Çin (Geleneksel Çin yazısı: 中國; Basitleştirilmiş Çince: ; Hanyu Pinyin: Zhōngguó; Tongyong Pinyin: Jhongguó; Wade-Giles (Mandarin): Chung¹kuo²), ortak kültüre sahip bir bölge. Çin, binlerce yıllık tarihi ile dünyanın en eski medeniyet noktalarından biri ve uygarlığın beşiği olarak kabul edilmektedir. Çin tarihi yazılı kaynaklara göre 3500 yıldan fazla geriye uzanmaktadır. Yazılı Çin tarihi ise MÖ 1500'lerde Shang Hanedanı döneminden başlamaktadır.

Çin, aynı zamanda dünyanın en eski süreklilik arz eden medeniyet noktalarındandır. Bölgede hakim dil olan Çince dünyanın en eski sürekli kullanılan yazılı dillerindendir. İnsanlık tarihinin en önemli buluşlarından kâğıt, pusula, barut ve matbaa Antik Çin medeniyetine aittir.

Çin İç Savaşı'nın ardından "Çin" ismini kullanan iki devletin ortaya çıkması ile sonuçlanmıştır: Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti ve Çin Cumhuriyeti.

Çin İmparatorluğu
Çin İmparatorluğu, birçok hanedanlıktan oluşmuş ve imparatorluk idaresi 2100 sene sürmüştür. Lâkin Doğu Roma İmparatorluğu (Bizans) gibi farklı hanedanlar tarafından idare edildiği için Devlet-i Âliyye-i Osmâniyye gibi en uzun süre hükümranlık sürmüş bir devlet sayılmaz.

 Çin'in İmparatorluk Tarihi (M.Ö. 211 - M.S 1912) dönemlerine girer. Çin'in ilk imparatorluk hanedanı olan Çin Hanedanı ile başlayıp 1912 yılında Çing Hanedanı'nın devrilmesiyle Çin İmparatorluk dönemi son bulmuştur:
 İlk Çağ
 Çin Hanedanı, Han Hanedanı
 Orta Çağ
 Sui Hanedanı, Tang Hanedanı, Song Hanedanı,  Yuan Hanedanı
 Yeni Çağ
 Ming Hanedanı, Çing Hanedanı

Günümüz

Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti

Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti (ÇHC), çoğunlukla sadece Çin olarak anılır ve Çin Komünist Partisi tarafından tek parti rejimiyle yönetilmektedir. Başkenti Pekin'dir. Doğu Asya'daki anakara Çin topraklarını, Hong Kong ve Makao'yu kapsar. Dünyanın en kalabalık ülkesi ve en büyük ekonomilerinden biridir.

Çin Cumhuriyeti

Çin Cumhuriyeti, çoğunlukla sadece Tayvan olarak anılır ve tüm Çin'de hak iddia etmesine rağmen sadece Tayvan Adası ile çevreleyen adacıkları kontrol eder. 23 ülke tarafından tanınmaktadır. Başkenti Taipei'dir.

Ayrıca bakınız

Kaynakça

Çin

Çin (bölge)


Flucitozina (denumită și 5-fluorocitozină) este un antifungic, analog fluorurat al citozinei, fiind utilizat în tratamentul unor infecții fungice, cele mai importante fiind candidozele și criptococozele. Prezintă acțiune sinergică cu amfotericina B și poate fi utilizată și în tratamentul cromoblastomicozelor. Căile de administrare disponibile sunt orală și intravenoasă (pentru efect sistemic).

Flucitozina a fost obținută pentru prima dată în anul 1957. Se află pe lista medicamentelor esențiale ale Organizației Mondiale a Sănătății.

Note

Vezi și
 Amfotericină B
 Griseofulvină

Antifungice
Pirimidine
Organofluoruri
Medicamente esențiale listate de OMS

Flucitozină


මාර්ගගත පුවත්පතක් යනු පුවත්පතක අන්තර්ජාල පිටපත වේ. එය වෙන්වුනු ප්රකාශනයක් ලෙස හෝ මුද්රණය වාර වල අන්තර්ජාල පිටපත හෝ වියහැක.

පුවත්පත්

මාර්ගගත පුවත්පත්


Ginko (lat. Ginkgo), rod listopadnog crnogoričnog korisnog drveća čiji je jedini živi predstavnik Ginkgo biloba ili dvorežnjasti ginko. Ovaj rod čini samostalnu porodicu ginkovke (Ginkgoaceae), red ginkolike (Ginkgoales) i razred ginkovnice (Ginkgoopsida).

Rodu Ginkgo pripada i više fosilnih vrsta:
 †Ginkgo adiantoides (Ung.) Heer
 †Ginkgo apodes
 †Ginkgo coriacea
 †Ginkgo digitata
 †Ginkgo dissecta
 †Ginkgo gardneri
 †Ginkgo huttoni
 †Ginkgo patagonica Berry 1935
 †Ginkgo pluripartita Heer 1876
 †Ginkgo sibirica
 †Ginkgo wyomingensis Manum 1966
 †Ginkgo yimaensis

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

Ginkovnice

Ginko (biljni rod)


Montesano Salentino ist eine südostitalienische Gemeinde (comune) mit  Einwohnern (Stand ) in der Provinz Lecce in Apulien. Die Gemeinde liegt etwa 47 Kilometer von Lecce im Salento.

Geschichte
Die Gemeinde ist erstmals im 14. Jahrhundert erwähnt worden. Bis 1947 gehörte sie zur Nachbargemeinde Miggiano.

Gemeindepartnerschaft
Montesano Salentino unterhält Partnerschaften mit der Gemeinde San Donato di Ninea in der Provinz Cosenza sowie mit der griechischen Gemeinde Gallikos Kilkis in Zentralmakedonien.

Verkehr
Durch die Gemeinde führt die Strada Statale 275 di Santa Maria di Leuca von Maglie nach Santa Maria di Leuca.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Ort in Apulien

Montesano Salentino


"Gravity" er en sang fremført af sangeren Hovig, som deltog i Eurovision Song Contest 2017. Sangen opnåede en 21. plads.

Eksterne kilder og henvisninger

Singler fra 2017
Sange fra Eurovision Song Contest 2017

Gravity (Hovig sang)


El término colonia Independencia puede referirse:

a la colonia Independencia, en la alcaldía Benito Juárez de la Ciudad de México;
a la colonia Independencia, en Managua, Nicaragua;
a la colonia Independencia, en Monterrey, Nuevo León, México;
a la colonia Independencia, un distrito del departamento de Guairá, en Paraguay. Colonia independencia
 a la colonia Independencia''', en el municipio de Nicolás Romero Estado de México

Colonia Independencia


Soe steht für:
 Soe (Stadt), eine Stadt in Indonesien
 niederdeutsch für Traufgasse
 Kkwaenggwari, kleiner Flachgong in der koreanischen Musik

SOE steht für:
 Sony Online Entertainment
 Simplon-Orient-Express, von 1920 bis 1962 verkehrender internationaler Fernzug
 Special Operations Executive, eine britische nachrichtendienstliche Spezialeinheit im Zweiten Weltkrieg
 State-Owned Enterprise, Unternehmen im Staatsbesitz
 Südosteuropa
 Landkreis Sächsische Schweiz-Osterzgebirge

Soe ist der Familienname folgender Personen:
 Aee Soe (* 1996), myanmarischer Fußballspieler
 Thet Hein Soe (* 2001), myanmarischer Fußballspieler

Siehe auch:
 Zoe (Begriffsklärung)

Abkürzung

Soe


An Elymus kengii in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Nikolai Nikolaievich Tzvelev, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Da Fang Cui. An Elymus kengii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Elymus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Elymus

Elymus kengii


La monarchie nigériane est le régime politique en vigueur au Nigeria entre 1960 et 1963. Le Nigeria partage alors son monarque avec l'Australie, le Canada, le Royaume-Uni et d'autres États souverains appelés royaumes du Commonwealth.

Ancienne colonie britannique, le Nigeria obtient son indépendance le . La reine  reste chef de l'État et porte le titre distinct de reine du Nigeria. La quasi-totalité de ses pouvoirs constitutionnels sont exercés par le gouverneur général qui est son représentant dans le pays. En effet, comme les autres royaumes du Commonwealth, le système politique nigérian est basé sur le système de Westminster, dans lequel le chef de l'État joue un rôle purement honorifique.

La monarchie est abolie le , date à laquelle le Nigeria devient une république tout en continuant de reconnaître la reine  comme chef du Commonwealth. Le président du Nigeria remplace la reine comme chef d'État.

Histoire
Le , la fédération du Nigeria est créée en remplacement de la colonie et protectorat du Nigeria au sein de l'Empire britannique. La fédération demeure initialement une colonie britannique, avant de devenir indépendante, en qualité de royaume du Commonwealth, le  en vertu de la loi sur l'indépendance du Nigeria votée par le Parlement du Royaume-Uni.

La princesse Alexandra de Kent représente la reine  à la cérémonie d'indépendance. Elle s'envole le  pour Lagos, où elle est accueillie par une foule de plusieurs dizaines de milliers de personnes. Le , la princesse présente la Charte de la liberté à Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, Premier ministre du Nigeria. Le , la princesse ouvre officiellement le premier Parlement fédéral du Nigeria indépendant, au nom de la reine. Nnamdi Azikiwe, président du Sénat et gouverneur général désigné, invite la princesse à lire le discours du Trône. La reine adresse également un message aux Nigérians à cette occasion.

Rôle constitutionnel

Le Nigeria est l'un des royaumes du Commonwealth qui partagent la même personne comme monarque et chef d'État.

Après la loi de 1960 sur l'indépendance du Nigeria, aucun ministre du gouvernement britannique ne peut conseiller la reine sur les questions relatives au Nigeria. Pour toutes les questions relatives au Nigeria, la souveraine est conseillée uniquement par ses ministres nigérians. La reine est représentée dans le pays par un gouverneur général nommé par elle sur avis du Premier ministre nigérian.

Pouvoirs exécutif et législatif
Le gouvernement du Nigeria est officiellement connu sous le nom de gouvernement de Sa Majesté.

Le monarque, le Sénat et la Chambre des représentants constituent le Parlement du Nigeria. Toutes les lois du Nigeria ne sont promulguées qu'avec l'octroi de la sanction royale accordée par le gouverneur général au nom de la reine. Il peut réserver un projet de loi « au plaisir de Sa Majesté », c'est-à-dire refuser son consentement au projet et le présenter à la reine pour qu'elle prenne une décision personnelle ; il peut également y opposer son veto complet en refusant son assentiment. Le gouverneur général est également chargé de convoquer, de proroger et de dissoudre le Parlement. Le gouverneur général nomme le Conseil des ministres. Tous les ministres nigérians sont en fonction au gré du gouverneur général, qui peut les révoquer à sa discrétion.

La fédération du Nigeria compte quatre juridictions légales, une fédérale et trois provinciales, la souveraine revêtant une personnalité juridique distincte dans chacune d'elles. Bien qu'elle soit représentée par le gouverneur général au niveau fédéral, la reine du Nigeria l'est également par un gouverneur dans chacune des trois régions, Nord, Ouest et Est. Les gouverneurs sont nommés par la reine, sur recommandation du Premier ministre de chaque région.

Pouvoir judiciaire
Au sein des royaumes du Commonwealth, le monarque est chargé de rendre la justice à tous ses sujets, et est donc traditionnellement considéré comme la source de la justice. Au Nigeria, les infractions pénales sont légalement considérées comme des infractions contre la souveraine et les procédures pour les actes criminels sont engagées en son nom sous la forme  [nom]. Par conséquent, la common law considérant que la souveraine , elle ne peut pas être poursuivie devant ses propres tribunaux pour des infractions pénales. La plus haute cour d'appel du Nigeria est le Comité judiciaire du Conseil privé. La reine, et par extension le gouverneur général, peut également exercer la « prérogative royale de clémence » et gracier les infractions contre la Couronne, que ce soit avant, pendant ou après un procès.

Rôle culturel

Politique étrangère
La reine ou le gouverneur général dirige les traités, les alliances et les accords internationaux sur avis du Cabinet nigérian. Les représentants nigérians à l'étranger sont accrédités auprès des pays étrangers par la souveraine en sa qualité spécifique de reine du Nigeria. Le gouverneur général, au nom de la reine, nomme également les hauts-commissaires, les ambassadeurs et autres représentants principaux nigérians, et reçoit les diplomates similaires des États étrangers. Les lettres de créance sont délivrées par la reine.

Distinctions honorifiques
Au sein des royaumes du Commonwealth, le monarque est considéré comme le fons honorum (source d'honneurs). Ainsi, la souveraine, en tant que monarque du Nigeria, confère des récompenses et des honneurs au Nigeria en son nom. La plupart d'entre eux sont décernés sur l'avis du gouvernement de Sa Majesté.

Forces armées nigérianes

La reine du Nigeria est le commandant en chef des Forces armées nigérianes. La position de la souveraine à la tête des forces de défense se reflète dans les navires de la marine nigériane qui portent le préfixe HMNS (, c'est-à-dire ). L'armée et la marine nigérianes sont respectivement appelées « Armée royale nigériane » et « Marine royale nigériane ». Le terme « royale » est supprimé lors de l'abolition de la monarchie.

Titre de la reine

La reine  possède officiellement un titre différent dans tous les royaumes du Commonwealth. Jusqu'en 1960, le Nigeria fait partie de l'Empire britannique, et  y règne en tant que reine du Royaume-Uni. Après l'indépendance, un nouveau titre est adopté afin de préciser l'aspect distinct de la monarchie nigériane. À partir du , le titre de la reine au Nigeria est le suivant :

Initialement, la proclamation modifiant le titre royal ne prévoyait pas l'utilisation de la formule . Celle-ci a néanmoins été ajoutée au titre officiel. En yoruba, la reine est appelée familièrement  par le peuple nigérian.

Abolition de la monarchie
La monarchie étant impopulaire auprès des Nigérians, tous les partis politiques du Nigeria conviennent rapidement que le pays doit devenir une république. Le , la fédération du Nigeria devient la république fédérale du Nigeria, le président du Nigeria remplaçant  comme chef de l'État.

Le pays cesse d'être un royaume du Commonwealth, mais reste membre de l'organisation dirigée par  en tant que république du Commonwealth. Le gouverneur général, Nnamdi Azikiwe, devient le premier président du Nigeria à titre honorifique, conformément à la nouvelle Constitution républicaine. Bien qu'elle ait été reine du Nigeria pendant trois ans,  n'a jamais visité le pays sous ce titre. Elle s'y est rendue à deux reprises, du  au  (avant l'indépendance) et du  au  (pour assister à la réunion des chefs de gouvernement du Commonwealth à Abuja).

Articles connexes
 Histoire du Nigeria
 Liste des chefs d'État du Nigeria

Références

Histoire du Nigeria
Nigeria
Nigeria

Monarchie nigériane


Notoseris, rod glavočika jezičnjaća iz podtribusa Lactucinae, dio tribusa Cichorieae.

Rodu pripada devet vrsta trajnica koje rastu po Aziji (Kina s Tibetom, Assamu i Mjanmaru

Vrste
 Notoseris guizhouensis C.Shih
 Notoseris khasiana (C.B.Clarke) N.Kilian
 Notoseris macilenta (Vaniot & H.Lév.) N.Kilian
 Notoseris nanchuanensis C.Shih
 Notoseris porphyrolepis C.Shih
 Notoseris scandens (Hook.f. ex Benth. & Hook.f.) N.Kilian
 Notoseris triflora (Hemsl.) C.Shih
 Notoseris yakoensis (Jeffrey) N.Kilian
 Notoseris yunnanensis C.Shih

Izvori

Lactucinae

Notoseris


An Festuca vivipara in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Carl von Linné, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni James Edward Smith. An Festuca vivipara in nahilalakip ha genus nga Festuca, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Festuca

Festuca vivipara


Crypto AG was a Swiss company specialising in communications and information security founded by Boris Hagelin in 1952. The company was secretly purchased for US $5.75 million and jointly owned by the American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and West German Federal Intelligence Service (BND) from 1970 until about 1993, with the CIA continuing as sole owner until about 2018. The mission of breaking encrypted communication using a secretly owned company was known as "Operation Rubikon". With headquarters in Steinhausen, the company was a long-established manufacturer of encryption machines and a wide variety of cipher devices.

The company had about 230 employees, had offices in Abidjan, Abu Dhabi, Buenos Aires, Kuala Lumpur, Muscat, Selsdon and Steinhausen, and did business throughout the world. The owners of Crypto AG were unknown, supposedly even to the managers of the firm, and they held their ownership through bearer shares.

The company has been criticised for selling backdoored products to benefit the American, British and German national signals intelligence agencies, the National Security Agency (NSA), the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), and the BND, respectively. Crypto AG sold equipment to more than 120 countries, including India, Pakistan, Iran, and multiple Latin American nations although neither the Soviet Union nor People's Republic of China were customers of Crypto AG, several of their friendly countries had the company's equipment. On 11 February 2020, The Washington Post, ZDF and SRF revealed that Crypto AG was secretly owned by the CIA in a highly classified partnership with West German intelligence, and the spy agencies could easily break the codes used to send encrypted messages. The operation was known first by the code name "Thesaurus" and later the BND called it "Rubicon" () and the CIA called it "Minerva". According to a Swiss parliamentary investigation, "Swiss intelligence service were aware of and benefited from the Zug-based firm Crypto AG's involvement in the US-led spying".

History
Crypto AG was established in Switzerland by the Russian-born Swede, Boris Hagelin. Originally called AB Cryptoteknik and founded by Arvid Gerhard Damm in Stockholm in 1920, the firm manufactured the C-36 mechanical cryptograph machine that Damm had patented. After Damm's death, and just before the Second World War, Cryptoteknik came under the control of Hagelin, an early investor.

Hagelin's hope was to sell the device to the United States Army. When Germany invaded Norway in 1940, he moved from Sweden to the US and presented the device to the military, which in turn brought the device to the Signal Intelligence Service, and the code-breakers in Arlington Hall. In the end he was awarded a licensing agreement. 140,000 units were made during the war for American troops.

During his time in United States, Hagelin became close friends with William F. Friedman, who in 1952 became chief cryptologist for the National Security Agency (NSA) and whom Hagelin had known since the 1930s. The same year, Hagelin's lawyer, Stuart Hedden, became  deputy commander in CIA, Inspector General.

In 1948 Hagelin moved to Steinhausen in Switzerland to avoid taxes. In 1952 the company, which until then had been incorporated in Stockholm, also moved to Switzerland. The official reason was that it was transferred as a result of a planned Swedish government nationalization of militarily important technology contractors. A holding company was set up in Liechtenstein.

During the 1950s, Hagelin and Friedman had frequent mail correspondence, both personal and business alike. Crypto AG sent over new machines to the NSA and they had an ongoing discussion concerning which countries they would or would not sell the encryption systems to, and which countries to sell older, weaker systems. In 1958 when Friedman retired, Howard C. Barlow, a high-ranking NSA employee, and Lawrence E. Shinn, NSA's signal intelligence directory in Asia, took over the correspondence.

In June 1970, the company was bought in secret by the CIA and the West-German intelligence service, BND, for $5.75 million. This was effectively the start of Operation Rubikon. Hagelin had first been approached to sell to a partnership between the French and West-German intelligence services in 1967, but Hagelin contacted CIA and the Americans did not cooperate with the French. At this point, the company had 400 employees and the revenue increased from 100,000 Swiss franc in the 1950s to 14 million Swiss franc in the 1970s.

In 1994, Crypto AG bought InfoGuard AG a company providing encryption solutions to banks.

In 2010, Crypto AG sold G.V. LLC, a Wyoming company providing encryption and interception solutions for communications.

In 2018, Crypto AG was liquidated, and its assets and intellectual property sold to two new companies. CyOne was created for Swiss domestic sales, while Crypto International AG was founded in 2018 by Swedish entrepreneur Andreas Linde, who acquired the brand name, international distribution network, and product rights from the original Crypto AG.

In 2020, it was established following a parliamentary investigation that the Swiss government and its intelligence services were aware of the spying activities of Swiss-based Crypto for many years and had "benefited from the US-led spying".

The company and its history were the subject of BBC Radio 4's Archive on 4 programme in May 2021.

Products

The company had radio, Ethernet, STM, GSM, phone and fax encryption systems in its portfolio.

Machines:

C-52
CX-52
CD-57
HX-63

Compromised machines
According to declassified (but partly redacted) US government documents released in 2015, in 1955 (just after encryption was added to the US Munitions List on November 17, 1954) Crypto AG's founder Boris Hagelin and William Friedman entered into an unwritten agreement concerning the C-52 encryption machines that compromised the security of some of the purchasers. Friedman was a notable US government cryptographer who was then working for the National Security Agency (NSA), the main United States signals intelligence agency. Hagelin kept both NSA and its United Kingdom counterpart, Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), informed about the technical specifications of different machines and which countries were buying which machines. Providing such information would have allowed the intelligence agencies to reduce the time needed to crack the encryption of messages produced by such machines from impossibly long to a feasible length. The secret relationship initiated by the agreement also involved Crypto AG not selling machines such as the CX-52, a more advanced version of the C-52, to certain countries; and the NSA writing the operations manuals for some of the CX-52 machines on behalf of the company, to ensure the full strength of the machines would not be used, thus again reducing the necessary cracking effort.

Crypto AG had already earlier been accused of rigging its machines in collusion with intelligence agencies such as NSA, GCHQ, and the German Federal Intelligence Service (BND), enabling the agencies to read the encrypted traffic produced by the machines. Suspicions of this collusion were aroused in 1986 following US president Ronald Reagan's announcement on national television that, through interception of diplomatic communications between Tripoli and the Libyan embassy in East Berlin, he had irrefutable evidence that Muammar Gaddafi of Libya was behind the West Berlin discotheque bombing in 1986. President Reagan then ordered the bombing of Tripoli and Benghazi in retaliation.

Further evidence suggesting that the Crypto AG machines were compromised was revealed after the assassination of former Iranian Prime Minister Shapour Bakhtiar in 1991. On 7 August 1991, one day before Bakhtiar's body was discovered, the Iranian Intelligence Service transmitted a coded message to Iranian embassies, inquiring "Is Bakhtiar dead?" Western governments deciphered this transmission, causing the Iranians to suspect their Crypto AG equipment.

The Iranian government then arrested Crypto AG's top salesman, Hans Buehler, in March 1992 in Tehran. It accused Buehler of leaking their encryption codes to Western intelligence. Buehler was interrogated for nine months but, being completely unaware of any flaw in the machines, was released in January 1993 after Crypto AG posted bail of $1m to Iran. Soon after Buehler's release Crypto AG dismissed him and sought to recover the $1m bail money from him personally. Swiss media and the German magazine Der Spiegel took up his case in 1994, interviewing former employees and concluding that Crypto's machines had in fact repeatedly been rigged.

Crypto AG rejected these accusations as "pure invention", asserting in a press release that "in March 1994, the Swiss Federal Prosecutor's Office initiated a wide-ranging preliminary investigation against Crypto AG, which was completed in 1997. The accusations regarding influence by third parties or manipulations, which had been repeatedly raised in the media, proved to be without foundation." Subsequent commentators were unmoved by this denial, stating that it was likely that Crypto AG products were indeed rigged. Le Temps has argued that Crypto AG had been actively working with the British, US and West German secret services since 1956, going as far as to rig instruction manuals for the machines on the orders of the NSA. These claims were vindicated by US government documents declassified in 2015.

In 2020, an investigation carried out by The Washington Post, Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (ZDF), and Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen (SRF) revealed that Crypto AG was, in fact, entirely controlled by the CIA and the BND. The project, initially known by codename "Thesaurus" and later as "Rubicon" operated from the end of the Second World War until 2018.

The Swiss government's decision to impose export controls on Crypto International AG in the wake of the Crypto AG disclosures caused diplomatic tensions with Sweden, reportedly leading to the latter cancelling plans to celebrate 100 years of diplomatic relations with Switzerland. The export controls preventing Swedish authorities from obtaining equipment from Crypto International was reportedly a reason behind Sweden's decision.

See also
 Katharine Gun
Operation Rubicon (Crypto AG)
 Spying on United Nations leaders by United States diplomats

References

External links
 Website of the new Crypto International AG located in the same location as the old company in Steinhausen/Zug  (since 2018)
 Crypto AG and Operation Rubicon at the Cryptomuseum
 The intelligence coup of the century by Greg Miller at the Washington Post offering details on CIA's involvement with Crypto AG
La Suisse sous couverture, Episode 1 , Agents infiltrés, Radio Télévision Suisse , November 2019 (link to Youtube with subtitles in English)

Cryptography companies
Defence companies of Switzerland
Defunct companies of Switzerland
Technology companies established in 1952
Technology companies disestablished in 2018
Central Intelligence Agency front organizations
Swiss companies established in 1952
Swiss companies disestablished in 2018
Companies based in the canton of Zug

Crypto AG


حزب الأحرار الإشتراكيين المصري انشيء كمنبر سياسي عام 1976، تحول إلي حزب سياسي بإسم حزب الأحرار الإشتراكيين عام 1977 كواحد من ثلاث أحزاب مصرية بعد عودة الحياة الحزبية حزب التجمع «يسار» - حزب مصر «وسط» – حزب الأحرار «يمين» بزعامة / مصطفي كامل مراد ( أحد الضباط الأحرار ) وصدرت أول صحيفة معارضة في مصر تمثل الحزب (جريدة الاحرار1977). والرئيس الحالي للحزب الكاتب الصحفي/ طارق درويش وأمين عام شباب الجمهورية بالحزب الصحفي / شادى عبد السلام

والحزب له إصدارات عديدة من الصحف منها الأحرار اليومية اليومية وجريدة المواجهة الأسبوعية وهي لسان حال الحزب حاليآ.

وأيضآ جريدة النور ، حديث المدينة ، العامل المصري ، الأسرة العربية ، الحقيقة ، آفاق عربية ، الزملكاوية ، أخبار الصباح ، أخبار الصعيد ، المدينة الحره ، الأخبار الزراعية.

اوضاعه السياسية
 حصل في أول إنتخابات برلمانية علي 25 مقعدآ وتزعم المعارضة في مجلس الشعب، وإستطاع المشاركة في كل إنتخابات التي شهدتها مصر سواء برلمانية أو محلية ولديه مقرات في كل محافظات الجمهورية. ويشارك بفاعلية في الساحة السياسية.
 يملك 12 صحيفة ما بين يومية وأسبوعية وشهرية وهم (الأحرار– المواجهة – آفاق عربية - الحقيقة – حديث المدينة – العامل المصري – الأخبار الزراعية- أخبار الصعيد – المدينة الحرة الزملكاوية – النور – أخبار الصباح -- الأخبارالزراعية.
 توفي رئيسه مصطفي كامل مراد في 14 أغسطس 1998.
 وظل الحزب في نزاع حتي حسمت المحكمة الإدارية العليا ولجنة شئون الأحزاب رئاسة الحزب للكاتب الصحفي طارق درويش و إنهاء النزاع وعودة الحزب وصحفه للحياة السياسية المصرية
 في أغسطس 2020 أقرت المحكمة الإدارية العليا بأحقية الصحفي طارق درويش رئيسآ للحزب وأقرت لجنة شئون الأحزاب بالحكم وأصدرت قرار بتولي درويش رئيسآ للحزب في سبتمبر 2020 وهو الرئيس الفعلي للحزب الذي عاني نزاعات طويلة.
 إستطاع الكاتب الصحفي طارق درويش منذ توليه مسئولية رئاسة الحزب ضخ دماء جديدة من القيادات الشابة بجميع الأمانات المركزية والمحافظات.
 كما إستطاع الإنضمام إلي تحالف الأحزاب السياسية المصرية وشارك في العديد من المؤتمرات السياسية.
 في 2023 شارك الحزب بقوة في الحوار الوطني الذى دعا إليه الرئيس عبد الفتاح السيسي رئيس الجمهورية في حفل إفطار الأسرة المصرية عام 2022 وحضر أكثر من خمسون جلسة للحوار الوطني بمحاوره الثلاثة السياسي والإقتصادى والمجتمعي وقدم حزمة مقترحات وتوصيات لرفعها للسيد رئيس الجمهورية.

المراجع

اشتراكية ليبرالية
انحلالات سنة 2011 في مصر
أحزاب سياسية أسست في 1976
أحزاب سياسية أسست في 1977
أحزاب سياسية انحلت في 2011
أحزاب سياسية إسلامية في مصر
أحزاب سياسية سابقة في مصر
أحزاب ليبرالية في مصر
تأسيسات سنة 1976 في مصر

حزب الأحرار الاشتراكيين المصري


3M Arena at Mariucci ( ) is the home arena for the Minnesota Golden Gophers men's ice hockey team of the University of Minnesota. The arena is located on the Minneapolis campus and seats approximately 10,000 fans (9,600 in the main bowl plus club room and suite seating). The arena opened in 1993 and is named after John Mariucci, the longtime Gopher coach who is considered the "godfather of Minnesota hockey."  Under the gate is a quote from Mariucci: "Through these gates walk the greatest fans in college hockey." The ice sheet was Olympic sized () from 1993 to 2023, when construction began on reducing the rink floor size. The women's ice hockey team played at Mariucci from 1997 until 2002 when they moved to Ridder Arena, which is connected to Mariucci via a tunnel.

Features
Mariucci Arena has been host to prominent regional, national, and international competitions, including the 2005 and 2009 West Regional of the NCAA Men's Ice Hockey Championship, the 2006 NCAA Women's Division I Ice Hockey Tournament, and the 2006 World Short Track speed skating event.  3M Arena also hosted the inaugural Women's Frozen Four on March 23 and March 25, 2001.

The Minnesota State High School League state hockey tournament holds its consolation bracket at Mariucci. On March 19, 2022, 10,774 fans watched the Gophers take on the Michigan Wolverines in the B1G Tournament Championship Game, the largest crowd to watch a game at Mariucci Arena.

From 1950 to 1993 the hockey team played in the hockey arena section of Williams Arena. That arena was renamed Mariucci Arena in 1985. People now generally refer to that as the "old" Mariucci Arena.

In 2007, Sports Illustrated on Campus named Mariucci Arena one of the top ten venues in college sports. The facility was the only ice hockey arena to make the list.

Before the 2012-13 hockey season, the University of Minnesota upgraded Mariucci Arena, which saw the replacement of the old scoreboard with a new state of the art Daktronics videoboard and the addition of a fascia display that rings the arena.

In May 2014, a proposal for an $8 million renovation to the arena was announced. The renovations would include reducing the ice sheet to approximately , increased seating capacity, improved sightlines and an upgraded weight room. The proposed renovation would be funded privately. The reduced-size playing surface would allow for playing style to be more similar to the NHL, which has a standard .

On July 10, 2017, Maplewood-based 3M bought the naming rights of Mariucci Arena for  for 14 years.

In September 2020, the arena was again renovated by Gopher Athletics. The renovation spanned 11,000 square feet and included a new training center, a new 'M' Club alumni room and a remodeled office suite.

Ice surface reduction and renovation finally began with removal of the concrete arena rink base shortly after the March 18, 2023, Big Ten championship game.

References

Indoor arenas in Minnesota
College ice hockey venues in the United States
Indoor ice hockey venues in Minneapolis
Minnesota Golden Gophers ice hockey
Minnesota Golden Gophers sports venues
1993 establishments in Minnesota
Sports venues completed in 1993

3M Arena at Mariucci


Središnja knjižnica Roma u Hrvatskoj jedina je romska knjižnica u Europi. Jedna je od ukupno 11 središnjih knjižnica nacionalnih manjina u Hrvatskoj. U njoj se nalazi više od četiri tisuće književnih djela i časopisa na romskom, hrvatskom i drugim europskim jezicima. Knjižnica je zamišljena kao studijska, a ne klasična posudbena knjižnica. Knjižnica je otvorena 8. lipnja 2020. godine.

Prve su knjige u knjižnici bile dar saborskog zastupnika Veljka Kajtazija, a početni se fond knjižnice povećao donacijama i kupnjom, darom i razmjenom knjiga. Cilj je knjižnice raditi na prikupljanju sveobuhvatne građe o Romima, biti mjestom korištenja prikupljene građe u sadašnjosti te sakupljanja i arhiviranja građe za buduća vremena. Zadaća knjižnice je sistematično prikupljati izvore na temelju kojih će se učiti o tradiciji i jedinstvenosti romskog naroda, ali i njegove povezanosti i tragova koje su ostavili na putanji svojih putovanja. Rad ove knjižnice od velike je važnosti za očuvanje i promicanje romskog identiteta, jezika i kulture.

Središnja knjižnica Roma nastoji biti sinergijsko mjesto i obavijesni izvor građe kroz koju će se moći pratiti povijest i razvoj romskog naroda, njegovih putovanja, stradanja i postignuća kroz stoljeća. Knjižnica predstavlja interdisciplinarni prostor u kojem se razmjenjuju informacije i znanja. Njena je djelatnost podjednako posvećena povijesnim temama kao i praćenju recentnih stručnih publikacija i ostalih vrsta izvora. Izvori informacija temeljeni su na standardima i mjerilima kvalitete te profesionalnosti. Kao takva Središnja knjižnica Roma u RH u svojem se poslovanju vodi važećim Zakonom o knjižnicama i knjižničarstvu i pravilnicima.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

 Središnja knjižnica Roma u Republici Hrvatskoj

Vidi još
 Romi u Hrvatskoj
 Manjinski jezici u Hrvatskoj

Romi u Hrvatskoj
Romi
Knjižnice u Zagrebu

Središnja knjižnica Roma u Hrvatskoj


ديسين-شاربيو  بلدية فرنسية تقع في إقليم رون التابع لمنطقة رون ألب شرق فرنسا .

توأمة
لديسين-شاربيو اتفاقيات توأمة مع كل من:
 مونسومانو تيرمي

أعلام
 كامل رمضاني
 جوناثان مينديز
 رشيد غزال
 عبد القادر غزال
 قاي فيشر

مراجع

دوفيني
مدن فرنسا

ديسين-شاربيو


Jost Gippert  (; født 12. marts 1956 i Winz-Niederwenigern, nu Hattingen, Tyskland) er en tysk sprogforsker, forfatter og specialist i kaukasiske sprog. Gippert er professor i sammenlignende sprogvidenskab ved Institut for empirisk sprogvidenskab på Frankfurt Universitet.

Liv og karriere

Gippert tog studentereksamen fra Leibniz-Gymnasium i Essen-Altenessen i 1972 og studerede sammenlignende sprogvidenskab, indologi, japanologi og sinologi i Marburg og Berlin fra 1972 til 1977. Han har siden 1994 været professor i Frankfurt og han har været medlem af den videnskabelige akademi i Gelati (Georgien) siden 1996. Han er også medlem af Turfankommissionen siden 2002 og siden 2007 af den Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften.

I 1997 blev Gippert udnævnt til æresprofessor på Sulkhan Saba Orbeliani-Universitet i Tbilisi (Georgien). Han blev i 2009 udnævnt til æresdoktor på Ivane Javakhishvili-Universitet og på Shota Rustaveli-Universitet i Batumi (Georgien) i 2013. Hans forskning fokuserer på historisk lingvistik, sprogtypologi, elektroniske korpora, multimedie sprogdokumentation og elektronisk håndskriftanalyse.

Projekter
 1995-1998 (DFG): Avesta and Rigveda: Electronic Analysis
 1995-1999 (INTAS): The Georgian Verbal System
 1999-2002 (Volkswagen Foundation, EUR 117.900): Caucasian Languages and Cultures: Electronic Documentation
 Siden 2000 (DFG): Graduate School "Types of Clauses: Variation and Interpretation"
 2002-2006 (Volkswagen Foundation, EUR 167.800): Endangered Caucasian Languages in Georgia
 2003-2007 (Volkswagen Foundation): Palimpsest Manuscripts of Caucasian Provenience
 2005-2009 (INTAS): Georgian Gospels
 2005-2007 (Volkswagen Foundation, EUR 189.000): The Linguistic Situation in modern-day Georgia
 2008-2014 (DFG, EUR 240.000): Old German Reference Corpus
 Siden 2008 (BMBF): German Language Resource Infrastructure
 2009 (Volkswagen Foundation, EUR 400.000): Aché Documentation Project
 Siden 2009 (DFG/NEH, EUR 96,000): RELISH (Rendering Endangered Languages Lexicons Interoperable Through Standards Harmonization)
 Siden 2009 (Volkswagen Foundation): Georgian Palimpsest Manuscripts
 2010 (Google Inc., US$49.600): Corpus Caucasicum
 Siden 2011 (Hessian Ministry for Science and the Arts, EUR 3,792,000): LOEWE Research Unit "Digital Humanities – Integrated Processing and Analysis of Text-based Corpora"
 Siden 2011 (Volkswagen Foundation, EUR 299.600): Khinalug Documentation Project
 Siden 2011 (DFG): Relative Clauses in a Typological View
 Since 2012 (Volkswagen Foundation, EUR 390.400): Georgian National Corpus

Bibliografi

 1977: The syntax of infinitival formations in the Indo-European languages. (Europäische Hochschulschriften, 21/3), 360 pp.; Frankfurt, Bern, Las Vegas: Lang 1978. Dissertation
 1990: Iranica Armeno-Iberica. A study of Iranian loan words in Armenian and Georgian, 451 + 389 pp.; Vienna: Austrian Academy of Sciences 1993. Inaugural dissertation.
 2007: Gippert, Jost / Sarjveladze, Zurab / Kajaia, Lamara: The Old Georgian Palimpsest Codex Vindobonensis georgicus 2, edited by Jost Gippert in co-operation with Zurab Sarjveladze and Lamara Kajaia, 368 pp.; Turnhout: Brepols 2007.
 2008: Gippert, Jost / Schulze, Wolfgang / Aleksidze, Zaza / Mahé, Jean-Pierre: The Caucasian Albanian Palimpsests of Mount Sinai, 2 vols., XXIV + 530 pp.; Turnhout: Brepols 2009.
 2010: Gippert, Jost / Schulze, Wolfgang / Aleksidze, Zaza / Mahé, Jean-Pierre: The Caucasian Albanian Palimpsests of Mount Sinai. Vol. III: The Armenian Layer, edited by Jost Gippert., 220 pp.; Turnhout: Brepols 2010.

Noter

Eksterne henvisninger

 Jost Gipperts hjemmeside

Professorer fra Tyskland
Sprogforskning
Kaukasiske sprog

Jost Gippert


Busway steht für zwei Formen beschleunigter Omnibussysteme auf Eigentrassen:

ohne Spurführung, siehe Bus Rapid Transit
mit Spurführung, siehe Spurbus

Busway


La gare de Losheimergraben est une ancienne gare ferroviaire à la frontière entre la Belgique et l'Allemagne, sur la ligne 45A, de Jünkerath à Weywertz, à proximité du hameau de Losheimergraben dans la commune de Bullange en province de Liège, en Région wallonne.

Situation ferroviaire
La gare de Losheimergraben se trouvait au point kilométrique (PK) 2,3 de la ligne 45A, de Losheimergraben (frontière) à Weywertz. Avant le déplacement de la frontière, elle constituait le PK 23,3 entre la gare de Losheim (restée en Allemagne) et celle de Honsfeld, en Belgique. Son altitude de  en fit la gare la plus haute du réseau ferré belge de 1920 à sa fermeture.

Histoire
Le  par l'administration des chemins de fer de l'État de Prusse (Königlich Preußische Staatseisenbahnen) met en service la ligne de Jünkerath à Weywertz ainsi que la . Ces deux lignes locales doivent constituer un axe de pénétration entre la région de Bonn et les confins proches de la Belgique et du grand-duché de Luxembourg. Les infrastructures surdimensionnées en temps de paix joueront un rôle important lors de la Première Guerre mondiale pour le transport de troupes, d'armements ou de blessés continuant à travers la Belgique occupée. Losheimergraben est alors une modeste gare rurale où s'arrêtent des omnibus Jünkerath - Malmédy.

Elle accède soudainement au statut important de gare frontalière lors du rattachement des cantons de l'Est à la Belgique après l'Armistice allemand. Le nombre des voies de garage est augmenté et les trains de voyageurs doivent attendre 1928 pour traverser à nouveau la frontière.

La région est annexée par l'Allemagne en 1940 mais les frontières antérieures sont rétablies en 1945. Une fois réparées les destructions causées par la guerre, la desserte effectuée par autorails reprend, à nouveau limitée à Losheimergraben jusqu'en 1950. Le service international avec des trains de voyageurs venus d'Allemagne sera de courte durée car les trains de passagers de la ligne 45A sont supprimés en . Du côté allemand (Jünkerath - Losheim), ils disparaissent en 1963.

Les trains de marchandises sont remorqués par des locomotives allemandes jusque Losheimergraben. À partir de 1979, la desserte quotidienne passe à deux jours par semaine, le mardi et le jeudi, alors que la SNCB met en œuvre des parcours réguliers les lundis, mercredis et vendredis. Les marchandises en transit perdaient donc au-moins une journée en gare. Jusqu'en 1981, il subsistera cependant quelques parcours jusque Losheim tractés par des locomotives belges.

Après 1982, plus aucun train ne circule à l'est de Bullange mais la remise en état de la ligne est réclamée, pour des raisons stratégiques : raccourcir le trajet entre le Camp militaire d'Elsenborn et les bases militaires en Allemagne. Dans le même but, la ligne 45 (Trois-Ponts - Malmédy - Waimes) est concernée par ces travaux de reconstruction achevés en 1988-1989. Le changement de tracé qui en résulte sonnent le glas du trafic sur la section Raeren - Sourbrodt de la Vennbahn. Par ailleurs, l'ultime bâtiment de la gare de Losheimergraben est rasé.

Ce trafic militaire, combiné à quelques trains de marchandises ou d'excursion, ne dure qu'un temps et la section vers la frontière ferme définitivement en 1999. Le reste de la ligne est démonté en 2006-2007. Un chemin asphalté a remplacé les rails et se prolonge jusqu'à l'entrée de Jünkerath.

Patrimoine ferroviaire
La gare semble avoir connu trois bâtiments : une construction sans étage en bois hourdé de briques composée d'au-moins 3 parties ; la maison du chef de gare à proximité et un bâtiment en briques plus récent remplaçant celui d'origine détruit durant la Seconde guerre. Abritant le poste de block n°8, il était déjà abandonné en 1985, et sera détruit lors de la réfection des voies.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Liste de gares en Belgique
 Ligne 45A (Infrabel)
 Vennbahn

Liens externes

Gare disparue dans la province de Liège
Ligne 45A (Infrabel)
Gare mise en service en 1912
Gare

Gare de Losheimergraben


Le tournoi féminin de curling aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2022 se tient à Pékin, en Chine, du 10 au  dans le Centre national de natation de Pékin. Il s'agit de la huitième édition de ce tournoi depuis son apparition en 1924 et son retour au sein du programme olympique lors des Jeux de 1998 ayant eu lieu à Nagano.

Le tournoi est remporté par la Grande-Bretagne qui s'impose en finale face au Japon. La Suède, tenante du titre, termine troisième.

Préparation de l'événement

Calendrier

Équipes qualifiées

Compétition

Premier tour

 Qualifié pour la phase finale

, jeudi 10 février 2022, à 09h05

, jeudi 10 février 2022, à 20h05

, vendredi 11 février 2022, à 14h05

, samedi 12 février 2022, à 09h05

, samedi 12 février 2022, à 20h05

, dimanche 13 février 2022, à 14h05

, lundi 14 février 2022, à 09h05

, lundi 14 février 2022, à 20h05

, mardi 15 février 2022, à 14h05

, mercredi 16 février 2022, à 09h05

, mercredi 16 février 2022, à 20h05

, jeudi 17 février 2022, à 14h05

Phase finale

Demi-finales
Les demi-finales se déroulent le  à .

Match pour la médaille de bronze
Le match pour la médaille de bronze se déroule le  à 20h05.

Finale
La finale se déroule le  à .

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Feuilles de sessoin

Voir aussi

Article connexe
 Tournoi masculin
 Tournoi de double mixte

Liens externes
 Le site officiel du Comité international olympique

Femmes

Tournoi féminin de curling aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2022


Küriyum (kısaltması Cm) aktinitlerden, plütonyum 239'un helyum çekirdekleriyle bombardımanından elde edilen, atom numarası 96, atom ağırlığı 247 olan, radyoaktif bir element.

Glenn T. Seaborg'un ekibi tarafından bulunmuştur. Pierre ve Marie Curie'nin ismi verilmiştir. Elementin keşfi bir süre gizli tutulmuş daha sonra Kasım 1945'te açıklanmıştır. Çok nadir bulunması nedeniyle çok az kullanım alanı vardır. Mars seferinde kullanılan Alfa Proton X-ışını spektometresinde, alfa parçacığı olarak kullanılmıştır.

Kaynakça

Ayrıca bakınız
 Küriyum izotopları

Aktinitler
Elementler
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri icatları

Küriyum


حصار القدس في 1244  وقع هذا الحصار بعد الحملة الصليبية السادسة، عندما غزا الخوارزميون المدينة يوم 15 يوليو 1244 مع الأيوبيون بقيادة السلطان الصالح أيوب.

تسلسل الأحداث
قاد فريدريك الثاني إمبراطور الإمبراطورية الرومانية المقدسة الحملة الصليبية السادسة إلى الأرض المقدسة في 1228 وادعى ملكه للقدس لحق زوجته يولاندا التي ورثت لقب ملكة القدس.
وبسبب حجم الجيش وسمعته في العالم الإسلامي استعاد الصليبين القدس وبيت لحم والناصرة من المسلمين مع عدد من الحصون المجاورة بدون قتال. وذلك تم بمعاهدة مع السلطان الأيوبي الكامل محمد بن العادل، ولم تبق القدس طويلا في أيدي المسيحيين لأنها لم تكن محاطة بمناطق مسيحية.

دعا الأيوبيين عشائر الخوارزميون الشاردة بعد أن دمرت مملكتهم على يد المغول، ليستطيع بهم دخول مدينة القدس. وتم الحصار وفتح المدينة يوم 15 يوليو 1244 .

المصدر
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(1244)

آسيا في 1244
أوروبا في 1244
تاريخ القدس
حصارات القدس
حصارات الحملات الصليبية
حصارات في العصور الوسطى
الإمبراطورية الرومانية المقدسة في عقد 1240
مجازر ضد المسيحيين
مدن ممزقة
معارك الأيوبيين
معارك تشمل خوارزميون
نزاعات في 1244
مذابح القرن 13

حصار القدس (1244)


El Asesino del alfabeto o Asesino de inicial doble (Alphabet murder) violó y estranguló a tres niñas en Rochester, Estados Unidos en la década de 1970. Las víctimas fueron: Carmen Colón, Wanda Walkowicz  y Michelle Maenza; sus cuerpos fueron encontrados en una ciudad que comenzaba con la misma letra de su nombre, Churchville, Webster y Macedon.

Modus operandi
El asesino raptaba niñas que tenían las iniciales de sus nombres y apellidos iguales. Luego de violarlas y estrangularlas las dejaba en una ciudad o pueblo que tuviera la misma letra.

Víctimas
 Carmen Colón (10 años): Desapareció el 19 de noviembre de 1971. Fue encontrada dos días más tarde a 12 millas de donde fue vista por última vez. Aunque se encontró en la ciudad de Riga, la aldea de Churchville es el centro de la ciudad de la población y el pueblo de Chili está muy cerca.
 Wanda Walkowicz (11 años): Desapareció el 2 de abril de 1973. Fue encontrada al día siguiente en un área de descanso de la Ruta Estatal 104 en Webster, a siete millas de Rochester.
 Michelle Maenza (11 años): Desapareció el 26 de noviembre de 1973. Fue encontrada dos días más tarde, en Macedon, a 15 millas de Rochester.

Adaptaciones

Cine
 Detective con rubia (The Alphabet Murders, 1965): Guion de David Pursall y Jack Seddon. Dirección de Frank Tashlin. Protagonizada por Tony Randall, Anita Ekberg, Robert Morley y Maurice Denham, entre otros.
 The Alphabet Killer (2008): Protagonizada por Eliza Dushku, Cary Elwes y Timothy Hutton.

Televisión
 «The ABC Murders» (5 de enero de 1992). Primer episodio de la cuarta temporada de la serie Agatha Christie's Poirot, que había comenzado en 1989. Guion: Clive Exton. Dirección: Andrew Grieve. Intérpretes: David Suchet, Hugh Fraser, Philip Jackson, Donald Sumpter, Donald Douglas, Nicholas Farrell.  No tiene relación con este capítulo de la serie, ya que el mismo está basado en el libro de Ágatha Christie  "El asesino de la guía de ferrocarril", publicado en 1936.

Véase también
 El misterio de la guía de ferrocarriles de Agatha Christie
 The Alphabet Killer
 Anexo:Asesinos por número de víctimas

Referencias

Alfabeto
Historia del estado de Nueva York
Asesinos en serie no identificados
Delitos contra los niños

Asesino del alfabeto


Sir James Michael Ah Koy, dit Jim Ah Koy, né à Lautoka le , est un riche homme d'affaires, homme politique et diplomate fidjien.

Biographie

Débuts et carrière politique
Il naît aux Fidji d'une mère fidjienne autochtone de l'île de Kadavu, et d'un père d'origine chinoise.

Il se présente une première fois sans succès comme candidat indépendant aux élections législatives fidjiennes de 1966, recevant 18,4 % des voix dans la circonscription Centre et étant largement battu par le candidat du parti de l'Alliance, Douglas Walkden-Brown. Pour autant, il est proche du chef du parti de l'Alliance et chef du gouvernement, Ratu Kamisese Mara, et est assis près de lui lors de la cérémonie marquant l'indépendance des Fidji de l'Empire britannique en 1970. Il entre à la Chambre des représentants comme député de ce parti aux élections de 1982, et y est réélu à celles de 1987. Il soutient le coup d'État ethno-nationaliste autochtone de 1987, et c'est comme membre du mouvement mené par l'auteur du coup d'État, Sitiveni Rabuka, qu'il retrouve un siège de député aux élections de 1994. Il est alors nommé ministre du Commerce, des Industries, du Commerce extérieur et des Entreprises publiques dans le gouvernement de celui-ci. Fait ministre des Finances et du Développement économique en 1997, et héritant d'une économie en récession, il applique une dévaluation de 20 % du dollar fidjien. Il est largement réélu député aux élections de 1999, mais le gouvernement Rabuka perd ces élections et James Ah Koy siège donc sur les bancs de l'opposition à la Chambre des représentants. De 2001 à 2006 il est sénateur, nominé par le Grand Conseil des Chefs. Il tente sans succès de retrouver un siège à la Chambre des représentants aux élections de 2006.

Prises de position
James Ah Koy est un chrétien évangélique. Son réseau d'entreprises Kelton Group, dont il est le président fondateur, publie et distribue gratuitement en 2010 une nouvelle traduction de la Bible en fidjien, rédigée avec le financement de la Ah Koy Christian Trust, organisme de prosélytisme établi par James Ah Koy. En 2012, il exprime le souhait que les Fidji deviennent constitutionnellement un État chrétien.

Diplomate
De 2007 à 2010, il est l'ambassadeur des Fidji en République populaire de Chine.

Homme d'affaires
James Ah Koy est le directeur de plusieurs dizaines d'entreprises, implantées aux Fidji, en Australie, en Nouvelle-Zélande, en Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée, aux Samoa, aux Tonga et au Vanuatu. Il est multi-millionnaire.

Ce sont ses activités d'entrepreneur qui lui valent se voir conférer en 2005 un titre d'ali'i (chef coutumier samoan) par le gouvernement samoan de Sailele Malielegaoi pour ses contributions à l'économie des Samoa, et en 2006 d'être fait chevalier commandeur de l'ordre de l'Empire britannique par la reine de Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée, Élisabeth II, à la demande de son Premier ministre Sir Michael Somare, pour ses contributions au monde de l'entreprise. En 2020, il est fait compagnon de l'ordre des Fidji.

Références

Personnalité fidjienne du monde des affaires
Personnalité politique fidjienne
Ministre fidjien des Finances
Diplomate fidjien du XXIe siècle
Chevalier commandeur de l'ordre de l'Empire britannique
Naissance à Lautoka
Naissance en novembre 1936

James Ah Koy


Klein Rönnau er en by og en kommune i det nordlige Tyskland, beliggende i Amt Trave-Land under Kreis Segeberg. Kreis Segeberg ligger i den sydøstlige del af delstaten Slesvig-Holsten.

Geografi
Klein Rönnau ligger nord for Bad Segeberg mellem søerne Großer Segeberger See, Ihlsee og Klüthsee.
Bundesstraße B 432 går gennem kommunen. Trods navnet har kommunen betydeligt flere índbyggere end den mod vest liggende Groß Rönnau, der til gengæld har større areal.

Eksterne kilder/henvisninger

 Kommunens websted
 Statistikamt Nord – Bevölkerung der Gemeinden in Schleswig-Holstein 4. Quartal 2014 (XLSX-Data) (Fortschreibung auf Basis des Zensus 2011)

Byer i Slesvig-Holsten
Kommuner i Slesvig-Holsten
Byer i Kreis Segeberg

Klein Rönnau


كلب الحراسة  يعتبر الطريقة المثالية قديماً في الحفاظ على الممتلكات سواءً كانت من المواشي أو غيرها. وفي الوقت الحالي لم يعد وجودها ملاحظا مثل السابق بسبب تعدد اساليب الحماية الحديثة كأجهزة الإنذار والحراس وغيرهما.

أشهر أنواع كلاب الحراسة

 الجيرمان شيبرد أو كلب الراعي الألماني  ''

البلد : ألمانيا
الارتفاع : من 55 إلى 60 سم
الوزن : 30 إلى 50 كيلوجرام
اللون : أسود، أسود + بني مصفر، أبيض.
الميزة : كلب ذكى وسريع الأستيعاب، حارس جيد، يصلح لجميع المهام والأعمال، سهل الترويض.

 الدانماركي العظيم
البلد : ألمانيا
الارتفاع : يصل إلى 100 سم
الوزن : يصل إلى 100 كيلوجرام تقريبا
اللون : له عدة ألوان
الميزة : يعتبر من أكبر الكلاب في العالم، حارس مخلص وقوي.

 مالينو
البلد : بلجيكا
الارتفاع : من 54 إلى 60 سم
الوزن : أوزان مختلفة
اللون : بني، بني فاتح بمقدمة وجه سوداء
الميزة : قوي، شجاع، مرن، حارس مثالي.

 بوكسر
البلد : ألمانيا
الارتفاع : من 60 إلى 75 سم
الوزن : من 24 إلى 35 كيلوجرام
اللون : أسمر مائل إلى الصفرة، عدة ألوان
الميزة : ذكي، مندفع، شجاع، قوي، صلب، حارس مخلص.

 بول ماستف
البلد : بريطانيا
الارتفاع : 70 سم
الوزن : 65 كيلوجرام
اللون : ألوان فاتحة
الميزة : ضخم، شجاع، شرس وقوي.

 الدوبرمان  و بالمغربية (أسلوگية)التي تتجول كتيرا في المغرب خصوصا لدى البنات

البلد : ألمانيا
الارتفاع : من 60 إلى 70 سم
الوزن : 25 كيلوجرام
اللون : أسود + بني
الميزة : ذكاء حاد، اخلاص مستميت، عدوانية فائقة تجاه الغريب، مطيع.

 البوردوكس
البلد : فرنسا
الارتفاع : 54 إلى 68 سم
الوزن : 50 كيلوجرام تقريبا
اللون : أسمر مائل للصفرة قليل
الميزة : مدافع شرس يستخدم في مجال الشرطة في فرنسا.

 روت وايلر
البلد : ألمانيا
الارتفاع : من 60 إلى 65 سم
الوزن : من 24 إلى 32 كيلوجرام
اللون : أسود، أسود + بني فاتح
الميزة : قوي، عنيف وشرس، مدافع، عنيد، حارس مثالي.

 اوفتشاركا
البلد : روسيا
الارتفاع : من 64 إلى 78 سم
الوزن : من 46 إلى 73 كيلوجرام
اللون : متعدد الألوان، أبرزها الأبيض والبني
الميزة : ضخم، هجومي جدا وشرس، مدافع شديد. حارس متفاني.

  كلـب جبال البرانس
كلـب جبال البرانس أو (كلب البرانس الجبلي) سلالة أمريكية، كبير وحارس جيد
مطيع لصاحبه وحظر جداً من الغرباء. يقدر وزنه من 45 إلى 73 كيلوجرام.
مميزاته : شجاع، مطيع جداً، يضحي بنفسه من أجل صاحبه.
خلال الحرب العالمية أستخدمت هذه الكلاب في عملية نقل المدفعية من أسبانيا إلى فرنسا عبر جبال البرانس.

  كلب الجبال السويسرية
كلـ ـب الجبال السويسرية (جريت سويس ماونتن) هو كلـ ـب ضخم، عضلي وذو ثلاثة ألوان
فصيلة سويسرية، حجمها من 60 إلى 70 كيلوجرام، لديها غريزة حازمة وقوية.
تدريبها مهم جداً.

 كلب الحراسة الروسي The Moscow Watchdog
كلب حراسة روسي، وهي سلالة جديدة نسبياً حيث تم تهجينها بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية. مطيع للأوامر، حذر، مطلوب بشدة من قبل مربي الكلاب

 كلب الكوموندور Komondor تعتبر هذه السلالة من الكلاب الشجاعة، ولها استقلال في التفكير ، ووفائه، وأكثر نشاطاً ممّا يبدو من مظهره الخارجيّ، وتم استخدامه لرعي الأغنام في السهول

انظر أيضًا
 كلب بوليسي

مراجع

أنواع الكلاب
سلالات كلاب
قوائم السلالات
الكلاب في الحرب
قوائم الكلاب

كلب حراسة (حيوان)


An Stolzia atrorubra in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Rudolf Mansfeld. An Stolzia atrorubra in nahilalakip ha genus nga Stolzia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Stolzia (Orchidaceae)

Stolzia atrorubra


RFA Nasprite (A252) was a Sprite-class tanker of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary. She served during the Second World War.

She was laid up in reserve at Devonport on 31 August 1954, and put up for disposal in August 1963. She arrived at Amsterdam for scrapping at Willebroek on 5 February 1964.

References

Sprite-class tankers
Tankers of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary
1940 ships

RFA Nasprite


David Wechsler () a fost un psiholog româno-american. El a dezvoltat scale de inteligență bine cunoscute, cum ar fi Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) și Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC).

Biografie

Wechsler s-a născut într-o familie de origine evreiască din Lespezi, România și a emigrat împreună cu părinții săi în Statele Unite ale Americii când era copil. A studiat la Colegiul Municipal din New York și la Universitatea Columbia, unde a obținut diploma de master în 1917 și doctoratul în 1925 sub conducerea lui Robert S. Woodworth. În timpul Primului Război Mondial, el a lucrat cu armata americană pentru a dezvolta teste care să servească la examinarea noilor recruți, sub tutela lui Charles Spearman și Karl Pearson.

După scurte perioade în care a locuit în diferite locuri (inclusiv cinci ani în practica privată), Wechsler a devenit medic-șef al Bellevue Hospital Center în 1932, unde a rămas până în 1967. El a murit în 1981, când testele sale psihologice deveniseră deja foarte respectate.

Note

Nașteri în 1896
Decese în 1981
Psihologi americani
Americani de origine româno-evreiască
Absolvenți ai Universității Columbia
Români expatriați în Statele Unite ale Americii

David Wechsler


Gordon est une ville australienne située dans la zone d'administration locale de Ku-ring-gai, dont elle est le chef-lieu, dans l'agglomération de Sydney en Nouvelle-Galles du Sud.

Géographie
Gordon est située à  au nord du quartier central de Sydney.

Démographie
La population s'élevait à  en 2011 et à  en 2016.

Références

Liens externes

Ville en Nouvelle-Galles du Sud

Gordon (Nouvelle-Galles du Sud)


Eray Birniçan (* 20. Juli 1988 in Bakırköy, Istanbul) ist ein türkischer Fußballtorhüter.

Karriere
Eray Birniçan begann mit dem Vereinsfußball in der Jugend seines Istanbuler Heimatvereins Yıldırım Bosnaspor. 2003 erhielt er von seinem Verein einen Profi-Vertrag, spielte aber vorerst überwiegend für die Reservemannschaft. Im Laufe der Saison bekam er neben seiner Tätigkeit bei der zweiten Auswahl die Möglichkeit auch bei der Profi-Mannschaft zu trainieren. So kam er in drei Spielzeiten zu sechs Ligaeinsätzen für das Profi-Team.

In der Winterpause der Saison 2005/06 wechselte er zum Süper-Lig-Klub Konyaspor. Obwohl er für das Profi-Team geholt wurde, kam er hier nur selten zum Einsatz und spielte überwiegend in der zweiten Auswahl.

Um ihm Spielpraxis zu ermöglichen wurde er in der Spielzeit 2008/09 an den Zweitligisten Samsunspor ausgeliehen. Auch hier wurde er selten für das Profi-Team eingesetzt und spielte eher für die Reserve.

Zur Saison 2009/10 kehrte er zu Konyaspor zurück. In der Zwischenzeit stieg Konyaspor von Süper Lig in die Bank Asya 1. Lig ab. Trotz der Tatsache, dass Konyaspor jetzt eine Liga tiefer spielte kam Birniçan nicht zu regelmäßigen Spieleinsätzen. So äußerte  Birniçan am Saisonende den Wunsch, den Klub verlassen zu wollen.

Zur Saison 2010/11 wechselte er zum Süper-Lig-Team Gaziantepspor. Während er in seiner ersten Saison noch zu zwei Ligaeinsätzen kam, wurde er in der Spielzeit 2011/12 gar nicht eingesetzt.

Am 9. August 2013 unterschrieb Birniçan einen Zweijahresvertrag bei Çaykur Rizespor.

Nach einer Saison bei Rizespor kehrte er bereits im Sommer 2014 zu seinem alten Verein Gaziantepspor zurück. Bereits nach einer Saison heuerte er beim Ligarivalen Kasımpaşa Istanbul an.

Nationalmannschaft
Eray Birniçan durchlief über die Jahre die türkischen U-17, U-18, U-19 und U-21 Juniorennationalmannschaften. 2005 nahm er mit der türkischen U-17 an der U-17-Fußball-Weltmeisterschaft 2005 teil und belegte mit seiner Mannschaft den vierten Platz. Zum Kader gehörten Spieler wie Nuri Şahin und Deniz Yılmaz.

Erfolge
 Mit Gaziantepspor
 Spor-Toto-Pokalsieger: 2012

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Fußballtorhüter (Alanyaspor)
Fußballtorhüter (Çaykur Rizespor)
Fußballtorhüter (Gaziantepspor)
Fußballtorhüter (Kasımpaşa Istanbul)
Fußballtorhüter (Konyaspor)
Fußballtorhüter (Samsunspor)
Geboren 1988
Türke
Mann

Eray Birniçan


X Ambassadors ( prescurtat XA) este o trupă de rock alternativ din Ithaca, New York. Trupa a avut hit-uri precum "Unconsolable", "Jungle" și "Renegades". Albumul complet de debut al trupei, intitulat VHS, a fost lansat pe 30 iunie 2015.

Istoria

2009-12: Ambasadorss EP și Litost
X Ambassadors a început ca o trupă intitulată simplu Ambassadors, care concerta ca artiști precum Lights. În acest timp , membrii trupei și-au pregătit primul album, numit ET și videoclipul single-ului Tropisms. La scurt timp după, trupa a lansat albumul LP,  care a inclus piesa "Litost", piesă folosită la coloana sonoră a filmului Gazdă. Trupa a semnat în 2012 un contract cu SONGS Music Publishing. Trupa a început să lucreze cu  Kickstarter  pentru a înregistra videoclipul piesei "Unconsolable," piesă întregistrată mai târziu. "Unconsolable" a fost inclusă în albumul Love Sings Drug Songs EP. Grupul a fst contactat de către Imagine Dragons în timp ce solistul Dan Reynolds era internat în spitalul din Norfolk, Virginia. Reynolds a auzit  versiunea acustică a piesei "Unconsolable"  și-a cerut casei de discuri Interscope să semneze cu trupa, cât mai curând posibil.

2013-14: Love Songs Drug Songs EP and The Reason EP
X Ambassadors a lansat albumul EP, Love Songs Drug Songs în 2013. EP include și track-ul Stranger scris de Dan Reynolds. În promovarea EP au fost sprijiniți de Imagine Dragons, Jimmy Eat World si Mowglis. În 2014, trupa a lansat a doua parte a EP, The Reason.

Influențe
Într-un interviu acordat lui Caitlin White, X Ambassadors s-au declarat ca fiind o trupă rock care a preluat câteva influențe asociate trupelor de indie Ei fac referire la Incubus și Red Hot Chili Peppers, trupe de la care s-au inspirat.

Membrii
X Ambassadors este formată din patru membrii: Sam Harris (voce, chitară, saxofon), Casey Harris (keyboard), Noah Feldshuh (chitară) și Adam Levin (baterie).

Sam Harris și Casey Harris sunt frați, și s-au împrietenit cu Feldshuh de la grădiniță, în Ithaca. Sam s-a intalnit cu Levin în timp ce studia la New School în New York City, în anul 2006.

Casey Harris este orb din naștere.

Note

Legături externe

2012 în muzică
Formații rock alternativ
Formații americane

X Ambassadors


An Sorghum versicolor in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Nils Johan Andersson. An Sorghum versicolor in nahilalakip ha genus nga Sorghum, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Sorghum

Sorghum versicolor


ثَوْيِبة الأسلمية، هي مرضعة النبي محمد، وجارية عمّه أبي لهب.

حياتها
هي ثُوَيبَةَ مولاة أبي لهب، وروي أنها أول مرضعة للنبي ، وأخرج ابْنُ سَعْدٍ من طريق برة بنت أبي تجراة أن أوَّل من أرضع رسول الله  ثويبة بلبن ابن لها يقال له مسروح أيامًا قبل أن تقدم حليمة، وأرضعت قبله حمزة، وبعده أبا سلمة بن عبد الأسد.

وقال ابْنُ مَنْدَه: اختلف في إسلامها، وقال أبو نعيم: لا أعلم أحدًا أثبت إسلامها، وفي باب من أرضع النبي  من طبقات ابن سعد ما يدل على أنها لم تسلم. وروى ابْنُ أسْعَدَ عن غير واحد من أهل العلم؛ قالوا: كانت ثويبة مرضعة رسول الله  يصلها وهو بمكة، وكانت خديجة تكرمها، وهي على ملك أبي لهب، وسألته أن يبيعها لها فامتنع، فلما هاجر رسول الله  أعتقها أبو لهب، وكان رسول الله  يبعث إليها بصلة وبكسوة حتى جاء الخبر أنها ماتت سنة سبع مرجعه من خيبر، ومات ابنها مسروح قبلها. وقال ابن حجر العسقلاني: ولم أقف في شيء من الطرق على إسلام ابنها مسروح، وهو محتمل.

بينما ينكر ويُشكك بعض علماء الشيعة بإرضاع ثويبة للنبي محمد، ويقول السيّد جعفر مرتضى العاملي: .

المراجع

أمهات الرسول
بنو أسلم
بنو عامر بن نزار
صحابيات
عبيد
مرضعات الرسول
نساء القرن 7
وفيات 629
وفيات 7 هـ

ثويبة


Sittingbourne es una villa del distrito de Swale, en el condado de Kent (Inglaterra).

Geografía
Según la Oficina Nacional de Estadística británica, Sittingbourne tiene una superficie de 8,62 km².

Demografía
Según el censo de 2001, Sittingbourne tenía 39 974 habitantes (48,98% varones, 51,02% mujeres) y una densidad de población de 4637,35 hab/km². El 21,73% eran menores de 16 años, el 71,43% tenían entre 16 y 74 y el 6,84% eran mayores de 74. La media de edad era de 37,67 años.

El 94,36% eran originarios de Inglaterra y el 2,18% de otras naciones constitutivas del Reino Unido, mientras que el 1,39% eran del resto de países europeos y el 2,07% de cualquier otro lugar. Según su grupo étnico, el 98,09% de los habitantes eran blancos, el 0,68% mestizos, el 0,71% asiáticos, el 0,24% negros, el 0,22% chinos y el 0,07% de cualquier otro. El cristianismo era profesado por el 76,09%, el budismo por el 0,12%, el hinduismo por el 0,29%, el judaísmo por el 0,06%, el islam por el 0,39%, el sijismo por el 0,1% y cualquier otra religión por el 0,23%. El 15,21% no eran religiosos y el 7,51% no marcaron ninguna opción en el censo.

Del total de habitantes con 16 o más años, el 27,16% estaban solteros, el 54,08% casados, el 2,6% separados, el 8,07% divorciados y el 8,09% viudos. Había 16 022 hogares con residentes, de los cuales el 25,81% estaban habitados por una sola persona, el 8,54% por padres solteros con o sin hijos dependientes, el 41,29% por parejas casadas y el 10,49% sin casar, con o sin hijos dependientes en ambos casos, el 9,22% por jubilados y el 4,65% por otro tipo de composición. Además, había 405 hogares sin ocupar y 33 eran alojamientos vacacionales o segundas residencias.

Ciudades hermanadas
Sittingbourne están hermanadas con las siguientes ciudades:

  Ypres, Flandes Occidental, Flandes, Bélgica, (desde 1964).

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Kent

Sittingbourne


Landmark College is a private college in Putney, Vermont, designed exclusively for students who learn differently, including students with a learning disability (such as dyslexia), ADHD, autism or executive function challenges.

Established in 1985, Landmark College was the first institution of higher learning to pioneer college-level studies for students with dyslexia.

Offering associate and bachelor's degree programs in the liberal arts and sciences, Landmark College is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education (NECHE).

History
The campus the college occupies originally belonged to Windham College. After Windham shuttered in 1978, the campus remained unused. Plans for a prison and for a conference center fell through. Putney Selectman Peter Shumlin was instrumental in persuading the government to allow Landmark School in Beverly, Massachusetts, to start a college on the dormant campus. Landmark College was established in 1985.

Lynda Katz  was president from 1994 to 2011, when Peter Eden took the helm.

Landmark began offering bachelor's degrees in 2012.

The college built a $9.6 million, 28,500 square foot science and technology center named the MacFarlane Building in 2015. It was the first building erected since the college's founding.

Educational approach
Applicants are required to document average to above average intelligence with the ability to complete college level work; along with a condition that impairs learning, such as dyslexia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or autism spectrum disorder. All students are offered personal, directed assistance in their studies. The student to faculty ratio of 6:1 is small by postsecondary standards. Classroom faculty employ universal design principles, integrated assistive technology elements, individualized attention, and multi-modal teaching strategies in their courses.

Costs
Tuition and fees for 2022–23 were $76,680, making it the 50th most expensive college according to The National Center for Education Statistics. Tuition and fees for the 2015–2016 year were $51,330. In 2015, it topped CNN Money's list of most expensive colleges. It was also the most expensive four-year, private non-profit by list price according to the Department of Education's rankings for the 2012–2013 year; fees including room and board were reported to be $59,930 in 2013 and $61,910 in 2015. Scholarships of up to $30,000 are available.

Students
Students come from across the United States and from around the world to attend Landmark College. The average age is 20 years, and about 97% of students live on campus. The male-to-female student ratio is about 3:1, which reflects the higher number of males who are diagnosed with conditions that affect learning. Students are not required to have taken the SAT or ACT examinations. About half of Landmark's full-time students transferred from another college due reasons such as lack of academic support, difficult-to-access academic support at former schools, or a reluctance to disclose and seek help for their disability. Student turnover is high; as the school originally offered associate degrees or because some students plan to master academic success strategies and return to their previous college. However, there are now several bachelor's degrees offered.

Academics
The college offers associate degrees and since 2012 has offered bachelor's degrees. Additionally, a post-baccalaureate certificate in Learning Differences and Neurodiversity aimed at education professionals was introduced in 2018.

Secondary school students in several areas of Landmark's county, Windham, can access dual-enrollment NEASC accredited courses. Middle school students can participate in a summer program called "Expanded Learning Opportunities in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics."

In 2011, The New York Times reported that 30% of students in the associate program graduated within three years; many drop out in their first or second semester. Of those that graduate, a third drop out. Many students struggling at other colleges go to Landmark for a "bridge semester" to learn to manage their learning differences in an academic setting.

High school program
The three-week-long High School Program is intended to assist high school students entering their Junior or Senior year who learn differently develop self-understanding and self-advocacy skills.

Student life
Housing options range from suite living to traditional residence halls. All rooms are designed as doubles or singles. Residential halls are equipped with wireless Internet, cable television, laundry facilities, and common lounge space, as well as full-time residential staff. Some suite buildings have kitchens.

Impressions literary magazine, The Independent student newspaper, and WLMC student internet radio station are among the print and audio media. The Landmark College Athletic Department provides club, intramural, and intercollegiate sports and fitness activities for students.

Notable alumni
 Quinn Bradlee, filmmaker, author, and disability advocate
 Dave Cole, visual artist and sculptor
 Ennis Cosby, only son of American comedian Bill Cosby

Notable staff
 Alice B. Fogel, poet and writer; English professor
 Lesle Lewis, poet; English professor

References

External links
Official website

Buildings and structures in Putney, Vermont
Education in Windham County, Vermont
Educational institutions established in 1985
Learning disabilities
Putney, Vermont
Special schools in the United States
Private universities and colleges in Vermont
1985 establishments in Vermont

Landmark College


Kizilkobinka (; ) ou Kizil-Koba (; ; ) é um rio da Crimeia, que flui pela caverna Kizil-Koba, localizada nas encostas do planalto de Dolgorukovskaya. A extensão do rio é de , a área da bacia de drenagem é de  e tem um caudal médio de 0,179 m³/s no hidroposto de Krasnopeshchernoye e de 0,11 m³/s na foz do rio.

Tem um comprimento subterrâneo de cerca de . Quando atinge a superfície, forma a cascata Su-Uchkhan ( - "a água voou"). O rio flui em direção ao rio Angara perto da periferia ocidental da vila de Perevalne, onde a confluência dos dois rios forma o rio Salgir.

Durante escavações dos arqueólogos Bonch-Osmolovsky e Nicolay Ernst em 1921-1924, vários locais foram descobertos no vale do rio. Destaca-se uma cultura arqueológica especial Kizil-Koba.

Bibliografia

Ligações externas

Geografia da Crimeia
Kizilkobinka
Kizilkobinka

Kizilkobinka


Kétvölgy (em : Verica-Ritkarovci; : Permisch und Riegersdorf; prekmuro: Verica/Virica-Ritkarofci; : Perbese et Mechnuk) é um município da Hungria, situado no condado de Vas. Tem  de área e sua população em 2015 foi estimada em 97 habitantes.

Localidades de Vas (Hungria)

Kétvölgy


The Waffen Grenadier Brigade of the SS Charlemagne () was a Waffen-SS unit formed in September 1944 from French collaborationists, many of whom were already serving in various other German units.

Named after the 9th-century Frankish emperor, the Charlemagne Brigade superseded two units of French volunteers already serving within the German Army and Waffen-SS, namely the Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism and SS-Volunteer Sturmbrigade France (SS-Freiwilligen Sturmbrigade "Frankreich"). The division also included French recruits from other German military and paramilitary formations and Miliciens who had fled ahead of the Allied Liberation of France (June–November 1944).

After training, the Charlemagne Brigade was reclassified as a division as the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French) (33. Waffen-Grenadier-Division der SS "Charlemagne" (französische Nr. 1)). It had 7,340 men at the time of its deployment to the Eastern Front in February 1945. It fought against Soviet forces in Pomerania where it was almost annihilated during the East Pomeranian Offensive within a month. Around 300 members of the unit participated in the Battle in Berlin in April–May 1945 and were among the last Axis forces to surrender.

Background

Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism

The Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism (Légion des Volontaires Français contre le Bolchévisme, or LVF) was a unit of the German Army (Wehrmacht) formed shortly after the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 by a coalition of small far-right political factions within Vichy France. Although its supporters were more explicitly supportive of Nazi ideology and close collaboration with Nazi Germany than the Vichy regime itself, the German authorities remained skeptical of incorporating French soldiers and limited the unit's size significantly. Furthermore, it only succeeded in including 5,800 recruits between 1941 and its disbandment in 1944. It was also kept at arm's length by the Vichy regime. The LVF participated in the Battle of Moscow in November–December 1941 but suffered heavy casualties and performed poorly in combat. For most of its existence, it was confined to so-called "bandit-fighting" operations (Bandenbekämpfung) behind the front line in German-occupied Byelorussia and Ukraine. The Tricolour Legion (Légion Tricolore) formed in France with Vichy support was later also absorbed into the LVF. In early 1944, the unit again took part in rear-security operations. In June 1944, following the collapse of Army Group Centre's front during the Red Army's summer offensive, the LVF was attached to the 4th SS Police Regiment.

SS Volunteer Sturmbrigade France

The SS Volunteer Sturmbrigade France (SS-Freiwilligen Sturmbrigade "Frankreich") was formed in July 1943 as the first French formation permitted within the Waffen-SS. It was led by SS-Obersturmbannführer Paul-Marie Gamory-Dubourdeau who had formerly served in the Foreign Legion. It attracted around 3,000 applicants in German-occupied France, many of whom were existing members of the collaborationist paramilitary Milice or university students. The official requirements were that the recruit had to be "free of Jewish blood" and between 20 and 25 years old. The approximately 1,600 men of the Sturmbrigade were attached to the 18th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division Horst Wessel and sent to Galicia on the Eastern Front. In heavy fighting against the Red Army, 7 officers and 130 men were killed, while 8 officers and 661 men were wounded.

Formation
The LVF and the Brigade Frankreich were disbanded in September 1944 in the aftermath of the Allied Liberation of France. Their soldiers were folded into a new unit created the same month called the Waffen Grenadier Brigade of the SS Charlemagne (Waffen-Grenadier-Brigade der SS Charlemagne). Joining them were French collaborators fleeing the Allied advance in the west, as well as Frenchmen from the German Navy, the National Socialist Motor Corps (NSKK), the Organisation Todt and the detested Milice security police who had fled ahead of the Allied forces. SS-Brigadeführer Gustav Krukenberg was appointed to command the division, while Edgar Puaud, who had commanded the LVF, was the nominal French commander. The two main infantry regiments were designated as the 57th and 58th Regiments. Members of the LVF were the nucleus of the former and Sturmbrigade formed the core of the latter. The LVF also manned the artillery battalion, the headquarters company and the engineer company. In February 1945, the unit was officially upgraded to a division and renamed to SS Division Charlemagne. At this time it had a strength of 7,340 men; 1,200 men from the LVF, 1,000 from the Sturmbrigade, 2,500 from the Milice, 2,000 from the NSKK and 640 were former Kriegsmarine and naval police.

Operational history

Pomerania, February–April 1945

The division was sent to fight the Red Army in Poland, but on 25 February it was attacked at Hammerstein (present-day Czarne) in Pomerania, by troops of the Soviet 1st Belorussian Front. The Soviet forces split the French force into three pockets. One group with Puaud was destroyed by Soviet artillery and a second group tried fighting its way back westward, but by 17 March all had been captured or killed in action. A third group commanded by Krukenberg survived. It was evacuated from the coast by the German Navy to Denmark and later sent to Neustrelitz for refitting.

By early April 1945, Krukenberg commanded only about 700 men organized into a single infantry regiment with two battalions (Battalions 57 and 58) and one heavy support battalion without equipment. He released about 400 men to serve in a construction battalion; the remainder, numbering about 350, had chosen to go to Berlin. On 23 April the Reich Chancellery in Berlin ordered Krukenberg to proceed to the capital with his men, who were reorganized as Assault Battalion (Sturmbataillon) Charlemagne. As the men assembled at the Marktplatz of Alt-Strelitz, a black Mercedes approached fast. As the car went past the column of men, Krukenberg and several other officers quickly stood at attention, recognising Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, who had just come from a private meeting with Count Folke Bernadotte at the Swedish consulate in Lübeck to offer surrender terms to the Western Allies. The SS men were disappointed that Himmler did not stop and instead sped on past.

Berlin, April–May 1945
Approximately 320 to 330 French troops arrived in Berlin on 24 April after a long detour to avoid advance columns of the Red Army. On 25 April, Krukenberg was appointed the commander of (Berlin) Defence Sector C which included SS Division Nordland, whose previous commander, Joachim Ziegler, was relieved of his command earlier the same day. Charlemagne was attached to Nordland whose two regiments had been decimated in the fighting. Both equaled roughly a battalion. The Frenchmen walked from West to East Berlin, to a brewery near Hermannplatz. Here fighting began, with Hitler Youth firing Panzerfausts at Soviet tanks belonging to advance guards near the Tempelhof Airport.

Supported by Tiger II tanks and the 11th SS Panzer Battalion, men of Charlemagne took part in a counterattack on the morning of 26 April in Neukölln. The counterattack ran into an ambush by Soviet troops using a captured German Panther tank. The regiment lost half of the available troops in Neukölln on the first day. It later defended Neukölln's Town Hall. Given that Neukölln was heavily penetrated by Soviet combat groups, Krukenberg prepared fallback positions for Sector C defenders around Hermannplatz. He moved his headquarters into the opera house. As SS Division Nordland withdrew towards Hermannplatz, the French under Hauptsturmführer Henri Joseph Fenet and some attached Hitler Youth destroyed fourteen Soviet tanks; one machine gun position by the Halensee bridge held up Soviet forces for 48 hours.

The Soviet advance into Berlin followed a pattern of massive shelling followed by assaults using house-clearing battle groups of about 80 men in each, with tank escorts and close artillery support. On 27 April, the remnants of Nordland were pushed back into the central government district (Zitadelle sector) in Defence sector Z. There, Krukenberg's Nordland headquarters was a carriage in the Stadtmitte U-Bahn station. Fighting was very heavy and by 28 April 108 Soviet tanks had been destroyed in the southeast of Berlin within the S-Bahn. The French squads under Fenet's command accounted for "about half" of the tanks. Fenet and his battalion were given the area of Neukölln, Belle Alliance Platz, Wilhelmstrasse and the Friedrichstrasse to defend. On 28 April, the Red Army started a full-scale offensive into the central sector. Charlemagne was in the center of the battle zone around the Reich Chancellery. French SS man Eugène Vaulot, who had destroyed two tanks in Neukölln, claimed to have destroyed six more near the Führerbunker. He was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross by Krukenberg on 29 April. Vaulot was killed three days later by a Red Army sniper. Second Lieutenant Roger Albert-Brunet destroyed four Soviet tanks by Panzerfaust on 29 April 1945. He was awarded the Iron Cross 1st class by Krukenberg. During the fighting, Fenet was wounded in the foot. The Soviets forces drove what was left of the battalion back to the vicinity of the Reich Aviation Ministry in the central government district under the command of SS-Brigadeführer Wilhelm Mohnke. For the combat actions of the battalion during the Battle in Berlin, Mohnke awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross to Fenet on 29 April 1945.

By 30 April, the last defenders in the area of the bunker complex were mainly made up of Frenchmen of the SS Division Charlemagne, others being Waffen-SS men from the SS Division Leibstandarte, SS Division Nordland, Latvian SS and Spanish SS from the Blue Legion. A group of French SS remained in the area of the bunker until the early morning of 2 May. By the evening of 30 April, the French SS men serving under Fenet had destroyed another 21 Soviet tanks and used up a large number of the Panzerfaust reserves from the Reich Chancellery. On the night of 1 May, Krukenberg told the men that were left to split up into small groups and attempt to break-out. Reduced to approximately thirty troops, most French SS men surrendered near the Potsdamer rail station to the Red Army. Krukenberg made it to Dahlem where he hid out in an apartment for a week before surrendering to Red Army troops.

Having escaped out of Berlin, Fenet with a small remainder of his unit surrendered to British forces at Bad Kleinen and Wismar. Some of the Frenchmen, such as Fenet, were turned over to the Soviet Army. Twelve who had been turned over to French authorities by the US Army received the death penalty for treason and were executed. Fenet was allowed to be treated for his foot wound at hospital. He was then returned to a Soviet POW camp and a short time later released. Most of the rest who made it to France were apprehended and sent to Allied prisons and camps. Fenet was arrested upon his return to France. In 1949, Fenet was convicted of being a collaborator and sentenced to 20 years of forced labour, but was released from prison in 1959.

Commanders
 SS-Oberführer Edgar Puaud (?? August 1944 – February 1945)
 SS-Brigadeführer Gustav Krukenberg (February 1945 – 25 April 1945)
 SS-Standartenführer Walter Zimmermann (25 April 1945 – 8 May 1945)

Notable personnel
 Charles Gastaut, alias Charles Luca - former soldier and leading figure in post-war far-right paramilitary movements in France.
 Christian de la Mazière (1922-2006) - former soldier and one of the protagonists interviewed at length in the landmark documentary The Sorrow and the Pity (1969).
 Léon Gaultier (1915-1997) - former junior officer (Untersturmführer) active in post-war far-right politics as an propaganda advisor to the far-right candidate Jean-Louis Tixier-Vignancour in the 1965 presidential elections and subsequently political ally of Jean-Marie Le Pen and leading figure in the National Front (Front national) from 1972.
 Marc Augier (1908-1990), alias "Saint-Loup" - former soldier and far-right journalist involved in supporting white minority rule in Southern Africa who wrote a number of popular exculpatory books about the Waffen-SS.
 Pierre Bousquet (1919-1991) - former section leader (Rottenführer) active in post-war neo-Nazi politics in France and subsequently treasurer and co-founder of the National Front.
 René Binet (1913-1957) - a former soldier described as "one of the French extreme right's most energetic and venomous propagandists in the immediate post-war years" and an influential theorist of white supremacism.

See also
 Waffen-SS foreign volunteers and conscripts
 Sigmaringen enclave, a short lived Vichy government in exile active from September 1944 to April 1945
 List of German divisions in World War II
 List of Waffen-SS divisions
 List of SS personnel

References

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Battle of Berlin
French collaboration during World War II
Security units of Nazi Germany established in 1944
Security units of Nazi Germany disestablished in 1945
Foreign volunteer units of the Waffen-SS
33


Lee est une ville du Comté de Berkshire dans l'État du Massachusetts.

Elle a été incorporée en 1777.

Sa population était de  en 2020.

Lee est situé aux coordonnées 42°18′11"N 73°14′2"O. Selon le Bureau du recensement des États-Unis, Lee a une superficie totale de 69,98 km², dont 67,73 km² de terres et (3,22 %) 2,25 km² d'eau.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Liens externes

Comté de Berkshire
Town au Massachusetts

Lee (Massachusetts)


Armenii iranieni ( iranahayer), cunoscuți și ca armeni persani ( parskahayer), sunt iranieni de etnie armeană care pot vorbi armeana ca primă limbă. Potrivit estimărilor, numărul lor în Iran este între 70,000 și 200,000. Teritorii cu o mai mare concentrație de armeni sunt Tabriz, Tehran și cartierul Jolfa din Isfahan.

Armenii locuiesc de milenii pe teritoriul Iranului de azi. În anumite perioade din istorie, regiuni nord-vestice ale Iranului au fost parte a Armeniei. Multe dintre cele mai vechi biserici, mănăstiri și capele armene se află în cadrul Iranului de azi. Armenia persană, care include Republica Armeană din zilele noastre, a fost parte a  până în 1828. Iranul a avut una dintre cele mai mari populații de armeni din lume alături de Imperiul Otoman vecin până la începutul secolului 20.

Armenii au fost influenți și activi în procesul de modernizare a Iranului  în secolele 19 și 20. După Revoluția Iraniană, mulți armeni au emigrat alăturându-se diasporei armenești din America de Nord și Europa Occidentală. Astăzi, armenii constituie cea mai mare minoritate religioasă creștină din Iran.

Referințe

IranArmeni

Armenii iranieni


(d. 1571–1622), Japon samuray ve Sendai'nin daimyosu Date Masamune'nin muhafızıydı. 1613 ile 1620 yılları arasından elçi olarak önce Meksika'ya daha sonra Avrupa'ya oradan da Japonya'ya geri dönmüştür. Güney ve Kuzey Amerika'ya giden ilk resmi Japon delegeydi ve kayıtlara geçen ilk Fransız-Japon ilişkilerini başlatmıştır.

Taiko Hideyoshi'nin emrinde 1592 ve 1597 yılları arasında, Japonya'nın Kore'ye saldırısına katılmış kıdemli bir samuray olduğunu gerçeği dışında, Hasekura Tsunenaga'nın yaşamının erken dönemleri hakkında çok az bilgi vardır.

İspanya yaklaşımları
İspanyollar Meksika ("Yeni İspanya") ve Çin arasında Pasifik ötesi seferlere başlamıştı. Bölgesel üsleri Filipinler üzerinden gidiyorlardı. Bu seferlere Andrés de Urdaneta'nun 16. yüzyılda yapmış olduğu seyahatlerin ardından başlamışlardır. 1571 yılında Manila Asya bölgesindeki kusursuz üsleri olmuştu.

Kötü hava koşulları nedeniyle İspanyol gemileri Japon sahillerinde belirli aralıklarla kazaya uğruyorlardı. İspanyollar hristiyanlık inancını Japonya'da yaymak istiyorlardı. Etkilerini Japonya'da genişletme çabaları cizvitler (Jesuits), ülkede 1549 yılında İncil'in mesajını bildirmeye çalışan kişiler, tarafından sert bir dirençle karşılandı. Aynı şekilde Portekizliler ve Hollandalılar da İspanyolların Japonyada ticarete katılmalarını istemedikleri için karşıydılar.

1609 yılında İspanyol kalyonu San Francisco Manila'dan Acapulco'ya giderken kötü hava koşulları ile karşılaşmıştır ve Japon sahilininde Tokyo yakınında bulunan Chiba'da kaza geçirmiştir. Denizciler kurtarılmış ve hoş karşılanmışlardır, geminin kaptanı Rodrigo de Vivero Tokugawa Ieyasu ile tanışmıştır.

29 Kasım 1609 tarihinde bir antlaşma imzalanmıştır, buna göre; İspanyollar doğu Japonya'da bir fabrika kurabileceklerdi, Nueva España'dan madencilik uzmanları getirilebilecekti, İspanyol gemileri Japonya'yı gerektiği zamanlarda ziyeret edebilecek ve Japon elçiliği İspanyol sarayına gönderilecekti.

Elçilik projesi

Acil bağlam
Tokyo bölgesindeki halkı kendi dinine çevirmeye çalışan Luis Sotelo isimli Fransiskan bir rahip, Shogun'u kendisini elçi olarak Nueva España'ya göndermesi için ikna etmeye çalışıyordu. 1610 yılında Meksika'ya İspanyol denizciler ve San Buena Ventura, Shogun için İngiliz maceracı William Adams tarafından yapılmıştır, içinde bulunan 22 Japon ile deniz yolculuğu yapmıştır. Nueva España'ya vardıklarında, Luis Sotelo Genel Vali Luis de Velasco ile görüşmüştür ve Velasco ünlü kâşif Sebastian Vizcaino'yu elçi olarak göndermeye karar vermiştir. Vizcaino'ya ek görev olarak Japonya'nın doğusunda olduğu düşünülen "Altın ve gümüş adalarını" keşfetme görevi verilmiştir.

Vizcaino Japonya'ya 1611 yılında varmıştır, Shogun ve feodal lordlarla birçok görüşmede bulunmuştur. Bu karşılaşmalar Vizcaino'nın Japon geleneklerine karşı olan saygısızlığından, Japonların Katolik dinine döndürülme çalışmalarına karşı direnç göstermelerinden ve Hollandalıların İspanyolların tutkularına karşı yaptıkları entrikalardan dolayı lekelenmiştir. Vizcaino sonunda "Gümüş adasını" bulmak için bölgeyi terk etmiştir, arayışlarında kötü hava koşulları ile karşılaşmış ve Japonya'ya büyük hasarla geri dönmek zorunda kalmıştır.

Görev
Shogun Vizcaino'yu Nueva España'ya Japon elçisi Luis Sotelo ile birlikte geri getirmek için Japonya'da bir kalyon yapmaya karar vermiştir. Sendai Daimyo'su Date Masamune projenin başına koyulmuştur ve Masamune yardımcılarından Hasekura Tsunenaga'yı görevin liderliğine getirmiştir. Japonlar tarafından Date Maru daha sonra İspanyollar tarafından San Juan Bautista olarak isimlendirilen kalyonun yapımı Bakufu'dan gelen teknik uzmanların katılımıyla 45 gün sürmüştür ve yapımında 800 tersane işçisi, 700 demirci ve 3.000 marangoz çalışmıştır.

Japon elçiliğinin amacı Madrid'de İspanyol hükümdarı ile ticaret anlaşmaları konuşmak ve Roma'da Papa ile görüşmekti. Sotelo, kendi kendisine görevin amacının dini olduğunu vurgalamaktaydı ve ana amacın kuzey Japonyada Hristiyanlık inancını yaymak olduğunu iddia ediyordu:

"Eskiden Idate Masamune'nun elçisi olarak gönderilmiştim, o Oxu krallığının (Japonya'nın doğu bölümü) dizginlerini tutan kişiydi- o vaftiz edilerek doğmamış olsa da Hristiyanlık konusunda eğitilmiştir ve krallığında Hristiyanlık inancına ibadet edilmesine arzuluydu-sarayından başka bir soylu ile, Philippus Franciscus Faxecura Rocuyemon, Roma Senatosu'na & Papaya ait Piskoposlukta o anda yetkili olan kişiye, Papa Cenapları Papa Paul V." (Luis Sotelo De Ecclesiae Iaponicae Statu Relatio, 1634 ).

Pasifik ötesi sefer
Tamamlanmasının ardından gemi 28 Ekim 1613 tarihinde Meksika'da bulunan Acapulco'ya 180 kişiye yola çıkmıştır. Gemide bulunanların içinde; Shogun'un 10 samurayı (Donanma Bakanı Mukai Shogen Tadakatsu tarafından tedarik edilmiştir), Sendai'den 12 samuray, 120 Japon tüccar, denizciler, hizmetçiler ve yaklaşık 40 İspanyol ve Portekizli bulunmaktaydı.

Gemi Acapulco'ya üç aylık deniz yolculuğunun ardından 25 Ocak 1614 tarihinde ulaşmıştır ve elçilik büyük bir merasimle karşılanmıştır. Elçiliğin esas görevi Avrupa'ya gitmekti. Elçilik Meksika'da biraz zaman geçirdikten sonra Don Antonio Oquendo'nun donanmasıyla Veracruz'a gitmiştir. Donanma 10 Temmuz'da Avrupa'ya yola çıkmıştır. Hasekura Japon gruplarının birçoğunu döneceği tarihe kadar arkasında Acapulca'da bırakmak zorunda kalmıştır.

Avrupa'ya elçilik

İspanya

Donanma Sanlucar de Barrameda'ya 5 Ekim 1614'te varmıştır.
"Donanma sonunda tehlikeler ve fırtınaların ardından Sanlúcar de Barrameda limanına Ekim'in 5'inde sağ salim varmıştı. Sanlúcar de Barrameda'da ikamet eden Dük de Medina Sidonia'yı uyarmıştır ve onları onurlandırmak için gemiler göndermiştir, Büyükelçi ve onun yadudi olmayan adamlarını almak ve geceyi rahat bir şekilde geçirmeler için hazırlık yapmıştı." (Scipione Amati "Voxu Krallığı'nın Tarihi") .

"Boju kralı Joate Masamune tarafından gönderilmiş olan Japon elçi Hasekura Rokuemon, Seville'ye Çarşamba günü 1614 Ekim'in 23'ünde gelmiştir. Beraberinde 30 kılıçlı Japon'un korumasındaydı ve 12 okçu, mızrakları boyalı mızraklı baltacılar ve merasim kılıçları vardı. Korumanın kaptanı Hristiyandı, Don Thomas olarak çağrılıyordu ve bir Japon şehidin oğluydu." (Capitular Calombina Kütüphanesi 84-7-19 Memorias..., fol.195 .).

Japon elçiliği İspanya Kralı Philip III ile Madrid'de 30 Ocak 1615 tarihinde görüşmüştür. Hasekura  Krala Date Masamune'den olan mektubu iade etmiştir, aynı şekilde bir antlaşma önermiştir. Kral bu istekleri sağlamak için elinden geleni yapacağını söylemiştir.

Hasekura 17 Şubat'ta kralın kendi şapel papazı tarafından vaftiz edilmiş ve Felipe Francisco Hasekura ismini almıştır.

Fransa

İspanya içinde seyahat ettikten sonra, elçilik üç İspanyol fırkateyni ile İtalya'ya doğru Akdenize yelken açmıştır. Kötü hava koşullarından dolayı, birkaç gün Fransa'da kalmak zorunda kalmışlar ve Saint Tropez limanına yaklaşmışlardır. Orada yerel soylular tarafından karşılanmışlar ve halk onları oldukça duyarlı karşılanmıştır.

Şehrin tarihinde Japon elçiliğinin ziyareti "Japonya'nın Woxu Kralı Date Masamunni'den Papa'nın elçisi Philip Francis Faxicura" olarak kayıtlıdır.

Birçok hareketlerinin pitoresk (resim konusu olmaya değer) detayları kayıtlıdır:
"Yiyeceklere asla parmakları ile dokunmuyorlardı, iki küçük çubuğu üç parmakları ile tutarak kullanıyorlardı".
"Burunlarını el boyutundaki ipeksi kâğıtlara sümkürüyor ve bu kağıdı ikince kez kullanmıyor bu yüzden kullandıktan sonra yere atıyorlardı ve çevrede insanlarımızın attıkları kâğıtları çömelerek almalarından hoşnut oluyorlardı".
"Kılıçları o kadar iyi kesiyordu ki, ucuna koydukları yumuşak bir kağıdı kesmek için üflemeleri yetiyordu"
("Mme de St Troppez'in Münasebetleri", Ekim 1615, Bibliotheque Inguimbertine, Carpentras ).

Hasekura Tsunenaga'nın 1615'teki St Tropez ziyareti Fransız-Japon ilişkilerinin ilk kayda geçenidir.

İtalya

Japon Elçiliği Papa Paul V ile Roma'da Kasım 1615'te görüşecekleri İtalya'ya gitmişlerdir. Hasekura Papa'ya süslü mektubu iade etmiştir, mektubun içinde Japonya ve Meksika arasında ticaret antlaşması ve Hristiyan misyonerlerin Japonya'ya gönderilmesi istekleri vardı.

Papa misyonerleri gönderme konusunda onay vermiştir fakat ticaret konusunu İspanya Kralı'na bırakmıştır. Papa Date Masamune'ye bir mektup yazmıştır, mektubun bir kopyası hâlâ Vatikan'da görülebilmektedir.

Ayrıca Roma Senato'su Hasekura'ya onursal Roma Vatandaşlığı vermiştir. Bu belgeyi Japonya'ya geri getirmiştir ve şu anda Sendai'de korunmaktadır.

Elçiliğe 1615-1616 yıllarında eşlik eden İtalyan yazar Scipione Amati, Roma'da "Voxu Krallığı'nın Tarihi" isimli bir kitap yayımlamıştır.

1616'da, Fransız yayımcı Abraham Savgrain Hasekura'nın Roma ziyareti ile ilgili bir tarif yayımlamıştır: "Récit de l'entrée solemnelle et remarquable faite à Rome, par Dom Philippe Francois Faxicura" ("Dom Philippe Francois Faxicura'nun Roma'ya ağırbaşlı ve dikkat çekici girişi").

Sotelo ayrıca Papa ziyaretini 1634 tarihli De ecclesiae Iaponicae statu relatio kitabında tarif etmiştir.:

"Tanrı'nın izniyle Kurtuluş Yılımız 1615'te oraya vardığımızda, biz sadece Papa Cenapları büyük Papa tarafından kibarca karşılanmamıştık, Kutsal Kardinaller Heyeti ve toplanmış piskoposlar ve soylular ve hatta Roma Halkının sevinci ve genel mutluluğuyla da karşılanmıştık. Fakat biz ve diğer üçü (Japon Hristiyanlar özel olarak durumlarını Hristiyan dinine olan saygılarını göstereceklerdi) dinlenildik, dinlendik ve umduğumuz gibi olabildiğince hızlı şekilde gönderildik." (Sotelo, De ecclesiae Iaponicae statu relatio ).

İspanya'ya ikinci ziyaret
Hasekura İspanya'da ikinci kez Kral ile görüşmüştür. Japon elçisinin Japon yönetici Tokugawa Ieyasu'nun resmi elçiliği olarak görünmemesi nedeniyle Kral ticaret antlaşmasını reddetmiştir. Aksine Tokugawa Ieyasu Ocak 1614'te Japonya'daki misyonerlerin kovulmasını resmi ferman ile ilan etmiştir ve Japonya'da Hristiyan inancına mensup kişilere zulmetmeye başlamıştır.

Elçilik Avrupa'da iki sene kadar zaman geçirdikten sonra Seville'yi 1617 yılında terkederek Meksika'ya yola çıkmıştır, fakat bazı Japonlar İspanya'da Seville yakınlarındaki bir kasabada (Coria del Río) kalmışlardır, bugün hâlâ onların soyundan gelenler Japón soyismini kullanmaktadırlar.

Japonya'ya dönüş
1618 Nisan'ında San Juan Bautista Meksika'dan Filipinlere varmıştır, gemide Hasekura ve Luis Sotelo bulunmaktaydı. Gemi İspanyol hükümeti tarafından Hollandalılara karşı bir savunma kurulması amacıyla tedarik edilmişti. Hasekura Japonya'ya 1620 Ağustos'unda dönmüştür.

Politik etkileri
Hasekura'nın döndüğü zamanda, Japonya oldukça büyük ölçüde değişmişti: 1614 yılından beri devam eden Hristiyanlığı kökünden yok etme çalışmaları ve Japonya "Sakoku" izole devrine doğru ilerlemekteydi. Bu eziyetlerden dolayı, Meksika ile kurmaya çalıştığı ticaret anlaşmaları geri çevrilmiştir.

Her ne kadar Hasekura'nın Bakufu hükümetine gezisi hakkında bir rapor yazdığı kayıtlarda olsa da, sonunda elçiliği çok az sonuç almış gibi görünmüştür. Shogun'un İspanya ile 1623 yılında ticaret ilişkilerini ve 1624 yılında diplomatik ilişkileri kesmesine neden olarak, bir ihtimal de Hasekura'nın  İspanyol gücüne ve sömürgeci yöntemlerine Nueva España'da (Meksika) şahit olması ve bunları Shogun'a anlatması olduğu düşünülmektedir.

Kötü sonuçları
Hasekura'ya ne olduğu bilinmemektedir ve son yılları hakkında farklı bilgiler bulunmaktadır. Bazıları kendi isteğiyle Hristiyanlığı terk ettiğini, diğerleri inancından dolayı şehit edildiği ve diğerleri ise gizlice Hristiyanlık inancını devam ettirdiğini söylemektedir.

Sotelo'nun 1634 yılından son yılları hakkında yazdığı yazıda, Hasekura'nın Japonya'ya bir kahraman olarak döndüğü ve Hristiyan inancını yaydığına dair rivayetler vardır:
"Diğer meslektaşım, elçi Philippus Faxecura, sözü geçen kralına (Date Masamune) ulaştıktan sonra onun tarafından fazlasıyla onurlandırıldı ve kendi mülküne uzun ve yorucu bir yolculuktan sonra dinlenmeye gönderildi, orada karısını, çocuklarını, yardımcılarını ve diğer birçok kulunu Hristiyan yapmıştır ve diğer soylulardan hısmından akrabasından kabul edebileceklere söylemiştir, ve onlar da kabul etmişlerdir. Bu işlerve ve diğer dini işlerle uğraşırken, dönüşünden tam bir yıl sonra, daha fazla eğitim ve örnek sağlanmıştır, fazlasıyla hazırlıkla dindarca devam etmiştir, kendi mülkünde çocuklarına dini yaymak için çok özel bir miras ve dini ülkede koruma şansı bırakmıştır. Kral ve diğer tüm soylular gidişinden dolayı büyük üzüntü duymışlardır, özellikle bu adamın erdemini dini şevkini çok az bilen Hristiyanlar ve dindarlar. Bu benim onun dinsel törenlerini yöneten dindardan aldığım mektuplardan duyduklarımdır, aynı kişi ölümünde de diğerleri gibi yanında olmuştur." (Luis Sotelo, De ecclesiae Iaponicae statu relatio ).

Ayrıca Hasekura Japonya'ya çeşitli Katolik eserleri getirmiştir, fakat sonuçta el koyulmuş ve Bakufu tarafından saklanmışlardır. Sotelo'nun zafersel tariflerinin aksine ve daha fazlası Bakufu'nun Japonya'da Hristiyanlığı bastırmasına rağmen. Hristiyan merasim cüppesi gibi eserler şu anda Sendai Şehir Müzesi'nde (仙台市博物館) korunmaktadırlar.

Hasekura Tsunenaga 1622 yılında ölmüştür ve mezarı Enfukuji (Japonca: 円長山円福寺) Miyagi'de bir Budist tapınağındadır.

Tekrar keşfi
Hasekura'nın gezileri Bakufu tarafından o kadar iyi saklanmıştı ki varlığı Japonya'da bile unutulmuştu. Ülkenin tekrar sakoku izolasyon devrinden çıkmasından sonra, 1873 yılında Avrupa'ya giden başında Iwakura Tomomi olan Japon elçilik (Iwakura görevi) tarafından İtalya Venedik'te gösterilen belgeler ile Hasekura'nın seyahatlerinden haberdar olmuşlardır..

Notlar

Dış bağlantılar
 De Japón a Roma pasando por Coria 1614-1620 Víctor Valencia Japón tarafından. Elçilik ve Japón soyismi hakkında İspanyolca belgeler.
 Enchōzan'de bulunan Hasekura'nın mezarı için rehber (Japonca).
 Sendai Şehir Müzesi

Ayrıca bakınız
 Nanban ticaret devri
 Mancio Ito, Avrupa'ya giden ilk Japon elçi 1584.
 Shusaku Endo, The Samurai romanının yazarı, Hasekura'nın görevinin kurgusal tarifi
 Fransız-Japon ilişkileri

Kaynakça
 Boxer, C.R. The Christian Century in Japan, 1549–1650. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1951. ISBN 1-85754-035-2 (1993 reprint edition).
 Marcouin, Francis and Keiko Omoto. Quand le Japon s'ouvrit au monde. Paris: Découvertes Gallimard, 1990. ISBN 2-07-053118-X.

1571 doğumlular
1622 yılında ölenler
Edo dönemi
Japon diplomatlar

Hasekura Tsunenaga