The National Women's Hockey League (NWHL) was a women's ice hockey league established in Canada in service from 1999 to 2007. In its final season the league was run by the Ontario Women's Hockey Association.

History
The NWHL superseded the old Central Ontario Women's Hockey League in 1998–99. After the old COWHL dropped down to three teams in 1997–98, the new league expanded to Brampton, Ottawa and the Montreal area (Montreal, Bonaventure and Laval) in 1998–99. The league was officially renamed the National Women's Hockey League on February 16, 1999 with Susan Fennell as the league's first president/Commissioner. In the inaugural season, the Beatrice Aeros won the West Division while the Bonaventure Wingstar  won the East Division.
Under Commissioner Fennell, the NWHL transformed to independent owners with the League negotiating to have cross Canada live television broadcast for the finals.  Michael Charbon (MAC Productions) worked with the Commissioner to secure broadcast times with WTN. Games were played in Brampton's Powerade Centre (now called "The CAA Centre"), coinciding with the Brampton Canadettes worlds largest hockey tournament, which brought together teams from all ages and from across North America to compete. A special highlight was attending the Championship Cup games of the NWHL.

Michael Charbon designed the NWHL Logo in the same colors of the NHL logo. Commissioner Fennell sought the approval from Gary Bettman, the NHL Commissioner, and it was granted.

Commissioner Fennell was instrumental in having the Championship Cup purchased and engraved annually with the Champion Team players names, coaches, and even volunteers.

During the NHL strike there was talk that the women should be able to play for the Stanley Cup. Instead, Commissioner Fennell initiated talks with Governor General Adrianne Clarkson and requested consideration to rename the Championship Cup the "Clarkson Cup" as the late Governor General Lord Stanley had done for the NHL years before.

The NWHL league lasted nine years before it disbanded one year after Commissioner Fennell retired 2006 after balancing Mayoral duties and growing a professional sports league. Mayor Fennell signed over all legal instruments for the NWHL to the Ontario Women's Hockey Association (OWHA) to lead the next steps. However, one season later, following the 2006–07 season, all existing owners quit and it appeared there would be no league.

In 2007–08, players from the old NWHL joined new teams in similar markets in the newly formed Canadian Women's Hockey League.

Structure
From the 1998–99 to the 2001–02 seasons, the NWHL consisted of two divisions: the Eastern Division with Quebec-based teams, and the Western Division with Ontario-based teams.

For the 2002–03 and 2003–04 seasons, the league had three divisions: the Eastern Division with Quebec-based teams, a renamed Central Division with Ontario-based teams, and a new Western Division with teams in Alberta (both seasons) and British Columbia (2002–03 only). The high travel costs for the two Alberta teams caused them to leave the NWHL to form the Western Women's Hockey League, reducing the NWHL to the Eastern and Central Divisions for the 2004–05 and 2005–06 seasons.

The WWHL had five teams, in Alberta, British Columbia, Saskatchewan and Minnesota, for its own 2004–05 and 2005–06 seasons. The WWHL agreed to merge with the NWHL for the 2006–07 NWHL season. The NWHL reverted to three divisions: Eastern Division with Quebec-based teams, the Central Division with Ontario-based teams, and a renewed Western Division with teams Alberta, British Columbia, Saskatchwean and Minnesota. The Eastern and Central Division teams scheduled a 35-game unbalanced but interlocking schedule, while the Western Division would only play within itself for the regular season - saving travel costs for all three divisions.  The merger broke down midseason, with the WWHL teams treating it as the 2006–07 WWHL season and the remaining NWHL teams handling their playoffs with all four teams from the Central Division and the top two teams from the Eastern Division qualifying for the postseason. In the NWHL playoffs, teams played a best-of-three series to determine the Eastern and Central Division champions, who then met for the NWHL championship. By the end of the 2006–07 NWHL season, the league had fallen into disarray, season records are incomplete, and the league folded shortly after the Central Division's Brampton Thunder defeated the Eastern Division's Montreal Axion to win the last ever NWHL Championship.

NWHL Franchises
The following is list of franchises which existed in all three divisions of the now defunct National Women's Hockey League.

Eastern Division
 Montreal Axion, Montreal, Quebec (2003–07)
 Montreal Wingstar (1999–2003)
 Bonaventure Wingstar (1998–99)
 Montreal Jofa Titan, Montreal, Quebec (1998–99)
 Ottawa Raiders, Ottawa, Ontario  (1999–2007)
 National Capital Raiders (1998–99)
 note: to CWHL as Ottawa Capital Canucks
 Quebec Avalanche, Laval, Quebec (2002–07)
 Metropol Le Cheyenne (2001–02)
 Sainte-Julie Pantheres  (1999–2001)
 Laval Le Mistral, Laval, Québec (1998–2001)

Western (1998–2002), Central (2002–07) Division
 Brampton Thunder, Brampton, Ontario (1998–2007)
 note: to CWHL as Brampton Canadette Thunder
 Oakville Ice, Oakville, Ontario (2003–07)
 Mississauga Ice Bears (2000–2003)
 Mississauga Chiefs (1998–2000)
 note: to CWHL as Mississauga Chiefs
 Etobicoke Dolphins, Toronto, Ontario (2006–07)
 Telus Lightning (2001–06)
 Clearnet Lightning (1999–2001)
 note: to CWHL as Vaughan Flames
 Mississauga Aeros, Mississauga, Ontario (2006–07)
 Toronto Aeros (2003–06)
 Beatrice Aeros (1998–2003)
 Toronto Sting (2000–01)
 Scarborough Sting (1998–2000)

Western Division (2002–04, 2006–07)
 Vancouver Griffins (2002–03)
 Calgary Oval X-Treme, Calgary, Alberta (2002–04, partial 2006–07 season, reverted to WWHL)
 Edmonton Chimos, Edmonton, Alberta (2002–04, partial 2006–07 season, reverted to WWHL)
 British Columbia Breakers, Langley, British Columbia (partial 2006–07 season, reverted to WWHL)
 Strathmore Rockies, Strathmore, Alberta (partial 2006–07 season, reverted to WWHL)
 Saskatchewan Prairie Ice, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan (partial 2006–07 season, reverted to WWHL)
 Minnesota Whitecaps, Brooklyn Center, Minnesota (partial 2006–07 season, reverted to WWHL)

Championship
During its inaugural 1998–99 season, a playoff tournament was held over three consecutive days, resulting in the presentation of a gold, silver and bronze medal.

For the next six seasons, the playoff champion was awarded the NWHL Champions Cup.

For its final two seasons, the championship winner was awarded the Clarkson Cup. Though the NWHL and the Western Women's Hockey League (WWHL) were considered merged for the 2006–07 season, the WWHL teams did not compete for the Clarkson Cup, instead playing for the WWHL Champions Cup.

After the 2007 disbanding of the NWHL, the Clarkson Cup was presented to the winner of a playoff between WWHL and Canadian Women's Hockey League (CWHL) teams, then solely to the CWHL champion after the WWHL merged with that league.

A list of NWHL Championship winners and the team they met in the final:

Scoring champions
 2006–07 – Jayna Hefford, Brampton Thunder
 2005–06 – Sommer West, Toronto Aeros
 2004–05 – Jayna Hefford, Brampton Thunder
 2003–04 – Jayna Hefford, Brampton Thunder
 2002–03 – Jayna Hefford, Brampton Thunder
 2001–02 – Amy Turek, Beatrice Aeros
 2000–01 – Jayna Hefford, Brampton Thunder & Amy Turek, Beatrice Aeros
 1999–00 – Karen Nystrom, Brampton Thunder
 1998–99 – Stephanie Boyd, Brampton Thunder

Goal-scoring champions
 2006–07 – Jayna Hefford, Brampton Thunder
 2005–06 – Sommer West, Toronto Aeros
 2004–05 – Jayna Hefford, Brampton Thunder
 2003–04 – Jayna Hefford, Brampton Thunder
 2002–03 – Jayna Hefford, Brampton Thunder
 2001–02 – Amy Turek, Beatrice Aeros
 2000–01 – Jayna Hefford, Brampton Thunder
 1999–00 – Karen Nystrom, Brampton Thunder
 1998–99 – Angela James, Beatrice Aeros

See also
 Canadian Women's Hockey League
 Western Women's Hockey League

References

External links
NWHL/COWHL website for 2000–01
 Gazette (daily newspaper) Sharing the hockey dream December 16, 2006.

Women's ice hockey leagues in Canada
Women's ice hockey leagues in the United States
Defunct professional sports leagues in the United States
1999 establishments in Canada
2007 disestablishments in Canada
Sports leagues established in 1999
Sports leagues disestablished in 2007

National Women's Hockey League (1999–2007)


L'Enterrement de sainte Pétronille est un tableau du Guerchin, conservé à la pinacothèque capitoline des musées du Capitole à Rome, peint pour la basilique Saint-Pierre entre 1631 et 1623, sur commission du pape bolonais Grégoire XV Ludovisi, qui avait fait venir l'artiste à Rome.

Histoire
Le tableau a été commandé au Guerchin par le pape Grégoire XV en décembre 1621 pour orner l'autel dédié à sainte Pétronille situé à l'intérieur de la basilique Saint-Pierre, où la grande toile a été placée en 1623.

Le retable, précisément en raison de sa destination très prestigieuse, est sans aucun doute la commande la plus importante que Guerchin attendait au cours des années qu'il a passées à Rome, ville dans laquelle il s'est installé à la demande du cardinal Alessandro Ludovisi lui-même, déjà patron et mentor des Barbieri en Émilie, lorsqu'il monta sur le trône papal.

La toile est restée à son emplacement d'origine jusqu'en 1730, date à laquelle elle a été remplacée par une copie en mosaïque. Le tableau fut ensuite emmené au palais du Quirinal où, en 1797, les troupes d'occupation napoléoniennes le réquisitionnèrent et, avec diverses autres œuvres d'art prises à Rome, l'envoyèrent au musée du Louvre.

Après la Restauration, il a été renvoyé aux États pontificaux et placé dans les collections du Capitole où il se trouve toujours en 1818. Il est devenu plus tard la propriété de la municipalité de Rome, avec le autres œuvres des musées du Capitole.

Déjà les anciennes biographies du Guerchin rendent compte de la grande admiration que reçut sa sainte Pétronille ; une grande partie de la critique moderne voit dans ce tableau l'un des chefs-d'œuvre du maître de Cento.

Culte de Sainte Pétronille

L'existence historique d'une Pétronille chrétienne (Petronilla en romain) est certaine, comme en témoignent les manifestations d'une vénération particulière qui lui est dédiée retrouvés dans les catacombes de Domitilla où Pétronille fut enterrée. D'autre part, la croyance que cette Pétronille était la fille de saint Pierre est dénuée de tout fondement, comme cela est devenu clair pour les premiers érudits catholiques qui, dans le sillage du concile de Trente, se sont consacrés à l'étude de l'ancien christianisme, des communautés et de la vie des premiers saints afin de les amender des légendes et des fausses croyances et de rétablir leur vérité historique. C'est le cas en premier lieu de Cesare Baronio qui, dans ses Annales Ecclesiastici, parmi d'autres arguments qui réfutent l'idée que Pétronille était la fille de Pierre note que les noms féminins se terminant par le suffixe illa (Drusilla, Lucilla etc.) étaient utilisés en Gallo-roman pour indiquer le patronyme de la femme (fille de Drusus, fille de Lucio) et certainement pas en hébreu. Pétronille est donc plutôt la fille d'un certain Pétrone, vraisemblablement un patricien romain qui avait embrassé la foi chrétienne. Les recherches archéologiques modernes dans les catacombes de Domitilla sont arrivées à la conclusion que Pétronille est morte sous Domitien, peut-être pendant les persécutions anti-chrétiennes ordonnées par celui-ci.

Quoi qu'il en soit, dans l'Antiquité tardive la croyance s'est répandue que Pétronille était la fille de saint Pierre, probablement uniquement sur la base de l'assonance entre les deux noms (et d'ailleurs de manière incongrue car à la limite, une dérivation de Pierre aurait dû être Petrilla et non Petronilla, comme il l'a encore noté Baronio) ; elle était vénérée en tant que telle. Ainsi, les hagiographies légendaires de la fille de Pierre ont surgi (non sans divergences entre les différentes sources) qui culminent dans sa mort héroïque : un jeune patricien romain nommé Flaccus était tombé ardemment amoureux de la belle Pétronille ; la jeune fille, cependant, voulait rester chaste, consacrant sa virginité au Seigneur et surtout elle épouserait un païen ; ainsi, elle a commencé à prier et à jeûner jusqu'à ce que la mort vienne, maintenant ainsi sa pureté.

Le culte de Pétronille prit une importance particulière avec l'arrivée en Italie du roi des Francs Pépin le Bref, appelé dans la Péninsule par Étienne II pour combattre les Lombards.

Lorsque Pépin victorieux se rendit à Rome, le pape, en guise de récompense honorable, assigna une prestigieuse patronne à la monarchie franque, sainte Pétronille. Le geste avait évidemment aussi une haute valeur symbolique, scellant le lien entre les Francs et la papauté : comme Pétronille était la fille de Pierre, le royaume des Francs devint celui de l'Église romaine.

Pour célébrer ce pacte solennel, il a été décidé de transporter en 757, les reliques de Pétronille des catacombes de Domitilla dans la basilique Saint-Pierre, ou plutôt dans le mausolée préexistant de Flavius Honorius, un bâtiment qui était annexé à l'Antique basilique vaticane. Le mausolée abrita alors la chapelle dédiée à la fille du premier des apôtres, prenant le nom de Rotonda di Santa Petronilla, en raison du plan circulaire de l'ancien édifice funéraire.

Le dévouement de la fille de saint Pierre comme protectrice des Francs est resté immuable au cours des siècles : sainte Pétronille a ainsi été constamment reconnue et célébrée comme la patronne du Royaume de France et donc de la France elle-même (qui vénère encore la sainte comme la patronne de la nation). La Rotonda Vaticana devint ainsi - et le resta pendant des siècles, jusqu'à sa démolition due à la reconstruction complète de Saint-Pierre - la chapelle palatine des rois de France près le Saint-Siège (Capella Regum Francorum).

Avec la démolition de l'ancienne basilique saint-Pierre, la Rotonda di Santa Petronilla a également été détruite. Les restes de la sainte ont été temporairement conservés ailleurs puis déplacés, en 1606, dans la nouvelle basilique dans la table d'autel dédiée à Pétronille. Le retable du Guerchin était destiné à cet autel.

La dédicace d'un autel à sainte Pétronille dans le nouveau Saint-Pierre s'explique probablement davantage par des raisons politiques que dévotionnelles : depuis quelques années déjà, le cardinal Baronio avait réfuté substantiellement la légende de Pétronille fille de saint Pierre, la présence d'un autel répondait donc plutôt à des besoins diplomatiques envers la monarchie française.

Il faut ajouter que la présence séculaire des reliques de sainte Pétronille au Vatican n'a pas empêché la propagation en France de la croyance qu'elles avaient été transportées de Rome à travers les Alpes et plusieurs églises françaises en ont revendiqué la possession.

Description

Le tableau est divisé en deux registres : dans la partie supérieure Pétronille, humblement agenouillée, est accueillie dans les cieux par le Christ, lui-même entouré d'une armée angélique. L'élévation à l'empyrée de la jeune femme est scellée par son couronnement, acte pour lequel un petit ange s'apprête à descendre à droite du retable. La scène de l'apothéose est construite autour du contraste entre la magnifique figure de Christ et le vêtement de la sainte, richement décoré.

Dans la partie inférieure de la toile, au centre au premier plan, le corps de Pétronille s'apprête à être enterré dans la tombe (ou est-il arraché ?) par deux fossoyeurs, entourés d'autres groupes de personnages soigneusement dessinés, sur différents plans de profondeur, tandis que les mains d'un troisième fossoyeur émergent de la tombe dans laquelle il est descendu pour soutenir le cadavre de la jeune femme.

Aux côtés des personnages centraux, à gauche, figurent un premier groupe de passants, dont un garçon tenant une bougie allumée et, plus à l'extérieur, deux femmes en pleurs et un enfant posant ses mains sur la bière de Pétronille. Un autre groupe de participants à l'événement est représenté à droite : presque à l'extérieur de la composition, un homme en turban dont seules la tête et une main pointant vers le centre du tableau sont visibles, semble donner des informations sur l'événement. Le groupe de droite est complété par un vieil homme barbu et un jeune homme élégamment vêtu à la mode contemporaine, qui tournent tous deux leur regard vers la droite, vers l'homme au turban, qui semble s'adresser à eux.

Bien que l'épisode terrestre soit principalement lu comme les funérailles de Pétronille célébrées immédiatement après sa mort, donc son inhumation dans les catacombes de Domitilla au premier siècle, certains ont souligné comment cet épisode pourrait être interprété différemment, comme l'exhumation du cadavre de la sainte des catacombes pour transférer ses restes à Saint-Pierre, la scène devant donc être comprise comme se déroulant au huitième siècle.

Le mouvement d'action des fossoyeurs est en effet ambigu : abaissent-ils le corps de la jeune fille ou l'exhument-ils ? une réponse univoque se semble pas possible : en effet, le fait que le troisième nécrophore soit immergé dans la tombe, pourrait être une circonstance plus propice à l'exhumation d'un cadavre qu'à son inhumation. Même le décor n'est pas utile pour lever le doute : les passants sont historiquement vêtus d'habits du XVIIe siècle selon une vogue picturale inaugurée par Le Caravage, consistant précisément à mettre en scène des épisodes sacrés d'un passé lointain dans la réalité contemporaine. Les arrière-plans architecturaux ne semblent alors faire allusion à aucun lieu ou moment précis, n'étant que des ruines romaines génériques.

Naturellement, le choix pour l'une ou l'autre des options interprétatives possibles de la partie terrestre du tableau influe sur sa lecture globale et notamment sur l'identité du jeune homme en robe élégante et du vieil homme barbu représenté sur le côté droit du retable.

S'il s'agissait de l'enterrement original de Pétronille, les deux pourraient probablement être identifiés chez le jeune patricien romain Flaccus, amoureux de la jeune femme, et donc la robe recherchée ferait allusion à la noble condition de cet homme - et à saint Pierre, le père de Pétronille dont la physionomie semble attribuable au type iconographique pétrinien et correspond également à des précédents de Guerchin lui-même. Évidemment, si l'épisode est lié aux événements du , la présence de Flaccus et de Pierre serait impossible.

Un premier élément de réponse se trouve peut-être dans l'un des dessins préparatoires du tableau conservé à la Royal Collection (le seul survivant avec l'intégralité de la composition). Dans cette feuille, bien que dans une disposition très différente de celle alors choisie pour la réalisation finale, se trouve également, toujours sur le côté droit, un vieil homme barbu et un jeune homme d'apparence noble, cette fois à cheval. Que le vieil homme sur la feuille soit saint Pierre semble être raisonnablement défendable en observant qu'il semble pointer vers (ou écrire sur) la pierre tombale de Pétronille. Selon toute vraisemblance, dans l'étude en question, Le Guercin s'est référé au Liber Pontificalis, un texte dans lequel il est indiqué qu'il y avait l'inscription « AUREA PETRONILLAE FILIAE DULCISSIMAE » sur le sarcophage de Pétronille, qui dans le même manuscrit est directement attribuée à la main de saint Pierre. La présence de Pierre n'est naturellement compatible qu'avec les funérailles originelles de sa fille et dans ce contexte le jeune chevalier ne peut raisonnablement être autre que Flaccus.

La réapparition du couple jeune noble / vieux barbu dans la toile finale, même en des termes moins caractérisés que dans la feuille anglaise, ne peut guère s'expliquer différemment : il s'agit probablement toujours de Flaccus et Pierre et donc de l'enterrement de Pétronille dans les catacombes de la via Ardeatina.

Cependant, une solution plus ambiguë, non clairement identifiable, a été choisie dans la version définitive du retable, contrairement à l'étude préparatoire, comme les funérailles de sainte Pétronille.

Une réponse possible donnée à cette question est que le tableau a volontairement plusieurs sens, représentant simultanément à la fois les funérailles du premier siècle et l'exhumation de la relique de Sainte Pétronille du  ; pour cette raison les figures de Pierre et Flaccus ne sont qu'évoquée de manière ambiguë, pour ne pas empêcher le spectateur d'accéder à la deuxième interprétation parallèle, celle de l'exhumation, une clé dans laquelle les figures des jeunes et des vieux « se dégradent » en spectateurs génériques tels que ceux du groupe de gauche.

Le premier sens - les funérailles - remonte à l'hagiographie da la sainte, dont le point culminant est sa mort pour la foi, alors que l'allusion au deuxième épisode, le déplacement de la relique, a une signification politique plus marquée, compte tenu du fait que l'autel de Pétronille de la nouvelle basilique vaticane a remplacé la rotonde honorifique détruite également comme symbole du lien entre la monarchie française et la papauté, un lien consacré précisément dans le transfert du corps de Pétronille au Vatican.

Plusieurs auteurs pensent que dans la peinture de Guerchin a aussi un sous-texte politique se référant aux relations entre le pape et la France : pour certains ce serait un hommage diplomatique à la cour de Paris en compensation de la canonisation, qui eut lieu en 1622, d'une série d'illustres saints espagnols, la nation ennemie jurée de la France, dont Thérèse d'Avila et Ignace de Loyola ; pour d'autres, cependant, le tableau contiendrait une intention polémique, celle de rappeler - à travers la reconstitution de l'allégorie de la France, fille de l'Église comme Pétronille, précisément patronne de la monarchie française, fille de saint Pierre - les devoirs de ce royaume envers la foi catholique dans le contexte de la guerre de Trente Ans, conflit au cours duquel la France, dans une tonalité anti-Habsbourg, avait déjà pris une position favorable face aux prétendants protestants.

La grande importance accordée dans la composition à la dépouille de Pétronille (un véritable hapax dans une petite iconographie du saint), représentée au premier plan et de taille colossale, va également dans ce sens et pourrait être une justification de la possession vaticane de la relique prestigieuse au démenti implicite et ferme des croyances répandues en France sur son transport à travers les Alpes, un démenti dont l'implication cachée ferait également allusion à la primauté pontificale sur les successeurs des anciens rois francs.

Reste à savoir comment ces messages ont pu parvenir jusqu'à la cour de France. A cet égard, il a été observé qu'il existe également quelques copies de petit format du retable, dont notamment une toile actuellement conservée au palais Barberini, peut-être réalisée dans l'atelier du Guerchin lui-même, dont la possible destination était Paris.

Style

D'un point de vue stylistique, la Sainte Pétronille est considérée comme une clé de voûte de la vie artistique du Guerchin et notamment l'épisode inaugural de ce que, à partir de Luigi Lanzi, on appelle la « seconde manière » du peintre de Cento.

Dans cette œuvre, Le Guerchin initie le dépassement du style vigoureusement naturaliste, dérivé surtout de l'influence de Lodovico Carracci, qui caractérise la première production et dont l'un des résultats les plus importants peut être vu dans l'Habillage de saint Guillaume d'Aquitaine légèrement précédente (parmi les chefs-d'œuvre du début de la période Barbieri). Dans Sainte Pétronille, le Guerchin se mesure pour la première fois au Classicisme que l'on retrouve notamment dans la partie supérieure de la toile qui semble être associée aux manières du Dominiquin.

Dans la partie inférieure du tableau, quoique dans des termes sensiblement révisés et raffinés par rapport à sa première voie, Guerchin maintient un registre naturaliste que Roberto Longhi associait déjà à certains Caravagesques antérieurs et notamment à L'Enterrement de sainte Lucie peint par le Caravage en 1608. La La Mise au tombeau de la Chiesa Nuova (maintenant à la Pinacothèque vaticane) est une autre œuvre du Caravage à laquelle L'enterrement de Sainte Pétronille est également associé pour certaines assonances de composition.
Le traitement de la lumière quant à lui est très différent des représentations du passé, avec l'utilisation d'un clair-obscur beaucoup moins marqué que celui observé dans la production précédente qui laisse émerger les couleurs vives utilisées pour l'élaboration du tableau, y compris le lapis-lazuli du ciel se détachant en arrière-plan.

On se demande ce qui a conduit Le Guerchin à un changement stylistique aussi net. Une première hypothèse fait dépendre ce choix de la nécessité d'adapter le style à la solennité particulière du lieu de destination du retable auquel le naturalisme prononcé de la première manière du peintre a pu paraître inadapté.

Une autre explication, soutenue notamment par Denis Mahon, est que Le Guerchin fut poussé vers des solutions classicistes à la suite de sa connaissance faite à Rome de Giovanni Battista Agucchi, un prélat bolognais appelé par le pape Ludovisi à des postes importants dans la curie papale. Agucchi, ami d'Annibale Carracci et mentor du Dominiquin, était également un expert et amateur d'art pertinent, l'un des premiers théoriciens de la beauté idéale, dont les idées ont eu une grande influence sur la peinture du .

Enfin, on peut observer comment, dans la réalisation du retable de Sainte Pétronille, Le Guerchin a tenté de manière illusoire d'éliminer le diaphragme entre la fiction picturale et l'espace réel. Le corps à moitié enseveli de la sainte est en effet projeté vers le véritable sépulcre situé dans l'autel, où les restes de Pétronille avaient été enterrés dix-sept ans avant l'installation de la grande toile, un aspect qu'il est aujourd'hui possible de saisir en observant la copie en mosaïque qui a remplacé l'original du Guerchin lorsque le tableau a été déplacé de Saint-Pierre.

Références

Liens externes

Tableau du Guerchin
Tableau des années 1620
Inhumation dans la peinture
Sainte chrétienne dans la peinture
Œuvre conservée aux musées du Capitole
Pages avec des traductions non relues

L'Enterrement de sainte Pétronille


Brontosaurus (fra oldgræsk βροντή, brontē = torden + σαῦρος, sauros = firben eller øgle) er en slægt af firbenede sauropod-dinosaurer. Brontosaurus havde en lang tynd hals og og et lille hoved, og den var tilpasset som planteæder med et stort, tungt torso og en pisk-agtig hale. Forskellige arter levede i slutningen af den sene juratid i Morrisonformationen i det store landområde Laurentia i det nuværende Nordamerika. De uddøde mod slutningen af juratiden. Voksne Brontosaurus-individer har haft en estimeret vægt på 15 tons og en længde på op imod 22 meter.

Som arketypen for sauropoder er Brontosaurus en af de bedst kendte dinosaurer, og den har været brugt i adskillige film, reklamer, på frimærker og mange andre medier.

Tre arter
Selvom typearten Brontosaurus excelsus længe var blevet antaget at være i nær familie med arterne i slægten Apatosaurus, så peger ny forskning på, at Brontosaurus er sin egen slægt adskilt fra Apatosaurus med tre arter: B. excelsus, B. yahnahpin og B. parvus.

Beskrivelse

Brontosaurus var et stort langhalset firbenet dyr med en lang spids hale og forben der var en smule kortere end bagbenene. Den største art, B. excelsus, vejede op mod 15 tons, og den har målt op mod 22 m fra snude til halespids.

Der er ikke fundet noget kranium fra Brontosaurus, men det har sandsynligvis lignet kraniet på den nært beslægtede Apatosaurus. Ligesom hos andre sauropoder har ryghvirvlerne været dybt tvedelte, idet de har haft parrede torntappe, hvilket har resulteret i en bred dyb hals. Opbygningen af rygsøjlen har været som følger: 15 nakkehvirvler, 10 brysthvirvler, 5 bækkenhvirvler og 82 halehvirvler. Antallet af halehvirvler har varieret, selv indenfor den samme art. Nakkehvirvlerne var tykkere end for andre diplodocider, selvom de ikke var lige så tykke som dem på voksne individer af Apatosaurus. Brystets ribben var ikke sammenvoksede eller tæt bundet til deres ryghvirvler, men var i stedet løst forbundet. Der var ti brystribben på hver side af kroppen. Den store hals var fyldt af et omfattende system af vægtbesparende lufthuller. Brontosaurus havde høje pigge på ryghvirvlerne, ligesom den nært beslægtede Apatosaurus, hvilket har udgjort mere end halvdelen af højden på de individuelle knogler. Formen på halen var usædvanlig blandt de øvrigt diplodocider, idet den var relativt slank, fordi højden på halehvirvlerne hurtigt blev mindre, jo længere væk fra hoften de var placeret. Brontosaurus havde også lange ribben sammenlignet med andre diplodocider, hvilket gav den et usædvanligt bredt brystparti. Som andre diplodocider havde den sidste del af halen på Brontosaurus en piskelignende struktur.

Lemmernes knogler var også meget robuste. Armknoglerne var tykke, og humerus (overarmsknoglen) minder om den hos Camarasaurus, og dem hos B. excelsus er næsten identiske med dem hos Apatosaurus ajax. Charles Gilmore bemærkede i 1936 at tidligere rekonstruktioner fejlagtigt indikerede at spolebenet og ulna (albuebenet) krydsede, når de i virkeligheden har været parallelle. Brontosaurus havde en enkelt stor klo på hvert forben og de første tre tæer på hver fod havde kløer. Selv i 1936 var det anerkendt at ingen af sauropoderne havde mere end én håndklo, og denne ene klo er nu accepteret som det maksimale antal for hele gruppen. Hver side af hoften omfatter et robust hofteben (ilium) og sammenvoksede skamben (pubis) og sædeben (ischium). Skinneben og lægben var meget anderledes end de slanke knogler hos Diplodocus, men næsten identiske med dem hos Camarasaurus. Lægbenet var længere end skinnebenet selvom det også var slankere.

Klassificering
Kladogrammet for Diplodocidae efter Tschopp, Mateus, og Benson (2015):

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

 Is Brontosaurus Back? (Youtubevideo, 11 minutter, 2015)

Dinosaurer

Brontosaurus


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Museu do Cristal de Blumenau foi fundado em 2022 por Gabriel Mozart, fundador da Mozart Crystal no bairro do Salto Weissbach na rua Bahia 4253 em Blumenau - Santa Catarina.

O objetivo dele é contar e resgatar a história das 4 fábricas de cristal da cidade: Cristal Hering, Cristal Blumenau, Cristallerie Strauss e Mozart Crystal. Com fachada que homenageia a casa em que nasceu Mozart em Salzburg na Áustria, o prédio se destaca na rua Bahia, em um distrito industrial da cidade.

O museu tem a missão de explicar todo o processo de fabricação do cristal, desde a concepção até a mesa posta, contando os processos, as características e a evolução do produto ao longo do tempo.

O acervo do Museu conta com peças de Blumenau e de todo mundo e está em constante expansão para dar ao público uma visão ampla e universal da história do Cristal.

História do Cristal em Blumenau

A História do Cristal em Blumenau começou em 1952 com a vinda do imigrante alemão Karl Strauss que casou com Ruth Hering, uma herdeira da família Hering, e criaram a Cristais Hering. No começo eles importavam Cristais da Alemanha para lapidar. Posteriormente, em 1955, Juscelino Kubitschek proibiu a importação do material, fazendo com que Karl Strauss voltasse para alemanha para trazer cristaleiros que pudessem montar o primeiro forno de cristal em Blumenau.

Assim, em 1956, foi feito o primeiro sopro de peças de Cristal na cidade. Desde o começo a produção se notabilizou pela feitura de Cristal artesanal, soprado e trabalhado manualmente.

Na década de 1960 foi criada a Cristaleria Estrela D´alva que posteriormente iria se chamar Cristal Blumenau. Esta viria a encerrar as atividades em 2017.

Karl Strauss teve um filho chamado Frederico Strauss, eles trabalharam juntos na Cristais Hering e posteriormente, de lá sairam para fundar em 1983 a Cristallerie Strauss. Esta encerrou as atividades em 2016, já a Cristais Hering encerrou as atividades em 2008.

Com o fim das atividades de todas fábricas de cristal na cidade, um grupo de investidores criou em 2018 a Mozart Crystal e contratou Frederico Strauss para ser o responsável técnico pela nova empresa. Esta mesma empresa fundou o Museu do Cristal de Blumenau para contar a  história do cristal na cidade.

Hoje um pequeno grupo de fábricas mantém o processo de cristal artesanal puro (lead crystal) no mundo, colocando Blumenau no pequeno grupo de países que têm a capacidade de produzir este material tão nobre e especial. O processo artesanal é necessário para elevar a qualidade do produto. Só através do processo artesanal é possível fazer uma peça sem detalhes na haste (rebarbas) e na boca da peça (boca no processo artesanal chega a ser polida 5 vezes).

História do Cristal

O Museu se propõe não apenas contar histórias, mas explicar toda a técnica envolvida na produção, desde a concepção das peças até a evolução do ofício.

O surgimento do vidro é uma história imprecisa.  Alguns dizem que navegadores fenícios pararam na costa de onde hoje é Israel (Foz do Rio Belus - hoje Na´aman river) e fizeram um cozido de longa cocção e quando acordaram a areia tinha virado um líquido, quando este esfriou, teria sido descoberto o vidro.

Escritores romanos Tácito e Plínio, o velho, cita as areias do Rio Belus como local de referência da fabricação de vidro."Os fenícios nos contam que, quando voltaram do Egito para sua pátria, pararam nas margens do rio Belus e pousaram as mochilas, que estavam cheias de natrão (carbonato de sódio natural, que usavam para tingir a lã). Acenderam o fogo com lenha e usaram os pedaços mais grossos de natrão para sustentar as panelas onde deveriam assar os animais caçados. Eles comeram e deitaram, adormeceram e deixaram o fogo aceso. Quando acordaram, em vez das pedras de natrão, encontraram blocos brilhantes e transparentes que pareciam enormes joias. Um deles, o sábio Zelu, chefe da caravana, percebeu que sob os blocos de natrão a areia também havia desaparecido. O fogo foi reacendido e, à tarde, um rastro de um líquido vermelho e fumegante gotejou das cinzas. Antes que a areia brilhante se solidificasse, Zelu plastificou, com uma faca, aquele líquido e com ele formou uma bolha tão maravilhosa que arrancou gritos de espanto dos mercadores fenícios. O vidro estava descoberto.

Esta é uma das versões um tanto lendárias. Mas as notícias mais confiáveis indicam que o vidro surgiu há pelo menos 4.000 anos antes de Cristo. Acredita-se, no entanto, que os egípcios começaram a soprar vidros em 1.400 aC, dedicando-se sobretudo à produção de pequenos objetos artísticos e decorativos, muitas vezes confundidos com belas joias. Sua decomposição é de 4000 anos. Cada 1000 kg de vidro traz 1300 kg de areia."  (A origem do vidro – Tropic Encyclopedia)O que é certo é que os primeiros vestígios de vidro são originários do Egito onde foram encontrados em diversas tumbas e cujas peças estão espalhadas pelos diversos museus do mundo.

Posteriormente os romanos invadiram o Egito e entraram em contato com a técnica e expandiram este conhecimento a todo império romano.

A Europa central fazia parte deste império e lá durante a peste negra eles começaram a fazer experimentos com o vidro, e viram que minerais poderiam colori-lo, bem como o óxido de chumbo poderia deixá-lo transparente. Isso foi muito importante à época pois permitiu às pessoas enxergarem o conteúdo da bebida que consumiam. Assim, este conhecimento se propagou regionalmente.

George Ravenscroft foi o primeiro industrial a produzir o cristal artesanal no mundo. Ele em uma viagem a Roma, passou por Veneza e lá descobriu que o óxido de chumbo tinha propriedades para limpar o vidro. Assim, aproveitando-se de o mineral ser disponível em seu país, iniciou a primeira fábrica do gênero no mundo.

O produto ganhou destaque quando em 1586 o Rei Louis XV da França criou no grande leste francês a Saint Louis Cristallerie, fábrica que hoje pertence ao grupo Hermès e é a mais antiga do setor em atividade. De lá até hoje surgiram várias fábricas de cristal relevantes no mundo, tais como a Baccarat, Waterford, Atlantis, Cumbria, Ajka, Rogaska, Preciosa, Moser, William Yeoward, Val Saint Lambert, Cristais Hering, dentre outras.

O Museu do Cristal tem painéis contam estas histórias do vidro e do Cristal no Mundo.

Museu conta ainda com 4 maquetes criadas a partir da reprodução de maquetes que existem na ala de cristais do Deutsches Museum de Munique (Alemanha) e que mostram como era a fundição do vidro no Egito e na Roma Antiga; na Idade Média e na Revolução Industrial com a energia elétrica.

Definição de Cristal

Cristal é uma matéria que é feito a partir da mistura de areia, litargírio (óxido de chumbo), barrilha, bórax e carbonato de potássio (dentre outros elementos químicos). Esta mistura é levada ao forno por 12 horas a 1480oC chegando então a um ponto de fusão, sendo originado o cristal. Na mistura é utilizado cacos de cristal gerados pela própria fábrica para que a matéria ganhe uma viscosidade que seja mais fácil para o sopro.

O processo de conformação da peça é pelo sopro, pois o peso da matéria faz ser impossível a utilização de processos maquinados ou bicos injetores, pois eles estourariam pela pressão e calor. Assim, necessariamente, se estamos falando de cristal, se pressupõe que todo o processo é artesanal.

Processo de Fabricação do Cristal

O painel da entrada é dedicado aos instrumentos que são utilizados para a feitura de uma peça de cristal, desde o desenho técnico da peça, chaplona (usada para fazer o molde), molde, peça soprada e utensílios utilizados para fazer o sopro.

O museu tem gráficos que permitem ao visitante vislumbrar a evolução da técnica de manufatura do vidro e do cristal, painéis que conta a evolução do tamanho da taça de vinho, conforme estudos da universidade de Cambridge, e a evolução dos copos de cerveja, bem como conhecer a Caneca Oficial da Oktoberfest Blumenau.

Por fim, o visitante pode entender a diferença do Cristal para o Cristalite e para o vidro e perceber as diferentes composições químicas que cada um dos materiais tem. Ao contrário do que muitos pensam, o cristal é cristal não pela grossura do copo e de suas peças, mas pelo material que é utilizado para fazer o objeto. Assim, o visitante poderá ver a diferenciação de matérias primas que são utilizadas para fazer os 3 tipos de materiais mais comuns encontrados em lojas.

Na União Europeia, o rótulo cristal é regulado pelo Conselho Diretivo 69/493/EEC, que define que apenas produtos que possuam 24% de óxido de Chumbo (PbO) podem ser referenciados como lead crystal. Qualquer peça que tenha percentual menor que este deve ser denominado crystalline ou crystal glass.

A fábrica Mozart Crystal proprietária do Museu oferece visita guiada com áudio comunicadores na qual é possível ver todo o processo de fabricação do cristal, desde a mistura, sopro do cristal, lapidação, polimento e qualidade, permitindo um encantamento ao visitante que consegue visualizar todo o processo artístico e artesanal.

Acervo

O Museu possui peças de Cristal a coleção completa de peças da Mozart Crystal bem como peças históricas de diversas fábricas do mundo e de Blumenau tais como Rogaska (Eslovênia), Saint Louis (França), Baccarat (França) , Marinha Grande (Portugal), Atlantis (Portugal), Val Saint Lambert (Bélgica), Waterford (Irlanda), Cristal Blumenau (Brasil), Cristais Hering (Brasil), dentre outras.

Prêmios e curiosidades

Em junho de 2023, o Museu do Cristal de Blumenau Mozart Crystal ganhou a primeira colocação em avaliação feita pelos usuários do TripAdvisor na categoria atração turística "O que fazer em Blumenau".

Ligações externas:
 Museu do Cristal de Blumenau no Instagram
 Museu do Cristal de Blumenau no Google Maps
 Museu do Cristal de Blumenau no Tripadvisor
 Sítio Oficial

Referências:

Museus de Blumenau

Museu do Cristal de Blumenau


Regatul Kuș (sau Kușit / Cușit) a fost un regat antic în Nubia, situat la confluența Nilului Albastru cu Nilul Alb și râul Atbara, acolo unde sunt acum Sudan și Sudanul de Sud.

Epoca cușită a apărut în Nubia după prăbușirea Epocii Bronzului și dezintegrarea Noului Regat al Egiptului. Centrul Regatului Cușit a fost la Napata, în faza timpurie. După ce regele Cașta ("cușitul") a invadat Egiptul în secolul 8 Î. hr., împărații cușiți au condus timp de un secol ca faraonii celei de a douăzeci și cincea dinastii a Egiptului, până când au fost alungați de asirienii conduși de Assarhaddon.

În antichitatea clasică, capitala cușită imperială a fost situată la Meroë. La început, în geografia grecească, regatul meroitic a fost cunoscut sub numele de Aethiopia. Regatul kușit cu capitala la Meroe a persistat până în secolul al 4-lea AD, când a slăbit și s-a dezintegrat din cauza rebeliunii interne. Capitala a fost cucerită și arsă din temelii de către Regatul Aksum.

Numele

Numele regatului a fost înregistrat în egipteană ca k3š, probabil pronunțat /kuɫuʃ/sau /kuʔuʃ/ în Egiptul de Mijloc atunci când termenul este utilizat pentru prima oară pentru Nubia.

Este, de asemenea, un termen etnic pentru populația nativă care a inițiat regatul cușit. Termenul este, de asemenea, folosit ca nume de persoane cușite, , cum ar fi regele Cașta (o transcriere a k3š-t3 "(unul din) țara Kuș"). Din punct de vedere geografic, Cuș sau Kuș, se referă,  în general, la regiunea la sud de prima cataractă (cascadă) a Nilului. Kush, de asemenea, a fost reședința celei de-a 25-a dinastii a Egiptului.

Numele cuș, cel puțin de la Iosephus Flavius încoace, a fost asociat cu personajul biblic Cuș, în Biblia ebraică (în ebraică: כוש), fiul lui Ham (Geneza 10:6). Ham a avut patru fii numiți: Cuș, Pune, Canaan și Mizraim (numele ebraic al Egiptului). Potrivit Bibliei, Nimrod, un fiu al lui Cuș, a fost fondatorul și rege al Babilonului, al Urukului, al Akkadului și al Calnehului, în Șinar (Gen 10:10). De asemenea, Biblia face referire la cineva pe nume Cuș care este un veniamit (Psalmi 7:1, KJV).

Unii cercetători moderni, cum ar fi Friedrich Delitzsch, au sugerat că biblicul Cuș ar putea fi legat de casiții din Munții Zagros (actualul Iran).

Originile

Cucerirea Egiptului (a 25-a dinastie)

Rezistența regatului kușit față de stăpânirea celei de a XVIII-a dinastii egiptene apare în scrierile lui Ahmose, un războinic egiptean care a servit sub Nebpehtrya Ahmose (1539-1514 Î. hr.), Djeserkara Amenhotep I (1514-1493 Î. hr.) și Aakheperkara Thutmose I (1493-1481 Î. hr.). La sfârșitul celei de a Doua Perioade Intermediare (la mijlocul secolului al XVI-lea Î. hr.), Egiptul se confruntă cu două amenințări existențiale— hiksoșii în Nord și cușiții în Sud. În scrierile lui Ahmose, cușiții sunt descriși ca arcași, "Acum, după ce Maiestatea Sa i-a ucis pe bedoinii din Asia, el a navigat în amonte, spre Nubia de Sus pentru a distruge pe arcașii nubieni."

Prestigiul internațional al Egiptului a scăzut considerabil spre sfârșitul celei de a A Treia Perioade Intermediare. În aceeași perioadă, asirienii, începând cu secolul 10 Î. hr., se extind din nordul Mesopotamiei, patria lor, și cuceresc un imperiu vast, inclusiv întregul Orient Apropiat, și o mare parte din Asia mică, la est, estul Mării Mediterane, Caucazul și Persia antică.

În 945 Î. hr., Șeșonq I și prinții libieni au preluat controlul deltei Egiptului Antic și au fondat așa-numita dinastie libiană sau bubastită, care va dura aproximativ 200 de ani. Șeșonq, de asemenea, a câștigat controlul sudului Egiptului, prin plasarea membrilor familiei sale în importante poziții preoțești. În 711, regele Șeșonq a făcut din Memphis capitala nordului.

Alara a fondat dinastia napatană, sau a 25-a dinastie la Napata în Nubia, acum Sudan. Succesorul lui Alara,  Kashta a extins controlul cușit la nord până la Elefantina și Teba în Egiptul de Sus. Succesorul lui Kashta,  Piye a preluat controlul Egiptului de Jos în jurul anului 727 Î. hr., creând cea de a Douăzeci și Cincea Dinastie a Egiptului. Acest lucru a continuat până în 671 Î. hr., când a fost detronat de Imperiul Neo-Asirian.

Limba cușiților

Limba meroitică a fost vorbită în Meroë și Sudan în timpul perioada meroitică (atestată începând cu 300 Î. hr.). Au dispărut pe la 400 AD. Limba era scrisă în două forme de alfabet meroitic: meroiticul cursiv, care a fost scris cu un stylus și a fost folosit în general pentru evidență; și meroiticul hieroglific, care a fost sculptat în piatră sau utilizat pentru documente regale sau religioase. Nu este bine înțeles datorită rarității textelor bilingve. Cea mai veche inscripție meroitică datează din 180-170 Î. hr. Aceste hieroglife au fost găsite gravate pe templul reginei Shanakdakhete. Meroiticul cursiv este scris orizontal, și se citește de la dreapta la stânga ca toate ortografiile semite.

Este neclar cărei familii lingvistice îi aprține limba meroitică. Claude Rilly a propus includerea meroiticei, asemeni limbii nobiin, în ramura estsudaneză  a familiei nilo-sahariană. Kirsty Rowan sugerează apartenența limbii meroitice, la fel ca limba egipteană, familiei limbilor afro-asiatice. Ea se bazează pe inventarul sonor și fononotactică, care sunt similare cu cele ale limbilor afro-asiatice și diferite de cele ale limbilor nilo-sahariene.

Vezi și
 Piramidele nubiene

Note

Desființări în anii 350
Foste state din Africa
Istoria Africii

Regatul Kuș


Hilmi Etikan, 1973 yılında Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Fransız Dili ve Edebiyati Bölümünü bitirmiştir.
1977 yılına kadar Paris'te yaşamış, Fransız Sinema Konservatuvarı'na devam ederek diploma almıştır.
Yine aynı dönemde, Sorbonne Üniversitesi'nde Fransız "Yeni Roman" akımının önde gelen isimlerinden Claude Simon'un "L'herbe – Ot" isimli romanı üzerine, sinema - edebiyat ilişkilerini konu alan mastır çalışması yapmıştır.
1977 yılından başlayarak fotoğraf dersleri vermiş, çeşitli kurumlarda sinema birimleri oluşturmuş, program ve yürütücülüğünü yaptiğı eğitim seminerleri ile birçok insanın sinema kültürünün gelişmesine katkıda bulunmuştur.
Halen Uluslararası İstanbul Kısa Film Festivali'nin yöneticiliğini yapmaktadır.
Bugüne kadar gerçekleştirdiği belgesel filmlerle yurt içi ve dışında çeşitli ödüller almış olan Hilmi Etikan, birçok ulusal ve uluslararası film festivallerine jüri üyesi olarak davet edilmiştir. Değişik kurumlarca verilmiş onur ödüllerine sahiptir.

 1989 İFSAK, Sinema Onur Ödülü
 1989 "TARLABAŞI" Filmi ile 2.Lozan Mimarlık ve Şehircilik Filmleri Festivali, UPIAV Ödülü
 1992 Mimarlar Odası İstanbul Büyükkent Şubesi, Dostluk Ödülü
 1995 Ankara Film Festivali, Emek Ödülü
 1995 Uluslararası Antalya Altın Portakal Film Video Festivali, Seçici Kurul Üyeliği
 1997 Inter Film Festivali, Seçici Kurul Üyeliği – Almanya
 1997 Clermont-Ferrand Kısa Film Festivali, Özel Konuk - Fransa
 1998 Bodrum Çevre Filmleri Festivali, Seçici Kurul Üyeliği
 1999 Méridiens Film Festivali, Seçici Kurul Üyeliği – Fransa
 2000 Crakow Film Festivali, Seçici Kurul Üyeliği - Polonya
 2000 Kalamata Int.Documentary Film Festivali, Seçici Kurul Üyeliği - Yunanistan
 2001 İzmir Kısa Film Festivali, Onur Ödülü
 2002 Etats Généraux du Film Documentaire, Özel Konuk - Fransa
 2004 Akbank 1. Kısa Film Festivali, Onur Ödülü
 2006 2007 Adana Altın Koza Film Festivali, Ulusal ve Uluslararası Kısa Film Organizatörlüğü
 2006 İstanbul Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Radyo - TV ve Sinema Bölümü, Öğretim Görevlisi
 2007 Belgesel Sinemacılar Birliği, Yönetim Kurulu Üyeliği
 2007-2016 Adana Uluslararası Film Festivali "Ulusal ve Uluslararası Kısa Film Bölümü" Koordinatörü
 2009 Antalya Altın Portakal Film Festivali Kısa Film Seçici Kurul Üyesi
 2010-2011 Marmara Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Radyo, Sinema ve TV Böl. Öğretim Görevlisi
 2011 Rome Independant Film Festivali Seçici Kurul Üyesi - İtalya
 2011 Türkei / Deutschland Film Festivali Seçici Kurul Üyesi - Almanya
 2012 T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı "Sinema Filmlerinin Değerlendirilmesi ve Sınıflandırılması" komisyonu üst kurul üyesi.
 2012 Khouribga Belgesel Film Festivali Seçici Kurul Üyesi - Fas
 2013-2016 Belgesel Sinemacılar Birliği "Haysiyet Kurulu" ve "Denetleme Kurulu" Üyesi
 2014 "HIV&AIDS Kisa Film Yarisması" İzmir-Seçici Kurul Üyesi
 2015 "Festival du Film Court en Plein Air de Grenoble" Seçici Kurul Üyesi - Fransa
 2015 "65+ Yaşlı Hakları Derneği - Yaşsız Ruhlara Dokunmak İçin Dikkat Çek" Kısa Film Yarışması Genel Koordinatörü.
 2016 "Uluslararası Mimarlık ve Kent Filmleri Festivali" Düzenleme Kurulu Üyesi
 2016-2017 Kültür Bakanlığı "Geleceğin Sineması" Değerlendirme Kurulu Üyesi.
 2017"Uluslararası Mimarlık ve Kent Filmleri Festivali" Düzenleme Kurulu Üyesi
 2018 "Uluslararası Çok Kısa Filmler Festivali" Seçici Kurul Üyesi
 2018 Kültür İçin Alan Projesi "KISACA AVRUPA" film gösterimleri koordinatörü-İzmir
 2018 "Uluslararası Mimarlık ve Kent Filmleri Festivali" Düzenleme Kurulu Üyesi
 2019 "Festival International de Sijilmassa" tertip komitesi onur üyesi-Fas
 2019 "A Digital Tool For Integrating Into The Lessons" -Bursa
 2019 "65.Oberhausen Internationale Kurzfilmtage" -Almanya
 2019 Kültür İçin Alan Projesi " AVRUPA'DAN KISA KISA" film gösterimleri koordinatörü-İzmir
 2019 TÜRSAK (Türkiye Sinema ve Audiovisuel Kültür Vakfi) Disiplin Kurulu Üyesi
 2019 "Uluslararası Mimarlık ve Kent Filmleri Festivali" Düzenleme Kurulu Üyesi
 2020 "İki Oda Bir Kısa - Evde Kısa Film Yarışması" Seçici Kurul Üyesi-İzmir
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Türk sinemacılar
Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesinde öğrenim görenler

Hilmi Etikan


بلعين قرية فلسطينية تتبع لمحافظة محافظة رام الله والبيرة، وتقع على مسافة 12 كم غرب مدينة رام الله في وسط الضفة الغربية. ومن الجانب الإسرائيلي غرباً تتاخم حاجز الضفة ومستوطنة موديعين عيليت. بعد حرب حزيران 1967، وقعت بلعين تحت الاحتلال الإسرائيلي. ومنذ توقيع الاتفاق الانتقالي بشأن الضفة الغربية وقطاع غزة في عام 1995، دخلت القرية تحت إدارة السلطة الوطنية الفلسطينية.

ووفقا للمكتب المركزي الفلسطيني للإحصاءات فإن عدد سكان بلعين يصل إلى 1800، جميعهم من المسلمين. النشاط الاقتصادي الرئيسي فيها هو الزراعة. ويقيم فيها كثير من موظفي السلطة الفلسطينية.

تقع بلعين على مسافة 4 كم شرق الخط الأخضر، بالقرب من الجدار الإسرائيلي العازل في الضفة الغربية، وهو الجدار الذي رأت محكمة العدل الدولية في 9 تموز / يوليه 2004 أنه مخالف للقانون الدولي.

الزراعة

الثروة النباتية : تأثرت الزراعة في القرية بشكل كبير جراء إقامة المستوطنات وجدار الفصل العنصري الذي التهم مساحات شاسعة من أرض القرية منها مشجرة بالزيتون وأخرى غير مشجرة يعتمد عليها اهالي القرية في رعي الماشية. وتعتبر شجرة الزيتون من أهم المحاصيل الزراعية في القرية، ويليها الصبر، العنب، اللوزيات، الحبوب، البقوليات، الخضروات البعلية كالكوسا والفقوس والبامية، والخضروات الشتوية كالبطاطا والبصل والثوم. ومياه الأمطار تعتبر المصدر الرئيسي للزراعة لذا دأب السكان على عمل آبار تجميع لهذا الغرض.

الثروة الحيوانية : يعتمد الاهالي بالدرجة الأولى على الدجاج اللاحم والدجاج البياض. ويليها المواشي كالاغنام والخراف، حيث لوحظ انخفاض عدد الماشية في الآونة الأخيرة بسبب اقامة جدار الفصل العنصري على اراضي القرية. وتاتي الارانب والحمام في الدرجة الثالثة من ناحية التربية والاقتناء.

الصناعة
يوجد في القرية مصنعان : مصنع للاعلاف يخدم المزارعين في القرية وفي القرى المحيطة بالدرجة الأولى. ومصنع آخر لإنتاج الكاتشاب.

الطبيعة البرية

كما باقي مناطق الضفة الغربية في فلسطين تمتاز القرية بغطاء نباتي جميل وخاصة في فصل الربيع حيث تكتسي الجبال بحلة زاهية من الازهار الملونة ومن أشهرها النرجس، شقائق النعمان والاقحوان. ويعتمد السكان على العديد من أنواع النباتات البرية الغذائية والطبية مثل الميرامية، الزعتر، العكوب،الزعرور، البقل، الهندبا (العلك) والبابونج.
و يعيش في جبال القرية وسمائها العديد من الحيوانات والطيور الجميلة مثل الغزال، النيص، الغريرية، الشنار، الحسون، والحمام البري

مقاومة بلعين للاحتلال وجدار الفصل العنصري

منذ كانون الثاني / يناير 2005 تنظم القرية احتجاجات أسبوعية ضد بناء الجدار. وقد لفتت هذه الاحتجاجات اهتمام وسائل الإعلام وشاركت فيها مجموعات يسارية إسرائيلية مثل غوش شالوم، فوضويين ضد الجدار وحركة التضامن الدولية. الاحتجاجات تتخذ شكل مسيرات من القرية إلى موقع الجدار بهدف وقف بناء وتفكيك ما تم بناؤه. في كثير من الأحيان تؤول الاحتجاجات إلى مواجهات بين جنود الاحتلال وشباب القرية تسفر عن إطلاق الرصاص وقنابل الغاز من قبل جنود الاحتلال ويتم فيها القاء الحجارة من قبل شباب القرية، وقد عمد جنود الاحتلال إلى استخدام كافة الوسائل لقمع الاحتجاجات ومنها منع التجول والاقتحامات الليلية واعتقال المواطنين.

وقد وقعت عدة اشتباكات بين المتظاهرين وقوات الاحتلال الإسرائيلي تعرض فيها المواطنون إلى العديد من الاصابات ومنها اصابات بالغة. وسقط فيها شهيدين. في 7 تموز / يوليه 2008 قامت سلام كنعان البالغة من العمر 17 عاماً بتصوير وهو أحد سكان قرية بلعين، أثناء مظاهرة مناهضة للجدار في قرية نعلين، حيث اعتقل قائد كتيبة إسرائيلية (كولونيل عمري بروبرغ من الكتيبة المدرعة 71) الشاب أشرف أبو رحمة الذي بدى في المشهد مقيداً ومعصوب العينين وقام جندي آخر بإطلاق رصاصة مطاطية على قدمه.

انظر أيضاً
 خمس كاميرات محطمة

مراجع

القضية الفلسطينية
بلديات فلسطين
قرى الضفة الغربية
قرى وبلدات محافظة رام الله والبيرة
محافظة رام الله والبيرة
بلديات دولة فلسطين

بلعين


Contact improvisation is a form of improvised partner dancing that has been developing internationally since 1972. It involves the exploration of one's body in relationship to others by using the fundamentals of sharing weight, touch, and movement awareness. It has evolved into a broad global community of social dancing around  "jams" characterized by their welcoming attitude towards newcomers to dance, as well as seasoned practitioners, and is often found overlapping with ecstatic dance communities.

American dancer and choreographer Steve Paxton originated contact improvisation, drawing from his past training in aikido, a martial art form, to explore and push boundaries with his colleagues and students to develop this new practice. Contact improvisation plays with the artistry of falling off balance, counterbalance, finding the shelves of the body, learning the mechanics of the body in order to handle someone else's weight or be lifted, breathing techniques, and can involve the art of getting to know your partner past the physical point through the physicality.

Steve Paxton, along with other pioneers Nancy Stark Smith, Danny Lepkoff, Lisa Nelson, Karen Nelson, Nita Little, Andrew Harwood, Peter Bingham, and Ray Chung, thus participated in creating an "art-sport," oscillating between different emphases depending on the moments and personalities who practice it:
 experimental dance (practice-based research organized in dance laboratories)
 theatrical form (improvised performances and lectures-demonstrations)
 educational tool (classical training for professional and non-professional dancers in improvisation and in partnering)
 social dancing (through informal gatherings known as "jams")
 awareness practice

Formally, contact improvisation is a movement improvisation that is explored with another being. According to one of its first practitioners, Nancy Stark Smith, it "resembles other familiar duet forms, such as the embrace, wrestling, surfing, martial arts, and the Jitterbug, encompassing a wide range of movement from stillness to highly athletic."

Various definitions establish in their own ways what was at stake in a contact improvisation duo. Steve Paxton proposed the following in 1979: The exigencies of the form dictate a mode of movement which is relaxed, constantly aware and prepared, and onflowing. As a basic focus, the dancers remain in physical touch, mutually supportive and innovative, meditating upon the physical laws relating to their masses: gravity, momentum, inertia, and friction. They do not strive to achieve results, but rather, to meet the constantly changing physical reality with appropriate placement and energy.

History of contact improvisation

From Magnesium to Contact Improvisations
Contact improvisation was developed in the United States in the 1970s by a group of dancers and athletes gathered for the first time under the impetus of choreographer and dancer Steve Paxton.

In January 1972, Steve Paxton was in residence at Oberlin College on a tour with Grand Union, a collective where he collaborated among others with Yvonne Rainer and Trisha Brown. For several weeks, he offered Oberlin students two sets of practices:
 every morning at dawn, a "soft class" involving an exploration that he soon called the "small dance," a form of meditation that is practiced standing, where attention is paid to postural adjustments and micro-weight transfers;
 and later in the day, rehearsals for a performance that he transmitted to a group of young men and whose score is to explore the extremes of movement and disorientation, from standing still to falling, rolling, colliding, and jumping in the air. For these rehearsals, Steve Paxton relied on his training in modern dance (he had danced in the companies of José Limón and Merce Cunningham), in aikido and in gymnastics.
The meeting of these practices gives rise to Magnesium, a twenty-minute long piece where dancers perform on gym mats, jump and bump into each other, manipulate and cling to one another.  "In this performance, dancers usually use their bodies as a whole, all parts are simultaneously unbalanced or thrown against another body or in the air."  After about fifteen minutes, the dancers stop and start a "Small Dance" that concludes the performance.

In the Spring of 1972, Steve Paxton received a grant from Change, Inc which allowed him to invite dancers to work on the form he was evolving. He invited some colleagues from the Judson Dance Theater years like Barbara Dilley and Nancy Topf, release technique pioneer Mary Fulkerson, as well as students met during his teaching tours, including Nancy Stark Smith and Curt Siddall (from Oberlin College), Danny Lepkoff and David Woodberry (from the University of Rochester, where Mary Fulkerson was a teacher) and Nita Little (from Bennington College).

At the end of this week of residency, the group presented a performance which Steve Paxton named Contact Improvisations. They presented it in the form of a permanent afternoon practice for five days, at the John Weber Gallery in Manhattan, which at the same time showcased a film by George Manupelli, Dr. Chicago, and where spectators could come and go as the practice continues.

In North America

Styles
Following the first performance of Contact Improvisations in New York in 1972, the participants scattered to different parts of the United States but soon began to teach the practice. The syncopated, risky, raw and awkward style of the first performances gave place rather quickly to a variety of aesthetics within the form.

One of those aesthetics was the development of smooth, continuous, controlled flow of quality in the late 1970s and early 1980s, running parallel with the opposite trend of interest in conflict and unexpected responses, including previously avoided eye contact and direct hand contact. Says Nancy Stark Smith,

Within the study of Contact Improvisation, the experience of flow was soon recognized and highlighted in our dancing. It became one of my favorite practices and I proceeded to "do flow" for many years-challenging it, testing it: could we flow through this pass? Could we squeak through that one, and keep going?

Regardless of those aesthetic choices, the central characteristic of contact improvisation remains a focus on bodily awareness and physical reflexes rather than consciously controlled movements.  One of the founders of the form, Daniel Lepkoff, comments that the "precedence of body experience first, and mindful cognition second, is an essential distinction between Contact Improvisation and other approaches to dance."  Another source affirms that the practice of contact improvisation involves "mindfulness, sensing and collecting information" as its core.

Languaging and observing

In 1975, the dancers working with Steve Paxton considered trademarking the term contact improvisation in order to control the teaching and practice of the dance form, consequently for reasons of safety. This idea was rejected in favor of establishing a forum for communication: this became the Contact Newsletter founded by Nancy Stark Smith, which evolved into the bi-annual journal Contact Quarterly which continues to be published online by the non-profit Contact Collaborations (incorporated in 1978) after a final print edition came out in January 2020. The journal, now co-edited by Nancy Stark Smith and Lisa Nelson, brings together different reflections of contact improvisation teachers and practitioners and cements an international community by equipping it with a communication organ, as well as hosting several other orders of reflections, including writings by contemporary dancers and somatic practitioners. According to the magazine's statement,Contact Quarterly is the longest living, independent, artist-made, not-for-profit, reader-supported magazine devoted to the dancer's voice. Founded in 1975, Contact Quarterly (CQ) began as a forum for discussion of the emerging dance form Contact Improvisation. Serving as a meeting ground for a worldwide network of contact improvisers, CQquickly grew to include writings and interviews on postmodern and contemporary experimental dance, somatic movement practices, improvisational dance, mixed-abilities dance, teaching methods, creative process, and performance.While the development of contact improvisation has benefited greatly from Nancy Stark Smith and Lisa Nelson's editorial work to support the writings of dancers in their exploration of the form, it also owes much to the cameras of Steve Christiansen and then Lisa Nelson, who documented many moments of the work (especially in performance) and allow the contactors to observe themselves with meticulousness.

Development of art-sport

Since the mid-1970s, regular jams are present in most major cities in North America (New York City, Boston, San Francisco, and Montreal). Other multi-day residential spaces (such as the Breitenbush Jam, which has existed since 1981) have been in existence since the late 1970s. Remembers dancer Mark Pritchard,

The 1979 Country Jam was a first of its kind in the Contact world: over fifty people from the western United States and Canada came together for twelve days of non-structured existence, life and dance: neither a workshop, a conference or a seminar, but an improvisational gathering, with the sole aim of creating a space for dancing and living in flux... Our days were without structure, except for meals: at the beginning, we planned to keep 90-minute slots for the courses, but the idea was quickly abandoned thanks to a system based on Supply and demand, in which each could suggest a topic to be dealt with and offer to lead a class.These residential events (workshops, festivals, long jams) represent a parallel economy that invited the creation of dedicated spaces of practice, the model of which was provided very early by Earthdance, a residential center built in 1986 by a Boston community of dancers.

In Europe
In Europe, contact improvisation was presented for the first time in 1973 (from June 25 to 28th) in an art gallery in Rome, L'Attico run by Fabio Sargentini. In the 1970s and 1980s, Steve Paxton and Lisa Nelson were regularly invited to the Dartington College of Arts in Great Britain (where early contacter Mary Fulkerson was part of the dance faculty) and the School for New Dance Development in Amsterdam, which served as transmission belts for contact improvisation in Europe.

Nancy Stark Smith was key to the organization of the first European Contact Improvisation Teachers Exchange.  Subsequent exchanges have been organized since 1985 and hosted each year by a different European country.

Belgian dancer and choreographer Patricia Kuypers noted in 1999 that, depending on the country and the individual, it has spread more or less rapidly in the world of dance or amateurs. In Belgium, where Steve Paxton had come since the 1980s, invited by the Klapstuk and the Kaaitheater, few professional dancers regularly practiced it, and apart from certain outbreaks of fever in successful jams, it can not be said that contact improvisation left any lasting trace among professional dancers, except in a choreographed form.

In France
In France, contact improvisation (sometimes called "danse-contact", as in French-speaking Canada) was introduced for the first time in 1978, where a contact improvisation course was given by Steve Paxton and Lisa Nelson during the musical festivities of Sainte Beaume:Didier Silhol, Mark Tompkins, Suzanne Cotto, Edith Veyron and Martine Muffat-Joly attended. Their enthusiasm brought them together, to explore together this new form of dance, to organize new courses by bringing back Steve Paxton, Lisa Nelson and by inviting other teachers such as Nancy Stark Smith. In 1980, they created the association Danse Contact Improvisation and began to teach themselves, mostly in pairs.Contact improvisation is now practiced in most major cities of the French metropolis - Paris, Grenoble, Lyon, Marseille, Montpellier, Lille, Rennes all have at least one weekly jam - and is taught in many conservatories, including the National Conservatory of Music and Dance of Paris.

In the world
The network of social practices or amateurs of contact improvisation has spread to all the continents except Antarctica, with a particularly intense presence in the Americas, Western and Eastern Europe, Finland, Russia, Israel, Japan, Taïwan, Australia, India, China and Malaysia, as evidenced by the regularity of the jams, festivals and weekly courses taught in these countries.

Spaces of practice

Universities
In June 1980, Elizabeth Zimmer, organizer and director of the American Dance Guild, put together the conference Improvisation: Dance Considered as Art-Sport. The conference was mainly dedicated to contact improvisation, which had been referred to as an "art-sport" a few years earlier by Simone Forti, and introduced contact improvisation in the American academic world.  Contact improvisation is now taught in a majority of American universities offering a choreographic curriculum (New York University, Oberlin College, Bennington College, Smith College, Ohio State University) as well as in many contemporary dance festivals (Jacob's Pillow, Bates Dance Festival).

Jams
In the mid-1970s, the term "jam" appeared to describe, like jazz jam sessions and milongas in tango, an opportunity for free practice where dancers who do not know each other can meet and negotiate together their dance or observe the practice of their partners.Every week in dozens of cities that make up an international network, members of this Contact Improvisation "community of experience" meet for a few hours in a dance studio for a jam. This hybrid practice seems to me to work halfway between a bodily meditation, a psycho-kinesthetic therapy, a sports training, and a dance improvised session.

Jams also occur at multi-day residential courses led by a dancer or a group of dancers at conferences or festivals, where the days can alternate between free practices, courses by guest artists, and debates regularly bring practitioners together.

Inclusion
Some have argued that this relaxed space of practice favoured contact improvisation's inclusivity towards disabled movers:Unlike a structured workshop or a performance, the Contact jam setting allows for open-ended dancing, a mode particularly conducive to dancers with different abilities. For one thing, it a lot easier to rest or stop and talk with your partner... More than any other genre of dance, Contact Improvisation has nurtured and embraced dancing that can integrate multiple abilities and limitations. In fact, many of the most renowned nondisabled Contact practitioners (including Steve Paxton), spend a lot of time teaching, facilitating and dancing with disabled communities.

Sexual harassment
Women have expressed feeling uncomfortable on the dance floor and in the community, especially with men who overstep intimacy, bringing unwanted sexual energy into the connection. As a result, some people organized #MeToo disruptions of jams. To address sexual harassment issues, many jams are establishing jam guidelines and instigating other measures.

Improvisation structures

Interior techniques

Contact Improvisation involves technical aspects or "moves" that support the duets and create a recognizable style of movements: shoulder and hip lifts, head-to-head improvisation, table-top position (being on all fours, supporting the weight of the partner on the back), surfing (rolling on the floor, being "surfed by" the partner), and aikido rolls.

But these are conceived of as the means to an end, which can be described as the dialogue of sensations of weight and touch between partners:The body in [contact improvisation] is accordingly not merely a physical body whose weight and momentum are subject to natural laws of gravity and motion, but a responsive, experiencing body. Here it must be emphasized that despite the use of the term "inward focus" in Novack's account, the cultivation of kinaesthetic awareness cannot be equated with an "introspective" preoccupation with private sensations; rather, the accent lies on sensing-through the responsive body, combining both "internal awareness" and "responsiveness to another".Steve Paxton insisted on this aspect with the concept of "interior techniques" involving in the dance practice a training of perception, resting on investigations based on the sciences of the senses (physiology, experimental and ecological psychology, anatomy, and behaviour sciences).

Lisa Nelson, in that regard, occupied a special place in the effervescence of the development of contact improvisation. Taking distance from the dance, she watched a lot through the eye of the camera and pursued personal research on the collaboration between the senses, in particular on the organization of kinaesthesia in relation to the way in which vision works (a practice later known as the "Tuning Scores"). As Patricia Kuypers remarked, "her staggered gaze nourished the maturation of the [contact improvisation], developing analysis of the perceptual system and revealing specific questions about how improvisation works."

Round robin

The "round robin" is the most frequent structure of performances, this happens where small groups of dancers arrive in the center of a supporting circle of other dancers, who can at any time integrate the couples and replace one of the two dancers. Dancers are dressed casually (sweat pants, T-shirts) and performances can happen in many venues, including theaters, bookstores, galleries. The duration of the concerts can go from 20 minutes to 6 hours.

Central to the poetics of the form is a desire to create a non-hierarchical way of developing the movement, based on the simple exchange of weight and touch between partners improvising together. This stance has been argued to reflect the counter-cultural context in which contact improvisation was developed (aftermath of the 1960s Vietnam War and Hippie movement).

Underscore

In the 1990s, Nancy Stark Smith, one of the most active propagators of contact improvisation and editor of Contact Quarterly, developed a practice out of her teachings called "the underscore." It consisted of a score serving as a descriptive and prescriptive base for the practice of group improvisations. In this practice, vocabulary is tailored to fit the specific experiences of dancers and benefits from Nancy Stark Smith enmeshment with contact improvisation.As a teacher of contact improvisation, she had observed that particular warm-up exercises and movement activities were helpful in bringing dancers to a state of body-mind preparedness for engaging in a Contact duet. The Underscore is a scored collection of those exercises and activities, complete with pictographs that represent each phase and subphase of its progression.Some moments of the practice clearly refer to activities explored in the practice of contact improvisation:
 "Bonding with the earth" thus refers (in part) to the experience of the "Small Dance"
 "Engagement" to the commitment that can be involved in a contact improvisation duet
 "Skinesphere", the space beneath the skin (as opposed to the kinesphere, which is the space surrounding the body), refers to the inward focus involved in some somatic preparations for the practice of contact improvisation.

Contact improvisation and contemporary dance

Similar simultaneous explorations

The explorations envisaged in the first moments of contact improvisation are not specific to the collective led by Steve Paxton. Many other forms of dance had also experimented with weight, touch and improvisation and examples abound in the 1960s of dancers who practice something similar, but not as systematic as contact improvisation, including Trisha Brown, Grand Union, Daniel Nagrin's Workgroup, Anna Halprin 's San Francisco Dancers' Workshop, Julian Beck and Judith Malina's Living Theater or Carolee Schneeman's Meat Joy (1964).

Simone Forti, for instance, developed Huddle in the 1960s.  It was a dance in which six to seven dancers were invited to form together an agglutinated mass of which one by one they detached themselves to gradually reintegrate it, thus testing the tactile, olfactory and weight sensations.

As a resource for movement

Many contemporary choreographers today use contact improvisation as a significant resource for movement.  This is the case with choreographers Bill T. Jones, Wim Vandekeybus and Antonija Livingstone, or in the companies Punchdrunk (especially in their famous site-specific 2011 production Sleep No More) and DV8 Physical Theater.

References to contact improvisation vary: some are inspired by the qualities of the duet styles involving a specific use of touch, while others insist on the acrobatic dimension of contact improvisation and put forward situations of risk as means of reaching adrenalized states of performance. Many also perpetuate the work of sensation put forward by contact improvisation while making way for an interrogation on the relations between the genders that contact improvisation tends rather to make disappear behind an equality advocated but not always enforced. Companies like DV8 and The Cholmondeleys have thus produced choreographies based on a similar anti-mechanistic approach to that of contact improvisation, coupling it with interrogations on gendered roles." Similarly, a number of early contactors – such as Keith Hennesy, Ishmael Houston-Jones, Bill T. Jones and his partner Arnie Zane – participated in the struggles for LGBT rights in the wake of the AIDS crisis of the 1980s.

In Europe in particular, many improvisers were influenced by contact improvisation, especially from the 1980s.  Examples of such dancers are  João Fiadeiro from the Portuguese New Dance, British improvisers Julyen Hamilton, Kirstie Simson, and Charlie Morrissey, as well as North American artists who emigrated to Europe like Benoît Lachambre, Mark Tompkins and Meg Stuart.

Meg Stuart considers her lineage to be in the experimental approach to dance proposed in the early days of contact improvisation history:If I could go back in dance history I would put myself at Oberlin College in 1972, crashing into Steve Paxton and his students as we performed Magnesium. I have always been passionate about Contact Improvisation. It is rare that something experimental and radical is proposed in a dance studio, and out of that research a language, a community, a world develops. Contact is not defined as "Paxton's technique", it's an open field, a living form.

See also
 Grand Union
 dance improvisation
 Judson Dance Theater
 Choreographic technique
 List of dance style categories
 choreographers

References

Further reading

 Cynthia Jean Novack (1990) Sharing the Dance: Contact Improvisation and American Culture. University of Wisconsin Press.
 Cheryll Pallant (2006) Contact Improvisation: An Introduction to a Vitalizing Dance Form. McFarland & Company, Inc.
 Keith Hennessy (2008) The Experiment Called Contact Improvisation, Indance Magazine
 Ann Cooper Albright (2010) Encounters with Contact; Dancing Contact in College with Katie Barkley  Kai Evans, Jan Trumbauer, David Brown and Rachel Wortman. Oberlin College Theater and Dance
 Nancy Stark Smith et David Koteen (2013), Caught Falling. The Confluence of Contact Improvisation, Nancy Stark Smith, and Other Moving Ideas, Contact Editions
 Sarko Thomas and Misri (2014) Contact [and Improvisation], Journal of dance and somatic practices,

Videography
 (2008) Material for the Spine. A Study Movement, Contredanse
 (2012) Contact Improvisation at CI 36, Contact Editions
 (2014) Videoda Contact Improvisation Archive [1972-1987], Contact Editions
 (2014) " Five Ways In' Potolahi Productions. Research Web page

Dance technique
Free and improvised dance

Contact improvisation


بطولة العالم للأندية 2001، بطولة من تنفيذ الاتحاد الدولي لكرة القدم فيفا كان مقرر لها أن تقام في إسبانيا عام 2001 كنسخة ثانية بعد النسخة الأولى في البرازيل 2000، ولكنها ألغيت بدون إقامة أية مباراة كنتيجة مباشرة لإفلاس شركة ISL (اختصاراً لInternational Sport and Leisure) والتي كانت ترعى بطولات الفيفا في ذاك الوقت.

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مجموعة ب

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Jørn Stubberud (Norveška, 13. travnja 1968.) je norveški glazbenik, najpoznatiji kao basist norveškog black metal-sastava Mayhem, u kojem koristi pseudonim Necrobutcher. Jedan je od osnivača Mayhema, pored gitarista Euronymousa, bubnjara Manheima i pjevača Messiaha. Danas je jedini prvobitni član sastava, pošto su Messiah i Manheim napustili Mayhem još 1986. i 1988. godine, a Euronymous je ubijen 1993. godine. Također je svirao u drugim sastavima kao što su L.E.G.O., Kvikksølvguttene, Bloodthorn (gostujući glazbenik), i Checker Patrol.

Mayhem
Necrobutcher je bio u sastavu od samog početka, točnije od 1984. godine, ali ga je napustio 1991. godine zbog međusobnih problema s gitaristom Euronymousom nakon samoubojstva tadašnjeg vokalista sastava Deada. Zamijenio ga je studijski basist Varg Vikernes, koji je ubio Euronymousa 1993. godine. Tijekom 1995. godine, Necrobutcher ponovno je okupio sastav, zajedno s bubnjarom Hellhammerom, pjevačem Maniacom i gitaristom Blasphemerom. Godine 2016., objavio je knjigu The Death Archives: Mayhem 1984–94. Jedini je prvobitni član Mayhema koji još svira u sastavu.

Njegovu knjigu The Death Archives: Mayhem 1984-94, objavila je Thurston Mooreva izdavačka kuća Ecstatic Peace Library.

Diskografija
Albums
De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas (1994.) (tekstovi)
Grand Declaration of War (2000.)
Chimera (2004.)
Ordo ad Chao (2007.)
Esoteric Warfare (2014.)
Daemon (2019.)

EP-ovi
Deathcrush (1987.)
Wolf's Lair Abyss (1997.)

Albumi uživo
Live in Leipzig (1993.)
Dawn of the Black Hearts (1995.)
Mediolanum Capta Est (1999.)
Live in Marseille (2001.)
Live in Zeitz (2016.)
De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas Alive (2016.)
Live in Jessheim (2017.)
Live in Sarpsborg (2017.)

Knjige
 Stubberud, Jørn. The Death Archives: Mayhem 1984-94. London: Ecstatic Peace Library. . OCLC

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Mayhem na Myspaceu

Članovi sastava Mayhem
Norveški basisti heavy metala

Necrobutcher


Lake Passaic was a prehistoric proglacial lake that existed in northern New Jersey in the United States at the end of the last ice age approximately 19,000–14,000 years ago.  The lake was formed of waters released by the retreating Wisconsin Glacier, which had pushed large quantities of earth and rock ahead of its advance, blocking the previous natural drainage of the ancestral Passaic River through a gap in the central Watchung Mountains.  The lake persisted for several thousand years as melting ice and eroding moraine dams slowly drained the former lake basin.  The effect of the lake's creation permanently altered the course of the Passaic River, forcing it to take a circuitous route through the northern Watchung Mountains before spilling out into the lower piedmont.

Today, the former lake basin is called Passaic Meadows and includes the Great Swamp, Black Meadows, Troy Meadows, Hatfield Swamp, Lee Meadows, Little Piece Meadows, Great Piece Meadows, Glenhurst Meadows, and Bog and Vly Meadows.  These remnants of the ancient lake provide prime wetland habitat to a variety of plants and animals while at the same time offering recreational and outdoor opportunities to residents of northern New Jersey.

Discovery
The discovery of Glacial Lake Passaic is credited to Professor George Hammell Cook, once the State Geologist of New Jersey and Vice President of Rutgers University.  Cook's first official mention of the lake was in the New Jersey Annual Report of the State Geologist for the Year 1880, in which he described flat-topped hills and drift-like deposits in the upper Passaic Valley that appeared to be created or modified by the waters of a lake.  Twelve years later, field research conducted under State Geologist John C. Smock began to uncover wave-cut terraces and other shoreline features that more conclusively established the lake's existence.  However, the boundaries of the lake were not completely understood until the following year, 1893, when geologists Rollin D. Salisbury and Henry B. Kümmel completed a study of wave cut terraces, shoreline platforms, and delta deposits within the central and upper Passaic basin.  The study was used to create a report, Lake Passaic – An Extinct Glacial Lake, which was included in the New Jersey Annual Report of the State Geologist for the Year 1893.

Geology

During the late Triassic and early Jurassic periods, when the North American plate separated from the African plate, an aborted rift system was created.  The resulting rift valley, known as the Newark Basin, was filled with alternating layers of red bed sediment and flood basalts.  Over millions of years, the rift valley was faulted, tilted, and eroded, until the edges of the hard flood basalt layers formed ridges.  Prior to 20,000 years before the present, an ancestral Passaic River flowed through a gap in these ridges.  This changed when the Wisconsin Glacier, a massive continental ice sheet which formed during the last ice age, advanced on the region and permanently plugged the gap.  As the glacier eventually melted back, water pooled behind the ridges (known today as the Watchung Mountains), forming Glacial Lake Passaic.

Lake stages
Glacial Lake Passaic was a dynamic water body during its five millennia of existence.  At present, the lake is believed to have existed in four major stages, the final stage being split between three smaller sub-stages.  Each stage saw a new shoreline elevation of the lake as ice or earthen moraine dams were built or gave way, often over brief spans of time.

Chatham Stage
Approximately 20,000 years ago, the Wisconsin Glacier advanced across northern New Jersey, expanding differentially across the land as it encountered variable terrain.  West of the Watchung Mountains and east of the Appalachians, the Passaic lobe of the great glacier was impeded by rugged terrain, slowing its southward advance.  East of the Watchung Mountains, the Hackensack lobe of the glacier spread more easily over the piedmont lowlands, advancing on the Hobart/Short Hills Gap.

Previously, an ancestral Passaic River flowed southeast toward Raritan Bay through the gap, but as the Hackensack lobe dammed it with ice, a lake began to form, reaching depths of nearly 200 feet.  The resulting body of water formed the Chatham Stage, which initially found an outlet to the sea via the Blue Brook Valley, between the ridges of First and Second Watchung Mountain south of the Short Hills Gap.  This outlet, however, was cut off as the Hackensack lobe continued to push south.

Moggy Hollow Stage
The Hackensack lobe of the Wisconsin Glacier piled a massive moraine into the Short Hills Gap and northern Blue Brook Valley, effectively creating a permanent dam even after the ice began retreating to the north.  With its outlet to the sea severed, Glacial Lake Passaic rose until it found a new escape point via a gap in the southwestern Watchung Mountains known as Moggy Hollow.

The Moggy Hollow Stage came to be the deepest stage of the ancient lake, reaching a depth of about 300 ft.  Eventually, it came to cover the greatest area too.  As the Wisconsin Glacier melted back, the lake's waters ultimately submerged an area stretching from the base of Preakness Mountain in Wayne to the northern slope of Second Watchung Mountain in Liberty Corner.  During this time, it is believed that the ridges of Third Watchung Mountain formed a sinuous chain of islands running down the length of lake.

Great Notch Stage
The first major drop in the level of Glacial Lake Passaic occurred as the Wisconsin Glacier melted back to reveal the Great Notch, a significant gap present in the ridge of First Watchung Mountain in Clifton.  In a short span of time, the level of the lake fell approximately 80 feet, the resulting drainage carving a spillway that would eventually become the valley of the Third River.

The Great Notch Stage, as it came to be called, produced a lake of similar depth to the Chatham Stage, although covering a greater area.  It is believed that Hook Mountain, one of the ridges of Third Watchung Mountain, was still an island at this time.

Postglacial stages
The Great Notch Stage came to an end as the Wisconsin Glacier withered to reveal a gap in First Watchung Mountain in Paterson.  The gap's initial opening likely caused a flood which carved the valley of Weasel Brook, but the outflow eventually migrated further north, forming the course of the Passaic River as it exists today.

The release of water through the gap at Paterson saw the destruction of the last remaining ice dam holding back the lake.  But topography and moraine deposits left in key chokepoints allowed the remains of the Great Notch Stage to split into three lakes of considerable size.  These lakes would persist for another 3000 to 4000 years.

Totowa Stage
The Totowa Stage was most northern of the three postglacial lakes, occupying an irregular basin extending from Oakland to Whippany.  The lake was held back by a dam of glacial sediment in Totowa that slowly eroded until the surface of the lake fell to its present-day level, leaving behind the Hatfield Swamp, Black Meadows, Great Piece Meadows, and Bog and Vly Meadows.

Stanley Stage
Upstream of the Totowa Stage, and lying between Second and Third Watchung Mountain, was the Stanley Stage.  The lake occupied an area between Stanley (near Summit) and Millington, and was held back by moraine deposits.  As with the Totowa stage, the lake's earthen dam eroded away until the lake reached its modern level, forming Glenhurst Meadows.

Millington Stage
The most upstream of three lakes, the Millington Stage was probably 50 feet deep at maximum, occupying the basin west of Long Hill, the southernmost ridge of Third Watchung Mountain.  Unlike the other two lakes, the Millington Stage drained over the trap rock crest of Long Hill.  But even rock could not contain one of the last pieces of Glacial Lake Passaic.  By about 14,000 years ago, water spilling through a gap in Long Hill carved the Millington Gorge, which lowered the level of the lake to form the present-day Great Swamp.

Modern lake basin

Conservation

The remnants of the Glacial Lake Passaic lake bed are found in several swamps in northern New Jersey, most notably, the Great Swamp that is south of Morristown through Chatham Township, lying in extreme southern Morris County and northeastern Somerset County.  The watershed of the Great Swamp entails .  Within this watershed, Black Brook, Great Brook, Loantaka Brook, Primrose Brook, and the Upper Passaic River combine their waters in the Great Swamp to form the Passaic River, which exits the swamp via the Millington Gorge.

Following the largest American conservation effort by residents in response to a proposal to build a huge fourth regional airport that would have destroyed the ecosystem, a major portion of this watershed was acquired through assembling purchases made during a year-long effort that began in 1959. Those properties, entailing  or just under twelve square miles, were preserved through a donation to the federal government on November 3, 1960, setting them aside as a park for perpetual protection. The area given to the government has since become the Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge and now is watched over by citizens from the ten communities that ring the swamp, who have formed thirteen separate oversight organizations.  Additions to the area have continued to the present day.

Flooding
Chronic flooding in the central Passaic basin, particularly around the confluence of the Passaic and Pompton rivers, has been severe enough to lead to government buyouts of private land.  This section of the basin, upstream of the chokepoint created by the Little Falls and the Great Falls, occasionally fills with so much water that some of the Totowa Stage of Glacial Lake Passaic briefly reappears until enough time has gone by for the water to drain out.  The Passaic River Flood Tunnel, a floodwater diversion system, has been proposed to create a new escape route for water trapped behind the Watchung Mountains.

See also
 List of prehistoric lakes

References

External links
 Depiction of Lake Passaic as it Existed 11,000 to 13,000 years ago.

Former lakes of the United States
Geology of New Jersey
Bodies of water of Passaic County, New Jersey
Proglacial lakes
Watchung Mountains

Lake Passaic