The King George V-class battleships''' were the most modern British battleships in commission during the Second World War. Five ships of this class were built: HMS King George V (commissioned 1940), HMS Prince of Wales (1941), HMS Duke of York (1941), HMS Anson (1942) and HMS Howe (1942). The names honoured King George V, and his sons, Edward VIII, who had been Prince of Wales, and George VI who was Duke of York before ascending to the throne; the final two ships of the class were named after prominent 18th century admirals of the Royal Navy.

The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 limited all of the number, displacement, and armament of warships built following its ratification, and this was extended by the First London Naval Treaty but these treaties were due to expire in 1936. With increased tension between Britain, the United States, Japan, France and Italy, it was supposed by the designers of these battleships that the treaty might not be renewed and the ships of the King George V class were designed with this possibility in mind.

All five ships saw combat during World War II, with King George V and Prince of Wales being involved in the action on 24 May to 27 May 1941 that resulted in the German battleship  being sunk. Following this, on 25 October 1941, Prince of Wales was sent to Singapore, arriving on 2 December and becoming the flagship of Force Z. On 10 December, Prince of Wales was attacked by Japanese bombers and sank with the loss of 327 of its men. In the aftermath of the sinking, King George V, Duke of York, Howe and Anson provided escort duty to convoys bound for Russia. On 1 May 1942, King George V collided with the destroyer HMS Punjabi, resulting in King George V being sent to Gladstone docks for repairs on 9 May, before returning to escort duty on 1 July 1942. In October 1942 Duke of York was sent to Gibraltar as the new flagship of Force H and supported the Allied landings in North Africa in November. Anson and Howe would also provide cover for multiple convoys bound for Russia from late 1942 until 1 March 1943, when Howe provided convoy cover for the last time. In May 1943 King George V and Howe were moved to Gibraltar in preparation for Operation Husky. The two ships bombarded Trapani naval base and Favignana on 11–12 July and also provided cover for Operation Avalanche on 7 to 14 September. During this time, Duke of York and Anson participated in Operation Gearbox, which was designed to draw attention away from Operation Husky. Duke of York was also instrumental in sinking the German battleship  on 26 December 1943. This battle was also the last time that British and German capital ships fought each other.

In late March 1945, King George V and Howe were sent to the Pacific with other Royal Navy vessels as a separate group to function with the U.S. Navy's Task Force 57. On 4 May 1945, King George V and Howe led a forty-five-minute bombardment of Japanese air facilities in the Ryukyu Islands. King George V fired her guns in anger for the last time in a night bombardment of Hamamatsu on 29 and 30 July 1945. Duke of York and Anson were also dispatched to the Pacific, but arrived too late to participate in hostilities. On 15 August Duke of York and Anson accepted the surrender of Japanese forces occupying Hong Kong and, along with King George V,  were present for the official Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay. Following the end of World War II, the ships were phased out of service and by 1957 all of the ships had been sold off for scrap, a process that was completed by 1958.

 Design and description
The King George V class was the result of a design process that began in 1928. Under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, a "holiday" from building capital ships was in force through to 1931. The battleships of the British Navy consisted of only those old battleships that had been kept after the end of World War I, plus the two new, but slow s. In 1928, the Royal Navy started considering the requirements for the warships that it expected to start building in 1931.

The First London Naval Treaty of 1930 extended the "shipbuilding holiday" through to 1937. Planning began again in 1935, drawing on previous design work. The new class would be built up to the Treaty maximum displacement of 35,000 tons. Alternatives with 16-inch, 15-inch and 14-inch main guns were considered, and at that time the 15-inch armament was chosen. Most designs were intended to steam at 27 knots with full power, and it was decided that the likely decisive range in a battle would be from 12,000 to 16,000 yards. Armour and torpedo protection formed a much greater portion of the design than that of the previous Royal Navy battleships.

In October 1935, the decision was made to use 14-inch guns. At the time, the United Kingdom was negotiating for a continuation of the Naval Treaties with the other parties of the London Treaty. The British Government favoured a reduction in the maximum calibre of battleship gun to 14 inches and in early October, the government learned that the United States would support this position if the Japanese could also be persuaded to do so. Since the large naval guns needed to be ordered by the end of the year, the British Admiralty decided on 14-inch guns for the King George V class. The Second London Naval Treaty, a result of the Second London Naval Conference begun in December 1935, was signed in March 1936 by the United States, France and Britain and this set a main battery of 14-inch naval guns as the limit.

 Propulsion
The King George Vs were the first British battleships to alternate engine rooms and boilers in the machinery spaces, which reduced the likelihood of one hit causing the loss of all power. The machinery was arranged in four engine (turbine) rooms and four boiler rooms, with the eight machinery compartments alternating in pairs of engine or boiler rooms. Each pair of boiler rooms formed a unit with a pair of engine rooms. Nominal full power was  with  steam at . The machinery was designed to operate at an overload power of  and Prince of Wales "...main machinery steamed at overload powers of  with no difficulties..." during the hunt for the Bismarck. The Admiralty 3-drum boilers operated very efficiently, and similar boilers of nearly identical power, fitted to the older battleship  during her rebuilding in 1937 achieved a full-power specific fuel consumption  of 0.748 lb per shp on trials which compared favourably with contemporary battleships.Garzke & Dulin, p. 66. The  achieved 0.753 lb/hr and 0.816 lb/hr on her preliminary and full-power trials, respectively, in 1936. During her full-power trials on 10 December 1940, King George V at  displacement achieved 28 knots with 111,700 shp at 230 rpm and a specific fuel consumption of 0.715 lb per shp.King George V had her paravanes streamed during her full power trials, which caused an estimated .7 knot loss of speed. The Duke of York at her trials, on 1 November 1941, displacing 42,970 tons (sea slight, wind moderate), attained a speed of 20.6 knots at 115 rpm and 28,720 shp and 28.6 knots at 232 rpm and 111,200 shp. After 1942 the Royal Navy was forced to use fuel oils with considerably higher viscosity and greater seawater content than these boilers could efficiently use. The poor quality of the oil fuel combined with the seawater contamination reduced the efficiency of the steam power plant and increased the maintenance required. By 1944 the specific full-power fuel consumption had increased to 0.8 lb per shp, and boiler maintenance was becoming increasingly difficult. The Admiralty had been aware of this problem and were designing new types of oil sprayers and burners that could burn the available fuel oil much more efficiently, and sometime after 1944, Duke of York and Anson were fitted with new, higher-pressure oil sprayers and burners that restored the boilers to full efficiency. These same oil sprayers and burners were used in  along with other detail improvements so that Vanguard achieved a full-power specific fuel consumption of 0.63 lb per shp while using the same steam pressures and temperatures as used on the King George V class.

 Protection

The armour protection of the King George V-class battleships was designed after consideration of the Royal Navy's experience of World War I and upon testing between the wars. The design of this class was dominated by the provision of protection. Magazine protection was given priority through the provision of a thick belt and deck armour and by placing the magazines at the lowest levels of the ship.

The horizontal protection over the magazines consisted of three layers with a total thickness of ; the weather deck consisted of 1.25 inches of Ducol (D) steel, the main armoured deck was of non-cemented steel armour   thick over a 0.5-inch D steel deck and above the shell rooms there was another 1.5-inch splinter deck. The powder magazines were below the shell rooms for added protection, a practice that was begun with the Nelson-class battleships. The weatherdeck thickness was the same over the machinery spaces but there the main armoured deck was reduced to  over a 0.5-inch D steel deck. The main armoured deck was continued forward of the forward armoured bulkhead and gradually reduced from full thickness to 2.5 inches, while aft of the after magazines an armoured turtle-back deck covered the steering gear with 4.5–5 inches of armour whilst also providing protection along the waterline.

The main armour belt was  high and covered the hull side from the main armoured deck to finish  below the deep waterline. Post-World War I studies had indicated that it was possible for delayed-action AP shells to dive under a shallow belt and penetrate into vital areas of the ship and therefore the main belt was made to extend as far below the waterline as possible. Along the ship, the belt started just forward of the forward turret and finished just aft of the aft turret. The armour consisted of three equal-depth strakes. The strakes were tongue-and-grooved together, and each individual plate in a strake was keyed into neighbouring plates.Raven & Roberts, p. 293 The belt was at its thickest above and at the waterline. Most secondary and some primary sources describe the maximum thickness of the belt armour varying between 14 and 15 inches (possibly due to rounding to the nearest inch).Raven & Roberts, pp. 283, 293 Some sources give more detail: along the magazines, the belt was 14.7 inches thick (373 mm) cemented armour, laminated onto 1 inch (25.4 mm) of "composition material" (cement) and an additional 0.875 inch (22.2 mm) of Ducol steel hull plating (this steel was also effective as armour),Garzke & Dulin, pp. 247–249 over the machinery spaces, the belt was 13.7 inches (349 mm). The lower section of belt tapered to a thickness of between 4.5 in and 5.5 in.Breyer, pp. 182–184 Armour protection was even better than the thickness of armour would indicate due to the improved qualities of the British cemented armour which provided excellent resistance. The armoured belt, together with armoured bulkheads fore and aft and the armoured main deck, formed an "armoured citadel" protecting magazines and machinery. The armoured bulkhead was 12 in (305 mm) thick forward and 10 in (254 mm) thick at the after end of the citadel The main armoured belt extended forward and aft of the main armoured bulkheads with reduced height to protect the waterline and gradually reduced in thickness from 13 to 5.5 inches. Immune zone calculations vary widely from source to source.Raven & Roberts, p. 293 state:"...it was estimated that the belt armour would withstand 15 inch shells at a range of about 13,500 yards (15 inch armour) and 15,600 yards (14 inch armour) at normal inclination...". The Magazines were stated to withstand 15-inch plunging fire up to 33,500 yards.Okun, Nathan. Armor protection of the battleship KM Bismarck. Nathan Okun calculated against the German 38 cm SK C/34 naval gun (15 inch) mounted on the contemporary s, the immunity zone was from 21,500 to 36,600 yards over the magazines, 23,800 to 33,200 yards over the machinery. Okun's calculations omit the 1.5" splinter deck over the magazine, as his article states that there is no armour over the magazines below the 5.88" armour deck. The armour provision was designed to offer protection from guns of a greater calibre than the class mounted themselves, and was on a scale second to none at the time the ships were designed. Indeed, the armour protection of these vessels was to be subsequently exceeded only by the Japanese battleships of the.

The main gun turrets were relatively lightly protected in comparison to contemporary battleships. Extensive levels of flash protection were employed. Maximum turret and barbette armour was reduced to 12.75 inches in this class from the 16 inches of the Nelson class. The turret faces had 12.75 in (324 mm) of armour at the front;  sides (at the gun chamber); 6.86 inches (284–174 mm) on the sides and rear; the roof plate was 5.88 in (149 mm) thick. The main armament barbettes were of varying thickness: 12.75 in (324 mm) thick on the sides, 11.76 in (298 mm) forward and 10.82 in (275 mm) aft of the turret. To some extent the higher quality of the armour minimized the loss of protection and the turret's flat face improved ballistic resistance at long ranges, while the low profile of the turret minimized target area at closer ranges. The reduction in turret and barbette armour was a compromise in favour of the thickest possible protection for the magazines. The extensive anti-flash protection in the turrets and barbettes was designed to ensure that the magazines would remain safe even if the turrets and/or barbettes were penetrated. The secondary gun mounts, casements and handling rooms received only light plating of 0.98 in (25 mm) to protect against splinters.

Unlike contemporary foreign battleships and the preceding Nelson-class battleships, the King George V class had comparatively light conning tower protection with 4-inch (102 mm) sides, 3 in (75 mm) forward and aft and a 1.47 in (38 mm) roof plate.Burt, p. 389. Side and front data from Burt, rest from Garzke and Dulin. The RN's analysis of World War I revealed that command personnel were unlikely to use an armoured conning tower, preferring the superior visibility of unarmoured bridge positionsTestimony of Ted Briggs. For example, Captain Kerr and Admiral Holland commanded the Hood from her unarmoured bridge. Stability and weight considerations clearly played an important part in the British decision to limit superstructure armour. The conning tower armour was sufficient to protect against smaller ship guns and shell fragments.

 Underwater protection

The hull below the waterline, along the main armour belt, formed the side protection system (SPS). It was subdivided into a series of longitudinal compartments in a void-liquid-void layout; the outer and inner were filled with air, and the middle compartment with liquid (fuel or water). The outer hull plating in the region of the SPS was thin to reduce potential splinter damage from a torpedo. The outer compartment of the SPS was normally an empty or 'void' space (containing only air) and this allowed the initial explosion from a torpedo to expand while minimizing damage to the ship. The centre compartment was filled with oil or seawater and this spread the pressure pulse over a larger area while the liquid contained any metal splinters that were created from the torpedo explosion. The inboard compartment was another void space and served to contain any liquid leaking from the liquid layer and any remaining pressure pulse from the torpedo explosion. Inboard of the final void space was an armoured bulkhead which varied in thickness from 1.5 in (37 mm) over the machinery spaces to 1.75 inch (44 mm) abreast of the magazines. This bulkhead formed the "holding bulkhead" and it was designed to resist the residual blast effects from the torpedo hit. If this final inner bulkhead was penetrated a further set of subdivided compartments would contain any leaks; inboard of the holding bulkhead the ship was highly subdivided into small compartments containing auxiliary machinery spaces.
The SPS void-liquid-void layer was generally about 13 feet wide, and the auxiliary machinery spaces added approximately another 8 feet of space from the outer hull plating to the major machinery spaces. The only exception to this was abreast A and B Engine Rooms, where the auxiliary machinery spaces were omitted, but another void space, about three feet wide was substituted in its place.
Above the SPS, and directly behind the armour belt, was a series of compartments, typically used for washrooms or storage spaces, which were designed to allow for upward venting of overpressure from a torpedo hit. This scheme was designed to protect against a 1000 lb warhead, and had been tested and found effective in full-scale trials. The SPS was also a key component of the ship's damage control system, as lists resulting from flooding could be corrected by counterflooding empty void spaces, and/or draining normally liquid filled compartments. In the case of the loss of the Prince of Wales these spaces were used for counterflooding to reduce list.

 was sunk on 10 December 1941, from what was believed to have been hits by six aerial launched torpedoes and a 500 kg bomb. However, an extensive 2007 survey by divers of the wreck of Prince of Wales determined definitively that there had been only 4 torpedo hits. Three of these four hits had struck the hull outside the area protected by the SPS. In the case of the fourth, the SPS holding bulkhead appeared intact abreast the area where the hull was hit. The conclusion of the subsequent 2009 paper and analysis was that the primary cause of the sinking was uncontained flooding along "B" propeller shaft. The propeller shaft external shaft bracket failed, and the movement of the unsupported shaft then tore up the bulkheads all the way from the external propeller shaft gland through to B Engine Room itself. This allowed flooding into the primary machinery spaces. The damage and flooding was exacerbated by poor damage control and the premature abandonment of the after magazines and a telephone communications switchboard. "B" propeller shaft had been stopped, and then restarted several minutes after being struck by a torpedo. Subsequent inquiries into her loss at the time identified the need for a number of design improvements, which were implemented to a lesser or greater degree on the other four ships of the class. Ventilation and the watertightness of the ventilation system were improved, while internal passageways within the machinery spaces were redesigned and the communications system made more robust. Improved propeller shaft glands and shaft locking gear were introduced. Some of the supposed failures of the ship were nevertheless predicated on the assumption that a torpedo had hit and defeated the SPS at or about frame 206Middlebrook, pp. 198–203 Middlebrook also assumed a hit at frame 206 based upon the Bucknill Committee analysis but discounted the likelihood of defeat of the SPS. at the same time as the hit that damaged B propeller shaft. The 2007 survey's  video footage evidence showed however that the hull is basically intact in this area. The inability to survey the wreck during the war no doubt frustrated efforts to arrive at a definitive cause for the loss of Prince of Wales and, subsequently, that somewhat flawed analysis has led to a number of incorrect theories regarding the reasons for the sinking being inadvertently disseminated over the years.

On examination of the Prince of Wales after her encounter with the German battleship Bismarck and the heavy cruiser , three damaging hits were discovered which had caused about 400 tons of water, from all three hits, to enter the ship.Garzke & Dulin, p. 190, states that Captain Leach had informed Admiral Wake-Walker "...best speed was 27 knots because of 600 tons of flooding water...", but this is contradicted by the official damage report, ADM 267/111. One of these hits, fired from Bismarck, had penetrated the torpedo protection outer bulkhead in a region very close to an auxiliary machinery space causing local flooding within the SPS, while the inner, 1.5-inch (2×19 mm)Garzke & Dulin, pp. 252, 234: "*Two plate construction" D-steel holding bulkhead, however, remained intact, as the German shell was a dud. The German shell would have actually exploded in the water if its fuse had worked properly, due to the depth which the shell had to dive before striking the Prince of Wales under her armoured belt.

 Armament

 Main armament

The King George V and the four other ships of the class as built carried ten BL 14 inch Mk VII naval guns, in two quadruple turrets fore and aft and a single twin turret behind and above the fore turret. There was debate within the Admiralty over the choice of gun calibre. There was a routine debate in the Admiralty over gun size, armour, speed, torpedo protection and AA firepower and the correct ratio between these attributes for the King George V battleships; other European powers preferred 15-inch and the U.S. 16-inch main guns. The Admiralty chose a ship with high speed, enhanced protection, heavy AA and ten 14-inch guns. The Admiralty controller wrote that a change to 15-inch guns would entail an 18-month delay (which would have meant no new RN battleships until 1942). Stephen Roskill noted that the London Naval Treaty stipulated a 14-inch maximum gun size, with an opt out clause, which Britain was very reluctant to exercise, since the Admiralty was hoping to persuade the other naval powers to stick to 14-inch guns, though there was little or no debate within Parliament. The Admiralty studied vessels armed with a variety of main armaments including nine  guns in three turrets, two forward and one aft. While this was well within the capability of British shipyards, the design was quickly rejected as they felt compelled to adhere to the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936 and there was a serious shortage of skilled technicians and ordnance designers, along with compelling pressures to reduce weight.

The class was designed to carry twelve 14-inch guns in three quadruple turrets and this configuration had a heavier broadside than the nine 15-inch guns. It proved impossible to include this amount of firepower and the desired level of protection on a 35,000 ton displacement and the weight of the superimposed quadruple turret made the stability of the vessel questionable. The second forward turret was changed to a smaller two-gun turret in exchange for better armour protection, reducing the broadside weight to below that of the nine gun arrangement. The 14-inch Armour Piercing (AP) shell also carried a very large bursting charge of .USN Bureau of Ordnance, Naval Ordnance 1937 Edition, paragraph 1318: "The impact damage which a projectile itself does is entirely secondary to that which results from its burst. The design of most naval projectiles is based primarily on using the projectile as a vehicle with which to carry a quantity of explosive into a ship and secondarily to provide missiles with which to carry the force of the explosion." The armour-piercing capability of the gun and its ammunition is exhibited by the conning tower on the wreck of the German battleship Bismarck, provided with 14-inch thick armour, which is said to resemble a "Swiss cheese". The last naval treaty had an escalator clause that permitted a change to 16-inch guns if another signatory did not conform to it by 1 January 1937. Although they could have invoked this clause, the effect would have been to delay construction and it was considered prudent to build with 14-inch rather than find themselves without the new battleships. The U.S. opted to absorb a delay and built its ships with larger guns. When comparing the British 14-inch gun to the heavier guns mounted on contemporary foreign battleships, the thicker armour of the British battleships tended to result in an equalisation of the relative penetrating power of respective shells.

In service, the quad turrets proved to be less reliable than was hoped for. Wartime haste in building, insufficient clearance between the rotating and fixed structure of the turret, insufficient full calibre firing exercises and extensive arrangements to prevent flash from reaching the magazines made it mechanically complex, leading to problems during prolonged actions. In order to bring ammunition into the turret at any degree of train, the design included a transfer ring between the magazine and turret; this did not have sufficient clearance to allow for the ship bending and flexing. Improved clearances, improved mechanical linkages, and better training led to greater reliability in the quadruple turrets but they remained problematic.

During the battle of the Denmark Strait against the German battleship Bismarck, the main battery of the newly commissioned Prince of Wales had mechanical problems: it started to fire three-round salvos instead of five-round salvoes, and there were problems in all except for the twin 'B' turret. The main battery output was reduced to 74 percent (Bismarck and Prinz Eugen achieved 89% and 85% output, respectively) during the engagement, as out of seventy-four rounds ordered fired, only fifty-five were possible.Garzke and Dulin, pp. 189–190. 'A' turret was taking in water leading to discomfort for its crew and 'Y' turret jammed at salvo 20.Problems in Prince of Wales turrets during her first action against Bismarck, according to her Gunnery Aspects Report: 'A' Turret: No. 1 gun failed after the 1st salvo, from a previously known defect. No. 2 and no. 4 guns suffered from intermittent safety interlock problems. "A" turret suffered from water entering the lower portion of the turret/barbette structure, but there is no indication that this caused any problems other than discomfort for the crew. At salvo 18, when Prince of Wales turned away, 3 of 'A' turret's guns were in operation.
'B' Turret: No problems reported. At salvo 18, when Prince of Wales turned away, both (2) of 'B' turrets guns were in operation.
'Y' Turret No. 2 gun had loading problems and missed salvo 14 onwards. No. 3 gun had problems with safety interlocks causing it to miss salvoes 15 to 20. At salvo 18, 2 of "Y" turrets guns were in operation. 'Y' Turret's shell-transfer ring jammed at salvo 20, due to a shell sliding out of its tray due to the motion of the ship as the ship turned. The number of known defects in the main armament that was hampering 14-inch fire, the damage sustained and the worsening tactical situation forced Captain Leach to disengage from combat.The Bismarck Episode by Russel Grenfell, p. 54German Capital Ships and Raiders in WW2, A naval Staff History, Battle Summary 5, p. 8 With the range down to 14,500 yards and with five of his 14-inch guns out of action, Leach decided to break off his engagement with a superior enemy. Stephen Roskill in the War at Sea (the official British history of the Second World War at sea), Volume 1, describes the decision to turn away: "In addition to the defective gun in her forward turret, another 4-gun turret was temporarily incapacitated by mechanical breakdowns. In these circumstances Leach decided to break off the action and, at 0613, turned away under cover of smoke."Axis Battleships of WW2, Garzke & Dulin, p. 190, states: "As Prince of Wales turned away at 06:13, 'Y' turret jammed, temporarily leaving only two out of ten 14-inch guns operational". This is not supported by Bennett, Roskill and ADM 234–509. During the later action with Bismarck,  was also having trouble with her main battery, and by 09:27 every gun missed at least one salvo due to failures in the safety interlocks for antiflash protection. John Roberts wrote of main gunnery problems encountered by King George V:

Initially King George V did well achieving 1.7 salvoes per minute while employing radar control but she began to suffer severe problems from 09:20 onward [Note: KGV had opened fire at 08:48 and fired for about 25 minutes at 1.7 salvoes per minute until 09:13, when the Type 284 radar broke down, but with no recorded loss of 14-inch gun output until 09:20.]. 'A' turret was completely out of action for 30 minutes after firing about 23 rounds per gun, due to a jam between the fixed and revolving structure in the shell room and 'Y' turret was out of action for 7 minutes due to drill errors... Both guns in B turret, guns 2 and 4 in 'A' turret and gun 2 in 'Y' turret were put out of action by jams and remained so until after the action – 5 guns out of 10! There were a multitude of other problems with mechanical failures and drill errors that caused delays and missed salvos. There were also some misfires – one gun (3 of 'A' turret) misfired twice and was out of action for 30 minutes before it was considered safe to open the breech.

During the early part of her action against the German capital ship Scharnhorst at the Battle of the North Cape on 26 December 1943, , firing under radar control in poor weather, scored 31 straddles out of 52 broadsides fired and during the latter part she scored 21 straddles out of 25 broadsides, a very creditable gunnery performance. In total, Duke of York fired 450 shells in 77 broadsides. "However, Duke of York still fired less than 70% of her possible output during this battle because of mechanical and "errors in drill" problems."

The King George Vs were the only battleships designed for the Royal Navy to use 14-inch guns and turrets. (HMS Canada, originally designed for Chile, had used 14-inch guns during the First World War.)

 Secondary armament

The QF 5.25 inch Mark I dual purpose gun has been dogged with controversy as well. The RN Gunnery Pocket Book published in 1945 states that: "The maximum rate of fire should be 10–12 rounds per minute.". Wartime experience revealed that the maximum weight which the loading numbers could handle comfortably was much lower than 80–90 lb and the weight of the 5.25-inch ammunition caused serious difficulties, allowing them to manage only 7–8 rpm instead of the designed 10–12 rpm. The mount had a maximum elevation of +70 degrees and the slow elevating and training speeds of the mounts were inadequate for engaging modern high-speed aircraft.Naval Weapons of the World From 1880 to Today – British 5.25"/50 (13.4 cm) QF Mark I Despite this Prince of Wales was credited with several 5.25-inch kills during Operation Halberd and damaged 10 of 16 high-level bombers in two formations during her last engagement, two of which crash landed.Garzke & Dulin, p. 195  had her 5.25-inch turrets upgraded to RP10 control which increased training and elevating speeds to 20 degrees per second. These ships were equipped with the HACS AA fire control system and the Admiralty Fire Control clock for surface fire control of the secondary armament.

 Anti-aircraft battery
The King George V-class design had four 0.5-inch quadruple machine gun mounts but in 1939 these were replaced by two Mark VI pom-poms. In 1940, to combat air attack, four Unrotated Projectile (rocket) mountings were fitted, one on "B" turret, two on "Y" turret and one replacing a pom-pom mount added in 1939 at the stern. The pom-poms in King George V were designed and produced by Vickers Armstrongs, as a result of a post-World War I requirement for a multiple mounting which was effective against close-range bombers or torpedo planes. The first model, tested in 1927, was a very advanced weapon for its time and in 1938 the Mark VI* had a muzzle velocity of 2,400 feet per second, a 1.6-inch bore and a barrel length of 40 calibres. The pom-poms fired 1.8-pound shells at a rate of 96–98 rounds per minute for controlled fire and 115 rounds per minute for automatic fire. The range of the Mark VI* was 6,800 yards, at a muzzle velocity of 2,300 feet per second. The Mark VI octuple mount weighed 16 tons and the Mark VII quadruple mount weighed 10.8 tons if power operated; it could be elevated to 80 degrees and depressed to 10 degrees at a rate of 25 degrees per second, which was also the rate of train. The normal ammunition supply on board for the Mark VI was 1,800 rounds per barrel. King George V introduced the Mk IV Pom-pom director to the Royal Navy in 1940, becoming the first ship in the world to feature gyroscopic target tracking in tachymetric anti-aircraft directors.Raven & Roberts, p. 291 The anti-aircraft battery of these ships was incrementally augmented throughout the war. The number and disposition of guns varying from ship to ship, King George V in September 1945 carrying: 8 Mark VI octuple pom-poms, 2 quadruple 40 mm Bofors Mk II (US), 2 single 40 mm Bofors, and 24 single 20 mm Oerlikon cannon.

 Fire control
The main guns of the King George V-class ships were controlled via two director control towers, one on top of the bridge superstructure and one aft of the mainmast.  Each of the control towers was equipped with 15 foot rangefinders and fed targeting information to an Admiralty Fire Control Table, Mk IX. In the event that the control towers were disabled both "A" and "Y" turrets had internal 41 foot rangefinders whilst "B" turret had 30 foot rangefinders. The first two ships of the class to be completed, King George V and Prince of Wales, carried four HACS Mk IVGB directors for the ship's secondary 5.25-inch guns as well as six Mk IV pom-pom directors; all ten of these directors featured Gyro Rate Unit, tachymetric fire control. Duke of York and Howe had HACS Mk V directors, with Anson having the Mk V directors replaced by the updated Mk VI.

 Ships

 Service history

 Battle of the Denmark Strait (actions against Bismarck) King George V was the first ship of the class to join the Home Fleet on 11 December 1940 and her first action was providing distant cover for Operation Claymore in February 1941, before escorting Atlantic convoys HX 114 and HX 115 during March. Owing to the threat of the German battleship Bismarck, the Home Fleet sent King George V and the newly completed Prince of Wales on 22 May to help locate Bismarck, along with the battlecruiser  and six destroyers. On 24 May, Prince of Wales and Hood made contact with Bismarck and opened fire at 26,000 yards. Prince of Wales sixth salvo straddled Bismarck and it was during this salvo, and one other, that she landed two decisive hits, holing Bismarcks bow, flooding a generator room and an auxiliary boiler room, and forcing the critical shutdown of two of her boilers, which led to Bismarck making the fateful decision to attempt to return to port. During this time Bismarck and Prinz Eugen had been solely targeting Hood and at 06:01 Hood blew up and sank, with the loss of all but three of her complement of 1,419 officers and men. Following this, Captain Leach (Prince of Wales′ captain) gave the order to disengage, laying a heavy smokescreen to facilitate the retreat. Prince of Wales would attempt to reengage Bismarck on two more occasions, but owing to the distance being in excess of 20,000 yards was unable to land any more hits and then was forced to return to Iceland to refuel and would play no further part in actions against Bismarck. Meanwhile, King George V on 24 May was still 300 to 400 miles away from Bismarck and it was not until 27 May that King George V and  were able to engage Bismarck, due to a Swordfish torpedo bomber disabling Bismarcks steering gear on 26 May. During the engagement King George V and Rodney were able to relatively quickly disable the main armament turrets and fire-control systems of Bismarck, rendering her unable to effectively engage the British ships; later they closed to point-blank range. After 32 minutes of firing King George V had fired 335 14-inch shells at Bismarck, scoring multiple hits that contributed to Bismarck sinking soon after.Garzke & Dulin, p. 214

 Sinking of Prince of Wales

After being repaired at Rosyth, Prince of Wales transported Prime Minister Winston Churchill to Canada for a conference with President Franklin D. Roosevelt, that resulted in the Atlantic Charter being declared, which laid out how the allies intended to deal with the post-war world, on 14 August 1941. Following the declaration of the charter, Prince of Wales on 24 September provided escort for Operation Halberd, with Prince of Wales downing several Italian aircraft on 27 September. On 25 October 1941, Prince of Wales departed home waters bound for Singapore, with orders to rendezvous with the battlecruiser Repulse and the aircraft carrier Indomitable; however, Indomitable ran aground in Jamaica and was unable to proceed. On 2 December the group docked in Singapore and Prince of Wales then became the flagship of the ill-fated Force Z under Admiral Sir Tom Phillips. The force then diverted to British Malaya as they had received intelligence that Japanese forces were landing there, however, this was a diversion and on 10 December the force was spotted by a Japanese submarine. At 11:00 the first Japanese air attack began against the force and at 11:30 Prince of Wales was struck by a torpedo. This led to rapid flooding, as the port outer propeller shaft had been damaged; high-speed rotation of this unsupported propeller shaft destroyed the sealing glands around it, allowing water to pour into the hull. The ship subsequently began to take on a heavy list.  Prince of Wales was hit by three more torpedoes, before a 500 kg (1100 lb) bomb hit the catapult deck, penetrating through to the main deck before exploding in the makeshift aid centre causing numerous casualties. Several other bombs from this attack were very "near misses", which indented the hull, popped rivets and caused hull plates to "split" along their seams which intensified the flooding aboard Prince of Wales. At 13:15 the order was given to abandon ship and at 13:20 Prince of Wales capsized and sank with Admiral Phillips and Captain Leach being among the 327 fatalities. The wreck lies upside down in  of water at .

 Convoy duty

In October, King George V was involved in Operation EJ, which involved escorting the aircraft carrier HMS Victorious, whose aircraft attacked German shipping in the Glomfjord. Duke of York, the third ship of the class, first saw action on 1 March 1942, when she provided close escort for convoy PQ 12 and was later joined by King George V on 6 March, as Admiral John Tovey believed that the German battleship Tirpitz would attempt to intercept the convoy; however, aircraft from Victorious were able to prevent Tirpitz from leaving her base in Norway. During escort duty on 1 May 1942 King George V collided with the destroyer Punjabi, cutting Punjabi in two and damaging 40 feet of her own bow, resulting in King George V being sent to Gladstone Dock for repairs on 9 May before resuming escort duty on 1 July 1942. When the last two ships in the class, Howe and Anson, were completed in late 1942, they were assigned to provide cover for convoys bound for Russia. On 12 September, Anson was joined by Duke of York in providing distant cover for convoy QP. 14. In October, Duke Of York was sent to Gibraltar to support the Allied landings in North Africa in November. On 31 December, Howe and King George V provided distant cover for Arctic convoy RA 51.

 Battle of the North Cape

 Anson covered her last convoy on 29 January 1943, before being relocated, with Duke of York, to the Mediterranean. In June 1943, the two battleships took part in Operation Gearbox, which was designed to draw attention away from Operation Husky.Chesneau, p. 15 At the same time, King George V and Howe were also relocated to the Mediterranean. They bombarded Trapani naval base on 12 July and defended Algiers against an air raid, before departing to take part in Operation Avalanche. Between 9 and 11 September they provided support for Operation Slapstick and later escorted the surrendered Italian fleet to Malta.Konstam, p. 44

When the German battleship Scharnhorst was relocated to Norway, it was deemed necessary to provide heavy protection for all convoys bound for Russia. On 25 December, Scharnhorst was reported at sea. Initial contact was made the following day by the cruisers of Force 1 (Belfast, Norfolk and Sheffield) but following a brief engagement, Scharnhorst was able to outdistance the cruisers. Meanwhile, Force 2, which included Duke of York, was able to close to range and Duke of York opened fire on Scharnhorst, scoring multiple hits at ranges in excess of 12,000 yards. Scharnhorst scored two hits upon Duke of York during the engagement, both of which hit masts and failed to explode. One of Duke of Yorks shells exploded in Scharnhorsts number one boiler room, slowing her significantly and allowing British destroyers to close to torpedo range.Garzke and Dulin, p. 219 Their torpedo hits allowed Duke of York to close to a range of 10,400 yards before opening fire once again. All Scharnhorsts turrets were silenced and shortly afterwards Scharnhorst sank with the loss of over 1,700 men.Garzke & Dulin, p. 220

Following this, on 29 March 1944, Duke of York provided cover for convoy JW 58 and in August Duke of York and Anson provided cover for the aircraft carrier Furious, while she carried out air strikes against German targets in Norway as part of Operation Bayleaf. On 3 April, Duke of York provided cover for Operation Tungsten, which succeeded in damaging the German battleship Tirpitz.Garzke & Dulin, p. 221

 Far East deployment

In late March 1945, King George V and Howe began operations in the Pacific as part of Task Force 57. The first major operation that the task force undertook was Operation Iceberg, offshore support for the US landings at Okinawa, which started on 1 April.Garzke & Dulin, p. 215 During the operation King George V and Howe were subjected to sporadic Japanese kamikaze attacks, however, no damage was inflicted upon them by these attacks, while Howe succeeded in downing an attacking kamikaze plane. On 4 May, the two battleships led a forty-five-minute bombardment of Japanese air facilities in Ryukyu Islands.

In mid-July, they joined US battleships in a bombardment of industrial installations at Hitachi. During the Okinawa campaign, the pair supported British carriers. Their last offensive action was a night bombardment of Hamamatsu on 29 to 30 July 1945. Duke of York and Anson arrived too late to take part in hostilities, but on 15 August they accepted the surrender of Japanese forces occupying Hong Kong. King George V and Duke of York were present at the official Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay. After the end of World War II, King George V became the flagship of the Home Fleet until December 1946, when she became a training vessel, before being scrapped in 1957. Duke of York became the flagship of the Home Fleet after King George V, until April 1949, before being scrapped in 1957. Howe returned to Portsmouth in January 1946 and spent the remainder of her career there before being scrapped in 1957. Anson briefly served as the flagship of the 1st Battle Squadron of the British Pacific Fleet and helped to re-occupy Hong Kong.  In 1949 she was placed into reserve before being scrapped in 1957.

 References
 Notes

 Citations

 Bibliography

 Chesneau, Roger. (2004). Ship Craft 2: King George V Class Battleships. London: Chatham Publishing.

 Friedman, Norman. U.S. Battleships: An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1985. .

 Further reading
 Hein, David. "Vulnerable: HMS Prince of Wales in 1941." (Abstract) Journal of Military History'' 77, no. 3 (July 2013): 955-989.

External links

 Newsreel footage of Operation Halberd, as filmed from Prince of Wales
 Newsreel video of HMS Anson and Howe in 1942
 RN 14" gun loading and firing procedure

Battleship classes

Ship classes of the Royal Navy

King George V-class battleship (1939)


S65 ou S.65 peut faire référence à :
 , un sous-marin de la Marine indienne ;
 Lésion traumatique de vaisseaux sanguins au niveau du poignet et de la main, d'après la classification internationale des maladies ;
 Savoia-Marchetti S.65, un hydravion de course italien.

Voir aussi
 Sigles d'une lettre suivie de deux chiffres

S65


An Syngonanthus simplex in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Miquel, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Wilhelm Willy Otto Eugen Ruhland. An Syngonanthus simplex in nahilalakip ha genus nga Syngonanthus, ngan familia nga Eriocaulaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Syngonanthus

Syngonanthus simplex


Caiac canoe a fost inclus în programul olimpic de la Jocurile Olimpice din 1936 de la Berlin, după ce a fost un sport demonstrativ la cele din 1924 de la Paris.

Probe

Slalom

Sprint

Clasament pe medalii

Sportivii cei mai medaliați
Canoe slalom

Canoe sprint

Țări

Referințe

  Canoeing  pe Sports Reference

Caiac canoe la Jocurile Olimpice


Das Kastell Lussonium war ein römisches Militärlager, dessen Besatzung für Sicherungs- und Überwachungsaufgaben am Limes Pannonicus zuständig war. Die Donau bildete in weiten Abschnitten die römische Reichsgrenze. Die Baureste der Anlage befinden sich auf einem weithin sichtbaren Lösshügel, der sich unmittelbar über dem westlichen Flussufer im Süden des ungarischen Dorfes Dunakömlőd (früher Kömlöd, ) im Komitat Tolna erhebt. Überregional bekannt wurde der Platz erst durch die hier zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts ausgetragenen Freiheitskämpfe gegen die Vorherrschaft der Habsburger. Lussonium gilt als einer der frühesten und am längsten in Verwendung gestandenen römischen Garnisonsorte in Niederpannonien.

Lage
Die antike topographische Situation ist heute vor Ort nur mehr sehr schwer zu rekonstruieren, da sich der Lauf der Donau seither vollständig verändert hat. Bis zur Flussregulierung in den 1840er Jahren floss der Strom in einem mächtigen, nach Norden ausgreifenden Bogen östlich des 1785 als Kimling wiederbegründeten Ortes Dunakömlőd vorbei. Dieser Bogen, dessen nördlichster Punkt früher als Krümmung Imses (Krümmung von Imsós) bekannt war, ist noch durch Altwasserarme und Waldsäume im Gelände erkennbar. Der heutige Donaulauf spart hingegen die einst als Halbinsel Imsós bekannte Landzunge vollständig aus. Von Nordosten kommend, fließt der Strom seit dem 19. Jahrhundert statt nach Nordwesten zur Krümmung Imses direkt nach Westen und knickt dann nach Südwesten ab. Nahe diesem Knick, an den bereits das Nordende der Stadt Paks reicht, wurden in der Donau die Reste eines spätantiken Ländeburgus, der hier einst einen Flussübergang sicherte, entdeckt. Damals floss die Donau in diesem Bereich nicht von Osten, sondern von Norden, von der Krümmung Imses heran. Dementsprechend lag der Burgus nicht wie heute am Nordufer des Flusses, sondern an dessen Ostufer auf der Halbinsel Imsós. Das bereits vor dem Ende des 1. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. bestehende Kastell Lussonium entstand rund 1,2 Kilometer nordwestlich des Burgus auf einer strategisch günstigen Erhebung, die sich am Westufer der Donau, gegenüber der einstigen Halbinsel Imsós befand. Von hier aus hatte die Besatzung einen hervorragenden Rundumblick und konnte auch den Flussübergang gut einsehen. Da seit römischer Zeit rund 130 Meter des östlichen Steilhanges in die bis ins 19. Jahrhundert an den Hügel grenzende Donau abgerutscht sind, ging auch ein Teil des ursprünglichen Kastellareals verloren. Zu welchen zerstörerischen Kräften der Fluss bei Hochwasser fähig ist, zeigte sich am 20. März 1847, als der nur wenig südlicher gelegene Schanzenberg – zwischen Dunakömlőd und Paks – mit seinem Bestand an Weinreben und Obstbäumen binnen weniger Stunden in sich zusammenbrach und vollständig fortgespült wurde.

Name
Lussonium wird in der antiken Literatur erstmals von Claudius Ptolemäus im 2. Jahrhundert n. Chr. erwähnt. Weitere Namensnennungen finden sich im Itinerarium Antonini, einem Reichsstraßenverzeichnis aus dem 3. Jahrhundert als Lussunio und auf der Tabula Peutingeriana, einer kartographischen Darstellung des römischen Straßennetzes im 4. Jahrhundert als Lusione. Auch die in der Spätantike entstandene Notitia Dignitatum, ein römisches Staatshandbuch aus dem 5. Jahrhundert, führt den Ort an, zum letzten Mal wird die Siedlung im 7. Jahrhundert als Alusione beim Geographen von Ravenna überliefert.

Forschungsgeschichte
Der bedeutendste frühe Forscher, der in seinen detaillierten Landkarten insbesondere die zu seiner Zeit noch sichtbaren römischen Hinterlassenschaften einzeichnen ließ, war der italienische Gelehrte und kaiserliche Offizier Luigi Ferdinando Marsigli (1658–1730). Er hielt die Fundstätte allerdings noch für die niederpannonische Provinzhauptstadt Aquincum. In den Jahren 1705/1706 verschanzten die ungarischen Revolutionstruppen des ehemaligen kaiserlichen Generals János Bottyán (1643–1709) den Kastellplatz neu. Bottyán, hatte sich nach der Befreiung seines Landes von der osmanischen Vorherrschaft dem Aufstand von Franz II. Rákóczi angeschlossen, um sich gegen die nun folgenden willkürlichen Übergriffe des Hauses Habsburg zu wehren. Die aufgrund der neuzeitlichen Schanzarbeiten weiter beschädigten antiken Baureste und Straten litten in den darauf folgenden zwei Jahren immer wieder unter den verbissenen Kämpfe um die Kuruzenfestung, die dabei mehrfach ihre Besitzer wechselte. Erst mit der Eroberung des Lösshügels durch die kaiserlichen Truppen endeten die Gefechte und die Ungarn mussten sich auf das Ostufer der Donau zurückziehen. Der Kastellplatz wurde in der Folge als Bottyán-Sánc bekannt.

Das im Zuge der türkischen Besatzungszeit vollständig entvölkerte und zerstörte Dorf bei Lussonium wurde erst 1778 auf Anordnung der Kaiserin Maria Theresia (1717–1780) von schwäbischen Siedlern unter dem Namen Kimling zu neuem Leben erweckt. Für die Parzellierung und Neubesiedlung war eine genaue Aufmessung der Gemarkung notwendig. Sie ist zum Glücksfall für den Kastellplatz geworden. So liegt bereits aus dem Gründungsjahr des Dorfes eine qualitätvolle Karte vor, die den erhalten gebliebenen Kastellplatz deutlich als regelmäßiges Viereck wiedergibt, dessen Ostteil aufgrund des Abbruchs in die Donau fehlt. Auch das folgende militärische Kartenwerk der Josephinischen Landesaufnahme von 1782 bis 1785 zeigt die Fortifikation in diesem Zustand. Der Wirtschaftsstatistiker und Heimatforscher Elek Fényes (1807–1876) berichtete um 1850 von römischen Münzen, Inschriftensteinen und anderen Funden, die aus dem Umfeld des Dorfes stammten und 1893 sammelte der Archäologiepionier Mór Wosinsky (1854–1907) antikes Material aus Kömlőd auf. Er war es auch, der 1896 den historischen Platz erstmals mit Lussonium identifizierte. Doch bis in die zweite Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts fanden keine wissenschaftlichen Forschungen am Bottyán-sánc statt, so dass bis dahin auch keine zweifelsfreie Identifizierung des Kastellorts möglich war. Die offizielle Grabungsgeschichte setzt daher erst 1969 ein, als zufällig das durch Brand stark beschädigtes Fragment eines Militärdiploms an der Erhebung gefunden wurde. Noch im gleichen Jahr setzte der Archäologe Zsolt Visy an dem Fundort eine Notgrabung an, bei der nicht nur weitere Bruchstücke dieser Konstitution zu Tage kamen, sondern ein weiteres Diplom geborgen werden konnte. 1972 wurde mit der Erforschung des eigentlichen Kastellareals begonnen, damals noch in Hinblick auf die Frage, ob dort überhaupt mit einer Garnison gerechnet werden könne. Weitere Grabungskampagnen unter Visy folgten von 1987 bis 1990. Sie werden seitdem mit wenigen Unterbrechungen von verschiedenen Grabungsleitern weitergeführt. 1996 wurde ein Hügel westlich des Burgberges erforscht und 1998 mit der systematischen Untersuchung des zum Kastell gehörenden Lagerdorfes begonnen. Heute ist das Kastellareal als Archäologischer Park mit dem "Ruinengarten" Besuchern frei zugänglich. 2003 entstand die vereinfachte Teilrekonstruktion des Nordtores sowie die besuchergerechte Aufarbeitung des südlichsten Lagerbereichs mit dem dortigen Lagertor und den in diesem Bereich liegenden Bauten.

Baugeschichte

Prinzipat
Ein bei Lussonium geborgener römischer Grabstein wies die Archäologen schon früh darauf hin, dass das Kastell bereits in flavischer Zeit (69–96) als Holz-Erde-Lager errichtet worden sein könnte. Die ehemals länglich-rechteckige, aufgrund der Topographie fast genau nach den Himmelsrichtungen orientierte Anlage, umfasst ein heute nach den Zerstörungen durch die Donau nicht mehr vollständig erschließbares Gebiet von 220 Metern Länge × 40 (bzw. 70) Metern erhaltene Breite. Da die früh- und mittelkaiserzeitliche Fortifikation in der Spätantike teilweise starke Veränderungen erfuhr, gestalteten sich die Forschungen zur römischen Gründungsphase schwierig. Bei seinen Untersuchungen konnte Visy 1989 im nordwestlichen Eckbereich des spätantiken Kastells vor dem spätantiken Wehrgraben zwei in nördliche Richtung gezogene Grabenabschnitte beobachten. Diese beiden Spitzgräben waren zu unterschiedlichen Zeiten während des 1./2. beziehungsweise 2./3. nachchristlichen Jahrhunderts in Gebrauch. Durch die Entdeckung dieser Wehrgräben bestätigte sich erstmals die bis dahin nur mutmaßlich angenommene frührömische Gründung des Kastells. Aus dem frühesten Graben sowie einer Grube stammten die bis 1989 ältesten Funde. Insbesondere die dort entdeckte dekorierte italische Terra Sigillata sowie die Terra Nigra ließ sich auf die Mitte des 1. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. datieren, so dass sich die tatsächliche Gründung während der Regierungszeit der Kaiser Claudius (41–54) oder Nero (54–68) verorten lässt. In diese Zeitstellung gehörten auch die Überreste eines frühen Erddamms, der die Umwehrung bildete sowie die Reste von Mannschaftsbaracken. Diese Baracken bestanden aus Fachwerkkonstruktionen, von denen sich noch Spuren der Holzpfosten, die in einem Abstand von 0,50 Metern standen, erhalten hatten. Die Gefache des Fachwerks waren mit Lehmziegeln ausgefüllt. Veränderte Mauerstände zeugen von einer Umbauphase.

Wahrscheinlich wurde der Kastellplatz im fortgeschrittenen 2. Jahrhundert aufgelassen. Ein mögliches erstes Steinkastell könnte gegen Ende des 2. Jahrhunderts an einem anderen Ort entstanden sein. Dennoch könnte auf dem Bottyán-Hügel auch weiterhin einen Militärposten bestanden haben. Visy sieht in den dort gefundenen Ziegelstempeln der Cohors I Alpinorum equitata (1. teilberittene Kohorte der Alpenbewohner) einen Beleg für die Fortführung der militärischen Kontinuität im 3. Jahrhundert, jedoch an einem bisher unbekannten Platz im Bereich von Lussonium.

Spätantike

Umwehrung

Ein 250 Meter langes Steinkastell mit einer 1,30 bis 1,50 Meter starken Wehrmauer entstand erst während der Spätantike auf dem Hügel. Visy ordnete die Entstehung dieser Fortifikation in die Zeit der Tetrarchie oder die Regierungszeit des Kaisers Konstantin I. (306–337). Der langgestreckte Grundriss besaß wie die älteren mittelkaiserzeitliche Anlagen abgerundete Ecken. An der westlichen Umfassungsmauer konnte festgestellt werden, dass die Befestigung während des 4. Jahrhunderts in diesem Bereich auf den älteren römischen Schichten neu gegründete worden war und unter der Verwendung von Tegulae (gebrannten Ziegeln) wiederentstand. Ähnliche Befunde stammten von der erhaltenen Südwestecke des Kastells. Als Annäherungshindernis hatten die spätrömischen Bautrupps zunächst einen neuen Graben von acht Metern Breite und drei bis vier Metern Tiefe um die Garnison gelegt, der später durch einen weiter nach außen verlegten Graben mit einer Breite von zwölf Metern und einer Tiefe von vier bis fünf Metern ersetzt wurde.

Ein Detail der Josephinischen Landesaufnahme von 1782 bis 1785 zeigt aus der damals noch erhaltenen nordwestlichen und südwestlichen Kastellecke hervorspringende Ecktürme, die Visy zunächst einer spätantiken Bauphase zuordnete. Während der Grabungen konnte an keiner der erhaltenen Kastellecken überhaupt ein Turm nachgewiesen werden. Auch die älteren Gräben, die von den weit herausragenden spätantiken Ecktürmen hätten durchschnitten werden müssen, zeigten keine entsprechenden Spuren. Der Archäologe erklärte diese gravierenden Unterschiede zwischen Karte und Realität damit, dass das Gelände nach dem Abtragen des Bottyán-Forts zuletzt in den 1960er Jahren neu nivelliert wurde. Somit sind viele Strukturen vor Grabungsbeginn verlorengegangen, die konkrete Aussagen zu diesen Turmbauten hätten machen können.

Die erhaltenen Strukturen der Wehrmauer wiesen nur zwei einspurige Tore an den beiden Schmalseiten auf – eines im Norden, das andere im Süden. Deren Konzeption lehnte sich noch deutlich an die Bauweisen der Prinzipatszeit an. Beide waren nachträglich in die Mauer eingefügt worden und besaßen zwei die Durchfahrt flankierende, rechteckige Tortürme, die nach außen zum Verband der Umfassungsmauer bündig abschlossen. Die Türme waren 3,10 × 4,35 Meter groß und besaßen 0,90 Meter dicke Mauern. Nur an der zum Lagerinneren weisenden Seite, an der sich auch die ebenerdigen Zugänge befanden, waren die Turmmauern 0,60 Meter breit.

Innenbebauung

Über den älteren Schichten mit den Fachwerkbaracken entstand am Südende des Kastells unmittelbar hinter der Wehrmauer eine 27 × 14,50 Meter große steinerne Baracke, der ein zwei Meter breiter hölzerner Portikus vorgelagert war. An dessen Längsseite führte die Lagerhauptstraße vom Nordtor kommend zum Südtor hinaus. Der Bau war im Inneren durch zwei große Raumgruppen gegliedert. Die zum Portikus hin gelegenen unterschiedlich breiten, aber gleich langen Zimmer und Durchgänge besaßen dort auch ihre Zugänge. Der hintere Gebäudetrakt war wesentlich schmäler und wie der Portikus längs zu den anderen Räumen orientiert. Der Bau wies Renovierungsphasen und mehrfache leichte architektonische Veränderungen auf. Ob sich diese Baracke unmittelbar an die Wehrmauer lehnte oder durch eine Lageringstraße (Via sagularis) von dieser getrennt stand, kann aufgrund der jahrhundertelangen Erosion und der Beschädigungen durch die Freiheitskämpfe nicht mehr entschieden werden. Auch in der Nordwestecke des Kastells befand sich ein Steinbau, der mit einer Kanalheizung ausgestattet war sowie einen vorgelagerten Portikus besaß. Möglicherweise steht dieser Bau mit der teilweisen zivilen Umnutzung des Kastellareals im Laufe des 4. Jahrhunderts in Verbindung.

Ähnlich wie am nordpannonischen Kastell Ad Statuas (Ács-Vaspuszta) gehörte auch in Lussonium die Anlage von zwei gleich großen, bienenkorbartigen Getreidegruben zu den letzten römischen Baumaßnahmen. Gegen Ende des 4. Jahrhunderts wurde das Kastell schließlich abgerissen und die Gruben zugeschüttet. Die Archäologen fanden in dieser Verfüllen eine große Zahl an Fundstücken, darunter drei spätrömische Eisenhelme, einen eisernen Schildbuckel, viele eiserne Werkzeuge, einen Satz bronzener Waagengewichte und zwei bleiverglaste Lampen. Zeitgleich ist auch der damalige Wehrgraben eingeebnet worden.

Am Südende des Kastells entstand nach der Planierung des Platzes über Teilen der Baracke und der Lagerhauptstraße ein mächtiger 10 × 10 Meter großer, mehrstöckiger Turm mit 2,30 Meter starken Mauern. In der Nähe fanden sich zwei Gräber mit germanischen Funden, die in das erste Drittel des 5. Jahrhunderts datieren. Offensichtlich konzentrierte sich das antike Leben während der nachvalentinianischen Zeit nicht nur im Südteil, sondern auch im nordwestlichen Areal des planierten Kastells. Dort kamen im Zuge der Grabungen durch Visy zwischen 1987 und 1990 Holzpfostenkonstruktionen vom Ende des 4. beziehungsweise Anfang des 5. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. zu Tage, die auf den Ruinen des bereits unter Valentinian umgebauten heizbaren Gebäudes gründeten. Dort und im Umfeld wurden spätrömische Funde sowie eingeglättete Keramik vorgefunden. Wie die auch an anderen Punkten der Fortifikation eingesammelte Einglättkeramik verdeutlicht, besitzen die Stücke aus Lussonium einen sehr reichen Formenschatz und sind möglicherweise auf eine örtliche Manufaktur zurückzuführen. Aufgrund des spätantiken Fundspektrums kam die Archäologin Magdolna Kiss 1993 zu dem Schluss, dass Lussonium noch im frühen 5. Jahrhundert von einer kleinen Garnison germanischer Foederaten gehalten wurde.

Chronologie des Kastellplatzes
Die Tabelle folgt den Angaben von Zsolt Visy:

Truppe und Offiziere
2001 stellte der Archäologe und Epigraphiker Barnabás Lőrincz (1951–2012) seine Truppenaufstellung für Pannonien zusammen, die in dieser Liste durch andere Forschermeinungen und durch die spätantiken Einheiten in Lussonium ergänzt wird.

Grenzschutzkommandeure der Cohors I Alpinorum peditata

Grenzschutzkommandeure der Cohors I Alpinorum equitata

Vicus
Wie bereits die Ausgrabungen von 1972 zeigten, fanden sich die zivilen Strukturen des zum Kastell gehörenden Lagerdorfes (Vicus) westlich des Lösshanges. Es wird heute teilweise von der dörflichen Bebauung Dunakömlőds überlagert. Im Bereich des steil abfallenden Hangs waren die antiken Bauspuren bereits durch die Erosion beeinträchtigt. Die Entwicklung der Siedlung lässt sich von frühen Holz-Lehm-Bauten des 1. Jahrhunderts bis zu in Steinbauweise errichteten Wohnhäusern während des 3. und 4. Jahrhunderts verfolgen.

Auf dem Hügel westlich des Burgberges fanden sich 1996 ebenfalls zivile Bauspuren des Vicus aus dem 3. und 4. Jahrhundert. Die Archäologen fanden Abfallgruben, eine Zisterne sowie ein auf einem steinernen Fundament gegründetes Haus mit Säulengang.

Weitere wichtige Funde

Militärdiplome
1969 wurden zwei dieser für die Forschung so wichtigen inschriftlichen Belege gefunden, die unter den Trümmern eines wohl während der Markomannenkriege zerstörten Hauses lagen, das aus dem 2. Jahrhundert stammte. Wie sich erst 1989 zeigte, befand sich die Fundstelle nur rund 30 Meter weiter nördlich des ältesten Wehrgrabens des Kastells. Das Fragment einer dritten Konstitution wurde im Sommer 1990 aus dem Schüttgut des wohl um die Wende vom 4. zum 5. Jahrhundert verfüllten spätantiken Grabens geborgen. Die beiden zuerst entdeckten Diplome gehörten zwei ehrenhaft aus der Armee entlassenen Soldaten der Cohors I Thracum Germanica (1. Kohorte der Thraker "Germanica"), deren Stationierungsort sowohl von Visy als auch von Lőrincz für das benachbarte, nördlich gelegene Kastell Baracspuszta (Annamatia) angenommen wird. Die zum Volk der einheimischen Eravisker gehörenden Veteranen lebten offensichtlich nach ihrem Austritt aus der Armee am 8. Februar 157 n. Chr. gemeinsam mit ihren Familien in dem später zerstörten Haus. Monnus, der Sohn des Tessimarus, hatte Nicia, die Tochter des Tricanus geheiratet, während sein Kamerad Culsus, der Sohn des Atedumus, Verveda, die Schwester des Monnus, ehelichte.

Vom Herbst 152 stammte das 1990 geborgene Fragment, das gleichfalls zu dem Diplom eines Veteranen der Cohors I Thracum Germanica gehörte. Visy hielt es aufgrund dieser Häufung von Konstitutionen der Cohors I Thracum Germanica in Dunakömlőd für möglich, dass die Truppe vor den Markomannenkriegen das Lager von Lussonium belegt haben könnte. Lőrincz versuchte 2001 nachzuweisen, dass für eine solche Annahme keine Beweise vorliegen.

Ziegelstempel
Aus Lussionium stammt eine große Zahl von gestempelten Ziegeln, die auf verschiedene militärische Einheiten und Offiziere hinweisen und unterschiedliche Bautätigkeiten dokumentieren. Römische Militäranlagen wurden zumeist durch militäreigene Betriebe beliefert. Dies galt auch für das Baumaterial. Daher betrieben die Legionen und einige Kohorten entlang des Donaulimes Ziegeleien und verschifften oftmals das Material zu den jeweiligen Bauplätzen. An einigen Standorten konnte anhand von Inschriften auch die Anwesenheit von Bautrupps nachgewiesen werden, die nach der Erfüllung ihrer Aufgabe wieder abzogen. Wichtige Stempel aus Lussonium sind neben den bereits weiter oben genannten der Cohors I Alpinorum equitata:

 [E]XER(citus) PAN(noniae) IN[f(erioris)]
 LEG(io) II AD(iutrix)
 COH(ors) VII BR(eucorum) und Coh(ors) VII BR(eucorum) GORD(iana)
 TEREN[tius V(ir) P(erfectissimus) DVX]
 AP LVPO ORD
 OF ARN MAXENTI A VIN
 OF AR MAXENTI AR
 QVADRIB(ur) A

Sowohl die in der Provinzhauptstadt Aquincum stationierte Legio II Adiutrix als auch die Cohors VII Breucorum civium Romanorum equitata (7. teilberittene Kohorte der Breuker römischen Bürgerrechts) verschickten ihre Ziegel an die unterschiedlichsten Militärplätze. Das Stammlager der Breuker lag im Kastell Dunaszekcső; die Einheit betrieb dort ihre eigene Ziegelei. Ihre mittelkaiserzeitlichen Stempel sind unter anderem aus dem oberpannonischen Legionslager Brigetio aus der niederpannonischen Provinzhauptstadt Aquincum, und von den Kastellplätzen Intercisa, Ad Militare,Mursa und Sirmium bekannt. Nach seiner Aufstellung unter Kaiser Trajan hinterließ auch der Exercitus Pannoniae inferioris (Niederpannonisches Heer) an verschiedenen Garnisonsplätzen der Prinzipatszeit seine Stempelmarken.

Die Ziegel des Terentius dux, der von 367/368 bis spätestens 371 n. Chr. den Oberbefehl über die Provinz Valeria besaß, stammen aus einer Bauphase unter Kaiser Valentinian I. Der wohl als Ap(parante) Lupo ord(inario) zu lesende Stempel des Zenturios Lupus (nicht Lup(pian)o, wie häufig in der älteren Literatur genannt) ist ebenfalls der valentinianischen Epoche zuzuordnen. Seine Ziegel treten häufig auch in Vergesellschaftung mit Stempeln des Frigeridus dux auf, dem unmittelbaren Nachfolger des Terentius. was eine zeitliche Zuordnung möglich macht. Die Stempel des Lupus fanden sich auch am Burgus Dunakömlőd. Die Stempel der OF ARN-Gruppe (unsichere Auflösung der Buchstaben zu: Officinae auxiliares ripenses) lassen sich in die Zeit der Herrschaft der Kaiser Constantius II. (337–361) und Valentinian datieren. Da sich die Stempelabkürzungen AR, ARN bzw. ARAN einstweilen jedoch nicht eindeutig erklären lassen, bleiben die bisherigen Übersetzungsvorschläge spekulativ. Nach Lőrincz können die Ziegel des Offiziers Maxentius der Zeit zwischen 351 und 354 n. Chr. zugeordnet werden. Andere Forschungsergebnisse, welche die Ziegelstempel des Maxentius in den Provinzen Pannonia I und Valeria sowie im benachbarten Barbaricum analysierten, legen das Auftreten dieser Stempel entweder an das Ende der 50er Jahre des 4. Jahrhunderts oder in die letzten Jahre Valentinians I.

Meilensteine
An der Porta principalis dextra, dem Südtor, fand sich das Fragment eines Meilenstein, der eine Entfernung von 68 römische Meilen bis Aquincum angibt. Ein weiterer Meilenstein aus Dunakömlőd wurde während der Regierungszeit des Kaisers Severus Alexander (222–235) aufgestellt und nennt 73 Meilen nach Aquincum. Als drittes Exemplar wurde ein Stück aus der Regierungszeit des Kaisers Maximinus Thrax (235–238) bekannt. Dort werden 97 Meilen nach Aquincum angegeben. Es wird deutlich, dass einige Meilensteine von ihrem ursprünglichen Standort entfernt wurden und als Spolien Verwendung fanden.

Kultgegenstände eines Jupiter-Dolichenus-Heiligtums

Wie an anderen Militärstandorten entlang des Limes fand sich auch in Lussonium der – in diesem Fall indirekte – Nachweis eines Jupiter Dolichenus-Heiligtums. Zum Fundmaterial gehörten drei Ausstattungsgegenstände eines solchen Heiligtums, die bereits 1815 "bei der Schanze Bottyán zu Kömlöd" gefunden wurden. Typisch ist ein für den Kult notwendiges Votivdreieck aus Bronzeblech mit Spuren von Versilberungen und Vergoldungen, das den aus Kleinasien stammenden Soldatengott auf einem Stier stehend zeigt. Der als römischer Feldherr gekleidete Gott trägt seine ihn auszeichnenden Attribute, eine Doppelaxt und ein Blitzbündel. Hinter dem Gott ist in verkleinerter Form eine Siegesgöttin mit Siegerkranz und Palmwedel zu sehen. Unter dem Stier hat sich der Stifter des Votivdreiecks verewigt:

 Iovi Dulcheno P(ublius) Ael(ius)
 Lucilius c(enturio) coh(ortis) I Alp(inorum) ped(itatae)

Übersetzung: "Für Jupiter Dolichenus. Publius Luculius, Centurio der 1. Infanteriekohorte der Alpenbewohner."

Die Lesung im Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL), wobei statt ped(itatae) das Wort eq(uitata)  an der fraglichen Stelle zu lesen ist, gilt als überholt.

Aus dem gleichen Heiligtum stammt ein weiteres Votivdreieck, das in seiner Ausstattung und Größe dem zuerst genannten in vielen Bereichen entspricht. Deutlich ist die Hand ein und desselben provinzialrömischen Künstlers bei beiden Stücken zu erkennen. Eine bereits eingravierte Tabula ansata enthielt keinen Text. Beide Dreiecke waren ursprünglich mit ihren Rücken zusammengefügt und wurden auf einer Tragestange mitgeführt, wie sie in einer Metallausführung bei Brigetio zu Tage kam.

Das dritte Stück in diesem Fundzusammenhang war die bronzene Statuette der Siegesgöttin Viktoria, die – auf einer Weltkugel stehende – einen Palmzweig und einen verlorenen Siegerkranz trug. Vergleichbare Funde, beispielsweise aus dem Jupiter-Dolichenus-Heiligtum des rätischen Kastells Pfünz beweisen, dass diese Viktoria-Statuetten auf den Votivdreiecken angebracht waren.

Auf Jupiter Dolichenus weist auch der gleichfalls 1815 im Uferbereich der Donau unterhalb des Bottyán-Hügels gefundene, teilweise stark beschädigte Votivaltar hin:

I(ovi) O(ptimo) M(aximo) Dol(icheno)
L(ucius) Iul(ius) Quirina
Passenianus
praef(ectus)
pro sua salute
et M(arci) Iul(i) Catul[li]
patris [v(otum)] s(olvit) [l(ibens) m(erito)]

Übersetzung: "Für Jupiter Dolichenus, den Besten und Größten. Der Präfekt Lucius Iulius Passenianus aus der Tribus Quirina für sein Heil und für seinen Vater Marcus Iulius Catullus. Er hat sein Gelübde gerne und aus freiem Willen erfüllt."

Der Niedergang des Kultes begann nach 235 mit dem Ende der severischen Dynastie. Die meisten Heiligtümer wurden aufgelassen oder niedergebrannt. Aus der darauffolgenden Epoche gibt es nur noch sehr wenige Zeugnisse für die Verehrung des Jupiter-Dolichenus. Als 253 oder 256 der Sassanidenkönig Schapur I. das Hauptheiligtum des Gottes, das in Doliche, einer Stadt in der Provinz Syrien lag, vernichten ließ, könnte das zur Erschütterung der bis dahin noch übriggebliebenen Anhänger weiter beigetragen haben. Der Verbleib der wertvollen Kultgegenstände im Heiligtum von Lussonium über das Ende der Religionsgemeinschaft hinaus, wirft Fragen auf.

Fundverbleib
Funde aus Lussonium werden heute im Ungarischen Nationalmuseum in Budapest verwahrt.

Limesverlauf vom Kastell Lussonium bis zum Burgus Dunakömlőd

Denkmalschutz
Die Denkmäler Ungarns sind nach dem Gesetz Nr. LXIV aus dem Jahr 2001 durch den Eintrag in das Denkmalregister unter Schutz gestellt. Die römischen Fundstellen in Dunakömlőd und Umgebung gehören als archäologische Fundstätten nach § 3.1 zum national wertvollen Kulturgut. Alle Funde sind nach § 2.1 Staatseigentum, egal an welcher Stelle der Fundort liegt. Verstöße gegen die Ausfuhrregelungen gelten als Straftat bzw. Verbrechen und werden mit Freiheitsentzug von bis zu drei Jahren bestraft.

Siehe auch
 Liste der Limeskastelle in Ungarn

Literatur
 Ferenc Fazekas: Bronztárgyak a lussoniumi (Paks-Dunakömlőd) római erődből (Bronzefunde aus dem römischen Kastell Lussonium (Paks-Dunakömlőd)). In: Ferenc Fazekas, Anna Priskin (Hrsg.): "Ripam omnem quaesivit". Ünnepi tanulmányok Prof. Visy Zsolt 65. születésnapjára tanítványaitól. (= Specimina nova Supplementum 8), Paksi Múzeumi Füzetek 6. Pécs, Paks 2009, S. 45–66.
 Ferenc Fazekas, Antal Szabo: Ausgewählte Bronzegefässe aus dem Kastell von Lussonium. In: Christiane Franek, Susanne Lamm, Tina Neuhauser, Barbara Porod, Katja Zöhrer (Hrsg.): Thiasos. Festschrift für Erwin Pochmarski zum 65. Geburtstag. (= Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Archäologie der Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz 10), Wien 2008, ISBN 978-3-85161-001-7, S. 243–254.
 Jenő Fitz (Hrsg.): Der Römische Limes in Ungarn. (= Az István Király Múzeum közleményei. Serie A, Band 22). Fejér Megyei Múzeumok Igazgatósága, Székesfehérvár 1976
 Magdolna Kiss: Bauspuren mit Pfostenkonstruktion vom Ende des 4. – Anfang des 5. Jahrhunderts in der Festung Lussonium. In: Roman Frontier Studies 1995. Proceedings of the XVIth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies. Oxford 1997, ISBN 1900188473. S. 411 ff.
 Magdolna Kiss: Die Festung Lussonium – Ende des 4. – Anfang des 5. Jahrhunderts. In: A Herman Ottó Múzeum Évkönyve, 30–31/2, 1993, S. 105.
 Tünde Kiss: Mortaria from the Roman fort of Lussonium (Dunakömlőd). In: Bodien Abels, Carine van Rhijn (Hrsg.): History of Daily Life. Papers of the fifth ISHA Conference April 4–8. Atlanta 1994, S. 217–220.
 Zsolt Visy: Lussonium: archaeological excavations 1988-89. In: Roman frontier studies 1989. Proceedings of the XVth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies. University of Exeter Press, Exeter 1989, ISBN 0859893642, S. 263–267.
 Zsolt Visy: Der pannonische Limes in Ungarn. Theiss, Stuttgart 1988, ISBN 3-8062-0488-8. S. 112–114.

Weblinks

Informationsseite zum Ruinengartens von Lussonium auf www.museum.hu, abgerufen am 26. Mai 2014

Anmerkungen

Bodendenkmal in Ungarn
Archäologischer Fundplatz in Ungarn
Römische Befestigungsanlage (Pannonia)
Römische Befestigungsanlage (Pannonia inferior)
Römische Befestigungsanlage (Pannonia Valeria)
Paks
Kulturdenkmal (Ungarn)

Kastell Lussonium


Raigarh (en Hindi: रायगढ जिला) es un distrito de la India en el estado de Chhattisgarh. Código ISO: IN.CT.RG.

Comprende una superficie de 7068 km².

El centro administrativo es la ciudad de Raigarh.

Demografía
Según censo 2011 contaba con una población total de 1 493 627 habitantes, de los cuales 744 188 eran mujeres y 749 439 varones.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Sitio web oficial.

Raigarh

Distrito de Raigarh (Chhattisgarh)


An Peristylus calcaratus in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Robert Allen Rolfe, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Shiu Ying Hu. An Peristylus calcaratus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Peristylus, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Peristylus

Peristylus calcaratus


Dragunov şu anlamlara gelebilir:

Silahlar
 Dragunov SVD
 Dragunov SVU

Kişiler
 Yevgeny Dragunov, Sovyet silah tasarımcısı
 Yevhen Drahunov, Ukraynalı futbolcu
 Igor Dragunov, Rus futbolcu
 Alexander Dragunov, Sovyet dilbilimci

Dragunov


Olga Brand-Krieghammer (* 27. Juli 1867 in Wien als Maria Olga Theresia Krieghammer; † 1948 in Veľké Bošany) war eine österreichische Künstlerin.

Leben
Olga Krieghammer war die Tochter des Reichskriegsministers Edmund von Krieghammer. 1898 heiratete sie den Hauptmann Brand.

Sie nahm von 1893 bis 1897 Privatunterricht bei Carl Moll. 1902 bzw. ab 1904 setzte sie ihre Studien bei Ernest Quost in Paris fort und stellte auch im Pariser Salon aus. 1908 kam sie zurück nach Wien, wo sie Gründungsmitglied der Vereinigung bildender Künstlerinnen Österreichs und deren erste Präsidentin in den Jahren 1910 bis 1916 war. 1910 war sie Mitglied der Hängekommission der Ausstellung "Die Kunst der Frau". Später lebte sie in Ungarn. Ihre letzte bekannte Ausstellung zu Lebzeiten fand 1919 im Wiener Künstlerhaus statt, wobei sie als Malerin mit Wohnsitz in Nagy Bossany (heute Veľké Bošany) angemeldet war. Dort starb sie im Jahr 1948.

Olga Krieghammer malte Blumenstücke, Gartenbilder, Interieurs von Treibhäusern und Landschaften in Öl, Gouache und Tempera.

Werke (Auswahl)
 Gelbe Astern in Herbstlandschaft, ausgestellt im Pariser Salon
 Weiße Azaleen, 1909 Ausstellung Acht Künstlerinnen
 Blasse Rosen, 1910, Gouache auf Leinwand, 68 × 55 cm, signiert und datiert links unten: "Olga Brand-Krieghammer 1910", 1911 Ausstellung Vereinigung bildender Künstlerinnen Österreichs, Sammlung Belvedere
 Verwilderter Garten und Azaleenhaus, 1911 Ausstellung Vereinigung bildender Künstlerinnen Österreichs
 Sonne im Azaleenhaus und Aus dem Reservegarten in Schönbrunn, 1908 Ausstellung Wiener Künstlerhaus
 Römische Tazetten, Tempera, 1912/1913 Ausstellung Wiener Künstlerhaus
 Sonnenblumen, Tempera, 1919 Ausstellung Wiener Künstlerhaus

Ausstellungen (Auswahl)
 1908, 1912, 1919: Wiener Künstlerhaus
 1909: Acht Künstlerinnen und ihre Gäste, Salon Pisko, Wien
 1910, 1911, 1914, 1917, 1930: Vereinigung bildender Künstlerinnen und Kunsthandwerkerinnen, Wien
 1910: Die Kunst der Frau. 1. Ausstellung der Vereinigung bildender Künstlerinnen Österreichs, Wiener Secession
 2019: Stadt der Frauen, Unteres Belvedere, Wien

Literatur

 Brand Maria Olga, geb. Baronin Krieghammer. In: Rudolf Schmidt: Österreichisches Künstlerlexikon. Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart. Band 1. Tusch, Wien 1980.

Weblinks

 Marie Olga Brand-Krieghammer in der Sammlung Belvedere

Einzelnachweise

Maler (Wien)
Bildender Künstler (Österreich-Ungarn)
Österreicher
Geboren 1867
Gestorben 1948
Frau

Olga Krieghammer


Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (29 Temmuz 1883, Predappio - 28 Nisan 1945, Giulino di Mezzegra), Ulusal Faşist Partinin lideri olan İtalyan politikacı ve gazeteci. Kendini faşist olarak tanımlayan Mussolini, iktidara geldikten sonra Duce (Lider) olarak tanındı. Mussolini, faşizm ideolojisinin ilk örneği olan İtalyan faşizminin kurucusudur, bu sebepten dolayı faşizmin kurucusu olarak da kabul edilmektedir. 31 Ekim 1922 ve 25 Temmuz 1943 tarihleri arasında İtalya Krallığı'nın başbakanı, 23 Eylül 1943 ve 25 Nisan 1945 tarihleri arasında ise İtalyan Sosyal Cumhuriyeti'nin Ducesi olarak görev yaptı. II. Dünya Savaşı öncesinde ve savaş sırasında İtalyan siyasetinde önemli bir rol oynadı. Nisan 1945'te, Luftwaffe miğferi takıp bir Nazi konvoyu ile İsviçre'ye kaçmaya çalışırken, komünist İtalyan partizanlar tarafından fark edildi ve sevgilisi ile beraber kurşuna dizilerek infaz edildi. Ayrıca; Adolf Hitler, Francisco Franco ve António de Oliveira Salazar gibi aşırı sağ totaliter yöneticilere de ilham vermiştir.

Gençlik yılları ve gazetecilik dönemi
29 Temmuz 1883'te demirci bir babanın oğlu olarak Predappio, Forli'de doğdu. Mussolini, ilk ve ortaöğrenimi sırasında disiplinsiz ve saldırgan davranışları nedeniyle iki kez okuldan uzaklaştırıldı. Gençliğinde sosyalist düşüncelere ilgi duydu. Lozan Üniversitesindeki eğitiminin ardından öğretmenlik yaparak çalışmaya başladı. 1902'de zorunlu askerlik görevinden kaçmak için İsviçre'ye gitti. 1904'te İtalya'ya geri dönerek İtalyan Sosyalist Partisine katıldı ve partinin yayın organı olan Avanti gazetesinde çalıştı. Bir süre gazetenin başyazarlığını da üstlenen Mussolini, I. Dünya Savaşı'nın başlaması üzerine orduya yazıldı. I. Dünya Savaşı'nın başlamasıyla birlikte, tarafsızlık politikası izlenmesi gerektiğini söylemekte olan Sosyalist Parti ile çelişkiye düştüğü için gazeteden uzaklaştırıldı. İki yıl boyunca piyade olarak askerlik yapan Mussolini savaşta yaralandıktan sonra Milano'ya döndü ve burada sağ görüşlü Il Popolo d'Italia gazetesinin editörü oldu. Il Popolo d'Italia gazetesini çıkarmaya başladıktan birkaç ay sonra da Sosyalist Parti'den atıldı. Artık Mussolini'nin siyasi görüşü tamamen değişmişti. Sosyalist düşünceleri bir kenara bıraktı ve "faşizm" ismini vermiş olduğu yeni ideolojinin temellerini atmak için harekete geçti.

Siyasi hayatı

Çökmüş ekonomi ve siyasi kargaşa içindeki İtalya'da Mussolini 1919 senesinde çeşitli sağcı, anti-komünist ve anti-kapitalist grupları kurduğu Faşist Mücadele Birliklerinin İttifakı örgütünde bir araya getirdi. 1921'de ise Faşist Mücadele Birliklerinin İttifakı'nı lağvederek Ulusal Faşist Partiyi bünyesinde topladı. "Duce" unvanını kullanan Mussolini, ülkenin problemlerini çözeceğini vadediyor ve eski Roma İmparatorluğu'nun ihtişamlı günlerine geri dönüleceğine söz veriyordu. Partinin yarı askeri milis kuvveti olarak kurulan Kara Gömlekliler örgütü ise ekonomik durumun kargaşasından faydalanarak büyük bir sıçrama yapan komünist gruplarla, grevci işçilerle çatışıyordu.

1922'nin Ekim ayında Mussolini önderliğindeki faşistler toplam 26.000 kişi ile beraber Napoli'den Roma'ya yürüme kararı aldılar. Savaş sonunda istediğini elde edemediği için hayal kırıklığına uğramış olan İtalyan halkının durumunu Mussolini'nin düzeltebileceğine inanan Kral III. Vittorio Emanuele, toplumsal krizi şiddetsiz bir yolla çözmek için 31 Ekim 1922 tarihinde Mussolini'yi başbakan olarak atadı. Zaten Faşist Parti 1921 yılında çok düşük bir oy almıştı ancak 1922'de ise Mussolini'yi destekleyenlerin sayısı kat kat artmıştı. Kralın komünist hareketin önüne geçmek istemesi de bu durumu kolaylaştırmıştı. Ve bu yürüyüşle beraber ardından yaşananlar, yıllar sonra Üçüncü Reich'ı ilan edecek olan Adolf Hitler'in de ilham kaynağı oldu.

İktidara geçişi ve icraatları

İktidar olduğunda önceleri liberallerin desteğini alan Mussolini, diktatörlüğün koyu ve keskin uygulamalarını birer birer hayata geçirmeye başlamıştı. İtalya kısa zamanda bir polis devleti hâline getirildi. Kitap ve gazetelere getirilen sansür, seçim sisteminde yapılan düzenlemeler ve Faşist Parti dışındaki diğer partilerin kapanması gibi uygulamalar gerçekleştirildi. Mussolini, sendika hareketlerini de kanun dışı ilan etti ve eğitimi kontrol altına aldı. Ayrıca ekonominin faşistleştirilmesi amacıyla da tüm ülkeyi tren rayları ve otobanlarla kaplayan Mussolini, çiftçileri sürekli teşvik ederek tarım ve endüstrinin canlanmasını sağladı. Gerçekleştirdiği bu değişiklikler ve yeni uygulamalarla İtalya'da işsizlik azalmıştı ve bu da Mussolini'nin popülaritesinin artmasına neden oldu. 1922 yılının bazı dönemlerinde ülkenin iç ve dış işlerinden, kolonilerden ve kamu çalışmalarından sorumlu olan Mussolini, aynı zamanda orduyu da idare ediyordu. Tüm bakanlıkların görevlerini kendisi üstlenmişti. Bu şekilde tüm gücü elinde tuttuğuna inanan Mussolini, rekabet yaratacak herhangi bir durumun da önüne geçmiş oluyordu. Ancak bu durum kurduğu rejimin daha verimli çalışmasını engelliyor ve sıkıntı yaratıyordu.

Diktatörlük altındaki İtalya'da kanunlar yeniden yazılmış, üniversitedeki öğretim görevlileri faşist rejimi savunacaklarına dair yemin etmek zorunda bırakılmışlardı. Gazete editörleri Mussolini tarafından özel olarak seçiliyor ve Faşist Parti'den sertifikası olmayan hiç kimse gazeteci olamıyordu. Amaç tüm İtalyan halkını, şirketleri ve dernekleri kontrol altında tutmaktı. Mussolini'nin dış politikada amacı ise pasifist anti-emperyalizmin yerine agresif milliyetçilik getirmekti. Bunun ilk örneği 1923'te Corfu'nun bombalanması sırasında olmuştu. Ardından Arnavutluk'un kukla rejimine geçmesi ve Libya'nın yeniden fethi geldi.

1930'lu yıllar ve II. Dünya Savaşı

Uluslararası arenada güçlendiğini ispat etmek için 1935'te Habeşistan'a asker çıkardı. Uzun ve nedensiz bir savaş sonunda Habeşistan'ı işgal eden İtalya, 1936 yılında Almanya ile Berlin-Roma Mihverini kurdu. Berlin-Roma Mihveri'nin kurulmasıyla Adolf Hitler'in İtalya üzerindeki etkisi arttı ve bu durum Kral III. Vittorio Emanuele ile birlikte İtalyan halkını endişelendirmeye başladı. İtalyan askerleri Alman askerleri gibi yürümeye başlamışlardı, Alman nazizmi İtalyan faşizminden daha koyuydu. Faşizm, nazizme göre bir ölçüde daha ılımlıydı. Sanayinin devletleştirilmesine ve kapitalist sınıfın ortadan kaldırılmasına da kesinlikle karşı bir rejimdi.

Hitler öncelikle Orta Avrupa, ardından Doğu ve Batı Avrupa'yı Almanya topraklarına katmak amacındaydı ve bu amaçla 1 Eylül 1939 sabahı Polonya sınırlarını geçti. Bu taarruzla II. Dünya Savaşı başlamış oldu. Daha önce Malta, Korsika ve Tunus'u İtalyan topraklarına katma ve "Roma İmparatorluğu'nu canlandırma amacı" taşıdığını söyleyen Mussolini de Almanya ile birlikte Mihver Devletleri bloğunda savaşa girdi. Birçok faşistin karşı çıkmasına rağmen 10 Haziran 1940'ta savaşa girdiklerini resmen ilan eden Mussolini, Kuzey Afrika ve Balkanlar'da Müttefik kuvvetlerine karşı mağlup oldu. Almanya'dan aldığı destek ile işgal ettiği bölgelerde direndi ancak İtalya'da gücünü kaybetmeye başladı.

Tutuklanması ve kurtarılışı

Komünistler önderliğindeki direnişçilerin ülkede etkili olması ve müttefiklerin 1943'te Sicilya'ya çıkartma yapmasının ardından Kral III. Vittorio Emanuele, Mussolini'yi görevden aldı. Almanya; Kuzey İtalya'yı işgal etti ve Hitler'in emriyle, başlarında Otto Skorzeny'nin bulunduğu özel bir Fallschirmjäger birimi, Mussolini'yi 12 Eylül 1943'te Gran Sasso'da tutuklu bulunduğu otelden kurtararak Fieseler Storch model uçakla önce Roma'ya, sonra aynı günün akşamı bir Luftwaffe nakliye uçağı ile Viyana'ya kaçırıldı. Birkaç gün sonra ise Hitler'in karargahı'nın bulunduğu Rastenburg'a götürüldü. Mussolini, burada Adolf Hitler tarafından karşılandı. Burada oğlu ile beraber karargah'a götürülüp Hermann Göring'in sığınağına yerleştirildi. Mussolini Wolfsschanze'den Münih'e gitti. Orada oğlu ve İtalya'dan gelen karısı ile beraber, Bavyera kraliyet ailesi Wittelsbacher'lerin şatosuna yerleşti.

Mussolini bundan sonra Kuzey İtalya'ya döndü; Garda Gölü kıyısında Rocca delle Caminate denilen ücra bir yere yerleşti. Özel bir SS-Leibstandarte kıtası kendisini sürekli olarak koruyordu. Cumhuriyetçi Faşist Parti'yle beraber İtalyan Sosyal Cumhuriyeti'ni kurdu. 15 Eylül 1943'te hükûmet işlerini üstlendi. Ancak kurduğu bu hükûmet sadece bir gölge hükûmetti ve Almanların kukla rejimi olmaktan öteye gidemedi. Asıl söz, Alman işgal yetkililerindeydi. Mussolini'nin hükûmeti sivil idare işleri ve Almanya'ya işgücü temin edilmesiyle uğraştı.

Ölümü

Savaşın son günlerinde, 25 Nisan 1945'te, bir Alman delegesini bekleyen Mussolini, kimsenin gelmemesiyle şaşkına dönmüş, Aldatıldık, yine Almanlar tarafından aldatıldık demişti. 27 Nisan sabahı zırhlı bir araba ve yirmibeş kamyon ile beraber yola koyuldu. Amacı İspanya'ya kaçmak için bir uçağa binmek üzere İsviçre'ye gitmekti. Yolda ilerlerken partizanlarla Musso adı verilen yerde çatışmaya girdi. Faşistler hemen teslim olsalar da Mussolini zırhlı arabayla kaçmayı başardı. Mussolini ve beraberindekiler, komünist partizanlar Valerio, Bellini ve 52. Garibaldi Tugayı Siyasal Komiseri Urbano Lazzaro tarafından, Dongo köyü (Como Gölü) yakınlarında durduruldu. Partizanlar arabayı ararken battaniyeye sarılmış bir erkek buldular. Arabanın içindekiler Zavallı bir sarhoş diye geçiştirmeye çalışsalar da battaniyeyi kaldıran partizan Mussolini'yi tanıdı ve böylece yakalanmış oldu.

Partizanlar tarafından birkaç kez Como'ya götürülmek istendi fakat başarısız olununca Mezzegra'ya getirildiler. Orada De Maria ailesinin çiftlik evinde son gecelerini geçirdiler. Ertesi gün 28 Nisan'da Ulusal Kurtuluş Komitesi'nden Mussolini'yi öldürme emrini alan asıl adı Walter Audisio olan Albay rütbeli komünist partizan Colonnello Valerio, Mussolini ve Petacci'yi vurarak öldürmüştür. Öldürülme olayı resmi versiyonuna göre şöyle gelişmiştir: Audisio, Mussolini ve metresi Petacci'nin tutuklu oldukları çiftlik evine gitti ve tutuklu kaldıkları odaya girdi. Onlara İtalyan ulusuna adaleti iade etmek üzere görevlendirilmiş bulunuyorum diyerek çok kısa bir konuşma yaptı. Sonra ikisine de Çökün diye emretti ama bunu reddeden Petacci, Mussolini'ye sarıldı. Audisio'nun elindeki makineli tüfek tutukluk yaptı, patlamadı. Bir ikinci silah da tutukluk yaptı. Sonunda dayanamayan Albay Audisio, muhafızlardan birinin makineli tüfeğini kaparak ikisine doğrulttu. Audisio ilk önce Mussolini'nin metresi Petacci'ye ateş etti ve Petacci vurularak yere düştü. Tam o sırada Mussolini ceketini açtı ve "Göğsümden vur beni!" diye haykırdı. Audisio hiç beklemeden ateş ederek Mussolini'yi göğsünden vurdu. Mussolini yere düştü ama ölmedi ve ağır nefes alıyordu. Audisio yanına gitti ve göğsüne bir kurşun daha sıktı. Audisio savaştan sonra yayınladığı anılarında, Mussolini ve metresini toplam 5 kurşun ile vurarak öldürdüğünü belirtmiştir.

Mussolini'nin maiyetindeki diğer üyeler (başta bakanlar ve İtalyan Sosyal Cumhuriyeti yetkilileri) aynı gün akşama doğru bir idam mangası önünde idam edilmiştir. Ertesi gün Mussolini'nin, sevgilisinin ve birkaç yandaşının cesedi Milano'da Loreto Meydanı'ndaki Esso benzin istasyonunun çatısından başaşağı sallandırıldı. Teşhir edilen vücudu, halk tarafından tekmelendi ve tükürüldü. Devrik liderin cesedi alaya ve istismara maruz kaldı. Ölümünden ve Milano'da cesedinin halka gösterilmesinden sonra, Mussolini'nin cesedi kentin kuzeyinde, Musocco mezarlığındaki bir mezara gömüldü.

1946'da cesedi Domenico Leccisi isimli bir İtalyan politikacı ve iki neo-faşist tarafından mezarı kazılıp kaçırılmıştır. Cesedi Milano dışında, Certosa di Pavia'da 11 yıl boyunca bir gardıropta saklanmıştır.

Ölümü hakkında bir iddia
Umberto Eco, Sıfır Sayı kitabında, gazeteci Braggadocio (İngilizce anlamı palavra) karakterinin ağzından Mussolini'nin halka ilan edildiği tarihte ölmediğine, onun yerine dublörünün öldürüldüğünü ve kendisinin ise Vatikan'da ya da Arjantin'de uzun bir süre saklandığına dair bir iddiayı aktarmış ve kitap boyunca bunu işlemiştir. Bu iddiaya da şu dayanaklar sunulmuştur:

 Mussolini halk arasında son kez Milano Başpiskoposluğu'na gittiği gün görülmüş ve sonrasında sadece belirli insanlarla görüşmüştür. Sonrasında onu yakalayan Almanlar ve partizanlar onu fotoğraftan görmüş insanlardır. Nitekim Mussolini son iki yıla ait fotoğraflarında çok zayıf görünmektedir. Ancak, 20 Nisan 1945'te Mussolini ile gerçekleştirilen ve 22 Nisan'da da bizzat kendisinin imzalayıp yayınlanan röportajını yapan Cabella, Mussolini'yi gayet sağlıklı gördüğünü, hatta şişmanladığını, 1944 yılının Aralık ayındaki hâliyle karşılaştırdığında da çok daha dinç ve sağlıklı olduğunu söylemiştir. 27 Nisan 1945'te ise Mussolini tutuklandıktan sonra Pedro, Mussolini'yi "Karşımdakinin o olduğundan emin olamıyordum, onu neredeyse tanıyamayacaktım. Yaşlıydı, sıskaydı..." şeklinde tanımlar.
 Meydanda teşhir edilen cesedin otopsi raporu, cesedin gördüğü zarar sebebiyle boyunun ölçülemediği, yüzünün ateşli silahlarla verilen hasar sebebiyle şekilsiz olduğu, antropometrik ölçümün mümkün olmadığı şeklinde başlar. Yine otopsi raporu, Mussolini'nin daha önce tedavisini gördüğü ülserden ve frengiden; sağlığında Mussolini'nin tedavisini yapan Georg Zachariae'nin tanısını koyduğu düşük tansiyon, anemi, karaciğer yağlanması, mide krampları, sıkışmış bağırsak ve akut kabızlıktan bahsetmemektedir. Nitekim otopsi raporuna göre karaciğer vesaire iç organları normaldi.

Ayrıca bakınız

 La dottrina del fascismo
 Time kapağındakiler listesi (1920'ler)

İlgili görüntüler
 Brenner Geçidi'nde Hitler ile görüşmesi
 Otto Skorzeny'nin Gran Sasso oteline hapsedilen Duce'yi kurtarışından hemen sonraki görüntüleri
 Mussolini ile sevgilisi Clara Petacci'nin cesedinin asılması

Kaynakça

1883 doğumlular
1945 yılında ölenler

20. yüzyıl liderleri
İtalya başbakanları
İtalya dışişleri bakanları
İtalyan mareşaller
20. yüzyılda İtalyan siyasetçiler
20. yüzyıl İtalyan gazetecileri
İtalyan faşistler
İtalyan antikomünistler
İtalyan ateistler
I. Dünya Savaşı'nda İtalyan askerler
II. Dünya Savaşı'nda İtalyanlar
Lozan Üniversitesinde öğrenim görenler
II. Dünya Savaşı siyasi liderleri
Kurşuna dizilerek idam edilmiş kişiler
İdam edilmiş İtalyanlar
İdam edilmiş başbakanlar
Darbe ile iktidara gelenler
Soykırım failleri

Benito Mussolini


An Encyclia paraensis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Vitorino Paiva Castro ngan A.Cardoso. An Encyclia paraensis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Encyclia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Encyclia

Encyclia paraensis


භව දුක යනු 1997 වර්ෂයේ ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ තිරගත වූ ධර්මසිරි බණ්ඩාරනායක මහතා විසින් අධ්‍යක්ෂණය කරන ලද, සිංහල චිත්‍රපටියකි.

රංගන ශිල්පීන්

මේවාද බලන්න
ශ්‍රී ලංකීය සිනමාව

බාහිර සබැඳි

1997 චිත්‍රපට
චිත්‍රපට - ශ්‍රී ලංකා

භව දුක (චිත්‍රපටිය)


Michael Abrash é um programador e escritor técnico estadunidense especializado em otimização de código e linguagem assembly 80x86. Desde 2014, ele é o cientista-chefe da Oculus VR, subsidiária da Meta Platforms. Sua visão sobre o futuro da computração pessoal está na realidade aumentada e na realidade virtual. Nascido em 1957, nos Estados Unidos, Abrash se formou, em 1979, em matemática pela Universidade da Pensilvânia. Começou sua carreira como programador na IBM e, embora não seja disciplinamente programador de jogos, trabalhou na tecnologia subjacente aos jogos, como Quake, durante grande parte de sua carreira.

Ele escreveu o livro Zen of Assembly Language Volume 1: Knowledge em 1990.

Empregados da Microsoft

Michael Abrash


This is a list of notable magazines on paranormal, anomalous and Fortean phenomena. These magazines are generally opposed by skeptical magazines.

 3rd Stone – an Earth mysteries magazine; defunct
 Explore: The Journal of Science & Healing
 Fate – broad array of accounts of the strange and unknown
 Fortean Times – publishes reports of anomalous phenomena and investigative articles
 Journal of Near-Death Studies
 Journal of Parapsychology
 Journal of Scientific Exploration – official research journal of the Society for Scientific Exploration
 Lobster – twice yearly magazine focused on parapolitics
 Magazine of the Society for Psychical Research – quarterly membership magazine covering a broad range of paranormal phenomena; previously known as the Paranormal Review
 NeuroQuantology
 Nexus – UFOs, fringe science, conspiracy theory, alternative medicine
 Steamshovel Press – investigative articles, parapolitics, alternative history; self-described as "all conspiracy, no theory"; defunct
 UFO Magazine – American magazine, not to be confused with the now-defunct British UFO Magazine; defunct
 Weird NJ – deals with sightings of UFOs, ghosts, the Jersey Devil and other supernatural occurrences in the state of New Jersey

References

Magazines of anomalous phenomena

Magazines of anomalous phenomena
Paranormal

List of paranormal magazines