Zdena je rijeka u sjeverozapadnom dijelu Bosne i Hercegovine, lijeva pritoka Sane.

Sanski Most je poznat kao grad na rijeci Sani i na još osam rječica. Rječica Zdena, sa svojim tokom dužine cca. 5 km, izvire u istoimenom predgrađu Sanskog Mosta i poznata je po svom krivudavom toku, razbijenom u nekoliko rukavaca, koji se ponovno sastaju u samom središtu grada gdje se Zdena ulijeva u rijeku Sanu. Na njezinom izvoru nalazi se novi pogon za distribuciju pitke vode građanima Sanskog Mosta. Uobičajena je salmonidna voda i nekada je bila puna lipljena i potočne pastrve. Nažalost, lipljena sada ima samo u tragovima zbog velikog zagađenja vode ponajviše poradi izravnog izbacivanja kanalizacije. Pastrvka se uspjela održati do danas, najviše zbog starog ribogojilišta gdje se uz konzumnu kalifornijsku pastrvu mrijesti i manja količina samonikle potočne pastrve.

Po narodnom predanju, dvije rijeke, Bliha i Zdena, dobile su imena po sestrama blizankama.

Izvori

Rijeke u Bosni i Hercegovini

Zdena


Lys er en dansk eksperimentalfilm fra 1987 instrueret af Jens Jørgen Thorsen efter eget manuskript.

Handling
Ud fra både videnskabelige og kunstneriske udgangspunkter er det filmens hensigt er at forklare hvad lys er.

Medvirkende

 Jørgen Andersen
 Adam Schmedes
 Akanda
 Peter Severin
 Janaananda
 Preben Frank Stelvig
 H. Andersen

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Eksperimentalfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1987

Lys (eksperimentalfilm)


Ljestvice i sastavi liga sedmog ranga hrvatskog nogometnog prvenstva u sezoni 2020./21.
Kao posljedica pandemije COVID-19 u svijetu i Hrvatskoj odigravanje natjecanja je bilo otežano, te je dolazilo i do prekida pojedinih liga.

3. ŽNL Bjelovarsko-bilogorska

Jug

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 nsbbz.hr, "Nogomet"
 nsbbz.hr, "Nogomet" br. 23/21

Sjever

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 nsbbz.hr, "Nogomet"
 nsbbz.hr, "Nogomet" br. 23/21

3. ŽNL Istarska

Jug

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 nszi.hr, "Bilten"
 nszi.hr, "Bilten" br. 64
 istrasport.eu, ljestvica
 istrasport.eu, ljestvica, wayback
 istrasport.eu, rezultati
 sofascore.com

Sjever

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 nszi.hr, "Bilten"
 nszi.hr, "Bilten" br. 59
 sofascore.com

3. ŽNL Koprivničko-križevačka

Đurđevac/Koprivnica

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
  ns-kckz.hr, 3. ŽNL Đurđevac/Koprivnica
  ns-kckz.hr, 3. ŽNL Đurđevac/Koprivnica, wayback
  ns-kckz.hr, Službeno glasilo NS KKŽ
 sofascore.com

Križevci

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
  ns-kckz.hr, 3. ŽNL Križevci
  ns-kckz.hr, 3. ŽNL Križevci, wayback
 ns-kckz.hr, Službeno glasilo NS KKŽ
 sofascore.com

3. ŽNL Međimurska

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 mns.hr, Goolovi
 mns.hr, "Gool", br. 1677

3. ŽNL Osječko-baranjska

NS Beli Manastir (Baranjska liga)

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 sofascore.com

NS Našice

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 nsnasice.blogspot.com, LIGA NS Našice
 nsnasice.blogspot.com, Glasnik NS Našice

NS Osijek

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 nsosijek.hr
 sofascore.com

3. ŽNL Varaždinska

Skupina Ludbreg

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 zns-varazdin.hr, 3. ŽNL Ludbreg
 zns-varazdin.hr, 3. ŽNL Ludbreg, wayback
 zns-varazdin.hr, "Nogomet"
 zns-varazdin.hr, "Nogomet", br. 1368

Skupina Varaždin

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 zns-varazdin.hr, 3. ŽNL Varaždin
 zns-varazdin.hr, 3. ŽNL Varaždin, wayback
 zns-varazdin.hr, "Nogomet"
 zns-varazdin.hr, "Nogomet", br. 1368

3. ŽNL Virovitičko-podravska

Istok

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 znsvpz.hr, III. ŽNL Istok
 znsvpz.hr, Bilteni III. ŽNL Istok
 znsvpz.hr, Bilten - III. ŽNL Istok, 14. kolo
 sofascore.com

Zapad

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 znsvpz.hr, III. ŽNL Zapad
 znsvpz.hr, Bilteni III. ŽNL Zapad
 znsvpz.hr, Bilten - III. ŽNL Zapad, 14. kolo
 sofascore.com

3. ŽNL Vukovarsko-srijemska

NS Vinkovci

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 znsvs.hr

NS Vukovar

 Izvori:
 rsssf.com
 znsvs.hr
 sofascore.com
 tipsscore.com

Povezani članci
 1. HNL 2020./21.
 2. HNL 2020./21.
 3. HNL 2020./21.
 4. rang HNL-a 2020./21.
 5. rang HNL-a 2020./21.
 6. rang HNL-a 2020./21.
 Hrvatski nogometni kup 2020./21.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

  rsssf.com, Croatia 2020/21 - Seventh Level

2020-21
 7

7. rang HNL-a 2020./21.


මූලාශ්‍රයක් යනු යම් කරුනක් උපුටා ගත් මුල් කෘතියයි. එම කරුණ තහවුරු කරගැනීම සඳහා මෙම මුල් කෘතිය උපකාර වේ.

මූලාශ


Madison Irwin (* 18. Juli 1991 in Toronto) ist eine kanadische Skirennläuferin. Sie gehört seit 2011 dem kanadischen Nationalkader an.

Biografie
Irwin nahm im Winter 2006/2007 erstmals an FIS-Rennen teil und startete im nächsten Winter erstmals im Nor-Am Cup. Nach ersten Siegen und Podestplätzen in FIS-Rennen gewann sie im März 2008 die ersten Punkte im Nor-Am Cup. Im Winter 2008/2009 erreichte sie ihre ersten Top-10-Resultate in dieser Rennserie. In den Jahren 2010 und 2011 nahm Irwin an zwei Juniorenweltmeisterschaften teil, wobei ihr bestes Ergebnis der zehnte Platz im Riesenslalom der Junioren-WM 2011 in Crans-Montana war. Bei den kanadischen Meisterschaften belegte sie 2011 den zweiten Platz in der Super-Kombination.

Am Ende der Saison 2010/11 gelangen Irwin die ersten Podestplätze im Nor-Am Cup, womit sie in der Gesamtwertung den siebten Platz belegte. Sie konnte sich im nächsten Winter weiter verbessern, feierte am 4. Februar 2012 im Slalom von Vail ihren ersten Sieg und erreichte Platz vier in der Nor-Am-Gesamtwertung. Im Weltcup debütierte Irwin am 28. November 2010 im Slalom von Aspen, der ihr einziger Start in der Saison 2010/11 blieb. Nach ihrer Aufnahme in den kanadischen Nationalkader kam sie in der Saison 2011/12 zu weiteren Weltcupeinsätzen, bei denen sie weiterhin ohne Punkte blieb. In der Saison 2013/14 entschied Irwin die Gesamtwertung des Nor-Am Cup für sich.

Erfolge

Nor-Am Cup
 Saison 2010/11: 7. Gesamtwertung, 6. Riesenslalomwertung, 9. Super-G-Wertung, 10. Super-Kombinationswertung
 Saison 2011/12: 4. Gesamtwertung, 4. Super-G-Wertung, 7. Slalomwertung, 7. Super-Kombinationswertung, 10. Riesenslalomwertung
 Saison 2013/14: 1. Gesamtwertung, 1. Super-Kombinationswertung, 3. Super-G-Wertung, 5. Slalomwertung, 9. Riesenslalomwertung, 10. Abfahrtswertung
 13 Podestplätze, davon 3 Siege:

Juniorenweltmeisterschaften
 Mont Blanc 2010: 36. Riesenslalom
 Crans-Montana 2011: 10. Riesenslalom, 17. Super-G

Weitere Erfolge
 1 kanadischer Meistertitel (Super-G 2014)
 14 Siege in FIS-Rennen

Weblinks

Alpiner Skirennläufer (Kanada)
Kanadischer Meister (Ski Alpin)
Kanadier
Geboren 1991
Frau

Madison Irwin


Anåfjället  é uma montanha do oeste da província histórica de Härjedalen.
O seu ponto mais alto tem  metros.

Tem o limite das árvores mais alto do país – a  m.

Ver também
Härjedalen

Montanhas da Suécia
Härjedalen

Anåfjället


An Oberonia fungumolens in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Isaac Henry Burkill. An Oberonia fungumolens in nahilalakip ha genus nga Oberonia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Oberonia

Oberonia fungumolens


Julie Molé, née en 1767 à Paris et morte en 1832 à Paris, connue également sous les noms de Madame Molé ou comtesse de Vallivon, est une actrice de théâtre et dramaturge française de la fin du  et du début du .

Biographie
Julie Louise Delavigne serait née à Paris en 1767. Son acte de baptême, ses actes de mariage et son acte de décès n'ont a priori pas été reconstitués dans l'état civil de Paris.

Son nom de scène Molé viendrait de son compagnon l'acteur Louis François Molé dit Dalainville. À sa mort en 1801, elle se marie avec un certain Léger (ou Légé), accolant pour la scène ce patronyme à celui de Molé. En 1814, elle se remarie avec le comte Albitte de Vallivon, un an avant de quitter la scène.

Elle meurt à Paris en 1832.

Carrière

L'actrice fait probablement ses débuts au théâtre de Toulouse, dont François-René Molé et Louis-François Molé-Dalainville sont directeurs de 1779 à 1791. Julie Molé revient ensuite à Paris. Elle débute comme grande coquette le 26 mai 1789 au théâtre Feydeau. À l'été 1791, elle part en tournée à Saint-Domingue avec Molé Dalainville. Ils sont probablement sur place quand éclate la révolte des esclaves. Ses Souvenirs et Mémoires ne précisent pas les conditions de leur retour en France mais évoquent la difficulté de jouer sous la Terreur. En octobre 1796, Louis-François Molé fait une demande d'autorisation de résidence à Paris, pour lui et sa femme, précisant qu'ils viennent de Bruxelles et qu'il souhaite faire entrer Julie Lavigne dans la troupe du théâtre de la République. En décembre de la même année, elle intègre la troupe du théâtre Louvois.

Carrière d'autrice
Le plus grand succès de Julie Molé-Léger est la pièce Misanthropie et Repentir, « prodigieux succès de larmes », drame d'August von Kotzebue qu'elle adapte pour la scène française. Les rôles principaux seront repris par Talma en 1821, mademoiselle Mars ou encore Marie Dorval en 1834, et la pièce rejouée de nombreuses fois au cours du  (140 fois salle Richelieu entre 1800 et 1843). Elle figure au répertoire de la Comédie-Française, chose peu fréquente pour les œuvres de femmes comme le relève la presse en 1883, à l'occasion de la représentation de Mademoiselle du Vigean, de Simone Arnaud. Ses relations avec les critiques théâtrales semblent néanmoins compliquées, certains l'accusant à demi mot d'avoir utilisé une traduction déjà faite. Les pièces qu'elle écrit par la suite sont difficiles à monter ; d'après ses mémoires, elle aurait même caché être l'auteure de L'Orgueil puni jusqu'à la première représentation.

Œuvres identifiées
 Misanthropie et Repentir, drame d'August von Kotzebue en 5 actes, adapté par Julie Molé, joué à partir du 28 décembre 1798 au théâtre de l'Odéon, publié en 1819, puis réédité. La pièce en est à sa soixantième représentation lorsque arrive l'incendie du théâtre de l'Odéon le 18 mars 1799 ; les représentations se poursuivent au théâtre du Grand Opéra, au théâtre de Favart, ou encore au théâtre de Feydeau.
 , comédie en 1 acte, représentée pour la première fois le 27 mars 1809 au théâtre de l'Impératrice ;
 Suite de Misanthropie et Repentir, pièce en 5 actes, reçue à la Comédie française
 Le Sultan de vingt-quatre heures, comédie en 3 actes
 Le Méfiant (décembre 1813) ; une représentation sera donnée le 14 février 1815 pour son bénéfice, à l'occasion de sa retraite.

Julie Molé-Léger a par ailleurs rédigé des Souvenirs et Mémoires sur le Théâtre à Paris (1796-1815), en partie publiés en 1900.

Carrière d'actrice
« Madame Molé » fait partie de la troupe de l'Odéon, « tenant l'emploi des caractères » pendant . On la retrouve sur les scènes du théâtre de l'Odéon, puis du théâtre de l'Impératrice, dans de nombreuses pièces de Louis-Benoît Picard, ou encore d'Alexandre Duval.
 1791 (août) : Théâtre du Cap-Haïtien :
 Zaïre de Voltaire, suivie d'Ariane abandonnée
 Les Dehors trompeurs de Boissy : la comtesse
 Céphise, ou l'Erreur de l'esprit de Marsollier : Céphise
 1798 (19 novembre) : Le Voyage interrompu de Picard :  Dercour
 1798 (28 décembre) : Misanthropie et Repentir (August von Kotzebue et elle-même) : la comtesse de Walberg, Théâtre de l'Odéon
 1799 (27 février) : Les Deux Veuves de Rigaud, Théâtre de l'Odéon
 1801 (9 mai) : La Petite Ville de Picard, comédie en 4 actes :  Guibert, Théâtre Français
 1802 (22 janvier) : Les Provinciaux à Paris de Picard, Théâtre Louvois
 1803 (23 novembre) : Monsieur Musard, ou Comme le temps passe de Picard :  Musard, Théâtre Louvois
 1804 (28 janvier) : Le Trésor d'Andrieux :  Jaquinot, Théâtre Louvois
 1804 (2 octobre) : L'Acte de naissance de Picard :  de Rosemont, Théâtre de l'Impératrice
 1805 (9 mars) : Le Menuisier de Livonie d'Alexandre Duval :  Fritz, Théâtre de l'Impératrice
 1805 (21 mai) : Le Portrait du duc de Pain :  de Waldenbourg, Théâtre de l'Impératrice
 1805 (27 novembre) : L'Avare fastueux de Saint-Just :  Fondor, Théâtre de l'Impératrice
 1806 (16 octobre) : Monsieur Beaufils de Jouy :  de Versec, Théâtre de l'Impératrice
 1807 (24 septembre) : Le Volage ou le Mariage difficile de Caigniez :  Arsène, Théâtre de l'Impératrice
 1808 (mars) : La Tapisserie d'Alexandre Duval :  de Grandpré
 1808 (14 novembre) : Les Querelles des deux frères de Collin d'Hallerville, Théâtre de l'Impératrice
 1808 (16 juillet) : Les Amours de Bayard de Montvel, Théâtre de l'Impératrice
 1810 (18 janvier) : L'Alcade de Molorido de Picard : Thérésina, Théâtre de l'Odéon
 1810 (6 novembre) : La Nouvelle Cendrillon de Rougemont et Périn : la mère, Théâtre de l'Impératrice
 1811 (28 mai) : La Vieille Tante ou les Collatéraux de Picard :  Sinclair, Théâtre de l'Impératrice
 1815 (14 ou 15 février, pour sa dernière sur scène) :
 La Vieille Tante de Picard
 Henri IV et le Laboureur de Villemain d'Abancourt
 Le Renard et le Corbeau

Notes et références

Liens externes

Actrice française de théâtre
Dramaturge française du XVIIIe siècle
Dramaturge française du XIXe siècle
Date de naissance incertaine (XVIIIe siècle)
Naissance à Paris
Décès en 1832
Décès à Paris

Julie Molé


فهد الزهراني، لاعب نادي الأهلي سابقا أعير إلى النصر موسم 2007-2008 ثم انتقل إلى نادي النصر في موسم 2008-2009. ثم انتقل لنادي الفتح بعقد يمتد لصيف 2010 و بعدها انتقل إلى نادي الأنصار بعد ذلك انضم لنادي العميد ليصبح كابتنا للفريق (العين حالياً) .

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية سعوديون
لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
لاعبو النادي الأهلي (السعودية)
لاعبو دوري الدرجة الأولى السعودي
لاعبو دوري الدرجة الثانية السعودي
لاعبو دوري المحترفين السعودي
لاعبو كرة قدم سعوديون
لاعبو نادي الأنصار (السعودية)
لاعبو نادي العين (السعودية)
لاعبو نادي الفتح (السعودية)
لاعبو نادي النصر (السعودية)
مواليد 1399 هـ
مواليد 1979

فهد الزهراني


La Toya Jackson () este o cântăreață americană. Este al patrulea copil al familiei Jackson, sora mai mare a lui Michael Jackson.

Note

Legături externe

 Official Facebook Page

 Church of La Toya—officially endorsed fan site

Nașteri în 1956
Nașteri pe 29 mai
Activiști americani
Cântăreți cu registru vocal de trei octave
Cântăreți americani de muzică pop
Cântăreți de muzică soul americani
Militanți pentru drepturile LGBT
Oameni în viață
Personalități de televiziune din SUA
Soprane americane

La Toya Jackson


سيرجي آيزنشتاين  (مولود في 23 يناير 1898-11 فبراير 1948) هو مخرج روسي، من أشهر الأفلام التي أخرجها فيلم المدمرة بوتمكين.

جاء من ريغا (عاصمة لاتفيا حالياً). وأمضى فترة قصيرة من حياته يرسم مشاهد مسرحية، ثم دخل عالم الأفلام عام1922 وسرعان ما لمس الإمكانيات الهائلة والمثيرة لدى استعماله المشاهد الجماعية بدلا عن الأبطال أو العامة من الممثلين. وبتقطيع وسبك ماهر لهذه المشاهد وجد أن باستطاعته إحداث إثارة متعاظمة في السينما تنتهي نهاية محكمة. فقام بذلك ببراعة في مشهد على درجات القصر في الأوديسا في فيلمه المدمرة بوتمكين عندما سحق الجيش الإمبراطوري مجموعة متمردين.

ولقد ظهر إدراكه المدهش لعناصر الحبكة السينمائية كلها في تسجيله القوي للثورة الروسية في فيلم أكتوبر. وفي العام 1939 قدم فيلم ألكسندر نيفسكي ثم فيلمًا عن إيفان الرهيب، وهما فيلمان عظيمان يدوران حول المواضيع الوطنية والشيوعية.

المصادر

وصلات خارجية

أشخاص من ريغا
أشخاص من محافظة ليفونيا
أعضاء هيئة تدريس معهد غيراسيموف للسينما
أفراد عسكريون روس في الحرب العالمية الأولى
الرقابة في الفنون
حائزون على جائزة ستالين
حاصلون على وسام لينين
روس من أصل سويدي
روس من أصل يهودي أوكراني
شيوعيون روس
شيوعيون لاتفيون
صانعو أفلام تجريبية روس
عسكريون سوفيت في الحرب الأهلية الروسية
فنانون يهود
كتاب سيناريو روس
لاتفيون من أصل سويدي
لاتفيون من أصل يهودي أوكراني
ماركسيون روس
ماركسيون لاتفيون
ماركسية فرويدية
مخترعون روس
مخترعون لاتفيون
مخرجو أفلام سوفيت
مخرجو أفلام صامتة
مخرجو أفلام لاتفيون
مخرجو مسرح روس وسوفيت
مخرجو مسرح سوفيت
مدفونون بمقبرة نوفوديفيتشي
ملحدون روس
ملحدون لاتفيون
ملحدون يهود
منظرون سينمائيون
مواليد 1898
مواليد في ريغا
وفيات 1948
وفيات بسبب توقف القلب
وفيات في موسكو
يهود روس

سيرجي آيزنشتاين


القضاء العُرفى هو وسيلة متعارف عليها للتحكيم بين الخصوم وأحكامه لها قوة الإلزام الفاعلة بين العائلات الكبيرة بمصر وأحيانا كثيرة يكون موثقا من الجهات الأمنية والرسمية بالدولة، وتلجأ إلية الدولة أحيانا لفض المنازعات الكبيرة بين العائلات الكبيرة، للقضاء على الثأر (خاصة إذا كانت الجلسة العرفية ستؤدى إلى تصالح)، منظومة القضاء العرفى فعالة جدا إذا كان المعتدى علية يرضا التعويض المالى وألإعتذار، والقضاء العرفى لا تبدأ جلساتة أبدا بدون كفيل غارم مقبول وحسن السمعة ومعروف بالصدق لكل من الطرفين المتنازعين ولهيئة التحكيم من القضاة المعهود اليهم الحكم، أو الحصول على ضمانات مالية ملموسة، وأيضا وعود شَرف تؤخذ من ألسنة كبار عائلات الأطراف المتنازعة (ويقال لمن وعد منهم <أعطى الرجل وجهه > أي أن كرامتة وبياض وجهة مرتبطان بعدم إخلالة بوعوده لمجلس التحكيم) وللعلم القضاء العرفى لا يستطيع الحكم بعقوبات الموت أو الإيذاء الجسدى أو عقوبات سالبة للحرية (السجن) ولكنه يستطيع الحكم بإبعاد شخص ما عن مكان ما منعا للشر وإثارة الأوجاع واستذكارها (العصر الحالى هو للمؤسسات الدولة القانونية والقضاء العُرفى يعتبر استثناء للقاعدة ولكنه معمول بة في أكثر منازعات قبائل مصر الان)، والقضاء العُرفى معمول به بين كل قبائل جمهورية مصر العربيةقبيله (العقايله) ومنهم (الشيخ جمعه أبو خريبه) قبيلة بلى، المعاذة (بنى عطية)، مزينة، الترابين البقوم،العليقات، أولاد سعيد، القرارشة، الصوالحة، المساعيد، السواركة، التياهة، العيايدة، الحويطات،أولاد على، الجوابيص، العبابدة، الجعافرة، البشارية ويقال أن قبيلة بلى هي مَنقع الدم في القضاء العُرفى بمصر، أي أنها أرتضتها القبائل بمصر للحكم في الديات والجروح ومن مشاهير قبيلة بلى بمصر الشيخ طويلع حامدالبلوى وكان يطلبة شيوخ القبائل الكبرى بمصر ككفيل لحسن سيرتة وصدقة.

مراجع

قضاء

قضاء عرفي


Salih Behmen (Mostar, 12. veljače 1922. – 1990.), bosanskohercegovački muslimanski aktivist.

Životopis
Rođen u Mostaru. Osnovnu i gimnaziju završio u rodnom gradu. Studirao u Sarajevu na Pedagoškoj akademiji matematiku i fiziku. Od osnivanja član Mladih muslimana, čiji je jedan od ideologa. Uhićen u nizu uhićenja pripadnika Mladih muslimana 1949. godine. Suđeno mu kao jednom od suradnika na Sarajevskom procesu. Suđen na procesu u Mostaru. Osuđen na 12 godina zatvora. Odrobijao je 8 godina u zatvoru. Poslije što je izašao našao je posao u Mostaru u osnovnoj školi. Na tom poslu bio je do novog uhićenja 1983. i novog procesa na kojem je osuđen na 5 godina. Umro je najesen 1990. godine. Napisao knjigu Islamski odgovori (izdanje Islamska zajednica Zagreb). Napisao pod pseudonimom brojne članke u Takvimu, Glasniku i Preporodu.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
(srp.) Mladi muslimani Salih Behmen: Sarajevski proces 1983. - montaža ili ne?

Mladi Muslimani
Životopisi, Mostar

Salih Behmen


Una corbata de fuego es un artificio de fuego de guerra empleado por la antigua marina, especialmente para la carga de brulotes incendiarios.

Se hacía con tiras de tela vieja que se impregnaban en una solución de salitre, después en aceite resinoso, frotándolas luego con grasa y cubriéndolas finalmente de polvorín.

Referencias

Armamento

Corbata de fuego


Gheorghe R. Gheorghiu () a fost un general român care a luptat în cel de-al Doilea Război Mondial.

A absolvit Școala de Ofițeri de infanterie în 1911. A fost înaintat la gradul de colonel la 16 octombrie 1935 și la gradul de general de brigadă la 10 mai 1941.

Note

Legături externe
  Generals.dk

Nașteri în 1890
Decese în 1977
Generali români din Al Doilea Război Mondial

Gheorghe R. Gheorghiu


بوكور  هي مدينة تقع في جاوة الغربية بإندونيسيا، ويقدر عدد سكانها بـ 950,334 نسمة.

كانت بوكور عاصمة إندونيسيا إبان الاحتلال البريطاني، كما استخدمت كعاصمة من قبل الهولنديين حين كانت تعرف باسم بويتنزورج. يحيط بالمدينة عدة جبال منها «جننج جيدي»، و«جننج سالاك». في جنوب المدينة توجد مزارع كبيرة للشاي. يعود تاريخ المدينة للعام 450 ق.م. حينما كانت جزء من تارماناجارا، المملكة الهندوسية الأولى في جاوة، والثانية في إندونيسيا بشكل عام بعد مملكة كوتاي بكليمنتان. وبعدها عاصمة مملكة سوندا وكانت تُسمى باكاكارن،اللغة السائدة في المدينة هي السوندية.

تقع بوغور على أحد الطرق الرئيسية بين جاكرتا وباندونغ، يبلغ عدد سكانها حوالي 800,000 نسمة في احياء المدينة و2،000,000 في الضواحي، أي ما مجموعه 3 ملايين السكان. يوجد ببوغور القصر الرئاسي السابق، ويوجد بها حديقة الغزلان وحديقة النباتات كوبون رايه في وسط المدينة حيث يوجد فيها أضخم وأندر زهره في العالم رفلسيا ويصل طولها إلى متر.

كانت خلال الحقبة الاستعماريه منطقة زراعة الشاي في (جبل ماس)- قونوق سلق، كما كانت هناك مزارع البن القريبة في سوكابومى ومزارع المطاط قرب جيهنجور
يطلق على بوغور «مدينة المطر»، جوها معتدل ورطب دائما لوفرة الأمطار في كل الاوقات حتى خلال موسم الجاف.

المناخ
يظهر الجدول التالي التغييرات المناخية على مدار السنة لبوكور:

توأمة
لبوكور اتفاقيات توأمة مع كل من:
 سانت لويس
 غودولو
 شنجن

أعلام

 دولف فان دير ناغل
 ردن صالح
 سيد حسين العطاس
 دومينيك جاك دي إيرينز
 هاينريش كوهل
 كاسبر فان أوفريم
 ديرك ساندرز
 ماكس هيني
 إد سول
 عبد الله بن نوح

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 الموقع الرسمي

أماكن مأهولة أسست في عقد 1480
أماكن مأهولة في جاوة الغربية
تأسيسات سنة 1482 في آسيا
مدن إندونيسيا

بوكور


Alessandro Cittadini (nacido el  en Perugia, Italia)  es un jugador italiano de baloncesto. Con 2.07 de estatura, juega en la posición de pívot.

Equipos
1997-1999  Fortitudo Bologna
1999-2000  Pallacanestro Reggiana
2000-2001  Basket Livorno
2001-2002  Pallacanestro Reggiana
2002-2004  Viola Reggio Calabria
2003-2004  Basket Napoli
2004-2005  Teramo Basket
2005-2007  Basket Napoli
2006-2007  Sebastiani Rieti
2007-2010  Fortitudo Bologna
2010-2011  Dinamo Sassari
2011-2012  Pallacanestro Sant'Antimo
2012-2013  Basket Barcellona
2013-2014  Veroli Basket
2014-2016  Basket Brescia Leonessa
2016-  Pallacanestro Trieste

Palmarés clubes
 Copa: 1
Basket Napoli: 2006

Enlaces externos
 Ficha en LEGA BASKET SERIE A

Baloncestistas de Italia
Baloncestistas de la selección de Italia
Baloncestistas italianos de la Lega Basket Serie A
Baloncestistas de la Legadue
Baloncestistas del Pallacanestro Reggiana
Baloncestistas del Sebastiani Basket Club Rieti
Baloncestistas del Basket Livorno
Baloncestistas del Fortitudo Bologna
Baloncestistas del Teramo Basket
Baloncestistas del Basket Napoli
Baloncestistas del Dinamo Sassari
Baloncestistas del Viola Reggio Calabria
Baloncestistas del Basket Brescia Leonessa
Baloncestistas del Basket Barcellona
Baloncestistas del Veroli Basket
Baloncestistas del Pallacanestro Trieste
Baloncestistas del Pallacanestro Sant'Antimo
Nacidos en Perugia

Alessandro Cittadini


El palacio del Belvedere () es un palacio de estilo neoclásico, situado en Varsovia,  la capital de Polonia, a algunos kilómetros al sur del castillo Real. Mantenido por el estado polaco desde 1989, se convirtió en residencia presidencial desde 1994, sirviendo como lugar de recepción para jefes de estado extranjeros y luego, dieciséis años más tarde, como residencia privada del presidente de la República de Polonia, en lugar del palacio Koniecpolski.

Su construcción comenzó en 1660, aunque fue ampliamente modificado durante el  con diseño del arquitecto Jakub Kubicki, por lo que su estilo mayoritario es el Neoclásico.

Historia
El edificio actual es el único resto del conjunto de edificios neoclásicos que se erigieron en el sitio desde 1660. Poseído por el último monarca de Polonia, Stanislaus II, lo hizo una residencia de verano, antes de hacerlo la sede de una fábrica de porcelana. A partir de 1818, el gran duque Constantino Pavlovich de Rusia vivió allí, luego huyó durante el levantamiento de noviembre de 1830.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Palacios neoclásicos
Palacios de Polonia del siglo XVII
Palacios del siglo XIX
Palacios de Varsovia
Palacio Belwederski
Palacio Belwederski

Palacio Belwederski


الكيتار  هي آلة مفاتيح إلكترونية وخفيفة الوزن (مع أو بدون سنثسيزر) تحمل باستعمال شريط يوضع حول العنق والكتفين. تمكن الكيتارات العازفين من التحرك على مدى كبير على الخشبة مقارنة بآلة مفاتيح الثابتة. تضم الآلة لوحة مفاتيح موسيقية لإصدار أصوات ونوتات موسيقية، إضافة إلى عدة وحدات للتحكم توجد على عنق الآلة، منها الخاصة بطي الحدة أو الفيبراتو أو البورتامينتو أو طول النغمات.

كلمة «كيتار» هي نحت مكون من «كيبورد» و «غيتار»، وهي كلمة عامية. أشار الصناع لهذا النوع من آلات المفاتيح بـ«متحكم ميدي»، «آلة مفاتيح للتحكم عن بعد»، «آلة مفاتيح قابلة للحمل» وغيرها من الأسماء. بالرّغم من أن كلمة «كيتار» كانت تستعمل منذ ظهور الآلة، لم تستعملها أي شركة تصنيع كبرى حتّى سنة 2012، وكانت أوّل شركة تستعملها شركة «أليسيس» لتشير لأوّل منتج لها من هذا النّوع وهو جهاز كيتار يوإسبي/ميدي للتحكم سمي «فورتيكس». قام كايل زيمرمان وهو مدير ومساعد مؤسس «تاب تاب سترام» بإنشاء تصميم لطراز كيتار L8R. كيتار ال«رولاند إي إكس سينث» الذي يضم سنثسيزر يشير له المصنعون ب«سنثسيزر الكتف».

قد يضم الكيتار سنثسيزر خاصا به وقد يكون جهاز تحكم ميدي، وفي كلتا الحالتين يجب أن يوصل الكيتار بمضخم صوت خاص أو عمومي لينتج صوتا يستطيع العازف والجمهور سماعه.

تاريخ

تعتبر «الأورفيكا» أقدم آلة تحمل معظم ميزات «الكيتار»، وهي عبارة عن بيانو محمول اخترع سنة 1795 بفيينا. ظهر «أكورديون البيانو» سنة 1852 وهو نوع من «الأكورديون» يتميز بتوفره على بيانو صغير بدل الأزرار الموجودة على «أكورديون الأزرار». سنة 1963 صنعت شركة "Weltmeister" التي تواجد مقرها بألمانيا الشرقية بيانو بيس كهربائي على شكل «كيتار» تحت اسم «الباسيت».

سنة 1966 صنعت شركة «جون موستاد إي بي» آلة «التوبون»، وهي عبارة عن آلة أورغان على شكل أنبوب. كانت الآلة تحمل بشريط حول العنق ويمكن العزف عليها أثناء الوقوف أو الجلوس. كان «التوبون» يتوفر على نصف لوحة مفاتيح موسيقية يمكن العزف عليها باليد اليمنى، أزرار تحكم على عنق الآلة في الجهة الأخرى للعزف باليد اليسرى، ومكبر صوت على نهاية الأنبوب. بيعت الآلة بالمملكة المتحدة واستعملها كل من «كرافت فيرك» و «بول مكارتني» في ستينات وسبعينات القرن العشرين.

في بداية التسعينات كان «إدغار وينتر» يؤدي عروضه الموسيقية غالبا بآلة مفاتيح معلقة حول عنقه، لكنها لم تعتبر «كيتارات» لأنها لا تملك عنقا؛ فقد استعمل آلة مفاتيح "ARP 2600" وبيانو إلكتروني لشركة «يونيفوكس» أضيفت إليها حمالات للكتف.

في نهاية السبعينات وبداية الثمانينات كان الملحن «يان هامر» المعروف بتلحين وتصميم الصوت لمسلسل «ميامي فايس» يستعمل أحيانا عدة «كيتارات» مثل «روياليكس بروب» الذي ساعد في تطويره. فعلى سبيل المثال، استعمل «يان» آلة «بروب» الخاصة به في الفيديو الموسيقي الخاص بالموسيقى التصويرية لبرنامج «ميامي فايس». وأيضا في الثمانينيات كان «وين فيموس» وهو عضو من فرقة «ذا برودوسرز» يحمل جهاز سنثيسيزر لشركة «أوبيرهايم» ممل جعلها يعاني من مشاكل على مستوى ضهره.

من أول «الكيتارات» التي توفرت للعموم في أواخر السبعينات وأوائل الثمانينات:

 هيلوود روكيبورد RB-1 (بيانو سنثسيزر مع معالج صوت يتحكم به الجهد الكهربائي) مصمم سنة 1977 وتأثر تصميمه ب«إدغار وينتر».
 PMS سينتار، سنثسيزر كيتار صممه «جورج ماتسون» وتم تسويقه عبر حدث NAMM بأتلنتا سنة 1979.
 ديفيس كلافيتار (جهاز تحكم) استعمله «جورج دوك» و «هيربي هانكوك» في أوائل سنة 1980.
 بويل بروب (جهاز تحكم) صممه «روجر بويل».
 روياليكس بروب (جهاز تحكم) صممه أيضا «روجر بويل» واستعمله هيربي هانكوك في أوائل الثمانينات.

من بينها يرجح أن جهاز «موغ ليبيريشن» الذي صدر سنة 1980 هو أكثر «الكيتارات» الأولى شهرة. من بين المستعملين الأوائل للجهاز فرقة «ديفو»، و «توم شومان» عازف آلات المفاتيح بفرقة «سبايرو غيرا». تعود أول كلمة «كيتار» مطبوعة إلى سنة 1980، بحيث وردت في لقاء ل«توم لونغز» من مجلة «إليانابيت» (الآن مجلة «ميدويست بيت») مع «جيفري أبوت».

صرح «ستيف ماكاوسكي» الذي كان يشاع كونه مخترع «الكيتار» في إحدى المقابلات مع «بيتر هارتلوب» من جريدة «سان فرانسيسكو كرونيكل» يوم 11 دجنبر 2009 بأنه اخترع آلة وترية تحت اسم «الكي-تار».

اشتهر «الكيتار» في الثمانينات بفضل فرق «الجلام ميتال»، بالإضافة إلى موسيقيي «السينثبوب»، «الالموجة الجديدة»، وال«إليكترو». تلاشت شهرة «الكيتار» في التسعينات إلى أن تمت إعادة إحيائه في أواخر عقد 2000 من طرف عدة فرق وفنانين مثل «ذا بلاك آيد بيز»، «فلايت أوف ذا كونكورد»، «موشن سيتي ساوندتراك»، «نو داوت»، و«ستيلي دان». ومثال آخر على ذلك هو الفيديو الموسيقي الذي صدر في بداية سنة 2008 للأغنية المنفردة «إغراء جنسي» لمغني الراب «سنوب دوغ»، بحيث يظهر فيها يعزف على «كيتار» كتذكير بفرق الهيب هوب الكلاسيكية.

من بين الشركات المعروفة المصنعة لل«كيتار» توجد «موغ»، «رولاند»، «ياماها»، «كورغ»، و «كاسيو». منذ سنة 2013، «الكيتارات» التي يتم إنتاجها بشكل شامل بالأسواق حاليا هي «رولاند AX-سينث»، «رولاند لوسينا»، «ألسيس فورتيكس»، وآلة المفاتيح اللاسلكية الاحترافية الخاصة بلعبة الفيديو «روك باند 3».

أمثلة

الثمانينات-السبعينات
اعتبر «موغ ليبيريشن» الذي أصدرته سنة 1980 شركة «موغ ميوزيك» أول سنثسيزر بحمالة تم إنتاجه بشكل شامل. كان يضم مذبذبين يتحكم فيهما الجهد الكهربائي ولا يسمحان بتشغيل أكثر من صوت في نفس الوقت، وجزءا بولفونيا يمكنه تشغيل عدة أصوات الأورغان. توجد بالعنق عجلات تضم نوابض من أجل إيقاف الفلترات، التضمين، والتحكم بجهارة الصوت إضافة إلى وحدة طي حدة يتحكم فيها خيط ينتج تيارات كهربائية مختلفة عند لمسه بالإصبع في نقطة مختلفة وتحريك الإصبع بسرعات مختلفة في أحد الإتجاهين. يوجد أيضا ب«موغ ليبيريشن» فيلتر يتحكم فيه الجهد الكهربائي ووحدتان تتحكمان بطريقة تغير صوت الآلة عند العزف عليها.

جهاز «رولاند SH-101» هو سنثسيزر صغير الحجم به 32 مفتاحا تتحكم فيه إلكترونيات تناظرية يعود لأوائل الثمانينات. به مذبذب يتوفر على شكلين من الموجات الصوتية، نصف مذبذب مقسم حسب الأوكتافات، وفيلتر منخفض التردد يتحكم فيه الجهد الكهربائي ويستطيع أداء وظيفة المذبذب. عندما يتصل بحمالة للكتف ونهاية عنق بها عجلة لطي الحدة ووحدة للتحكم في الشدة يصبح SH-101 «كيتارا».

يضم جهاز «ياماها SHS-10» الذي يعود للثمانينات لوحة مفاتيح صغيرة بها 32 مفتاحا صغيرا وعجلة لطي الحدة، سينثسيزر داخلي للتحكم في الشدة معروف ب«سنثسيزر FM» يوفر 25 صوتا مختلفا وبولفونية تتكون من 6 نوتات. من بين الأصوات الموجودة على الجهاز هدة آلات مفاتيح (البيانو، البيانو الإلكتروني، الأرغن ذو الأنابيب، إلخ.)؛ وآلات النفخ العادية والنحاسية (كلارينيت، مزمار، بوق، إلخ.)

عقد 2000-الحاضر
يضم «رولاند AX-7» الذي صنع من 2001 إلى 2007 مميزات معقدة أكثر من الكيتارات الأولى، بحيث له 45 مفتاحا حساسا لسرعة الضغط (لكنها ليست حساسة لقوة الضغط) وشرائح عرض لثلاثة أرقام بتقنية الأضواء ثبلية. تتوفر فيه أيضا مميزات للأداء على الخشبة مثل خيط لطي الحدة، وقائمة للتحكم تشبه لوحة لمس، مفتاح للتحكم في طول الأصوات، ومقبض للتحكم بجهارة الصوت، كلها في أعلى عنق الآلة. إضافة إلى واجهة للتحكم من نوع «دي-بيم» يتكون من مستشعر حراي يكشف عن الحركات القريبة ويمكن استعماله لتشغيل والتحكم بالتأثيرات.

أصدرت شركة «رولاند» جهاز «رولاند AX-سينث» في أغسطس 2009، وهو «كيتار» يحتوي على أصوات «سنثسيزر» خاصة به بالإضافة إلى كونه متحكم ميدي/يو إس بي. أصدرت شركة «رولاند» جهاز «رولاند لوسينا AX-09» سنة 2010، هذا النموذج ليس له عنق تقليدي لكنه يعتبر «كيتار» لتوفره على حمالة وانتمائه لسلسلة "AX"، وكانت له عدة مزايا مشتركة مع أجهزة
"AX" السابقة. ما يميزه هو توفره على مدخل أمامي لوحدة ذاكرة يو إس بي والتي قد تحتوي على ملفات «إم بي 3»، «دابليو إي في»، أو «إي آي إف إف» لغرض العزف أثناء تشغيل مقاطع مسجلة من قبل. يضم جهاز «لوسينا» 150 صوتا داخليا ويمكن أيضا استعماله كمتحكم ميدي/يو إس بي.

أصدرت شركة «ماد كاتز» أيضا سنة 2010 جهاز «آلة المفاتيح الاحترافية للتحكم عن بعد» للعبة الفيديو «روك باند 3»، وهو عبارة عن «كيتار» ومتحكم «ميدي» حساس لسرعة الضغط ويضم 25 مفتاحا. بالرغم من ثمنه الذي لا يفوق 100 دولار فهو مصمم للاستعمال الجدي خارج نطاق اللعبة. استعملته فرقة «السينثبوب» الأمريكية «فريزبوب» للعزف على الخشبة.

أصدرت شركة «أليسيس» سنة 2012 أول «كيتار» لها وهي أول شركة بارزة استعملت كلمة «كيتار» كاسم للنموذج. يتميز «كيتار» ميدي/يو إس بي «أليسيس فورتيكس» بكونه يضم ثمانية طبول إلكترونية حساسة لسرعة القرع، مما يمكن العازف من القرع العزف على للطبول وإنشاء إيقاعات أو تشغيل تسجيلات صوتية. تحتوي أيضا على جهاز «أكسيلوميتر» يمكن العازف من التحكم بإعدادات «ميدي» عن طريق إمالة العنق. تدعي «أليسيس» كونها أنشأت «أول متحكم كيتار»، لكن «رولاند AX-سينث» و «رولاند لوسينا» يتوفران على نفس الميزة وقد صدرا قبل 3 سنوات من صدور «أليسيس فورتيكس».

عزفت الموسيقية الأميركية «بريجيت مندلر» أغنية «أضواء المدينة» على «كيتار» في جولتها الصيفية بين 2013 و 2014.

انظر أيضا
 أورفيكا
 بيانو
 آلات المفاتيح

المراجع

وصلات خارجية

  — صور لجميع الكيتارات تقريبا

آلات موسيقية ذوات لوحة مفاتيح

كيتار


The District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment was a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution that would have given the District of Columbia full representation in the United States Congress, full representation in the Electoral College system, and full participation in the process by which the Constitution is amended. It would have also repealed the Twenty-third Amendment, which granted the District of Columbia the same number of electoral votes as that of the least populous state, but gave it no role in contingent elections.

The amendment was proposed by the U.S. Congress on August 22, 1978, and the legislatures of the 50 states were given seven years to consider it. Ratification by 38 states was necessary for the amendment to become part of the Constitution; only 16 states had ratified it when the seven-year time limit expired on August 22, 1985. This proposed constitutional amendment is the most recent one to have been sent to the states for their consideration.

Text

Legislative history
Representative Don Edwards of California proposed House Joint Resolution 554 in the 95th Congress. The United States House of Representatives passed it on March 2, 1978, by a 289–127 vote, with 18 not voting.

Senate debate
The Senate considered the amendment on August 22, 1978. It had considerable bipartisan support, with both Majority Leader Robert Byrd (D–WV) and Minority Leader Howard Baker (R–TN) pressing for its passage. Debate centered on the Founding Fathers' original intentions for the capital city, the morality of denying 700,000 American citizens congressional representation, and the constitutionality of the proposal.

Support for the amendment came from across the political spectrum, though liberal Democrats were its most visible defenders. Democrat Patrick Leahy of Vermont rebutted arguments from conservatives that extending full voting rights to D.C. was unfair to rural states. Citing his state's rural nature, Leahy asserted that the proposal was not "a case of rural versus urban," but rather about "simple justice, overdue justice." Alaska Democrat Mike Gravel argued that the principles of democracy triumph over policies, expressing his support for the proposal despite the likelihood of the District's representatives "voting against the Alaskan position on d-2 land" and encouraging "more government rather than more implementation through the private sector."

Several Republicans also spoke out in support. Michigan's Robert P. Griffin noted the United States' unusual treatment of D.C., stating, "In only one other country in the world—Brazil—are residents of the capital city denied representation in their national legislature." Edward Brooke of Massachusetts brought up his Washington upbringing in expressing his support for the amendment, while Bob Dole reminded colleagues that the GOP had included full voting representation for the District of Columbia in its party platform adopted at the 1976 Republican National Convention. Lowell Weicker of Connecticut went so far as to argue that the proposed amendment was not enough, instead advocating for the District of Columbia's admission as a state.

One particularly notable supporter of the amendment was Strom Thurmond (R–SC), notorious for his longtime support of racial segregation. Reflecting his gradual shift toward more moderate views on race, he supported the amendment despite the District of Columbia's Black-majority population. Noting the United States' commitment to exemplifying the ideals of democracy, he asked, "How can we do that when three-quarters of a million people are not allowed to have voting representation in the capital city of this Nation?"

Opposition to the amendment, meanwhile, came almost exclusively from conservatives. Ted Stevens (R–AK) was a particularly vocal foe:

Other opponents of the amendment proposed more serious compromises. Mississippi Democrat John C. Stennis advocated for giving the District only one senator, while Oklahoma's Dewey F. Bartlett tried to alter the amendment to assure that Congress could not exercise committee oversight of D.C. There was considerable discussion of retroceding the District of Columbia back into Maryland, though Senators Charles Mathias and Paul Sarbanes quickly doused the idea.

Orrin Hatch alleged that the proposal contradicted Article V of the United States Constitution, which guarantees that "no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate." Hatch claimed this meant that all 50 states would have to approve the amendment. In a blistering retort, Ted Kennedy said, "It fails in terms of logic. How can a constitutional amendment be unconstitutional?"

The amendment ultimately passed with the support of 48 Democrats and 19 Republicans. Exactly 80% of the Democratic caucus voted for the amendment, while Republicans split evenly. The chamber's sole independent, Harry F. Byrd Jr. of Virginia, voted nay.

Vote in the legislatures
With that, the District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment was submitted to the state legislatures for ratification. The Congress, via Section 4, included the requirement that ratification by three-fourths (38) of the states be completed within seven years following its passage by the Congress (i.e., August 22, 1985) in order for the proposed amendment to become part of the Constitution. By placing the ratification deadline in the text of the proposed amendment the deadline could not be extended without a separate amendment to the Constitution, in contrast to the ratification deadline of the Equal Rights Amendment which was restricted by statute and not the amendment itself.

Ratification history
Ratification by the legislatures of at least 38 of the 50 states by August 22, 1985, was necessary for the District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment to become part of the Constitution. During the seven-year period specified by Congress it was ratified by only 16 states and so failed to be adopted. The amendment was ratified by the following states:

New Jersey on September 11, 1978
Michigan on December 13, 1978
Ohio on December 21, 1978
Minnesota on March 19, 1979
Massachusetts on March 19, 1979
Connecticut on April 11, 1979
Wisconsin on November 1, 1979
Maryland on March 19, 1980
Hawaii on April 17, 1980
Oregon on July 6, 1981
Maine on February 16, 1983
West Virginia on February 23, 1983
Rhode Island on May 13, 1983
Iowa on January 19, 1984
Louisiana on June 24, 1984
Delaware on June 28, 1984

Effects if it had been adopted

Had it been adopted, this proposed amendment would have allowed the District of Columbia and its population to participate in federal institutions on equal footing with the states, but it would not have made the district into a state, nor affected Congress's authority over it. The District of Columbia would have been given full representation in both houses of Congress, so that it would have two senators and a variable number of representatives based on population.

The proposed amendment would also have repealed the twenty-third amendment, which does not allow the district to have more electoral votes "than the least populous State", nor does it grant the District of Columbia any role in contingent elections of the president by the House of Representatives (or of the vice president by the Senate). In contrast, this proposed amendment would have provided the district full participation in presidential (and vice presidential) elections.

Finally, the proposed amendment would have allowed the Council of the District of Columbia, the Congress, or the people of the district (depending on how the amendment would have been interpreted) to decide whether to ratify any proposed amendment to the Constitution, or to apply to the Congress for a convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution, just as a state's legislature can under the Constitutional amendment process laid out in Article V of the Constitution.

See also

District of Columbia voting rights
List of amendments to the United States Constitution, amendments sent to the states, both ratified and unratified
List of proposed amendments to the United States Constitution, amendments proposed in Congress but never sent to the states for ratification

References

1978 in American law
1978 in American politics
Unratified amendments to the United States Constitution
Voting Rights Amendment
Voting Rights Amendment
1978 documents
95th United States Congress
Legal history of the District of Columbia


Mai Thi Nguyen-Kim (Heppenheim, Bergstraße, ) é uma química, escritora e YouTuber alemã, jornalista científica na ARD e ZDF. É desde junho de 2020 membro do senado da Sociedade Max Planck.

Formação
Nguyen-Kim, cujos pais são naturais do Vietnã, cresceu em Hemsbach, onde frequentou o Bergstraßen-Gymnasium. Seu pai é químico e trabalhou na BASF. Ela tem um irmão mais velho que também estudou química. Depois de obter o Abitur estudou química na Universidade de Mainz de 2006 a 2012 e fez uma estadia de pesquisa no Instituto de Tecnologia de Massachusetts. Durante seus estudos foi bolsista da Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes. A partir de 2012 trabalhou como estudante de doutorado na RWTH Aachen, passado um ano de pesquisas na Universidade Harvard e no Fraunhofer-Institut für Angewandte Polymerforschung, obtendo um doutorado em 2017 na Universidade de Potsdam com a tese Physikalische Hydrogele auf Polyurethan-Basis. Nguyen-Kim é casada com o químico Matthias Leiendecker desde 2017 e tem uma filha nascida em 2020.

Comunicação científica

Em 2015 Nguyen-Kim criou o canal do YouTube The Secret Life of Scientists, para questionar estereótipos sobre cientistas (naturais) e nerds e transmitir tópicos científicos para um público jovem. Em outubro de 2016 iniciou seu canal no YouTube schönschlau, um serviço conjunto da ARD e ZDF para adolescentes e jovens adultos. Também moderou temporariamente o canal Auf Klo e vídeos educacionais para as disciplinas de química e matemática. Seu canal schönschlau foi renomeado para maiLab em 2018 e tinha no início de setembro de 2020 mais de 1,3 milhão de assinantes.

Publicações
Physikalische Hydrogele auf Polyurethan-Basis. Dissertation, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät der Universität Potsdam, Potsdam 2017 (PDF; 8 MB).
Komisch, alles chemisch! Handys, Kaffee, Emotionen – wie man mit Chemie wirklich alles erklären kann. Droemer Verlag, München 2019, ISBN 978-3-426-27767-6.
Die kleinste gemeinsame Wirklichkeit. Wahr, falsch, plausibel? Die größten Streitfragen wissenschaftlich geprüft. Droemer Knaur, München 2021, ISBN 978-3-426-27822-2.

Condecorações
2018: Prêmio Georg von Holtzbrinck de Jornalismo Científico
2019: Hanns-Joachim-Friedrichs-Preis
2020: Ordem do Mérito da República Federal da Alemanha

Referências

Ligações externas

YouTube-Kanäle: The Secret Life of Scientists, Quarks, Terra X Lesch & Co und musstewissen (Chemie und Mathe)
Interviews und Porträts
Mai Thi Nguyen-Kim: Chemikerin und YouTuberin, Terra X, 1. März 2017
Anant Agarwala: Mai Thi Nguyen-Kim: Bei ihr macht's klick, in: Zeit Campus Nr. 4/2019, 4. Juni 2019
Valerie Zaslawski: Die neue Rezo geht durch die Decke, in: NZZ, 16. April 2020
Mai Thi Nguyen-Kim im Interview: Je länger wir für die Recherche gebraucht haben, desto besser kommt es an, Brand eins, 18. April 2020

WDR 3 (Westdeutscher Rundfunk) Mosaik. Gespräch am Samstag vom 22. Mai 2021

Alunos da Universidade de Potsdam
Químicos do século XXI
Jornalistas científicos
Apresentadores de televisão

Mai Thi Nguyen-Kim


The German General Staff, originally the Prussian General Staff and officially the Great General Staff (), was a full-time body at the head of the Prussian Army and later, the German Army, responsible for the continuous study of all aspects of war, and for drawing up and reviewing plans for mobilization or campaign. It existed unofficially from 1806, and was formally established by law in 1814, the first general staff in existence. It was distinguished by the formal selection of its officers by intelligence and proven merit rather than patronage or wealth, and by the exhaustive and rigorously structured training which its staff officers undertook.

The Prussian General Staff also enjoyed greater freedom from political control than its contemporaries, and this autonomy was enshrined in law on the unification of Germany and the establishment of the German Empire in 1871. It came to be regarded as the home of German militarism in the aftermath of World War I, and the victorious Allies attempted to suppress the institution. It nevertheless survived to play its accustomed part in the German rearmament and World War II.

In a broader sense, the Prussian General Staff corps consisted of those officers qualified to perform staff duties, and formed a unique military fraternity. Their exhaustive training was designed not only to weed out the less motivated or less able candidates, but also to produce a body of professional military experts with common methods and outlook. General Staff–qualified officers alternated between line and staff duties but remained lifelong members of this special organization.

Until the end of the German Empire, social and political convention often placed members of noble or royal households in command of its armies or corps but the actual responsibility for the planning and conduct of operations lay with the formation's staff officers. For other European armies which lacked this professionally trained staff corps, the same conventions were often a recipe for disaster. Even the Army of the Second French Empire, whose senior officers had supposedly reached high rank as a result of bravery and success on the battlefield, was crushed by the Prussian and other German armies during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–1871. That outcome highlighted poor French administration and planning, and lack of professional education.

The chief of staff of a Prussian formation in the field had the right to disagree, in writing, with the plans or orders of the commander of the formation, and appeal to the commander of the next highest formation (which might ultimately be the king, or emperor, who would be guided by the head of the Great General Staff). This served as a check on incompetence and also served for the objecting officer to officially disassociate himself from a flawed plan. Only the most stubborn commanders would not give way before this threat.

For these reasons, Prussian and German military victories were often credited professionally to the chief of staff, rather than to the nominal commander of an army. Often the commander of an army was himself a member of the General Staff, but it was now institutionally recognized that not only was command leadership important, but effective staff work was a significant key to success in both pre-war planning and in wartime operations.

History

Early history
Before the nineteenth century, success on the battlefield largely depended on the military competence of the sovereign. Duke Frederick William introduced the term Generalstabsdienst (General Staff Service) for the Prusso-Brandenburgian army in 1640. While Frederick the Great brought success to the Prussian arms, his successors lacked his talent, so generalship in the Army declined, even though they were assisted by a Quartermaster General Staff of adjutants and engineers established by Frederick the Great. Reformers in the army began to write and lecture on the need to preserve and somehow institutionalize the military talent that Frederick had assembled in his army. They argued that a carefully assembled cadre of talented officer staff could plan logistics and train the Army in peace as well as in war. In the last years of the eighteenth century, it became the practice to assign military experts to assist the generals of Prussia's Army, largely at the instigation of comparatively junior but gifted officers such as Gerhard von Scharnhorst and August von Gneisenau. Nevertheless, such measures were insufficient to overcome the inefficiency of the Army, which was commanded by aged veterans of the campaigns of Frederick the Great, almost half a century earlier.

In 1806, the Prussian Army was routed by French Armies led by Napoleon's marshals at the Battle of Jena. In the aftermath of this debacle, the Prussian Army and state largely collapsed. "Seldom in history has an army been reduced to impotence more swiftly or decisively." After the Peace of Tilsit in 1807, King Frederick William III appointed Scharnhorst, Gneisenau, Prime Minister Baron vom und zum Stein and several promising young officers to his Military Reorganization Commission. This commission acted as a general staff to plan and implement the reconstruction of the Prussian Army. They persuaded the king that to match the French commanders, who rose by merit, each Prussian commander of an Army, Corps and Division should have a staff-trained officer assigned as his adjutant. Scharnhorst intended them to "support incompetent Generals, providing the talents that might otherwise be wanting among leaders and commanders". The unlikely pairing of the erratic but popular Field Marshal Blücher as commander in chief with Lieutenant General Gneisenau as his chief of staff showed this system to its best advantage: Blücher lauded Gneisenau for his role in maneuvering the Prussian Army during a difficult retreat through the Harz mountains.

Gneisenau is recognized as the first "great Chief of Staff". He institutionalized the right of the commander's adviser to take part in command and control by advising the commander until he makes a decision. Gneisenau also founded mission tactics (Auftragstaktik), in which the commander determines the objective of an operation and allocates the forces used, while the subordinate on the spot determines how the objective will be attained.

In 1816, the reformer Karl von Grolman organised the Staff into Eastern (Russia), Southern (Austria), and Western (France and the other German states) Divisions. Sixteen staff officers served in the Prussian Ministry of War and six staff officers worked in the main embassies. Each army corps had one chief of staff and two other staff officers. In 1821 the Quartermaster General Staff was renamed to the General Staff, and its officers were identified by distinctive uniform markings, including a crimson trouser stripe. Staff positions did not depend on lineage. "General von Krauseneck, who was the Chief of the General Staff from 1829 to 1848, was the son of a Brandenburg organ player and had been promoted from the ranks. General von Rheyer, Chief of the Prussian General Staff from 1848 to 1857 was a shepherd in his youth."

The General Staff continually planned for likely and unlikely scenarios. In 1843, when Europe had been largely at peace for nearly thirty years and most major nations had no plans for war, observers noted sheaves of orders at the Prussian War Ministry, already made out to cover all foreseeable contingencies and requiring only a signature and a date stamp to be put into effect.

Selection and education of staff officers
The Military Reorganization Commission opened military schools in Königsberg and Breslau. On 15 October 1810 Scharnhorst opened the General War School (Allgemeine Kriegsschule), on the same day that the new University of Berlin opened nearby. The General War School trained selected officers for three years. One of its first directors was Carl von Clausewitz, who served until 1830. His monumental work On War (Vom Kriege) was published posthumously. From his studies and experiences during the Napoleonic Wars, he wrote a syllabus which became the staff's central doctrine. This standardization of doctrine  which was an attempt to grasp the philosophy underlying warfare, rather than setting a narrow set of rules such as those laid down by Antoine-Henri Jomini  was one of the distinguishing features of the Prussian General Staff.

Every General Staff officer had to be able, at any time, to take over the work of another and apply to it the same body of basic ideas and the same principles of operational and tactical thought.

On October 1, 1859, the General War School was renamed the War Academy (Kriegsakademie), which was supervised by the Inspector-General of Military Education. Students at the War Academy attended about 20 hours of lectures per week. Instruction was by professors from Berlin University and officers serving on the Great General Staff, who thereby enhanced their own educations. In 1872 the War Academy was taken from the Inspector of Military Education and placed under the Chief of the General Staff. The spirit of the academy was articulated by Chief of Staff Helmuth von Moltke, who emphasized the importance "of an active process of mental give and take between teacher and pupils, so as to stimulate the pupils to become fellow-workers".

Admission to the academy was highly selective. Officers with at least five years service who wanted to become General Staff officers prepared themselves for the entrance examination, which included tactics, surveying, geography, mathematics and French, with questions set to test understanding rather than rote memory. The graders of the essays did not know the names or regiments of the candidates. From hundreds of applicants, about one hundred were accepted every year to enter the first-year course at the academy. Those who performed satisfactorily were promoted to the second and then the third year.

In the first year, fourteen hours of lectures each week were on military subjects, including military history, while seventeen hours were non-military, which included general history, mathematics, science and a choice of French or Russian. Roughly the same time allocations were used in the last two years. Lectures were supplemented by visits to fortifications, arms factories and exercises of the railway regiment. During the three month summer breaks the students attended manoeuvres and were taken on field tactical exercises in which they commanded imaginary units. At the end of the course they took their second examination. Only about thirty students passed this extremely difficult test. They were then assigned (kommandiert) to the Great General Staff, while retaining their regimental attachments. After two years they took their third and final examination, after which five to eight officers were permanently posted to fill vacancies in the General Staff  a remarkable winnowing from the many who had entered the competition. Occasionally, an exceptional officer was appointed without this training: for example Max Bauer, who was trained as an artilleryman, became a prominent member of the Great General Staff, with the reputation of being the smartest man in the army.

Some graduates were not enthusiastic about the first year of their training. For example, Paul von Hindenburg thought that the history of ancient battles should be minimized to give more time to modern, and that trigonometry was only useful to those who would be surveyors. The final two years satisfied him. While at the academy he was invited into the social circle of Prince Alexander of Prussia, where he came "in touch with men of science as well as those in the state and court service.

After its defeat in the war against Prussia of 1866, Bavaria established its own War Academy and continued to train its own staff officers after the foundation of the German Empire in 1870.

Size of the staff
The General Staff of that time was a small, elite body, numbering as few as fifty officers and rarely exceeding one hundred officers. Only one or two officers were permanently assigned to the General Staff, described in official returns as des Generalstabs ("of the General Staff") at any time; most were attached to the General Staff while remaining affiliated to their parent regiments, usually for several years at a time, and were listed as im Generalstab ("on the General Staff"). When the General Staff was required to take the field during major campaigns, it remained a small but effective body. During the Franco-Prussian War for example, the staff that accompanied the headquarters of the King (as commander-in-chief) and was responsible for the direction of armies that totaled 850,000 men, consisted of the chief of staff, a quartermaster-general and an intendant-general whose duties were not directly concerned with military operations, three heads of departments, eleven other officers, ten draughtsmen, seven clerks and fifty-nine other ranks (orderlies, messengers, etc.).

Nor was there ever a large pool of officers to draw upon to perform General Staff duties. In 1871, there were only 375 officers fully qualified to serve on the General Staff, even after an emergency expansion during the Franco-Prussian War. In 1914, there were 625 General Staff-qualified officers for armies which had almost doubled in size since 1871.

Moltke the Elder

In 1857, Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, a widely travelled officer who was a confidante of King William I, was appointed Chief of the General Staff. Under his control, the existing staff system was expanded and consolidated.

Each year, Moltke selected the best twelve graduates from the Kriegsakademie for his personal training as General Staff officers. They attended theoretical studies, annual manoeuvres, "war rides" (a system of tactical exercises without troops in the field) under Moltke himself, and war games and map exercises known as Kriegsspiele. Although these officers subsequently alternated between regimental and staff duties, they could be relied upon to think and act exactly as Moltke had taught them when they became the Chiefs of Staff of major formations. Moltke himself referred to them as the "nervous system" of the Prussian Army. In the victories which the Prussian Army was to gain against Austrian Empire and France, Moltke needed only to issue brief directives expressing his intentions to the main formations, leaving the staffs at the subordinate headquarters to implement the details according to the doctrines and methods he had laid down, while the Supreme Commands of his opponents became bogged down in mountains of paperwork and trivia as they tried to control the entire army from a single overworked headquarters.

Moltke's wide experience also prompted the General Staff to consider fields of study outside the purely military, and rapidly adapt them to military use. Immediately upon his appointment, he established the Abteilung (section or department) which studied and promoted the development of railway networks within Prussia and incorporated them into its deployment plans. He also formed telegraphic, and other scientific and technical departments within the General Staff and a Historical division, which analysed past and current conflicts and published accounts of them and lessons learned.

The General Staff reformed by Moltke was the most effective in Europe, an autonomous institution dedicated solely to the efficient execution of war, unlike in other countries, whose staffs were often fettered by meddling courtiers, parliaments and government officials. On the contrary, the General Staff itself had a powerful effect on Prussian, and later German, politics.

War with Denmark
The Second Schleswig War (1864), the political origins of which lay in Denmark's conflict with Prussia and Austria over the Schleswig–Holstein question, vindicated Moltke's concepts of operations and led to an overhaul of the command arrangements of the Prussian Army. Moltke envisaged a rapid attack to prevent the Danes falling back behind water obstacles which the Prussian Navy could not overcome. A rigid system of seniority placed Friedrich Graf von Wrangel, widely regarded as being in his dotage, in command. He ignored all of Moltke's directives and his own staff's advice, and by allowing the Danish Army to withdraw at its leisure he prolonged the war for several months. The resulting post mortem was to ensure a better (though not infallible) system for appointing commanders.

Seven Weeks' War
The Austro-Prussian War (1866) became almost inevitable after the end of hostilities with Denmark. Many Prussians regarded the war as a sad necessity. Moltke, describing his reasons for confidence to War Minister Albrecht von Roon, stated "We have the inestimable advantage of being able to carry our Field Army of 285,000 men over five railway lines and of virtually concentrating them in twenty-five days ... Austria has only one railway line and it will take her forty-five days to assemble 200,000 men." Although there were inevitable mistakes and confusion on the battlefield, Moltke's pre-war calculations were proved correct, and the Austrian army was brought to battle at Königgrätz and destroyed.

In contrast to the Prussian staff, Austrian staff officers gained their posts either by membership of the Austrian nobility and a desire to avoid tedious regimental duties, or after uninspiring training which made them into plodding, rule-bound clerks. In all aspects of preparation, planning and execution, their muddled efforts compared badly with that of their Prussian counterparts.

Prussian staff analysis and army improvements
In reviewing Prussian deficiencies against the Austrians, the General Staff made several improvements to increase the strategic and tactical proficiency of the King's army. Cavalry would no longer be held in reserve, but would actively screen the army's movements at all levels, make first contact with the enemy, and constantly observe hostile activities. Newly developed rifled artillery would no longer be placed in the rear of the order of march for employment behind the infantry; instead, a significant detachment would travel with the advanced guard of the leading corps or other major element, and the remainder would march with the front of the main body, providing immediate artillery coverage of the advanced guard on contact and of the main body during subsequent deployment on the field. A renewed emphasis was placed on maintaining contact with subordinate and superior commands, so that commanders always were informed of units' locations on the battlefield, reducing the "fog of war" effect. Finally, the introduction of the breech-loading infantry rifle marked a revolution in weapons effect, so that Moltke made the following analysis in 1865:

The attack of a position is becoming notably more difficult than its defense. The defensive during the first phase of battle offers a decisive superiority. The task of a skillful offensive will consist of forcing our foe to attack a position chosen by us, and only when casualties, demoralization, and exhaustion have drained his strength will we ourselves take up the tactical offensive.... Our strategy must be offensive, our tactics defensive.

Franco-Prussian War
The government of Napoleon III was undoubtedly startled by the Prussian victory over Austria, and urgently sought to reform their army to face the conflict with Prussia which seemed inevitable and imminent. Their senior officers entirely failed to grasp the methods of the Prussian General Staff. The Chief of Staff of the French Army, Maréchal de France Edmond Le Bœuf, fatuously stated in 1870 that the French Army was ready for war, "down to the last gaiter button." In the event, at the outset of the Franco-Prussian War, 462,000 German soldiers concentrated flawlessly on the French frontier while only 270,000 French soldiers could be moved to face them, the French army having lost 100,000 stragglers before a shot was fired through poor planning and administration. (Most of these were reservists who had not been able to join their units before the units were hastily dispatched to join the armies forming up near the frontier.)

During the war, there were again the inevitable mistakes due to the "fog of war", but German formations moved with a speed and precision which French staff officers, accustomed only to moving battalion-sized punitive columns, could not match. In the French army of the time, there was an anti-intellectual prejudice in favour of brave and unimaginative regimental officers over intelligent and well-trained staff officers. The French Army paid dearly for this bias in 1870 and 1871.

The result of the strategic preparation by Moltke (and diplomatic maneuvers by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck) was complete Prussian victory. After the victory, Germany was unified as the Prussia-dominated German Empire; King Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed "German Emperor" on 18 January 1871. The German victory surprised many military professionals around the world. France had been considered a great military power while Prussia was widely considered a lesser power, despite its military successes in 1813–15 against Napoleon and more recently over Austria during the Seven Weeks' War of 1866. Many nations adopted Prussian staff methods and structures, with mixed success.

Throughout his tenure, Moltke pushed for the Prussian army to engage in reassessment and self-improvement at every command level to maintain tactical superiority relative to other nations. Moltke formalised the concept of mission-type tactics, which emphasized the importance of initiative at all levels of command, even the lowest. Every Prussian tactical manual published after the Franco-Prussian War included this passage:

A favorable situation will never be exploited if commanders wait for orders. The highest commander and the youngest soldier must always be conscious of the fact that omission and inactivity are worse than resorting to the wrong expedient.

From unification to World War I

With unification the Prussian General Staff became the Imperial German General Staff, with seconded general staff officers from Saxony, Württemberg and Bavaria, and was responsible for military planning for the German Empire. They began preparing for what seemed to be another inevitable war with France, which was intent on revenge and recovery of the provinces annexed by Germany. Bismarck's diplomatic skill had prevented any hostile European coalition forming against Germany, but the young Kaiser William II replaced him in 1890 and turned away from their friendly accommodation with Russia in favor of an alliance with Austria-Hungary. Before long France and Russia allied.

Therefore, an encircled Germany faced the probability that of war on both Eastern and Western fronts. Prior to his retirement in 1888,  Moltke's plan for such a conflict had always been to remain on the defensive against the French while committing the majority of German forces to face Russia. Changing geopolitical factors around the turn of the century, including the establishment of vast European colonial empires and especially the rapprochement between the United Kingdom and France eventually led the German General Staff to reassess the wisdom of such a strategy. Whereas Moltke and his immediate successor Alfred von Waldersee were confident in the ability of a relatively modest German garrison to defend the country's western frontier against the forces of Metropolitan France indefinitely, the General Staff under Alfred von Schlieffen determined that British neutrality in a future conflict could no longer be counted on, thus exposing Germany to the potential combined might of the British, French and their vast colonial empires in the west in case of any extended conflict.

To meet such a threat, Schlieffen and his successor Helmuth von Moltke the Younger drew up and continually refined the Schlieffen Plan to meet this eventuality. The Plan committed Germany to an early offensive against France while Russia was still mobilising and also required the invasion of neutral Belgium, effectively discounting any realistic prospect of maintaining British neutrality. In Bismarck's German constitution the Kaiser commanded the army and also appointed the chancellor and his cabinet, who had no control of the military. The elected representatives in the Reichstag were needed to pass budgets, but aside from this had no power over the conduct of the government. This was one of the seeds of the mass destruction of the First World War, as military planning was not subject to political control. Thus, the Schlieffen Plan was adopted without political input, even though it required the violation of the neutrality of Belgium, which the Germans had guaranteed by treaty. Nor was the German Navy's high command informed. It failed to take adequate account of logistics and the inability of horse-drawn transport to supply troops far from rail-heads. The plan has been accused of being too rigid. The philosopher Manuel de Landa argues that the Prussian army now favored the Jominian theory, which gave preeminence to the Army and to its autonomy, compared to the civilian control advocated by Clausewitz.

To an extent, the General Staff became obsessed with perfecting the methods which had gained victory in the late nineteenth century. Although he maintained an icy formal demeanor, Moltke the Elder had been a flexible and innovative thinker in many fields. Schlieffen, by comparison, was a single-minded, brilliant military specialist.

Nor had the General Staff, before the war, considered the use of potential allies such as Turkey, or dissident factions within the French, British and Russian empires, to distract or weaken the Allied war effort. "A swift victory over the main armies in the main theatre of war was the German General Staff's solution for all outside difficulties, and absolved them from thinking of war in its wider aspects."

The General Staff mistakenly predicted that China would win the First Sino-Japanese War.

Organization
The General Staff was divided between the central Großer Generalstab in Berlin and the general staffs of the corps and division HQs. The head of the Großer Generalstab was the "Chief of the General Staff" and was also the technical superior of all general staff officers. The Chief of the General Staff's chief deputy held the title of Generalquartiermeister. Beneath them were the five Oberquartiermeisters, who supervised the heads of the General Staff departments. The Railroad Department had the largest number of officers assigned, while the Second Department was the most important.
 Chief of the General Staff
 Central Department
 6th Department: Annual Maneuver
 Military History Department II: Older wars
 Oberquartiermeister I
 2nd Department: Operations
 Railroad Department
 4th Department: Foreign Fortifications
 Oberquartiermeister II
 3rd Department: France and Great Britain
 9th Department: Netherland, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain, Italy, German Colonies
 Oberquartiermeister III
 5th Department: Operational studies
 8th Department: Kriegsakademie
 Oberquartiermeister IV
 1st Department: Scandinavia, Russia, Turkey
 10th Department: Austria-Hungary and the Balkans
 Oberquartiermeister V
 Military History Department I: Recent wars
 Archives and Library

World War I

In August 1914, following the pre-war mobilization plan, most of the General Staff, including the Oberquartiermeisters, were reassigned to the headquarters of the Armies and Corps. The remaining core became the "General Staff of the Field Army", part of the Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL, Supreme Army Command). The General Staff was streamlined into only three departments; Operations, Intelligence and Political Affairs.

The need for the system was promptly demonstrated when Supreme Commander Kaiser Wilhelm II proposed to concentrate against Russia, not France. Chief of the General Staff Helmuth von Moltke the Younger and Generalquartiermeister, Hermann von Stein convinced him that this was unthinkable because the thousands of orders could be quickly rewritten and because the French with their quicker mobilization and excellent railways would be attacking a German border in force long before the Russians. One of the eight German Armies was commanded by Crown Prince Wilhelm of Prussia, paired with Konstantin Schmidt von Knobelsdorf, a senior general staff officer  the kaiser instructed his thirty-two-year-old son: "whatever he advises you must do". The system also removed uncertainty about the competence of Army Commanders Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria and Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg, though both were well-trained soldiers. Other armies were commanded by highly experienced staff officers, for example Paul von Hindenburg was given command of the Eighth Army, the only one facing the Russians invading East Prussia, with Erich Ludendorff as chief of staff.

The interactions between a commander and his chief of staff were elucidated by a successful practitioner of both roles, Hans von Seeckt
The decision is taken in private, and when the two men come out, there is only one decision. They have amalgamated it; they share one mind with each other. Should the opinions have differed, in the evening of this happy day in a military marriage the two halves will no longer know who gave in. The outside world and military history will not have knowledge of a domestic quarrel. The competence of command and control is based on this fusion of the two personalities. It does not matter if the order bears the commander's signature, or if the Chief of Staff has signed it for the High Command (today 'For the commander') according to our old custom. The commander always issues his orders through his Chief of Staff, and even the most senior subordinate leader must submit himself to his orders without objection, because his orders will always be given on behalf of the supreme commander.

The Schlieffen Plan was scuttled when the shaken Moltke ordered the German right wing in France to retire during the First Battle of the Marne. Soon Moltke was replaced by Erich von Falkenhayn who was already the Prussian war minister. After failing to dislodge the Entente in Flanders, he put the Western Front on the defensive. He was replaced at the war ministry in early 1915, and in 1916 Hindenburg and Ludendorff took over as advisers to the supreme commander. They led OHL in aggressively intervening in German political and economic life, changing the original goal of defending Germany's borders to conquest and expansion. A consequence of wartime attrition was the premature deployment of Kriegsakademie students to army and corps general staffs, some of them before reaching their second year curriculum. Later, standards for General Staff assignment were altered due to the closure of the Kriegsakademie, to allow examined officers to serve as staff apprentices, raising concerns that these new General Staff Corps officers were not evaluated or trained at the level of those they were replacing.

Superior German staff work at division, corps and army level throughout the war was a major contributor to their run of successes. At the beginning of 1918  having defeated the Russians  Hindenburg and Ludendorff resolved to win in the west. Tactically, their staff work was brilliant. Using only weapons that had failed at Verdun, they devised a long, comprehensive list of measures to smash through enemy field fortifications, which were then taught to all ranks in the attacking units. The German Army had tactical success during the Spring Offensive, but the Allies held strategic points. They were sure that a series of successful breakthroughs would snap their enemy's resolve, ignoring the fact that each victory sapped German strength, while their foes were continually strengthened by Americans flooding into France. The Germans were overwhelmed during the Hundred Days Offensive, and eventually agreed to an Armistice of 11 November 1918 with the Allies.

Interwar period
The victors' fear was encapsulated by the clause in the Treaty of Versailles: "The Great German General Staff and all similar organisations shall be dissolved and may not be reconstituted in any form." The German Army was limited to 4,000 officers. The Weimar Republics armed forces, the Reichswehr, was led by Hans von Seeckt. He camouflaged the General Staff by renaming it the Truppenamt ("troop office"), and selected many General Staff officers to fill the available places. The War Academy (Kriegsakademie) was abolished, but training of General Staff officers continued, dispersed among the Wehrkreise (Military District) headquarters but overseen by tutors from the Truppenamt. General Staff officers continued to play major roles in the nation, most strikingly when former chief of staff Paul von Hindenburg was elected Reichspräsident in 1925.

When Adolf Hitler became Reichskanzler in 1933, he instructed the Truppenamt/General Staff to ignore the Versailles restrictions; he would create a greatly expanded Wehrmacht, including the Army, the Navy, and a new Air Force. A new War Academy (Kriegsakademie) was established in 1935. The General Staff advised Hitler that the Army could not be fully modernized until 1944 or 1945. When Hitler went to war in 1939, the tank columns were still followed by horse-drawn artillery pieces. Throughout the war, German industry was unable to furnish small arms in sufficient quantities, forcing the Army to rely heavily on older weapons, prizes of war, and adaptations of former designs produced in conquered countries, thus producing an arsenal filled with an array of incompatible pieces, unlike the smaller variety of standard small arms used by the Allies.

Initially, the Army's leaders feared that their leading role as the defenders of Germany would be usurped by the unruly SA, the Nazi party's political militia. When Hitler suppressed the SA in the Night of the Long Knives, the army stood aside and effectually acquiesced in the extrajudicial murders involved, including those of army officers. While the General Staff welcomed Hitler's expansion of the army, they were opposed to many of his wilder schemes and continually urged caution. When several of Hitler's early moves such as the remilitarization of the Rhineland, the Anschluss with Austria and the occupation of the Sudetenland succeeded despite advice from the General Staff that these might bring about a premature war with France and Britain, Hitler was further convinced that his intuition was superior to the General Staff's intellectual analysis.

When Hindenburg died, the Army replaced their oath to the constitution with one to the Führer Adolf Hitler. Hitler was soon able to curtail the Army's traditional independence, by the fortuitous disgrace of the commander in chief of the armed forces, Werner von Blomberg, and false accusations of homosexuality against the commander in chief of the army, Werner von Fritsch. (The combined scandals were known as the Blomberg–Fritsch affair.)

The armed forces command structure was changed by Hitler in 1938, with an Armed Forces HQ (the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, usually contracted to OKW) placed over the army command (Oberkommando des Heeres or OKH) and the other service commands, and almost entirely displacing the Reich War Ministry. However, OKW from its inception had generally weaker, more pliant staff officers than OKH and the Luftwaffe. A weakness of both the Kriegsakademie curriculum and General Staff doctrine was that it focused primarily on tactical and operational matters. There was no institution comparable to the United States National War College or the British Imperial Defence College where higher-ranking officers of all services could study wider economic, political and diplomatic issues related to broad strategy.

Since commanders were no longer selected by pedigree, the chiefs of staff were no longer joint commanders. Their role was The commander must be supported by obedient, independent and critical advising General Staff officers (Fuehrergehilfen). They provide him with information and advice, prepare decisions, turn them into orders and measures and supervise their execution. If necessary, they urge the commander to decide and act. Their thinking and actions must be guided by his will and intentions and must be determined by his decisions and orders.

World War II

Towards the end of the War of 1914 to 1918, the General Staff had almost wholly usurped the political power of the state. At the beginning of World War II, by contrast, its influence was less than it had been at the outset of the First World War and actually declined during the war.

In part this was due to the increasing pre-eminence of the other branches of the German armed forces, in particular of the Luftwaffe. The commander in chief of the Luftwaffe, Hitler's friend and political colleague Hermann Göring, always had personal influence with Hitler which no Army leader had. Another was the increasing tension between OKH and OKW. While the need for a joint headquarters to coordinate the work of all the services was desirable in theory, for example to determine industrial and manpower priorities and avoid duplication of effort, OKW was increasingly used as an alternate Army planning staff by Hitler. At the same time, OKW failed in its task of overseeing the overall war effort, resulting in wasteful diversion of resources to several competing and unregulated forces (such as the SS) responsible only to themselves or to Hitler alone.

After 1941, OKH was largely responsible for operations on the Eastern Front only (and administration of the army as a whole), while OKW directed operations on the other fronts. There were now effectively two general staffs, often competing with each other, with arbitration of all disputes in the hands of Hitler, further increasing his personal power. Finally, in late 1941, Hitler dismissed Field Marshal Walther von Brauchitsch, the commander in chief of the Army, and assumed direct command of the Army himself. From this time onwards, neither OKW nor OKH could independently plan or conduct operations, but merely implemented Hitler's often flawed commands.

At a lower level, training of General Staff officers continued, but the course was still almost as long, intense, and exclusive as in peacetime. Properly-trained staff officers became increasingly scarce, and in some cases newly qualified staff officers lacked the dedication or moral courage of their predecessors.

20 July plot

Before and during the early part of the war, some General Staff officers, notably the Chief, Franz Halder, considered a coup d'état to remove Hitler from power, and avoid what they believed would be a disastrous and premature war. They planned a coup as response to Hitler ordering war on Czechoslovakia to seize the Sudetenland, when Britain and France were opposed. But France and Britain capitulated at Munich, which removed the danger of war and justified Hitler's policy; the dissidents let the matter drop. In November 1939, Halder, still fearing the war would end in disaster, discussed a coup with Army C-in-C von Brauchitsch and Carl Goerdeler of the Schwarze Kapelle, but finally decided Hitler was untouchable until Germany met a "setback".

Opposition to Hitler nevertheless continued, including among the General Staff officers of the Ersatzheer ("Replacement Army"), which had charge of all new troops being organized in Germany for the field army. They set up Operation Valkyrie, in which Ersatzheer detachments would take control of Germany. On 20 July 1944, the conspirators tried to kill Hitler, thought they had succeeded, and initiated Valkyrie. But most line officers and the bulk of the General Staff refused to obey the Valkyrie plotters; when Hitler was known to be alive, the coup collapsed entirely.

However, many General Staff officers were clearly implicated in the plot, and the General Staff was revealed as a center of dissent. In the months after 20 July, several dozen General Staff officers were arrested and in most cases executed. Also, Luftwaffe, SS, or "National Socialist Leadership Officers" were appointed to positions normally occupied by General Staff officers in new or rebuilt formations.

Bundeswehr

On May 15, 1957, the first chief of staff of the Bundeswehr, General Heusinger, spoke at the opening of the new Army Academy (Heeresakademie), pointing out that General Staff officers are "the defenders and guardians of the values of German military tradition", extending back 147 years. German students are admitted to the Army Academy after studying at a Federal Armed Forces University (Universität der Bundeswehr) in Hamburg or Munich, followed by several years of line duty. Officers from other NATO countries are their classmates. The academy also teaches a 10-month Army General Staff Officer Course for officers from non-NATO countries.

In the Bundeswehr there are General Staff officers, but no General Staff officer branch or corps. The chief of staff of the Federal Armed Forces is the supreme military representative of the Bundeswehr and the principal military adviser to the Government. In the event of war the Federal Republic of Germany is the only NATO country which immediately relinquishes operational command over all combat units of her armed forces to NATO commanders. Hence the Bundeswehr does no operational defense planning, which was the classic task of former German General Staffs. Therefore, the role of the General Staff officer is as the adviser to an operational commander, "his main task is to advise his commander in all matters, and he is entitled to the commander's attention".

Most General Staff officers are graduates of the Federal Armed Forces Command and General Staff Academy (Führungsakademie) in Hamburg. General Staff officers are rotated through line commands to keep them familiar with everyday unit problems. General Staff officers are identified by crimson facings on their uniforms and by inserting "i. G." (im Generalstabsdienst) after their rank. Less than four per cent of officers are members of the General Staff. There are five General Staff officers in each Bundeswehr division. At the headquarters of Allied Forces Central Europe in Brunssum Netherlands there are roughly one hundred German officers, but only seventeen are General Staff officers.

The Bundeswehr retains the German army's tradition of mission-oriented command and control (Auftragstaktik). Moreover, "lower-rank officers are frequently superiors of higher-rank officers".

Leadership
† denotes people who died in office.

Chiefs of the Prussian General Staff

Chiefs of the German General Staff

First Quartermasters-General

Chiefs of the Troop Office

Chiefs of Staff of the Army High Command (OKH)

Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces High Command (OKW)

See also
 Glossary of German military terms
 Staff (military)

Notes

References

Printed sources

 Bucholz, Arden. Hans Delbrück and the German Military Establishment: War Images in Conflict. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1985.
 Bucholz, Arden. Moltke, Schlieffen and Prussian War Planning. New York: Berg, 1991

  largely derivative in nature (Goerlitz and others) but easy reading
  (New York: Crown ISBN shown)

 Hughes, Daniel J., ed. Moltke on the Art of War: Selected Writings. Novato, CA: Presidio, 1993.

 Mombauer, Annika. Helmuth von Moltke and the Origins of the First World War. Cambridge, GB: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

 Stoneman, Mark R. Wilhelm Groener, Officering and the Schlieffen Plan. PhD, Georgetown University, 2006. abstract

External links
 Franz Edelsheim, Operations Upon the Sea at gutenberg.org
"Not the Stuff of Legend: The German High Command in World War II" (video) – lecture by Dr. Geoffrey Megargee, author of Inside Hitler's High Command, available at the official YouTube channel U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center

Staff (military)
Military history of Germany
Military of Prussia
Military units and formations established in 1814
Military units and formations disestablished in 1945

German General Staff


تقع قرية (الموذحة) في جنوب الطائف في سلسلة جبال السروات وتبعد عن الطائف بحولي 120 كم مع مسار السيارات وتبعد بمسافة الافقية بـ80كم.

وهي قرية خصبة للزراعة وهي من أشهر القرى المجاورة بالزراعة حيث يزرع فيها العنب والرمان والخوخ والمشمش والتين واللوز الا انه في السنوات القليلة الماضية من عام 1429هـ قلت المياة في الابار من قلة الأمطار

يسكنها الفراشين والسيودة والخاطر ومن رجالها المشهورين الشيخ مسفر بن شايع ابن فرشان اشتهر بالكرم والشيخ عبد الله بن شايع و مبارك بن خضر وعواض بن رده السيد وسعد بن مبارك.

تقع القرية بين جبلين وهي المسطبحة والمشارق ومن أشهر الشعاب التي تصب فيها شعب الفراشين وشعب العيادين والصيق وشعب ابن بسيس.

أماكن مأهولة في منطقة مكة المكرمة

ابن فرشان


Kenneth Ronald "Ken" Berry (født 3. november 1933 i Moline, Illinois, død 1. december 2018 i Burbank, Californien) var en Oscar-vindende amerikansk komiker og skuespiller.

Eksterne henvisninger

Komikere fra USA
Skuespillere fra Illinois
Personer fra Moline
Hollywood Walk of Fame
Oscar for bedste mandlige birolle

Ken Berry


Takashi Koizumi (小泉堯史 Koizumi Takashi) (born November 6, 1944, in Mito) is a Japanese film director. After graduating from Waseda University, he served as an assistant director for Akira Kurosawa for many years.

Filmography

Awards

Nominations
 AFI Fest 1999:
 Grand Jury Prize for After the Rain
 Award of the Japanese Academy 2001:
 Best Director for After the Rain
 Award of the Japanese Academy 2003:
 Best Director for Letters from the Mountains
 Best Screenplay for Letters from the Mountains

Won
 Venice International Film Festival 1999:
 CinemAwenire Award in Best Film on the Relationship of Man-Nature for After the Rain
 São Paulo International Film Festival 1999:
 Mostra Special Award for After the Rain
 Portland International Film Festival 2001:
 Audience Award for Best First Film: After the Rain
 27th Fajr International Film Festival 2009 (Eastern Vista section):
 Best Screenplay for Best Wishes for Tomorrow

References

External links

 JMDb Listing (in Japanese)

Japanese film directors
Living people
1944 births

Takashi Koizumi


Louise Aaskov (født 8. juli 1994 i Aabenraa) er en dansk håndboldspiller, der spiller for Nykøbing Falster Håndboldklub. Hun kom til klubben i 2015. Hun har tidligere optrådt for HC Odense og SønderjyskE Håndbold.

Hun har op til flere U-landsholdskampe på CV'et. Hun var blandt andet med til at vinde guld til U18 VM i Montenegro i 2012.

Referencer
 Spillerprofil - HC Odense
 Hbold - Louise Aaskov
 Handball - Louise Aaskov
 Håndboldspiller ved et tilfælde

Personer fra Aabenraa
Håndboldspillere fra Danmark
Håndboldspillere fra SønderjyskE Håndbold
Håndboldspillere fra Nykøbing Falster Håndboldklub
Håndboldspillere fra HC Odense

Louise Aaskov