Talerul este un obiect component al Tezaurului de la Pietroasa, care este datat în secolul al IV-lea e.n. și a fost descoperit în anul 1837 în județul Buzău, comuna Pietroasele, Dealul Istrița,  de către doi pietrari Ion Lemnaru și Stan Avram. Talerul este piesa cea mai masivă și mai mare dintre toate obiectele componente ale tezaurului. În momentul în care această piesă i-a fost dată lui Anastase arnăutul (Verusi), acesta l-a spart cu toporul în patru bucăți. Paul Telge, restauratorul din anul 1884, a unit cele patru sferturi prin intermediul unor mici discuri din argint pe care le-a aplicat pe spatele talerului. Prin comparație cu valoarea aurului folosit, întreaga lucrare este lipsită de finețe și nu are un interes artistic demn de menționat. Decorul și motivele folosite la talerul de la Pietroasa sunt dintre dintre cele mai comune ornamente pe care le foloseau meșterii făurari din mai toate timpurile. Aspectul de masivitate generat creativ ca urmare a unui gust plin de primitivism, ca și execuția neglijentă, sumară, sunt motive suficiente pentru care cercetătorii Tezaurului de la Pietroasa să indice o proveniență indigenă.

Origini
După cum a rezultat din interogatoriile ce au fost luate în anul 1838 celor care au descoperit tezaurul de la Pietroasa, a reieșit că aceștia au găsit un număr de 22 de obiecte, vase de aur, bijuterii și două inele cu inscripții. Când au fost descoperite, obiectele erau învelite într-o masă neagră de origine necunoscută, probabil un material organic ca pielea sau cârpa cu care au fost acoperite înainte de a fi îngropate. Din cele 22 de piese s-au recuperat doar 12 obiecte. Dintre toate, doar cinci au fost lucrate doar din aur: cana sau ibricul (oenochoe), platoul sau talerul cel mare, frânt în patru, patera sau sinia, cea cu decor în relief cu o statuetă ce ține un pahar în mâini, colanul cu inscripție cu rune gotice și colanul simplu. Celelalte șapte piese: patru fibule, două vase poligonale și un colan, au fost împodobite cu pietre prețioase. Se presupune că cele zece obiecte pierdute au fost patru colane din care două cu pietre prețioase, unul cu inscripție, o fibulă mică presupusă a fi pereche cu cea care s-a păstrat,  o cană similară cu cana oenochoe, o pateră simplă nedecorată și două brățări cu pietre prețioase.

Cele 12 obiecte care au putut fi recuperate, au fost furate în anul 1875 de Dumitru Pantazescu-Popescu din Muzeul de Antichități din București. Ca urmare, colanul cu inscripție a fost tăiat cel puțin în patru bucăți de către argintarul Costache Constantinescu din București, caracterele runice înscrise fiind deteriorate până la a fi indescifrabile. Din fericire, Societatea Arundel a făcut la Londra, cu ceva vreme înaintea furtului, fotografii detaliate ale colanului, astfel încât astăzi, caracterele au putut fi reconstituite cu un grad relativ de exactitate.

Prin faptul că întreagul tezaur prezintă o calitate superioară a meșteșugului cu care au fost realizate obiectele care-l formează, cercetătorii sunt sceptici că acesta ar fi fost confecționat de populația indigenă. În anul 1879 când se înregistra una dintre primele lucrări privitoare la tezaur, Taylor  a speculat ideea că obiectele ar fi o parte din câstigurile pe care goții le-au obținut ca urmare a incursiunilor pe care le făceau în provinciile romane Moesia și Tracia (perioada 238 - 251). Există și o altă teză timpurie pe care a propus-o Alexandru Odobescu în anul 1889, teorie pe care a preluat-o și Constantin C. Giurescu în anul 1976. Aceasta l-a identificat pe Athanaric, regele vizigoților ca proprietar de drept al tezaurului, fiind presupusă dobândirea lui în conflictul pe care Athanaric l-a avut în anul 369 cu Împăratul roman Valens. Catalogul Goldhelm din anul 1994, a adus ipoteza că obiectele componente ale tezaurului ar fi putut fi și cadouri pe care unii conducători germanici le-ar fi primit de la liderii romani.

Descriere

Talerul este piesa cea mai masivă și mai mare dintre toate obiectele componente ale Tezaurului de la Pietroasa. Are un diametru de 56 centimetri și o greutate totală de 7130 grame de aur. Pietrarii care au descoperit comoara, au găsit-o acoperită de această tavă. În momentul în care talerul i-a fost dat lui Anastase arnăutul (Verusi), acesta l-a spart cu toporul în patru bucăți. Paul Telge, restauratorul din anul 1884, a unit cele patru sferturi prin intermediul unor mici discuri din argint pe care le-a aplicat pe spatele talerului.

Această piesă antică a fost realizată dintr-o placă groasă de circa 2 mm ce are o ușoară concavitate, ea sprijinindu-se pe un mic fund inelar. Talerul are o margine răsfrântă în afară cu o lățime de circa 5 cm. Fiind impresinant datorită greutății sale, ca și a mărimii deosebite, vasul are un aspect plin de sobrietate, el având dispuse decoruri doar pe marginea circulară și în centru. Decorul de pe marginea răsfrântă, a fost făcută cu un ușor relief format din motive geometrice simpliste. Astfel, între două șiruri bobițe semisferice, încadrate de câteva linii, este prezentată o linie zigzagată. Colțurile liniei au fost umplute cu hașuri verticale adaptate poziției pe care o ocupă pe linie. Ca un vrej, o linie foarte fină cu extremitățile răsucite în formă de spirală, face conturului grupului de hașuri, dând întregului ansamblu geometric o tentă naturalistă. Centrul talerului este ocupat de o rozetă în relief, cu petale alungite. Ea este înconjurată de un fascicol de linii strâns ondulate sub formă de bandă.

Talerul a fost realizat prin ciocănire. Decorul, prin tehnica au repoussé, după care a fost cizelat destul de sumar, astfel că, se văd încă urmele ciocănirii pe spatele tăvii. Singurele componente care au fost aplicate prin sudură sunt bobițele de pe marginea buzei talerului.

Prin comparație cu valoarea aurului folosit, întreaga lucrare este lipsită de finețe și nu are un interes artistic demn de menționat. Există multe analogii pentru forma obiectului. În materialele documentare care au rămas din antichitate s-au făcut numeroase mențiuni despre astfel de vase, unele cizelate cu pietre prețioase. Despre multe din ele, autorii  antici au făcut referiri despre dimensiuni și greutăți de invidiat. Arheologic vorbind, s-au descoperit foarte multe talere confecționate din argint, destul de multe având dimensiuni mult mai mari decât talerul de la Pietroasa. Demn de menționat, este că niciunul din cele găsite nu au un aspect similar cu acesta din urmă.

Decorul și motivele folosite la talerul de la Pietroasa este unul dintre cele mai comune pe care le foloseau meșterii făurari din mai toate timpurile. Astfel, rozeta centrală derivă din cea mai banală formă născută de tradiția clasică greco-romană. Motivul ondulat de pe friza centrală își are obârșia în epoca bronzului, dar și pe vasele decorate în perioada migrațiilor. Linia zigzagată cu hașuri a fost folosită în toate perioadele istorice, ea avându-și originea în epoca neolitică. Bobițele semisferice sudate pe marginea vasului provin din repertoriul roman, inventat în epoca imperială și care a fost preluat în ornamentația popoarelor migratoare. Pe lângă toate aceste concluzii, aspectul de masivitate generat creativ ca urmare a unui gust plin de primitivism, ca și execuția neglijentă, sumară, sunt motive suficiente pentru care cercetătorii Tezaurului de la Pietroasa să indice o proveniență indigenă.

Note

Bibliografie

 .

 .
 . PDF; Summary
 Alexandru Odobescu: Le trésor de Petrossa - tome deuxieme (pdf 17 MB) - accesat 27 noiembrie 2018
Ecaterina Dunăreanu-Vulpe: Tezaurul de la Pietroasa, București, Editura Meridiane, 1967, 54 p. + 18 f.
  mnir.ro: Tezaurul de la Pietroasa, accesat 3 decembrie 2018

Lectură suplimentară
Alexandru Odobescu: Le trésor de Petrossa - tome premier (pdf 17 MB) (1889) - accesat 27 noiembrie 2018
Alexandru Odobescu: Le trésor de Petrossa - deuxieme partie (pdf 69 MB) (1896) - accesat 27 noiembrie 2018
 Alexandru Odobescu: Le trésor de Petrossa - tome troisieme (pdf 4 MB) (1900) - accesat 27 noiembrie 2018

Legături externe

 clasate.cimec.ro: Talerul

Pietroasele
Județul Buzău

Taler (Tezaurul de la Pietroasa)


خليل بلدية بولاية برج بوعريريج تأسست بلدية خليل إثر التقسيم الإداري لعام 1984 (عن ولاية سطيف )، يعود اسم البلدية إلى اسم (خَليل) و هو من أصول تركية عاش في المنطقة خلال الحكم العثماني للجزائر الممتد من أوائل القرن 16 حتى النصف الأول للقرن 19 وقد حملت بلدية خليل عدة أسماء منها 'دافوست' قائد عسكري فرنسي.

مراجع

بلديات ولاية برج بوعريريج

خليل (الجزائر)


Analytical psychology (, sometimes translated as analytic psychology and referred to as Jungian analysis) is a term coined by Carl Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, to describe research into his new "empirical science" of the psyche. It was designed to distinguish it from Freud's psychoanalytic theories as their seven-year collaboration on psychoanalysis was drawing to an end between 1912 and 1913. The evolution of his science is contained in his monumental opus, the Collected Works, written over sixty years of his lifetime.

The history of analytical psychology is intimately linked with the biography of Jung. At the start, it was known as the "Zurich school", whose chief figures were Eugen Bleuler, Franz Riklin, Alphonse Maeder and Jung, all centred in the Burghölzli hospital in Zurich. It was initially a theory concerning psychological complexes until Jung, upon breaking with Sigmund Freud, turned it into a generalised method of investigating archetypes and the unconscious, as well as into a specialised psychotherapy.

Analytical psychology, or "complex psychology", from the , is the foundation of many developments in the study and practice of Psychology as of other disciplines. Jung has many followers, and some of them are members of national societies around the world. They collaborate professionally on an international level through the International Association of Analytical Psychologists (IAAP) and the International Association for Jungian Studies (IAJS). Jung's propositions have given rise to a multidisciplinary literature in numerous languages.

Among widely used concepts specific to analytical psychology are anima and animus, archetypes, the collective unconscious, complexes, extraversion and introversion, individuation, the Self, the shadow and synchronicity. The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is based on another of Jung's theories on psychological types. A lesser known idea was Jung's notion of the Psychoid to denote a hypothesised immanent plane beyond consciousness, distinct from the collective unconscious, and a potential locus of synchronicity.

The approximately "three schools" of post-Jungian analytical psychology that are current, the classical, archetypal and developmental, can be said to correspond to the developing yet overlapping aspects of Jung's lifelong explorations, even if he expressly did not want to start a school of "Jungians".(pp. 50–53) Hence as Jung proceeded from a clinical practice which was mainly traditionally science-based and steeped in rationalist philosophy, anthropology and ethnography, his enquiring mind simultaneously took him into more esoteric spheres such as alchemy, astrology, gnosticism, metaphysics, myth and the paranormal, without ever abandoning his allegiance to science as his long-lasting collaboration with Wolfgang Pauli attests. His wide-ranging progression suggests to some commentators that, over time, his analytical psychotherapy, informed by his intuition and teleological investigations, became more of an "art".

The findings of Jungian analysis and the application of analytical psychology to contemporary preoccupations such as social and family relationships, dreams and nightmares, work–life balance, architecture and urban planning, politics and economics, conflict and warfare, and climate change are illustrated in several publications and films.

Origins

Jung began his career as a psychiatrist in Zürich, Switzerland. Already employed at the Burghölzli hospital in 1901, in his academic dissertation for the medical faculty of the University of Zurich he took the risk of using his experiments on somnambulism and the visions of his mediumistic cousin, Helly Preiswerk. The work was entitled, "On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena". It was accepted but caused great upset among his mother's family. Under the direction of psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler, he also conducted research with his colleagues using a galvanometer to evaluate the emotional sensitivities of patients to lists of words during word association. Jung has left a description of his use of the device in treatment. His research earned him a worldwide reputation and numerous honours, including honorary Doctorates from Clark and Fordham Universities in 1909 and 1910 respectively. Other honours followed later.

Although they began corresponding a year earlier, in 1907 Jung travelled to meet Sigmund Freud in Vienna, Austria. At that stage, Jung, aged thirty-two, had a much greater international renown than the forty-nine-year-old neurologist. For a further six years, the two scholars worked and travelled to the United States together. In 1911, they founded the International Psychoanalytical Association, of which Jung was the first president. However, early in the collaboration, Jung had already observed that Freud would not tolerate ideas that were different from his own.

Unlike most modern psychologists, Jung did not believe in restricting himself to the scientific method as a means to understanding the human psyche. He saw dreams, myths, coincidence, and folklore as empirical evidence to further understanding and meaning. So although the unconscious cannot be studied by using direct methods, it acts as a useful working hypothesis, according to Jung. As he said, "The beauty about the unconscious is that it is really unconscious." Hence, the unconscious is 'untouchable' by experimental researches, or indeed any possible kind of scientific or philosophical reach, precisely because it is unconscious.

The break with Freud

It was the publication of a book by Jung which provoked the break with psychoanalysis and led to the founding of analytical psychology. In 1912 Jung met "Miss Miller", brought to his notice by the work of Théodore Flournoy and whose case gave further substance to his theory of the collective unconscious. The study of her visions supplied the material which would go on to furnish his reasoning which he developed in Psychology of the Unconscious (Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido) (re-published as Symbols of Transformation in 1952) (C.W. Vol. 5). At this, Freud muttered about "heresy". It was the second part of the work that brought the divergence to light. Freud mentioned to Ernest Jones that it was on page 174 of the original German edition, that Jung, according to him, had "lost his way". It is the extract where Jung enlarged on his conception of the libido. The sanction was immediate: Jung was officially banned from the Vienna psychoanalytic circle from August 1912. From that date the psychoanalytic movement split into two obediences, with Freud's partisans on one side, Karl Abraham being delegated to write a critical notice about Jung, and with Ernest Jones as defender of Freudian orthodoxy; while on the other side, were Jung's partisans, including Leonhard Seif, Franz Riklin, Johan van Ophuijsen and Alphonse Maeder.

Jung's innovative ideas with a new formulation of psychology and lack of contrition sealed the end of the Jung-Freud friendship in 1913. From then, the two scholars worked independently on personality development: Jung had already termed his approach analytical psychology (1912), while the approach Freud had founded is referred to as the Psychoanalytic School, (psychoanalytische Schule).

Jung's postulated unconscious was quite different from the model proposed by Freud, despite the great influence that the founder of psychoanalysis had had on him. In particular, tensions manifested between him and Freud because of various disagreements, including those concerning the nature of the libido. Jung  the importance of sexual development as an instinctual drive and focused on the collective unconscious: the part of the unconscious that contains memories and ideas which Jung believed were inherited from generations of ancestors. While he accepted that libido was an important source for personal growth, unlike Freud, Jung did not consider that libido alone was responsible for the formation of the core personality. Due to the particular hardships Jung had endured growing up, he believed his personal development and that of everyone was influenced by factors unrelated to sexuality.

The overarching aim in life, according to Jungian psychology, is the fullest possible actualisation of the "Self" through individuation. Jung defines the "self" as "not only the centre but also the whole circumference which embraces both conscious and unconscious; it is the centre of this totality, just as the ego is the centre of the conscious mind". Central to this process of individuation is the individual's continual encounter with the elements of the psyche by bringing them into consciousness. People experience the unconscious through symbols encountered in all aspects of life: in dreams, art, religion, and the symbolic dramas enacted in relationships and life pursuits. Essential to the process is the merging of the individual's consciousness with the collective unconscious through a huge range of symbols. By bringing conscious awareness to bear on what is unconscious, such elements can be integrated with consciousness when they "surface". To proceed with the individuation process, individuals need to be open to the parts of themselves beyond their own ego, which is the "organ" of consciousness. In a famous dictum, Jung said, "the Self, like the unconscious is an a priori existent out of which the ego evolves. It is ... an unconscious prefiguration of the ego. It is not I who create myself, rather I happen to myself'.

It follows that the aim of (Jungian) psychotherapy is to assist the individual to establish a healthy relationship with the unconscious so that it is neither excessively out of balance in relation to it, as in neurosis, a state that can result in depression, anxiety, and personality disorders or so flooded by it that it risks psychosis resulting in mental breakdown. One method Jung applied to his patients between 1913 and 1916 was active imagination, a way of encouraging them to give themselves over to a form of meditation to release apparently random images from the mind to bridge unconscious contents into awareness.

"Neurosis" in Jung's view results from the build up of psychological defences the individual unconsciously musters in an effort to cope with perceived attacks from the outside world, a process he called a "complex", although complexes are not merely defensive in character. The psyche is a self-regulating adaptive system. People are energetic systems, and if the energy is blocked, the psyche becomes sick. If adaptation is thwarted, the psychic energy stops flowing and becomes rigid. This process manifests in neurosis and psychosis. Jung proposed that this occurs through maladaptation of one's internal realities to external ones. The principles of adaptation, projection, and compensation are central processes in Jung's view of psyche's attempts to adapt.

Innovations of Jungian analysis

Philosophical and epistemological foundations

Philosophy
Jung was an adept principally of the American philosopher William James, founder of pragmatism, whom he met during his trip to the United States in 1909. He also encountered other figures associated with James, such as John Dewey and the anthropologist, Franz Boas. Pragmatism was Jung's favoured route to base his psychology on a sound scientific basis according to historian Sonu Shamdasani. His theories consist of observations of phenomena, and according to Jung it is phenomenology. In his view psychologism was suspect. Throughout his writings, Jung sees in empirical observation not only a precondition of an objective method but also respect for an ethical code which should guide the psychologist, as he stated in a letter to Joseph Goldbrunner:

According to the Italo-French psychoanalyst Luigi Aurigemma, Jung's reasoning is also marked by Immanuel Kant, and more generally by German rationalist philosophy. His lectures are evidence of his assimilation of Kantian thought, especially the Critique of Pure Reason and Critique of Practical Reason. Aurigemma characterises Jung's thinking as "epistemological relativism" because it does not postulate any belief in the metaphysical. In fact, Jung uses Kant's teleology to bridle his thinking and to guard himself from straying into any metaphysical excursions. On the other hand, for French historian of psychology, Françoise Parot, contrary to the alleged rationalist vein, Jung is "heir" to mystics, (Meister Eckhart, Hildegard of Bingen, or Augustine of Hippo,) and to the romantics be they scientists, such as Carl Gustav Carus or Gotthilf Heinrich von Schubert in particular, or to philosophers and writers, along the lines of Nietzsche, Goethe, and Schopenhauer, in the way he conceptualised the unconscious in particular. Whereas his typology is profoundly dependent on Carl Spitteler.

Scientific heritage

As a trained psychiatrist, Jung had a grounding in the state of science in his day. He regularly refers to the experimental psychology of Wilhelm Wundt. His Word Association Test designed with Franz Riklin is actually the direct application of Wundt's theory. Notwithstanding the great debt of analytical psychology to Sigmund Freud, Jung borrowed concepts from other theories of his time. For instance, the expression "abaissement du niveau mental" comes directly from the French psychologist Pierre Janet whose courses Jung attended during his studies in France, during 1901. Jung had always acknowledged how much Janet had influenced his career.

Jung's use of the concept of "participation mystique" is owed to the French ethnologist Lucien Lévy-Bruhl: which he uses to illustrate the surprising fact, to him, that some native peoples can experience relations that defy logic, as for instance in the case of the South American tribe, whom he met during his travels, where the men pretended they were scarlet aras birds. Finally, his use of the English expression, "pattern of behaviour", which is synonymous with the term archetype, is drawn from British studies in ethology.

The principal contribution to analytical psychology, nevertheless, remains that of Freud's psychoanalysis, from which Jung took a number of concepts, especially the method of inquiring into the unconscious through free association. Individual analysts' thinking was also integrated into his project, among whom are Sándor Ferenczi (Jung refers to his notion of "affect") or Ludwig Binswanger and his , (Daseinsanalysis). Jung affirms also Freud's contribution to our knowledge of the psyche as being, without doubt, of the highest importance. It reveals penetrating information about the dark corners of the soul and of the human personality, which is of the same order as Nietzsche's On the Genealogy of Morality (1887). In this context, Freud was, according to Jung, one of the great cultural critics of the 19th century.

Divergences from psychoanalysis
Jungian Analysis, as is psychoanalysis, is a method to access, experience and integrate unconscious material into awareness. It is a search for the meaning of behaviours, feelings and events. Many are the channels to extend knowledge of the self: the analysis of dreams is one important avenue. Others may include expressing feelings about and through art, poetry or other expressions of creativity, the examination of conflicts and repeating patterns in a person's life. A comprehensive description of the process of dream interpretation is complex, in that it is highly specific to the person who undertakes it. Most succinctly it relies on the associations which the particular dream symbols suggest to the dreamer, which at times may be deemed "archetypal" in so far as they are supposed common to many people throughout history. Examples could be a hero, an old man or woman, situations of pursuit, flying or falling.

Whereas (Freudian) psychoanalysis relies entirely on the development of the transference in the analysand (the person under treatment) to the analyst, Jung initially used the transference and later concentrated more on a dialectical and didactic approach to the symbolic and archetypal material presented by the patient. Moreover, his attitude towards patients departed from what he had observed in Freud's method. Anthony Stevens has explained it thus:

Though [Jung's] initial formulations arose mainly out of his own creative illness, they were also a conscious reaction against the stereotype of the classical Freudian analyst, sitting silent and aloof behind the couch, occasionally emitting ex cathedra pronouncements and interpretations, while remaining totally uninvolved in the patient's guilt, anguish, and need for reassurance and support. Instead, Jung offered the radical proposal that analysis is a dialectical procedure, a two-way exchange between two people, who are equally involved. Although it was a revolutionary idea when he first suggested it, it is a model which has influenced psychotherapists of most schools, though many seem not to realise that it originated with Jung.

In place of Freud's "surgical detachment", Jung demonstrated a more relaxed and warmer welcome in the consulting room. He remained aware nonetheless that exposure to a patient's unconscious contents always posed a certain risk of contagion (he calls it "psychic infection") to the analyst, as experienced in the countertransference. The process of contemporary Jungian analysis depends on the type of "school of analytical psychology" to which the therapist adheres, (see below). The "Zurich School" would reflect the approach Jung himself taught, while those influenced by Michael Fordham and associates in London, would be significantly closer to a Kleinian approach and therefore, concerned with analysis of the transference and countertransference as indicators of repressed material along with the attendant symbols and patterns.

Dream work

Jung's preoccupation with dreams can be dated from 1902. It was only after the break with Freud that he published in 1916 his "Psychology of the Unconscious" where he elaborated his view of dreams, which contrasts sharply with Freud's conceptualisation. While he agrees that dreams are a highway into the unconscious, he enlarges on their functions further than psychoanalysis did. One of the salient differences is the compensatory function they perform by reinstating psychic equilibrium in respect of judgments made during waking life: thus a man consumed by ambition and arrogance may, for example, dream about himself as small and vulnerable person.
According to Jung, this demonstrates that the man's attitude is excessively self-assured and thereby refuses to integrate the inferior aspects of his personality, which are denied by his defensive arrogance. Jung calls this a compensation mechanism, necessary for the maintenance of a healthy mental balance. Shortly before his death in 1961, he wrote: Unconscious material is expressed in images through the deployment of symbolism which, in Jungian terms, means it has an affective role (in that it can sometimes give rise to a numinous feeling, when associated with an archetypal force) and an intellectual role. Some dreams are personal to the dreamer, others may be collective in origin or "transpersonal" in so far as they relate to existential events. They can be taken to express phases of the individuation process (see below) and may be inspired by literature, art, alchemy or mythology.

Analytical psychology is recognized for its historical and geographical study of myths as a means to deconstruct, with the aid of symbols, the unconscious manifestations of the psyche. Myths are said to represent directly the elements and phenomena arising from the collective unconscious and though they may be subject to alteration in their detail through time, their significance remains similar. While Jung relies predominantly on Christian or on Western pagan mythology (Ancient Greece and Rome), he holds that the unconscious is driven by mythologies derived from all cultures. He evinced an interest in Hinduism, in Zoroastrianism and Taoism, which all share fundamental images reflected in the psyche. Thus analytical psychology focusses on meaning, based on the hypothesis that human beings are potentially in constant touch with universal and symbolic aspects common to humankind. In the words of André Nataf:

Principal concepts
In analytical psychology two distinct types of psychological process may be identified: that deriving from the individual, characterised as "personal", belonging to a subjective psyche, and that deriving from the collective, linked to the structure of an objective psyche, which may be termed "transpersonal". These processes are both said to be archetypal. Some of these processes are regarded as specifically linked to consciousness, such as the animus or anima, the persona or the shadow. Others pertain more to the collective sphere. Jung tended to personify the anima and animus as they are, according to him, always attached to a person and represent an aspect of his or her psyche.

Anima and animus

Jung identified the archetypal anima as being the unconscious feminine component of men and the archetypal animus as the unconscious masculine component in women. These are shaped by the contents of the collective unconscious, by others, and by the larger society. However, many modern-day Jungian practitioners do not ascribe to a literal definition, citing that the Jungian concept points to every person having both an anima and an animus. Jung considered, for instance, an "animus of the anima" in men, in his work Aion and in an interview in which he says:Jung stated that the anima and animus act as guides to the unconscious unified Self, and that forming an awareness and a connection with the anima or animus is one of the most difficult and rewarding steps in psychological growth. Jung reported that he identified his anima as she spoke to him, as an inner voice, unexpectedly one day.

In cases where the anima or animus complexes are ignored, they vie for attention by projecting itself on others. This explains, according to Jung, why we are sometimes immediately attracted to certain strangers: we see our anima or animus in them. Love at first sight is an example of anima and animus projection. Moreover, people who strongly identify with their gender role (e.g. a man who acts aggressively and never cries) have not actively recognized or engaged their anima or animus.

Jung attributes human rational thought to be the male nature, while the irrational aspect is considered to be natural female (rational being defined as involving judgment, irrational being defined as involving perceptions). Consequently, irrational moods are the progenies of the male anima shadow and irrational opinions of the female animus shadow.

Archetypes

The use of archetypes in psychology was advanced by Jung in an essay entitled "Instinct and the Unconscious" in 1919. The first element in Greek 'arche' signifies 'beginning, origin, cause, primal source principle', by extension it can signify 'position of a leader, supreme rule and government'. The second element 'type' means 'blow or what is produced by a blow, the imprint of a coin ...form, image, prototype, model, order, and norm', ...in the figurative, modern sense, 'pattern underlying form, primordial form'. In his psychological framework, archetypes are innate, universal or personal prototypes for ideas and may be used to interpret observations. The method he favoured was hermeneutics which was central in his practice of psychology from the start. He made explicit references to hermeneutics in the Collected Works and during his theoretical development of the notion of archetypes. Although he lacks consistency in his formulations, his theoretical development of archetypes is rich in hermeneutic implications. As noted by Smythe and Baydala (2012),  A group of memories and attitudes associated with an archetype can become a complex, e.g. a mother complex may be associated with a particular mother archetype. Jung treated the archetypes as psychological organs, analogous to physical ones in that both are morphological givens which probably arose through evolution.

Archetypes have been regarded as collective as well as individual, and identifiable in a variety of creative ways. As an example, in his book Memories, Dreams, Reflections, Jung states that he began to see and talk to a manifestation of anima and that she taught him how to interpret dreams. As soon as he could interpret on his own, Jung said that she ceased talking to him because she was no longer needed. However, the essentialism inherent in archetypal theory in general and concerning the anima, in particular, has called for a re‐evaluation of Jung's theory in terms of emergence theory. This would emphasise the role of symbols in the construction of affect in the midst of collective human action. In such a reconfiguration, the visceral energy of a numinous experience can be retained while the problematic theory of archetypes has outlived its usefulness.

Collective unconscious

Jung's concept of the collective unconscious has undergone re-interpretation over time. The term "collective unconscious" first appeared in Jung's 1916 essay, "The Structure of the Unconscious". This essay distinguishes between the "personal", Freudian unconscious, filled with fantasies (e. g. sexual) and repressed images, and the "collective" unconscious encompassing the soul of humanity at large.

In "The Significance of Constitution and Heredity in Psychology" (November 1929), Jung wrote:

Given that in his day he lacked the advances of complexity theory and especially complex adaptive systems (CAS), it has been argued that his vision of archetypes as a stratum in the collective unconscious, corresponds to nodal patterns in the collective unconscious which go on to shape the characteristic patterns of human imagination and experience and in that sense, "seems a remarkable, intuitive articulation of the CAS model".

Individuation

Individuation is a complex process that involves going through different stages of growing awareness through the progressive confrontation and integration of personal unconscious elements. This is the central concept of analytical psychology first introduced in 1916. It is the objective of Jungian psychotherapy to the extent that it enables the realisation of the Self. As Jung stated:  Jung started experimenting with individuation after his split with Freud as he confronted what was described as eruptions from the collective unconscious driven by a contemporary malaise of spiritual alienation. According to Jung, individuation means becoming an individual and implies becoming one's own self. Unlike individuality, which emphasizes some supposed peculiarity, Jung described individuation as a better and more complete fulfillment of the collective qualities of the human being. In his experience, Jung explained that individuation helped him, "from the therapeutic point of view, to find the particular images that lie behind emotions".

Individuation is from the first what the analysand must undergo, to integrate the other elements of the psyche. This pursuit of wholeness aims to establish the Self, which include both the rational conscious mind of the ego and the irrational contents of the unconscious, as the new personality center. Prior to individuation, the analysand is carefully assessed to determine if the ego is strong enough to take the intensity of this process. The elements to be integrated include the persona which acts as the representative of the person in her/his role in society, the shadow which contains all that is personally unknown and what the person considers morally reprehensible and, the anima or the animus, which respectively carry their feminine and masculine values. For Jung many unconscious conflicts at the root of neurosis are caused by the difficulty to accept that such a dynamic can unbalance the subject from his habitual position and confronts her/him with aspects of the self they were accustomed to ignore. Once individuation is completed the ego is no longer at the centre of the personality. The process, however, does not lead to a complete self-realization and that individuation can never be a fixed state due to the unfathomable nature of the depths of the collective unconscious.

Shadow

The shadow is an unconscious complex defined as the repressed, suppressed or disowned qualities of the conscious self. According to Jung, the human being deals with the reality of the shadow in four ways: denial, projection, integration and/or transmutation. Jung himself asserted that "the result of the Freudian method of elucidation is a minute elaboration of man's shadow-side unexampled in any previous age." According to analytical psychology, a person's shadow may have both constructive and destructive aspects. In its more destructive aspects, the shadow can represent those things people do not accept about themselves. For instance, the shadow of someone who identifies as being kind may be harsh or unkind. Conversely, the shadow of a person who perceives himself to be brutal may be gentle. In its more constructive aspects, a person's shadow may represent hidden positive qualities. This has been referred to as the "gold in the shadow". Jung emphasized the importance of being aware of shadow material and incorporating it into conscious awareness to avoid projecting shadow qualities on others.

The shadow in dreams is often represented by dark figures of the same gender as the dreamer.

The shadow may also concern great figures in the history of human thought or even spiritual masters, who became great because of their shadows or because of their ability to live their shadows (namely, their unconscious faults) in full without repressing them.

Persona

Just like the anima and animus, the persona (derived from the Latin term for a mask, as would have been worn by actors) is another key concept in analytical psychology. It is the part of the personality which manages an individual's relations with society in the outside world and works the same way for both sexes.  The persona, which is at the heart of the psyche, is contrary to the shadow which is actually the true personality but denied by the self. The conscious self identifies primarily with the persona during development in childhood as the individual develops a psychological framework for dealing with others. Identifications with diplomas, social roles, with honours and awards, with a career, all contribute to the apparent constitution of the persona and which do not lead to knowledge of the self. For Jung, the persona has nothing real about it. It can only be a compromise between the individual and society, yielding an illusion of individuality. Individuation consists, in the first instance, of discarding the individual's mask, but not too quickly as often, it is all the patient has as a means of identification. The persona is implicated in a number of symptoms such as compulsive disorders, phobias, shifting moods, and addictions, among others.

Psychological types

Analytical psychology distinguishes several psychological types or temperaments.
 Extravert
 Introvert

According to Jung, the psyche is an apparatus for adaptation and orientation, and consists of a number of different psychic functions. Among these he distinguishes four basic functions:
 Sensation – Perception by means of the sense organs
 Intuition – Perceiving in unconscious way or perception of unconscious contents
 Thinking – Function of intellectual cognition; the forming of logical conclusions
 Feeling – Function of subjective estimation

Complexes

Early in Jung's career he coined the term and described the concept of the "complex". Jung claims to have discovered the concept during his free association and galvanic skin response experiments. Freud obviously took up this concept in his Oedipus complex amongst others. Jung seemed to see complexes as quite autonomous parts of psychological life. It is almost as if Jung were describing separate personalities within what is considered a single individual, but to equate Jung's use of complexes with something along the lines of multiple personality disorder would be a step out of bounds.

Jung saw an archetype as always being the central organizing structure of a complex. For instance, in a "negative mother complex", the archetype of the "negative mother" would be seen to be central to the identity of that complex. This is to say, our psychological lives are patterned on common human experiences. Jung saw the Ego (which Freud wrote about in German literally as the "I", one's conscious experience of oneself) as a complex. If the "I" is a complex, what might be the archetype that structures it? Jung, and many Jungians, might say "the hero", one who separates from the community to ultimately carry the community further.

Synchronicity

Jung first officially used the term synchronicity during a conference held in memory of his sinologist friend, Richard Wilhelm in 1930. It was part of his explanation of the modus operandi of the I Ching. The second reference was made in 1935 in his Tavistock Lectures.

For an overview of the origins of the concept, see Joseph Cambray: "Synchronicity as emergence". It was used to denote the simultaneous occurrence of two events with no causal physical connection, but whose association evokes a meaning for the person experiencing or observing it. The often cited example of the phenomenon is Jung's own account of a beetle (the common rose-chafer, Cetonia aurata) flying into his consulting room directly following on from his patient telling him a dream featuring a golden scarab. The concept only makes sense psychologically and cannot be reduced to a verified or scientific fact. For Jung it constitutes a working hypothesis which has subsequently given rise to many ambiguities.

According to Jung, an archetype which has been constellated in the psyche can, under certain circumstances, transgress the boundary between substance and psyche.

Jung had studied such phenomena with the physicist and Nobel Prize winner, Wolfgang Pauli, who did not always agree with Jung, and with whom he carried on an extensive correspondence, enriched by the contributions of both specialists in their own fields. Pauli had given a series of lectures to the C. G. Jung Institute, Zürich whose member and patron he had been since 1947. It gave rise to a joint essay: Synchronicity, an a-causal principle (1952) The two men saw in the idea of synchronicity a potential way of explaining a particular relationship between "incontrovertible facts", whose occurrence is tied to unconscious and archetypal manifestations,  Borrowing the notion from Arthur Schopenhauer, Jung calls it Unus mundus, a state where neither matter nor the psyche are distinguishable. whereas for Pauli it was a limiting concept, in two senses, in that it is at once scientific and symbolic. According to him, the phenomenon is dependent on the observer. Nevertheless, both men were in accord that there existed the possibility of a conjunction between physics and psychology. Jung wrote in a letter to Pauli:

Marie-Louise von Franz also had a lengthy exchange of letters with Wolfgang Pauli. On Pauli's death in 1958, his widow, Franca, deliberately destroyed all the letters von Franz had sent to her husband, and which he had kept locked inside his writing desk. However, the letters from Pauli to von Franz were all saved and were later made available to researchers and published.

Synchronicity is among the most developed ideas by Jung's followers, notably by , James Hillman, Roderick Main, Carl Alfred Meier and by the British developmental clinician, George Bright. It has been explored also in a range of spiritual currents who have sought in it a scientific rigour.

Although Synchronicity as conceived by Jung within the bounds of the science available in his day, has been categorised as pseudoscience, recent developments in complex adaptive systems argue for a revision of such a view. Critics cite that Jung's experiments that sought to provide statistical proof for this theory did not yield satisfactory result. His experiment was also faulted for not using a true random sampling method as well as for the use of dubious statistics and astrological material.

Post-Jungian approaches
Andrew Samuels (1985) has distinguished three distinct traditions or approaches of "post-Jungian" psychology – classical, developmental and archetypal. Today there are more developments.

Classical

The classical approach tries to remain faithful to Jung's proposed model, his teachings and the substance of his 20 volume Collected Works, together with recently published works, such as the Liber Novus, and the Black Books. Prominent advocates of this approach, according to Samuels (1985), include Emma Jung, Jung's wife, an analyst in her own right, Marie-Louise von Franz, Joseph L. Henderson, Aniela Jaffé, Erich Neumann, Gerhard Adler and Jolande Jacobi. Jung credited Neumann, author of "Origins of Conscious" and "Origins of the Child", as his principal student to advance his (Jung's) theory into a mythology-based approach. He is associated with developing the symbolism and archetypal significance of several myths: the Child, Creation, the Hero, the Great Mother and Transcendence.

Archetypal

One archetypal approach, sometimes called "the imaginal school" by James Hillman, was written about by him in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Its adherents, according to Samuels (1985), include Gerhard Adler, Irene Claremont de Castillejo, Adolf Guggenbühl-Craig, Murray Stein,  and Wolfgang Giegerich. Thomas Moore also was influenced by some of Hillman's work. Developed independently, other psychoanalysts have created strong approaches to archetypal psychology. Mythopoeticists and psychoanalysts such as Clarissa Pinkola Estés who believes that ethnic and aboriginal people are the originators of archetypal psychology and have long carried the maps for the journey of the soul in their songs, tales, dream-telling, art and rituals; Marion Woodman who proposes a feminist viewpoint regarding archetypal psychology. Some of the mythopoetic/archetypal psychology creators either imagine the Self not to be the main archetype of the collective unconscious as Jung thought, but rather assign each archetype equal value. Others, who are modern progenitors of archetypal psychology (such as Estés), think of the Self as the thing that contains and yet is suffused by all other archetypes, each giving life to the other.

Robert L. Moore has explored the archetypal level of the human psyche in a series of five books co-authored with Douglas Gillette, which have played an important role in the men's movement in the United States. Moore studies computerese so he uses a computer's hard wiring (its fixed physical components) as a metaphor for the archetypal level of the human psyche. Personal experiences influence the access to the archetypal level of the human psyche, but personalized ego consciousness can be likened to computer software.

Developmental
A major expansion of Jungian theory is credited to Michael Fordham and his wife, Frieda Fordham. It can be considered a bridge between traditional Jungian analysis and Melanie Klein's object relations theory. Judith Hubback and William Goodheart MD are also included in this group. Andrew Samuels (1985) considers J.W.T. Redfearn, Richard Carvalho and himself as representatives of the developmental approach. Samuels notes how this approach differs from the classical by giving less emphasis to the Self and more emphasis to the development of personality; he also notes how, in terms of practice in therapy, it gives more attention to transference and counter-transference than either the classical or the archetypal approaches.

Sandplay therapy

Sandplay is a non-directive, creative form of therapy using the imagination, originally used with children and adolescents, later also with adults. Jung had stressed the importance of finding the image behind the emotion. The use of sand in a suitable tray with figurines and other small toys, farm animals, trees, fences and cars enables a narrative to develop through a series of scenarios. This is said to express an ongoing dialogue between the conscious and the unconscious aspects of the psyche, which in turn activates a healing process whereby the patient and therapist can together view the evolving sense of self.

Jungian Sandplay started as a therapeutic method in the 1950s. Although its origin has been credited to a Swiss Jungian analyst, Dora Kalff it was in fact, her mentor and trainer, Dr. Margaret Lowenfeld, a British paediatrician, who had developed the Lowenfeld World Technique inspired by the writer H. G. Wells in her work with children, using a sand tray and figurines in the 1930s. Jung had witnessed a demonstration of the technique while on a visit to the UK in 1937. Kalff saw in it potential as a further application of analytical psychology. Encouraged by Jung, Kalff developed the new application over a number of years and called it Sandplay. From 1962 she began to train Jungian Analysts in the method including in the United States, Europe and Japan. Both Kalff and Jung believed an image can offer greater therapeutic engagement and insight than words alone. Through the sensory experience of working with sand and objects, and their symbolic resonance new areas of awareness can be brought into consciousness, as in dreams, which through their frames and storyline can bring material into consciousness as part of an integrating and healing process. The historian of psychology, Sonu Shamdasani has commented:

One of Dora Kalff's trainees was the American concert pianist, Joel Ryce-Menuhin, whose music career was ended by illness and who retrained as a Jungian analyst and exponent of sandplay.

Process-oriented psychology

Process-oriented psychology (also called Process work) is associated with the Zurich-trained Jungian analyst Arnold Mindell. Process work developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s and was originally identified as a "daughter of Jungian psychology". Process work stresses awareness of the "unconscious" as an ongoing flow of experience. This approach expands Jung's work beyond verbal individual therapy to include body experience, altered and comatose states as well as multicultural group work.

The Analytic attitude
Formally Jungian analysis differs little from psychoanalysis. However, variants of each school have developed overlaps and specific divergences through the century, or more, of their existence. They share a "frame" consisting of regular spatio-temporal meetings, one or more times a week, focusing on patient material, using dialogue which may consist of elaboration, amplification and abreaction and which may last on average three years (sometimes more briefly or far longer). The spatial arrangement between analyst and analysand may differ: seated face to face or the patient may use the couch with the analyst seated behind.

In some approaches alternative elements of expression can take place, such as active imagination, sandplay, drawing or painting, even music. The session may at times become semi-directed (in contrast to psychoanalytic treatment which is essentially a non-directive encounter). The patient is at the heart of the therapy, as Marie Louise von Franz has it in her work, "Psychotherapy: the practitioner's experience", where she recounts Jung's thinking on that point. The transference is sought out (contrary to psychoanalytic treatment which distinguishes positive and negative transferences) and, the interpretation of dreams is one of the central pillars of Jungian psychotherapy. In all other respects, the rules correspond to those of classical psychoanalysis: the analyst examines free associations and tries to be objective and ethical, meaning respectful of the patient's pace and rhythm of unfolding progress. In fact, the task of Jungian analysis is not merely to explore the patient's past, but to connect conscious awareness with the unconscious such that a better adaptation to their emotional and social life may ensue.

Neurosis is not a symptom of the re-emergence of a repressed past, but is regarded as the functional, sometimes somatic, incapacity to face certain aspects of lived reality. In Jungian analysis the unconscious is the motivator whose task it is to bring into awareness the patient's shadow, in alliance with the analyst, the more so since unconscious processes enacted in the transference provoke a dependent relationship by the analysand on the analyst, leading to a falling away of the usual defences and references. This requires that the analyst guarantee the safety of the transference. The responsibilities and accountability of individual analysts and their membership organisations, matters of clinical confidentiality and codes of ethics and professional relations with the public sphere are explored in a volume edited by Solomon and Twyman, with contributions from Jungian analysts and psychoanalysts. Solomon has characterised the nature of the patient – analyst relationship as one where the analytic attitude is an ethical attitude since:

Jungian social, literary and art criticism
Analytical psychology has inspired a number of contemporary academic researchers to revisit some of Jung's own preoccupations with the role of women in society, with philosophy and with literary and art criticism. Leading figures to explore these fields include the British-American, Susan Rowland, who produced the first feminist revision of Jung and the fundamental contributions made to his work by the creative women who surrounded him. She has continued to mine his work by evaluating his influence on modern literary criticism and as a writer. Leslie Gardner has devoted a series of volumes to analytical psychology in 21st century life, one of which concentrates on the "Feminine Self". Paul Bishop, a British German scholar, has placed analytical psychology in the context of precursors such as, Goethe, Schiller and Nietzsche.

The Franco-Swiss art historian and analytical psychologist, Christian Gaillard, has examined Jung's place as an artist and art critic in his series of Fay lectures at the Texas A&M University. These scholars draw from Jung's works that apply analytical psychology to literature such as the lecture "On the Relation of Analytical Psychology to Poetry". In this presentation, which was delivered in 1922, Jung stated that the psychologist cannot replace the art critic. He rejected the Freudian art criticism for reducing complex works of art to Oedipal fantasies of their creators, stressing the danger of simplifying literature to causes found outside of the actual work.

Criticism

Since its inception, analytical psychology has been the object of criticism, emanating from the psychoanalytic sphere. Freud himself characterised Jung as a "mystic and a snob". In his introduction to the 2011 edition of Jung's "Lectures on the Theory of Psychoanalysis", given in New York City in 1912, Sonu Shamdasani contends that Freud orchestrated a round of critical reviews of Jung's writings from Karl Abraham, Jung's former colleague at the Burghölzli hospital, and from the early Welsh Freudian, Ernest Jones. Such criticisms multiplied during the 20th century, focusing primarily on the "mysticism" in Jung's writings. Other psychoanalysts, including Jungian analysts, objected to the cult of personality around the Swiss psychiatrist. It reached a crescendo with Jung's perceived collusion with Nazism in the build-up and during World War II and is still a recurrent theme. Thomas Kirsch writes: "Successive generations of Jungian analysts and analysands have wrestled with the question of Jung's complex relations to Germany." Other considered evaluations come from Andrew Samuels and from Robert Withers.

The French philosopher, , considers that the concept of the collective unconscious, "shows also how easily one can slip from the psychological unconscious into perspectives from a universe of thought, quite alien from traditional philosophy and science, where this idea arose." ("Le concept jungien d'inconscient collectif "témoigne également de la facilité avec laquelle on peut glisser du concept d'inconscient psychologique vers des perspectives relevant d'un univers de pensée étranger à la tradition philosophique et scientifique dans laquelle ce concept est né'").

In his Le Livre Rouge de la psychanalyse ("Red Book of psychoanalysis"), the French psychoanalyst, , criticizes Jung's tendency to be fascinated by the image and to reduce the human to an archetype. He contends that Jung dwells in a world of ideas and abstractions, in a world of books and old secrets lost in ancient books of spells (fr: grimoires). While claiming to be an empiricist, Amselek finds Jung to be an idealist, a pure thinker who has unquestionably demonstrated his intellectual talent for speculation and the invention of ideas. While he considers his epistemology to be in advance of that of Freud, Jung remains stuck in his intellectualism and in his narrow provincial outlook. In fact, his hypotheses are determined by the concept of his postulated pre-existing world and he has constantly sought to find confirmations of it in the old traditions of Western Medieval Europe.

More problematic has been, at times, the ad hominem criticism of academics outside the field of analytical psychology. One, a Catholic historian of psychiatry, Richard Noll, wrote three volumes but was able to publish only the first two in 1994 and 1997. Nolls argued that analytical psychology is based on a neo-pagan Hellenistic cult. These attacks on Jung and his work prompted the French psychoanalyst, Élisabeth Roudinesco, to state in a review: "Even if Noll's theses are based on a solid familiarity with the Jungian corpus [...], they deserve to be re-examined, such is the detestation of the author for the object of his study that it diminishes the credibility of the arguments." ("Même si les thèses de Noll sont étayées par une solide connaissance du corpus jungien [...], elles méritent être réexaminées, tant la détestation de l'auteur vis-à-vis de son objet d'étude diminue la crédibilité de l'argumentation.") Another, a French ethnographer and anthropologist, , criticized Jung over his alleged misuse of the term archetype and his "suspect motives" in dealings with some of his colleagues.

See also

 Active imagination
 Michael Fordham
 Jungian interpretation of religion
 Keirsey Temperament Sorter
 Mythopoetic men's movement
 Positive disintegration
 Socionics
 Edward Armstrong Bennet

References

Further reading

 Dohe, Carrie B. Jung's Wandering Archetype: Race and Religion in Analytical Psychology. London: Routledge, 2016.

 Glinka, Lukasz Andrzej (2014) Aryan Unconscious: Archetype of Discrimination, History & Politics. Great Abington: Cambridge International Science Publishing.

 Remo, F. Roth: Return of the World Soul, Wolfgang Pauli, C.G. Jung and the Challenge of Psychophysical Reality [unus mundus], Part 1: The Battle of the Giants. Pari Publishing, 2011, .

External links

 Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism
 Website of the Journal of Analytical Psychology, considered the foremost international publication on AP
 Harvest a scholarly journal of the Jung Club, London
 International Association of Analytical Psychology
 International Association for Jungian Studies
 Pacifica Graduate Institute, a graduate school offering programs in Jungian and post-Jungian studies
 Jung Arena – Analytical psychology books, journals and resources
 ADEPAC Colombia, Colombian analytical psychology news, biographies and resources

Analytical psychology
History of psychiatry
Psychoanalytic schools
Psychodynamic psychotherapy

Analytical psychology


In mathematics and computer science, the Krohn–Rhodes theory (or algebraic automata theory) is an approach to the study of finite semigroups and automata that seeks to decompose them in terms of elementary components. These components correspond to finite aperiodic semigroups and finite simple groups that are combined in a feedback-free manner (called a "wreath product" or "cascade").

Krohn and Rhodes found a general decomposition for finite automata. The authors discovered and proved an unexpected major result in finite semigroup theory, revealing a deep connection between finite automata and semigroups.

Definitions and description of the Krohn–Rhodes theorem
Let T be a semigroup. A semigroup S that is a homomorphic image of a subsemigroup of T is said to be a divisor of T.

The Krohn–Rhodes theorem for finite semigroups states that every finite semigroup S is a divisor of a finite alternating wreath product of finite simple groups, each a divisor of S, and finite aperiodic semigroups (which contain no nontrivial subgroups).

In the automata formulation, the Krohn–Rhodes theorem for finite automata  states that given a finite automaton A with states Q and input set I, output alphabet U, then one can expand the states to Q'  such that the new automaton A'  embeds into a cascade of "simple", irreducible automata: In particular, A is emulated by a feed-forward cascade of  (1) automata whose transformation semigroups are finite simple groups and (2) automata that are banks of flip-flops running in parallel. The new automaton A'      has the same input and output symbols as A. Here, both the states and inputs of the cascaded automata have a very special hierarchical coordinate form.

Moreover, each simple group (prime) or non-group irreducible semigroup (subsemigroup of the flip-flop monoid) that divides the transformation semigroup of A must divide the transformation semigroup of some component of the cascade, and only the primes that must occur as divisors of the components are those that divide A's transformation semigroup.

Group complexity
The Krohn–Rhodes complexity (also called group complexity or just complexity) of a finite semigroup S is the least number of groups in a wreath product of finite groups and finite aperiodic semigroups of which S is a divisor.

All finite aperiodic semigroups have complexity 0, while non-trivial finite groups have complexity 1. In fact, there are semigroups of every non-negative integer complexity. For example, for any n greater than 1, the multiplicative semigroup of all (n+1) × (n+1) upper-triangular matrices over any fixed finite field has complexity n (Kambites, 2007).

A major open problem in finite semigroup theory is the decidability of complexity: is there an algorithm that will compute the Krohn–Rhodes complexity of a finite semigroup, given its multiplication table?
Upper bounds and ever more precise lower bounds on complexity have been obtained (see, e.g. Rhodes & Steinberg, 2009). Rhodes has conjectured that the problem is decidable.

History and applications
At a conference in 1962, Kenneth Krohn and John Rhodes announced a method for decomposing a (deterministic) finite automaton into "simple" components that are themselves finite automata.  This joint work, which has implications for philosophy, comprised both Krohn's doctoral thesis at Harvard University and Rhodes' doctoral thesis at MIT.<ref>Morris W. Hirsch, "Foreword to Rhodes' Applications of Automata Theory and Algebra".  In J. Rhodes, Applications of Automata Theory and Algebra: Via the Mathematical Theory of Complexity to Biology, Physics, Philosophy and Games", (ed. C. L. Nehaniv), World Scientific Publishing Co.,  2010.</ref>  Simpler proofs, and generalizations of the theorem to infinite structures, have been published since then (see Chapter 4 of Rhodes and Steinberg's 2009 book The q-Theory of Finite Semigroups for an overview).

In the 1965 paper by Krohn and Rhodes, the proof of the theorem on the decomposition of finite automata (or, equivalently sequential machines) made extensive use of the algebraic semigroup structure.  Later proofs contained major simplifications using finite wreath products of finite transformation semigroups. The theorem generalizes the Jordan–Hölder decomposition for finite groups (in which the primes are the finite simple groups), to all finite transformation semigroups (for which the primes are again the finite simple groups plus all subsemigroups of the "flip-flop" (see above)). Both the group and more general finite automata decomposition require expanding the state-set of the general, but allow for the same number of input symbols. In the general case, these are embedded in a larger structure with a hierarchical "coordinate system".

One must be careful in understanding the notion of "prime" as Krohn and Rhodes explicitly refer to their theorem as a "prime decomposition theorem" for automata. The components in the decomposition, however, are not prime automata (with prime defined in a naïve way); rather, the notion of prime is more sophisticated and algebraic: the semigroups and groups associated to the constituent automata of the decomposition are prime (or irreducible) in a strict and natural algebraic sense with respect to the wreath product (Eilenberg, 1976). Also, unlike earlier decomposition theorems, the Krohn–Rhodes decompositions usually require expansion of the state-set, so that the expanded automaton covers (emulates) the one being decomposed. These facts have made the theorem difficult to understand, and challenging to apply in a practical way—until recently, when computational implementations became available (Egri-Nagy & Nehaniv 2005, 2008).

H.P. Zeiger (1967) proved an important variant called the holonomy decomposition (Eilenberg 1976).  The holonomy method appears to be relatively efficient and has been implemented computationally by A. Egri-Nagy (Egri-Nagy & Nehaniv 2005).

Meyer and Thompson (1969) give a version of Krohn–Rhodes decomposition for finite automata that is equivalent to the decomposition previously developed by Hartmanis and Stearns, but for useful decompositions, the notion of expanding the state-set of the original automaton is essential (for the non-permutation automata case).

Many proofs and constructions now exist of Krohn–Rhodes decompositions (e.g., [Krohn, Rhodes & Tilson 1968], [Ésik 2000], [Diekert et al. 2012]), with the holonomy method the most popular and efficient in general (although not in all cases). Owing to the close relation between monoids and categories, a version of the Krohn–Rhodes theorem is applicable to category theory. This observation and a proof of an analogous result were offered by Wells (1980).

The Krohn–Rhodes theorem for semigroups/monoids is an analogue of the Jordan–Hölder theorem for finite groups (for semigroups/monoids rather than groups). As such, the theorem is a deep and important result in semigroup/monoid theory. The theorem was also surprising to many mathematicians and computer scientists since it had previously been widely believed that the semigroup/monoid axioms were too weak to admit a structure theorem of any strength, and prior work (Hartmanis & Stearns) was only able to show much more rigid and less general decomposition results for finite automata.

Work by Egri-Nagy and Nehaniv (2005, 2008–) continues to further automate the holonomy version of the Krohn–Rhodes decomposition extended with the related decomposition for finite groups (so-called Frobenius–Lagrange coordinates) using the computer algebra system GAP.

Applications outside of the semigroup and monoid theories are now computationally feasible.  They include computations in biology and biochemical systems (e.g. Egri-Nagy & Nehaniv 2008), artificial intelligence, finite-state physics, psychology, and game theory (see, for example, Rhodes 2009).

See also
 Semigroup action
 Transformation semigroup
 Green's relations

Notes

References

 Egri-Nagy, A.; and Nehaniv, C. L. (2005), "Algebraic Hierarchical Decomposition of Finite State Automata: Comparison of Implementations for Krohn–Rhodes Theory", in 9th International Conference on Implementation and Application of Automata (CIAA 2004), Kingston, Canada, July 22–24, 2004, Revised Selected Papers, Editors: Domaratzki, M.; Okhotin, A.; Salomaa, K.; et al.; Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 3317, pp. 315–316, 2005

  Two chapters are written by Bret Tilson.

 Krohn, K. R.; and Rhodes, J. L. (1962), "Algebraic theory of machines", Proceedings of the Symposium on Mathematical Theory of Automata'' (editor: Fox, J.), (Wiley–Interscience)

  Erratum: Information and Control 11(4): 471 (1967), plus erratum.

Further reading

External links
 Prof. John L. Rhodes, University of California at Berkeley webpage
 SgpDec: Hierarchical Composition and Decomposition of Permutation Groups and Transformation Semigroups, developed by A. Egri-Nagy and C. L. Nehaniv.  Open-source software package for the GAP computer algebra system.

 An introduction to the Krohn-Rhodes Theorem (Section 5); part of the Santa Fe Institute Complexity Explorer MOOC Introduction to Renormalization, by Simon DeDeo.

Semigroup theory
Category theory
Finite automata

Krohn–Rhodes theory


Nemata Majeks-Walker (nascida em 1946/1947) é uma ativista dos direitos das mulheres de Serra Leoa.

Infância e educação
Nemata Majeks-Walker nasceu em uma família muçulmana em Freetown, capital de Serra Leoa. Ela era filha única. Sua mãe morreu quando ela tinha apenas cinco anos de idade, e ela foi criada por sua bisavó e outros membros da família.

Ela foi educada na Escola Metodista para Meninas, na Escola Secundária Magburaka para Meninas, em Mathora, e na Escola Memorial Annie Walsh, em Freetown.

Ela ganhou uma bolsa do governo e, em 1972, se formou em Língua Inglesa e Literatura pela Fourah Bay College (FBC), uma universidade pública em Freetown, Serra Leoa. Ela se formou como professora e obteve um diploma de pós-graduação em Educação, em 1973. Dois anos depois, ela obteve um mestrado em inglês como segunda língua, na Universidade de Illinois em Urbana-Champaign, localizada nas cidades gêmeas de Urbana e Champaign, no estado de Illinois, nos Estados Unidos.

Carreira acadêmica
Nemata Majeks-Walker voltou para Freetown, lecionando no Fourah Bay College e na Annie Walsh Memorial School, chegando a co-chefe do Departamento de Inglês em 1981, antes de trabalhar como oficial de desenvolvimento de currículo de inglês no Instituto de Educação em Freetown.

Em 1983, ela ganhou uma bolsa de estudos da Commonwealth para fazer um doutorado em educação a distância, na Universidade de Surrey, em Guildford, na Inglaterra. Ela obteve seu PhD em 1986 e trabalhou como oficial de educação em Londres até o início dos anos 1990.

Desde 1999, Nemata Majeks-Walker é "consultora e facilitadora/treinadora com experiência de trabalho em gênero, liderança, defesa e política".

Ativismo
Em 2001, Nemata Majeks-Walker fundou o Grupo 50/50 de Serra Leoa, focado na igualdade para as mulheres.

Em julho de 2013, Nemata Majeks-Walker foi palestrante no Fórum Mundial de Justiça IV em Haia, na Holanda.

Em janeiro de 2017, Nemata Majeks-Walker foi nomeada presidente do Conselho de Administração do Complexo Hospitalar Escolar pelos membros do Parlamento de Serra Leoa do Comitê de Nomeação e Serviço Público.

Vida pessoal
Ela é casada e tem um filho chamado Yabai.

Reconhecimento
Em 2015, ela foi nomeada pela BBC como uma das 100 mulheres mais inspiradoras do ano.

Veja também
 100 Mulheres (BBC)
 Mulheres na categoria BBC 100 Mulheres

Pessoas na lista BBC 100 Mulheres de 2015
Nascidos na década de 1940
Alunos da Universidade de Illinois em Urbana-Champaign
Pessoas vivas
Ativistas de Serra Leoa
Ativistas pelos direitos da mulher

Nemata Majeks-Walker


Michael Vincenzo Gazzo (April 5, 1923 – February 14, 1995) was an American playwright who later in life became a film and television actor. He was nominated for an Academy Award for his role in The Godfather Part II (1974).

Biography
Gazzo was born on April 5, 1923. He was of Italian-American descent. Gazzo served in the United States Army Air Forces during World War II. He was a member of the Actors Studio and later trained actors such as Debra Winger, Henry Silva and Tony Sirico. He wrote A Hatful of Rain, a Broadway play about drug addiction, which ran for 389 performances in 1955 and 1956. It starred Ben Gazzara and Shelley Winters in the two lead roles, and was adapted into a film by Oscar-winning director Fred Zinnemann in 1957. The movie was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role (Anthony Franciosa). A 1968 made-for-television version (as a filmed play) starred Peter Falk, Sandy Dennis and Michael Parks. Gazzo's other screen writing credits include the Elvis Presley American musical drama King Creole in 1958. Gazzo authored the Broadway play The Night Circus, also starring Ben Gazzara.

Gazzo was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role as Frank Pentangeli in The Godfather Part II.

Death
Gazzo died on February 14, 1995, at age 71 due to complications from a stroke. He was buried in the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles.

Filmography

 On the Waterfront (1954) - Bit (uncredited)
 A Man Called Adam (1966) - (uncredited)
 Out of It (1969) - Vinnie's friend
 The Gang That Couldn't Shoot Straight (1971) - A Black Suit
 Crazy Joe (1974)
 The Godfather Part II (1974) - Frank Pentangeli
 Kojak (1975) - Joel Adrian
 Brinks: The Great Robbery (1976) - Mario Russo
 Ellery Queen (Season 1, Episode 20 "The Adventure of Caesar's Last Sleep") (1976) - Benny Franks
 Welcome Back, Kotter (Season 2, Episode 12 "Hark, the Sweatkings") (1976) - Angelo DeMora
 Alice (1977) - Gino Tarantella
 Starsky and Hutch (1977) - Joe Durniak
 Barnaby Jones (1977) - Mr. Farinelli
 Baretta (1977) - Rico Giove
 Black Sunday (1977) - Muzi
 The Feather and Father Gang (Season 1, Episode 12 "The Mayan Connection") (1977) - Gutman
 Columbo (Season 7, Episode 2 "Murder Under Glass") (1978) - Vittorio Rossi
 Fingers (1978) - Ben
 King of the Gypsies (1978) - Spiro Giorgio
 Vega$ (Season 2, Episode 7 "Dan Tanna Is Dead") (1979) - Cruger Hallow
 Love and Bullets (1979) - Lobo
 The Fish That Saved Pittsburgh (1979) - Harry the Trainer
 Beggarman, Thief (1979) - Sartene
 Fantasy Island (Season 3, Episode 14 "The Lookalikes/Winemaker") (1979) - Frank Lassiter
 Taxi (1979) - Vince
 Cuba Crossing (1980) - Rossellini
 Alligator (1980) - Chief Clark
 Border Cop (1980) - Chico Suarez
 Hoodlums (1980) - Gus Azziello
 Sizzle (1980)
 Magnum, P.I. (Season 1, Episode 8 "The Ugliest Dog in Hawaii") (1981) - Victor DiGorgio
 Back Roads (1981) - Tazio
 Body and Soul (1981) - Frankie
 The Winter of Our Discontent (1983) - Marullo
 Sudden Impact (1983) - Threlkis (uncredited)
 Cannonball Run II (1984) - Sonny
 Fear City (1984) - Mike
 Cookie (1989) - Carmine
 Beyond the Ocean (1990)
 Forever (1991)
  (1992)
 Last Action Hero (1993) - Torelli
 L.A. Law (1994) (episode "McKenzie, Brackman, Barnum & Bailey") (1994) - Roscoe Zambini
 Nothing to Lose (1994) - Joe (final film role)

References

Sources
 Bacarella, Michael, ItalActors: 101 Years of Italian Actors in U.S. Entertainment, The National Italian American Foundation

External links

 Michael Gazzo at the University of Wisconsin's Actors Studio audio collection

1923 births
1995 deaths
People from Hillside, New Jersey
American male screenwriters
American male film actors
American male television actors
American writers of Italian descent
Burials at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American male writers
Screenwriters from New Jersey
20th-century American screenwriters

Michael V. Gazzo


المسيحية المجردة كتاب لاهوتي من [[سي. إس. لويس]]، تم تعديله من مسلسل محادثات على راديو بي بي سي بين 1941 و1944، عندما كان لويس في أوكسفورد أثناء الحرب العالمية الثانية. تعتبر المسيحية المجردة عملاً كلاسيكياً في مجال الاعتذاريات المسيحية، وتمت طباعة نصوص الإذاعات أصلاً في ثلاثة كتيبات: القضية للمسيحية (1942), السلوك المسيحي (1944), وما وراء الشخصية (1944). وتلقى لويس الدعوة لتقديم الإذاعات من جيمز ويلتش، الذي كان مدير البث الديني لبي بي سي وكان قد قرأ كتاب لويس مشكلة الألم (1940).

أطروحة
اعتزم لويس، ولذي كان أنجليكانيًا، أن يصف الأرضية المشتركة المسيحية. وفي المسيحية المجردة، كان يهدف إلى تجنب الخلافات ليشرح التعاليم الأساسية للمسيحية، من أجل الناس بتعليم بسيط ومفكري جيله، الذين ضاع لهم المعنى الأصلي لمصطلحات اللاهوت المسيحي الرسمي.

القضية للمسيحية
يقضي لويس معظم وقته دفاعاً عن الإيمان المسيحي على أساس الحجة من الأخلاق، الأمر الذي حوله من الإلحاد إلى المسيحية. ويبني قضيته على الناموس الأخلاقي، أي قانون الخير والشر الذي يعرفه كل الناس، مشيراً إلى مثال مذبحة الهولوكوست، فاعتبر حتى الملحدون أفعال هتلر غير أخلاقية. وعلى صعيد دنيوي، من المقبول بشكل عام أن السرقة مخالفة للقانون الأخلاقي. فيقول لويس إن القانون الأخلاقي مثل قوانين الطبيعة في أن لم يخترعه الناس. ولكنه يختلف عن قوانين الطبيعة في أنه قابل للمخالفة والتجاهل، وأنه يعرف بالحدس ولا بالرصد. وبعد تقديم القانون الأخلاقي، يقول لويس إن العطش يعكس حقيقة أن الناس بحاجة طبيعية إلى الماء، ولا يوجد مادة أخرى تلبي تلك الحاجة. ويشير لويس إلى أن التجربة الدنيوية لا ترضي شغف الإنسان للفرح والله وحده قادر على ذلك. فالناس لا يتوقون إلى شيء ما لم يوجد في الواقع.

بعد أن يذكر أسباب تحوله إلى الإيمان بالله، يحلل لويس مفاهيم الله المنافسة للمسيحية. ويستنتج أن وحدة الوجود متفككة، والإلحاد أبسط من المطلوب. وفي نهاية المطاف، يصل إلى يسوع المسيح، ويذكر الحجة المشهورة المعروفة بثلاثي معضلة لويس. في محاولته إثبات زعم يسوع كونه الله، يستخدم لويس المنطق لتقديم ثلاث إمكانيات: إما كان الله حقاً، أو كان يكذب عمداً، أو لم يكن الله مع تصور نفسه إياه (ما يجعله مجنوناً على الأرجح). ويستطرد الكتاب قوله إن أخيري الإمكانيات لا يتمشيان مع شخصية يسوع وكان على الأرجح يقول ألحق.

يقول لويس إن من أجل فهم المسيحية، يجب فهم القانون الأخلاقي، الذي البنية التحتية للكون و«صلب مثل المسامير.» وما لم يتم فهم الفزع الذي يأتي من فشل الإنسان في الحفاظ على القانون الأخلاقي، لا يمكن فهم مجيء المسيح وعمله. إن الله الخالد الذي مصدر القانون يأخذ الأولوية على الشيطان الذي خلقه الله، والذي تمرده وراء كل الشر. ويتم تقديم موت وقيام المسيح كالطريقة الوحيدة التي تصبح بها جهود الناس للخلاص من الخطايا كافية في عيون الله.

يقول لويس إن الله «صار إنسانًا» في المسيح، حتى يستطيع البشر أن «يندمج مع طبيعة الله» ويفسح المجال للتكفير الكامل. ويضرب لويس عدة أمثال لشرح هذا المفهوم التجريدي: إن يسوع دفع الغرامة لجريمة، وسدد دينًا، وساعد البشر في الخروج من حفرة. ولكن نقطته الرئيسية هي أن الخلاص غير مفهوم بحيث لا يمكن تقديره تمامًا، ويحاول لويس أن يشرح أن كيفية تكفير الله عن الخطيئة ليست مهمة كحقيقة التكفير.

السلوك المسيحي
يتطرق الثلث التالي إلى الأخلاق الناتجة من الإيمان المسيحي. ويشير لويس إلى الفضائل الرئيسية الأربع: التعقل، العدالة، الاعتدال، والثبات. وبعد هذا، يستطرد قوله بالفضائل اللاهوتية: الرجاء، الإيمان، والمحبة. كما يوضح أن الأخلاق تتكون من ثلاث طبقات: العلاقات بين الإنسان والإنسان، ودوافع ومواقف الإنسان ذاته، والنظرات العالمية المتناقضة.

وكذلك يغطي لويس مواضيع مثل العلاقات الاجتماعية والعفو، الأخلاق الجنسية ومبادئ الزواج المسيحي، والعلاقة بين الأخلاق والتحليل النفسي. كما يكتب عن «الخطيئة العظمى»: الكبرياء، الذي يقول إنه ألسبب الجذري وراء كل الشر والتمرد.

نقطته الأهم هي أن المسيحية تتطلب أن «تحب قريبك مثل نفسك.» ويشير إلى أن المسيحيين يجب أن يحبوا أنفسهم. وحتى لو لم يعجب نفسه، إلا أن المرء سيهتم بمصالحه الخاصة. ويقول لويس إنه يجب على المسيحيين أن يطبقوا هذا على الآخرين، حتى ولو لم يعجبوهم. ويدعو لويس هذا أحد «الأسرار الكبرى»: عندما يتصرف المرء وكأنه يحب الناس، فإنه سيحبهم حقاً.

تأثير الكتاب الثقافي

في 2006, وضعت المجلة الأمريكية كريستيانتي تودي (المسيحية اليوم) المسيحية المجردة في المركز الثالث في قائمة أكثر الكتب تأثيراً بين المسيحيين الإنجيليين منذ 1945.

إن المسيحية المجردة ذات نفوذ وموضع إعجاب عبر طيف المسيحيين المؤمنين بالثالوث، ما قد يدل على نجاح المؤلف في هدفه للتعبير عن اللاهوت فيما يتجنب الخلافات الكثيرة.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أخلاق مسيحية
أعمال في اللاهوت الدفاعي المسيحي
كتب سي. إس. لويس
كتب عن المسيحية
مسيحية غربية
نصوص مسيحية في القرن 20
نقد الإلحاد
كتب غير خيالية 1952
أدب فلسفي ديني

المسيحية المجردة


was a town located in Ibusuki District, Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. This town is known for its fisheries, and is well known for its fish Katsuo.

As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 10,467 and the density of 281.52 persons per km2. The total area was 37.18 km2.

On January 1, 2006, Yamagawa, along with the town of Kaimon (also from Ibusuki District), was merged into the expanded city of Ibusuki and no longer exists as an independent municipality.

External links
 Official website of Ibusuki

Dissolved municipalities of Kagoshima Prefecture
Ibusuki, Kagoshima

Yamagawa, Kagoshima


Glaciar Fourpeaked  es un glaciar que cubre gran parte de la  montaña de Fourpeaked, también conocido como Volcán Fourpeakeden en la región de Alaska,  Estados Unidos, con una elevación  de 0 metros sobre el nivel del mar.

Fourpeaked glaciar puede tener  terremotos destructivos(en promedio uno cada 50 años).

El paisaje está casi completamente cubierto por la nieve y el hielo permanente.

Glaciares de Estados Unidos

Glaciar Fourpeaked


ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ නුවර එළිය දිස්ත්‍රික්කයේ බඹරකැලේ පිහිටි ශ්‍රී මහා විහාරය මෙරට පුරාවිද්‍යා වටිනාකමකින් යුත් බෞද්ධ පුදබිමක් සේ සැළකේ.

මූලාශ්‍ර

නුවරඑළිය දිස්ත්‍රික්කයේ බෞද්ධ සිද්ධස්ථාන
නුවරඑළිය දිස්ත්‍රික්කයේ පුරාවිද්‍යා ආරක්‍ෂිත ස්මාරක

බඹරකැලේ ශ්‍රී මහා විහාරය


Leptophyllis, monotipski rod crvenih algi (Rhodophyta) iz porodice Bonnemaisoniaceae, dio reda Bonnemaisoniales. Jedina vrsta je morska alga L. conferta

Sinonimi
 Fucus confertus R.Brown ex Turner 1811
 Delesseria conferta (R.Brown ex Turner) C.Agardh 1822
 Dictyomenia conferta (R.Brown ex Turner) Harvey 1847
 Cladhymenia conferta (R.Brown ex Turner) Harvey 1859

Izvori

Bonnemaisoniales

Leptophyllis


Strabon (Yunanca: Στράβων; MÖ 64 - MS 24), Yunan tarihçi, coğrafyacı ve filozoftur. Yaşadığı dönemde bilinen yerlere yapılan göçlere ve hangi milletlerin nerelerde yerleşmeler yaptığı üzerine gerçekleştirdiği çalışmalarla ün kazanmıştır. Roma aristokratlarıyla kan bağı olduğu düşünülmektedir. Bugünkü Amasya ili sınırlarının içinde varlıklı bir ailenin çocuğu olarak dünyaya gelmiştir. Dünyanın ilk coğrafyacısı kabul edilir.

Antik Dünya hakkındaki coğrafya kitabı ile tanınmıştır.

Amasya'da doğdu ve Amasya'da öldü. Klasik Yunan eğitimi gördü. Aristodemos'tan hitabet dersleri aldı. MÖ 44'te öğrenimini sürdürmek amacıyla Roma'ya gitti. Başlangıçta Aristotelesçi görüşleri savunduysa da sonraları Augustus'un öğretmenlerinden olan Athenodoros'un etkisinde kalarak Stoa okulunun görüşlerini benimsedi. MÖ 31'e değin Roma'da kaldı. MÖ 29'da Yunanistan'ı gezdi. MÖ 28'de Mısır'a gitti. Roma İmparatorluğu'nun büyük bir bölümünü dolaştı. Roma ve İskenderiye'de uzun süre kaldı.

Olgunluk çağında Historika Hypomnemata (Tarihi Hatıralar) adlı bir eser yazdı. Bu yapıt, 43 cilttir ve Polybios tarihinin bir devamıdır. Korint ve Kartaca'nın (MÖ 146) yıkılışından Sezar'ın ölümüne ya da Aktium Savaşı'na dek süren dönemi kapsar. Yalnızca 19 parçası günümüze kadar ulaşmıştır. 17 ciltlik Geographumena veya Geographika (Coğrafya) adlı yapıtının büyük bölümü günümüze kadar gelmiştir. Yazar bu yapıtını Yunan ve Roma dünyasının kültürlü kişileri için yazmıştır. En geniş seçmeci düşüncelere yer veren yapıt; Eratosthenes, Hipparkhos, Epheros, Polybios ve Poseidonios adlı tarihçilerden esinlenmişti. Strabon'un coğrafyası tarihsel bir özellik taşımakla birlikte insanın, kavimlerin ve imparatorlukların fizikî dünya ile olan ilişkilerini de belirtir. Bu özelliğiyle Batlamyus'un  Geographike Aphegesis adlı coğrafyasından üstündür. İlgili eserin Anadolu coğrafyasını kapsayan 12, 13 ve 14. ciltleri Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları tarafından günümüz Türkçesi ile basılmıştır .

Strabon, Kalkedon'dan bahsederken "denizden biraz içeride, içinde küçük timsahların yaşadığı bir pınar vardı" der. Bu timsahlı pınarın Kadıköy'ün ne tarafında olduğu bilinmemektedir ancak Kurbağalıdere'nin (Kuşdili Deresi) yatağını alüvyonlar doldurmadan önce, bugünkü Uzunçayır civarında bulunması olasıdır. Anadolu'nun Romalılar tarafından istila edildiği yıllarda bazı esir ve kölelerin timsahlara kurban edildiğine göre Strabon'un "Kalkedon'un biraz içerisindeki küçük pınarda timsahlar vardı" cümlesini anlamak pek de zor olmayacaktır.

Strabon aynı zamanda antik dönemde volkanizmanın ilk neden/sonuç ilişkisine dayanan açıklamasını yapan yerbilimcidir.

Eski tarihçilerin söylediklerine de kulak vermek gerekir. Örneğin, "Lydia Tarihi"ni yazmış olan Ksanthos benim daha evvelce bir yerde işaret ettiğim gibi bu ülkenin sık sık karşılaştığı acayip değişiklikleri anlatır. Gerçekten burasını Arimlerin efsanesinin geçtiği ve Typhōn'un acı çektiği yer olarak kabul etmişler ve buraya Katakekaumenē ülkesi demişlerdir.
Beş yüz stadion uzunluğu, dört yüz stadion genişliği olan Mysia ve Maionia denen ve Katakekaumenē olarak adlandırılan ülkeye gelinir. Burada hiç ağaç yoktur; sadece kalite olarak ünlü şarapların hiçbirisinden aşağı olmayan Katakekaumenē şarabının elde edildiği bağlar vardır. Toprağın yüzü küllerle kaplıdır, dağlık ve kayalık olan ülke sanki yangından olmuş gibi siyah renktedir. Bazıları, bunun yıldırımlardan ve ateşli yeraltı patlamalarından olduğunu tahmin etmektedir ve bunlar Typhōn'un efsanevi hikâyesinin burada olduğunda tereddüt etmemektedirler. Fakat kaynağı şimdi tükenmiş olan ve yerden fışkıran bir alev nedeniyle olabileceği yerine, bütün bir ülkenin bir seferde böyle bir olayla yanmış olacağını kabul etmek mantıksızdır.
Burada birbirlerinden kırk stadion uzaklıkta olan "physas" denen üç çukur görülür. Bunların yukarısında, mantıklı olarak tahmin edildiği takdirde, topraktan fışkıran sıcak külle oluşmuş tepeler uzanır. Bu tür toprak bağcılığa iyi uyum sağlar. Hâlen en iyi ve bol miktarda şarap elde edilen, üzeri küllerle kaplı Katana toprağında olduğu gibi. Bazı yazarlar bu gibi yerlere bakarak, Dionysos'a ("Phrygenes") denmesinin iyi bir nedeni olduğu hükmüne varmışlardır.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Kenthaber Kültür Kurulu Yayın Tarihi : 20 Ocak 2004 Salı Güncelleme :30 Ağustos 2004 Pazartesi 16:27
 https://web.archive.org/web/20090427180933/http://www.amasya.gov.tr/http/index.asp?PageNo=5

MÖ 64 doğumlular
24 yılında ölenler
MÖ 1. yüzyılda Yunanlar
Antik Yunan coğrafyacılar
Antik Yunan filozoflar
Roma dönemi filozofları
MÖ 1. yüzyıl tarihçileri
MÖ 60'larda doğanlar

Strabon


Miklavatnsmýraráveitan er  áveita sem byggir á kerfi áveituskurða sem grafnir voru 1912-1913 og endurbættir árið 1916. Verkið var unnið á vegum Landssjóðs undir stjórns Jóns Þorlákssonar landsverkfræðings. Áveitan var sú fyrsta  og sú minnsla af þremur  áveituframkvæmdum sem náðu samtals yfir 16.000 ha stórt svæði sem nú er í Flóahreppi, Árborg og Skeiða- og Gnúpverjahreppi. Eftir Miklavatnsmýraráveitu var Skeiðaáveitan byggð og svo Flóaáveitan.

Tilvísanir
Áveitur

Miklavatnsmýraráveitan


Alexander Wallace Matheson (June 11, 1903 – March 3, 1976) was a Prince Edward Island politician.

He was born in Bellevue, Prince Edward Island. He was first elected to the provincial legislature in 1940 as a Liberal, representing the district of 2nd Queens. Not reelected in the provincial election of 1943, he was reelected in 1947 in the district of 4th Kings.

Matheson became minister of health and welfare in the government of Premier J. Walter Jones in 1948 and succeeded Jones as premier and attorney-general in 1953. His government was defeated in the 1959 election but remained Liberal Party leader until 1965 when he retired from politics. In 1967 he was appointed a County Court Judge.

References

External links
 Alexander Wallace Matheson at The Canadian Encyclopedia

1903 births
1976 deaths
People from Queens County, Prince Edward Island
Members of the United Church of Canada
Premiers of Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island Liberal Party MLAs
Prince Edward Island Liberal Party leaders

Alexander Wallace Matheson


George Wilkins (circa 1576 - 1618) a fost un dramaturg și pamfletar englez. Este cel mai cunoscut pentru colaborarea sa cu William Shakespeare la piesa Pericle, Prinț al Tironului.

Lucrări
A scris Three Miseries of Barbary în 1606.  Împreună cu William Rowley și John Day a scris în 1607 The Travels of the Three English Brothers, o dramă despre viața fraților Sherley. În același an, a scris piesa The Miseries of Enforced Marriage. În această piesă este prezentată viața scutierului Walter Calverley, cel care a ucis doi dintre cei trei copii ai săi și a încercat să-și ucidă soția.

Referințe și note

Vezi și
 Listă de dramaturgi englezi

Nașteri în 1576
Decese în 1618
Dramaturgi englezi
Pamfletari englezi
Scriitori englezi

George Wilkins


ජයසිරි තිලකරත්න මහතා (J.P),(V.C.M)
thumb|ජයසිරි තිලකරත්න මහතා සාම විනිසුරු පත්වීම ලබා ගත් දිනයේදි

1926.7.28 දින උපත ලැබීය මෙතුමා කිරිඳිවැල මහා විදුහලෙන් මුලික අධ්යාපන ය ලැබීය පසුව රැකියාවක් තොරා නොගත් මෙතුමා ද තම පියාගේ හා තම වැඩිමහල් සොයුරාගේ අඩිපාරෙ යමින් තම ගමට සේවය කිරීමට වෑකේ ගංසභා මැම්බර් කමට ඡන්දය ඉල්ලන ලදී thumb|ජයසිරි තිලකරත්න මහතා ගංසභා ඡන්දයට තරග වදින කාලයෙ පෝස්ටරයක්පසුව මෙතුමාද ජයග්‍රහණය කර එවකට සභාපති ගරු මුහන්දිරම් රාජකරුණා සමග එක්ව ගමට විශාල මෙහෙයක් ඉටු කලා.
පසුව මෙතුමාට දිවංගත සරච්චන්ද්‍ර රාජකරුණා මහතා විසින් සාමවිනිසුරු පදවියක් ලබා දුන්නා.මෙතුමා 2015.4.18 සදහටම නිහඩ විය.
බිරිද- ජයසිංහ මැතිණිය (මාණ්ඩලික හෙදියකි) දරුවන්- චම්පිකා තිලකරත්න(විද්‍යාල ආචාරිනි පිංගමුව විදුහල)

ජයසිරි තිලකරත්න(J.P,V.C.M)


Lake Mills may refer to some places in the United States:

Lake Mills, Iowa, a city
Lake Mills, Wisconsin, a city
Lake Mills (town), Wisconsin, adjacent to the city of Lake Mills
Lake Mills (Washington), a former reservoir on the Olympic Peninsula formed by the Glines Canyon Dam

Lake Mills


Kemija
 apsorpcija (lat. absorptio: srkanje, upijanje), u kemijskom smislu, je proces upijanja tvari (na primjer plinova);
 apsorpcija plinova je fizikalno-kemijski proces otapanja plinova u tekućinama (rjeđe u čvrstim tvarima) čitavom masom materije koja upija. Treba je razlikovati od adsorpcije, procesa koji se odvija samo na površini. Na primjer voda u morima i jezerima apsorbira kisik otapajući ga (20 ml na 1 l vode pri 0 °C i normalnom tlaku). Visoka topljivost nekih tvari, na primjer amonijaka (1 160 l na 1 l vode) i sumpornog dioksida (80 l na 1 l vode), pripisuje se kemijskim promjenama (stvaranju NH4OH i H2SO3). Određene tvari selektivno apsorbiraju neke plinove, a to se koristi u kemijskoj industriji za razdvajanje i čišćenje plinova; izvodi se najčešće u posebnim tornjevima (apsorberi).

Fizika
 apsorpcija u fizikalnom smislu prijenos energije valova (elektromagnetskih ili zvučnih) na materiju prilikom prolaza valova kroz nju.

 apsorpcija zvuka je proces prigušivanja zvuka njegovim prolaskom kroz sredstvo (medij). Dva su fizikalna uzroka tomu: unutarnje trenje, to jest viskoznost plina ili tekućine kroz koje se zvuk širi, i toplinska vodljivost sredstva, to jest pretvorba koherentnoga molekularnoga gibanja zvučnog vala u nekoherentno molekularno gibanje u mediju (na primjer zraku). Zvučni valovi različitih frekvencija različito se apsorbiraju u različitim medijima. Na primjer ultrazvučni valovi teško prodiru kroz gusto sredstvo; zvuk se manje apsorbira prolazom kroz vodu nego kroz zrak. Apsorpcija zvuka iskorištava se za mijenjanje akustičkih svojstava velikih prostorija (za skraćivanje odjeka i prigušivanje buke), što se postiže oblaganjem stijena apsorpcijskim materijalima. Oni se dijele u porozne, membranske i rezonatorske. U prvu skupinu idu tekstilni proizvodi i vlaknasti materijali, u drugu tanke ploče od drva, ljepenke ili sličnih materijala, a u treću rezonatorske kutije iznutra obložene poroznim materijalom.
 apsorpcija zračenja je upijanje različitih vrsta elektromagnetskog zračenja (ultraljubičasto i infracrveno zračenje, svjetlost, toplinsko, rendgensko, radio valovi i gama-zračenje), koje se pritom pretvara u toplinu ili druge oblike energije (zračenja). Iznos apsorpcije ovisi o tvari koja upija i njezinoj debljini. Sve tvari selektivno upijaju određene vrste zračenja. Na primjer žuto staklo propušta žutu svjetlost ali ne propušta zelenu i crvenu. U optici je moguće pripremiti materijale koji će apsorbirati jednu željenu valnu duljinu, odnosno područje valnih duljina svjetlosti (filtar). Jedan atom, ili jedna molekula, može apsorbirati fotone samo određenih valnih duljina koje odgovaraju određenomu energetskom prijelazu optičkog elektrona u elektronskom omotaču. Svaki atom (molekula) posjeduje svojstven niz valnih duljina na kojima dolazi do apsorpcije (apsorpcijski spektar). Na primjer usporedbom apsorpcijskog spektra jedne zvijezde s laboratorijskim nalazima znanih kemijskih elemenata, moguće je saznati podatke o tom udaljenom nebeskom tijelu. U apsorpcijskoj spektroskopiji bijela svjetlost propušta se kroz medij i s pomoću spektroskopa analiziraju valne duljine na kojima je došlo do apsorpcije. Osim utvrđivanja prisutnosti određenih atoma u mediju, na temelju Beerova zakona, znajući iz teorije udarni presjek za apsorpciju i debljinu medija, moguće je odrediti koncentraciju atoma.
 apsorpcija subatomskih čestica  je vezana za radioaktivnost.

Medicina
 apsorpcija (medicina) je prijenos tekućine i otopljenih tvari kroz razne organske membrane, na primjer apsorpcija probavljene hrane iz probavnog sustava u krv odnosno limfu; apsorpcija lijekova s mjesta primjene (želudac, mišić, potkožno tkivo) u krv.

Izvori

Apsorpcija


لاركسبور  هي إحدى مدن مقاطعة مارين، كاليفورنيا. تم إعطاءها لقب مدينة في 1 مارس، 1908.

التركيبة السكانية
حدّد مكتب تعداد الولايات المتحدة بيانات التركيبة السكانية للاركسبور في تعداد الولايات المتحدة. في ما يلي، التركيبة السكانية حسب تعدادي 2000 و2010.

تعداد عام 2000
بلغ عدد سكان لاركسبور 12,014 نسمة بحسب تعداد عام 2000، وبلغ عدد الأسر 6,142 أسرة وعدد العائلات 2,901 عائلة مقيمة في المدينة. في حين سجلت الكثافة السكانية . وبلغ عدد الوحدات السكنية 6,413 وحدة بمتوسط كثافة قدره .
وتوزع التركيب العرقي للمدينة بنسبة 91.25% من البيض و0.80% من الأمريكيين الأفارقة و0.22% من الأمريكيين الأصليين و3.88% من الأمريكيين ذوي الأصول الآسيوية و0.12% من سكان جزر المحيط الهادئ و1.09% من الأعراق الأخرى و2.64% من عرقين مختلطين أو أكثر و4.29% من الهسبانيون أو اللاتينيون من أي عرق.

بلغ عدد الأسر 6,142 أسرة كانت نسبة 20% منها لديها أطفال تحت سن الثامنة عشر تعيش معهم، وبلغت نسبة الأزواج القاطنين مع بعضهم البعض 38.4% من أصل المجموع الكلي للأسر، ونسبة 6.3% من الأسر كان لديها معيلات من الإناث دون وجود شريك،  بينما كانت نسبة 2.5% من الأسر لديها معيلون من الذكور دون وجود شريكة وكانت نسبة 52.8% من غير العائلات. تألفت نسبة 43.1% من أصل جميع الأسر من عدة أفراد يعيشون في نفس المنزل ونسبة 14.7% كانت تتألف من شخص يعيش بمفرده يبلغ من العمر 65 عاماً أو أكثر. وبلغ متوسط حجم الأسرة المعيشية 1.93، أما متوسط حجم العائلات فبلغ 2.69.

بلغ العمر الوسطي للسكان 45.9 عاماً. وكانت نسبة 16.3% من القاطنين تحت سن الثامنة عشر، وكانت نسبة 3.3% بين الثامنة عشر والرابعة والعشرين عاماً، ونسبة 28.6% كانت واقعةً في الفئة العمرية ما بين الخامسة والعشرين والرابعة والأربعين عاماً، ونسبة 31.8% كانت ما بين الخامسة والأربعين والرابعة والستين، ونسبة 18.6% كانت ضمن فئة الخامسة والستين عاماً فما فوق. يوجد لكل 100 أنثى 83.9 ذكر، ويوجد لكل 100 أنثى في الثامنة عشر من عمرها فما فوق 80.0 ذكر.

بلغ متوسط دخل الأسرة في المدينة 66,710 دولارًا، أما متوسط دخل العائلة فبلغ 104,028 دولارًا. وكان متوسط دخل الذكور 83,252 دولارًا مقابل 49,421 دولارًا للإناث. وسجل دخل الفرد الخاص بالمدينة 56,983 دولارًا. وكانت نسبة 1.8% من العائلات ونسبة 3.7% من السكان تحت خط الفقر، وكان من هؤلاء نسبة 2.5% تحت سن الثامنة عشر ونسبة 2.9% في الخامسة والستين من العمر وما فوق.

تعداد عام 2010
بلغ عدد سكان لاركسبور 11,926 نسمة بحسب تعداد عام 2010، وبلغ عدد الأسر 5,908 أسرة وعدد العائلات 2,896 عائلة مقيمة في المدينة. في حين سجلت الكثافة السكانية . وبلغ عدد الوحدات السكنية 6,376 وحدة بمتوسط كثافة قدره .
وتوزع التركيب العرقي للمدينة بنسبة 86.46% من البيض و1.56% من الأمريكيين الأفارقة و0.22% من الأمريكيين الأصليين و4.72% من الأمريكيين ذوي الأصول الآسيوية و0.11% من سكان جزر المحيط الهادئ و2.88% من الأعراق الأخرى و4.06% من عرقين مختلطين أو أكثر و7.70% من الهسبانيون أو اللاتينيون من أي عرق.

بلغ عدد الأسر 5,908 أسرة كانت نسبة 22.2% منها لديها أطفال تحت سن الثامنة عشر تعيش معهم، وبلغت نسبة الأزواج القاطنين مع بعضهم البعض 38.4% من أصل المجموع الكلي للأسر، ونسبة 7.3% من الأسر كان لديها معيلات من الإناث دون وجود شريك،  بينما كانت نسبة 3.3% من الأسر لديها معيلون من الذكور دون وجود شريكة وكانت نسبة 51% من غير العائلات. تألفت نسبة 42.3% من أصل جميع الأسر من عدة أفراد يعيشون في نفس المنزل ونسبة 17.1% كانت تتألف من شخص يعيش بمفرده يبلغ من العمر 65 عاماً أو أكثر. وبلغ متوسط حجم الأسرة المعيشية 2.00، أما متوسط حجم العائلات فبلغ 2.77.

بلغ العمر الوسطي للسكان 48.5 عاماً. وكانت نسبة 18.2% من القاطنين تحت سن الثامنة عشر، وكانت نسبة 3.9% بين الثامنة عشر والرابعة والعشرين عاماً، ونسبة 22% كانت واقعةً في الفئة العمرية ما بين الخامسة والعشرين والرابعة والأربعين عاماً، ونسبة 34.4% كانت ما بين الخامسة والأربعين والرابعة والستين، ونسبة 21.5% كانت ضمن فئة الخامسة والستين عاماً فما فوق. وتوزع التركيب الجنسي للسكان بنسبة 45% ذكور و55% إناث.

أعلام
 مات دويل

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة أسست في 1887
تأسيسات سنة 1887 في كاليفورنيا
مدن كاليفورنيا
مدن مقاطعة مارين
مدن منطقة خليج سان فرانسيسكو

لاركسبور (كاليفورنيا)
مدارس إبتدائية خاصة في كاليفورنيا

لاركسبور (كاليفورنيا)


පුරාතන ග්‍රීසිය

පුරාතන ග්‍රීසිය යනු ක්රිnස්තියානි ආගමේ නැගී සිටීම තෙක් සහස්රධකයකට ආසන්න කාලයක් පැවති ග්රීතක ඉතිහාසයේ යම් කාල පරිච්ඡේදයකි බොහොමයක් ඉතිහාසඥයින් එය සලකනු ලබන්නේ බටහිර ශිෂ්ටාචාරයට පදනම් වූ සංස්කෘතිය ලෙසය. ග්රී ක සංස්කෘතිය රෝමානු අධිරාජ්යායේ බලවත් බලපෑමක් වූ  අතර එමගින් එය යුරෝපයේ බොහොමයක් කොටස් කරා රැගෙන ගියේය.

පුරාතන ග්රීකකයන්ගේ ශිෂ්ටාචාරය නූතන ලෝකයේ භාෂාව , දේශපාලනය , අධ්යාාපන පද්ධතිය , දර්ශනය, විද්යාිව , කලාව හා වාස්තු විද්යාේව මත අධික බලපෑමක් එල්ල කර ඇත. තවද එය බටහිර යුරෝපයේ පුනරුදයට අනුබල දුන් අතර නැවත 18 හා 19 වන සියවස් වල යුරෝපානු හා ඇමරිකානු නව සම්භාව්ය්ය පුනරුදය අතරතුරදී නැවත නැගී සිට ඇත.

පුරාතන ග්රීුසිය යන වදන යොදා ගැනෙන්නේ පුරාණික කාලයේදී ග්රීතක භාෂාව කතා කළ ලෝකය විස්තර කිරීමටය. එමගින් හැඳින් වෙන්නේ නූතන ග්රීීසියේ භූ විද්යාවත්මක ප්රකදේශය පමණක් නොවන අතර එයට  පෞරාණික කාලයේදී ග්රී කයන් විසින් ස්ථාපනය කළ හෙළනික සංස්කෘතික ප්ර දේශයන් වන සයිප්රිස් හා ඊජියානු දූපත් , ඇනටෝලියාහි ඊජියානු වෙරළ තීරය (එවකට අයෝනියාව ලෙස හැඳින් වූ) සිසිලිය හා දකුණු දිග ඉතාලිය ( මැග්නා ග්රැවෂියා ලෙස හැඳින් වූ ) හා කොල්කිස් , ඉලිරියා , ත්රේ්ස් , ඊජිප්තුව , සිනෙරයිකා , දකුණු දිග ගෝල් දේශය, අයිබීරියානු වෙනුසියුලාවේ නැගෙනහිර හා ඊසාන දිග ප්රලදේශ , අයිබීරියාව හා ටවුරිකාවෙහි වෙරළවල තිබූ විසිරුණු ග්රීනක ජනාවාස ඇතුළත් වේ.

එහි 12 වන සියවසේ පැවතීම අතරතුරදී රෝමාණු ශිෂ්ටාචාරය රාජාණ්ඩුවක සිට රදල සමූහාණ්ඩුවකටද එතැන් සිට සුවිසල් අධිරාජ්ය යකටද වර්ධනය වීය. එය ආක්රකමණ කිරීම් හා සටන් හරහා බටහිර යුරෝපය හා මධ්යුධරණී මුහුද වටකර සිටින මුළු ප්රයදේශයම තම යටතට ගත්තේය. කෙසේ නමුත් රෝමාණු අධිරාජ්යදයේ බිඳ වැටීම සඳහා කරුණු කිහිපයක් හේතු විය. හිස්පේනියාව,ගෝල් දේශය හා ඉතාලිය ඇතුළත්  අධිරාජ්යටයේ බ‍ටහිර කොටස  පස්වන සියවසේදී ස්වාධීන රාජධානි බවට තිබුණු අතර කොන්ස්තන්තිනෝපලයේ සිට පාලනය කළ නැගෙනහිර අධිරාජ්යරය කි පූ 476 න් පසුව බයිසන්ටයින් අධිරාජ්යටය ලෙස හැඳින්වුණි. මෙය රෝමයේ බිඳ වැටීම සඳහා වූ සාම්ප්රතදායිකව පිළිගන්නා දිනය විය.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_history#Ancient_Greece

පුරාතන ග්රීiසිය


Aaron Wan-Bissaka (fæddur 26. október 1997) er enskur knattspyrnumaður sem spilar með Manchester United.

Enskir knattspyrnumenn
Fólk fætt árið 1997
Leikmenn Manchester United

Aaron Wan-Bissaka