Geraldo Pinho Alves (Olinda, 24 de dezembro de 1925 — Recife, 2 de dezembro de 2000) foi um médico e político brasileiro.

Conhecido como Dr. Geraldo, Geraldo Pinho Alves foi prefeito do Paulista em três ocasiões e Deputado Estadual em outras duas, sendo líder do governo de Miguel Arraes na Assembleia Legislativa de Pernambuco . Foi, também, membro fundador do MDB e do PMDB de Pernambuco, juntamente com outros políticos como Jarbas Vasconcelos e Marcos Freire.

Família e formação

Geraldo Pinho Alves era filho do também médico Carlos Alberto da Silva Alves e de Zulima Pinho. Sua avó paterna, dona Minervina da Silva Alves, era parteira, formada pela primeira turma de parteiras profissionais do Hospital Pedro II em 1890.

Fez seus primeiros estudos no colégio Ateneu Pernambucano em Olinda, e o segundo grau no Colégio Joaquim Nabuco. Ingressou na Faculdade de Medicina da UFPE em 1946, formando-se em 8 de dezembro de 1952. Defendeu tese no ano de 1953. Fez cursos de Saúde Pública, Radiologia e Medicina do Trabalho.

Foi médico do Departamento de Saúde Pública, trabalhando no Centro de Saúde Gouveia de Barros, e, depois, no SAMDU (hoje SAMU). Tornou-se diretor do SAMDU, em Paulista, em janeiro de 1958.

Casou-se com Marília Basto Russell e com ela teve seis filhos: Marco (n.1955); Katia (n.1956); Lígia (n.1958); Geraldo Filho (n. 1960); Bianca (n. 1962); e Sérgio (n. 1968).

Início da vida política

Visto pelos empresários locais como um jovem promissor, foi lançado na política na tentativa de combater o poder dos coronéis. Com esse objetivo, o Dr. Geraldo elegeu-se prefeito do Paulista pela primeira vez em 15 de novembro de 1959, obtendo 3.597 votos .

Assumiu a prefeitura em 1º de janeiro de 1960 e começou um grande programa de infra-estrutura e eletrificação. Seu mandato, porém, foi curto pois tornou-se deputado estadual no ano de 1962.

Deputado

Eleito pelo PTB, partido de que era presidente em Pernambuco, o Deputado Estadual Geraldo Pinho Alves logo se tornou um dos principais aliados do governador Miguel Arraes, e, por isso, foi escolhido líder do governo na Assembleia Legislativa de Pernambuco.

Posteriormente, com a cassação do governador pela Ditadura Militar, virou o líder da oposição.

Golpe de 1964
Em 1964, durante os dias que antecederam o golpe militar, Geraldo Pinho Alves foi um dos três deputados estaduais de Pernambuco a defender que o governador Miguel Arraes decretasse Estado de Sítio para se defender. O que foi rechaçado, inclusive, pela então bancada governista.

No dia 1º de Abril de 1964, durante a votação da resolução que cassava o mandato do então governador Miguel Arraes, enfrentando a revolução, Dr. Geraldo disse:

Por conta de sua oposição ao Golpe Militar de 1964, Dr. Geraldo teve a vida devassada pelos agentes da ditadura, pelo que, em um discurso na Assembleia Legislativa em 20 de Abril de 1964 declarou:

Mesmo na oposição e já no MDB, Dr. Geraldo foi reeleito para a assembleia em 1966. Nessa legislatura, foi escolhido "Deputado do Ano" em duas ocasiões, em 67/68.

Cassação
Democrata convicto, Geraldo Pinho Alves fez discursos inflamados contra a prisão do então governador Miguel Arraes, e, posteriormente, teceu inúmeras críticas ao Vice-Governador que assumiu o cargo, Paulo Guerra.

Mantendo-se firme na oposição à "Ditadura Militar", teve o seu mandato e seus direitos políticos cassados em 1968 por força do Ato Institucional nº 5. Dr. Geraldo foi então obrigado a deixar a vida pública e voltar às lides médicas.

Durante o período em que esteve cassado, Dr. Geraldo participou ativamente dos movimentos políticos que tinham como objetivo lutar contra os excessos cometidos pelo governo. Inicialmente com a oposição enfraquecida, que dizia "caber num Fusca", e finalmente no que culminou na fundação do MDB.

Essa luta, além dos projetos que mesmo longe da política continuou levando ao município, fez com que o então ex-prefeito e ex-deputado fosse agraciado com o título de cidadão honorário, concedido por unanimidade pela Câmara Municipal do Paulista em 1978.

Em 2012, a Assembleia Legislativa de Pernambuco, em ato simbólico, devolveu-lhe o mandato e a outros 24 deputados cassados, honraria que foi recebida "in memorian" por sua viúva, a Sra. Marilia Pinho Alves.

Volta à Prefeitura

Após 14 anos fora da política, já no ocaso da Ditadura Militar, Dr. Geraldo retorna à vida pública e, em 1982, é eleito pela segunda vez Prefeito do Paulista.

Disputando uma eleição na qual o candidato do PMDB para se eleger precisava obter mais votos que a soma de todos os candidatos da ARENA, Geraldo Pinho Alves obteve 13.369 votos, isto é, 54% dos votos válidos.

Já eleito e diante dos graves problemas enfrentados pelo município, Dr. Geraldo monta uma equipe de secretários técnicos, escolhendo dentre aqueles que compunham a candidatura derrotada de Marcos Freire ao governo de Pernambuco naquele mesmo ano, e cria a campanha "Fé em Paulista e Mãos à Obra", que pretendia revitalizar o município.

Logo no início de seu mandato, Geraldo Pinho Alves, juntamente com o então governador Roberto Magalhães, assina parcerias para renovar e ampliar a estrutura viária, revitalizando a PE-01 (Av. Cláudio Gueiros Leite) e construindo a PE-22 que até hoje liga o litoral do município ao Centro da Cidade. Além da inclusão de Paulista no sistema da Adutora de Botafogo.

Terceiro mandato

Dr. Geraldo voltou à prefeitura em 1997, após vencer as eleições de 1996, em que recebeu 41.376 votos, ou 46% do total.

Assume a prefeitura com o desafio de reestruturar o município, após o governo de José Resende, marcado por denúncias de corrupção. A prefeitura contava 12 meses de atraso salarial, a cidade não possuía um sistema de limpeza urbana, as escolas não recebiam investimentos, e os postos de saúde estavam sem funcionar.

Em pouco mais de um ano de mandato a cidade já se encontrava em uma situação de solvência de suas dívidas e começava a se reestruturar.

Últimos anos
Em 2000, Geraldo Pinho Alves é internado no hospital Unicórdis no Recife com problemas respiratórios. Após 15 dias de internação, antes do fim de seu último mandato, morre no hospital por complicações de uma parada respiratória.

Seu corpo foi velado na Assembleia Legislativa de Pernambuco no dia 2 de dezembro, e posteriormente na Igreja Matriz de Paulista. Está enterrado no "Cemitério Morada da Paz", em Paulista.

Homenagens

Após a sua morte, a Assembleia Legislativa de Pernambuco, por iniciativa do Deputado Guilherme Uchoa, aprovou uma lei que renomeou a PE-22 como Rodovia Prefeito Geraldo Pinho Alves .

No dia 28 de Setembro de 2009, Dr. Geraldo foi homenageado postumamente pelos serviços prestados ao estado e ao município do Paulista. Homenagem realizada pela Assembleia Legislativa de Pernambuco, na figura do Deputado Amaury Pinto.

Em 27 de Janeiro de 2010, o então Governador Eduardo Campos, com a presença do presidente Lula e da então ministra Dilma Rousseff, inaugurou uma Unidade de Pronto Atendimento (UPA) em Paulista e esta recebeu o nome de Geraldo Pinho Alves em homenagem ao ex-prefeito e ex-deputado .

Por iniciativa da população, em 2019 uma escola municipal do Bairro de N. Sra. da Conceição, em Paulista, recebeu o nome de Geraldo Pinho Alves.

Em 2022, o Clube Municipal do Nobre, adquirido na terceira gestão do Prefeito Geraldo Pinho Alves, foi requalificado pelo Prefeito Yves Ribeiro e ganhou o nome de Clube Municipal Prefeito Geraldo Pinho Alves

Cronologia

1925 – Geraldo Pinho Alves nasce em Olinda
1958 – Diretor do SAMDU em Paulista
1960 a 1962 – Prefeito do Paulista
1962 a 1966 – Deputado Estadual pelo Partido Trabalhista Brasileiro (PTB)
1966 a 1968 – Reeleito deputado estadual pelo MDB
1968 – Cassado pelo AI-5
1982 a 1988 – prefeito de Paulista, pelo PMDB
1994 a 1996 – Presidente do IPSEP
1996 a 2000 – Prefeito de Paulista, pelo PSB
2000 - Falece no dia 2 de dezembro no Recife

Deputados estaduais de Pernambuco
Prefeitos de Paulista (Pernambuco)
Naturais de Olinda
Membros do Movimento Democrático Brasileiro (1980)
Membros do Partido Democrático Trabalhista
Membros do Partido Socialista Brasileiro
Membros do Partido Socialista Brasileiro de Pernambuco

Geraldo Pinho Alves


Penda Mbow, nascida em 1955, é historiadora, ativista e política senegalesa. Ministra da Cultura do Senegal durante vários meses em 2001, é professora na Universidade Cheikh Anta Diop em Dakar e presidente do Mouvement citoyen (Movimento dos Cidadãos).

Biografia
Penda Mbow nasceu em abril de 1955. Em 1986 obteve o doutorado em História Medieval na Universidade de Provença (atual Universidade de Aix-Marselha) na França, com a tese intitulada L'aristocratie militaire mameluke d'après le cadastre d'Ibn al-Ji'an : éléments de comparaison avec la France (em português: A aristocracia militar mameluca após o registro público de Ibn al-Ji'an: elementos de comparação com a França). A sua pesquisa acadêmica centra-se na história intelectual africana e nos estudos de gênero islâmicos. Tornou-se professora em 2010.

Prêmios e distinções

 Bolsa Fulbright, Universidade Estadual de Michigan
 Prêmio da Fundação Rockefeller, para pesquisa no Bellagio Center, na Itália.
 Prêmio da Paz Jean Paul II da Universidade de Boston.
 Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur Française (Cavaleiro da Legião de Honra Francesa) 2003.
 Commandeur de l'Ordre National du Mérite, França, 1999.
 Doutora honorária da Universidade de Uppsala em janeiro de 2005.

Veja também

 Estudos de gênero

Referências

Bibliografia

  Lydia Polgreen, "At Africa's Crumbling Colleges, No Room for Students", The New York Times, 26 mai 2007 (the situation at l'UCAD)
  Fabrice Hervieu-Wane, "Penda Mbow. Femme d'utilité publique", dans Dakar l'insoumise, Éditions Autrement, Paris, 2008, p. 94-99
  Penda Mbow, editor. "Hommes et femmes entre spheres publique et privee."Codesria, 2005

Links externos

   "Evolving role for Senegalese women in religion", by Penda Mbow, 2009.
  Biographie et bibliographie sur le site de l'UCAD
  « Penda Mbow – Professeur d'Histoire à l'UCAD: Au commencement, une pénurie d'eau... » (interview)
   Official Website of Mouvement Citoyen

Historiadoras
Historiadores do Senegal
Políticos do Senegal
Pessoas vivas
Nascidos em 1955
!Mais Teoria da História na Wiki (Mais Pretas)

Penda Mbow


El Rally Cataluña de 2005, oficialmente 41è Rally RACC Catalunya – Costa Daurada (Rallye de España), fue la edición 41º y la decimoquinta ronda de la temporada 2005 del Campeonato Mundial de Rally. Se celebró entre el 28 y el 30 de octubre y contó con quince tramos sobre asfalto sumando un total de 358.75 km cronometrados.

En el año 2005, se produjeron cambios importantes en la prueba. La FIA exigió que la seguridad fuera superior, debido a la cantidad de público que había en los últimos años y obligó a un único punto de asistencia, con lo que la organización del rally decidió cambiar su ubicación, que era en Gerona desde el 2002, y lo trasladó a Salou, en Tarragona, con la base en el aparcamiento de Port Aventura. Como consecuencia, el rally pasó a llamarse «Rally Catalunya-Costa Daurada». Aun así, en ese primer año de cambio de ubicación, el séptimo tramo, El Lloar-La Figuera se suspendió por excesiva afluencia de espectadores.

El campeonato de marcas se decidió en Cataluña. Sébastien Loeb ganó,  logrando la décima victoria de la temporada, seguido de su compañero François Duval y del finlandés Mikko Hirvonen, que lograba el primer podio en su carrera con un Focus privado. La actuación de Hirvonen impidió a Citroën lograr un triplete, al apear del podio en el último tramo al español Pons que finalizó cuarto. Con todo, la marca francesa festejó el campeonato de marcas y el campeonato junior que había logrado el español Dani Sordo con su Citroën C2.

Itinerario y ganadores

Clasificación final

Campeonato
 Clasificación del campeonato tras la celebración del Rally Cataluña:

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Catalunya 2005 juwra.com

2005
Deporte en España en 2005
Temporada 2005 del Campeonato Mundial de Rally

Rally Cataluña de 2005


Cette page concerne les évènements survenus en 1998 en Israël  :

Évènement
  :
  : Élection présidentielle
  :
  :
  : Accords de Wye Plantation entre Israël et l'Autorité palestinienne.
  :

Sport
 Championnat d'Israël de football 1997-1998
 Championnat d'Israël de football 1998-1999
 Participation d'Israël aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de Nagano.

Culture
 Participation au Concours Eurovision de la chanson et victoire de la chanteuse israélienne.

Sortie de film
 Train de vie
 Yom Yom

Création

 Synagogue Cymbalista

Dissolution - Fermeture

 Mirabilis (rachat par AOL)

Notes et références

1998 en Israël


A Blaze in the Northern Sky drugi je studijski album norveškog black metal-sastava Darkthrone. Album je objavljen 2. ožujka 1992. godine, a objavila ga je diskografska kuća Peaceville Records. Na albumu se nalaze neke od prvih black metal pjesama sastava, te se smatra klasikom žanra. Prvi je album u takozvanom "nesvetom trojstvu", čega su dio druga dva albuma Under a Funeral Moon i Transilvanian Hunger. Zadnji je album na kojem svira basist Dag Nilsen.

Pozadina
Prvi album Darkthrona, Soulside Journey iz 1991. godine, po žanru je švedski death metal. Nakon objave Soulside Journey, sastav je počeo pisati pjesme black metal tipa umjesto death. Prvi pokušaj rezultirao je u instrumentalnom demoalbumu Goatlord.

Nakon snimanja Goatlord, tri člana sastava—Fenriz, Nocturno Culto i Zephyrous—odlučili su se okrenuti black metalu te početi raditi na njihovom prvom black metal albumu. Basistu Nilsenu se nagla promjena nije svidjela, zbog čega je napustio sastav. Ipak, pristao je snimiti bas-gitaru za album kao gost. A Blaze in the Northern Sky sniman u je u kolovozu 1991. godine, u Creative Studios u Kolbotnu; u istom je studiju Mayhem snimio utjecajni Deathcrush EP. U intervjuu, Fenriz je rekao kako su nekako "požurili" s albumom te kako većina pjesama ima "death metal gitarske riffove" svirane u "black metal stilu".

Zbog Darkthronove nagle promjene iz death metala u black metal, Peaceville nisu htjeli objaviti album kao takav. Šokirana diskografska kuća očekivala je isti pravac u kojem su krenuli na Soulside Journey. Peaceville su ipak pristali objaviti album, pod uvjetom da ga bolje remiksaju, jer je zvuk bio "preslab". Sastav je tada zaprijetio kako će potpisati za Deathlike Silence Productions, diskografsku kuću Øysteina "Euronymousa" Aarsetha iz Mayhema (komu je album posvećen).Ipak, Peaceville se složio objaviti album takav kakav je.

Objava
A Blaze in the Northern Sky objavila je diskografska kuća Peaceville, dana 2. ožujka 1992. godine. Prvo izdanje na CD-u limitirano je na 2 tisuće kopija. Na omotu albuma nalazi se Ivar Enger (Zephyrous), ritam gitarist sastava.

Popis pjesama

Osoblje
Darkthrone
Nocturno Culto – glavna gitara, vokali
Zephyrous – ritam gitara
Fenriz – bubnjevi, prateći vokali
Gostujući glazbenici
Dag Nilsen – bas-gitara
Ostalo osoblje
Tassilo – logotip
Gylve – logotip
Tompa – logotip
Dave Pybus – dizajn
Nimbus – mastering
Erik Avnskog – inženjer zvuka

Izvori

Albumi sastava Darkthrone
Albumi iz 1992.

A Blaze in the Northern Sky


An Cladoraphis cyperoides in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Carl Peter Thunberg, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Sylvia Mabel Phillips. An Cladoraphis cyperoides in nahilalakip ha genus nga Cladoraphis, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Cladoraphis

Cladoraphis cyperoides


2033 (MMXXXIII) va fi un an obișnuit al calendarului gregorian, care va începe într-o zi de sâmbătă.

Evenimente

Nașteri

Decese

Note

2033


Le premier hôtel du Parlement à Québec est un édifice ayant abrité le Parlement du Bas-Canada entre 1834 et 1837 ainsi que le Parlement de la province du Canada entre 1852 et 1854. Construit à partir de 1831 et complété en 1852, il est détruit par un incendie en 1854.

Description

Historique

Parlement du Bas-Canada
La première institution parlementaire au Québec, le Parlement du Bas-Canada, est créé à la suite de l'adoption de l'Acte constitutionnel de 1791. Le tout nouveau gouvernement n'a alors pas le temps ni les moyens de construire immédiatement un édifice pour abriter ses parlementaires. L'ancien palais épiscopal de Québec est donc loué par l'évêché de Québec au Parlement. Sa chapelle sert de chambre d'assemblée. Cependant, le bâtiment devient rapidement trop étroit et vétuste. Le fonctionnaire Joseph Bouchette le juge dans un « état déplorable » en 1815. Le gouvernement veut acquérir le site pour construire un véritable édifice parlementaire.

En 1826, un comité de la Chambre d'assemblée entreprend de négocier avec l'archevêque Bernard-Claude Panet pour rénover l'édifice et l'acheter définitivement en échange d'une rente perpétuelle de milles louis. L'archidiocèse se dit d'accord pour les rénovations mais pas pour l'abandon de sa propriété. La demande de cession et d'aliénation de la propriété est reformulée à nouveau en 1829 et le , l'offre est finalement acceptée. Un contrat est passé à cet effet le .

Les travaux d'excavation débutent le . L'architecte Thomas Baillairgé dirige les travaux de l'aile gauche tandis que Louis-Thomas Berlinguet s'occupe du corps central. Les députés siègent une dernière fois dans l'ancienne chapelle le 3 avril 1833 avant que la démolition de celle-ci débute le 11 avril suivant. Ils emménagent dans la nouvelle aile gauche le 7 janvier 1834 puis dans le corps central le 21 février 1835. De l'ancien édifice, seul reste l'aile sud-est, qui loge entre autres le musée du sculpteur et doreur Pierre Chasseur, dont la gestion est assurée par la Literary and Historical Society of Quebec (LHSQ) à partir de 1841

L'aile droite n'est toujours pas construite lors de rébellion des Patriotes. Les parlementaires bas-canadiens siègent une dernière fois dans l'édifice 26 août 1837 avant la suspension du Parlement.

Parlement du Canada-Uni

Dans la province du Canada, Québec perd son statut de capitale, mais le reprend quelques années après les agitations à Montréal. La démolition des restes de l'ancien palais épiscopal est achevé en 1851 et l'aile droite est construite. Pierre Gauvreau fait les plans et  la décoration intérieure. L'ouvrage est complété en 1852, année où Québec redevient capitale.

L'Assemblée législative de la province du Canada n'y siègera que pendant la première session de la 4e législature puisque 1er février 1854, un incendie accidentel détruit l'édifice. Lors de l'incendie, la moitié de la collection de la Bibliothèque de l'Assemblée nationale du Québec, qui compte environ , disparaît, ainsi que le musée de la LHSQ. Une partie des pierres du bâtiment est récupérée pour la construction de la façade du marché Champlain.

Le site accueillera le deuxième hôtel du Parlement à Québec à partir de 1860.

Notes et références

Bibliographie

Voir aussi
 Hôtel du Parlement du Québec
 Deuxième hôtel du Parlement à Québec
 Ancien palais épiscopal de Québec

Bâtiment détruit à Québec (ville)
Édifice législatif au Canada
Architecture du XIXe siècle au Québec
Édifice construit en 1852
Architecture néo-classique au Canada
Bâtiment détruit lors d'un incendie au Canada
Parlement du Bas-Canada
Parlement de la province du Canada
Bâtiment de Thomas Baillairgé
Bâtiment de Louis-Thomas Berlinguet
Bâtiment de Pierre Gauvreau

Premier hôtel du Parlement à Québec


Austroslavismul este o mișcare politică a slavilor (în special a cehilor) din Austro-Ungaria în cea de-a doua jumătate a secolului al XIX-lea, apărută ca urmare a redeșteptăii conștiinței slavofile și a primei faze a renașterii naționale cehe. Mișcarea s-a străduit să transforme Dubla Monarhie austro-ungară într-un stat trialist. Principalii reprezentanți ai mișcării au fost František Palacký și František Ladislav Rieger care aparțineau de Cehii Bătrâni, precum și teoreticieni social-democrați austrieci ca Otto Bauer sau Victor Adler. În jurul anului 1890, ideile politice radicale ale Cehilor Tineri au înlocuit Austroslavismul.

În dezbatere a fost pus nu doar trialismul, ci și o ulterioară federalizare și democratizare a Austro-Ungariei. Prin aceasta se urmărea păstrarea monarhiei, în care însă naționalităților li s-ar fi acordat autonomie. Prin compromisul austro-ungar din 1867 și prin corespondentul lui croato-maghiar din 1868/1873 - în care însă nu s-au făcut concesii la fel de mari - democratizarea în sensul unei structuri federale a Austro-Ungariei a fost implantată. În plus, după 1867, jumătatea maghiară a monarhiei a urmat o restrictivă politică a minorităților naționale (numită maghiarizare), a cărei țel era constituirea unui stat național unitar maghiar după model vest-european.

Drept pionier al austroslavismului este recunoscut slavistul sloven Jernej Kopitar (1780–1844). La începutul secolului al XIX-lea, el a strâns în jurul său o extinsă rețea de învățați, în special dintre slavii de sud, a adunat antichități slave și, ca unul dintre fondatorii slavisticii, s-a implicat în ridicarea prestigiului ca naționalism cultural a slavilor din cadrul monarhiei habsburgice.

Bibliografie
 Gun-Britt Kohler, Hans Henning Hahn, Rainer Grübel (Hrsg.): Habsburg und die Slavia (= Mitteleuropa - Osteuropa, Band 10). Lang, Frankfurt am Main (u. a.) 2008, ISBN 978-3-631-53123-5.
 Andreas Moritsch: Der Austroslavismus : ein verfrühtes Konzept zur politischen Neugestaltung Mitteleuropas (= Schriftenreihe des Internationalen Zentrums für Europäische Nationalismus- und Minderheitenforschung, Band 1). Böhlau, Wien / Köln / Weimar 1995, ISBN 3-205-98362-9.

Note

Politica Austro-Ungariei
Panslavism

Austroslavism


Guaviare () is a department of Colombia. It is in the southern central region of the country. Its capital is San José del Guaviare. Guaviare was created on July 4, 1991, by the new Political Constitution of Colombia. Up until that point, it was a national territory that operated as a commissariat, segregated from territory of the then Commissariat of Vaupés on December 23, 1977.

Municipalities
 Calamar
 El Retorno
 Miraflores
 San José del Guaviare

History
Originally inhabited by the indigenous Nukak people, Guaviare was one of the regions colonized during the Amazon rubber boom of the 1910s and 1940s. Many families migrated from the centre of the country, seeking fast revenue and escaping from the bi-partisan violence taking place in other regions of Colombia. Nevertheless, the 'rubber fever' ended quickly, leaving the new inhabitants of Guaviare alone in an immense rainforest difficult to conquer. The boom of cocaine in the second half of the 20th century attracted new colonizers who migrated from other impoverished regions attracted by the coca revenues.  Following this new wave of colonization, the territory started growing almost  of coca per year. Several segments of Guaviare's territory were controlled by drug traffickers and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Columbia (FARC) guerrilla group during this period in which violence was widespread and clashes between the factions of the Colombian armed conflict were constant. According to Colombia's Victims Unit, the conflict in Guaviare has had more than 93,000 victims since 1985, with more than 83,000 displaced and 6,612 dead.

The Colombian government's efforts to fight against coca cultivation have faced several difficulties. Aerial aspersion of glyphosate over the coca crops was suspended by a judicial order as it was potentially risky for the health of the inhabitants. Additionally, plans to replace coca with other crops have encountered legal, environmental, and economic restrains that limit their viability. None of these crops could match the level of profit that coca provided. The introduction of cattle to the region has reduced the farmers' dependence on coca by generating alternative sources of income. However, deforestation caused by cattle-ranching has led to droughts, fires, and loss of biodiversity.

The demobilization of the FARC in 2016 has led to the improvement of the living conditions in rural areas of Guaviare, although FARC dissident groups that did not demobilize still exert territorial control of some zones of the department.

Demographics

Racial makeup

 Indigenous Latinos (90.09%)
 Afro-Colombians (5.86%)
 Amerindians or Indigenous (4.05%)

The Nukak, a nomadic tribe that was uncontacted until 1988, live in Guaviare.

Notes

References

External links
Territorial-Environmental Information System of Colombian Amazon SIAT-AC website

Departments of Colombia
States and territories established in 1991

Guaviare Department


زاما  هي مدينة يابانية تقع في محافظة كاناغاوا.

تأسست المدينة في 1 نوفمبر 1971.
يوجد في المدينة معسكر زاما التابع لقوات الجيش الولايات المتحدة.

جغرافيا
تبع المدينة حوالي 40 كم عن طوكيو و 20 كم عن يوكوهاما. وتمر بها أنها مثل ساغامي وميكوشيري وهاتو.

الاقتصاد
 زراعة : 413 شخص (0.6%)
 صناعة : 18978 شخص (29.8%)
 خدمات : 43298 شخص (68.0%)

أعلام

 يو هاياشي
 شنوبو أونو
 ايرينا مانو
 آمي سوزوكي
 سوزوكا أوجو

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 الموقع الرسمي للمدينة

زاما (كاناغاوا)
مدن محافظة كاناغاوا

زاما (كاناغاوا)


الدينار الصربي هو العملة الرسمية لصربيا وينقسم إلى 100 بارا، أصدر الدينار الصربي الحديث عام 2003 خلفاً للدينار اليوغسلافي، ويرجع استخدام الدينار الصربي إلى القرون الوسطى حيث سك ملوك الصرب دنانير من العملات فضية.

مراجع

أيزو 4217
اقتصاد صربيا
تأسيسات سنة 2003 في صربيا والجبل الأسود
دينار
رموز عملات
عملات استحدثت في 2003
عملات استحدثت في 2006
عملات صربيا
عملات متداولة

دينار صربي


Graham John Capill (born 1959) is a former New Zealand Christian leader, politician and convicted rapist.

He served as the first leader of the now-defunct Christian Heritage Party, stepping down in 2003. In 2005 he was convicted of multiple sexual offences against girls under 12 years of age and sentenced to nine years imprisonment.  He was released on parole in August 2011, having served six years of that sentence.

Early life
Capill was born in western Africa, his parents being Christian missionaries. Most of his youth was spent in New Zealand, mainly in the city of Christchurch. He was educated at Middleton Grange School, a large evangelical Protestant school in that city, where his father, Donald Capill, was vice-principal for most of the 1970s, and which his brothers, David, Murray and Timothy, also attended.

Capill went to work in the aviation industry, and qualified as a pilot and an avionics engineer. Later, Capill decided to become a minister, and studied towards a Bachelor of Divinity degree at the Reformed Theological College in Geelong, Australia. He gained his degree in 1986. He returned to New Zealand to complete an internship at Wellington, and became a minister of the Reformed Church of Dunedin in 1988. By June 1998 he was attending an Anglican church in Christchurch, but described himself as Presbyterian by conviction. Capill gained a law degree from the University of Canterbury in 1997.

Capill and his wife Judith have ten children.

Christian Heritage Party

The Christian Heritage Party, founded in 1989, held its first convention in 1990. Capill was appointed the new party's leader in June of that year. He remained leader of the party through five elections, but the party failed to win any seats. Capill announced his retirement shortly after the 2002 general election, and stepped down in 2003. He was succeeded as party leader by Ewen McQueen. In November 2004 Capill resigned from the Christian Heritage citing differences of opinion over the party's new direction since his retirement.

Police work
After leaving politics, he was employed as a dispatcher in the Southern Communications Centre of the New Zealand Police.  Within a year he had been moved to be a police prosecutor at the Christchurch District Court, but was stood down in early 2005 pending criminal charges.

Trial and imprisonment
On 23 March 2005 Capill appeared in the Christchurch District Court charged with indecently assaulting a girl aged under 12. On leaving the court he was assaulted ("punched and left whimpering on the ground") by local sickness beneficiary Daniel McNally, a former boxer. The media referred to Capill, who was then under a name-suppression order, as "a prominent New Zealander".
McNally, who had no previous connection to the case, received a two-year prison sentence for the assault.
On 1 April 2005 name suppression was lifted and Capill pleaded guilty to a charge of indecently assaulting an eight-year-old girl on four occasions. These events took place between the years of 2001 and 2002, while Capill was leader of Christian Heritage. His activities were brought to an end by the Rev Wally Behan, vicar of St John's Anglican Church, Latimer Square, Christchurch, the church which the Capill family attended.  Behan was acting on information received from some of the victims. Further charges of rape and indecent assault against girls aged under 12 (committed during the 1990s) followed. As Capill had strongly condemned "sexual perversion" throughout his political career, the revelations had particular impact. Capill's conduct was swiftly condemned by Christian Heritage.

On 28 June 2005 Capill entered guilty pleas on a further three charges of indecent assault, one of rape, and one of unlawful sexual connection, all committed against girls under the age of 12.  Newspaper reports now describe him as "a sexual predator", and he was remanded in custody while awaiting sentencing. On 14 July 2005 Capill was sentenced to imprisonment for nine years. Prior to his sentencing, he sent an e-mail to supporters, asking for forgiveness and that they pray for a light sentence, also claiming that the sex with one of the young girls was "consensual". His lawyer said that the e-mail, intended to gain sympathy and support, backfired and was ill-advised. Judge Kerr said the email sent by Capill to supporters demonstrated he had yet to fully appreciate the enormity of his offending.

On 16 August he appealed the sentence to the dismay of his critics. The appeal was abandoned on 31 January 2006.

Capill had earned a law degree before the revelation of his offending. On 9 August 2006, he was forbidden to practise law and fined $3123 at a disciplinary hearing (although Capill had never practised law privately, and described his legal studies as a "hobby"). Concerns were raised that Capill's wife and children might be unfairly burdened by this latest development, due to his inability to earn income as a prisoner.

Later that year, Capill complained that Rolleston Prison guards were interfering with photocopying and access to a university tutor for his Massey University papers, and not letting him swap children's diaries with his wife. However, another Rolleston Prison inmate who was also studying Massey University papers at the same time as Capill argued that prison guards behaved similarly toward other inmates.

On 3 October 2006, his successor, Ewen McQueen, announced the dissolution of Christian Heritage New Zealand, blaming Capill's conviction and disgrace for its demise.

In April 2008, there was public opposition when it was revealed that Capill was due to appear at a Parole Board hearing in June 2008. On 27 June 2008, it was reported that Capill's parole application had been unsuccessful due to opposition from his victims who felt there had been insufficient preventative counselling, and that the Department of Corrections and Rolleston Prison would not enroll him on Kia Marama, a child sexual abuse prevention education and counselling course, until he had served two-thirds of his sentence (circa 2011).

He was granted parole in August 2011 after having completed the nine-month Kia Marama child-sex offenders programme and having been "assessed as posing a low/medium long term risk of sexual reoffending".

However, as with other paroled and released sexual offenders, there were a number of conditional aspects to Capill's release. He was required to report to a parole officer when dealing with accommodation and employment concerns and experienced restricted mobility and autonomy in those contexts. He was forbidden from communicating with his former victims and associating with anyone under sixteen unless there were approved adult caregivers in the vicinity.

After release
Capill now lives in Christchurch; his sentence ended in June 2014.

See also
Christian politics in New Zealand

References

1959 births
Living people
Leaders of political parties in New Zealand
University of Canterbury alumni
Christian Heritage Party of New Zealand politicians
Christian Coalition (New Zealand) politicians
New Zealand people convicted of rape
Unsuccessful candidates in the 1996 New Zealand general election
People convicted of indecent assault
Protestant religious leaders convicted of crimes
Unsuccessful candidates in the 1999 New Zealand general election
Unsuccessful candidates in the 2002 New Zealand general election
New Zealand politicians convicted of crimes
People educated at Middleton Grange School

Graham Capill


Regimentul 38 Infanterie a fost o unitate de nivel tactic care s-a constituit la 14/27 august 1916, prin mobilizarea unităților și subunităților existente la pace aparținând de Regimentul Neagoe Basarab No. 38. Regimentul a făcut parte din organica Brigăzii 20 Infanterie, fiind dislocat la pace în garnizoana Brăila. La intrarea în război, Regimentul 38 Infanterie a fost comandat de colonelul Alexandru Bacalbașa. Regimentul 38 Infanterie a participat la acțiunile militare pe frontul românesc, pe toată perioada războiului, între 14/27 august 1916 - 28 ocotmbrie/11 noiembrie 1918.

Participarea la operații

Campania anului 1916

Campania anului 1917

Comandanți
Locotenent-colonel Alexandru Bacalbașa: 14 august 1916-1 noiembrie 1916
Locotenent-colonel Gheorghe Cornescu: 1 martie 1917-1 noiembrie 1918

Note

Bibliografie
 Dabija, Gheorghe(general), Armata română în răsboiul mondial (1916-1918), vol.I-IV, Tipografia "Lupta" N. Stroilă, București, 1932-1936
 Falkenhayn, Erich von, Campania Armatei a 9-a împotriva românilor și a rușilor, Atelierele Grafice Socec & Co S.A., București, 1937
 Kirițescu, Constantin, Istoria războiului pentru întregirea României, Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, București, 1989
 Ioanițiu Alexandru (Lt.-Colonel), Războiul României: 1916-1918,vol 1, Tipografia Geniului, București, 1929
 Tănasă, Horia, Brăila în războiul întregirii naționale 1916-1918. Contribuția militară, Editura Istros, Brăila, 2016
  ***, România în războiul mondial 1916-1919, vol I-IV, Monitorul Oficial și Imprimeriile Statului, București, 1934-1941
 ***, Marele Cartier General al Armatei României. Documente 1916 – 1920, Editura Machiavelli, București, 1996
 ***, Istoria militară a poporului român, vol. V, Editura Militară, București, 1989
 ***, România în anii primului Război Mondial, Editura Militară, București, 1987
 ***, România în primul război mondial'', Editura Militară, 1979

Vezi și
Participarea României la Primul Război Mondial
Regimentul Neagoe Basarab No. 38
Ordinea de bătaie a Armatei României (1916)
Ordinea de bătaie a Armatei României (1917)

Unități militare române din Primul Război Mondial

Regimentul 38 Infanterie (1916-1918)


An Eragrostis gloeophylla in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Sylvia Mabel Phillips. An Eragrostis gloeophylla in nahilalakip ha genus nga Eragrostis, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Eragrostis

Eragrostis gloeophylla


Tiger Killer est un film hongkongais réalisé par Li Han-hsiang, sorti en 1982. Il remporte plusieurs Golden Horses Awards.

Synopsis
Wu song, une brute alcoolique à la sexualité refoulée entretenant un rapport de dépendance affective avec son grand frère (une personne de petite taille à la physionomie peu avantageuse), devient célèbre pour avoir assassiné un tigre, ce qui lui permet d'être engagé dans la police municipale de sa ville de résidence. Il ne tarde pas à séduire involontairement sa belle-sœur, une jeune femme maltraitée par la vie à la vie sensuelle peu satisfaisante, dont les pieds minuscules font l'objet des fantasmes de la population masculine.

Fiche technique
 Titre : Tiger Killer
 Réalisation : Li Han-hsiang
 Société de production : Shaw Brothers
 Pays d'origine : Hong Kong
 Format : Couleurs - 2,35:1 - Mono - 35 mm
 Genre : mélodrame conjugal
 Date de sortie : 1982

Distribution
 Ti Lung : Wu Song, le tueur de tigre éponyme, un homme vivant de sa violence
 Ku Feng : Wu l'aîné, un marchand ambulant contrefait
 Wang Ping (actrice) : Pan Jin-lian ("Lotus d'Or", un nom évoquant ses petits pieds, comparés à des boutons de lotus), épouse du précédent, une tailleuse
 Liu Yung : Ximen Qing, un pharmacien épicurien
 Wang Lai : une commerçante pratiquant aussi une activité dans le domaine de la rencontre
 Ching Miao : un villageois endetté

Notes et références

Liens externes

Film hongkongais sorti en 1982
Film dramatique hongkongais
Film de la Shaw Brothers
Film réalisé par Li Han-hsiang

Tiger Killer


Walter Thiel (3 March 1910, Breslau – 17 August 1943, Karlshagen, near Peenemünde) was a German rocket scientist.

Thiel provided the decisive ideas for the A4 (V-2) rocket engine and his research enabled rockets to head towards space.

Life

Walter Erich Oskar Thiel was born on 3 March 1910 in the Silesian city of Breslau, as second son of Oskar Thiel (civil servant at the German Post) and Elsa (Prinz) Thiel.
In 1929 he passed all his school graduation exams (Abitur) with the highest possible grade A. After graduation he studied chemistry at the Technische Hochschule zu Breslau (now Wrocław University of Technology). Due to his excellent work he was exempt from study fees as of the third semester.

In summer semester of 1931 he passed the preliminary examination with excellence. In winter semester 1933 he passed all 7 diploma exams with the highest possible grade A and he became Dipl.-Ing. (chem.). In 1934 his thesis "Über die Addition von Verbindungen mit stark polarer Kohlenstoff-Halogenbindung an ungesättigte Kohlen-Wasserstoffe" received the highest possible honor (summa cum laude). He became Dr.-Ing. (chem.). His doctorate was confirmed on 8 November 1934 in Breslau (source: Walter Thiel's doctorate).

Thiel's Professor in Breslau recommended Thiel to the Research Institute of the German army ordnance office of under-secretary Prof. Karl Erich Schumann at the University of Berlin. Thiel's previous findings had technological applicability and therefore he was able to continue his fundamental research in a leading position. Late 1934 or early 1935 Thiel became research instructor at Reichswehrministerium. Schumann accompanied many diploma theses and dissertations, including that of Wernher von Braun, who completed his dissertation in 1934. The contacts between the testing ground in Kummersdorf and Schumann's Institute was close, the eastern part of the site in Kummersdorf served as an experimental base for Schumann's institutes, in the west a group of scientists around Major Walter Dornberger carried out their experiments. Here Thiel got to know Walter Dornberger and Wernher von Braun.

In autumn of 1936 Dornberger asked Thiel to move from fundamental research to Wa Prüf 11 at Kummersdorf's western testing ground. All topics regarding the engine were assigned to Thiel, and he had to further advance the propulsion, which he managed in a very short time. In his paper "Empirische und theoretische Grundlagen zur Neuberechnung von Öfen und Versuchsdaten, Schießplatz Kummersdorf Vers. West", that he presented on 27 April 1937, Thiel introduces developments that lead to decisive changes, including a shortening of the oven and an optimization of the injection nozzle. Furthermore, Thiel continued to research different fuel mixtures for the rocket engines.

In 1937 the first scientists moved from Kummersdorf to Peenemünde. As the test stations were not ready yet, Thiel and his team stayed in Kummersdorf until 1940. After transferring from Kummersdorf to the Peenemünde Army Research Center in the summer of 1940, Thiel became deputy director of the Peenemünde HVP Organization under von Braun. In 1940 many new scientists were recruited to speed up the R&D of the A4. Chemist Gerhard Heller became a very important co-worker of Thiel. They also established private contacts. Other colleagues of Thiel at the development unit included: Hermann M. Bedürftig, Konrad Dannenberg, Werner Dobrick, Hans Fichtner, Werner Gengelbach, Hans J. Lindenmayr, Dr. William Mrazek, Kurt E. Patt, Gerhard Reisig, Walther J. Riedel (Riedel III), Ludwig Roth, Helmut Zoike. After the war, these scientists and others were recruited into United States-government service as part of Operation Paperclip.

In the A4 project, the first successful launch occurred from test station VII on 3 October 1942. The rocket flew 190 km in the targeted direction and it reached a height of 85 km. The top-speed was 1,322 m/s. As the A4 was now showing military qualities, the NS leadership was demanding immediate implementation in war. Mass production replaced science, although the whole unit was still immature. There were many launch failures after 3 October 1942. In 1943 Thiel and many fellow scientists and researchers were very exhausted and unhappy in Peenemünde. Work overload, pressure to succeed and the changeover from a research unit to a production facility started to take its toll on the scientists. Thiel refused to declare the rocket engine ready for mass production. In a letter to von Braun, sent during a trip to a health farm, Thiel described the Aggregat 4: "…where it is more of a complicated lab product than a mass item….". Thiel formulated his protest by handing in his resignation orally on 17 August 1943. He planned to get his professorship at a university. Dornberger rejected his resignation.

During the following night (17–18 August 1943) the Royal Air Force launched a bombing raid of Peenemünde, Operation Hydra. The Thiel family died in a slit trench in front of their home in Karlshagen.  Thiel and his family (wife Martha, daughter Sigrid and son Siegfried) were buried at the war cemetery in Karlshagen. Martin Schilling replaced Thiel.

Legacy
On 29 October 1944, Thiel was posthumously awarded the Knight's Cross of the War Merit Cross with Swords.

Thiel's accomplishments were not forgotten. In 1970 a Moon crater is named after him. It is located on the far side of the Moon and thus not visible from Earth. (Coordinates: 40° 42' N / 134° 30' W, mean diameter: 32.0 km). In addition, Thiel was one of the first pioneers to be inducted in the "International Space Hall of Fame" in Alamogordo, New Mexico, USA in 1976.

Aggregate series Development

Based on the film cooling ('veil cooling') solution identified by colleague Moritz Pöhlmann at Peenemünde, Thiel designed annular rings of tiny perforations to inject unburnt fuel through the chamber walls at the throat for evaporative cooling to prevent V-2 rocket nozzle erosion.

By 15 September 1941 Thiel officially declared the basic eighteen-pot design of the A-4 motor finished.

Earlier in the spring of 1941, Thiel began investigating nitric acid and diesel oil to be used as the fuel for the 30-ton-thrust A-8 .

Then, on 18 December 1941, Thiel documented the initial A-9/A-10 motor design of six combustion chambers into one common nozzle in Secret Command Document 1496/41.

By the middle of August 1943, Dr Thiel declared that the A-4 developmental problems preclude mass production, recommended the project be abandoned.

Thiel also designed the motor for the Wasserfall anti-aircraft missile.

Notes

References

1910 births
1943 deaths
Engineers from Wrocław
German aerospace engineers
Early spaceflight scientists
German rocket scientists
German spaceflight pioneers
Recipients of the Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross
Deaths by airstrike during World War II
German civilians killed in World War II

Walter Thiel


Josef Grabler (* 14. September 1899 in Saarunion; † 22. Mai 1941 vor der Insel Kreta) war ein deutscher Autor von Flieger- und Kriegsliteratur sowie Kriegsberichterstatter im Zweiten Weltkrieg.

Leben
Der im Elsass geborene Grabler meldete sich 1916 als Kriegsfreiwilliger und diente während des Ersten Weltkriegs bei den deutschen Luftstreitkräften. 1922 wurde er preußischer Staatsbeamter des mittleren Dienstes. Daneben betätigte er sich als Sportflieger. Nach 1933 arbeitete Grabler im Reichsluftfahrtministerium.

Dem Buch des Historikers Saul Friedländer zufolge zeichnet seine im Bundesarchiv verwahrte Personalakte "das Bild eines von den Parteigenossen verachteten Mitläufers, dessen brennender beruflicher und fliegerischer Ehrgeiz durch seine mehrjährige Mitgliedschaft in der SPD behindert wurde." Als Beamter wurde Grabler 1937 für schriftstellerische Arbeiten im Auftrag des Ministeriums freigestellt und war ab 1939 als Kriegsberichterstatter einer Propagandakompanie der Luftwaffe zugeteilt. Nach dem Überfall auf Polen wurde er mit dem Eisernen Kreuz II. Klasse ausgezeichnet. Danach nahm er noch als Kriegsberichterstatter an den Feldzügen gegen Norwegen, Frankreich, Jugoslawien und Griechenland teil.

Grabler starb während der Luftlandeschlacht um Kreta, an der er abermals als Kriegsberichterstatter teilgenommen hatte, als er mit einer Transportmaschine über dem Meer abgeschossen wurde. Seine Leiche wurde nicht gefunden. Sein Name findet sich auf der Vermisstentafel des Deutschen Soldatenfriedhofs Maleme auf Kreta.

Werk
Grabler veröffentlichte als Autor und Herausgeber mehrere als propagandistische Kriegsverherrlichung zu wertende Groschenhefte und Bücher und war bis zu seinem Tod 1941 einer der maßgebenden Autoren der Luftwaffen-Propagandaillustrierten Der Adler, an deren Aufbau er beteiligt war.

Der 32 Seiten schmale Band Sturzkampfflieger über Warschau und Modlin erschien 1939 als Heft 67 der Jugendheftreihe Spannende Geschichten, in der schriftstellernde Soldaten und Kriegsberichterstatter versuchten, "ohne schriftstellerische Ambitionen schnelles Geld zu verdienen". Bei Inhalt und Themenfindung gab es eine "kooperative Interaktion mit der Militärzensur im Propagandaministerium". Grablers Werk basiert auf seinen Kriegsberichterstatterartikeln aus dem Überfall auf Polen. Bis 1940 wurden von dem bei Bertelsmann erschienenen Heft 255.000 Exemplaren gedruckt. Eine Zusammenstellung von Propagandakompanie-Kriegsberichten ist das von ihm herausgegebene Buch Mit Bomben und MGs über Polen (1940), das bis 1942 eine Gesamtauflage von 300.000 Exemplaren erreichte. In seiner Einleitung mit dem Titel Die neue Waffe betont Grabler emphatisch, mit diesem Buch beginne ein neuer Abschnitt im erlebnisorientierten Schreiben über den Krieg.  Sein Buch über den Jagdflieger Helmut Wick (Helmut Wick. Das Leben eines Fliegerhelden) basiert ebenfalls auf Propaganda-Kriegsberichten Grablers. Es erschien erst fast zwei Jahre nach Grablers Tod im Jahr 1943 in der von der Wehrbetreuung der Luftwaffe zu Propagandazwecken herausgegebenen Buchreihe "Adler-Bücherei". Als Herausgeber fungierte das Propagandablatt "Der Adler".

Nach Kriegsende erschienen in der Sowjetischen Besatzungszone in der "Liste der auszusondernden Literatur", die aus Bibliotheken und Buchhandlungen entfernt werden sollte, zwei Grabler-Bücher. Ein drittes wurde 1953 in der DDR verboten. Die Stadt Berlin hatte Grablers sämtliche Werke bereits 1946 entfernen lassen.

Buchveröffentlichungen
 Die Kette. Ein Fliegerbuch. Thienemann, Stuttgart o. J. [1936]
 Sturzkampfflieger über Warschau und Modlin. (=Spannende Geschichten; 67). Bertelsmann, Gütersloh 1939
 (Koautor): Oberst Polte, Und wir sind doch geflogen! Meine Flugerlebnisse in drei Erdteilen, aufgezeichnet von Josef Grabler. Bertelsmann, Gütersloh 1940
 (Hrsg.): Mit Bomben und MGs über Polen. PK-Kriegsberichte der Luftwaffe. Bertelsmann, Gütersloh 1940
 Helmut Wick. Das Leben eines Fliegerhelden. (=Adler-Bücherei). Scherl, Berlin 1943

Weblinks
 Eintrag Grabler, Josef auf polunbi.de (abgerufen am 23. Mai 2012).

Einzelnachweise

Autor
Militärschriftsteller
Literatur (Deutsch)
Person der NS-Propaganda
Angehöriger einer Propagandakompanie
Militärperson (Luftstreitkräfte des Deutschen Reiches)
Person im Ersten Weltkrieg (Deutsches Reich)
Deutscher
Geboren 1899
Gestorben 1941
Mann

Josef Grabler


Coroma ist eine Ortschaft im Departamento Potosí im südamerikanischen Andenstaat Bolivien.

Lage im Nahraum
Coroma ist zentraler Ort des Kanton Coroma im Landkreis (bolivianisch: Municipio) Uyuni in der Provinz Antonio Quijarro. Die Ortschaft liegt auf einer Höhe von  am Ufer des Río Coroma am östlichen Rand der Schwemmlandebene des Río Marquez, der etwa 45 Kilometer nördlich von Coroma in den südlichen Teil des Poopo-See mündet.

Geographie
Coroma liegt auf dem bolivianischen Altiplano zwischen der Cordillera Occidental im Westen und der Cordillera Central im Osten. Das Klima der Region ist arid und ein typisches Tageszeitenklima, bei dem die mittlere Temperaturschwankung im Tagesverlauf deutlicher ausfällt als im Ablauf der Jahreszeiten.

Die mittlere Durchschnittstemperatur der Region liegt bei knapp 9 °C (siehe Klimadiagramm Pampa Aullagas) und schwankt nur unwesentlich zwischen 5 °C im Juni und Juli und 11 °C von November bis März. Der Jahresniederschlag beträgt rund 300 mm, bei einer ausgeprägten Trockenzeit von April bis Oktober mit Monatsniederschlägen unter 10 mm, und nur wenigen Monaten mit ausreichender Feuchtigkeit, der niederschlagsreichste Monat ist der Januar mit knapp über 70 mm Monatsniederschlag.

Verkehrsnetz
Coroma liegt in einer Entfernung von 284 Straßenkilometern nordwestlich von Potosí, der Hauptstadt des Departamento.

Von Potosí aus führt die Fernstraße Ruta 1 nach Nordwesten über Tarapaya, Yocalla und Ventilla und erreicht nach 203 Kilometern die Stadt Challapata. Von hier aus führt die Ruta 30 in südlicher Richtung über Santiago de Huari und Sevaruyo Richtung Uyuni am  gleichnamigen Salzsee Salar de Uyuni. Zweiundzwanzig Kilometer südlich von Sevaruyo zweigt eine Nebenstraße in östlicher Richtung nach Coroma ab.

Bevölkerung
Die Einwohnerzahl der Ortschaft ist in den vergangenen beiden Jahrzehnten auf fast das Doppelte angestiegen:

Die Region weist einen hohen Anteil an Quechua-Bevölkerung auf, im Municipio Uyuni sprechen 43,4 Prozent der Bevölkerung die Quechua-Sprache.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks
 Reliefkarte der Region Rio Mulato 1:250.000 (PDF; 11,12 MB)
 Municipio Uyuni - Detailkarte und Bevölkerungsdaten (PDF; 461 kB) (spanisch)
 Municipio Uyuni - Übersichtskarten Nr. 51201
 Departamento Potosí - Sozialdaten der Municipios (PDF; 11,63 MB) (spanisch)

Coroma


137166 Netabahcall este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
137166 Netabahcall este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Apache Point Observatory în cadrul programului Sloan Digital Sky Survey. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 3,10 ua, o excentricitate de 0,08 și o înclinație de 11,1° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 137001-138000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1999
Centura de asteroizi

137166 Netabahcall


مسييه 96 أو م96 أو إن جي سي 3368 هي عبارة عن مجرة حلزونية تقع في كوكبة الأسد. مسييه 96 هي جزء من مجموعة مجرات مسييه 96 وهي ألمع المجرات فيها بالنسبة لنا حيث يبلغ قدرها الظاهري 10 تقريباً، ولهذا فقد سُميّت المجموعة نسبة إليها. تبعد هذه المجرة 31 مليون سنة ضوئية عنا وقد اكتشفها الفلكي بيير ميشان في عام 1781م. تملك م96 أذرعاً غير متناسقة وغير متشابهة ومركزاً مُزاحاً عن موضعه، وربما سبب هذا هو قوى الجذب من المجرات المجاورة لها. تضم مجموعة المجرات التي تنتمي إليها هذه المجرة مجرتين أخرى ين ضمن فهرس مسييه، وهما مسييه 95 ومسييه 105.

وصلات خارجية
 NOAO: م96
 SEDS: المجرة الحلزونية م96

المراجع

أجرام الفهرس العام الجديد
أجرام فلكية اكتشفت في 1781
أجرام فهرس أوبسالا العام
اكتشافات بيير ميشان
فهرس المجرات الرئيسية
فهرس مسييه
كوكبة الأسد
مجرات حلزونية متوسطة
مجموعة مجرات مسييه 96

مسييه 96


Vranić je naseljeno mjesto u općini Kotor Varoš, Republika Srpska, Bosna i Hercegovina.

Stanovništvo

1991.

Nacionalni sastav stanovništva 1991. godine, bio je sljedeći:

ukupno: 311

 Muslimani - 289
 Hrvati - 12
 Srbi - 4
 ostali, neopredijeljeni i nepoznato - 6

2013.

Nacionalni sastav stanovništva 2013. godine, bio je sljedeći:

ukupno: 146

 Bošnjaci - 145
 ostali, neopredijeljeni i nepoznato - 1

Izvori

Naselja u Republici Srpskoj
Kotor Varoš

Vranić (Kotor Varoš, BiH)


The Kraków uprising (Polish: powstanie krakowskie, rewolucja krakowska; German: Krakauer Aufstand; Russian: краковское восстание) of 1846 was an attempt, led by Polish insurgents such as Jan Tyssowski and Edward Dembowski, to incite a fight for national independence. The uprising was centered on the city of Kraków, the capital of a small state of Free City of Krakow. It was directed at the powers that partitioned Poland, in particular the nearby Austrian Empire. The uprising lasted about nine days and ended with Austrian victory.

Background
The uprising was primarily organized and supported by members of the Polish nobility and middle class, who desired the restoration of Polish independence after the 1795 partitions of Poland ended its existence as a sovereign state; there was also support for various political and social reforms (such as the demands for the emancipation of peasants and an end to serfdom). Many of the insurgents' ideas were developed in exile by activists from organizations such as the Polish Democratic Society. The uprising was supposed to take place in other locations, but poor coordination and arrests by authorities broke many other cells, most notably in Greater Poland. The uprising was also supported by some local peasants from the Free City and the miners of the Wieliczka salt mine. The Free City of Krakow, nominally independent, was a central place for pro-Polish independence activists to discuss their plans.

Initial success
The uprising began on the night of 20 February 1846. It was successful in a short term, briefly taking over the city of Kraków. Faced with riots, demonstrations and barricades, a small Austrian force in the city under General Ludwig Collin quickly retreated. A provisional government formed on 22 February. That day it issued a radical "Manifesto for the Polish Nation", in which it ordered the end of many elements of serfdom, such as corvée, declared universal suffrage, and other revolutionary ideas inspired by the French Revolution.

Most of the uprising was limited to the Free City of Krakow, where its leaders included Jagiellonian University philosophy professor Michał Wiszniewski, and lecturer and lawyer Jan Tyssowski, who declared himself a dictator on 24 February (Tyssowski was assisted by radical democrat, acting as his secretary, Edward Dembowski, who according to some might have been the real leader of the revolutionary government). On 27 February a struggle for power developed, and Wiszniewski, after a failed attempt to take power, was exiled by Tyssowski and Dembowski within a matter of hours.

Suppression

Austrian forces in the area were led by Ludwig von Benedek. The revolutionaries, despite some support from the Free City and its immediate surroundings, fared badly in the wider countryside. They had up to 6,000 volunteers, but many were badly trained and poorly armed. The rebels suffered a defeat on 26 February at the Battle of Gdów and were quickly dispersed by von Benedek's forces. The Polish commander, Colonel Jakub Suchorzewski, was criticized for poor leadership, and for not taking sufficient precautions despite scout reports of an approaching enemy force. The battle was very short, as the Polish forces collapsed almost immediately, with most of the infantry captured or killed by the peasants accompanying the Austrian forces.

The uprising was soon suppressed by the Austrian army with help from local peasants. The peasant counter-revolt, known as the Galician slaughter, was likely encouraged by the Austrian authorities, who exploited the peasants' dissatisfaction with the landowners. It was ironic, as historian Eric Hobsbawm has noted, that the peasants turned their anger on the revolutionaries, whose ideals included the improvement of peasant situation. Instead, most peasants trusted the Austrian officials, some of whom even promised the peasants to end serfdom and pay a stipend for their participation in the militia aimed at quashing the Polish noble insurgents. In one village, when the rebels tried to persuade the peasants that they would be better off if the Austrians were expelled, the peasants replied that they were familiar with stories of landowner brutality under the Polish Commonwealth and that they were glad they could now complain to the Austrian emperor.

It is estimated that about 1,000–2,000 Polish nobility who supported the uprising died in the conflict. According to Judson, the Austrian military in fact had to intervene at one point to stop the violence and protect the rebels.

According to Lerski, Dembowski was apprehended and executed by the Austrians. Others, such as Nance, Davies and Zamoyski however provide another account of his death; according to these sources he died on 27 February fighting the Austrian army, after a religious procession with which he attempted to quell the peasants was attacked. Whatever the case, the government of Tyssowski surrendered, just nine days after taking power, and Kraków was occupied first by Russians (on 3 March), and soon afterward (perhaps on the same day), by the Austrians under Collin. (Davies however writes that Russians joined Austrians on 4 March). Tyssowski, who crossed the Prussian border with about 1,500 soldiers on 4 March, was interned, and later emigrated to the United States.

Aftermath

Austria and Russia signed a treaty on 16 November, deciding to end the status of Kraków as the Free City. Subsequently, Kraków and its surrounding area were annexed to the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, a province of the Austrian Empire, with its capital at Lemberg (Lwów, Lviv). This violation of the 1815 Treaty of Vienna caused a short lived scandal in European politics of the day. Kraków would be relegated to the role of a provincial capital in the Empire.

Significance
As noted by Anderson, despite its failure, the uprising was seen by some scholars, including Karl Marx, as a "deeply democratic movement that aimed at land reform and other pressing social questions". The uprising was praised by Marx and Friedrich Engels for being "the first in Europe to plant the banner of social revolution", and seen by them, as well as some modern scholars, precursor to the coming Spring of Nations. This view is common in the Polish historiography.

The Uprising, and related events in partitioned Poland (namely the Greater Poland Uprising 1846 and the Galician slaughter), were widely discussed in the contemporary European press.

The Austrian Empire, and the Metternich regime, ultimately lost out in the propaganda war that followed the Uprising. The fact that the peasantry supported the Austrians over a return to Polish rule was lost, with the rebels successfully claiming that the Austrians had effectively bought off the peasants and turned them against their national leaders. The conservative Metternich also would struggle to openly admit that peasant violence was justifiable, even if it was in support of the Habsburg Empire.

As soon as the Kraków Uprising was put down, the Austrians pacified the insurgent peasantry, briefly restoring the feudal order. Those peasants who stood down and followed the authorities, like the peasant leader Jakub Szela, were rewarded. Nonetheless, in Austria, reforms were spurred by the Kraków Uprising of 1846 and the Spring of Nations in 1848, resulting in the abolishment of serfdom in 1848.

Notable participant

 Walerian Kalinka

See also
 Austrian Poland

Notes

Further reading

External links

1846 in Poland
1846 in the Austrian Empire
Conflicts in 1846
Polish nationalism (1795–1918)
History of Kraków
Uprisings of Poland
Rebellions against the Austrian Empire
February 1846 events
Free City of Kraków

Kraków uprising


Uma loja de aplicativos é um tipo de plataforma de distribuição digital de software de computador chamada aplicativos, geralmente em um contexto móvel. Os aplicativos fornecem um conjunto específico de funções que, por definição, não incluem o funcionamento do próprio computador. Um software complexo projetado para uso em um computador pessoal, por exemplo, pode ter um aplicativo relacionado projetado para uso em um dispositivo móvel. Hoje, os aplicativos são normalmente projetados para serem executados em um sistema operacional específico: como o iOS, macOS, Windows ou Android contemporâneo, porém, no passado, as operadoras de celular tinham seus próprios portais para aplicativos e conteúdo de mídia relacionado.

Conceito básico
Uma loja de aplicativos é qualquer vitrine digital destinada a permitir a pesquisa e revisão de títulos de software ou outras mídias oferecidas para venda eletronicamente. Fundamentalmente, a própria loja de aplicativos oferece uma experiência segura e uniforme que automatiza a compra eletrônica, a descriptografia e a instalação de aplicativos de software ou outras mídias digitais.

As lojas de aplicativos normalmente organizam os aplicativos que oferecem com base: nos recursos fornecidos pelo aplicativo (incluindo jogos, multimídia ou produtividade), no dispositivo para o qual o aplicativo foi projetado e no sistema operacional em que o aplicativo será executado.

As lojas de aplicativos geralmente assumem a forma de uma loja online, onde os usuários podem navegar por essas diferentes categorias de aplicativos, visualizar informações sobre cada aplicativo (como avaliações ou classificações) e adquirir o aplicativo (incluindo a compra do aplicativo, se necessário muitos aplicativos são oferecidos sem nenhum custo). O aplicativo selecionado é oferecido como download automático, após o qual o aplicativo é instalado. Algumas lojas de aplicativos também podem incluir um sistema para remover automaticamente um programa instalado dos dispositivos sob determinadas condições, com o objetivo de proteger o usuário contra softwares mal-intencionados.

As lojas de aplicativos geralmente fornecem uma maneira de os usuários fornecerem avaliações e classificações. Essas avaliações são úteis para outros usuários, desenvolvedores e proprietários de lojas de aplicativos. Os usuários podem selecionar os melhores aplicativos com base nas classificações, os desenvolvedores recebem feedback sobre quais recursos são elogiados ou não e, finalmente, os proprietários de lojas de aplicativos podem detectar aplicativos ruins e desenvolvedores mal-intencionados analisando automaticamente as avaliações com técnicas de mineração de dados.

Muitas lojas de aplicativos são selecionadas por seus proprietários, exigindo que os envios de aplicativos em potencial passem por um processo de aprovação. Esses aplicativos são inspecionados quanto à conformidade com determinadas diretrizes (como as de controle de qualidade e censura), incluindo a exigência de que seja cobrada uma comissão sobre cada venda de um aplicativo pago. Algumas lojas de aplicativos fornecem feedback aos desenvolvedores: número de instalações, problemas em campo (latência, travamento etc).

Pesquisadores propuseram novos recursos para lojas de aplicativos. Por exemplo, a loja de aplicativos pode fornecer uma versão única e diversificada do aplicativo por questões de segurança. A loja de aplicativos também pode orquestrar o monitoramento e a correção de bugs para detectar e reparar falhas nos aplicativos.

História

Precursores
A Electronic AppWrapper foi o primeiro catálogo de distribuição de software eletrônico comercial a gerenciar coletivamente a criptografia e fornecer direitos digitais para aplicativos e mídia digital (a edição nº 3 foi a loja de aplicativos originalmente demonstrada a Steve Jobs na NeXTWorld EXPO). Enquanto editor sênior da NeXTWORLD Magazine, Simson Garfinkel, classificou o The Electronic AppWrapper 4 3/4 Cubes (de 5), em sua revisão formal. O Electronic AppWrapper de Paget foi nomeado finalista nos altamente competitivos prêmios InVision Multimedia 93 em janeiro de 1993 e ganhou o prêmio Best of Breed por conteúdo e informação na NeXTWORLD Expo em maio de 1993.

Antes da Electronic AppWrapper, que foi lançado pela primeira vez em 1992, as pessoas estavam acostumadas a software distribuído por disquetes ou CD-ROMs, era possível até baixar software usando um navegador da web ou ferramentas de linha de comando. Muitas distribuições Linux e outros sistemas do tipo Unix fornecem uma ferramenta conhecida como gerenciador de pacotes, que permite ao usuário gerenciar automaticamente o software instalado em seus sistemas (incluindo componentes do sistema operacional e software de terceiros) usando ferramentas de linha de comando, novo software (e os pacotes necessários para sua operação adequada) podem ser recuperados de espelhos locais ou remotos e instalados automaticamente em um único processo. Gerenciadores de pacotes notáveis em sistemas operacionais do tipo Unix incluem o FreeBSD Ports (1994), pkgsrc (1997), o APT do Debian (1998), YUM e o Portage do Gentoo (que, diferentemente da maioria dos gerenciadores de pacotes, distribui pacotes contendo código-fonte que é compilado automaticamente em vez de executáveis). Alguns gerenciadores de pacotes têm software gráfico de front-end que pode ser usado para navegar pelos pacotes disponíveis e realizar operações, como o Synaptic (que é frequentemente usado como front-end para o APT).

Em 1996, a distribuição SUSE Linux tinha o YaST como front-end para seu próprio repositório de aplicativos. O Mandriva Linux tem urpmi com interface gráfica chamada Rpmdrake. O Fedora e o Red Hat Enterprise Linux possuem o YUM em 2003 como sucessor do YUP (desenvolvido na Duke University para Red Hat Linux).

Em 1997, foi lançado o BeDepot, uma loja de aplicativos e gerenciador de pacotes de terceiros (Software Valet) para BeOS, que funcionou até 2001. Ele acabou sendo adquirido pela Be Inc. O BeDepot permitia aplicativos comerciais e gratuitos, além de lidar com atualizações

Em 1998, a Information Technologies India Ltd (ITIL) lançou a Palmix, uma loja de aplicativos baseada na web exclusivamente para dispositivos móveis e portáteis. A Palmix vendia aplicativos para as três principais plataformas de PDA da época: Palm Pilots baseados em Palm OS, dispositivos baseados em Windows CE e handhelds Psion Epoc.

Em 1999, a NTT DoCoMo lançou a i-mode, a primeira loja de aplicativos online integrada para telefones celulares, ganhando popularidade nacional na cultura japonesa do telefone celular. A DoCoMo usou um modelo de negócios de compartilhamento de receita, permitindo que criadores de conteúdo e provedores de aplicativos mantivessem até 91% da receita Outras operadoras fora do Japão também criaram seus próprios portais depois disso, como Vodafone live! em 2002. Neste momento, a fabricante de telefones celulares Nokia também introduziu conteúdo para download sem operadora com o Club Nokia.

Em dezembro de 2001, a Sprint PCS lançou o serviço de download sem-fio Ringers & More para sua então nova rede sem fio 3G. Isso permitiu que os assinantes da rede de telefonia móvel Sprint PCS baixassem toques, papéis de parede, aplicativos J2ME e faixas de música completas posteriores para determinados telefones. A interface do usuário funcionava por meio de um navegador da web no computador desktop, e uma versão estava disponível no aparelho.

Em 2002, a distribuição Linux comercial Linspire (então conhecida como LindowsOS, que foi fundada por Michael Robertson, fundador da MP3.com) introduziu uma loja de aplicativos conhecida como Click'N'Run (CNR). Por uma taxa de assinatura anual, os usuários podem realizar a instalação com um clique de aplicativos gratuitos e pagos por meio do software CNR. Doc Searls acreditava que a facilidade de uso do CNR poderia ajudar a tornar o desktop Linux uma realidade viável.

Em 2003, a Handango introduziu a primeira loja de aplicativos no dispositivo para encontrar, instalar e comprar software para smartphones. O download e a compra do aplicativo são concluídos diretamente no dispositivo, portanto, a sincronização com um computador não é necessária. Descrição, classificação e captura de tela estão disponíveis para qualquer aplicativo.

Em 2005, a Nokia 770 Internet Tablet tem um frontend gráfico para seu repositório de aplicativos para instalar facilmente o aplicativo (seu Maemo foi baseado no Debian). Mais tarde, a Nokia também introduziu o Nokia Catalogs, mais tarde conhecido como Nokia Download!, para smartphones Symbian que tinham acesso a aplicativos para download originalmente através de terceiros como Handango ou Jamba! Porém a partir de meados de 2006 a Nokia passou a oferecer seu próprio conteúdo através do Nokia Content Discoverer.

A popular distribuição Linux, o Ubuntu, (também baseada em Debian) introduziu seu próprio gerenciador de software gráfico conhecido como Ubuntu Software Center na versão 9.10 como um substituto para o Synaptic. No Ubuntu 10.10, lançado em outubro de 2010, o Centro de Software expandiu além de apenas oferecer software existente de seus repositórios, adicionando a capacidade de comprar determinados aplicativos (que, no lançamento, era limitado ao DVD licenciado como Fluendo codecs).

A Apple lançou o iPhone OS 2.0 em julho de 2008 para o iPhone, junto com a App Store, apresentando oficialmente o aplicativo de terceiros desenvolvimento e distribuição para a plataforma. O serviço permite que os usuários comprem e baixem novos aplicativos para seus dispositivos por meio da App Store no dispositivo ou da iTunes Store no software de desktop iTunes. Embora a Apple tenha sido criticada por alguns por como opera a App Store, tem sido um grande sucesso financeiro para a empresa. A popularidade da App Store da Apple levou ao surgimento do termo genérico "loja de aplicativos", bem como à introdução de mercados equivalentes por sistemas operacionais móveis concorrentes: o Android Market (mais tarde renomeado para Google Play) lançado juntamente com o lançamento do primeiro smartphone Android (o HTC Dream) em setembro de 2008, O App World da BlackBerry foi lançado em abril de 2009, assim como a Ovi Store da Nokia e a Windows Marketplace for Mobile da Microsoft, ambas lançadas naquele ano.

App Store como marca registrada
Devido à sua popularidade, o termo App store (loja de aplicativos ) (usado pela primeira vez pelo Electronic AppWrapper e mais tarde popularizado pela Apple da App Store para dispositivos iOS) tem sido frequentemente usada como uma marca comercial genérica para se referir a outras plataformas de distribuição de natureza semelhante. A Apple reivindicou marca registrada sobre a frase e registrou um registro de marca registrada para a "App Store" em 2008. Em 2011, a Apple processou tanto a Amazon.com (que executa a Amazon Appstore para dispositivos baseados em Android) e GetJar (que oferece seus serviços desde 2004) para infração de marca registrada e falsa publicidade em relação ao uso do termo "loja de aplicativos" para se referir aos seus serviços. A Microsoft apresentou várias objeções contra a tentativa da Apple de registrar o nome como marca, considerando-o já um termo genérico.

Em janeiro de 2013, a Tribunal de Distrito dos Estados Unidos rejeitou as reivindicações de marca registrada da Apple contra a Amazon. O juiz decidiu que a Apple não apresentou provas de que a Amazon tentou "imitar o site ou publicidade da Apple" ou comunicou que seu serviço "possui as características e qualidades que o público espera da Apple APP STORE e/ou produtos da Apple". Em julho de 2013, a Apple desistiu do caso.

Ver também
 Google Play
 App Store

Plataformas de distribuição de software

Loja de aplicativos


ثنائي كبريتيد الكربون مركب كيميائي له الصيغة CS2. وهو سائل متطاير عديم اللون، يستخدم في العديد من التطبيقات خاصة في الكيمياء العضوية، كما يستخدم كمحل (مذيب) لاقطبي في الصناعة.

الخواص
 ثنائي كبريتيد الكربون سائل في درجة حرارة الغرفة، وهو عديم اللون، وله رائحة تشبه رائحة الإيثر.
 CS2 سائل متطاير سريع الاشتعال، وفق المعادلة:
CS2 + 3 O2 → CO2 + 2 SO2
 يعد ثنائي كبريتيد الكربون من المحلات اللاقطبية للعديد من المواد، من بينها اليود والكبريت والسيلينيوم والفوسفور الأبيض.
 مقارنة مع ثنائي أكسيد الكربون، يعد ثنائي كبريتيد الكربون أكثر تفاعلية تجاه المجموعات المحبة للنوى بالتالي فهو أسهل اختزالاً. تعود هذه الاختلافات في التفاعلية بسبب ضعف مقدرة المنح الخاصة بالمدار π في المراكز الكبريتية، ممايجعل بالتالي من ذرة الكربون أكثر حباً للإلكترونات (إلكتروفيلية).

التحضير
يتحرر ثنائي كبريتيد الكربون أثناء هيجان البراكين وذلك من اتحاد الكربون مع الكبريت وذلك عند درجات حرارة مرتفعة جداً.

يمكن تحضير ثنائي كبريتيد الكربون عند درجات حرارة أخفض نسبياً وذلك عند 600 °س وذلك باستعمال الغاز الطبيعي كمصدر للكربون، حيث يتم التفاعل بين غاز الميثان والكبريت بوجود السيليكا جيل أو الألومينا كحفاز للتفاعل:
CH4 + 1/2 S8 → CS2 + 2H2S

التفاعلات

إضافة المحبات للنوى
على سبيل المثال يؤدي تفاعل إضافة الأمين إلى تشكيل ثنائي ثيو الكربامات:

2R2NH + CS2 → [R2NH2+][R2NCS2-]
أما إضافة الألكوكسيدات فيعطي الزانتات:
RONa + CS2 → [Na+][ROCS2-]
يعد هذا التفاعل أساس صناعة السليولوز المجدد، الذي يعد المكون الأساسي في صناعة الفيسكوز والرايون والسيلوفان.

الاختزال
يقوم الصوديوم باختزال ثنائي كبريتيد الكربون ليعطي الحلقة غير المتجانسة :
3CS2 + 4Na → Na2C3S5 + Na2S

الكلورة
تعد كلورة CS2 طريق الاصطناع الرئيسي لرباعي كلوريد الكربون:
 CS2 + 3 Cl2 → CCl4 + S2Cl2
يتم هذا التحول بتشكل ثيو الفوسجين، CSCl2، كمركب كوسطي.

السلامة
 يعد ثنائي كبريتيد الكربون من المركبات الضارة بالصحة، حتى أنه خطر على الحياة، فيجب الحذر التام أثناء التعامل معه.
 يؤدي التعرض المستمر لهذا المركب إلى أعراض تسمم تتمثل بالتالي: حدوث اضطرابات في الوجه، هيجانات انفعالية تشعر صاحبها بالبهجة، بعدها فقدان للوعي وحدوث غيبوبة مع صعوبة في التنفس.
 أما الأعراض المزمنة نتيجة التعرض المتكرر فهي: وجع في الرأس، أرق، اضطرابات في الذاكرة وفي كل من السمع والبصر، بالإضافة إلى اضطرابات في الجهاز العصبي.

طالع أيضاً
 ثنائي سيلينيد الكربون

المراجع

الصحة والسلامة المهنية
سموم عصبية
كبريتيدات
مذيبات لاعضوية
مركبات الكربون
مركبات كربون لاعضوية
مركبات كيميائية كريهة الرائحة
ملوثات هواء خطرة

ثنائي كبريتيد الكربون


A flying ace, fighter ace or air ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down five or more enemy aircraft during aerial combat. The exact number of aerial victories required to officially qualify as an ace is varied, but is usually considered to be five or more.

The concept of the "ace" emerged in 1915 during World War I, at the same time as aerial dogfighting. It was a propaganda term intended to provide the home front with a cult of the hero in what was otherwise a war of attrition. The individual actions of aces were widely reported and the image was disseminated of the ace as a chivalrous knight reminiscent of a bygone era. For a brief early period when air-to-air combat was just being invented, the exceptionally skilled pilot could shape the battle in the skies. For most of the war, however, the image of the ace had little to do with the reality of air warfare, in which fighters fought in formation and air superiority depended heavily on the relative availability of resources.

The use of the term ace to describe these pilots began in World War I, when French newspapers described Adolphe Pégoud, as  (the ace) after he became the first pilot to down five German aircraft. The British initially used the term "star-turns" (a show business term).

The successes of such German ace pilots as Max Immelmann and Oswald Boelcke, and especially Manfred von Richthofen, the most victorious fighter pilot of the First World War, were very publicized, for the benefit of civilian morale, and the Pour le Mérite, Prussia's highest award for gallantry, became part of the uniform of a leading German ace. In the Luftstreitkräfte, the Pour le Mérite was nicknamed Der blaue Max/The Blue Max, after Max Immelmann, who was the first pilot to receive this award. Initially, German aviators had to destroy eight Allied aircraft to receive this medal. As the war progressed, the qualifications for Pour le Mérite were raised,  but successful German fighter pilots continued to be hailed as national heroes for the remainder of the war.

The few aces among combat aviators have historically accounted for the majority of air-to-air victories in military history.

History

World War I

World War I introduced the systematic use of true single-seat fighter aircraft, with enough speed and agility to catch and maintain contact with targets in the air, coupled with armament sufficiently powerful to destroy the targets. Aerial combat became a prominent feature with the Fokker Scourge, in the last half of 1915. This was also the beginning of a long-standing trend in warfare, showing statistically that approximately five percent of combat pilots account for the majority of air-to-air victories.

As the German fighter squadrons usually fought well within German lines, it was practicable to establish and maintain very strict guidelines for the official recognition of victory claims by German pilots. Shared victories were either credited to one of the pilots concerned or to the unit as a whole – the destruction of the aircraft had to be physically confirmed by locating its wreckage, or an independent witness to the destruction had to be found. Victories were also counted for aircraft forced down within German lines, as this usually resulted in the death or capture of the enemy aircrew.

Allied fighter pilots fought mostly in German-held airspace and were often not in a position to confirm that an apparently destroyed enemy aircraft had in fact crashed, so these victories were frequently claimed as "driven down", "forced to land", or "out of control" (called "probables" in later wars). These victories were usually included in a pilot's totals and in citations for decorations.

The British high command considered the praise of fighter pilots to be detrimental to equally brave bombers and reconnaissance aircrew – so that the British air services did not publish official statistics on the successes of individuals. Nonetheless, some pilots did become famous through press coverage, making the British system for the recognition of successful fighter pilots much more informal and somewhat inconsistent.  One pilot, Arthur Gould Lee, described his own score in a letter to his wife as "Eleven, five by me solo — the rest shared", adding that he was "miles from being an ace". This shows that his No. 46 Squadron RAF counted shared kills, but separately from "solo" ones—one of a number of factors that seems to have varied from unit to unit. Also evident is that Lee considered a higher figure than five kills to be necessary for "ace" status. Aviation historians credit him as an ace with two enemy aircraft destroyed and five driven down out of control, for a total of seven victories.

Other Allied countries, such as France and Italy, fell somewhere in between the very strict German approach and the relatively casual British one. They usually demanded independent witnessing of the destruction of an aircraft, making confirmation of victories scored in enemy territory very difficult. The Belgian crediting system sometimes included "out of control" to be counted as a victory.

The United States Army Air Service adopted French standards for evaluating victories, with two exceptions – during the summer of 1918, while flying under the operational control of the British, the 17th Aero Squadron and the 148th Aero Squadron used British standards. American newsmen, in their correspondence to their papers, decided that five victories were the minimum needed to become an ace.

While "ace" status was generally won only by fighter pilots, bombers and reconnaissance crews on both sides also destroyed some enemy aircraft, typically in defending themselves from attack. The most notable example of a non-pilot ace in World War I is Charles George Gass with 39 accredited aerial victories.

Between the world wars

Between the two world wars, there were two theaters that produced flying aces, the Spanish Civil War and the Second Sino-Japanese War.

The Spanish ace Joaquín García Morato scored 40 victories for the Nationalists during the Spanish Civil War. Part of the outside intervention in the war was the supply of "volunteer" foreign pilots to both sides. Russian and American aces joined the Republican air force, while the Nationalists included Germans and Italians.

The Soviet Volunteer Group began operations in the Second Sino-Japanese War as early as December 2, 1937, resulting in 28 Soviet aces. The Flying Tigers were American military pilots who recruited sub rosa to aid the Chinese Nationalists. They spent the summer and autumn of 1941 in transit to China, and did not begin flying combat missions until December 20, 1941.

World War II

In World War II many air forces adopted the British practice of crediting fractional shares of aerial victories, resulting in fractions or decimal scores, such as  or 26.83. Some U.S. commands also credited aircraft destroyed on the ground as equal to aerial victories. The Soviets distinguished between solo and group kills, as did the Japanese, though the Imperial Japanese Navy stopped crediting individual victories (in favor of squadron tallies) in 1943.
The Soviet Air Forces has the top Allied pilots in terms of aerial victories, Ivan Kozhedub credited with 66 victories and Alexander Pokryshkin scored 65 victories. It also claimed the only female aces of the war: Lydia Litvyak scored 12 victories and Yekaterina Budanova achieved 11. The highest scoring pilots from the Western allies against the German Luftwaffe were Johnnie Johnson (RAF, 38 kills) and Gabby Gabreski (USAAF, 28 kills in the air and 3 on the ground). In the Pacific theater Richard Bong became the top American fighter ace with 40 kills. In the Mediterranean theater Pat Pattle achieved at least 40 kills, mainly against Italian planes, and became the top fighter ace of the British Commonwealth in the war. Fighting on different sides, the French pilot Pierre Le Gloan had the unusual distinction of shooting down four German, seven Italian and seven British aircraft, the latter while he was flying for Vichy France in Syria.

The German Luftwaffe continued the tradition of "one pilot, one kill", and now referred to top scorers as Experten. Some Luftwaffe pilots achieved very high scores, such as Erich Hartmann (352 kills) or Gerhard Barkhorn (301 kills). There were 107 German pilots with more than 100 kills. Most of these were won against the Soviet Air Force. The highest scoring fighter ace against Western allied forces were Hans-Joachim Marseille (158 kills) and Heinz Bär (208 kills, of which 124 in the west). Notable are also Heinz-Wolfgang Schnaufer, with 121 kills the highest-scoring night-fighter ace, and Werner Mölders, the first pilot to claim more than 100 kills in the history of aerial warfare. Pilots of other Axis powers also achieved high scores, such as Ilmari Juutilainen (Finnish Air Force, 94 kills), Constantin Cantacuzino (Romanian Air Force, 69 kills) or Mato Dukovac (Croatian Air Force, 44 kills). The highest scoring Japanese fighter pilot was Tetsuzō Iwamoto, who achieved 216 kills.

A number of factors probably contributed to the very high totals of the top German aces. For a limited period (especially during Operation Barbarossa), many Axis victories were over obsolescent aircraft and either poorly trained or inexperienced Allied pilots. In addition, Luftwaffe pilots generally flew many more individual sorties (sometimes well over 1000) than their Allied counterparts. Moreover, they often kept flying combat missions until they were captured, incapacitated, or killed, while successful Allied pilots were usually either promoted to positions involving less combat flying or routinely rotated back to training bases to pass their valuable combat knowledge to younger pilots. An imbalance in the number of targets available also contributed to the apparently lower numbers on the Allied side, since the number of operational Luftwaffe fighters was normally well below 1,500, with the total aircraft number never exceeding 5,000, and the total aircraft production of the Allies being nearly triple that of the other side. A difference in tactics might have been a factor as well; Erich Hartmann, for example, stated "See if there is a straggler or an uncertain pilot among the enemy... Shoot him down.", which would have been an efficient and relatively low-risk way of increasing the number of kills. At the same time, the Soviet 1943 "Instruction For Air Combat" stated that the first priority must be the enemy commander, which was a much riskier task, but one giving the highest return in case of a success.

Post-World War II aces

Korean War

The Korean War of 1950–53 marked the transition from piston-engined propeller driven aircraft to more modern jet aircraft. As such, it saw the world's first jet-vs-jet aces. The highest scoring ace of the war is considered to be the Soviet pilot Nikolai Sutyagin who claimed 22 kills.

Vietnam War

The Vietnam People's Air Force had begun development of its modern air-forces, primarily trained by Czechoslovak and Soviet trainers since 1956. The outbreak of the largest sustained bombardment campaign in history prompted rapid deployment of the nascent air-force, and the first engagement of the war was in April 1965 at Thanh Hóa Bridge which saw relatively outdated subsonic MiG-17 units thrown against technically superior F-105 Thunderchief and F-8 Crusader, damaging 1 F-8 and killing two F-105 jets. The MiG-17 generally did not have sophisticated radars and missiles and relied on dog-fighting and manoeuvrability to score kills on US aircraft. Since US aircraft heavily outnumbered North Vietnamese ones, the Warsaw Pact and others had begun arming North Vietnam with MiG-21 jets. The VPAF had adopted an interesting strategy of "guerrilla  warfare in the sky" utilising quick hit-and-run attacks against US targets, continually flying low and forcing faster, more heavily armed US jets to engage in dog-fighting where the MiG-17 and MiG-21 had superior manoeuvrability.  The VPAF had carried out the first air-raid on US ships since WW2, with two aces including Nguyễn Văn Bảy attacking US ships during the Battle of Đồng Hới in 1972. Quite often air-to-air losses of US fighter jets were re-attributed to surface-to-air missiles, as it was considered "less embarrassing". By the war's end, the US had nevertheless confirmed 249 air-to-air US aircraft losses while the figures for North Vietnam are disputed, ranging from 195 North Vietnamese aircraft from US claims to 131 from Soviet, North Vietnamese and allied records.

American air-to-air combat during the Vietnam War generally matched intruding United States fighter-bombers against radar-directed integrated North Vietnamese air defense systems. American  F-4 Phantom II, F-8 Crusader and F-105 fighter crews usually had to contend with surface-to-air missiles, anti-aircraft artillery, and machine gun fire before opposing fighters attacked them.  The long-running conflict produced 22 aces: 17 North Vietnamese pilots, two American pilots, three American weapon systems officers or WSOs (WSO is the USAF designation, one of the three was actually a US Naval aviator, with an equivalent job, but using the USN designation of Radar Intercept Officer or RIO).

Arab–Israeli war

The series of wars and conflicts between Israel and its neighbors began with Israeli independence in 1948 and continued for over three decades.

Iran–Iraq war

Brig. General Jalil Zandi (1951–2001) was an ace fighter pilot in the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, serving for the full duration of the Iran–Iraq War. His record of eight confirmed and three probable victories against Iraqi combat aircraft qualifies him as an ace and the most successful pilot of that conflict and the most successful Grumman F-14 Tomcat pilot worldwide.

Brig. General Shahram Rostami was another Iranian ace. He was also an F-14 pilot. He had six confirmed kills. His victories include one MiG-21, two MiG-25s, and three Mirage F1s.

Colonel Mohammed Rayyan  was also another ace fighter pilot who shot down 5 to 8 Iranian aircraft, mostly F-4 Phantoms during the war.

Indo-Pakistan War
Air Commodore Muhammad Mahmood Alam was an ace fighter pilot in the Pakistan Air Force.
During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, Alam downed five aircraft in a single sortie on 7 September 1965 with four in less than a minute, establishing a world record. These claims, however, have been widely contested by Indian Air Force officials.

Russo-Ukrainian War
On 13 October 2022, the Ukrainian government claims that Ukrainian pilot Vadym Voroshylov shot down 5 Shahed 136 drones before being forced to eject from his MiG-29 aircraft after it was hit by debris from the last Shahed-136 that had shot down. Voroshylov had shot down two Russian cruise missiles the day prior.

According to the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, during the fighting in Ukraine, Lieutenant Colonel Ilya Sizov "destroyed 12 Ukrainian aircraft (3 Su-24 aircraft, 3 Su-27 aircraft, 3 MiG-29 aircraft, 2 Mi-24 helicopters, 1 Mi-14 helicopter) and two Buk-M1 anti-aircraft missile complexes.

Accuracy

Realistic assessment of enemy casualties is important for intelligence purposes, so most air forces expend considerable effort to ensure accuracy in victory claims. In World War II, the aircraft gun camera came into general usage by the Luftwaffe as well as the RAF and USAAF, partly in hope of alleviating inaccurate victory claims.

In World War I the standards for confirmation of aerial victories were developed. The most strict were the German and French ones which required both the existence of traceable wrecks or observations of independent observers. In contrast to this, the British system also accepted single claims of the pilots and deeds such as enemy planes "out of control", "driven down" and "forced to land". Aerial victories were also divided among different pilots. This led to vast overclaims on the British and partially on the US American side. Some air forces, such as the USAAF, also included kills on the ground as victories.

The most accurate figures usually belong to the air arm fighting over its own territory, where many wrecks can be located, and even identified, and where shot down enemy are either killed or captured. It is for this reason that at least 76 of the 80 aircraft credited to Manfred von Richthofen can be tied to known British losses—the German Jagdstaffeln flew defensively, on their own side of the lines, in part due to General Hugh Trenchard's policy of offensive patrol.

In World War II overclaims were a common problem. Nearly 50% of RAF victories in the Battle of Britain, for instance, do not tally statistically with recorded German losses—but some at least of this apparent over-claiming can be tallied with known wrecks, and aircrew known to have been in British PoW camps. An overclaim of about 2-3 was common on all sides, and Soviet overclaims were sometimes higher. The claims of the Luftwaffe pilots are considered as mostly reasonable and more accurate than those according to the British and American system.

To quote an extreme example, in the Korean War, both the U.S. and Communist air arms claimed a 10-to-1 victory/loss ratio.

Non-pilot aces

While aces are generally thought of exclusively as fighter pilots, some have accorded this status to gunners on bombers or reconnaissance aircraft, observers in two-seater fighters such as the early Bristol F.2b, and navigators/weapons officers in jet aircraft such as the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II. Because pilots often teamed with different air crew members, an observer or gunner might be an ace while his pilot is not, or vice versa. Observer aces constitute a sizable minority in many lists.

In World War I, the observer Gottfried Ehmann of the German Luftstreitkräfte was credited with 12 kills, for which he was awarded the Golden Military Merit Cross. In the Royal Flying Corps the observer Charles George Gass tallied 39 victories, of which 5 were actually confirmed. The spread was caused by the lavish British system of aerial victory confirmation.

In World War II, United States Army Air Forces S/Sgt. Michael Arooth, a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress tail gunner serving in the 379th Bombardment Group, was credited with 19 kills and the Consolidated B-24 Liberator gunner Arthur J. Benko (374th Bombardment Squadron) with 16 kills. The Royal Air Force's leading bomber gunner, Wallace McIntosh, was credited with eight kills while serving as a rear turret gunner on Avro Lancasters, including three on one mission. Flight Sergeant F. J. Barker contributed to 12 victories while flying as a gunner in a Boulton Paul Defiant turret-equipped fighter piloted by Flight Sergeant E. R. Thorne. On the German side, Erwin Hentschel, the Junkers Ju 87 rear gunner of Luftwaffe pilot and anti-tank ace Hans-Ulrich Rudel, had 7 confirmed kills. The crew of the bomber pilot Otto Köhnke from Kampfgeschwader 3 is credited with the destruction of 11 enemy fighters (6 French, 1 British, 4 Soviet).

With the advent of more advanced technology, a third category of ace appeared. Charles B. DeBellevue became not only the first U.S. Air Force weapon systems officer (WSO) to become an ace but also the top American ace of the Vietnam War, with six victories. Close behind with five were fellow WSO Jeffrey Feinstein and Radar Intercept Officer William P. Driscoll.

Ace in a day

The first military aviators to score five or more victories on the same date, thus each becoming an "ace in a day", were pilot Julius Arigi and observer/gunner Johann Lasi of the Austro-Hungarian air force, on August 22, 1916, when they downed five Italian aircraft. The feat was repeated five more times during World War I.

Becoming an ace in a day became relatively common during World War II.  A total of 68 U.S. pilots (43 Army Air Forces, 18 Navy, and seven Marine Corps pilots) were credited with the feat, including legendary test pilot Chuck Yeager.

In the Soviet offensive of 1944 in the Karelian Isthmus, Finnish pilot Hans Wind shot down 30 Soviet aircraft in 12 days with his Bf 109 G.  In doing so, he obtained "ace in a day" status three times.

During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, Pakistani pilot Muhammad Mahmood Alam claimed to have downed five aircraft in a single sortie on 7 September 1965 with four in less than a minute, establishing a world record. These claims, however, as always have been widely contested by Indian Air Force.

See also
 Fighter aircraft
 Iraqi aerial victories during the Iran–Iraq war
 Light fighter
 List of aces of aces
 List of Egyptian flying aces
 List of German World War II jet aces
 List of Iranian aerial victories during the Iran–Iraq war
 List of Israeli flying aces
 List of Korean War flying aces
 List of Spanish Civil War flying aces
 List of Syrian flying aces
 List of Vietnam War flying aces
 List of World War I flying aces
 List of World War II aces by country
 List of World War II flying aces
 Lists of flying aces in Arab–Israeli wars

Notes

References

Bibliography

 Belich, Jamie. "Ace, air combat". Richard Holmes, Charles Singleton and Spencer Jones, eds. The Oxford Companion to Military History. Oxford University Press, 2001 [online 2004].
 Bergström, Christer. Barbarossa: The Air Battle, July–December 1941. Birmingham, UK: Classic Publications, 2007. .
 Dunnigan, James F. How to Make War: A Comprehensive Guide to Modern Warfare in the Twenty-first Century. New York: HarperCollins, 2003. .
 Farr, Finis. Rickenbacker's Luck: An American Life. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1979. .
 Franks, Norman and Frank W. Bailey. Over the Front: A Complete Record of the Fighter Aces and Units of the United States and French Air Services, 1914–1918. London: Grub Street, 1992. .
 Franks, Norman, Frank W. Bailey and Russell Guest. Above the Lines: The Aces and Fighter Units of the German Air Service, Naval Air Service and Flanders Marine Corps, 1914–1918. London: Grub Street, 1993. .
 .
 Galland, Adolf The First and the Last London, Methuen, 1955 (Die Ersten und die Letzten Germany, Franz Schneekluth, 1953).

 Guttman, Jon. Pusher Aces of World War 1. London: Osprey, 2009. .
 Hobson, Chris. Vietnam Air Losses, USAF, USN, USMC, Fixed-Wing Aircraft Losses in Southeast Asia 1961–1973. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2001. .
 Johnson, J. E. Wing Leader. London: Ballantine, 1967.
 Lake, John. The Battle of Britain. London: Amber Books, 2000. .
 Lee, Arthur Gould. No Parachute. London: Jarrolds, 1968.
 O'Connor, Martin. Air Aces of the Austro-Hungarian Empire 1914–1918. Boulder, Colorado: Flying Machine Press, 1986. .
 Pieters, Walter M. Above Flanders' Fields: A Complete Record of the Belgian Fighter Pilots and Their Units During the Great War, 1914–1918. London: Grub Street, 1998. .
 Robertson, Linda R. (2005). The Dream of Civilized Warfare: World War I Flying Aces and the American Imagination . University of Minnesota Press. ,
 Robinson, Bruce (ed.) von Richthofen and the Flying Circus. Letchworth, UK: Harleyford, 1958.
 Shores, Christopher. Air Aces. Greenwich Connecticut: Bison Books, 1983.
 .
 Stenman, Kari and Kalevi Keskinen. Finnish Aces of World War 2 (Osprey Aircraft of the Aces, number 23). London: Osprey Publishing. 1998. .
 Thomas, Andrew. Defiant, Blenheim and Havoc Aces. London: Osprey Publishing, 2012. .
 Toliver, Raymond J. and Trevor J. Constable. Horrido!: Fighter Aces of the Luftwaffe. London: Bantam Books, 1979. .
 Toperczer, Istvan. MIG-17 and MIG-19 Units of the Vietnam War (Osprey Combat Aircraft, number 25). London: Osprey, 2001. .
 .

External links

 Air Aces Homepage  (A.Magnus)
 Air Aces Website  (Jan Šafařík)
 Air Combat Information Group Website
 All aces of Korean air war

Flying aces

Flying ace


Jal-jeera, ou jaljira, est une boisson indienne. Elle est aromatisée avec un mélange d'épices connu sous le nom de poudre de jal-jeera. En hindi, "jal" signifie eau et "jeera" signifie cumin. La forme de la boisson est essentiellement de la limonade et de la poudre de jaljira, et c'est une boisson estivale populaire en Inde. Elle est parfois servie en apéritif, car elle est destinée à "faire sursauter" les papilles gustatives.

Composition

La poudre de jaljira se compose généralement de cumin, de gingembre, de poivre noir, de menthe, de sel noir, de poudre de fruits (généralement de la mangue ou un zeste d'agrume) et de poudre de chili ou de piment fort.

Histoire
La jal-jeera a une très longue histoire, puisqu'elle trouverait son origine sur les rives du Gange. À une époque, la poudre était broyée sur des dalles de pierre et conservée dans des pots en argile.

Le cumin est un ingrédient médicinal qui facilite la digestion. La menthe a un effet rafraîchissant. Le sel noir ou sel gemme agit comme un digestif.

Articles connexes
 Banta
 Shikanjvi

Références

Boisson indienne
Boisson froide

Jal-jeera


ජෝශප් වාස් විද්‍යාලය, වෙන්නප්පුව
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