The Adirondack Park is a part of New York's Forest Preserve in northeastern New York, United States. The park was established in 1892 for "the free use of all the people for their health and pleasure", and for watershed protection. The park's boundary roughly corresponds with the Adirondack Mountains. Unlike most state parks, about 52 percent of the land is privately owned inholdings. State lands within the park are known as Forest Preserve.  Land use on public and private lands in the park is regulated by the Adirondack Park Agency. This area contains 102 towns and villages, as well as numerous farms, businesses and an active timber-harvesting industry. The year-round population is 132,000, with 200,000 seasonal residents. The inclusion of human communities makes the park one of the great experiments in conservation in the industrialized world.  The Forest Preserve was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1963.

The park's  include more than 10,000 lakes, 30,000 miles of rivers and streams, and a wide variety of habitats including wetlands and an estimated 200,000 acres of old-growth forests.

History
For the history of the area before the formation of the park, see History of the Adirondack Mountains.

Early tourism

Before the 19th century, the wilderness was viewed as desolate and forbidding. As Romanticism developed in the United States, the view of wilderness became more positive, as seen in the writings of James Fenimore Cooper, Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson.

The 1849 publication of Joel Tyler Headley's Adirondack; or, Life in the Woods triggered the development of hotels and stage coach lines. William Henry Harrison Murray's 1869 wilderness guidebook depicted the area as a place of relaxation and pleasure rather than a natural obstacle.

Financier and railroad promoter Thomas Clark Durant acquired a large tract of central Adirondack land and built a railroad from Saratoga Springs to North Creek. By 1875, there were more than two hundred hotels in the Adirondacks including Paul Smith's Hotel. About this time, the Great Camps were developed.

Moves to protect New York's water supply
Following the Civil War, Reconstruction Era economic expansion led to an increase in logging and deforestation, especially in the southern Adirondacks.

In 1870 Verplanck Colvin made the first recorded ascent of Seward Mountain[1] during which he saw the extensive damage done by lumbermen. He wrote a report which was read at the Albany Institute and printed by the New York State Museum of Natural History. In 1872 he was named to the newly created post of Superintendent of the Adirondack Survey and given a $1000 budget by the state legislature to institute a survey of the Adirondacks.

In 1873 he wrote a report arguing that if the Adirondack watershed was allowed to deteriorate, it would threaten the viability of the Erie Canal, which was then vital to New York's economy. He was subsequently appointed superintendent of the New York state land survey. In 1873, he recommended the creation of a state forest preserve covering the entire Adirondack region.

Article XIV: forever wild
In 1884, a state legislative commission chaired by botanist Charles Sprague Sargent recommended establishment of a forest preserve, to be "forever kept as wild forest lands." The New York State Legislature subsequently passed a law in 1885
for the preservation of forests which designated all state lands within certain counties in the Adirondacks and Catskills as Forest Preserve to be forever kept as wild forest lands.  This forestry law also established a Forest Commission which was charged with care, custody, control and superintendence of the Forest Preserve.

In 1894, Article VII, Section 7, (renumbered in 1938 as Article XIV, Section 1)  of the New York State Constitution was adopted, which reads in part:

The lands of the state, now owned or hereafter acquired, constituting the forest preserve as now fixed by law, shall be forever kept as wild forest lands. They shall not be leased, sold or exchanged, or be taken by any corporation, public or private, nor shall the timber thereon be sold, removed or destroyed.

In 1902, the legislature passed a bill defining the Adirondack Park for the first time in terms of the counties and towns within it. In 1912 the legislature further clarified that the park included the privately owned lands within it as well as the public holdings.

The restrictions on development and lumbering embodied in Article XIV have withstood many challenges from timber interests, hydropower projects and large-scale tourism development interests. Further, the language of the article, and decades of legal experience in its defense, are widely recognized as having laid the foundation for the U.S. National Wilderness Act of 1964. As a result of the legal protections, many pieces of the original forest of the Adirondacks have never been logged and are old-growth forest.

20th-century development

Early in the 1900s, recreational use increased dramatically. The State Conservation Department (now the DEC) responded by building more facilities: boat docks, tent platforms, lean-tos, and telephone and electrical lines. With the building of Interstate 87 in the 1960s, private lands came under great pressure for development. This growing crisis led to the 1971 creation of the Adirondack Park Agency (APA) to develop long-range land-use plans for both the public and private lands within the Blue Line.

In consultation with the DEC, the APA formulated the State Land Master Plan which was adopted into law in 1973. The plan is designed to channel much of the future growth in the Park around existing communities, where roads, utilities, services, and supplies already exist.

In 2008 The Nature Conservancy purchased Follensby Pond – about  of private land inside the park boundary – for $16 million. The group plans to sell the land to the state, which will add it to the forest preserve once the remaining leases for recreational hunting and fishing on the property expire.

Comparison of the Park in 1900 and 2000

Data compiled by the Adirondack Experience, Blue Mountain Lake, New York

Park management

The park is managed by two state agencies; the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, created in 1970 and headquartered in Albany; and the Adirondack Park Agency, created in 1971 and headquartered in Ray Brook. Noted forest ranger Clarence Petty sat on the commission that recommend the creation of the APA. This system of management is distinctly different from New York's state park system, which is managed by the Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation. According to the State Land Master Plan, state lands are classified.

The Adirondack Park Land Use and Development Plan (APLUDP) applies to private land use and development. It defines APA jurisdiction and is designed to direct and cluster development to minimize impact.

Land use classifications
Areas rounded to the nearest per cent. 49% of the park is privately owned, 45% state owned, and 6% is water.

Private land use
 Resource Management: 51% of private land use. Used for residential, agriculture, and forestry. Most development requires an Agency permit. Limited to an average of 15 buildings per square mile.
 Rural Use: 17%. Most uses are permitted; residential uses and reduced intensity development that preserves rural character is most suitable. Limited to an average of 75 buildings per square mile.
 Low Intensity: 9%. Most uses are permitted; residential development at a lower intensity than hamlet or moderate intensity is appropriate. Limited to an average of 200 buildings per square mile.
 Moderate Intensity: 3%. Most uses are permitted; residential development is most appropriate. Limited to an average of 500 buildings per square mile.
 Hamlet: 2%. These are the growth and service centers of the region where the APA encourages development with very limited permit requirements. Activities requiring an APA permit are: erecting buildings or structures over 40 feet high, projects involving more than 100 lots, sites or units, projects involving wetlands, airports, and watershed management projects. Hamlet boundaries usually go well beyond established settlements to provide room for future expansion. There is no limit on the average number of buildings per square mile.
 Industrial: <1%. Where industry exists or has existed, and areas which may be suitable for future development. Industrial and commercial uses are also allowed in other land use area classifications. There is no limit on the average number of buildings per square mile.

Adirondack Park state land use
 Wild forest: 51% of state land use. Areas that have seen higher human impact and can thus withstand a higher level of recreational use. Often these are lands which were logged heavily in the recent past (sometimes right before being transferred to the state). Powered vehicles are allowed.
 Wilderness: 46%. These are managed like federal U.S. Wilderness Areas. Areas far more affected by nature than humanity, to the extent that the latter is practically unnoticeable, for example virgin forest. No powered vehicles are allowed in wilderness areas. Recreation is limited to passive activities such as hiking, camping, hunting, birding and angling which are themselves subject to some further restrictions to ensure that they leave no trace.
 Canoe area: <1%. Lands with a wilderness character that have enough streams, lakes and ponds to provide ample opportunities for water-based recreation. The Saint Regis Canoe Area is the only such designated area in the park.
 Primitive: <1%. Like wilderness, but may have structures that cannot easily be removed, or some other existing use that would complicate a wilderness designation. For most practical purposes there is no difference between a primitive area and a wilderness area.
 Intensive Use: <1%. Places like state campgrounds or day use areas. The developed ski area Whiteface Mountain is in this classification.
 Historic: <1%. Sites of buildings owned by the state that are significant to the history, architecture, archaeology or culture of the Adirondacks, those on the National Register of Historic Places or carrying or recommended for a similar state-level designation.
 State Administrative: <1%. Applies to a limited number of DEC-owned lands that are managed for other than Forest Preserve purposes. It covers a number of facilities devoted to research, and state fish hatcheries.

Wilderness areas

State wilderness areas account for 46% of the area of the park which is not private property. They are managed like federal wilderness areas. These areas are far more affected by nature than humanity, to the extent that the latter is practically unnoticeable, for example virgin forest. No powered vehicles are allowed in wilderness areas.

 Blue Ridge Wilderness Area - 47,177 acres (185.09 km2)),
 Five Ponds Wilderness Area - 107,230 acres (447.44 km2),
 Giant Mountain Wilderness Area - 23,100 acres (92.14 km2),
 Ha-De-Ron-Dah Wilderness Area - 26,600 acres (107.36 km2),
 High Peaks Wilderness Area - 275,460 acres (779.77 km2),
 Hoffman Notch Wilderness Area - 38,488 acres (146.62 km2),
 Hudson Gorge Wilderness Area - 24,477 acres (99.05 km2),
 Hurricane Mountain Wilderness Area - 13,784 acres (55.78 km2),
 Jay Mountain Wilderness Area - 7,951 acres (28.7 km2),
 McKenzie Mountain Wilderness Area - 37,616 acres (152.23 km2),
 Pepperbox Wilderness Area - 23,816 acres (91.30 km2),
 Pharaoh Lake Wilderness Area - 46,283 acres (185.68 km2),
 Pigeon Lake Wilderness Area - 50,100 acres (202.8 km2),
 Round Lake Wilderness Area - 11,430 acres (44.5 km2),
 Sentinel Range Wilderness Area - 23,874 acres (94.10 km2),
 Siamese Ponds Wilderness Area - 114,010 acres (455.37 km2),
 Silver Lake Wilderness Area - 106,770 acres (426.01 km2),
 West Canada Lake Wilderness Area - 168,920 acres (634.12 km2),
 William C. Whitney Wilderness Area - 19,500 acres (83.0 km2),

The 19,000-acre (77 km2) Saint Regis Canoe Area, presently the only Canoe Area in the park, operates under essentially the same conditions as the Wilderness Areas.

Advocacy
Private organizations are buying land in order to sell it back to New York State to be added to the public portion of the Park. A number of non-governmental organizations work for the park:
 The Adirondack Council, founded in 1975, is the largest citizen environmental group in New York State. Its mission is to ensure the ecological integrity and wild character of the Adirondack Park. It sponsors research, educates the public and policy makers, advocates for policies, and takes legal action when necessary to uphold constitutional protections and agency policies established to protect the Adirondacks.
 Adirondack Wild, whose goal is to uphold the "forever wild", or Article 14 of the New York Constitution.
 The Wildlife Conservation Society's Adirondack Program
 The Adirondack Chapter of the Nature Conservancy.
 The Adirondack Mountain Club has 28,000 members and has an environmental advocacy program that grew out of the need for responsible public policies to protect these lands.
 Founded in 1901, the Association for the Protection of the Adirondacks (AFPA) is the oldest non-profit advocate for the long-term protection and health of the natural and human communities of the Adirondack Park. In 2009, it merged with the Residents' Committee to Protect the Adirondacks (RCPA) and was renamed Protect the Adirondacks!
 The Adirondack Research Consortium (ARC) brings together scientists from research organizations and people who work to make the park a better place.

Conservation

The fur trade led to the near-extirpation of the beaver in the park by 1893. Other species, such as the moose, elk, wolf, and cougar were hunted either for their meat, for sport, or because they were seen as a threat to livestock. The historical presence in the area of animals such as the Canada lynx, wolverine, and caribou are unclear.

Reintroduction efforts for beaver began around 1904 by introducing the remaining beaver in the Adirondacks to imported Canadian ones, and later, from Yellowstone. The population quickly grew to around 2000 in roughly ten years, and around 20,000 in 1921, with the addition of beavers in different areas of the park. Although the reintroduction was marked as an ecological success, the elevated beaver population was found to have negative economic impacts on waterways and timber sources.

The introduction of elk to the Adirondacks, a species that is unclear to have ever previously occupied the region, would continue after the late-19th century. After two previously failed attempts to introduce elk, in 1903, over 150 elk were reported by the State of New York Forest, Fish, and Game Commission to have been released and surviving in the park. The elk population increased for several years, only to decline and ultimately disappear due to poaching.

To protect and maintain the elk population in the future, the DeBar Mountain Game Refuge was established within the Forest Preserve. This act of preserving the species was motivated for hunting purposes rather than an ecological or natural aspect. The Game Refuge was defined by a wire fence, numerous postings, and caretakers employed by the State.  This effort to control nature was also observed in the actions of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), work crews who established access roads and water-supply expansion.

A negative result of the CCC coming to the Park was their trapping and killing of "vermin", which were animals such as hawks, owls, fox, and weasels that preyed on other species sought after by hunters and fishermen. This proved to have unanticipated ecological consequences (most notably the overpopulation of deer) which were reported by the New York State Conservation Department in 1945.

Ongoing efforts have been made to reintroduce native fauna that had been lost in the park during earlier exploitation. There are 53 known species of mammals that live in the park, including raccoons, moose, black bears, coyotes, opossums, beavers, porcupines, fishers, martens, river otters, and bobcats.

Notable birds of prey that breed in the park include the red-tailed hawk, broad-winged hawk, peregrine falcon, osprey, great horned owl, barred owl, northern saw-whet owl, and turkey vulture. Other notable breeding birds include northern forest specialists like Canada jays, black-backed woodpeckers, boreal chickadees, spruce grouse, palm warblers, and yellow-bellied flycatchers.

There are more than 3,000 lakes and  of streams and rivers. Many areas within the park are devoid of settlements and distant from usable roads. The park includes over  of hiking trails; these trails comprise the largest trail system in the nation.

Tourism and recreation

An estimated 7–10 million tourists visit the park annually. There are numerous accommodations, including cabins, hunting lodges, villas and hotels, in and around Lake Placid, Lake George, Saranac Lake, Old Forge, Schroon Lake and the St. Regis Lakes. Although the climate during the winter months can be severe, with temperatures falling below , a number of sanatoriums were located there in the early twentieth century because of the positive effect the air had on tuberculosis patients.

Golf courses within the park border include the Ausable Club, the Lake Placid Club, and the Ticonderoga Country Club. Many of the Adirondack Mountains, such as Whiteface Mountain (Wilmington), Mt. Pisgah (Saranac Lake), Gore Mountain (North Creek), West Mountain (Glen's falls), Hickory (Luzerne), and Mt. Morris (Tupper Lake) have been developed as ski areas.

Hunting and fishing are allowed in the Adirondack Park, although in many places there are strict regulations.  Because of these regulations, the large tourist population has not overfished the area, and as such, the brooks, rivers, ponds and lakes are home to large trout and black bass populations. Although restricted from much of the park, snowmobile enthusiasts can ride on a large network of trails.

Cultural
The Adirondack Park Agency visitor interpretive centers are designed to help orient visitors to the park via educational programs, exhibits, and interpretive trails. Educational programs are available for school groups as well as the general public.

The Wild Center in Tupper Lake offers extensive exhibits about the natural history of the region, including a 1,000-foot-long series of elevated bridges that rise up over the forest on the center's campus. Many of the exhibits are live and include native turtles, otter, birds, fish and porcupines. The center, which is open year-round, has trails to a river and pond on its campus.

The Adirondack Experience in Blue Mountain Lake contains an extensive collection about the human settlement of the Park.

The Six Nation Indian Museum in Franklin has as a mission to provide education about Iroquois (also known as Haudenosaunee) culture, particularly environmental ethics, and to reinforce traditional values and philosophies. This is done via artifacts, presentations, and hosted visits.

Hiking and rock climbing
The 46 highest mountains in the Adirondack High Peaks were thought to be over  when climbed by brothers Robert and George Marshall between 1918 and 1924. Surveys have since shown that four of these peaks — Blake Peak, Cliff Mountain, Nye Mountain and Couchsachraga Peak — are in fact just slightly under . Some hikers try to climb all of the original 46 peaks, and there is a Forty Sixers club for those who have done so.

Cliffs with rock climbing and ice climbing routes are scattered throughout the park boundaries.

Watersports
The surface of many of the lakes lies at an elevation above ; their shores are usually rocky and irregular, and the wild scenery within their vicinity has made them very attractive to tourists. It is the site of the Adirondack Canoe Classic. Flatwater and whitewater canoeing and kayaking are very popular. Hundreds of lakes, ponds, and slow-moving streams link to provide routes ranging from under  to weeklong treks. Whitewater kayaking and canoeing are popular on many free-flowing rivers in the Adirondacks, particularly in the spring.  Whitewater rafting trips are run in the spring on the Moose River near Old Forge. Raft trips are possible on the Hudson River near North River from April to October, due to dam releases provided by the Town of Indian Lake.

Motorboating is formally restricted on only a few bodies of water.

Visitor centers
The Adirondack Park Agency visitor interpretive centers (or VICs) were established in 1989 and 1990. The centers helped orient visitors to the park via educational programs, exhibits, and interpretive trails. Educational programs were available for school groups as well as the general public. Due to state fiscal and budgetary constraints, Governor David Paterson marked the VICs for closure on December 31, 2010, and in 2011, New York State sold both visitor centers to nearby colleges.

Paul Smith's College VIC

The Paul Smith's VIC opened in 1989 and in 2011 became the Paul Smith's College VIC, owned and operated by Paul Smith's College. Located on approximately 2,700 acres (11 km2) in Paul Smiths, New York, near Paul Smith's College, the Paul Smith's College Visitor Interpretive Center has approximately 25 miles of maintained trails. Throughout the property visitors will encounter every habitat type found in the Adirondack Park except alpine. Each spring the PSC VIC hosts the Great Adirondack Birding Festival. Throughout the year visitors can partake of guided interpretive walks, regular outdoor activities, naturalist-led canoe paddles on Barnum Pond, and assorted workshops and programs. In the winter the trails are open for snowshoeing and cross-country skiing.

Newcomb center

The Adirondack Interpretive Center is situated on ESF's Huntington Wildlife Forest, a  biological field station the college has operated in Newcomb since 1932, and also home to the college's Adirondack Ecological Center. It opened in 1990. Located on 236 acres (0.96 km2) at the outlet of Rich Lake, the center has approximately three and a half miles of interpretive trails. Habitats include lakeshore, wetlands, old growth forest, and mixed northern forest.  Throughout the year staff conduct naturalist-led trail walks, guided paddles on Rich Lake, and assorted workshops and lectures. All trails are open in the winter for snowshoeing; cross-country skiing is permitted, and requires varying degrees of skill depending on trails and conditions. Management and ownership of the Newcomb center was assumed by the SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry (SUNY-ESF) on July 1, 2010, with program responsibility beginning January 1, 2011.

Development and industry
While the park does contain large areas of wilderness, some areas developed to a varying degree.

Census towns with more than 5,000 inhabitants include:
 Tupper Lake
 Ticonderoga
 Dannemora, site of the Clinton Correctional Facility. Although most of the town, including the prison, is located inside the park boundary, the entire town is excluded from the park by statute.
 Harrietstown includes Saranac Lake and the Adirondack Regional Airport.
 North Elba includes Lake Placid, and the Lake Placid Olympic Sports Complex.

Interstate 87 or Northway, completed in the 1970s, runs north to south through the eastern edge of the park, connecting Montreal to Upstate New York. The park is traversed by military training routes of the Air National Guard.

There are six business parks in Essex County, of which two have certified shovel ready sites. There are also two in Franklin County. There are many maple syrup producers, and their work is documented at the American Maple Museum at Croghan.

Educational institutions include the State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry and Paul Smith's College.

Railways

Railways were used extensively from about 1871 to the 1930s for passenger transport and freight. Passenger transport was supplemented by stagecoaches. Rail operators included Chateaugay Railroad,  Adirondack Railway, Delaware and Hudson Canal Company, Lake Champlain Transportation Company,  New York Central Railroad, Northern Adirondack Railroad Company, Ogdensburg and Lake Champlain Railroad, New York and Ottawa Railway, Mohawk and Malone Railway and Fulton Chain Railway.

The principal rail company to the major resorts was the New York Central Railroad. Destinations within the park, served by its Adirondack Division, included Loon Lake, Saranac Lake, Lake Placid, Santa Clara, Tupper Lake, Thendara, Old Forge, and Lake Clear. On the edge of the park boundary were Brandon and St. Regis Falls. North of the park were Moira and Malone. In 1920 there were 10 scheduled daily passenger train stops in Big Moose.

Starting in the 1930s, people began to use automobiles rather than the train. However, through the 1950s and until 1961, there was a daily day train and a daily night train in each direction to Lake Placid station.  Passenger train service ended on April 24, 1965. Freight service to and from the Adirondacks also declined after World War II. The Penn Central Transportation Company, successor to the New York Central, continued freight service between Utica and Lake Placid until it abandoned the Remsen-Lake Placid line in 1972.

Airports
There are many small airstrips and lakes for seaplanes to land but there is only one commercial airport within the park. The Adirondack Regional Airport sits just outside of the Village of Saranac Lake in the hamlet of Lake Clear, town of Harrietstown. The airport's commercial airline service is funded by the government's Essential Air Service program, which provides small communities with flights to major cities that could not be supported without the help of government funding. Plattsburgh International Airport is located  outside the park.

Architectural heritage

There is an Adirondack architectural style that relates to the rugged style associated with the Great Camps. The builders of these camps used native building materials and sited their buildings within an irregular wooded landscape. These camps for the wealthy were built to provide a primitive, rustic appearance while avoiding the problems of in-shipping materials from elsewhere.

Fire towers
In 1903 and 1908 fires consumed nearly  of forest. In 1909, the first Adirondack fire lookout tower, made of logs, was erected on Mount Morris and many others were built over the next several years. From 1916 steel towers were built. At one time or another, there have been fire towers at 57 locations in today's Adirondack Park. The system worked for about 60 years, but has since been replaced by other technologies. Today, 34 towers survive in the region and many have been restored and are accessible to the public. Some in the Adirondack Forest Preserve have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places, including those on the following mountains: Arab, Azure, Blue, Hadley, Kane, Loon Lake, Poke-O-Moonshine, St. Regis, Snowy, and Wakely.

Industrial
McIntyre Furnace & McNaughton Cottage: an 1853 blast furnace, the 1832 McNaughton Cottage, the remains of the Tahawus Club era buildings, and the early mining-related sites.

Ecclesiastical
St. Regis Presbyterian church: designed by prolific Saranac Lake architect William L. Coulter and built on land donated by Paul Smith. Construction funds came from donations from the congregation, which was largely made up of summer residents. It served as a church from 1899 to 2010.

Infrastructure
The Bow Bridge: The Bow Bridge in Hadley is one of only two parabolic or lenticular truss bridges in the region and one of only about 50 remaining in the country. It was built over the Sacandaga River by the Berlin Iron Bridge Co. in 1885.

Jay Covered Bridge over the Ausable River.

The AuSable Chasm Bridge.

Residential and leisure

The Adirondack lean-to is a three sided log shelter.

Saranac Village at Will Rogers: a Tudor Revival style retirement community, was constructed in 1930 as a tuberculosis treatment facility for vaudeville performers. Due to the subsequent decline of vaudeville performers, and an eventual cure for tuberculosis, its doors closed in 1975. After sitting unused for twenty years, it was bought in 1998 by the Alpine Adirondack Association, LLC and reopened in January 2000 as a retirement community.

Camp Santanoni was once a private estate of approximately 13,000 acres (53 km2), and now is the property of the state, at Newcomb. It was a residential complex of about 45 buildings. Now a National Historic Landmark, this is one of the earliest examples of the Great Camps of the Adirondacks. At the time of completion in 1893, Camp Santanoni was regarded as the grandest of all such Adirondack camps.

Wellscroft, at Upper Jay, is a Tudor Revival–style summer estate home. It is a long, -story, building with several projecting bays, porches, gables and dormers, a porte cochere and a service wing. The rear facade features a large semi-circular projection. The first-story exterior is faced in native fieldstone.  The interior features a number of Arts and Crafts style design features.  Also on the property are a power house, fire house, gazebo, root cellar, reservoir, ruins of the caretaker's house and carriage house, and the remains of the landscaped grounds. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004.

Prospect Point Camp: a Great Camp notable for its unusual chalets inspired by European hunting lodges.

References

Further reading

External links
 Adirondack Park Agency
 Adirondack Park Agency in the New York Codes, Rules and Regulations

Champlain Valley National Heritage Area
Biosphere reserves of the United States
National Historic Landmarks in New York (state)
National Register of Historic Places in Clinton County, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Saratoga County, New York
National Register of Historic Places in St. Lawrence County, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Essex County, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Franklin County, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Hamilton County, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Fulton County, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Herkimer County, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Lewis County, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Oneida County, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Warren County, New York
Parks in Clinton County, New York
Parks in Saratoga County, New York
Parks in St. Lawrence County, New York
Parks in Essex County, New York
Parks in Franklin County, New York
Parks in Hamilton County, New York
Parks in Fulton County, New York
Parks in Herkimer County, New York
Parks in Lewis County, New York
Parks in Oneida County, New York
Parks in Warren County, New York
Protected areas established in 1892
1892 establishments in New York (state)

Adirondack Park


Savage Amusement Tour es la décima gira de conciertos a nivel mundial realizada por la banda alemana de hard rock y heavy metal Scorpions, para promocionar al álbum Savage Amusement de 1988. Comenzó el 17 de abril de 1988 en el recinto Sport-an-Concert Complex de Leningrado en la Unión Soviética y culminó el 13 de agosto de 1989 en el Moscow Music Peace Festival de Moscú, también en la Unión Soviética.

Antecedentes

Durante los preparativos de la gira se había considerado tocar en ocho ciudades de la Unión Soviética, sin embargo y por orden del régimen comunista de por aquel entonces, solo autorizaron presentarse en Leningrado. La euforia que provocó en sus fanáticos el anuncio sobre la primera visita de la banda a ese país, les permitió tocar por diez noches seguidas en la ciudad rusa, que los convirtió en la segunda agrupación de rock en presentarse en la URSS. En definitiva, sus diez conciertos por dicha ciudad convocó a 350 000 fanáticos soviéticos.

Un mes después, fueron parte de la gira Monsters of Rock '88 por los Estados Unidos junto a Van Halen, Metallica, Dokken y Kingdom Come. Dicho tour contó con 28 conciertos por 23 ciudades estadounidenses, que les permitió tocar ante 1,7 millones de personas en total. Desde el 9 de agosto comenzaron sus conciertos por los Estados Unidos y Canadá, que contó con Kingdom Come como teloneros hasta el 28 de septiembre. Mientras que desde el 30 de septiembre hasta el 29 de octubre fueron teloneados por Winger. El 29 de noviembre en Stuttgart iniciaron su primera parte por Europa con presentaciones en Alemania Occidental, Suiza, Países Bajos y Francia, donde los estadounidenses Cinderella fueron la banda de soporte. Su último concierto de 1988 se celebró el 22 de diciembre en París, Francia.

El 3 de enero de 1989 en Londres iniciaron su segunda visita a Europa, con presentaciones en doce países. Durante dichos conciertos fueron teloneados por Cinderella, Vixen y House of Lords. El último concierto de la gira se llevó a cabo en el Moscow Music Peace Festival de Moscú, donde compartieron escenario con Cinderella, Skid Row, Mötley Crüe, Ozzy Osbourne, Bon Jovi y Gorky Park, presentándose ante más de 260 000 personas.

Grabaciones

Ciertos conciertos fueron grabados en algunos formatos de la época, pero solo se han publicado de manera no oficial o como bootlegs. Dentro de las oficiales se encuentra el videoclip de «Passion Rules the Game», que se grabó en una presentación en los Estados Unidos. De igual manera, durante los conciertos por Leningrado se grabó el VHS To Russia With Love and Others Savage Amusements publicado en 1989, en donde se muestra algunas canciones en vivo grabadas en dicha ciudad y la interacción entre la banda y los fanáticos soviéticos. Por último, su presentación en el festival Moscow Music Peace también se lanzó en VHS en 1989.

Lista de canciones

A lo largo de la gira tocaron un solo listado de canciones, que de acuerdo al país donde tocaban incluían o excluían ciertas canciones. Durante la gira del Monsters of Rock por los Estados Unidos tocaban entre 14 y 15 canciones, mientras que en el resto de las presentaciones interpretaban entre 19 a 20 canciones por concierto. A continuación el listado de canciones dados en Tampa, Estados Unidos, y en Múnich, Alemania Occidental.

Fechas

Fechas de 1988

Fechas de 1989

Músicos
 Klaus Meine: voz
 Rudolf Schenker: guitarra rítmica, guitarra líder y coros
 Matthias Jabs: guitarra líder, guitarra rítmica, coros y talk box
 Francis Buchholz: bajo y coros
 Herman Rarebell: batería

Referencias

Giras musicales de Scorpions
Giras musicales de 1988
Giras musicales de 1989

Savage Amusement Tour


Jalpaiguri (en bengalí: জলপাইগুড়ি জেলা) es un distrito de la India en el estado de Bengala Occidental. Código ISO: IN.WB.JA.

Comprende una superficie de 6 227 km².

El centro administrativo es la ciudad de Jalpaiguri.

Demografía
Según censo 2011 contaba con una población total de 3 869 675 habitantes, de los cuales 1 889 607 eran mujeres y 1 980 058 varones.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Sitio web oficial.

Jalpaiguri

Distrito de Jalpaiguri


Ogbonnia « Obo » Okoronkwo, né le  à Gainesville dans l'État de la Floride, est un joueur américain de football américain.

Il évolue au poste d'outside linebacker en National Football League (NFL). Depuis 2022, il évolue avec les Texans de Houston. Il a auparavant évolué avec les Rams de Los Angeles de 2018 à 2021, avec qui il a remporté le Super Bowl LVI.

Biographie

Jeunesse

Ogbonnia Okoronkwo est né le 24 avril 1995 à Gainseville en Floride. Il est de descendance nigériane.

Carrière universitaire

Étudiant à l'université de l'Oklahoma, il joue avec les Sooners de 2014 à 2017.
Lors de son année junior en 2016, il totalise 71 plaquages dont 12 pour perte de yards adverses et neuf sacks. La saison suivante, il partage le titre de meilleur joueur défensif de la conférence Big 12 et est désigné joueur All-American à la suite de son bilan annuel, 75 plaquages dont 17 pour perte et huit sacks.

Carrière professionnelle

Rams de Los Angeles
Il est sélectionné en  lors du cinquième tour de la draft 2018 de la NFL par la franchise des Rams de Los Angeles. Blessé au pied au mois de mai, il ne peut débuter la saison 2018. Il est réactivé le .

Le , il se blesse au niveau de l'épaule.Il rejoint la liste des blessés de son équipe et est réactivé le .

La saison suivante, malgré une nouvelle blessure le privant du terrain entre le  et le , il remporte 23 à 20 le Super Bowl LVI disputé contre les Bengals de Cincinnati.

Texans de Houston

Il devient ensuite agent libre et signe un contrat d'un an avec les Texans de Houston le .

Trophées et récompenses

 NFL :
 Vainqueur du Super Bowl LVI avec les Rams de Los Angeles
 NCAA :
 Sélectionné dans l'équipe type All-American en 2017 ;
 Meilleur joueur défensif ex-æquo de la conférence Big 12 en 2017.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Naissance en avril 1995
Naissance à Gainesville (Floride)
Joueur américain de football américain
Linebacker
Joueur vainqueur du Super Bowl
Joueur de football américain des Sooners de l'Oklahoma
Choix de draft des Rams de Los Angeles
Joueur des Rams de Los Angeles
Joueur des Texans de Houston

Ogbonnia Okoronkwo


George Bogle se poate referi la:

 George Bogle of Daldowie (1700–1784), negustor din Glasgow
 George Bogle (1746–1781), fiul său, primul diplomat britanic care a călătorit în Tibet

George Bogle


Neretvanski put, poznat još i kao Via Narente i Via Bosna, bio je srednjovjekovni trgovački put koji je dolinom Neretve povezivao Dubrovnik s dolinom rijeke Bosne, a dalje i s raznim mjestima u srednjovjekovnoj Bosni i ostatakom Balkana.

Put je iz pravca Dubrovnika kopnenim ili morskim putem dolazio do trga Drijeva, odakle je Neretvom, mimo Blagaja i kroz područje Mostara preko Prenja i Konjica, a onda dalje prema Visokom dolazio do centralnog bosanskog područja.

Bio je to jedan od dva glavna puta koji je povezivao Bosnu i Dubrovnik; drugi je bio Dubrovački put (Via de Ragusi, Via Ragusina, Via Drine) koji je rijekom Drinom išao do poodručja gornjeg i srednjeg Podrinja.

Izvori

Literatura

Dubrovačka Republika
Ceste u Hrvatskoj
Infrastruktura kopnenog prometa u Bosni i Hercegovini
Trgovački putovi

Neretvanski put


British American Racing ili skraćeno BAR je bila momčad Formule 1, koja se u tom prvenstvu natjecala od 1999. do 2005. Prve bodove momčadi donijeli su Jacques Villeneuve i Ricardo Zonta četvrtim i šestim mjestom na Velikoj nagradi Australije 2000. Trećim mjestom na Velikoj nagradi Španjolske 2001., Villeneuve je BAR-u donio prvo postolje. Najuspješnija sezona za BAR bila je 2004., kada je momčad osvojila titulu viceprvaka konstruktora iza Ferrarija. Iste sezone Jenson Button osvojio je deset postolja, te treće mjesto u konačnom poretku vozača iza Rubensa Barrichella i Michaela Schumachera. Krajem 2005. Honda je od British American Tobacca dobila 100% vlasništvo nad BAR-om, te za sljedeću 2006. momčad preimenovala u Honda Racing F1.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
BAR - Stats F1

Momčadi Formule 1
Formula 1 u Ujedinjenom Kraljevstvu

British American Racing


The Battle of Warburg was a battle fought on 31 July 1760 during the Seven Years' War.  The battle was a victory for the Hanoverians and the British against a slightly larger French army. The victory meant the Anglo-German allies had successfully defended Westphalia from the French by preventing a crossing of the Diemel River, but were forced to abandon the allied state of Hesse-Kassel to the south. The fortress of Kassel ultimately fell, and would remain in French hands until the final months of the war, when it was finally recaptured by the Anglo-German allies in late 1762.

The British general, John Manners, Marquess of Granby, became famous in the battle for charging at the head of the British cavalry and losing his hat and wig during the charge. The French lost 1500 men, killed and wounded, around 1,500 prisoners and ten pieces of artillery.

References

Bibliography
 Chenevix-Trench, Charles, A History of Horsemanship, (Doubleday & Co, 1970)
 Skrine, Francis, Fontenoy and Great Britain's share in the War of the Austrian Succession 1741–1748 (William Blackwood, Edinburgh, 1906)
 Williams, Basil, The Whig Supremacy (Oxford History of England Series, OUP, 1960)

External links
 Battle of Warburg

Battle of Warburg
Battles of the Seven Years' War
Battles involving France
Battles involving Great Britain
Battles involving Hesse-Kassel
1760 in the Holy Roman Empire
Battles in North Rhine-Westphalia

Battle of Warburg


Marcien ou Marcel (en latin Marcinus/Marcianus/Martianus) est un saint populaire et un évêque de Tarentaise de la fin du .

Biographie
Marcien ou Marcel (Marcinus, Marcianus, Martianus) est un évêque de Tarentaise pour la période entre 580 et 585.

Ces dates sont retenues puisqu'il est signataire aux conciles mérovingiens réunis par le roi Gontran de Mâcon (581), Valence (584) et Mâcon (585).

Il fait partie des évêques de Tarentaise qui sont considérés comme saint par la tradition. Toujours selon la tradition, son corps devait être inhumé dans la chapelle dite de Notre-Dame des corps saints de la cathédrale Saint-Pierre.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie
  ( « Introduction » et « Chapitre Premier », en ligne)

Articles connexes
 Diocèse de Tarentaise
 Vallée de la Tarentaise
 Histoire de la Savoie au Moyen Âge

Lien externe

Évêque de Tarentaise
Évêque du VIe siècle
Saint savoyard
Personnalité du haut Moyen Âge par nom

Marcien (évêque de Tarentaise)


An Encyclia edithiana in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Lou Christian Menezes. An Encyclia edithiana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Encyclia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Encyclia

Encyclia edithiana


László Cselőtei (* 3. Januar 1925 in Rákospalota, Budapest; † 29. Februar 2012 in Alcsútdoboz, Komitat Fejér) war ein ungarischer Gartenbauingenieur, Agrarwissenschaftler und Hochschullehrer, der Dekan und Rektor der Landwirtschaftlichen Hochschule in Gödöllő (Gödöllői Agrártudományi Egyetem), Politiker und Abgeordneter des Ungarischen Parlaments.

Leben
Nach dem Besuch des traditionsreichen Fasori Evangélikus Gimnázium begann Cselőtei 1943 ein Studium der Agrarwissenschaften an der Landwirtschaftlichen Hochschule in Budapest und engagierte sich während des Studiums im Magyar Egyetemisták és Főiskolások Szövetsége (MEFESZ), dem Verband der Universitäts- und Hochschulstudenten. Nach Abschluss des Studiums 1947 war er zunächst bei der staatlichen Eisenbahngesellschaft Magyar Államvasutak (MÁV) beschäftigt, ehe er zwischen 1948 und 1951 Inspektor bei der Nationalen Produktionsgenossenschaft in Baja und anschließend Produktionsleiter der Produktionsgenossenschaften in Südostungarn war.

Cselőtei wurde 1954 zum außerplanmäßigen Professor an die Gödöllői Agrártudományi Egyetem (GATE), die landwirtschaftliche Hochschule in Gödöllő, berufen und war dort zwischen 1960 und 1962 Dekan der Fakultät für Bodenkultur. 1962 übernahm er dann eine ordentliche Professur an der GATE und lehrte dort bis zu seiner Emeritierung 1994. Von 1978 bis 1981 war er Rektor der GATE.

1964 erhielt er den Preis der Akademie der Wissenschaften. Nachdem er 1970 zunächst Korrespondierendes Mitglied wurde, erfolgte 1976 seine Wahl zum Mitglied der Ungarischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Magyar Tudományos Akadémia).

Zwischen 1970 und 1990 war Cselőtei auch Mitglied des Ungarischen Parlaments und vertrat dort den Wahlkreis Aszód.

1988 wurde er mit dem Staatspreis des Präsidialrates der Volksrepublik Ungarn sowie 1992 mit einem Ehrendoktortitel der Universität für Gartenbau und Lebensmittelindustrie in Budapest (Kertészeti és Élelmiszeripari Egyetem) gewürdigt. 1995 verlieh man ihm schließlich den Ungarischen Verdienstorden (Magyar Köztársasági Érdemrend) und 2005 den Landespreis (Hazám-díj).

Weblinks
 Meghalt Cselőtei László, az MTA rendes tagja. In: Heti Világgazdaság vom 29. Februar 2012

Agrarwissenschaftler (20. Jahrhundert)
Hochschullehrer (Ungarn)
Rektor einer Hochschule
Mitglied der Ungarischen Akademie der Wissenschaften
Abgeordneter (Ungarn)
Träger des Verdienstordens der Republik Ungarn (Komtur)
Person (Budapest)
Ungar
Geboren 1925
Gestorben 2012
Mann

László Cselőtei


Mirko Bortolotti (Trento, Italia; ) es un piloto de automovilismo italiano. Ha ganado el Campeonato de Fórmula Dos de la FIA en 2011 y el de Blancpain GT Series Endurance Cup en 2017, entre otros títulos. En 2023 compite en Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (DTM), en GT World Challenge y en la clase LMP2 del Campeonato Mundial de Resistencia de la FIA (WEC) y es piloto de Lamborghini.

Carrera deportiva

Series italianas
Después de varios años en el karting, Bortolotti empezó su trayectoria en los fórmulas en 2005 compitiendo en el Campeonato Italiano de Fórmula Renault y en la Fórmula Gloria. En 2006 también participó en la Formula Junior 1600 italiana. En 2007, Bortolotti subió al Campeonato Italiano de Fórmula 3, finalizando cuarto en el campeonato. Siguió en el mismo al año siguiente y ganó el campeonato con nueve victorias y seis poles de 16 carreras.

Fórmula 2 y GP3 Series
Bortolotti entró en el Red Bull Junior Team gracias a su victoria en el campeonato; la compañía optó por introducirlo en la Fórmula Dos en 2009. Al final de ese año participó en la ronda final de la F3 Euroseries con Carlin Motorsport, finalizando en el podio en la segunda carrera.

Su siguiente movimiento sería entrar en la GP3 Series. Condujo para la escudería Barwa Addax Team y su mejor resultado fue un podio en su última carrera.

Bortolotti decidió volver a la Fórmula Dos en 2011. Empezó liderando el campeonato tras la primera ronda, después, le quitó el liderato Christopher Zanella durante dos rondas, pero a partir de entonces empezó una racha de podios y victorias que le llevaron a ganar el campeonato por una amplia diferencia.

Fórmula 1
Como recompensa por su campeonato italiano en 2008, la Scuderia Ferrari le premió con una prueba con el F2008 en el Circuito de Fiorano. El piloto batió el récord del circuito con su monoplaza.

En la temporada 2011, Bortolotti fue seleccionado por Williams gracias a su victoria en la Fórmula 2 para aparecer en el test de jóvenes pilotos de Abu Dhabi.

Gran turismos y sport prototipos
Tras ganar el título de la F2, Bortolotti giró sus carreras hacia los autos con techo y debutó en ADAC GT Masters. En 2013 ganó el título en Eurocup Mégane Trophy con ocho victorias en 14 carreras. En 2014 compitió en el Campionato Italiano Gran Turismo con un Lamborghini Gallardo GT3 y en Lamborghini Super Trofeo. Al mismo tiempo, retomó brevemente su carrera en monoplazas al competir en Formula Acceleration 1. Fue subcampeón detrás de Nigel Melker.

Primera etapa en Lamborghini (2015-2019)

En 2015, Bortolotti comenzó su exitosa primera etapa dentro de la Lamborghini Squadra Corse. Compitió con el equipo Grasser Racing Team en Blancpain Series y ADAC GT Masters hasta 2019, conduciendo un Lamborghini Huracán GT3. En Blancpain logró siete victorias y obtuvo, junto a Andrea Caldarelli y Christian Engelhart, la Blancpain GT Series Endurance Cup de 2017, habiendo ganado las 3 Horas de Monza y las 3 Horas de Silverstone. Por su parte, en ADAC GT Masters fue subcampeón en 2019 junto a Engelhart.

Por otro lado, en 2016 debutó en las 24 Horas de Daytona, del WeatherTech SportsCar Championship, con un Huracán GT3 de la clase GTD. Dos años más tarde, obtuvo la victoria en la clase compartiendo coche con Rik Breukers, Rolf Ineichen y Franck Perera, y repitió al siguiente pero con Engelhart en el lugar de Perera.

Audi (2020)
En 2020, Bortolotti ingresó a Audi Sport. Se mantuvo en los mismos campeonatos, compitiendo para WRT, además de participar en tres pruebas del Intercontinental GT Challenge y de ser segundo en las 24 Horas de Nürburgring.

Segunda etapa en Lamborghini (2021-)
Tras una sola temporada junto a la marca alemana, volvió a Lamborghini. Finalizó cuarto en el GT World Challenge Europe Endurance Cup de 2021 junto a Marco Mapelli y Andrea Caldarelli, y quinto en ADAC GT Masters. Además, debutó en DTM con un podio en el circuito de Assen, con T3 Motorsport. En 2022, Bortolotti fue uno de los cuatro pilotos seleccionados por Grasser Racing Team para su debut a tiempo completo en el campeonato alemán. Logró dos poles y varios podios pero sin victoria, finalizando cuarto en el clasificador final como el mejor piloto de Lamborghini. Ese año también participó por primera vez en las 24 Horas de Le Mans con WRT en LMP2.

En 2023, siendo piloto de SSR Performance, Bortolotti logró su primera victoria en el DTM en Nürburgring. También es piloto de Prema Racing en el Mundial de Resistencia (LMP2) junto a Daniil Kvyat y Doriane Pin.

Resumen de carrera

 † Bortolotti fue piloto invitado, por lo tanto no fue apto para sumar puntos.

Resultados

GP3 Series

Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters

 † Bortolotti fue piloto invitado, por lo tanto no fue apto para sumar puntos.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
Web oficial

Pilotos de automovilismo de Italia
Pilotos de GP3 Series
Pilotos del Campeonato de Fórmula Dos de la FIA
Nacidos en Trento
Pilotos de Fórmula 3 Euroseries
Pilotos de WeatherTech SportsCar Championship
Pilotos de Fórmula Renault 2.0 Italia
Pilotos de Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters
Pilotos de las 24 Horas de Le Mans

Mirko Bortolotti


A zero-crossing is a point where the sign of a mathematical function changes (e.g. from positive to negative), represented by an intercept of the axis (zero value) in the graph of the function. It is a commonly used term in electronics, mathematics, acoustics, and image processing.

In electronics
In alternating current, the zero-crossing is the instantaneous point at which there is no voltage present.  In a sine wave or other simple waveform, this normally occurs twice during each cycle. It is a device for detecting the point where the voltage crosses zero in either direction.

The zero-crossing is important for systems that send digital data over AC circuits, such as modems, X10 home automation control systems, and Digital Command Control type systems for Lionel and other AC model trains.

Counting zero-crossings is also a method used in speech processing to estimate the fundamental frequency of speech.

In a system where an amplifier with digitally controlled gain is applied to an input signal, artifacts in the non-zero output signal occur when the gain of the amplifier is abruptly switched between its discrete gain settings. At audio frequencies, such as in modern consumer electronics like digital audio players, these effects are clearly audible, resulting in a 'zipping' sound when rapidly ramping the gain or a soft 'click' when a single gain change is made. Artifacts are disconcerting and clearly not desirable. If changes are made only at zero-crossings of the input signal, then no matter how the amplifier gain setting changes, the output also remains at zero, thereby minimizing the change.  (The instantaneous change in gain will still produce distortion, but it will not produce a click.)

If electrical power is to be switched, no electrical interference is generated if switched at an instant when there is no current—a zero crossing. Early light dimmers and similar devices generated interference; later versions were designed to switch at the zero crossing.

In image processing
In the field of digital image Processing, great emphasis is placed on operators that seek out edges within an image.  They are called edge detection or gradient filters.  A gradient filter is a filter that seeks out areas of rapid change in pixel value.  These points usually mark an edge or a boundary.  A Laplace filter is a filter that fits in this family, though it sets about the task in a different way.  It seeks out points in the signal stream where the digital signal of an image passes through a pre-set '0' value, and marks this out as a potential edge point.  Because the signal has crossed through the point of zero, it is called a zero-crossing. An example can be found here, including the source in Java.

In the field of industrial radiography, it is used as a simple method for the segmentation of potential defects.

See also
 Reconstruction from zero crossings
 Zero crossing control
 Zero-crossing rate
 Zero of a function (a root)
 Sign function

References

Signal processing

Zero crossing


São Paulo ("Aziz Pavlus"), Güneydoğu Brezilya'da bulunan São Paulo eyaletinin başkenti ve Güney Amerika'nın finans, ticaret ve sanayi merkezi. São Paulo, Brezilya, Amerika kıtası ve güney yarımküredeki en büyük şehirdir. GaWC tarafından alfa küresel şehir olarak sınıflandırılan São Paulo, banliyöleri olan Jundiaí, Sorocaba and São José dos Campos ile birlikte dünyanın dördüncü büyük metropolitan alanıdır. Bu metropolitan alanının nüfusu 22 milyondan fazladır.

1554 yılında Tarsuslu Pavlus adına Cizvitler tarafından kurulan şehir, ülkenin ekonomik işlevlerini bünyesinde toplar. Ülkenin politik merkezi Brasília'da olsa da, ülkedeki mahkemeler, şirketlerin yönetim merkezleri, işçi ve işveren örgütleri, kültürel vakıflar ve sanat kuruluşları São Paulo'da toplanır. Latin Amerika Anıtı, Portekizce Müzesi, Museu do Ipiranga, São Paulo Sanat Müzesi, Ibirapuera Parkı, botanik bahçesi ve Avenida Paulista gibi önemli anıt, park ve müzelere sahip olan şehir, aynı zamanda uluslararası sanat bienali, Brezilya Grand Prix, São Paulo Moda Haftası ve Onur Yürüyüşü gibi önemli etkinliklere ev sahipliği yapar.

Tarih

1554'te Manuel da Nóbrega ve José de Anchieta tarafından Cizvit misyonerler için bir tür karakol olarak kurulan São Paulo, 17. yüzyılda altın aramaya gelen öncü bandeirante'lerin yaşadığı şehir olarak ön plana çıkmaya başladı. Brezilya'nın iç kesimlerinde 1694'ten başlanarak altın bulunmasıyla São Paulo öncü ve kaşifler için bir durak noktası olmasıyla ekonomisi gelişmeye başladı.

Minas Gerais'te, Ouro Preto'da (1694), Mato Grosso'da (1718) ve Goiás'ta (1725) altın bulunması üzerine, XVIII. yüzyılda altın ve değerli taş peşine düştüler. O zamanlar Brezilya dünyanın en büyük altın üreticisiydi: madenlerin yanı başında fazenda denilen ve yerleşim bölgelerinin yakınında yer alan büyük tarım alanları besin tarımına ayrıldı. Bunun üzerine São Paulo nüfusunda ciddi bir azalma meydana geldi.

1840'ta imparatorluk tacını giyen Pedro II, özellikle 1854'ten sonra (Paraná hükûmeti) büyük toprak sahipleri yararına geniş bir iktisadi gelişme siyaseti başlattı (kara ve demiryollarının yapımı). Büyük toprak sahipleri, 1860'tan sonra geniş çaplı bir kahve tarımına giriştiler. Bu Guyana kökenli tarım XVIII. yüzyıl sonunda Para'ya, daha sonra Rio ve São Paulo bölgelerine yayıldı, oradan da 1880'den 1929'a dek kesintisiz biçimde, São Paulo yaylalarını kapladı.

Pedro II, ülkenin değerlendirilmesini hızlandırmak için, 1860'tan sonra, Brezilya'nın güney kesimine Avrupa'dan göçmen (alman göçmenler) gelmesini destekledi.

Bununla birlikte gerçek iktidar, topraklara ve insanlara egemen olan oligarşilerin; "coronel"lerin elindeydi. Kahve tarımının, yani São Paulo eyaletinin Brezilya iktisadındaki öneminin günden güne artması, hükûmet üyelerinin çoğunluğunun Nordeste halkından değil, São Paulo eyaleti halkından seçilmesine ve 1906'daki aşırı üretim bunalımı sırasında devletin kahve üreticilerine para yardımı yapmasına yol açtı.

çok sayıda göçmenin gelmesiyle (İtalyanlar, İspanyollar, Portekizliler) şehrin nüfusu hızla artmaya başladı.

18.'in yüzyıl sonu ve 19. yüzyılda bölgedeki şeker ve kahve ekiminden kaynaklanan zenginleşme, önce Avrupalı ve daha sonra da Japon göçmen akımına neden oldu. 20. yüzyılda ise, kent Brezilya'nın her köşesinden göç almaya başladı.

Brezilya'nın 1822'de bağımsızlığını kazanmasından sonra bir süre önemli bir gelişme olmadı, ancak 19. yüzyılın ortalarından sonra kahve ekimi yaygınlaştıkça bir toplama alanı olarak hızla gelişmeye başladı. Sao Paulo çevresinde kahve ekimi faaliyete geçtiğinde ve kahve Brezilya ekonomisinin merkezi haline geldiğinde, yakınlardaki bir kahve ihracat limanı olan Santos ile birlikte büyüdü. 20. yüzyılın başında, São Paulo'nun nüfusu, o zamanın başkenti olan Rio de Janeiro'dan çok daha küçüktü, ancak bundan sonra, Brezilya'nın her yerinden ve diğer ülkelerden gelen göçmenler akın ettikçe nüfus arttı.

Coğrafya

Arazi
São Paulo, Brezilya Dağlık Bölgesi'nin güney ucunda, Seha Dumar Dağları'nın eteğinde, deniz seviyesinden 800 m yükseklikte bulunan bir şehirdir. Atlantik Okyanusu, Sehadumar Dağları'nın karşısında yer alır ve Atlantik kıyısına olan mesafe sadece 70 km'dir. Atlantik Okyanusu'nun kıyı şeridi sarptır, ancak São Paulo şehri ve çevresi, yayla düz arazileri, vadiler ve nehirlerle birbirine bağlıdır. Sulu tee te Nehri'ne ait olan Parana Nehri yakınında, şehrin kaynaklarına heureuna, tee Te nehri su taşımacılığından yararlanamıyor çünkü Atlantik Okyanusu çevresindeki akıntı uzaklara doğru akıyor.

İklim
São Paulo, Oğlak Dönencesi'nin hemen güneyinde, 23° 33' güney enleminde yer alır, ancak yüksek rakımı nedeniyle yaz aylarında bile çok sıcak olmaz ve tüm yıl boyunca nispeten hoş bir iklime sahiptir. Ortalama sıcaklık, Ocak ayında 22 °C, en sıcak ve Temmuz ayında 15 °C, en soğuk ve yıl boyunca çok az değişiklik gösterir. Yıllık ortalama yağış 1.376 mm'dir ve yaz aylarında (Aralık-Şubat) çok yağmur yağar.

Ekonomi

São Paulo'nun ekonomisi dünyanın 11. en büyük şehridir ve bu nedenle Brezilya ve Latin Amerika'daki en büyük ekonomiye sahiptir. Brezilya'nın GSYİH'sının yaklaşık %10,7'sini oluşturan bir metropoldür.

2013 yılına kadar Sao Paulo vatandaşlarının kişi başına GSYİH'si 48.275,45 Real olarak kaydedildi.

Ulaşım
São Paulo şehir merkezinde ve banliyölerinde, yakın bir şehir içi otobüs, metro ve demiryolları ağı vardır ve taksiler de popüler bir ulaşım aracıdır. Rio de Janeiro gibi diğer bölgelerdeki büyük şehirlere seyahat ederken, uzun mesafe ekspres otobüsleri ve otoyolları kullanan yolcu uçakları ana dayanak noktasıdır.

Metro

Demografi
2013 verilerine göre São Paulo, Brezilya'nın yanı sıra Güney Amerika'nın da en büyük şehridir. Brezilya Ulusal İstatistik Bürosu'nun (IBGE) 2010 nüfus sayımına göre, São Paulo'da yaşayan insan sayısı yaklaşık 11.244.369 idi. Bu ırka göre ayrılırsa, beyaz (%60,6), Pardo (%30,5), siyah (%6,5), Doğu Asya (%2,2) ve Hint (%0,2) olarak sınıflandırılır. Cinsiyet oranı %52.6 kadın, kalan %47.4 erkektir.

São Paulo'da toplanan yaklaşık 2.3 milyon kişi göçmendir. 1870 yılından 2010 yılına kadar dünyanın her yerinden akın eden göçmenler, İtalya, Portekiz, Almanya, İspanya göçmenleriydi. Ayrıca, Asyalılar arasında Japonlar en yaygın olanıdır ve São Paulo şehir merkezinde Japonlar tarafından inşa edilmiş bir şehir merkezi caddesi vardır.

 6.000.000 İtalyan (São Paulo; Milano ve Roma da dahil olmak üzere, dünyadaki diğer tüm şehirlerden daha fazla İtalyan kökenli insana sahiptir.)
 3 milyon Portekizli
 3 milyon Afrikalı
 1.000.000 Arap
 400.000 Alman.
 326.000 Japon. (Japonya dışındaki en büyük Japon topluluğudur.)
 120.000 Çinli
 60.000 Bolivyalı
 50.000 Yunan
 50.000 Koreli
 40.000 Yahudi
 25.000 Ermeni

Din

Kültür ve turizm
Sao Paulo'nun birçok turistik yeri vardır.

 São Paulo Sanat Müzesi
 Sao Paulo Bienali
 Liberdade  : Japon Sokağı
 Ibirapuera Parkı
 Morumbi Stadyumu

Kaynakça

Ayrıca bakınız

 São Paulo Uluslararası Film Festivali
 Avenida Paulista

Brezilya'daki şehirler
Brezilya eyaletlerinin başkentleri

São Paulo


Gertruda Bablinska (; * 1902 in Preußisch Stargard; † 1995 in Israel) war ein polnisches Kindermädchen, das dem verwaisten  jüdischen Jungen Michał Stołowicki das Leben rettete. 1963 wurde Gertruda Bablinska als Gerechte unter den Völkern ausgezeichnet.

Leben

Gertruda Bablinska war das älteste von acht Kindern einer katholischen Familie, ihr Vater arbeitete bei der Post. Als Neunzehnjährige ging sie nach Warschau und arbeitete als Kindermädchen für eine jüdische Familie, deren Überlebende nach Kriegsende nach Palästina auswanderten und ihr mitzukommen anboten. Sie entschied sich zunächst dafür, in Polen zu bleiben, und gelangte 1948 nach Israel.

Warschau
Sie arbeitete weiterhin in Warschau als Kindermädchen, nun für die Familie von Jacob Stołowicki. Er war der einzige Sohn von Moshe Stołowicki, der durch den Handel mit Stahl, den er an die russische Eisenbahn lieferte, zu einem beträchtlichen Vermögen gekommen war.

Gertruda Bablinska beaufsichtigte die erstgeborene Tochter von Jacob Stołowicki und dessen Frau Lidia. Das Mädchen starb früh, Gertruda Bablinska betreute fortan Lidia Stołowicka, die unter dem Tod ihres Kindes litt und kränkelte. Der Sohn Michał Stołowicki wurde 1936 geboren; Gertruda Bablinska übernahm seine Erziehung. Als 1939 mit dem Überfall auf Polen der Zweite Weltkrieg begann, hielt sich Jacob Stołowicki aus geschäftlichen Gründen in Paris auf. Er konnte nicht nach Polen zurückkehren und wurde später im KZ Auschwitz ermordet.

Wilna
Lidia Stołowicka und Gertruda Bablinska hofften, mit Michał in Wilna Zuflucht zu finden und machten sich mit Emil, dem Chauffeur der Familie, auf den Weg. Emil raubte sie unterwegs aus und warf sie aus dem Fahrzeug. Ihr Ziel erreichten sie schließlich mit einem Pferdefuhrwerk. In Wilna sorgte Gertruda Bablinska, die Deutsch sprach, mit Übersetzungen für das Lebensnotwendigste. Lidia Stołowicka litt unter Depressionen, 1941 erlitt sie einen Schlaganfall. Sie gab Gertruda Bablinska ihren Ehering, bat sie, ihren Sohn als Juden zu erziehen und ihn nach Palästina zu bringen, wo sie entfernte Verwandte hatte. Lidia Stołowicka starb im April 1941 und wurde in Wilna auf dem Jüdischen Friedhof beigesetzt. Gertruda Bablinska erzog Michał Stołowicki wie einen eigenen Sohn. Er fragte sie, ob er sie mit Mutter anreden solle. Sie wollte jedoch, dass er die Erinnerung an seine leibliche Mutter nicht verlieren sollte. Michał Stołowicki nannte sie fortan "Mamusia" (dt. Mutti).

Nachdem Wilna von deutschen Truppen besetzt worden war, die im September 1941 das Ghetto Vilnius einrichteten, beschloss Gertruda Bablinska, mit Michał Stołowicki in ihrer kleinen Wohnung zu bleiben. Sie beschaffte gefälschte Papiere und eine Taufbescheinigung für das Kind und ließ es als ihren Neffen registrieren. Daneben half sie mit ihren Deutschkenntnissen anderen Flüchtlingen.

Im Jahr 1944 wurden Gertruda Bablinska, die großgewachsen und blond war, und der damals sieben Jahre alte Michał Stołowicki auf der Straße von deutschen Soldaten angehalten. Zwei von ihnen griffen den Jungen und wollten ihm die Hose herunterziehen, um zu prüfen, ob er beschnitten sei. Gertruda Bablinska sagte auf Deutsch: "Was machen Sie? Mein Sohn ist kein Jude!" Der SS-Offizier Karl Rink griff ein und sagte: "Lasst ihn in Ruhe, er ist kein Jude." Später erfuhren Gertruda Bablinska und Michał Stołowicki, dass Rink mit einer Jüdin verheiratet gewesen war, die ermordet wurde, und dass seine Tochter Helga-Elisheva nach Palästina geschmuggelt worden war und er auch weiteren Juden geholfen hatte.

Rückkehr nach Polen
Nach dem Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs kehrte Gertruda Bablinska mit Michał Stołowicki nach Polen zurück. Sie lebten bei Bablinskas Familie in Starogard. Um Lidia Stołowickas Wunsch zu erfüllen, wollte sie Michał nach Palästina bringen, wovon ihre Familie sie abzuhalten versuchte. Sie schlossen sich jüdischen Flüchtlingen an und lebten zeitweilig in einem Lager für Displaced Persons. Mitglieder der Hagana sicherten Bablinska zu, das Kind nach Palästina zu bringen und sich um es zu kümmern. Sie bestand dennoch darauf, bei ihm zu bleiben.

Israel
Gertruda Bablinska und Michał Stołowicki gingen 1947 in Frankreich an Bord der Exodus, Bablinska war dabei der einzige nichtjüdische Passagier. Nachdem das Schiff vor Palästina von der britischen Seeblockade aufgebracht wurde, wurden Bablinska und Stołowicki im Rahmen der Operation Oasis nach Deutschland zurückgebracht und erneut in einem Lager für Displaced Persons untergebracht.

Im Jahr 1948 erreichten sie schließlich Israel. Sie lebten in Jaffa, wo Bablinska als Putzfrau arbeitete und für die Erziehung und Schulbildung Michał Stołowickis sorgte. Er zog später nach New York, schrieb seinen Namen in den USA Michael Stolowitzky, heiratete zweimal und bekam einen Sohn. Gertruda Bablinska blieb in Israel. Am 4. Juni 1963 wurde sie als Gerechte unter den Völkern ausgezeichnet. Michael Stolowitzky flog nach Möglichkeit jeden Monat nach Israel, um sie zu besuchen. Ihre letzten Lebensjahre verbrachte sie in Naharija in Beit Luckner, einem Heim für Gerechte unter den Völkern. Michael Stolowitzky war bei ihr, als sie 1995 starb. Aufgrund einer Verwechslung wurde Gertruda Bablinska sowohl jüdisch als auch katholisch bestattet.

Nachwirkung
Barbra Streisand produzierte über sie den Fernsehfilm Rescuers – Die Geschichte der Helden (1997, auch Rescuers: Stories of Courage: Two Women) unter der Regie von Peter Bogdanovich, in dem Elizabeth Perkins die Rolle von Gertruda Bablinska übernahm.
Ram Oren verfasste im Jahre 2007 das Buch Für dich habe ich es gewagt über das Leben von Gertruda Bablinska sowie ihren Pflegesohn Michał Stołowicki.

Literatur
 Ram Oren: Für dich habe ich es gewagt. Ein Kind, ein Versprechen und eine dramatische Rettung, Übersetzung: Evelyn Reuter, Brunnen Verlag, Gießen 2010 ISBN 978-3-7655-1767-9.

Weblinks
 The Nanny That Kept Her Promise auf der Seite von Yad Vashem (englisch)
 My nanny saved me from the Nazis In: New York Post vom 25. November 2009 (englisch)
 Gertruda Babilińska in Virtuelles Schtetl (englisch, polnisch)
 Polscy  Sprawiedliwi: Gertruda Babilińska in Museum der Geschichte der polnischen Juden (polnisch)

Einzelnachweise

Gerechter unter den Völkern (Polen)
Polnischer Emigrant in Israel
Pole
Geboren 1902
Gestorben 1995
Frau

Gertruda Bablinska


පයිරයිට් (, ), ඛණිජය, යනු යකඩ සල්ෆයිඩයකි. මෙහි රසායනික සූත්‍රය FeS2 (iron (II) disulfide) වේ. පයිරයිට් වඩාත්ම සුලබ සල්ෆයිඩ ඛණිජය වේ.

ආශ්‍රිත
 Iron–sulfur world hypothesis
 Sulfur isotope biogeochemistry

මූලාශ්‍ර

භාහිර සබැඳි

 Educational article about the famous pyrite crystals from the Navajun Mine
 How Minerals Form and Change "Pyrite oxidation under room conditions".

Disulfides
Firelighting
පයිරයිට් කාණ්ඩය
Iron(II) minerals
Cubic minerals
Minerals in space group 205
Sulfide minerals
Alchemical substances
Semiconductor materials
Transition metal dichalcogenides

පයිරයිට්


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Toumbi (auch: Tumbi) ist ein Dorf in der Landgemeinde Dogo-Dogo in Niger.

Geographie
Das von einem traditionellen Ortsvorsteher () geleitete Dorf liegt rund 13 Kilometer südöstlich des Hauptorts Dogo-Dogo der gleichnamigen Landgemeinde, die zum Departement Dungass in der Region Zinder gehört. Etwa 4 Kilometer südlich von Toumbi, beim Dorf Adaré, verläuft die Staatsgrenze zu Nigeria.

Es herrscht das Klima der Sahelzone vor, mit einer durchschnittlichen jährlichen Niederschlagsmenge zwischen 300 und 400 mm.

Geschichte
Toumbi war die Hauptstadt des Emirats Gumel, das 1749 unter der Führung eines Mannes namens Dan Juma aus Kano gegründet wurde. Bald nach Dan Jumas Tod im Jahr 1754 wurde das Emirat ein Vasallenstaat des Reichs Bornu. Es hielt Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts dem Dschihad der Fulbe unter Usman dan Fodio stand und wurde kein Teil des Kalifats von Sokoto. Ab 1828 kam es zu ständigen kriegerischen Auseinandersetzungen mit den Herrschaftsgebieten von Hadeija, Kano und Zinder. Die Hauptstadt wurde schließlich 1845 von Toumbi weiter in den Süden in die Stadt Gumel verlegt. James Richardson berichtete von seiner Afrikareise in den Jahren 1850 und 1851 von den für Toumbi typischen Gesichtsskarifizierungen: vier auf der linken Wange und fünf auf der rechten Wange, wobei keine sehr nah an den Mundwinkeln und Ohren sind.

Bevölkerung
Bei der Volkszählung 2012 hatte Toumbi 591 Einwohner, die in 88 Haushalten lebten. Bei der Volkszählung 2001 betrug die Einwohnerzahl 307 in 53 Haushalten und bei der Volkszählung 1988 belief sich die Einwohnerzahl auf 251 in 55 Haushalten.

Die Bevölkerungsdichte in diesem Gebiet ist mit über 100 Einwohnern je Quadratkilometer hoch.

Wirtschaft und Infrastruktur
Das Gebiet der Ebenen im Süden der Region Zinder, in dem die Siedlung liegt, ist von einer anhaltenden Degradation der ackerbaulichen Flächen gekennzeichnet, die mit der hohen Bevölkerungsdichte in Zusammenhang steht. Es gibt eine Schule im Dorf.

Einzelnachweise

Zinder (Region)
Ort in Niger
Ort in Afrika

Toumbi


San Guarino de Sion (Guérin en francés) (Pont-à-Mousson 1065 - Aups, 27 de agosto de 1150) fue obispo de Sion. Es considerado como santo por la Iglesia católico.

Biografía
Guarino nació en Pont-à-Mousson en 1065 en el seno de una familia noble. Tomó el hábito en Molesmes, bajo el tutelaje de San Roberto. Los datos a partir de aquí son inciertos. Se cree que, entre 1090 y 1094, Guarino junto al hermano Guido se retirarían a Aulps ("pastos de los Alpes"), en la Saboya, para fundar un monasterio. A la muerte de Guido en 1113, Guarino le sucedió como abad del monasterio. En 1120, obtuvo de parte del Papa Calixto II la independencia jurisdiccional de Molesmes y unirse a la de Clairvaux. En 1138, aceptó de parte del papa Inocencio II el cargo de obispo de Sion, en Suiza. Como obispo dio muestras de gran austeridad en el cargo de la diócesis. Murió el 27 de agosto de 1150.

Veneración

Las reliquias de Guerrino fueron objeto de veneración casi en el mismo momento de su muerte. Para salvarlas de posibles ataques anticlericales durante la Revolución francesa, en 1794 fueron guardadas en lugar seguro hasta 1804 sus reliquias fueron depositadas en la iglesia parroquial de San Juan de Aulps. En 1886, sus restos fueron llevados a la nueva iglesia de Plan d'Avau. En 1873, algunas reliquias fueron cedidas a Jeuxey, en los Vosgos.

Enlaces externos

 Biografía de San Guarino en Eltestigofiel
 San Guarino (en francés)

Santos católicos de Francia del siglo XII
Abades benedictinos
Abades cistercienses

Obispos de Francia del siglo XII
Benedictinos de Francia del siglo XI
Cistercienses de Francia del siglo XII
Santos benedictinos
Santos cistercienses
Obispos santos de Francia
Obispos católicos del siglo XII
Obispos benedictinos
Benedictinos de Francia del siglo XII
Nacidos en Pont-à-Mousson

Guarino de Sion


The US Textile Workers' Strike of 1934, colloquially known later as The Uprising of '34 was the largest textile strike in the labor history of the United States at the time, involving 400,000 textile workers from New England, the Mid-Atlantic states and the U.S. Southern states, lasting twenty-two days.

The background to the strike

The textile industry, once concentrated in New England with outposts in New Jersey and Philadelphia, had started moving South in the 1880s. By 1933 Southern mills produced more than seventy percent of cotton and woolen textiles in more modern mills, drawing on the pool of dispossessed farmers and laborers willing to work for roughly forty percent less than their Northern counterparts. As was the rest of economic life, the textile industry was strictly segregated and drew only from white workers in the Piedmont. Until 1965, when passage of the Civil Rights Act broke the color line in hiring, less than 2% of textile workers were African American.

Throughout the 1920s, however, the mills faced an intractable problem of overproduction, as the wartime boom for cotton goods ended, while foreign competition cut into their markets. Although manufacturers tried to reduce the oversupply by forming industry associations to regulate competition, their favored solution to the crisis was to squeeze more work out of their employees through what workers called the "stretch-out": speeding up production by increasing the number of looms assigned to each factory hand, limiting break times, paying workers by piece rates, and increasing the number of supervisors to keep workers from slowing down, talking or leaving work.

The stretch-out sparked hundreds of strikes throughout the Southeast: by one count, there were more than eighty strikes in South Carolina in 1929 alone. While most of them were short-lived, these strikes were almost all spontaneous walkouts, without any union – or other – leadership.

That year also saw the massive strikes that began in Gastonia, North Carolina, and Elizabethton, Tennessee, which were violently suppressed by local police and vigilantes. Here again, workers were often more militant than their trade union leadership: to take one striking example, the workers at the Loray Mill in Gastonia walked out under the leadership of the communist-led National Textile Workers Union. The Communist Party founded the NTWU in its short-lived attempt to create revolutionary unions.

In the meantime, the Great Depression made matters worse. The economic collapse drove a number of New England and Mid-Atlantic manufacturers into bankruptcy, while those employers who survived laid off workers and increased the amount and pace of work for their employees even further. Textile workers across the region, from worsted workers in Lawrence, Massachusetts and silk weavers in Paterson, New Jersey, to cotton millhands in Greenville, South Carolina, engaged in hundreds of isolated strikes, even though there were thousands of unemployed workers desperate to take their places.

Rising hopes under the New Deal
The election of Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the passage of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) appeared to change things. The NIRA, which Roosevelt signed in June 1933, called for cooperation among business, labor and government and established the National Recovery Administration (NRA). It was to oversee the creation of codes of conduct for particular industries that would reduce overproduction, raise wages, control hours of work, guarantee the rights of workers to form unions, and stimulate an economic recovery.

The NIRA rarely, if ever, lived up to its promises: employers usually dominated the panels that created these codes, which often offered far less than what workers and their unions demanded, and the NIRA and the codes themselves were toothless, since the Act did not provide any effective means to enforce the standards.

Even so, the promise of the right to join a union had an electrifying effect on textile workers:  the United Textile Workers (UTW), which had no more than 15,000 members in February, 1933, grew to 250,000 members by June, 1934, of whom roughly half were cotton mill workers. Textile workers also put tremendous faith in the NIRA to bring an end to the stretch-out, or at least temper its worst features. As one union organizer said, textile workers in the South saw the NIRA as something that "God has sent to them."

The NIRA quickly promulgated a code for the cotton industry regulating workers' hours and establishing a minimum wage; it also established a committee to study the problem of workloads. In the meantime, however, the employers responded to the new minimum wages by increasing the pace of work.  When the labor board set a forty-hour work week, mill owners required the same amount of work in those forty hours as they had in the previous fifty- to sixty-hour week.

By August 1934, workers had filed nearly 4,000 complaints to the labor board protesting "code chiseling" by their employers; the board found in favor of only one worker. Union supporters often lost their jobs and found themselves blacklisted throughout the industry. Workers, both north and south, wrote thousands of letters to the White House, the Department of Labor, the NRA, and Eleanor Roosevelt asking for them to intervene.

In what proved to be a dry run of the larger strike to follow, cotton mill workers in South Carolina's Horse Creek Valley struck to force employers to live up to the code, only to face special deputies, highway patrolmen and a machine-gun unit of the National Guard sent to keep the mills open. When the NIRA's special board came to Horse Creek, it did not respond to the workers' complaints, but urged them to return to work. When they attempted to do so, the mill owners not only refused to allow the workers back, but evicted them from company housing. The NIRA took no action to stop the employers from violating the codes.

First steps toward a national strike
When the mill owners made the cotton mill employees' hours larger still further – with the blessing of the NRA – without raising their hourly wage rates in May, 1934, the UTW threatened a national strike. This talk was largely bluster; the union had made no preparations for a strike that size. When the NRA promised to give the UTW a seat on the board, balanced by the addition of another industry representative, the UTW canceled the planned strike.

While the UTW called off its plans for a strike, local leaders thought differently. The UTW locals in the northern part of Alabama launched a strike that began on July 18 in Huntsville, then spread to Florence, Anniston, Gadsden, and Birmingham. While the strike was popular, it was also ineffective: many employers welcomed it as a means of cutting their expenses, since they had warehouses full of unsold goods.

In Columbus, Georgia, a city on the Alabama border, the Georgia Webbing and Tape Company had been on strike since July. On August 10, 1934 Reuben Sanders was killed in a scuffle between strikebreakers and strikers. "Eight thousand people viewed Sander's body as it lay in state at the Central Textile Hall in the heart of the city on Sunday, August 12."

The UTW called a special convention in New York City on Monday, August 13, 1934 to address the crisis. The UTW drew up a list of demands for the industry as a whole: a thirty-hour week, minimum wages ranging from $13.00 to $30.00 a week, elimination of the stretch-out, union recognition, and reinstatement of workers fired for their union activities. The delegates, especially those from the southern states, voted overwhelmingly to strike the cotton mills on September 1, 1934 if these demands were not met.  They planned to bring out the woolen, silk and rayon workers at a date to be set later.

Mill owners had seen the strike threat as more empty talk from the union. The White House took a largely "hands off" attitude, leaving it to the first National Labor Relations Board to set up a meeting of the parties. The employers refused to meet with the union.

The strike begins
The strike swept through Southern cotton mills, outpacing the union organizers and employing "flying squadrons" which traveled by truck and on foot from mill to mill, calling the workers out. In Gastonia, where authorities had violently suppressed a strike led by the National Textile Workers Union in 1929, an estimated 5,000 people marched in the September 3rd Labor Day parade.  The next day union organizers estimated that 20,000 out of the 25,000 textile workers in the county were out on strike.

It is not clear whether the UTW expected to have this much success so easily and so quickly in the South; it had only shallow roots and few regular organizers in that region. But Southern textile workers had a good deal of experience in confronting management, both by impromptu strikes and other means, and a deep well of bitterness against their employers.

Some workers converted their experience into a nearly messianic belief in the power of unionism to take them out of bondage. One labor official made the connection in Biblical terms: "The first strike on record was the strike in which Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt. They too struck against intolerable conditions".

Textile workers in the North went out on strike in great numbers as well, although they were spread more evenly across different industries and had more diverse grievances than the Southern cotton mill workers. Within a week, almost 400,000 textile workers nationwide had left their jobs and the textile industry was shut down.

Music also played an important role in the strike as radio stations looking for an audience located themselves near mill stations spreading information to workers and giving them a better sense of community. The stations would mainly play music that was popular and well known among the workers.

Reaction from  the authorities

The mill owners were initially taken by surprise by the scope of the strike. They immediately took the position that these flying squadrons were, in fact, coercing their employees to go out on strike.

Governor Blackwood of South Carolina took up this theme, announcing that he would deputize the state's "mayors, sheriffs, peace officers and every good citizen" to maintain order, then called out the National Guard with orders to shoot to kill any picketers who tried to enter the mills. Governor Ehringhaus of North Carolina followed suit on September 5.

Millowners persuaded local authorities throughout the Piedmont to augment their forces by swearing in special deputies, often their own employees or local residents opposed to the strike; in other cases they simply hired private guards to police the areas around the plant. Violence between guards and picketers broke out almost immediately.  The major known incidents include:
 On September 2, a picketer and mill guard died in a shootout in Trion, Georgia
 On September 2, guards killed two picketers in Augusta, Georgia
 On September 3, the Saylesville Massacre was committed by the Rhode Island State Guard. Four picketers were killed and 132 injured.
 On September 6, the Chiquola Mill Massacre saw seven picketers killed and thirty others wounded as they fled the picketline (Honea Path, South Carolina)

Authorities ordered out the National Guard elsewhere in the second week of the strike.  Governor Green sent the Guard to Saylesville, Rhode Island after several thousand strikers and sympathizers trapped several hundred strikebreakers in a factory.  Governor Green declared martial law in the area on September 11, after picketers armed with rocks, flowerpots and broken headstones from a nearby cemetery battled troops armed with machine guns, in a 36-hour incident that resembled a civic insurrection.  Casualty figures vary.  A granite marker erected at one of the battle sites names four workers who died in the Saylesville conflict.

Another picketer was shot to death the following day, about five miles away in Woonsocket, Rhode Island, when guardsmen fired into the crowd attempting to storm the Woonsocket Rayon Plant. Governor Green then asked the federal government to send federal troops; the Roosevelt administration ignored the request.

Maine deployed the Guard in a more tactical manner, sending them to Augusta and Lewiston to discourage wavering employees from joining the strike. That tactic did not work, however, everywhere: workers at Pepperell Mills' plant in Biddeford and York Manufacturing's plant in Saco went out even though the guard was sent to prevent the arrival of flying squadrons rumored to be coming from New Bedford, Massachusetts.

Governor Wilbur L. Cross of Connecticut also mobilized the Guard, but did not declare martial law. Instead the state labor commissioner met with picketers during the second week of the strike and brought about a reduction in tensions by urging strikers to respect the law and not hurl epithets at strikebreakers.

Things were different in Georgia, where Governor Eugene Talmadge declared martial law in the third week of the strike and directed the National Guard to arrest all picketers throughout the state, holding them in a former World War I prisoner of war camp for trial by a military tribunal. While the state only interred a hundred or so picketers, the show of force effectively ended picketing throughout most of the state.

End of the strike
The strike was, in fact, already falling apart, particularly in the South, where local government refused to provide any relief assistance to strikers and there were few sympathetic churches or unions to provide support. Although the union had pledged before the walkout began to feed strikers, it was wholly unable to fulfill this promise. While roughly half of the textile workers in North and South Carolina and roughly three fourths in Georgia were on strike at this point, with similar figures in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, workers had started to drift back to work and struck plants were reopening, if with only skeleton crews.

At that point the mediation board that Roosevelt had appointed in the first week of the strike issued its report. As was typical of federal commissions of this era, the board temporized, urging further studies of the economic plight of the employers and the effects of the stretch-out on their employees. It urged the President to create a new Textile Labor Relations Board to hear workers' complaints and urged employers not to discriminate against strikers.

President Roosevelt announced his support for the report, then urged employees to return to work and the manufacturers to accept the commission's recommendations. The UTW took the opportunity to declare victory and held a number of parades to celebrate the end of the strike.

In fact, the strike was a total defeat for the union, particularly in the South. The union had not forced the mill owners to recognize it or obtained any of its economic demands. The employers refused, moreover, to reinstate strikers throughout the South, while the Cotton Textile National Industrial Relations Board never ceded any authority to any other board. Thousands of strikers never returned to work in the mills.

Aftermath
In March 1935, approximately 2,000 textile workers at Callaway Mills went on strike in LaGrange, Georgia, and martial law was declared in the city. At least one striker was killed by National Guardsmen as the soldiers evicted families from mill-owned homes. Some consider the 1935 strike in LaGrange to be the last throes of the General Textile Strike. Ironically, President Roosevelt was a friend and frequent visitor of Cason Callaway, President of Callaway Mills at the time.

The strike represented the high point for union hopes of organizing textile workers in the South for the next several decades. When the CIO formed the Textile Workers Organizing Committee (TWOC) three years later, TWOC focused on northern manufacturers outside the cotton industry. TWOC's successor, the Textile Workers Union of America, faced similar problems organizing in the South; the CIO's postwar organizing drive in the South fell apart chiefly  because of its inability to organize textile workers there.

The union might have escaped this disaster if it had characterized the strike as a first step, rather than attempting to pass it off as a victory. That, however, would have required that the union also devote the resources necessary to follow up with renewed, systematic organizing efforts in the immediate aftermath of the strike, instead of concerning itself with the futile effort to win reinstatement for discharged strikers through the Textile Labor Board. The memory of blacklisting and defeat soured many Southern textile workers on unions for decades.

The 1934 defeat was less cataclysmic in the North, in that the strike was in fact, a number of separate events, commencing at different times in separate industries and in furtherance of local goals. Northern employers were not as ruthless in blacklisting workers and the TWOC made some headway in organizing these plants in the years that followed. Those victories were impermanent, however, as much of northern industry either went South or went bankrupt in the years that followed.

Anti-union sentiment in the South kept wages low for decades, but also acted as a catalyst for development later when industries moved there from the North and Midwest because of lower costs. Employers resisted integrating textile mills; when they were forced to do so by the Civil Rights Act of 1964, researchers found that African Americans were accepted overall by other employees, although they continued to face discrimination in job training and advancement. By the time this occurred, many jobs in the textile industry were already moving overseas, a trend that accelerated in the 1980s.

See also

 List of US strikes by size
 Murder of workers in labor disputes in the United States
 United Textile Workers of America
 1934 West Coast waterfront strike
 New England Textile Strike of 1922

References

Further reading
Books

 Conway, Mimi. Rise Gonna Rise: a portrait of Southern textile workers. Photographs by Earl Dotter. Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City, New York. 1979. .
 Flamming, Douglas. Creating the Modern South: Millhands and Mangers in Dalton, Georgia, 1884-1984. Fred W Morrison Series in Southern Studies. 468 pages. University of North Carolina Press; Reprint edition. November 1, 1995. .
 Irons, Janet. Testing the New Deal: The General Textile Strike of 1934 in the American South. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000  online.
 Roscigno, Vincent J., and William F. Danaher. The voice of Southern labor: radio, music, and textile strikes, 1929-1934 ( U of Minnesota Press, 2004).

 Salmond, John A. The General Textile Strike of 1934: From Maine to Alabama. Columbia:  University of Missouri Press, 2002
 Smith, Scott. Legacy: The Secret History of Proto-Fascism in America's Greatest Little City . 166 pages. 2011. .
 Tullos, Allen. Habits of Industry: White Culture and the Transformation of the Carolina Piedmont. Fred W. Morrison Series in Southern Studies. 440 pages. University of North Carolina Press. September 1, 1989. .
 Waldrep III, G. C. Southern Workers and the Search For Community: Spartanburg County, South Carolina. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2000

Publications

 Lewis, Sinclair. Cheap and contented labor; the picture of a southern mill town in 1929. United Textile Workers of America; Philadelphia, Women's Trade Union League, New York. 1929. Marion, N.C. strike.
 Textile Workers Union of America. They said it couldn't be done, a history of the Textile Workers Union of America, AFL-CIO, CLC.  Textile Workers Union of America, New York. [1960?], 21p
 War Manpower Commission. Training new workers quickly in the textile industry. Comprehensive plan developed by textile mill in South in cooperation with Apprentice-Training Service. Reprinted through the courtesy of TEXTILE WORLD. War Manpower Commission, Bureau of Training, Apprentice-Training Service, Washington. 1944.

Further watching
 Rostock, Susanne. The Uprising of '34 Documentary alexanderstreet.com. Retrieved 2023-04-12.

External links
 South Carolina Encyclopedia
 Southern Labor Archives at Georgia State University
 Southern Workers and the Search for Community by G. C. Waldrep III.  Partial text of a history of the strike in Spartanburg, SC.
 The Uprising of '34 A Film by George Stoney, Judith Helfand, and Susanne Rostock
 Impact of The Uprising Of '34 Jumpcut magazine article on production and distribution of documentary
 Uprising of '34 Collection from Georgia State University
 Georgia State University Lesson Plan on The Uprising Of '34
 "Treated Like Slaves": Textile Workers Write to Washington in the 1930s and 1940s
  The General Textile Strike by Albert Weisbord writing in Class Struggle Official Organ of the Communist League of Struggle (Adhering to the International Left Opposition) Vol. 4 #9/10. October 1934
The Uprising of '34 A PBS Point of View documentary.
 The Uprising of '34 – West Georgia Textile Heritage Trail. Retrieved 2023-04-12.

1930s strikes in the United States
1934 labor disputes and strikes
1934 in the United States
United Textile Workers of America
Textile and clothing labor disputes in the United States
Labor disputes in Rhode Island
Labor disputes in South Carolina
Labor disputes in North Carolina
Labor disputes in Georgia (U.S. state)

US Textile Workers' Strike of 1934