Tri-Rail  is a commuter rail line linking Miami, Fort Lauderdale and West Palm Beach in Florida, United States. The Tri prefix in the name refers to the three counties served by the railroad: Palm Beach, Broward, and Miami-Dade. Tri-Rail is managed by the South Florida Regional Transportation Authority (SFRTA) along CSX Transportation's former Miami Subdivision; the line is now wholly owned by the Florida DOT. The  system has 18 stations along the Southeast Florida coast, and connects directly to Amtrak at numerous stations, and to Metrorail at the Tri-Rail and Metrorail Transfer station and at Miami Intermodal Center.

In , the line had a ridership of , or about  per weekday as of .

A second Tri-Rail line on the Florida East Coast Railway corridor, dubbed the "Coastal Link", has been proposed. The line would operate between Toney Penna station in Jupiter and MiamiCentral in Downtown Miami, and add commuter rail service between the downtown areas of cities between West Palm Beach and Miami. Combined with the existing Tri-Rail line, the Tri-Rail system would have a daily passenger ridership of almost 30,000; or approximately 9 million passengers per annum, doubling Tri-Rail's current ridership.

History

1920s: Seaboard-All Florida Railway

The line on which Tri-Rail operates was built by the Seaboard-All Florida Railway (a subsidiary of the Seaboard Air Line Railroad) for intercity passenger rail service in the early 1920s. The line was inaugurated on January 7, 1927. Intercity rail service by Seaboard operated the Orange Blossom Special service from New York City until 1953. Amtrak continues to offer passenger rail service with the Silver Star and Silver Meteor trains from New York City. Today, the original 1920s Seaboard stations are used by Tri-Rail for service at West Palm Beach, Deerfield Beach, Fort Lauderdale, Hollywood. Though no longer in use, the Seaboard stations at Delray Beach, Opa-locka and Hialeah are still standing.

1980s–1990s: Planning and inauguration
Planning for a new commuter rail line began in 1983, and building the organization began in 1986. The current system was formed by the Florida Department of Transportation and began operation January 9, 1989, to provide temporary commuter rail service while construction crews widened Interstate 95 and the parallel Florida's Turnpike. Tri-Rail was free from opening until May 1, 1990, at which time the fare became $4 round trip.

Due to higher than expected ridership, FDOT made Tri-Rail a permanent service, adding more trains and stations in the process. Line extensions have enabled Tri-Rail to serve all three South Florida international airports: Miami International Airport, Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport and Palm Beach International Airport. The state's original plan was to use the more urban Florida East Coast Railway (FEC) line, but FEC declined the offer as it wanted freight to be their top priority. In 1998, the initial  route was extended north from the West Palm Beach station to the , and south from  to Miami Airport (at an earlier station on the site of the current station). Construction of the extensions began in 1996; which added nearly  to the system.

2000s: New stations, more service

In the early 2000s, Tri-Rail received a budget of $84.8 million for double tracking, building extensions, improving stations, establishing a headquarters, and linking to buses.

In 2002, Tri-Rail began to upgrade its grade crossings to include raised medians and/or four quadrant gates to prevent cars from driving around them in an attempt to beat trains. This decreases accidents and allows the cities they run through to petition for them not to use their whistle between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m. They also decreased headways to 20 minutes during rush hours.

In 2007, a project to upgrade the full length of the line from Mangonia Park to Miami Airport with double track was completed with the opening of a high-level fixed bridge over the New River near Fort Lauderdale. During the 2000s, most of the stations were completely rebuilt to accommodate for double-tracking and include dual platforms, elevators, pedestrian bridges over the tracks, large roofs over the platforms, and better facilities.

In March 2006, Tri-Rail went from 30 passenger trains a day to 40 trains; the completion of the New River rail bridge, the double-tracking project, and the addition of a second Colorado Railcar diesel multiple unit (DMU) ushered in sweeping changes to Tri-Rail's operational timetables. Tri-Rail added several more trains during peak weekday commuting hours in June 2007, increasing to the current 50 trains per day, as well as increasing weekend service. During "rush-hour," trains ran every twenty to thirty minutes rather than the previous schedule of every hour. This change comes at quite a fortuitous time in Tri-Rail's operation history. With gasoline prices at record highs—particularly in South Florida's sprawling metropolis—Tri-Rail saw a double-digit percentage increase in ridership in mid-2007. By 2009, annual ridership had reached about 4.2 million passengers. This was also the time during which work was being done on I-95 to add the express lanes from the Golden Glades Interchange to the Airport Expressway near Downtown Miami. In 2007, Veolia Transport commenced operating the Tri-Rail service under a contract that ran until June 2017.

20092022: Growth and Airport Station

In 2009, Tri-Rail service was nearly cut drastically, with the threat of being shut down altogether by 2011, even as ridership was at a record high, as Palm Beach County withheld its funding of the system and looked to cut its funding from $4.1 million to $1.6 million per year. This would mean that Broward and Miami-Dade counties would also have had to cut their support to $1.6 million each to match. The state, which was also running a budget shortfall and did not pass a rental car tax increase to help fund Tri-Rail, would have had to cut its support as well. This would have caused an immediate cut from 50 to 30 daily trains and a complete cutting weekend service, followed by additional cuts and possible shut down two years later. Schedules were decreased slightly, but service was never cut altogether, as dedicated federal funding was attained through the $2.5 million grant as part of the American Reinvestment and Recovery Act of 2009.

After a 25% fare increase in mid-2009, annual ridership dropped by 15% (about 600,000) in 2010. However, in 2011, Tri-Rail again saw increasing ridership due to sustained high gas prices, averaging about 14,500 riders per weekday by the end of year. Throughout the year, ridership increased at a rate of about 11% per month, paired with a decline in automobile travel  and an increase in employment, with 285 companies and 2,829 individuals joining in the discount program.

In 2011, the dilapidated Pompano Beach station received a $5.7 million federal grant, to be redone as a "green station," generating more than 100% of its energy demand through solar power, with the excess to be sent to the grid or stored for nighttime lighting. Construction started in spring 2012 with the station remaining open during construction. The crossing of Race Track Road and the Tri-Rail line near the Pompano Beach station, rough for several years, was also repaired in 2012.

Total ridership on the system fully recovered to earlier high levels in fiscal year 2013, to 4.2 million. Tri-Rail wanted to double ridership by 2021 to 30,000 daily riders by building the Coastal Link.

In April 2015, Miami Airport station opened at the Miami Intermodal Center, once again connecting Tri-Rail directly with the Miami International Airport for the first time since the original Miami Airport station closed in 2011. This new station has connections to MIA Mover (providing a direct link to the airport), Metrorail, Metrobus and Greyhound. After extensive delays, Amtrak has yet to move its operations from its current station. This new station was under construction since 2009, with a September 2011 closure of the original Miami Airport station to allow for construction of the new station.

On January 27, 2017, the South Florida Regional Transportation Authority board voted to award Herzog Transit Services a $511 million, 10-year contract to operate Tri-Rail beginning in July 2017. The board disqualified the other five bidders (Amtrak, Bombardier, First Transit, SNC-Lavalin Rail & Transit and incumbent operator Transdev), stating that they had all submitted "conditional" prices despite the request for proposals mandating that the bid price be final. The other five losing bidders all protested the contract, with Transdev, Bombardier, and First Transit jointly requesting a court injunction to prevent it from being awarded.

2023present: Livery redesign and MiamiCentral service
In the first quarter of 2023, SFRTA reported a 25% increase in Tri-Rail ridership, surpassing 350,000 riders for the first time in three years. To meet the demand, the SFRTA began an overhaul process with their Brookville locomotives, which is anticipated to be completed by 2025, and received a federal grant that will allow the replacement of a third of the aging fleet of railcars with new ones, which are expected to start service in the coming years. In addition, the SFRTA created a new livery design, which is set to debut in time for the Tri-Rail service into MiamiCentral.

Tri-Rail service to MiamiCentral (Tri-Rail Downtown Miami Link) is set to begin service in November 2023. The station, which is also a mixed-use complex, is located in Downtown Miami and includes direct access to Brightline as well as Miami-Dade Transit services. The initial service would consist of a dedicated train running between Metrorail Transfer station and MiamiCentral. To continue traveling north or south, a transfer is required; however, there would be no need to pay for another fare because it would be included in the price of the ticket. It will mark the first time Tri-Rail trains use Florida East Coast's trackage for service. Tri-Rail trains would switch to the FEC's Little River Branch on the Iris Connection south of Metrorail Transfer station and head east to the FEC mainline, where they would turn south and head to Downtown Miami. Tri-Rail trains began testing the corridor on June 19, 2023. The total cost of accommodating Tri-Rail trains in MiamiCentral is about $70 million.

Extensions and upgrades

Boca Raton Glades Road station
In early 2012, it was announced that a second Tri-Rail station in Boca Raton was once again being considered at the busy intersection of Glades Road (S.R. 808) and Military Trail (S.R. 809), near Town Center Mall, Florida Atlantic University and large office parks. A station was proposed for this location in the early 2000s while many other stations were being renovated. Boca Raton station near Yamato Road (S.R. 794) is the busiest station in the system as of 2014, with 1,600 riders a day, surpassing the Tri-Rail and Metrorail transfer station in Miami-Dade County. For this reason, and the fact that Glades Road is considered the most congested road in the county, an infill station there has been long considered. , the station was not under construction.

Coastal Link (FEC line service)

In the 2025 and 2030 long-range transportation plans, Tri-Rail has envisioned moving to or adding service on the Florida East Coast Railway (FEC) corridor, which runs parallel to U.S. 1 (Biscayne Boulevard/Brickell Avenue in Miami-Dade County, and Federal Highway in Broward and Palm Beach counties). This corridor will provide more opportunities for pedestrian travel from stations to end destinations than does the current South Florida Rail Corridor, which must rely almost exclusively on shuttle buses for passenger distribution. Tri-Rail officials project that the project would cost about $2.5 billion and that 59,000 people per day would ride it, The FEC, which denied the state's request to use the line for commuter rail in the 1980s, is now under new ownership as of 2017, and has now stated that it is willing to allow the use of the  segment of track between downtown Miami and Jupiter for passenger trains.

Tri-Rail service on the FEC line would bring stations to Downtown Miami's transit hub, Government Center station via MiamiCentral, as well as service in Midtown Miami/Miami Design District, Upper East Side/Miami Shores, North Miami, North Miami Beach/Aventura, Downtown Hollywood, and Downtown Fort Lauderdale, putting it within walking distance of thousands of potential riders. Getting to and from the current stations has been a major detractor of Tri-Rail's convenience since opening. Miami's Downtown Development Authority along with Miami-area politicians are actively lobbying to bring Tri-Rail to the city core.

Track connections between the FEC tracks and the South Florida Rail Corridor are also currently under construction. These connections are mainly for freight connectivity between the two lines, but are planned for future Coastal Link use. The Northwood Connection just north of West Palm Beach will provide a new connection as well as rehabilitating an existing connection. The Iris Connection will connect the SFRC to the FEC's Little River Branch near Hialeah. FDOT is building both connections, which were funded by a federal TIGER grant.

The Coastal Link is planned to begin in phases. The first phase is known as Tri-Rail Downtown Miami Link, which is planned to be operational in November 2023.

A later phase would allow Tri-Rail to begin service to Jupiter by having trains switch to the FEC on the new Northwood connection north of West Palm Beach and head north to Jupiter with additional stops in Palm Beach Gardens, Lake Park and Riviera Beach. No official timeframe has been given for this phase.

Miami-Dade County is also working to find funding for service on the FEC from Downtown Miami as far north as Aventura. Construction of an additional track for commuter service would require the approval of Brightline, which owns perpetual rights to operate passenger trains over the corridor.

If the Coastal Link is fully implemented, Tri-Rail would operate in three separate services with a line on the FEC tracks from Jupiter to Downtown Fort Lauderdale, a line on the existing tracks from Mangonia Park to Pompano Beach, and then transition to the FEC tracks and continue to Downtown Miami. Another line would run on the existing tracks from Boca Raton to Miami Airport.

Before full implementation of the Coastal Link service can begin, officials have acknowledged that a new higher rail bridge over the New River in Fort Lauderdale is necessary. The FEC's current low-level drawbridge is unable to handle Tri-Rail service along with Brightline and FEC freight service without negatively affecting vessel traffic on the river since the bridge would need to be lowered quite often. Proposals include a taller bridge or possibly a tunnel under the river.

In 2020, Brightline solicited a proposal to operate a commuter rail service on the FEC, utilizing its exclusive trackage rights for passenger service. Under these plans the city of Miami would support the service operated by Brightline, without direct involvement of Tri-Rail.

Homestead and Doral (CSX Homestead Subdivision line service)
There had been proposals in the past to use the CSX Homestead Subdivision for Tri-Rail service, with the corridor being purchased by Miami-Dade County or the Florida Department of Transportation. However, one of the problems at the time was that the price of the corridor was exorbitant. Since then, CSX has had new leadership, and the company is now willing to make a deal with Miami-Dade County to potentially have passenger rail service initiated on the corridor. Service could include the Lehigh spur from the Miami Intermodal Center to Doral, as well as the Homestead Subdivision from the Miami Intermodal Center to Homestead. Currently, both lines only see sporadic freight service, and the southernmost 12 miles of the Homestead Subdivision (south of the Gold Coast Railroad Museum) are currently out of service.

Operations
Tri-Rail shares the South Florida Rail Corridor trackage with Amtrak's Silver Meteor and Silver Star and CSX Transportation's Miami Subdivision. The Florida Department of Transportation purchased the track from CSX in 1989. Under the terms of the agreement, CSX would continue to provide dispatch services and physical plant maintenance for the track and would have exclusive freight trackage rights until certain conditions were met. At midnight on March 29, 2015, CSX handed over dispatching and maintenance to SFRTA (Tri-Rail). While this should have the advantage of giving passenger trains signal priority over freight trains, it was at first wracked with delays.

Tri-Rail participates in the EASY Card regional smartcard-based fare collection system along with Miami-Dade Transit. Purely paper tickets are also available for same-day or weekend use. A paper ticket or an EASY Card with a paper-based transfer receipt (created after a confirmed trip is completed) can be used to obtain transfer discounts when transferring to Broward County Transit as well as Palm Tran. However, only EASY Cards may be used to obtain a transfer discount when transferring to Miami-Dade Transit.

Due to the route's success, Amtrak's Silver Meteor and Silver Star do not allow local travel between West Palm Beach and Miami. The two trains only stop to discharge passengers southbound and receive passengers northbound. This policy is in place to make seats on those two trains available for passengers making longer trips.

Fares and services
Tri-Rail fare is divided into six zones for 24-hour passes, ranging from $2.50 to $8.75, with fare calculated by the number of zones traveled through, and whether it is one-way or round trip. On weekends, a $5 all-day pass good for all zones is available, though trains run hourly headways. For frequent use, Tri-Rail offers a $110 monthly pass (good for Tri-Rail only) and a $155 regional monthly pass (good on Tri-Rail, Metrorail, and Metrobus). Discount fares are available for senior citizens, the disabled, students, and children under 12. Certain businesses allow their employees to register for the Employer Discount Program, which reduces their fares by 25%. Free parking is available at all Tri-Rail stations. On weekdays, 50 train trips are made in all, with 25 in each direction, while on weekends only 30 trips, 15 north and 15 south, are made in all, with 1-hour headways between each train. While Tri-Rail peaks at speeds of , it can be extracted from the timetable and the distance of the line that its overall average speed is approximately .

Revenue and expense
For fiscal year 2010, train revenue was approximately $10.3 million. Total operating expenses for fiscal year 2010, including depreciation expense, were approximately $86.9 million. Expenses increased by approximately $14.9 million or 20.7% when compared to fiscal year 2009. 2010 was a low year for ridership after the economy crashed and there were service cuts. By 2015, ridership was about 25% higher.  By 2018, fare revenue was budgeted at $13.4 million, whereas operating expense was $119.8 million.

Travel direction
The line has no turn around point so all trains will face one direction at all times. Locomotives will always face south. For this reason, Dual Operation Passenger Cabs are located on the opposite side of the train facing north. Trains will travel north in reverse and south forwards.

Stations

A typical station contains two tracks and two side platforms connected by an overpass. Most stations have large parking lots, however, some, like West Palm Beach and Hollywood have a limited number of spaces, most of which are reserved for Amtrak travelers.

Ridership

Annual ridership averages

Ridership records
Tri-Rail posted its highest-paid daily ridership in the commuter-rail system's 24-year history on June 24, 2013. It transported 19,060 people, many of whom attended a "victory parade" for the Miami Heat, which won the 2013 National Basketball Association championship. Most trains operated at or near capacity, SFTRA officials said in a press release. Special four-car sets were operated to accommodate the anticipated overflow crowd.

Previous Miami Heat victory parades resulted in high ridership counts for Tri-Rail, as well. On June 23, 2006, Tri-Rail transported 18,613 riders; and on June 25, 2012, the agency carried 18,355 passengers. In 2019, TriRail reached its highest annual ridership with 4.5 million riders.

Rolling stock

Locomotives
The service began with five Morrison-Knudsen F40PHL-2 diesel locomotives. Tri-Rail later took delivery of three MotivePower F40PHM-2C locomotives and two ex-Amtrak EMD F40PHRs (Now upgraded to 3C specifications and electronics). In 2006, six EMD GP49 locomotives were acquired from Norfolk Southern and were rebuilt by Mid America Car Company to the designation GP49H-3.

On October 29, 2008, the Tri-Rail switched to biodiesel fuel with a goal of a 99-percent blend, when available.

On February 25, 2011, Tri-Rail announced an order for ten Brookville BL36PH locomotives, with options for 13 more, from the Brookville Equipment Corporation at a cost of $109 million. The purchase was met with criticism by the Florida Chamber of Commerce and state lawmakers, who claimed the bidding process was flawed. Rival bidder MotivePower filed a lawsuit against Tri-Rail, claiming that the bidding process was skewed in Brookville's favour. Tri-Rail later added two more BL36PH locomotives to the order for a total of 12. As of 2015, all locomotives have been delivered and are used in regular service, allowing the F40PHL-2, F40PH-2C, and F40PH locomotives to be retired. However, in July 2018, all the F40PHM-2C and F40PHR locomotives were sent up to Progress Rail in Patterson, Georgia to be rebuilt and returned to service for use on the Coastal Link. They were returned from August 2020 to January 2021, and have been put back in service on the RTA mainline.

Passenger cars
Tri-Rail uses two types of passenger cars. Since the beginning of operations, the system has used 26 Bombardier BiLevel Coaches purchased new from Urban Transportation Development Corporation (even though they were delivered in GO Transit colors, the Tri-Rail cars were purchased new and never used or sold secondhand by GO, only leased by GO for a short period of time), a common model among Canadian and US commuter railroads, 11 with operating cabs and 15 without. Briefly, bi-level rolling stock from Colorado Railcar (4 DMU power coaches and 2 unpowered coaches) was used beginning in 2006.

In 2010, the South Florida Regional Transportation Authority agreed to purchase new rail cars from Hyundai Rotem for $95 million. The first new car was put into service in March 2011. By late 2011, the 12 new locomotives and 24 new passenger cars had not yet been delivered, and the original cars, many over 30 years old, were falling into disrepair. This led to Tri-Rail often running two cars per train instead of three despite increasing ridership, leaving only standing room on many trains during rush hour. By January 2013, all trains were again running with 3 cars, just as most of the Hyundai Rotem rail cars were delivered. In addition to decreased comfort but more reliability, the new cars provide additional safety with front and rear crumple zones designed to absorb energy in a crash.

In 2015, three Bombardier coaches were renovated to include additional bicycle capacity. Cars 1002, 1006, and 1007 had one side of seating removed from the lower levels, which were in turn replaced by bike racks. These trains with special bike cars have the capacity to carry an additional 14 bicycles per train.

Diesel multiple units
In 2003, after receiving a grant from the Florida Department of Transportation, Tri-Rail contracted to purchase two pieces of rolling stock from Colorado Railcar: a self-propelled diesel multiple unit (DMU) prototype control car and unpowered bi-level coach entered regular service with Tri-Rail in October 2006. The new purpose-built railcars are larger than the Bombardier BiLevel Coaches, holding up to 188 passengers, with room for bicycles and luggage. Tri-Rail possessed four DMU control cars and two unpowered trailer cars. One DMU train usually consists of two DMU power cars at each end of a trailer coach (making for two complete DMU+trailer+DMU sets on the system). One trainset was sent to the SunRail Rand Yard in Sanford, FL, months before the system opened, for test purposes on their new commuter line. The trainset was sent back to the CSX Hialeah Yard soon after SunRail began revenue service. As of 2023, all the DMUs and trailers have been retired and sold to MRLX and are now off the property.

Chart

Current fleet

Former fleet

Accidents and incidents
On January 4, 2016, a passenger train collided with a garbage truck which had broken down on a grade crossing at Lake Worth station and was derailed. Twenty-two people were injured. This marked the first derailment in almost 27 years of operation.

On January 28, 2016, Tri-Rail suffered their second derailment in Pompano Beach, after a train hit debris on the tracks between the Cypress Creek and Pompano Beach stations. This section of track is also where Tri-Rail is allowed to go its fastest speed, 79 MPH. One injury was reported and GP49H-3 locomotive #813 and a Bombardier BiLevel Coach directly behind it came off the rail.

On October 25, 2019, a northbound Tri-Rail train led by Bombardier cabcar #509 hit a semitruck in Oakland Park. Several people were injured, and cabcar 509 was sidelined after the incident.

On August 19, 2020 at Deerfield Beach, GP49H-3 locomotive 816 was caught on fire and its passengers from the train were safely evacuated. No injuries were reported.

On August 27, 2022, a northbound Tri-Rail train hit a vehicle left on the tracks in Fort Lauderdale. 6 people were taken to the hospital with minor injuries. The train was partially derailed as a result of the impact.

See also
 Metrorail (Miami)
 Metromover
 SunRail
 Transportation in South Florida
 List of Florida railroads
 List of United States commuter rail systems by ridership
 Commuter rail in North America

References

External links

 Tri-Rail Coastal Link Study
 South Florida Regional Transportation Authority

Commuter rail in the United States
Passenger rail transportation in Florida
Transdev
Railway lines opened in 1989
1989 establishments in Florida

Tri-Rail


Zadarska filološka škola bila je filološka škola koja je djelovala u Zadru tijekom devetnaestoga stoljeća. Nudila je rješenja za niz pitanja vezanih za standardizaciju hrvatskoga književnoga jezika. Zadarsku filološku školu vodio je Ante Kuzmanić.

Članovi Zadarske filološke škole svoje su članke u početku objavljivali u časopisu Zori dalmatinskoj pokrenutom u Zadru 1844. godine. Zalagali su se za korištenje staroga dalmatinskoga pravopisa i fonološkoga slovkanja, kao i za upotrebu ikavskoga štokavskoga dijalekta koji je bio široko rasprostranjen u Dalmaciji, Bosni i Slavoniji, a tijekom povijesti koristio se u mnogim značajnim književnim djelima. Kasnije su prihvatili gajicu, ali nastavili su se zalagati za ikavski govor.

Kuzmanićevi suradnici bili su Šime Starčević iz Like i Ignjat Alojzije Brlić iz Slavonije. Druga generacija Zadarske filološke škole objavljivala je u Narodnome listu, a budućnost je vidjela u dubrovačkome književnome jeziku i idejama koje su proizlazile iz Zagreba.

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Zadarska filološka škola


මායාදුන්නේ රජ  (1501–1581) සීතාවක රාජධානියේ, 1521 සිට 1581 දක්වා වසර 60 ක කාලයක් රජකම් කළේය. මායාදුන්නේ 1505 දී මෙරටට පැමිණි පෘතුගීසි ජාතිකයන්ගේ සැඩපරුෂ සතුරෙක් විය. ඔහු තම ජීවිතයම කැපකරන ලද්දේ තම සොයුරු බුවනෙකබාහු, හෙවත් කෝට්ටේ රාජධානියේ රජ බලයෙන් පහ කර එයින් පෘතුගීසි කුමන්ත්‍රණ නිසා පීඩාවට පත්ව තිබූ ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ නිදහස රැකගැනීමට ය. ඔහු නිතර තම සොයුරා වූ බුවනෙකබාහුගේ රාජ්‍යයට ආක්‍රමණ එල්ල කරන ලදී.

පෙර ජීවිතය
මායාදුන්නේ උපත ලද්දේ 1501 දී කෝට්ටේ රාජධානියේ පිහිටි කෝට්ටේ නගරයේ දී ය. ඔහු 1509 සිට 1521 තෙක් කෝට්ටේ රජ කළ සත්වන විජයබාහුගේ පුත්‍රයාය. මායාදුන්නේ සත්වන විජයබාහුගේ හා ඔහුගේ අග බිසවගේ බාල පුතු විය. බුවනෙකබාහු හා රයිගම බණ්ඩාර ඔහුගේ සොයුරන් විය. බුවනෙකබාහු 1521 සිට 1551 දක්වා කෝට්ටේ රාජධානියේ රජකම් කළේය.

විජයබා කොල්ලය

විජයබා කොල්ලය යනු 1521 දී සිදුවූ ඓතිහාසික සිද්ධියක් වන අතර එහිදී කෝට්ටේ රජුගේ (සත්වන විජයබාහු රජ) පුතුන් තිදෙන ඔවුන්ගේ පිය රජුට එරෙහිව කැරලි ගසමින් තම පියා මරා දමා රාජධානිය තමන් අතරෙහි බෙදා ගත්හ. සත්වන විජයබාහු  රජ හට ඔහුගේ පළමු විවාහයෙන් පුතුන් තිදෙනෙකු වූ අතර ඔවුහූ  බුවනෙකබාහු (පසුව කෝට්ටේ  හත්වන බුවනෙකබාහු රජ ), පරරාජසිංහ (පසුව රයිගම බණ්ඩාර) සහ මායාදුන්නේ (පසුව සීතාවක මායාදුන්නේ රජ) නම් වූහ. රජු දෙවන වරට විවාපත් වූ කිරිවැල්ලේ බිසව හට, ඇයගේ පළමු විවාහයෙන් දේවරාජා නම් පුතකු විය. ඔහුගේ දෙවන බිසවගේ ඉල්ලීම ප්‍රකාර, ඔටුන්න හිමි කුමරු බවට දේවරාජා නම් කෙරුමට පිය රජු විසින් තීරණය කර ඇති බව දැනගත් කුමරුවන් රජුට එදිරි වූහ. කුලියට ගත් විදේශිකයෙකු ලවා රජු මාලිගාව තුලදීම ඝාතනය කරවන ලදි. මෙම සිදුවීම හැඳින්වෙන්නේ විජයබා කොල්ලය යනුවෙනි.

රාජ්‍යය කාලය
මායාදුන්නේ විජයබා කොල්ලයේ ප්‍රධානත්වයක් ගනිමින් තම පියාට එරෙහිව ක්‍රියා කිරීමෙන් පසු බුවනෙකබාහු ඔහු කෙරෙහි සැක කිරීමට පටන්ගත් අතර 1517 දී කොළඹකොටුව තැනූ පෘතුගීසින් සමග සමීප සම්බන්ධතා පැවැත්වී ය. වැඩිකල් නොගොස් මායාදුන්නේ හට, බුවනෙකබාහු පෘතුගීසීන් සමග සහයෝගයෙන් ක්‍රිය කිරීම ගැන අප්‍රසාදය දැක්වූ මෙරට ප්‍රධානීන්ගේ හා ජනයාගන් විශාල ජනතා උපකාරයක් ලැබිණි. මායාදුන්නේ කෝට්ටේ රාජධානියට විරුද්ධව ආක්‍රමණ කීපයකටම නායකත්වය ලබාදුන්න ද බුවනෙකබාහු විසින් පෘතුගීසින්ගේ සහයෙන් සීතාවක සේනා නැවත සීතාවකට පලවා හරින ලදී. මෙම සටන්වල පළමු අවධියේ දී මායාදුන්නේ හට පෘතුගීසින්ට විරුද්ධ ඉන්දියාවේ කැලිකහි රාජධානියෙන් උපකාර ලැබිණි. මායාදුන්නේ දිනක තමන්ට අයත් ප්‍රදේශයට මහා තර්ජනයක් වන බව වටහාගත් පෘතුගීසින්ට ඔහුව මර දැමීමට උවමනා විය. එහෙත් බුවනෙකබාහු සීතාවකට එරෙහි ආක්‍රමණ මුළුමනින්ම හැසිරවීමට ඔවුන්ට ඉඩදුන්නේ නැත.

1538 දී සිදු වූ, රයිගම බණ්ඩාරගේ මරණයෙන් වසර කීපයකට පසුව මායාදුන්නේ රයිගම රාජධානියෙන් සීතාවකට ඈඳා ගන්නා ලදී. සීතාවක හා කෝට්ටේ අතර වේගයෙන් ගැටුම් ඇරඹුනේ මෙතැන් සිටය. මේ කාලයේ දී කෝට්ටේ සිටි දළදා වහන්සේ බාර වූ බෞද්ධ හිමිවරු පෘතුගීසින් බුදු දහමට විරුද්ධ බව වැටහුනු අවස්ථාවේදී මදළදා වහන්සේ රහසිගතව සීතාවකට ගෙන ගොස් මායාදුන්නේගේ ආරක්ෂාව යටතේ තබන ලදී. දේශීය සම්ප්‍රදායට අනූව යම් පුද්ගලයෙක් අත දළදා වහන්සේගේ ස්වාමිත්වය ඇත්නම් ඔහුට ශ්‍රී ලංකාව තුළ සියලු රාජ්‍යයන්ට සිහසුනට අයිතිවාසිකමක් ඇත. මායාදුන්නේගේ ජනප්‍රසාදය ඉක්මනින් දේශය තුළ පැතිරී බුවනෙකබාහු රජුට ඇති ප්‍රසාදය තරමට ම වැඩී යත්ම බුවනෙකබාහු රජුටත් පසුව ධර්මපාල රජුටත් තවදුරටත් පෘතුගීසින්ගේ උදව් පිළිබඳ විශ්වාසය තැබීමට සිදු විය. මායාදුන්නේ කෝට්ටේට එරෙහිව නිතර නිතර කළ ආක්‍රමණ නිසා කෝට්ටේට අයත් වූ බොහෝ ප්‍රදේශ සීතාවකට ඈඳා ගැනීමට සිදු විය. පටන් කෝට්ටේට දේශීය උපකාර හිඟ වූ විට පෘතුගීසින් ඉබේම එහි ආරක්ෂකයන් වූහ. මෙයින් කෝට්ටේත් සීතාවකත් අතර වූ විරෝධය සීතාවක හා පෘතුගීසින් අතර විරෝධයක් බවට පත්විය.

සිංහල–පෘතුගීසි යුද්ධය

පෘතුගීසින් මෙරටින් ඉවත් කිරීමට උත්සහ ගත් මෙම සිංහල–පෘතුගීසි යුද්ධයේ මායාදුන්නේ හා සීතාවක රාජධානිය වැදගත් කොටසක් විය. මෙම කාලයේ දී යුරෝපා ජාතියක්, පෙරදිග දී ලැබූ දරුණුතම පරාජය මෙරටින් වාර්තා විය. මායාදුන්නේ හා ඔහුගේ පුත්‍රයා මුල්ලේරියා සංග්‍රාමයේ දී පෘතුගීසින්ට එරෙහිව සටන් කර ජය ගෙන, සීතාවක බලය එළිදරවු කළේය. ඒ අවස්ථාවේ පෘතුගීසින්ට ද විශාල අභියෝගයක් වන තරමටම ඔවුහු ශක්තිමත් ව සිටියහ. මුලු දිවයිනම පාලනය කිරීමට තිබූ අවස්ථාව පෘතුගීසින්ගෙන් ගිලිහී ගියේය.

මරණය හා දායාදය
තොරතුරුවලට අනුව ඔහු පෘතුගීසි ආක්‍රමණිකයන්ට එරෙහිව නැගී සිටි අතර මුලු දිවයිනම ජය ගෙන ඔවුන්ව වළක්වන ලදී. මායාදුන්නේ ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ සිටි උසස්ම රජෙකු ලෙස සැලකේ. ඔහු 1581 දී මරණයට පත් වන විට වයස අවුරුදු 80 ක් විය.

වෙනත් පිටු
 මහාවංස
 සිංහලේ රාජාවලිය
 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ අතීතය

යොමුව

වෙනත් වෙබ් පිටු
 Kings & Rulers of Sri Lanka

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ රජවරු
සිංහල ජනයා
1581දී සිදුවූ මරණ
1501දී සිදුවූ උපත්
සිරි සඟ බෝ රාජ වංශය

සීතාවක මායාදුන්නේ රජ


La ligne S2 est une des dix-huit lignes de train de banlieue de l'agglomération barcelonaise. Elle relie Barcelone à Sabadell et dessert au total cinq communes sur le tracé de la ligne Barcelone - Vallès.

Elle est exploitée par les Chemins de fer de la généralité de Catalogne (FGC).

Historique
Le code S2 est attribué à la ligne en . Elle puise ses origines dans le chemin de fer de Barcelone à Sarrià, ouvert en , et dans le tronçon du Vallès des Chemins de fer de Catalogne, mis en service à la fin des années 1910 et au début des années 1920.

À l'occasion de la mise en service d'une quinzaine de nouveaux trains le , la fréquence de passage sur les lignes S1 et S2 augmente à  en heure de pointe aux terminus, soit 2 min 30 s sur le tronçon commun entre Barcelone et Sant Cugat del Vallès, ce qui conduit à la disparition des lignes S5, S6 et S7.

Caractéristiques

Ligne
La ligne parcourt les infrastructures de la ligne Barcelone - Vallès. Elle compte , dont onze souterraines, et parcourt . Les rails sont à écartement normal et la voie est double sur l'intégralité du trajet.

À partir de Plaça de Catalunya, elle dessert cinq communes : Barcelone, Sant Cugat del Vallès, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Sant Quirze del Vallès et Sabadell, et partage son tracé avec la ligne L7 jusqu'à Gràcia, la ligne L6 jusqu'à Sarrià et la ligne S1 jusqu'à Sant Cugat.

Stations et correspondances

Exploitation

Matériel roulant
La ligne est servie par les rames de série 112 et 113 des FGC.

Horaires et tarification

Projets

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Chemins de fer de la généralité de Catalogne
 Métro de Barcelone – Rodalies de Catalogne

Liens externes
 .

S2
Lignes régionales de Catalogne

Ligne S2 des FGC


El distrito fitogeográfico subantártico magallánico es una de las secciones en que se divide la provincia fitogeográfica subantártica. Cubre una angosta franja del extremo sur del Cono Sur americano; asentándose sobre las faldas de los trechos australes de la Cordillera de los Andes, tanto sobre la porción final de Sudamérica continental como en el tramo que recorre el archipiélago de Tierra del Fuego. Incluye formaciones de bosques templado-fríos de hayas australes perennifolias, acompañas de otras caducifolias, coníferas, así como pocas especies de latifoliadas siempreverdes. También son frecuentes las turberas, mallines, arbustales achaparrados, tussoks, etc.

Sinónimos

También es llamado: Bosque siempreverde magallánico lluvioso, Bosque subpolar Magallánico, Bosque Magallánico, Selva húmeda fría, etc; y en el contexto de toda la Provincia fitogeográfica: Formación de los bosques Antárticos, Distrito Subantártico de Sudamérica, Bosques Subantárticos, Foresta Magallánica, Notohyle, Bosques Sudamericanos Subantárticos, Bosques Andino-Patagónicos, Selva Austral Cordillerana, Bosque Antartándico, Provincia Antartándica, Foresta costera Subantártica, Región de las Selvas Subantárticas, Bosque perennifolio selvático Chileno, etc.

Distribución

Según la clasificación de Ángel Lulio Cabrera, este distrito fitogeográfico comprende los bosques pluviales de baja altitud del sur de Chile, desde el paralelo 47°S en las islas del sur de la Región Aysén del General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo hacia el sur, así como en sectores interiores de la Región de Magallanes y de la Antártica Chilena hasta las costas de los fiordos australes del océano Pacífico.

En la Argentina sólo se hace presente en contados puntos del sudoeste de la provincia de Santa Cruz, y en las laderas andinas del canal de Beagle en el sur de la isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, y bahías protegidas de la isla de los Estados, de la provincia de Tierra del Fuego Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur, en donde se asoma al océano Atlántico.

La altitud va desde el nivel del mar hasta los 400

Límites

Al norte contacta con el Distrito fitogeográfico Subantártico Valdiviano; hacia el este y noreste lo hace con el Distrito fitogeográfico Subantártico del Bosque Caducifolio.

Afinidades florísticas

Este Distrito fitogeográfico guarda muy estrecha relación con el Distrito fitogeográfico Subantártico Valdiviano el cual lo reemplaza hacia latitudes mayores, así como también con el Distrito fitogeográfico Subantártico del Bosque Caducifolio el cual lo reemplaza hacia una mayor altitud y hacia el este y noreste.

Sus comunidades arbustivas y turbosas mantiene vínculos florísticos con la flora de las islas del Atlántico Sur: Malvinas, Georgias del Sur y Sandwich del Sur, y en menor medida con la flora de la Antártida es decir, con el Dominio fitogeográfico antártico, y sus bosques con los de la lejana Nueva Zelandia, del distante Dominio fitogeográfico neozelandés.

Suelos

Los suelos son rocosos, con una delgada capa fértil con algo de materia orgánica, y de reacción moderadamente ácida.

Relieve

El relieve es montañoso. Toda la región estuvo cubierta por glaciares en la última glaciación, por lo que los paisajes están profundamente labrados por ellos, presentando fiordos, canales, valles, lagos, numerosas islas e islotes.

Clima

Entre los tipos climáticos presentes en el distrito, el más característico es el clima oceánico subpolar, también llamado clima oceánico frío, el cual es una variante fría del clima oceánico; aunque según otros autores es una variante fría del «patagónico húmedo».

Térmicamente es un clima frío, con nevadas y heladas todo el año. Es más templado hacia el noroeste donde es afectado por las corrientes frías de la costa del Pacífico Sur. Es mucho más frío hacia el sur, incluso con presencia de nieve cubriendo el bosque varios meses en el invierno.

Pluviométricamente es un clima húmedo, causado por el ingreso de masas de aire húmedo desde el Océano Pacífico, que pierden gran parte de su humedad en forma de precipitaciones al colisionar con la cordillera de los Andes. Estas son más abundantes en el invierno.

Los acumulados generalmente van desde un mínimo de 480 mm en las costas del canal de Beagle hasta cerca de los 7000 mm en la zona del Campo de Hielo Patagónico Sur.

Las islas del sur de Chile presentan clima Oceánico Polar. La influencia térmica oceánica aquí es más fuerte, lo que redunda en un verano con máximas térmicas tan poco continentalizadas que es insuficiente para el crecimiernto leñoso. Soporta precipitaciones anuales de hasta 5000 mm, con temperaturas frías todo el año, y fuertes vientos de los cuadrantes oeste y sudoeste.

Características

El Distrito fitogeográfico se caracteriza por presentar bosques pluviales templado-fríos de hayas australes perennifolias, acompañas de otras caducifolias, coníferas, así como algunas especies de latifoliadas siempreverdes. También son frecuentes las turberas, mallines, arbustales achaparrados, etc. Si se lo compara con el Distrito fitogeográfico Subantártico Valdiviano se diferencia por ser más frío, florísticamente más pobre y, salvo en algunos sectores, menos lluvioso. También influye sobre su menor biodiversidad el hecho de haber sufrido una reciente glaciación, la cual obligó a sus especies a refugiarse más al norte, siendo esta región recién recolonizada hace 8000 años a.C., al tornarse las temperaturas algo más templadas, lo que generó como consecuencia el retroceso de los enormes glaciares.

Sus especies leñosas son únicas en el mundo por haber surgido en un clima con veranos sumamente fríos (promedio a nivel del mar de alrededor de 9 °C en el sur) y vientos muy fuertes. Debido a ello han sido plantadas en otras partes del mundo de clima similar pero que carecían naturalmente de árboles, por ejemplo en las Islas Feroe y archipiélagos vecinos, con buenos signos de aclimatación, mientras que las especies del más cercano norte de Europa no logran adaptarse.

Subdistritos fitogeográficos y sus especies principales

A este Distrito fitogeográfico es posible subdividirlo en Subdistritos fitogeográficos.

Bosque siempreverde magallánico lluvioso

La comunidad clímax y máximo exponente florístico de este Distrito fitogeográfico es el bosque siempreverde magallánico lluvioso.
 Estrato arbóreo Es dominado netamente por el guindo o cohiue de Magallanes (Nothofagus betuloides). En el sector norte también se le suma el cohiue de Chiloé (Nothofagus obliqua) y el mañío de hojas punzantes (Podocarpus nubigenus). En toda la formación también son frecuentes la lenga (Nothofagus pumilio), el ñirre (Nothofagus antarctica), el ciprés de las Guaitecas (Pilgerodendron uviferum), el notro (Embothrium coccineum), el huayo (Maytenus magellanica), el canelo (Drimys winteri), etc.
 Estrato arbustivo o sotobosque Llama la atención la falta de las bambúseas del género Chusquea, las que dominaban el sotobosque Valdiviano. Entre los arbustos, los más conocidos son las berberidáceas, como los calafates (Berberis ilicifolia y Berberis microphylla), el tepú (Tepualia stipularis), Pseudopanax laetevirens, la parrilla (Ribes magellanicum), la chaura (Pernettya mucronata), el chilco (Fuchsia magellanica), Chiliotrichum diffusum, Hebe elliptica, Escallonia serrata, etc.
 Estrato herbáceo generalmente dominado por varias especies de amancay, de orquídeas terrestres, de helechos, y herbáceas diversas. Destacan: Arachnites uniflora, Blechnum penna-marina, Senecio acanthifolius, Codonorchis lessonii, Gunnera magellanica, Deschamsia flexuosa, Adenocaulon chilense, Osmorrhiza berteroi, Rubus geoides, Asarca, Chloraea, Oxalis, etc.
 Estrato epifítico y muscinal Abundan los líquenes, musgos en grandes colchones sobre las ramas, parásitas del género Myzodendron, hongos como el llao-llao (Cyttaria), etc.
 Estrato escandente Las enredaderas son escasas; destacando Philesia magellanica, Prionotes myrsinites, etc.

Matorral magallánico

El matorral magallánico domina en muchas de las islas del sur de Chile; en el sector argentino es característico de buena parte del archipiélago de la Isla de los Estados. Se presenta especialmente en el sector occidental y sur del Distrito fitogeográfico, donde la influencia térmica oceánica es más fuerte, lo que redunda en un verano con máximas térmicas tan poco continentalizadas que es insuficiente para el crecimiernto leñoso, aún para las resistentes especies de los bosques cercanos, por lo que se presenta frecuentemente vegetación de tundra.
Soporta precipitaciones anuales de hasta 5000 mm, con temperaturas frías, fuertes vientos, condiciones de pobre drenaje y terreno pedregoso con muy delgada capa de suelo fértil. Generalmente este matorral consiste en un mosaico de plantas muy bajas, y arbustos enanos. En las áreas más protegidas pueden encontrarse algunos árboles y arbustos siempreverdes deformados por el viento, tales como coigüe de Magallanes, canelo, ciprés enano, y ciprés de las Guaitecas.

Turbales

Son también frecuentes las comunidades de turbales en sectores empapados de aguas ácidas, las que junto con las temperaturas bajas, reducen al mínimo la acción de microorganismos descomponedores. Son dominados por distintas especies, destacando los musgos, los cuales forman una densa capa superficial.

Los tipos de turberas más comunes que se observan en el distrito son:
 Turberas pluviales pradeñas. Dominadas por Marsippospermum grandiflorum, Hierochloe magellanica, Agrostis magellanica, etc.
 Turberas almohadadas.Con predominio de: Bolax gummifera, etc.
 Turberas pluviales de almohadas bajas. Con predominio de: Donatia fascicularis, Oreobolus obtusangulus, Astelia pumila, etc.
 Turberas pluviales de almohadas altas. Dominadas por hepáticas, Chorisodontium magellanicum, Rhacomitrium willii, etc.
 Turberas sfagnosas. Sphagnum magellanicum, Sphagnum fimbriatum, Sphagnum falcatum, y Sphagnum acutifolium, acompañados por: Carex curta, Carex magellanica, Rostkovia magellanica, Tetroncium magellanicum, etc.

Son acompañantes generalmente: Carpha schoenoides, etc. Entre ellos crece la extraña conífera arbustiva conocida como ciprés enano Lepidothamnus fonkii junto con ejemplares enanos de Nothofagus. También se observan algunas dicotiledóneas de flores llamativas, como Perezia palustris, Ranunculus peduncularis, y una planta insectívora: Drosera uniflora.

Bibliografía

 Bean. W. 1981 Trees and Shrubs Hardy in Great Britain. Vol 1 - 4 and Supplement. Murray.
 Cabrera, A. L.; 1976. Regiones fitogeográficas argentinas. Enciclopedia Argentina de Agricultura y Jardinería, Tomo II Fs. 1. Ed. ACME. Bs. As. Argentina. 1-85 pp.
 Cabrera, A. L. y Willink, W.;. Biogeografía de América Latina, OEA, Ser. Biol., Monogr. 3:, 1980.
 Chébez, J.C.; Guía de las Reservas Naturales de la Argentina. Volumen 1: Patagonia Norte. pp 192.Editor: Editorial Albatros, 2005. ISBN 9502410564.
 Chébez, J.C.; Guía de las Reservas Naturales de la Argentina. Volumen 2: Patagonia Austral. pp 192.Editor: Editorial Albatros, 2005. ISBN 9502410572.
 Donoso, C. 2005. Árboles nativos de Chile. Guía de reconocimiento. Edición 4. Marisa Cuneo Ediciones, Valdivia, Chile. 136p.
 Hoffmann, Adriana. 1998. Flora Silvestre de Chile, Zona Central. Edición 4. Fundación Claudio Gay, Santiago. 254 pp.
 Højgaard, A., J. Jóhansen, and S. Ødum (eds) 1989. A century of tree planting in the Faroe Islands. Føroya Frodskaparfelag, Torshavn.
 Laclau, P. 1997. Los ecosistemas forestales y el hombre en el sur de Chile y Argentina. Boletín Técnico 31. Fundación Vida Silvestre Argentina, World Wild Life Foundation. 110 pp.
 Moore, D.M. 1983. Flora of Tierra del Fuego. Oswestry, Saint Louis. ix, 396 pp., 8 lám.
 Papadakis, Juan, 1980.El clima; Con especial referencia a los climas de América Latina, península ibérica, Ex colonias Ibéricas, y sus potencialidades agropecuarias. 377 p. Editorial Albatros.
 Pisano, E. 1974. Estudio ecológico de la región continental sur del área andino-patagónica. II. Contribución a la fitogeografía de la zona del parque nacional Torres del Paine. Anales Inst. Patagonia 5(1-2): 59-104.
 Pisano, E. 1977. Fitogeografía de Fuego-Patagonia chilena. I. Comunidades vegetales entre las latitudes 52 y 56° S. Anales Inst. Patagonia 8: 121-250, 1 mapa.
 Rodríguez, R. y Quezada, M. 2003. Fagaceae. En C. Marticorena y R. Rodríguez [eds.], Flora de Chile Vol. 2(2), pp 64-76. Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile.

Referencias

Fitogeografía de Argentina
Fitogeografía de Chile

Distrito fitogeográfico subantártico magallánico


Dan Miron (; * 1934 in Tel Aviv) ist ein israelischer Literaturwissenschaftler und -kritiker.

Leben
Miron studierte Literaturwissenschaft an der Hebräischen Universität Jerusalem und an der Columbia University in New York. Er unterrichtete vierzig Jahre lang an der Columbia University, der Hebräischen Universität und der Universität Tel Aviv, ist Emeritus der Hebräischen Universität und hat die Leonard-KayeProfessur für Hebräische Literatur der Columbia University inne. Er gilt als "Doyen der israelischen Literurkritik" und bedeutender Kenner der modernen hebräischen und jiddischen Literatur. Für seine in viele Sprachen übersetzten Schriften wurde er u. a. mit dem Bialik-Preis (1980) und dem Israel-Preis (1993) ausgezeichnet. 2020 wurde er zum Mitglied der Israelischen Akademie der Wissenschaften gewählt.

Schriften
 A Traveler Disguised: The Rise of Modern Yiddish Fiction in Nineteenth Century, 1973
 Ashkenaz. Modern Hebrew Literature and the Premodern German Jewish Experience, 1989
 H. N. Bialik and the Prophetic Mode in Modern Hebrew Poetry, 2000
 The Image of the Shtetl and Other Studies of Modern Jewish Literary Imagination, 2000
 From the Worm a Butterfly Emerges (über Nathan Alterman)

Literatur
 Rebekka Denz (Hrsg.), Alexander Dubrau (Hrsg.), Nathanael Riemer (Hrsg.): 100jähriges Jubiläum Tel Avivs = 100th anniversary of Tel Aviv. Universitätsverlag Potsdam, ISBN 978-3-86956-012-0, S. 212 ff.
 Dan Miron. Encyclopedia Judaica
 Dan Miron. Columbia University

Weblinks

 Eintrag bei der Israelischen Akademie der Wissenschaften

Autor
Literaturwissenschaftler
Literatur (Jiddisch)
Literatur (Hebräisch)
Träger des Israel-Preises
Mitglied der Israelischen Akademie der Wissenschaften
Israeli
Geboren 1934
Mann

Dan Miron


Sofistler, MÖ 5. yüzyılda para karşılığında felsefe öğreten gezgin felsefecilerdir. Özellikle Atina'da çağın önde gelen bilgeleri var olan değerleri (kritias) eleştirmişlerdir. Göreceli ve kuşkucu düşüncenin köklerini atmışlar ve geliştirici olmuşlardır.

Genel bilgi
Etimoloji bakımından 'sofist' kelimesi Yunanca sophos (bilge, becerikli, zeki) sözcüğünden türetilen sophistes'ten gelir, öğrenmeyi ve öğretmeyi meslek edinen kişileri belirtmek için kullanılır. Dönemin sosyal değişimleri ve siyasal gelişimleri (M.Ö 5. Y.Y Atina demokrasisi) sofistlerin etkili olmalarına yol açmıştır. Çünkü Sofizmin doğuş nedenleri arasında Atina demokrasisinin tamamen yeni türden bir eğitime ve pedagojiye duyduğu pratik gereksinim gerçek belirleyici bir nedendir. Bir anlamda 'Yunan Aydınlanması' olarak adlandırılacak gelişmenin yaratıcılarıdır.

İlk sofistlerin toplumda büyük bir saygınlığı olmasına rağmen felsefe tarihinde sofist denildiğinde akla olumsuz bir anlam gelir. Bu anlam başta dönemin en önemli filozofları olan Platon'un, Sokrates'in ve Aristoteles'in sofistlere karşı yürüttüğü mücadeleden ileri gelmektedir. Sofistler sürekli bu düşünürler tarafından eleştirilmiş ve küçük görülmüşlerdir. Bir de para karşılığı ders vermeleri o dönemde yadırganmıştır. Bununla birlikte felsefe tarihi içinde erdemin, öğretilebilir olup olmadığı gibi çok önemli soruların sorulmasında ya da yeni yaklaşımlar geliştirilmesinde sofistler her dönem önemli etkilere yol açmışlardır.

Sofist filozoflar
 Protagoras(482-411)
 Leontinoi'li Gorgias(483-375)
 Antigone
 Elisli Hippias
 Alkidamos
 Lykophron
 Kallikles
 Keoslu Prodikos
 Kritias
 Simonides
 Chalkedonlu Thyrasymakos
 Ahonymus Lamblichi

Temel düşünceleri

Birbirlerinden bağımsız olarak çalışan sofistler daha çok etik, siyasal ve toplumsal sorunlar üzerinde durmuşlardır. Bunlar;
 Tek tek insana değer verilmesi,
 Hakim olan dinin, devletin geçerlilikte var olan hukukunun bağlarından kurtarılması,
 Her türlü yasanın yerine doğanın konulması,
 Zayıf muhakemeyi kuvvetli muhakeme haline getirmektir.

Kendilerinden önceki doğa filozofları, temel maddenin ne olduğunu kendilerine sormuşlar; su, hava, ateş, toprak, atom vb. şeklinde cevaplar vermişlerdi. Sofistlerin ilki ve en ünlüsü olan Protagoras ise bu türden bir doğa felsefesinden uzaklaşmış, evreni bilmeyi dışta bırakmış ve temel nedenleri bu yönde arayışlara kuşkuyla yaklaşmıştır. İnsanı her şeyin ölçüsü kabul etmiş ve çelişmezlik ilkesini inkâr etmiştir. Aynı zamanda Heraklitos'un her şeyin değiştiği önermesini Protagoras, hiçbir şeyin belirli bir şey olamayacağı ve mutlak bir varlık aramanın anlamsız olduğunu öne sürerek reddeder. Bir diğer önemli Sofist düşünür Leontinoili Gorgias varoluşu ve varoluşa ulaşabilmeyi imkânsız sayıyordu. Ona göre ne varlık vardır ne de varlığın bilgisi mümkündür; bilginin bir başkasına aktarılması söz konusu değildir. Sofistler insanları yetiştirmek üzere onlara bilgi ve hitabet sanatını öğretmeye çalışmışlardır. Onlar aracılığıyla felsefe dış dünyadan insan dünyasına yöneltilmiş olmalıdır. Dil konusunda ilk incelemeler de bir anlamda Sofistlere bağlıdır. Gorgias, Prodikos ve Hippias'ın eşanlamlılık, gramer ve biçimsellik konularında açıklamaları olmuştur. Aynı şekilde Sofistler mantık üzerinde de durmuşlar ve önermelerin nasıl kanıtlanıp çürütüldüğüyle ilgilenmişlerdir. Felsefenin bir eğitim meselesi olarak uygulanması, toplumsal ayrımların ve eşitsizliklerin insan ürünü olarak değerlendirilmesi, herkesin eşit olduğu düşüncesinin geliştirilmesi, doğal hukukun savunulması, tanrıların doğasını anlamanın bir insan ömrüne sığmayacak kadar hummalı ve uzun bir araştırma konusu olduğu sofistlerin belli başlı felsefi konularıdır. Bu şekilde sofistler, otorite ve geleneği (yasa, hukuk, sosyal ve ahlaki normlar vb.) sarsmışlardır.

Sofistlerin görüşleri konusunda en önemli kaynak Platon diyaloglarıdır. Platon, 'Protagoras' adlı eserinde bir Sofist toplantısının renkli betimlemesini verir. 'Sophistes' adlı eserinde ise sofistlerin görüşlerini tartışır.
 (Platon,Sofist,231 D = 73 b 2)
'Sofist' sözcüğü önce zengin gençlerin peşinde koşan ve karşılığında ücret alan kişi için, sonra ruhla ilgili bilgiler ithal eden tüccar için, üçüncü olarak aynı bilgileri isteyene satan çerçi için, dördüncüsü manevi ürünlerini bize satan kimse için kullanılmıştır. Beşinci olarak bu tanımlama, söz savaşı sanatında bir yarışmacı, yani yükselme hırsına 'tartışma sanatı'nı yer seçen bir kimse anlamına geliyordu. Altıncı kullanış şekli çok kuşkuludur; ama bununla, ruhu (gerçek) bilgiye engel teşkil eden kanılardan temizleyen bir kişinin tanımlandığını kabul ederek onu da diğerleri arasına katıyoruz.
 (Xenophon,Sokrates'ten Anılar 1.1, 11 = 73 b 2 a)
Bilgelik öğretmenlerinden birçoğunun aksine Sokrates evrenin doğası ya da diğer şeyler üstüne, Sofistlerin kozmos dediği yerde durumun nasıl olduğunu ve gökyüzündeki süreçlerin hangi zorunluluktan dolayı gerçekleştiğini araştırarak, görüş belirtmedi.
 (Aristoteles,Sofistlerin Çürütülüşü 1.165 a 21 vd. =73 b 3)
Sofizm gerçek değil, sahte bilimdir ve Sofist de gerçek değil sahte bilim taciridir.

Ek okumalar
 Felsefe Tarihi, Macit Gökberk, Remzi Kitabevi. 1.baskı  sayfa 30-35
 Düşünce Tarihi, Afşar Timuçin. 1.baskı sayfa 50-60
 Felsefe Sözlüğü, Ahmet Cevizci.2. baskı sayfa 27-29
 Wilhelm Capelle,Sokrates'ten Önce Felsefe,2.Cilt 3.baskı sayfa 120 212
 Ana Britannica Genel Kültür Ansiklopedisi 3.baskı sayfa 118-230
 M.Rosental, P.Yudin, Felsefe Sözlüğü
 Antik Felsefe, Kranz Walter, Sosyal Yayınları
İlkçağ Felsefesi, Çiğdem Dürüşken, Alfa yayınevi, 4.baskı sayfa 136-138

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/sophist.html

Ayrıca bakınız
 Sofistlerin devlet anlayışı

Sofistler


Josip Čilić (19. ožujka 1953.), bio je hrvatski bosanskohercegovački nogometaš.

Karijera
U Željezničaru od sezone 1977./78. do 1985. godine. Sa Željezničarom igrao finale Kupa Jugoslavije 1980./81. i došao do polufinala Kupa UEFA 1984./85.

Izvori

Hrvatski nogometaši iz Bosne i Hercegovine
Nogometaši FK Željezničara

Josip Čilić


Moselle steht für:

 Moselle, französischer Name der Mosel, linker Zufluss des Rheins
 Département Moselle, Verwaltungseinheit in der Region Grand Est, Frankreich
 Boulay-Moselle, Stadt im Département Moselle, Frankreich
 Moselle (Mississippi), Siedlung auf gemeindefreiem Gebiet im Jones County, Mississippi, Vereinigte Staaten
 Côtes de Moselle, Weinbaugebiet an der Mosel in Ostfrankreich, siehe Weinregion Lothringen
 Port Moselle, Freizeithafen im französischen Überseegebiet Neukaledonien
 River Moselle (London), Wasserlauf in London, England
 Moselle Open, Tennisturnier in Metz, Frankreich, siehe ATP Metz
 Moselle Amnéville Hockey Club, französischer Eishockeyverein
 Moselle Specialty Cars, kalifornischer Autohersteller

Siehe auch:
 Armée de la Moselle (Moselarmee), Verband der französischen Revolutionszeit
 Moselviadukt (Viaduc de la Moselle), Eisenbahnbrücke über die Mosel in Lothringen
 Mosella

Moselle


Blastokist (Yunanca βλαστός (blastos) « tomurcuk » anlamına gelir, κύστις (kistis) ise « idrar kesesini » ifade eder), canlı gelişiminde blastosöl aşamasındaki hücre kitlesine verilen ad. Bu evrede hücreler daha hızlı bölünmeye, kendi genomlarından yapıtaşları sentezlemeye ve aktif olarak yer değiştirmeye başlarlar. İnsanın embriyonik gelişimi özelinde, Döllenmenin sonucu olarak oluşan tek hücreli zigot hızlıca bölünerek yaklaşık 4 gün içinde morula diye adlandırılan bir hücre topu haline gelir. Morula'nın çapı ortalama 0.3 mm'dir. Morula, uterus (rahim) boşluğuna ulaştığında morulanın içinde sıvı birikir ve içi sıvı dolu bir boşluk oluşur.

Blastokist dıştan trofoblast diye adlandırılan ince bir tabaka ile çevrilidir. Ortasında gıda açısından zengin bir sıvı (blastosöl) ile dolu bir boşluk vardır.

İçinde sıvı toplanmış olan bu hücreler kümesine blastokist denir ve blastokistin daha sonra uterus (rahim) iç tabakasına olan endometriyuma gömülür.Bu gömülmeye implantasyon yani yerleşme denir ve bu gömülmeyle birlikte gebelik süreci başlamış olur.

Dış kısımda yer alan trofoblast hücreleri, ileride plesantanın çoğunu oluşturacaktır. Blastsölün ileride canlının baş kısmını oluşturacak bölgesinde (posteriorda) konumlanmış hücre kümesi olan epiblastlar, diğer hücre tipleri olan hipoblastlar ile etkileşerek farklılaşırlar ve embriyonun kendisi ile embriyo dışı dokuları oluştururlar.

Ancak deneylerin yapıldığı fare gibi memelilerde blastokistin oluşumu, devamı ve embriyonik gelişimlerinin farklılık gösterebileceği çalışmalar yapılırken göz önünde bulundurulması gereken bir konudur.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Embriyonik gelişim
 Zigot
 Morula
 Trofoblast
 Embriyo
 Kök hücre

Dış bağlantılar
  Blastokist oluşumu, İngilizce
 Blastokist transferi ve kısırlık tedavisi
 Blastokist transefrinin riskleri
 Farklı gelişim aşamalarında blastokist fotoğrafları
 weber.edu
 Blastokist Farklılaşma Diagramı

Gelişim biyolojisi
Embriyoloji

Blastokist


ميكانيكا الحركة الحيوية يدرس هذا العلم حركة الإنسان، ويبحث في معالجة الاختلالات الحركية لديه وتعد الأطراف الصناعية، أحد أهم منجزات هذا العلم، وقد شهد هذا العلم تطورًا كبيرًا بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية، بسبب إصابة العديد من الجنود بإعاقات دائمة بسبب الحرب.

انظر أيضاً

 جراحة ترقيعية (prosthesis)
 ميكانيكا حيوية (biomechanics)

جهاز عضلي هيكلي
علم الحركة المجردة
هندسة طبية حيوية

ميكانيكا الحركة الحيوية


NGC 5994 est une petite galaxie spirale barrée située dans la constellation du Serpent. Sa vitesse par rapport au fond diffus cosmologique est de (3497 ± 8 km/s), ce qui correspond à une distance de Hubble de . NGC 5994 a été découverte par l'ingénieur irlandais Bindon Stoney en .

NGC 5994 présente une large raie HI.

La vitesse de récession de NGC 5994 et de NGC 5996 sont presque les mêmes. Elles sont donc à peu près la même distance de la Voie lactée. Cette paire de galaxies figure dans l'atlas des galaxies particulières de Halton Arp sous la cote Arp 72. Arp mentionne une extension de matière de faible intensité d'un bras (NGC 5996) vers la galaxie compagne (NGC 5994).
Cette paire de galaxie fait aussi partie du catalogue des galaxies en interaction Vorontsov-Velyaminov.

Notes et références

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Liste des objets du New General Catalogue

Liens externes

 NGC 5994 sur le site du professeur C. Seligman

5994
Constellation du Serpent
Galaxie spirale
Galaxie spirale barrée
Objet de l'atlas Arp
Galaxie en interaction
Galaxie découverte en 1851
Objet céleste découvert par Bindon Stoney

NGC 5994


යක්කලමුල්ල යනු ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ගාල්ල දිස්ත්‍රික්කය තුල පිහිටි ප්‍රදේශයකි.

මැතිවරණ කොට්ටාශය - බද්දේගම

යක්කලමුල්ල ගාල්ල දිස්ත්‍රික්කය අයත් ප්‍රාදේශීය ලේකම් කොට්ටාශයකි

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ නගර සහ ගම්මාන

යක්කලමුල්ල


يوم حقوق الإنسان  هو مناسبة يحتفل بها العالم سنويًّا في 10 ديسمبر من كل عام. تقرر اختيار هذا اليوم للاحتفال من قِبل الجمعية العامة للأمم المتحدة، في العاشر من ديسمبر عام 1948، عندما تبنت الجمعية الإعلان العالميّ لحقوق الإنسان، وهو الإعلان العالمي الأول لحقوق الإنسان وواحد من الانجازات الكبرى للأمم المتحدة. تأسس يوم حقوق الإنسان رسميًّا في الاجتماع رقم 317 للجمعية العامة في الرابع من ديسمبر 1950، عندما أعلنت الجمعية العامة عن القرار رقم 423(V)، بدعوة جميع أعضاء الدول والمنظَّمات الأخرى ذات الصلة للاحتفال باليوم الذي رأوا أنه مناسب.

احتل اليوم مكانته في نظر المؤتمرات السياسيّة والاجتماعات والأحداث الثقافيّة والمحافل التي تتعامل مع قضايا حقوق الإنسان. كما أن يوم العاشر من ديسمبر هو اليوم التقليديّ لإعلان جائزة الأمم المتحدة في مجال حقوق الإنسان، وكذلك جائزة نوبل في السلام. يحتفل باليوم عدد من الحكومات وعدد من المنظَّمات غير الحكوميّة المهتمة بالشأن الحقوقيّ، وينظِّمون المحافل لإحياء ذكرى اليوم، كما تفعل العديد من المنظمات الأهليّة والاجتماعيّة.

التاريخ
يوم حقوق الإنسان هو اليوم الذي تبنت فيه الجمعية العامة للأمم المتحدة الإعلان العالمي لحقوق الإنسان في 1948. تعود فكرة يوم حقوق الإنسان إلى تاريخ 1950، بعد تمرير القرار 423(V) بدعوة كل الأعضاء والمنظمات المهتمة لاعتبار 10 ديسمبر من كل عام يومًا لحقوق الإنسان. تظهر شعبية اليوم بوضوح في طابع البريد التذكاريّ الذي اعتمدته إدارة البريد في الأمم المتحدة في 1952، ليستقبل نحو 200 ألف طلب اقتناء.

عندما تبنت الجمعية العامة هذا اليوم، بموافقة 48 دولة وامتناع 8 عن التصويت، أُعلن اليوم باعتباره انجازًا مُهمًا لكل الناس من كافة الأمم. إنه انجاز يجب أن تلتحق به الأمم عن طريق الإجراءات التقدُّميّة، على المستويين المحليّ والدوليّ، لتأمين الاعتراف بهم واحترامهم عالميًا. استقبل الحقوقيّون والنُقاد هذا الإجراء بقولهم أنه «تصريح أكثر منه قانون، يقترح أكثر من كونه مُلزم».

تتضمن الوثيقة طيفًا واسعًا من الحقوق السياسيّة والمدنيّة والاقتصاديّة والاجتماعيّة والثقافيّة، لكنها ليست إلزامية. وبالرغم من ذلك، تمكَّنت الوثيقة من إلهام أكثر من 60 من صكوك حقوق الإنسان، والتي تُشكِّل معًا مرجعًا عالميًا لحقوق الإنسان. وحاليًا، بعد توافق جميع أعضاء الأمم المتحدة على حقوق الإنسان الأساسيّة، صارت الوثيقة أكثر قوة، مؤكِّدة على ارتباط حقوق الإنسان بحياتنا اليوميّة.

أُقيمت الذكرى السنوية الستّون للإعلان العالميّ لحقوق الإنسان في 10 ديسمبر 2008، وقام الأمين العام للأمم المتحدة بإطلاق حملة تستغرق سنة، تنتهي بهذه الذكرى. ونظرًا لترجمة الإعلان العالميّ لحقوق الإنسان لمعظم لغات العالم، استخدمت منظمات الحقوق حول العالم هذه السنة للتركيز على مساعدة الناس في كل مكان للتعرف على حقوقهم.

في 9 ديسمبر 2001، صرَّح الرئيس جورج بوش تصريحًا رئاسيًا بأن أسبوع حقوق الإنسان يبدأ في 9 ديسمبر. كما أنه أصدر نفس التصريح في 10 ديسمبر 2008.

الاحتفالات الماضية
1979: نظَّم شي مينغ-تيه Shih Ming-teh حملة لحقوق الإنسان في كاوهسيونغ في تايوان. أدى ذلك إلى حادثة كاوهسيونغ، والتي اتسمت بثلاث جولات من الاعتقالات ومحاكمات صوريّة للمعارضين السياسيّين للحزب الحاكم، ثم حبسهم بعد ذلك.
1983: قرر الرئيس راؤول ألفونسين أن يتولى مقاليد الحكم في 10 ديسمبر 1983 في الأرجنتين، منهيًا بذلك عصرًا من الديكتاتوريّة العسكريّة المستمرة من 1976. حدث في يوم تنصيبه انتهاكات لحقوق الإنسان أثناء الديكتاتوريّة. ومنذ ذلك الحين تُقام كل مراسم التنصيب الرئاسيّ في 10 ديسمبر.

2004:
 أعلن نادي القلم الدولي انطلاق حملة جديدة لتأمين خروج الناشطين من السجن في جمهوريّة الصين الشعبيّة والمالديف وفيتنام.
 تجمعت كل من لجنة الدول الأمريكيّة لحقوق الإنسان والممثل الخاص للمدافعين عن حقوق الإنسان لدى الأمم المتحدة، ومفوضية الاتحاد الإفريقيّ لحقوق الإنسان، تجمَّعوا حول إشادة الاتحاد الأوروبيّ لتبني لمجموعة من الإرشادات من أجل حماية المدافعين عن حقوق الإنسان، وناشدت المناطق الأخرى في العالم أن يسيروا على خطى الاتحاد الأوروبيّ.
 نظمَّت الجمعية الأمريكية لتقدم العلوم ندوة في مدينة نيويورك حول الحرية الأكاديميّة في العراق.
 اعتبر الاتحاد الإنسانيّ الأخلاقيّ الدوليّ يوم حقوق الإنسان يومًا للاحتفال الإنسانيّ.
2006: في مصادفة مثيرة، مات الديكتاتور التشيليّ أوغستو بينوشيه، المعروف بتعدياته على حقوق الإنسان أثناء حُكمه السلطويّ، بأزمة قلبيّة في 10 ديسمبر 2006، بعمر 91 عامًا.

2008:
 طالب نشطاء المثليّة الجنسيّة في الولايات المتحدة بولاية كاليفورنيا الناسَ أن يدعموا المساواة في الحقوق بالسماح للمثليين بالعمل. كان هذا رد فعل على تجديد تحريم زواج المثليين عندما مُرر المقترح 8 في وقت مبكر من العام.
 احتُجز العديد من الناس في الصين بعد أن وقَّع نحو 300 شخص على وثيقة إلكترونيّة تُدعى الميثاق 08 من أجل دعوة الحكومة لتحسين حقوق الإنسان في البلاد. كما نشأ احتجاج صغير خارج وزارة الخارجيّة في بكين.
 نظمَّت منظمة العفو الدوليّة حدثًا هائلًا في باريس بفرنسا لإحياء الذكرى الستّين لقرار الأمم المتحدة.
 أُقيمت الاحتفالات في بنوم بنه في كمبوديا، تضمنت الاحتفالات مسيرة من 5000 شخص، و1000 آخرين يطلقون البلالين، نظَّم الاحتفاليات المنظمات غير الحكومية.
 أُقيمت احتفالات أخرى في روسيا والهند.
2009: اعتُبر 10 ديسمبر 2009 الذكرى 61 للإعلان العالميّ لحقوق الإنسان. علَّق توم مالينوفيسكي من هيومن رايتس ووتش في ولاية واشنطن أن حقوق الإنسان تشهد تقدمًا في الأربعين عامًا الماضية: «أعتقد أن هناك وعيًا أكبر حول العالم أن للناس حقوقًا أساسيّة وأنه يجب دعم هذه الحقوق على المستويين المحليّ والدوليّ».
2011: بعد عام من الاحتجاجات في تونس والقاهرة وحتى حركة احتلوا، كانت السمة الرئيسة لعام 2011 هي أهمية وسائل التواصل الاجتماعيّ والتكنولوجيا في مساعدة المدافعين عن حقوق الإنسان بطرائق جديدة.
2012: كانت سمة يوم حقوق الإنسان في هذه السنة هي الحق في المشاركة في الحياة العامة. كان التركيز على جعل أصوات الناس مسموعة ومؤثرة في عملية صناعة القرار السياسيّ. كان الشعار «صوتي سيشكُّل فرقًا» موجودًا في حركة احتلوا وفي الاحتجاجات الأخرى حول العالم.
2013: كانت سمة هذه السنة الاحتفال بـ25 عامًا من العمل على الدفاع عن حقوق الإنسان. فقد تأسس منصب المفوَّض الأعلى لحقوق الإنسان في الأمم المتحدة منذ 25 عامًا، وساعد في خلق صوت مستقل للدفاع عن حقوق الإنسان حول العالم.
2014: كان شعار هذه السنة هو «كل يوم هو يوم حقوق إنسان». احتفلت «حقوق الإنسان 365» بالإعلان العالميّ لحقوق الإنسان والذي ينص على أن كل شخص، في كل مكان، وفي كل وقت، له حقوق. تنتمي حقوق الإنسان لكل الناس بالتساوي، و«تجمعنا سويًا كمجتمع دوليّ له نفس المُثل والقيم».
2015: شعار هذه السنة «حقوقنا، حرياتنا، دائما»
2016: شعار هذه السنة «دافع عن حقوق أحدهم اليوم!»
2017: شعار هذه السنة «فلندافع عن المساواة، والعدالة، والكرامة الإنسانيّة»
2018: شعار هذه السنة «دافع عن حقوق الإنسان»

اختلاف التاريخ
يُحتفل بيوم حقوق الإنسان في جنوب أفريقيا في 21 مارس، للتذكير بمذبحة شاربفيل والتي حدثت في 21 مارس 1960. حدثت هذه المذبحة كنتيجة لتظاهرات معارضة لنظام أبارتايد في جنوب أفريقيا. أُعلن يوم حقوق الإنسان في جنوب أفريقيا يوم عطلة قوميّة عندما انتُخب أول مجلس شيوخ مع نيلسون مانديلا كأول قائد ديمقراطيّ منتخب. كانت مهمة البرلمان في هذا اليوم هي تمكين الناس حتى تصبح العمليات الديمقراطية معروفة للجميع في جنوب أفريقيا.

يُحتفل باليوم في 11 ديسمبر في كريبياتي.

انظر أيضًا
 اليوم العالمي للأمم المتحدة لمساندة ضحايا التعذيب
 الأمم المتحدة

المراجع

أيام الأمم المتحدة
أيام التوعية المدنية
حقوق الإنسان
مناسبات ديسمبر

يوم حقوق الإنسان


En jernkirke er en type kirkelig montagebygning af bølgeblik. De blev udviklet i midten af det 18. århundrede i Storbritannien. Bølgeblik blev for første gang brugt til tag i London i 1829 af Henry Robinson Palmer. Teknologien til at producere bølgeblikken blev efterfølgende forbedret, og for at undgå korrosion blev det galvaniseret med et lag zink, en proces der blev udviklet af Stanislas Sorel i Paris i 1830'erne. Efter 1850 blev der produceret mange typer montagebygninger, heriblandt kirker og kapeller.

"Jernkirken" er i nyere tid også blevet anvendt som slang om motionscentre.

Referencer

Yderligere læsning

Bygninger, konstruktioner og anlæg
Kirker

Jernkirke


The Illustrious class was a class of aircraft carrier of the Royal Navy that included some of the most important British warships in the Second World War. They were laid down in the late 1930s as part of the rearmament of British forces in response to the emerging threats of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan.

The Illustrious class comprised four vessels: HM Ships Illustrious, Formidable, Victorious and Indomitable. The last of these was built to a modified design with a second, half-length, hangar deck below the main hangar deck. Each of these ships played a prominent part in the battles of the Second World War. Victorious took part in the pursuit of the German battleship Bismarck, Illustrious and Formidable played prominent parts in the battles in the Mediterranean during 1940 and 1941 and all three took part in the large actions of the British Pacific Fleet in 1945.

The later two ships of the Implacable class were also built to modified designs to carry larger air wings.  and  both had two hangar levels, albeit with a limited  head room.

Design and concept
The Illustrious class was designed within the restrictions of the Second London Naval Treaty, which limited carrier size to an upper limit of 23,000 tons. They were different in conception to the Royal Navy's only modern carrier at the time, their predecessor HMS Ark Royal, and what may be described as their nearest American contemporaries, the Yorktown and Essex class carriers. The Illustrious class followed the Yorktown but preceded the Essex, the latter being designed after the US abandonment of the Second London Naval Treaty and its tonnage limitations.

Where other designs emphasised large air groups as the primary means of defence, the Illustrious class relied on their anti-aircraft armament and the passive defence provided by an armoured flight deck for survival, resulting in a reduced aircraft complement. Other carriers had armour carried on lower decks (e.g. the hangar deck or main deck); the unprotected flight deck and the hangar below it formed part of the superstructure, and were unprotected against even small bombs. However, the hangar could be made larger and thus more aircraft could be carried, but the differences in aircraft capacity between these carriers and their United States Navy (USN) counterparts is largely due to the some 100-foot-longer overall length of the US designs, and the USN's operational doctrine, which allowed for a permanent deck park of aircraft to augment their hangar capacity. Illustriouss hangar was 82% as large as s, but Enterprise typically carried 30% of her aircraft capacity in her deck park. Indomitables two hangars were actually larger than Enterprises, but she carried fewer aircraft because she did not have a large permanent deck park. In 1944/45 RN carriers began to carry a permanent deck park of similar size to their USN counterparts, and this increased their aircraft complement from 36 to an eventual 57 aircraft in the single-hangar carriers, and from 48 up to 81 in the double-hangar, 23,400-ton Implacable design, compared to 90–110 for the 27,500-ton US Essex class.

In the Illustrious class, armour was carried at the flight deck level—which became the strength deck—and formed an armoured box-like hangar that was an integral part of the ship's structure. However, to make this possible without increasing the displacement it was necessary to reduce the overhead height of the hangars to  in the Illustrious class hangars and  in the upper hangar of the Indomitable and  in her lower hangar; these compared unfavourably to the  of the Essex class,  in Enterprise and  in Saratoga. This restricted operations with larger aircraft designs, particularly post-war.

This armour scheme was designed to withstand 6" cruiser shellfire or 500 pound bombs (and heavier bombs dropped from low height or which struck at an angle); in the Home and Mediterranean theatres it was likely that the carriers would operate within the range of shore-based aircraft, which could carry heavier bombs than their carrier-based equivalents. The flight deck had an armoured thickness of 3 inches, closed by 4.5-inch sides and bulkheads. There were 3-inch strakes on either side extending from the box sides to the top edge of the main side belt, which was of 4.5 inches. The main belt protected the machinery, petrol storage, magazines and aerial weapon stores. The lifts were placed outside the hangar, at either end, with access through sliding armoured doors in the end bulkheads.

Later in the war it was found that bombs which penetrated and detonated inside the armoured hangar could cause structural deformation, as the latter was an integral part of the ship's structure.

Pre-war doctrine held that the ship's own firepower, rather than its aircraft, were to be relied upon for protection, since in the absence of radar, fighters were unlikely to intercept incoming attackers before they could release their weapons. Accordingly, the Illustrious class was given an extremely heavy anti-aircraft armament. The armament was similar to Ark Royal with twin 4.5 inch turrets (in a new "between-decks" or countersunk design) arranged on the points of a quadrant. The guns were mounted sufficiently high so that they could fire across the decks; de-fuelled aircraft would be stowed in the hangar for protection during aerial attack. The Illustrious class were fitted with four HACS controlled High Angle Director Towers, for fire control of her 4.5 inch guns. Illustrious pioneered the use of radar to vector carrier-borne fighters onto attacking or shadowing aircraft, and a Fairey Fulmar fighter from Illustrious achieved the first radar directed kill on 2 September 1940.

Ships in class

Fate of the class

All four early ships were hard worked during the Second World War, with Illustrious and Formidable suffering and surviving heavy damage. Like their contemporary , they fought a long and consuming war, and, despite significant overhauls and repair of battle damage, were worn out by 1946, and were scrapped in the mid-1950s. Due to a variety of factors including Britain's dire post-war finances, and the consequent reductions in the size of the Royal Navy post-war modernization was limited to just the last of the class; Victorious. Over eight years between 1950 and 1957 she was extensively rebuilt incorporating modern equipment (angled flight deck, steam catapults) to enable her to operate Cold War-era jet aircraft. Although Victorious completed a refit in 1967, a minor fire with a manpower shortage and reduction in the naval budgets mean she was not recommissioned but retired in 1968 and sold for scrap. Indomitable was given an extensive refit, including new boilers, from 1948 to 1950, then served as flagship of the Home Fleet and also saw service in the Mediterranean. She suffered a hangar deck petrol explosion and fire in early 1953. She was placed in reserve after Queen Elizabeth II's October 1953 Coronation Review and was then scrapped in 1955.

See also
 List of aircraft carriers
 List of ships of the Second World War
 List of ship classes of the Second World War

Notes

References

External links

 Armoured aircraft carrier action and damage reports, 1940-1945
 ILLUSTRIOUS fleet aircraft carriers (1940–1941)

Aircraft carrier classes

Ship classes of the Royal Navy

Illustrious-class aircraft carrier


Aleksandar Marković (Tuzla, 15. travnja 1987.), hrvatski likovni umjetnik iz Bosne i Hercegovine. Živi i radi u Tuzli kao profesor umjetnosti u KŠC Sveti Franjo, i svom slikarskom ateljeu. Bavi se slikarstvom, fotografijom i instalacijom.

Životopis
Rođen je u Tuzli. U Tuzli 2005. završio Opću gimnaziju pri KŠC Sv. Franjo. Iste je godine upisao Akademiju likovnih umjetnosti na Širokom Brijegu Sveučilišta u Mostaru. Magistrirao je 2010.god. na Odsijeku za slikarstvo u klasi doc. Antuna Borisa Švaljeka, stekavši zvanje magistra likovne umjetnosti - akademski slikar i profesor likovne kulture. Upisao je 2010. poslijediplomski-doktorski trogodišnji studij Ars Sacra, na prijedlog i na poziv stručne komisije i upravnog odbora ALU Široki Brijeg, a pod vodstvom dekana red. profesora Ante Kajinića. Sudionik međunarodne studentsko-rektorske konferencije u Ljubljani.

Izlagao na preko 50 skupnih izložbi u zemlji i niozemstvu. Sudjelovao na nekoliko likovnih kolonija (Međunarodne: u Breškama, Prozor HE, Međugorje, Eko-Široki Brijeg, Subotica itd). Sudjelovao na festivalu umjetnosti Kaleidoskop u Tuzli 2009.godine, te u dizajnerskoj radionici Mirka Ilića.

Član udruženja likovnih umjetnika Županije Soli Tuzla i Udruženja likovnih umjetnika BiH.

Nagrade
 Nagrada rektora Sveučilišta u Mostaru za 2006./07.
Otkupna nagrada za slikarstvo na natjecanju Federalnog ministarstva kulture za studente ALU u BiH 2008.
 Prva otkupna nagrada za slikarstvo Federalnog Ministarstva na natjecanju za studente na ALU BiH 2009.

Izvori

Životopisi, Tuzla
Hrvatski slikari iz Bosne i Hercegovine
Hrvatski fotografi iz Bosne i Hercegovine

Aleksandar Marković


Big Muddy Creek is a tributary of the Missouri River, approximately 191 mi (307 km) long, in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan and the U.S. state of Montana. Its source is in the Big Muddy Badlands of Saskatchewan.

Big Muddy Creek begins in southern Saskatchewan at Big Muddy Lake, east of Big Beaver, Saskatchewan. It flows south through the Big Muddy Badlands and into Sheridan County, Montana, past Redstone. From there, east past Plentywood and then south forming the eastern border of Fort Peck Indian Reservation. It joins the Missouri west of Culbertson.

It was explored in 1805 by the Lewis and Clark Expedition, who called it Martha's River in their journals and noticed on their return voyage in 1806 that it had changed its mouth on the Missouri.

Along with the Milk River and the Poplar River, it is one of three waterways in Canada that drain into the Gulf of Mexico.

Variant names
Big Muddy Creek has also been known as: Big Muddy River, Little Yellow River, Martha River, Martha's River, Marthas River, Marthy's River and Park River.

See also

List of rivers of Montana
List of rivers of Saskatchewan
List of tributaries of the Missouri River

References

Rivers of Montana
Rivers of Saskatchewan
Tributaries of the Missouri River
Bodies of water of Roosevelt County, Montana
Bodies of water of Sheridan County, Montana
Happy Valley No. 10, Saskatchewan
International rivers of North America

Big Muddy Creek (Missouri River tributary)


Báč este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Dunajská Streda din regiunea Trnava. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 568 de locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Báč este atestată documentar din 1205.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Báč


لوسيان ديغيورغس  (25 فبراير 1942 في آنسي) لاعب كرة قدم فرنسي معتزل كان يجيد اللعب في خط الدفاع .

المسيرة الرياضية
بدأ ديغيورغس مسيرته الرياضية في نادي أنيسي المحلي ثم انتقل إلى نادي ليون في 1960 وساهم في تتويجه ببطولة كأس فرنسا موسمي 1963-1964 و1966-1967 بينما احتل المركز الثاني في موسم 1962-1963 .

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي
لاعبو كرة قدم فرنسيون
لاعبو أولمبيك ليون
مواليد 1942
مواليد في آنسي

لوسيان ديغيورغس


سانت جوليان لابورس (بالإنجليزية: Saint-Julien-Labrousse)، هي مدينة في فرنسا، وتقع في جهة رون - ألب.

المراجع

أماكن مأهولة انحلت في 2019
مدن فرنسا

سانت جوليان لابورس


في دورة رولان غاروس الدولية عام 1900 فاز في بطولة فردي الرجال اللاعب ( الفرنسي) بول أيمي (Paul Aymé).

الأبطال

مراجع

دورات رولان غاروس
دورة رولان جاروس
رياضة فرنسية في 1900

البطولات الفرنسية 1900 (كرة مضرب)


Uroš Spajić (în , ; n. 13 februarie 1993) este un fotbalist sârb care joacă pe postul de fundaș al clubului rus Krasnodar.

Cariera pe echipe

Steaua Roșie Belgrad
Spajić și-a făcut debutul la profesioniști pentru Steaua Roșie Belgrad la 27 octombrie 2010 într-un meci din Cupa Serbiei împotriva lui Borac Čačak. Ulterior, a fost împrumutat la echipa afiliată Stelei Roșii Belgrad, Sopot, în al treilea eșalon sârb, unde a jucat în sezonul 2011-2012. În ultimul său sezon la Steaua Roșie, a jucat în 16 meciuri și a devenit recunoscut ca un jucător cu reale calități.

Toulouse
La 29 mai 2013, Red Star Belgrad și FC Toulouse au convenit asupra transferului lui Spajić care l-a vândut la echipa franceză pentru 1,5 milioane de euro. Spajić a debutat la Toulouse împotriva lui Valenciennes în meciul de deschidere a sezonului 2013-2014; după ce Steeve Yago a făcut un penalty, acesta a fost confundat cu Spajić, care a încasat greșit un cartonaș roșu.

Anderlecht
La 31 august 2016, Spajić a fost împrumutat pentru un sezon clubului belgian Anderlecht. Acordul a fost făcut permanent până la sfârșitul sezonului 2016-2017.

Krasnodar
La 26 mai 2018, el a semnat un contract pe 5 ani cu echipa FC Krasnodar din Prima Ligă Rusă.

Cariera la națională
Spajić a jucat pentru prima oară la echipa U21 a Serbiei, într-un meci amical cu Israel U21, la 6 februarie 2013. El a debutat pentru echipa națională a Serbiei la 4 septembrie 2015 într-un meci de calificare la Euro 2016 împotriva Armeniei, pe care Serbia l-a câștigat cu 2-0.

În iunie 2018 a fost ales în echipa Serbiei pentru Campionatul Mondial din 2018 dar nu a jucat niciun minut.

Statistici privind cariera

Club

 La sfârșitul sezonului 2017-2018

La națională

Titluri

 Anderlecht

 Supercupa Belgiei: 2017

Referințe

Legături externe

Sârbi expatriați în Franța
Fotbaliști ai FC Krasnodar
Fotbaliști ai Campionatului Mondial de Fotbal 2018
Fotbaliști internaționali sârbi
Fotbaliști sârbi
Fundași
Oameni în viață
Nașteri în 1993
Oameni din Belgrad

Uroš Spajić


An Festuca sinensis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Keng f. ngan Evgenii Borisovich Alexeev. An Festuca sinensis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Festuca, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Festuca

Festuca sinensis


El catalizador de Wilkinson es el nombre común con el que se conoce al compuesto químico clorotris(trifenilfosfina) rodio (I ), un compuesto de coordinación de fórmula química RhCl(PPh3)3(Ph = fenilo). Recibe ese nombre en honor del fallecido químico organometálico y premio Nobel de Química en 1973, Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson que popularizó su uso.

Estructura y propiedades básicas
El compuesto posee geometría molecular plano cuadrada, y es un complejo con 16 electrones. Por lo general se obtiene en forma de un sólido cristalino de color rojo-violeta a partir de la reacción del cloruro de rodio (III) con exceso de trifenilfosfina. La síntesis se lleva a cabo en reflujo de etanol. La trifenilfosfina sirve como agente reductor produciendo óxido de trifenilfosfina.

Aplicaciones catalíticas
El catalizador de Wilkinson cataliza la hidrogenación de alquenos. El mecanismo de esta reacción consiste en la disociación inicial de uno o dos ligandos trifenilfosfina para dar complejos de 14 o 12 electrones de valencia, respectivamente, seguido de la adición oxidativa de H2 al metal. A continuación, la Π-complejación del alqueno, la transferencia de hidruro intramolecular (inserción de olefinas), y una eliminación reductiva dan como resultado la formación del alcano correspondiente, por ejemplo,'''':

Otras aplicaciones del catalizador de Wilkinson incluyen la hidroboración catalizada de alquenos con catecolborano y pinacolborano, y la 1,4-reducción selectiva de compuestos de carbonilo α,β-insaturados actuando conjuntamente con trietilsilano. Cuando los ligandos trifenilfosfina se sustituyen por fosfinas quirales (por ejemplo, quirafos, DIPAMP, Diop), se convierte en un catalizador quiral y convierte los alquenos proquirales en alcanos enantioméricamente enriquecidos a través del proceso llamado hidrogenación asimétrica.

Otras reacciones de RhCl(PPh3)3
El compuesto RhCl(PPh3)3 reacciona con el CO para dar trans-RhCl(CO)(PPh3)2, que es estructuralmente similar al complejo de Vaska (pero mucho menos reactivo). El mismo complejo surge de la descarbonilación de aldehídos:
RhCl(PPh3)3 + RCHO → RhCl(CO)(PPh3)2 + RH + PPh3

Tras agitación en solución de benceno, el RhCl(PPh3)3 se convierte en la especie poco soluble Rh2Cl2(PPh3)4, de color rojo. Esta conversión demuestra aún más la labilidad de los ligandos trifenilfosfina.

Referencias

Compuestos de rodio
Catalizadores
Química de coordinación
Epónimos relacionados con la química

Catalizador de Wilkinson


Phaeophila, rod zelenih algi smješten u vlastitu porodicu Phaeophilaceae, dio reda Ulvales. Postoji devet priznatih vrsta.

Vrstu P. hirsuta, prvi puta opisao je pod imenom Endoderma hirsutum, hrvatski botaničar i oceanograf Ante Ercegović.

Vrste
 Phaeophila bulbochaete (P.Dangeard) R.Nielsen
 Phaeophila dendroides (P.Crouan & H.Crouan) Batters
 Phaeophila endophyta (M.Möbius) R.Nielsen
 Phaeophila filiformis (Collins & Hervey) W.R.Taylor
 Phaeophila hirsuta (Ercegovic) R.Nielsen
 Phaeophila pacifica (Levring) Nielsen
 Phaeophila polymorpha C.-C.Jao
 Phaeophila ramosa (Levring) Nielsen
 Phaeophila vagans (Børgesen) R.Nielsen

Izvori

Ulvales

Phaeophila


زهرة البراري أو صغير الأدغال هو مسلسل رسوم متحركة أو أنمي من إنتاج شركة نيبون أنيميشن اليابانية عام 1992 ومن إخراج تاكايوشي سوزوكي. زهرة البراري هو اسم النسخة العربية من المسلسل، وهو مكون من 40 حلقة.

القصة
قصة المسلسل مقتبسة من رواية بعنوان (The Bushbabies) للمؤلف الكندي وليام ستيفنسون  نشرت عام 1965. أحداث القصة هي عن فتاة بريطانية عمرها 13 عاما تسافر إلى جبل كيليمانجارو في كينيا بأفريقيا حيث يعمل والدها، وتتعرف هناك على مظاهر الحياة في السافانا.

الشخصيات

الشخصيات الرئيسية
 هالة أو جاكلين رودس
 الفتاة البريطانية عمرها 12 سنة تعيش في افريقيا منذ كانت بعمر 3 سنوات وتدلع بأسم «جاكي».
 مورفي
 مؤدي الصوت: يوري شيراتوري
 جلاجو صغير تربية جاكلين كحيوان أليف.
 سنبل أو تيندو مورونابي
 مؤدي الصوت: جوروتا كوسوغي
 مساعد آرثر في المحمية وصديق جاكلين. جندي سابق وحارب شجاع من قبيلة كامبا. ماهر في العزف على الهارمونيكا لكنه لا يستطيع السباحة. وبفضل مهارته ومعرفته بالحيوانات استطاع انقاذ مورفي.

الشخصيات الثانوية
 ربيع أو أندرو رودس
 مؤدي الصوت: جونيتشي كانيمارو
 شقيق جاكلين الأكبر حلمه بأن يصبح مثل ابيه حارس في محمية برية. وبعد لقاء «هانا» يقرر أن يكون طبيب بيطري. ولديه حرباء اسمها «بن» يُربيها كحيوان أليف.
 آرثر رودس
 والد جاكلين وأندرو ويعمل حارس في محمية برية.
 بيني رودس
 والدة جاكلين وأندرو، هوايتها الرسم.
 هدى أو كيت أدليتون
 صديقة جاكلين الحميمة وزميلتها في المدرسة.
 حواء
 تعمل كمدبرة منزل لعائلة رودس.

انظر أيضا
 شويتشي سيكي

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

أفلام حول الحيوانات
أنمي ومانغا درامية
أنمي ومانغا مغامرات
برامج تلفزيونية مبنية على روايات كندية
سلسلة مسرح تحف العالم
مسلسلات أنمي متلفزة 1992
مسلسلات أنمي مدبلجة للعربية
مسلسلات تلفزيونية بدأ عرضها في 1992
مسلسلات تلفزيونية تقع أحداثها في عقد 1960
مسلسلات رسوم متحركة تلفزيونية عن الثدييات

زهرة البراري (أنمي)


Aceasta este o listă de piese de teatru germane în ordine alfabetică:

0-9

A
 Amphitryon (1807), de Heinrich von Kleist
 Anatomy Titus Fall of Rome A Shakespeare Commentary (1985), de Heiner Müller
 Anja und Esther (1925), de Klaus Mann
 Arcul lui Odiseu (Der Bogen des Odysseus, 1914), de Gerhart Hauptmann
 Ascensiunea lui Arturo Ui poate fi oprită (Der aufhaltsame Aufstieg des Arturo Ui, 1941) de Bertolt Brecht
 Ascensiunea și căderea orașului Mahagonny (Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny, 1927-1930), de Bertolt Brecht
 Athen (1932), de Klaus Mann

B
 Baal (1918/1923), de Bertolt Brecht
 Bătălia lui Arminius (Die Hermannsschlacht, 1808), de Heinrich von Kleist
 Blana de biber (Der Biberpelz, 1893), de Gerhart Hauptmann

C
 Cărăușul Henscheș (Fuhrmann Henschel, 1898), de Gerhart Hauptmann
 Cercul de cretă caucazian (Der kaukasische Kreidekreis, 1943–45/1948), de Bertolt Brecht
 Cetățenii din Calais (Die Bürger von Calais, 1913), de Georg Kaiser
 Clopotul scufundat (Die versunkene Glocke, 1896), de Gerhart Hauptmann
 College Cramption (1892), de Gerhart Hauptmann
 Coralul (Die Koralle, 1918). de Georg Kaiser

D
 Din zori până în miezul nopții  (Von morgens bis mitternachts, 1912), de Georg Kaiser
 Don Karlos, Infant von Spanien (1787), de Friedrich von Schiller
 Don Juan (1952/1954), de Bertolt Brecht
 Drame eline (Griechische Dramen, 1948), de Georg Kaiser

E
 Egmont (1787), de Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
 Elga (1896), de Gerhart Hauptmann
 Emilia Galotti (1772), de Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
 Erwin und Elmire (1775), de Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
 Estetica Rezistenței (Die Ästhetik des Widerstands, ).

F
 Familia Schroffenstein (Die Familie Schroffenstein, 1803), de Heinrich von Kleist
 Familia Wupper (Die Wupper, 1909), de Else Lasker-Schüler
 Faust (1808), de Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
 Fecioara din Orléans (Die Jungfrau von Orléans, 1801), de Friedrich von Schiller
 Fiica naturală (Die natürliche Tochter, 1803), de Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
 Fiorenza (1907), singura piesă de teatru terminată de Thomas Mann
 Florian Geyer (1896), de Gerhart Hauptmann
 Frühlings Erwachen (1891), de Frank Wedekind
 Fuga lui Gabriel Schilling (Gabriel Schillings Flucht, 1912), de Gerhart Hauptmann

G
 Gegenüber von China (1929), de Klaus Mann
 Geschwister (1930), de Klaus Mann
 Götz von Berlichingen(1773), de Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
 Griselda (1909), de Gerhart Hauptmann

H
 Hasemanns Töchter (1877), de Adolphe L'Arronge
 Haus Lonei (1880), de Adolphe L'Arronge
 Heidelbergul de altădată (1901), de Wilhelm Meyer-Förster
 Helios (1896) fragment, de Gerhart Hauptmann
 Herbert Engelmann (1921–26), de Gerhart Hauptmann
 Hoții (Die Räuber, 1781), de Friedrich von Schiller

I
 Ifigenia în Taurida (Iphigenie auf Tauris, 1779), de Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
 Ifigenia la Delfi, (Iphigenie in Delphi, 1941), de Gerhart Hauptmann
 În hățișul orașelor (Im Dickicht der Städte, 1921–24/1923), de Bertolt Brecht
 Înainte de răsăritul soarelui (Vor Sonnenaufgang, 1887-89), de Gerhart Hauptmann
 Înalțarea la cer a Hannelei (Hanneles Himmelfahrt, 1893), de Gerhart Hauptmann
 Investigația (Die Ermittlung, 1965), de Peter Weiss

K
 Kabale und Liebe (1784), de Friedrich von Schiller
 Käthchen din Heilbronn (Das Käthchen von Heilbronn, 1807–1808), de Heinrich von Kleist

L
 Die Laune des Verliebten (1779), de Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
 Leonce și Lena (1836), de Georg Büchner

M
 Maria Stuart (1800), de Friedrich von Schiller
 Mein Leopold (1873), de Adolphe L'Arronge
 Minna von Barnhelm' (1767), de Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
 Mireasa din Messina (Die Braut von Messina, 1803), de Friedrich von Schiller
 Miß Sara Sampson (1755), de Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
 Moartea lui Danton (dramă, 1835), de Georg Büchner
 Mutter Courage și copiii ei (Mutter Courage und ihre Kinder, 1938–39/1941), de Bertolt Brecht

N
 Nathan der Weise (1779), de Gotthold Ephraim Lessing

O
 Omul cel bun din Sâciuan  (Der gute Mensch von Sezuan, 1939–42/1943), de Bertolt Brecht
 Opera de trei parale (Die Dreigroschenoper, 1928/1928), de Bertolt Brecht
 Ostașul Tanaka (Der Soldat Tanaka, 1940), de Georg Kaiser

P
 Patru la un prânz cu pește (Fisch zu viert, 1969)de Rita Zimmer și Wolfgang Kohlhaase
 Penthesilea (1808), de Heinrich von Kleist
 Persecuția și asasinarea lui Jean-Paul Marat reprezentată de trupa de jucători ai ospiciului din Charenton sub îndrumarea marchizului de Sade (Die Verfolgung und Ermordung Jean Paul Marats dargestellt durch die Schauspielgruppe des Hospizes zu Charenton unter Anleitung des Herrn de Sade, 1963-65), de Peter Weiss
 Peter Brauer (1912), de Gerhart Hauptmann
  Pluta Meduzei (Das Floß der Medusa, 1940-1943), de Georg Kaiser
 Prințul de Homburg (Prinz Friedrich von Homburg, 1809-10), de Heinrich von Kleist
 Der Protagonist (1920), de Georg Kaiser
 Puștile doamnei Carrar (Die Gewehre der Frau Carrar, 1937/1937), de Bertolt Brecht

R
 Revue zu Vieren (1926), de Klaus Mann
 Robert Guiskard (1802), de Heinrich von Kleist

S
 Die Sieben Todsünden der Kleinbürger (1933), de Bertolt Brecht
 Der siebente Engel (1946), de Klaus Mann
 Și Pippa dansează (Und Pippa Tanzt!, 1906), de Gerhart Hauptmann
 Șobolanii (Die Ratten, 1911), de Gerhart Hauptmann

U
 Ulciorul sfărâmat (Der zerbrochne Krug, 1811), de Heinrich von Kleist

T
 Teama și mizeriile celui de-al treilea Reich (Furcht und Elend des Dritten Reiches, 1935–38/1938), de Bertolt Brecht
 Tobe în noapte (Trommeln in der Nacht, 1918–20/1922), de Bertolt Brecht
 Torquato Tasso (1790), de Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
 Turandot, Prinzessin von China (1801), de Friedrich von Schiller
 Țesătorii (Die Weber, 1892), de Gerhart Hauptmann

V
 Veland (1925), de Gerhart Hauptmann
 Viața lui Galilei (Leben des Galilei, 1937–39/1943), de Bertolt Brecht
 Die Verschwörung des Fiesco zu Genua (1783), de Friedrich von Schiller

W
 Wallenstein (1800), de Friedrich von Schiller
 Wilhelm Tell (1804), de Friedrich von Schiller
 Woyzeck (1837), de Georg Büchner

Bibliografie

Referințe și note

Vezi și

 Listă de dramaturgi germani
 Listă de dramaturgi

germane

Listă de piese de teatru germane


Friedrich Jörg "Fritz" Hollaus (21 de octubre de 1929 en Viena, Austria - 17 de febrero de 1994 en Viena, Austria) fue un futbolista austríaco. Jugaba de defensor y su primer club fue SC Rapid Oberlaa.

Carrera

Comenzó su carrera en 1948 jugando para SC Rapid Oberlaa. Juega para el equipo hasta 1949. Ese año se transformó en el nuevo refuerzo de Wiener SC, donde juega por 5 años seguidos (1949-1954). Ese mismísimo año se transforma en refuerzo del plantel del equipo Stadlau, jugando para ese club hasta 1957. Ese mismo año se confirma su regreso al Wiener AC y se fue a España, en donde formó parte del Atlético de Madrid por un año (1957-1958). En 1958 se marchó al Real Mallorca, manteniéndose en el equipo hasta 1961 cuando regresó a Austria, su país natal para formar parte nuevamente de las filas del Wiener AC, en donde terminó su carrera en 1966.

Clubes

Enlaces externos

 Ficha en PlayerHistory.com

Futbolistas de Austria
Futbolistas del SC Rapid Oberlaa
Futbolistas del Wiener SC
Futbolistas del SV Stadlau
Futbolistas del Club Atlético de Madrid en los años 1950
Futbolistas del Real Club Deportivo Mallorca en los años 1950
Nacidos en Viena
Fallecidos en Viena

Fritz Hollaus


Sapana Roka Magar (nascida em c. 2002, em Barnja, Distrito de Myagdi, no Nepal) é uma trabalhadora de um crematório nepalesa, que foi selecionada como uma das 100 mulheres mais influentes de 2020 pela BBC. Ela está envolvida na cremação de corpos abandonados na rua ou em necrotérios e providencia para que eles sejam levados ao hospital para exames post-mortem. Se o corpo não for reclamado por mais de 35 dias, a cremação é realizada de acordo com os rituais hindus.

Biografia
Originalmente, Sapana Roka era do distrito de Myagdi, no Nepal. Ela nasceu em 10 de fevereiro de 2002, como a filha mais nova de Jit Prasad Roka Magar (pai) e Nanu Roka Magar (mãe). Aos 14 anos, ela se mudou para Butwal. Sua mãe, de aproximadamente 50 anos, queria que ela fosse Médica mas, por sua condição econômica, acabou estudando Enfermagem.

No entanto, depois de um tempo, abandonou os estudos e conheceu um adolescente com quem se casou contra a vontade de seus pais. O casal teve um relacionamento que durou apenas três meses. O relacionamento acabou e ela se tornou uma sem-teto. Depois de tentar se suicidar, ela se mudou para Catmandu, capital do Nepal. Durante dezesseis meses, Sapana foi viciada em drogas.

Nas ruas, Sapana Roka conheceu Amb Binaya, que tinha presidido a Action for Social Change nos últimos seis anos, ia aos hospitais para recolher os corpos. Conheceu também Vinay Jung Basnet que, há anos, dedicava seu tempo a oficiar rituais funerários a defuntos que tinham sido abandonados pelas suas famílias. Sapana conheceu a ONG Action for Social Change e começou a trabalhar com eles, de onde opera a cremação e outras atividades sociais.

Em Fevereiro de 2020, Sapana Roka queimou o seu primeiro corpo, o de uma moça da sua idade que tinha um bebê nos braços. Esta experiência a marcou muito.Em meio à crise pandêmica do COVID-19, a gestão dos corpos dos mortos pelo vírus ficou a cargo do exército nepalês. A organização onde Sapana Roka trabalhava é responsável por recolher corpos abandonados nas ruas e em funerárias para os levar ao hospital para autópsia, correndo o risco de contágio. Se os corpos não forem reclamados em 35 dias, a organização os leva ao crematório e pratica os ritos fúnebres seguindo a tradição Dagbatti.

No total, Sapana oficiou a cremação de mais de 300 corpos abandonados. Sapana decidiu retomar os estudos de Enfermagem, impulsionada pelo sonho da família. Depois da festa dashian, ela decidiu voltar para sua cidade natal, onde foi muito bem recebida.

Ela também está envolvida na alimentação dos sem-teto durante a pandemia do Covid -19 em Catmandu.

Reconhecimento
Em 23 de Novembro de 2020, Sapana Roka Magar foi homenageada na lista das 100 mulheres mais inspiradoras do ano da BBC.

Veja também

 100 Mulheres (BBC)
 Mulheres na categoria BBC 100 Mulheres

Nepaleses
Pessoas vivas
Ativistas do Nepal
Pessoas na lista BBC 100 Mulheres de 2020

Sapana Roka Magar