar to his own releases. His original treatment of "Cocoon", made with an Ensoniq ASR-10, appeared relatively intact in the final version. Björk also worked with Bogdan Raczynski on the song "Who Is It", but the track did not follow the direction of the record and was subsequently included on the album Medúlla.

In a 2015 interview with The Pitchfork Review, Björk expressed frustration over to the lack of recognition for all of her work on Vespertine and her other albums. She said:I did 80% of the beats on Vespertine and it took me three years to work on that album, because it was all microbeats – it was like doing a huge embroidery piece. Matmos came in the last two weeks and added percussion on top of the songs, but they didn't do any of the main parts, and they are credited everywhere as having done the whole album. [Matmos'] Drew [Daniel] is a close friend of mine, and in every single interview he did, he corrected it. And they don't even listen to him. It really is strange.

Composition

Björk has stated that she wanted the album to sound like "modern chamber music", referring to the times where "the most ideal music situation was in the home, where people would play harps for each other". She argued that with the popularity of festivals like Woodstock, the situation became "the opposite", and that with the advent of Napster, the Internet, music downloading and DVD, "we've come full circle and the most ideal musical situation now, [...] is back to the home". She also considers Vespertine to be the opposite of her previous studio album Homogenic, the former being an introverted, quiet, winter record; the latter a loud, dramatic, summer record. Writer and critic Mark Pytlik writes, "Her appetite for thumping techno had been, temporarily at least, subsumed by a desire for stark melodies and minimalist production".

Although generally considered an electronica album, as with other Björk releases, it has been difficult for critics to classify Vespertine within a musical genre. The album—and Björk's body of work in general—is considered art pop. The Orlando Weekly wrote that with the album, Björk "[took] her modernist art-pop further into the abstract". Music journalists have noted the experimental nature of the record. According to Joseph Hale of Tiny Mix Tapes, Vespertine'''s music "finally made good on its dubious 'trip-hop' label", and described it as a combination of "psychedelic techno, chamber music, and chorale together into modal constructions that swelled and receded like emotions (or psylocibin)". The music was also considered psychedelia by The Dallas Morning News and American critic Jim DeRogatis. David Fricke of Rolling Stone wrote "Vespertine is the closest any pop-vocal album has come to the luxuriant Zen of the new minimalist techno". Björk has also described the album as "more electronic folk music", and Jason Killingsworth of Paste referred to the album as a "folktronica gem". Vespertines music has also been categorised as ambient, and glitch pop, with Björk's performance described as that of an "art-rock torch singer.

Stylistically, Vespertine incorporates elements of both art and dance music. For example, the instrumentation of choir, strings, and harp is suggestive of Romantic art music, while the "synthesised keyboard sonorities, filtering effects and complex percussive sounds" are elements characteristic of dance-based pop. According to Nicola Dibben: ...the way in which classical and dance-based elements are made to sit alongside one another as part of the same texture mediates the relationship between the two: the spiritual and the sensual are shown to be compatible, perhaps even suggesting that the sensual is spiritual, and that it can facilitate transcendence and hence grant access to a utopian world. Vespertine is also characterised by "the obsession with sonic traces of analog technology – that is, the pervasive use of loops, static and white noise – despite the obviously digital orientation of twenty-first-century electronics." Unlike previous albums like Debut and Post, "electronic sounds are the norm, and the acoustic sounds become the interjections." Influenced by the 1999 album New Ancient Strings, a recording of kora duets by Toumani Diabaté with Ballaké Sissoko, Björk said she "messed up the sound of too angelic instruments, like the harp or the glockenspiel" on Vespertine.

Björk's voice is used as a supplement to "the complex electronic textures". Her vocals often appear to be recorded close to the microphone and with little treatment, and sung in a sometimes "unstable whisper", conveying a sense of close proximity and reduced space suitable for the intimate lyrics.

 Songs

The album opens with "Hidden Place", which features a soprano section and strings, "over the top of a warm, intimate melody". Michael Hubbard of musicOMH felt the track was reminiscent of Homogenics "Hunter", but less focused on the beats. NME called it progressive folk, while Drowned in Sound wrote it was electro. Björk sings about "how two people can create a paradise just by uniting", as she intones: "I'm so close to tears/And so close to/Simply calling you up/And simply suggesting/We go to that hidden place". "Cocoon" is "based around an exploratory bassline and beats that sound like fingertips on skin". Discussing the glitch nature of the track, Björk said, "when you take technology and use the areas where it breaks, where it's faulty, you're entering a mystery zone where you can't control it". Lyrically revolving around making love, the song alternates between metaphors like "Who would have known/That a boy like him/Would have entered me lightly/Restoring my blisses", and explicit lines such as "He slides inside/Half awake, half asleep" and "Gorgeousness/He's still inside me". According to Michael Cragg of The Guardian, the song "best represents the album's sense of heavy-lidded, post-coital hibernation". Björk sings a breathy, "whispered, near-cracking falsetto" on the track.

"It's Not Up to You" has been described as a "dizzying ballad" and a song that lifts the album upward. Michael Paoletta of Billboard described the track as "melancholy". Its lyrics are about "love for the unknown devices that culminate in 'perfect days'", and "pleas to find beauty in unlikely places". The "caressing lyrics" of "Undo" assure that: "It's not meant to be a strife/It's not meant to be a struggle uphill". Biographer Mark Pytlik writes, "Undo" is a held hand, a reassuring reminder that anything can happen once you let it. If you are in pain, undo it, Björk suggests, no hint of disingenuousness in her voice, over climbing strings and a rising choir". "Pagan Poetry" is a "harp-splashed" song that concerns unrequited love. The track builds slowly, "with Björk wailing over swelling keyboard crescendos", until, at the four-minute mark, "all the music drops away, leaving Björk utterly exposed" as she sings "I love him, I love him/I love him, I love him/I love him, I love him". The song also features "a flotilla of music boxes with an Asian-teahouse touch". The instrumental interlude "Frosti" has been described as "metallic tundra". Its sound stems from a music box, creating an intimate, fairy tale-like effect.

"Frosti" fades into "Aurora", while "a warm, faintly crunchy sound" is heard. These are samples of footsteps in the snow—the work of Matmos—re-appropriated as the song's "subtly shifting beat". "Aurora" has been described as "something that appeals to a child-like imagination", and having a "magical and airy quality". In the lyrics, she addresses a Nature goddess, and sings about "literally dissolving with pleasure" as she "prays to become one with the pure color of the northern lights". One of Björk's broodiest compositions, "An Echo, a Stain" is underpinned by a creeping choir line and nibbling clicks, and features an "unresolved, ominous tension" that is atypical of her writing style. Most of the song's lyrics speak directly to incidents in Sarah Kane's 1998 dark-themed play Crave, so much so that it was titled "Crave" up to the last minute. "Sun in My Mouth" is an adaptation of E. E. Cummings' poem "I will wade out/Till my thighs are steeped in burning flowers", with an emphasis on the vocal and accompaniment provided by a string orchestra, a harp, and soft electronica. The track's lyrics have been considered a "startling allusion to masturbation", positioned "within the fantasy-like imagery of burning flowers, sea-girls, darkness and the sun". This track, and the album in general, have a "resounding message of sexual liberation" that reinforces Björk's "resistance to the socially constructed categories of gender", which has generated analysis associating it with Donna Haraway's 1983 essay, A Cyborg Manifesto.

"Heirloom" alters "between what sounds like a samba preset on a vintage Wurlitzer organ and skittering breakbeats, and is decorated with inverted synthtones and analog keyboards". The song's lyrics tell a "fuzzy story" about a recurring dream, while "[likening] the art of singing to swallowing and exhaling 'glowing lights'" as Björk sings: "During the night/They do a trapeze walk/Until they're in the sky/Right above my bed". Film director Harmony Korine wrote "Harm of Will"'s lyrics. The Slate album review noted the minimalist nature of the track, pointing out a lack of hook, beat and melody. It is a slow song, as is the closing track, "Unison". The latter "[contains] a refrain directly inspired by [Björk's] experience in Dancer in the Dark and a healthy dollop of self-effacing humor evoked to counter the balance". It "brings beats and strings together in a final crescendo that also manages to incorporate a little jungle".

 Imagery
 Music videos
{{Multiple image
|align =right
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|width =
|image1= Pagan Poetry music video.jpg
|caption1=The controversial music video for "Pagan Poetry", directed by Nick Knight, features highly stylised images of unsimulated sex, going in hand with Vespertines central theme of eroticism and intimacy.
|image2= Haeckel Hexacoralla.jpg
|caption2=Fauna illustrations by Ernst Haeckel, including the one pictured above, were used as a backdrop during the Vespertine World Tour.
}}
Once the album was finished, Björk wrote a manifesto describing a very introverted fictional character, "the character who did Vespertine", and sent it to M/M Paris, Nick Knight and Eiko Ishioka. They directed the music videos for "Hidden Place", "Pagan Poetry", and "Cocoon" respectively. It was the threesome's directorial debut. She said:
Vespertine is an album made by a character who's very . And it's about the universe inside every person. This time around, I wanted to make sure that the scenery of the songs is not like a mountain or a city or outside, it's inside, so it's very internal. So I guess all three videos are very internal. [...] Sort of how you communicate with the world in a very intimate, personal way.

The music video for "Hidden Place" was directed by Inez van Lamsweerde and Vinoodh Matadin and co-directed by M/M (Paris). It was shot in London over four days in February 2001. It was originally planned for a song from Selmasongs, but Björk felt the project was more appropriate for Vespertine. The video consists of close-up shots panning around Björk's face, as fluids flow in and out of her facial orifices. M/M (Paris) explained the concept behind the video:We always wanted to get as close to her as we could, as we all felt she had never been portrayed as the "real" and beautiful woman she is. This is somehow taboo, to observe a pop star with no makeup from a distance of half an inch. Then the idea of the liquid works as a visualization of all possible emotions pulsating and circulating in her very busy brain. The loop idea was a main point for us as well, trying to extend the usual time frame of pop video super-fast editing, to make it hypnotising, mesmerising and irritating, like an eternally burning fireplace.

Nick Knight, who had previously shot the cover art for Homogenic, directed the music video for "Pagan Poetry". It is about a woman preparing herself for marriage and for her lover, as she sews a wedding dress onto her skin. As she had asked him to make a video about her love life, Knight gave Björk a camcorder and asked her to shoot her own private scenes. Shots of skin being pierced were also recorded with this camera; the people being pierced were five women who "were into subculture and piercings" and Björk herself, who only pierced her ear. This first two-thirds of the video contains a great deal of post-production by Peter Marin, who gave the image its abstract watercolor-like effect. The shots of Björk with her Alexander McQueen topless wedding dress were filmed in super 35 format. The main idea behind the music video was: "to do something with the moving image that was a mirror of what was happening musically". Although the music video has been well received by critics, it was highly controversial and banned from MTV in 2001.

The music video for "Cocoon" was directed by Eiko Ishioka and was shot in April 2001 in New York City. One of Björk's most avant-garde music videos, it: "plays with minimalist white for both costume and bleached eyebrows, treating Björk as a geisha whose makeup extends over her entire nude body". Red threads emerge from her nipples and circulate between her breasts and nose, finally enveloping her in a cocoon. Björk actually wore a very close-fitting body suit. Although not as controversial as the "Pagan Poetry" music video, it was still banned from MTV. The three music videos were included in the DVDs Volumen Plus (2002) and Greatest Hits – Volumen 1993–2003 (2002).

 Artwork

The album's ethereal artwork mirrors its "delicacy and introverted romance". The cover art, shot by Inez van Lamsweerde and Vinoodh Matadin in Los Angeles, California, is a black and white photograph of Björk lying down on the patterned ground next to a swimming pool, covering her eyes from the sun and wearing her Marjan Pejoski swan dress that caused a stir at the 73rd Academy Awards. The duo M/M (Paris), known for applying and integrating their work on photographs (so called dessin dans l'image, or "drawings in the picture"), illustrated the cover, featuring a swan and the album's title with feathers. Björk thought swans embodied Vespertines music, describing them as "a white, sort of winter bird" and "very romantic". Vespertine came with a booklet of M/M (Paris) artwork.

Michael Hubbard of musicOMH commented positively on it, writing "the spine of the CD is entirely white, while the rest of the sleeve features innovative photography and artwork, preparing the listener before they even hear the album for something very special". Jason Killingsworth of Paste wrote: "When I see the swan, my eye drifts past its beak to those pillowy white feathers, recalling the plushness and warmth of a down comforter. Feathers so white they evoke the purity of freshly fallen snow blanketing the ground outside while you sip a coffee by the fire, both hands curled around the mug's warm ceramic finish".

Academic Nicola Dibben has likened Vespertine'''s artwork and promotion to representations of the Greek myth of Leda and the Swan, emphazising the erotic overtones of both. She stated:
The cover art to Vespertine [...] explores the theme of personal identity through visual means: hence Björk is featured in black and white, shading her eyes, lips slightly parted in an unmistakably erotic pose. For the first time in this context, however, she does not meet the viewer's gaze directly. Instead, the superimposed image of a swan provides a protective shield between Björk and the viewer. Both this photograph and Björk's subsequent appearances at promotional events dressed as a swan metonymically evokes not only the mythic figure of Leda, but more particularly the familiar legend in which she exchanges her husband, the Spartan king Tyndareus, for the God Zeus when he approaches her in disguised form. As in other visual representations of this myth, the entwined bodies of Leda and the swan permit a representation of erotic intimacy that would prove unacceptable if realised in a more literal fashion.

 Release and promotion Vespertine was released later than One Little Indian Records had intended. Originally, the album's release was scheduled for May, but by March it had been put back to August, so as to enable Björk to work on the album's promotion. On 22 May 2001, Björk premiered six songs off the new album in an intimate concert at the Riverside Church in New York City, accompanied by Matmos and Zeena Parkins. On 6 August, "Hidden Place" was released as the album's lead single, its music video having premiered in July. It was released as two CDs and a DVD, featuring B-sides "Generous Palmstroke", "Foot Soldier", "Mother Heroic" and "Verandi". Vespertine was released on 27 August, as a double 12" record, CD and compact cassette. To coincide with the release of the album, Björk also released an eponymously titled coffee table book, created by her and edited and designed by M/M (Paris). A second single, "Pagan Poetry", was released on 5 November 2001 as two CDs and a DVD, featuring a remix by Matthew Herbert, "Domestica", "Batabid", an Opiate remix of "Aurora", and a music video directed by Nick Knight. Towards the end of 2001, Vespertine was released as a DVD-Audio. "Cocoon", the album's third single, was released on 11 March 2002. Its music video had premiered in February. Once again, the single was released as two separate CDs and a DVD, with "Pagan Poetry", "Sun in My Mouth" and "Amphibian" as B-sides. It's Not Up To You was planned to be the fourth single from Vespertine. However, all promotional efforts for Vespertine were halted in mid 2002 following Bjork's pregnancy.

Together, Elektra, and New York-based independent marketing firm Drill Team, created the Björk Vespertine Syndicate (BVS), a group of 30-plus websites that had exclusive access to non-album tracks, music videos, and concert/rehearsal footage. To promote the album, Björk appeared in various magazines in mid-2001, including: The Fader, Q, Pulse, URB, USA Today, InStyle, Vibe, Us, Nylon, Index, CMJ New Music Monthly and, Spin. Magazines Dazed & Confused and Les Inrockuptibles featured a special issue with texts, photographs, and different CDs issued randomly, each with a different song from the album. The Times issued a Björk special, featuring videos, music, photographs, and a competition to see Björk perform. She also appeared on several TV shows, including: The Rosie O'Donnell Show, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Space Ghost Coast to Coast, The David Letterman Show and, Charlie Rose, among others.

In early August 2001, Björk confirmed the first set of dates for the Vespertine World Tour which would take place at opera houses, theatres, and small venues, with favourable acoustics for the concerts. She enlisted Matmos, Zeena Parkins, a choir of Inuit girls from Greenland, and conductor Simon Lee; the tour opened at the Grand Rex in Paris on 18 August. While in Paris, she held a press conference to discuss the album but gave no individual interviews saying that: "she'd rather do music than talk about it." While in France she also received the National Order of Merit at the Ministry of National Education in Paris. Another press conference was held in Barcelona on 3 November 2001 while touring in Spain. A 16 December 2001 performance at the Royal Opera House in London was released as the DVD Live at Royal Opera House in 2002. A DVD release featuring a behind-the-scenes look at the tour, titled Minuscule, was released at the end of 2003. Vespertine Live, a live album consisting of songs recorded during the Vespertine World Tour, was included in the 2003 box set Live Box; it also includes a live version of "All Is Full of Love", a song from  Homogenic and "Overture" from Selmasongs.

 Commercial reception
By September 2001, the album had reached number 19 on the Billboard 200 and the top spot on the Top Electronic Albums chart, with One Little Indian head Derek Birket declaring that the album had sold over 1.2 million copies in Europe alone. That month, the album also became number one on the album charts in Iceland, Sweden, Denmark, France, Norway, and the European Top 100 Albums chart. In addition, Vespertine charted in the top 10 of Canada, Italy, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, Finland, Belgium, Switzerland, Sweden, Austria and Australia. The album has been certified Gold in Canada, France, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.

Lead single "Hidden Place" reached the top spot of the singles charts in Spain, also charting in the top 40 in the United Kingdom, Canada, Italy, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Belgium and France. Following release "Pagan Poetry" also performed well in Spain, while entering the French chart at number 49 and the UK chart at number 38. "Cocoon" performed more poorly, charting at number 61 in France and number 35 in the United Kingdom.

 Critical reception

Upon release, Vespertine received universal acclaim from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 88, based on 28 reviews. Heather Phares from AllMusic called it "an album singing the praises of peace and quiet", praising it for proving that "intimacy can be just as compelling as louder emotions". Anthony Carew from About.com gave the album the highest rating and said it was "quite possibly the best album of the '00s". He considered the album to be self-aware of "the digital epoch [that] had just dawned upon the realm of recorded music" in the early 2000s, noting that it is "not just a product of this brave new non-world, but wholly informed by that." The A.V. Clubs Keith Phipps found it to be: "an album both timeless and of the moment, an avant-garde electronic-pop exploration of classic themes". David Fricke of Rolling Stone felt that Vespertine was: "the sound and sentiment of a woman exulting in the power and possibility of her gift, one who has finally figured out how to grow up without growing old." In a later review for The New Rolling Stone Album Guide, Douglas Wolk described the album as "a banquet in the hall of Björk's personal erotics" and stated that "it's not the stuff of radio hits, but the music is spectacular".

An enthusiastic review came from The Wire, which felt that: "In the end, Vespertine commits its magic by daring to go places more obvious and more human than one would have ever expected." Calling it "one of the most impressive and cohesive" albums of the year, Tiny Mix Tapes found Vespertine to be Björk's most effective use of the studio as an instrument. Simon Reynolds, praised it in Uncut saying [It was] "Her best yet, it reminds me of the jackfrost wonderland of Cocteau Twins circa "In the Gold Dust Rush", of the bejewelled coldness of Siouxsie and the Banshees circa A Kiss in the Dreamhouse. The glittering sound fits the album's idea of inner riches, the treasure people keep hidden inside." Katy Widder, writer for PopMatters, believed the album was a masterpiece, stating that it challenged the predominant theories of rock music and gender, particularly a statement made by Simon Reynolds and Joy Press in the acclaimed book, The Sex Revolts: Gender, Rebellion, and Rock 'n' Roll: "Women have seized rock 'n' roll and usurped it for their own expressive purposes, but we've yet to see a radical feminization of rock itself." Chris Smith of Stylus Magazine praised the album for its nuance and delicacy, describing its sonic palette as "a breath of fresh air." Noting that Vespertine showed a more mature side of her, musicOMHs Michael Hubbard wrote that "It sounds like Björk has grown up [...]; while that would be a pity, it is also fascinating for anyone who loves her music. She is a legend in her time."Billboards Michael Paoletta applauded Vespertine for its "positive [introversion]", feeling some of the tracks "have the strength to bring tears (of joy and pain) to the eyes." Q also praised the album, stating that it "quietly proves that cutting-edge production and human contact aren't mutually exclusive." American music journalist Robert Christgau enjoyed the album's central theme of sex and wrote: "when she gets all soprano on your ass you could accuse her of spirituality". A more lukewarm review came from Pitchforks Ryan Schreiber, who felt that: "while undeniably beautiful, Vespertine fails to give electronic music the forward push it received on Björk's preceding albums". However, Pitchfork later named Vespertine the 92nd best album of the 2000s. David Browne of Entertainment Weekly said "her lyrics occasionally dive into the deep end" and "her voice is at times stiff", although he also wrote "when it all comes together, [...] Björk and her electronica collaborators create moving interplanetary chorals". Almost Cool wrote: "if there's one question to be raised with the album, it's that it's all simply so lush and nice that on some levels it fails to excite". Various reviews named Vespertine Björk's best album to date, including The A.V. Club, Rolling Stone, About.com, and PopMatters.

 Accolades
In 2002, Vespertine was nominated for the Shortlist Music Prize, though the award went to In Search of... by N.E.R.D. The same year, the album received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Alternative Album, losing to Coldplay's Parachutes. In addition, Björk was nominated for Best International Female Solo Artist at the Brit Awards, and Best International Female Artist at the Italian Music Awards, while Vespertine was nominated for Album of the Year at the Icelandic Music Awards.

Critics' lists
The information regarding lists including Vespertine is adapted from Acclaimed Music, except where otherwise noted.

 Track listing

Notes
 "Hidden Place" samples "Transfigured Night, Op. 4" (1899) by Arnold Schoenberg.
 "Undo" heavily samples "1% in 2/3 Speed" (1999) by Opiate.
 "Sun In My Mouth" contains lyrics from "Impressions" by E. E. Cummings from Complete Poems: 1910–1962.
 "Unison" contains a sample of "Aero Deck" by Oval from Systemisch.
  signifies an additional producer.

 Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Vespertine''.Musicians Jake Davies – programming , beat programming
 Damian Taylor – programming , beat programming
 Guy Sigsworth – programming , choir arrangement , clavichord , clavichord arrangement , beat programming , celeste , celeste arrangement
 Matthew Herbert – programming
 Matmos – programming , beat programming
 Björk – bassline , choir arrangement , harp arrangement , programming , music box arrangement , beat programming , string arrangement
 Vince Mendoza – choir arrangement , orchestration , string arrangement
 Thomas Knak – programming
 Valgeir Sigurðsson – beat programming , programming
 Zeena Parkins – harp arrangement , harp
 Caryl Thomas – harp
 Jack Perron – adaptation to music box
 Marius de Vries – additional programming , beat programming
 Martin Console – programming Technical Jake Davies – Pro Tools recording engineer ; Pro Tools , recording engineer , vocals recording
 Damian Taylor – Pro Tools recording engineer
 Valgeir Sigurðsson – Pro Tools recording engineer , Pro Tools , recording engineer
 Leigh Jamieson – Pro Tools recording engineer
 Jan "Stan" Kybert – Pro Tools
 Eric Gosh – music box engineering
 Juan Garcia – assistant engineer
 Damon Idins – assistant engineer
 Eric & Rory – assistant engineers
 Aarron Franz – assistant engineer
 Adrian Dawson – 2nd assistant engineer
 Ricardo Gary Walker – assistant
 Jason Spears – assistant
 Aaron – assistant
 Matt Fields – assistant
 Daniel Porter – assistant
 David Treahearn – assistant
 Björk – vocal editing
 Mark "Spike" Stent – mixing Artwork'''

 Inez van Lamsweerde & Vinoodh Matadin – sleve design
 M/M Paris – sleeve design

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications and sales

See also
 List of songs recorded by Björk
 List of Billboard number-one electronic albums of 2001
 List of number-one albums of 2001 (Spain)

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

2001 albums
Albums produced by Björk
Albums produced by Marius de Vries
Albums recorded at Olympic Sound Studios
Ambient albums by Icelandic artists
Björk albums
Electronica albums by Icelandic artists
Folk albums by Icelandic artists
Folktronica albums
Glitch (music) albums
One Little Independent Records albums

Vespertine


الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الأولى 2003–04  هو موسم من الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الأولى. أقيم خلال الفترة 31 أغسطس 2003، وحتى 16 مايو 2004، وفاز فيه إيه سي ميلان.

الترتيب

النتائج
 النتيجة (x-y)، الرقم x يعبر عن الفريق الذي يقع في الناحية اليمنى والرقم y يعبر عن الفريق الذي يقع في الناحية العلوية.
 مثلا : ميلان (0-5) أنكونا... الرقم 5 يعبر عن اهداف فريق الميلان والرقم 0 يعبر عن عدد أهداف فريق أنكونا

تصفيات الصعود والهبوط

سيلعب فريق بيروجيا مع فيورنتينا صاحب المركز السادس في دوري الدرجة الثانية

 هبط نادي بيروجيا إلى دوري الدرجة الثانية، وتأهل نادي فيورنتينا لدوري الدرجة الأولى

الهدافين

مراجع

دوريات كرة قدم أوروبية في 2003–04
دوريات كرة قدم إيطالية في 2003-04
مواسم الدوري الإيطالي

الدوري الإيطالي 2003–04


Mao Ce-tungova misao (trad. kin. 毛澤東思想, pin. Máo Zédōng Sīxiǎng), ili samo maoizam, politička je teorija koja vodi porijeklo od učenja kineskog diktatora Mao Ce Tunga. Njegovi sljedbenici, poznati kao maoisti, prakticiraju anti-revizionistički oblik marksizma-lenjinizma. Razvijao se od 1950-ih godina 20. stoljeća do reformi Denga Xiaopinga 1976. godine 20. stoljeća, široko je prihvaćena kao vodeća politička i vojna ideologija Komunističke stranke Kine, kao i jedna od vodećih teorija revolucionarlnih pokreta širom svijeta. Suštinska razlika između maoizma i drugih oblika marksizma je u tome što je Mao tvrdio da seljaci trebaju da budu suštinska revolucionarna klasa u Narodnoj Republici Kini, jer su, za razliku od industrijskih "drugova", bili više odgovorni za uspostavljanje uspješne revolucije i socijalističkog društva u Kini.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Guiding thought of revolution: the heart of Maoism
 Marx2Mao.org Mao Internet Library

Vidi još
 Mao Ce-tung
 Narodna Republika Kina
 Kineska kulturna revolucija
 Komunizam
 Lenjinizam
 Marksizam
 Staljinizam

Politika Kine
Oblici komunizma

Maoizam


An Mapania tepuiana in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Julian Alfred Steyermark, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Tetsuo Michael Koyama. An Mapania tepuiana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Mapania, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mapania

Mapania tepuiana


Ivo Petović (Kotor, 26. rujna 1963.), crnogorski košarkaš iz bokokotorskog mjestašca Mula.

Igračka karijera
Potiče iz skromne bokeške porodice iz Mula, malog ribarskog mjesta u Kotoru.

Kao veliki zaljubljenik u košarku, slobodne trenutke provodio je vježbajući na košu u dvorištu svoje kuće u Mulu, kopirajući poteze svojih idola s TV ekrana. Košarkaškim stručnjacima je skrenuo pažnju na basket terenu u Kotoru, okupljalištu mladih zaljubljenika u taj sport, jer u to vrijeme u Kotoru nije postojao košarkaški klub. U potrazi za mladim talentima Crne Gore, trenerima podgoričke Budućnosti Nikoli Sekuloviću i Živku Brajoviću, profesor fizičkog vaspitanja Stojan Lazić iz Kotora, ukazao je na potencijal koji je prosto isijavao iz Petovića. Veoma talentovan vitak momak, već tada izvrsni basketaš, zapanjio ih je pravilnim i preciznim šutem. Za golobradog srednjoškolca u gradu bez košarkaškog kluba i tradicije nije trebala dodatna preporuka. Kao sin jedinac koji je rastao uz knjigu Krešimira Ćosića o osnovama košarke, dobio je blagoslov roditelja da prati svoje snove. Prihvatio je poziv i otisnuo se u nepoznato. Imao je samo jednu vodilju, bezgraničnu ljubav ka najjljepšem sportu na svijetu.

Već na debiju na juniorskom prvenstvu Crne Gore, za ekipu Budućnosti, Petović je postigao 32 poena. Tadašnji trener kadetske i juniorske reprezentacije Jugoslavije Rusmir Halilović, nije imao dileme oko potencijala koji je Petović nosio u sebi. Svojim zalaganjem mnogo je uticao na njegovo igračko stasavanje.

1981. godine, Petović je zaigrao svoju prvu seniorsku utakmicu za Budućnost. Povjerenje mu je ukazao trener Čedomir Đurašković, u utakmici protiv Radničkog iz Beograda. Prvi poeni u prvoj ligi bili su upisani za Budućnost. Nakon utakmice dobio je podršku i čestitke na uspješnom debiju legendarnog centra i reprezentativca Jugoslavije, Žarka Kneževića. Više nije bilo sumnje, da je na pravom putu. Kao igrač Budućnosti igrao je za kadetsku i juniorsku reprezentaciju Jugoslavije. Za obje, preko 65 nastupa. Nastupio na završnom turniru EP za kadete 1981., EP za juniore 1982. i SP za juniore 1983. godine, na kojem je bio peti strijelac.

1982. godine bio je u snažnoj jugoslovenskoj reprezentaciji u čijoj postavci su bili Dražen Petrović, Velimir Perasović, Stojko Vranković, Danko Cvjetičanin, Goran Sobin, Zoran Radović... Okitili su se srebrom, iza snažnih Sovjeta predvođenih legendarnim Arvidasom Sabonisom. Postao je meta brojnih klubova, ali odazvao se pozivu Ranka Žeravice 1983. godine i nastavio karijeru u Crvenoj Zvezdi.

U Zvezdi je proveo 8 godina. Bio je ljubimac Zvezdinih navijača. U velikoj Zvezdinoj "dinastiji" sa Stevanom Karadžićem, Avdijom, Jankovićem, Bogosavljevim, Nikolićem, Radovićem, Žižićem... Ta generacija je igrala mnoga polufinala i finala jugoslovenskih prvenstava, kupova i evropskih kupova, u procvatu jugoslovenske košarke, no nažalost ništa nije osvojila. Dok je bio u Zvezdi, trenirali su ga Zoran Slavnić, te Ranko Žeravica, koji je ujedno ostavio najveći trag u njegovom životu.

Odigrao je 40 utakmica za A reprezentaciju Jugoslavije.

Poslije Crvene zvezde igrao je u Grčkoj, Luksemburgu, Švedskoj, Portugalu, Slovačkoj, Rusiji, Tunisu, Makedoniji, Švicarskoj i Rumunjskoj.

Uspješan je bio u Slovačkoj gdje je dočekao osvajanje naslova prvaka države, te u Tunisu gdje je osvojio kup.

Košarku je službeno prestao igrati 1999. godine. Očeva smrt je bio povod za okončanje igračke karijere u inostranstvu, te se vratio u rodni Kotor.

Trenerska karijera
2000. godine u Kotoru je osnovao košarkaški klub Stars u kojem je ujedno i trener. Posvećen je radu i razvoju svih mladjih kategorija.

Svojim primjerom, iskustvom, znanjem, stručnim savjetima, konekcijama ostvarenim dugogodišnjom veoma bogatom i uspješnom karijerom, pomaže budućim nadama najljepšeg sporta na svijetu da ostvare svoje snove i nadmaše trenerovo dostignuće.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Ivo Petović

Muo
Crnogorski košarkaši
Crnogorski košarkaški treneri
Hrvati u Crnoj Gori

Ivo Petović


Expander may refer to:

Dynamic range compression operated in reverse
Part of the process of signal compression
Part of the process of companding
A component used to connect SCSI computer data storage, devices together
Turboexpander, a turbine for high-pressure gas
Expander graph, a sparse graph used in the combinatorics branch of mathematics
StuffIt Expander, a computer file decompressor software utility
Micro Expander, also known as the Expander, an 8-bit S-100 microcomputer released in 1981
"Expander" (song), a 1994 song by The Future Sound of London
Orthodontic expander, a device to widen the upper jaw
Disclosure widget, a widget that hides non-essential settings or information, also known as an expander

See also
Xpander (disambiguation)

Expander


Il existe plusieurs routes ayant comme numéro 904 dans le monde.

 Route régionale 904 en Finlande
  dans certains départements, en France

Route 904


Carl Adolph Wilhelm "Willy" Burmester (16 March 186916 January 1933) was a German violinist.

Life and career
Willy Burmester was born in Hamburg and was a pupil of Joseph Joachim, with whom he studied for many years in Berlin. In 1885, however, he seceded from the Joachim school, and commenced to develop his technique with a view to achieving virtuosity rather than a classic purity of style.

Burmester's rendering of the classics was said to be somewhat cold and devoid of feeling. Nonetheless, he was a well-developed artist: his taste was broad enough to include all schools of composition in his repertoire. His was at his best as an interpreter of the works of Paganini. On the continent his reputation was very high. He failed, however, to make a great impression on his first visit to England and America, though his audiences were compelled to admire his marvelous technical feats, especially his left hand pizzicato, and rapid runs in thirds and tenths. His less than impeccable intonation, however, somewhat limited his success; he also suffered from having worn the end of his first finger down to the nerve.

In his later years, Burmester had remedied these defects, and those who heard him play at his later concerts were much impressed with his sterling musical qualities.

Jean Sibelius originally dedicated his Violin Concerto to Burmester, who promised to play the concerto in Berlin.  For financial reasons, Sibelius decided to premiere it in Helsinki in 1904, and since Burmester was unavailable to travel to Finland, Sibelius engaged Viktor Nováček, a violin teacher at the Helsinki Conservatory.  The premiere performance was a disaster. Sibelius revised the work and the new version premiered in 1905. Willy Burmester was again asked to be the soloist, but he was again unavailable, so the performance went ahead without him, the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra's leader Karel Halíř stepping into the soloist's shoes.  Burmester was so offended that he refused ever to play the concerto, and Sibelius re-dedicated it to the Hungarian "wunderkind" Ferenc von Vecsey.

References

Sources

German classical violinists
Male classical violinists
German male violinists
1869 births
1933 deaths

Willy Burmester


Sabia de ofițer cavalerie, model 1909 a fost o armă albă din categoria săbiilor, aflată în dotarea ofițerilor  Armatei României din arma cavaleriei, în Primul Război Mondial. Săbiile au fost fabricate de firma Pack Chliger & Co din Solingen.

Sabia avea lamă dreaptă din oțel, cu tăiș și contratăiș, fiind gravată cu ornamente florale și însemnele regale, ca și modelul 1893. Garda era asemănătoare cu a sabiei model 1893, însă ramura interioară era recurbată spre lamă. Mânerul era confecționat din ebonită neagră, identic ca la săbiile de cavalerie, pentru trupă, model 1906. Garda și partea posterioară a mânerului, cu capul de vultur, erau nichelate . Teaca era din oțel brunat, având o brățară și două inele pentru prindere.

Note

Bibliografie
 Georgescu, Pion (colonel), Curs de armament portativ. Studiul armelor portative, Timișoara, 1924
 Șerbănescu, Horia Vladimir, Armamentul alb din dotarea armatei române. Partea a II-a. 1860-1916, în "Buletinul Muzeului Militar Național", nr. 6, Editura Alpha MDN, București, 2008
 ***, Istoria militară a poporului român, vol. V, Editura Militară, București, 1989

Vezi și
 Participarea României la Primul Război Mondial
 Armamentul Armatei României în Primul Război Mondial

Armamentul de cavalerie al Armatei României din Primul Război Mondial

Sabie de ofițer cavalerie, model 1909