Gradijent (lat. gradiens: koji korača) obično znači smjer i veličinu najbržeg prirasta neke veličine ili funkcije u prostoru.

U matematici i fizici

U matematici i fizici, gradijent je vektor koji opisuje brzinu promjene skalarnog polja, neke skalarne (brojčane) funkcije definirane nad smjerovima u prostoru. Smjer gradijenta pokazuje smjer najbržeg prirasta funkcije. Komponente gradijenta računaju kao parcijalne derivacije skalarne funkcije po odabranim osima. U pravokutnom koordinatnom sustavu, gradijent skalarne funkcije definirane nad ravninom zadanom osima x i y tako je

.

Ovdje su  i  jedinični vektori na osima x i y (često se označavaju kao  i ). U gornjoj formuli 𝛁 je oznaka za diferencijalni operator nabla,

.
Plohe na kojima funkcija svugdje ima jednaku vrijednost često se nazivaju ekvipotencijalnim plohama. Budući da funkcija na ekvipotencijalnim plohama ne mijenja vrijednost u tangencijalnom smjeru, gradijent je na njih okomit. U područjima gdje su dvije ekvipotencijalne plohe jedna drugoj bliže veći je gradijent funkcije kojom su one definirane.

U fizici se često razmatraju gradijenti veličina poput temperature, električnoga potencijala,  koncentracije, gustoće, tlaka, vlažnosti i sl. Tako je, primjerice, tok topline određen gradijentom temperature (Fourierov zakon o vođenju topline),  električno polje gradijentom električnog potencijala, a struja difuzije čestica iz područja različitih razrjeđenja gradijentom koncentracije (Fickov prvi zakon).

U geofizici
U meteorologiji, gradijent tlaka ili barički gradijent je funkcija koji opisuje promjenu tlaka nekog fluida (tekućina ili plin) po udaljenosti. Usmjeren je prema području najbržega smanjivanja tlaka, a mjerna jedinica je paskal po metru (Pa/m).

Vodoravni gradijent atmosferskoga tlaka gradijent je tlaka u atmosferi reduciran na morsku razinu kako bi podatci izmjereni na različitim postajama bili međusobno usporedivi. Česta izvedena mjerna jedinica je hektopaskal po 100 kilometara (hPa/100 km). Vodoravni gradijent tlaka u atmosferi nastaje zbog različite brzine grijanja ili hlađenja zraka nad nehomogenom podlogom, a njegova je posljedica nastanak vjetra. Kad je gradijent tlaka zraka mali, vrijeme je mirno i vjetar slab; kad je gradijent velik, pušu jaki vjetrovi. Na sinoptičkim kartama se vodoravne razlike tlaka u atmosferi prikazuju izobarama, krivuljama koje obuhvaćaju područja istoga tlaka, a što su izobare gušće gradijent tlaka je veći. U našoj zemlji najveći vodoravni gradijent atmosferskoga tlaka zraka uočava se uz obalu kraj Velebita i Gorskoga kotara (zimi oko 8 hPa/100 km, ljeti 3 hPa/100 km).

Pad tlaka izražen u torima na duljini jednog Zemljinog stupnja ili 111 kilometara zove se barometarski gradijent.

U geologiji, geotermalni gradijent opisuje porast temperature s dubinom Zemlje.

U biologiji
u biologiji, gradijent je stupnjevita kvantitativna promjena nekog svojstva stanica, organa ili organizma. Prikazuje se krivuljom. Smanjenje jakosti (intenziteta) reakcije na neki podražaj koji se postupno odmiče od osjetilnoga centra naziva se fiziološkim gradijentom. Postupna kvantitativna promjena nekog svojstva kod organizama s polarnom strukturom, polazeći od jednoga pola k drugomu, naziva se aksijalnim gradijentom, na primjer porast gustoće žumanjka u jajetu polazeći od animalnoga pola (najniži gradijent) k vegetativnomu polu (najviši gradijent). Morfogenetski gradijent označuje intenzitet kvantitativnih razlika u rasporedu tvari kod različitih dijelova jajeta ili pojedinih začetaka organizma.

Izvori

Gradijent


{{Infobox book series
| name = Goosebumps
| image = Goosebumps logo.svg
| image_caption =
| author = R. L. Stine
| cover_artist = Tim JacobusMark NagataCraig WhiteBrandon Dorman
| country = United States
| language = English
| genre =
| publisher = Scholastic Corporation
| pub_date = Original series: July 1992 – December 1997Spin-off series: October 1994 – February 2000; April 2008 – present
| media_type = Print (hardback & paperback)
Audiobook
E-book
| number_of_books = 240<ref group="nb">As of January 1, 2022, consists of:
62 books in the Goosebumps series;
6 Tales to Give You Goosebumps books;
50 Give Yourself Goosebumps books;
18 Goosebumps Presents books;
3 Goosebumps Haunted Library books;
2 Goosebumps Autiobiography books;
2 Goosebumps Triple Header books;
25 Goosebumps Series 2000 books;
4 Goosebumps Graphix books;
19 Goosebumps HorrorLand books;
6 Goosebumps Hall of Horrors books;
14 Goosebumps Most Wanted books;
7 Goosebumps Movie books;
15 Goosebumps SlappyWorld books and
7 Misc Goosebumps books.</ref>
| list_books = List of Goosebumps books
| website = https://kids.scholastic.com/kid/books/goosebumps/
}}Goosebumps is a series of horror novels written by American author R. L. Stine. The protagonists in these stories are tweens or young teens who find themselves in frightening circumstances, often involving the supernatural, the paranormal, or the occult. Between 1992 and 1997, 62 books were published under the Goosebumps umbrella title.  R. L. Stine also wrote various spin-off series, including, Goosebumps Series 2000, Give Yourself Goosebumps, Tales to Give You Goosebumps, Goosebumps Triple Header, Goosebumps HorrorLand, Goosebumps Most Wanted and Goosebumps SlappyWorld. Additionally there was a series called Goosebumps Gold that was never released.Goosebumps has spawned a television series, video games series, comic series and merchandise, as well as a series of feature films, starring Jack Black as Stine.

The series was originally published in English by Scholastic Press in the United States and Scholastic Hippo in the United Kingdom. Spanning various genres, including horror, comedy, fantasy, adventure, supernatural fiction, thriller, and mystery, the world of Goosebumps explores a multitude of themes.

Since the release of its first novel, Welcome to Dead House, in July 1992, the books have achieved immense popularity, garnered positive reviews, and achieved commercial success worldwide.  They have captivated a diverse audience, including children and older readers, and have sold over 400 million copies globally in 35 languages as of October 2022, becoming the second-best-selling book series in history (behind Harry Potter). At one point, the series held the distinction of being the best-selling book series of all time, selling over 4 million books a month during its prime. Individual books in the series have been listed in several bestseller lists, including the New York Times Best Seller list for children.

Structure and genre

The Goosebumps series falls under many genres but mainly horror and thriller, although Stine characterizes the series as 'scary books that are also funny'. Each book features different child characters and settings. The primary protagonists are middle class and can be either male or female. In Goosebumps stories, the central characters are often placed in remote or isolated locations, diverging from common societal conventions. This can range anywhere from comfortable suburban areas to boarding schools, foreign villages or campsites. Books typically feature characters who either recently moved to a new neighborhood or are sent to stay with relatives.
The books in the Goosebumps series feature similar plot structures with children being involved in scary situations. At his peak, Stine was known to complete these stories extremely quickly, some of which were written in only six days. The books are mostly written in first person narrative, often concluding with twist endings. They contain surreal horror, with characters encountering the strange and supernatural.

The author has plot devices he follows throughout his Goosebumps books. Stine says he does not have any death in his stories, and the children in his novels are never put into situations that would be considered too serious. He attributed the success of his books to their absence of drugs, depravity and violence.

All Goosebumps books are written at a reading level ranging from 3rd to 7th grade.

Inspiration and themes
According to the documentary Tales from the Crypt: From Comic Books to Television, R.L. Stine said that he remembered reading the popular/infamous Tales from the Crypt comic books when he was young and credited as one of his inspirations. Books and characters in the series were inspired by books and films. For example, the character Slappy the Dummy was inspired by the literary classic The Adventures of Pinocchio. Some of Stine's ideas for the books also came from real life; Stine got the idea for the book The Haunted Mask after his son, Matt, had a Halloween mask he had trouble getting off. Stine also uses his childhood fears to help him write his books. The author said, "Luckily, I have a great memory. As I write a story, I can remember what it feels like to be afraid and panicky". Stine states he often thinks of a title to a novel first, then lets the title lead him to a story.

Two common themes in the series are children triumphing over evil and children facing horrid or frightening situations and using their own wit and imagination to escape them. Stine does not attempt to incorporate moral lessons into his novels, and says his books are "strictly reading motivation".

Characters
Recurring characters who appear in multiple books and media.

Slappy the Dummy is the main villain of the Night of the Living Dummy saga and the mascot of the series.
The Haunted Mask is the villain of the book saga of the same name.
The Horrors serve as the main villain(s) of Goosebumps #16: One Day at Horrorland and the HorrorLand book series.
The Monster Blood is the titular monster of the book series of the same name.
Amanda Benson is the protagonist of the first Goosebumps book, Welcome to Dead House.
Carly Beth Caldwell is one of the recurring protagonists of the Haunted Mask series.
Evan Ross is the main protagonist of the first four books of Monster Blood.
Lizzy Morris is the protagonist of the first two HorrorLand books and a major protagonist of the HorrorLand series.
The Menace is the main villain of the first story arc of the HorrorLand series.
Jonathan Chiller is the main villain of the second arc of the Goosebumps HorrorLand series.
Ray Gordon is the narrator character of the last part of the second arc of Goosebumps HorrorLand.Billy Deep is the protagonist of the Deep Trouble series.

Original Goosebumps series

Following the success of Stine's young adult horror novels, the co-founder of Parachute Press (the company that developed the series), Joan Waricha, persuaded him to write scary books for younger children. Stine says the name for the book series came to him after he saw a TV station's ad in TV Guide that stated "It's goosebumps week on Channel 11". He originally signed a six-book deal with the publisher Scholastic, but went on to write 62 books in the original series, the first book being Welcome to Dead House, released in July 1992. The series was originally aimed at girls, but both boys and girls enjoyed the series equally with half of Stine's fan mail being sent from boys. The cover illustrations for this series was done primarily by Tim Jacobus. Thirty-two of the books from the original series were later re-released with new artwork under the Classic Goosebumps rename.

Spin-off series
The books in the Tales to Give You Goosebumps and Goosebumps Triple Header series were written as short story anthologies, featuring a collection of stories in each book. From 1994 to 1997, six Tales to Give You Goosebumps books were published. Two Goosebumps Triple Header books were released from 1997 to 1998, beginning with Three Shocking Tales of Terror: Book 1.

Fifty Give Yourself Goosebumps books were published from 1995 to 2000, starting with Escape from the Carnival of Horrors. The books in this series were written as gamebooks, featuring multiple endings. The books in this series were ghostwritten by several authors, including Kathryn Lance and Stine's sister-in-law Megan Stine. Many of the cover illustrations for this series were done by Mark Nagata.

Due to declining Goosebumps sales and increasing competition (primarily from another series from Scholastic, Animorphs), Scholastic and R. L. Stine decided to create Goosebumps Series 2000. From 1998 to 2000, 25 books in the series were published, beginning with Cry of the Cat. The books in this series were written in a similar format and featured similar content to the original series, but Stine classified them as being "much scarier." The covers in this series were illustrated by Tim Jacobus.

The books in the Goosebumps Gold series appeared on illustrator Tim Jacobus's website and marketing sites but were never released. In this series, Stine intended to write a sequel to The Haunted Mask II (The Haunted Mask Lives!), and a sequel to Welcome to Dead House (Happy Holidays from Dead House). It was one of the two-book series by Stine that was planned to be released in 2000 (the other was The Nightmare Room).

The series was renewed in 2008 following the release of the first book in the Goosebumps HorrorLand series, Revenge of the Living Dummy, that was published on April 1, 2008. Before the 2008 release of Revenge of the Living Dummy, there had not been a Goosebumps book published in almost 10 years. Stine decided to start writing Goosebumps books again after receiving mail asking him to write new books in the series. Nineteen Goosebumps HorrorLand books were published, and books in the series mainly featured two stories. The series continued in 2012 with new stories featuring some of the series' most memorable villains, including Slappy the Dummy, the Lawn Gnomes and others. The first book of the spin-off series Goosebumps Most Wanted, Planet of the Lawn Gnomes, was released in October 2012.

 Achievements, reception and controversy

Achievements

Following the release of the first novel in the series, the books quickly became popular, selling a million copies a month soon after they first appeared, and four million copies a month by the mid-1990s. Individual Goosebumps books appeared in the New York Times Best Seller list for children and the USA Today bestseller list. In 2001, Publishers Weekly listed 46 books in the series in its list of bestselling children's paperback books of all time. Goosebumps was a bestseller in many countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and Australia.

In 1996, the book series accounted for almost 15% of Scholastic's annual revenue. Following the decline of Goosebumps sales next year, Scholastic's sales had dropped 40%. The decline in Goosebumps book sales had made front-page news of most newspaper business sections, which Patrick Jones stated "demonstrates the impact and importance of R. L. Stine. One writer, it seems, influences the fate of an entire company".

As of 2008, the Goosebumps series maintains an 82% brand awareness among children 7–12. It is listed as the number two bestselling children's book series of all time and as Scholastic's bestselling children's book series of all time. By 2014, according to Scholastic, there were 350 million copies of Goosebumps books sold in 32 languages, including Chinese, Czech, Spanish, and Hebrew. As of 2008, the book series sells about two million copies annually.

Three books from the Goosebumps series have won the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards for Favorite Book: Deep Trouble in 1995 (the award category's first year), the book Tales to Give You Goosebumps in 1996, and Deep Trouble II in 1998. In 2000, the series was ranked as the number two children's books by the National Education Association, as chosen by children. In 2003 Goosebumps was listed at number 188 on the BBC's The Big Read poll of the UK's 200 "best-loved novels."

Reception
Upon the release of the first book, Welcome to Dead House, Goosebumps received critical acclaim with many critics and readers praising the series for its dark nature, villains, likable protagonists and for being much more mature compered to other children's book series at the time. Slate's Katy Waldman classified a classic Goosebumps story as "funny, icky, and just a bit menacing". Following the release of the first Goosebumps HorrorLand book, Publishers Weekly stated in a starred review that the new Goosebumps series was "deliciously chilling". Two reviewers of the Goosebumps books did not feel that the books were high quality literature. U.S. News & World Reports Marc Silver thought the series was "quite tame". He called the Goosebumps books "subliterature", stating the plotting in the books was careless and that characters in the stories rarely grew. Roderick McGillis, from the academic journal Bookbird, described the books as camp, writing the books "are so artificial, so formulaic, so predictable, so repetitive". McGillis also felt that the content of the Goosebumps series is "thin in the extreme".

Stine's books have a reputation for getting children excited about reading, which the writer is very proud of. James Carter, writing in Talking Books: Children's Authors Talk About the Craft, Creativity and Process of Writing, stated "regarding Point Horrors and Goosebumps, I feel that anything that children read avidly is a good thing". Librarian and writer Patrick Jones commented that "[t]he real horror is a culture where kids, especially boys, don't read—and Stine has done his best to stop that turn of the screw from happening in his lifetime".

Book challengesGoosebumps was listed 15th in the list of most frequently challenged books during 1990–1999 and 94th in the list of top banned/challenged books during 2000–2009 by the American Library Association (ALA). According to the ALA, a challenge is an attempt by a person or group to remove or restrict materials from a library or school curriculum. The series was challenged for being too frightening for young people and depicting occult or demonic themes. By 1997, the ALA was informed of 46 challenges, over 75% of which occurred in school libraries. The rest of the challenges were held in public libraries or the location of the challenges were unknown. The same year, a hearing by the Anoka-Hennepin School District to ban the books was broadcast by C-SPAN. In the hearing, most of the parents and children felt the books should not be banned, and the school district's book review committee decided to keep the books.

Adaptations and merchandise

AudiobooksWalt Disney Records and Scholastic Audiobooks have adapted Goosebumps into numerous audiobooks since 1996.

Television adaptations

In the 1990s, a Goosebumps TV series was produced in Canada by Protocol Entertainment in association with Scholastic Productions. The TV anthology series ran for four seasons from 1995 to 1998, premiering on the Fox Kids Network on October 27, 1995. The series mainly featured plots based on the Goosebumps books, among them The Haunted Mask and Cuckoo Clock of Doom. The TV series aired in over 100 countries and it was the number one rated children's TV show for three years in the United States. Margaret Loesch, formerly the CEO of Fox Kids, offered Scholastic a TV deal after her son responded positively to the Goosebumps book Say Cheese and Die! she had bought for him a day earlier. A book series, titled Goosebumps Presents, was based on the TV series.

On April 28, 2020, it was announced that a new Goosebumps live action TV series was in the works by Scholastic Entertainment, Sony Pictures Television Studios and Neal H. Moritz's production company Original Film. In February 2022, it was announced that the series would be heading to Disney+. It premiered on Disney+ on Friday, October 13, 2023.

Film adaptations

A film adaptation of Goosebumps was released on October 16, 2015, directed by Rob Letterman written by Darren Lemke and duo Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski with Neal H. Moritz and Deborah Forte, the latter of whom developed the TV series, producing the film and stars Jack Black as a fictionalized version of R. L. Stine "whose scary characters literally leap off the page, forcing him to hide from his own creepy creations" with Dylan Minnette as Zach Cooper, and Odeya Rush was cast as R. L. Stine's fictional daughter, Hannah. In the film, Hannah's father R. L. Stine keeps all the monsters in the series locked up in his books. When Zach unintentionally releases the monsters from the books, Zach, Hannah, and Stine team up in order to put the monsters back where they came from.

A sequel, Goosebumps 2: Haunted Halloween was released on October 12, 2018, directed by Ari Sandel, replacing Letterman, due to being busy directing Pokémon: Detective Pikachu, and written by Rob Lieber. Jack Black returned in the sequel, making his characters the only one from the previous film to return, the sequel stars Madison Iseman, Caleel Harris and Jeremy Ray Taylor as the new leads.

Video games

There are seven Goosebumps video games, two of which have been created for the PC by DreamWorks Interactive. A 1996 game entitled Escape from HorrorLand is an interactive sequel to the book One Day at HorrorLand, and a 1997 game entitled Attack of the Mutant was based on the book of the same name. Scholastic released a Goosebumps video game in October 2008 entitled Goosebumps HorrorLand, based on the series of the same name. Another video game, Goosebumps: The Game, a prequel to the 2015 film, was released on October 13, 2015. Goosebumps: Night of Scares, a mobile game based on the film and the book series was released for iOS and Android devices on October 15 of the same year. A Mobile game, Goosebumps: HorrorTown was released in 2018. One last game released in 2020 called Goosebumps Dead of Night, available for PC and Consoles.

Comics

A comic book series, titled Goosebumps Graphix, was written based on books from the original series. There were three books published in the series; the first one, Creepy Creatures, was published on September 1, 2006. The second one Terror Trips is published in March 2007. The third one Scary Summer was released in July 2007. The fourth one Slappy's Tales of Horror is released in August 2015.

IDW Comics later released a new Goosebumps comic series, with three issues per arc. Its first arc, Monsters at Midnight, was released from October to December 2017; a second arc, Download and Die!, was released from March to May 2018. The latest arc, Horrors of the Witch House was released from March to May 2019. Each were also released as trade paperbacks.

Other mediaGoosebumps has spawned merchandise, including T-shirts, board games, puzzles, hats, fake skulls, dolls, bike helmets, fake blood, and boxer shorts. Goosebumps was also adapted into a stage play by Rupert Holmes in 1998 and a stage musical by John Maclay and Danny Abosch in 2016: Goosebumps The Musical, based on book 24: Goosebumps: Phantom of the Auditorium. Goosebumps has an official website, which garners 1.5 million page views each month as of 2008. An attraction based on the series, the Goosebumps HorrorLand Fright Show and FunHouse, opened in October 1997 at Disney-MGM Studios's New York Street. Before it closed, the attraction consisted of a stage play which featured characters from the series; this show played five times a day. The attraction also featured a funhouse, called the Goosebumps HorrorLand Hall of Mirrors, which contained a maze of mirrors along with other props and gags from the series. In 2008, it was announced that Sally Corporation would market Goosebumps rides.
The books One Day at HorrorLand and A Night in Terror Tower were adapted into two separate board games in 1996. Both games were published by Milton Bradley and designed by Craig Van Ness.

Legal dispute
In November 1996, Scholastic, the publisher of the series, and Parachute Press, the developer of the series, agreed to a new contract. Scholastic retained control of book publishing and the TV series, but gave Parachute Press merchandising rights to the series. In September 1997, following a dispute between Scholastic and Parachute Press, Scholastic accused Parachute Press of violating the contract. Scholastic claimed that Parachute Press had been making merchandising deals and issuing press releases without Scholastic's required consent, and had begun withholding payments from them. In November 1997, Parachute responded by alleging Scholastic had repudiated its financial obligations, claiming Scholastic had voided its rights to publish 54 books. Parachute Press filed a lawsuit, which followed with numerous other suits and counter lawsuits over who controls certain rights to the series. In 2003, the two sides reached an agreement, with Scholastic receiving the Goosebumps trademark and all other rights to the series for .

See also

 Fear Street Gooflumps Grizzly Tales for Gruesome Kids''
 Shivers (novel series)

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links
 at Scholastic Press

Book series introduced in 1992
American horror novels
Scholastic franchises
Juvenile series
Novel sequences
Publications established in 1992
American novels adapted into films
American novels adapted into television shows
Novels adapted into video games
Scholastic Corporation books

pl:Gęsia skórka

Goosebumps


Tadao Andō (d. 13 Eylül 1941, Osaka), Japon mimar.

Mimarlık eğitimi almamış olmasına rağmen 20. ve 21. yüzyılın en önemli mimarlarından biri olmuştur.

Tasarımları bazı kuramcılara göre Modern Mimarlık'ın yeni bir yorumu, bazılarına göre ise yalnızca birer Modernizm eklektisizmidir.

Daha çok beton, su, cam, peyzaj ve günışığı ile yaptığı kompozisyonlar Japon minimalizmini, Avrupa ve Amerika'da ortaya çıkmış olan modern mimariyle bir araya getirerek uluslararası modern mimarlığa yeni bir boyut kazandırmıştır.

Tadao Andō, 1995'te mimarlığın Nobeli sayılabilecek Pritzker Mimarlık Ödülü'nün sahibi olmuştur.
Bunun yanı sıra sayısız farklı ödül ve en son UIA 2005 altın madalyasının sahibi olmuştur.

1941 doğumlular
Japon mimarlar
Pritzker Mimarlık Ödülü sahipleri

Yaşayan insanlar

Tadao Andō


Mali Strug je hrvatska kanalizirana rječica u Brodsko-posavskoj županiji, lijeva pritoka Save. Duga je 12,1 km. Nastaje odvajanjem od kanala Strug, 3,6 km zapadno od Gređana. U blizini Gornjeg Varoša se ulijeva u Savu. Ne protječe ni kroz jedno naselje.

Rijeke u Hrvatskoj
Pritoke Save

Mali Strug


Furcht. Das Gespräch der Tänzerinnen (auch Furcht. Ein Dialog) ist der Titel eines 1907 in der Neuen Rundschau veröffentlichten Dialogs des österreichischen Dichters Hugo von Hofmannsthal. Die erste Buchausgabe erfolgte 1911 in Grete Wiesenthals Szenen von Hugo von Hofmannsthal.

Zwei Hetären unterhalten sich über den Tanz und seine Bedeutung für ihr Leben. Dabei treffen unterschiedliche Bewertungen und Selbstbilder in einer Weise aufeinander, die über das Persönliche hinausgeht und gesellschaftliche Fragen berührt. Während Laidion von einem gänzlich selbstvergessenen Tanz als höchstem Ausdruck der Angstlosigkeit und des Schöpferischen träumt, ist Hymnis zufrieden mit dessen klassischer, zeitgemäßer Form und vermag die Träume ihrer Gesprächspartnerin nicht zu verstehen.

In dem Dialog, dessen Atmosphäre auf Lukians Hetärengespräche zurückgeht, verarbeitete Hofmannsthal auch Motive aus Kleists Essay Über das Marionettentheater.

Inhalt

Ein Matrose und Freier hat Laidion soeben von einer fernen Insel mit seltsamen Tanzritualen erzählt, als Hymnis ihr Gemach betritt. Laidion bittet den Seemann, zu bleiben und mit seiner Darstellung fortzufahren, doch unwillig verlässt er die beiden und kehrt zurück auf sein Schiff.

Hymnis berichtet ihr vom Auftritt zweier Tänzerinnen. Zwar hätten sie sich schön bewegt; ihre Pantomimen seien indes von Dichtern erfunden, die den Menschen nichts Neues mitteilen und Sand in die Augen streuen würden. In ihrer Schilderung kommen einige klassische Motive griechischer Darstellung zum Vorschein, so die Verwandlung einer Nymphe in einen Baum oder die Versteinerung beim Anblick der Medusa. Für Laidion, noch ganz versunken in der Erzählung des Seemannes, ist die Welt des Tanzes schal und nichtswürdig. Sie erzählt, wie sie für viele Männer getanzt und sich von ihnen und dem Lärm bedrängt gefühlt habe. Sie wünscht sich in die Ferne, um ihrer Welt zu entfliehen: "...Wie gierige Vogelschnäbel hackt alles mir ins Gesicht und ich möchte lieber sterben als mit ihnen liegen und trinken und ihr Geschrei anhören. Da wünsch ich mich so weit weg, als ein Vogel fliegen kann."

Hymnis, fest verwurzelt in dieser Welt, kann Laidions Begeisterung für das ferne Land nicht verstehen: "Was hast du von den fremden Ländern? Man möchte doch nicht hin. Was tut man unter den farbigen Barbaren?"
Ladion bezweifelt, dass Hymnis beim Tanzen glücklich ist, da sie sich nicht vergessen und ihre Furcht loswerden könne. Hymnis widerspricht. Ihr Tanz und die begeisterten Reaktionen der Zuschauer, die ihr die Kränze hinwerfen, freue sie. Wenn sie tanze, habe sie keine Furcht. Für Laidion hingegen sind Hymnis' Wünsche Ausdruck von Furcht. Während sie mit ihrem Tanz erfolglos versuche, vor sich selbst zu fliehen, verlören jene fernen, glücklichen Inselbewohner ihre Furcht und hätten keine Scham, wenn sie "im Freien unter den heiligen Bäumen" tanzen. In dieser ersehnten Welt mit ihren hohen, von Göttern bewohnten Bäumen, deren blauschwarzer Schatten wie etwas Lebendiges ist, das man wie eine Frucht berühren kann, vollziehen die Menschen einmal im Jahr einem wilden Fruchtbarkeitstanz und geben sich am Ende, von den Göttern gesegnet, den Jünglingen hin.

Als junges Mädchen habe sie sich, voller Angst und Schuldgefühle, häufig aus sich selbst herausgesehnt. "[...] was wäre es [...], das uns tanzen macht, wenn nicht die Furcht? Die hält oben die Fäden, die mitten in unserm Leibe befestigt sind, und reißt uns hierhin und dorthin und macht unsre Glieder fliegen." Auch Hoffnung sei eine Maske dieser besonderen Form der Angst, die ein Glücklicher nicht habe. Die Hoffnung lasse einen "ausgehöhlt daliegen und laugt einem die Seele aus dem Leibe."

Erneut malt sie als Gegenbild das Leben der tanzenden Mädchen und lässt sich in eine ekstatische Vision fallen, bei der sie selbst, zunächst langsam, dann immer wilder, zu tanzen beginnt und dabei in der erträumten Gemeinschaft der anderen aufgeht und alle "zugleich unter den Augen der Götter" tanzen, während sich von den Bäumen die Schatten lösen und in das Gewühl der Tanzenden sinken. Am Ende gleitet sie zurück auf ihr Bett, und ihre Augen sind angefüllt mit einer kaum erträglichen Spannung inneren Glücks. In der Wirklichkeit angekommen, von Hymnis mit einer roten Decke geschützt, klagt sie über den glühenden Schmerz, von dieser Insel zu wissen, sie aber nicht zu haben, eine Insel, auf der die Menschen ohne den Stachel der Hoffnung glücklich sind.

Entstehung und Hintergrund

Hetärengespräche

Hofmannsthal schrieb den Dialog im Sommer 1907. Während dieser Zeit, die von Reflexionen über die Bedingungen künstlerischen Schaffens begleitet war, entstanden die  Briefe des Zurückgekehrten und erste Aufzeichnungen des unvollendeten Andreas-Romans. Hofmannsthal charakterisierte sie als Phase eines intensiven schöpferischen Zustands, einer "fast quälende(n) Lust, sowohl zu schreiben als Künftiges zu notieren – eine von den jähen, doch sehr schönen Zeiten, die alle paar Jahre einmal kommen."

In einem Brief an Harry Graf Kessler bezeichnete er dieses erfundene Gespräch als "das kleine griechische Hetärenstück." In vielen Publikationsplänen erscheint es an hervorgehobener Stelle, und 1909 überlegte er, "das Schöpferische ... als Aufsatz an erste Stelle der Prosa-Schriften III zu stellen, neben den Dialog Furcht."

Zwar orientierte Hofmannsthal sich an den Hetärengesprächen des Satirikers Lukian; allerdings ist das antike Vorbild weder formal noch inhaltlich prägend und nur an zwei Elementen erkennbar: Der Eingangsszene, in welcher der Matrose sich mit den beiden Tänzerinnen in einem Raum befindet, und der tändelnden Art, mit der Hynmis über das Geld und den Schmuck, den Status und die Eifersüchteleien der Freier spricht. Diese oberflächliche Plauderei fungiert indes als Mittel des Kontrasts, um die tiefsinnige, ja kulturkritische Position Laidions noch deutlicher hervortreten zu lassen.

In Hymnis' naiven Fragen parodiert Hofmannsthal die Haltung des wilhelminischen Bürgers: So fragt Hymnis, ob die Leute auf einem Fuß hüpfen und sich mit den Lappen ihrer Ohren bedecken. Laidion hingegen antwortet wie aus der Tiefe der Poesie: "Goldfarben sind sie und ihr Mund ist stark wie eines Raubtiers Mund. Ihre Hüften sind stark und schlank zugleich."

Tanz und die Ästhetik des Schöpferischen

Für Hofmannsthal ist der Tanz Ausdruck intensiv-erhöhten Lebensgefühls, faunisch und burlesk wie im zweiten Akt des Rosenkavalier, in dem der ungehobelte Ochs auf Lerchenau nach den Klängen des Walzers zu tanzen beginnt, in Arabella als Zeichen der noch unbeschwerten Jugend, in der Elektra schließlich als Ekstase und Wahnsinn. In der Kammeroper Ariadne auf Naxos lässt Hofmannsthal in Gestalt des Bacchus den Gott auftreten, der seit Nietzsche Inbegriff zeitverlorener, rauschhaft-lebendiger Daseinserhaltung ist.

Als dionysisch-rauschafter Zustand und Überwindung der Schwere ist er Teil der Gedankenwelt Hofmannsthals, der sich auch in den Zarathustra vertieft hatte. Im Tanzlied des zweiten Teils bittet und ermuntert Zarathustra die Mädchen, die seinetwegen zögern, weiter zu tanzen. Wie sollte er, der kein "Spielverderber mit bösem Blick" sei, "dem göttlichen Tanzen" feind sein? So hebt er selbst zu einem "Tanz- und Spottlied" auf den "Geist der Schwere" an.

Hofmannsthal bestimmte die Ästhetik des Schöpferischen als eine "dämonische Kraft" und "magische Unbesiegbarkeit", treibende Energien, bei denen weibliche Bewegungskunst und Körperbeherrschung eine zentrale Rolle spielten. So wollte er in dem Sammelband neben einem Essay über die legendäre Eleonora Duse auch einen über die Tänzerin Ruth St. Denis aufnehmen, deren Tanz er als vollkommene Darstellung eines unpersönlichen mythischen Rituals auffasste.

Über einen langen Zeitraum beschäftigte sich Hofmannsthal mit Fragen der Schauspielkunst, des Tanzes und der Pantomime, was sich in zahlreichen Aufsätzen niederschlug. So schrieb er den kurzen Essay Eleonora Duse. Eine Wiener Theaterwoche, nachdem die Schauspielerin vom 20. bis 27. Februar 1892 in Wien gastiert und Hofmannsthal sie in den Rollen der Fedora und Kameliendame gesehen hatte und verfasste später noch weitere Texte über sie, ebenso wie über die "Die unvergleichliche Tänzerein" Ruth St. Denis, mit der er freundschaftlich verbunden war oder den Tänzer Nijinsky, den er als "das größte Genie der Mimik, das die heutige Bühne kennt" bezeichnete.

Hofmannsthal entwarf ein gleichsam psychoanalytisches Modell, eine Figur, mit der die Last der abendländischen Bildungstradition abgeworfen wird, um an ihre Stelle das ins Vergessen gesunkene ursprüngliche Wissen emporsteigen zu lassen als das eigentlich Schöpferische. Im selbstvergessenen Tanz als Blick auf das Fremde kann sich so das ganz Andere erschließen, eine Welt, die jenseits der Bildungssphäre liegt und diese transzendiert.

Deutung
Für Gabriele Brandstetter bilden zwei einander zugeordnete Mythenpaare den Hintergrund des Gesprächs und werden durch das Prinzip des distanzierenden Blickes verbunden, der von außen den Körper trifft und ihm die Merkmale der Zivilisation, Selbstkontrolle und Strafdrohung aufprägt. Dieser Blick werde in vier, im Dialog anklingenden Mythen sinnfällig: In Narziss und Medusa, Argus und dem Sündenfall, der, in übertragener Form, in Kleists vielschichtigem Aufsatz über das Marionettentheater suggestiv dargestellt worden sei, dem Thema des durch angstvolle Reflexion verlorenen Gleichgewichts.

In dem erfundenen Gespräch verkörpert Hymnis mit ihrem Tanz, ihrer Rede und dem Selbstverständnis als Hetäre das Prinzip der klassischen Kunst, während Laidion diese Prägung als Selbstentfremdung empfindet und sich über ihre Phantasie aus den Zwängen der Kulturordnung befreien will.
Hymnis verharrt in affirmativer Position gegenüber ihrer Kultur und den Wertvorstellungen, Laidion hingegen entwickelt sich in einem Prozess kritischer Selbsterkenntnis und Innenschau, distanziert sich von allem und überwindet kulturelle Schranken in einem visionären Traum des anderen, "barbarischen" Tanzes.

Die Sexualität ist sowohl in der klassischen, von Hymnis vertretenen Form, als auch im entfesselten, von Laidion vorgestellten Tanz eine bestimmende Triebfeder. Während der pantomimische Tanz der Hetären erotisch ist und auf den sinnengetrübten Blick der männlichen Zuschauer hin konzipiert wurde, zeigt der Tanz, über den Laidion phantasiert und in den sie sich schließlich fallen lässt, den sexuellen Körper als Bestandteil eines überindividuellen Fruchtbarkeits- oder Initiations-Rituals. Kein stilisierter, raffiniert-verführerischer Tanz, sondern "primitiver", urwüchsiger Ausdruck unverhüllter Sexualität.
Für Gabriele Brandstetter erscheint der Tanz als Vision purer Gegenwart, ein Zustand des mit sich selbst identischen Leibes, wenn auch nur für den erfüllten Moment, der später den Schmerz des Wissens umso tiefer treibt. In der mystischen Vision, der phantasmatischen und ekstatischen Körpererfahrung, überwindet die Tänzerin die hemmende Grenze zwischen Traum und Realität und verwandelt das Fremde ins Eigene.

Textausgaben
 Hugo von Hofmannsthal: Gesammelte Werke in zehn Einzelbänden. Band 7, Erzählungen, Erfundene Gespräche und Briefe. Fischer, Frankfurt 1986, ISBN 359622165X

Sekundärliteratur
 Gabriele Brandstetter: Der Traum vom anderen Tanz, Hofmannsthals Ästhetik des Schöpferischen im Dialog "Furcht", in Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Neue Wege der Forschung, Hrsg. Elsbeth Dangel-Pelloquin, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2007, S. 41–61, ISBN 978-3-534-19032-4

Einzelnachweise

Werk von Hugo von Hofmannsthal
Literarisches Werk
Literatur (20. Jahrhundert)
Literatur (Deutsch)
Literatur (Österreich)
Tanz in der Kultur

Furcht. Das Gespräch der Tänzerinnen


Llívia, Katalonya'nın Girona iline bağlı eksklav yerleşim bölgesi. Llívia'nin dört bir yanı Fransa'nın Pyrénées-Orientales département'i sınırları içinde yer almaktadır. Yüzölçümü 12.84 km² olan şehrin nüfusu ise sadece 1,589 kişidir. Rakımı 1,224 metredir. İspanya sınırından 2 km uzaklıkta olup Girona şehrine ise 90 km'lik uzaklığı bulunmaktadır.

Kaynakça

İspanya'daki şehirler
Fransa-İspanya sınırı
Eksklavlar

Llívia


Este artigo lista todos os jogos do Botafogo de Futebol e Regatas contra adversários internacionais. Ao todo, são mais de 500 partidas registradas, entre competições oficiais e amistosos.

O primeiro duelo contra um rival estrangeiro aconteceu em 12 de setembro de 1909: na ocasião, o Botafogo Football Club enfrentou os marinheiros do cruzador inglês Amethyst, que estava aportado no Rio de Janeiro. No Campo da Rua Voluntários da Pátria, o alvinegro saiu vitorioso por 2–1, com gols de Flávio Ramos e Gilbert Hime.

Já a primeira partida do Botafogo contra um adversário internacional oficial foi disputada em 1913: derrota por 1–0 para a Seleção Portuguesa, que fazia sua primeira excursão ao Brasil.

Todos os confrontos

Listas de Botafogo de Futebol e Regatas
Listas de recordes e estatísticas de clubes de futebol do Brasil

Lista de jogos internacionais do Botafogo de Futebol e Regatas


Top Secret!, casusluk ve Elvis Presley filmlerinin parodisi niteliğinde bir 1984 ABD yapımı komedi filmi. Filmin yapımcıları Jim Abrahams, David Zucker ve Jerry Zucker'dır. Filmin baş rollerinde Val Kilmer, Lucy Gutteridge, Omar Sharif, Peter Cushing, Michael Gough ve Jeremy Kemp oynar.

Filmin en önemli unsurlarından biri başka filmlere yapılan ironik göndermelerle dolu olmasıdır.

Konusu
Filmde, şarkıları Elvis Presley ile Beach Boys 'un şarkılarını çağrıştıran Nick Rivers adlı Amerikalı pop şarkıcısı bir kahramanın hikâyesi anlatılır.

Nick menajeri ile birlikte bir kültür festivalinde sahne almak için Doğu Almanya 'ya seyahat eder. Filmde o sırada Doğu Almanya 'da Nazi rejimine benzer bir rejim hüküm sürmektedir. Rivers, burada güzel Hillary Flammond ile tanışır ve ona babası Paul 'un hapisten kurtulması için yardım eder. Hillary 'nin babası Paul bir araştırmacı ve bilim insanı olup, Almanlar tarafından ölümcül bir bomba yapması için zorlanmakta ve bu yüzden esir tutulmaktadır. Nick fransız direnişçileri tarzında yapılanmış Doğu Almanya 'daki direniş hareketi ile bağlantı kurar. Hareketin lideri Hillary'nin eski sevgilisi çıkar (Nigel). Nigel, Nick, Hillary ve adamları ile birlikte bilim insanını kurtarmayı planlamaktadır. Aksiyonun devamında grubun içinde aranmakta olan hainin liderleri Nigel olduğu tespit edilir. Grubun geri kalanı Nigel'ı devre dışında bıraktıktan sonra  Hillary 'nin babası bilim insanını kurtarırlar.

Kritikler
Roger Ebert Chicago Sun-Times 1 Ocak 1984'teki yazısında  , bir arkadaşının tüm filmi baştan sona seyrettiğinde 5 kez ancak gülebileceğini söylediğini, halbuki kendisinin bunu filmin daha ilk 10 dakikasında başarabileceğini yazmıştır. Yani filmin keyfi kişisel mizah anlayışına bağlı olarak çıkmaktadır. Devamında Top Secret'in tasvir edilebilecek bir konusunun olmadığını ve buna ihtiyacı da olmadığını belirterek zira Top Secret! tarzı filmlerin konusu yüzünden seyredilmediklerini yazmıştır. Filme 4 üzerinden 3,5 yıldız vermiştir.

Dış bağlantılar
 www.rottentomatoes.com: Top Secret!
 IMDb profili

Maurice Jarre'ın müziğini yaptığı filmler
ZAZ grubu'nun yönettiği filmler
Jim Abrahams'ın yönettiği filmler
David Zucker'ın yönettiği filmler
Jerry Zucker'ın yönettiği filmler
Paramount Pictures filmleri
Slapstick filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri aksiyon komedi filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri casus filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri parodi filmleri
1980'lerde casus filmleri
1980'lerde İngilizce filmler
1984 çıkışlı komedi filmleri

Top Secret! (film)


An Lepanthopsis culiculosa in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Carlyle August Luer. An Lepanthopsis culiculosa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Lepanthopsis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Lepanthopsis

Lepanthopsis culiculosa


Dans le domaine du renseignement, l' « Interceptions obligatoires légales » (ou IOL) est le nom d'un dispositif français de surveillance automatisé (« d'écoute ») du réseau internet en France.

Longtemps resté secret (et a-légal, para-légal ou illégal), et encore peu connu du public, il est basé sur l'utilisation de « sondes » (aussi dites « boites noires »), initialement installées sur le réseau ADSL, permettant de collecter « en temps réel » des métadonnées (activité initialement non-autorisée).

Histoire
 En 1991, en France l'article L. 811-5 du code de la sécurité intérieure (devenu depuis 2015 l'article L. 871-2), cadre les interceptions de sécurité et autorise la surveillance hertzienne par les services de renseignement (avant d'être jugée inconstitutionnelle par le Conseil constitutionnel car n'étant soumise à  et sa  n'étant encadrée ), cette plate-forme informatique d'interception a pu permettre une surveillance généralisée de tout le réseau internet français dès 2009, d'après un rapport (2013) parlementaire de la mission parlementaire chargée de l'« Évaluation du cadre juridique applicable aux services de renseignement », indiquant que les services faisaient environ  par an en vertu de la loi de 2006 (c'est-à-dire dans le cadre des lois antiterroristes), contre près de  sur la base de l'article L. 811-5 détournée, couvrant, lui tout le champ, bien plus large, des interventions de renseignement – cadré par des notions aux contours mal définis, tels que celles de  « la sécurité nationale » et de « sauvegarde des éléments essentiels du potentiel scientifique et économique de la France ».

 À partir du 6 juin 2013), le lanceur d'alerte Edward Snowden attire l'attention du monde sur des pratiques similaires mises en place à plus grande échelle par le Gouvernement fédéral des États-Unis pour surveiller les communications d'individus de la planète entière, via notamment la captation par la  National Security Agency (NSA), des métadonnées des appels téléphoniques aux États-Unis, et les écoutes de conversation téléphoniques et internet via les programmes  PRISM, XKeyscore, Boundless Informant et Bullrun, ainsi que sur les pratiques du gouvernement britannique via les programmes de surveillance Tempora, Muscular et Optic Nerve.

 En France, longtemps, la loi ne définit pas ce qu'est la « communauté française du renseignement » ; ainsi, la loi de finances pour 2002 fait mention des « services destinataires » (fonds spéciaux), mais sans les mentionner explicitement. Il faut attendre 2011 ( de la LOPPSI) (4) pour que l'article L. 2371-1 du code de la défense pose une définition : « Les services spécialisés de renseignement [...] sont désignés par arrêté du Premier ministre parmi les services mentionnés à l'article 6 nonies de l'ordonnance  du  relative au fonctionnement des assemblées parlementaires». Le  un arrêté du Premier ministre dresse enfin une liste des administrations concernées par le recours à une fausse identité et, indirectement, par la délégation parlementaire au renseignement : la DGSE, la DPSD, la DRM, la DCRI, la DNRED et TRACFIN. En 2013, la surveillance par les « Interceptions obligatoires légales » est officiellement reconnue (par la LPM, Loi de programmation militaire) puis reconduite par la loi relative au renseignement (examinée au Parlement à partir du  puis promulguée le ), alors que dans divers pays, le droit du renseignement évoluait aussi, pour notamment s'adapter à la croissance mondialisée de l'Internet.

 En 2016, après une enquête journalistique, une activité de surveillance généralisée, précoce, avant qu'elle ne soit autorisée par la loi, a été dénoncée et portée à la connaissance du public par Mediapart le 6 juin 2016, via un article de Jérôme Hourdeaux, intitulé La surveillance du Net a été généralisée dès 2009. Cet article montre qu'elle était en réalité utilisée dès 2009. En 2016 également, le Journal officiel a publié un décret d'application de la loi sur le renseignement relatif au système de surveillance français, dressant la liste des données techniques de connexion légalement accessibles aux services de surveillance. C'est le Premier ministre qui définissait la liste des appareils de surveillance pouvant être importés, distribués, commercialisés, détenus, etc. en France ; les « dispositifs techniques » (software) incluant désormais les appareils (hardware). Les services du renseignement n'ont plus besoin d'une autorisation du premier ministre pour la fabrique d'appareils ou de dispositifs techniques depuis qu'un décret leur accorde «  de plein droit » cette autorisation. Il existait depuis les années 1960 un groupement interministériel de contrôle (GIC, dont le nouveau président, à compter du , Pascal Chauve (ingénieur en chef de l'armement), a été nommé par Manuel Valls, en remplacement du contre-amiral Bruno Durteste). Cet organisme n'a été officialisé qu'en 2002. Placé auprès du Premier ministre, il enregistre toutes les autorisations de surveillance prononcées par ce dernier, puis recueille et conserve toutes les métadonnées récupérées auprès des intermédiaires techniques, hébergeurs et FAI. Il centralise aussi l'exécution des interceptions de sécurité (« écoutes ») et leurs retranscriptions. Enfin, il va « contribuer » à la centralisation et à la traçabilité de ces différentes opérations. Bref, un rôle fondamental dans la mise en œuvre de la loi sur le renseignement.

 Une question prioritaire de constitutionnalité (QPC) posée par la Quadrature du Net, la French Data Network (FDN) et FFDN, a porté sur plusieurs dispositions issues de la loi de programmation militaire (LPM) du 18 décembre 2013 autorisant l'« accès administratif » aux « données de connexion » (dispositions qui seront entre-temps modifiées par la loi renseignement (dont le  Conseil constitutionnel a reconnu la constitutionnalité). Pour répondre à cette QCP et définir ce que la loi entendait par la notion de « données de connexion », le Conseil constitutionnel, a rendu plusieurs décisions (French Data Network et d'autres) le 24 juillet 2015 (juste le lendemain de la « décision du 23 juillet portant sur la loi renseignement » faisant suite à la contestation par certains députés de la conformité de certains articles de la loi à la Constitution, et en particulier au droit au respect de la vie privée et à la liberté d'expression). Les articles L 246-1 à L 246-5 du code de la sécurité intérieure (CSI) en vigueur jusqu'à l'intervention des décrets d'application de la loi renseignement (art. 26 de la loi du 24 juillet 2015) autorisaient trois ministères (de la Défense, de l'Intérieur et de l'Économie et des finances) à accéder aux . Le champ d'application est plus large que celui la loi du 24 juillet 2015, limitée aux services de renseignement français, et il a le même objectif : autoriser, à certaines conditions, un accès administratif aux données de connexion (« informations ou documents » pouvant être aspirés par les services via les intermédiaires que sont les infrastructures, serveurs, fournisseurs d'accès, etc.).

 Le ,  Médiapart, se basant sur des documents émanants de Hacking Team (fabricant virus et logiciels de surveillance), affirme que dès 2013 la France cherchait à se fournir en logiciels-espions. Les services de renseignement semblaient notamment vouloir acheter Galileo, un outil permettant via un virus informatique de prendre le contrôle d'ordinateurs distants. Des négociations avec des sociétés étrangères se sont notamment faites via une associations CNET Sagic Service Administratif dont le code « APE » déclaré à l'Insee était celui de « autres services de restauration » (désignant habituellement les « Exploitations en concession de cantines, restaurants d'entreprises, de cafétérias »), déclarée avoir été créée comme Association le 01/01/1900, et fonctionnant sans salariés ni effectif, et officiellement fermée le  après avoir été basée à la même adresse que celle du Secrétariat général de la Défense et de la Sécurité nationale (SGDSN).

Analyse critique
 En 2016 (14 novembre), Francis Delon (président de la Commission nationale de contrôle des techniques de renseignement (CNCTR) annonce lors d'un colloque à Grenoble que les boîtes noires sondant en temps réel les communications Internet de millions de résidents français sont désormais légalisées (après l'adoption de la loi renseignement de 2015) ; selon lui le « contenu » des communications n'est pas concerné, et le secret des correspondances est donc protégé, mais ce n'est pas l'avis des journalistes enquêteurs, de militants, de juristes, d'universitaires et d'observateurs comme F Tréguer (de l'ONG laQuadrature du Net) : Ce dernier explique que ces boites noires, qui doivent algorithmiquement repérer des communications « suspectes » échangés via l'internet (y compris via la téléphonie), sont une première étape dans l'évolution du droit français qui cherche depuis 2013 à légaliser l'usage des techniques de «  » (, utilisée avant même d'être juridiquement cadrée. Selon lui, plusieurs ambiguïtés légistiques . Même si le trafic Internet chiffré a augmenté, cette « écoute » du trafic Internet permet aux services qui l'utilisent de repérer des cibles, mais aussi potentiellement de dresser des graphes sociaux détaillés de tous les internautes (qui communique avec qui, quand, à l'aide de quel service en ligne, etc.), via l'analyse des métadonnées et d'une partie du contenu des communications : . Selon F Tréguer, cet outil de captation des identifiants contenus dans les communications Internet permet aux services de massifier la surveillance, en contournant les quotas prévus en matière d'interceptions de sécurité (plafond de  simultanées).

 En 2018, Jean-Pierre Dubois (professeur de droit public et président d'honneur de la Ligue des droits de l'homme (France)) dans un article intitulé , publié dans l'ouvrage Qui gouverne le monde s'interroge sur la manière dont les conflits et violences ont changé (devenant plus « asymétrique ») et comment dans un monde en proie aux exacerbations de  ; en réponse , l'exercice de la « contrainte physique légitime » se durcit : états d'exception de plus en plus durables, renforcement des pouvoirs policiers au détriment des pouvoirs juridictionnels, alourdissement pénal et pénitentiaire du « sécuritaire »... Il relève que les services de renseignements français ont mis en place dès 2009 un dispositif automatisé d'« Interceptions obligatoires légales », de surveillance du Net collectant les « métadonnées », alors que l'analyse des métadonnées « en temps réel » n'était pas encore autorisé.

Notes et références

Dans le Journal officiel de la République française (JORF), sur Légifrance :

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Groupement interministériel de contrôle
 Commission nationale de contrôle des interceptions de sécurité (CNCIS)
 Commission nationale de contrôle des techniques de renseignement (CNCTR),
 Écoute clandestine
 Données personnelles
 Données de connexion
 Renseignement d'origine électromagnétique en France

Bibliographie
 Claude Silberzahn, avec Jean Guisnel, Au cœur du secret :  aux commandes de la DGSE (1989-1993), Paris, Fayard, 1995

Renseignement d'origine électromagnétique en France
Service du Premier ministre français

Interceptions obligatoires légales


Poseidon (Ποσειδῶν), Yunan mitolojisinde yer alan denizler ve depremler tanrısı. Kronos ile Rheia'nın oğlu. Zeus ve Hades'in kardeşi. Roma mitolojisi'nde Neptün (Neptunus) olarak bilinir.

Karakteri

Poseidon "Ey Yerleri Sarsan" veya "Kara saçlı" Tanrı olarak da çağrılır. En önemli silahı Trident denen üç dişli bir yabadır ve bu yabayı yere vurduğunda depremler meydana gelir. Poseidon hırs ve gücü temsil eder. Poseidon'un hırsı Atlantis'in yok olmasına sebep olmuştur. Bunun nedeni ise Dünya'nın en mükemmel şehrini inşa etme arzusudur. Karanlığın ve işkencenin tanrısı olan "Gorgos'la" ölümüne savaş içindedir. Karanlığın ve işkencenin tanrısı olan "Gorgos", Zeus'u kıskanmaktadır. Bu yüzden Olimpos'ta kargaşa ve kaos yarattığından güçleri bir taşa hapsedilerek ve bir şart koyularak serbest bırakılmıştır. Bu şart ise "ne zaman birini öldürmek üzere olsa ona bir dilek hakkı vermektir". Fakat o, bu dilekleri çok iyi inceleyerek onu dileyenin aleyhine bir şekilde gerçekleştirmektedir.

Poseidon "Dorlar'ın" göçlerinden önce "Peloponnesos" ile "Boiotia'da" saygı görürdü. Üç dişli yabası ile denizleri allak bullak eder, karaları sarsar, depremler yollardı. Bunun için "Poseidon'a" "Enosikhthon" ile "Gaeiokhos" (yerin altında yürüyen) de denir. Üçlü yabasını vurunca topraktan ve kayalardan su fışkırttığı için, bol su kaynaklarının tanrısı olarak da adlandırılır. Denizin dibindeki görkemli sarayından çıktığında, denizatlarının çektiği altın arabasına binerek denizleri dolaşır, fırtınalar yaratırdı. Denizciler güvenli bir yolculuk için ona yakarırdı. Ayrıca atların da tanrısıydı; En eski efsanelerde sık sık at şeklinde tasvir edilir. Poseidon Şerefine tertiplenen araba yarışları içinde, Korinthos'ta yapılan İsthmia yarışları en meşhurlarıdır. Atina'daki Erekhteion'da, Poseidon'la Athena arasındaki yarışın izleri görülür; Poseidon, üç dişli asasını vurunca kaya da koca bir yarık açılmıştır ve bu yarıktan insanların işine yaramayacak olan tuzlu deniz suyu çıkmıştır. Zeus'un kızı olan Athena'ya Atina'daki yarışmada yenilmiştir. Gigantlar arasındaki karşıtı Polibot'tur.

Ailesi
Kronos ile Rhea'nın ikinci oğlu ve Zeus'un kardeşi olan Poseidon, Amphitrite ile evlenmiştir. Amphitrite deniz dibi tanrıçasıdır. Ve Poseidon ile evliliğinden Amykos, Kyknos, Bentheskyme,  Kymopoleia ve Triton adında çocukları vardır. Amykos, Bebryklerin kralıdır. Ülkesinin kıyılarına gelen yabancıları yumruk dövüşlerine zorlar, yenilenleri öldürür. Argonautlar, Bebryk'ler iline geldiklerinde Amykos Polydeukes'e yenilir ve artık tehlikesiz bir hale gelir.

Kyknos,  Akhilleus tarafından Troya önlerinde öldürülmüş ve babası tarafından kuğuya dönüştürülmüştür.

Triton ise belden yukarısı insan belden aşağısı balık şeklinde ayakları at ayağına benzeyen bir deniz tanrısıdır.

Kymopoleia'da fırtına tanrıçasıdır. Yıkıcı bir güce sahip olduğu için babası ve Olimpos Tanrıları tarafından sevilmez bu yüzden onlardan çok uzakta yaşar. Babası onu yüzkollu Briareus'la evlendirmiştir.

Pegasus ile Chrysaor ise vaktiyle Poseidon'un Athena Tapınağı'nda tecavüz ettiği Medusa'nın kesilen kafasından ya da toprağa sıçrayan kanlarından ortaya çıkan çocuklarıdır. Ayrıca Poseidon tanrıça Demeter ile beraber olabilmek için onu takip etmiş, Demeter ise kaçabilmek için bir ata dönüşüp bir at sürüsünün arasına karışmıştır fakat Poseidon bunu fark eder ve kendisi de ata dönüşür ve Demeter ile çiftleşir. Bu birleşmeden Arion adında Pegasus'tan bile hızlı bir at doğar.

Truva duvarları

Hera'nın düzeniyle Apollon ile Zeus'a tuzak kuran Poseidon, ceza olarak Apollon ile Truva Kral Laomedon'un hizmetine gönderilir. Laomedon ona şehir etrafında büyük duvarlar inşaatını yapmaları görevini verir ve karşılık olarak  onu ödüllendireceğinin sözünü verir. Sonunda yapılan surlar çok sağlam ve kalındır. Ancak Truva Kralı Laomedon, tanrıya söz verdiği ücreti ödemeyi reddedince, Poseidon buna kızar karşılık olarak selleri ve bir deniz canavarını kentin üzerine salar. Sonra da Truva Savaşı'nda Akhalar'ı destekler.

Kültür

Türkiye
Poseidon kültürü, Türkiye'de çok yaygın olmamasına rağmen, en önemli merkezlerinden biri olan Panionion, Aydın'a bağlı Dilek Yarımadasındadır. Panionion'nun önemi Poseidon'a adanmış bir tapınağın olması ve bölgenin, Anadolu'daki, en güçlü yunan-kent birliği olan İyon Birliğinin kültürel merkezi ve geleneksel festival alanı olmasıdır.

Türkiye'de Poseidon ile ilgili veya Posedion inancının olduğu yerler:

Katakekaumene (Yanık Topraklar), Frigya yakınlarında iç kısımlarda bulunan bu bölgede Poseidon inancının yerleşmesi deniz ile ilgili değil, bölgenin sismik olarak hareketli olması ve Posidon'un yeri sarsan tanrı olarak deprem nedeni olarak görülmesidir.
Milet, Poseidon Helikonios (Yunanistan'da bir antik kent olan Helike'ye ithafen "Helike şehrinden gelen" anlamında)
Mylasa
Panionion, Poseidon Helikonios
Priene, Poseidon Helikonios
Teos, Poseidon Helikonios

Ayrıca Yalova'ya bağlı Armutlu ilçesinin bulunduğu burun "Posidium Burnu" olarak adlandırılır.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 Erhat, Azra (2004), Mitoloji Sözlüğü İstanbul:Remzi Kitabevi (Büyük Fikir Kitapları Dizisi) ISBN 9789751403919

Yunan mitolojisinde kişiler

Yunan mitolojisi
Deniz tanrıları
Mitolojik tecavüzcüler
Kurgusal büyücüler
Masal karakterleri

Poseidon


"Som et strejf af en dråbe" var Gasolins korteste sang og blev brugt som afslutning på DR's ungdomsradioen P4 i P1 fra 1973-1994 og derefter som afslutning på Tine Brylds ungdomsprogram Tværs frem til 2008. Klaveret blev spillet af Kim Larsen, en af de få sange han kunne spille på klaver. Sangen blev udgivet på flere albums;
'' Live in Scandinavia'' (1978), Rabalderstræde Forever (1991), Derudaf Forever (1993) og Det var en torsdag aften (2002).

Tekst

Som et strejf af en dråbe
Fik vi lov til at håbe
På de ting som skal komme
Før end livet er omme.

Referencer

Sange fra 1973
Sange fra Danmark
Gasolin'-sange

Som et strejf af en dråbe


A diagram is a symbolic representation of information using visualization techniques. Diagrams have been used since prehistoric times on walls of caves, but became more prevalent during the Enlightenment. Sometimes, the technique uses a three-dimensional visualization which is then projected onto a two-dimensional surface. The word graph is sometimes used as a synonym for diagram.

Overview
The term "diagram" in its commonly used sense can have a general or specific meaning:
 visual information device : Like the term "illustration", "diagram" is used as a collective term standing for the whole class of technical genres, including graphs, technical drawings and tables.
 specific kind of visual display : This is the genre that shows qualitative data with shapes that are connected by lines, arrows, or other visual links.

In science the term is used in both ways. For example, Anderson (1997) stated more generally: "diagrams are pictorial, yet abstract, representations of information, and maps, line graphs, bar charts, engineering blueprints, and architects' sketches are all examples of diagrams, whereas photographs and video are not". On the other hand, Lowe (1993) defined diagrams as specifically "abstract graphic portrayals of the subject matter they represent".

In the specific sense diagrams and charts contrast with computer graphics, technical illustrations, infographics, maps, and technical drawings, by showing "abstract rather than literal representations of information". The essence of a diagram can be seen as:
 a form of visual formatting devices
 a display that does not show quantitative data (numerical data), but rather relationships and abstract information
 with building blocks such as geometrical shapes connected by lines, arrows, or other visual links.
Or in Hall's (1996) words "diagrams are simplified figures, caricatures in a way, intended to convey essential meaning". These simplified figures are often based on a set of rules. The basic shape according to White (1984) can be characterized in terms of "elegance, clarity, ease, pattern, simplicity, and validity". Elegance is basically determined by whether or not the diagram is "the simplest and most fitting solution to a problem".

Diagrammatology
Diagrammatology is the academic study of diagrams. Scholars note that while a diagram may look similar to the thing that it represents, this is not necessary. Rather a diagram may only have structural similarity to what it represents, an idea often attributed to Charles Sanders Peirce. Structural similarity can be defined in terms of a mapping between parts of the diagram and parts of what the diagram represents and the properties of this mapping, such as maintaining relations between these parts and facts about these relations. This is related to the concept of isomorphism, or homomorphism in mathematics.

Sometimes certain geometric properties (such as which points are closer) of the diagram can be mapped to properties of the thing that a diagram represents. On the other hand, the representation of an object in a diagram may be overly specific and properties that are true in the diagram may not be true for the object the diagram represents. A diagram may act as a means of cognitive extension allowing reasoning to take place on the diagram based on which constraints are similar.

Gallery of diagram types

There are at least the following types of diagrams:

 Logical or conceptual diagrams, which take a collection of items and relationships between them, and express them by giving each item a 2D position, while the relationships are expressed as connections between the items or overlaps between the items, for example:

 Quantitative diagrams, which display a relationship between two variables that take either discrete or a continuous range of values; for example:

 Schematics and other types of diagrams, for example:

Many of these types of diagrams are commonly generated using diagramming software such as Visio and Gliffy.

Diagrams may also be classified according to use or purpose, for example, explanatory and/or how to diagrams.

Thousands of diagram techniques exist. Some more examples follow:

Specific diagram types

A
Activity diagram used in UML 6/9 and SysML

B
Bachman diagram
Booch – used in software engineering
Bow-tie diagram
Block diagram
Block definition diagram (BDD) used in SysML

C
Carroll diagram
Cartogram
Catalytic cycle
Computer network diagram
Chemical equation
Curly arrow diagram
Category theory diagrams
Cause-and-effect diagram
Chord diagram (disambiguation)
Circuit diagram
Class diagram – from UML 1/9
Cobweb diagram
Collaboration diagram – from UML 2.0
Communication diagram – from UML 2.0
Commutative diagram
Comparison diagram
Component diagram – from UML 3/9
Composite structure diagram – from UML 2.0
Concept map
Constellation diagram
Context diagram
Control flow diagram
Contour diagram
Cordier diagram
Cross functional flowchart

D
Data model diagram
Data flow diagram
Data structure diagram
Dendrogram
Dependency diagram
Deployment diagram – from UML 9/9
Dynkin diagram
Dot and cross diagram
Double bubble map – used in education
Drakon-chart

E
Entity-relationship diagram (ERD)
Event-driven process chain
Euler diagram
Eye diagram – a diagram of a received telecommunications signal
Exploded-view drawing
Express-G
Extended functional flow block diagram (EFFBD)

F
Family tree
Feynman diagram
Flow chart
Flow process chart
Flow diagram
Fusion diagram
Free body diagram

G
Gantt chart – shows the timing of tasks or activities (used in project management)
Gigamapping - a visual-mapping process tool used in Systems-oriented design to collaboratively capture real-world complexities
Grotrian diagram
Goodman diagram – shows the fatigue data (example: for a wind turbine blades)

H
Hasse diagram
HIPO diagram

I
Internal block diagram (IBD) used in SysML
IDEF0
IDEF1 (entity relations)
Interaction overview diagram – from UML
Ishikawa diagram

J
Jackson diagram
Jones diagram

K
Karnaugh map
Kinematic diagram
Knot diagram

L
Ladder diagram
Levi graph
Line of balance
Link grammar diagram

M
Martin ERD
Message sequence chart
Mind map – used for learning, brainstorming, memory, visual thinking and problem solving
Minkowski spacetime diagram
Molecular orbital diagram
Motion diagram

N
N2
Nassi–Shneiderman diagram or structogram – a representation for structured programming
Nomogram
Network diagram

O
O–C diagram – a diagnostic plot of observed minus predicted values over time
Object diagram – from UML 2/9
Organigram
Onion diagram – also known as "stacked Venn diagram"

P
Package diagram from UML 4/9 and SysML
Parametric diagram from SysML
PERT
Petri net – shows the structure of a distributed system as a directed bipartite graph with annotations
Phylogenetic tree - represents a phylogeny (evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms)
Piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID)
Phase diagram used to present solid/liquid/gas information
Plant diagram
Pressure volume diagram used to analyse engines
Pourbaix diagram
Process flow diagram or PFD – used in chemical engineering
Program structure diagram

R
Radar chart
Radial diagram
Requirement diagram Used in SysML
Rich picture
R-diagram
Routing diagram

S
Sankey diagram – represents material, energy or cost flows with quantity proportional arrows in a process network
Sentence diagram – represents the grammatical structure of a natural language sentence
Sequence diagram from UML 8/9 and SysML
SDL/GR diagram – specification and description Language. SDL is a formal language used in computer science.
Smith chart
Spider chart
Spray diagram
SSADM – structured systems analysis and design methodology (used in software engineering)
Star chart/Celestial sphere
State diagram are used for state machines in software engineering  from UML 7/9
Swim lane
Syntax diagram used in software engineering to represent a context-free grammar
Systems Biology Graphical Notation – a graphical notation used in diagrams of biochemical and cellular processes studied in systems biology
System context diagram
System structure
Systematic layout planning

T
Timing diagram: digital timing diagram
Timing diagram: UML 2.0
TQM Diagram
Tree structure
Treemap

U
UML diagram – Unified Modeling Language (used in software engineering)
Use case diagram – from UML 5/9 and SysML

V
Value stream mapping
Venn diagram
Violin plot
Voronoi diagram

W
Warnier-Orr
Wedge-dash diagram
Williot diagram

Y
Yourdon-Coad – see Edward Yourdon, used in software engineering

See also

 commons:Specific diagram typesGallery of many diagram types at Wikimedia Commons

 JavaScript graphics librariesLibraries for creating diagrams and other data visualization

References

Further reading

 Michael Anderson, Peter Cheng, Volker Haarslev (Eds.) (2000). Theory and Application of Diagrams: First International Conference, Diagrams 2000. Edinburgh, Scotland, UK, September 1–3, 2000. Proceedings.
 Garcia, M. (ed.), (2012) The Diagrams of Architecture. Wiley. Chichester.
 Birger Sevaldson,

External links
 What is Gigamapping (website provided by the Oslo School of Architecture and Design)

Infographics

Modeling languages

Diagram


පාගොඩ ජන්තවංශ තෙරණුවෝ යනු බෞද්ධ භික්ෂුවක් වන්නාහ. භාරතනාග ලෙන්ආරන්‍යය තන්තිරිමලේ අනුරාධපුරයහි වැඩවසයි.

චරිතාපදානය

සංක්‍ෂිප්ත විස්තරය
පාගොඩ ජන්තවංශ තෙරණුවෝ කොළඹ නාලන්දා විද්‍යාලයයේ ආදි සිසුවෙකි.

ආශ්‍රිත
කොළඹ නාලන්දා විද්‍යාලයයේ ආදි සිසු බෞද්ධ භික්ෂූන්

බෞද්ධ දාර්ශනිකයන්
නූතන බෞද්ධ ගත්කතුවරු
චරිත කතා
ශ්‍රී ලාංකිකයෝ
ශ්‍රී ලාංකික බෞද්ධයෝ
ලාංකික සිංහලයෝ
ආදි නාලන්දියයෝ
භික්‍ෂූහූ

පාගොඩ ජන්තවංශ තෙරණුවෝ


Russell Metty (Los Ángeles, California, 20 de septiembre de 1906 – Canoga Park, California, 28 de abril de 1978) fue director de fotografía en muchas de las grandes películas de Hollywood en las décadas de 1940, 1950 y 1960.

En 1961 obtuvo el Óscar a la mejor fotografía por Espartaco, dirigida por Stanley Kubrick e interpretada por Kirk Douglas.

Entre las cerca de 150 películas que rodó son especialmente recordadas:
 Escrito sobre el viento (1956, Douglas Sirk, con Rock Hudson, Lauren Bacall)
 Sed de mal (Touch of Evil, 1958, dirigida por Orson Welles, con Charlton Heston, Janet Leigh, Marlene Dietrich)
 Imitación a la vida (1959, Douglas Sirk, con Lana Turner)
 The Misfits (dirigida por John Huston, 1961, con Clark Gable, Marilyn Monroe, Montgomery Clift, Eli Wallach).
 Sierra prohibida (1966, Sidney J. Furie, con Marlon Brando, Anjanette Comer y John Saxon)

Premios y distinciones
Premios Óscar

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Directores de fotografía de Estados Unidos
Ganadores del premio Óscar a la mejor fotografía

Russell Metty


okolina (psihologija), u psihologiji, je prirodno ili umjetno stvoreno ili društveno okruženje u kojem ljudi djeluju. Pojam okoline obuhvaća sve čimbenike izvan jedinke koji utječu na njezin razvoj i ponašanje. Okolina u psihološkom smislu podrazumijeva suodnos: ona djeluje na čovjeka i on reagira na nju, istodobno čovjek utječe na okolinu u kojoj se nalazi i mijenja ju.
 okolina (matematika), u matematici, predstavlja topološki prostor. Topološki prostor je predmet proučavanja topologije.
 u ekologiji okolina ustvari predstavlja okoliš, ili bolje rečeno prirodni okoliš. Okoliš je prirodno ili stvoreno okruženje u kojem žive čovjek i druga bića; ukupnost svih prirodnih i stvorenih vrijednosti, kojima svojim djelovanjem upravlja čovjek.
 okolina (termodinamika), u termodinamici, predstavlja medij za razmjenu tvari ili energije.

Izvori

Okolina


Abū ʿAlī Manṣūr (født 13. august 985, død 13. februar 1021), bedre kendt som al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh, som betyder "hersker ved Guds befaling", var den sjette fatimidiske kalif og den sekstende ismailistiske imam. Al-Hakim er en vigtig figur i flere shia-ismailistiske religioner.

Kaliffer
Imamer
Personer fra Kairo

Al-Hakim


An Triodia pungens in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Robert Brown. An Triodia pungens in nahilalakip ha genus nga Triodia, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Triodia (Poaceae)

Triodia pungens


99. længdegrad kan henvise til:

 99. vestlige længdekreds
 99. østlige længdekreds

99. længdegrad


Le Champions Chess Tour 2022, aussi appelé le Meltwater Champions Chess Tour 2022 du nom de son sponsor, est un circuit de tournois d'échecs rapides en ligne (sur internet) organisé en 2022 par le champion du monde Magnus Carlsen et doté de  de dollars de prix. Les meilleurs joueurs mondiaux sont invités.

Organisation
Le circuit est composé de six tournois avec seize joueurs (tournois Regular), de trois tournois avec douze joueurs (tournois Major).

Les participants des tournois disputent un tournoi toutes rondes rapide sur trois ou quatre jours (une victoire rapportant 3 points et une nulle un point), puis, dans les tournois Regular, les huit premiers s'affrontent dans un tournoi à élimination directe. Les huit joueurs disputent des matchs en un set de quatre parties, éventuellement suivis de parties de départage en blitz. La finale est composée de deux mini-matchs de quatre parties. Aucun match pour la troisième place n'est prévu.

Palmarès des tournois

Les  pour chaque tournoi Regular sont répartis de la manière suivante :  pour la phase à élimination directe et entre  et  pour le tournoi préliminaire. Dans le tournoi préliminaire, un joueur gagne  pour chaque nulle et  pour chaque partie gagnée. Les prix qui ne sont pas distribués (entre 0 et ) sont mis dans un pot qui récompensera les joueurs les plus combatifs à la fin du circuit.

Classement général du tour 2022
Classement final du Champions Chess Tour 2022 :
 Magnus Carlsen :
 Jan-Krzysztof Duda :
 R. Praggnanandhaa :
 Lê Quang Liem :
 Anish Giri :
 Shakhriyar Mamedyarov :
 Levon Aronian :
 Arjun Erigaisi :
 Ding Liren :
 Jorden van Foreest :
 Alireza Firouzja :
 Wesley So :
 Richard Rapport :
 Wei Yi :
 Eric Hansen :
 Vincent Keymer :
 Hans Niemann :
 Ian Nepomniachtchi :

Voir aussi
 Magnus Carlsen Tour
 Champions Chess Tour

Références

Compétition d'échecs

Champions Chess Tour 2022


الحظر النفطي عام 1967 بدأ يوم 6 يونيو 1967، بعد يوم واحد من بداية حرب الأيام الستة، بقرار عربي مشترك لردع كل البلدان الداعمة لإسرائيل عسكريا، فقامت عدد من دول الشرق الأوسط المصدرة للنفط بحظر وتحديد شحنات النفط الصادرة منها، شمل حظر البعض فقط الولايات المتحدة والمملكة المتحدة، في حين فرض آخرون حظرا شاملا على صادرات النفط، الحظر النفطي لم يسبب انخفاضا كبيرا في كمية النفط المتاحة في الولايات المتحدة أو أي من البلدان الأوروبية المتأثرة، ويرجع ذلك أساسا إلى عدم وجود تضامن وتوحيد في البلدان المشاركة في الحظر، وانتهى الحظر فعليا في 1 سبتمبر مع صدور قرار الخرطوم.

قرارات وزراء النفط

وخلال 9 يونيو - 18 يونيو مؤتمر وزراء النفط في بغداد قام عدد من الدول العربية بإصدار بيان يشمل قرارين بالإجماع بالاجماع:
 «لا يسمح بوصول النفط العربي بشكل مباشر أو غير مباشر للدول المعتدية أو البلدان المشاركة في العدوان على سيادة أي دولة عربية أو أراضيها أو مياهها الإقليمية، ولا سيما خليج العقبة».
 «مشاركة أي بلد، بشكل مباشر أو غير مباشر في العدوان المسلح ضد الدول العربية سوف تجعل أصول شركاته ومواطنيه داخل أراضي البلدان العربية تخضع لقوانين الحرب، ويشمل ذلك أصول شركات النفط.»

وشمل البيان الجمهورية العربية المتحدة، سوريا، الكويت، ليبيا، المملكة العربية السعودية، الجزائر، البحرين، أبوظبي، وقطر، العراق أرسلت نسخا من قرار المجلس لسفارتي إيران واندونيسيا، وتسعى لدعم من فنزويلا.

الحظر النفطي
العراق كان أول بلد يقوم بالحد من شحنات النفط، وتم الحظر شحنات النفط القادمة من العراق، الكويت، الجزائر، البحرين عن الولايات المتحدة والمملكة المتحدة في 6 يونيو، سوريا أوقفت جميع صادرات النفط، وليس فقط عن بلدان محددة من أجل تفادي إعلان دول محددة كدول معتدية.

فقد الحظر النفطي الكثير من فاعليته بسبب عدم اتفاق البلدان المشتركة فيه على آراء موحدة، كما تم الالتفاف عليه بإرسال شحنات النفط إلى بلدان لا يحظر التصدير لها، ومن هناك يتم إرسالها إلى البلدان التي تقع تحت الحظر.

قرار الخرطوم

قرار الخرطوم الصادر في 1 سبتمبر سمح للدول المنتجة للنفط (الكويت، المملكة العربية السعودية، وليبيا) باستئناف صادرات النفط واستعادة هذا المصدر الحيوي للدخل، وفي مقابل ذلك، وافقوا على إعطاء معونة السنوية ل«ضحايا العدوان الصهيوني» وهي مصر والأردن (266 مليون دولار و 112 مليون دولار على التوالي).

مراجع

أزمات الطاقة
الاقتصاد في 1967
اقتصاديات النفط
الصراع العربي الإسرائيلي
تاريخ الصناعة النفطية
حظر
سياسة النفط
علاقات دولية في 1967

حظر النفط (1967)


Pleasant Hill/Contra Costa es una estación en la línea Pittsburg/Bay Point–SFO/Millbrae del Metro de San Francisco. La estación se encuentra localizada en 1365 Treat Boulevard en Walnut Creek, California. La estación Pleasant Hill/Contra Costa fue inaugurada el 21 de mayo de 1973. El Distrito de Transporte Rápido del Área de la Bahía es la encargada por el mantenimiento y administración de la estación.

Descripción
La estación Pleasant Hill/Contra Costa cuenta con 2 plataformas laterales y 2 vías. La estación también cuenta con 3,011 de espacios de aparcamiento.

Conexiones
La estación es abastecida por las siguientes conexiones de autobuses: <b/r>
County Connection:
Lunes a viernes:
7
9
11
14
15
18
Fines de semana:
311
316

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Estación Pleasant Hill/Contra Costa
 Líneas y estaciones del Metro de San Francisco

Estaciones de Metro de Estados Unidos inauguradas en 1973
Estaciones de la línea Pittsburg/Bay Point–SFO/Millbrae
Transporte del condado de Contra Costa

Pleasant Hill/Contra Costa Centre (Metro de San Francisco)


Oreamuno es el cantón número 7 de la provincia de Cartago, Costa Rica. Su ciudad cabecera es San Rafael, unida a la conurbación de la ciudad de Cartago de la que apenas la separa un kilómetro de distancia, hacia el noreste. El cantón está situado a las faldas del Volcán Irazú.

Toponimia
El nombre del cantón es en homenaje del expresidente de la República, Francisco María Oreamuno Bonilla (1844), que nació en ciudad de Cartago el 4 de octubre de 1801 y falleció en la misma ciudad el 23 de mayo de 1856.

Los dos hermanos fundadores de la familia costarricense con este apellido, lo escribían como "Oriamuno", el cual es de origen vasco y significa monte amarillo.

Historia
En ley No. 68 de 17 de agosto de 1914, se erigió el cantón de Oreamuno, como número siete de la provincia de Cartago con cuatro distritos. Se designó como cabecera la población de San Rafael.

Oreamuno fue segregado del cantón de Cartago, establecido este último, por ley No. 36 de 7 de diciembre de 1848.

Ubicación
Los límites del cantón son:
Norte: Pococí
Sur: Cartago y Paraíso
Oeste: Vázquez de Coronado
Este: Alvarado y Turrialba

Geografía

De forma alargada e irregular, la anchura máxima es de treinta y dos kilómetros, en dirección noroeste y sureste, desde la confluencia de los ríos Sucio y Hondura hasta el puente sobre el río Blanquillo, ruta 10, que une las ciudades de San Rafael y Paraíso.

División administrativa
Oreamuno se compone de los siguientes distritos:
San Rafael
Cot
Potrero Cerrado
Cipreses
Santa Rosa

Leyes y decretos de creación y modificaciones
Ley 47 de 16 de julio de 1903 (límites del distrito San Rafael, segrega distritos Pacayas y Capellades).
Ley 17 de 15 de noviembre de 1910 (límites del cantón de Vázquez de Coronado, colindante con distrito San Rafael).
Ley 680 de 17 de agosto de 1914 (crea cantón).
Decreto Ejecutivo 24 de 23 de diciembre de 1919 (límites).
Acuerdo 1 de 4 de enero de 1938 (crea distritos Santa Rosa, segregado del distrito Cipreses).
Ley 3248 de 6 de diciembre de 1963 (título de ciudad a la villa San Rafael).

Demografía

De acuerdo al Censo Nacional del 2011, la población del cantón era de 45.473 habitantes, de los cuales, el 1,4% nació en el extranjero. El mismo censo destaca que había 11.232 viviendas ocupadas, de las cuales, el 76,7% se encontraba en buen estado y había problemas de hacinamiento en el 4,0% de las viviendas. El 87,5% de sus habitantes vivían en áreas urbanas.

Entre otros datos, el nivel de alfabetismo del cantón es del 97,7%, con una escolaridad promedio de 8,1 años.

El mismo censo detalla que la población económicamente activa se distribuye de la siguiente manera:
 Sector Primario: 20,1%
 Sector Secundario: 20,4%
 Sector Terciario: 59,5%

Economía
Su actividad económica es básicamente agrícola, con la siembra y comercialización de hortalizas. tales como papas, cebollas, zanahorias, yucas y lechugas, entre otras.

Turismo
Oreamuno ofrece diversas atracciones turísticas, entre las que se encuentran:
Sanatorio Durán: antiguo hospital público para enfermos de tuberculosis, que data de inicios del  y tiene un gran valor histórico y arquitectónico.
Volcán Irazú: área natural recreativa, que pertenece al Parque nacional Volcán Irazú.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Municipalidad de Oreamuno
 Amenazas naturales al cantón de Oreamuno

Oreamuno

Cantón de Oreamuno


Volker Theo Heussler (* 1962) ist ein deutscher Parasitologe, bekannt für Forschungen zur Malaria.

Heussler studierte an der Universität Karlsruhe, wo er 1990 am Institut für Genetik sein Diplom machte (über die Immunantwort auf den Erreger des Küstenfiebers Theileria parva) und war danach am Institut für Parasitologie der Universität Bern, wo er 1993 promoviert wurde. Sein Dissertationsthema lautete Protease gene expression in Fasciola hepatica and isolation of DNA probes specific for Fasciola hepatica. Als Post-Doktorand war er 1993 bis 1996 am International Lifestock Research Institute (ILRI) in Nairobi in der Abteilung Impfstoffentwicklung und Immunologie. Er leitete 1996 bis 2001 als Junior-Gruppenleiter eine Forschungsgruppe am Institut für Tier-Pathologie der Universität Bern und 2002 bis 2010 die Arbeitsgruppe Malaria I am Bernhard-Nocht-Institut für Tropenmedizin in Hamburg. 2005 habilitierte er sich an der Universität Bern (Theileria parva and Theileria annulata: Parasite survival strategies and host cell transformation). Seit 2010 ist er Professor für Molekulare Parasitologie und Zellbiologie an der Universität Bern.

Heussler untersucht mit seiner Gruppe das (noch nicht pathogene) Leberstadium des Malariaparasiten und verfolgt das Ziel, Impfstoffe und Therapien gegen den Erreger zu entwickeln, bevor er das pathogene Blutstadium erreicht. Nach einer zufälligen Beobachtung der Ablösung mit Parasiten gefüllter Leberzellen unter dem Mikroskop im Mai 2003 klärte er mit seiner Gruppe, wie der Erreger vom Leberstadium ins Blutstadium gelangt: er zwingt die befallene Leberzelle (in der sich 30.000 und mehr neue Zellkerne des Parasiten bildeten) Membranteile zu produzieren ("Merosome"), in denen sich der Parasit vor dem menschlichen Immunsystem verstecken kann und ins Blut gelangt. Dabei wendet der Erreger noch weitere ausgeklügelte Täuschungsmanöver an, beispielsweise indem einige Parasiten in der Wirtszelle verbleiben und dort vom Immunsystem vernichtet werden und indem er Verfahren entwickelte, den eigentlich im Merosom eingetretenen Zelltod vor dem Immunsystem zu verbergen.

Im Mausmodell entwickelte Heussler auch mit portugiesischen Wissenschaftlern auf dem Leberstadium des Erregers basierende neue Impfstrategien. Dazu wurden gentechnisch veränderte Erreger entwickelt, die sich in Leberzellen vermehren (und das Immunsystem aktivieren), diese aber nicht verlassen können.

2007 erhielt er für die Entdeckung der Merosomen den Preis für medizinische Grundlagenforschung der Glaxo-Smith-Kline-Stiftung.

Weblinks
 Homepage an der Universität Bern
 Arbeitsgruppe von Heussler am Bernhard-Nocht-Institut

Einzelnachweise

Parasitologe
Hochschullehrer (Universität Bern)
Deutscher
Geboren 1962
Mann

Volker Heussler


O Testemunho de Nayirah, ou caso das incubadoras no Kuwait, refere-se ao escândalo de perjúrio dado perante o Congresso dos Direitos Humanos dos Estados Unidos em 14 de outubro de 1990, durante a invasão do Kuwait pelas forças armadas iraquianas de Saddam Hussein, por uma menina de quinze anos que foi identificada publicamente na época por seu primeiro nome, Nayirah, no qual alegava atrocidades cometidas contra recém-nascidos do Kuwait. O testemunho revelou-se falso, depois de ter servido para promover a entrada dos ocidentais na guerra.

Histórico
Em 14 de outubro de 1990, uma jovem kuwaitiana, chamada pela mídia de "Nayirah", testemunhou, com lágrimas nos olhos, perante um comitê do Congresso dos Estados Unidos. O evento foi rapidamente transmitido por televisões de todo o mundo:

Este testemunho, juntamente com outros, como os elaborados pela agência de comunicação do Rendon Group, responsável por supervisionar a comunicação da CIA e do Pentágono, comoveu muito a opinião pública internacional e contribuiu para o seu apoio à ação das potências ocidentais contra as forças armadas de Saddam Hussein durante a Guerra do Golfo.

Na verdade, este testemunho era inteiramente falso. A jovem, treinada segundo algumas fontes por Michael Deaver, ex-assessor de comunicação de Ronald Reagan, chamava-se Nayirah al-Ṣabaḥ, e era filha do embaixador do Kuwait em Washington Saud Nasser Al-Saud Al-Sabah. A associação Citizens for a Free Kuwait, organizada pelo governo do Kuwait exilado, encomendou esta campanha à empresa de relações públicas Hill & Knowlton (no valor de 10 milhões de dólares).

A maquinação funcionou graças à intervenção de Lauri Fitz-Pegado, que convenceu os deputados de que a identidade não deveria ser revelada para proteger a família da jovem. Lauri Fitz-Pegado já havia trabalhado para o governo, na Agência de Informação dos Estados Unidos.

Além disso, o governo estadunidense teria pago 14 milhões de dólares a esta empresa para tê-la ajudado a divulgar a Guerra do Golfo de uma forma favorável à intervenção ocidental.

O testemunho foi amplamente divulgado e citado inúmeras vezes pelos senadores dos Estados Unidos e pelo presidente George H. W. Bush em sua justificativa para apoiar o Kuwait na Guerra do Golfo.

A história foi inicialmente corroborada pela Anistia Internacional, uma ONG britânica, que publicou vários relatórios independentes sobre os assassinatos e depoimentos de evacuados. Após a libertação do Kuwait, os repórteres tiveram acesso ao país. Um relatório da ABC descobriu que "pacientes, incluindo bebês prematuros, morreram, quando muitas enfermeiras e médicos do Kuwait... fugiram", mas as tropas iraquianas "quase certamente não roubaram incubadoras de hospitais e deixaram centenas de bebês kuwaitianos para morrer". A Anistia Internacional reagiu emitindo uma correção, com o diretor executivo John Healey acusando posteriormente o governo Bush de "manipulação oportunista do movimento internacional de direitos humanos".

  Ameen Izzadeen, Lies, damn lies and war, Daily Mirror of Sri Lanka, 2001.
  Maggie O'Kane, This time I'm scared, The Guardian, 5 de dezembro de 2002.
  Ian Urbina, HBO adds disclaimer to Gulf War movie, Asia Times, 13 de novembro de 2002.

Desinformação
Boatos
Escândalos
Guerra do Golfo
Propaganda nos Estados Unidos
Presidência de George H. W. Bush
Relações entre Estados Unidos e Iraque
Relações entre Estados Unidos e Kuwait
1990 nos Estados Unidos

Testemunho de Nayirah


B Liga Nogometnog saveza područja Bjelovar je bila liga šestog stupnja nogometnog prvenstva Jugoslavije u sezoni 1975./76.
Igrana je u tri skupine: "Istok" (12 klubova, prvak "Partizan" iz Draganeca), "Sjever" (9 klubova) i "Zapad".

Istok
Također i kao B liga NSP Bjelovar – skupina Bjelovar – Garešnica

 Ljestvica

 ljestvica bez rezultata 6 utakmica
 Draganec – tadašnji naziv za Gornji Draganec

 Rezultatska križaljka

 Izvori:

Sjever
Također i kao B liga NSP Bjelovar – skupina Đurđevac

 Sudionici
 Borac Ferdinandovac
 Croatia Grabrovnica
 Drava Podrvske Sesvete
 Mladost Molve
 Mladost Stari Gradec
 Podravec Virje
 Polet Čepelovac
 Prekodravac Ždala
 Vilim Galjer Prugovac

Zapad

Unutrašnje poveznice
 A Liga NSP Bjelovar 1975./76.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

 library.foi.hr, "Bjelovarski list"
 library.foi.hr, "Bjelovarski list", br. 33, god. XXVIX., izdano 4. rujna 1975., str. 9 (Sport), (uvod u sezonu), preuzeto 6. listopada 2019.
 library.foi.hr, "Bjelovarski list", br. 23, god. XXXI., izdano 17. lipnja 1976., str. 11 (Sport), (30. kolo, ljestvica), preuzeto 6. listopada 2019.
 Martin Matišin, Eugen Fink: "100 godina športa u Virju : 1908. – 2008.", Virje, 2008., , str. 149

1975-76 B
Bjelovar B
1975-76 Bjelovar

B Liga Nogometnog saveza područja Bjelovar 1975./76.


179595 Belkovich este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
179595 Belkovich este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la La Palma de A. Fitzsimmons și I. P. Williams. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,21 ua, o excentricitate de 0,16 și o înclinație de 5,2° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 179001-180000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2002
Centura de asteroizi

179595 Belkovich


Ubre Blanca, née vers 1972 et morte en 1985, est une vache ayant vécu à Cuba et connue pour sa prodigieuse production de lait, qui est notamment un temps inscrite dans le Livre Guinness des records. La vache, avec les plantations de café "Cordón de La Habana", le système de pâturage d'André Voisin et le système d'irrigation par microjet, symbolise les efforts de Fidel Castro pour moderniser l'économie agricole de Cuba.

La vache est un croisement entre un taureau Holstein (vache laitière) et une vache zébu (race de vache indienne qui ne produit pas beaucoup de lait). Son nom signifie  ou .

Records
Ubre Blanca produit notamment 110 litres de lait en une seule journée en janvier 1982, soit plus de quatre fois la production moyenne d'une vache. La vache produit également  (ou ) de lait en 305 jours (une période de lactation) se terminant en février 1982. Ces deux exploits sont reconnus par le Livre Guinness des records comme des records du monde.

Ces deux records sont néanmoins ensuite battus. Le record de production annuel actuel est de , établi par LA-Foster Blackstar Lucy en 1998 à LaFoster Dairy à Cleveland, en Caroline du Nord. En février 2020, le Guinness annonce que la vache brésilienne Marilia avait dépassé avec  de lait le record d'Ubre Blanca de production de lait en une seule journée le 3 août 2019.

Utilisation dans les médias cubains
Fidel Castro fait référence à la prodigieuse production d'Ubre Blanca dans ses discours comme preuve des compétences d'élevage supérieures du communisme, et les réalisations de la vache sont régulièrement publiées dans les journaux cubains. L'affection de Castro pour la vache implique qu'elle est élevée dans des conditions exceptionnellement bonnes.

Le 21 mai 2002, le Wall Street Journal publie un article sur les tentatives cubaines de cloner Ubre Blanca, dans lequel ils rapportent que son père serait en fait un taureau canadien. Pour de nombreux Cubains, Ubre Blanca évoque des souvenirs de l'époque d'avant la soi-disant Período especial – l'effondrement économique qui suit la disparition de l'Union soviétique, principal bienfaiteur de Cuba, à partir de 1989.

Mort
En 1985, Ubre Blanca est euthanasiée vers l'âge de 13 ans, sa date de naissance exacte et donc son âge étant inconnus.

La mort de la vache est commémorée par le journal du Parti communiste Granma avec une nécrologie complète et un éloge funèbre. Des taxidermistes empaillent l'animal et placent le corps dans une vitrine climatisée à l'entrée du National Cattle Health Center, à 45 minutes de route de la vieille Havane, où il se trouve toujours.

Ubre Blanca est honorée par sa ville natale de Nueva Gerona, qui érige une statue en marbre à la mémoire de la vache. Depuis la mort de la vache, des scientifiques cubains ont tenté en vain de cloner la vache à l'aide d'échantillons de tissus congelés.

Références

Agriculture à Cuba
Économie à Cuba
Animal mort en 1985
Animal né en 1972

Ubre Blanca


Mambo er en dansk eksperimentalfilm fra 1996 instrueret af Siri Melchior og Julie Bille efter deres manuskript.

Handling
Surrealistisk tegnefilm, hvis associerende og farverigt frapperende visuelle udtryksstrøm med oliekridt på matterede celler henter næring fra et musikstykke af den peruvianske sangerinde Yma Sumac. Musik og billeder flyder kongenialt sammen til den sørgmuntre historie om en lille dreng, som dør og kommer i den syvende himmel, hvor han forføres af en operaengel, der tager ham med i helvede.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Eksperimentalfilm fra Danmark
Animationsfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1996

Mambo (eksperimentalfilm)


30. Šahovska olimpijada održana je 1992. na Filipinima. Grad domaćin bila je Manila.

Poredak osvajača odličja

1992.
Šport na Filipinima

Šahovska olimpijada 1992.


Die Burg Geiersberg (Geyersberg) war eine kleine Höhenburg oberhalb des Naarntals in der Ortschaft Oberlebing in Allerheiligen im Mühlkreis in Oberösterreich. Der Burgstall erhielt sich im Mischwald 250 m östlich von Gehöft Reifegger (Raffecker), Oberlebing Nr. 9.

Geschichte

Im 12. Jahrhundert nannten sich Gefolgsleute der Herren von Lengenbach und später der Herren von Kuenring von der  Burg Windegg schon als 'Öder von Geiersberg'. Sie hatten ihren Stammsitz auf der kleinen Burg Geiersberg in Oberlebing in der Nähe des heutigen Gehöftes Reifegger. 1265 scheint mit Miles nomine hertwicus dictus de Oede ein Angehöriger der Öder urkundlich auf. Hertwig und Ehefrau Diemuth ihr Sohn war Heinrich I. Öder zu Geiersberg (* 1267; † 1301).

Die Nachkommen der Öder begründeten später drei Linien: Die 'Öder von Siegenhofen' mit Ansitz Siegenhofen, nun Gehöft Singhofer, Kriechbaum Nr. 6. Die 'Öder von Kriechbaum' mit Ansitz Kriechbaum, auch Schloss Kriechbaum, nun Mayergut, Kriechbaum Nr. 1. Die 'Öder von Windegg und Schwertberg'.

Um 1417 war Geiersberg im Besitz des Stephan von Ludmannsdorf, der mit seiner Frau Margarete, Tochter des Grafen von Falkenstein, dort wohnte. Die Burg wurde im Jahr 1418 überfallen und niedergebrannt. Die Quadersteine der Burg sollen zum Aufbau der Kirche in Allerheiligen verwendet worden sein.

Beschreibung
Die Kleinburg Geiersberg lag 140 Höhenmeter über dem Naarntal auf einem Geländesporn zwischen Auersbach und Naarnfluss. Erhalten blieb der Burgstall. Er liegt im Mischwald 250 m östlich des Gehöftes Reifegger (Raffecker), dem ehemaligen Meierhof Gut am Vordern Geiersberg (1300 Hub auf dem Geiersberg). Der bäuerliche Zufahrtsweg führt leicht bergab zum Burgstall. Erkennbar sind ein stark verschliffener äußerer Halsgraben, ein kleines Vorburgplateau, ein weniger verschliffener innerer Halsgraben, ein rechteckiges kleines Burgplateau, dahinter Steilabfälle. Bodenfunde und Mauerreste kamen bei Grabungen von Leopold Josef Mayböck zutage. Privatbesitz. Kein Denkmalschutz.

Sage zu Judenleiten
Zufolge einer Sage, die immer wieder auftaucht, soll der Besitzer von Geiersberg ein Jude gewesen sein, weshalb die nahe Ortschaft als Judenleiten bezeichnet wurde, wo es auch eine Judenschule im Berghäusl Nr. 7 gegeben haben soll.

Die Sage tradiert hier das falsche volksetymologische Verständnis Judenleute für Judenleiten. Richtigerweise beinhaltet der Begriff Judenleiten die Umformung vom mittelhochdeutschen Jugent = Abhang bei/mit einem Jungwald.

Literatur
 Leopold Josef Mayböck: Burgstall Geiersberg. In: Gemeindeamt Allerheiligen (Hrsg.): Allerheiligen im Mühlkreis 1492 bis 1992. Heimatbuch für Pfarre und Gemeinde Allerheiligen im Mühlkreis. Plöchl-Druck, Freistadt 1992, S. 93–95.

 Georg Grüll: Geiersberg. In: Burgen und Schlösser im Mühlviertel. Birken-Verlag, Wien 1968. S. 139
 Land Oberösterreich, Doris-Onlinedaten zu Geschichte, Burgen und Schlössern: Geyersberg (Details auf doris.ooe.gv.at, abgerufen 30. Januar 2021).
 Alois Weiß von Starkenfels, Johann Kirnbauer von Erzstätt: Oberoesterreichischer Adel. J. Siebmachers grosses und allgemeines Wappenbuch, Verlag Bauer & Raspe, Nürnberg 1885, S. 224–225 (Oeder im Machland; Digitalisat auf sub.uni-goettingen.de).

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Geiersberg #Lebing
Geiersberg #Lebing
Abgegangenes Bauwerk in Oberösterreich
Erbaut im 12. Jahrhundert
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Iransko-turkmenistanska granica duga je 1.148 km i prolazi od Kaspijskog mora do tromeđe s Afganistanom. Glavni grad Turkmenistana Ašgabat udaljen je samo 25 kilometara sjeverno od ove granice, a Mašhad (drugi po veličini iranski grad) 47 km južno od njega.

Opis

Granica započinje na kaspijskoj obali južno od turkmenskog grada Esengulya. Zatim ide kopnom u smjeru istoka u nizu ravnih linija kroz neplodne slane ravnice na 50 km do rijeke Atrek, čiji tok slijedi 124 km (77 m) do točke južno od turkmenskog sela Chat. Granica se zatim nastavlja kopnom prema istoku / sjeveroistoku preko planinskog lanca Kopet-Dag 151 km prije nego što stigne do rijeke Sumbar, čiji tok zatim slijedi 41 km. Zatim se nastavlja kopnom preko planinskih grebena u širokom jugoistočnom luku 455 km do blizine iranskog sela Chahchaheh. Odavde otprilike ravna linija prolazi 77 km do rijeke Hari (Tedzhen na turkmenskom), čiji tok slijedi jug 120 km do afganistanske tromeđe.

Neposredno granično područje uglavnom je nenaseljeno, osim središnjeg dijela oko Ashgabada s turkmenske strane; ovo područje granice, plus zapadni dio, otprilike je paralelno autocestama. Turkmenski dio Transkaspijske željeznice također je približno paralelan s granicom u središnjem dijelu, dolazeći manje od pola milje sjeverno od granice u blizini Lotfabada. Na iranskoj strani, otprilike 50 kilometara južno od granice, prolaze glavne autoceste koje povezuju gradove Gorgan, Bojnurd i Mašhad, a ceste povezuju manje gradove sa sjeverom.

Povijest
Granica je naslijeđena od stare granice Perzije i SSSR-a, koja je u velikoj mjeri poprimila današnji oblik tijekom 19. stoljeća nakon ruskog osvajanja Srednje Azije i pripojenja Kanata Kokand i Emirata Buhara 1865. – 68. Godine 1869. Perzija i Rusija dogovorile su se da će rijeka Atrek biti granica između njih. Ova je granica potvrđena, a zatim se proširila na istok do okoline Ašhabata 1881. godine nakon daljnjeg napredovanja Rusije u turkmenske zemlje, a zatim do granice s Afganistanom 1893. godine; sljedećih su se godina dogodila razna daljnja ograničenja ove granice. Daljnje male promjene izvršene su u razdoblju 1954. – 1957. kada su se Iran i SSSR (kakvi su sada bili) dogovorili da jasnije razgraniče svoju zajedničku granicu, uključujući područje delte Atreka koja se u međuvremenu promijenila zbog smanjenja Kaspijskog mora.

Granični prijelazi

 Bajgiran (IRN) - Bajgiran (TKM) (cesta)
 Sarakhs (IRN) - Serakhs (TKM) (cesta)
 Lotfabad (IRN) - Artyk (TKM) (cesta)

Naselja u blizini granice

Iran

 Gomishan
 Incheh Borun
 Bachcheh Darreh
 Hesarcheh
 Robat, Zavin
 Shuy, Razavi Khorasan
 Lotfabad
 Now Khandan
 Dargaz
 Khakestar
 Giru
 Koshtani
 Qarah Takan, Razavi Khorasan
 Chahchaheh
 Alamtu
 Sarakhs
 Shir Tappeh
 Jannatabad, Torbat-e Jam

Turkmenistan

 Esenguly
 Ajyyap
 Gyzyletrek
 Chat
 Kuruzhdey
 Khodzhakala
 Kënekesir
 Shemli
 Kazgan
 Arab-Kala
 Hawdan
 Kaka
 Dushak
 Miana
 Imeni Kuliyev
 Akhchadepe
 Karaman Vtoroy
 Kichiga Vtoraya
 Serakhs
 Polekhatum

Vidi također

 Iransko-turkmenistanski odnosi

Izvori

Turkmenistan
Politika Turkmenistana
Državne granice

Iransko-turkmenistanska granica