The Fiat Panda is a city car manufactured and marketed by Fiat since 1980, currently in its third generation. The first generation Panda (series 1: 1980–1986 & series 2: 1986–2003), introduced in 1980, was a two-box, three-door hatchback designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro and Aldo Mantovani of Italdesign and was manufactured through 2003 — receiving an all-wheel drive variant in 1983. SEAT of Spain marketed a variation of the first generation Panda under license to Fiat, initially as the Panda and subsequently as the Marbella (1986–1998).

The second generation, launched in 2003 as a 5-door hatchback, was designed by Giuliano Biasio of Bertone, and won the European Car of the Year in 2004. The third generation Panda debuted at the Frankfurt Motor Show in September 2011, was designed at Fiat Centro Stilo under the direction of Roberto Giolito and remains in production in Italy at Pomigliano d'Arco.

In 40 years, Panda production has reached over 7.8 million, of those, approximately 4.5 million were the first generation. Inearly 2020, its 23-year production was counted as the twenty-ninth most long-lived single generation car in history by Autocar. During its initial design phase, Italdesign referred to the car as il Zero. Fiat later proposed the name Rustica. Ultimately, the Panda was named after Empanda, the Roman goddess and patroness of travelers.

First generation Mk1 & Mk2 (141; 1980)

Introduced at the March 1980 Geneva Motor Show, the Panda was internally designated as Type 141 and was designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro and Aldo Mantovani of the newly formed Italdesign. From its inception, the Panda was designed as an inexpensive, easily maintained, utilitarian, and robustly simple car. Introduced to the press in December 1979; the first generation went on sale in Italy in late February, ahead of its Geneva première. Fiat launched right-hand drive models for the UK market in May 1981.

Development
As the first time Fiat had entrusted the development of a large-scale model to a firm outside the company, Giugiaro and Mantovani spent 15 days in the summer of 1976 in Porto Cervo, Sardinia designing the Panda — using the working name Zero. Giugiaro developed the packaging and styling; Mantovani conceived the car's technical approach.

Fiat CEO Carlo De Benedetti's design brief specified a straightforward 'container' with a spacious and spartan interior, weighing and costing no more than the Fiat 126 it was replacing — and having a similar design approach as the Citroen 2CV or Renault 4. Notably, in the late 1950s, the head of Renault, Pierre Dreyfus, had called for the Renault R4 to have an egalitarian approach, like blue jeans, "which people can wear in any situation if you do away with the pretension of snobbism and social conformity."

During the design gestation, Giugiaro took particular inspiration from a folding lounge chair in conceiving the seats of the Zero; simple, easy to maintain, modular, inexpensive to manufacture. To ensure its practicality, he conceived that the Panda's cargo area should accommodate no less than two 50-liter wine demijohns, along with a full complement of passengers. From its inception, the project would use monocoque construction with a nearly flat floor and a sufficiently high roof to accommodate upright seating.

Giugiaro and Mantovani completed the design for its 7 August deadline, discovering only then that Benedetti had left Fiat.

Despite Benedetti's departure, Italdesign presented Fiat with two full-scale models, four alternative side designs, an interior buck or mockup and a comprehensive study of the Panda's competition — as well as a series of tempera renderings by Giugiaro. Under the prototyping designation Progetto 141, Fiat subsequently commissioned Italdesign to create production studies, a master model, provisional tooling and pre-production prototypes. Within a year, Italdesign had made 20 rolling chassis.

In February 1978, Fiat test-marketed prototypes to potential customers and dealers — at an unpublicized event in Milan's Novegro Park. On response cards distributed by FIAT's sales department, participants gauged the design's exterior and interior appearance and finish, spaciousness, instruments and controls, engine size, price, and its provisional name: Rustica.

In January 1979, production was delayed by protracted union negotiations, specifically over Fiat's plans to move production from plants in Cassino, Sulmona and Termini Imerese to Turin and Desio. An agreement was reached between December 1979 and January 1980, with production scheduled for the Termini Imerese Autobianchi di Desio plants.

On 26 February 1980 Fiat presented production models to President Sandro Pertini, in the gardens of Rome's Quirinal Palace, and the car officially debuted in Geneva on 5 March — carrying the name Panda, after Empanda, the Roman goddess and patroness of travelers. At the time of its introduction, the World Wildlife Fund had resisted Fiat's using the Panda name, but acquiesced when Fiat made a substantial financial contribution. As local custom allowed the writing of a check on any surface, Fiat delivered the contribution, written on the hood of an actual Panda.

In the two months following the Geneva Motor Show, Fiat received over 70,000 orders.

Design
Following the brief of creating a straightforward, practical design in the vein of the Citroen 2CV and the Renault 4, Italdesign's work highlighted utilitarian practicality throughout the design. Just prior to the Panda's debut at the 1980 Geneva Salon de l'Auto, Giugiaro described his design intent in a 1980 interview with Turinese newspaper La Stampa, published in February 1980:

One of the more noted design features was a highly flexible interior including a seven-position adjustable rear seat that could, via a series of adjustable lateral tubes, fold flat into a provisional bed, fold into a V shape to support awkward loads, or easily and quickly be removed altogether to increase the overall load space. Foregoing sprung upholstery, simple padded fabric seat covers, and fabric door trim could be removed and washed. Likewise, the dashboard used a padded, washable fabric supported by a simple tube, creating a long, flexible storage pocket — accompanied by rigid plastic door storage pockets.  A simple ashtray could slide along the support tube or be detached completely.

Cargo volume could accommodate 280 liters within the trunk area or could expand to 1000 liters with the rear seat removed — in either case unencumbered by the spare wheel, which was stored in the engine compartment. Exposed painted sheet metal comprised much of the interior's exposed surfaces. The interior rear-view mirror had no day/night adjustment, and fresh air ventilation was oriented solely for demisting the windshield.  The instrument cluster did contain an upper heating vent. Without fresh air venting to the interior via dash outlets, side windows featured vent windows and optional pop-out rear windows.

Luigi Maglione, Fiat's marketing strategist, was perplexed when first seeing the interior design, suggesting the interior mock-up was missing. Fiat's new CEO, Nicola Tufarelli clarified that the rustic interiors were in fact the final design, ready for launch.

With an overall aerodynamic coefficient lower than the Fiat 127's, in spite the blocky shape, the first Pandas featured a recess in the adjacent bodywork rather than door handles. It has completely flat glass in all windows — weighing less and making them inexpensive to manufacture, as well as easy to replace and interchangeable left to right. Fiat, in fact, had difficulty finding a manufacturer for the highly simplified glass. The engine bay was designed to accept either a transverse or longitudinal engine configuration: in practice, the simple sheet metal, body-colored, asymmetrical grille (derived during the design process by folding a piece of paper) was positioned either with its intake on the left for the air-cooled Panda 30 and on the right for the water-cooled Panda 45.

The bodyside panels were continuously welded to the roof panel and covered with a full-length black molding — eliminating an expensive sheet metal fold, self-forming a rain gutter, and improving aerodynamics. Owing to the car's flat sides, the lower section of the doors were corrugated to give them additional strength and to resist "drumming".  Much like earlier French counterparts, the Panda could be specified with a two-piece roll forward canvas roof. A scratch-resistant paint on the lowest portion of the side panels complemented resin, dent-resistant bumpers.

In 2019, an example of the Panda 30 belonging to the FCA Heritage collection was exhibited at the Triennale di Milano.

Launch model (1980)

Mechanically the first Pandas shared engines and transmissions with the Fiat 127 and, in certain territories, the air-cooled 652 cc two-cylinder powerplant of the Fiat 126. Rear suspension used a solid axle suspended on leaf springs. Later versions added mechanical improvements while retaining a robust simplicity throughout its model life.

Launch models included the Panda 30, powered by a longitudinally-mounted air cooled 652 cc straight-two-cylinder engine derived from the 126, and the Panda 45, with a transversely-mounted water cooled 903 cc (FIAT 100 series) four-cylinder from the 127. As a consequence of the different drivetrain layout the 45 had the radiator grille to the right side, the 30 to the left. In September 1982 Fiat added another engine to the line-up: the Panda 34 used an 843 cc water-cooled unit, derived from that in the 850. It was originally reserved for export to France, Belgium, Germany, and the Netherlands.

Fiat launched the Panda 45 Super at the Paris Motor Show later in 1982, with previous specification models continuing as the "Comfort" trim. The Super offered an optional five-speed gearbox. Minor styling changes to the Super included Fiat's revised corporate grille with five diagonal silver bars. The earlier grille design (metal with slots on the left for ventilation) continued on the Comfort models until the next major revision of the line-up. A 30 Super was added in February 1983, offering the Super trim combined with the smaller engine.

The Panda 4x4 was launched in June 1983, powered by a 965 cc engine with  derived from the Autobianchi A112 or Fiat 100 series engine. Known simply as the Panda 4x4, this model was the first small, transverse-engined production car to have a 4WD system. The system itself was manually selectable, with an ultra-low first gear. Under normal (on-road) conditions starting was from second, with the fifth gear having the same ratio as fourth in the normal Panda. Austrian company Steyr-Puch supplied the entire drivetrain (clutch, gearbox, power take-off, three-piece prop shaft, rear live axle including differential and brakes) to the plant at Termini Imerese where it was fitted to the reinforced bodyshell. In November 1984 trim levels were named "L", "CL", and "S". Specifications and detailing were modified across the range, using the Fiat corporate grille on all trims. Mechanically the range remained largely unchanged.

First facelift (1986)

In January 1986, the Panda received visual and mechanical revisions — with many parts incompatible between the models. The first facelift version was internally designated 141A.

The 652 cc air-cooled two-cylinder engine was replaced by a 769 cc (34 PS) water-cooled four-cylinder unit, and the 903/965cc by a 999 cc (45 PS, 50 PS (37 kW) in the 4x4) unit. Both new engines were from Fiat's new FIRE family of four-cylinder water-cooled powerplants with a single overhead camshaft. The rear suspension was also upgraded, the rigid axle with leaf springs being replaced by a more modern dependent suspension system known as the "Omega axle", consisting of a non-straight rigid axle with a central mounting and coil springs (first seen on the Lancia Y10, which used the same platform). The 4x4 retained the leaf-sprung live axle set-up. The body was strengthened and fully-galvanised on later models, rear quarter panels received wheel arches mirroring the front fender/wing wheel arches. Front door quarter windows were eliminated.  The range included 750L, 750CL, 750S, 1000CL, 1000S, 4x4 models.

April 1986 saw the introduction of a 1301 cc diesel engine with . This was a detuned version of the Brazilian engine also used in the 127/Uno. Fitted as standard with a five-speed gearbox it was only available in the basic "L" trim and was available until 1989 (until 1994 in the van versions).

A van variant of the Panda was introduced, with both petrol and diesel engines. The van eliminated rear seats and featured rear windows replaced with plastic blanking panels and a small, black, steel extension with side hinged doors —in lieu of a hatch tailgate. Neither the van nor the diesel was available in right-hand-drive markets.

In 1987, an entry-level model badged "Panda Young" was added to the range. This was essentially an L spec car with a 769 cc OHV engine based on the old 903 cc push-rod FIAT 100 engine and producing the same 34 bhp (25 kW) as the more sophisticated 769 cc FIRE unit. The Panda 4x4 Sisley limited edition was also released, based on the standard 4x4, with metallic paint, inclinometer, white painted wheels, roof rack, headlamp washers, bonnet scoop, "Sisley" badging and trim. Although originally limited to the production of only 500, in 1989 the Sisley model became a permanent model.

Panda Italia 90

FIAT was a major sponsor of the 1990 World Cup and the special edition "Italia 90" was sold in multiple European markets during the spring and summer of 1990. In the UK it was based on a standard white 750 cc Panda L, and included unique graphics (a green and red pin stripe creating the tricolour of the Italian flag  and the "CIAO" logo on the rear quarter panels), a custom interior fabric (Azzurri blue fabric with "CIAO" logos stitched on the back panels - the Italian football team wears blue), a tricolour shield motif on the grille and perhaps the most well known feature - the football hubcaps. Some European markets got solid white hubcaps instead. In Italy and Germany buyers were able to choose an Italia'90 based on a higher trim level which explains why some cars have rear wash wipe, later interiors with tipping front seats, and the option of a full canvas sunroof. The Fiat Style Centre and Carrozerria Maggiora also commissioned 40 convertible "service cars" for the Cup. The Agnelli family and Juventus gave one of these to each of the players who took part in the Nazionale, with the player's name on the side. Twelve of the open-topped cars were driven onto the pitch at the start of each match in each of the stadiums hosting the matches.

Panda Elettra

The two-seat Panda Elettra, introduced in 1990, added an all-electric power-train to the line. Batteries replaced the rear seats and occupied some of the engine bay where the  DC motor was also fitted, driving through the normal clutch and gearbox — with weight increased to  ( over than the standard model, necessitating stiffer suspension and uprated brakes. 1992 revisions to the Elettra saw the power increased to  and the weight reduced, though the Elettra remained significantly heavier than the standard Panda.
This, and the steep price (25.600.000 lire in Italy, three times the price of the Panda 750 Young) made it a commercial failure. The Elettra was discontinued in 1998.

Second facelift (1991)
1991, revisions included a front grille with a smaller five-bar corporate badge, as well as revisions to trim and specifications across the range. New arrivals included the 'Selecta', which had a continuously variable transmission with an electromagnetic clutch. This transmission was available either with the normal 999 cc FIRE engine (revised with single-point fuel injection and a catalytic converter) or an all-new 1108 cc FIRE unit, fitted with electronic fuel injection and a three-way catalytic converter and producing .

The new CLX trim also featured a five-speed gearbox as standard. The range now comprised the 750 Young (769 cc ohv), 750 and 750 CLX (both 769 cc FIRE sohc), 900 Dance (903 cc ohv), 1000 Shopping, CLX, CL Selecta and S (all with 999 cc sohc, available with or without SPI and catalytic converter depending on the market), 1100 CL Selecta (1108 cc sohc with SPI and cat) and the 4x4 Trekking (999 cc, again available with and without a cat depending on the market). The Elettra concluded the range.

In 1992, the 1108 cc engine, complete with SPI and catalytic converter, replaced the 999 cc unit in the 4x4 (with 50 bhp) and also in 1992 an 899 cc (with injection and catalyst) became available, in the 'Cafe' special edition. This was a reduced capacity 903 cc unit, designed to meet tax requirements in some markets. Non-catalyzed versions were withdrawn about this time.

In January 2001, the range underwent its final light adjustment. The 4x4 Trekking continued to be available, while front-wheel-drive versions were down to the Young and the Hobby. The 899 cc was discontinued and only the Euro 3 capable, fuel-injected 1108 cc FIRE unit remained available. These Pandas featured a body-coloured flap for the gas tank, rather than the exposed black plastic cap of earlier models.

End of production
The Panda was discontinued in the UK in 1995. The car remained in production in Italy until the final car was produced on 5 September 2003. Its total production run of 23 years makes the Fiat Panda one of Europe's longest-lived small cars.

SEAT Panda / Marbella

Spanish car maker SEAT also produced a version of the Panda between 1980 and 1986, based on the first Panda model. It was called SEAT Panda. SEAT also made a tiny, tall delivery version of the Panda called the SEAT Trans.

Up to 1983, SEAT made rebadged versions of Fiat cars through a licence agreement between the two firms. Thus, there existed a Spanish version of the Panda. When Pope John Paul II visited Spain in 1982, he rode in a specially built SEAT Panda.

After Fiat sold their share in SEAT and the licence agreement ended, the whole Fiat-based line of SEAT cars was quickly given minor facelifts. The SEAT Panda had its bonnet, bumpers, and rear tailgate redesigned. From 1986, when it received a second facelift, it was known as the SEAT Marbella until the end of production in 1998. Emelba also produced a roofless version called the Pandita, which was popular as a rental car in resort areas. The SEAT Trans also received a major facelift and was renamed, SEAT Terra.

As Fiat and SEAT's licensing agreement had expired in 1986 the Marbella never received the major mechanical upgrades of the facelifted Fiat Panda, instead continuing with the old pushrod Fiat-based engines, quarter light doors, un-galvanised frame, and leaf-sprung suspension as for the original model. It was popular in Spain throughout its production life but was less popular on export markets (where the Fiat version was the firm favourite) and by 1996, exports had mostly finished.

Reception and awards
The first generation Panda met with great success across Europe, polling 2nd in the 1981 European Car of the Year awards in its first full year of production (pipped to first place by the Ford Escort Mark III) and remaining on sale in some regions until May 2003.

In 1981 Giugiaro received the Italian Compasso d'Oro ADI industrial design award for the Panda.
A less positive reaction to the design came from German magazine Der Spiegel, which in 1980 contrasted Giugiaro defining the Panda as "the most enchanting work of his life", and chief designer Felice Cornacchia describing himself as "proud overall of the car's architecture" to Peter Glodschey, road tester of mass-market Bild newspaper, who likened the car to "a shoe box". In several key markets the Panda's styling would continue to attract mixed reactions as the Uno followed in 1983 and the aggressively boxy look became the house style for Fiats throughout the 1980s.

Second generation Mk3 (169; 2003)

The second generation Panda, codenamed Model 169, debuted in 2003, with almost no direct engineering linkage to the first generation. Until July 31, 2003, the vehicle name was meant to be "Fiat Gingo". After a request from Renault because Gingo sounded too similar to the name of its own small car, the Twingo, Fiat eventually changed the name of its city car. In 2004, the second generation Panda was awarded the Compasso d'Oro industrial design award.

The second generation Panda replaced the original (Model 141) after 23 years of production. Like the smaller Fiat Seicento, the Panda was manufactured only in Tychy, Poland, by Fiat Auto Poland.

The high-bodied Panda takes styling cues from mini MPVs and mini SUVs, especially the second generation Fiat Multipla. The Panda won the European Car of the Year award in 2004.

The Panda includes an option for split rear seats, which makes the Panda a four-seater. Since September 2005, all Pandas are equipped with ABS, EBD and at least one front airbag. The gear-lever is located high on the central dashboard, which is designed to make changing gears more comfortable than with a conventional floor-mounted gearstick.

Financially troubled Fiat needed the new Panda to be a success, and it sold half a million units by October 2005. It sells particularly well in Italy (over half of the cars produced are sold in Italy), being seen as closer to a spiritual successor to the Fiat 500 than a replacement for either the Seicento or the old Panda.
 The 500,000th new Panda was built on 5 October 2005, a light blue Panda Emotion with the 1.3-litre diesel engine.
 The 1,000,000th new Panda was built on 5 September 2007, a red Panda 4x4 Climbing with 1.2-litre petrol engine.
 The 1,500,000th new Panda was built on 21 July 2009, a blue Panda Emotion with 1.3-litre diesel engine.
 The 2,000,000th new Panda rolled out of factory on 4 July 2011, a red Panda 4x4 Cross with 1.3-litre 75 bhp Multijet diesel engine.

Top Gear Motoring Survey in 2006 ranked the Panda 8th out of 152 cars surveyed for reliability, craftsmanship, ownership costs, driving experience and service received. (One of the show's hosts, James May, went on to purchase one).

Official usage
The Panda is produced for police departments (the Polish police have bought some blue and white Panda Actual models), military agencies (the Italian Army uses several dark green Panda Climbing models), forest services (the Italian forest service has dark green Panda Climbing models), and mail delivery services (the yellow Swiss Post model even comes in a popular toy car format readily available in grocery stores).

Safety (2004)
Tested model: 2004 Fiat Panda 1.2.

2005 revisions
In September 2005 several changes were made to the Panda, including standard fitment of ABS and a front passenger's airbag.

2007 revisions
The Panda range received minor updates in March 2007, including a new, darker dashboard. The Active model also received new darker seat fabrics of better quality and the addition of a CD player as standard. The new dark red Fiat badge replaced the blue roundel on the Panda in Summer 2007.

2009 revisions
The Panda range was mildly rearranged again in 2009, with the addition of Active Eco and Dynamic Eco models. These models feature revised 1.1 and 1.2 petrol engines respectively, with better fuel economy and CO2 emissions. Both models also qualify for £30 annual road fund licence in the UK, and replace the original standard engines. Dynamic Aircon and SkyDome models were also dropped in favour of simplifying the Panda range.

On 4 July 2011, Fiat announced that the 2,000,000th Panda had rolled off of their Tychy, Poland assembly line. The milestone car was a Panda Cross finished in Rosso Sfrontato and equipped with the 75 hp 1.3 L Multijet four-cylinder diesel. Fiat did not say which country it was headed to.

Panda Classic
The Panda Classic was a second series Fiat Panda renamed and with a reduced list price to distinguish it from the new generation introduced in late 2011. The engine range comprised the 1.2 Fire petrol, 1.2 Fire EasyPower (petrol and LPG), 1.4 Fire Natural Power (petrol and CNG) and 1.3 Multijet diesel. The 4x4 was offered with 1.2 petrol and 1.3 Multijet diesel. The Panda Cross was no longer manufactured. The Panda Classic was produced through 2012.

Models
 The Natural Power is a dual-fuel version, it can burn either gasoline or CNG (Compressed Natural Gas a.k.a. methane). Methane results in low emissions and increased fuel economy. The chassis is the same of the 4x4, the space of the rear wheels differential is occupied by two methane tanks allowing over 240 km of autonomy on gas only.
 The basic Actual has black bumpers, lacks electric windows and a full-size spare wheel. The Actual was introduced in January 2004.
 The Active, introduced in May 2003, features black self-coloured bumpers and front electric windows, central door locking, radio/cassette player, driver's airbag, power steering. Manual climate control is available as an option. Since September 2005, ABS and the front passenger's airbag have been made standard. This model has the 1100 cc "FIRE" engine and a five-speed gearbox.
 The Active Plus edition is an up-equipped Active, with a cassette/CD player as standard. Production of the Active Plus stopped in December 2003.
 The Dynamic edition features ABS, dual airbags, roof bars, power steering and a cassette player as standard. A CD & MP3 player, CD changer, alloy wheels, manual or automated climate control, glass sunroof, and an automated manual transmission are available as options. Since September 2005, four airbags have been standard in some countries, with an option for two additional side curtain airbags.
 The Emotion (Eleganza) edition is the highest trim level. This particular trim level features significant enhancements over the Dynamic, with a standard CD player, alloy wheels with low profile tires and automated climate control. In some countries such as the UK, the Emotion is sold as the "Eleganza".

 The 100 HP edition is the sportiest Panda model. It has the 1.4-litre 16-valve FIRE petrol from the Fiat Punto tuned to develop  through a six-speed manual transmission. It differs from other Pandas by being equipped with 4-wheel disc brakes, tinted windows, and sports styled front and rear bumpers. The Panda 100 HP features a unique suspension setup with modified springs, dampers, bushes and compliance giving a considerably firmer ride.

The Panda 100 hp offers 0–100 km/h acceleration in 9.5 s and a maximum speed of , with fuel consumption at  in the EU combined cycle and 154 g/km of CO2 emissions. It was available in black, white, red, metallic blue, and metallic gray while a "Pandamonium Pack" which added red disc brakes, decals and colour-coded wing mirrors was an optional extra.

The Panda 100 hp was introduced in 2006, but due to tightening emissions regulations, Fiat halted its production in July 2010.
 The 4x4 Climbing edition, introduced in December 2004, has a higher ride height and larger wheels and tires than other editions. The four-wheel drive system also makes this edition slower than others. Features are similar to those found in the Dynamic. The Climbing, however, lacks a differential lock and transmission with reductor. The Climbing edition can be distinguished by a slightly higher suspension, additional black plastic overlays on the bumpers and a "Climbing" badge just below the "Panda" badge on the left side of the rear licence plate. Swedish magazine Vi Bilägare found in a test 2007 that Panda 4x4 is a good and economical choice for a small family who need a car with four-wheel drive.
 The Cross edition, similar to the Climbing, features differently shaped front and rear lights and additional side cladding. Unlike the Climbing, the Cross does have a differential lock. The Cross edition became available in January 2006 in Italy and was also available in other markets including right-hand drive.

The Actual and Active are also bases for the Actual Van and Active Van, which can be used as small vans (they also have an additional safety net behind the front seats and removable rear seats). These versions can be identified by small "Van" label on the back door.

During the time, many limited editions of Panda (Active and Dynamic editions only) were produced. Each of them had additional interior fittings, differentiating them from the base model.

Prototypes and special editions
 The 360 Special Series
Based on the 1.2 L Dynamic, the 360 Special Series is distinguished by a black and white crosshair style logo on the B pillar. Other upgraded features include; 14 inch alloy wheels, metallic paint, special interior trim (including the Fiat brand on the front seats), built in bluetooth phone system, CD player, air conditioning and a split folding rear seat. Other more standard features include; electric windows, central locking system and dual speed power steering. The total of all these extras comes somewhere in the region of £1,600 but surprisingly the upgraded 360 model actually retails at roughly £400 less than the Dynamic model. On the safety side of things, it comes with anti lock brakes and brake assist as well as two airbags as standard (driver and passenger) with the option of adding an extra four airbags taking the total up to six.
 Fiat Panda Alessi

Italian design house Alessi created a special edition featuring a two-tone paint scheme and unique trim inside and out. Fiat gave away some of Alessi's products (coffee machine and tin-can openers) for the special model's debut at the Ideal Home Show in the UK. The rims feature the Girotondo family accents.
 Fiat Panda Jolly
The Fiat Panda Jolly was created by Fiat Styling Center and Stola and inspired by boat design. It served as a special shuttle bus in Capri during the summer of 2006. The interior features innovative materials and exclusive trims. The concept mainly came from the 600 Multipla Jolly, a car created by Carrozzeria Ghia in 1956, which could be found on the streets of Capri 50 years ago. Defined by Fiat as "a car with a fresh, light and Mediterranean look both in the colors and materials", the Panda Jolly is inspired by the interior design and yacht design worlds, and features styling elements that remind of the spirit and way of life of the 1960s.

The interiors are created by Paola Lenti, an Italian leading company in the Interior Design sector, specialized in the research and development of innovative fabrics and materials. All the seats are upholstered in the exclusive sailing-inspired Rope fabric. This material is nonallergic, nontoxic, antibacterial and resistant to UV rays. Many structural elements like the floor, sills and various trims are made with pickled natural ash finish with white ash inlays.
 Fiat Panda Terramare 4
Panda Terramare's creator is Milan born Maurizio Zanisi, an independent former Iso Rivolta engineer, and his self-built amphibian is based on a Panda 4x4 chassis, but with an inflatable flotation belt, and waterjet propulsion driven off the rear axle.

On 21 July 2006, the Terramare crossed the English Channel from Folkestone in Kent to Cap Gris Nez in just over 6 hours.
 Fiat Panda Luxury
At the 'Luxury & Yachts' show in February 2006, Fiat exhibited a one-off car based on the 4x4 called the 'Luxury'. The outside of the car features dipped silver paintwork, precious metal trim and gleaming jewel-like mouldings with back-lit inset crystals. The interior features dipped silver appointments, precious metal details, Jewel Alcantara upholstery and leather with mother of pearl finish. The Fiat logo is also worked on the seats with stylish studs and crystals.
 Fiat Panda Hydrogen

The Panda Hydrogen, a prototype driven by a hydrogen Fuel Cell, was a joint venture between Fiat Auto, the Fiat Research Centre and Fiat Powertrain Research & Technology with the support of the Research and Environment Ministries.

On the Panda Hydrogen, the Fuel Cell System is housed beneath the floorpan. The fuel cells are made up of several cells connected in series. Inside, the hydrogen and oxygen molecules are forced to react with the aid of a catalyst to produce water and heat. Electrical energy is generated with very high efficiency and zero emissions from the vehicle itself.

At full power, the Fuel Cell engine on the Panda Hydrogen delivers  that allows the car to reach a top speed of more than , with acceleration from 0 to  in 5 seconds. The car can also easily climb a gradient of 23% at take-off.

During 2006 a demonstration stage of small Panda Hydrogen fleets, was a forerunner to other demonstration programs promoted and supported by the European Union and by the Italian Ministries and Regions. The aim is for such vehicles to be marketed within 15 to 20 years.
 Fiat Panda Tanker

Unveiled at the Bologna Motor Show in Italy, the Panda Tanker features only three doors. And although the overall shape has remained unchanged, the two rear doors have been replaced by solid panels to free up some extra load space in the practical cabin.
Rugged extras and underbody protection also help to set the Tanker apart from the standard Panda 4x4 model. Designed in conjunction with Italian extreme sport clothing manufacturer Dainese, the show star is equipped with sports seats incorporating a rigid titanium fibre shell.

Reflecting the matt paint finish of the exterior, the cabin has a back-to-basics feel. With no rear seats, the load floor offers flexible attachments for fixing sports kit, while an aluminium structure is designed to carry mountain bikes.
 Fiat Panda MultiEco
The Panda MultiEco show-car made its world debut in Geneva 2006. Fiat sees this unit as the future of cars with a low environmental impact: the concept car represents the most advanced frontier achievable in terms of emissions and consumption, combining technologies that already exist or are ready for production.

The show-car combines an innovative 'powertrain' architecture – an engine with dual petrol/methane fuel supply, MTA transmission and BAS device – with the use of eco-compatible materials (recycled, recyclable or of natural origin) for the exterior and interior. The result is made even more interesting by the painstaking optimisation of the aerodynamics and a significant weight reduction.

Panda MultiEco is equipped with a dual-fuel (methane and petrol) FIRE engine – future developments will also make it possible to use a methane/hydrogen mix – combined with a BAS (Belt-driven Alternator-Starter) device and a Dualogic robotised gearbox.
 Fiat PanDAKAR
Two factory-built Fiat Panda 4x4s were prepared to contest the gruelling Dakar 2007 rally raid, which started in Lisbon.

Entered in the T2 category, the class which most closely represents production vehicles, the two Panda 4x4s, driven by Miki Biasion and former Dakar winner, Bruno Saby, respectively, are powered by Fiat Auto's 1.3-litre Multijet turbodiesel combined with a six-speed manual gearbox. The engines deliver  at 4,500 rpm and a peak torque of . at 2,500 rpm. Apart from their small dimensions, the two cars are particularly noteworthy for their automatic all-wheel drive system with viscous coupling and locking differential, a system that provides more grip and traction on rough and soft terrain thanks to the optimal split of drive to the wheels.

The two Pandas competing in Dakar 2007 have been equipped specifically for this rally: so room has been found inside for accessories like aluminium platforms to help extricate the vehicles from soft sand, shovels, spare wheels, water reserves for the crew, and other specialised equipment useful for the occasion. The Fiat expedition to Dakar included a Fiat Sedici as service back-up, and three Iveco trucks to transport spares and technicians.

Both PanDAKAR retired on the fourth stage of the event.
 Fiat Panda Simba

The Simba was unveiled at the Bologna Motor Show in 2002 as a concept car to give an idea how the following year's production Panda would look. Some of the rugged styling cues made it on the production Cross model.
 Fiat Panda Aria

Fiat presented Aria concept in Frankfurt Motor Show 2007. The Aria is equipped with new environment-friendly technology and outputs only 69 g/km CO2. With 900 cc turbocharged straight-2 engine it produces , it is also capable of using both petrol and CNG.

This new engine is equipped with Fiat's Multiair technology, which uses electrohydraulic valve activation system. In monofuel (petrol) version the engine is capable of producing . The car is also equipped with Stop&Start function, which helps to reduce consumption by 10% in urban driving.

Engines
The smallest engine, the 1.1 L petrol SOHC FIRE engine, rated at  is also found in the Fiat Seicento. This engine was originally developed and launched in the mid-1980s.

The 1.2-litre (actually 1,242 cc),  engine is a derivative of the 1.1 litre, but with higher torque.

The 1.3-litre Multijet diesel engine is rated at  and  of torque; it is the most economical of all available engines. However, this engine is detuned from the Punto (where it develops  of torque) due to the Panda's weaker transmission. Pandas with diesel engines can be easily distinguished by a "Multijet" badge on the right side of the rear licence plate.

Introduced into the range in 2006 was the 1368 cc FIRE engine which had previously seen service in the Fiat Stilo and the second generation Punto Sporting (contrary to some press reports, it is not an adapted version of the 1.4 16v Starjet engine used in the Grande Punto). This FIRE engine has four cylinders in-line with sixteen valves actuated by belt driven double overhead camshafts.

The engine is undersquare with bore and stroke of  respectively, running at a compression ratio of 10.8:1.

Chinese copy controversy

In December 2006, Fiat considered taking legal action against Chinese automaker Great Wall Motor for the company's Peri, which is a copy of the Panda's design.

In July 2008, Fiat successfully sued Great Wall and had the Peri banned from importation into Europe. In addition, the court order ruled for Great Wall to pay Fiat a 15,000 euro fine for the first Peri imported, and an additional 50,000 euros for every subsequent car that was imported.

In October 2009, Great Wall Motor sued Fiat, accusing the latter of espionage. In the lawsuit, Great Wall claims that "Fiat once instigated espionage to prowl into its research center and take photos of Peri small car that was still under developed."

Production figures

Third generation Mk4 (319; 2011)

Fiat presented the third generation of the Panda at the 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show in September 2011. The new architecture is based on the Fiat Mini platform. The production began in the renewed Pomigliano d'Arco Plant in the last quarter of 2011.

The older model stayed in production and was sold as Panda Classic, remaining popular thanks to its lower pricing (about 27%). The decision to manufacture the car in Italy, instead of manufacturing it with the cheaper workforce in Tychy, Poland, was taken because of the agreement between Italian Prime Minister Mario Monti and Fiat directors not to close down any of Fiat's plants in Italy.

Models

Panda Natural Power
The Natural Power is the CNG/petrol bi-fuel version of the Panda. Unlike the previous generation – which adopted a 70 PS 1.4 FIRE inline four – it is powered by the turbocharged, 0.9 liter, two-cylinder TwinAir engine. The system is developed in-house and factory installed.

The CNG is stored in two – one 22 L and one 50 L – gas cylinders: the former housed longitudinally in the transmission tunnel, the latter transversally behind the rear axle. Due to the cylinders being both located under the floorpan, the boot's volume is reduced only by 25 liters – 200 L instead of the monofuel's 225. On the other hand, this requires a 40 mm taller ride height and a reworked, transversal silencer – thus the Natural Power uses the lifted chassis of the Trekking / 4x4 versions.

Total bi-fuel capacity is 72 liters – or 12 kilograms – of CNG and 35 L of petrol – two liters less than the monofuel's 37.
At startup the engine runs on petrol, but switches to CNG immediately after; the car switches back to petrol automatically if it runs out of CNG or any time by driver's demand, via a dedicated button on the dashboard.

Due to the new tightening emissions regulations Euro 6d-Temp, after September 2018 the power output of the Natural Power TwinAir engine is reduced from 80 to 70 PS, when running on CNG – although remains 85 PS, when running on petrol.

Panda EasyPower
The EasyPower is the LPG/petrol bi-fuel version of the Panda; like the Natural Power it too is factory developed and manufactured.
Its 1.2 FIRE inline four develops 69 PS.

Panda Trekking
Launched in late 2012, the Trekking is a two-wheel-drive model offering the looks and features of the Panda 4x4. It is distinguished from the 4x4, by the absence of skid plate inserts on bumpers, no "4x4" inlay in the bodyside molding and alloy wheels painted silver instead of a darker grey.

Available on this model are the 0.9 TwinAir turbocharged petrol and 1.3 Multijet II turbodiesel engines, with some offroad capabilities thanks to the "Traction +" ESC-based electronically simulated front locking differential and the standard M+S tires, along with the TwinAir Natural Power turbocharged petrol/methane engine without the latter capabilities.

The Panda Trekking stayed in production until late 2016.

Panda 4x4

The third generation all wheel drive Panda was introduced at the 2012 Paris Motor Show. The engine lineup includes the TwinAir turbocharged petrol engine and Multijet II turbodiesel. The TwinAir engine is linked to a six-speed transmission with a short ratio first gear and the Diesel is linked to a 5-speed transmission.

The Panda 4x4 receives model specific bumpers with extra cladding, body side moldings, plastic wheelarch extensions and 175/65 M+S tires on 15" dark grey alloy wheels.
The full-time all wheel drive system is composed by two open differentials front and rear and a rear-mounted electronically controlled coupling, which sends torque to the two axles in proportion depending on road conditions.
At the rear is a specially developed torsion beam semi-independent suspension, a change from the previous generation's trailing arms.

An electronically simulated locking differential (termed ELD, Electronic Locking Differential) supplements the open-type differentials. The ELD works automatically by braking the wheel(s) where the ESC sensors detect excessive wheel slip, thus making the differentials more torque to the wheels in better traction conditions; this functionality is useful on low-grip surfaces, and is activated by the driver via a console switch.

All 4x4 models were discontinued in May 2022 because of components shortages, but Fiat reportedly hopes to bring back the 4x4 option in 2023.

Panda Cross / City Cross

Launched at the 2014 Geneva Motor Show, it is the range-topping, offroad-styled Panda. Mechanically it is based on the Panda 4x4, offering the same choice of powertrains.
As in the previous generation the Cross is recognizable by its wider 185/65 tyres on specific alloy wheels, new fascias with prominent skid plates and unique broken up head- and taillights arrangement. The new bumpers, together with an increased ground clearance, give the car better approach and departure angles.

From 2017, a 4x2 Fiat Panda Cross is offered under the name Fiat City Cross.

In 2020, the Fiat Panda Cross and Fiat Panda City Cross changed names on the French market. Both models lost the "Panda" name: the Fiat Panda City Cross became the Fiat City Cross, and the Fiat Panda Cross became the Fiat City Cross 4x4. For other markets, this change did not occur. Late 2022, the name of the vehicle was changed again in France, as the Fiat City Cross became the Fiat Panda Cross (meaning Fiat France reused the original name of the Panda Cross 4x4 model to now designate the Panda Cross 4x2 model).

Late 2022, as all Fiat Panda 4x4 models have been discontinued, Fiat renamed the Fiat Panda City Cross (Fiat City Cross in France) as Fiat Panda Cross in all markets. In other words, the brand reused the original name of the Panda Cross 4x4 model to now designate the Panda Cross 4x2 model.

Panda Hybrid
In 2020, Fiat updated the Panda with mild-hybrid technology. It's a combination of a 1.0-litre 3-cylinder FireFly petrol engine, a 12-volt BSG (Belt-integrated Starter Generator) electric motor and an 11 Ah lithium-ion battery. Panda mild-hybrid mounts a KERS system.

Special editions

Panda 4x4 Steyr
Austrian market only special edition, announced in 2012. Its Steyr Tractor theme celebrates the several collaborations throughout the years between Fiat and former Steyr-Daimler-Puch, such as the development of the original Panda's four-wheel-drive system.
Built on the basis of the Panda 4x4 1.3 Multijet II with richer interior standard equipment, it was available in red or white with contrasting colour side stripes and Steyr logo decals.

Panda 4x4 Antarctica
This limited, 200 cars edition was premiered at the 2013 Frankfurt Motor Show, commemorating the 30th anniversary of the Panda 4x4.
It was too based on the Panda 4x4 1.3 Multijet II, featuring several normally extra cost options like automatic climate control, parking sensors and Blue&Me Bluetooth connectivity as standard. The exterior was characterized by a white with black roof two-tone paint scheme accented by orange wheel centers and side mirror caps.

Safety
The third-generation Panda was tested by Euro NCAP towards the end of 2011, and achieved a four-star result. One star was dropped mainly because the Panda's electronic stability control wasn't available on all trim levels, such as the one of the tested car. Fiat clarified on the same day that ESC would be offered on the entire Fiat Panda range in the first months of 2012. It was retested in 2018 to a 0 star result as the protocole had evolved but not the car.

Collision avoidance system

Fiat's City Brake Control low-speed crash avoidance system is available as optional on the Panda. The system works by readying and if necessary automatically executing an emergency stop whenever an imminent collision is detected by its laser sensor. In 2013, City Brake Control attained the Euro NCAP Advanced reward.

Records
At 5:28pm on Monday 11 February 2013, Philip Young and Paul Brace broke the world record drive, in either direction, from Cape Town in South Africa to London in Great Britain with a Fiat Panda two-cylinder 0.9 TwinAir. The drive started on 1 February and ended 10 days, 13 hours and 28 minutes later, shaving over a day off the previous record, achieved in 2010 by a Land Rover Defender, and a further 4 seconds off the Cape Town to London record, set in 1983.

Awards
 Panda 4x4: Top Gear Magazine's "SUV of the Year 2012".
 Panda TwinAir Turbo Natural Power: "Das grünste Auto der Schweiz 2013" ("Greenest car in Switzerland"), part of Swiss Car of the Year 2013.

Engines

Notes

References

External links

Panda
City cars
Euro NCAP superminis
Front-wheel-drive vehicles
All-wheel-drive vehicles
Hatchbacks
Cars introduced in 1980
1990s cars
2000s cars
2010s cars
Vehicles with CVT transmission
Electric car models
Off-road vehicles
Italdesign vehicles

Fiat Panda


Nadzeja Kutjar (hviderussisk: Надзея Анатольеўна Кучар  ; russisk: Надежда Анатольевна Кучер ) (født 18. maj 1983 i Minsk, Hviderussiske SSR, Sovjetunionen) er en hviderussisk sanger (sopran).

Hun vandt 2015-udgaven af BBC Cardiff Singer of the World.

Referencer

Sangere fra Hviderusland
Sopraner

Nadzeja Kutjar


Romanitas este un roman științifico-fantastic de Sophia McDougall, prima oară publicat în  2005 de Orion Books. Romanul prezintă istoria alternativă a Imperiului Roman care a supraviețuit până în zilele noastre și domină mare parte a lumii. Punctul de divergență îl reprezintă eșuarea de către Garda Pretoriană a asasinării împăratului Publius Helvius Pertinax la  28 martie 193.

Prezentare

Romanul este amplasat într-o lume alternativă în care Imperiul Roman nu a fost supus procesului de descompunere și dezintegrare ca în timpul nostru, și a devenit o superputere mondială care se întinde pe două treimi ale globului. Imperiul Roman imaginat de scriitoarea engleză, după ce a suferit reculul timpurilor medievale, este cel mai avansat tehnologic din lumea noastră, dar încă înapoiat în ceea ce privește drepturile civile, deoarece imperiul se bazează încă pe o economie sclavagistă și încă se practicată răstignirea.

Punctul de divergență în această povestire este atunci când, la sfârșitul celui de-al doilea secol al erei creștine, se descoperă conspirația împotriva împăratului Pertinax. În realitatea noastră, acesta  a fost ucis de Garda Pretoriană și în locul lui, mai târziu, a ajuns împăratul Lucius Septimius Severus, care, sporind foarte mult puterea de luare a deciziilor de către armată, a răsturnat Senatul roman din prerogativele sale. Acest lucru a avut ca efect dependența statului roman de armată. Pentru a face față menținerii sale pe linia de plutire, taxele trebuiau să fie considerabil sporite. În secolele următoare, pentru a reduce din nou impactul financiar al armatei asupra economiei, aceasta din urmă a fost compusă în principal din barbari.

Însă, în acest roman, după descoperirea complotului, ca o compensație, Senatul Roman primește înapoi toate puterile care i-au fost deposedate anterior, iar Pertinax duce o serie de campanii militare în direcția Persiei, Europa Centrală și de Est. Imperiul Roman se va extinde în secolele următoare, datorită contactului cu China și descoperirii așa-numitei "Terranova", și va cunoaște câteva crizele de scurtă durată din care își va reveni ușor.

Romanul începe în anul 2757 de la fondarea Romei (anul 2004 în realitatea noastră), în timpul domniei împăratului fictiv Tito Novius Fausto, atunci când pe uriașe ecrane amplasate în centrul orașului se transmit imagini televizate mondial de la înmormântarea lui Terzo Novio Fausto Leone, erou de război, fratele Împăratului și moștenitorul tronului; și a soției sale, Clodia Aurelia. Cei doi au murit într-un accident de mașină în Alpii Galici. Marco, fiul lor din Roma, descoperă că în spatele incidentului există o conspirație serioasă.

Note

Legături externe
 Official website
 Review of Romanitas by The International Writers Magazine

Vezi și
Imperiul Roman (istorie alternativă)
 Roma Eterna de Robert Silverberg- un alt roman în care Imperiul Roman a supraviețuit până în zilele noastre
 Rome Burning de Sophia McDougall
 Gunpowder Empire de Harry Turtledove
 Warlords of Utopia de Lance Parkin
  Oath of Empire de Thomas Harlan
 Agent of Byzantium povestiri de Harry Turtledove
Listă de cărți despre Roma antică

Romane științifico-fantastice
Romane de Sophia McDougall
Cărți din 2005
Istorie alternativă
Imperiul Roman în artă și ficțiune
Roma antică în artă și ficțiune

Romanitas


An Phalaenopsis lobbii in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Herman Royden Sweet. An Phalaenopsis lobbii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Phalaenopsis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Phalaenopsis

Phalaenopsis lobbii


إميل لودفيغ  (1881 – 1948)، كاتب ألماني سويسري ولد في بريسلاو (Breslau) وهي موجودة اليوم في بولندا.
تخصصت معظم مؤلفاته في كتابة السيرة الذاتية لعدد كبير من القادة السياسيين والشخصيات التاريخية وبعض المفكرين.

درس لودفيغ القانون ولكنه توجه إلى الكتابة.
اميل لودفيغ (اسمه في الأصل اميل كوهن) ولد في برسلو، وهي الآن جزء من بولندا. درس لودفيغ القانون ولكنه اختار الكتابة كمهنة. في البداية كتب المسرحيات والرواية، لكنه أيضا عمل كصحفي. في عام 1906، انتقل إلى سويسرا، خلال الحرب العالمية الأولى، وكان يعمل كمراسل أجنبي لصحيفة Tageblatt برلينر في فيينا واسطنبول. وأصبح مواطناً سويسرياً في عام 1932، وفي وقت لاحق هاجر إلى الولايات المتحدة في عام 1940.

في نهاية الحرب العالمية الثانية، ذهب إلى ألمانيا كصحفي، عاد إلى سويسرا بعد الحرب، وتوفي عام 1948، في Moscia، بالقرب من أسكونا.

خلال عام 1920، قال انه حقق شهرة دولية شعبية في السير الذاتية التي تجمع بين الحقيقة التاريخية والخيال مع التحليل النفسي. بعد نشر سيرته الذاتية من غوته عام 1920، وقال انه كتب العديد من السير الذاتية مماثلة، بما في ذلك واحدة حول بسمارك (1922-1924)، وآخر حول المسيح (1928). كما كانت السير الذاتية لودفيغ شعبية خارج ألمانيا وترجمت على نطاق واسع، كان واحدا من المهاجرين حظا الذين لديهم دخل بينما الذين يعيشون في الولايات المتحدة. واعتبرت كتاباته خطيرة بشكل خاص من قبل غوبلز، الذي ذكر في مجلته.

لودفيج مقابلة بنيتو موسوليني وعلى 1 ديسمبر 1929 مصطفى كمال أتاتورك. مقابلة له مع مؤسس جمهورية تركيا ظهرت في وينر فراي برس مارس 1930، معالجة قضايا الدين والموسيقى. كما تقابل جوزيف ستالين في موسكو يوم 13 ديسمبر 1931. يتم تضمين مقتطفات من هذه المقابلة في كتاب ستالين لينين على. يصف لودفيغ هذه المقابلة في سيرته الذاتية لستالين. ما كان في الأصل مقطع محذوف من مقابلة من قبل جوزيف ستالين نفسه، أستاذ مونتكلير جامعة ولاية غروفر Furr قد نشرت أخيرا إصدار اللغة الإنجليزية من ذلك.

مقابلات لودفيغ موسع مع T.G. ظهرت ماساريك، مؤسس ورئيس لفترة طويلة من تشيكوسلوفاكيا، والمدافع عن الديمقراطية في عام 1936

مذهبه في الكتابة
يقول العقاد:" فهو لا يفصل بين الأبواب والعهود ولا يعير الحوادث الضخمة عنوانًا أكبر من عناوين الأخبار الدّارجة والكلمات التي تقذفها المناسبة في عرض الكلام، ولكنّه يمزج بين حوادث اليوم الواحد أتمّ المزج إذا كانت كلّها ترجع إلى العوامل التي خلقها ذلك اليوم في سريرة البطل المترجم منظورًا فيها إلى أيّامه المتتابعة وظروفه الحاضرة، فربّما عرض لك الكارثة الحربيّة إلى جني النكتة المرتجلة وجمع بين الاثنين وبين وسواس العاشق وحنان الأب وضعف الطّبيعة الآدميّة، فتحسّ وأنت تقرأ هذا جميعه أنّه وليد حالة نفسيّة واحدة حقًا وأنّ الأثر الكبير كالأثر الصّغير في مرجعه إلى تلك الحالة النفسيّة.

أهم مؤلفاته
 «من العظمة».
 «نابليون».
 «بسمارك».
 «غوته».
 «المسيح».

ترجمت كتبه التالية إلى العربية بواسطة عادل زعيتر:
 الحياة والحب.
 البحر المتوسط.
 كليوباترا.
 بسمارك.
 النيل: حياة نهر.
 نابليون.
 ابن الإنسان.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص من فروتسواف
أشخاص من مقاطعة سيليزيا
روائيون ألمان
روائيون ألمان في القرن 20
كتاب ألمان في القرن 20
كتاب دراما ومسرح ألمان
كتاب دراما ومسرح ألمان في القرن 20
كتاب سيرة
كتاب سيرة ألمان
كتاب سيرة في القرن 20
كتاب من فروتسواف
كتاب يهود
مراسلون حربيون ألمان
مراسلون حربيون في الحرب العالمية الأولى
مواليد 1881
وفيات 1948
يهود ألمان في القرن 19
يهود ألمان في القرن 20
يهود ألمان هاجروا للولايات المتحدة هربا من النازية
يهود تحولوا إلى البروتستانتية

إميل لودفيغ


Safiye Sultan () a fost soția sultanului Murad al III-lea, mama sultanului Mehmed al III-lea și bunica sultanilor Ahmed I și Mustafa I.

Origini
Identitatea Sultanei Safiye a fost adesea confundată cu cea a soacrei sale, venețiana  Nurbanu, ceea ce a făcut pe unii să creadă că Safiye a fost, de asemenea, de origine venețiană. Cu toate acestea, Safiye a fost de origine albaneză, născută în .

În 1563, la vârsta de 13 ani, ea a fost prezentat ca sclavă viitorului Murad al III-lea prin Mihrimah Sultan, fiica sultanului Suleiman Magnificul și a sultanei Hürrem. Primind numele Safiye ("cea pură"), ea a devenit o concubină a lui Murad (atunci fiul cel mare al sultanului Selim al II-lea). La 26 mai 1566, ea a dat naștere fiului lui Murad, viitorul Mehmed al III-lea, în același an, când Soliman Magnificul a murit.

Haseki Sultan

Safiye a fost doar o concubină a lui Murad înainte de a se urca pe tron și a continuat să aibă o relație monogamă cu ea de mai mulți ani. La insistențele mamei sale Nurbanu Sultan, preocupată de continuitatea dinastică a prezenței unui singur fiu, după 18 ani de monogamie Murad al III-lea a început să frecventeze alte concubine cu rezultate clare, se pare că în cele din urmă a avut 102 copii și că la moartea sa, la 47 de ani, a lăsat urmași 20 de băieți și 27 de fete.

Safiye și-a păstrat demnitatea și nu a arătat nici o gelozie față de concubinele lui Murad. Descrisă ca o femeie frumoasă, dar mai presus de toate inteligentă și înțeleaptă, câștigând recunoștința sultanului, ea a exercitat o influență constantă asupra lui, mai ales după moartea mamei sultanului. În ultimii ani ai lui Murad, Safiye a rămas unicul său tovarăș. Cu toate acestea, este puțin probabil ca Safiye să fi devenit soția lui Murad, deși istoricul otoman Mustafa Ali se referă la ea ca atare, este totuși contrazis de rapoartele ambasadorilor venețieni și britanici.

Au avut copiii:
 Mehmed al III-lea (26 mai 1566-22 decembrie 1603);
 Șehzade Sultan Mahmud (1568-1581);
 Ayșe Sultan (1570-15 mai 1605), s-a căsătorit în primul rând cu Ibrahim Pașa, a doua căsătorie cu Yemisci Hasan Pașa și cu Mahmud Pașa Guzelce a avut a treia nuntă;
 Fatma Sultan (1577-1620), s-a căsătorit prima dată cu Halil Pașa și a doua căsătorie cu Hızır Pașa.
 Fahriye Sultan (1580-1640), căsătorită în prima căsătorie cu Ahmed Pașa și în a doua căsătorie cu Bayram Pașa.

Note

Referințe

Nașteri în anii 1550
Decese în 1619
Sultane
Istoria Imperiului Otoman

Safiye Sultan


Svijet

Događaji

Osnivanja i ukidanja

Rođenja

Smrti

Hrvatska i u Hrvata

Događaji

Osnivanja i ukidanja

 Osnovan Benediktinski samostan sv. Arnira u Splitu

Rođenja

Smrti

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Kršćanstvo u 1069.


Bu liste, egemen devletlere genel bir bakış sağlamaktadır ve ülkelerin egemenliklerinin tanınması hakkında bilgi veren bir listedir.

Birleşmiş Milletler'in kayıtlarına göre dünya üzerinde toplamda 206 ülke yer almaktadır.

Listelenen 208 ülke, Birleşmiş Milletler'e (BM) üyelik durumlarına göre üç kategoriye ayrılabilir: 193 BM üye devleti, 2 BM gözlemci devleti ve diğer 11 devlet. BM üyesi olmayan ülkeler ise listede eğik gösterilmiştir.

Uluslararası ortamda tanınan, Birleşmiş Milletler'e üye olmayan ülkeler şunlardır:

 1971'den itibaren Birleşmiş Milletler'e üye olmayan, ancak uluslararası hukuk ve Montevideo Konvansiyonu'na göre devlet olarak tanımlanan ülke: Çin Cumhuriyeti (Tayvan)
 Birleşmiş Milletler'in 41 üyesi tarafından tanınan, fakat Birleşmiş Milletler tarafından tanınmayan ülke: Sahra Arap Demokratik Cumhuriyeti (Batı Sahra)
 Birleşmiş Milletler'in 97 üyesi ve Çin Cumhuriyeti tarafından tanınan ülke: Kosova
 Türkiye dışında herhangi bir Birleşmiş Milletler üyesi tarafından tanınmayan ülke: Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti (Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti)
 Rusya, Venezuela ve Nikaragua dışındaki Birleşmiş Milletler üyeleri tarafından tanınmayan ülkeler: Abhazya (Gürcistan) ve Güney Osetya (Gürcistan)
 Birleşmiş Milletler'in hiçbir üyesi tarafından tanınmayan fiilen bağımsız ülkeler: Transdinyester (Moldova), Somaliland (Somali)

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Bağımlı Ülkeler

Hükümran ülkeler dışında özerk yapıya ve özel statüye sahip pek çok ülke bulunmaktadır. Aşağıda bu bağımlı ülkelerin listesi verilmiştir:

Notlar

Ayrıca bakınız
 Ülke
Tanınmayan devletler listesi
 Ülke bayrakları listesi

Kaynakça
 Büyük Atlas, Karatay Yayınları, Konya, 2010

Ülkeler listesi


Le barrage de Notre-Dame-de-Commiers est un barrage-poids de France situé sur le cours du Drac, en Isère, au sud de Grenoble. Dernier des grands barrages en travers du lit de ce cours d'eau, il forme la retenue du lac de Notre-Dame-de-Commiers.

Histoire
Il est commencé en 1960 pour être achevé en 1964.

Caractéristiques

Références

Liens externes

Notre-Dame-de-Commiers
Notre-Dame-de-Commiers
Barrage Notre-Dame-de-Commiers

Barrage de Notre-Dame-de-Commiers


Vincenzio Vangelisti, né vers 1740 à Florence et mort en 1798 à Milan, est un graveur italien.

Biographie
Vincenzio Vangelisti naît vers 1740 à Florence.

Il visite Paris dans sa jeunesse, où il devient l'élève d'Ignazio Hugford et de Jean-Georges Wille. L'empereur Léopold II d'Autriche l'invite en 1766 à Milan, où il devient professeur à l'Académie de Brera, et en 1790, premier directeur de l'École de gravure instituée par ce prince.

Il se suicide en 1798, après avoir défiguré ses plaques de cuivre restantes. Parmi les graveurs qui sont ses élèves, on compte Giuseppe Longhi, qui lui succède comme professeur, et Faustino et Pietro Anderloni.

Œuvres
Graveur sur cuivre, Vincenzio Vangelisti grave principalement au pointillé et à la manière de crayon.

Parmi ses gravures figurent :
 Pyramus et Thisbe, d'après une image de Laurent de La Hyre.
 Portrait d' Armand de Bourbon, Prince de Condé.
 Georges Louis, Comte de Buffon, d'après A. de Pujol.
 Satyre et nymphe, d'après un des artistes Van Loo.
 Vierge à l'Enfant, d'après Raphaël.
 Vénus réprimandant Cupidon d'après Agostino Carracci.

Notes et références

Annexes

Bibliographie

Liens externes

Naissance en 1740
Naissance à Florence
Décès en 1798
Décès à Milan
Graveur italien du XVIIIe siècle
Graveur sur cuivre
Graveur au pointillé
Graveur à la manière de crayon

Vincenzio Vangelisti


Ad Mare (estilizado em letras maiúsculas) é o single álbum de estreia do girl group sul-coreano Nmixx. O single álbum foi lançado pela JYP Entertainment em 22 de fevereiro de 2022 e contém quatro faixas, incluindo o single principal "O.O".

Antecedentes e lançamento
Em 9 de julho de 2021, a JYP Entertainment anunciou que estrearia um novo girl group em fevereiro de 2022, o primeiro desde Itzy em 2019. Em 2 de fevereiro de 2022, foi anunciado que o grupo estrearia em 22 de fevereiro com o lançamento de Ad Mare. Seis dias depois, a lista de faixas foi lançada com "O.O" anunciado como single. Em 17 de fevereiro, o primeiro teaser do videoclipe de "O.O" foi lançado.  Dois dias depois, o vídeo teaser do medley de destaque foi lançado. Em 21 de fevereiro, o segundo teaser do videoclipe de "O.O" foi lançado. O single álbum ao lado do videoclipe de "O.O" foi lançado em 22 de fevereiro.

Composição
O single "O.O" foi descrito como uma canção com "mistura de baile funk e teen pop rock" com "intensa e cativante introdução de trap". "Tank" foi descrita como uma canção com "vocais legais e raps únicos" que apresenta o "timbre e agudos explosivos" da integrante Lily com letras que "comparam a atitude confiante e ambiciosa de um tanque".

Recepção crítica

NME deu Ad Mare 2 de 5 estrelas, chamando-o de "inconsistente" e "agitado" devido a transições desiguais de electropop para pop rock e hip-hop de "O.O". Embora apreciasse as melodias mais simples de "Tank", concluiu que o último não era capaz de "aliviar o dano que 'O.O' causa".

Promoção
Em 18 de fevereiro de 2022, a JYP Entertainment anunciou que o showcase de estreia do grupo seria adiado para 1 de março depois que a integrante Bae foi diagnosticada com COVID-19.

Lista de faixas

Créditos e pessoal
Créditos adaptados de Melon.

Estúdio

 A Team Studio – gravação
 JYPE Studios – gravação , edição de vocal
 Alawn Music Studios – mixagem
 Canton House Studios – mixagem
 821 Sound Mastering – masterização
 Sterling Sound – masterização

Pessoal

 Dr.JO (153/Joombas) – letra
 Oh Hyun-seon (Lalala Studio) – letra
 Jung Jun-ho – letra
 Oh Yu-won – letra
 Dwayne Abernathy Jr. – composição
 Ryan S. Jhun – composição, arranjo
 Ericka J. Coulter – composição , vocais de fundo
 Deanna DellaCioppa – composição
 Matthew Jaragin – composição
 Brian U (The Hub) – composição, arranjo, bateria, sintetizadores
 Enan (The Hub) – composição, arranjo, bateria, sintetizadores ,
 MarkAlong (The Hub) – composição, arranjo, bateria, sintetizadores
 Charlotte Wilson (The Hub) – composição , direção vocal
 Chanti (The Hub) – composição
 EJAE – composição , vocais de fundo , direção vocal
 Awry (The Hub) – composição , vocais de fundo
 Ayushy (The Hub) – composição
 Jan Baars (The Hub) – composição
 Rajan Muse (The Hub) – composição
 Dem Jointz – arranjo, teclado, bateria
 Jade – baixo
 BananaGaraG – baixo
 Paper Planet – guitarra
 TRIAD – guitarra
 Lily – vocais de fundo
 Frankie Day – vocais de fundo
 Ayushy – vocais de fundo
 Brian U (The Hub) – direção vocal
 Enan (The Hub) – direção vocal
 MJ – gravação
 Gun Hye-jin – gravação
 Lee Kyung-won – edição digital
 Lee Sang-yeob – edição vocal
 Jiyoung Shin NYC – edição vocal
 Alawn – mixagem
 Jaycen Joshua – mixagem
 Jacob Richards – mixagem (assistente)
 Mike Seaberg – mixagem (assistente)
 DJ Riggins – mixagem (assistente)
 Kwon Nam-woo – masterização
 Chris Gehringer – masterização

Histórico de lançamento

Álbuns de 2022
Álbuns de Nmixx
Álbuns lançados pela JYP Entertainment
Álbuns em língua coreana
Single álbuns

Ad Mare


was a Japanese warrior. As  of the Shinsengumi, he resisted the Meiji Restoration and fought to his end.

Background
 was born on May 31, 1835, in the Ishida village, Tama region of Musashi Province (present day Ishida, Hino, Tokyo), Japan. He was the youngest of ten children and his father Hijikata Yoshiatsu (Hayato), a well-to-do farmer, died a few months before his birth. His eldest brother Tamejiro, was born blind and as a result, could not inherit the family property. His third older brother Daisaku (later Kasuya Ryojin), was adopted to another family and would later become a physician. His eldest sister Shuu died when he was about three years old and his mother Etsu also died when he was six years old, and he was therefore raised by his second older brother Kiroku and sister-in-law.

He was apparently tall compared to the average Japanese men of the period, and it is said that he was very handsome. He was said to be spoiled at an early age and was alleged to be mean to all but his friends and family. This changed when a 21-year-old swordsman from the Aizu clan known for opposing the Reformists was forced to commit seppuku. When Hijikata attended the man's funeral, he apparently cried in public.

Hijikata spent his youth selling his family's Ishida san'yaku (medicine for treating injuries such as bruises and broken bones) while practicing his self-taught kenjutsu. His brother-in-law, Satō Hikogorō, who was married to his older sister Nobu, managed a Tennen Rishin-ryū dojo in Hino; through Satō, Hijikata later met Kondō Isami and was formally enrolled at the Tennen Rishin-ryū's Shieikan in 1859. Although Hijikata himself never fully mastered the Tennen Rishin-ryū, it is said that he managed to develop the "Shinsengumi-Kenjutsu" fighting style from the Tennen Rishin-ryū.

An arrangement was made by his eldest brother Tamejiro for him to marry Okoto, the daughter of the shamisen shop owners. Since he had already planned to join the Rōshigumi with Kondō Isami, Hijikata told them that after he got a promotion, he would carry out his marriage.

Shinsengumi period

In 1863, Hijikata and Kondō Isami joined the Rōshigumi in Edo, they arrived in Mibu, Kyoto and remained there as the Mibu Rōshigumi while the rest returned to Edo. Later, when Mibu Rōshigumi was renamed as the Shinsengumi, Kondō and two other men, Serizawa Kamo and Niimi Nishiki, became joint leaders of the group, and Hijikata served as one of the deputy leaders. Shinsengumi served as a special police force in Kyoto that fought against the Reformists under Matsudaira Katamori, the Daimyō of Aizu.

However, Serizawa and Niimi began fighting, drinking, and extorting money from merchants in Kyoto, which started to tarnish the reputation of Shinsengumi and earned the group the derogatory nickname of . Hijikata found enough proof against Niimi in these matters and ordered him to commit seppuku on October 19. Later on October 30 (or October 28) at night, Hijikata and the selected Shinsengumi members went into the house of Yagi Gennojō and assassinated Serizawa, his mistress Oume, and one of his followers Hirayama Goro, with Hirama Jūsuke been the only survivor who fled that night. Kondō became the sole leader of Shinsengumi, with Yamanami Keisuke as his Vice-Commander.  During the Ikedaya incident in the evening on July 8, 1864, Hijikata led a second group of 23 Shinsengumi members after Kondō's to help arresting a group of shishi at the Ikedaya Inn.

Some time after the Zenzaiya incident, Yamanami Keisuke tried to leave Shinsengumi, despite the regulation against deserters. As a result, he committed seppuku with Okita Sōji as his Kaishakunin on March 20 (lunar calendar February 23), 1865; and Hijikata took over as Vice-Commander. Due to his position in the Shinsengumi, which would be dangerous for anyone close to him, Hijikata felt that he had no choice but to cancel his marriage engagement with Okoto. Although he later had many lovers, he never came close to making a commitment to any of them.

The Shinsengumi grew to 140 men, which included a number of farmers and merchants whose livelihood would be threatened if the Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown. The regulations set up by Shinsengumi within Kyoto were strict and Hijikata was known to be harsh in enforcing them, hence his nickname: . Even within the Shinsengumi itself, regulations were strictly enforced by Hijikata. As usual, deserters and traitors were forced to commit seppuku.

Hijikata owned, among others, a sword signed "Izumi no Kami Kanesada" (和泉守兼定), made by the 11th and last generation Aizu Kanesada (1837-1903).

Together with the rest of the Shinsengumi, Hijikata became a hatamoto in 1867 and took the name of Naitō Hayato (but reverted to his original name after Kondō was captured and executed during the Boshin war). He was given the rank of Yoriai (寄合格 Yoriai-kaku) in early 1868.

Boshin War

Following the Boshin War in 1868, Kondō and Hijikata led the Shinsengumi in their final battles against the new government and fought in the Battle of Toba–Fushimi in January 1868. The Shinsengumi returned to Edo and was later reformed into a unit known as the  and departed from Edo for Kōfu Castle on March 24 upon orders to suppress the uprisings there. But while on the way there, they received news on March 28 that the Kōfu Castle was taken by Imperial Court forces led by Itagaki Taisuke and later settled at the town of Katsunuma five miles east of Kōfu.

On March 29, 1868, Kondō, Hijikata and the Kōyō Chinbutai resisted an attack by the Imperial forces at the Battle of Kōshū-Katsunuma for about two hours but lost, and they were scattered and fled to Edo.

On April 11, 1868, Kondō, Hijikata and the Kōyō Chinbutai departed Edo again and later set up a temporary headquarters at the Kaneko family estate, northeast of Edo. They later moved to a new headquarters in Nagareyama on April 25, 1868.

During the training at Nagareyama on April 26, 1868, the Kōyō Chinbutai were caught by surprise by the 200 strong Imperial forces led by Vice-chief of Staff Arima Tota of Satsuma Domain and Kondō was ordered to go with them to their camp at Koshigaya. He was later brought to Itabashi on April 27, 1868, for questioning. On the same day Hijikata went to Edo to see Katsu Kaishū and asked for his help in getting a pardon for Kondō. On the following day, a messenger arrived at Itabashi with a letter seemingly written by Katsu requesting that Kondō's life to be spared, but the messenger was arrested and the request was denied.

Following his trial on April 30, 1868, Kondō was executed at Itabashi execution grounds on May 17, 1868. Hijikata, convalesced from a foot injury sustained at the Battle of Utsunomiya Castle, brought Kondō' head to Aizu and was said to have personally supervised the erection of Kondō's grave memorial at Tenneiji Temple.

Following the Battle of Bonari Pass, the next day on October 7, 1868, Hijikata met Saitō Hajime at the Inawashiro Castle and stayed at the Saitoya inn in Wakamatsu. When Hijikata decided to retreat from Aizu, Saitō and a small group of Shinsengumi parted with Hijikata and continued to battle in the Battle of Aizu until the very end. Hijikata and his rest of the Shinsengumi went to Sendai, where he joined up with Enomoto Takeaki's fleet.

He knew he was fighting a losing battle, and told the physician Matsumoto Ryōjun:
I am not going to battle to win. With the Tokugawa government about to collapse, it would be a disgrace if no one is willing to go down with it. That is why I must go. I will fight the best battle of my life to die for the country.

In October 1868, Hijikata and Ōtori Keisuke led Shogunate forces to occupy the fortress of Goryōkaku in the Battle of Hakodate, and continued to eliminate local resistance. When the short-lived Ezo Republic was founded in December, Hijikata was made a Deputy Defence Minister (Vice-minister of the Army). Imperial troops continued to attack by land and sea.

On May 6, 1869, Hijikata led a daring but doomed raid to steal the imperial warship Kōtetsu in the Battle of Miyako Bay, in the early morning, a number of oppositionists managed to board the ship via the Kaiten warship, but Kōtetsu repelled the attack and mowed them down with a Gatling gun. Many others including the captain of Kaiten were also killed by gunfire from the Imperial ships. The battle lasted only thirty minutes; Hijikata, the survivors and the Kaiten retreated to Hakodate.

Later on the fourth week of May 1869, Hijikata led the 230-strong Republic of Ezo forces and the surviving Shinsengumi against 600 strong Imperial forces during the Battle of Futamata for sixteen hours and were forced to retreat. The Imperial forces attacked again on the next day, only to retreat. On the following night, Hijikata led a successful raid on the Imperial forces' camp, forcing them to flee. Hijikata and the forces later retreated to Hakodate on June 10.

Death
During the Battle of Hakodate, the final battle of the Boshin War, Hijikata summoned his 16-year-old page, Ichimura Tetsunosuke on June 14 (lunar calendar May 5), 1869, to a private room in an inn. There, he entrusted Ichimura with a death poem, his katana, a letter, a photograph of himself, and several strands of his hair. Ichimura was instructed to bear them to the home of Hijikata's brother-in-law Satō Hikogorō in Hino. The death poem entrusted to Ichimura reads:

Though my body may decay on the island of Ezo, my spirit guards my lord in the East.

In the final conflict of the revolution, on June 20 (lunar calendar May 11), 1869, Hijikata was killed near the Ippongi Kanmon (一本木関門) by a bullet that shattered his lower back while leading his troops on horseback. His body was later claimed by Koshiba Chōnosuke and others.

Three days later on June 23 (lunar calendar May 14), 1869, a group of surviving Shinsengumi members under the last commander Sōma Kazue surrendered at Benten Daiba. A week after Hijikata's death, the Goryōkaku fortress was taken and all military forces of the Ezo Republic surrendered to the Meiji government on June 27, 1869, marking the end of Boshin War.

It is unknown where Hijikata was buried but it is believed that his body was laid to rest either at Goryōkaku, Hekketsuhi or Ganjoji.

Grave memorials and monuments

The first grave memorial of Hijikata was at Wakamatsu-chō, Hakodate, where he was killed, near the reconstructed Ippongi Kanmon in the present day compound of the Hakodate Welfare Centre.

A grave memorial of Hijikata was also erected at Sekidenji temple in Hino, Tokyo, Japan.

Other grave memorials were located at Shōmyōji (Hakodate, Hokkaido), Tenneji (Aizuwakamatsu), Jutokuji (Kita, Tokyo), Entsūji (Kita, Tokyo), etc.

A monument known as Hekketsuhi, was erected at Hakodate in memory of about 800 people, including Hijikata, who died during the Boshin War.

In 1875, Nagakura Shinpachi, with the help of Matsumoto Ryōjun and several of his surviving former Shinsengumi comrades including Saitō Hajime among others, erected the monument known as the Grave of Shinsengumi for Kondō Isami, Hijikata Toshizō, and the fallen comrades of the Shinsengumi at Jutoku-ji temple boundary in Itabashi, near Itabashi Station in Tokyo.

The Hijikata Toshizō Museum was later established in 1994 near the Sekidenji temple.

In popular culture
The Shinsengumi have become a popular subject for films, television, and manga and anime, ranging from historical drama to comedy and romance. As a leader of the group, Hijikata is usually a prominent character in such productions.

The novel Moeyo Ken, written by Ryōtarō Shiba, is a dramatization of Hijikata's life. The novel was adapted into a film in 1966 and a television series in 1970 where Hijikata was played by Asahi Kurizuka. Adapted from the same novel in the 2021 film Baragaki: Unbroken Samurai, Hijikata was played by Junichi Okada, a member of Japanese boy band V6.

Hijikata is depicted in the 1999 film Gohatto ("Taboo") (played by Takeshi Kitano) and the 2013 NHK Taiga drama Yae no Sakura (played by Jun Murakami). He was also played by Koji Yamamoto in both the 2004 NHK Taiga drama series Shinsengumi! (including the single-episode sequel Shinsengumi!: Hijikata Toshizo Saigo no Ichinichi) and 2015 morning drama series Asa ga Kita. He is the protagonist in Morita Kenji's manga Getsumei Seiki, and in Mibu Robin's Baragaki ("Red Demon").

He is also featured in a number of other anime and manga series, including Gintama (an inspired character named Hijikata Tōshirō 土方 十四郎), Peacemaker Kurogane, Intrigue in the Bakumatsu - Irohanihoheto, Ghost Slayers Ayashi (as a child, with a brief glimpse of his future death); Kaze Hikaru, Shura no Toki, Hell Girl, Soar High! Isami (inspired character: Toshi Tsukikage) and the popular otome game/anime series Hakuouki: Shinsengumi Kitan. Hijikata is also a supporting character in Shin Teito Monogatari, the prequel to the bestselling historical fantasy novel Teito Monogatari (Hiroshi Aramata). In the manga and anime, Drifters, Hijikata serves as one of the antagonists, who holds hatred to the protagonist, Shimazu Toyohisa, because he is an ancestor of the Shimazu clan he fought. He is also a main character in the manga Golden Kamuy, having been secretly imprisoned in Abashiri Prison instead of killed.
Hijikata appears in the 2014 historical fiction novel The Soldier and the Samurai.()

Hijikata is one of the main characters in the 2014 video game Ryū ga Gotoku Ishin!, voiced by Nakamura Shidō II. He has the visual likeness of previous series antagonist Yoshitaka Mine.

Hijikata also appears in the mobile game Fate/Grand Order as a limited 5-Star Berserker-class Servant. He debuted during the GUDAGUDA 2: Meiji Restoration event, and his Noble Phantasm is known as Shinsengumi, which gets stronger as his HP dwindles.

Notes

Further reading
 Stephane Lun 倫世豪. A Guide on Shinsengumi: the background and management. 2021 Kindle Paperwhite version. Amazon.com
Hijikata Toshizō and Okita Sōji. Hijikata Toshizō, Okita Sōji zenshokanshū edited by Kikuchi Akira. Tōkyō : Shin Jinbutsu Ōraisha, 1995. .
Itō Seirō. Hijikata Toshizō no nikki. Tokyo: Shin Jinbutsu Ōraisha, 2000.
Kikuchi Akira, et al.  Shashinshū Hijikata Toshizō no shōgai. Tōkyō : Shin Jinbutsu Ōraisha, 2001.
Miyoshi Tōru.  Senshi no fu: Hijikata Toshizō no sei to shi. Tōkyō: Shueisha, 1993.  .
Tanaka Mariko and Matsumoto Naoko.  Hijikata Toshizō Boshin senki. Tōkyō : Shin Jinbutsu Ōraisha, 1976.
"Moe Yo Ken" ('Burn, My Sword') by Shiba Ryoutarou (http://moeyoken.blogspot.com/2009/01/1.html) Entire fictional biography of Toshizo (link no longer active)
Hillsborough, Romulus. Shinsengumi: The Shōgun's Last Samurai Corps. North Clarendon, Vermont: Tuttle Publishing, 2005.  .

External links
Hino city museum
Hijikata Toshizo Archives
SamuraiWiki
SHINSENGUMI 新選組 Shinsengumi Website

1835 births
1869 deaths
Hatamoto
Japanese swordfighters of the Edo period
Shinsengumi
People of the Boshin War
People from Hino, Tokyo
Japanese warriors killed in battle
Tennen Rishin-ryū

Hijikata Toshizō


Strategic Forecasting, Inc., más conocida por el acrónimo StratFor, es una empresa privada estadounidense especializada en servicios de inteligencia y espionaje.

Fundación y Presidencia

Fue fundada en 1996 en Austin (Texas) por el actual Director ejecutivo (CEO) George Friedman, quien además ha ocupado los cargos de director general y jefe de inteligencia de la empresa. Fred Burton es el presidente de Stratfor, Vicepresidente de Contraterrorismo y Seguridad Corporativa.

Productos, servicios e historia
La principal tarea de Stratfor es la asesoría en el campo de la seguridad y la inteligencia a otras empresas privadas y organismos gubernamentales de todo el mundo.

Kosovo Crisis Center - Bombardeo de la OTAN sobre Kosovo en 1999

Desde su creación en 1996, Stratfor publica diariamente un informe de inteligencia. Su gran éxito se debe a la creación de su Centro de Crisis de Kosovo (Kosovo Crisis Center) durante los ataques aéreos sobre Yugoslavia por parte de la OTAN en 1999, lo que fue muy publicitado por la prensa (Time, Texas Monthly y otras publicaciones).

Breaking News - Atentados del 11 de septiembre de 2001

Desde finales de 1999 la empresa de espionaje Stratfor ha introducido un servicio de suscripción a través del cual ofrece la mayoría de sus análisis e informes. Durante los Atentados del 11 de septiembre de 2001, Stratfor publicó sus noticias breves ("Breaking News") así como análisis predictivos de las acciones susceptibles de ser adoptadas tanto por Al Qaeda como la administración de George W. Bush.

Software para reuniones privadas y aplicaciones iPhone
Stratfor tiene algunos productos de software disponibles para reuniones privadas, membresías corporativas, así como un negocio editorial que incluye el análisis de escritos y multimedia, y también aplicaciones para el iPhone.

Autoridad en temas de inteligencia - la sombra de la CIA
Stratfor ha sido citado por medios de comunicación como CNN, Bloomberg, Associated Press, Reuters, The New York Times y la BBC  como una reconocida autoridad en temas de inteligencia estratégica y táctica. La revista Barron's se refiere a Stratfor como La CIA en la sombra'' ("The Shadow CIA").

Filtración de correos electrónicos en 2012 por WikiLeaks

 The Global Intelligence Files - Stratfor
 Gifiles - Público, España
En febrero de 2012 la página web WikiLeaks anunció la filtración de más de 5 millones de correos electrónicos internos de STRATFOR. WikiLeaks facilitó a numerosos periódicos y medios de comunicación internacionales el acceso a la documentación. Anonymous afirma haber proporcionado a Wikileaks los datos. Una nota oficial de STRATFOR considera deplorable la publicación de los correos electrónicos. Según se desprende de estos correos, la profesionalidad real de la agencia no es pareja a la fama que soportaba.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
En inglés
 Página oficial de Stratfor (en inglés)
 The Global Intelligence Files - Stratfor - WikiLeaks
En español
 Gifiles - Público, España
 Wikileaks publica millones de correos de una empresa de análisis de EE UU, El País, 27/2/2012, España
 Stratfor vende como Inteligencia informes recolectables en Internet, 26/2/2012, Público, España
 Brasil quiere a Gran Bretaña bien lejos de Malvinas, Página 12 - Argentina

Empresas fundadas en 1996
Empresas de seguridad

Stratfor


Crkva sv. Ane je prema nekim izvorima bila katolička crkva u mostarskom naselju Podhum.

Povijest

Fra Petar Bakula je u Šematizmu iz 1867. spomenuo "predanje" o postojanju te crkve. Tako na 99. stranici navodi:  Međutim, osim "mišljenja",  nisu ponuđene nikakve pojedinosti iz kojih bi se moglo zaključiti o kakvoj građevini je riječ.

Osim novinskih članaka koji se pozivaju na fra Bakulin Šematizam, nema drugih izvora koji bi potkrijepili stvarno postojanje te crkve.

Izvori

Katoličke crkve u Mostaru
Franjevačke crkve u Bosni i Hercegovini

Crkva sv. Ane u Podhumu


Kosmos 2483, ruski vojni komunikacijski satelit iz programa Kosmos. Vrste je Strijela-3M (14F132 Rodnik S br. 15 L).
Lansiran je 15. siječnja 2013. godine u 1:26 s kozmodroma Pljesecka u Rusiji. Lansiran je u nisku orbitu oko planeta Zemlje raketom nosačem Rokot/Briz-KM. Orbita mu je 1478 km u perigeju i 1501 km u apogeju. Orbitna inklinacija mu je 82,50°. Spacetrackov kataloški broj je 39058. COSPARova oznaka je 2013-001-B. Zemlju obilazi u 115,75 minuta. Mase je 225 kg.

Ruska Federacija nije rekla koje je satelite ponijela raketa-nosač, no raketina ciljana orbita ukazuje da nosi tri Rodnika, satelita projektiranih za prosljeđivanje poruka između vojnih korisnika poslanih u udaljenim područjima.

Nekoliko satelita Rodnika poslano je u istoj misiji. Dio Briz-KM se odvojio tijekom misije.

Izvori
А.Железняков. Энциклопедия "Космонавтика". Хроника освоения космоса. (rus.)
Heavens-above (engl.)
NASA (engl.)
Planet4589.org Tablični prikaz podataka o satelitima (engl.)
Prirodoslovno-matematički fakultet u Zagrebu - Matematički odsjek Goran Igaly: EH rječnik

Vanjske poveznice
N2YO.com Search Satellite Database
Celes Trak SATCAT Format Documentation (engl.)
Kunstman  Satellites in Orbit (engl.)

Sateliti Kosmos

Kosmos 2483


الجامعة الدولية لإدارة الفنادق وبالإنكليزي (IMI University Centre) هي جامعة سويسرية لتدريس إدارة الفنادق، السياحة، المناسبات، الطبخ وإدارة الأعمال.
لغة التعليم هي الإنجليزية والمتخرج يحصل على شهادة من هذه الجامعة ومن جامعة مانشستر متروبوليتان Manchester Metropolitan رابع أكبر جامعة في بريطانيا من حيث عدد الطلاب.

نبذة تاريخية
وفي آب / أغسطس 1991 تأسسست الجامعة الدولي لإدارة الفنادق في فندق Waldstaetten في Weggis مع 55 طالباً. وبحلول عام 1995 حصل 180 طالبا على تعليمهم في IMI. وفي عام 1997 بدأت الدراسة في Kastanienbaum التي تبعد دقائق عن مدينة لوسيرن. واليوم هناك أكثر من 200 طالب يدرسون في كل فصل دراسي. وفي عام 2012 سيكون الموقع الجديد الذي سيوفر السكن لنحو 500 طالب مع أحدث التقنيات والمعايير الدولية.

الدراسات
الدراسات المعترف بها في جامعة مانشستر متروبوليتان (MMU)

1. شهادة في إدارة الفنادق والسياحة الدولية.

2. دبلوم في إدارة الفنادق والسياحة الدولية.

3. شهادة الدبلوم العالي في إدارة الفنادق الدولية.

4. شهادة الدبلوم العالي في إدارة السياحة الدولية.

5. شهادة الدبلوم العالي في إدارة الفنادق والسياحة الدولية.

6. شهادة الدبلوم العالي في إدارة الطهي الأوروبية.

الدراسات المصادق عليها من قبل جامعة مانشستر متروبوليتان (MMU)
 درجة البكالوريوس مع مرتبة الشرف في الإدارة الدولية للفنادق
 درجة البكالوريوس مع مرتبة الشرف في إدارة الفنادق والسياحة الدولية
 درجة البكالوريوس مع مرتبة الشرف في إدارة الفنادق والمناسبات الدولية
 درجة البكالوريوس مع مرتبة الشرف في إدارة السياحة الدولية
 درجة البكالوريوس مع مرتبة الشرف في السياحة الدولية وإدارة المناسبات
 درجة البكالوريوس مع مرتبة الشرف في إدارة الطبخ الأوروبي

الدراسات العليا
 ماجستير في إدارة الأعمال في إدارة الفنادق الدولية
 دبلوم دراسات عليا في إدارة الفنادق الدولية

دراسات أخرى
 شهادة الـ (FESC) باللغة الإنجليزية (Foundation in English Studies Course)
 شهادة الـ (UEPC) باللغة الإنجليزية (University English Preparatory Course)
 شهادة اللغة الإنجليزية المكثف أو (IEC) (Intensive English Certificate)

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 موقع جامعة إدارة الأعمال والفنادق في سويسرا

إدارة الفنادق
جامعات سويسرا
هيئات تعليمية أسست في 1991
تأسيسات سنة 1991 في سويسرا
التعليم في لوسرن
منظمات مقرها في لوسرن

الجامعة الدولية لإدارة الفنادق


Kut (), Irak'ın doğu kesiminde, Dicle Nehri kıyısında Vasıt ilinin merkezi kent. 1960'a kadar tüm il bu isimle anılırken bu tarihten sonra Vasıt adını almıştır.

Bir su dağıtım kanalı olan Şatt'ül Geraf'ın Dicle'den ayrıldığı noktada yer alması, kent yakınlarındaki Kut barajının Dicle'den sulama kanallarına su sağlaması ve tarım ürünlerinin pazarlandığı bir ticaret merkezi olması şehre önem kazandırmıştır.

Kutü'l-Amare'nin gelişimi eskiden beri Dicle'nin yatak değişikliklerine bağlı oldu. Bir çöküş döneminden sonra kent, ırmağın bugünkü durumunu alması üzerine bir ırmak limanı haline geldi ve yeniden canlandı. I. Dünya Savaşı sırasında bölgeye saldıran Britanyalılarla Türkler arasındaki çarpışmalarda büyük ölçüde harap oldu. Townshend komutasındaki Britanya kuvvetleri 1915'te kenti işgal ettiyse de Türkler tarafından kuşatıldılar ve beş aylık bir kuşatmadan sonra teslim olmak zorunda kaldılar (Nisan 1916). Kent, Şubat 1917'de Maude'un birliklerince geri alındı. Sonraki yıllarda yeniden inşa edildi.

Kaynakça

Ayrıca
 Kutülamare Kuşatması

El-Kut


František Brábek (n. 9 decembrie 1848, Branovice, Týn nad Vltavou – d. 23 mai 1926, Praga), menționat în sursele maghiare ca Brábek Ferenc, a fost un profesor universitar și traducător ceh din limba maghiară. A predat limba maghiară la Universitatea Carolină și la Universitatea Tehnică din Praga. A tradus numeroase opere literare, inclusiv mai multe piese de teatru. A publicat manuale și memorii de călătorie și a scris articole pe teme științifice și istorice pentru reviste. A fost autorul mai multor articole pe teme științifice pentru dicționarele enciclopedice ale lui Rieger și Otto. A luptat pentru apropierea culturală cehă-maghiară.

Biografie
S-a născut pe 9 decembrie 1848 la ferma Branovice din Týn nad Vltavou, în familia unui funcționar public. În anul 1855 s-a mutat, împreună cu părinții, în satul unguresc Szerencs din apropiere de Tokaj. A început studii la gimnaziul din orașul învecinat Miskolc.

În 1862 familia s-a întors înapoi în Boemia. A continuat aici studiile gimnaziale (la Praga și Tábor) și după absolvire, în anul 1869, a efectuat cu prietenul Václav Robert z Kounic o călătorie în Ungaria. (Experiența sa de călătorie a fost prezentată în 1872 în revista Světozor din Praga, inițial sub pseudonimul Feri Branovický, și un an mai târziu în cartea Procházky po Uhrách.)

În perioada 1869-1871 a studiat științele naturale la Facultatea de Filozofie din Praga. A lucrat apoi ca secretar al colectivului care a redactat Dicținarul enciclopedic ale lui Rieger (Riegrův slovník naučný). A colaborat cu numeroase personalități cehe care au contribuit la redactarea dicționarului. A avut contacte acolo cu jurnaliști de la Národní listy, precum Jan Neruda, Karel Sladkovský, Julius Grégr și alții. Cea mai mare influență asupra lui a avut-o Neruda, care l-a introdus cercurile artistice. A participat, de asemenea, la adunările periodice ale jurnaliștilor, scriitorilor, actorilor și compozitorilor în cafeneaua "U Ježíška". Brábek a devenit treptat colaborator extern al majorității revistelor din Praga și membru al grupului literar Lumírovci.

În 1874 a fost atestat ca "traducător juridic" de limba maghiară al tribunalului districtual din Praga. Un an mai târziu, a fost admis ca profesor de limba maghiară la Universitatea Tehnică din Praga. El a mai predat, de asemenea, din 1883, la Universitatea Carolină din Praga.

A fost o persoană publică și a participat la activitățile asociațiilor. De exemplu, în 1871 a fost ales unul dintre directorii asociației Umělecká beseda pentru mediul rural. În 1877 a devenit membru al Clubului de științe naturale. În iulie 1885 a însoțit o delegație de 1.400 de cehi la expoziție din Pesta, traducând și conducând toate negocierile cu oficialii maghiari. În 1907 a fost numit raportor al Departamentului Oriental al Radei Naționale Cehe.

În timpul Primului Război Mondial un număr mare de cehi au apelat la el, solicitându-i să le traducă notele scrise pe plicurile nedesfăcute ale scrisorilor trimise soldaților răniți aflați în spitalele din Ungaria. Prin intermediul presei el i-a asigurat că cuvântul "Tóth" scris uneori pe plic nu are același înțeles cu cuvântul german "tot" (mort), ci este un nume de familie comun în Ungaria. El a oferit, de asemenea, o traducere a mai multor termeni pe care Poșta Maghiară îi folosea, de obicei, pentru a justifica returnarea scrisorilor.

De asemenea, el a lucrat ca director al birourilor auxiliare ale administrației politice provinciale.

El a murit pe 23 mai 1926 în sanatoriul Podolské și a fost înmormântat la Olšany.

Activitatea literară
František Brábek i-a familiarizat pe cititorii cehi cu stilul de viață din Ungaria și cu operele celor mai importanți scriitori maghiari. A fost cunoscut ca traducător de opere literare, în special piese de teatru, din limba maghiară. A condus cercul literar Lumírovci și a colaborat la unele traduceri cu Jaroslav Vrchlický. A mai publicat ghiduri de conversație și cărți de călătorie. A contribuit la dicționarele enciclopedice ale lui Otto și Rieger cu articole referitoare la Ungaria și la maghiari. A publicat numeroase articole în reviste. A fost interesat, de asemenea, de științele naturale și a efectuat câteva traduceri din limba franceză.

A publicat următoarele scrieri:
 Procházky po Uhrách (1874), reportaj al călătoriei efectuate în Ungaria în anul 1869
 Mluvnice jazyka maďarského (1875, reeditată de mai multe ori)
 Maďarsko-český příruční slovník (1910, reeditată)
 Francia nyelvtan és olvasókönyv (manual de gramatică și de lectură franceză pentru maghiari; în colaborare cu František Pover și František Vojtíšek, 1922)
 Česko-maďarská terminologie úřední (1922)

Traduceri din limba maghiară:
 Sándor Petőfi: Básně Aleksandra Petöfiho (1871, în colaborare cu Karel Tůma). Într-un articol de ziar Jan Neruda a lăudat publicarea acestei traduceri.
 Jenő Rákosi: Aesop, veselohra v pěti jednáních (1873, în colaborare cu Jaroslav Vrchlický)
 Mór Jókai: Zlatý muž (Omul de aur) (1875)
 Mór Jókai: Komedianti života (1878)
 Mór Jókai: Emerich Fortunát : denník starého pána z roku 1522 (1881)
 Kálmán Mikszáth: Slavná župa (1886)
 Gergely Csiky: Proletáři : drama o čtyřech jednáních (1889)
 Imre Madách: Tragedie člověka (Tragedia omului) (1893, în colaborare cu Jaroslav Vrchlický). Reprezentarea acestei drame la Teatrul Național din Praga a avut parte de un mare succes și a devenit un eveniment important în istoria relațiilor teatrale ceho-maghiare.
 Mór Jókai: Cikánský baron (1894)
 János Arany: Budova smrt : hunská pověsť (1897, în colaborare cu Jaroslav Vrchlický)

Traducere din limba franceză:
 Jules Verne: Tajemný ostrov (Insula misterioasă) (1878)

A contribuit la dicționarele enciclopedice ale lui Rieger și Otto, apărute ambele sub brandul Bbk. Pentru primul dicționar a scris mai multe articole pe teme științifice, precum cel referitor la brochantit.

El a scris, de asemenea, o serie de articole în ziare și reviste, ca de exemplu:
 O pokrocích v oboru věd přírodních za posledního dvacetiletí v Uhrách (Vesmír, 1878)
 Komenský ve styku se živlem maďarským (Národní listy, 1879)
 Moře (Světozor, 1879)
 Království za knihu (Paleček, 1882) — un incident plin de umor despre care se pretinde că a fost raportat de premierul maghiar Kálmán Tisza

Importanța activității sale
Brábek a depus un efort pentru apropierea ceho-maghiară. El a crezut că acest lucru va contribui la creșterea cooperării celor două națiuni în domeniul economic și politic.

În anul 1908 a fost numit, împreună cu Jaroslav Vrchlický, membru de onoare al Societății Petőfi. El a devenit, de asemenea, membru al Societății Kisfaludy.

Familia
În 15 octombrie 1877 s-a căsătorit în Biserica "Sf. Vojtěch" din cartierul praghez Nové Město cu Marie Kaurová  (1848-1906), fiica arhitectului Jan Kaura. (1820-1874).

A avut mai mulți copii. Un fiu pe nume Ladislav (1880-?) a studiat dreptul și a devenit notar, iar un alt fiu pe nume Vilém (1891-?) a obținut un post de funcționar la o bancă. Mai târziu a avut o fiică pe nume Albertina (1897-??). Ceilalți doi copii, fiul Václav (1878-1879) și fiica Marie (1882-1884) au murit la o vârstă fragedă.

Note de subsol

Note

Legături externe
 Listă de lucrări în catalogul Republicii Cehe (Souborném katalogu ČR), al căror autor sau subiect este František Brábek
 Brabek Ferenc v maďarském divadelním lexikonu
 Pražská policejní přihláška Františka Brábka a jeho rodiny

Nașteri în 1848
Nașteri pe 9 decembrie
Decese în 1926
Decese pe 23 mai
Scriitori cehi
Traducători cehi
Cadre didactice universitare ale Universității Caroline din Praga

František Brábek


සුභාෂිතය යනු සීතාවක යුගයේ විසු කවියකු වන අලගියවන්න මුකවෙටි පඬිතුමා විසින් රචිත උපදේශ කාව්‍ය සංග්‍රහයකි. කාව්‍යය මගින් කුසලයෙහි අගය, සුදන දුදන ගුණ, බොරු නොකීමේ අගය, උඩගු නොවීම, උගතුන්ගේ ස්වභාවය ආදිය පැහැදිලි කෙරේ.

මුලින් බෞද්ධයෙකු වූ මුකවෙටිතුමා පසුකාලීනව කිතුනු ආගමට යොමු වූවෙක් වූයේ ය. සුභාෂිතය වැනි බොදු පසුබිමක් සහිත නිර්මාණ මුලින් බිහි කළ ඔහු පසුකාලීන ව කොන්ස්තන්තීනු හටන, පරංගි හටන වැනි හටන් කාව්‍ය නිර්මාණය කළේ එනිසා විය හැක. පොදු ජන ජිවිතයේ සෑම අංශයක් කෙරෙහිම බලපාන ප්‍රකට කාරනා හා උපමා සුභාශිතය පුරා විහිදී ඇත.

උපදේශ කාව්‍ය
සීතාවක යුගය

සුභාෂිතය


Amt Probstei er et amt i det nordlige Tyskland, beliggende i den nordlige del af Kreis Plön. Kreis Plön ligger i den østlige/centrale del af delstaten Slesvig-Holsten. Administrationen i amtet er beliggende i kommunen Schönberg (Holsten). En del af administrationen findes i kommunen Laboe.

Amtet ligger i landskabet Probstei nordøst for den ydre del af Kieler Förde. Det udgør den vestlige del af halvøen Wagrien med kyst ud til Østersøen. Probstei er præget af landbrug og turisme.

Kommuner i amtet

(indbyggertal 2008)

Eksterne kilder/henvisninger

 * Amt Probstei
 Urlaubsregion Probstei

Probstei

Amt Probstei


Aminata Bah, née le  à Fria en République de Guinée, est une économiste et femme politique guinéenne.

Le , elle est nommée conseillère au sein du Conseil national de la transition (CNT) de la république de Guinée en tant que représentante du parti politique PACT.

Notes et références

Voir aussi
 Conseil national de la transition

Membre du Conseil national de transition guinéen de 2021
Naissance à Fria
Naissance en février 1977
Étudiant de l'université Gamal-Abdel-Nasser de Conakry
Étudiant de l'université Kofi Annan de Guinée

Aminata Bah


Samwel Melkonjan (; ; * 15. März 1984 in Jerewan, Armenische SSR, Sowjetunion) ist ein ehemaliger armenischer Fußballnationalspieler.

Karriere
Melkonjan spielte für die armenischen Klubs Spartak und Bananz Jerewan, MIKA Aschtarak und für den ukrainischen Verein Metalurh Donezk, bevor er in der Winterpause der Saison 2011/12 einen Zweijahresvertrag beim bulgarischen Erstligisten FC Tschernomorez Burgas unterschrieb. Nach dem Ende der Saison mit nur zehn Einsätze und keinem einzigen Tor trennten sich der bulgarische Klub und Melkonjan im beidseitiges Einvernehmen. Obwohl er eine Option für einen Wechsel zum bulgarischen Lokomotive Sofia bekam, unterschrieb Melkonjan im August 2012 einen Vertrag beim armenischen Erstligisten Ulisses Jerewan. Es folgten weitere Stationen bei Gandsassar Kapan, erneut MIKA Aschtarak und dem FC Alaschkert Martuni, wo er 2017 seine aktive Karriere mit dem Gewinn der Meisterschaft beendete.

Erfolge
 Armenischer Pokalsieger: 2007, 2011
 Armenischer Meister: 2017

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Fußballnationalspieler (Armenien)
Fußballspieler (Metalurh Donezk)
Fußballspieler (FC Banants Jerewan)
Fußballspieler (FC Tschernomorez Burgas)
Fußballspieler (FC Ulisses Jerewan)
Fußballspieler (MIKA Aschtarak)
Fußballspieler (Gandsassar Kapan)
Fußballspieler (FC Alaschkert Martuni)
Sowjetbürger
Armenier
Geboren 1984
Mann

Samwel Melkonjan


Zemlja Punta (egipatski: pwnt (čitanje: pwene(t)) bila je antička država. Uz to što je bila trgovački partner s Egiptom, poznata je i po proivodnji i trgovini zlatom, aromatičnon smolom, ebanovinom, slonovačom i divljim životinjama. Regija je znana iz egipatskih tekstova i trgovačkih ekspedicija iz Egipta. Neki tvrde da to mjesto odgovara mjestu Opone u Somaliji, koji će kasnije otkriti stari Grci. Drugi pak navode da je Punt zapravo biblijska zemlja Put ili Havilah.

Ponekad je Punt bio nazivan ta netjer, "Zemlja Boga". Točna lokacija Punta ne zna se. Najviše povjesničara vjeruje kako je Zemlja Punta bila jugoistočno od Egipta, negdje na Crvenom moru: današnji Džibuti, Somalija, sjeveroistočna Etiopija, Eritreja i sjeveroistočni Sudan. Moguće je i da je obuhvaćala čitav Afrički rog i južni dio arapskog poluotoka. Danas u Somaliji postoji Puntland, administrativna regija na kraju afričkog roga koja je dobila ime po antičkoj državi.

Izvori

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