Citizen journalism, also known as collaborative media, participatory journalism, democratic journalism, guerrilla journalism or street journalism, is based upon public citizens "playing an active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing, and disseminating news and information." Similarly, Courtney C. Radsch defines citizen journalism "as an alternative and activist form of news gathering and reporting that functions outside mainstream media institutions, often as a response to shortcomings in the professional journalistic field, that uses similar journalistic practices but is driven by different objectives and ideals and relies on alternative sources of legitimacy than traditional or mainstream journalism". Jay Rosen offers a simpler definition: "When the people formerly known as the audience employ the press tools they have in their possession to inform one another." The underlying principle of citizen journalism is that ordinary people, not professional journalists, can be the main creators and distributors of news. Citizen journalism should not be confused with community journalism or civic journalism, both of which are practiced by professional journalists; collaborative journalism, which is the practice of professional and non-professional journalists working together; and social journalism, which denotes a digital publication with a hybrid of professional and non-professional journalism.

Citizen journalism is a specific form of both citizen media and user-generated content (UGC). By juxtaposing the term "citizen", with its attendant qualities of civic-mindedness and social responsibility, with that of "journalism", which refers to a particular profession, Courtney C. Radsch argues that this term best describes this particular form of online and digital journalism conducted by amateurs because it underscores the link between the practice of journalism and its relation to the political and public sphere.

Citizen journalism was made more feasible by the development of various online internet platforms. New media technology, such as social networking and media-sharing websites, in addition to the increasing prevalence of cellular telephones, have made citizen journalism more accessible to people worldwide. Recent advances in new media have started to have a profound political impact. Due to the availability of technology, citizens often can report breaking news more quickly than traditional media reporters. Notable examples of citizen journalism reporting from major world events are, the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the Arab Spring, the Occupy Wall Street movement, the 2013 protests in Turkey, the Euromaidan events in Ukraine, and Syrian Civil War, the 2014 Ferguson unrest and the Black Lives Matter movement.

Being that citizen journalism is yet to develop a conceptual framework and guiding principles, it can be heavily opinionated and subjective, making it more supplemental than primary in terms of forming public opinion. Critics of the phenomenon, including professional journalists and news organizations, claim that citizen journalism is unregulated, amateur, and haphazard in quality and coverage. Furthermore, citizen journalists, due to their lack of professional affiliation, are thought to lack resources as well as focus on how best to serve the public.

Theory
Citizen journalism, as a form of alternative media, presents a "radical challenge to the professionalized and institutionalized practices of the mainstream media".

According to Flew, there have been three elements critical to the rise of citizen journalism: open publishing, collaborative editing, and distributed content. Mark Glaser said in 2006:

…people without professional journalism training can use the tools of modern technology and the global distribution of the Internet to create, augment or fact-check media on their own or in collaboration with others.

In What is Participatory Journalism? (2003), J. D. Lasica classifies media for citizen journalism into the following types:

 Audience participation (such as user comments attached to news stories, personal blogs, photographs or video footage captured from personal mobile cameras, or local news written by residents of a community)
 Independent news and information Websites (Consumer Reports, the Drudge Report)
 Full-fledged participatory news sites (one:convo, NowPublic, OhmyNews, DigitalJournal.com, GroundReport, 'Fair Observer')
 Collaborative and contributory media sites (Slashdot, Kuro5hin, Newsvine)
 Other kinds of "thin media" (mailing lists, email newsletters)
 Personal broadcasting sites (video broadcast sites such as KenRadio)
 Open source news platforms (Mobile apps such as Veiwapp)

The literature of citizen, alternative, and participatory journalism is most often situated in a democratic context and theorized as a response to corporate news media dominated by an economic logic. Some scholars have sought to extend the study of citizen journalism beyond the developed Western world, including Sylvia Moretzsohn, Courtney C. Radsch, and Clemencia Rodríguez. Radsch, for example, wrote that "Throughout the Arab world, citizen journalists have emerged as the vanguard of new social movements dedicated to promoting human rights and democratic values."

Theories of citizenship
According to Vincent Campbell, theories of citizenship can be categorized into two core groups: those that consider journalism for citizenship, and those that consider journalism as citizenship. The classical model of citizenship is the base of the two theories of citizenship. The classical model is rooted in the ideology of informed citizens and places emphasis on the role of journalists rather than on citizens.

The classical model has four main characteristics:
 journalists' role of informing citizens
 citizens are assumed to be informed if they regularly attend to the news they are supplied with
 more informed citizens are more likely to participate
 the more informed citizens participate, the more democratic a state is more likely to be.

The first characteristic upholds the theory that journalism is for citizens. One of the main issues with this is that there is a normative judgement surrounding the amount and nature of information that citizens should have as well as what the relationship between the two should be. One branch of journalism for citizens is the "monitorial citizen" (coined by Michael Schudson). The "monitorial citizen" suggests that citizens appropriately and strategically select what news and information they consume. The "monitorial citizen" along with other forms of this ideology conceive individuals as those who do things with information to enact change and citizenship. However, this production of information does not equal to an act of citizenship, but instead an act of journalism. Therefore, citizens and journalists are portrayed as distinctive roles whereas journalism is used by citizens for citizenship and conversely, journalists serve citizens.

The second theory considers journalism as citizenship. This theory focuses on the different aspects of citizen identity and activity and understands citizen journalism as directly constituting citizenship. The term "liquid citizenship" (coined by Zizi Papacharissi) depicts how the lifestyles that individuals engage in allow them to interact with other individuals and organizations, which thus remaps the conceptual periphery of civic, political, and social. This "liquid citizenship" allows the interactions and experiences that individuals face to become citizen journalism where they create their own forms of journalism. An alternative approach of journalism as citizenship rests between the distinction between "dutiful" citizens and "actualizing" citizens. "Dutiful" citizens engage in traditional citizenship practices, while "actualizing" citizens engage in non-traditional citizenship practices. This alternative approach suggests that "actualizing" citizens are less likely to use traditional media and more likely to use online and social media as sources of information, discussion, and participation. Thus, journalism in the form of online and social media practices become a form of citizenship for actualizing citizens.

Criticisms have been made against citizen journalism, especially from among professionals in the field. Citizen journalists are often portrayed as unreliable, biased and untrained as opposed to professionals who have "recognition, paid work, unionized labour and behaviour that is often politically neutral and unaffiliated, at least in the claim if not in the actuality".

History
The idea that every citizen can engage in acts of journalism has a long history in the United States. The contemporary citizen journalist movement emerged after journalists began to question the predictability of their coverage of events such as the 1988 U.S. presidential election. Those journalists became part of the public, or civic, journalism movement, which sought to counter the erosion of trust in the news media and the widespread disillusionment with politics and civic affairs.

Initially, discussions of public journalism focused on promoting journalism that was "for the people" by changing the way professional reporters did their work. According to Leonard Witt, however, early public journalism efforts were "often part of 'special projects' that were expensive, time-consuming, and episodic. Too often these projects dealt with an issue and moved on. Professional journalists were driving the discussion. They would have the goal of doing a story on welfare-to-work (or the environment, or traffic problems, or the economy), and then they would recruit a cross-section of citizens and chronicle their points of view. Since not all reporters and editors bought into this form of public journalism, and some outright opposed it, reaching out to the people from the newsroom was never an easy task." By 2003, in fact, the movement seemed to be petering out, with the Pew Center for Civic Journalism closing its doors.

Traditionally, the term "citizen journalism" has had a history of struggle with deliberating on a concise and mutually agreed upon definition. Even today, the term lacks a clear form of conceptualization. Although the term lacks conceptualization, alternative names of the term are unable to comprehensively capture the phenomenon. For example, one of  the interchangeable names with "citizen journalism" is "user-generated content" (UGC). However, the issue with this alternative term is that it eliminates the potential civic virtues of citizen journalism and considers it to be stunted and proprietorial.

With today's technology the citizen journalist movement has found new life as the average person can capture news and distribute it globally. As Yochai Benkler has noted, "the capacity to make meaning to encode and decode humanly meaningful statements and the capacity to communicate one's meaning around the world, are held by, or readily available to, at least many hundreds of millions of users around the globe." Professor Mary-Rose Papandrea, a constitutional law professor at Boston College, notes in her article, Citizen Journalism and the Reporter's Privilege, that:

[i]n many ways, the definition of "journalist" has now come full circle. When the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution was adopted, "freedom of the press" referred quite literally to the freedom to publish using a printing press, rather than the freedom of organized entities engaged in the publishing business. … It was not until the late nineteenth century that the concept of the "press" metamorphized into a description of individuals and companies engaged in an often-competitive commercial media enterprise.

A recent trend in citizen journalism has been the emergence of what blogger Jeff Jarvis terms hyperlocal journalism, as online news sites invite contributions from local residents of their subscription areas, who often report on topics that conventional newspapers tend to ignore. "We are the traditional journalism model turned upside down," explains Mary Lou Fulton, the publisher of the Northwest Voice in Bakersfield, California. "Instead of being the gatekeeper, telling people that what's important to them 'isn't news', we're just opening up the gates and letting people come on in. We are a better community newspaper for having thousands of readers who serve as the eyes and ears for the Voice, rather than having everything filtered through the views of a small group of reporters and editors."

Citizen journalists
According to Jay Rosen, citizen journalists are "the people formerly known as the audience," who "were on the receiving end of a media system that ran one way, in a broadcasting pattern, with high entry fees and a few firms competing to speak very loudly while the rest of the population listened in isolation from one another— and who today are not in a situation like that at all. ... The people formerly known as the audience are simply the public made realer, less fictional, more able, less predictable."

Abraham Zapruder, who filmed the assassination of President John Fitzgerald Kennedy with a home-movie camera, is sometimes presented as an ancestor to citizen journalists. Egyptian citizen Wael Abbas was awarded several international reporting prizes for his blog Misr Digital (Digital Egypt) and a video he publicized of two policemen beating a bus driver helped lead to their conviction.

During 9/11 many eyewitness accounts of the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center came from citizen journalists. Images and stories from citizen journalists close to the World Trade Center offered content that played a major role in the story.

In 2004, when the 9.1-magnitude underwater earthquake caused a huge tsunami in Banda Aceh Indonesia and across the Indian Ocean, a weblog-based virtual network of previously unrelated bloggers emerged that covered the news in real-time, and became a vital source for the traditional media for the first week after the tsunami.
A large amount of news footage from many people who experienced the tsunami was widely broadcast, as well as a good deal of "on the scene" citizen reporting and blogger analysis that was subsequently picked up by the major media outlets worldwide.

Subsequent to the citizen journalism coverage of the disaster and aftermath, researchers have suggested that citizen journalists may, in fact, play a critical role in the disaster warning system itself, potentially with higher reliability than the networks of tsunami warning equipment based on technology alone which then require interpretation by disinterested third parties.

The microblog Twitter played an important role during the 2009 Iranian election protests, after foreign journalists had effectively been "barred from reporting". Twitter delayed scheduled maintenance during the protests that would have shut down coverage in Iran due to the role it played in public communication.

Social media platforms such as blogs, YouTube, and Twitter encourage and facilitate engagement with other citizens who participate in creating content through commenting, liking, linking, and sharing. The majority of the content produced by these amateur news bloggers was not original content, but curated information monitored and edited by these various bloggers. There has been a decline in the amateur news blogger due to social media platforms that are much easier to run and maintain, allowing individuals to easily share and create and content.

Wikimedia Foundation hosts a participatory journalism web site, Wikinews.

The 2021 Pulitzer Prize Winner in Special Citations and Awards was awarded to Darnella Frazier, who recorded the murder of George Floyd on her phone.

Citizen journalism in a worldwide context

India

India has a broad media landscape expanding at "double-digit growth rates"  in comparison to the West. Issues surrounding human rights violations, violence against women and everyday witness accounts. Most notably, images shared on Twitter during the 2008 Mumbai attacks is an example of citizen journalism in India.

Iraq
In 2004 Daylight Magazine sent a box of disposable cameras to be distributed to civilians living in Baghdad and Fallujah. These were published in May 2004 along with the work of seminal documentarians such as Susan Meiselas, Roger Hutchings, etc. In June 2004 Fred Ritchen and Pixel Press teamed up with Daylight to create a touring exhibition of the images and captions which went to various institutions around the United States including: The Council on Foreign Relations, The Center for Photography Woodstock, New York University, Union College, Michigan University, and Central Michigan University before being donated to the Archive of Documentary Art at Duke University.

United Kingdom
Citizen Journalism provides a platform for individuals to be considered and acknowledged on a global scale. The circulation of information and news does not fully divulge the accurate perceptions of what is going on in the world. For instance, On Our Radar contains reporting mechanisms and trained residents that reveal their voices while questioning the reluctance journalism has when considering what voices are heard and are not, based in London. On Our Radar has undertaken in making the voices in Sierra Leone heard in regards to Ebola, revealing that it contained easy access to vital sources of  information and opened more opportunities for questions and reports.

Depending on the country one resides in, as societies evolve, grow, and depend more on online media outlets there is an increase of informed individuals, especially with topics regarding politics and government news. Through such evolution, citizen journalism has the capability to reach an audience that has not had the privilege of receiving higher education and still remain informed about what is surrounding them and their respective country. As demonstrated in light of demanding and distorted information given to the mass public and cleared by strong demonstrations of the capabilities of citizen journalism. Citizen journalism is a platform that provides a solution to the mistrust the public has towards the government as discrepancies arise from governmental statements and actions.

In 2020, a network of local Citizen Journalist publications, the Bylines Network, was founded, and has since spread to include 7 regional branches.

China
Citizen journalism has created much change and influence within Chinese media and society in which its online activity is very much controlled. The interconnection built from citizen journalism and mainstream journalism in China has allotted politically and socially charged information to be distributed to promote progressive changes and serves as national sentiments. In doing so, the mass public of China has the opportunities to move around the controlled and monitored online presence and the information it contains.

Citizen journalists face many repercussions when unpackaging the truth and reach domestic and global audiences. Most if not all of these repercussions result from government officials and law enforcement from the journalists respective countries. Citizen journalists are needed and depended on by the mass public but are viewed as an imminent threat to their governments. The public has had the resources to pursue this level of journalism from their surroundings and based on real life perspectives that lack censorship and influence from a higher entity. The various forms citizen journalism is formed has outdated many news and media sources as result of the authentic approach citizen journalists carry out.

During the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests, fraudulent pictures encouraging people to pose as reporters and abuse freedom of press regulations to obstruct the police were widely circulated on social media with the aim to discredit citizen journalists.

In the context of China and the national pandemic rooted from the coronavirus, many voices were censored and limited when it came to citizen journalists. This occurred in the process of visually and vocally documenting the social climate of China in regards to the coronavirus. For instance, a Chinese citizen journalist posted videos of Wuhan, China as the outbreak had been spreading globally. As a result the journalist was stopped and detained by the police and was not released for two months. In sharing their experience being detained after being released the tone it was expressed in was marketed. This citizen journalist experience is one amongst more of who were similarly detained and censored.

Iran
In 2023 after Mahsa Amini protests government criminalized Iranians filming police.

Criticisms

Objectivity
Citizen journalists also may be activists within the communities they write about. This has drawn some criticism from traditional media institutions such as The New York Times, which have accused proponents of public journalism of abandoning the traditional goal of objectivity. Many traditional journalists view citizen journalism with some skepticism, believing that only trained journalists can understand the exactitude and ethics involved in reporting news. See, e.g., Nicholas Lemann, Vincent Maher, and Tom Grubisich.

An academic paper by Vincent Maher, the head of the New Media Lab at Rhodes University, outlined several weaknesses in the claims made by citizen journalists, in terms of the "three deadly E's", referring to ethics, economics, and epistemology.

An analysis by language and linguistics professor, Patricia Bou-Franch, found that some citizen journalists resorted to abuse-sustaining discourses naturalizing violence against women. She found that these discourses were then challenged by others who questioned the gendered ideologies of male violence against women.

Quality
An article in 2005 by Tom Grubisich reviewed ten new citizen journalism sites and found many of them lacking in quality and content. Grubisich followed up a year later with, "Potemkin Village Redux." He found that the best sites had improved editorially and were even nearing profitability, but only by not expensing editorial costs. Also according to the article, the sites with the weakest editorial content were able to expand aggressively because they had stronger financial resources.

Another article published on Pressthink examined Backfence, a citizen journalism site with three initial locations in the D.C. area, which reveals that the site has only attracted limited citizen contributions. The author concludes that, "in fact, clicking through Backfence's pages feels like frontier land – remote, often lonely, zoned for people but not home to any. The site recently launched for Arlington, Virginia. However, without more settlers, Backfence may wind up creating more ghost towns."

David Simon, a former reporter for The Baltimore Sun and writer-producer of the television series The Wire, criticized the concept of citizen journalism, claiming that unpaid bloggers who write as a hobby cannot replace trained, professional, seasoned journalists.

An editorial published by The Digital Journalist web magazine expressed a similar position, advocating to abolish the term "citizen journalist" and replace it with "citizen news gatherer".

While the fact that citizen journalists can report in real time and are not subject to oversight opens them to criticism about the accuracy of their reporting, news stories presented by mainstream media also misreport facts occasionally that are reported correctly by citizen journalists. As low as 32% of the American population have a fair amount of trust in the media.

Effects on traditional journalism

Journalism has been affected significantly due to citizen journalism. This is because citizen journalism allows people to post as much content as they want, whenever they want. In order to stay competitive, traditional news sources are forcing their journalists to compete. This means that journalists now have to write, edit and add pictures into their content and they must do so at a rapid pace, as it is perceived by news companies that it's essential for journalists to produce content at the same rate that citizens can post content on the internet. This is hard though, as many news companies are facing budget cuts and cannot afford to pay journalists the proper amount for the amount of work they do. Despite the uncertainties of a job in journalism and rising tuition costs there has been a 35% increase in journalism majors throughout the past few years according to Astra Taylor in her book The People's Platform.

Legal repercussions
Edward Greenberg, a New York City litigator, notes higher vulnerability of unprofessional journalists in court compared to the professional ones:

The view stated above does not mean that professional journalists are fully protected by shield laws. In the 1972 Branzburg v. Hayes case the Supreme Court of the United States invalidated the use of the First Amendment as a defense for reporters summoned to testify before a grand jury. In 2005, the reporter's privilege of Judith Miller and Matthew Cooper was rejected by the appellate court.

Possible future

Citizen journalism increased during the last decade of the twentieth century and into the twenty-first century, associated with the creation of the internet which introduced new ways in communicating and engaging news. In 2004 Leonard Witt wrote in the National Civic Review, "the voices of a range of citizens are being heard loud and clear on the Internet, mostly through Weblogs." Due to this shift in technology, individuals were able to access more news than previously and at a much faster rate. This larger quantity also made it so there was a larger variety of sources which people were able to consume media and news.

Citizen journalism has proven itself to be an effective form of current event coverage and can possibly signify a shift in modern media. Citizen journalism has been expanding in different varieties of modern media which include, international news, more democratic journalism, mainstream media, and the importance for mass media outlets. Citizen journalism is now one of the main contributors of mainstream news and consistently feeding in information that even traditional journalist can't grasp their hands on. This could eventually lead to citizen journalism to become one of the main sources for news everywhere as the internet and constant information being provided by citizen journalist are key factors contributing to citizen journalism increasing.

Natalie Fenton discusses the role of citizen journalism within the digital age and has three characteristics associated with the topic: speed and space, multiplicity and poly-centrality, and interactivity and participation.

Current instances of citizen journalism
Citizen journalism has become a recent topic of discussion regarding its efficacy in documenting the downfall of popular cryptocurrency exchange FTX and its founder Sam Bankman-Fried. This recent instance of popular media relying on citizen journalism marks the ever-expanding development of the pseudo-reporting strategy. There is a measurable decrease in interest for traditional news sources as more become disinterested by apparent bias and political influence. Another example of citizen journalism proving to be a viable source of information communication was in the recent coverage of the war in Ukraine. Utilising popular video-sharing platforms such as YouTube, citizen journalists provide viewers with current updates regarding developments on the frontline as well as covering larger factors contributing to the developing story.

Proponents and facilitators

Dan Gillmor, the former technology columnist for the San Jose Mercury News, founded a nonprofit, the Center for Citizen Media, (2005–2009) to help promote it.

Professor Charles Nesson, William F. Weld Professor of Law at Harvard Law School and the founder of the Berkman Center for Internet & Society, chairs the Advisory Board for Jamaican citizen journalism startup On the Ground News Reports.

Maurice Ali founded one of the first international citizen journalist associations, the International Association of Independent Journalists Inc. (IAIJ), in 2003. The association through its President (Maurice Ali) published studies and articles on citizen journalism, attended and spoken at UNESCO and United Nations events as advocates of citizen journalism worldwide.

See also

 Cherry picking
 Citizen Kate
 Collaborative journalism
 Conjecture
 Crowdsourcing
 Democratic journalism
 Demotix
 Fake news
 Global Voices Online
 Independent Media Center
 JPG (magazine)
 List of journalists killed in Syria
 Media democracy
 Meporter
 OhmyNews
 On the Ground News Reports
 Open-source journalism
 Raqqa Is Being Slaughtered Silently
 Social news
 South East Europe Media Organisation
 Wiki journalism
 The Power of Local Journalism

References

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/21670811.2014.1002513?src=recsys&journalCode=rdij20

External links

 .

Citizen journalism


Coal Chamber 1994 yılında Los Angeles' ta kurulan bir nu metal grubudur. Grup 90'lı yılların ortalarından itibaren Korn gibi gruplarla beraber nu metalin öncülüğünü yapmıştır.

Grup, kariyerinin başından itibaren büyük bir popülarite kazanmıştır. Bunun temel sebeplerinden biri grubun ilk "karanlık" temalı nu metal grubu olmasıdır. Özellikle Hip hop'tan daha öte Goth alt kültürüne uyan imajları bunu desteklemektedir.

Tarihçe

Coal Chamber 1996 yılında Roadrunner Records ile imzaladıkları anlaşmayla ilk albüm hazırlıklarına başlamış ve kendi adlarını taşıyan bu albüm 1997 yılında piyasaya çıkmıştır. Albüm çıkışından itibaren çok olumlu eleştiriler aldı ve albümün belki de en önemli parçası olan Loco hayranları tarafından halen grubun yaptığı en iyi çalışma olarak kabul edilmektedir.

Chamber Music ismini taşıyan ikinci albümleri 1999 yılında çıktı. Bu albüm onları ilk albümde oluşturdukları nu metal imajından bir adım öteye götürerek  gothic metal etkilerinin daha fazla hissedildiği bir çalışma oldu. Albümde Peter Gabriel tarafından 1982 yılında yazılmış "Shock The Monkey" isimli cover şarkılarına efsane rockçı Ozzy Osbourne vokallerde eşlik etmiştir.

2002 yazında çıkan üçüncü albümleri Dark Days çok farklı yorumlar aldı. Bas gitarist  Rayna Foss-Rose albümün kayıtlatından önce kız çocuğunu büyütmek için gruptan ayrıldı ve onun yerini Rayna' nın ilk iki albümün arasındaki hamileliği sırasında gruba katılan  Nadja Peulen aldı. Rayna grubun vokalisti Dez Fafara ile tartışmalarına açıklık getirerek kendisi ve kocasının dine daha fazla değer vermeye başladıklarını ve bu yüzden Coal Chamber' dan ayrılmasının en iyisi olacağını  söyledi.

2003 yazında bir derleme albüm olan Giving The Devil His Due çıkarıldı. Bu albümde grubun Road Runner ile çalışmaya başlamadan önce yaptıkları birkaç demo şarkı ve önceki albümlerinden yeniden derledikleri remix ve stüdyo kaydı şarkıları yer aldı.

Dez Fafara' nın Groove/Metalcore grubu DevilDriver' ı kurmak için grubtan ayrılmasından kısa bir süre sonra Coal Chamber dağıldı.

2005 yılında Fafara grubun gelecekte hiçbir zaman tekrar bir araya gelmeyeceğini açıkladı.

Coal Chamber sonrası

Fafara vokalisti olduğu DevilDriver grubu ile beraber şu ana kadar 2 albüm çıkardı. Gitarist Meegs Rascon eski adı "Pinata" olan "Glass Pinata" isimli gruba katıldı. Grubun şu ana kadar sadece web sitelerinden yayınladıkları demo kayıtları bulunmaktadır.

Grup üyeleri

 Meegs Rascón - Gitar
 Dez Fafara - Vokal
 Rayna Foss-Rose - Bas gitar (1995-2002)
 Nadja Peulen - Bas gitar (2002-2003)
 Mikey "Bug" Cox - Davul

Albümler

 Coal Chamber (1997)
 Chamber Music (1999)
 Dark Days (2002)
 Giving the Devil His Due (2003, derleme)
 The Best Of Coal Chamber (2004, derleme)
 Rivals (2015)

Dış bağlantılar
 Coal Chamber Resmi Sitesi

Amerikalı nu metal grupları
Amerikalı alternatif metal grupları
Amerikalı endüstriyel metal grupları
Amerikalı gotik metal grupları
Müzikal beşliler
Roadrunner Records sanatçıları
Müzikal dörtlüler
Napalm Records sanatçıları
Los Angeles'ta müzik
1993'te Kaliforniya'da kurulan oluşumlar
1993'te Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nde kurulan oluşumlar
1993'te kurulan müzik grupları
2003'te dağılan müzik grupları
2011'de kurulan müzik grupları

Coal Chamber


The Glorious Art of Breaking Little Girls' Hearts and Blowing Big Boys' Brains er et studiealbum af den danske musiker Lars Muhl, udgivet i 1986 på Genlyd. Det var Muhls første udgivelse i eget navn efter opløsningen af hans gruppe Warm Guns i 1984.

Albummet indeholder bl.a. Lars Muhls mest kendte komposition "One More Minute", der er blevet indspillet på andre sprog af kunstnere som f.eks. danske Lis Sørensen ("Indtil dig igen", 1985), norske Sissel Kyrkjebø ("Inn til deg", 1986) og franske Fabienne Guyon ("Amour Cristal", 1987).

Lars Daneskov skrev i musikmagasinet MM i 1986, at Lars Muhl som sangskriver i Warm Guns gang på gang afslørede sig som en af dansk rocks største romantikere, "og også på egen hånd er Muhl manden, der til hver en tid står ved sine laster. Selvfølgelig bliver der på The Glorious Art… tro mod titlen pustet til de store drenges hjerner med rock for fulde gardiner, men det er i første omgang de intime og blødende ballader for nedrullede samme, man bliver ved at vende tilbage til på denne plade. […] Muhl er aldrig bange for at være banal, og det er måske der hans allerstørste styrke ligger. Sålænge det gavner sagen og sangen, viger han ikke tilbage for at låne lidt rundt omkring og benytte sig af det genbrug, han selv engang har kaldt »stafetten mellem generationerne«."

I et tilbageblik, 24 år efter udgivelsen, skrev Torben Bille om albummet, at "anslaget var så grandiost som titlen, en blanding af David Bowie, Scott Walker og Gustav Winckler, og egentlig helt uden for tiden."

Spor

Medvirkende
 Lars Muhl – vokal, keyboards, kor, arrangementer
 Troels Møller – trommer, percussion, guitar, mundharpesolo ("Even Losers Get Lucky Sometimes"), arrangementer
 Thomas Breckling – guitar, keyboards, percussion
 Aske Jacoby – guitar, kor, guitarsolo ("Big Boys Are Hungry")
 Finn Verwohlt – guitar
 Bent Warny – guitar
 Tom B. Olesen – bas
 Jesper Mardahl – bas
 Simon West – keyboards
 Claes Antonsen – trommer
 Uffe Isaksen – percussion
 Charlotte Hansen – kor
 Thomas Helmig – kor
 Niels Hoppe – blæsere, arrangementer, saxofonsolo ("Why Don't You Love Me", "Behind Closed Doors")
 Stig Boel – blæsere
 Knud Erik Nørgaard – blæsere
 Lars Kvist-Jensen – strygere, arrangementer
 Hanna Høy Hovengaard – strygere
 Dorthe Rolsted Jessen – strygere
 Christina Åstrand – strygere
 Lars Kiehn – arrangementer

Produktion
  Lars Muhl – producer
  Thomas Breckling – producer, teknik, mix
 Tom Jeppesen – teknik (assistent)
 Valle V. Petersen (Kaas & Pihlkjær), Brainstorm – albumcover, koncept
 Kim Agersten – foto
 Jesper Mardahl – supervisor

Referencer

Litteratur
 Muhl, Lars (1993): Sjæl i flammer. Hovedland
 Daneskov, Lars (1986): Det Virtuelle Musikbibliotek på dvm.nu . Anmeldelse, MM (17-11-2015)
 Bille, Torben (2010): Midt i en beat tid - Muhl vendte rocken ryggen (17-11-2015)

Eksterne henvisninger
 The Glorious Art på Discogs.com (17-11-2015)

Album fra 1986
Lars Muhl-album


Energetska samodostatnost države predstavlja mogućnost pojedine države da sama zadovoljava svoje energetske potrebe vlastitih izvora energije primarne energije ili kroz samostalnu proizvodnju energije. Većina država trenutno nije energetski samodostatna zbog nedostatka vlastitih izvora primarne energije, stoga su ovisne o uvozu iz drugih država. Primarna energija je oblik energije uzet iz prirode bez pretvorbe ili procesa transformacije. To je energija sadržana u kemijskom potencijalu fosilnih goriva, drva ili biomase, nuklearnoj energiji, kinetičkoj energiji vjetra, potencijalnoj energiji vodenih tokova ili toplinskoj energiji geotermalnih izvora.

Prema podacima iz 2017. godine najveću potrošnju, ali i proizvodnju primarne energije ima Kina dok prema udjelu dobave prednjače Norveška (7.27) i Angola (6.26).Treba naglasiti da ovi koeficijenti ne prikazuju ekonomsku moć zemlje nego čisti odnos proizvedene i potrošene primarne energije.

Tablica prikazuje popis država i njihovu ukupnu dobavu primarne energije unutar granica same države, ukupnu potrošenu energiju(TES-Total Energy Supply) te udio proizvedene i potrošene energije koja je vidljiva i na karti. Sve veličine izražene su u teravat satima (TWh).

Karta na dnu stranice prikazuje zemlje svijeta kao uvoznike ili izvoznike neto količine energije. Neto uvoznici su države koje imaju veću energetsku potražnju nego proizvodnju, dok su neto izvoznici države koje imaju veću energetsku proizvodnju od potražnje.

Izvori
https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tables?country=WORLD

http://data.un.org/explorer.aspx

http://lert.co.nz/map/

Energetika

Popis država prema energetskoj samodostatnosti


Sveitarstjórnarkosningar árið 1998 voru haldnar 23. maí 1998.

Reykjavík
Reykjavíkurlistinn hélt meirihluta sínum, hlaut 8 borgarfulltúa og Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn fékk 7.
Í framboði: Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn, Reykjavíkurlistinn, Húmanistar (áður Flokkur Mannsins) og Launalistinn.

Sameiningar sveitarfélaga
Sveitarfélagið Árborg varð til við sameiningu 4 sveitarfélaga: Selfossbæjar, Eyrarbakkahrepps, Stokkseyrarhrepps og Sandvíkurhrepps
Kjalarneshreppur sameinaðist Reykjavíkurborg.
Borgarbyggð varð til við sameiningu Álftaneshrepps, Borgarbyggðar, Borgarhrepps og Þverárhlíðarhrepps.
Borgarfjarðarsveit varð til við sameiningu Andakílshrepps, Hálsahrepps, Lundarreykjardalshrepps og Reykholtsdalshrepps.
Sveitarfélagið Skagafjörður varð til með sameiningu ellefu hreppa:  Skefilsstaðahrepps, Sauðárkrókskaupstaðar, Skarðshrepps, Staðarhrepps, Seyluhrepps, Lýtingsstaðahrepps, Rípurhrepps, Viðvíkurhrepps, Hólahrepps, Hofshrepps og Fljótahrepps.

Tengill
Kosningasaga 1998

Sveitarstjórnarkosningar á Íslandi
1998

Sveitarstjórnarkosningar á Íslandi 1998


ستير الرياضية بجرزونة، هو نادي رياضي تونسي مقره بلدة جرزونة الواقعة شمال البلاد في ولاية بنزرت. يتبع النادي الشركة التونسية لصناعات التكرير (ستير) التي تتخذ من جرزونة مقرا لها. ينشط فريق كرة القدم للنادي في الرابطة التونسية المحترفة الثانية لكرة القدم بعد أن صعد من الدرجة الثالثة سنة 2008. يدرب الفريق الهادي الكوني الذي يعين خلفا لبلحسن مرياح. يضم النادي أيضا فرعا ينشط في رياضة الكاراتيه.

أبرز اللاعبين القدامى
  قيس بن يخلف
  شاكر السحباني
  منير الزرلي

أندية رياضية في تونس
أندية كرة قدم أسست في 1961
أندية كرة قدم في تونس
بنزرت
تأسيسات سنة 1961 في تونس

ستير الرياضية بجرزونة


Andrej Kiviljov (født 20. september 1973, død 12. marts 2003) var en professionel cykelrytter fra Kasakhstan.

Den 11. marts 2003 kørte Kiviljov 2. etape af Paris-Nice mellem La Clayette og Saint-Étienne. Ca. 40 kilometer fra målet kolliderede Kiviljov med sin polske holdkammerat Marek Rutkiewicz og tyske Volker Ordowski. Rutkiewicz og Ordowski kom ikke alvorligt til skade og kørte i mål, men Kiviljov faldt af sin cykel og rejste sig ikke op. Han kom på hospitalet, hvor han blev diagnosticeret med alvorlige kraniebrud og to brækkede ribben. Hans tilstand blev forværret over natten, og Kiviljov døde af sine skader kl.10:00 den 12. marts 2003.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Mandlige cykelryttere fra Kasakhstan

Andrej Kiviljov


Zmijino brdo je brdo na Pelješcu. Mjesto Orebići nalazi se u njegovom južnom podnožju, a Duba Pelješka u sjevernom podnožju. Najviši vrh je Sveti Ilija. Na vrhu se nalazi križ.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Brda u Hrvatskoj
Pelješac

Zmijino brdo


Theodorus (Theo) Lambertus Verhoeven (* 1907; † 1990) war ein niederländischer Priester und Missionar S.V.D. der römisch-katholischen Kirche, der in den 1950er- und 1960er-Jahren an den katholischen Priesterseminaren Mataloko und Ritapiret auf der indonesischen Insel Flores tätig war. Seine archäologischen und paläontologischen Ausgrabungen auf Flores – zwischen 1950 und 1967 unter anderem im Soa-Becken und in der Höhle Liang Bua – wiesen anderen Forschern in den 1990er-Jahren den Weg zu ergiebigen Fossillagerstätten und führten unter anderem 2003 zur Entdeckung des Homo floresiensis. Sein Name wird im wissenschaftlichen Schrifttum manchmal zu Theodor Verhoeven verkürzt.

Leben
Theodorus Verhoeven studierte an der Universität Utrecht klassische Sprachen und wurde 1948 mit einer Dissertation Studiën over Tertullianus' Adversus Praxean, voornamelijk betrekking hebbend op Monarchia, Oikonomia, Probola in verband met de Triniteit promoviert. Er lebte, mit einer Unterbrechung von eineinhalb Jahre, die er größtenteils in Holland verbrachte, fast 16 Jahre lang auf Flores, wo er bereits 1950 erstmals den späteren Fundort des Homo floresiensis, die Höhle Liang Bua, besuchte, die früher als Grundschule genutzt war.

Paläontologische Forschung auf Flores
1956 lenkte der Raja von Nage Keo Verhoevens Aufmerksamkeit auf die im Soa-Becken, nahe der aufgegebenen Ortschaft Ola Bula, durch Erosion zutage tretenden Knochen. Das Ergebnis seiner großflächigen Grabungen – vor allem zahlreiche Funde von Stegodon-Knochen – publizierte Verhoeven erstmals 1958. Nach einem Streit mit dem Raja über die Höhe des Entgelts für weitere Grabungen suchte Verhoeven nach Alternativen im Soa-Becken, die er rund 3,5 Kilometer von Ola Bula fand. An den Mata Menge, Lemba Menge und Boa Lesa genannten Fundstellen legte er ab 1963 neben weiteren Stegodon-Fossilien erstmals auch Steinwerkzeuge frei, unter anderem Chopper und Faustkeile. Verhoeven schloss daraus, dass Stegodon und frühe Individuen der Gattung Homo gleichzeitig auf Flores gelebt hatten. Weil auf Java nachgewiesen worden war, dass dort Homo erectus und Stegodon vor rund 750.000 Jahren koexistierten, vermutete Verhoeven in einer 1968 veröffentlichten Schrift zudem, dass die Steinwerkzeuge von Flores ähnlich alt seien und Homo erectus demnach auch Flores besiedelt hatte. Weitere Ausgrabungen festigten diese Vermutung und schlugen sich 1970 in zwei Publikationen nieder, die gemeinsam mit einem Priester-Anthropologen, Johannes Maringer vom Anthropos-Institut, veröffentlicht wurden.

Die hauptberuflich tätigen Paläoanthropologen misstrauten jedoch den Schlussfolgerungen der beiden Priester: Zum einen wurde bezweifelt, dass die entdeckten Steine tatsächlich bearbeitete Werkzeuge waren, zum anderen wurde der Datierung kein Glauben geschenkt und unterstellt, dass die Steinwerkzeuge jünger seien und zufällig in tiefere, Stegodon-führende Bodenschichten geraten sein könnten. Zudem war Flores selbst während der Eiszeiten stets vollständig von Wasser umgeben, es gab starke Strömungen zwischen den benachbarten Inseln, und man traute dem Homo erectus nicht zu, dass er hochseetüchtige Wasserfahrzeuge bauen konnte. Zur Missachtung von Verhoevens Schlussfolgerungen trug ferner bei, dass Verhoevens Veröffentlichungen zumeist auf Deutsch und nicht auf Englisch erschienen.

Ernst genommen wurden Verhoevens Studien erst Ende der 1970er-Jahre, nachdem er in Zusammenhang mit seinen Funden auf Flores, besucht wurde von Paul Sondaar (1934–2003) von der Universität Utrecht, einem Schüler von Gustav Heinrich Ralph von Koenigswald. 1992 und 1994 erbrachten Feldstudien durch Sondaar, Fachroel Aziz und andere tatsächlich, dass erneut bei Mata Menge geborgene Steinwerkzeuge und Stegodon-Knochen rund 730.000 Jahre alt sind; doch auch diese Datierung wurde von der Fachwelt zunächst angezweifelt. Erst nachdem 1998 eine Altersbestimmung weiterer Funde per Zirkon-Spaltspurendatierung in der Fachzeitschrift Nature veröffentlicht worden war, wurde die Interpretation der Funde von Flores, wie sie Verhoeven bereits 40 Jahre zuvor publiziert hatte, anerkannt. Die nachfolgende, gezielte Suche nach weiteren Spuren dieser frühen Besiedelung durch Homo führte 2003 zur Entdeckung von Homo floresiensis in der Höhle Liang Bua.

Außer den Grabungen im Soa-Becken hatte Verhoeven zahlreiche Kalkstein-Höhlen archäologisch untersucht, darunter neben Liang Bua auch Liang Panas, Liang Michael, Liang Momer, Liang Toge, Batu Cermin, Liang Melima und Liang Tekip.

Ehrungen
Nach Theodorus Verhoeven wurde eine fossil überlieferte, auf der Insel Flores endemisch gewesene Art der Flores-Riesenratten benannt, Papagomys theodorverhoeveni.

Literatur
 Robert G. Bednarik: The maritime dispersal of Pleistocene humans. In: Migration and Diffusion. Band 3, Nr. 10, 2002, S. 6–33, Volltext (PDF).
 Gert M. Knepper: Floresmens. Het leven van Theo Verhoeven, missionaris en archeoloog. Boekscout, Soest (Niederlande) 2019, ISBN 978-9-46-3892476 (= Verhoeven-Biographie, auf Niederländisch)

Weblinks

Belege

Römisch-katholischer Geistlicher (20. Jahrhundert)
Steyler Missionar
Paläontologe
Absolvent der Universität Utrecht
Person (Indonesien)
Niederländer
Gestorben 1990
Geboren 1907
Mann

Theodorus Verhoeven


هامر إتش 1 هي سيارة متعددة الأغراض صممت للعمل في أقسى الظروف وعلى أوعر الطرق، أنتجت بواسطة شركة ايه ام جنرال عام 1992-2005 وكانت أول إنتاج لفئة هامر في العالم

التاريخ
ظهرت في سوق السيارات الأمريكي للمرة الأولى عام 1992 واكتسبت شهرتها من الصور التي عرضت لها أثناء عملية عاصفة الصحراء العسكرية الأمريكية ,أيضا استفادت من الحملة الإعلامية الضخمة التي قادها الممثل الأمريكي آرنولد شوارزنيجر والذي كان يمتلك عدة موديلات من السيارة، أعلنت الشركة المنتجة عام 2006 ان موديل هذا العام هو آخر أصدار لهذا الجيل من السيارة، تقلص أنتاجها في يونيو 2006 بسبب القانون الجديد لإنبعاثات محركات الديزل للسيارات الذي بدأ سريانه في عام 2007.

المواصفات

لهامر إتش وان ثلاثة موديلات عرفت بهم، الموديل ذو الباببين والموديل ذو الأربع أبواب والموديل القابل للتحويل، هناك موديلات أخرى لم تنتشر في السوق مثل الشاحنة البيك أب
حاليا هناك عدة تقنيات لنقل الحركة في موديلات تلك السيارة

 6.2 لتر ديزل جنرال موتورز V8 / جنرال موتورز TH400 / 3L80 3 السرعة
 L GM Diesel V8 / GM 4L80-E 4-speed 6.5 لتر ديزل جنرال موتورز V8 / جنرال موتورز 4L80 - هاء 4 سرعات
 5.7 L Vortec 5700 gasoline V8 TBI/ GM 4L80-E 4-speed 5.7 لتر Vortec 5700 البنزين V8 TBI / جنرال موتورز 4L80 - هاء 4 سرعات
 6.5 L turbo GM Diesel V8 / GM 4L80-E 4-speed 6.5 لتر توربو ديزل جنرال موتورز V8 / جنرال موتورز 4L80 - هاء 4 سرعات
 6.6 L turbo Duramax LLY turbo Diesel / Allison 1000 5-speed (model year 2006) 6.6 لتر توربو Duramax LLY توربو ديزل / أليسون 1000 5 السرعة (نموذج عام 2006)

السعر

أثناء خط إنتاج عام 1992، كان سعر السيارة بدون كماليات يساوى 40500 $ بينما كان سعرها مع الكماليات 54700 $.

في عام 2006، مع أسعار التجزئة المقترحة، كان سعر السيارة $ 129399.00 بدون كماليات 140796.00 دولار مع الكماليات

معرض صور

انظر ايضًا
 همر
 همر إتش 2
 همر إتش 3
 همر إتش إكس
 هامفي
 ايه ام جنرال
 النمر

سيارات همر
سيارات أمريكا
سيارات إس يو في
سيارات اخترعت في 1992
سيارات تدفع بجميع العجلات
سيارات رباعية الدفع
سيارات صنعت في الولايات المتحدة
سيارات عقد 2000
سيارات فارهة
مركبات طرق غير ممهدة

همر إتش 1


الكهف قد تشير إلى إحدى المقالات التالية:

 الكهف - التجويف الطبيعي في الصخر.
 : قصة وردت في القرآن الكريم.
 سورة الكهف: إحدى سور القرآن، تتضمن قصة أهل الكهف.
 كهف الماموث: كهف يقع في ولاية كنتاكي بالولايات المتحدة الأمريكية.
 ، كهف طبيعي عملاق عظيم الاتساع يقع في ولاية الحمراء بالمنطقة الداخلة بسلطنة عمان.

الكهف (توضيح)


A1 Telekom Austria Group (kraće A1; također A1 Telekom Austria AG) najveća je grupacija pružatelja mobilnih usluga, fiksnih usluga, širokopojasnih interneta, multimedijskih usluga, podatkovnih i IT sustava, veleprodajnih i mobilnih usluga plaćanja na području srednje i istočne Europe. Od 2014. godine prelazi u vlasništvo meksičkog telekomunikacijskog konglomerata América Móvil. Grupacija ima podružnice u osam europskih zemalja, a sjedište se nalazi u Beču. Najveća podružnica je austrijski telekomunikacijski operater A1 Telekom Austria.

Podružnice
A1 Austrija
A1 Bugarska
A1 Hrvatska
A1 Bjelorusija
A1 Slovenija
A1 Srbija
A1 Makedonija
A1 Digital
A1 Towers Bugarska
A1 Towers Hrvatska

Privatizacija
Dana 23. travnja 2014. telekomunikacijski konglomerat America Móvil preuzima vlasništvo nad grupacijom formiranjem sindikalnog sporazuma sa ÖBAG-om. Troškovi preuzimanja iznose 2 milijarde dolara za otkup manjinskih dioničara i oko 1 milijarda eura ulaganja u tvrtku. America Móvil vidi A1 Telekom Austria grupu kao "platformu za širenje na srednju i istočnu Europu".

Nagrade
Global Carrier Award Winner 2020 "Best European Project" - nagrada Global Carrier Award 2020 u kategoriji "Najbolji europski projekt" za "Dark Fiber".

CC Global Award 2019 - nagrada u kategoriji "Najbolja prilika za IOT" sa širokim rasponom usluga temeljenih na IOT-u kao što su povezani automobili, zdravstvena skrb, praćenje imovine, pametno mjerenje i pametni grad na GCCM-u.

Global Carrier Award Winner 2018 "Best OTT Partnership" - Nagrada u kategoriji "Najbolje OTT partnerstvo" s novom platformom za naplatu putem mobilnog operatera.

GTB Innovation Award Winner, 2017 - nagrada za projekt "A-Number Verification Project".

ISO Certifications - nagrada u kategorijama "Sustav upravljanja informacijskom sigurnošću", "Telekomunikacijske usluge" i "Sustav upravljanja kvalitetom".

MEF Certification - nagrada za portfelj Ethernet proizvoda.

Literatura
Prihodi
Nagrade

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Službena stranica
A1 Telekom Austria Group na Twitteru
A1 Telekom Austria Group na YouTubeu
A1 Telekom Austria Group na Linkedinu

 Službene stranice

Austrijske tvrtke
Telekomunikacijske tvrtke
Pružatelji internetskih usluga

A1 Telekom Austria Group


Born Free is a 1966 British drama film starring the real-life couple Virginia McKenna and Bill Travers as Joy and George Adamson, another real-life couple, who raised Elsa the Lioness, an orphaned lion cub, to adulthood and released her into the wilderness of Kenya. The film was produced by Open Road Films Ltd. and Columbia Pictures. The screenplay, written by blacklisted Hollywood writer Lester Cole (under the pseudonym "Gerald L.C. Copley"), was based upon Joy Adamson's 1960 non-fiction book Born Free. The film was directed by James Hill and produced by Sam Jaffe and Paul Radin.  Born Free, and its musical score, by John Barry, as well as the title song, with lyrics by Don Black and sung by Matt Monro, won numerous awards.

Plot
In the Northern Province of Kenya, a woman is killed and eaten by a male lion. British senior wildlife warden George Adamson (Bill Travers) is sent in to kill the menacing lion and also his female, who charges him in defence of her three cubs. Realizing they are now motherless, George brings the three cubs home to his wife Joy (Virginia McKenna) and raises them. They name the cubs Big One, Lastika, and Elsa, who is the youngest and the one which Joy and George become especially attached to. When the cubs get too old, the older two are sent to Rotterdam Zoo but the Adamsons choose to keep Elsa.

Some years later, Joy and George soon have to travel to Kiunga as George has been told by his boss, John Kendall (Geoffrey Keen) about a lion who is killing goats in a local village. George successfully manages to kill the lion and he and Joy are able to share a special holiday with Elsa, where they introduce her to the Indian Ocean. On returning to the Northern Province, the Adamsons learn that Elsa has caused a massive elephant stampede. Kendall states that the Adamsons can no longer keep Elsa and must find a zoo to take her in. However, Joy instead wishes to teach Elsa how to survive in the wild, which Kendall reluctantly gives her and George three months to do.

Joy and George travel to Meru National Park where they aim to release Elsa. Initially, they attempt to introduce Elsa to a male lion, which does not go to plan – they leave her overnight with a fresh zebra kill but return in the morning to find her all by herself. Elsa is constantly taken out to the bush but fails to make a kill, getting attacked by a warthog on one of these outings. Eventually, Joy and George decide to leave Elsa in the bush for at least a week and change the location of their camp so that Elsa can become more independent. However, they find her severely injured (possibly by wild lions). Joy still believes that she can teach Elsa to survive as she opposes sending her to a zoo, where she will have no freedom. This proves to be a good decision as Elsa eventually starts leaving the Adamsons for days at a time and eventually makes several kills. The Adamsons thus take her out for her final test – an attempt to join a wild pride. Elsa manages to fight a wild lioness and is accepted into the pride – Joy and George are overjoyed at their success but promise to see their dear friend again when they return to Kenya.

A year later, the Adamsons return to Kenya and are given a week to find Elsa. They are overjoyed to see that Elsa has succeeded as a wild lion and is now the mother of three cubs. However, Joy and George both agree that they will not interact with the cubs, allowing them to survive as wild lions.

Cast
 Virginia McKenna as Joy Adamson
 Bill Travers as George Adamson
 Geoffrey Keen as John Kendall
 Peter Lukoye as Nuru
 Surya Patel as the Doctor
 Geoffrey Best as Watson, a big game hunter
 Bill Godden as Sam

The film's credits list lions and lionesses Boy, Girl, Henrietta, Mara, Ugas, and "the Cubs".

Production
The film reunited the real-life couple Bill Travers and Virginia McKenna as a couple first seen together in The Smallest Show on Earth in 1957.

George Adamson served as chief technical advisor on the film and discusses his involvement in his first autobiography, Bwana Game (UK title, 1968), known in the US as A Lifetime with Lions. According to Ben Mankiewicz, who introduces the film on Turner Classic Movies, the production unit mainly used wild lions.

The making of the film was a life-changing experience for actors Virginia McKenna and her husband Bill Travers, who became animal rights activists and were instrumental in creating the Born Free Foundation.

One of the lions in the film was played by a former mascot of the Scots Guards, who had to leave him behind when they left Kenya.
The producers also acknowledged the help received from Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia and the Game Department of Uganda.

Critical response and box-office
Born Free received critical acclaim. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 88% of 17 film critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 7.1 out of 10.

Vincent Canby waxed enthusiastic about the film, writing in The New York Times, "Almost from the opening shot – a vast expanse of corn-coloured African plain where lions feed on the carcass of a freshly killed zebra – one knows that Joy Adamson's best-selling book Born Free has been entrusted to honest, intelligent filmmakers. Without minimising the facts of animal life or overly sentimentalising them, this film casts an enchantment that is just about irresistible."

The film was one of the most popular movies at the box office in Britain during 1966.

Accolades

The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
 2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:
 "Born Free" – Nominated
 2005: AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores – Nominated

Sequels and spinoffs
The book Born Free (1960) was followed by two other books, Living Free (1961) and Forever Free (1963). In 1972, a film sequel entitled Living Free was released. While deriving its name from the second book, the film was based on the third book in the series. It starred Susan Hampshire and Nigel Davenport as Joy and George Adamson although the film was not as well-received as its predecessor.

A documentary follow-up to Born Free, entitled The Lions Are Free, was released in 1969. The film follows Born Free-actor Bill Travers as he journeys to a remote area in Kenya to visit George Adamson, and several of Adamson's lion friends.

In 1974, a 13-episode American television series was broadcast by NBC, entitled Born Free, starring Diana Muldaur and Gary Collins as Joy and George Adamson. The series was later followed by television film in 1996 called Born Free: A New Adventure, with Linda Purl and Chris Noth. Joy and George Adamson do not appear as the main characters in the story. It spawned a TV series in 1998, but none of the episodes aired in the U.S.

To Walk with Lions (1999) depicts the last years of George Adamson's life, as seen through the eyes of his assistant, Tony Fitzjohn. George is portrayed by Richard Harris, and Honor Blackman makes a brief appearance as Joy.

The one-hour Nature documentary Elsa's Legacy: The Born Free Story was released on PBS stations in January 2011. It includes a collection of archival footage and an exploration into the lives of Joy and George Adamson during the years following release of the film.

See also
 Christian the lion

References

External links

Born Free website for the Born Free Foundation

1966 films
1960s adventure drama films
British children's adventure films
British adventure drama films
British films based on actual events
Children's drama films
Columbia Pictures films
Environmental films
Films scored by John Barry (composer)
Films adapted into television shows
Films directed by James Hill (British director)
Films set in Australia
Films set in Papua New Guinea
Films set in Kenya
Films set in the British Empire
Films about orphans
Films about lions
Films set in Africa
Films shot in Kenya
Films that won the Best Original Song Academy Award
Films that won the Best Original Score Academy Award
1960s children's adventure films
Films based on non-fiction books
1966 drama films
1960s English-language films
1960s British films

Born Free


El topónimo Woodlake puede hacer referencia a dos lugares de Estados Unidos:

 Woodlake, una ciudad en el estado de California; o
 Woodlake, un lugar designado por el censo en el estado de Virginia.

Woodlake


"Ceva pe gratis" ("Something for Nothing") este o povestire științifico-fantastică umoristică scrisă de autorul american Robert Sheckley. A apărut inițial în revista Galaxy Science Fiction din iunie 1954 și apoi a fost publicată în colecția de povestiri Citizen in Space (1955).
În limba română a fost tradusă de Delia Ivănescu și a fost publicată în volumul Monștrii (1995, Editura Nemira, Colecția Nautilus).

Prezentare

Joe Collins, în mod involuntar, intră în posesia unei Mașinării ("The Utilizer") aparent provenind din viitor, fabricată de o civilizație cu puteri imense. Mașinăria are doar o plăcuță de metal, un buton roșu și un bâzâit ușor. Într-adevăr, această mașină are capacitatea de a îndeplini toate dorințele pe care posesorul acesteia le are. Acesta poate să-i ceară Mașinării totul "pentru nimic" (sau gratis) (de aici și titlul povestirii).

Adaptări
Povestirea a fost ecranizată în 1996 ca scurtmetrajul The Utilizer, în regia lui Craig Barron, cu Jamie Bozian în rolul lui Collins, Sharon Omi ca Flign și William Sanderson ca Leek.

În 2020 a fost ecranizat ca lungmetrajul Ceva pe gratis (Кое-что задаром), regia Alexey Talyzin, cu Maksim Ponomaryov, Aleksandr Udalov, Igor Botvin și Igor Lifanov. Filmările au început în Rusia din 2015.

Referințe și note

Legături externe

Povestiri americane
Povestiri de Robert Sheckley
Povestiri din 1954
Povestiri științifico-fantastice
Povestiri umoristice
1954 în științifico-fantastic

Ceva pe gratis


Agdaški rajon (azerski: Ağdaş rayonu) je jedan od 66 azerbajdžanskih rajona. Agdaški rajon se nalazi u unutrašnjosti Azerbajdžana. Središte rajona je Agdaš. Površina Agdaškog rajona iznosi 1050 km². Agdaški rajon je prema popisu stanovništva iz 2009. imao 98 599 stanovnika, od čega su 48 836 muškarci, a 49 763 žene.

Agdaški rajon se sastoji od 15 općina.

Izvori

Rajoni Azerbajdžana

Agdaški rajon


Kento Tsurumaki (født 29. juni 1987) er en tidligere japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Tokyo Verdy og Matsumoto Yamaga FC.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Kento Tsurumaki


Alexandre Lacazette (născut pe 28 mai 1991, Lyon, Franța) este un fotbalist francez ce joacă pe postul de atacant la clubul francez Olympique Lyonnais și pentru Naționala Franței. Acesta este bine cunoscut atât pentru viteza sa, cât și pentru efortul depus pe parcursul meciurilor.

Cu peste 200 de meciuri jucate în toate competițiile pentru Lyon, Lacazette s-a arătat a fi un adevărat marcator, înscriind peste 100 de goluri pentru clubul francez. În 2014-15 acesta a devenit golgheterul Ligue 1, marcând nu mai puțin de 27 de goluri în 33 de meciuri, fiind de asemenea premiat drept cel mai bun jucător al anului din campionatul francez. Lacazatte a devenit, la acea vreme, cel mai scump transfer din istoria lui Arsenal după ce tunarii au achitat 53 de milioane de euro în 2017 pentru serviciile acestuia.

Totodată, Lacazette a reprezentat Franța la toate nivelurile de tineret. Acesta a câștigat Campionatul European U19 din 2010 după ce a marcat golul victoriei în finala cu Spania. Lacazette a făcut debutul cu echipa de seniori în iunie 2013, marcând primul său gol în martie 2015.

Statistici

Club

Națională

Goluri la națională

Palmares

Lyon

 Coupe de France: 2011–12
 Trophée des Champions: 2012

Arsenal

 FA Cup: 2019–20
 FA Community Shield: 2017, 2020
 UEFA Europa League runner-up: 2018–19

Franța U17

 UEFA European Under-17 Championship runner-up: 2008

Franța U19

 UEFA European Under-19 Championship: 2010

Individual
 UNFP Ligue 1 Team of the Year: 2013–14, 2014–15, 2016–17
 UNFP Ligue 1 Player of the Year: 2014–15
 Cel mai bun marcator din Ligue 1: 2014–15
 Onze de Bronze: 2014–15
 UNFP Ligue 1 Player of the Month: decembrie 2014, ianuarie 2015, august 2016
 UEFA Europa League Squad of the Season: 2016–17
 Arsenal Player of the Season: 2018–19

Referințe

Fotbaliști francezi
Nașteri în 1991
Fotbaliști ai lui Olympique Lyonnais
Fotbaliști ai Arsenal FC
Sportivi francezi în viață

Alexandre Lacazette


Daždevnjakov rep (saururus, lat. Saururus), manji biljni rod iz porodice saururusovki, koja pripada radu paparolike. sastoji se od svega dvije priznate vrste, i to jedna, Saururus cernuus, iz Sjeverne Amerike i druga S. chinensis, iz Azije.

Daždevnjakov rep je vodena trajnica, lokalno nazivana Lizard's tail. Latinski naziv Saururus, dolazi od grčkih riječi sauros, što znači gušter i oura što znači rep.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

Saururusovke

Daždevnjakov rep


Litauen foråret 1990 er en dokumentarfilm fra 1990 instrueret af Sonja Vesterholt efter manuskript af Sonja Vesterholt.

Handling
De baltiske republikker vil frigøre sig fra USSR. I filmen skildres nuanceret og personligt, hvordan situationen er i Litauen. Her er de nationale følelser og frihedstrangen stærk, men også for de russiske soldater, der skal ud af republikken, er der store problemer. Hvem og hvad skal de vende hjem til?

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Baltikum
Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1990

Litauen foråret 1990


විද්‍යාවේ සහ තාක්‍ෂණයේ ඉතිහාසය, වෙනස් නමුත් ඒකාබද්ධ ක්ෂේත්‍ර දෙකක් ගැන ඉගෙන ගන්න. විද්‍යාඥයින් පරික්ෂණ පැවැත්වීමට සහ න්‍යායන් වලංගු කිරීමට පරිණාමය වන තාක්ෂණය මත විශ්වාසය තබයි. නිදසුනක් වශයෙන්, ගැලීලියෝ 1600 ගණන්වල මුල් භාගයේදී දුරේක්ෂයක් භාවිතා කරමින් සූර්යයා පෘථිවිය වටා භ්‍රමණය වන බවට පැරණි විශ්වාසයන් උඩු යටිකුරු කළේය. විද්‍යාත්මක පර්යේෂණ සඳහා මූලික නීති ස්ථාපිත කිරීමේ ගෞරවය ගැලීලියෝට හිමි වුවද, සූර්යයා විශ්වයේ මධ්‍යයේ තැබූ පළමු විද්‍යාඥයා ඔහු නොවේ. ගැලීලියෝට සියවසකට පෙර, නිකොලස් කොපර්නිකස්ගේ ස්වර්ගය පිළිබඳ අධ්‍යයනය ඔහුගේ සූර්ය කේන්ද්‍රවාදය පිළිබඳ පෙරළිකාර න්‍යායන් ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කිරීමට හේතු විය.

විද්‍යාත්මක විප්ලවය 17 වැනි සියවසේදී එහි උච්චතම අවස්ථාවට ළඟා වූ අතර ශ්‍රීමත් අයිසැක් නිව්ටන් ප්‍රමුඛයා විය. ඔහුගේ චලිත නියමයන් හෙළිදරව් කිරීම නවීන භෞතික විද්‍යාවේ උපත දියත් කළේය. නිව්ටන් වැනි ඉංග්‍රීසි ජාතිකයෙකු වූ විලියම් හාවි රුධිර සංසරණය පිළිබඳ අධ්‍යයනයෙන් නවීන ජීව විද්‍යාව ස්ථාපිත කළේය. මේ අතර, ලන්දේසි භෞතික විද්‍යාඥ Christian Huygens ගේ වැඩ කටයුතු දෘෂ්ටි විද්‍යාව සහ යාන්ත්‍ර විද්‍යාව යන ක්ෂේත්‍රවල දියුණුවට පත් විය. හියුජන්ස් පෙන්ඩුලම් ඔරලෝසුව ද සොයා ගත්තේය.

තාක්ෂණය සහ නවෝත්පාදනයන් ඉදිරි සියවස් කිහිපය තුළ ලෝකය නැවත හැඩගස්වා ඇත. වාෂ්ප එන්ජිම 1800 ගණන්වල මුල් භාගයේ කාර්මික විප්ලවය බලගැන්වූ ගාමක බලවේගය වූ අතර, කපු ජින් සොයා ගැනීම සිවිල් යුද්ධයේ පැමිණීම වේගවත් කළේය. දුම්රිය එන්ජින් සහ අභ්‍යන්තර දහන එන්ජිම දුම්රිය මාර්ග සහ මහාමාර්ග සංවර්ධනයට හේතු වූ අතර ආර්ථික විද්‍යාව සහ ඇමරිකානු සමාජය විශාල වශයෙන් පරිවර්තනය කළේය. දශක ගණනාවකට පසු ගුවන් ගමන් ද එම බලපෑමක් ඇති කරනු ඇත. ඒ වගේම ටෙලිග්‍රාෆ්, දුරකථන, ගුවන්විදුලිය, රූපවාහිනිය සහ චලන පින්තූර නිසා මිනිසුන් ව්‍යාපාර කරන ආකාරය සහ විවේක කාලය ගත කරන ආකාරය වෙනස් කළා.

20 වැනි සියවසේදී, ප්‍රධාන චරිත කිහිපයක් විද්‍යාව තවදුරටත් විප්ලවීය වෙනසක් ඇති කළේය: ඇල්බට් අයින්ස්ටයින්, ඔහුගේ සාපේක්ෂතාවාදය සමඟ; මැක්ස් ප්ලාන්ක්, ක්වොන්ටම් න්‍යාය පිළිබඳ ඔහුගේ අධ්‍යයනය හරහා; සහ ක්වොන්ටම් යාන්ත්‍ර විද්‍යා ක්ෂේත්‍රය නිර්මානය කළ වර්නර් හයිසන්බර්ග්. ජීව විද්‍යාවේදී, DNA අණුවේ ද්විත්ව හෙලික්ස ව්‍යුහය සිතියම් ගත කළ ජේම්ස් වොට්සන් සහ ෆ්‍රැන්සිස් ක්‍රික් විසින් වඩාත් ඓතිහාසික ජයග්‍රහණවලින් එකක් විය. එපමණක් නොව, වසූරිය සහ පෝලියෝ වැනි භයානක වසංගත තුරන් කිරීම සඳහා විද්‍යාත්මක පර්යේෂණ ඉතා වැදගත් විය.

20 වැනි සියවසේ අවසාන භාගයේ පරිගණක දියුණු කිරීම ඊටත් වඩා විශාල විද්‍යාත්මක ප්‍රගතියක් ඇති කිරීමට හේතු විය. පරිගණක මගින් පර්යේෂකයන්ට දත්ත සැකසීමට සහ ක්ෂණිකව ගණනය කිරීම් සිදු කිරීමට සහ වැඩි නිරවද්‍යතාවයකින් ඉඩ ලබා දුන්නේය. තවද, විද්‍යාඥයින්ට පරිගණක ආකෘති භාවිතයෙන් ඔවුන්ගේ න්‍යායන් පරීක්ෂා කළ හැකිය. 21 වන සියවසේ මුල් භාගයේදී අන්තර්ජාලය සහ සමාජ මාධ්‍ය මිනිසුන් එකිනෙකා සමඟ අන්තර් ක්‍රියා කරන ආකාරය කෙරෙහි බලපා ඇත. ඇත්ත වශයෙන්ම, පරිගණක තාක්ෂණය ගැලීලියෝ සහ නිව්ටන්ට සිතාගත නොහැකි ආකාරයෙන් ලෝකය වෙනස් කර ඇත.

විද්‍යාව හා තාක්ෂණය දියුණු කිරීම


El colibrí coliancho,  chispita de cola ancha, zumbador coliancho, zumbador cola ancha o zumbador de cola ancha (Selasphorus platycercus)  es una especie de ave de la familia Trochilidae.  Es un picaflor de mediano tamaño con una longitud de aproximadamente 10 cm, nativa de América del Norte y Guatemala. No tiene subespecies reconocidas.

Descripción
Los colibríes coliancho son sexualmente dimórficos. Los machos tienen un gorjal metálico de color rosa iridiscente, lados y dorso de color verde con algo de color rufo en la cola. Las hembras son menos coloridas, carecen de un gorjal completo y exhiben costados de color beige y un dorso verde. Las hembras son más grandes que los machos, pero la masa corporal puede variar durante el transcurso de un día según la ingesta de néctar. Los machos jóvenes parecen hembras adultas y son difíciles de distinguir.

Habitat
Selasphorus platycercus es una especie migratoria con algunas poblaciones residentes en México. Las poblaciones migratorias se reproducen en Colorado y Wyoming, mientras que las poblaciones tropicales residentes se reproducen en el centro de México. Su rango de invierno se expande desde el norte de Guatemala hasta el norte de México. Falta información sobre poblaciones no migratorias.

El hábitat de reproducción de los colibríes de cola ancha incluye sauces alrededor de lechos de arroyos secos o húmedos, bosques de piñones, enebros, abetos y robles. Se sabe que anidan a una altura de hasta 3230 m. En su rango de invierno, que se superpone con el rango de reproducción de las poblaciones residentes en México, los colibríes de cola ancha usan bosques de espinos y robles en elevaciones más bajas, y bosques mixtos de robles, pinos y cipreses, así como bosques de abetos en elevaciones más altas. Debido a la disponibilidad durante todo el año de comederos para colibríes en algunas áreas, algunas personas han establecido su residencia en áreas urbanas y suburbanas del suroeste de los Estados Unidos.

Reproducción
Los colibríes de cola ancha tienen un sistema de apareamiento promiscuo en el que el macho y la hembra solo interactúan para la cópula. Los machos pueden aparearse con hasta seis hembras en una temporada. Los machos cortejan a las hembras haciendo una serie de exhibiciones de buceo.

Después de la cópula, la hembra puede quedarse y acicalarse durante unos minutos antes de volar. Los nidos son construidos solamente por la hembra, los cuales son cóncavos en forma de semicírculo en el cual se ponen dos huevos.

Las hembras de colibríes de cola ancha hacen el nido y crían solos a las crías. De diez a doce días después de la eclosión, las hembras comienzan a descansar lejos del nido, donde casi no hay suficiente espacio para que las crías se acurruquen juntas. Las hembras alimentan a los insectos jóvenes, en su mayoría pequeños, durante su desarrollo, y luego los abandonan para comenzar su migración hacia el sur.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

platycercus
Aves de América del Norte
Aves de América Central
Aves del Neártico
Taxones descritos por William John Swainson

Selasphorus platycercus


Idris este un profet antic menționat în Coran. El a fost identificat în timp atât ca Enoh cât și, de anumite ramuri ale islamului, drept Hermes Trismegistos.

Nume
Încercări de interpretare a numelui său dau ca etimologie verbul arabic pentru "a instructa" datorită pasiunii lui Enoh pentru studiul cărților sacre, dar și a rolului profetului ca mediator și interpret între mundan și divin.

În Coran
În Coran profetul Idris apare menționat de două ori:
 "Amintește-l pe Idris în Carte! El a fost un drept, un profet. Și Noi l-am ridicat la loc înalt." (sura 19:56-57)
 "Și Ismail, și Idris, și Du-l Kifl! Toți au fost răbădători. Noi i-am înconjurat cu milostenia Noastră. Ei sunt dintre cei drepți." (21:86)

Idris ca Hermes Trismegistos
Dat fiind interesul lor pentru ezoteric, ramura șiită ismailită a fost prima care l-a identificat pe Idris drept Hermes Trismegistos, asimilând astfel personajul antic islamului.
Printre primii autori ismailiți a căror gândire prezintă influențe hermetice a fost Jabir ibn Hayyan (sec. IX). bazându-se pe teoria din hermetism care spune că și obiectele neînsuflețite posedă niște calități care nu sunt perceptibile de către simțuri, dar și pe credința esoterică islamică în zahir și batin (manifest/ascuns, se aplică în special interpretării Coranului), elaborează "Teoria Balanței", și anume că în orice obiect există un anumit raport între zahir și batin, și își dedică timpul încercării de a afla acest raport. Adăugând la acestea și ideea că totul este transformare și devenire, el este unul dintre primii care au dorit obținerea "aurului pur". Corbin consideră că, din punctul lui Jabir de vedere, "fazele operației în mod real săvârșite asupra unei materii în mod real date, simbolizează cu fazele reîntoarcerii Sufletului la sine."  Cât despre textele atribuite lui Hermes, o idee legată de proprietățile ascunse ale obiectelor o întâlnim în Despre energie și senzație: "Energiile nu se găsesc numai în trupurile însuflețite, ci și în cele neînsuflețite, cum ar fi lemnul, piatra și alte asemenea lucruri."

Foarte important de menționat, în contextul legăturii dintre Jabir și Hermes, este textul numit Sirr al-Khaliqa, compus în secolele al nouălea sau al zecelea pe baza unor surse grecești și siriace, atribuit lui Hermes, dar scris de un anume Pseudo-Apollonius din Tyana (Balinas), care se presupune, de către unii, că ar fi fost chiar Jabir. Aceasta este cea mai timpurie, și probabil sursa originală, a celebrei Tabula Smaragdina,  chintesența gândirii hermetice, în care trimiterile alchimice sunt evidente. Aceasta mai apare și în versiunea lungă a lucrării Sirr Al-Asrar (Secretum Secretorum), scrisă tot în aceeași perioadă și tradusă masiv în Europa Renascentistă, motiv pentru care a reprezentat mijlocul principal de propagare a Tablei de Smarald în occident.
Un alt autor ismailit de secol IX influențat de hermetism este Abu Hatim ar-Razi, care, în lucrarea sa Știința Profeției îl menționează pe Hermes de mai multe ori, spunând clar că este același personaj cu Idris: "pe scurt, originea științei astronomiei este de la Idris. Hermes este Idris. El a fost un profet și un membru al comunității noastre, nu unul al comunității apostaților. Au fost cinci generații între el și Adam."  Într-un singur paragraf, Ar-Razi arată fără rețineri atât faptul că Hermes este același și cu Idris din Coran și cu Enoh, cât și recunoașterea lui drept profet al comunității islamice ismailite.

Gânditorii ismailiți au luat în considerar și problema surselor. Aceștia au încercat să își explice modul în care învățătura hermetică a ajuns până la ei, cu atât mai mult cu cât considerau că a fost revelată nu la mult timp după Geneză. Una dintre legendele imaginate ne este transmisă de Abu Mashar (m. 886), care spune că pentru a păstra cunoașterea, Hermes a lăsat inscripții pe pereții templelor și ai peșterilor, descoperite ulterior de către niște înțelepți, și că și profetul la rândul său a primit învățăturile dintr-o carte scrisă pe table de safir care i-a fost dată de un înger. În plus, menționează și faptul că Balinas a primit aceste table direct de la Hermes.  Este evident faptul că Abu Mashar avusese acces la lucrarea lui Pseudo-Apollonius. Interesant este că, deși paragrafe legate de obligativitatea ascunderii cunoașterii de cei care nu o pot înțelege apar destul de frecvent în Corpus Hermeticum, în textul numit Discurs asupra lui Opt și Nouă descoperit la Nag Hammadi, Hermes îl roagă explicit pe fiul său să scrie tot ceea ce a fost învățat pe niște stele de turcoaz, pe care să le ascundă în sanctuarul său ca să fie păzite.

Legăturile Fraților Purității cu Hermes sunt vizibile pe mai multe planuri. În primul rând, numele său apare de mai multe ori de-a lungul textului celor 52 de epistole publicate de aceștia. Un fragment de acest gen este următorul: "sufletele lor tânjesc să se ridice pentru a putea asculta aceste armonii și să privească mișcările, după cum și sufletul lui Hermes Trismegistos s-a înălțat și a văzut- El care este Idris profetul, pacea fie asupra lui!"  Mai mult decât simpla mențiune a numelui, paragraful ne oferă și alte informații cu privire la modul în care era perceput. El este identificat ca fiind profetul Idris și primește formula "pacea fie asupra lui", rezervată "prietenilor lui Dumnezeu". În plus, ni se specifică faptul că s-a înălțat printre aștri ca să poată asculta și vedea armonia universului. Aceasta este o referire atât la versetul din Coran, cât și la legenda conform căreia Hermes a fost ridicat până la Saturn, a șaptea sferă, unde s-a rotit împreună cu planeta timp de treizeci de ani, ca apoi să se întoarcă și să îi învețe pe oameni despre astrologie.  Pe lângă importanța cifrei 7 pentru ismailiți, pasajul trimite și la Discurs asupra lui Opt și Nouă, în care tatăl îi povestește fiului despre planurile al optulea și al nouălea de existență, cele imateriale. A șaptea sferă este, în planul material, cel mai departe (sau aproape de Centru) cât putea Hermes să ajungă. Și în Mintea către Hermes, la  versul 7, găsim o trimitere la cele șapte lumi: "Privește și cele șapte lumi cu rânduiala lor nepieritoare și care umplu Veșnicia cu mersul lor diferit."
În esență însă, epistola vorbește despre armonia muzicii universului și a felului în care aceasta este redată în muzica pământeană. Găsim și în Corpus Hermeticum idei de acest fel: "Astfel, cel care este Muzicianul-Zeu din fire, nu numai în făurirea armoniei cântecelor sale cerești, dar și în emiterea ritmului melodiei propriilor sale cântece până la fiecare instrument în parte, este, ca Zeu, neobosit."  sau, în Asclepios, "căci această ordine, prin care fiecare lucru ocupă locul său cuvenit în unitatea întregului este cu adevărat o armonie minunată și o melodie divină."   Stima Fraților Purității față de gândirea hermetică nu s-a oprit la a integra idei ale acesteia în Epistolele lor, ci a mers până la a împrumuta ritualuri de la Sabeeni legate de Trismegistos. Henry Corbin spune că obișnuiau să stea noaptea sub cerul liber și să cânte imnuri precum "Orionul lui Idris", adică al lui Hermes.

Alte mențiuni ale lui Idris ca Hermes apar și la autori precum Al-Mubașșir ibn Fatik sau Shahrastani. O lucrare foarte important de menționat datată în secolul al XI-lea este cea cunoscută sub numele latin de Picatrix, alcătuită în Andaluzia și atribuită Fraților Purității. Pe lângă faptul că, alături de Secretum Secretorum ea a avut un rol major în transmiterea hermetismului în Europa, Picatrix mai stă și ca dovadă a prezenței unei facțiuni ismailite în Spania, facțiune care se legitimiza de la gânditori precum Jabir sau autorii Epistolelor. În esența ei, lucrarea este una de magie și astrologie, care, asemenea unui manual, învață cititorul ce ierburi să folosească, ce sacrificii să facă și ce formule să rostească atunci când dorește să invoce puterea uneia dintre planete. Pe bună dreptate, titlul original înseamnă de fapt Călăuza înțeleptului. Deși de o lungime considerabilă, următorul pasaj redă foarte bine conexiunea dintre acestea și hermetism: "Mercur cel Plin-De-Înțelepciune spune că, pentru a acapara caracterul unei anumite planete, a-i obține puterea și a-i folosi spiritul special trebuie să știi mâncarea, băutura, țesătura, mirosul timpul, profesia, materialul, cererile, animalul de sacrificat, pietre inscripționate sau amuletele, proporțiile astronomice și spiritele revelatoare și tot ceea ce este în legătură cu aceste planete, pentru a putea reuși în a conecta puterea cerului cu cea a pământului."  Pe lângă menționarea explicită a lui Hermes cu apelativul "Mercur" și pe lângă trimiterea la acel "ce e sus așa e și jos" din Tabula Smaragdina, fragmentul aproape că reia mot-a-mot pasajul "calitatea acestor zei constă în ierburi, în pietre și în miresme, care conțin natura propriilor lor divinități. De aceea, acestor zei le plac sacrificiile, imnurile și rugăciunile dese și suava muzică o aseamănă cu armonia cerească."  din Corpus Hermeticum.

Idris ca Enoh
În general, Idris este identificat cu Enoh de comentatori precum Tabari sau Al-Baizawi.  Pe baza legendelor despre ridicarea lui Enoh la cer pentru a primi învățătură, identificarea a venit oarecum facil. Astfel Idris devine urmașul lui Adam. În islam el este fiul lui Yarid și al Barkanahei, soțul Aadanahei și tatăl lui Matusalem. În consecință, Idris este străbunicul lui Noe.

Note

Bibliografie
 •	***. An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia, vol. 2, editor Seyyed Hussein Nasr și Mehdi Aminrazavi, Londra, I.B. Tauris, 2008
 •	***. Coranul. București, Kriterion, 2002, traducere de George Grigore
 •	***. Corpus Hermeticum. București, Herald, 2012
 •	***. Obârșia luminii. Islamul șiit în texte alese. București, Herald, 2012
 •	***. Picatrix. Seattle, Ouroboros Press, 2008
 •	***. Privighetorile Persiei. Antologie de poezie persană. București, Minerva, 1971
 •	***. Shimmering Light. An Anthology of Ismaili Poetry. Londra, I.B. Tauris, 1997
 •	***. The Discourse on the Eighth and Ninth, http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/discorse.html, accesat ultima dată pe 27.05.2016
 •	Baalbaki Mounir, Dr. Baalbaki Rohi, Al-Mawrid Al-Quareeb Pocket Dictionary. Beirut, Dar El-Ilm Lilmalayin, 2011
 •	Brethren of Purity. Epistle 5- On Music editor Owen Wright. New York, Oxford University Press, 2010
 •	Corbin, Henry. Cyclical Time and Ismaili Gnosis. Londra, Kegan Paul International
 •	Corbin, Henry. Istoria filosofiei islamice. București, Herald, 2009
 •	Corbin, Henry. Temple and Contemplation. Londra, Routledge, 1986
 •	Delva, Thijs. The Alchemy of Jabir ibn Hayyan and its Place in Early Shiite Natural Philosophy. Proiect de cercetare, KU Leuven, Departamentul de Studii Arabe și Islamice, 2014-2018
 •	Eamon, William. Magic and the Occult în The History of Science and Religion in the Western Tradition: An Encyclopedia, editor Gary B. Ferngren. New York, Garland Publishing, 2000
 •	Haq, Syed Nomanul. Names, Natures and Things. The Alchemist Jabir Ibn Hayyan and His Kitab Al-Ahjar (Book of Stones). Olanda, Kluwer Academics, 1994
 •	Jamal, Nadia Eboo. Surviving the Mongols. Nizari Quhistani and the Continuity of Ismaili Tradition in Persia. New York, I.B. Tauris, 2002
 •	Lewis, Bernard. The Assassins. A Radical Sect in Islam. Marea Britanie, Phoenix, 2003
 # •	Netton, Ian Richard. Muslim Neoplatonists. An Introduction to the Thought of the Brethren of Purity. Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 1991
 # •	Van Bladel, Kevin. The Arabic Hermes. From Pagan Sage to Prophet of Science. New York,  Oxford Unviersity Press, 2009, https://arcaneknowledgeofthedeep.files.wordpress.com/2014/02/arabichermes.pdf, accesat ultima dată pe 27.05.2016

Profeți ai Islamului

Idris (profet)


Zephalto (projet anciennement connu sous le nom de Zephyr Endless Flight, Zéphyr Exalto et Zeph Exalto) est une société privée française spécialisée dans le domaine de l'aéronautique et du vol en ballon stratosphérique fondée en 2016 par Vincent Farret d'Astiès.

L'entreprise propose à ses voyageurs d'embarquer à bord d'un ballon stratosphérique nommé Céleste, à 25km de la Terre, d'où ils pourront vivre l'effet de surplomb.

Histoire

Projet Zephyr
Le projet Zephyr Endless Flight naît sous forme associative en 2013 sous l'impulsion de Vincent Farret d'Astiès, alors contrôleur aérien. L'objectif est alors de réaliser un vol en ballon d'une durée record de 30 jours, avec deux pilotes à bord.

Étymologie
Historiquement localisé au Pouget, dans l'Hérault, le projet devient la société Zéphyr Exalto en 2016 dont le nom changera par la suite en Zeph Exalto puis Zephalto. Les deux noms sont la personnification du "vent d'ouest", par l'assemblage du latin Zephyrus "Zephyr" et du grec ancien Zéphorus, avec Exalto : ex- + altus qui se traduit par haut / hauteur. L'objectif de la mission change aussi puisque le vol record n'est jamais réalisé, le nouvel objectif étant de développer une solution de vol stratosphérique bas carbone.

Céleste, le ballon stratosphérique

Le ballon stratosphérique
Alors que les premiers essais sont menés avec un ballon à gaz classique, l'entreprise cherche ensuite à développer avec le CNES un savoir-faire unique et hautement technologique: ses propres ballons. Un premier prototype est testé en vol à l'été 2020, à une altitude maximale de .

Zephalto a ensuite commencé à développer Céleste, leur propre ballon stratosphérique, capable d'emmener dans la stratosphère, à bord d'une capsule pressurisée, six passagers à 25 kilomètres d'altitude. À l'origine de ce savoir-faire, une innovation technologique majeure dans le domaine du ballon stratosphérique : l'enveloppe réutilisable. Grâce à cette enveloppe et à de nombreuses avancées techniques, Céleste a une empreinte carbone extrêmement basse et rend le vol accessible à toutes les conditions physiques.

Le programme a depuis l'origine une vocation scientifique : les vols de Zephalto permettent de collecter des données atmosphériques sur des profils inédits, de mettre en place de nouveaux protocoles expérimentaux et de multiplier les observations spatiales et terrestres.

Des dîners vont être proposés à bord du ballon pour environ 120 000 euros alors que l'entreprise a reçu des fonds publics.

Partenariat avec le CNES
Au fil des siècles, une véritable compétence française du vol en ballon s'est développée. Et depuis plus de 60 ans, ce savoir-faire est devenu spécialité du Centre National d'Études Spatiales (CNES). L'agence spatiale française, c'est un historique de plusieurs milliers de vols, jusqu'à 60 par an. Le CNES est le premier partenaire de Zephalto et il lui transfère son avance technologique. L'entreprise bénéficie ainsi, grâce à ce partenariat, de brevets clés pour la sécurité, de plus de 150 procédures opérationnelles déposées à l'INPI et d'expertises sur le domaine du vol, des équipements et le calcul d'enveloppe.

Développement économique

Croissance
Zephalto est notamment :

 sélectionné dans le programme Spacefounders du CNES comme l'une des 10 futures licornes du spatial européen.
 fait aussi partie de l'édition 2021 du Future 40, classement des startups les plus prometteuses établi parmi les 1000 de Station F.
 soutenue par région Occitanie + FEDER : « L'Europe s'engage, l'Occitanie agit » .

La société travaille toujours en partenariat avec le CNES et l'ESA .

Financement et levées de fonds
Début 2021, l'association devenue société annonçait avoir déjà récolté près d'un million d'euros au cours de ses premières années auprès de donateurs particuliers, d'investisseurs privés et d'organismes publics (comme la Région Occitanie avec une subvention de 84 500€).

Zephalto a également levé des fonds auprès du fonds d'investissement « Expansion », de l'Union Européenne et d'Airbus Développement.

En 2021, Zephalto annonce préparer une levée de fonds de 6 à 10 millions d'euros pour financer la suite de son développement .

Début 2022, Charles Beigbeder annonce avoir investi dans la société via son fonds Géodesic.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Zero2Infinity : autre projet similaire de vol stratosphérique touristique.

Liens externes

Entreprise fondée en 2016
Entreprise du tourisme ayant son siège en France
Constructeur aéronautique ayant son siège en France
Entreprise ayant son siège en France

Zephalto