The College Board is an American not-for-profit organization that was formed in December 1899 as the College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB) to expand access to higher education. While the College Board is not an association of colleges, it runs a membership association of institutions, including over 6,000 schools, colleges, universities, and other educational organizations.

The College Board develops and administers standardized tests and curricula used by K–12 and post-secondary education institutions to promote college-readiness and as part of the college admissions process. The College Board is headquartered in New York City. David Coleman has been the CEO of the College Board since October 2012. He replaced Gaston Caperton, former Governor of West Virginia, who had held this position since 1999. The current president of the College Board is Jeremy Singer.

In addition to managing assessments for which it charges fees, the College Board provides resources, tools, and services to students, parents, colleges, and universities in college planning, recruitment and admissions, financial aid, and retention.

History

The College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB) was founded at Columbia University on December 22, 1899, by representatives of 12 universities and three high school preparatory academies. These were:
 Columbia University
 Colgate University
 University of Pennsylvania
 New York University
 Barnard College
 Union College
 Rutgers University
 Vassar College
 Bryn Mawr College
 Women's College of Baltimore (now Goucher College)
 Princeton University
 Cornell University
 Newark Academy
 Mixed High School, New York
 Collegiate Institute, New York

The organization's intent was to "adopt and publish a statement of the ground which should be covered and of the aims which should be sought by secondary school teaching in each of the following subjects (and in such others as may be desirable), and a plan of examination suitable as a test for admission to college: Botany, Chemistry, English, French, German, Greek, History, Latin, Mathematics, Physics, Zoology". According to the board's plan of organization, the exam fee was $5, around $155 in 2020.

CEEB code

The College Board maintains a numbered registry of countries, college majors, colleges, scholarship programs, test centers, and high schools. In the United States, this registry is borrowed by other institutions as a means of unambiguous identification; thus, a student might give his or her guidance department a college's name and address and its CEEB code to ensure that his or her transcript is sent correctly. There exists a similar set of ACT codes for colleges and scholarships, centers, and high schools; however, these codes are less widely used outside ACT, Inc.

Tests and programs

SAT and SAT Subject Tests

The SAT is a fee-based standardized test for college admissions in the United States, first administered in 1926. The College Board decides how the SAT is constructed, administered, and used in the United States. Educational Testing Service (ETS) develops, administers, publishes, and scores the SAT. The SAT covers writing, reading, and mathematics. SAT scores range from 400 to 1600, with each of the two sections—Evidence-based Reading and Writing and Mathematics—worth up to 800 points. Most students take the test during their junior or senior year of high school. In the marketplace, the SAT competes with the ACT, another standardized college admissions test.

Currently, the basic test is $60. Also, various fees can accumulate—registering later results in a $30 fee and changing a test date, center, or test type results in a $25 fee. The waitlist testing fee is $53, and each score report costs $12. Additionally, students sitting the test in regions outside the United States pay an additional 'Non-U.S. Regional Fee' of between $43 and $53. As a result, student testing fees may run up to $200 or more for a single test. However, fee waivers and reductions are available for some low-income students.

On March 5, 2014, the College Board announced that a redesigned version of the SAT would be administered for the first time in 2016. The exam reverted to the 1600-point scale, and the essay became optional. The testing process was changed to give students three hours to take the exam plus 50 additional minutes to complete the essay. In the same announcement, the College Board also said they would be partnering with Khan Academy to make available, from spring 2015, free test preparation materials for the redesigned SAT. This included a preparation application to help students practice and identify areas of improvement. Practice problems and videos demonstrating step-by-step solutions were also made available.

The SAT Subject Tests were standardized tests intended to measure student performance in specific areas, such as mathematics, science, and history. On January 19, 2021, the College Board discontinued Subject Tests. This was effective immediately in the United States. The following summer, the tests were to be phased out for international students. CollegeBoard also announced the discontinuation of the optional essay section of the SAT after June 2021.

On May 13, 2015, the College Board announced the release of a new credential initiative to get students more interested in careers focused in STEM with a Project Lead the Way partnership.

In March 2020, College Board announced the cancellation of several test dates during the spring of 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

On January 25, 2022, College Board announced that the SAT will be delivered digitally in an attempt to change the format of test itself. Vice President of the College Readiness Assessment at College Board, Priscilla Rodriguez, states "The digital SAT will be easier to take, easier to give and more relevant". Some new features of this digital version of the SAT include: a 2 hours testing period instead of the 3 hours period that has been used for the current SAT, more relevant topics that cover material that is given in college courses, and calculators will be allowed the entirety of the Math portion of the exam. Digital versions of the exam gives College Board the opportunity to address inequities that are associated with student accessibility to technology by providing students who don't have computers on testing days. This new change was brought forth by College Board following disruptions in testing that were COVID related. The 2021 SAT Suite of Assessment Program results showed that 1.5 million high school students took compared to the 2.2 million students in 2020 who participated taking this test.

PSAT/NMSQT

The PSAT/NMSQT is a fee-based standardized test that provides firsthand practice for the SAT for a cost of $18. However, the cost may vary based on state, district, or school. The test also functions as a qualifying test for the National Merit Scholarship Corporation's scholarship programs. There are also other forms of the PSAT, including the PSAT 10 and the PSAT 8/9. However, it is important to note that the PSAT 10 and the PSAT 8/9 do not qualify a student for the National Merit Scholarship.

Advanced Placement Program

The College Board's Advanced Placement Program is an extensive program that offers high school students the chance to participate in what the College Board describes as college-level classes, reportedly broadening students' intellectual horizons and preparing them for college work. It also plays a large part in the college admissions process, showing students' intellectual capacity and genuine interest in learning. The program allows many students to gain college credit for high performance on the AP exams, which cost $97 each, much in the same manner as the CLEP. Granting credit, however, is at the discretion of the college. Two thousand nine hundred colleges grant credit or advanced standing. Critics of the Advanced Placement Program charge that courses and exams emphasize the breadth of content coverage instead of depth.

In May 2020, glitches prevented some students from submitting their AP exams, forcing those students to re-take them in June.

College Level Examination Program

The College Level Examination Program (CLEP) provides students of any age, including high schoolers, college students, homeschooled students, adults, senior citizens, children, and exceptional toddlers, with the opportunity to demonstrate college-level achievement through a program of exams in undergraduate college courses. Two thousand nine hundred colleges grant credit for passing CLEP exams.

Accuplacer
The College Board's Accuplacer test is a computer-based placement test that assesses reading, writing, and math skills. The Accuplacer test includes reading comprehension, sentence skills, arithmetic, elementary algebra, college-level mathematics, and the writing test, Writeplacer. The Accuplacer test is used primarily by more than 1,000 high schools and colleges to determine a student's needed placement. Often community colleges have specific guidelines for students requiring the Accuplacer test. The Accuplacer Companion paper-and-pencil tests allow students with disabilities (specifically students with an Individualized Education Program or 504 Plan) to take the test through its braille, large print, and audio tests. The biggest benefit of the Accuplacer and Accuplacer Companion tests is their ability to be scored immediately through an online scoring system and taken in remote locations. While there are normally no fees for taking the test, some institutions may charge a fee to retake the test. Note that if a testing institution is not local, an examinee may be required to arrange a proctor for the test. If so, a local library may be willing to serve as a proctor as there are not many other options for individuals in this case. Most schools will only test their own admissions candidates.

SpringBoard
SpringBoard is a pre-Advanced Placement program created by the College Board to prepare students who intend to take AP courses or college-level courses in their scholastic careers. Based on Wiggins and McTighe's "Understanding by Design" model, the SpringBoard program attempts to map knowledge into scholastic skill sets in preparation for Advanced Placement testing and college success. Units of instruction are titrated to students within and across all school grades, providing a vertically articulated curriculum framework that scaffolds learning skills and subject test knowledge. Implicit in the course curriculum, the program embeds pre-AP and AP teaching and learning strategies across grade school levels and classwork.

The curriculum applies to grades 6 through 12. Teachers are provided with formative assessments, professional training, and various teaching tools to track student progress. The instructional framework is integrated into the curriculum content and subject materials. SpringBoard also provides other Web 2.0 resources aimed at making the program more community-oriented.

Truinfadores
On June 23, 2020, The College Board and NBCUniversal Telemundo Enterprises launched a joint public campaign Truinfadores in order to help guide primarily Spanish-speaking families through their child's college planning process. This campaign will offer funding to scholarships that are included in the College Board Opportunity Scholarship program that encourages students to apply for a chance to earn $40,000 dollars towards their college tuition. These scholarships are open to any student, regardless of their citizenship status and are strictly reserved for students whose household income is less than $60,000 .

BigFuture
BigFuture is a free online resource that helps students plan for college, pay for college, and explore careers. BigFuture's National Recognition Program awards honors to underrepresented students, including African Americans, Hispanics, Indigenous students, and students who live in rural areas or small towns.

CSS Profile

The College Board also offers the CSS/Financial Aid PROFILE, a financial aid application service that many institutions use in determining family contribution and financial assistance packages. Students also must pay a $25 fee to apply and another $16 for each additional school to which they submit the profile.

Criticism
Criticism of the Board and its exams goes back to at least 1922, with a Harvard Alumni Bulletin article from prep school teacher Morgan Barnes. Barnes took ten different examinations "in cognito qua candidate", requested the graded booklets of his exams, and attempted to confront some readers who scored them. Among Barnes's grievances were general incompetence in grading, excessive focus on exam preparation in classrooms, and overreliance on exam scores in the college admissions process.

Since the late 1970s, the College Board has been subject to criticism from students, educators, and consumer rights activists. The College Board owns the SAT, and many students must take SAT exams for admission to competitive colleges. Some colleges also require students to submit a College Board CSS/Financial Aid PROFILE when applying for financial aid. As there are no broadly accepted alternatives to College Board products such as AP, SAT Subject Tests, and CSS/Financial Aid, the company is often criticized as exploiting its monopoly on these products.

FairTest, an organization that advocates against over-dependence on standardized tests in school admissions, maintains that the SAT often underestimates the aptitude of African-American students and others. FairTest maintains a list of more than 1000 SAT-optional colleges on its website.

The consumer rights organization Americans for Educational Testing Reform (AETR) has criticized the College Board for violating its non-profit status through excessive profits and exorbitant executive compensation; nineteen of its executives make more than $300,000 per year, with CEO Gaston Caperton earning $1.3 million in 2009 (including deferred compensation). AETR also claims that College Board is acting unethically by selling test preparation materials, directly lobbying legislators and government officials, and refusing to acknowledge test-taker rights.

Exam fees
The SAT Reasoning Test with essay cost $64.50 ($93.50 if late) , the AP exams cost US$97 ($137 if late) , and taking AP exams is often a requirement for students taking AP classes. The SAT Subject Tests cost a baseline of $26 with a $22 fee for each test. Other services can be added to the basic costs, including late registration, score verification services, and various answering available services. SAT score reports cost $12 per college for 1–2-week electronic delivery or 2–4-week paper or disk delivery. The College Board allows high school administrators to authorize fee waivers for some services to students from low-income families, generally those meeting National School Lunch Act criteria. In addition, because of the competitive nature of the test, many students take preparatory courses or have SAT tutoring, which can increase costs. The College Board's College Scholarship Service Profile (CSS), a college financial aid application meant to help students pay for college, also requires a fee.

In 2017, the College Board had a $140 million surplus. Budget surpluses persist despite market-leading compensation packages for the College Board's executives – in 2009, the College Board paid out a $1.3 million/year package for CEO Caperton, more than the head of the American Red Cross or Harvard University. It paid 19 executives more than $300,000 each per year.

Correlation between essay length and score
In 2005, MIT Writing Director Les Perelman plotted essay length versus essay score on the new SAT from released essays and found a high correlation between them. After studying 23 graded essays, he found that the longer the essay was, the higher its score. Perelman found that he could accurately determine the score of an essay without even reading the essay. In his study, he discovered that several of these essays were full of factual inaccuracies. The College Board does not claim to grade for factual accuracy.

Perelman, along with the National Council of Teachers of English, also criticized the 25-minute writing section of the test for damaging standards of writing taught in the classroom. They say that writing teachers training their students for the SAT will not instill revision, depth, and accuracy but will instead guide them to produce long, formulaic, and wordy pieces. "You're getting teachers to train students to be bad writers", concluded Perelman.

Advanced Placement classes
Some teachers have criticized AP classes as restrictive in the nature of their curriculum and yet indispensable due to the importance of AP classes in the college admissions process. The College Board can effectively control every aspect of AP classes directly or indirectly. The $97 fee, which is noted critically above, results only in a score report with the test name and grade. No details are given on how this scoring was reached nor are individuals given access to this information from College Board.

Additionally, starting with a pilot program in 2018 and officially rolling out to all schools in 2019, the College Board required students to sign up for AP tests during the fall before early-round college decisions are out. While the College Board stated that this was to ensure students commit to learning the material at the beginning of the year, the move drew criticism from students, stating that because they do not know whether or not the college they end up attending will grant credit for the test, the new, early registration deadline forces students to pay for tests that they will receive no benefit from. The College Board also charges $40 if a student does not sit for a test that they signed up for, meaning that many students who signed up for tests that would not grant them any credit still have to sit for those tests or pay the $40 fee.

Traditionally, AP exams are given in a school setting and last two to four hours. However, in 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the College Board created an alternate form of AP testing for that year. Students were to take exams at home in a shortened 45-minute, open-book format. During the exams, there were reports of disruptions in the process, such as students being unable to submit their answers, general confusion about the test process, and more.

Reporting errors
In March 2006, it was discovered that the College Board had incorrectly scored several thousand tests taken in October 2005. Although the Board was aware of the error as early as December, it waited months to respond, and in late March, schools still did not have the correct details. Within days of the first announcement, the Board corrected the number of affected students upward.

Many colleges use the SAT score to decide acceptance and scholarships. The late reporting of errors upset many high-profile colleges. The dean of admissions at Pomona College commented, "Everybody appears to be telling half-truths, and that erodes confidence in the College Board...It looks like they hired the people who used to do the books for Enron".

Sale of student data
, the College Board charges $0.47 per name for access to student information. An investigation by the New York Civil Liberties Union revealed that one of the College Board's customers was JAMRS, a military recruitment program run by the United States Department of Defense. The College Board and ACT have been sued over the use of this information. In addition, there is criticism that students are not sufficiently made aware that their data is being sold, or that disclosure of certain data is optional. The College Board has received substantial backlash for these practices.

Recycling SAT exams
On August 25, 2018, the SAT given in America was a recycled October 2017 international SAT given in China. The leaked PDF file was on the internet before the August 25, 2018 exam.

Relationship with Hanban
In 2004, Hanban and the College Board developed the "AP Chinese Language and Culture Course and Exam" program.

In October 2020, the College Board announced its intention to terminate financial ties with Hanban, in place since 2006, following a letter from U.S. senators critical of the relationship.

See also
 ACT, a test by ACT, Inc., the main competitor to the College Board's SAT
 College admissions in the United States
 IB Diploma Programme, a pre-university educational program administered by the International Baccalaureate, the main competitor to the College Board's Advanced Placement (AP) Program
 Writing assessment

References

External links

Organizations based in New York City
Organizations established in 1899
1899 establishments in New York City
Standardized tests in the United States
United States schools associations

College Board


قبيلة العوازم هي قبيلة عربية عدنانية من قبائل شبه الجزيرة العربية تنتشر في الكويت والمملكة العربية السعودية. والمنتسب للقبيلة يسمى عازمي والجمع عوازم وعزوة ونخوة قبيلة العوازم هي أولاد عطا، عيال عطا أو آلاد عطا، وعطا هو جدهم  أصل كلمة العوازم ترجع الي العازمي أو العزمي المنسوب الي العزم الموفي بالعهد والعزم تأتي صفه وهي مبالغة العازم والعوازم جمع عازم والعوازم أهل عزم وجد واجتهاد  يسمي العوازم ال عطا أو العطيان وعطا هو جدهم الذي يلتقي بهم في جدهم كلاب.

ديارهم
كانت مساكن العوازم قديما في الحجاز مابين (مران) و(جبل صبحا) و(بان الأحمر)  والعوازم قديما عشيرة تسمي بالكويت بعريب دار واليوم تعدّ قبيلة العوازم أكثر القبائل الكويتية تمثيلا في مجلس الامة  تعدّ قبيلة العوازم من أول من أستوطن دولة الكويت قبل الاسرة الحاكمة آل صباح وكانت القبيلة تسكن الجزر الكويتية وربة وبوبيان وفيلكا وعلي طول الساحل الكويتي واستطاعت حكومة الكويت اثبات تبعية الجزر لها وضمها تحت الحماية البريطانية بعد ان حاولت الدولة العثمانية ضمها أليها وذلك بفضل استطيان قبيلة العوازم لها  ويتبع أبناء القبيلة مذهب أهل السنة والجماعة وتتواجد القبيلة في السعودية وجزء قليل في البحرين، الأردن، مصر (سوهاج) والسودان ويعدّ تواجدها الاساسي في الكويت.

النسب
اختلف في نسبهم بين قولين وهم:

 هم بنو عازم بن عطاء بن مجول بن دهيم من بني علي من قبيلة حرب.
 هم بنو عازم بن هند بن هلال بن نفيل بن ربيعة بن كلاب بن ربيعة بن عامر بن صعصعة بن معاوية بن بكر بن هوازن بن منصور بن عكرمة بن خصفة بن قيس عيلان بن مضر بن نزار بن معد بن عدنان ، فهم إحدى قبائل هوازن الكثيرة في هذا العصر.

سلسلة نسب عازم بن هند

التاريخ
تعدّ نجد والحجاز مسقط رأس قبيلة العوازم وبسبب الحروب بينهم وبين أحد أشراف مكة هاجرت القبيلة الي المنطقة الشرقية والكويت والمصادر التاريخية المكتوبة عن القبيلة قليلة وبداية انطلاق قوة قبيلة العوازم كانت في القرن الثامن الهجري  وتم ذكر العوازم تاريخيا من ضمن قبائل سلطنة نجد  ومن خلال الفقرة القادمة نقتبس ماورد في كتاب قبيلة العوازم دراسة عن أصلها ومجتمعها وديارها الصادر في 1971م

وكثير من المراجع القديمة لم تفصل أصول وتاريخ قبيلة العوازم بعكس الكتب الحديثة التي جمعت وكتبت الكثير عن هذه القبيلة والكثير من المصادر التاريخية والرويات القديمة تذكر بصورة متعاكسة احداث وتواريخ واصول أي قبيلة عربية ونقتبس بالفقرة القادمة ماورد في مجلة العرب

وقائع من تاريخ العوازم

وقد ورد في ذكر العوازم في كتب التاريخ عبر وقائع متباعدة فتم ذكر العوازم عام 858هـ في وقعه بين العوازم وحاكم الاحساء زامل بن جبر العقيلي  وفي عام 879هـ ورد ذكر العوازم بأخذ قافلة لأهل نجد وهي خارجة من البصرة  وفي عام 900هـ ورد ذكر غزوة حاكم الاحساء للعوازم وفي عام 955هـ ورد ذكر العوازم في حرب معا قبيلة عنزة. وشاركت القبيلة في جميع المعارك التاريخية مثل معركة الرقة ومعركة الجهراء ومعركة هدية ومعركة الصريف ومعركة جو لبن ومعركة حمض وخلال القرن العشرين برزت قوه القبيلة بالكثير من الوقائع والمعارك التي دارت بينها وبين عده جهات فحادثة معركة نقير وكذلك وقعة ملح وكذلك في معركة رضي حيث هزم قبيلة العوازم الاخوان الثأرين ضد الملك عبدالعزيز حيث وقعت قبيلة العوازم حدا للثورة ضد الدولة السعودية وقابل رؤساء العوازم في الابطح وسلموه بيارق المهزومين

حرب العوازم مع اشراف مكة
قبيلة العوازم هي إحدى البطون العامرية الهوزانية ومتواجدة في موطنها القديم نجد  والتي تخضع لسلطة الحاكمة في الحجاز وهم الأشراف وكانت فترة حكمهم منذ سنة 358هـ إلى 1344هـ وقد نزح العوازم إلى الشرق بعد أن اشتبك العوازم معًا شريف مكة في حرب لمدة سنتين وقد ذكر ابن بشر نقلا عن العصامي انه خلال الفترة من سنة 1079هـ و1080هـ التحمت قبيلة العوازم مع الأشراف السلطة الحاكمة في الحجاز في معارك طاحنة بشكل منفرد ومرات متحالفة معا قبائل أخرى وتفوز حسب الظروف وقوة الخصم ولم يتم ذكر أسباب الحرب الأ أنه ابن ربيعة ذكر واقعة في سنة 1140هـ بين تحالف بين بنى خالد والشريف محسن بن عبد الله بن ابي نمي وعنزة وعدوان وبعض قبائل الحجاز لقتال الضفير بني سليم والعوازم فالتحم الطرفان في معركة استمرت شهرين في موضع الساقي في الخرج انتهت بأنتصار تحالف الشريف بعد أن عاونة حاكم الاحساء

ويذكر بيت لشاعر من العوازم يتغني بأنتصارهم في أحد معاركهم مع الشريف

الوطن الجديد للعوازم
علي أثر حرب العوازم معا أشراف مكة غادر جل افراد قبيلة العوازم من وطنهم القديم في عالية نجد وشرق الحجاز الي شرق الجزيرة ويعتقد أنه كان ذلك في عقد الجبريين ويرجح انه في منتصف القرن التاسع الهجري  ومن اشعار نزوحهم عن نجد تقول شاعرة عازمية عن نزوحهم :

ونزح العوازم عن مسقط رأسهم في الحجاز وتوجهوا الي مصر والعريش ونجد وبلاد الضفير وأقليم الاحساء وكان يتجول العوازم في مناطق متعددة في الكويت والسعودية وتعدّ المنطقة الرئيسية لمساكنهم المنطقة المحيطة بوادي المياه من الشرق والشمال وتقع ديارهم شرق وادي المياه في منطقة الشرقية وفيه من قراهم ثاج والحناه وجحيظه وعتيق. وتمتد ديارهم شمالاً إلى السوده وهي نقير والنقيرة وأبرق الكبريت والسفانية. حتى شمال دولة الكويت خباري العوازم وأما بالنسبة لساحل الخليج فتمتد مواقعهم من الصبية في شمال الكويت إلى الجبيل شمال المملكة العربية السعودية ومنهم من سكن القطيف والاحساء.
وكان العوازم في مرابع تجوالهم ينتقلون من جهة الي اخري طلبا للكلأ والمرعي الحسن وكان ذلك في القرن التاسع عشر ولكن في القرن العشرين أصبحو يميلون الي الاستقرار واستقرو في مركز صناعة النفط المنتشرة في إقليم الاحساء والكويت والمناطق الحدودية بين الكويت والسعودية وتعدّ العوازم من أكبر القبائل المتواجدة في إقليم الاحساء  بجانب قبائل العجمان، أل مرة، بنو خالد، العوازم، الرشايدة، بنو هاجر، وتم تقدير سكان إقليم الاحساء بـ350,000 نسمة وتعدّ البادية نخو ثلاثة ارباع السكان

استقرت أغلبية القبيلة بالكويت خاصة. ويعدّون هم أقدم من استوطن الكويت قبل اسرة آل صباح
احترفوا صيد السمك وأقاموا الحظرات على طول ساحل الكويت وشمال شرق السعودية كما ظهر منهم فرسان ومزارعون وبحارة وتجار.

توحيد المملكة
اشتركت قبيلة العوازم في المعارك والحروب التي دارت في فترة توحيد الملك عبدالعزيز للدولة السعودية ويذكر مستر وي ثي في كتابة الموسوعة الإسلامية نقتبس منه مايلي

في كتاب البدو للرحالة ماكس فون أوبنهايم ذكر

الإمارة
تنقسم قبيلة العوازم إلى قسمان كبيران وهُما بطن القوعة وبطن غياض وتندرج تحت هذه البطون حوالي 28 فخذ أو فرع لكل فرع منهم أمير والامارة الرئيسية لقبيلة العوازم عند أسرة بن جامع وهم من بطن القوعة ولايعرف تاريخ إمارة بن جامع تحديدا ولكن اقدم شيخ ذكر في التاريخ والمراجع هو الشيخ جبر بن عابد بن حبيب بن جامع المولود عام 1630م في الحجاز. اما في الوقت الحاضر فأمير شمل قبيلة العوزام هو الشيخ حبيب بن عيد حبيب بن سعود بن حبيب بن عايد بن جامع المقيم في السعودية  اما الامارة في دولة الكويت للشيخ فلاح بن عيد بن حبيب بن سعود بن جامع  الذي له دور سياسي بارز في الكويت ويعدّ من الرموز الوطنية في الكويت  ويعدّ تدخل الأمير فلاح بن جامع من أهم الاسباب التي ادت الي حل مجلس الامة 2009 وأقالة حكومة رئيس الوزراء الاسبق الشيخ ناصر المحمد

العوازم في الكويت

تعدّ قبيلة العوازم حاليا أكبر القبائل عددا في الكويت  وواحدة من أهم القبائل في الكويت
 ويعرفون باخلاصهم للكويت ولأهلها ولنظام الحكم لا نظير له  ، وتعدّ قبيلة العوازم من أكثر القبائل المؤثرة في السياسية الكويتية ولها قاعدة قوية لاسيما في الدائرة الانتاخبية الاولي حيث أنها تشكل حوالي 14٪ من الناخبين في الدائرة وكذلك في الدائرة الانتخابية الخامسة حيث تمثل حوالي 21٪ من الناخبين من نظام الدوائر الانتخابية الخمس ولقبيلة العوازم دور مهم جدا في استقرار الكويت سياسيا  وتعدّ القبيلة في الحياة السياسية الكويتية أكثر قبائل المجمتع الكويتي حصولا علي مقاعد في تاريخ مجلس الامة الكويتي بأكثر من 114 مقعد وبأكثر من الضعف عن اقرب قبيلة.

تاريخ العوازم في الكويت
يعرف عن العوازم بأنهم من أقدم من استوطن الكويت قبل اسرة آل صباح  وأقدم قبيلة استوطنت الكويت والجزر الكويتية  وللعوازم الدور الأكبر في اثبات تبيعة جزر وربة وبوبيان للكويت اثناء ترسيم الحدود الكويتية العراقية. وامتهنت القبيلة التجارة والغوص علي اللؤلؤ منذ استقرارهم في الكويت

مهنة الغوص في الكويت

لعبت قبيلة العوازم دورا اساسيا في الكويت في فترة ماقبل النفط في مهنة الغوص علي لؤلؤ والتجارة والزراعة وتربية الماشية وكانت الكويت تعتمد علي الغوص كمهنة اساسية للرزق قبل النفط وقبيلة العوازم هي الشريحة الاجتماعية القبلية الأهم  التي مارست مهنة الغوص وأمتلكت السفن الشراعية لمهنة الغوص ولديهم الكثير من النواخذة  ولهم أغلب الحضور البحرية  في الكويت وكانت قبيلة العوازم تمتلك حوالي سبع وستين سفينة شراعية  وحسب رواية اخري يقال انها امتلكت في عهد الشيخ احمد الجابر أكثر من اثنين وسبعين سفينة شراعية تعمل في مواسم الغوص وكان الكثير من العوازم يمارسون مهنة الغوص من خلال استئجار السفن من ملاكها للدخول في مواسم الغوص

نواخذة العوازم في الكويت

قائمة بنواخذة السفن العاملة في غوص اللؤلؤ من العوازم في الكويت في أوائل القرن العشرين:

تاريخ العوازم في البادية
تركزت مناطق العوازم قديمًا في المنطقة الواقعة في المملكة العربية السعودية والكويت من شمال شرق وادي المياة ولقد عرفت القبيلة بالمتاجرة وتربية الأغنام والماعز والإبل ولهم دراية واسعه فيها ولهم أموال كثير من الإبل والغنم  ووصفهم الرحالة ومنهم جيمس ماندفيل بأنهم نصف رحالة حيث يتجولون في مرابع وينتقلون من جهه إلى أخرى بحثًا عن المرعي الحسن وأشار الرحالة ديكسون بقولة تشتهر قبيلة العوازم بأبلها وغنمها  التي يربونها ويقال بأن لديهم حوالي 100,000 جمل و250,000 من الاغنام وللقبيلة شهرة حسنة في الحرب الدفاعية  وللعوازم أكثر من 400 فرص اشتركت في حروبهم في بداية القرن العشرين  ويعرف وسم قبيلة العوازم الذي يميز أبلها بالشكل:X والذي يطبع على الأبل في أرجلها لتميزها.

دور القبيلة في الحياة السياسية
لقبيلة العوازم دورا كبيرا معاصرا في الحياة السياسية في دولة الكويت فمن بداية تاريخ مجلس الامة الكويتي في مجلس 1962م شارك أبناء قبيلة العوازم في المجلس ممثلا بعضوين في المجلس التأسيسي وتعدّ قبيلة العوازم أكثر القبائل الكويتية تمثيلا في مجلس الامة. حيث وبعد المجلس التأسيسي حصلت القبيلة علي 6 مقاعد في مجلس 1963م واستمرت قبيلة العوازم في المحافظة علي مقاعدها واستطاعت ان تزيد عدد المقاعد في مجلس 1967م الي 9 مقاعد ومن ثم في مجالس 1971م و1975م الي 5 مقاعد وعادت القبيلة مرة اخري الي 9 مقاعد في مجلس 1981 ، ووصلت القبيلة الي أكثر عدد مقاعد في المجلس الوطني الكويتي الي 10 مقاعد، وتتشكل اغلبية أبناء القبيلة حاليا في الدوائر الاولي والخامسة من نظام الدوائر الانتخابية في الكويت، وتشتهر القبيلة انها استطاعت ان تحافظ علي مقاعدها عبر إجراء انتخابات فرعية قبل أي انتخابات برلمانية لمجلس الامة  إلا انه في الانتخابات الاخيرة ظهرت بوادر بعدم رغبة القبيلة بأجراء أي انتخابات فرعية لمخالفات القوانين الكويتية ممثلة بدعوة الأمير فلاح بن جامع أمير قبيلة العوازم في الكويت بعدم عمل أي تشاورية أو انتخابات فرعية وطالب بالتصويت وفق مبدأ الكفاءة

العوازم في مصر والسودان
ذكرت مجلة العرب في عددها الصادر سنة1418هـ ان العوازم نزلوا مصر منذ أكثر من قرنين من الزمان. ويذكر انة أول من نزل مصر من العوازم هم فخذ بنو سالم وبعض من (فخذالخواورة/ذوي سلام)، وبعد سنين هاجر ثلاثون رجلا من الإخاذ العوازم الحالية واستقروا بالقرب من حاجزة في قوص جنوب قنا.

الإخاذ العوازم في مصر:

العوازم في الأردن
مساكن العوازم في الأردن في قرية ماعين الواقعة في البلقاء التي يشير إليها أحيانا بقرية عوازم وحلاقية والمنية تقع غربي قرية ماعين واشار كوندر (بالإنكليزية:Conder) ان عدد خياهم يقدر بـ100 خيمة 1299هـ1881م. وتنقسم القبيلة في الأردن الي ثلاثة فروع كبيرة الونديين وهم أبووندي والنجادة (عائلة خلف) والعرامين، والسنيان :وهم القطيش ونصف النجادة والسليم.

اماكن نسبت الي العوازم
العوازم في الكويت هم الأغلبية الساحقة لتجمعات العوازم في جميع أنحاء الجزيرة
تاريخيا تنسب أماكن ومواقع وقري وابار لقبيلة العوازم :

 ضليع العوازم
 خباري العوازم
 خبرة العوازم
 فريج العوازم
 شارع العوازم
 منطقة العوازم في فليكا
 محلة العوازم
 براحة العوازم
 قرية البريجات
 ضلع العوازم - السعودية

 درب العوازم - السعودية
 ابيار جعيدان
 ضليع وخبرة مسيعيد
 مشاش بن حبينان
 خور حوبان
 خبرة المجمد
 ضليع المجمد
 ضليع الشنيطي
 جزيرة الغربة

 الصابرية
 الصوابر
 مشاش النواعمه
 خبرة الملاعبة
 برج القوعة - السعودية
 ضلع الفرشة - السعودية
 ضلع ابن هران - السعودية
 حزم درعان - السعودية
 جو الملاعبة - السعودية
 خباري بن دريع - السعودية

معلومات

نبذة

مصادر

مراجع
<div class="reflist4" style="height: 220px; overflow: auto; padding: 3px">
 العوازم بقلم د.صالح العجيري - الكويت 1431هـ - 2010 م.
 شعراء من قبيلة العوازم مطلق فهاد الجافور الطبعة الأولي 1429 هـ - 2008 م.
 عبد الرحمن عبد الكريم العبيد:قبيلة العوازم(دراسة عن أصلها ومجتمعها وديارها).
 تاريخ مساجد الكويت القديمة بحث واعداد عدنان بن سالم بن محمد الرومي 1423 هـ - 2002 م.
 تاريخ الغوص علي اللؤلؤ في الكويت والخليج العربي الجزء الأول - سيف مرزوق الشملان ط1 1394 هـ - 1975 م.
 تاريخ الغوص علي اللؤلؤ في الكويت والخليج العربي الجزء الثاني - سيف مرزوق الشملان ط2 1409هـ - 1989 م.
 العوازم في سجلات التاريخ هوازن بنو عامر - تأليف عبد الله بن محمد الهران البريكي طبعة 1424 هـ - 2003 م.
 لمحات من أخبار قبيلة العوازم العامرية هوازن تأليف عبد الله بن محمد الهران البريكي طبعة 1419هـ - 1998 م.
 أعلام الغوص عند العوازم خلال قرن (1850م - 1950 بإمارة الكويت) تأليف طلال سعد الرميضي الطبعة الثانية 2006م.
 البدو (تأليف البارون : ماكس فون أوبنهايم) ترجمة : (محمود كبيبو) تحقيق وتقديم : (ماجد شبر) الطبعة العربية الثانية 2007.

عائلات كويتية
قبائل الأردن
قبائل الإمارات العربية المتحدة
قبائل السعودية
قبائل العراق
قبائل الكويت
قبائل سوريا
قبائل عربية
قبائل مصرية
قبائل يمنية
قبيلة العوازم
مجموعات عربية

العوازم


Peter Quenneville (født 9. marts 1994) er en canadisk ishockeyspiller. Han spiller i øjeblikket for Aalborg Pirates.

Aalborg Pirates (2017-18)
Han spillede 28 kampe og scorede 12 mål.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Ishockeyspillere fra Canada
Ishockeyspillere fra Aalborg Pirates

Peter Quenneville


An Arisaema lobatum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Adolf Engler. An Arisaema lobatum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Arisaema, ngan familia nga Araceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Arisaema

Arisaema lobatum


Den største religion i Storbritannien er kristendommen. Den blev indført af romerne, men døde mere eller mindre ud, da den romerske overklasse forlod landet. Siden genindførtes kristendommen af Augustin af Canterbury og hans missionærer fra 597.

Den anglikanske kirke er det største kirkesamfund. Den har sin oprindelse i Augustins mission, men formedes ved reformationen i 1534. Hver af de fire nationer har sit eget kirkelige hierarki. Den engelske kirke er en statskirke med den britiske monark som overhoved og ærkebiskop af Canterbury som det åndelige overhoved.

Den skotske kirke er presbyteriansk og afviser statskirkeordninger. Den britiske monark er i kraft af sit embede medlem af kirken. Monarken har ingen speciel magtposition, men må aflægge ed om at "forsvare kirkens sikkerhed". Den engelske kirkes ækvivalent i Skotland er Den skotske episkopale kirke.

Kirken i Wales blev udskilt fra Den engelske kirke i 1920'erne.

I Nordirland er Den irske kirke det største protestantiske kirkesamfund. Den er fælles for Republikken Irland og Nordirland. Dertil kommer flere større presbyterianske kirkesamfund.

Det næststørste kirkesamfund er Den katolske kirke, som også har sine rødder i Augustins mission. Ved reformationen blev der lagt store begrænsninger på katolsk trosudøvelse. Under Elizabeth 1. kunne det udløse dødsstraf for højforræderi, hvis en katolsk præst virkede i England. I 1850 blev forbuddet ophævet, og kirken oprettede separate hierarkier i de fire nationer (Nordirland og Irland er under samme hierarki).

Der eksisterer dertil en række andre protestantiske og ortodokse kirkesamfund af varierende størrelse.

Jøder fik lov til at bo i Storbritannien i 1656. Fra 1880 til 1945 var der en signifikant indvandring af jøder fra Rusland, Tyskland, Polen og Litauen, der flygtende fra forfølgelse. I dag landets jødiske samfund  det næststørste i Europa.

I anden del af det 20. århundrede var der omfattende indvandring fra Commonwealth of Nations, og dette førte til, at en række andre religioner blev etableret. De største er islam, hinduisme, sikhisme og buddhisme, men moskeen i 2 Glynrhondda Street i Cathays, Cardiff, som blev grundlagt af yemenske sejlere, blev registreret som kultsted i 1860.

Religioner, der hævder at stamme fra præ-keltiske briter som wicca og ny-druidisme, har en del tilhængere.

Lidt over tre fjerdedele af befolkningen oplyste, at de tilhørte en religiøs retning ved folketællingen i 2001. Antallet af personer, som tilhører et trossamfund, er sandsynligvis noget højere, da det var frivilligt at svare på dette spørgsmål, hvilket mange modsatte sig af principielle grunde. På den anden side har undersøgelser vist, at op mod 35 % af befolkningen anser sig for at være ateister; det er således en betydelig gruppe, som er medlem af et trossamfund, men som ikke er troende. Mindre end 20 % af befolkningen deltager regelmæssigt i religiøse aktiviteter. En deltagelse, der er blandt de laveste i verden.

Kildeangivelser

Religion i Storbritannien


Euanthe , also known as , is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2001, and given the temporary designation .

Euanthe is about 3 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 20,465 Mm in 602.81 days, at an inclination of 143° to the ecliptic (142° to Jupiter's equator) with an eccentricity of 0.2001.

It was named in August 2003 after Euanthe, who was the mother of the Graces, according to some Greek writers.

Euanthe belongs to the Ananke group, retrograde irregular moons that orbit Jupiter between 19.3 and 22.7 Gm, at inclinations of roughly 150°.

References

Ananke group
Moons of Jupiter
Irregular satellites
Discoveries by Scott S. Sheppard
Astronomical objects discovered in 2001
Moons with a retrograde orbit

Euanthe (moon)


Edmund Fabry (* 20. Februar 1892 auf Norderney; † 14. November 1939 in Wiesbaden) war ein deutscher Architekt, Maler, Zeichner, Radierer und Grafiker.

Leben und Werk

Fabry wurde als Sohn des Architekten Franz Fabry (1860–1912) und dessen Frau Adele Risse geboren. Um 1894 wechselte Franz Fabry von Norderney nach Wesel, wo er neben einer Filiale der Reichsbank weitere Bauten errichtete. Vor 1902 zog die Familie zog nach Wiesbaden um.

Edmund Fabry studierte vermutlich an der Kunstgewerbeschule in Mainz. Nach Abschluss des Studiums ließ er sich in Wiesbaden nieder und leitete dort seit 1919 mit dem Ehepaar Josef Vinecký (1882–1949) und Li Vinecký-Thorn (1867–1952) ein Gemeinschaftsatelier in der Nikolasstraße (heute Bahnhofstraße), in dem sie privaten Kunstunterricht erteilten.

Fabry arbeitete zunächst als Maler und Grafiker, baute aber nach und nach ein Architekturbüro auf. Einer seiner ersten Aufträge war Umbau, Erweiterung und Neueinrichtung des Ladens der Hofbuchhandlung Staadt in Wiesbaden. Dabei zog er den Bildhauer Arnold Hensler hinzu. Mit ihm war er 1919 Gründungsmitglied der Darmstädter Sezession. Seine ersten Stillleben und Architekturbilder sind expressionistisch beeinflusst, spätere Werke ganz dem Expressionismus verpflichtet. Fabry engagierte sich in expressionistischen Zeitschriften wie "Menschen" und "Die Sichel" und wurde 1919 auch Mitglied beim "Jungen Rheinland" in Düsseldorf.

Alexej Jawlensky zählte Fabry in seinen Lebenserinnerungen zu seinen wichtigsten Freunden, die ihn veranlassten, seinen Wohnsitz von Ascona in die Kurstadt Wiesbaden zu verlegen. Fabry war damals für den "Nassauischen Kunstverein" und die "Gesellschaft für Bildende Kunst" als Ausstellungsleiter tätig. In dieser Eigenschaft nahm er 1921 eine große Anzahl von Jawlenskys Werken in eine Gruppenausstellung mit auf, die für den Russen ein ganz großer Verkaufserfolg wurde.

Zusammen mit Arnold Hensler, für den und dessen Frau, die Fotografin Annie Hensler-Möring, er 1925/1926 in Wiesbaden-Aukamm ein Wohn- und Atelierhaus mit "Zollingerdach" errichtet hatte, gewann er mehrere Wettbewerbe für Mahnmale zum Ersten Weltkrieg. 1928/1829 die Anlage "Cyriakusbrunnen" in Weeze am Niederrhein, 1930 des "Denkmal der 80er" auf dem Neroberg in Wiesbaden und 1934/1935 das Mal in Lieser an der Mosel.

Auf den ehemaligen Gleisanlagen des Wiesbadener Taunusbahnhofs verwirklichte er zusammen mit dem Landschaftsarchitekten Friedrich Wilhelm Hirsch und Arnold Hensler die "Reisinger-Anlagen" und 1937 mit Hirsch die "Herbert-Anlagen". Mit Franz Schuster, Wien/Frankfurt, erbaute er das Opelbad in Wiesbaden.

Fabry wurde von den Nationalsozialisten als Halbjude klassifiziert und musste nach den Novemberpogromen 1938 sein Büro schließen. Er starb 1939 eines natürlichen Todes.

Einzelnachweise

Literatur
 Franz Josef Hamm: Ein Künstlerpaar zwischen den Weltkriegen. Der Bildhauer Arnold Hensler und die Fotografin Annie Hensler-Möring. Reichert Verlag, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-95490-312-2.
 Otto Renkhoff: Nassauische Biographie. Kurzbiographien aus 13 Jahrhunderten. 2. Auflage. Historische Kommission für Nassau, Wiesbaden 1992. ISBN 3-922244-90-4, Nr. 1025.

Weblinks

Architekt (Wiesbaden)
Maler (Deutschland)
Grafiker (Deutschland)
Radierer (Deutschland)
Person (Norderney)
Deutscher
Geboren 1892
Gestorben 1939
Mann

Edmund Fabry


O Palácio de Bangalore foi construído em 1878, inspirado no Castelo de Windsor a mando do rei Chamaraja, durante a Dinastia Wadiyar. O Palácio está localizado na cidade de Bangalor, no estado indiano de Carnataca.

História
Em 1873, o Rei Mysore Chamaraja Wadiyar compra as terras do reverendo Garret. No ano de 1874, inicia a construção do palácio real, inspirado no Castelo de Windsor, a mando do rei, que finaliza suas obras no ano de 1878 e passa por várias ampliações e melhorias com o passar dos anos.

Em 1996, inicia uma batalha judicial sobre a posse da propriedade entre o governo de Carnataca e os descendentes dos Wadiyar.

Em 2005, o palácio é aberto ao público.

Arquitetura
O palácio ocupa uma área de 184 hectares, possui dois pavimentos e foi construída com uma arquitetura que mistura o estilo gótico escocês e o Tudor inglês. Os jardins do palácio foram projetados pelo botânico inglês John Cameron.

O hall de entrada possui piso de cerâmica com padrões geométricos de coloração verdes, amarelos, cremes e laranjas e uma escadaria de madeira esculpida com temas de flores e estrelas, e decorada com cristais, que leva ao pavimento superior.

O pátio aberto interno foi decorado com cerâmica azul, uma fonte que foi presente da família real espanhola e um banco de cerâmica pintada.

Durbar Hall, onde era realizado as assembleias, está localizado no primeiro pavimento. Possui vitrais que vão do piso ao teto e é decorado com diversas pinturas, uma delas feitas pelo pintor Raja Ravi Verma. Na entrada há uma cabeça de elefante que fora caçado e taxidermizado.

Turismo
O palácio está aberto ao público, com entrada paga. São realizados eventos culturais e esportivos na área externa do palácio e a visita às partes internas do palácio oferece áudioguia em diversas línguas. Há um parque de diversões, chamado Fun World em seu complexo.

Galeria de fotos

Palácios da Índia
Bangalor

Palácio de Bangalore


Tin Toy is a 1988 American computer-animated short film produced by Pixar and directed by John Lasseter. The short film, which runs five minutes, stars Tinny, a tin one-man band toy, attempting to escape from Billy, an infant. The third short film produced by the company's small animation division, it was a risky investment: due to the low revenue produced by Pixar's main product, the Pixar Image Computer, the company was under financial constraints.

Lasseter pitched the concept for Tin Toy by storyboard to Pixar owner Steve Jobs, who agreed to finance the short despite the company's struggles, which he kept alive with annual investment. The film was officially a test of the PhotoRealistic RenderMan software and proved new challenges to the animation team, namely the difficult task of realistically animating Billy. Tin Toy later gained attention from Disney, who sealed an agreement to create Toy Story starring Tom Hanks and Tim Allen, which was primarily inspired by elements from Tin Toy.

The short film premiered in a partially completed edit at the SIGGRAPH convention in August 1988 to a standing ovation from scientists and engineers. The film went on to claim Pixar's first Oscar with the 1988 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film, becoming the first CGI film to win an Oscar. With the award, Tin Toy went far to establish computer animation as a legitimate artistic medium outside SIGGRAPH and the animation-festival film circuit. In 2003, Tin Toy was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".

Plot
The film takes place in one room and stars the toy of the title, a mechanical one-man band player named Tinny, who looks around, and sees an infant named Billy, who approaches him, because a Luxo lamp is at the top-right after the title plays. At first, Tinny is delighted at the prospect of being played with by Billy until he sees how destructive the infant can be, including sucking on his Rock-a-Stack and thumping his beads. When Tinny tries to walk out of Billy's reach, the musical instruments on the former's back begin to play, attracting Billy's attention. Tinny begins to run, but is chased by Billy. During a chase with the excited Billy pursuing him, Tinny soon finds cover under a couch, there finding a collection of toys in hiding, similarly terrified of Billy, because they have gone through the same experience. Unaware of this, Billy suddenly trips, but falls over however, and lies silently on the hardwood surface floor face first while searching for Tinny, and begins to cry. Feeling sorry for the baby, Tinny sees this, and leaves his couch sanctuary, and begins to play near Billy to calm him down. Upon seeing this, Billy stops crying and picks up Tinny to play with, the latter fearing the worst. However, Billy soon lets go of the toy, more interested in his packaging, but ignores Tinny, and then plays with his box, which wields the old Pixar logo on the bottom-left, because Tinny came in with it. This annoys Tinny, who again plays music, tries following around Billy in hopes of being noticed, and goes to pursue him, but is still mad and ignored, and ends up trying to stop him no matter where Billy goes with Tinny chasing him. Eventually, Billy, whose face is now covered in a shopping bag, leaves the room, followed by Tinny, and as the credits play, the newly optimistic toys from underneath the couch are safe to come out.

Background
Pixar, purchased in 1986 by entrepreneur and former Apple Computer head Steve Jobs, received many accolades for films produced by its small animation division, headed by former Disney animator John Lasseter. Lasseter's primary role, as defended to Jobs by company founders Edwin Catmull and Alvy Ray Smith, was to produce short films to promote the company's own Pixar Image Computers. The department was never meant to generate any revenue as far as Jobs was concerned, but after the release of two shorts, Luxo Jr. (1986) and Red's Dream (1987), some of the engineers working on the company's products wondered whether it made sense to keep the animation group going at all. Pixar was losing money every year and Jobs was supporting the cash-strapped company SO through a line of credit with his personal guarantee.

The engineers felt they were working hard to make money for Pixar while Lasseter's group was only spending it. Their passion was for building computers and software, not entertainment. Eventually, they discerned, to their chagrin, the reason why the company was supporting the division: the real priority of Catmull and Smith was to make films. The engineers were not alone in wondering about the value of Lasseter's short films. On repeated occasions in the late 1980s, Catmull barely dissuaded Jobs from shutting down the animation division due to financial constraints. At this same time, Jobs was clashing with Alvy Ray Smith, which would eventually lead to his resignation from Pixar after a heated argument during a meeting. Things were by no means well at the company and Lasseter and his team of animators knew this, and were afraid to ask for money to finance another short, which they storyboarded as Tin Toy.

Production
In the spring of 1988, cash was running so short that Jobs convened a meeting to decree deep spending cuts across the board. When it was over, Lasseter and his animation group were almost too afraid to ask Jobs about authorizing some extra money for another short. Finally, they broached the topic and Jobs sat silent, looking skeptical. Tin Toy would require close to $300,000 more out of his pocket. After a few minutes, he asked if there were any storyboards. Catmull took him down to the animation offices, and Lasseter started his show. With the storyboards pinned on his wall, Lasseter did the voices and acted out the shots—just as story men had done on the Disney lot for decades—and thereby showed his passion for the project. The stakes here were much higher than before, however. Ralph Guggenheim, manager of the animation unit, recalled, "We knew that he wasn't just pitching for the film, he was pitching for the survival of the group." Jobs warmed up to the project and agreed to provide the money. "I believed in what John was doing," Jobs later said. "It was art. He cared, and I cared. I always said yes." His only comment at the end of Lasseter's presentation was, "All I ask of you, John, is to make it great."

That fall, after completion of Red's Dream, most members of the company gathered at Stillwater Cove, near Fort Ross, to design new software that was designed completely for the work of an animator. From the meeting came Menv software ("modeling Environment"), the first program specifically designed to facilitate the workflow of an animator, separating the various phases of the animation (modeling, animation and lighting), later renamed Puppets. To show the application of the new program, it was approved the production of a short. Inspired by the birth of his daughter Julia, William Reeves proposed the idea to create a human baby. Lasseter had an inspiration for the new opera based on the observation of his nephew, intent to put any toy in the mouth on the way. Lasseter said, "In terms of toys the child must have seemed a terrible monster!"

The story was about Lasseter's love, classic toys, and was inspired by a visit made in 1987 at the Tin Toy Museum in Yokohama, Japan. It was told from the perspective of a toy one-man band named Tinny, who meets a baby that charms and terrorizes him. Escaping under the couch, Tinny finds other frightened toys, but when the baby hits his head and cries, Tinny goes back out to cheer him up. Tin Toy was inspired much like Luxo Jr., namely, Lasseter's observations of a friend's baby. This time, he opted for a more ambitious task, attempting to mimic a human baby in its appearance, the movement of its arms, and its fickle moods.

The short film was officially a test of the PhotoRealistic RenderMan software. This was the only Pixar short rendered on the RM-1, a RenderMan specific computer that was never sold to the public. As with Luxo Jr. and Red's Dream, it was also a chance for Lasseter to one-up his earlier efforts, taking his animation and storytelling to another level. The baby proved difficult to model and animate; "it just became an incredible burden," remembered Flip Phillips, a new member of the team at the time. In early attempts at a model of the baby's head, he appeared to have the face of a middle-aged man. The final version of the baby (known to the team as Billy) had a much-improved face with 40 separate facial muscles, but his skin had the look of plastic. When he moved, moreover, his body lacked the natural give of baby fat and his diaper had the solidity of cement—compromises made necessary by lack of time and the still-developing technology.

The picture on the table is a photograph of director John Lasseter.

Release
Lasseter and his technical directors slept under their desks at times to get Tin Toy finished before SIGGRAPH in Atlanta in August 1988, but to no avail. What the SIGGRAPH audience saw was the first three-fifths or so of the film, ending a cliffhanger moment with Tinny running into his box and watching in horror through the box's cellophane as Billy advances towards him. "Even though it wasn't complete, people were wowed by it," producer Ralph Guggenheim remembered. The audience of scientists and engineers to which it was shown at SIGGRAPH greeted it with a standing ovation. These praises were joined over the years, positive assessments of public and critics, who praised the innovation and technology in it. Luke Bonanno called it "One of the best Pixar short films," while other critics wrote that the film was "A fascinating glimpse of a fledgling art form." and many praised the ability to move in just a few minutes and have been able to "encompass the full range of emotions you feel when a toy is used by a child." Some criticisms were leveled at the character of Billy, who was called "the most frightening and disturbing piece of animation in the history of this art form." Dario Floreano stated that the uncanny valley concept was taken seriously by the film industry because of negative audience reactions to Billy. It is unknown when this short was first released in its entirety.

Tin Toy went on to take the Academy Award for Best Animated Short in 1989 at the 61st Academy Awards, it was the third CGI short film to get nominated for the Academy Award (Behind Hunger and Luxo Jr.) and was the first computer-generated animated short film to receive an Oscar. With the award, Tin Toy went far to establish computer animation as a legitimate artistic medium outside SIGGRAPH and the animation-festival film circuit. A member of the Academy's board of governors, animator William Littlejohn, saw in Tin Toy a window into the potential of the young medium. "There is a realism that's rather astonishing," he told The New York Times. "It emulates photography, but with artistic staging." Robert Winquist, head of the character animation program at CalArts, went further, predicting that computer animation was "going to take over in a short time." He publicly advised animators, "Put down your pencil and your paintbrush and do it another way."

The short film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" in 2003. Tin Toy garnered some home media releases via inclusion on Tiny Toy Stories in 1996, the VHS and DVD releases of Toy Story in 2000, and the Pixar Short Films Collection, Volume 1 (2007). Tin Toy is also available for streaming on Disney+.

Academy Award
1988 – Best Animated Short Film

Other awards

1989 – Seattle International Film Festival – Best Short Film1989 – World Animation Celebration – Best Computer-Assisted Animation2003 – National Film Registry

Merchandising
Apart from the home video editions of the short film, Tin Toy was not the subject of any type of merchandise, like all of the other short films that have been produced by the company. The only exception is the reproduction of vinyl Tinny, produced by MINDStyle in 2010. Pixar, in fact, sold the license to the manufacturer of Tin Toy MINDStyle objects, which created a maquette of the vinyl character Tinny inside of the line Art Toy Collectible limited Edition of 500 pieces, the price of ninety dollars. The box, which is a faithful reproduction of the packaging of the toy view in short, in addition to containing the model of Tinny, presents a certificate of authenticity printed on a card showing the storyboard in pencil of a scene from the short.

Cancelled holiday special
The success of Tin Toy gained attention from Disney CEO Michael Eisner and Walt Disney Studios chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg, who approached Pixar to produce a computer-animated film. In the early 1990s, Pixar began to make arrangements with Disney to produce the first computer-animated film. The project went through, but considering the abrupt transition from shorts to feature a few minutes to an hour and a half, Pixar set out to create a special half-hour to see if they could manage a production that was similar to that of an actual film. Driven by the victory at the Oscars that year, a sequel to Tin Toy called "A Tin Toy Christmas," was originally planned as a half-hour-long television special to be used to convince film studios that Pixar was capable of producing a feature film. This idea was brought to the table at the initial talks with Disney for Toy Story. The basic idea was that Tinny was part of a set of toy players who are not successful and remain unsold for years. Separated from other components, Tinny ends up by mistake in a toy shop of our age where he meets several characters, including a soft pink bear named Lotso.

The project was abandoned because the television network that would have produced the film could not afford the fees required (according to director Pete Docter, the special would have required a sum of eighteen times higher than the allowed budget). Disney was uninterested in the concept and urged Pixar to produce a feature immediately, which became a critical and commercial success. The character of Lotso, however, was adapted for the third installment of the Toy Story series as the main villain.

Tinny himself makes a cameo in Toy Story 4, appearing when Woody and Bo Peep enter a pinball machine to meet Duke Caboom.

See also
Toy Story (1995), Pixar's first computer-animated feature film which grew out of a Tin Toy sequel.
The Brave Little Toaster (1987)

Notes

References

External links

1988 short films
1980s American animated films
1980s animated short films
1988 computer-animated films
American comedy short films
Animated films without speech
Best Animated Short Academy Award winners
Films about sentient toys
Films with screenplays by John Lasseter
Pixar short films
Short films directed by John Lasseter
Toy Story
United States National Film Registry films
American animated short films
Films about babies

Tin Toy


Janet Woodcock est une médecin américaine. Depuis 2021, elle est commissaire de la Food and Drug Administration.

En 2021, elle fait partie de la liste Les dix scientifiques de l'année de la revue Nature.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Naissance en août 1948

Janet Woodcock