ජලාප්‍රවාහණ ද්‍රෝණිවල වැදගත්කම

භූ දේශපාලනික සීමා ලෙස

සීමා නිර්ණයේදී ඓතිහාසිකවම ජලාප්‍රවාහණ ද්‍රෝණි වැදගත් වී ඇත. විශේෂයෙන්ම ජලය හරහා සිදු කරන වෙළඳාම වැදගත් වන ප්‍රදේශවලදීය. උදාහරණයක් වශයෙන් ඉංග්‍රීසි අධිරාජ්‍ය හඩ්සන් බොක්ක ආයතනයට හඩ්සන්බොක්ක දියබස්නාවේ සම්පූර්ණ ඉන්දීය වෙළදාමේ ඒකාධිකාරය පවරා දෙන ලදී. එම ප්‍රදේශය Rupwrt භූමිය ලෙස හැඳින්විණි. මෙම ආයතනය පසුව ආක්ටික් සාගරයේ උතුරු ඇමෙරිකානු දියබස්නාව අත්පත් කර ගන්නා ලදී. (වයඹ දිග භූමිය) මෙම වයඹ දිග භූමීන් පසුකාලීනව කැනඩාවේ කොටස් බවට පත්විය. ඒවා කැනඩාවේ භූමියෙන් බහුතරය අයත්කරගෙන සිටී.

වර්තමා‍නයේ Sistan ද්‍රෝණිය ඇෆ්ගනිස්ථානය හා ඉරානයේ දකුණු ප්‍රදේශ හරහා පැතිර පවතී. Shangrial විල පකිස්ථානයේ Skardu හිදී.

අද ජෛව ප්‍රාදේශීය ප්‍රජාතන්ත්‍ර වාදය විශේෂිත ජලාප්‍රවාහණ ද්‍රෝණියක් ආරක්ෂා කිරීමට එකඟතා අන්තර්ගත කරගත හැකිය. මේවා මහාවිල් කොමිසම අන්තර්ගත කර ගනී.

ජලවිද්‍යාව

මිසිසිපි ගංගාවේ ජලාප්‍රවාහන ද්‍රෝණියේ කොටසක් වන ඔහියෝ ගංගාවේ ජලාප්‍රවාහන ද්‍රෝණිය

ජල විද්‍යාවේදී ජලාප්‍රවාහන ද්‍රෝණි ජලචක්‍රය තුළ ජලයේ චලන අධ්‍යයනය සඳහා තාර්කික ඒකකයකි. ද්‍රෝණිය මත පතිතවන වර්ෂා පතනය මගින් ද්‍රෝණියෙන් විසර්ජනය වන ජලයේ බහුතරයක් සමන්විත වන නිසාවෙනි. ජලාප්‍රවාහන ද්‍රෝණියට යටින් භූගත ජලපද්ධතියට ජල ප්‍රමාණයක් එකතු වී වෙනත් ජලාප්‍රවාහණ ද්‍රෝණියක් කරාගලායයි. ඒ භූගත ජල ගැලීමේ දිශානතියන් පිටත ජලාප්‍රවාහණ ජාලයට හැමවිටම ගැළපීම සිදු නොවන බැවිණි. ද්‍රෝණියේ මුව විට තබන ලද ප්‍රවාහ ආමාණයක් මගින් ද්‍රෝණියෙන් විසර්ජනය වන ජල ප්‍රමාණය මැන ගත හැක.

ජලාප්‍රවාහණ ද්‍රෝණියක් මතට වැටෙන මුළු වර්ෂාපතනය මැනීමට වර්ෂා ආමාන යොදා ගනී. එම දත්ත ලබාගැනීමට වෙනත්ක්‍රමද ඇත. නියත වර්ෂාපතනයක් ලැබෙන ප්‍රදේශයක ආමාණ රාශියක් එකාකාරීව පැතිරී ඇත්නම් අංක ගණිතමය මධ්‍යන්‍ය ක්‍රමය වඩා හොඳ ප්‍රතිඵල ලබාදේ. Thiessen බහු අස්‍ර ක්‍රමයේදී දිය බස්නාව බහු අස්‍රවලට බෙදෙන අතර ප්‍රධාන  ආමානය සෑම බහුඅස්‍රයකම මැද පිහිටුවා ඇත. එය එම ප්‍රදේශයේ වර්ෂාපතනයට නිදර්ශකයක් ලෙස ක්‍රියාකරයි. මෙම බහු අස්‍ර ආමාන අතර රේඛා ඇඳීමෙන් නිර්මාණය කෙරේ. අනතුරුව බහුඅස්‍රවල සිට ඒවාට ලම්භ සමච්ඡේදකයක් නිර්මාණය කරයි. සම වර්ෂා රේඛාක්‍රමය භාවිතයේදී සමාන වර්ෂාවක් වැටෙන සමොච්ච රේඛා සිතියමක අඳිනු ලැබේ. එම චාපයන් අතර වර්ගඵලය ගණනය කොට ජලපරිමාව එකතු කිරීම කල්ගත වන ක්‍රියාවකි.

පරිසර විද්‍යාවේදී

එක්සත් ජනපද ගංගාවක විශාලතම වර්ගඵලය අයත් වන්නේ මිසි සිපි ගංගා ද්‍රෝණියටයි. ඉන් වැඩි ප්‍රමාණයක් කෘෂිකාර්මික ප්‍රදේශ වේ. කෘෂි කාර්මික අපව‍ාහයන් හා වෙනත් ජල දුෂණ කාරක මෙක්සි‍කෝ බොක්කේ මළ කලාපයක් ඇති කිරීමට හේතු වී ඇත. ජලාප්‍රවාහණ ද්‍රෝණි පරිසර විද්‍යාවේදී ද වැදගත් මූලකාරකයන් වේ. පොළව හරහා ගලායන ජලය පෝෂක අවසාධක හා දුෂක එකතුකර ගත හැකි බැවිනි. ජලය මෙන්ම ඒවාද ද්‍රෝණියේ පිටත විවරය දෙසට ගලායයි. ඒවා සිය ගමන් මග තුළ පරිසර විදයාත්මක ක්‍රියාකාරකම්වලට බලපෑම් ඇති කරවන අතර ඒ අතර තුරදීම ජල ප්‍රභවය ලැබීමේදී ද බලපෑම් සිදු කළ හැකිය.

කෘත්‍රීම පොහොරවල වර්තමාන භාවිතයේදී නයිට්‍රජන් පොස්පරස් හා පොටෑසියම් භාවිතය දියබස්නාවල මුවවිට වෙත බලපෑම් ඇති කොට ඇත. ඛණිජ දියබස්නාව මගින් එහි මුවවිට දක්වා ගමන්කරවන අතර එහිදී තැන්පත් වේ. එය ස්වාභාවික ඛණිජ තුලනයට බාධා කරයි.

සම්පත් කළමණාකරණයේදී

ජල විද්‍යාත්මක දැක්මට අනුව ජලාප්‍රවාහන ද්‍රෝණි සංක්ෂිප්ත වස්තූන් වන බැවින් තනි ද්‍රෝණි පදනම මත ජල සම්පත් කළමනාකරණයට පොදුවේ යොදා ගනී. Minnesota එක්සත් ජනපද ප්‍රාන්තයේදී මෙම ක්‍රියාව සිදු කරන රාජ්‍ය වස්තූන් හැඳින්වෙන්නේ දියබස්නා දිස්ත්‍රික්ක ලෙසය. නවසීලන්තයේදී ඒවා හැඳින්වෙන්නේ ජලධාරක මණ්ඩල වශයෙනි. කැනඩාවේ පොන්ටෙරියෝහිදී සංසන්දනාත්මක ප්‍රජා කණ්ඩායම් සංරක්ෂණ අදිකාරීන්නම් වේ. උතුරු ඇමෙරිකාවේදී මෙම ක්‍රියාව දියබස්නා කළමනාකරණය නම් වේ. බ්‍රසීලයේදී ජල සම්පත් පිළිබඳ ජාතික ප්‍රතිපත්තිය නම් වේ. එය විධිවිධාන කොට තිබෙන්නේ 1997 9.433 පනතෙනි. ඒ අනුව ජලාප්‍රවාහණ ද්‍රෝණි බ්‍රසීලීය ජල කළමනාකරණයේ භෞමික බේදීම් ලෙස එළි දක්වා ඇත.

ජලාප්‍රවාහණ ද්‍රෝණිවල වැදගත්කම


مسابقة كرة السلة في ألعاب البحر الأبيض المتوسط 2009 عقدت بين الفترة 27 يونيو و4 يوليو 2009 ويشارك في البطولة 8 منتخبات.

ألعاب رياضية في ألعاب البحر الأبيض المتوسط 2009
كرة السلة في ألعاب البحر الأبيض المتوسط
كرة سلة إفريقية في 2009
كرة سلة أوروبية في 2009-10
كرة سلة إيطالية في 2009-10
منافسات كرة سلة دولية تستضيفها إيطاليا


Economics in One Lesson is an introduction to economics written by Henry Hazlitt and first published in 1946. It is based on Frédéric Bastiat's essay  (English: "What is Seen and What is Not Seen").

The "One Lesson" is stated in Part One of the book: "The art of economics consists in looking not merely at the immediate but at the longer effects of any act or policy; it consists in tracing the consequences of that policy not merely for one group but for all groups." Part Two consists of twenty-four chapters, each demonstrating the lesson by tracing the effects of one common economic belief, and exposing common economic belief as a series of fallacies.

Among its policy recommendations are the advocacy of free trade, an opposition to price controls, an opposition to monetary inflation, and an opposition to fiscal policy, such as stimulative governmental expenditures, arguing: There are men regarded today as brilliant economists, who deprecate saving and recommend squandering on a national scale as the way of economic salvation; and when anyone points to what the consequences of these policies will be in the long run, they reply flippantly, as might the prodigal son of a warning father: 'In the long run we are all dead.' And such shallow wisecracks pass as devastating epigrams and the ripest wisdom.

Summary
In the preface to "Economics in One Lesson," Henry Hazlitt explains that the book is a critical analysis of economic fallacies that are prevalent and have become a new orthodoxy. The book seeks to dissect and expose these errors, particularly the central error from which they stem. Hazlitt argues that the shortest and surest way to understand economics is through a dissection of such errors. He states that this book is primarily one of exposition and makes no claim to originality with regard to any of the chief ideas that it expounds. Hazlitt acknowledges his indebtedness to Frédéric Bastiat, Philip Wicksteed, and Ludwig von Mises, whose ideas have influenced the present work. He also mentions that when analyzing fallacies, he has thought it less advisable to mention particular names than in giving credit. The object of this book is not to expose the special errors of particular writers, but economic errors in their most frequent, widespread, or influential form. Hazlitt concludes by saying that he hopes that the book will be forgiven for making rare reference to statistics as he believes that those who are interested in specific economic problems are advised to read current "realistic" discussions of them, with statistical documentation.

Chapter 1, "The Lesson", explains that economics is a field filled with fallacies because of the difficulties inherent in the subject and the special pleading of selfish interests. Every group has economic interests antagonistic to other groups. Another factor is the tendency of people to overlook the secondary consequences of a policy, focusing only on the immediate effects on a specific group. The difference between good and bad economics lies in the ability to look beyond the immediate effects and consider the longer-term and indirect consequences for all groups. Nine-tenths of economic fallacies arise from ignoring this lesson. Finally, the art of economics consists of looking not just at the immediate effects of a policy but at its longer-term effects for all groups.

Chapter 2, "The Broken Window", uses the example of a broken window to demonstrate what Hazlitt considers the fallacy that destruction can be good for the economy. He argues that while the broken window may create work for the glazier, the money the shopkeeper has to spend on replacing the window means that he cannot spend it elsewhere in the economy, such as on a new suit from a tailor. The potential business for the tailor is lost, and the community is worse off overall. Hazlitt stresses the importance of considering all parties involved in an economic transaction, not just those immediately visible.

Chapter 3, "The Blessings of Destruction", discusses what Hazlitt considers the persistent fallacy of the broken window, which is often used to justify the benefits of destruction, particularly in times of war. He points out that although destruction may lead to a need for rebuilding, it does not necessarily lead to effective demand or increased purchasing power, as it diverts demand from one area to another. Additionally, wartime inflation, which people may perceive as good economic results, can be produced just as well by peacetime inflation. Finally, the supply of goods is what constitutes demand in an exchange economy, and wartime destruction inevitably leads to a shrinking in total demand.

Chapter 4, "Public Works Mean Taxes", examines what Hazlitt considers the fallacy of government spending as a solution to economic problems. Hazlitt argues that every dollar of government spending must be raised through a dollar of taxation. Public works, such as streets and roads, armories, and buildings for essential government services are necessary, but public works built primarily "to provide employment" are problematic. When employment becomes the end, need becomes a subordinate consideration, and "projects" have to be invented. Hazlitt concludes that for every public job created by a government project, a private job has been destroyed somewhere else. He argues that government spending is not a panacea and must be viewed in the larger context of secondary consequences, including jobs destroyed by taking money from taxpayers.

Chapter 5, "Taxes Discourage Production", argues that taxes discourage production and have a negative impact on the economy. The government cannot simply take money from one person and give it to another without consequences. Taxes affect the actions and incentives of those from whom they are taken, and high taxes discourage risk-taking and entrepreneurship, resulting in fewer new jobs and less economic growth. While some taxes are necessary for essential government functions, excessive taxes are counterproductive and discourage private production and employment. The government cannot solve the problem of unemployment by creating it through excessive taxation.

Chapter 6, "Credit Diverts Production", discusses the dangers of government "encouragement" to businesses in the form of direct grants of government credit or guarantees of private loans. He focuses on government loans to farmers, explaining that proposals for more credit are really proposals for increased debt. Hazlitt argues that loans made by private lenders differ from those made by government agencies because private lenders risk their own funds and are careful to investigate the assets and business acumen of the borrower, whereas government lenders take risks with taxpayers' money that private lenders will not take. Hazlitt concludes that the faith in government lending policies springs from two acts of shortsightedness: looking at the matter only from the standpoint of the borrowers and thinking only of the first half of the transaction.

Hazlitt argues against the idea of government assuming risks that are "too great for private industry." This would lead to favoritism, scandals, and an increase in demand for socialism. Hazlitt states that government loans and subsidies to businesses would waste capital and reduce production. Private lenders are cautious with their money and investigate proposals before investing in them, while government lenders are likely to make mistakes and invest in inefficient projects. Government loans and subsidies would tax successful private businesses to support unsuccessful ones, which is not a paying proposition in the long run.

Chapter 7, "The Curse of Machinery", discusses what Hazlitt considers the myth that machines create unemployment. Hazlitt notes that the belief that machines cause unemployment leads to preposterous conclusions, and cites Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations," which shows how machinery revolutionized pin-making and increased productivity. Hazlitt also highlights that the Industrial Revolution was met with resistance, particularly in the stocking industry, where machines were destroyed, and the inventors were threatened. Nevertheless, the number of people employed in the cotton industry increased by 4,400%, and technological advances in the maritime and steel industries were met with pessimism, but ultimately led to more efficient production methods.

Hazlitt discusses what he considers the fallacy that labor-saving machinery and technical progress lead to unemployment and misery. The author argues that the introduction of such machinery can increase employment and benefit society. The author uses the example of a clothing manufacturer who adopts a machine that reduces the labor required to make overcoats. Although half of the labor force may be dropped, the manufacturer would have only adopted the machine if it would have saved labor in the long run. After the machine has produced economies sufficient to offset its cost, the manufacturer has more profits than before, which can be used to expand operations, invest in other industries, or increase personal consumption. In any case, these extra profits indirectly provide jobs, and competition among manufacturers can lead to further employment opportunities.

Hazlitt argues that the fear of machines taking jobs is unfounded. He explains that machines do not necessarily replace workers, but they increase production and, thus, raise the standard of living. He gives examples of newly created trades in the past that have created more jobs as the product was improved and the cost reduced. Hazlitt also notes that machines have significantly increased the population of the world as they made it possible to support it. Hazlitt warns, however, that we should not only focus on the long-run and broad view but also consider the immediate effects on certain groups of people. While some may lose jobs, others may gain them or benefit from the increased production and lower prices. Finally, Hazlitt emphasizes that the primary function of machines is to increase production and economic welfare, not necessarily to create jobs.

Chapter 8, "Spread-The-Work Schemes", discusses what Hazlitt considers the economic fallacy that creating jobs is an end in itself. He argues that this belief is often used to justify inefficient and uneconomical practices, such as the arbitrary subdivision of labor in unions. The author also examines various schemes to "spread the work," such as shortening the working week, which are proposed to create more jobs. However, he argues that such schemes often lead to a reduction in productivity, and may not necessarily create more jobs. Ultimately, the author contends that the focus should be on increasing productivity, which leads to increased wealth and a higher standard of living for everyone.

Chapter 9, "Disbanding Troops and Bureaucrats", discusses the fear of unemployment that arises when millions of soldiers are released into the labor market after a war. Hazlitt argues that the fear is misplaced because the soldiers will become self-supporting civilians, and their release from the army will free up funds for taxpayers to buy additional goods, increasing civilian demand and employment. Similarly, he argues that the same reasoning applies to civilian government officials who are not performing services for the community reasonably equivalent to the remuneration they receive. Removing unnecessary officeholders will not cut down on the national income, but instead, will free up funds for taxpayers and encourage officeholders to take up private jobs or start businesses, making them productive members of society.

Chapter 10, "The Fetish of Full Employment", argues that the goal of any nation should be to maximize production rather than just focusing on full employment. Full employment is a necessary by-product of maximizing production, but it is not the end goal. Hazlitt explains that full employment can be achieved through coercion, such as in Nazi Germany or in prisons, but this does not necessarily lead to maximum production. Hazlitt also criticizes the idea that a thirty-hour workweek or make-work practices are preferable for creating jobs, as they do not necessarily increase productivity or output. Instead, he suggests that policies should be focused on maximizing production to improve the overall standard of living and create more opportunities for distribution.

Chapter 11, "Who's 'Protected' by Tariffs?", discusses what Hazlitt considers the fallacy of protectionism in international trade. Hazlitt argues that many people and governments fail to see the long-term effects of tariffs and trade barriers and instead focus on the immediate effects on specific groups. He gives the example of an American manufacturer of woolen sweaters who argues that a tariff is necessary to protect his business and the jobs of his employees. However, if the tariff were removed, the prices of the sweaters would decrease, making them more affordable for consumers and leading to an increase in employment in other industries. Additionally, the purchase of English sweaters with the money saved would generate dollars for Americans to buy other goods, thus boosting employment in other industries. Hazlitt concludes that the fallacy of protectionism lies in failing to consider the long-term effects on the whole community.

Hazlitt explains that a tariff does not increase American wages but reduces them in the long run. When consumers pay more for a tariff-protected product, they have less money to buy other goods. Tariffs create an artificial barrier against foreign goods, and American labor, capital, and land are deflected from what they can do more efficiently to what they do less efficiently. This reduces the average productivity of American labor and capital. The tariff reduces the general purchasing power of the consumer's income, and whether the net effect of the tariff is to lower wages or raise prices depends on the monetary policies followed. Tariff walls reduce the value of the investment in transport efficiency and create an expense in surmounting tariff obstacles. In summary, tariffs do not benefit all producers but only help the protected producers at the expense of other American producers, especially those with large potential export markets.

Chapter 12, "The Drive for Exports", explains the inconsistency in the common desire for exports in international trade. The author points out that, logically, imports and exports must equal each other in the long run, and the greater the exports, the greater the imports required to get paid. Additionally, a foreigner's purchase of domestic goods requires funds to be available to them, and without imports, there can be no exports. The author argues that foreign exchange is a clearing transaction that cancels out debts and credits, similar to domestic trade, and that discrepancies in balances of imports and exports are often settled by shipments of gold or any other commodity. The author also cautions against the belief that huge loans should be made to foreign countries for the sake of increasing exports, as it would lead to misunderstandings and bad relations later, and a nation cannot grow rich by giving goods away.

Chapter 13, Parity' Prices", discusses the argument for "parity" prices is that agriculture is the most basic and important industry that must be preserved at all costs because the prosperity of everybody else depends upon the prosperity of the farmer. This argument is flawed, according to Hazlitt, because there is no sound reason for taking the particular price relationships that prevailed in a particular year or period and regarding them as sacrosanct or necessarily more "normal" than those of any other period. Additionally, if the price relationships between agricultural and industrial products that prevailed from August 1909 to July 1914 ought to be preserved perpetually, then every commodity's price relationship at that time should also be preserved perpetually.

Hazlitt discusses what he considers the fallacy that higher prices for farmers will result in increased prosperity and full employment. He argues that while the increase in prices may result in higher purchasing power for farmers, it also leads to a decrease in purchasing power for city workers who have to pay higher prices for agricultural products. Additionally, the policy of increasing prices often involves a forced cut in the production of farm commodities, which leads to a destruction of wealth and less food to be consumed. Hazlitt highlights the fact that the principle of "parity" prices is not a public-spirited economic plan but a device for subsidizing a special interest, as it benefits farmers at the expense of city workers and taxpayers.

Chapter 14, "Saving the X Industry", discusses the common argument of saving dying industries through subsidies, tariffs, or higher prices. The author argues that while the argument may be justified in some cases, it ignores the negative consequences of such actions, such as reduced efficiency, decreased innovation, and the opportunity cost of diverting resources from more productive industries. He warns that these attempts to save dying industries could lead to decreased competition, higher prices, and a lack of innovation, which ultimately harms the economy as a whole.

Chapter 15, "How the Price System Works", argues that economic proposals must be analyzed for their long-term and widespread effects, not just their immediate and limited consequences. What Hazlitt considers the fallacy of isolation, or looking at an industry or process in isolation, is the starting point of many economic fallacies. The chapter explains the problem of production and consumption, and how the price system works to allocate resources efficiently in a market economy. It uses the examples of Robinson Crusoe and the Swiss Family Robinson to illustrate how economic decisions are made in relation to all other decisions in a society.

Hazlitt explains how a society solves the problem of alternative applications of labor and capital by using the price system. Prices are determined by supply and demand, and they affect supply and demand. The constant interrelationships of production costs, prices, and profits determine which commodities will be produced and in what quantities. The private enterprise system is made up of machines with their own governors that are interconnected and influence each other. Each departure from the desired speed sets in motion the forces that tend to correct that departure. The relative supply of thousands of different commodities is regulated under the system of competitive private enterprise. When people want more of a commodity, their competitive bidding raises its price, which stimulates producers to increase their production. In the same way, if the demand falls off for some product, its price and the profit in making it go lower, and its production declines. The author also notes that those who criticize the price system do so because they do not understand it, and they look at one industry in isolation without considering the larger picture. An economy in equilibrium can only expand one industry at the expense of other industries, and a shrinkage in one industry releases labor and capital to permit the expansion of other industries.

Chapter 16, Stabilizing' Commodities", discusses the concept of stabilizing commodity prices, which attempts to lift the prices of certain commodities permanently above their natural market levels. This practice is generally advocated by pressure groups and bureaucrats who aim to intervene in the market. Their arguments usually state that the commodities are selling below their natural levels and that producers cannot make a living from it, so the government must intervene to prevent scarcity and exorbitant prices in the future.

One of the most common methods proposed to stabilize commodity prices is through government loans to farmers to hold their crops off the market. However, this argument is not supported by theory or experience, as speculators are essential to farmers' welfare, and they are the ones who take risks to stabilize prices. Farmers and millers can protect themselves through the markets, and the profits of farmers and millers depend mainly on their skill and industry, not on market fluctuations.

When the state steps in and either buys the farmers' crops or lends them money to hold the crops off the market, it becomes an ever-political granary. The farmers are encouraged, with taxpayers' money, to withhold their crops excessively, and the politicians or bureaucrats who initiate the policy always place the so-called "fair" price for the farmer's product above the price that supply and demand conditions at the time justify. This leads to a falling off in buyers.

Hazlitt discusses how government restrictions on agricultural production, which are intended to raise prices, actually end up harming the overall economy by reducing output, raising costs, and reducing real wages and incomes. Additionally, attempts to control international commodity prices and trade through government planning are likely to result in decreased individual freedoms and living standards for ordinary citizens. The author argues that the best way to ensure an efficient and prosperous economy is to rely on the free forces of the market rather than government intervention.

Chapter 17, "Government Price-Fixing", discusses the effects of the government's attempts to keep the prices of commodities below their natural market levels. The author argues that these attempts lead to an increase in demand and a reduction in supply, causing a shortage of that commodity. This is the opposite of what the government regulators wanted to achieve as the commodities selected for maximum price-fixing are the ones that they want to keep in abundant supply. The author then discusses various devices and controls adopted by the regulators, including rationing, cost-control, subsidies, and universal price-fixing, to avert these consequences.

Hazlitt argues against price-fixing and its consequences, claiming that although price-fixing may seem to work for a while, especially during times of crisis, it will eventually cause demand to exceed supply. The government must then ration more commodities to prevent a black market from developing. This will ultimately lead to a regimented, totalitarian economy with limited liberties. Hazlitt also points out that price control creates a black market, which causes economic and moral harm. New firms that are willing to violate the law take the place of large, established firms. This promotes dishonesty and demoralization. Price-fixing authorities often favor politically powerful groups such as workers and farmers, leading to a decline in living standards. Hazlitt concludes that legal price ceilings do not address the root causes of price increases, which are either a scarcity of goods or a surplus of money.

Chapter 18, "Minimum Wage Laws", explains the harmful effects of minimum wage laws on the labor market. A minimum wage law can only achieve good in proportion to its modest aims, and the more ambitious the law is, the more likely its harmful effects will exceed its good effects. Hazlitt points out that a wage is a price, and raising the minimum wage above the market value will result in increased unemployment. The only exception is when a group of workers is receiving wages below their market value. Relief programs for unemployment caused by minimum wage laws would create a situation where a man is deprived of self-respect and independence, society of his services, and lowered earnings. Hazlitt suggests unionization as a better alternative to correct low wages in special circumstances or localities where competitive forces do not operate freely.

Chapter 19, "Do Unions Really Raise Wages?", argues that the power of labor unions to raise wages over the long run and for the whole working population has been enormously exaggerated. Hazlitt contends that wages are basically determined by labor productivity, and it is for this reason that wages in the United States were incomparably higher than wages in England and Germany during the decades when the "labor movement" in the latter two countries was far more advanced. Unions can serve a useful function in assuring that all their members get the true market value of their services, especially when the competition of workers for jobs, and of employers for workers, does not work perfectly. Hazlitt recognizes that individual workers may not know the true market value of their services to an employer, and without the help of a union or knowledge of "union rates," they may be in a weaker bargaining position. However, unions can go beyond their legitimate functions and embrace short-sighted and anti-social policies when they seek to fix the wages of their members above their real market worth, as such an attempt always leads to unemployment. Hazlitt concludes that unions can become questionable when they use intimidation or violence to enforce their demands, which prevents new workers from taking their place and forces them to take something worse.

Hazlitt argues that an increase in wages is not necessarily gained at the expense of employers' profits. If a wage increase takes place throughout a whole industry, the industry will most likely increase its prices and pass the wage increase along to consumers, resulting in workers having their real wages reduced by having to pay more for a particular product. While it is possible to conceive of a case in which the profits in a whole industry are reduced without any corresponding reduction in employment, it is not likely. The exploitation of capital by labor can be temporary, and it will come to an end as a result of the forcing of marginal firms out of business entirely, the growth of unemployment, and the forced readjustment of wages and profits to the point where the prospect of normal (or abnormal) profits leads to a resumption of employment and production. Hazlitt concludes that unions, though they may for a time be able to secure an increase in money wages for their members, do not increase real wages in the long run and for the whole body of workers.

Chapter 20, "'Enough to Buy Back the Product'", discusses the concept of "functional prices" and "functional wages". Functional prices are prices that encourage the largest volume of production and sales, while functional wages are those that tend to bring about the highest volume of employment and the largest payrolls. The concept of functional wages has been perverted by the Marxist and purchasing-power schools who believe that the only wages that will prevent an economic crash are wages that enable labor to "buy back the product it creates." Hazlitt argues that this theory is flawed as it does not address how much workers need to buy back the product they create, and it can be detrimental to the economy. Hazlitt believes that every increase in hourly wages, unless compensated by an equal increase in hourly productivity, is an increase in costs of production. This increase in costs of production can force marginal producers out of business, leading to a shrinkage in production and growth in unemployment.

Chapter 21, "The Function of Profits", argues that profits play a vital role in guiding and channeling the factors of production to produce goods that are demanded in the market. If there is no profit in producing a good, it is a sign that the resources being used to produce it are better used elsewhere. The chapter also addresses misconceptions about profits, such as the belief that all businesses make large profits. Finally, it argues that limiting profits can discourage entrepreneurship and reduce efficiency.

Chapter 22, "The Mirage of Inflation", discusses the erroneous belief that wealth is equivalent to money or gold and silver, which leads to the belief that more money equals more wealth. He also highlights that the belief in the appeal of inflation stems from this confusion. There are different types of inflationists: some naive people believe that printing more money will make everyone richer; some more sophisticated people believe that limited increases in money or credit will fill the alleged gap or deficiency in the purchasing power; and more knowing inflationists believe that an increase in commodity prices will not cause any harm but will improve the position of poor debtors, stimulate exports, and discourage imports. Hazlitt explains that there are numerous theories regarding how increased quantities of money will affect prices, and discusses two groups: one that thinks that the quantity of money could be increased by any amount without affecting prices, and the other that believes that the supply of money will be offered against all goods, and therefore, the value of the total quantity of money multiplied by its "velocity of circulation" must always be equal to the value of the goods offered for sale multiplied by the frequency with which they are sold.

Hazlitt argues that inflation is not a solution to economic problems, as it only creates a mirage of benefits for favored groups, while the costs are borne by the rest of the society. Inflation distorts the structure of production, wastes capital, and eventually leads to economic disaster. Once inflation sets in, it is challenging to control the value of money. Hazlitt points out that each generation and country follows the same illusion, believing that inflation will save them from economic stagnation and bring full employment. However, inflation only changes the relationships of prices and costs, and the effects of this change are short-lived. Hazlitt suggests that reducing wage rates directly could be a more direct and honest way of restoring a workable relationship between prices and costs of production.

Chapter 23, "The Assault on Saving", argues in favor of saving and against the idea that spending is superior to saving. The author uses the example of two brothers, Alvin and Benjamin, who inherited a sum that gives them an annual income of $50,000. Alvin spends lavishly on luxuries and, in the process, digs into his capital. Benjamin, on the other hand, spends only $25,000 and saves the rest. He also donates $5,000 to charity, which in turn creates as much employment as if he had spent the money directly on himself. The saved $20,000 is either deposited in a bank, which then lends it to businesses, or invested, which helps create new jobs. Hazlitt argues that saving is essential for economic growth and that spending on frivolities and luxuries diverts resources from producing the essentials of life for those who need them.

Hazlitt discusses the positive impact of saving on the economy, highlighting how it leads to an increase in production and productivity. He gives an example of an eleven-year period in which production increases by 2.5 percentage points each year, with a corresponding increase in the consumption of goods. Hazlitt argues that the enemies of saving make false claims that savings and investment are independent variables that need to be expropriated by the government to be used in useless projects to provide employment. Hazlitt counters that savings can only exceed investment by the amount that is hoarded in cash. He concludes that savings lead to an increase in investment and hence more productivity, which eventually leads to economic growth.

Chapter 24, "The Lesson Restated", emphasizes the importance of recognizing the secondary and general consequences of economic policies. Hazlitt states that economics is a science of tracing consequences and recognizing inevitable implications. He compares it to engineering, where one must determine all the facts and valid deductions to solve a problem. He also suggests that people often fail to recognize the necessary implications of their economic statements. Hazlitt warns that it is essential to consider all sides of the coin before making a proposal and not just the attractive side. He concludes that when studying the effects of various proposals on all groups in the long run, the conclusions that unsophisticated common sense arrives at usually correspond to the correct ones.

Hazlitt discusses the concept of the "Forgotten Man," originally introduced by William Graham Sumner, and how what Hazlitt considers the fallacy of not considering the unintended consequences of government policies falls disproportionately on him. The author also explains how the division of labor creates a situation where people are incentivized to promote scarcity in the goods and services they supply to increase their income. This is not necessarily harmful when free competition exists, but when groups can collude to eliminate competition, it leads to a situation where a group benefits at the expense of everyone else. The chapter concludes by noting that the same principle applies to changes in demand, which can also lead to winners and losers.

Chapter 25, "A Note on Books", recommends several books for those interested in further reading on economics. He suggests some intermediate-length works, such as Frederic Benham's "Economics" and Raymond T. Bye's "Principles of Economics," as well as older books like Edwin Canaan's "Wealth" and John Bates Clark's "Essentials of Economic Theory." Hazlitt also suggests some two-volume works, including Ludwig von Mises' upcoming treatise on economics and Taussig's "Principles of Economics." Additionally, he recommends reading economic classics in reverse historical order and mentions recent works that discuss current ideologies and developments. Finally, Hazlitt notes that while economics has many specialized fields, a firm grasp of basic economic principles is necessary to understand these fields properly.

Publication history
In a paperback edition in 1961, a new chapter was added on rent control, which had not been specifically considered in the first edition apart from government price-fixing in general. A few statistics and illustrative references were brought up to date.

In 1978, a new edition was released. In addition to bringing all illustrations and statistics up to date, an entirely new chapter on rent control replaced the previous one of 1961, and a final new chapter, "The Lesson After Thirty Years," was added.

In 1996, Laissez Faire Books issued a 50th anniversary edition with an introduction by publisher and presidential candidate Steve Forbes.

The book has been translated into many other languages, such as Spanish, German, Russian, Chinese, Korean and Greek. In particular, the Madrid-based Spanish publishing house Unión Editorial, which traditionally publishes books in Spanish language in defense of market economy and liberalism, released La Economía en una lección in 1981, 1996 and 2005. A German edition, titled , was first released in 1983 by Poller in Stuttgart. In May 2009, it was reprinted by Olzog.

Reception
Economics in One Lesson made the New York Times best-seller list, but quickly fell off since only 3,000 copies were printed. It has since sold over a million copies and is considered a classic by several American conservative, free-market, and libertarian circles. When Ronald Reagan was giving speeches to General Electric plants in the 1950s and 60s, he read Economics in One Lesson which helped influence his economic philosophy. Economics in One Lesson was an important work for the development of neoliberalism in America.

Friedrich Hayek praised the work, referring to it as "a brilliant performance...I know of no other modern book from which the intelligent layman can learn so much about the basic truths of economics in so short a time."

German-American economist Ferdinand A. Hermens wrote: "presidents and cabinet members...could learn a great deal if they would read Hazlitt's book and ponder its implications." French economist Charles Rist referred to the book as a "masterpiece." The Peabody Journal of Education called Economics in One Lesson "[o]ne of the best books published on practical everyday economic."

Nobel Prize laureate Milton Friedman stated: "Hazlitt's explanation of how a price system works is a true classic: timeless, correct, painlessly instructive." Bob McTeer, an economist and former president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, described Economics in One Lesson as a "wonderful book...If you don't have time to read Bastiat's collected works, try Hazlitt's book." Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Edwin A. Roberts Jr. wrote: "Fifty years have passed since the book was first published...and it continues to stand as the clearest introduction to what to me is the most engagingly complicated of all academic disciplines. The beauty and strength of Henry Hazlitt's "Economics in One Lesson," of course, is that he uncomplicates the essentials of his subject, and he could do that because he knew vastly more than he put into his book, and he was so facile in his use of language that the writing as well as the content gives pleasure."

Author Tom Butler-Bowdon included Economics in One Lesson in his 50 Classics book series for economics. Philosopher Joseph Heath wrote that Economics in One Lesson is "a book that is as valuable today as when it was first published in 1946...Hazlitt's book should be essential reading for anyone interested in knowing which way is up and which way is down in the world of economics," though Heath criticized Hazlitt for being overly ideological about free-markets. Law professor and economics writer James Kwak wrote that "Hazlitt's portrayal of economics as both easy and powerful was highly seductive."

In a review in the American Economic Review, the book was described as "a vigorous, skillful, and provocative challenge to sophisticated formulations of theory and policy," however "the lesson as a whole is too easy, and the "common-sense" answers are really answers only because the basic problems have been oversimplified so much as to divorce them from the complex reality that confronts us today."  A review in the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science agreed with Hazlitt's arguments on the need for greater productive efficiency and the effects of deficit spending but believed monopolies were overlooked in the book. Whereas a review in the Financial Analysts Journal stated: "[o]ne by one the bulwarks of the New Deal are assailed and found wanting. Though the book is small and the lesson short, the afterthought will be long and prolific."

Economist J. Bradford DeLong said Hazlitt's book well states the classical view of economics but does not properly address arguments made by Keynesians. However, in 1959, Hazlitt published The Failure of the New Economics, a detailed, chapter-by-chapter critique of John Maynard Keynes' arguments.

Ralph S. Brown, a law professor, also stated that Hazlitt effectively articulates the principles of classical economics on matters such as tariffs, one-way foreign trade, parity prices, and purchasing-power theory. However, Brown criticized Hazlitt on his concept of equilibrium, price systems, and depressions. Post-Keynesian economist Abba Lerner calls it "one of the finest attacks on topsy-turvy economics" but says Hazlitt should more seriously "consider the possibility of an economy suffering from unemployment".

Bibliography

   (hardback)

References

External links
 Mises.org (PDF)
 The Foundation for Economic Education (PDF)
 Unión Editorial, publisher of the Spanish translation
 An abridged audiobook version

1946 non-fiction books
Books about capitalism
Books by Henry Hazlitt
English-language books
Harper & Brothers books
Economics textbooks

Economics in One Lesson


Marco De Gregorio, né en 1829 à Ercolano et mort en 1876 dans la même ville, est un peintre italien de l'école napolitaine.

Biographie
Marco De Gregorio fréquente l'Accademia di belle arti di Napoli, où il suit les cours de Camillo Guerra.

En 1858, dans sa maison de Portici, il accueille le peintre paysagiste Federico Rossano.

À partir de 1863, les deux amis peintres, avec le jeune Giuseppe De Nittis originaire des Pouilles et le toscan Adriano Cecioni, ils créent le mouvement artistique appelé École de Resìna, auquel se sont joints divers artistes, dont Raffaele Belliazzi, Alceste Campriani, Antonino Leto et Eduardo Dalbono.

Les motifs de la peinture de l'école Resìna au raffinement chromatique, étaient similaires à ceux de l'école toscane de Pergentina, à laquelle appartenaient Raffaello Sernesi, Giuseppe Abbati et Silvestro Lega.

En 1872, il se rend à Florence pour nouer des relations plus étroites avec les Macchiaioli, qu'Adriano Cecioni lui avait fait connaître.

Œuvres
Sa peinture se distingue par une vision sobre et sévère, presque archaïque.
Ses œuvres les plus célèbres, réalisées dans les années soixante et soixante-dix, sont Veduta di Porta Grande et Veduta di Casacalenda, toutes deux exposées au Musée de Capodimonte à Naples, Marché arabe à la Galerie Accademia (Naples) et Capri à la Galerie d'Art Moderne de Florence dans le Palais Pitti. D'autres œuvres sont conservées à Naples, au Musée San Martino.
 Rue de Capri, 1867
 Vue de Casacalenda, vers 1867, huile sur toile
 Porta Granda à Capodimonte, vers 1867, huile sur toile
 Turcs en train de fumer, vers 1873, huile sur toile

Notes et références

Bibliographie
 AA.VV., Il secondo '800 italiano, Le poetiche dal vero, Mazzotta, Milan, 1988.
 AA.VV., Capolavori dell'800 Napoletano, dal romanticismo al verismo, Mazzotta, Milan, 1997.
 Nello e Saverio Ammendola, Ottocento-Novecento, due secoli di pittura a Napoli, con introduzione e intervista di M. Picone Petrusa, Electa, Napoli, 1999.
 Luisa Martorelli (a cura di), La Scuola di Resina nella collezione della Provincia di Napoli e da raccolte pubbliche e private, Arte'm, Naples, 2012.
 Paolo Belaeff, Marco De Gregorio, Edizioni Mediterranea, Naples, 2014 .

Liens externes

Peintre italien du XIXe siècle
École d'art en Italie
Enseignement à Naples
Peintre de l'école napolitaine

Marco De Gregorio


Darja Švajger (Maribor, 16. lipnja 1965.) jedna je od najpopularnijih slovenskih pjevačica, u dva navrata je predstavljala Sloveniju na Eurosongu.

Rani život
Darja se glazbom počela baviti već u djetinjstvu. Nakon završene srednje škole upisuje Muzički fakultet i pohađa satove umjetnosti u Grazu u Austriji, gdje je studirala klasično solo pjevanje i jazz. Godine 1997. diplomirala je magna cum laude. Već za vrijeme studija počela je nastupati kao solo vokal s raznim glazbenim sastavima i simfonijskim orkestrima. Od 1992. godine angažirana je na nekoliko projekata Slovenskog narodnog kazališta u Mariboru. Godine 1993. međunarodni žiri festivala pop glazbe "Melodija mora i sunca", održan u Kopru, dodijelio je svoju prvu nagradu u slovenskom dijelu međunarodne kategorije. Uskoro je uslijedio njezin prvi album V objemu noči.

Albumi
 1994.: V objemu noči
 1995.: Prisluhni mi
 1998.: Trenutki
 1999.: Še tisoč let
 2001.: Plameni
 2005.: Najlepše uspešnice
 2008.: Moji obrazi
 2013.: Moji obrazi

Pjesma Eurovizije 1995.
Godine 1995., Darja prvi put. Sloveniju je predstavljala na na Eurosongu u Dublinu, izvevši pjesmu Prisluhni mi Primoča Peterca i Saša Fajona. Balada je završila na 7. mjestu, što je do danas (2020.) najbolji rezultat Slovenije na natjecanju. Darja je u Sloveniji osvojila nagrade Pop pjevačica godine 1995. i 1996. godine. U sljedećim godinama postala je vrlo aktivna, a drugi album Trenutki objavila je 1998. godine.

Pjesma Eurovizije 1999.
Godine 1999. nacionalna televizijska kuća odabrala je Darju za predstavljanje Slovenije na Eurovizijskom natjecanju u Jeruzalemu. Peterca i Fajon ponovno su napisali baladu za nju, naslovljenu Še tisoč let (Tisuću godina). Skladatelj je izjavio da ga je nadahnuo grad New York tijekom svog četveromjesečnog boravka u njemu. Pjesma je na početku glasovanje izbila na prvo mjesto, no na kraju je osvojila ukupno 50 bodova i zauzela je 11. mjesto među 23 natjecatelja.

Slovenski pjevači
Eurovizijski izvođači
Pop pjevači
Jazz glazbenici

Darja Švajger


Endorf ist  einer der sieben Ortsteile der Stadt Falkenstein/Harz am Nordostrand des Harzes. Der Ortsteil hat ca. 250 Einwohner und liegt südöstlich von Ermsleben, der Kerngemeinde von Falkenstein auf dem Höhenzug zwischen Eine- und Selketal an der alten Heer-, Handels- und Poststraße Leipzig–Hannover.

Geschichte
Endorf wurde erstmals urkundlich 934 als "Ansiedlung des Emmo oder Egino" erwähnt. Ein markantes Bauwerk in Endorf ist die St.-Niklas-Kirche, welche im Jahre 1582 aus Feldsteinen und alten Grabsteinen erbaut wurde. In ihrem Inneren befinden sich ein spätgotischer Schnitzaltar und ein in der Wand eingemauertes Sühnekreuz. Der Kirchturm ist auf die Zeit vor 1150 datiert. Endorf galt im Mittelalter als eine bekannte Gerichtsstätte, worauf auch die Flurbezeichnungen Galgen- und Räderberg hinweisen. Nach dem 30-jährigen Krieg wurde der Ort von dem  vor allem durch seinen Benimmratgeber bekannten Adolph Freiherr Knigge erworben. Das Gut Endorf mit dem beeindruckenden Herrschaftshaus mit Freitreppe ging nach der politischen Wende im Ostteil Deutschlands wieder in den Besitz der Familie Knigge über. Vor dem Gut steht ein Findling zum Gedenken an die Gefallenen des Ersten Weltkrieges. Die Endorfer lebten durch die Jahrhunderte hauptsächlich von der Landwirtschaft. Bereits im 15. Jahrhundert wurde hier Schäferei und Schafzucht betrieben.

Etwas oberhalb des Ortes steht auf einer Anhöhe eine im Jahre 1857 durch Johann Gottlieb Claus errichtete Holländerwindmühle, die als Ersatz für eine ältere um 1824 an gleicher Stelle abgebrannte Windmühle diente. Die Mühle wurde 1972 außer Betrieb gestellt.
Sie wurde in den Jahren zwischen 1991 und 1993 restauriert und wieder in Betrieb genommen und ist somit die einzige funktionstüchtige Turmwindmühle des Ostharzes. Sie verfügt über Segelgatterflügel, Schrotgang, Walzenstuhl, Trieur, Schälmaschine und Bremsfahrstuhl.

Unweit von Endorf befinden sich u. a. die Reste der Konradsburg.
Der Ort ist außerdem ein Ausgangspunkt für Ausflüge in den Unterharz und das nordöstliche Harzvorland.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Geographie (Falkenstein/Harz)
Ort im Landkreis Harz
Ersterwähnung 934
Ehemalige Gemeinde (Landkreis Harz)
Gemeindeauflösung 2002

Endorf (Falkenstein)


Die Liste der Biografien führt alle Personen auf, die in der deutschsprachigen Wikipedia einen Artikel haben. Dieses ist eine Teilliste mit 38 Einträgen von Personen, deren Namen mit den Buchstaben "Zig" beginnt.

Zig

Ziga
 Žiga, Mirko Švenda (* 1964), kroatischer Sänger
 Žiga, Miroslav (* 1973), slowakischer Fußballspieler
 Žiga, Peter (* 1972), slowakischer Politiker, Mitglied des Nationalrats
 Zigahl, Angela (* 1885), deutsche Lehrerin und Politikerin (Zentrum), MdL
 Žigaitytė-Nekrošienė, Audronė (* 1957), litauische Komponistin, Musikpädagogin, -kritikerin und -journalistin
 Žigajevs, Jurijs (* 1985), lettischer Fußballspieler
 Zigal, Wladimir Jefimowitsch (1917–2013), sowjetischer bzw. russischer Bildhauer
 Ziganda, José Ángel (* 1966), spanischer Fußballspieler und -trainer
 Zigann, Matthias (* 1968), deutscher Jurist und Richter am Einheitlichen Patentgericht
 Zigante, Frédéric (* 1961), französischer Gitarrist
 Žigante, Suzana (* 1994), US-amerikanisch-kroatische Fußballspielerin
 Žigart, Urška (* 1996), slowenische Radrennfahrerin

Zigd
 Zigdis, Ioannis (1913–1997), griechischer Politiker

Zige
 Zigelski, Franz-Jürgen (* 1941), deutscher Schauspieler und Musicaldarsteller
 Zigerli, Hugo (* 1960), Schweizer Eishockeyspieler
 Zigerli, Manuel (* 1989), Schweizer Eishockeyspieler
 Zigerlig, Hilmar (* 1946), Schweizer Fussballspieler
 Zigeuner, Gustav (1886–1979), österreichischer Jurist und 1956 Präsident des Verfassungsgerichtshofes der Republik Österreich

Zigg
 Ziggiotti, Renatus (1892–1983), italienischer Ordensgeistlicher, Generaloberer der Salesianer Don Boscos
 Ziggiotto, Giovanni (1954–1977), italienischer Motorradrennfahrer
 Ziggler, Dolph (* 1980), US-amerikanischer Wrestler
 Ziggy X, deutscher DJ und Produzent

Zigi
 Žigić, Nikola (* 1980), serbischer Fußballspieler
 Žigić, Sandra (* 1988), kroatische Fußballspielerin
 Zigiotti Olme, Julia (* 1997), schwedische Fußballspielerin

Zigl
 Ziglarski, Hans (1905–1975), deutscher Boxer
 Zigler, Edward (1930–2019), amerikanischer Entwicklungspsychologe und Hochschullehrer
 Zigliara, Tommaso Maria (1833–1893), italienischer Kardinal

Zigm
 Zigman, Aaron (* 1963), US-amerikanischer Filmkomponist und Musikproduzent
 Zigmund, Eliot (* 1945), US-amerikanischer Jazzschlagzeuger

Zigo
 Zigomanis, Mike (* 1981), kanadisch-griechischer Eishockeyspieler
 Zigon, Franz (* 1924), österreichischer Schwimmer und Wasserballspieler
 Zigong (520 v. Chr.–456 v. Chr.), Philosoph
 Zigoni, Gianmarco (* 1991), italienischer Fußballspieler

Zigr
 Zigra, Johann Gotthard (1773–1843), deutscher Apotheker und Archivar
 Zigra, Johann Hermann (1775–1857), deutscher Gärtner, Gartenbauunternehmer und Botaniker
 Zigrosser, Carl (1891–1975), US-amerikanischer Kunsthistoriker und Kurator

Zigu
 Ziguélé, Martin (* 1957), zentralafrikanischer Politiker, Premierminister der Zentralafrikanischen Republik

Liste der Biografien/Zig


Ropework or marlinespike seamanship are umbrella terms for a skillset spanning the use, maintenance, and repair of rope. Ropework is used by seafarers, climbers and military personnel.

Included are tying knots, splicing, making lashings, whippings, and proper use and storage of rope.

While the skill of a sailor in the Age of Sail was often judged by how well he knew marlinespike seamanship, the knowledge it embraces involving docking a craft, towing, making repairs underway, and more is still critical for modern seafarers.

Whippings

A whipping knot is a means of holding the cut end of a rope together to prevent fraying and ensure ease of use. The simplest form is the common whipping. Constrictor knots can serve as temporary whippings while cutting ropes, as can a few layers of adhesive tape.

Other fray-prevention techniques include back-splicing, aglets, or the application of an rubberized adhesive coating, resin, or paint to the cut end. Some modern synthetic fibers, such as nylon and polyester can make use of alternative methods such as fusion, which uses heat to melt the fibers to make a clean cut and permanent end; this technique cannot be used with non-melting fibers such as aramids.

However, the rope and knotting expert Geoffrey Budworth warns against the practice of fusing thus:

Sealing rope ends this way is lazy and dangerous. A tugboat operator once sliced the palm of his hand open down to the sinews after the hardened (and obviously sharp) end of a rope that had been heat-sealed pulled through his grasp. There is no substitute for a properly made whipping.

See also

References

Maritime culture

Ropework


Strade Bianche for kvinder 2017 var den 3. udgave af cykelløbet Strade Bianche. Løbet var en del af UCI Women's World Tour og blev arrangeret 4. marts 2017. Det blev vundet af italienske Elisa Longo Borghini fra Wiggle High5.

Hold og ryttere

Danske ryttere
Amalie Dideriksen kørte for Boels-Dolmans
Cecilie Uttrup Ludwig kørte for Cervélo-Bigla Pro Cycling
Marie Vilmann kørte for Cervélo-Bigla Pro Cycling
Camilla Møllebro kørte for Team VéloCONCEPT Women

Resultater

Eksterne henvisninger

2017
Cykelløb i 2017

Strade Bianche for kvinder 2017


The Bang Bang Club ist ein kanadisch-südafrikanischer Spielfilm aus dem Jahr 2010 von Steven Silver. Der Film basiert auf der Autobiographie von Greg Marinovich und João Silva und erzählt die Geschichte einer Gruppe von Fotografen (Bang-Bang Club genannt), die in Südafrika in der Spätphase der Apartheid in den Jahren von 1990 bis 1994 als Pressefotografen unterwegs sind.

Handlung
Greg, ein junger Fotograf in Südafrika, erlebt eine blutige Auseinandersetzung zwischen Mitgliedern des Xhosa-dominierten ANC und der Zulu-dominierten Inkatha. Er trifft dort die Fotografen Kevin Carter, João Silva und Ken Oosterbroek, die ebenfalls die Opfer der Auseinandersetzung fotografieren. Während die anderen drei nach Hause fahren, begibt sich Greg trotz Warnungen in das Wohngebiet der Inkatha, um deren Version der Geschichte zu dokumentieren. Nachdem er selbst fast getötet wurde, gelingt es ihm, sich mit den Anführern der Gruppe anzufreunden, und schießt Fotos von deren Siegesfeier. Später fotografiert er die Tötung eines ANC-Mitgliedes. Zurück bei den anderen Fotografen sind diese beeindruckt von Gregs Mut und nehmen ihn in ihrer Mitte auf. Bei einer Zeitungsredaktion lernt Greg die Bildredakteurin Robin kennen und die beiden werden ein Paar. Die vier Fotografen ziehen fortan gemeinsam zu Konfliktschauplätzen. Bei einem dieser Konflikte wird Greg Zeuge eines Mordes an einem vermeintlichen Inkatha-Spion durch ANC-Mitglieder und schießt ein Foto, wie das brennende Opfer mit einer Machete erschlagen wird. Zunächst ist er sehr schockiert von der Tat, versucht sogar zum ersten Mal halbherzig die Täter vom Mord abzuhalten. Als ihm seine Freunde vom Verkauf der Fotos nach London berichten, was für Greg endgültig den Aufstieg in die hochbezahlte Riege der internationalen Topfotografen bedeutet, feiert er jedoch ausgelassen mit ihnen in einer Disco. Die südafrikanische Polizei verfolgt Greg jedoch als Zeugen des Mordes. Greg kann jedoch nicht aussagen, will er weiterhin als unparteiischer Dritter in den Townships Fotos machen. Für dieses Foto gewinnt Greg später den Pulitzer-Preis, was ihn erst einmal vor Strafverfolgung schützt. In der darauffolgenden, auch internationalen Anerkennung, bekommt die Gruppe, aufgrund einer Reportage eines südafrikanischen Magazins den Spitznamen Bang-Bang Club verliehen. In der Zwischenzeit muss Carter aufgrund seiner, vor allem Drogenprobleme, zwischenzeitlich das Land verlassen und erstellt im Sudan eine Fotodokumentation der dortigen Hungerkatastrophe. Dort macht er ein Foto von einem hungernden Mädchen, welches von einem Geier belauert wird. Für dieses Bild gewinnt er ebenfalls den Pulitzer-Preis, muss sich aber Vorwürfe anhören, er würde vom Leid der Opfer profitieren. Diese Vorwürfe nagen schwer an ihm. Auch sein Kollege Greg bekommt von Robin vorgeworfen, vom Leid anderer Menschen zu profitieren. Auslöser ist ein gemeinsamer Besuch eines Vaters, der gerade nach einer Polizei-Aktion der Regierung seine Frau und seinen Sohn verloren hat. Als Greg den Leichnam des Kleinkinds fotografiert und Robin dabei noch um Unterstützung bittet, treibt er damit sie an die Grenzen des Verkraftbaren. Als die vier Fotografen schließlich bei einer weiteren bewaffneten Auseinandersetzung fotografieren, wird Greg verwundet und Ken tödlich verletzt. Die Gruppe löst sich danach auf, João nimmt eine feste Anstellung an und heiratet und Greg will die Beziehung zu Robin erneuern. Kevin zerbricht schließlich an den Selbstvorwürfen und dem Gesehenen und begeht Suizid.

Kritiken

Rotten Tomatoes wertete aus, dass der Film 48 % positive Kritiken erhielt. Die Zeit schreibt: "Silvers Film ist schon deshalb wertvoll, weil er Kriegsfotografen nicht, um es vorsichtig auszudrücken, als moralisch einwandfrei beschreibt." Cinema schreibt: "Schonungsloser, bewusst ambivalenter Actionfilm über die Rolle der Presse im Krieg". Focus bemängelt hingegen: "Den lobenswerten Ansatz, Kriege einmal nicht aus der Perspektive [...] [von] Soldaten oder Agenten darzustellen, sondern aus der Sicht von Fotografen, hat Silver nicht mit letzter Konsequenz zu Ende gedacht."

Produktionsdetails
Das Drama wurde in Johannesburg gefilmt und am 21. April 2011 auf dem Tribeca Film Festival uraufgeführt.

Weblinks

 Offizielle Website des Filmes (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Filmtitel 2010
Kanadischer Film
Südafrikanischer Film
Literaturverfilmung
Filmdrama
Journalismus im Film
Apartheid im Film

The Bang Bang Club


Le Gage Pratt (* 14. Dezember 1852 in Sterling, Worcester County, Massachusetts; † 9. März 1911 in Newark, New Jersey) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Zwischen 1907 und 1909 vertrat er den Bundesstaat New Jersey im US-Repräsentantenhaus.

Werdegang
Le Gage Pratt besuchte die öffentlichen Schulen seiner Heimat. Seit 1869 war er in Boston im Handel tätig. Später zog er mit seinen Eltern nach Chicago, wo er in den Jahren 1884 bis 1886  im Zeitungswesen arbeitete. In den folgenden Jahren bis 1897 betätigte sich Pratt in Texas, Illinois und Minnesota in der Lebensversicherungsbranche. Danach zog er nach East Orange in New Jersey. Seit 1903 arbeitete er für eine Versicherungsgesellschaft in Newark, in der er bis zum Vizepräsidenten aufstieg.

Politisch war Pratt Mitglied der Demokratischen Partei. Bei den Kongresswahlen des Jahres 1906 wurde er im achten Wahlbezirk von New Jersey in das US-Repräsentantenhaus in Washington, D.C. gewählt, wo er am 4. März 1907 die Nachfolge von William H. Wiley antrat. Da er im Jahr 1908 gegen Wiley verlor, konnte er bis zum 3. März 1909 nur eine Legislaturperiode im Kongress absolvieren. Nach dem Ende seiner Zeit im US-Repräsentantenhaus arbeitete Pratt wieder im Versicherungswesen. Dabei war er für die in Providence ansässige Puritan Life Insurance Co. tätig. Er starb am 9. März 1911 in Newark, wo er auch beigesetzt wurde.

Weblinks

Mitglied des Repräsentantenhauses der Vereinigten Staaten für New Jersey
Mitglied der Demokratischen Partei (Vereinigte Staaten)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1852
Gestorben 1911
Mann

Le Gage Pratt


Patagonsk tinamu (latin: Tinamotis ingoufi) er en tinamuart, der lever på savanne i det sydvestlige Argentina og i Chile.

Noter
 Avibase - the world bird database

Eksterne henvisninger

Patagoniens fugle
Tinamuer

Patagonsk tinamu


بلدية أرانغا ، هي إحدى بلديات مقاطعة لا كرونيا إحدى مقاطعات إسبانيا، والتي تقع في منطقة جليقية شمال غرب إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 2.379 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2002).

مراجع

بلديات قرجيطة

أرانغا


La masacre de Granada de 1066 (30 de diciembre de 1066 - calendario hebreo: 9 de  tevet de 4827) fue la más sangrienta matanza de judíos sefardíes perpetrada hasta la fecha por los musulmanes en la península ibérica (antes de su aniquilación definitiva en 1146), cuando una muchedumbre irrumpió en el Palacio Real de Granada, que en ese momento estaba bajo poder musulmán en al-Ándalus, y acabó con la crucifixión del visir judío Yosef ibn Nagrela (hijo del poeta y filósofo Samuel ibn Nagrella) y la masacre de la mayor parte de la población judía de la ciudad: «Más de 1500 familias judías, es decir, alrededor de 4000 personas, murieron en un día».

Yosef ibn Nagrela
Yosef ibn Nagrela (1035-1066) era visir del rey de la taifa granadina Badis ben Habús (r. 1038-1073) de al-Ándalus, además de nagid o líder de la comunidad judía. Yosef nació en Granada y era el primogénito del célebre poeta y guerrero Samuel ibn Nagrela, quien le procuró una esmerada educación y le instruyó en la cultura hebrea y árabe. A los nueve años escribió la única poesía que se conserva de su propia mano. Su padre organizó su matrimonio con la única hija del sabio rabino Nissim ben Jacob de Cairuán. Tras el fallecimiento de su padre en 1055, alcanzó el cargo de visir y rabino, al mismo tiempo que dirigió una importante yeshivá, siendo algunos alumnos los rabinos Isaac Albalia e Isaac ibn Gayyat.

El rabino Abraham ibn Daud describe a Yosef con grandes adjetivos, declarando que no carecía de ninguna de las buenas cualidades de su padre, excepto que no se consideraba humilde, sino que había sido criado en el lujo. La edición de 1906 de la Enciclopedia Judaica relata que «los autores árabes creen que no creía ni en la fe de sus ancestros ni en ninguna otra. También se dudaba de que declaró abiertamente que los principios del islam eran absurdos». Los poetas islámicos también alabaron su generosidad. La Enciclopedia Judaica también describe que Yosef «gobernaba completamente sobre el rey Badis, quien estaba casi siempre ebrio y rodeado de espías».

Los líderes musulmanes lo acusaron de varios actos de violencia, quien le enemistó con los bereberes, quienes gobernaban en mayoría en Granada. El mayor de sus enemigos fue Abu Isaq de Elvira, quien escribió un célebre poema contra Yosef y sus amistades judías. Esta composición no causó gran impresión en el monarca, quien confiaba en Yosef, pero sí causó sensación entre los bereberes.

Masacre
Con la esperanza de cumplir el sueño de su padre, Yosef envió mensajeros a la vecina Taifa de Almería y a sus gobernantes los Banu Sumádih, enemigos tradicionales de Granada. Yosef prometió abrir las puertas de la ciudad al ejército almeriense, a cambio de instaurarlo como rey por su alianza y sumisión. Los Banu Sumádih se retractaron en el último momento, aunque los comentarios de invasión se habían expandido por la ciudad.

El 30 de diciembre de 1066, una revuelta musulmana atacó el Palacio real donde Yosef se había refugiado, lo capturaron y lo crucificaron. Asimismo, la población judía sufrió una terrible masacre, según la Enciclopedia Judaica, «más de 1500 familias judías, es decir, alrededor de 4000 personas, murieron en un día». La esposa de Yosef y su hijo Azariah huyeron a Lucena, donde existía una gran comunidad judía, aunque su primogénito falleció a una edad temprana. Según el historiador Bernard Lewis, la masacre «se describe a menudo como una reacción de la población musulmana contra el poder y la ostentación del visir judío. [...] A este respecto, es particularmente llamativo el antiguo poema antijudío de Abu Isaq, escrito en Granada en 1066. Se dice que esta composición fue el detonante de la revuelta antijudía de ese año, que contenía estas líneas»:No consideres una fisura en tu fe asesinarlos, la fisura sería dejarlos continuar.

Han violado nuestro pacto con ellos, ¿cómo te puedes sentir culpable contra los violadores?

¿Cómo pueden cumplir ningún pacto cuando somos oscuros y ellos prominentes?

Ahora somos humildes, junto a ellos, ¡como si estuviéramos errados y ellos en lo cierto!Lewis continúa: «Estos ataques verbales como los de Abu Isaq y masacres como las de Granada de 1066 son infrecuentes en la historia islámica». Este episodio ha sido calificado como pogromo. Walter Laqueur escribe que «los judíos no podían albergar cargos públicos, por lo que había pogromos ocasionales, como el granadino».

Referencias

Conflictos en 1066
Historia de Granada
Antisemitismo en España
Al-Ándalus en el siglo XI
Historia de los judíos en España
Masacres en España
Linchamientos
Taifa de Granada
Años 1060 en España
Pogromos antijudíos realizados por parte de los musulmanes
España en 1066
Pogromos antijudíos medievales

Masacre de Granada de 1066


David Pramik (Santa Clarita, 20 de novembro de 1990) é um compositor e produtor musical estadunidense. Ele possui uma vasta discografia com inúmeros artistas e contém indicação ao Grammy Award.

Carreira
David Pramik escreveu e produziu músicas para diversos artistas, incluindo Selena Gomez, Bebe Rexha, Logic, Rag'n'Bone Man, X Ambassadors, Machine Gun Kelly, Oliver Tree, Lany, I Prevail, Lauv, Nothing More, Vic Mensa, Illenium, JP Cooper, One OK Rock, Sublime with Rome, Hey Violet, Max, Cemetery Sun, Chris Lane e Molly Kate Kestner, entre outros.

Pramik co-escreveu e co-produziu o single "Go To War" de Nothing More e "Home" de Machine Gun Kelly feat. X Ambassadors & Bebe Rexha, que foi o primeiro single lançado de Bright: The Soundtrack.

Mais tarde, Pramik foi indicado ao Grammy Award por seu trabalho no single "Go To War" de Nothing More, que alcançou o primeiro lugar na tabela estadunidense Mainstream Rock Chart da Billboard, sendo a canção indicada a três Grammys (Melhor Canção de Rock, Melhor Música de Rock Álbum, Melhor Performance de Rock).

Pramik co-escreveu e co-produziu várias canções de Trauma, álbum de I Prevail, incluindo os singles principais do álbum "Bow Down" e "Breaking Down". Além disso, "Breaking Down" alcançou a segunda colocação pela Active Rock Radio Charts em meados de 2019. A seguir, em novembro de 2019, foi anunciado que "Breaking Down" havia recebido uma indicação ao Grammy de Melhor Performance de Metal.

Em janeiro de 2020, Pramik co-escreveu e produziu "Cut You Off" para Selena Gomez. Ele também colabora frequentemente com Oliver Tree. As suas composições também obtiveram diversos materiais de licenciamento, incluindo trailers de 24: Legacy, War of the Planet of the Apes e Just Mercy, bem como comerciais para Android (sistema operacional), Altice USA e Jeep.

Ele assinou contrato com a Prescription Songs Publishing, sob a égide da Kobalt, e é ex-aluno da Berklee College of Music.

Discografia em composição e produção

Ligações externas
 Sitio oficial
 Playlist David Pramik (série compositores)pela Apple Music

Nascidos em 1990
Compositores dos Estados Unidos
Produtores musicais dos Estados Unidos

David Pramik


Laach-vatn (þýska: Laacher See) er hringlaga gígvatn, um 2 km að þvermáli, í Rínarlandi-Pfalz, Þýskalandi. Laach-vatn er 24 km norðvestan við Koblenz, 37 km sunnan við Bonn og 8 km vestan við Andernach. Vatnið er í fjallgarðinum Eifel í austurhluta Eifel-eldfjalls. Gígurinn myndaðist við plínískt eldgos fyrir um 13.000 árum sem var 6 á VEI-kvarða, eða álíka stórt og eldgosið í Pínatúbó 1991. Gufuhverir á suðausturströnd vatnsins eru merki um eldstöð í dvala.

Lýsing
Vatnið er sporöskjulaga og umkringt háum bökkum. Hraungrýtið var notað í myllusteina frá rómverskum tíma þar til tekið var að nota járnkefli til að valsa korn.

Á vesturbakkanum er Benediktínaklaustrið Maríuklaustrið við Laach (Abbatia Lacensis), stofnað árið 1093 af Hinriki 2. af Laach sem var af Lúxemborgarætt og fyrsti Pfalz-greifinn. Kastali hans stóð gegnt klaustrinu á austurbakka vatnsins.

Ekkert náttúrulegt frárennsli er úr vatninu, en göng voru grafin gegnum bakkann fyrir 1170. Þau hafa verið endurbyggð nokkrum sinnum síðan. Þau draga nafn sitt af Fulbert sem var ábóti klaustursins 1152-1177 og er talinn hafa gert þau fyrst.

Tilvísanir

Tenglar

Stöðuvötn í Þýskalandi
Eldfjöll í Þýskalandi
Rínarland-Pfalz

Laach-vatn


Sonic: Super jež (engl. Sonic the Hedgehog) je akcijski film iz 2020. godine, napravljen na temelju franšize Sonic the Hedgehog. Film je režirao Jeff Fowler i napisao Pat Casey i Josh Miller. Sonicu glas daje Ben Schwartz a Jim Carrey tumači lik Robotnika. U filmu, Sonic se udružuje sa šerifom Tomom Wachowskim, da nađe svoje izgubljene prstenove i pobjegne od Robotnika na planet gljiva.

Razvoj filma je počeo 1990.- ima, ali nije prešao fazu planiranja sve dok Sony Pictures nije stekao filmska prava 2013. godine. Produkcija je uključivala suradnju japanskog studija Marza Animation Planet i Sega Sammyja, s Fowlerom koji je uzet za režiju 2016. Nakon što je Sony preokrenuo projekt, Paramount Pictures ga je preuzeo 2017. Veći dio glumačke postave potpisan je u kolovozu 2018. i glavno snimanje filma odvijalo se između rujna i listopada iste godine u Vancouveru i na otoku Vancouver. Nakon negativne reakcije na prvu najavu 2019., puštanje filma je kasnilo tri mjeseca kako bi Sega redizajnirala Sonica.

Radnja

Sonic, vanzemaljski plavi jež koji može trčati nenormalnim brzinama, nađe se u potrazi za plemenom ehidna zbog svoje moći. Njegov skrbnik, sova Duga Kandža, daje mu vreću s prstenovima koji mogu uspostaviti vezu s drugim planetima te koristi jedan da ga pošalje na Zemlju dok ga ona štiti od ehidni, a također daje Sonicu kartu planeta ispunjenog gljivama na korištenje ako na Zemlji nađe probleme. Deset godina kasnije, Sonic uživa u tajnom životu u blizini gradića Green Hills u državi Montana, ali čezne za prijateljstvom. Idolizira lokalnog šerifa, Toma Wachowskog, takozvanog "kralja krafni", te njegovu suprugu veterinarku, Maddie, nesvjestan da se par uskoro planira preseliti u San Francisco, jer je Toma angažirala policijska uprava San Francisca.

Jedne noći Sonic počne igrati bejzbol sam samcat kako bi zaboravio na usamljenost. Rastuži se kad se prisjeti da nema prijatelja, pa rezultatom tuge trči oko bejzbol terena, čime stvara elektromagnetski impuls. Doktor Robotnik postaje zadužen od strane Ministarstva Obrane Sjedinjenih Američkih Država da sazna razlog pojave elekromagnetskog impulsa. Robotnik uspije saznati da je puls stvoren sa strane nezemaljskog bića, nakon čega počinje tražiti Sonica, koji se krije u vrtnoj kućici šerifa Toma. Šerif slučajno upuca Sonica sredstvom za spavanje, budući da ga je zamijenio za rakune koji mu rade štetu. Tijekom pucnja, šerif je nosio majicu na kojoj piše ''San Francisco'' i kada je upucao Sonica sa sredstvom za spavanje, Sonic je pročitao natpis na majici, i slučajno bacio jedan prsten, čime otvara portal i slučajno baca vreću s prstenovima u portal koji vodi do San Francisca. Šerif se složi da pomogne Sonicu da se sakrije od Robotnika u njegovoj kući.

Robotnik nailazi na jedno od Sonicovih bodlji, otkrivajući snagu u njemu s kojom može potaknuti svoje robote i postaje opsjednut hvatanjem Sonica. Dok ih pronalazi, Tom razgovara o svojim planovima napuštanja Green Hillsa, što Sonic ne odobrava. Ubrzo nakon poraza robota kojeg je poslao Robotnik, eksplozija male priljepak-bombice ozljeđuje Sonica. Stigavši do doma šogorice Rachel, kod koje je njegova supruga, traži pomoć od Maddie, koja ubrzo oživljava Sonica. Dok Tom objašnjava Maddie svoju situaciju, Sonic dobiva novi par tenisica od Maddieine nećakinje. Grupa se upućuje na zgradu Transamericu u San Franciscu, gdje je pala Sonicova vreća prstenova. Robotnik stiže u svojem letećem vozilu, zvanom Egg Mobile, nakon čega ih napada, prisiljavajući Sonica da upotrijebi prsten kako bi Toma i Maddie poslali na Green Hills.

Sonic bježi od Robotnika koji koristi snagu Sonicove bodlje da odgovara njegovoj brzini. Njih dvoje sudjeluju u potjeri širom svijeta, da bi se na kraju vratili na Green Hills. Robotnik onesposobljava Sonica, ali Tom i ostali mještani interveniraju, omogućujući Sonicu da povrati snagu i povrati izgubljenu energiju. Nadvladavši Robotnika, Sonic ga poražava šaljući ga na planet gljiva. Nakon incidenta, Tom i Maddie odlučuju ostati u Green Hillsu i pustiti Sonica da živi s njima. Američka vlada briše sve dokaze o događajima, uključujući zapise o postojanju Robotnika. U međuvremenu, ludi doktor Robotnik, koji je još u posjedu Sonicove bodlje, započinje zavjeru svoje osvete i povratak na Zemlju.

U sceni nakon animirane odjave, dolazi mladi lisac Tails, koji traži Sonica kako bi u nadolazećem filmu zaustavili Robotnika (koji se vraća na Zemlju) da uništi svijet uz pomoć moćnog smaragda.

Glasove posudili

Ostali glasovi:
 Jasna Bilušić
 Nina Knez Rukavina
 Nika Ilčić
 Frano Ridjan
 Božo Kelava
 Martina Kapitan Bregović
 Dora Jakobović
 Vjekoslav Hudeček
 Boris Barberić
 Božidar Peričić
 Dragan Peka
 Bojan Kondres

Sinkronizacija
 Sinkronizacija: Duplicato Media d.o.o.
 Redatelj dijaloga: Tomislav Rukavina
 Prijevod i adaptacija: Davor Slamnig

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
  paramountmovies.com

Američki filmovi 2020-ih
Sonic the Hedgehog
Japanski filmovi
Akcijski filmovi
Pustolovni filmovi

Sonic: Super jež


Handtaka er líkamleg frelsissvipting einstaklings óháð lengd frelsissviptingarinnar sjálfrar. Ekki er forsenda slíkrar frelsissviptingar að líkamlegu valdi sé beitt, svo sem með handjárnun, heldur dugar að aðili með heimild til slíks valds synji viðkomandi einstaklingi um leyfi til að víkja af vettvangi með fyrirmælum.

Réttarfar
Lögfræði

Handtaka


Shillourokambos () is a Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) site near Parekklisia, 6 km east of Limassol in southern Cyprus. It is located on a low plateau. Excavations began in 1992. The settlement has four phases and was occupied from the end of the 9th millennium to the second half of the 8th millennium.

The architecture of phases A and B (8200-7500 BC, calibrated) is characterised by circular wattle and daub structures, with post holes cut into the bedrock. Some deep pits may have served as wells.

Ca. 300 blades of Anatolian obsidian point to trade connections with the mainland. Sickles are made of multiple parts, and projectile points made of bipolar blades, lacking in the later Khirokitia culture, are common. The site contains wells and cattle enclosures as well.
The middle and late phases (7500 BC) conform more closely to the Khirokitia culture with circular stone houses, comparable to those at Kastros. Imported obsidian is rare, and sickles are made from single robust blades.

The site is important because it attests to the presence of cattle in the aceramic Neolithic period. Cattle died out in the course of the 8th millennium and were not reintroduced until the ceramic Neolithic. Only dog and pig bones show morphological signs of domestication (size reduction), sheep, goat and cattle bones are in the size range of the wild species (Mouflon, bezoar goat and wild cattle, respectively). The range of bones present point to a killing near the site, thus making a state of pre-domestication probable. Fox and persian fallow deer are present as well, but seem to have been hunted. There are no bones of the Holocene dwarf fauna present in Shillourokambos.

Shillourokambos is also the site where the oldest evidence of human domestication of cats was found.

Historians previously accounted Egypt as the earliest site of cat domestication due to the clear depictions of house cats in ancient Egyptian paintings about 3,600 years old. However, in 2004, a Neolithic grave was excavated in Shillourokambos, Cyprus that contained skeletons, laid close to one another, of both a human and a cat. The grave is estimated to be 9,500 years old, pushing back the earliest known feline-human association significantly. The cat specimen is large and closely resembles the African wildcat (Felis silvestris lybica), rather than present-day domestic cats.

References

Sources
Jean Guilaine/Francois Briois, Parekklisha Shillourokambos: an early Neolithic site in Cyprus. In: S. Swiny (ed.), The earliest prehistory of Cyprus. From Colonization to exploitation American archaeological research institute Monograph Series 2 (Boston American School of oriental research 2001), 37–54.
 Vigne J.-D., Carrère I., Briois F. and Guilaine J., 2011. The Early Process of the Mammal Domestication in the Near East: New Evidence from the Pre-Neolithic and Pre-Pottery Neolithic in Cyprus. Current Anthropology, S52, 4: S255-S271

1992 archaeological discoveries
Archaeological sites in Cyprus
Former populated places in Cyprus
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B
Neolithic settlements

Shillourokambos


Vanni Sartini, né le  à Florence en Italie, est un entraîneur italien de football. Il est l'entraîneur des Whitecaps de Vancouver en Major League Soccer.

Biographie

Premiers pas en Italie

Travail avec les fédérations italienne et américaine

Des jeunes à l'équipe première des Whitecaps de Vancouver
Le , il rejoint les Whitecaps de Vancouver, en tant qu'entraîneur adjoint de Marc Dos Santos.

Le , l'italien est nommé entraîneur principal des moins de 23 ans des Whitecaps de Vancouver et directeur de la méthodologie de l'académie des Whitecaps.

Le , l'entraîneur prend les rênes de l'équipe des Whitecaps de Vancouver en tant qu'entraîneur intérimaire après le limogeage de Marc Dos Santos. Le , il dirige l'équipe pour sa première rencontre contre le Real Salt Lake, qui se solde par une victoire 4-1 au BC Place. Après avoir mené l'équipe aux séries éliminatoires en 2021, il est confirmé pour la saison suivante comme entraîneur, signant, le , un contrat jusqu'en 2023.

Le , pour la rencontre inaugurale de la saison 2022 du club vancouverois, les Whitecaps de Vancouver s'inclinent 4-0 face au Crew de Columbus au Lower.com Field.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Entraîneur italien de football
Entraîneur des Whitecaps de Vancouver
Naissance en novembre 1976
Naissance à Florence

Vanni Sartini


عيب الحاجز البطيني (VSD) هو خلل في الحاجز البطيني، إذ يفصل هذا الحاجز بين البطينين الأيسر والأيمن للقلب. قد يختلف حجم الفتحة من حجم الدبوس إلى الغياب التام للحاجز البطيني، وبتلك الحالة يكون هناك بطين واحد مشترك. يتكون الحاجز البطيني من جزء سفلي عضلي، وعلوي غشائي، ويملك الكثير من الخلايا العضلية القلبية الموصلة.

يكون خلل الجزء الغشائي، القريب من العقدة الأذينية البطينية، هو الأكثر شيوعًا عند البالغين والأطفال الأكبر سنًا في الولايات المتحدة. وهو أيضًا النوع الأشيع الذي يتطلّب تدخلًا جراحيًا، ويشمل أكثر من 80% من الحالات.

عيوب الحاجز البطيني الغشائية أكثر شيوعًا من عيوب الحاجز البطيني العضلية، وهي أكثر الحالات الشاذة القلبية الخلقية شيوعًا.

العلامات والأعراض
يكون عادة عيب الحاجز البطيني دون أعراض عند الولادة، ويبدأ بالتظاهر بعد الولادة ببضعة أسابيع.

عيب الحاجز البطيني هو عيب خلقي مزمن في القلب، ويعرف أيضًا باسم التحويلة اليسرى اليمنى، لذلك لا توجد علامة الزرقة في المرحلة المبكرة. ومع ذلك، قد يزيد عيب الحاجز البطيني غير المصحح من المقاومة الرئوية مما يؤدي إلى عكس التحويلة، وإحداث زرقة.

 تكون النفخة شاملة للانقباض على طول الحدود القصية اليسرى السفلى (حسب حجم العيب) مع أو دون هرير مجسوس (اضطراب واضح في تدفق الدم). أصوات القلب طبيعية. قد يتسبب عيب الحاجز البطيني الأكبر ارتفاعًا مجاورًا للقص، وانحراف ضربة القمة (يتحرك نبض القلب المجسوس للوحشي مع مرور الوقت، بسبب تضخّم القلب). سيفشل الرضيع المصاب بعيب الحاجز البطيني الكبير في النمو وسيعاني التعرق وتسرع التنفس أثناء الرضاعة.

تترافق عيوب الحاجز البطينية الصغيرة (العيوب الأصغر) بنفخات أعلى وهرير مجسوس أكثر (تكون النفخة من الدرجة الرابعة). قد ترتبط العيوب الأكبر بارتفاع الضغط الدموي الرئوي في النهاية بسبب زيادة تدفق الدم. مع مرور الوقت، قد يؤدي ذلك إلى متلازمة أيزنمغجر، وهي عبارة عن عيب حاجز بطيني لكن ينتقل الدم فيه من اليمين إلى اليسار، وتصبح بذلك التحويلة يمنى يسرى بسبب الضغوط المتزايدة في السرير الوعائي الرئوي.

الأسباب
كثيرا ما تترافق عيوب الحاجز البطيني الخلقية مع الحالات الخلقية الأخرى، مثل متلازمة داون.

يمكن أن يتشكل عيب الحاجز البطيني أيضًا بعد أيام قليلة من احتشاء عضلة القلب (النوبة القلبية) بسبب التمزق الميكانيكي لجدار الحاجز في الفترة قبل تشكل أنسجة الندبة، عندما تبدأ البلاعم في إعادة بناء أنسجة القلب الميتة.

تشمل أسباب عيب الحاجز البطيني الخلقية تحلّق غير كامل للقلب خلال الأيام 24-28 من التطور الجنيني. عادةً ما ترتبط عيوب الحاجز البطيني المعزولة مع وجود أخطاء في الجين NKX2.5 عند البشر إذ تُفقد نسخة واحدة من الجين.

العلاج
معظم الحالات لا تحتاج إلى علاج وتشفى في السنوات الأولى من الحياة. يكون العلاج محافظ أو جراحي. إن عيوب الحاجز البطيني الأصغر غالباً ما تغلق وحدها عندما يكبر القلب ويكون العلاج محافظ. بعض الحالات قد تطلّب الجراحة عندما:
 يفشل قصور القلب الاحتقاني في الاستجابة للأدوية
 يكون عيب الحاجز البطيني مرافق بتضيق الرئوي
 يكون عيب الحاجز البطيني مرافق بقلس الأبهر
 يكون عيب الحاجز البطيني كبيرا ومترافقا بارتفاع التوتر الرئوي.

المراجع

انظر أيضا
- متلازمة ايزنمنغر

عيوب خلقية قلبية

عيب الحاجز البطيني


Kragerø (á norrænu: Krákarey) er bær og sveitarfélag í Þelamörk í suður-Noregi. Íbúar voru rúmlega 10.000 árið 2022. Á tímum seglskipa var mikilvæg höfn þar. Fjöldi eyja er í sveitarfélaginu og vinsælt er að ferðast þangað á sumrin.

Borgir í Þelamörk

Kragerø


පුර්ව මෙසපොටේමියානු මෙවලම්

ජීරොෆ්ට් පුරවිද්‍යාත්මක කැනීම් කටයුතු වලදී ක්‍රි.පු 4 වන සියවසට අයත් බොහොමයක් මෙවලම් මතුකරගන්නා ලදී. මෙහිදී සොයා ගත් තඹ වලින් සාදන ලද එලු හිස ප්‍රතිමාව ක්‍රි.පු 3 වන සියවසට අයත් බව  පුරාවිද්‍යාඥයන් සපත කරයි.ජීරොෆ්ට් කන්ඩායම පවසන්නේ පුරාවිද්‍යාත්මක කටයුතු වලට මෙය සැඟවුනු පාරදීසයක් බවයි. කලින් කී ප්‍රතිමාව කැණීම් කටයුතු වලදී පොලොව මතුපිටට ආසන්නයේ පස් තට්ටු අතරින් සොයා ගත් බැවින් මෙය ක්‍රි.පු 4 වන සියවසේ හලීල් නදියේ ශිෂ්ඨාචරයට අයත් එකක් බවටද මතයක් පවතී. එනම් මෙසපොටෙමියානු ශිෂ්ඨාචරයටද එපිට ඉතිහාසයකි.

සමහර සාක්ෂි හා න්‍යෂ්ට මෙවලම් අනූව මෙසපොටෙමියනු ප්‍රදේශය ක්‍රි.පු 3 වන සියවස තරම් ඈත අතීතයකට නෑකම් කියයි. මැටට් ඇබඩ් සුසාන භූමියෙන් හමුවූ මෙවලම් හා අනිකුත් සාක්ෂි අනූව මෙසපොටෙමියනු  භූමිය   ක්‍රි.පු 6 වන සියවස තරම් ඈත අතීතයක් බවද පැහැදිලි විය.

ජීරොෆ්ට් කැණීම් භූමියෙන් මැටි වර්ග  ප්‍රභේද 2 ක් සොයා ගැනුනි. මෙම මැටි ප්‍රභේද 1 ක් වර්ගයක් ක්‍රි.පු 3 න් වන සියවසටත් අනෙක  ක්‍රි.පු 4 න් වන සියවසටත් අයත් වේ.  එම නිස ජීරොෆ්ට් මෙම කාල වකවානු 2 ටම අයත් සුසාන භූමියක් බව සලකනු ලබේ.  කෙසේ වෙතත්  මෙම සුසාන භූමිය පිහිටුවා ඇත්තේ ඊට පෙරද ජනාවාස පිහිටි භූමියක බැවින්  (ක්‍රි.පු 6 වන සියවස ) කැනීම් කටයුතු වලදී මෙසපොටෙමියානු ශිෂ්ඨාචරයට පෙර මෙවලම්ද හමු වී ඇත.  මෙහිදී පුරවිද්‍යාඥ කණ්ඩයාම තව දුරටත් අබ්‍යන්තරයට කැනීම් කටයුතු සිදුකරමින් නවතම කරුනු සොයාගනිමින් පවතී.

පුර්ව මෙසපොටේමියානු මෙවලම්


O HMCS Haida é um contratorpedeiro que foi operado pela Marinha Real Canadense e um membro da Classe Tribal. Sua construção começou em setembro de 1941 nos estaleiros da Vickers-Armstrongs em Newcastle e foi lançado ao mar em agosto de 1942, sendo comissionado na frota canadense em agosto do ano seguinte. Era originalmente armado com seis canhões de 120 milímetros e quatro tubos de torpedo de 533 milímetros, tinha um deslocamento de mais de duas mil toneladas e conseguia alcançar uma velocidade máxima de 36 nós (67 quilômetros por hora).

O Haida entrou em serviço no meio da Segunda Guerra Mundial. Suas primeiras designações foram na escolta de diversos comboios para pelo Mar Ártico até a União Soviética. Foi transferido em janeiro de 1944 para atuar na patrulha do Canal da Mancha e da Baía da Biscaia em preparação para a Operação Overlord, chegando a enfrentar navios alemães em algumas ocasiões. Depois disso escoltou comboios no Mar do Norte e auxiliou ações na Noruega. A guerra terminou na Europa em maio de 1945 e a embarcação foi descomissionada em março do ano seguinte.

O contratorpedeiro foi recomissionado em 1952 para apoiar ações das Nações Unidas durante a Guerra da Coreia. Depois disso continuou a servir na Marinha Real, incluindo em apoio à atividades da OTAN. O Haida já estava obsoleto no início da década de 1960 e foi descomissionado em outubro de 1963. Foi programado para ser desmontado, porém foi comprado no ano seguinte por uma organização civil e transformado em um navio-museu. O navio foi restaurado e está até hoje em exibição em Hamilton, Ontário, sendo considerado um patrimônio histórico do Canadá.

Ligações externas

Navios de 1942
Navios construídos na Inglaterra
Contratorpedeiros da Marinha Real Canadense
Contratorpedeiros do Canadá na Segunda Guerra Mundial
Navios-museu
Museus de Ontário

HMCS Haida (G63)


Leonardo Bruno (Coromandel, 30 de maio de 1945) é um maestro, arranjador e compositor brasileiro. Foi regente titular da Orquestra Sinfônica do Espírito Santo e da Orquestra Filarmônica do Rio de Janeiro. Como arranjador, destacam-se trabalhos ao lado de Gilberto Gil, Zeca Pagodinho, Martinho da Villa, Beth Carvalho, Antonio Carlos e Jocafi e Clara Nunes. Como compositor, destacam-se parcerias em canções como Frevo Rasgado com Gilberto Gil, Maracatu do meu Avô com Nei Lopes e Zumbi dos Palmares com Martinho da Vila.

Biografia
Leonardo Bruno Ferreira nasceu em Coromandel, Minas Gerais. Iniciou sua carreira musical na Rádio Ministério da Educação do Rio de Janeiro, como cantor lírico aos 19 anos. Ao mesmo tempo,  trabalhava como músico e cantor, na peça Liberdade, Liberdade, ao lado de Oduvaldo Vianna Filho, Paulo Autran e Odete Lara. Por essa época, já atuava ao lado de seu pai, o clarinetista Abel Ferreira.

Carreira

Década de 1960
Em 1965, realizou sua primeira orquestração profissional, Pena e Penar, para o músico Sérgio Ricardo. Em 1967, é chamado para integrar a Orquestra da Rede Globo, em seguida, a orquestra de Érlon Chaves. No mesmo ano, fez arranjos para Louvação, álbum de estreia de Gilberto Gil o qual tornou-se parceiro. No mesmo ano, ao lado de Toquinho e outros músicos de São Paulo, integrou o Quinteto de Roda, formada por Gilberto Gil, para as apresentações mensais no Teatro Paramount, alternada com as de Caetano Veloso, Elis Regina e Chico Buarque.

Posteriormente começou a trabalhar com Maria Bethânia, Gal Costa, João Marcelo Bôscoli, Lennie Dale e Luís Carlos Miele. Sua primeira trilha para cinema feita sobre temas de Caetano Veloso, para o filme Proezas de Satanás na Vila de Leva e Traz, do cineasta Paulo Gil Soares.

Em 1968, quando atuava com Luís Carlos Miele, Maria Bethânia e Lennie Dale no boate Blow-up de São Paulo, foi convidado a reger um show latino americano na União Soviética, à frente da Orquestra Gosconcert de Moscou. Na volta ao Brasil em 1968, gravou seu primeiro disco de vinil como maestro, Imagem Barroca No. 2, para a CBS, tendo já gravado em Madrid  à frente da Orquestra do Palácio da Música.

Década de 1970
Em 1970 iniciou seus estudos com o maestro José de Lima Siqueira. No mesmo ano, foi chamado a reger a Orquestra da Rede Globo no Festival Internacional da Canção, cargo que dividiu com o maestro Mário Tavares. Regeu quase todos os FICs, tendo sido o orquestrador de BR-3, Pedro Nadie, Kirie e outras vencedoras do evento da Rede Globo. Logo depois, tornou-se diretor musical do programa Som Livre Exportação. O último festival da Globo que regeu foi no Theatro Municipal de São Paulo, em 1975. Na mesma época, recebia prêmio de melhor arranjo para a canção Pra Dizer Adeus do disco de Maria Creuza. Leonardo Bruno, para esta música fez 7 diferentes vozes e sua irmã Vânia Ferreira, fez 3 vozes.

Em 1972,  recebeu  do  governo francês  uma  bolsa de estudos, frequentando, por orientação musical do maestro José de Lima Siqueira, aulas de Olivier Messiaen e Roger Boutry, no Conservatório de Paris. Recebeu declaração de notório saber dos maestros Mário Tavares, Ernani Aguiar, César Guerra-Peixe e Henrique Morelembaum. Em outubro do mesmo ano, fixou-se em Mannheim, Alemanha, onde recebeu orientação musical do maestro Cláudio Santoro, então professor de composição e regência. Pelas mãos de Cláudio Santoro pode conviver com o ambiente musical daquele tradicional centro sinfônico. A partir de 1975, com vistas à regência de ballet, frequentou aulas de ballet clássico com Eugênia Feodorova, Madeleine Rosay e Jane Féraudy.

Em 1976, volta à TV Globo como orquestrador e, ao lado de Augusto César Vanucci, fez Saudade Não Tem Idade, da série Sexta Nobre e Globo de Ouro. Ainda nesse ano escreveu o especial de fim de ano de Roberto Carlos.

Em 1978, gravou como regente assistente da Orquestra de Câmara do Brasil, sob a direção do maestro José de Lima Siqueira e como regente do coro, o álbum Barroco Brasileiro.

Década de 1980
No início dos anos 80, Leonardo Bruno compôs a trilha sonora para a propaganda do whisky Passport, que esteve no ar durante 11 anos, propagado em vários países em três versões: filmes com David Niven, Frank Sinatra e Burt Bacharach. Ainda na mesma década, na Rede Manchete, fez as partituras de Dona Beija, Marquesa de Santos e Bar Academia.

Em 1988, foi convidado para reger a Orquestra Sinfônica do Espírito Santo, da qual foi titular, de 1988 a 1992. Em seguida, Leonardo Bruno foi regente convidado da Orquestra Sinfônica do Teatro Nacional Cláudio Santoro de Brasília, da Orquestra Sinfônica Nacional, da Orquestra Sinfônica de Minas Gerais, da Orquestra Sinfônica de Ribeirão Preto e da Amazonas Filarmônica.

Ao longo de suas regências, importantes solista se apresentaram junto ao maestro em destaque ao Giancarlo Pareschi, Heitor Alimonda, Alceu Reis, Fábio Zanon, Jerzy Milewisk, Carmelita Reis, Altamiro Carrilho, Piotr Janovski, Noël Devos, João Daltro, Sivuca, Turíbio Santos, Paulo Moura e Nelson Freire.

Década de 1990
Em 1991, orquestrou e regeu o compacto sinfônico Ecos e Reflexos para a ECO-92, ao lado do violinista Jerzy Milewski. Em 1992, é chamado a assumir como regente titular a Orquestra Sinfônica Jovem de Brasília.

Em novembro de 1993, reescreveu a partitura do filme Ganga Bruta, executada sob a regência do maestro Júlio Medaglia, pela Orquestra Sinfônica de Minas Gerais, no Palácio das Artes e pela Orquestra Sinfônica de Campinas, no Theatro Municipal de São Paulo. Em dezembro do mesmo ano, assumiu como titular, a Orquestra de Câmara da Universidade Federal de Espírito Santo. Em julho de 1994, assumiu o cargo de diretor artístico e regente titular da Orquestra Sinfônica da Paraíba. Em 1995, assume como professor da Universidade do Estado de Minas Gerais.

Em novembro de 1995, ao lado de Martinho da Vila, criou e realizou, com a Orquestra Sinfônica de Minas Gerais, um concerto dedicado à cultura afro-brasileira, no Palácio das Artes, permanecendo como regente convidado da mesma orquestra, nos anos de 1996 e 1997. Esse concerto, ao qual chamou Concerto Negro, foi reapresentado em novembro de 1996, desta vez na Sala Cecília Meireles, sendo a orquestra formada por músicos da Orquestra Sinfônica da UFRJ e músicos da Orquestra Sinfônica de Minas Gerais.

O Concerto Negro, que contou com apresentação de Martinho da Vila, foi também realizado na igreja de Nossa Senhora do Rosário dos Homens Pretos, em Diamantina, bem como em seu mercado central, para quinze mil pessoas, em outubro de 1997.

Em 1999, deu prosseguimento ao curso de regência na Escola de Música da Universidade Federal do Rio de janeiro , e no Conservatório Villa-Lobos, curso de formação de professores de educação musical, quando recebeu de Iberê Gomes Grosso os fundamentos do violoncelo e de José Vieira Brandão os da regência coral.

Anos 2000
No início dos anos 2000, apresentou-se com a Orquestra Sinfônica de Ribeirão Preto, como regente titular interino. No mesmo ano, realizou o Concerto Negro no Theatro Municipal do Rio de Janeiro.. Em 2002, arranjou a ópera negra O Alabê de Jerusalém, do compositor Altay Veloso. Em 2004, reassumiu o coral infanto-juvenil, As Princesas de Petrópolis, o qual criou em 1999 e à frente do qual permaneceu até 2007.

Em 2009, assumiu a direção da orquestra infanto-juvenil da comunidade Dona Marta, a exemplo do que fez, em 2004, criando os Violinos da Mangueira. Ainda através da Ação Social pela Música do Brasil, foi regente titular e diretor artístico da Orquestra Jovem do Rio e da Orquestra Jovens do Mercosul. Em 2010, assumiu por concurso público o cargo de compositor residente e orquestrador da UFRJ.

Em 2011, regeu a Orquestra do Teatro Nacional Cláudio Santoro de Brasília, no aniversário da capital, na Praça dos Três Poderes, ao lado de seu parceiro Martinho da Vila. Em 2015, recebeu o título de Cidadão Honorário do Município do Rio de Janeiro. Em 2016, é convidado para ocupar a cadeira número 15 da Academia Nacional de Música.

Em 2017, assumiu a vice-presidência e regência titular da Orquestra Filarmônica do Rio de Janeiro. No ano seguinte, rege o concerto Bandeira da Fé em comemoração aos 80 anos de Martinho da Vila. Apresentação posteriormente lançada em álbum ao vivo.

Compositores eruditos do Brasil
Maestros do estado do Rio de Janeiro

Compositores do Brasil
Arranjadores

Leonardo Bruno