SAF, S.A.F or saf might refer to:

Companies
 SAF Tehnika, a producer of digital microwave data transmission equipment
 Strip Art Features, a comic book publishing house
 Svenska Automobilfabriken, a Swedish auto manufacturer

Computing
 Service Availability Forum, (SAF or SA Forum), highly available systems model

 Storage Access Framework

Law enforcement
 Special Action Force, of the Philippine National Police

Locations
 Santa Fe Regional Airport, IATA code SAF
 South Africa, UNDP country code SAF

Military
 Secretary of the Air Force
 Singapore Armed Forces
 Slovenian Armed Forces
 Somali Air Force
 Somali Armed Forces
 Spanish Air Force
 Spanish Armed Forces
 Sudanese Air Force
 Sudanese Armed Forces
 Swedish Air Force
 Swedish Armed Forces
 Soviet Air Force
 Swiss Air Force

Organizations
 Second Amendment Foundation, a US gun rights organization
 Škola Animiranog Filma (ŠAF), a Croatian school of animation
 Société astronomique de France, astronomical society
 Society of American Foresters
 Students for Academic Freedom, hosted by the David Horowitz Freedom Center
 Swedish Employers Association ()

Other
Sociedade Anônima do Futebol, a type of public limited company in Brazil
System access fee, a Canadian telephone surcharge
Sustainable aviation fuel
Sir Alex Ferguson, a Scottish former football manager
Salfords railway station, a railway station in Surrey, England

SAF


Amt Sydangel (tysk: Amt Südangeln) er et amt i det nordlige Tyskland, beliggende i den sydlige del af Kreis Slesvig-Flensborg. Kreis Slesvig-Flensborg ligger i den nordlige del af delstaten Slesvig-Holsten (i Sydslesvig). Administrationen i amtet er beliggende i byen Bøglund.

Amt Sydangel har sit navn fra landskabet Angel og blev oprettet den 1. januar 2007.

Kommuner i amtet
 Bøglund (ty. Böklund)
 Brodersby
 Goltoft
 Havetoft
 Isted (Idstedt)
 Klapholt (Klappholz)
 Ny Bjernt (Neuberend)
 Nybøl (Nübel)
 Skålby (Schaalby)
 Stolk
 Strukstrup (Struxdorf)
 Sønder Farensted (Süderfahrenstedt)
 Torsted (Taarstedt)
 Tolk
 Tved (Twedt)
 Ølsby (Uelsby)

Eksterne kilder/henvisninger

 Amt Sydangel / Amt Südangeln

Sydangel

Amt Sydangel


SoulBreed ist eine deutsche Rockband aus Recklinghausen.

Die Gruppe wird dem Alternative Rock zugerechnet, wobei sie Elemente aus Classic Rock, Hardrock, Grunge und Metal mit melodischem, mehrstimmigen Gesang kombiniert. Die Band bezeichnet diesen Stilmix inzwischen selbst als Pure Rock.

Geschichte

Gründung
SoulBreed wurde 1999 ursprünglich unter dem Namen El Mariachi gegründet. Die Band änderte den Namen kurze Zeit später, da sie auf eine Single-Veröffentlichung unter dieser Interpreten-Bezeichnung aufmerksam wurde. Der frühere Bandname betitelt die erste Demo-CD, welche zudem ein Lied gleichen Namens enthält.
Mit dem Kunstwort, das ins Deutsche übersetzt Seelen-Zucht lauten würde, beschreiben die Musiker ihre Gruppe abstrakt als Wiege für "Lieder mit Seele". Der Bandname soll somit den gemeinschaftlichen Entstehungsprozess ihrer Musik wiedergeben.

Die Musik
SoulBreed entsteht aus einem Session-Projekt von Akteuren aus der Recklinghäuser Musikszene, die dort in Bands verschiedenster Stilrichtungen wie Hard Rock, Hardcore und Grunge aktiv waren. Diese Einflüsse in Verbindung mit ihren gemeinsamen musikalischen Wurzeln im Classic Rock und Heavy Metal kombinieren die Bandmitglieder zu einem Musikstil, den sie selbst als Pure Rock Music bezeichnen.
Spätestens mit der Veröffentlichung des ersten Demos El Mariachi im Jahre 2000 gerät das einstige Session-Projekt schnell zur Haupt-Band der vier Musiker. Der bislang einzige Besetzungswechsel der Bandgeschichte folgt kurz darauf 2001 und betrifft den Posten der zweiten Gitarre, den ab diesem Zeitpunkt Patrick Brühl übernimmt.
Die erste Veröffentlichung in neuer Besetzung ist die CD fifty/fifty, die 2002 im Eigenvertrieb der Band veröffentlicht wird. Die EP the flame folgt 2004 und zeigt eine musikalische Entwicklung der Band, die sich mehr und mehr von den Grunge-Anleihen der frühen Tage entfernt.

Seit 2006 ist SoulBreed neben ihrem verstärkten auch mit einem sogenannten Unplugged-Programm live zu sehen, in dem sie sowohl Akustik-Versionen ihres Repertoires als auch extra dafür komponierte Stücke mit akustischen Instrumenten spielen. Mit acoustic one und acoustic two veröffentlichten SoulBreed 2007–2009 sogar reine Akustik-CDs.

Ende 2010 zogen sich SoulBreed im zehnten Jahr seit Bestehen der Band ins Tonstudio zurück, um das Album X aufzunehmen. X erschien am 1. April 2011 und erhielt durchweg positive Rezensionen in der Fachpresse.

Als wichtiges Stilmittel setzen SoulBreed im Kontrast zu den überwiegen harten Instrumental-Arrangements melodiöse, mehrstimmige (meist dreistimmige) Gesangslinien ein. Die Hauptstimme übernimmt abwechselnd einer der beiden Leadsänger Marc van de Weyer und Raphael Weber, der verbleibende Leadsänger bildet zusammen mit Schlagzeuger Paddy van de Weyer den Chorgesang.

Nebenprojekte
Raphael Weber war neben SoulBreed außerdem bei der Dark-Rock-Band Swans of Avon als Gitarrist aktiv.

Diskografie
 El Mariachi (2000), Demo-EP
 fifty/fifty (2002)
 the flame (2004)
 acoustic one (2007)
 acoustic two (2009)
 X (2011)
 acoustic three (2014)
 World in Progress (2019)

Weblinks
 Offizielle Website
 Offizielle Facebook-Seite
 Offizielles SoundCloud-Profil

Fußnoten

Alternative-Metal-Band
Alternative-Rock-Band
Deutsche Band
Rockband

Soulbreed


Villa del Río es una estación ferroviaria situada en el municipio español de Villa del Río en la provincia de Córdoba, comunidad autónoma de Andalucía. Dispone de servicios de Media Distancia.

Situación ferroviaria
Las instalaciones se encuentran situadas en el punto kilométrico 387,4 de la línea férrea de ancho ibérico Alcázar de San Juan-Cádiz, a 166,73 metros de altitud sobre el nivel del mar, entre las estaciones de Los Siles y Montoro. El tramo es de vía única y está electrificado.

Historia
La estación fue abierta al tráfico el 15 de septiembre de 1866 con la puesta en marcha del tramo Vilches-Córdoba de la línea que pretendía unir Manzanares con Córdoba. La obtención de la concesión de dicha línea por parte de MZA fue de gran importancia para ella dado que permitía su expansión hacía el sur tras lograr enlazar con Madrid los dos destinos que hacían honor a su nombre (Zaragoza y Alicante). En 1941 la nacionalización de ferrocarril en España supuso la integración de MZA en la recién creada RENFE.

Desde el 31 de diciembre de 2004 Renfe Operadora explota la línea mientras que Adif es la titular de las instalaciones ferroviarias.

Servicios ferroviarios

Media Distancia
Los servicios de Media Distancia ofrecen conexiones con Sevilla, Córdoba y Jaén. Renfe usa para ello trenes MD aunque también circulan trenes Avant aprovechando así los trazados de alta velocidad existentes.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Media Distancia Andalucía en la web de Renfe.

Villa del Río
Villa del Río
Villa del Río
Villa del Río
Estaciones de ferrocarril de España inauguradas en 1866
Estaciones de ferrocarril de Andalucia inauguradas en el siglo XIX

Estación de Villa del Río


رسم إيضاحي  هو اسلوب فني يمكن التعبير عنه وعرضه بالرسم أو التصوير الفني أو التصوير الضوئي أو أي عمل فني آخر، يكون الغرض منه التوضيح أو إملاء المعلومات الحسية (كما في قصة أو قصيدة أو مقال صحفي).

التاريخ

التاريخ المبكر
أقدم رسومات الإيضاحية التي تم اكتشافها وجدت في الكهوف، وقد تم رسمها في العصر الحجري القديم.
وضع الإغريق والرومان أشكالًا موسعةً في الفن، حتى في بعض أنواع الجرافيتي, والذي يمكن مشاهدته في بومبي (خاصةً في مداخل المواخير). عام 200م استخدمت تقنية الطباعة الخشبية في شرق آسيا، ما يمكن اعتباره الخطوة الثانية في تاريخ هذا الفن.
قبل القرن الخامس عشر كانت الرسوم التوضيحية تدرج إلى الكتب يدويًا.

انظر أيضًا
 رسوم الموضة التوضيحية
 رسام توضيحي

مراجع

تصميم
تصميم الاتصال
تصميم الرسوميات
رسامون توضيحيون
رسم توضيحي

رسم إيضاحي (فن)


Die Route nationale 711, kurz N 711 oder RN 711, war eine französische Nationalstraße, die von 1933 bis 1973 zwischen einer Kreuzung mit der ehemaligen Nationalstraße 20 nördlich von Bessines-sur-Gartempe und einer Kreuzung mit der ehemaligen Nationalstraße 675 nördlich von Saint-Junien verlief. Ihre Länge betrug 53,5 Kilometer.

Weblinks
 Route nationale française 711 auf WikiSara (französisch)

711

Route nationale 711


Karl Eugen Damian Erwein I. Fürst von und zu der Leyen und Graf zu Hohengeroldseck fut prince de la Leyen, comte de Hohengeroldseck et baron d'Adendorf. Il est né le 3 avril 1798 à Wiesentheid et est décédé le 17 mai 1879 à Waal.

Ascendance
Erwein est le fils du prince Philipp von der Leyen (1766 † 1829) et de son épouse Sophie Thérèse née Gräfin von Schönborn-Wiesentheid (née en 1772 ; † 1810).

Carrière militaire
Erwein s'est engagé dans l'armée bavaroise en 1814 en tant que Leutnant, il devient Oberleutnant en 1817,Rittmeister en 1820, Major en 1823 , 1833 Oberstleutnant en 1833,Oberst en 1841 et Generalmajor en 1856.

Descendance
Il est le père de Philippe II (14 juin 1819 † 24 juillet 1882), de Franz (17 février 1821 † 8 décembre 1875) et d'Amalie (17 décembre 1824 † 9 avril 1857).

Références

Annexes

Bibliographie

Liens externes

Prince allemand
Comte Impérial
Naissance en août 1798
Naissance à Wiesentheid
Décès en novembre 1879
Décès en Bavière
Décès dans le royaume de Bavière
Prince de la Leyen
Décès à 81 ans

Erwein von der Leyen


غيبوبة السكري هي حالةٌ طبية طارئة يكون فيها شخص مصاب بمرض السكري وهو فاقد للوعي (غيبوبة)، وتكون الغيبوبة ناتجة لأحد المضاعفات الحاده لمرض السكري، ومن الأسباب التي تنتج عنها الغيبوبة:
 حالة انخفاض السكر بالدم (Hypoglycemia) شديدة لمريض السكري.
 حالة حُماض كيتوني سكري (ketoacidosis) لمريض السكري، متقدمة بما يكفي لعدم شعور المريض وجسمه يؤدي مجموعة من الأنشطة مثل الجفاف والصدمة، والإنهاك بسبب حالة فرط سكر الدم الشديدة.
 غيبوبة فرط الأسمولية اللاكيتونية (Hyperosmolar nonketotic) في الغيبوبة التي يكون فيها حالة فرط سكر الدم، الجفاف الشديد وحده سببًا كافيًا للدخول في غيبوبة.

في معظم السياقات الطبية، فإن مصطلح غيبوبة لمرضى السكري يكون معضلة للطبيب في حالة التشخيص مع المريض فاقد الوعي خصوصًا عندما يكون معارف وأصدقاء المريض لا يعرفون شيء سوى أنه يعاني مرض السكري. على سبيل المثال قد يكون أحد الأطباء العاملين في قسم الطوارئ من يتلقى المريض فاقد الوعي، والمريض يرتدي بطاقة تعريف طبيّة لمرضى السكري. يمكن أن ينادي المساعدين الطبيين لإنقاذ أي شخص فاقد الوعي من قبل أصدقاء من تحديد آلية لمرضى السكري. وصف موجز للثلاثة شروط رئيسية هي تليها مناقشة عملية التشخيص تستخدم للتمييز بينها، فضلا عن عدد قليل من الشروط الأخرى الذي يجب أخذها بعين الاعتبار.

ما يقدر بـ 2 إلى 15 في المئة من مرضى السكري سيعانون حالة واحدة في الأقل من غيبوبة مرضى السكري في حياتهم نتيجة فرط سكر دَم شديدة.

أنواع غيبوبة داء السكري

انخفاض حاد للسكر بالدم
يعتبر مرضى السكري من النوع الأول والذين يعتمدون على الإنسولين هم الأكثر عرضه هذا النوع من الغيبوبة.عادًا تكون غيبوبة بسيطة يمكن علاجها بتناول أو شرب مواد سكرية. ولكن أحيانًا ينخفض مستوى السكر بالدم مسببًا غيبوبة قبل اكتشاف سببها. من الممكن أن تصل حدة انخفاض السكر بالدم إلى حدوث الغيبوبة خلال نوم المريض. أشهر العوامل التي تؤدي إلى هذه الغيبوبة قلة تناول الطعام عن المستوى المعتاد، أو عمل تمارين رياضية لفترات طويلة خلال فترة الصباح، علاوة على ذلك الكثير من مرضى السكري لا يمكنهم تمييز المراحل الأولى من انخفاض السكر بالدم.

تحدث الغيبوبة في الغالب بعد حوالى 20 أو 30 دقيقة من بدأ الأعراص الأولية لانخفاض السكر بالدم ومن الممكن أن تكون مصحوبة ببعض التشنجات. يعاني المريض حينئذٍ من عرق كثير ويظهر شاحب الوجه مع تسارع لنبضات القب(نتيجة لارتفاع مستوى الادرينالين بالدم).عند قياس مستوى السكر بالدم من الممكن أن يظهر أقل من الطبيعي وفي حالات أخرى قد يظهر طبيعيًا.يُعالج هذا النوع بالحقن الوريدي بالانسولين أو الجلوكوز.

حماض الدم الكيتوني السكري المتقدم
تتمثل لأعراضها بمعاناة المريض من ترجيع لمدة يومين أو ثلاثة قبل حدوث هذه الغيبوبة بالإضافة إلى بارتفاع كلٍ من السكر والحمض الأيضي في الدَّم.

غيبوبة فرط الأسمولية الاكيتونية
تتميز بارتفاع حاد في سكر الدم مع جفاف نتيجة عدم تناول كميات مناسبة من السوائل.تحدث لدى مرضى السكري من النوع الثاني أو داء السكر الناتج من تناول الاسترويدات.يتضمن العلاج أعطاء الانسولين مع المحاليل.

العلاج
يعتمد العلاج على المسبب الرئيسي للغيبوبة السكرية:

 انخفاض حاد للسكر بالدم: يُعالج بأعطاء المريض هرمون الجليكوجن وريديًا ليعاكس تأثير الانسولين والجلوكوز.
حماض الدم الكيتوني السكري المتقدم: يُعالج بمحاليل وريدية والانسولين بالإضافة إلى دواء البوتاسيوم و الصوديوم.
غيبوبة فرط الأسمولية الاكيتونية: بإعطاء المريض كميات وفيرة من المحاليل الوريدية والانسولين بالإضافة إلى دواء البوتاسيوم والصوديوم في أقرب وقت ممكن.

المراجع

سكري
طوارئ طبية
غيبوبة

غيبوبة سكرية


Asa Gray  (November 18, 1810 – January 30, 1888) is considered the most important American botanist of the 19th century. His Darwiniana was considered an important explanation of how religion and science were not necessarily mutually exclusive. Gray was adamant that a genetic connection must exist between all members of a species. He was also strongly opposed to the ideas of hybridization within one generation and special creation in the sense of its not allowing for evolution. He was a strong supporter of Darwin, although Gray's theistic evolution was guided by a Creator.

As a professor of botany at Harvard University for several decades, Gray regularly visited, and corresponded with, many of the leading natural scientists of the era, including Charles Darwin, who held great regard for him. Gray made several trips to Europe to collaborate with leading European scientists of the era, as well as trips to the southern and western United States. He also built an extensive network of specimen collectors.

A prolific writer, he was instrumental in unifying the taxonomic knowledge of the plants of North America. Of Gray's many works on botany, the most popular was his Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States, from New England to Wisconsin and South to Ohio and Pennsylvania Inclusive, known today simply as Gray's Manual. Gray was the sole author of the first five editions of the book and co-author of the sixth, with botanical illustrations by Isaac Sprague. Further editions have been published, and it remains a standard in the field. Gray also worked extensively on a phenomenon that is now called the "Asa Gray disjunction", namely, the surprising morphological similarities between many eastern Asian and eastern North American plants. Several structures, geographic features, and plants have been named after Gray.

In 1848, Gray was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society.

Early life and education
Gray was born in Sauquoit, New York, on November 18, 1810, to Moses Gray (b.February 26, 1786), then a tanner, and Roxanna Howard Gray (b. March 15, 1789). Born in the back of his father's tannery, Gray was the eldest of their eight children. Gray's paternal great-grandfather had arrived in Boston from Northern Ireland in 1718; Gray's Scotch-Irish Presbyterian ancestors had moved to New York from Massachusetts and Vermont after Shays' Rebellion. His parents married on July 30, 1809. Tanneries needed a lot of wood to burn, and the lumber supply in the area had been shrinking, so Gray's father used his profits to buy farms in the area, and in about 1823 sold the tannery and became a farmer.

Gray was an avid reader even in his youth. He completed Clinton Grammar School from about 1823 to 1825, in those years reading many books from the nearby library at Hamilton College. In 1825 he enrolled at Fairfield Academy, switching to its Fairfield Medical College, also known as the Medical College of the Western District of Fairfield, in autumn 1826. It was during this time that Gray began to mount botanical specimens. On a trip to New York City, he attempted to meet with John Torrey to get assistance in identifying specimens, but Torrey was not home, so Gray left the specimens at Torrey's house. Torrey was so impressed with Gray's specimens that he began a correspondence with him. Gray graduated and became an M.D. in February 1831, even though he was not yet 21 years of age, which was a requirement at the time. Although Gray did open a medical office in Bridgewater, New York, where he had served an apprenticeship with Doctor John Foote Trowbridge while he was in medical school, he never truly practiced medicine, as he enjoyed botany more. It was around this time that he began making explorations in New York and New Jersey. By autumn 1831 he had all but given up his medical practice to devote more time to botany.

In 1832 he was hired to teach chemistry, mineralogy, and botany at Bartlett's High School in Utica, New York, and at Fairfield Medical School, replacing instructors who had died in mid-term. Agreeing to teach for one year, with a break from August to December 1832, Gray had to cancel his plans for an expedition to Mexico, which at the time included what is now the southwestern United States. Gray first met Torrey in person in September 1832, and they went on an expedition to New Jersey. After completing his teaching assignment in Utica on August 1, 1833, Gray became an assistant to Torrey at the College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York City. By this time, Gray was corresponding and trading specimens with botanists not just in America, but also in Asia, Europe, and the Pacific Islands. Gray held a temporary teaching position in 1834 at Hamilton College. Due to funding shortages, in 1835 Gray was obliged to leave his job as Torrey's assistant, and in February or March 1836 became curator and librarian at the Lyceum of Natural History in New York, now called the New York Academy of Sciences. He had an apartment in their new building in Manhattan. Torrey's attempt to get Gray a job at Princeton University was unsuccessful, as were other attempts to find him a position in science. Despite Gray no longer being his assistant, Torrey and Gray became lifelong friends and colleagues. Torrey's wife, Eliza Torrey, had a profound impact upon Gray in his manners, tastes, habits, and religious life.

Career

In October 1836 Gray was selected to be one of the botanists on the United States Exploring Expedition (1838–1842), also known as the "Wilkes Expedition", which was supposed to last three years. Gray began getting paid well for his work preparing and planning for this expedition, even to the point of loading supplies onto a ship in New York harbor. However, the expedition was fraught with politics, bickering, turmoil, inefficiency, and delays. Referring to the Secretary of the Navy, Mahlon Dickerson, Gray wrote of "abominable management & stupidity". Despite this, Gray resigned from the Lyceum in April 1837 to devote his time to the preparations. By 1838 the expedition was in utter turmoil. The new state of Michigan was starting its university, and Gray applied for a professorship in early 1838. He resigned from the Wilkes Expedition on July 10, 1838. In 1848  Gray was hired to work on the botanical specimens, and published the first volume of the report on botany in 1854, but Wilkes was unable to secure the funding for the second volume.

On July 17, 1838, Gray became the very first permanent paid professor at the newly founded University of Michigan, although in the event he never taught classes. His position was also the first one devoted solely to botany at any educational institution in America. Appointed Professor of Botany and Zoology, Gray was dispatched to Europe by the regents of the university for the purpose of purchasing a suitable array of books to form the university's library, and equipment such as microscopes to aid research. Botanist Charles F. Jenkins states that the main purpose of this trip was to examine American flora in Europe's herbariums. Gray departed on the packet ship Philadelphia on November 9, 1838, sailing through The Narrows out of New York Harbor nine days before his 28th birthday. Gray and the regents were both involved in stocking the university library. In 1839 the regents purchased a complete copy of Audubon's The Birds of America for the then-extraordinary sum of $970. Gray's first stop was in Glasgow, visiting William Hooker, who aided and financially supported many botanists, including Gray. On January 16, 1839, he arrived in London and stayed until March 14. He then spent time in Paris, where he collaborated with Joseph Decaisne at the Jardin des Plantes. In mid-April 1839 he left Paris for Italy by way of southern France, then visiting Genoa, Rome, Florence, Venice, Bologna, Padua, and Trieste. After Italy, Gray went to Vienna, Austria. While in Vienna, he spent twelve days studying specimen collections and gardens with Stephan Endlicher, who also introduced him to other local botanists. In 1840 Endlicher became director of the Botanical Garden of the University of Vienna. Departing Austria, Gray went to Munich, Zurich, and Geneva, where he met the prominent botanist Augustin Pyramus de Candolle, who died in 1841. Gray continued extensive collaboration with deCandolle's son Alphonse Pyramus de Candolle. Gray returned to Germany, going to Freiburg, Tübingen, Dresden, Halle, and then Berlin, where he stayed for a month. While in Berlin, he spent most of his time in Schöneberg, where the region's Botanical Gardens were then located. Gray then returned to London by way of Hamburg. Gray admitted he just managed some of the book purchasing and that he delegated the actual buying of books to George Palmer Putnam, who was then living in London. Gray spent a year in Europe, leaving for America from Portsmouth, England, aboard the sailing ship Toronto on October 1, 1839, and arriving back in New York on November 4. Gray, together with his agents, eventually purchased about 3,700 books for the University of Michigan library. The regents at the University of Michigan were so impressed by Gray's work in Europe, including his spending about $1,500 of his own money on specimen collections, that they granted him another year's salary that covered him until the summer of 1841. However, finances at the university were so bad that they asked him to resign in April 1840.

While he was in Paris at the Jardin des Plantes, Gray saw an unnamed dried specimen, collected by André Michaux, and named it Shortia galacifolia. He spent considerable time and effort over the next 38 years looking for a specimen in the wild. The first such expedition was in late June to late July 1841 to an area near Jefferson, Ashe County, North Carolina. His further expeditions searching for this species were also unsuccessful, including one in 1876. In May 1877 a North Carolina herb collector found a specimen but did not know what it was. Eighteen months later the collector sent it to Joseph Whipple Congdon, who contacted Gray, telling Gray that he felt he had found Shortia. Gray was ecstatic to confirm this when he saw the specimen in October 1878. In spring 1879 Gray led an expedition, in which the collector helped, to the spot where S.galacifolia had been found. Gray never saw the species in the wild in bloom, but made a final trip to this region in 1884.

Harvard professor
Both Gray and Torrey were elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in December 1841. Gray never returned to teach a course at Michigan. In 1833 Dr.Joshua Fisher, a resident of Beverly, Massachusetts, and a Harvard University alumnus, bequeathed $20,000 to Harvard to endow a chair in natural history. The university allowed the proceeds to accumulate until it could fund a full year's salary for a professor. Because of this and a few problems in finding a suitable professor, this chair was not filled until it was formally offered to Gray on March 26, 1842. The offer was $1,000/year salary, teaching duties limited to only botany, and being superintendent of Harvard's botanic garden. While the salary was low, the teaching limitation, rare for the time, allowed him plenty of time to do research and work in the botanic garden. After an exchange of letters, Gray accepted this appointment as Fisher Professor of Natural History at Harvard. The formal appointment was made April 30, 1842. Gray arrived at Harvard on July 22, 1842, and began his duties in September. He did not have to teach in the fall of 1842, but began in spring 1843, the first classes he had taught in nine years. Early in his years at Harvard, Gray had to borrow money from his father. Soon he was able to repay his father and help his family by supplementing his income giving lectures outside of Harvard, including at the Lowell Institute. Gray was considered a weak lecturer, but because of his expert knowledge, he was highly regarded by his peers. His skills were better suited to teaching advanced rather than introductory classes. He also gained renown for his textbooks and high quality illustrations. Gray moved into what became known as the Asa Gray House in the Botanic Garden in the summer of 1844. It had been built in 1810 for William Dandridge Peck and later occupied by Thomas Nuttall. As the demands of teaching, collecting, selling specimens, taking care of the herbarium, and writing books increased and he himself was not a good illustrator, Gray found it necessary to hire a botanical illustratorIsaac Sprague, who illustrated much of Gray's works for decades to come.

By June 1848 many of the specimens from the Wilkes Expedition had been damaged or lost. Many were still not classified or published, as the mismanagement and bungling that had plagued the expedition before it ever departed continued. While on a trip to Washington, D.C., that month with his new bride, Gray was hired to study the botanical specimens for five years. This included a year in Europe, with his wife, using the facilities at the herbariums in Europe. Mr.and Mrs.Gray departed for England on June 11, 1850. They spent the summer traveling to Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, and the Netherlands. Gray then set down to work on the expedition's plant sheets at the estate of botanist George Bentham, whom he had met eleven years earlier, and then with William Henry Harvey in Ireland. Gray returned to England and settled into a routine at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. The couple was back in America on September 4, 1851. In the meantime, a dispute had arisen between Wilkes and the team of Torrey and Gray about the format of the books resulting from the expedition. Gray almost hired his father-in-law to break the contract. This dispute largely centered on the use of Latin and English. Wilkes wanted a literal Latin to English translation while Torrey and Gray wanted a looser one because they felt that technical English terms were equally incomprehensible to the public. Much of the work was stymied or burned in fires.

In 1855, Torrey and Gray contributed a "Report on the Botany of the Expedition" to Volume II of the Reports of Explorations and Surveys to ascertain the most practicable and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean (known as the Pacific Railroad Surveys). The Report included a catalogue of plants collected along with 10 black and white plates for illustration.

During the late summer of 1855, Gray made his third trip to Europe. This was an emergency trip to bring his ill brother-in-law home from Paris. Gray spent only three weeks in London and Paris, and on the way back he read the newly published Géographie botanique raisonnée by Alphonse deCandolle. This was a ground-breaking book that for the first time brought together the large mass of data being collected by the expeditions of the time. The natural sciences had become highly specialized, yet this book synthesized them to explain living organisms within their environment and why plants were distributed the way they were, all upon a geologic scale. Gray instantly saw that this brought taxonomic botany into focus.

Despite Gray constantly seeking collectors and people to help him with the Harvard herbarium, in the first fifteen years he was at Harvard, no graduate entered botany as a career. This changed in 1858 with the arrival of Daniel Cady Eaton, who had graduated from Yale University in 1857 and came to Harvard to study with Gray. Eaton later returned to Yale to be a botany professor and oversee its herbarium, just as Gray did at Harvard. Daniel Eaton was the grandson of Amos Eaton, whose textbooks Gray had studied during his college days. Eaton influenced the teaching style of Gray, and both required practical work of their students. Gray retained the Fisher post until 1873 while living in the Asa Gray House.

In 1859 Gray was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The National Academy of Sciences was created by Congress on March 3, 1863, and he was one of the original 50 members. In 1864 Gray donated 200,000 plant specimens and 2,200 books to Harvard with the condition that the herbarium and garden be built. This effectively created the botany department at Harvard, and the Gray Herbarium was named after him. He was president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1872 and of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 1863–1873. Gray was also a regent at the Smithsonian Institution in 1874–1888 and a foreign member of the Royal Society of London in 1873.

The Elements of Botany (1836), an introductory textbook, was the first of Gray's many works. In this book Gray espoused the idea that botany was useful not only to medicine, but also to farmers. Gray and Torrey published the Flora of North America together in 1838. By the mid-1850s the demands of teaching, research, gardening, collecting, and corresponding had become so great, and he had become so influential, that Gray wrote two high school-level texts in the late 1850s: First Lessons in Botany and Vegetable Physiology (1857) and How Plants Grow: A Simple Introduction to Structural Botany (1858). The publishers pressured Gray to make these two books non-technical enough so that high school students and non-scientists could understand them. As with most scientists in American academic institutions, Gray found it difficult to concentrate purely on research.

Gray met physician and botanist George Engelmann in the early 1840s, and they remained friends and colleagues until Engelmann died in 1884. Torrey was an early American supporter of the "natural system of classification", which relies upon geography and a plant's entire structure, and as his assistant, Gray was a proponent of this system, too. This contrasts with Linnaeus' artificial classification, which was designed for ease of use and focused on readily observed aspects of a plant, particularly the differences in the flowers. Amos Eaton was also a proponent of the artificial system. Gray was so impressed with Wilhelm Nikolaus Suksdorf, a largely self-taught immigrant from Germany who specialized in the flora of the Pacific Northwest, that he had Suksdorf come to Harvard to be his assistant and named the genus Suksdorfia after him.

Gray was a leading opponent of the Scientific Lazzaroni, a group of mostly physical scientists who wanted American academia to mimic the autocratic academic structures of European universities. A large percentage of the original 50 members of the National Academy of Sciences were Lazzaroni members. The American Academy of Arts and Sciences was opposed to the National Academy and collectively elected Gray and his friend, colleague, and fellow Charles Darwin supporter William Barton Rogers to the National Academy. Rogers founded the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. This is one of the areas where Gray and his friend and colleague, Louis Agassiz, were in disagreement; Agassiz was a member of the Lazzaroni group. Agassiz had come to lecture at the Lowell Institute in 1846 and got hired by Harvard in 1847. Gray befriended him the way he had been befriended during his trip to Europe.

Gray abhorred slavery. In his view, science proved the unity of all man because all human races can interbreed and produce fertile offspring, i.e., all members of a species are connected genetically. He also felt Christianity taught the unity of man. He was not an abolitionist, feeling it was more important to preserve the Union, yet he also felt if the South persevered in the conflict, every slave should be set free, by use of more force if necessary. However, he was not sure what should be done with the freed slaves. This was another area where Gray and Agassiz disagreed; Agassiz felt each race had different origins.

During the American Civil War, Gray was a steadfast supporter of the North and the Republican Party. About February 1861two months before the war startedGray lost part of his left thumb, just above the base of the nail, in an accident in the garden. Despite now being 50 years old, he regretted that this accident ended his "fighting days". After hostilities began, he joined a company that guarded the Massachusetts State Arsenal in Cambridge. He also bought war bonds, was surprised more people did not do likewise, and supported a 5%tax to support the war. Gray regretted not having children because he had "no son to send to the war". Gray considered Abraham Lincoln as a second George Washington because of the way he managed to preserve the Union during the war. He also predicted that the fate of slavery depended upon the length and bitterness of the war, and the longer it lasted the more disastrous it would be for the South. As a corollary, he felt that if the South had given up early in the war, they would have had a chance of preserving slavery longer. Regarding his botanical endeavors, the war sundered his supply of information and specimens from the South. Even the Southern botanists who supported the North, such as Alvan Wentworth Chapman and Thomas Minott Peters, were soon forced to cease communications with Gray. It was during the war that Gray first began to think of retiring from his professorial duties so he could concentrate on completing Flora of North America.

Harvard was able to secure substantial new funding for its botanical programs in the years after the war, but Gray encountered significant trouble finding a suitable replacement for his professorial duties. The American university system had failed to train replacements for its professors. Only Harvard and Yale had botany programs, and in the war and pre-war years there had been few botany students. However, after the war there was an upswing in the numbers of botany students. Gray was grooming Horace Mann Jr. as his replacement, but he died of tuberculosis at the age of 24 in November 1868.

Growing weary of his workload, Gray and his wife departed on a trip to Britain, Egypt (for three months), and Switzerland in September 1868. It was during the winter spent in Egypt that Gray first grew his white beard. They returned in autumn 1869. In early 1872 Gray tried to resign his professorship and garden duties still with no replacement for himself. He proposed only looking after the herbarium and writing books in exchange for the rent of the house in which he and his wife lived on the university grounds. Due to the way the finances of the funding sources were handled and the lack of a replacement, Gray was unable to resign at that time.

In late 1872 Charles Sprague Sargent was appointed director of the Botanic Garden, the newly constructed Arnold Arboretum, and new botany-related buildings. This freed up much of Gray's time. Also, late in 1872, Ignatius Sargent, Charles' father, and Horatio Hollis Hunnewell both agreed to donate $500 yearly each to support Gray so that he could devote "undivided attention" to completing Flora of North America. This is what finally allowed Gray to resign his professorship and devote all his time to research and writing.

Harvard had so much trouble finding a replacement for Gray that they considered hiring a European, but they found an American and hired George Lincoln Goodale in late 1872. Goodale had a medical degree from Harvard and a solid knowledge of botany. By late June 1873 Goodale had enough experience that Gray was excited to pronounce he had taught his last class. William Gilson Farlow also had a medical degree from Harvard and had studied botany. He became Gray's assistant in 1870 after obtaining his medical degree and then studied in Europe for a few years. He returned to Harvard in 1874 and became a botany professor. Sereno Watson began helping Gray with taxonomy in 1872 and became the herbarium curator. The reorganization of botany at Harvard in the early 1870s was a major accomplishment of Gray's.

"Asa Gray disjunction"

Gray worked extensively on a phenomenon that is now called the "Asa Gray disjunction", namely, the surprising morphological similarities between many eastern Asian and eastern North American plants. In fact, Gray felt the flora of eastern North America is more similar to the flora of Japan than it is to the flora of western North America, but more recent studies have shown this is not so. While Gray was not the first botanist to notice this (it was first noticed in the early 18thcentury), beginning in the early 1840s he brought scientific focus to the issue. He was the first scientist in the world to possess the requisite knowledge set to do so as he had intimate knowledge of the northeast and southeast United States as well as eastern Asiadue to several contacts he had there. The phenomenon involves about 65genera and is not limited to plants, but also includes fungi, arachnids, millipedes, insects, and freshwater fishes. It was believed that each pair of species might be international sister species, but it is now known that this is not generally the case; the species involved are less closely related to one another. Today, botanists suggest three possible causes for the observed morphological similarity, which probably developed at different times and via different pathways; the species pairs are: (1)the products of similar environmental conditions in separate locations, (2)relics of species that were formerly widely distributed but diversified later, (3)not as morphologically similar as was previously believed. Gray's work in this area gave significant support to Darwin's theory of evolution and is one of the hallmarks of Gray's career. In 1880 David P. Penhallow was accepted by Gray as a research assistant. Penhallow aided in Gray's work regarding the distribution of northern hemisphere plants, and in 1882 Gray recommended Penhallow as a lecturer to Sir John Dawson of McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

Later career
Despite no longer having the burden of his professorial and garden duties, by the late 1870s the burden of maintaining himself as the pillar of American botany prevented Gray from the progress he desired on Synoptical Flora of North America, the follow-on to Flora of North America. This burden consisted of the fact that other scientists often only accepted Gray's word on a botanical matter, and the number of incoming specimens to identify was increasing vastly: numbers had to be assigned to them, collectors needed to be corresponded with, and preliminary papers had to be published. By the early 1880s, Gray's home was the center of everything to do with botany in America. Every aspiring botanist came to see him, even if just to look at him through his window.

After turning over his non-research duties to Sargent, Goodale, Farlow, and Watson, Gray concentrated more on research and writing, especially on plant taxonomy, as well as lecturing around the country, largely promoting Darwinian ideas. Many of his lectures during this time were given at the Yale Divinity School. Liberty Hyde Bailey worked as Gray's herbarium assistant for two years during 1883–1884.

In spring 1887 Gray and his wife made their last trip to Europe, this one for six months from April–October, primarily to see Hooker.

Gray received the following advanced degrees: honorary degree of Master of Arts (1844) and Doctor of Laws (1875) from Harvard, and Doctor of Laws from Hamilton College (New York) (1860), McGill University (1884), and the University of Michigan (1887).

Research regarding the American West

Prior to 1840, besides what he had discovered during his trip to Europe, Gray's knowledge of the flora of the American West was limited to what he could learn from Edwin James, who had been on the expedition to the West of Major Stephen Harriman Long, and from Thomas Nuttall, who had been on an expedition to the Pacific coast with Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth. In the latter half of 1840, Gray met the German-American botanist and physician George Engelmann in New York City. Engelmann took frequent trips to explore the American West and northern Mexico. The two remained close friends and botanical collaborators. Engelmann would send specimens to Gray, who would classify them and act as a sales agent. Their collaborations greatly enhanced botanical knowledge of those areas. Another German-American botanist, Ferdinand Lindheimer, collaborated with both Engelmann and Gray, focusing on collecting plants in Texas, hoping to find specimens with "no Latin names". Another long-term and productive collaboration was with Charles Wright, who collected in Texas and New Mexico on two separate expeditions in 1849 and 1851–1852. These trips resulted in publication of the two-volume Plantae Wrightianae in 1852–1853.

Gray traveled to the American West on two separate occasions, the first in 1872 by train, and then again with Joseph Dalton Hooker, son of William Hooker, in 1877. His wife accompanied him on both trips. Both times his goal was botanical research, and he avidly collected plant specimens to bring back with him to Harvard. On his second trip through the American West, he and Hooker reportedly collected over 1,000 specimens. Gray's and Hooker's research was reported in their joint 1880 publication, "The Vegetation of the Rocky Mountain Region and a Comparison with that of Other Parts of the World," which appeared in volume six of Hayden's Bulletin of the United States Geological and Geophysical Survey of the Territories.

On both trips he climbed Grays Peak, one of Colorado's many fourteeners. His wife climbed Grays Peak with him in 1872. This mountain was named after Gray by the botanist and explorer of the Rocky Mountains Charles Christopher Parry.

Prior to the 1870s, collecting in the western part of the country required slow horses, wagons, and often military escorts. But by this time, permanent settlements and railroads resulted in so many specimens coming in that Gray alone could not keep up with them. One of the post-war collectors who worked extensively with Gray was John Gill Lemmon, husband of fellow botanist Sara Plummer Lemmon. Gray named a new genus Plummera, now called Hymenoxys, in Sara's honor.

Relationship with Darwin

Gray and Joseph Dalton Hooker went to visit Richard Owen at London's Hunterian Museum in January 1839. Gray met Charles Darwin during lunch that day at Kew Gardens, apparently introduced by Hooker. Darwin found a kindred spirit in Gray, as they both had an empirical approach to science, and first wrote to him in April 1855. During 1855–1881 they exchanged about 300 letters. Darwin then wrote to Gray requesting information about the distribution of various species of American flowers, which Gray provided, and which was helpful for the development of Darwin's theory. This was the beginning of an extensive lifelong correspondence.

Gray, Darwin, and Hooker became lifelong friends and colleagues, and Gray and Hooker conducted research on Darwin's behalf in 1877 on their Rocky Mountain expedition. After Hooker returned to England and reported to Darwin on their adventure, Darwin wrote back to Gray: "I have just ... heard prodigies of your strength & activity. That you run up a mountain like a cat!"

Before 1846, Gray had been firmly opposed to the idea of transmutation of species, in which simpler forms naturally become more complex over time, including via hybridization. By the early 1850s, Gray had clearly defined his concept that the species is the basic unit of taxonomy. This was partly the result of the 1831–1836 voyage during which Darwin discovered the differentiation of species among the various Galápagos Islands. Local geography could produce variances, like in the Galápagos and Hawaii, which Gray did not get to study in depth as he had wanted. Gray was insistent that a genetic connection must exist between all members of a species, that like begat like. This concept was critical to Darwin's theories. Gray was also strongly opposed to the ideas of hybridization within one generation and special creation in the sense of its not allowing for evolution.

When Darwin received Alfred Russel Wallace's paper that described natural selection, Hooker and Charles Lyell arranged for a joint reading of papers by Darwin and Wallace to the Linnean Society on July 1, 1858. Since Darwin had nothing prepared, the reading included excerpts from his 1844 Essay and from a letter he had sent to Asa Gray in July 1857 outlining his theory on the origin of species. By that time, Darwin had begun writing his book On the Origin of Species. The correspondence with Gray was thus a key piece of evidence in establishing Darwin's intellectual priority with respect to the theory of evolution by natural selection. Neither Darwin nor Wallace attended the meeting. The papers were published by the society as On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection. By summer 1859 it was obvious to Gray and others working with Darwin that On the Origin of Species would be a ground-breaking book.

Darwin published On the Origin of Species on November 24, 1859. The first printing was 1,250 copies, with some having been sent to America via ship, one of which was for Gray. Gray's copy arrived just before Christmas, and he read it between Christmas and New Year. Since there was no international copyright law at the time, Gray worked to protect the book from publishing piracy. According to American law at the time, a copyright could only be secured by an American edition being published by an American citizen, and royalties were not required to be paid to the author. Gray arranged the first American edition of On the Origin of Species and was able to negotiate royalties on Darwin's behalf. Gray took a 5%royalty from the publisher, and Darwin was so grateful for Gray's efforts that he offered Gray some of his royalties. Darwin held Gray in high esteem: he dedicated his book Forms of Flowers (1877) to Gray, and he wrote in 1881, "there is hardly any one in the world whose approbation I value more highly than I do yours." Seeing the "unity we perceive in nature" and law in the universe, regarding all species he felt "that they not only had a Creator but have a Governor." Gray and Agassiz strongly disagreed; Agassiz was adamantly opposed to the idea of evolution, whereas Gray was a staunch supporter, believing in theistic evolution. As the debate raged over Darwin's theories, the rift between Gray and Agassiz grew deeper, and they were estranged by December 1863, when Gray was elected president of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, which also marked Agassiz' increasing isolation within the scientific community. Gray showed little interest in scientific politics and resigned from the National Academy of Sciences in 1867. In late 1866 Agassiz apologized to Gray and the two were at least civil to one another again.

Gray, considered by Darwin to be his friend and "best advocate", also attempted to convince Darwin in his letters that design was inherent in all forms of life, and to return to his faith. Gray saw nature as filled with "unmistakable and irresistible indications of design" and argued that "God himself is the very last, irreducible causal factor and, hence, the source of all evolutionary change." Darwin agreed that his theories were "not at all necessarily atheistical" but was unable to share Gray's belief. "I feel most deeply that the whole subject is too profound for the human intellect. A dog might as well speculate on the mind of Newton," he wrote. Gray was a Christian, but he was a staunch supporter of Darwin in America. He collected together a number of his own writings to produce an influential book, Darwiniana (1876); these essays argued for a conciliation between Darwinian evolution and the tenets of theism, at a time when many on both sides perceived the two as mutually exclusive. Gray denied that investigation of physical causes stood opposed to the theological view and the study of the harmonies between mind and Nature, and thought it "most presumable that an intellectual conception realized in Nature would be realized through natural agencies". The result of all this is that Gray distanced himself from Social Darwinism. Gray is a critical link in the history of American intellectualism, and his writings that explain how religion and science were not necessarily mutually exclusive have been considered his supreme accomplishment; thereby providing a way for believers in Creationism to consider Darwin's ideas.

In 1868, Gray had a year's leave of absence and visited Darwin in England, the first time they had met since they started their correspondence. Darwin had Gray in mind when he wrote, "It seems to me absurd to doubt that a man may be an ardent theist & an evolutionist." Darwin dedicated his 1877 book, The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species, to Gray, "as a small tribute of respect and affection". One area where Darwin and Gray disagreed was Darwin's theory of pangenesis. The Grays embarked on a study visit to Europe during 1880 and 1881, including a final visit to Darwin at his Down House home. Darwin died in 1882.

Personal life
Gray became engaged to Jane Lathrop Loring of Boston in May 1847. Two of Gray's younger brothers, George and Joseph, were students at Harvard in the late 1840s and lived with Gray. During his junior year, George caught typhoid fever in late 1847 and died on January 9, 1848, in the Loring house in Boston. This is part of the reason Gray's marriage was delayed from fall 1847 to spring 1848. Gray and Jane Loring married on May 4, 1848. Her parents were Charles Greely Loring (1794–1867), a member of the Harvard Corporation and a lawyer, and Anna Pierce (Brace) Loring. Her family was Unitarian, like most faculty and staff of Harvard at the time. Both of them kept to their separate religious denominations yet seem to have had no difficulties over it. They had no children. Jane Gray accompanied her husband on most of his expeditions. Gray was a devout Presbyterian and was a member of First Church in Cambridge, a Congregational church, where he served as a deacon. He was also an ardent empiricist in the tradition of John Locke and John Stuart Mill. When the congregation moved into its present building in 1872, at 11Garden Street, Gray planted two Kentucky yellowwood trees, Cladrastis kentukea, in front of the church. They stood until October 2014.

Death
On Monday, November 28, 1887, Gray's hand and arm became paralyzed while he was coming down the stairs for breakfast. Even though the paralysis worsened, he was able to address two letters. On Thursday he lost the ability to speak in a steady rhythm. He lay speechless and quiet for two months, and died on January 30, 1888. He was buried at Mount Auburn Cemetery. He wanted a simple gravestone, so his wife had it engraved with a cross and "Asa Gray 1810–1888". The cemetery's Asa Gray Garden, with a central fountain and numerous unusual tree varieties, is named in his honor.

Legacy

Life work
In addition to the "Asa Gray disjunction", one of Gray's greatest achievements was the vast network of scientists he built who all communicated with one another and exchanged ideas. He is considered the preeminent American botanist of the 19thcentury.

On Gray's 75th birthday, botanists led by editors of the Botanical Gazette presented Gray with a silver vase with the inscription "1810, November eighteenth, 1885. Asa Gray, in token of the universal esteem of American Botanists." An accompanying silver salver had the inscription "Bearing the greetings of one hundred and eighty botanists of North America to Asa Gray on his 75th birthday, Nov.18, 1885."

Also received on his 75th birthday was a poem by James Russell Lowell:
Just fate, prolong his life, well spent,
Whose indefatigable hours
Have been as gayly innocent,
And fragrant as his flowers.

Namesakes
Grayanotoxin is named after him.
William Hooker named the genus Grayia after Gray.
The Asa Gray Award, awarded by the American Society of Plant Taxonomists, was established in 1984 to honor a living botanist for career achievements.
Gray has two namesake buildings at Harvard University: the Asa Gray House, which is a National Historic Landmark, and the Gray Herbarium.
A residential building is named after him on the Stony Brook University campus.
Two mountain peaks are named after him: Gray Peak in New York and Grays Peak in Colorado. The latter is near Torreys Peak, named after his mentor and friend John Torrey.
In 2011 the US Postal Service released an Asa Gray first-class postage stamp as part of its American Scientists series, along with Melvin Calvin, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, and Severo Ochoa. This was the third volume of this series. It features Shortia galacifolia, a flowering plant that fascinated Gray.
A street named after Asa Gray is home to the University Commons of the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Asa Gray Park in Lake Helen, Florida is named in his honor.

List of selected publications

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Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

 Darwin Correspondence Project
 Darwin Correspondence Project – Gray, Asa
 Harvard Botany Libraries Archive
 National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
 A doctoral thesis on the correspondence between Asa Gray and Charles Darwin

1810 births
1888 deaths
American botanical writers
American taxonomists
Botanists active in North America
American male non-fiction writers
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
American Protestants
Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery
Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees
Harvard University faculty
University of Michigan faculty
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Museum founders
People from Sauquoit, New York
Theistic evolutionists
19th-century American botanists
19th-century male writers
Scientists from New York (state)
19th-century American philanthropists
Writers about religion and science

Asa Gray


A economia islâmica (em árabe: الاقتصاد الإسلامي) é um sistema econômico baseado nos princípios e diretrizes estabelecidos pelo islã. O islã tem um conjunto de normas e valores morais especiais sobre comportamento econômico individual e social. Portanto, possui um sistema econômico próprio, baseado em suas visões filosóficas e compatível com a organização islâmica de outros aspectos do comportamento humano: sistemas sociais e políticos.

O termo é usado para se referir à jurisprudência comercial islâmica (em árabe: فقه المعاملات;  fiqh al-mu'āmalāt) e também à uma ideologia econômica baseada nos ensinamentos do islã que é mais semelhante à teoria do valor-trabalho, que é "troca baseada no trabalho e trabalho baseado na troca".

A jurisprudência comercial islâmica envolve as regras de transações financeiras ou outras atividades econômicas de maneira compatível com a sharia, ou seja, de acordo com as escrituras islâmicas (Corão e sunna). A jurisprudência islâmica (fiqh) tradicionalmente trata de determinar o que é necessário, proibido, encorajado, desencorajado ou apenas permitido, de acordo com a palavra revelada de Deus (Corão) e as práticas religiosas estabelecidas por Maomé (sunna). Isso se aplica a questões como propriedade, dinheiro, emprego, impostos, empréstimos, etc. A ciência social da economia, por outro lado, trabalha para descrever, analisar e compreender a produção, distribuição e consumo de bens e serviços, e estuda a melhor forma de atingir os objetivos políticos, como pleno emprego, estabilidade de preços, equidade econômica e crescimento de produtividade.

Acredita-se que as primeiras formas de mercantilismo e capitalismo tenham se desenvolvido na Idade de Ouro Islâmica, no século IX, e mais tarde se tornaram dominantes em territórios muçulmanos europeus como Al-Andalus e o Emirado da Sicília.

Os conceitos econômicos islâmicos adotados e aplicados pelos impérios da pólvora islâmicos (Império Otomano, Império Safávida e Império Mongol) e vários reinos e sultanatos islâmicos levaram a mudanças sistêmicas em sua economia. Particularmente na Índia Mogol, sua região mais rica, Subá de Bengala, uma importante nação comercial do mundo medieval, marcou o período de protoindustrialização, contribuindo diretamente para a primeira Revolução Industrial do mundo após as conquistas britânicas.

Em meados do século XX, as campanhas começaram a promover a ideia de padrões especificamente islâmicos de pensamento e comportamento econômico. Na década de 1970, a "economia islâmica" foi introduzida como disciplina acadêmica em várias instituições de ensino superior em todo o mundo muçulmano e no Ocidente. As características centrais de uma economia islâmica são frequentemente resumidas como:

 As "normas de comportamento e fundamentos morais" derivadas do Corão e da sunna;
 Cobrança de zakat e outros impostos islâmicos;
 Proibição de juros (riba) cobrados sobre empréstimos.

Os defensores da economia islâmica geralmente a descrevem como nem socialista nem capitalista, mas como uma "terceira via", um meio ideal sem as desvantagens dos outros dois sistemas. Entre as reivindicações por um sistema econômico islâmico feitas por ativistas e revivalistas islâmicos está a de que a desigualdade econômica será reduzida e a prosperidade aumentada por meios como o desestimulo ao acúmulo de riqueza, a tributação da riqueza (através do zakat) mas não comércio, a exposição de credores ao risco por meio de participação nos lucros e capital de risco, o desencorajamento do acúmulo de alimentos para especulação e outras atividades que o islã considera pecaminosas, como o confisco ilegal de terras. No entanto, críticos como Timur Kuran a descreveram principalmente como um "veículo para afirmar a primazia do islã", sendo a reforma econômica um motivo secundário.

Recentemente, como complemento à economia islâmica, o campo do empreendedorismo islâmico ou empreendedorismo sob uma perspectiva islâmica ganhou força. O empreendedorismo islâmico estuda o empreendedor muçulmano, empreendimentos empresariais e fatores contextuais que impactam o empreendedorismo na interseção da fé islâmica e atividades empreendedoras.

Economia
Ideologias econômicas
Escolas de pensamento econômico
Religião e governo
Religião e política

Economia islâmica


1984 Yaz Olimpiyatları'nda yüzme yarışları, Güney Kaliforniya Üniversitesi kampüsündeki McDonald's Olimpik Yüzme Stadyumu'nda yapıldı. 67 ülkeden 494 sporcu, 29 kategoride madalya mücadelesi verdi.

1984 Olimpiyatları'nda ilk kez uygulanan kural değişikliyle, ülkelerin bir kategoride bulundurabileceği en fazla yüzücü sayısı ikiye indirildi. Daha önceleri bu sayı üçtü ve bu da bir kategorideki tüm madalyaların aynı ülkeye gitmesine imkan tanıyordu.

Madalyalar

Erkekler

*Sadece eleme serilerinde yüzerek madalya kazanan sporcular.

Kadınlar

*Sadece eleme serilerinde yüzerek madalya kazanan sporcular.

Madalya tablosu

Kaynakça

Yüzme
Olimpiyatlarda yüzme
Yaz Olimpiyatları

1984 Yaz Olimpiyatları'nda yüzme


Fındık faresi (), Gliridae familyasından en küçük memelilerden biridir.

Özellikleri
Boy 6,5–9 cm, kuyruk 5.5–8 cm. Ağırlık 15-40 g. Tüyler parlak sarı-kırmızımsıdır. Gövde altı daha açık renk. Gözler siyah, iri ve yuvarlak, kulaklar kısa ve dairemsi. Kuyruk tüyle kaplıdır. Gençler daha koyu-gri renktedir.

Yaşam alanı
Nemli, odun döküntüsü bol, geniş yapraklı ormanlarda, sık çalılıklarda, genellikle fındık bitkisinin ve böğürtlen gibi küçük çalı meyvelerinin yaygın olduğu bölgelerde yaşar.

Dağılımı
Avrupa'nın daha çok güney ve orta kısımlarında, Türkiye'de Trakya, Bolu, Bursa ve Karadeniz kıyısında rastlanır.

Yaşam şekli
Yaz yuvasını yerden yaklaşık 1,5 m yukarıda, ağaç ve çalılıklara yapar. En sevdiği materyal hanımelidir. Diğer ot, çalı ve yaprakları da kullanır. İçini kemirilmiş materyalle döşediği bu yuva, girişi belirsiz bir küre şeklini alır. Çapı 6–8 cm yavrulu ise 12 cm'ye kadar çıkar. Bazen kuş yuvalarını da kullanırlar. Kış yuvasını ise toprakta, kök aralarına, ağaç kavuklarının dibine ya da yeraltına yapar. Rahatsız edildiği zaman yuvayı terkedebilir.

Davranış

Gececidir. Genellikle yalnız yaşar, ender olarak küçük gruplar halinde görülürler. Çok iyi tırmanır ve sıçrar. Ağaçlar arasında bitkisel koridorları kullanarak yol alır.

Ekimden nisan ayına kadar kış uykusuna yatar ve vücut sıcaklığını çevre sıcaklığına kadar düşürüp, yaşam fonksiyonlarını en aza indirger.

Beslenme

Tohum, tomurcuk, sürgün ve kabuklar, meyve, fındık ve böcekler, tahta ve ahşap,sunta vb. şeyler ile beslenir.

Üreme

Nisan-Ekim arasıdır. Yılda 1-2 kez, her doğumda genellikle 3-5 yavru doğurur. Gözler 18. günde açılır ve 5-6. haftada erginleşirler. Ortalama ömrü, 4-6 yıldır.

Korunma durumu

Fındık faresinin yaşam alanı olan, geniş yapraklı ormanların giderek azalması, türün karşısındaki en önemli tehlikedir. Soyu azalmasına karşın Türkiye'de yasal koruma statüsü verilmemiştir.

Dış bağlantılar

Neredeyse tehdit altında olan hayvanlar
Gliridae
İtalya'daki memeliler
Rusya'daki memeliler
İsveç'teki memeliler
Türkiye'deki memeliler
Birleşik Krallık'taki memeliler
1758'de tanımlanan omurgalılar
Carl Linnaeus tarafından adlandırılmış taksonlar

Fındık faresi


Corbeyrier is a municipality in Switzerland in the canton of Vaud, located in the district of Aigle. It became a municipality in 1718.

History
Corbeyrier is first mentioned in 1261 as de Cubiriaco.

Geography

Corbeyrier has an area, , of .  Of this area,  or 36.2% is used for agricultural purposes, while  or 54.4% is forested.   Of the rest of the land,  or 2.3% is settled (buildings or roads),  or 0.3% is either rivers or lakes and  or 6.9% is unproductive land.

Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 1.0% and transportation infrastructure made up 1.2%.  Out of the forested land, 47.0% of the total land area is heavily forested and 2.9% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees.  Of the agricultural land, 0.0% is used for growing crops and 5.0% is pastures and 30.8% is used for alpine pastures.  All the water in the municipality is in lakes.  Of the unproductive areas, 4.6% is unproductive vegetation and 2.2% is too rocky for vegetation.

The municipality is located in the Aigle district, on the right bank of Rhone river.  The municipality stretches from the upper end of the vineyard of Yvorne to the alpine pastures of the Eau-Froide and Petit-Hongrin valleys.  It consists of the village of Corbeyrier and the hamlets of Boveau, Luan, Le Crettex and Vers Cort.

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Or, a Wolf Head Sable, langued Gules.

Demographics
Corbeyrier has a population () of .  , 8.0% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999–2009 ) the population has changed at a rate of 8.6%.  It has changed at a rate of 29.4% due to migration and at a rate of -20.2% due to births and deaths.

Most of the population () speaks French (323 or 93.1%), with German being second most common (13 or 3.7%) and Italian being third (4 or 1.2%).

Of the population in the municipality 90 or about 25.9% were born in Corbeyrier and lived there in 2000.  There were 134 or 38.6% who were born in the same canton, while 63 or 18.2% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 41 or 11.8% were born outside of Switzerland. In

 there was 1 live birth to Swiss citizens and were 8 deaths of Swiss citizens and 1 non-Swiss citizen death.  Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens decreased by 7 while the foreign population decreased by 1.  There was 1 non-Swiss man and 1 non-Swiss woman who emigrated from Switzerland to another country.  The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was an increase of 3 and the non-Swiss population increased by 3 people.  This represents a population growth rate of 1.6%.

The age distribution, , in Corbeyrier is; 27 children or 7.2% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 42 teenagers or 11.2% are between 10 and 19.  Of the adult population, 32 people or 8.5% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old.  56 people or 14.9% are between 30 and 39, 38 people or 10.1% are between 40 and 49, and 36 people or 9.6% are between 50 and 59.  The senior population distribution is 60 people or 16.0% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 62 people or 16.5% are between 70 and 79,there are 22 people or 5.9% who are 80 and 89, and there is 1 person who is 90 and older.

, there were 106 people who were single and never married in the municipality.  There were 167 married individuals, 41 widows or widowers and 33 individuals who are divorced.

, there were 148 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2. persons per household. There were 57 households that consist of only one person and 5 households with five or more people.  Out of a total of 154 households that answered this question, 37.0% were households made up of just one person.  Of the rest of the households, there are 55 married couples without children, 33 married couples with children There was one single parent with a child or children.  There were 2 households that were made up of unrelated people and 6 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.

 there were 155 single family homes (or 71.8% of the total) out of a total of 216 inhabited buildings.  There were 26 multi-family buildings (12.0%), along with 22 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (10.2%) and 13 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (6.0%).  Of the single family homes 49 were built before 1919, while 9 were built between 1990 and 2000.  The most multi-family homes (13) were built before 1919 and the next most (4) were built between 1981 and 1990.

 there were 257 apartments in the municipality.  The most common apartment size was 3 rooms of which there were 70.  There were 20 single room apartments and 71 apartments with five or more rooms.  Of these apartments, a total of 142 apartments (55.3% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 91 apartments (35.4%) were seasonally occupied and 24 apartments (9.3%) were empty.  , the construction rate of new housing units was 2.7 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0%.

The historical population is given in the following chart:

Politics
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 37.77% of the vote.  The next three most popular parties were the SP (12.51%), the Green Party (12.09%) and the FDP (11.96%).  In the federal election, a total of 139 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 49.6%.

Economy
, Corbeyrier had an unemployment rate of 3.8%.  , there were 20 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 3 businesses involved in this sector.  19 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 3 businesses in this sector.  107 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 7 businesses in this sector. There were 148 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 47.3% of the workforce.

 the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 114.  The number of jobs in the primary sector was 14, of which 6 were in agriculture and 8 were in forestry or lumber production.  The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 18 of which 4 or (22.2%) were in manufacturing and 14 (77.8%) were in construction.  The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 82.  In the tertiary sector; 5 or 6.1% were in a hotel or restaurant, 21 or 25.6% were in education and 53 or 64.6% were in health care.

, there were 78 workers who commuted into the municipality and 78 workers who commuted away.  The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 1.0 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. Of the working population, 6.1% used public transportation to get to work, and 64.2% used a private car.

Religion
From the , 70 or 20.2% were Roman Catholic, while 212 or 61.1% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church.  Of the rest of the population, there was 1 individual who belongs to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 7 individuals (or about 2.02% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church.  There were 2 individuals who were Hindu.  43 (or about 12.39% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 12 individuals (or about 3.46% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education
In Corbeyrier about 124 or (35.7%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 42 or (12.1%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule).  Of the 42 who completed tertiary schooling, 50.0% were Swiss men, 19.0% were Swiss women, 16.7% were non-Swiss men and 14.3% were non-Swiss women.

In the 2009/2010 school year there were a total of 23 students in the Corbeyrier school district.  In the Vaud cantonal school system, two years of non-obligatory pre-school are provided by the political districts. During the school year, the district provided pre-school care for a total of 205 children of which 96 children (46.8%) received subsidized pre-school care.  There were 19 students in the primary school program, which lasts four years.  The obligatory lower secondary school program lasts for six years and there were 4 students in those schools.

, there were 4 students in Corbeyrier who came from another municipality, while 28 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

References

Corbeyrier


Prin conceptul de pionier din America de Nord sau pionier nord-american se face referință la oricare dintre persoanele care, pe durata Istoriei Statelor Unite, au migrat din așezările de pe coasta de Est spre așezările de pe coasta de Vest, colonizând noi domenii.

Termenul se referă mai ales la cei care au mers, cu gând să se stabilească, în oricare dintre teritoriile care anterior nu au fost locuite sau cultivate de către descendenți ai societății europene sau americane, chiar dacă acel teritoriu ar fi fost locuit sau utilizat de popoarele indigene.

Conceptul de pionier și filosofia acestui termen, sunt mult mai vechi decât perioada de migrare către acele părți ale Statelor Unite care se numesc acum Vest (la fel ca mai multe locuri care se numesc acum Est), unde s-au stabilit  la vremea lor,, de asemenea, pionierii de pe aceasta coasta. Spre exemplu, Daniel Boone, o figură cheie în istoria pionierului american, s-a stabilit în Kentucky, pe când acest "pământ întunecat și sângeros" era încă în stadiu de ne-dezvoltare.

Un avânt important în soluționarea așezării (stabilirii) oamenilor în Vest l-a dat Homestead Act, act care prevede instituirea acelei legislații care a reglementat procedurile legale de așezare (de stabilire).

Cultura populară și folclor
Figura de pionier a jucat un rol important în cultura americană, atât în literatură cât și în folclor.  Pionierul nu este singura figură iconică care face act de prezență în perioada colonizării Vestului. Multă notă culturală o dau și alte figuri, de caracter mai mult sau mai putin tranzitoriu, cum ar fi cowboy, vânători, prospectori, mineri, etc Cu toate acestea, pionierul solitar ii reprezintă pe cei care au intrat în teritorii neexplorate, în căutare de o viață nouă în încercarea de a-și stabili acolo o rezidență permanentă.

Diverse figuri de-ale folclorului și de-ale literaturii americane tipizează pionierul. Vânătorul de cerbi a fost figura cea mai de succes, dintr-o serie de alte principii, același lucru fiind și căutătorul de blănuri (de piei), dar asta cu privire la viața pionieră din New York. Căsuța din prerie, un secol mai târziu, tipizează o serie de romane care au descris, pe mai departe, o familie pionieră. Daniel Boone și Davy Crockett sunt două figuri iconice, din viața reală, a istoriei pioniere.

Istoria Statelor Unite ale Americii

Pionier nord-american


George Henry Peters (1863–18 de outubro de 1947) foi um astrônomo americano e descobridor de planetas menores.

Nascidos em 1863
Mortos em 1947
Astrónomos dos Estados Unidos
Descobridores de asteroides
Norte-americanos de ascendência neerlandesa

George Henry Peters


Stan & Ollie este un film de comedie–dramă biografic din 2018 regizat de Jon S. Baird. Acesta este o coproducție britanico-canadiano-americană.

Distribuție
 Steve Coogan – Stan Laurel
 John C. Reilly – Oliver Hardy
 Shirley Henderson – Lucille Hardy
 Danny Huston – Hal Roach
 Nina Arianda – Ida Kitaeva Laurel
 Rufus Jones – Bernard Delfont
 Susy Kane – Cynthia Clark

Note

Legături externe

Filme din 2018
Filme americane
Filme britanice
Filme canadiene
Filme de comedie
Filme în limba engleză
Stan și Bran

Stan & Ollie


An Paepalanthus polyandrus in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Silveira. An Paepalanthus polyandrus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Paepalanthus, ngan familia nga Eriocaulaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Paepalanthus

Paepalanthus polyandrus


Active learning is "a method of learning in which students are actively or experientially involved in the learning process and where there are different levels of active learning, depending on student involvement."  states that "students participate [in active learning] when they are doing something besides passively listening." According to Hanson and Moser (2003) using active teaching techniques in the classroom can create better academic outcomes for students. Scheyvens, Griffin, Jocoy, Liu, & Bradford (2008) further noted that "by utilizing learning strategies that can include small-group work, role-play and simulations, data collection and analysis, active learning is purported to increase student interest and motivation and to build students 'critical thinking, problem-solving and social skills". In a report from the Association for the Study of Higher Education, authors discuss a variety of methodologies for promoting active learning. They cite literature that indicates students must do more than just listen in order to learn. They must read, write, discuss, and be engaged in solving problems. This process relates to the three learning domains referred to as knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSA). This taxonomy of learning behaviors can be thought of as "the goals of the learning process." In particular, students must engage in such higher-order thinking tasks as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Nature of active learning

There are a wide range of alternatives for the term active learning and specific strategies, such as: learning through play, technology-based learning, activity-based learning, group work, project method, etc. The common factors in these are some significant qualities and characteristics of active learning. Active learning is the opposite of passive learning; it is learner-centered, not teacher-centered, and requires more than just listening; the active participation of each and every student is a necessary aspect in active learning. Students must be doing things and simultaneously think about the work done and the purpose behind it so that they can enhance their higher order thinking capabilities.

Many research studies have proven that active learning as a strategy has promoted achievement levels and some others say that content mastery is possible through active learning strategies. However, some students as well as teachers find it difficult to adapt to the new learning technique.

There are intensive uses of scientific and quantitative literacy across the curriculum, and technology-based learning is also in high demand in concern with active learning.

Barnes (1989) suggested principles of active learning:
 Purposive: the relevance of the task to the students' concerns.
 Reflective: students' reflection on the meaning of what is learned.
 Negotiated: negotiation of goals and methods of learning between students and teachers.
 Critical: students appreciate different ways and means of learning the content.
 Complex: students compare learning tasks with complexities existing in real life and making reflective analysis.
 Situation-driven: the need of the situation is considered in order to establish learning tasks.
 Engaged: real life tasks are reflected in the activities conducted for learning.

Active learning requires appropriate learning environments through the implementation of correct strategy. Characteristics of learning environment are:
 Aligned with constructivist strategies and evolved from traditional philosophies.
 Promoting research based learning through investigation and contains authentic scholarly content.
 Encouraging leadership skills of the students through self-development activities.
 Creating atmosphere suitable for collaborative learning for building knowledgeable learning communities.
 Cultivating a dynamic environment through interdisciplinary learning and generating high-profile activities for a better learning experience.
 Integration of prior with new knowledge to incur a rich structure of knowledge among the students.
 Task-based performance enhancement by giving the students a realistic practical sense of the subject matter learnt in the classroom.

Constructivist framework
Active learning coordinates with the principles of constructivism which are, cognitive, meta-cognitive, evolving and effective in nature. Studies have shown that immediate results in construction of knowledge is not possible through active learning as the child first goes through the process of knowledge construction, knowledge recording and then knowledge absorption. This process of knowledge construction is dependent on previous knowledge of the learner where the learner is self-aware of the process of cognition and can control and regulate it by themselves.  There are several aspects of learning and some of them are:
 Learning through meaningful reception, influenced by David Ausubel, who emphasizes the previous knowledge the learner possesses and considers it a key factor in learning.
 Learning through discovery, influenced by Jerome Bruner, where students learn through discovery of ideas with the help of situations provided by the teacher.
 Conceptual change: misconceptions takes place as students discover knowledge without any guidance; teachers provide knowledge keeping in mind the common misconceptions about the content and keep an evaluatory check on the knowledge constructed by the students.
 Constructivism, influenced by researchers such as Lev Vygotsky, suggests collaborative group work within the framework of cognitive strategies like questioning, clarifying, predicting and summarizing.

Science of active learning
Active learning can be used effectively for teaching comprehension and memory. The reason it is efficient is that it draws on underlying characteristics of how the brain operates during learning. These characteristics have been documented by thousands of empirical studies (e.g., Smith & Kosslyn, 2011) and have been organized into a set of principles. Each of these principles can be drawn on by various active learning exercises. They also offer a framework for designing activities that will promote learning; when used systematically, Stephen Kosslyn (2017) notes these principles enable students to "learn effectively—sometimes without even trying to learn".

The principles of learning
One way to organize the empirical literature on learning and memory specifies 16 distinct principles, which fall under two umbrella "maxims". The first maxim, "Think it Through", includes principles related to paying close attention and thinking deeply about new information. The second, "Make and Use Associations", focuses on techniques for organizing, storing, and retrieving information.

The principles can be summarized as follows.

Maxim I: Think it through
 Evoking deep processing: extending thinking beyond "face value" of information (Craig et al., 2006; Craik & Lockhart, 1972)
 Using desirable difficulty: ensuring that the activity is neither too easy nor too hard (Bjork, 1988, 1999; VanLehn et al., 2007)
 Eliciting the generation effect: requiring recall of relevant information (Butler & Roediger, 2007; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006)
 Engaging in deliberate practice: promoting practice focused on learning from errors (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014; Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993)
 Using interleaving: intermixing different problem types
 Inducing dual coding: presenting information both verbally and visually (Kosslyn, 1994; Mayer, 2001; Moreno & Valdez, 2005)
 Evoking emotion: generating feelings to enhance recall (Erk et al., 2003; Levine & Pizarro, 2004; McGaugh, 2003, 2004)

Maxim II: Make and use associations
 Promoting chunking: collecting information into organized units (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014; Mayer & Moreno, 2003)
 Building on prior associations: connecting new information to previously stored information (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Glenberg & Robertson, 1999; Mayer, 2001)
 Presenting foundational material first: providing basic information as a structural "spine" onto which new information can be attached (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Wandersee, Mintzes, & Novak, 1994)
 Exploiting appropriate examples: offering examples of the same idea in multiple contexts (Hakel & Halpern, 2005)
 Relying on principles, not rote: explicitly characterizing the dimensions, factors or mechanisms that underlie a phenomenon (Kozma & Russell, 1997; Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000)
 Creating associative chaining: sequencing chunks of information into stories (Bower & Clark, 1969; Graeser, Olde, & Klettke, 2002)
 Using spaced practice: spreading learning out over time (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014; Cepeda et al., 2006, 2008; Cull, 2000)
 Establishing different contexts: associating material with a variety of settings (Hakel & Halpern, 2005; Van Merrienboer et al., 2006)
 Avoiding interference: incorporating distinctive retrieval cues to avoid confusion (Adams, 1967; Anderson & Neely, 1996)

Active learning typically draws on combinations of these principles. For example, a well-run debate will draw on virtually all, with the exceptions of dual coding, interleaving, and spaced practice. In contrast, passively listening to a lecture rarely draws on any.

Active learning exercises

Bonwell and Eison (1991) suggested learners work collaboratively, discuss materials while role-playing, debate, engage in case study, take part in cooperative learning, or produce short written exercises, etc. The argument is "when should active learning exercises be used during instruction?".  Numerous studies have shown that introducing active learning activities (such as simulations, games, contrasting cases, labs,..) before, rather than after lectures or readings, results in deeper learning, understanding, and transfer. The degree of instructor guidance students need while being "active" may vary according to the task and its place in a teaching unit.

In an active learning environment learners are immersed in experiences within which they engage in meaning-making inquiry, action, imagination, invention, interaction, hypothesizing and personal reflection (Cranton 2012).

Examples of "active learning" activities include

 A class discussion may be held in person or in an online environment. Discussions can be conducted with any class size, although it is typically more effective in smaller group settings.  This environment allows for instructor guidance of the learning experience. Discussion requires the learners to think critically on the subject matter and use logic to evaluate their and others' positions.  As learners are expected to discuss material constructively and intelligently, a discussion is a good follow-up activity given the unit has been sufficiently covered already. Some of the benefits of using discussion as a method of learning are that it helps students explore a diversity of perspectives, it increases intellectual agility, it shows respect for students' voices and experiences, it develops habits of collaborative learning, it helps students develop skills of synthesis and integration (Brookfield 2005). In addition, by having the teacher actively engage with the students, it allows for them to come to class better prepared and aware of what is taking place in the classroom.
 A think-pair-share activity is when learners take a minute to ponder the previous lesson, later to discuss it with one or more of their peers, finally to share it with the class as part of a formal discussion. It is during this formal discussion that the instructor should clarify misconceptions. However students need a background in the subject matter to converse in a meaningful way. Therefore, a "think-pair-share" exercise is useful in situations where learners can identify and relate what they already know to others. It can also help teachers or instructors to observe students and see if they understand the material being discussed. This is not a good strategy to use in large classes because of time and logistical constraints (Bonwell and Eison, 1991). Think-pair-share is helpful for the instructor as it enables organizing content and tracking students on where they are relative to the topic being discussed in class, saves time so that he/she can move to other topics, helps to make the class more interactive, provides opportunities for students to interact with each other (Radhakrishna, Ewing, and Chikthimmah, 2012).
 A learning cell is an effective way for a pair of students to study and learn together. The learning cell was developed by Marcel Goldschmid of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (Goldschmid, 1971). A learning cell is a process of learning where two students alternate asking and answering questions on commonly read materials. To prepare for the assignment, the students read the assignment and write down questions that they have about the reading. At the next class meeting, the teacher randomly puts students in pairs. The process begins by designating one student from each group to begin by asking one of their questions to the other. Once the two students discuss the question, the other student ask a question and they alternate accordingly. During this time, the teacher goes from group to group giving feedback and answering questions. This system is also called a student dyad.
 A short written exercise that is often used is the "one-minute paper". This is a good way to review materials and provide feedback. However a "one-minute paper" does not take one minute and for students to concisely summarize it is suggested that they have at least 10 minutes to work on this exercise. (See also: .)
 A collaborative learning group is a successful way to learn different material for different classes.  It is where you assign students in groups of 3-6 people and they are given an assignment or task to work on together. To create participation and draw on the wisdom of all the learners the classroom arrangement needs to be flexible seating to allow for the creation of small groups. (Bens, 2005)
 A student debate is an active way for students to learn because they allow students the chance to take a position and gather information to support their view and explain it to others.
 A reaction to a video is also an example of active learning.
 A small group discussion is also an example of active learning because it allows students to express themselves in the classroom.  It is more likely for students to participate in small group discussions than in a normal classroom lecture because they are in a more comfortable setting amongst their peers, and from a sheer numbers perspective, by dividing the students up more students get opportunities to speak out.  There are so many different ways a teacher can implement small group discussion in to the class, such as making a game out of it, a competition, or an assignment.  Statistics show that small group discussions is more beneficial to students than large group discussions when it comes to participation, expressing thoughts, understanding issues, applying issues, and overall status of knowledge.
 Just-in-time teaching promotes active learning by using pre-class questions to create common ground among students and teachers before the class period begins. These warmup exercises are generally open ended questions designed to encourage students to prepare for class and to elicit student's thoughts on learning goals.
 A class game is also considered an energetic way to learn because it not only helps the students to review the course material before a big exam but it helps them to enjoy learning about a topic. Different games such as Jeopardy! and crossword puzzles always seem to get the students' minds going.
 Learning by teaching is also an example of active learning because students actively research a topic and prepare the information so that they can teach it to the class. This helps students learn their own topic even better and sometimes students learn and communicate better with their peers than their teachers.
 Gallery walk is where students in groups move around the classroom or workshop actively engaging in discussions and contributing to other groups and finally constructing knowledge on a topic and sharing it.
In a learning factory production-related subjects can be learned interactively in a realistic learning environment.
Problem based learning or "PBL" is an active learning strategy that provides students with the problem first and has been found as an effective strategy with topics as advanced as medicine.

Use of technology

The use of multimedia and technology tools helps enhance the atmosphere of the classroom, thus enhancing the active learning experience. In this way, each student actively engages in the learning process. Teachers can use movies, videos, games, and other fun activities to enhance the effectiveness of the active learning process. The use of technology also stimulates the "real-world" idea of active learning as it mimics the use of technology outside of the classroom. Incorporating technology combined with active learning have been researched and found a relationship between the use and increased positive behavior, an increase in effective learning, "motivation" as well as a connecting between students and the outside world. The theoretical foundations of this learning process are:

 Flow: Flow is a concept to enhance the focus level of the student as each and every individual becomes aware and completely involved in the learning atmosphere. In accordance with one's own capability and potential, through self-awareness, students perform the task at hand. The first methodology to measure flow was Csikszentmihalyi's Experience Sampling.
 Learning styles: Acquiring knowledge through one's own technique is called learning style. Learning occurs in accordance with potential as every child is different and has particular potential in various areas. It caters to all kinds of learners: visual, kinesthetic, cognitive and affective.
 Locus of control: Ones with high internal locus of control believe that every situation or event is attributable to their resources and behavior. Ones with high external locus of control believe that nothing is under their control.
 Intrinsic motivation: Intrinsic motivation is a factor that deals with self-perception concerning the task at hand. Interest, attitude, and results depend on the self-perception of the given activity.

Research evidence

Numerous studies have shown evidence to support active learning, given adequate prior instruction.

A meta-analysis of 225 studies comparing traditional lecture to active learning in university math, science, and engineering courses found that active learning reduces failure rates from 32% to 21%, and increases student performance on course assessments and concept inventories by 0.47 standard deviations. Because the findings were so robust with regard to study methodology, extent of controls, and subject matter, the National Academy of Sciences publication suggests that it might be unethical to continue to use traditional lecture approach as a control group in such studies. The largest positive effects were seen in class sizes under 50 students and among students under-represented in STEM fields.

Richard Hake (1998) reviewed data from over 6000 physics students in 62 introductory physics courses and found that students in classes that utilized active learning and interactive engagement techniques improved 25 percent points, achieving an average gain of 48% on a standard test of physics conceptual knowledge, the Force Concept Inventory, compared to a gain of 23% for students in traditional, lecture-based courses.

Similarly, Hoellwarth & Moelter (2011) showed that when instructors switched their physics classes from traditional instruction to active learning, student learning improved 38 percent points, from around 12% to over 50%, as measured by the Force Concept Inventory, which has become the standard measure of student learning in physics courses.

In "Does Active Learning Work? A Review of the Research", Prince (2004) found that "there is broad but uneven support for the core elements of active, collaborative, cooperative and problem-based learning" in engineering education.

Michael (2006), in reviewing the applicability of active learning to physiology education, found a "growing body of research within specific scientific teaching communities that supports and validates the new approaches to teaching that have been adopted".

In a 2012 report titled "Engage to Excel", the United States President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology described how improved teaching methods, including engaging students in active learning, will increase student retention and improve performance in STEM courses.  One study described in the report found that students in traditional lecture courses were twice as likely to leave engineering and three times as likely to drop out of college entirely compared with students taught using active learning techniques.  In another cited study, students in a physics class that used active learning methods learned twice as much as those taught in a traditional class, as measured by test results.

Active learning has been implemented in large lectures and it has been shown that both domestic and International students perceive a wide array of benefits. In a recent study, broad improvements were shown in student engagement and understanding of unit material among international students.

Active learning approaches have also been shown to reduce the contact between students and faculty by two thirds, while maintaining learning outcomes that were at least as good, and in one case, significantly better, compared to those achieved in traditional classrooms. Additionally, students' perceptions of their learning were improved and active learning classrooms were demonstrated to lead to a more efficient use of physical space.

A 2019 study by Deslauriers et al. claimed that students have a biased perception of active learning and they feel they learn better with traditional teaching methods than active learning activities. It can be corrected by early preparation and continuous persuasion that the students are benefiting from active instruction.

In a different study conducted by Wallace et al. (2021), they came to the conclusion that in a comparison between students being taught by an active-learning instructor vs. a traditional learning instructor, students who engaged in active-learning outperformed their counterparts in exam environments. In this setting, the instructor focused on active-learning was a first-time instructor, and the individual who was teaching the traditional style of learning was a long-time instructor. The researchers acknowledged the limitations of this study in that individuals may have done better because of depth in specific sections of the class, so the researchers removed questions that could be favoring one section more than the other out of this analysis.

See also

 Action teaching
 Design-based learning
 Experiential learning
 Inquisitive learning
 Learning environment
 Learning space
 Organizational learning
 Oswego Movement
 School organizational models
 Sloyd

References

Citations

Works cited
 Bens, I. (2005). Understanding participation. In Facilitating with ease! Core skills for facilitators, team leaders and members, managers, consultants, and trainers (2nd ed., pp. 69–77). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

 Brookfield, S. D. (2005). Discussion as the way of teaching: Tools and techniques for democratic classrooms (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

 Cranton, P. (2012). Planning instruction for adult learners (3rd ed.). Toronto: Wall & Emerson.

Hanson, S., & Moser, S. (2003). Reflections on a discipline-wide project: Developing active learning modules on the human dimensions of global change. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 27(1), 17-38.

Further references

External links
 —A developing open-source Wikibook related to learning as discussed in this article.

Applied learning
Curricula
Educational practices
Learning methods
Management education
Simulation games

Active learning


Donovan Patton (Guam, 1 de marzo de 1978) es un actor estadounidense conocido por su papel de Joe en la serie infantil Las pistas de Blue, ya que entró en 2002, reemplazando a Steve Burns.

Trabajos
Ha participado también como Joe en el spin-off de las pistas de blue llamado El cuarto de Blue. En la actualidad, es la voz del Motor de búsqueda en la serie de Nick jr equipo Umizoomi. Él también ha aparecido en tres episodios de la ABC telenovela One Life to Live.

Enlaces externos

Actores de Estados Unidos

Donovan Patton


موتيما بيمبي هو أحد أندية الكونغو الديمقراطية (زائير سابقا) بعد تى بي مازيمبي، فيتا كينشاسا أكبر ناديين ويمثل بلادة في بطولات أفريقيا للأندية

إنجازات فريق كرة القدم
 بطل أفريقيا للأندية ابطال الكأس : عام 1994

أندية رياضية في جمهورية الكونغو الديمقراطية
أندية كرة قدم أسست في 1936
أندية كرة قدم في جمهورية الكونغو الديمقراطية
أندية كرة قدم في كينشاسا
تأسيسات سنة 1936 في جمهورية الكونغو الديمقراطية

موتيما بيمبي