ඉරහඳ නොදුටු පොකුණේ පුරාවෘත්තය

      ෴ හත්ථිකුච්චි පබ්බත ෴

   දේවානම්පියතිස්ස රජ දවස ඉදිකරන ලද ශෛලමය විහාර සංකීර්ණය වන හත්ථිකුච්චිය ගිරිබාව ප්‍රාදේශීය ලේකම් කොට්ඨාසයේ මයිලෑව ග්‍රාම නිළධාරි වසමේ පිහිටා ඇත. කුරුණෑගල - අනුරාධපුර පාරේ 43 වෙනි සැතපුම් කණුව අසලින් බටහිරට දිවෙන මාර්ගයේ සැතපුම් තුනක් පමණ ගිය විට දණ නවාගත් විශාල හස්ථියෙකුගේ හැඩයෙන් යුත් ගල් පව්ව නිසා හත්ථිකුච්චි යන නම් ලද මෙම විහාර බිමට පිවිසිය හැකිය.

   පොහොය ගෙය, බුදු මැඳුර, තෙමහල් ධාතු මන්දිරය, වටදාගෙය, බෝධිඝරය, දාන ශාලාව, පොකුණු 16ක්, චෛත්‍ය 8ක්, කටාරම් කෙටූ ලෙන් 38ක් හා සෙල්ලිපි 68ක් පමණ නෂ්ටාවශේෂ විසිර පවත්නා අක්කර 300ක පුදබිම උකුස්සන්, රිලවුන්, වඳුරන්, කොබෙයියන් හා මුව පොව්වන් වැනි සතුන්ගේ පාරාදීසයක් වන බැවින් ද හිත නෙත සනසන ඉසව්වක් ය.

   මෙහි පවතින බෝධිඝරය ලෝකයේ කිසිම තැනක දකින්නට නොලැබෙන සුවිශේෂත්වයකින් යුක්තය. බෝධිඝරයේ මල් අසල දෙකක් අතර ගඩොලින් ඉදිකරන ලද අඩි තුනක් උස, අඩි අටක් පමණ දිග ඉදිකිරීමක් ඇති අතර එක් පසක කවාකාර ශෛලමය ස්ථම්භයක් තබා ඇති මෙය සිරිසඟබෝ රජු මිහිදන් කර ගෞරව දැක්වීමට සැකසූ ස්ථානය ලෙස සැළකේ.

   තම පියා වන සද්ධාතිස්ස රජුගේ ඇවෑමෙන් රාජත්වයට පත් වන සිරිසඟබෝ රජු කුඩා කල පටන්ම ලෞකික ජීවිතයට ඇල්මක් නොතිබූ ධාර්මික අයෙකු විය. රජකමට බොහෝ ලොල් වූ සිත් ඇති තම මයිලනුවන් වන ගෝඨාභය කුමරුට දෙවසරක ඇවෑමෙන් රජකම පැවරූ සිරිසඟබෝ රජු ඉසුරුමුණියේ සිට දකුණු දෙසට පිටත්වී සැතපුම් 13ක් දුර ගෙවා පා ගමනින් ආ තැන හමුවන හත්ත වනගල්ලේ පර්වත මස්ථකයේ ලෙන තුළට පිවිස භාවනායෝගීව වාසය කර ඇත.

තම අයියන්ඩිය නැවත පැමිණ රජකම ගනීවි යැයි සිතූ ගෝඨාභය රජු සිරිසඟබෝ හිස ගෙන එන අයෙකුට රන් කහවණු දහසක් දෙන බවට අඬබෙරයක් රට පුරා යවා ඇත.

එකල අනුරාධපුරයේ ගැමියෙක් ගමනක් පිටත්ව කුසගිනි වූ නිසා තම බත් මුල ආහාරට ගැනීමට අතරමඟ හමුවූ පර්වත ලෙනට පිවිසී විට භාවනායෝගීව ඉන්නා තාපසයෙකු දැක තම බත්පතෙන් කොටසක් පූජා කර තමා ද ආහාර ගෙන අවසන තවුසා සමඟ කෙටි පිළිසඳරක යෙදෙන කල්හී ගෝඨාභය රජුගේ අඬබෙරය හේතුවෙන් රට පුරා මිනීමැරුම් සිදුවන බවත් මිනිසුන් සිරිසඟබෝ හිස ලෙස නොයෙක් මිනිසුන් මරා හිස් රැගෙන වාසලට එන බවත් තවුසා සමඟ පැවසීය. එකල්හි තමා නිසා රට නරකාදියක් වීම වලක්වා ගතයුතු බවත් තමා සිරිසඟබෝ රජු බවත් මේ හිස රැගෙන වාසලට යන්නැයි මගියාට පවසා සිරිසඟබෝ රජු තම හිස කඳෙන් වෙන් කර ලබාදී ඇත.

සිරිසඟබෝ හිස රැගෙන වාසලට පැමිණි මගියා රැගෙන ආවේ තම අයියන්ඩියගේම හිස බව වටහාගත් ගෝඨාභය රජු තමා කොයි සිට පැමිණෙන්නේ දැයි මගියා ගෙන් විමසා හත්ත වනගල්ලේ ඇත්කුස් නොහොත් හස්ථිකුච්චි පව්ව පාමුල සිරිසඟබෝ රජුගේ සිරුර වැටී තිබුණ ස්ථානයේ ම මිහිදන් කර බෝධිඝරය තැනවූ බව වංශකතාවන්හී දැක්වේ.

   සිරිසඟබෝ රජු භාවනායෝගීව වාසය කළ ලෙන තුළ පිහිටන ඉරහඳ නොදුටු පොකුණ හත්ථිකුච්චියේ පවතින තවත් පුදුමයක් ය. මෙම පොකුණට වසරේ කිසිම කාලයක ඉරේවත් හඳේ වත් ඡායාව වැටෙන්නේ නැත. ඇත්තෙන්ම එම ලෙන තුළ සිට කෙනෙකු පහළට වැටෙනවා නම් ඒ වැටෙන්නේ බෝධිඝරය පිහිටි ස්ථානයටම ය.

   හත්ථිකුච්චියේ මීළඟ පුදුමය ' සමබර පව්ව ' යි. ගල් පර්වතයක් මත සිරස් අතට පිහිටන මේ උසැති ගල්කුළ ස්වාභාවික පිහිටීමක් ද නැතිනම් මිනිසා විසින් සකස්කරන ලද්දක් ද යන්න පිළිබඳ තවමත් නිෂ්චිත පරීක්ෂණ සිදුකර නැත. මෙය අතීත යුධ උපක්‍රමයක් වන ගල් උගුලක් බව සමබර පව්ව සම්බන්ධව ඇති එක් මතයකි.

   ක්‍රිස්තු පූර්ව 3 වන සියවසේ සිට ක්‍රිස්තු වර්ෂ 10 වන සියවස දක්වා කාලය තුළ ඉතාම සශ්‍රීක බෞද්ධ මධ්‍යස්ථානයක් ලෙසින් හත්ථිකුච්චි විහාරය අඛණ්ඩව පැවති බව පුරාවිද්‍යාත්මක සාධක හෙළිකරයි. හත්ත වන ගල්ල, අතිතුචි, ඇත්කුස්, හස්ථිකුච්චි වැනි බොහෝ නම් වලින් විවිධ කාලයන් හී හඳුන්වන ලද හත්ථිකුච්චි විහාරයේ මහනුවර යුගයට අයත් ලෙන් විහාරයක් සැතපෙන බුද්ධ ප්‍රතිමාවක් ද සහිතව නිරුපද්‍රිතව පවතී. " රාජාංගනය හත්ථිකුච්චි පබ්බත විහාරය සහ සිරි සංඝබෝධි බෝධිසත්ව " යන මෑත කාලීන මතභේදාත්මක පරීක්ෂණ ග්‍රන්ථය අධ්‍යනයෙන් හත්ථිකුච්චි විහාරය සම්බන්ධයෙන් බොහෝ තොරතුරු සපයාගත හැකිය.

හත්ථිකුච්චි පබ්බත


Dinamik Rastgele Erişimli Bellek (Dynamic Random Access Memory), dinamik rastgele erişimli bellek bir tümleşik devre içinde her bir veri bitini ayrı bir kapasitör içinde saklayan Rastgele Erişimli Bellek türüdür. Kapasitörler yapıları gereği bir süre sonra boşalacağından yenileme/tazeleme (refresh) devresine ihtiyaçları vardır. Bu yenileme ihtiyacından dolayı DRAM, SRAM (Statik Rastgele Erişimli Bellek) ve diğer statik belleklerin zıddı durumundadır. DRAM'in SRAM üzerindeki avantajı onun yapısal basitliğidir: 1 bit için 1 transistör ve 1 kapasitör DRAM için yeterliyken SRAM için 6 transistör gerekir. DRAM, yenileme devresinden dolayı çok yer kaplar. Güç kaynağı açık olduğu durumda DRAM ve SRAM sakladığı verileri korur bu nedenle her iki bellek aygıtı da volatiledir. (Güç kaynağı kesildiğinde veriler kaybolur)

Tarihçe
DRAM Dr. Robert Dennard tarafından 1966'da IBM Thomas J. Watson Araştırma Merkezi'nde icat edilmiştir ve 1968 yılında patenti alınmıştır. Kapasitörler, Atanasoff-Berry Computer, Willams Tube ve Selectron Tube gibi ilk bellek projelerinde kullanılmıştır.

1969'da Honeywell Intel'e kendilerinin geliştirdiği 3-transistör hücre (cell) bulunan DRAM'i üretmesini önerdi. Bunun sonucunda 1970'lerin başlarında Intel 1102 (1024x1) ortaya çıktı. Intel'in ürettiği 1102'nin pek çok sorunu olması Intel'i kendilerinin geliştirdiği tasarımlara yönelmesine neden oldu (bu çalışmalar Honeywell ile anlaşmazlık çıkmaması için gizlice yürütüldü). Bu çalışmalar sonucunda Ekim 1970'te ticari olarak kullanılabilecek 1-transistör hücreli DRAM olan Intel 1103 (1024x1) ortaya çıktı (ilk baştalardaki az gelir sorunu 5. gözden geçirmeye kadar devam etti)

Çalışma prensibi
DRAM genellikle hücre başına 1 kapasitör ve 1 transistörün kare şeklinde dizilmesiyle oluşur. Modern DRAM binlerce hücrenin enine ve boyuna dizilişiyle oluşur. Bir okuma işlemi sırasıyla şu şekilde meydana gelir: Seçilen hücrenin sırası aktif hale getirilir, kapasitör açılır ve o dizinin kapasitörü ile anlamlı satıra bağlanır. Anlamlı satır, saklanan sinyalin 1 mi 0 mı olduğunu ayırt eden anlamlı yükselteçe yönlendirir. Daha sonra uygun sütundaki kuvvetlendirilen değer seçilir ve çıkışa bağlanır. Okuma döngüsünün sonunda satır değerleri mutlaka okuma sırasında boşalan kapasitörde depolanmalıdır. Yazma işlemi satırın aktif hale getirilmesiyle ve değerlerin birbirine bağlanarak anlamlı sıraya yazılırken kapasitörleri istenilen değere yüklenmesini sağlayarak yapılır. Belirli bir hücredeki yazma işlemi sırasında bütün satır okutulur, 1 değer değiştirilir ve ondan sonra bütün satır tekrar yazılır.

Genellikle imalatçılar JEDEC standartlarına göre her satırın her 64 ms veya daha az sürede bir yenilenmesi gerektiğini belirtir. Yenileme mantığı genellikle DRAM'lerle periyodik yenilemeyi otomatikleştirmek için kullanılır. Bu devreyi daha karmaşık hale getirir fakat DRAM'in SRAM'e göre daha ucuz ve daha fazla kapasiteye sahip olması nedeniyle DRAM'i avantajlı kılar. Bazı sistemler her satırı 64 ms'de bir döngü ile yenileme yapar. Başka sistemler ise bir sıra belli bir zamanda –örneğin 213 = 8192 satıra sahip bir sistemin yenileme oranı her bir satır için 7.8 µs (64 ms / 8192 sıra) yapar. Gerçek zamanlı bazı sistemler dış sayaca dayanan bir zamanlama ile hafızanın belli bir kısmını tazeleyerek sistemin geri kalanını yönlendirir, video malzemelerinde her 10-20 ms de meydana gelen düşey boşluk aralığı gibi. Bütün yöntemler belli bir çeşit sayaç içermektedir, bunun nedeni ise bir sonraki turda hangi sıranın yenileneceğini tespit etmektir. Bazı DRAM çipleri bu sayacı içerirken; diğer türler ise bu sayacı tutmak için dış yenileme mantığına ihtiyaç duyar(bazı koşullarda DRAM dakikalarca yenilenmese dahi DRAM'deki verilerin büyük bölümüne yeniden ulaşılabilir).

Hatalar ve Hata Düzeltme
Bilgisayar sistemi içindeki elektriksel veya manyetik parazitlenme bir DRAM bitinin kendiliğinden karşıt duruma dönmesine neden olur. Bazı araştırmalar DRAM yongalarındaki hataların çoğunun kozmik ışınlar yüzünden çıktığını göstermektedir. Bu bir veya daha fazla hafıza hücresinin içeriğini değiştirebilir ya da onları okuyup/yazan devrelere zarar verebilir. DRAM yoğunluğu arttıkça DRAM yongaları üzerindeki bileşenler küçülürken aynı zamanda çalışma voltajları düşeceği için, DRAM yongaları sıklıkla yüksek radyasyona uğrayacaktır. Bu, düşük enerjili parçacıkların hafıza hücresinin durumunu değiştirebileceğinden kaynaklanır. Diğer taraftan küçük hücreler daha küçük hedefler oluştururlar ve teknolojiyi SOI'nin yaptığı daha az duyarlı ve iyi tepki veren veya bunların tam tersi eğilimlere yöneltmiştir.

Bu problem içinde ekstra hafıza biti olan ve bunları kendi için kullanan hafıza kontrolleri olan DRAM'ler kullanılarak hafifletilebilir. Bu ekstra bitler eşlik kaydetmeye veya ECC kullanmaya yarar. Eşlik tek-bitlik hataları bulmayı sağlar. En çok kullanılan hata düzeltme kodu, Hamming Kod, tek bitlik hataları düzeltmeyi ve iki-bitlik hataları bulmayı sağlar.

Bilgisayar sistemlerinde hata bulmak ve düzeltmek bazen moda, bazen demode gözükür. Seymuor Cray neden bunu CDC 6600'dan çıkarttığında "eşlik bizim çiftçimizdir" demiştir. Eşliği CDC 7600'e dâhil ettiğinde söylentiye göre "birçok çiftçinin bilgisayar aldığını öğrendim" demiştir. 486-dönemi PC'lerde genelde eşlik kullanılmıştır. Pentium-döneminden olanlarda ise çoğunlukla yoktu. Daha geniş bellek anayolu eşliği ve ECC'yi alınabilir kılmıştır. Şu anki mikroişlemci hafıza kontrolleri genelde ECC desteklidir ama sunucu-tabanlı olmayan sistemler bu özellikleri kullanmazlar. Kullansalar bile yazılım kısımlarının bunları kullandıkları kesin değildir.

Çoğu modern PC'lerdeki hafıza kontrolleri 64 bitte bir bitlik hatayı bulup düzeltebilir, 64 bitte iki bitlik hatayı da sadece bulabilir. Bazı sistemler hataları verinin doğru olanını hafızaya yeniden yazarak temizler. Bazı bilgisayarlardaki BIOS ve Linux gibi işletim sistemleri bulunan ve düzeltilen hataları bozulmaya başlayan hafıza modüllerini belirleyebilmek ve daha büyük felaketleri önlemek için sayarlar. Maalesef çoğu modern PC eşlik veya ECC' ye sahip olmayan hafıza modüllerine sahiptir.

Hata bulma ve düzeltme oluşabilecek hataların beklentisine dayanır. Hafıza bitindeki her sözcüğün başarısızlığı birbirinden bağımsızdır ve sonuç olarak iki eşzamanlı hata beklenmez. Bu durum hafıza yongalarının " bir olduğu zamanlarda geçerliydi. Şu anda aynı yongada birçok bit var. Bu zaaf bir durum dışında genelde ortaya çıkmaz, yonga bozulması. Bir başka mantıklı uygulama ise parmak hesabıdır; ayda gigabayt başına bir bitlik hata beklentisi. Gerçek hata oranları gene ölçüde değişebilir.

Video Ram
VRAM, DRAM'in grafik kartlarında kullanılan çift portlu versiyonudur. VRAM'in, hafıza dizisi için kullanılabilecek, iki yolu ya da portu vardır. İlk port olan DRAM portu, DRAM tarafından erişilebilir. İkinci port; video portu sadece okuma işini yapar ve hızlı akışa sahip veriyi görüntüye aktarır. Video portunu kullanmak için, kontrol birimi öncelikle hafıza dizisinin sırasına göre, görüntülemek için bir seçim yapar ve bu seçim için DRAM portunu kullanır. Daha sonra VRAM bu sırayı içerideki bir kaydırmalı kayıt ediciye kopyalar. Kontrol birimi daha sonra DRAM'i, ekran üzerinde nesneler çizmek için kullanır. Kontrol birimi kaydırma saati isimli bir birimi VRAM'in video portundan besler her kaydırma saati dalgası, VRAM'in kaydırmalı kayıt edicisinden, video portuna kadar, değişmeyen bir adres sırası ile verinin yeni parçalarını dağıtır.

Fast Page Mode DRAM (FPM)- hızlı sayfa modu
Hızlı sayfa modu (FPM) DRAM , sayfa modu DRAM, Hızlı sayfa modu bellek veya sayfa modu bellek olarak da bilinir. Sayfa modunda DRAM'in bir sırası "açık" olarak tutulabilir, böylece sıra içindeki art arda okuma ve yazmada yüklenme öncesi ve sıraya geçişlerde gecikmelerden etkilenmez. Bu durum okuma ve yazma işlemleri sırasında sistemin performansını arttırmaktadır.
Statik Sütün sayfa modundaki değişkenin sütün adresine ihtiyaç duyulmamaktadır.
Nibble modunda ise bir sıra içindeki ardışık 4 konuma birden ulaşılabilinmektedir.

Window RAM (WRAM)
Window Ram ya da WRAM, ekran kartlarındaki modası geçmiş VRAM'lerin yerine geçmek üzere tasarlanmış yarı iletken bilgisayar hafızalarıdır. Samsung tarafından üretilip, Micron Technology tarafından satılan bu ramler, SDRAM ve SGRAM'ler yerlerini almadan önce, çok kısa bir süre piyasada durmuşlardır.

WRAM, VRAM'e benzer, çift-portlu dinamik ram yapısına sahiptir. Bu yapıda, bir paralel port, bir seri port bulunur ve hızlı blok kopyalama ve blok doldurma(pencere işlemleri olarak adlandırılan) ekstra özelliklere sahip bir yapıdır. Genellikle 50 MHz ile saatlenmiştir. PCI ve VESA Local Bus sistemlerinde en uygun veri transferini yapabilmeleri için 32-bit genişliğinde, sağlayıcı portu bulunmaktadır. Normal WRAMler, VRAM'lere göre %50 daha hızlıdır fakat %20 daha ucuza gelirler. Bazen Microsoft Windows işletim sistemine isim benzerliği yüzünden Windows Ram olarak anılsalar da, bunlar kullanılarak windowing işlemlerinin performansları arttırılabilir.

Bunlar ayrıca Matrox tarafından hem MGA Millenium hem de Millenium II ekran kartlarında kullanılmışlardır.

Extended Data Out (EDO) DRAM
EDO DRAM ile Hızlı sayfa modu (FPM) DRAM benzer özelliklere sahiptir ek olarak EDO DRAM'de ulaşım döngüsü önceki döngüde aktif olan veri çıktısının saklandığı yerden başlayabilmektedir. Bu özellik komut işleme sırasında bir miktar daha geliştirilmiş hızlanma sağlamaktadır. 1993 yılında EDO DRAM, Hızlı Sayfa Modu DRAM'e göre %5 daha hızlandırılmıştır. Tek-Döngü EDO tam bellek işlemlerini 1 saat döngüsünde yapma özelliğine sahiptir. Yoksa bir sayfa seçildiğinde aynı sayfadaki art arda gelen RAM ulaşımları 2 saat döngüsü yerine 3 saat döngüsünde olurdu. EDO'ların hızları ve kapasiteleri, PC'lerdeki daha yavaş L2 önbellekleri yerine geçmesini sağlamıştır. Tek-döngü EDO DRAM 1990'ların sonlarına doğru video kartlarında çok popüler olmuştur. Düşük maliyeti olmasına rağmen, maliyeti yüksek olan VRAM'e yakın bir performans vermiştir.

Burst EDO (BEDO) DRAM
Burst EDO standart EDO'ya bellekten tek bir istekle gönderilen verinin seriler ya da burst olmasına izin veren bir yeniliktir.1 burst'te bellekteki 4 adresi işleyebilmektedir. Çipin içinde bulunan adres sayacıyla bir sonraki adres tutulur. Ayrıca BEDO bilgi iletimi ve ulaşımı sağlayacak döngüyü 2 bileşene ayırdı. Bellekten okuma işlemi sırasında, 1.bileşen bellekteki veriden çıktı bölümüne kadar veriye ulaşır. 2. bileşen ise veri yolunu bu mandaldan uygun mantık seviyesine getirir. Veri çıktı tamponunda olduğunda, genel EDO anlayışına göre daha hızlı erişim zamanı elde edilir.

BEDO DRAM, EDO'ya karşı eniyileme eklentileri yapmasına rağmen zamanla SDRAM'e önemli yatırımlar oldu fakat BEDO RAM teknik olarak SDRAM'e göre üstündür.

Multibank DRAM (MDRAM)
Multibank RAM, SRAM'e karşı daha hızlı ve ucuz alternatif oluşturmak için ana belleğin sırayla birleştirme tekniğini ikinci düzey önbelleklerde uygulamıştır. Çip belleğini 256 kB'lik küçük bloklara ayırmıştır ve işlemleri tek saat döngüsünde 2 farklı yığında yapmayı sağlamıştır. Bu bellek aslında Tseng Labs ET6x00 yonga seti (chipset) ile birlikte MoSys tarafından yapılan grafik kartlarında kullanılmıştır. Bu yonga seti tabanlı kartlarda 2.25 MB'lık alışılmadık RAM büyüklüğü ile düzenlenmiştir çünkü MDRAM'lerin değişik RAM büyüklükleriyle kolaylıkla istenileni yapabilmektedir. 2,25 MB'lik büyüklük, 24-bit 1024×768 çözünürlüğe izin vermektedir.

Senkronize Grafik Ram (SGRAM)
Grafik adaptörlerde kullanılan SGRAM, SDRAM'in özel bir versiyonudur. Fonksiyonları, bit gizlemesi(diğerlerine tesir etmeden açıkça belirtilen bit düzlemine yazma) ve yazmayı durdurma (blokları tek renk hafızayla doldurma) gibi yöntemlerle ekler SGRAM, verileri tek tek yerine bloklar halinde alıyor ve işliyor. Bu sayede okuma ve yazma performansı önemli ölçüde artıyor. VRAM ve WRAM'in aksine SGRAM tek-portlu hafıza birimine sahiptir. Fakat SGRAM bir kerede iki bellek sayfasını açabilir bu işlemde çift-portlu diğer video RAM teknolojileri simüle edilir. SGRAM ve SDRAM 1990'ların sonlarında DRAM'lerin en popüler türleri oldular. VE 2000'lerin ilk on yılında da böyle devam edecek.

Senkronize Dinamik Ram(SDRAM)

Rambus DRAM(RDRAM)

Double Data Rate (DDR) SDRAM
Çift veri transferli bellekler – SDRAM'lerin geliştirilmesiyle 2000'lerin başında PC belleklerde kullanılmaya başlandı. DDR2-SDRAM'in ortaya çıkışı, DDR-SDRAM'in başlangıçtaki küçük gelişimi(tek-çekirdekli CPU temelli) sonrası saat hızları ve komut işlemenin yüksek hızlara çıkmasıyla  olmuştur. 2006 yılında ortaya çıkan çok-çekirdekli CPU'ların çabuk kabullenilmesiyle standart DDR2'lerin endüstrisinde mevcut DDR-SDRAM fiziksel standartlarına göre değişmesi beklenilmektedir. Ayrıca 2007'de geliştirilmesi öngörülen DDR3 ile birlikte DDR2 ve DDR'ın yerine DDR3'ün geçmesi bekleniyor.

Pseudostatic RAM (PSRAM) (pseudo: yalancı static:durağan)
PSRAM veya PSDRAM dinamik RAM yenileme ve adres kontrol devresiyle durağan(statik) RAM(SRAM)'e benzer. DRAM'in yüksek yoğunluğu ve SRAM'in rahat kullanımını birleştirmiştir.

Bazı DRAM bileşenlerinin "öz- yenileme biçimi" (self refresh mode) vardır. Yalancı-durağan (pseudo-static) RAM işlemleri için olan işlemleri içerirken, bu biçim sıklıkla yedekteki biçime denktir. DRAM denetim birimi veriyi kaybetmeden güç tasarrufu için geçici bir süre işlemleri durdurur, PSRAM'lerde olduğu gibi ayrık bir DRAM denetim birimi olmadan işlemlere izin verilmez.

RAM çeşitleri
Bellekler
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri icatları

DRAM (bilgisayar)


Walid Muhammad Salih bin Mubarak bin Attash (; born 1978) is a Yemeni prisoner held at the United States' Guantanamo Bay detention camp under terrorism-related charges, and is suspected of playing a key role in the early stages of the 9/11 attacks. The Office of the Director of National Intelligence has described him as a "scion of a terrorist family". American prosecutors at the Guantanamo military commissions allege that he helped in the preparation of the 1998 East Africa Embassy bombings and the USS Cole bombing and acted as a bodyguard to Osama bin Laden, gaining himself the reputation of an "errand boy". He is formally charged with selecting and helping to train several of the hijackers of the September 11 attacks.

Life
Hailing from a prominent Saudi family on friendly terms with Osama bin Laden, Attash had several brothers fighting during the tumultuous 1990s in Afghanistan. His family was deported from Yemen based on his father's radical views, and he grew up in Saudi Arabia.

He studied at the University of Islamic Studies in Karachi, Pakistan.

Attash lost his right leg in 1997 while fighting against the Northern Alliance and wore a metal prosthesis in its place, leading to the nickname "Father of the Leg". His brother was killed in the same battle, and his death led Attash to join al-Qaeda.

He was asked to help obtain explosives to target the USS The Sullivans in 1999, as part of the intended 2000 millennium attack plots.

In late 1999, while using the nom de guerre Khallad, Attash phoned Khalid al-Mihdhar, informing him of the upcoming Kuala Lumpur al-Qaeda Summit. In January 2000, Attash flew to Malaysia, ostensibly to receive a new prosthetic leg, and attended the summit. On January 8, Malaysian Special Branch informed the CIA that Attash had flown to Bangkok together with al-Mihdhar and Nawaf al-Hazmi. While there, the FBI received a transcript of a phone call from Fahd al-Quso and one of the  bombers, which mentioned giving Attash $5,000 to purchase a new prosthesis. During later interrogation, al-Quso confessed that he was handing over $36,000, and that it wasn't actually meant to purchase a prosthesis.

In October 2000, Attash was identified as the mastermind behind the USS Cole bombing which took place in Aden, Yemen.

On September 11, 2002, his 17-year-old brother Hassan bin Attash was taken prisoner by Pakistani forces raiding the Tariq Road House, handed over to the Americans and sent to The Dark Prison.

Alleged role in 9/11 Attacks
In the spring of 1999, Bin Laden selected four individuals to serve as suicide operatives after discussing what U.S. targets to crash planes into. These operatives were identified as Walid Bin Attash, Nawaf al-Hazmi, Khalid al-Mihdhar, and Abu Bara al-Yemeni. Bin Laden directed Bin 'Attash to obtain a United States visa so that he could travel to the U.S. and obtain pilot training in order to participate in what  Bin'Attash termed the "Planes Operation." However, in April 1999 Khalid was unable to obtain a U.S. visa and returned to Afghanistan. Once back in Afghanistan, Bin 'Attash administered a forty-five day special course in hand-to-hand combat training at an al Qaeda camp in Logar, Afghanistan, in order to help select trainees for the "Planes Operation." Nawaf al Hazmi (AA #77) and Khalid al Mihdhar (AA #77) attended this course and would later be selected as "muscle" hijackers in the 9/11 attacks.

Still wanting Bin'Attash to be involved in the planes operation, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed (KSM) split the operation into two parts. The first part involved the planned attacks in the US with the second part involving  the hijacking of US-flagged commercial airlines over South East Asia and blowing them up. Bin'Attash confirmed this part of the plot and state the intention was to hijack several airlines from various Southeast Asian countries.  In December 1999, Bin'Attash was trained by KSM in Karachi, Pakistan which involved learning basic English, interpreting and reading airline timetables/flight schedules, making travel arrangements, watching movies that featured hijackings, using flight simulator games and learning how to case flights. Near the end of December 1999, KSM directed Bin 'Attash to conduct a casing mission in support of the Planes Operation. Bin 'Attash was given a razor knife to assess airline security and carried this razor knife on flights to Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Bangkok, Thailand, and Hong Kong, China. On these flights, Bin 'Attash collected information on United States air carriers, such as the number of passengers on the flights that were in first class, business class, and economy class. During a January 1, 2000 flight from Bangkok to Hong Kong, Bin 'Attash flew aboard a U.S. airliner and tested security by carrying his razor onto the plane in his toiletries kit and realized that siting in first class on that flight did not offer a good view of the cockpit.

Bin 'Attash traveled to Kuala Lumpur where he met with Nawaf al Hazmi and Khalid al Mihdhar and discussed the surveillance obtained while casing flights, which included the security on the flights, secreting the razor knife on board the aircraft, and other flight information for use in the "Planes Operation." During this time Bin 'Attash was aware that Hazmi and Mihdhar were involved in an operation involving planes in the U.S. but denied knowing details of the plan. Upon his return to Karachi, Pakistan, Bin 'Attash prepared a written report and briefed KSM and Mohammed Atef (the military commander of al Qaeda) on airline security and his ability to get the razor knife on board the flights. Bin Laden would cancel the East Asia portion of the plot in the spring of 2000 as he thought it would be too difficult to coordinate this part of the plan along with the operation in the U.S. Bin 'Attash would later provide future hijacker Hani Hanjour with an email address in order to contact Nawaf al Hazmi in the United States sometime in December 2000.

Capture, tribunal
Attash was captured together with Ali Abdul Aziz Ali in Karachi, on April 29, 2003.

He was sent to The Dark Prison, and his brother was moved to Guantanamo Bay detention camps in 2003 or 2004. While there, he was interrogated under harsh circumstances and confessed that Abderraouf Jdey had been known to him. Despite having only one leg, he was forced to stand in stress positions, "an acutely difficult technique for him" as the Americans took away his false leg, forcing him to balance awkwardly on one foot until losing his balance and ripping at the tendons in his arms.

He was transferred to Guantanamo on September 6, 2006, together with 13 other "high-level detainees" the CIA had been holding in secret detention. He was given victim status in Poland for his alleged torture by Americans in a CIA black site on Polish soil.

Combatant Status Review Tribunal

Having been brought to Guantanamo from black sites, the new prisoners were accorded a new series of Combatant Status Review Tribunals, to determine whether the captives met the new definition of an "enemy combatant". They had been instituted in 2004 to mitigate the Supreme Court's findings that the holding of prisoners at Guantanamo Bay was unconstitutional.

A Summary of Evidence memo was prepared for the tribunal, listing the alleged facts that led to his detainment. These included that Mohammad Rashed Daoud al-Owhali had stated that Attash had told him to prepare for a suicide carbombing against East African embassies of the United States a month or two before the attacks occurred. The memo alleged that Attash had trained in close-combat in the Lowgar training camp and seen Osama bin Laden give a speech to graduates of the camp. The memo also alleged that Attash used a Yemeni merchant's registration card that had been forged by "a suspect of the USS Cole bombing". An unnamed participant in the Cole bombing also confessed to being given a letter written by Attash which asked for his assistance with the bombing, and was the only reason he aided the bombers.

It also said  that authorities knew of an al-Qaeda cell dubbed "Father of the Leg" that revolved around a senior member, and believed this was a reference to Attash due to his missing limb.

It also stated that a contact stored in the phone belonging to Attash was also listed as a contact  in a notebook belonging to "a senior al Qaida operative", and that his University ID card had been found "at an alleged al Qaida residence" in Karachi. He was also "implicated" by a notebook found during a raid, which listed payments made to various al-Qaeda members. An unnamed source also claimed to have seen him at al Farouq training camp.

Bin Attash attended his Tribunal. A week after the March 12, 2007, tribunal, Attash was reported to have confessed to his role in preparing both the Cole and Embassy attacks. He confessed purchasing the explosives and small boat used in the Cole bombing, as well as recruiting the perpetrators, and planning the operation 18 months before the actual attack; he stated that he was in Kandahar, Afghanistan with bin Laden at the time of the Cole attack, and in Karachi at the time of the simultaneous embassy bombings meeting with the mastermind of the attack. The DoD was later to publish a ten-page transcript from the unclassified portion of the Tribunal.

His Personal Representative met with him on February 13, and told the tribunal that Attash confirmed that many of the allegations were basically correct, but that he had never owned a telephone and that he had forged the Yemeni registration card himself.

Faces charges before military commission
The Department of Defense announced on August 9, 2007, that all fourteen of the "high-value detainees" who had been transferred to Guantanamo from the CIA's black sites, had been officially classified as "enemy combatants". Although judges Peter Brownback and Keith J. Allred had ruled two months earlier that only "illegal enemy combatants" could face military commissions, the Department of Defense waived the qualifier and said that all fourteen men could now face charges before Guantanamo military commissions.

Bin Attash, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, Ammar al Baluchi chose to serve as their own attorney.
They requested laptops, and internet access, in order to prepare their defenses.  In October 2008, Ralph Kohlmann ruled that they be provided with the computers, but not the internet access.

On December 8, 2008, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed told the judge that he and the other four indictees wished to confess and plead guilty; however, the plea would be delayed until after mental competency hearings for Hawsawi and bin al-Shibh. Mohammed said, "We want everyone to plead together."

On May 17, 2010, Saba News reported that Walid bin Attash, and four other Yemenis would face charges in the summer of 2010.
Two of the other Yemenis Saba News reported would face charges were: Ramzi bin al-Shibh and Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri.

On May 31, 2011, the Department of Defense announced that capital charges have been re-filed against Bin 'Attash and four other alleged co-conspirators for their alleged roles in the September 11th, 2001 attacks. The charges include: conspiracy, murder in violation of the law of war, attacking civilians, attacking civilian objects, intentionally causing serious bodily injury, destruction of property in violation of the law of war, hijacking aircraft and terrorism.  As of December 2022, the case is still in the pretrial phase after years of delays. Reporting in late 2022 indicated that the Biden administration was weighing a possible plea deal with Bin 'Attash and the four other suspected terrorists' Military Commission Trial.

References

External links
 New Evidence About Prisoners Held in Secret CIA Prisons in Poland and Romania Andy Worthington

Saudi Arabian al-Qaeda members
Saudi Arabian amputees
Living people
Saudi Arabian extrajudicial prisoners of the United States
People associated with the September 11 attacks
Detainees of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp
Place of birth missing (living people)
People subject to extraordinary rendition by the United States
Saudi Arabian expatriates in Pakistan
1978 births
People charged with murder
People indicted for war crimes

Walid bin Attash


Alexandr Nesterovschi (n. 11 ianuarie 1981, Răuțel, Fălești, RSS Moldovenească, URSS) este un om politic din Republica Moldova, care din decembrie 2014 este deputat în Parlamentul Republicii Moldova de legislatura a XX-a (2014-2018), în cadrul fracțiunii Partidului Socialiștilor din Republica Moldova (PSRM).

La alegerile parlamentare din 30 noiembrie 2014 din Republica Moldova a candidat la funcția de deputat de pe locul 24 în lista candidaților PSRM.

Referințe

Legături externe
Profil pe site-ul Parlamentului Republicii Moldova

Nașteri în 1981
Nașteri pe 11 ianuarie
Juriști moldoveni
Membri ai Partidului Socialiștilor din Republica Moldova
Moldoveni în viață
Politicieni moldoveni
Oameni din raionul Fălești

Alexandr Nesterovschi


An Neostapfiella chloridiantha in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Aimée Antoinette Camus. An Neostapfiella chloridiantha in nahilalakip ha genus nga Neostapfiella, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Neostapfiella

Neostapfiella chloridiantha


Hellgate se poate referi la:
H Is for Hellgate, trupă  indie pop din Seattle
Hellgate: London, un joc video din 2007
Hellgate (film din 1952), un film american western din 1952
Hellgate (film din 1970), un film Hong Kong din 1970 produs de Shaw Brothers Studio
Hellgate (film din 1989), un film de groază din 1989 cu Ron Palillo
Hellgate (film din 2011), un film de groază din 2011 cu Cary Elwes

Vezi și
Gates of Hell (dezambiguizare)
Hell Gate
Hells Gate (dezambiguizare)

Hellgate


Krzysztof Raczkowski (Kętrzyn, Poljska, 29. listopada 1970. – Olsztyn, Poljska 18. kolovoza 2005.), poznat i pod umjetničkim imenom Docent, bio je bubnjar poljskog death/thrash metal-sastava Vader. Također je svirao sa skupinama Hunter, Slashing Death, Christ Agony, Moon, Sweet Noise, Dies Irae, Unborn i Black Altar.

Životopis

Krzysztof Raczkowski rođen je 29. listopada 1970. u Kętrzynu, iako je živio u Korszeu. Započeo je svirati bubnjeve 1985. Prvi sastav gdje je svirao bio je skupina Skandal. Nakon toga pridružio se thrash metal sastavu Dyktator, a 1988. Slashing Death. Iste godine preselio se u Olsztyn i pridružio se death metal sastavu  Vader. Prvi album koji je snimio s Vaderom bio je demoalbum Necrolust.

Godine 1991. osnovao je sastav Atrocious Filth. Godine 1994. snimio je album Atrocious Filth objavljen 2008.

Godine 1996. s Cezarom Augustynowiczom osnovao je sastav Moon. Također bio je član sastava Dies Irae.

Godine 2004. prije snimanja albuma The Beast Vadera, Raczkowski imao je nesreću u kojoj je ozlijedio ruku i nogu. Zamijenjo ga je Dariusz "Daray" Brzozowski. Napustio je sastav u ožujku 2005.

Preminuo je 18. kolovoza 2005. od zatajenja srca. Pokopan je 24. kolovoza iste godine u Korszeu.

Diskografija
Vader
 Necrolust (1989.)
 Morbid Reich (1990.)
 The Ultimate Incantation (1992.)
 Sothis (1994.)
 The Darkest Age – Live '93 (1994.)
 De Profundis (1995.)
 Future of the Past (1996.)
 Black to the Blind (1997.)
 Kingdom (1998.)
 Live in Japan (1998.)
 Litany (2000.)
 Reign Forever World (2000.)
 Revelations (2002.)
 Blood (2003.)
Dies Irae
Immolated (2000.)
The Sun War (2002.)
Sculpturr of Stone (2004.)
Sweet Noise
The Triptic (2007.)

Izvori

Vader
Poljski bubnjari heavy metala

Krzysztof Raczkowski


"Catanias" es una marca registrada.

Las catanias (en catalán , singular: catània) son un dulce seco típico de Villafranca del Panadés, elaborado con almendras marconas enteras, tostadas y caramelizadas, recubiertas de pasta de almendra, avellana y leche, y después recubierto de una fina capa de chocolate negro o cacao y azúcar refinado.

Historia

1940-1941 Josep Cudié entra a trabajar como oficial de primera en la pastelería Juan Trenes y Riba, de la c / de la Fuente (Vilafranca del Penedès, Barcelona). Esta pastelería era muy conocida por hacer chocolate a la piedra.

1943-1946 Se empiezan a elaborar, aparte del chocolate a la piedra, un surtido de bombones. Dentro de los diferentes tipos, había uno conocido con el nombre de Crocrem® (primer nombre comercial de las Catànias®).

1946-1950 El bombón Crocrem® gustó mucho a la gente de Vilafranca, tanto que sólo iban a comprar este bombón. La población de Vilafranca empezó a nombrar Catànies® a este bombón, ya que la casa donde estaba la pastelería era conocida como Cal Catani, y hacían el juego de palabras de "vamos a buscar las Catànias® a Cal Catani".
Entonces se cambió el nombre comercial de Crocrem® por Catànias®.

1950-1953 Josep Cudié marcha de la pastelería y crea su empresa, Bombones Cudié y se dedica exclusivamente a hacer bombones, entre ellos, las Catànias®.

1960 Josep Cudié registró las marcas Crocrem® y Catania®, ya que una parte importante de su producción era la Catània®.

2003 Hay litigio contra la empresa Cassanelles por la utilización de la marca Catània®.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Receta (en catalán)

Gastronomía de Cataluña
Postres y dulces de España
Postres y dulces con almendra

Catanias


Oleg Vladímirovich Kuznetsov (Magdeburgo, República Democrática Alemana, 22 de marzo de 1963), es un exfutbolista ucraniano, nacido en la antigua RDA.

Como futbolista internacional, jugó para las selecciones de la Unión Soviética, Ucrania y el CEI.

Clubes

Futbolistas de la República Democrática Alemana
Futbolistas de la Unión Soviética en la Copa Mundial de 1986
Futbolistas de la Unión Soviética en la Copa Mundial de 1990
Futbolistas de Ucrania
Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol de Ucrania en los años 1990
Futbolistas del FC Dinamo de Kiev
Futbolistas del Rangers Football Club
Futbolistas del Maccabi Haifa
Futbolistas de la Unión Soviética en la Eurocopa 1988
Futbolistas de la Comunidad de Estados Independientes en la Eurocopa 1992
Emigrantes alemanes hacia Ucrania
Nacidos en Magdeburgo

Oleg Kuznetsov


Topos (grč. τόπος: mjesto), pojam koji se izvorno veže uz retoriku. U okviru naučavanja o pronalaženju argumenata i dokaza (inventio) topos se definira kao sredstvo dokazivanja, ali i kao »nalazište« argumenata za određeni govor. Tijekom povijesti značenje pojma postupno se promijenilo. Pojam toposa imao je središnju ulogu u pristupu književnosti kakav je u studiji Europska književnost i latinsko srednjovjekovlje (1948.) zagovarao E. R. Curtius. Prema njegovu mišljenju, riječ je o utvrđenim misaonim obrascima, standardiziranim opisima i općeprihvaćenim metaforama koji se pojavljuju u europskim književnostima od Homera do suvremenog doba, osobito u srednjem vijeku i renesansi. Navodi primjere kao što su: svijet kao pozornica (theatrum mundi), obrnuti svijet (mundus inversus), dječak starac (puer senex) i dr. Curtiusova koncepcija poslužila je potonjim autorima poput Th. W. Adorna i H.-G. Gadamera kao polazište u njihovim kritikama ideja o kulturnom jedinstvu i kontinuitetu tradicije.

Retorika

Topos


Hacı Naşit Paşa, Osmanlı Devleti'nin son dönemlerinde üst düzey bürokraside çeşitli görevlerde bulunmuş bir Osmanlı devlet adamıdır.

7 Haziran 1874 - 25 Eylül 1875 tarihleri arasında Kastamonu, 1883-1885 yılları arasında İzmir (Aydın) valiliği yapmıştır. İzmir'de ilk resmi baloyu düzenleyen kişi olarak tarihe geçmiştir.

Tarihe geçmesine vesile olan bir başka unsur da Ege Bölgesi'nde dağları mesken edinmiş efelere karşı mücadelede başvurduğu yöntemlerdir. Hükûmetten aldığı emir gereği, gizli bir komplo ile efeleri imha etmeyi planlamıştır. Plana göre, Mehmet Kamil Paşa valiliğinde kır serdarı örgütlenmesi içine sokularak, bir tür korucu sistemi içinde Rum çetelere karşı kullanılan efeler, Rum eşkiyalar konusunu görüşmek üzere zaptiye müfreze komutanlıklarınca toplantıya çağrılmışlar, toplantı kisvesi altında kurulan tuzaklarla yerli (Türk) çetelerin (efelerin) büyük kısmı ortadan kaldırılmıştır. Hükûmetin bu emrinin yerine getirilmesi, Ege Bölgesi'nin Osmanlı egemenliğindeki hayat tarzını etkileyecek bir dönüm noktası olmuştur. Hükûmet sözünü tutmamış, halk deyişiyle Osmanlılığını yapmış, haksızlığını ve adaletsizliğini sergilemişti. Nitekim çetelerden sağ kalabilenler ya da ölen zeybeklerin çocukları -ki, bunların başında Çakırcalıoğlu Ahmet Efe'nin oğlu Çakırcalı Mehmet Efe gelmektedir- 1900'lerin başından itibaren efelik geleneğini tekrar diriltmişler, Cumhuriyet dönemine kadar bölgede asi konumlarını sürdürmüşlerdir.

Osmanlı Kastamonu valileri

Hacı Naşit Paşa


كانال دي  : هي قناة تلفزيونية وطنية واسعة الانتشار في تركيا. تعد الشركة من قبل وسائل الإعلام المملوكة للتاجر آيدين دوغان. كانال دي تتعارض أيضاً مع قناة دولية، يورو دي وهي متاحة على الإنترنت. تعد أول قناة تلفزيونية عالية الجودة في تركيا، HD TV. في 18 فبراير 2007، كانال دي بدأت في رومانيا كقناة تلفزيونية بنفس الاسم، تقوم بعرض البرامج الشعبية.

المسلسلات
كما عرضت مسلسلات ومنها:
 إكليل الورد
 الأوراق المتساقطة
 وادي الذئاب
 نور
 سنوات الضياع
 العشق الممنوع
 الانتقام
 الرحمة
 المفقود
 بويراز كارايل
 حب أبيض أسود
 جسور والجميلة
 بنات الشمس
 أنت وطني
 أغنية الحياة
 اللطخة
 إسطنبول الظالمة

البرامج
 سرفايفر تركيا (2005)

المراجع

وصلات خارجية
 كانال دي التركية
 كانال دي الرومانية

قنوات تلفزيونية تركية
وسائل الإعلام في إسطنبول
قنوات وشبكات تلفزيونية أسست في 1993
محطات تلفزيونية باللغة التركية

كانال دي


La  est l'une des quatre circonscriptions législatives que compte la préfecture de Shiga au Japon. Cette circonscription comptait  électeurs en date du .

Description géographique

La troisième circonscription de la préfecture de Shiga correspond aux villes de Kusatsu, Moriyama, Rittō et Yasu.

Députés

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Chambre des représentants du Japon

Circonscription législative au Japon

Troisième circonscription de la préfecture de Shiga


James Mark Dakin Purnell (born 2 March 1970) is a British broadcasting executive and former Labour Party politician who served as Work and Pensions Secretary and Culture Secretary in the Brown Government from 2007 to 2009. In October 2016, he became BBC's Director of Radio, in addition to his other role as the BBC's Director of Strategy and Digital, a job he had held since March 2013. In 2020 he left the BBC to become vice-chancellor of University of the Arts London.

Purnell was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Stalybridge and Hyde from the 2001 until the 2010 General Election. He served as Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport from 2007 to 2008 and Secretary of State for Work and Pensions from 2008 to 2009. He resigned from the Government on 4 June 2009, criticising the leadership of Gordon Brown.

He became the director of the Open Left project for Demos in 2009. Purnell chaired the Institute for Public Policy Research until 2010, and was a senior advisor in the Public Sector practice of the Boston Consulting Group. He is also a film producer, and a former Senior Producer at Rare Day, who produced the film One Mile Away.

Early life
Purnell was born in the City of London; he received most of his education in France before returning to study for his A Levels at the Royal Grammar School, Guildford, and then read Philosophy, politics and economics at Balliol College, Oxford. While a student, he worked during summer vacations as a researcher for Tony Blair between 1989 and 1992. After graduating from Oxford University with a first class degree, he worked as a research fellow at the Institute for Public Policy Research before moving to the BBC to become its Head of Corporate Planning.

Between May 1994 and October 1995, he was a Labour councillor in Islington, representing Canonbury East ward. In 1997, Purnell returned to work as a special adviser at Number 10, remaining in the post until 2001. He has also served as a consultant at Hydra Associates, a board member of the Young Vic theatre as well as of the Royal National Theatre and the British Film Institute, and as a senior advisor to Boston Consulting Group.

Member of Parliament
Purnell was selected as the Labour candidate for the seat of Stalybridge and Hyde in 2001, and won the seat in that year's general election with a majority of 8,859. While a Labour MP, he was a member of the Work and Pensions Select Committee in the House of Commons from 2001 to 2003, the Chair of the All-Party Group on Private Equity and Venture Capital between 2002 and 2003, and the Chair of Labour Friends of Israel from 2002 to 2004.

In government

In 2003, Purnell became Parliamentary Private Secretary (PPS) to Ruth Kelly in the Cabinet Office, and in December 2004 he joined the Government as a Whip in the government reshuffle following the resignation of David Blunkett.

After Labour was returned to power in the 2005 general election, he was appointed to the position of Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Creative Industries and Tourism in the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, where he was in charge of preparing the legislation that liberalised the alcohol licensing laws of England and Wales and created tax breaks for the film industry. In May 2006, he was promoted to be Minister of State for Pensions in the Department for Work and Pensions, replacing Stephen Timms.

In 2007, he was named Consumer Champion of the Year by Which? magazine for his work on pensions. Which? cited his "commitment to consumers in the development of the national pensions saving scheme", particularly for listening to stakeholders and for his contributions to the personal accounts for low and middle earners.

In June 2007, Purnell entered the Cabinet as the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport; he was its youngest member. He was promoted to Work and Pensions Secretary after the resignation of Peter Hain on 24 January 2008.

Faked photograph
In September 2007 Tameside General Hospital inserted Purnell into a photograph, as part of a press release for a Private finance initiative (PFI) deal.  Tameside Trust claimed that he agreed to the insertion being late for the original photo call, Purnell denied this.  Tom Levitt, a Labour MP who was present for the photoshoot, stated that he and other MPs left a gap for Purnell when the photograph was taken, knowing that Purnell's image would be added.

Interest on crisis loans proposal
In December 2008, Purnell proposed charging interest on crisis loans to the unemployed and pensioners made by the Department for Work and Pensions, which were interest-free, at a rate of up to 26.8% per annum. This was met with great hostility and was blocked by the intervention of the prime minister, Gordon Brown.

Expenses scandal
Purnell was one of many MPs involved in political difficulties following the revelations of the 2009 expenses scandal. He told the parliamentary authorities that his main home was in Manchester and claimed the "second home" allowance for his flat in London. In October 2004, he sold his London flat but told HM Revenue and Customs it was his "principal home", not his "second home". A spokesman on behalf of Purnell said that "Any allegation that James avoided capital gains tax is completely untrue. When he bought his constituency home, the sale of his London flat fell through, but it was sold within the period that HMRC continue to treat it as not being liable for CGT ... This would have been true for any taxpayer – there was no special treatment". Also in 2004, Purnell claimed £395 for an accountant's bill which included "tax advice provided in October 2004 regarding sale of flat".

Whilst renting a flat between 2004 and 2006, Purnell claimed £100 a month for cleaning expenses and £586 for repairs. At the end of the lease, the landlord kept the £2,520 deposit, claiming the flat to have been in a poor state. A spokesman for Purnell stated: "James felt frustrated that the landlord refused to return the deposit. He initially pursued the matter through legal channels but let it rest as the costs of fighting it further would far outweigh recouping the deposit". Allegation were made by a Sunday newspaper that Purnell claimed more than £1,500 a month rent for the flat although he was responsible for paying half of the £1,820 a month rent and his fiancée was paying the rest. A spokesman for Purnell said "Despite being entitled to claim in full for the whole rental cost incurred by him and his partner, James claimed less than the amount he himself spent. The rules of the House of Commons make it clear that an MP is entitled to be reimbursed for the rent or mortgage paid by the MP and their partner. Nevertheless, James went out of his way to ensure overall he claimed less for accommodation than he himself paid". Purnell also claimed £247 for 3,000 fridge magnets.

Resignation from the Cabinet
On 4 June 2009, Purnell announced his resignation from the Cabinet, and called upon Gordon Brown to resign as Prime Minister. His resignation came only days after the resignations of Home Secretary Jacqui Smith, whose expenses had been the subject of negative comments, and Communities Secretary Hazel Blears, who had also avoided paying capital gains tax on her property.
The news came just minutes after polls closed in the local and European elections, in which Labour performed badly.
His letter to the Prime Minister, which was also sent to The Sun and The Times, read:

Post-parliamentary career
On 19 February 2010, Purnell announced he would be standing down as an MP later that year, saying "I have decided that I no longer wish to be an MP. I have spent all my working life in or about Westminster. And while this has been a huge privilege, I've realised I don't want to have spent all my life in frontline politics." He pointed to his work with Demos as occupying him in the immediate future.

After leaving parliament, Purnell became the chair of the Institute for Public Policy Research. It was touted that he would stand for the Labour candidacy to become Mayor of London, but he decided against this option. He supported David Miliband in the 2010 Labour leadership election and worked for his campaign, although he was subsequently offered the job of chief of staff to the new leader of the Labour Party, Ed Miliband, a job he turned down.

Purnell became linked with the Blue Labour movement within the Labour Party and in April 2011 he was appointed by the Boston Consulting Group as a Special Advisor to their Public Sector Group. In July 2011, he appeared on Newsnight with proposals for welfare reforms, as part of his involvement in Blue Labour. He called for a National Salary Insurance, a job guarantee and free universal childcare, but also said that "freebies" such as Winter Fuel Allowance and free bus passes should not become sacred. He did not rule out returning to Parliament in 2015, but declared his support for Ed Miliband and his leadership.

BBC career
In February 2013 Purnell left the IPPR in order to rejoin the BBC as its Director of Strategy, on a salary of £295,000; he assumed this position on 20 March. As a senior BBC employee he had to resign his membership of the Labour Party.

An Employment Tribunal for unfair dismissal was brought by the BBC's former Chief Technology Officer, John Linwood, when he lost his job in 2013 after the Corporation's £100m Digital Media Initiative failed. During the case an email from Purnell was cited in evidence, which read: "We need a clear line on [John Linwood] on whether he is resigning or being fired and why". The tribunal's response to this was: "It was notable that there was no third option in Purnell's mind, such as a different disciplinary outcome." The tribunal found the BBC's processes to have given an "apparently cavalier disregard for any of the accepted norms of a fair disciplinary process", and that there was a "deeply ingrained cultural expectation within the organisation of sacrificial accountability". Linwood was awarded £80,000 in damages, and it was later revealed that the BBC had spent £498,000 defending the claim.

In late September 2016, Purnell was appointed as the BBC's Director of Radio and Education, in succession to Helen Boaden. He took up his new position in late October 2016. The Daily Telegraph described a key facet of his role as attracting younger listeners and viewers to the BBC.

In September 2020 the new director-general Tim Davie removed Purnell from his new smaller executive board. Purnell left the BBC that year to become president and vice-chancellor of University of the Arts London in spring 2021.

References

External links
The Guardian: Purnell's progress
Guardian Unlimited Politics - Ask Aristotle: James Purnell MP
TheyWorkForYou.com - James Purnell MP

|-

|-

1970 births
Living people
British atheists
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
Labour Party (UK) officials
British special advisers
Councillors in the London Borough of Islington
Labour Party (UK) councillors
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Labour Friends of Israel
British Secretaries of State
People educated at Royal Grammar School, Guildford
Politics of Tameside
UK MPs 2001–2005
UK MPs 2005–2010
BBC executives
Secretaries of State for Work and Pensions
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Stalybridge and Hyde

James Purnell


Esteban José Jean-Pierre Ocon-Khelfane (født 17. september 1996) er en fransk racerkører, som kører for Formel 1-holdet Alpine.

Formel 1-karriere

Manor
Ocon fik sin debut i Formel 1 med Manor halvvejs gennem 2016 sæsonen, efter at Rio Haryanto havde fået sin kontrakt ophævet med holdet.

Force India

2017
Ocon skiftede til Force India ved 2017 sæsonen.

Ocon scorede sine første point i Formel 1 ved hans første ræs med holdet, da han sluttede på 10. pladsen ved Australiens Grand Prix. Han sluttede sæsonen som nummer 8, men 87 point på sæsonen.

2018
Ocon sluttede 2018 sæsonen på 12. pladsen.

Mercedes reservekører
Forca India, nu omdøbt til Racing Point, var blevet opkøbt af en gruppe ledt af Lawrence Stroll i løbet af 2018 sæsonen, og det blev klart at enten Ocon eller Sergio Pérez ville miste deres plads til Lawrence Strolls søn Lance Stroll, som på dette tidspunkt kørte for Williams.

Det lykkedes ikke Ocon at finde en ny plads for 2019 sæsonen, og måtte nøjes med at være reservekører for Mercedes for sæsonen.

Renault

2020
Ocon fik igen en plads i Formel 1 ved 2020 sæsonen, hvor han erstattede Nico Hülkenberg hos Renault.

Ocon kom på podium for første gang i sin karriere ved Bahrains Grand Prix, hvor at han sluttede på andenpladsen.

Han sluttede sæsonen på tolvtepladsen.

Alpine

2021
Renault skiftede navn til Alpine før 2021 sæsonen.

Ocon vandt overraskende sit første Grand Prix i Ungarn, efter at flere sammenstød tog ham fra ottendepladsen til andenpladsen i det første sving. Ocon kom foran Lewis Hamilton efter at Mercedes lavede en dårlig beslutning med at vente en omgang for meget med at skifte til tørvejrsdæk. Ocon, med stor hjælp fra holdkammerat Fernando Alonso som lykkedes at blokere Lewis Hamilton i lang tid, holdte på førstepladsen on vandt.

Ocon sluttede på elvtepladsen i sæsonen.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

 Esteban Ocons officielle hjemmeside

Formel 1-kørere fra Frankrig

Esteban Ocon


زيمنا فودا (Зимна Вода) هي مدينة في مقاطعة لفيفسكا في أوكرانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها حوالي 9725 نسمة.

مراجع

قرى في منطقة لفيف
مدن أوكرانيا

زيمنا فودا (لفيفسكا)


مرت على لبنان حروب أهلية عديدة على مر العصور. ومن أهمها في العصر الحديث:
 مجازر 1840: حصلت عام 1840 بين الدروز والموارنة.
 مجازر 1860: حصلت عام 1860 بين الدروز والموارنة.
 أحداث 1958: حصلت عام 1958 بين الدروز والمسلمين السنة الموالين لمصر من جهة والقوى الوطنية اللبنانية (المسيحيين والشيعة) من جهة أخرى.
 الحرب الأهلية (1975-1991): الحرب الأهلية الأخيرة في لبنان وانتهت بالوصول إلى اتفاق الطائف.

الحرب الأهلية اللبنانية (توضيح)


An Vulpia brevis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Pierre Edmond Boissier ngan Karl Theodor Kotschy. An Vulpia brevis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Vulpia, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Vulpia

Vulpia brevis


Anselm Kluge (* 26. November 1950 in Almena) ist ein deutscher Komponist, Musikproduzent, Arrangeur und Dozent.

Leben und Wirken
Anselm Kluge ist der Sohn von Manfred Kluge und kam 1950 auf der Couch seines Großvaters zur Welt. Gitarre und E-Bass erlernte er autodidaktisch. Von 1959 bis 1963 erhielt er Cello-Unterricht an der Musikakademie Lübeck. Er begann ein Architekturstudium in Stuttgart, anschließend studierte er Germanistik in Hamburg. Ab 1973 war er Bassist in diversen Hamburger Bands, u. a. der Formation KÄNGURU – zusammen mit Peter Weihe, Herb Geller, Udo Dahmen, Frank Hieber und Claus-Robert Kruse. Diese Instrumentalband spielte unter der Leitung von Rolf Kühn zahlreiche Krimi-Musiken ein. In dieser Zeit komponierte und produzierte Kluge auch bereits für Tonträger, Werbung, Film und TV. 1981 und 1982 begleitete er Mario Hené als Tourmusiker.
Seit 1982 ist Anselm Kluge Dozent beim Popkurs Hamburg für die Fächer Rhythm and Groove, Bass und für Bandcoaching. Seit 1994 ist er dort als Professor tätig.

Anselm Kluge lebt in Hamburg.

Tätigkeit als Komponist und Arrangeur (Auswahl)
 1985 Bass- und Streicher-Arrangements für Ulla Meinecke Der Stolz italienischer Frauen
 1986 Arrangement-Auftrag für Konstantin Wecker-Special ORF, Produzent und Arrangeur für Gitte Haenning, Filmmusik Familienbande für NDR
 1987 diverse Kompositionen für die Sesamstraße
 1989 Gründung und seitdem Leitung der Brass-Band TÄTÄRÄ – mehr als 1000 Engagements (Stand 2012) darunter zahlreiche Auslandsauftritte, u. a. für das Goethe-Institut (Riga, Tallinn, Warschau, Glasgow, Hongkong, Bombay, Colombo, Istanbul, Lissabon, Guangzhou, Nanjing, Chongqing / China, Abu Dhabi, Dubai), bei der Weltausstellung in Sevilla und Genua, auf der Buchmesse Kairo oder bei der Lord Majors Parade in London. Bisher erschienen drei Tonträger.
 1989 LP-Produktion Kapitale Burschen für Wigald Boning, Arrangements und Co-Produktion für Julia Neigel, Arrangements für die Bläck Fööss (EMI)
 1991 Arrangements und Aufnahmen für Die Prinzen mit Annette Humpe – z. B. für den Titel Gabi und Klaus
 1995 Gründung des labels nullviernull mit Joja Wendt
 1996 Streicherarrangements für das Pe Werner-Album etepetete, Produzent des Nils Landgren-Albums Paint it blue
 2002 Arrangements für Heinz Rudolf Kunze Rückenwind – erschienen bei WEA Records
 2006 Bläserarrangements für Mousse T., Ich + Ich (Vom selben Stern), Komposition der Fernsehmusik für Pilawa macht Schule

Weblinks
 Fetziges von der Drum- und Brass-Kapelle, Die Welt, 19. Juni 1999
 Eintrag beim Popkurs Hamburg

Bassist
Arrangeur
Filmkomponist
Musikproduzent
Komponist (Deutschland)
Deutscher
Geboren 1950
Mann

Anselm Kluge


The bush dog (Speothos venaticus) is a canine found in Central and South America. In spite of its extensive range, it is very rare in most areas except in Suriname, Guyana and Peru; it was first identified by Peter Wilhelm Lund from fossils in Brazilian caves and was believed to be extinct. The bush dog is the only living species in the genus Speothos, and genetic evidence suggests that its closest living relative is the maned wolf of central South America or the African wild dog. The species is listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN.
In Brazil it is called cachorro-vinagre ("vinegar dog") or cachorro-do-mato ("bush dog"). In Spanish-speaking countries it is called perro vinagre ("vinegar dog"), zorro vinagre ("vinegar fox"), perro de agua ("water dog"), or perro de monte ("mountain dog").

Description

Adult bush dogs have soft long brownish-tan fur, with a lighter reddish tinge on the head, neck and back and a bushy tail, while the underside is dark, sometimes with a lighter throat patch. Younger individuals, however, have black fur over their entire bodies. Adults typically have a head-body length of , with a  tail. They have a shoulder height of  and weigh . They have short legs relative to their body, as well as a short snout and relatively small ears.

The teeth are adapted for its carnivorous habits. Uniquely for an American canid, the dental formula is  for a total of 38 teeth. The bush dog is one of three canid species (the other two being the dhole and the African wild dog) with trenchant heel dentition, having a single cusp on the talonid of the lower carnassial tooth that increases the cutting blade length. Females have four pairs of teats and both sexes have large scent glands on either side of the anus. Bush dogs have partially webbed toes, which allow them to swim more efficiently.

Genetics
Speothos has a diploid chromosome number of 74, and so it is unable to produce fertile hybrids with other canids.

Distribution and habitat

Bush dogs are found from Costa Rica in Central America and through much of South America east of the Andes, as far south as central Bolivia, Paraguay and southern Brazil. They primarily inhabit lowland forests up to  elevation, wet savannas and other habitats near rivers, but may also be found in drier cerrado and open pasture. The historic range of this species may have extended as far north as Costa Rica where the species may still be found in suitable habitat. New, repeated observations of bush dog groups have been recorded in east-central (Barbilla National Park) and south-eastern (La Amistad International Park) Costa Rica, and a substantial portion of the Talamanca Mountains up to  to the north-northwest and at elevations up to . Very recent fossils dating from 300 AD to 900 AD (the Late Ceramic Age) have been found in the Manzanilla site on the eastern coast of Trinidad.

There are three recognised subspecies:
 The South American bush dog (Speothos venaticus venaticus), with a range including southern Colombia and Venezuela, the Guyanas, most of Brazil, eastern Ecuador and Peru, Bolivia, and northern Paraguay.
 The Panamanian bush dog (Speothos venaticus panamensis), with a range including Panama, northern Colombia and Venezuela, western Ecuador.
 The southern bush dog (Speothos venaticus wingei), with a range including southern Brazil and Paraguay, as well as extreme northeastern Argentina. The first camera trap photos of this species in Argentina were obtained in April 2016 from the Selva Paranaense Don Otto Ecological Private Reserve, located in Eldorado Department of the Misiones province of Argentina.

Behavior
Bush dogs are carnivores and hunt during the day. Their typical prey are pacas, agoutis, acouchis and capybaras, all large rodents. Although they can hunt alone, bush dogs are usually found in small packs. The dogs can bring down much larger prey, including peccaries and rheas, and a pack of six dogs has even been reported hunting a  tapir, where they trailed the animal and nipped at its legs until it was felled. When hunting paca, part of the pack chases it on land and part wait for it in the water, where it often retreats.

Bush dogs appear to be the most gregarious South American canid species. They use hollow logs and cavities such as armadillo burrows for shelter. Packs consist of a single mated pair and their immediate relations, and have a home range of . Only the adult pair breed, while the other members of the pack are subordinate, and help with rearing and guarding any pups. Packmates keep in contact with frequent whines, perhaps because visibility is poor in the undergrowth where they typically hunt. While eating large prey, parents position themselves at either ends of the animal, making it easier for the pups to disembowel it.

Reproduction

Bush dogs mate throughout the year; oestrus lasts up to twelve days and occurs every 15 to 44 days. Like many other canids, bush dog mating includes a copulatory tie, during which the animals are locked together. Urine-marking plays a significant role in their pre-copulatory behavior.

Gestation lasts from 65 to 83 days and normally results in the birth of a litter of three to six pups, although larger litters of up to 10 have been reported. The young are born blind and helpless and initially weigh . The eyes open after 14 to 19 days and the pups first emerge from the nativity den shortly thereafter. The young are weaned at around four weeks and reach sexual maturity at one year. They can live for up to 10 years in captivity.

Conservation
Very little is known about bush dogs compared to other canines of the World and their conservation is still in the beginning stages. The species is so uncommon that when bush dog bones were discovered in a cave in 1839, paleontologist Peter Wilhelm Lund thought that they were already extinct. However, bush dogs are not extinct and studies suggest that bush dogs are able to live in a wide variety of habitats and are a generalist species.

Some barriers to bush dog conservation include their dense habitat and very scattered population making them difficult to locate, the need for very large areas not disturbed by humans for the bush dogs to live in because they live and hunt in packs, and their very shy nature. The species is currently listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN because of an estimated 20–25 percent loss in numbers over the latest 12-year period. The main threats to bush dogs in the wild are in order of most important: habitat loss, including fragmentation, the loss of prey species because of human poaching, and diseases that they can get from the domestic dog populations that they come across. The type of habitat loss that is affecting bush dogs the most is clear cutting of trees in the amazon and other good habitats for wood, cattle farming and palm oil. Disease from domestic dogs is slowly becoming a bigger and bigger problem for bush dogs, because of human encroachment they now share more of their habitat than ever with potentially unvaccinated domestic dogs.  Hunting of bush dogs is prohibited in most of their range, countries banning the hunting of the species include Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil, French Guiana, Paraguay, Peru, Bolivia, Panama and Argentina. There is nothing that explicitly bans bush dog hunting in the laws of Guyana and Suriname. Another issue is that many of the countries that the bush dog lives in have limited resources in place to enforce the wildlife laws that are made.

Currently, scientists are using a number of different methods to try and create a management plan for bush dogs. Traditional camera traps have not worked well in evaluating the species because of how shy they are; as a result,  scientists have deployed scent-detecting dogs to try and find the bush dogs burrows where they rest at night. The hope is to be able to collect better data about habitat use of the species, what kind of prey they hunt, and how and when the cubs branch off from the pack. There are protected areas that exist throughout the bush dogs range such as the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve; this will theoretically be able to support feeder populations. In good news for the species, as recently as 2020, bush dogs were caught on camera traps in the Talamanca Mountains of Costa Rica suggesting that they may be expanding their range northward and even higher in elevation than previously thought possible. This could mean that if humans put in a concerted effort to try and save bush dogs the species will be able to respond well and keep a steady population or maybe even gain in numbers.

References

Bibliography
 Nicole Duplaix and Noel Simon, World Guide to Mammals. Mandarin Publishers Ltd. (1976).
 Flower WH. 1880. On the bush-dog (Icticyon venaticus Lund). Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1880: 70–76.

External links

ARKive - images and movies of the bush dog (Speothos venaticus)
https://web.archive.org/web/20070401091117/http://www.canids.org/species/Speothos_venaticus.htm
Animal Diversity Web
ITIS database
Skeletal morphology data from UT Austin
Cachorro-do-mato-vinagre

Speothos
Carnivorans of South America
Fauna of the Amazon
Fauna of the Guianas
Mammals of Bolivia
Mammals of Brazil
Mammals of Colombia
Mammals of Ecuador
Mammals of Guyana
Carnivorans of Central America
Mammals of Peru
Near threatened animals
Mammals of Venezuela
Near threatened biota of South America
bush dog

Bush dog


Hram Ramappa (telugu: రామప్ప దేవాలయం), poznat i kao hram Rudreshwara hinduistički je hram koji se nalazi u državi Telangana u južnoj Indiji, 66 km daleko od Warangala, 15 km od Mulugua te 209 km od Hyderabada.

Natpis u hramu datira iz 1213 god. navodi kako ga je sagradio general Recharla Rudra, u razdoblju vladara Kakatiye Ganapati Deve.
Hram je Sivalayam, gdje se štuje bog Ramalingeswara (Šiva). Marko Polo je tijekom posjete carstva dinastije Kakatiya, hram navodno "nazvao najsjajnijom zvijezdom u galaksiji hramova". Hram je 2021. uvršten na UNESCO-v popis mjesta svjetske baštine u Aziji

Hram Ramappa smješten je u podnožju šumovitog područja i usred poljoprivrednih polja, u blizini obala Ramappa Cheruvua, rezervoara za vodu koji je sagradio Kakatiya. Odabir mjesta za građevinu slijedio je ideologiju i praksu sankcioniranu dharmičkim tekstovima kako hramovi trebaju biti izgrađeni tako da tvore sastavni dio prirodnog okruženja, uključujući brda, šume, izvore, potoke, jezera, slivove i poljoprivredna zemljišta.

Hram veličanstveno stoji na platformi visokoj 1,8 metara u obliku zvijezde. Dvorana ispred svetišta ima brojne izrezbarene stupove koji su postavljeni tako da stvaraju efekt koji izvrsno kombinira svjetlo i prostor. Glavna građevina u obliku stepenastog otrnja (vimana) je sagrađena od poroznog crvenkastog pješčenjaka (poznatog kao "lebdeće cigle") koje krov čine lakšim, ali stupovi s vanjske strane imaju velike i teške cigle od crnog bazalta koji je bogat željezom, magnezijem i silicijevim dioksidom.

Hramske skulpture su visoke umjetničke kvalitete i predstavljaju regionalne plesne običaje i kulturu dinastije Kakatiya. Isklesani su simboli mitskih životinja, plesačica ili glazbenica, te su oni "remek-djelo umjetnosti Kakatiya, značajne po nježnom rezbarenju, senzualnim položajima i izduženim tijelima i glavama". Hram je dobio ime po kiparu Ramappi, koji ga je izgradio, i možda je jedini hram u Indiji koji je dobio ime po majstoru koji ga je izgradio.

Svetište Nandi, nasuprot glavnog hrama, sadrži figuru 5 m dugog i skoro 3 m visokog ležećeg crnog bika koji predstavlja brdo Šive (vahana). Druga dva mala Šivina hrama stoje s obje strane glavnog hrama.

Izvori

Poveznice
 Indijski hram
 Veliki hramovi dinastije Chola (Brihadeeswarar, Gangaikondacholisvaram i Airavatesvara)
 Hram sunca u Konarku
 Mahabalipuram

Hinduistički hramovi u Indiji
Svjetska baština u Indiji
Arheološki lokaliteti u Indiji

Hram Ramappa


Une rétrofacturation est un rappel des fonds du payeur dans une transaction, en particulier une transaction par carte de crédit.

Le plus souvent, le payeur est un consommateur. La rétrofacturation annule un transfert d'argent depuis le compte bancaire, la ligne de crédit ou la carte de crédit du consommateur. La rétrofacturation est ordonnée par la banque qui a émis la carte de paiement du consommateur.

Des rétrofacturations se produisent également dans le secteur de la distribution. Ce type de rétrofacturation se produit lorsque le fournisseur vend un produit au distributeur à un prix supérieur au prix qu'il a fixé avec l'acheteur final. Le distributeur soumet ensuite une rétrofacturation au fournisseur afin qu'il puisse récupérer l'argent perdu dans la transaction.

Rétrofacturation aux États-Unis
Le mécanisme de rétrofacturation est un dispositif qui concerne la protection des consommateurs. Les titulaires de cartes de crédit émises aux États-Unis bénéficient de droits d'annulation en vertu de la réglementation Z de la Truth in Lending Act. Les titulaires de cartes de débit des États-Unis bénéficient de droits d'annulation garantis par le règlement E de la loi sur le transfert électronique de fonds. Des droits similaires s'étendent dans le monde entier, conformément aux règles établies par l'association de cartes ou le réseau bancaire correspondant.

Un consommateur peut initier une rétrofacturation en contactant sa banque émettrice et en déposant une plainte motivée concernant un ou plusieurs éléments de débit sur son relevé. La menace d'une inversion forcée des fonds incite les commerçants à fournir des produits de qualité, un service client utile et des remboursements rapides, le cas échéant. Les rétrofacturations sont également un moyen d'annuler les transferts non autorisés en raison d'une usurpation d'identité. Les rétrofacturations peuvent également survenir à la suite d'une fraude amicale, dans laquelle la transaction a été autorisée par le consommateur, mais le consommateur tente ensuite d'annuler frauduleusement les frais. Les règles de rétrofacturation des associations de cartes sont disponibles en ligne. Ils comprennent un système de règlement des litiges de transaction entre les titulaires de cartes et les commerçants,  principalement lorsque les problèmes peuvent être résolus sur la base de preuves documentaires liées à la transaction. Les règles prévoient l'arbitrage des questions par l'association de la carte. Cela peut se produire lorsque l'émetteur de la carte génère une deuxième rétrofacturation (ou « arbitrage ») contre le commerçant, après avoir reçu la réponse du commerçant à la rétrofacturation initiale. Normalement, cela nécessiterait que le titulaire de la carte réfute des éléments de la réponse du commerçant. La deuxième rétrofacturation entraîne un deuxième crédit du compte du titulaire de la carte pour les fonds contestés, après avoir été recrédité au commerçant avec sa réponse à la rétrofacturation initiale. Le seul recours du commerçant après la deuxième rétrofacturation est d'initier l'arbitrage du litige par l'association de la carte. Les frais pour cela sont de l'ordre de 250 $, et le perdant de l'arbitrage est alors obligé de payer les frais de l'arbitrage.

Motifs possibles de rétrofacturation
Avec chaque rétrofacturation, l'émetteur sélectionne et soumet un code de motif de rétrofacturation numérique. Ces commentaires peuvent aider le commerçant et l'acquéreur à diagnostiquer les erreurs et à améliorer la satisfaction des clients. Les codes de motif varient selon les réseaux bancaires, mais ils se répartissent en quatre catégories générales :

 Technique : Autorisation expirée, fonds insuffisants ou erreur de traitement bancaire.
 Frais de bureau : Facturation en double, montant facturé incorrect ou remboursement jamais émis.
 Qualité : Le consommateur prétend n'avoir jamais reçu la marchandise comme promis au moment de l'achat.
 Fraude : le consommateur affirme qu'il n'a pas autorisé l'achat ou qu'il a été victime d'un vol d'identité.

L'une des raisons les plus courantes d'une rétrofacturation est une transaction frauduleuse. Dans ce cas, une carte de crédit est utilisée sans le consentement ou l'autorisation appropriée du titulaire de la carte. Dans certains cas, un commerçant est responsable des frais imposés frauduleusement à un client. Les transactions frauduleuses par carte proviennent souvent de criminels qui accèdent aux données sécurisées des cartes de paiement et mettent en place des stratagèmes pour exploiter les données. En cas de transactions sans carte, le commerçant est généralement responsable de la rétrofacturation et des frais associés. Après l'adoption de l'EMV (cartes à puce), les commerçants qui n'ont pas migré vers la technologie EMV deviennent généralement responsables des rétrofacturations reçues (à moins que d'autres dans la chaîne de paiement ne se soient pas non plus mis à niveau) même dans les cas où antérieurs à l'adoption d'EMV, le commerçant n'aurait pas été responsable.

Les rétrofacturations peuvent également résulter d'un litige client concernant des crédits de relevé. Par exemple, un client peut avoir retourné des marchandises à un commerçant en échange d'un crédit, mais le crédit n'a jamais été crédité sur le compte. Un litige peut également survenir si un client ne reçoit pas les articles qu'il a payés ou si les articles ne correspondent pas à ce qu'il attendait. Dans ces exemples, le commerçant est chargé d'émettre un crédit à son client et serait soumis à une rétrofacturation.

D'autres types de rétrofacturations sont liés à des problèmes techniques entre le commerçant et la banque émettrice, par exemple lorsqu'un client a été facturé deux fois pour une seule transaction. D'autres rétrofacturations sont liées au processus d'autorisation d'une transaction par carte de crédit, par exemple, si une transaction est refusée par sa banque émettrice mais que le compte est toujours débité.

Recours du commerçant
Pour les transactions où la facture originale a été signée par le consommateur, le commerçant peut contester une rétrofacturation avec l'aide de la banque acquéreuse du commerçant. L'acquéreur et l'émetteur interviennent dans le processus de litige, en suivant les règles établies par le réseau bancaire ou l'association de cartes correspondante. Si l'acquéreur l'emporte dans le litige, les fonds sont restitués à l'acquéreur, puis au commerçant. Seuls 21 % des rétrofacturations déposées dans le monde sont décidées en faveur du commerçant. Le rapport Cybersource Fraud Benchmark 2014 a révélé que seulement 60 % des rétrofacturations sont contestées par les marchands, et que les marchands ont un taux de réussite d'environ 41 % avec ceux qu'ils re-présentent.

Pour y faire face plus efficacement, les entreprises technologiques ont construit des algorithmes qui aident les commerçants à déterminer si les rétrofacturations sont légitimes ou frauduleuses.

Pénalités infligées aux commerçants
La banque acquéreuse du commerçant accepte le risque que le commerçant perde sa solvabilité dans le temps, car lors de la rétrofacturation, la banque doit restituer les fonds au titulaire de la carte, puis récupérer cette somme auprès du commerçant. La réduction des rétrofacturations des consommateurs est cruciale pour cette banque. Pour encourager la conformité, les acquéreurs peuvent facturer aux commerçants une pénalité pour chaque rétrofacturation reçue. Les fournisseurs de services de paiement, tels que PayPal, ont mis en place une pratique comparable. PayPal facture 20 $ pour chaque rétrofacturation, lorsque la transaction n'est pas couverte par la protection des vendeurs (qu'il s'agisse ou non de la première), et il conservera les frais de transaction d'origine.

En outre, Visa et MasterCard peuvent imposer des sanctions sévères aux banques acquéreuses qui travaillent avec des commerçants ayant une fréquence élevée de rétrofacturation. Les acquéreurs transmettent généralement ces amendes directement au commerçant. Les commerçants dont les ratios s'éloignent trop de la conformité peuvent déclencher des amendes d' association de cartes de 100 $ ou plus par rétrofacturation. Les fournisseurs de services marchands peuvent finalement refuser de fournir un compte aux entreprises dont le taux de rétrofacturation est trop élevé.

Autres types de rétrofacturations
Les comptes peuvent également subir des annulations de crédit sous d'autres formes. Les annulations de guichets automatiques se produisent lorsqu'une enveloppe de dépôt de guichet automatique s'avère avoir moins de fonds que présentés par le déposant. Une rétrofacturation est effectuée pour corriger l'erreur. Cela pourrait résulter d'une erreur de comptage ou d'une fraude intentionnelle du titulaire du compte, ou encore l'enveloppe ou son contenu pourraient avoir été perdus ou volés.

Les rétrofacturations se produisent également lorsqu'une erreur bancaire crédite un compte avec plus de fonds que prévu. La banque procède à une rétrofacturation pour corriger l'erreur. S'il en résulte un découvert et qu'il ne peut être couvert à temps, la banque peut poursuivre ou engager des poursuites pénales. Lorsqu'un dépôt direct est effectué au mauvais titulaire de compte ou pour un montant supérieur à celui prévu, une rétrofacturation est effectuée pour corriger l'erreur. Enfin, les rétrofacturations se produisent lorsqu'un titulaire de compte dépose un chèque ou un mandat et que l'article déposé est retourné en raison de fonds insuffisants, d'un compte fermé ou d'une découverte comme étant contrefaite, volée, altérée ou falsifiée.

Les banques peuvent poursuivre les titulaires de compte ou engager des poursuites pénales lorsque des rétrofacturations sont nécessaires en raison d'une activité frauduleuse et que les fonds du compte sont insuffisants pour couvrir les rétrofacturations.

Listes noires de rétrofacturations
Les commerçants conservent parfois un enregistrement des clients qui effectuent régulièrement des rétrofacturations, dans une liste noire.

Articles connexes
 Code de sécurité de la carte
 Assurance rétrofacturation

Références

Pages avec des traductions non relues
Système de paiement

Rétrofacturation


L'affaire McKinsey (aussi appelée ,  ou encore ) est un scandale politico-financier concernant les liens entre le gouvernement de la République française et le cabinet de conseil américain McKinsey & Company depuis les élections législatives françaises de 2017. Elle éclate en  alors que le gouvernement Jean Castex a massivement recours aux services de cette entreprise afin d'élaborer la politique vaccinale contre la Covid-19 en France. Cette affaire relance également la question du poids des sociétés de conseil dans les politiques publiques du pays. Depuis 2022, trois enquêtes du Parquet national financier à ce sujet sont en cours.

Contexte

En 2007, Emmanuel Macron rencontre dans la commission Attali le président de McKinsey France, Éric Labaye, et Karim Tadjeddine, alors chef des consultants de McKinsey. En 2010, Emmanuel Macron entre avec Karim Tadjeddine dans le think tank En temps réel. Les deux hommes y font la connaissance de Thomas Cazenave avec lequel ils travailleront sur son livre L'État en mode start-up publié en 2016. En 2017, Emmanuel Macron, devenu président de la République, place Thomas Cazenave à la tête de la Direction interministérielle de la transformation publique qui supervise notamment toutes les missions attribuées par l'État aux cabinets de conseil privés comme McKinsey.

Par ailleurs, les MacronLeaks montrent qu'une dizaine de membres de McKinsey a travaillé à l'élaboration du programme politique d'Emmanuel Macron pour sa campagne à l'élection présidentielle de 2017. Le parti politique d'Emmanuel Macron, LREM, affirme ne faire appel à aucun cabinet de conseil et le journal Le Monde a vérifié qu'aucune facture de la campagne pour la présidentielle ne concerne McKinsey. Interrogé par Le Monde début 2021, McKinsey préfère ne pas préciser si ses membres se sont engagés dans cette campagne « à titre personnel, bénévolement et sur leur temps libre ». En 2022, Les Décodeurs affirment que les consultants de McKinsey se sont investis sur leur temps libre. Le Journal du dimanche signale que Karim Tadjeddine apparaît dans les MacronLeaks avec son adresse mail de McKinsey et que, interrogé par le Sénat à ce sujet, il a plaidé une erreur.

Après l'accession d'Emmanuel Macron à la présidence de la République, certains des consultants ayant participé à la campagne rejoignent des postes d'influence au sein de la « Macronie », notamment au parti LREM. En 2018, Emmanuel Macron nomme Éric Labaye président de Polytechnique.

Un rapport de la Cour des comptes de 2018 prévient qu'.

Historique

Révélations médiatiques

En , une première polémique éclate lorsque Le Canard enchaîné révèle que la logistique du plan de vaccination pour contrer la pandémie de Covid-19 a été sous-traitée à McKinsey. Le rôle de McKinsey dans la gestion de la pandémie de Covid-19 en France en 2020 a été jugé déterminant par le gouvernement français en ce qui concerne la campagne de vaccination. À la suite d'une polémique sur le coût de l'opération, Yannick Jadot demande une transparence complète sur la nature des contrats passés entre le gouvernement et la firme.

En , Le Monde publie une longue enquête sur McKinsey & Company France qui révèle que son siège social est au Delaware (USA). L'entreprise n'y exerce aucune activité  mais ses revenus y sont déclarés, ce qui lui permet de payer  d'impôts par an. La société répond qu'elle .

Le , Anticor saisit la Commission d'accès aux documents administratifs après qu'une demande de communication des documents relatifs aux marchés publics et aux délibérations n'a pas abouti.

Le , le Canard enchaîné révèle que des consultants de McKinsey ont signé de leur nom des papiers à en-tête du ministère de la Santé et ont court-circuité les chefs de service du ministère.

Commission d'enquête sénatoriale

En , des représentants du cabinet sont auditionnés au Sénat par la « commission d'enquête sur l'influence croissante des cabinets de conseil privés sur les politiques publiques ».

Le rapport de la commission d'enquête publié le  estime que le recours gouvernemental aux cabinets de conseil est . Il révèle que :
 l'État a dépensé plus d'un milliard d'euros en 2021 en prestations de cabinets de conseil. Sur la période 2018-2021, McKinsey a décroché une quarantaine de missions pour l'État pour un total compris entre 28 millions et 50 millions d'euros, travaillant sur les retraites, les aides au logement, l'assurance chômage. Le montant dépensé en prestations privées a doublé entre 2018 et 2021, pour atteindre plus d'un milliard d'euros en 2021 ;
 McKinsey n'a payé aucun impôt sur les sociétés en France entre 2011 et 2020. Cette accusation fait suite à des faits similaires en Norvège ;
 ces cabinets réalisent certaines missions à la place de fonctionnaires de l'administration et leurs productions sont parfois de mauvaise qualité. Pour le compte du gouvernement, McKinsey a travaillé sur « l'avenir du métier d'enseignant », une étude facturée près d'un demi-million d'euros, en vue d'un colloque qui n'aura jamais lieu.

À la sortie de ce rapport, la campagne d'Emmanuel Macron pour sa réélection à la présidence de la République est perturbée par une nouvelle polémique. Les opposants politiques d'Emmanuel Macron se saisissent de l'« affaire McKinsey » et parlent d'un « scandale d'État ». Des parlementaires et des membres de l'opposition reprochent au gouvernement l'influence des cabinets de conseil sur l'action publique, notamment sur des dispositifs d'aide comme les APL, ainsi que la perte de compétences de l'administration découlant de ces recours. Certaines critiques visent en particulier McKinsey, dénonçant son influence importante au sein du gouvernement et son évasion fiscale.

Le gouvernement assume de faire appel aux compétences du privé et à des « renforts » ponctuels et affirme que ce ne sont pas les consultants qui prennent les décisions. Il souligne que les recours aux cabinets de conseil avaient déjà lieu sous les précédents mandats et que certains pays dépensent davantage pour ces prestations. Matthieu Aron, auteur de l'ouvrage d'enquête sur les cabinets de conseil Les infiltrés, affirme que le montage fiscal de McKinsey, qui rapatrie ses bénéfices dans le Delaware, est légal. Emmanuel Macron affirme également que McKinsey « a utilisé les règles en vigueur », en conformité avec la loi, et qu'en l'absence de fraude, ce qui doit être vérifié par l'administration fiscale, McKinsey n'aura donc pas à payer de « retard » d'impôt. Cependant, Emmanuel Macron se déclare « choqué » et affirme qu'il veut que « toute multinationale paie des impôts là où elle travaille ».

Karim Tadjeddine, directeur associé et responsable du département « secteur public » chez McKinsey France, est accusé d'avoir sciemment menti lors d'une audition sous serment devant le Sénat le . Interrogé, il avait affirmé que l'entreprise s'acquittait de son impôt sur les sociétés en France. Dans un communiqué officiel, le Sénat annonce avoir saisi la justice en vertu de l'article 40 du code de procédure pénale contre Karim Tadjeddine pour faux témoignage devant une commission d'enquête parlementaire. Selon une enquête de L'Obs,  Karim Tadjeddine est proche du député Thomas Cazenave.

Selon Les Décodeurs, après que le rôle de McKinsey pendant la crise sanitaire a été connu, « beaucoup soupçonnent un favoritisme de la part du président de la République à l'égard du cabinet américain ». Emmanuel Macron se défend de tout favoritisme envers McKinsey, déclarant : « On a l'impression qu'il y a des combines, c'est faux. Il y a des règles de marchés publics. » À ce sujet, Les Décodeurs indiquent que toute mission confiée à McKinsey « passe en principe par la procédure encadrée des appels d'offres, qui vise à assurer une mise en concurrence des cabinets candidats en évitant le favoritisme ». Un ministère qui désire faire appel à un cabinet de conseil examine les dossiers de candidature de chaque cabinet et choisit la meilleure proposition. Si un cabinet soupçonne un favoritisme, il peut déposer un recours judiciaire. Les Décodeurs signalent néanmoins que plusieurs mécanismes légaux permettent d'adapter ces règles. Notamment, McKinsey fait partie des cabinets de conseil ayant bénéficié des « accords cadres » attribués en 2018 et 2019 par deux centrales d'achat de l'État (la DITP et l'UGAP). Ces accords cadres permettent aux ministères de recruter des consultants pour n'importe quelle mission, avec des modalités pour assurer une rotation des cabinets. Par ailleurs, Les Décodeurs indiquent que McKinsey « a pu bénéficier d'un avantage indirect octroyé par Emmanuel Macron », le cabinet américain ayant été choisi par la présidence pour une action bénévole, donc sans appel d'offres, pour participer à l'organisation des sommets du numérique Tech for Good. McKinsey a pu ensuite utiliser cette prestation comme argument lors d'un grand appel d'offres.

Enquêtes du Parquet national financier

Le , le Parquet national financier (PNF) ouvre une enquête préliminaire pour blanchiment aggravé de fraude fiscale. Le siège français de McKinsey est perquisitionné le  dans le cadre de cette enquête.

En , le PNF ouvre deux nouvelles enquêtes sur les « conditions d'intervention [de McKinsey] dans les campagnes de 2017 et 2022 » d'Emmanuel Macron, la première sur les chefs de « tenue non conforme de comptes de campagne » et « minoration d'éléments comptables dans un compte de campagne » ; et la seconde sur des chefs de « favoritisme » et « recel de favoritisme ». En  de la même année, des perquisitions sont menées par les gendarmes au siège du parti Renaissance et dans les locaux parisiens du cabinet de conseil dans le cadre des enquêtes judiciaires visant le recours au cabinet de conseil pendant la campagne présidentielle d'Emmanuel Macron en 2017.

Références

Bibliographie

Scandale politique français
Affaire politico-financière en France
Années 2010 en France
Années 2020 en France
Commission d'enquête
Commission parlementaire française
Élection présidentielle française de 2017
Élections législatives françaises de 2017
Pandémie de Covid-19 en France
Politique vaccinale
Élection présidentielle française de 2022
Élections législatives françaises de 2022
McKinsey & Company

Affaire McKinsey


Glycosylphosphatidylinositol () or glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI) is a phosphoglyceride that can be attached to the C-terminus of a protein during posttranslational modification. The resulting GPI-anchored proteins play key roles in a wide variety of biological processes. GPI is composed of a phosphatidylinositol group linked through a carbohydrate-containing linker (glucosamine and mannose glycosidically bound to the inositol residue) and via an ethanolamine phosphate (EtNP) bridge to the C-terminal amino acid of a mature protein. The two fatty acids within the hydrophobic phosphatidyl-inositol group anchor the protein to the cell membrane.

Synthesis

Glycosylated (GPI-anchored) proteins contain a signal sequence, thus directing them to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The protein is co-translationally inserted in the ER membrane via a translocon and is attached to the ER membrane by its hydrophobic C terminus; the majority of the protein extends into the ER lumen. The hydrophobic C-terminal sequence is then cleaved off and replaced by the GPI-anchor. As the protein processes through the secretory pathway, it is transferred via vesicles to the Golgi apparatus and finally to the plasma membrane where it remains attached to a leaflet of the cell membrane. Since the glypiation is the sole means of attachment of such proteins to the membrane, cleavage of the group by phospholipases will result in controlled release of the protein from the membrane. The latter mechanism is used in vitro; i.e. membrane proteins released from membranes in enzymatic assays are glypiated proteins.

Cleavage

Phospholipase C (PLC) is an enzyme known to cleave the phospho-glycerol bond found in GPI-anchored proteins. Treatment with PLC will cause release of GPI-linked proteins from the outer cell membrane.  The T-cell marker Thy-1 and acetylcholinesterase, as well as both intestinal and placental alkaline phosphatases, are known to be GPI-linked and are released by treatment with PLC.  GPI-linked proteins are thought to be preferentially located in lipid rafts, suggesting a high level of organization within plasma membrane microdomains.

GPI-anchor synthesis deficiencies

In humans

Defects in the GPI-anchor synthesis occur in rare acquired diseases such as paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH) and congenital diseases such as hyperphosphatasia with mental retardation syndrome (HPMRS). In PNH a somatic defect in blood stem cells, which is required for GPI synthesis, results in faulty GPI linkage of decay-accelerating factor (DAF) and CD59 in red blood cells. The most common cause of PNH are somatic mutations in the X-chromosomal gene PIGA. However, a PNH case with a germline mutation in the autosomal gene PIGT and a second acquired somatic hit has also been reported.
Without these proteins linked to the cell surface, the complement system can lyse the cell, and high numbers of RBCs are destroyed, leading to hemoglobinuria.
For patients with HPMRS, disease-causing mutations have been reported in the genes PIGV, PIGO, PGAP2 and PGAP3.

In other species
The variable surface glycoproteins from the sleeping sickness protozoan Trypanosoma brucei are attached to the plasma membrane via a GPI anchor.

References

External links

Membrane biology
Post-translational modification

Glycosylphosphatidylinositol


Le vendredi des Douleurs est une mémoire solennelle et pieux de la douloureuse Vierge Marie le vendredi précédant le dimanche des Rameaux tenu dans la cinquième semaine de Carême (anciennement appelée "Semaine de la Passion"). Dans le culte divin de l'Ordinariat anglican : Le Missel, il est appelé Sainte Marie à Passiontide et parfois il est traditionnellement connu sous le nom de Notre-Dame à Passiontide.

Dans certains pays catholiques, notamment au Mexique, au Guatemala, en Italie, au Pérou, au Brésil, en Espagne, à Malte, au Nicaragua et aux Philippines, c'est le début des célébrations de la Semaine Sainte et on les appelle Viernes de Dolores (vendredi des Douleurs). Cette célébration se déroule exactement une semaine avant le Vendredi saint, et se concentre sur la douleur émotionnelle que la Passion de Jésus-Christ a causée à sa mère, la Bienheureuse Vierge Marie, qui est vénérée sous le titre Notre-Dame des Douleurs.

Dans certains pays hispanophones, le jour est également appelé vendredi du Concile, en raison du choix de  Jean 11, 47-57 comme passage de l'Évangile lu pendant la messe tridentine ce jour-là. Cette lecture relate la réunion conciliaire des prêtres du Sanhédrin pour discuter de ce qu'il faut faire de Jésus.

Comme tous les vendredis de carême, ce vendredi est un jour d'abstinence de viande, sauf si la conférence épiscopale nationale a indiqué des formes alternatives de pénitence.

Histoire

Dans l'Église catholique romaine, la pratique de la vénération religieuse envers la Bienheureuse Vierge Marie était possible n'importe quel vendredi, suivant le vendredi précédant la semaine sainte ainsi que le vendredi saint lui-même, après le dimanche des Rameaux.

En 1727, le pape Benoît XIII étend cette fête commémorant la douloureuse Vierge Marie à toute l'Église latine, assignant à sa célébration le vendredi de la semaine de la passion, une semaine avant le vendredi saint.

En 1954, la fête occupait encore le rang de double majeur (légèrement inférieur au rang de la fête du 15 septembre) dans le calendrier général romain. Le Code des Rubriques du pape Jean XXIII de 1960 l' a réduit au niveau d' une commémoration.

En 1969, la célébration a été retirée du calendrier général romain dans la mesure où elle  semblait n'être qu'un doublon du 15 septembre. Chacune des deux célébrations avait été appelée une fête des " Sept Douleurs de la Bienheureuse Vierge Marie " ( latin : Septem Dolorum Beatae Mariae Virginis ) et comprenait la récitation du Stabat Mater en séquence. Depuis lors, la fête du 15 septembre qui combine et continue les deux est connue sous le nom de Fête de "Notre-Dame des Douleurs" (en latin : Beatae Mariae Virginis Perdolentis ), et la récitation du Stabat Mater est facultative.

Le respect du calendrier liturgique de 1962 est toujours autorisé dans le rite romain traditionnel, et même là où le calendrier tel que révisé en 1969 est utilisé, certains pays, comme Malte, l'ont conservé dans leurs calendriers nationaux. Dans chaque pays, l'édition 2002 du Missel romain propose une collecte alternative pour ce vendredi.

Adaptations locales
La célébration du Vendredi des Douleurs à Malte, en Espagne, au Portugal, au Mexique, au Panama, au Costa Rica, en Colombie, au Venezuela, en Équateur, au Nicaragua, au Pérou, au Guatemala et aux Philippines comprend des processions, une pénitence publique, des chants lugubres et la mortification de la chair.

Au Mexique et au Nicaragua, les fidèles fabriquent de petits sanctuaires de la Virgen de Dolores et les décorent de lumières de Noël et jouent des pièces de rue.

Au Guatemala, les gens font des parterres de fleurs surdimensionnés sur la route où le char religieux passera en étant exaspéré par la foule.

Aux Philippines, des chars religieux transportent des statues de Notre-Dame des Douleurs et d'autres images lors d'une procession aux flambeaux dans les rues. Cela marque le début de la Pabasa ("lecture") ininterrompue qui dure plusieurs jours, le rite de chanter le Pasiong Mahal, un texte épique vernaculaire centré sur la Passion du Christ. Dans certains endroits, les pénitents commencent également à errer anonymement dans les rues, se fouettant et portant des croix en sacrifice annuel.

À Malte, à partir de ce jour, les pénitents placent plusieurs chaînes sur leurs pieds et marchent pieds nus sur la voie publique, cachant leur identité via un chapeau conique.

En Espagne, les fidèles catholiques crient des louanges éjaculatoires au char de la Vierge Douloureuse qui passe, souvent accompagnées d'une réponse exclamative Viva ! . Les chars sont également précédés d'un défilé militaire et d'un orchestre musical.

En Italie, la pratique s'appelle La Festa dell'Addolorata et utilise de célèbres images baroques réalisées dans la région de Naples.

Au Portugal, l'une des fêtes les plus connues est la procession des Sept Douleurs de Notre-Dame, à Mafra.

Rites
Les rituels les plus courants sont les défilés religieux ou les processions, accompagnés du chant local du Stabat Mater et des veillées aux chandelles.

Voir aussi

 Couronnement canonique
 Semaine Sainte
 Notre-Dame des Douleurs
 Stabat Mater

Références

Bibliographie

 Brugada Martirià. La Virgen de los Dolores, Barcelone 2002, Santos y Santas n. 71 (version en catalan et espagnol)

Marie (mère de Jésus)
Semaine sainte
Pages avec des traductions non relues

Vendredi des Douleurs


Hilliardia, monotipski rod grmova iz porodice glavočika, dio podtribusa Cotulinae. Jedina je vrsta H. zuurbergensis, južnoafrički endem iz provincija Eastern Cape i KwaZulu-Natal

Sinonimi
 Matricaria zuurbergensis Oliv.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Cotulinae
Flora KwaZulu-Natala
Flora Kapskih provincija

Hilliardia


An Habenaria elliptica in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Robert Wight. An Habenaria elliptica in nahilalakip ha genus nga Habenaria, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Habenaria

Habenaria elliptica


Die Campbell's Hall of Fame Championships Open 2010 waren ein Tennisturnier, welches vom 3. bis 11. Juli 2010 in Newport stattfand. Es war Teil der ATP World Tour 2010 und wurde als letztes Turnier der laufenden Saison im Freien auf Rasen ausgetragen. Es zählte zur Kategorie ATP World Tour 250.

Titelverteidiger im Einzel war Rajeev Ram, der in diesem Jahr jedoch bereits im Achtelfinale ausschied. Im diesjährigen Finale setzte sich der Lokalmatador Mardy Fish mit 5:7, 6:3, 6:4 gegen den Belgier Olivier Rochus durch. Dies war sein vierter Karrieretitel auf der ATP-Tour. Im Doppel traten Jordan Kerr und Rajeev Ram nicht mehr gemeinsam zur Titelverteidigung an, nahmen jedoch jeweils mit einem anderen Partner am Turnier teil. Beide verloren jedoch ihr Auftaktspiel. Im Finale siegten Carsten Ball und Chris Guccione gegen das Duo Santiago González und Travis Rettenmaier deutlich in zwei Sätzen mit 6:3 und 6:4. Sie gewannen damit ihren einzigen gemeinsamen Titel zusammen.

Das Teilnehmerfeld der Einzelkonkurrenz bestand aus 32 Spielern, jenes der Doppelkonkurrenz aus 16 Paaren. Das Gesamtpreisgeld betrug 442.500 US-Dollar; die gesamten finanziellen Verbindlichkeiten lagen bei 500.000 US-Dollar.

Qualifikation
Die Qualifikation fand vom 3. bis 5. Juli 2010 statt. Ausgespielt wurden vier Qualifikantenplätze, die zur Teilnahme am Hauptfeld des Turniers berechtigten.

Folgende Spieler hatten die Qualifikation überstanden und spielten im Hauptfeld des Turniers:

Preisgelder und Weltranglistenpunkte
Es wurden die folgenden Preisgelder und Weltranglistenpunkte für das Erreichen der jeweiligen Runde ausgezahlt bzw. gutgeschrieben. Spieler, die über die Qualifikation ins Hauptfeld einzogen, erhielten die angegebenen Qualifikationspunkte zusätzlich zu denen für das Erreichen der jeweiligen Runde. Ansonsten sind die Beträge nicht kumulativ zu verstehen. Preisgelder für den Doppelwettbewerb gelten pro Team.

Einzel

Setzliste

Ergebnisse

Doppel

Setzliste

Ergebnisse

Weblinks und Quellen
 Offizielle Homepage des Turniers

Turnier der ATP World Tour 2010
Tennisturnier in Newport (Rhode Island)

Campbell’s Hall of Fame Championships Open 2010


Kohei Tokita (født 16. marts 1986) er en japansk fodboldspiller, som spiller for den japanske fodboldklub FC Machida Zelvia.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Kohei Tokita