The flight deck of an aircraft carrier is the surface from which its aircraft take off and land, essentially a miniature airfield at sea. On smaller naval ships which do not have aviation as a primary mission, the landing area for helicopters and other VTOL aircraft is also referred to as the flight deck. The official U.S. Navy term for these vessels is "air-capable ships".

Flight decks have been in use upon ships since 1910, the American pilot Eugene Ely being the first individual to take off from a warship. Initially consisting of wooden ramps built over the forecastle of capital ships, a number of battlecruisers, including the British  and , the American  and , and the Japanese Akagi and battleship Kaga, were converted to aircraft carriers during the interwar period. The first aircraft carrier to feature a full-length flight deck, akin to the configuration of the modern vessels, was the converted liner  which entered service in 1918. The armoured flight deck was another innovation pioneered by the Royal Navy during the 1930s. Early landing arrangements relied on the low speed and landing speed of the era's aircraft, being simply "caught" by a team of deck-hands in a fairly hazardous arrangement, but these became impractical as heavier aircraft with higher landing speeds emerged; thus an arrangement of arrestor cables and tailhooks soon became the favoured approach.

During the Cold War era, numerous innovations were introduced to the flight deck. The angled flight deck, invented by Dennis Cambell of the Royal Navy, was one prominent design feature that drastically simplified aircraft recovery and deck movements, enabling landing and launching operations to be performed simultaneously rather than interchangeably; it also better handled the higher landing speeds of jet-powered aircraft. In 1952,  became the first aircraft carrier to trial the angled flight deck. Another advance was the ski-jump, which fitted an angled ramp on the flight deck near the end of the aircraft's takeoff run; the change greatly reduced the distance required and became particularly useful for operating STOVL aircraft. Furthermore, various unsuccessful concepts to replace or complement the conventional flight deck have emerged over the years, from the flexible flight deck to the submarine aircraft carrier and flying boat fighter aircraft.

Evolution

Early
The first flight decks were inclined wooden ramps built over the forecastle of warships. Eugene Ely made the first fixed-wing aircraft take-off from a warship from  on 14 November 1910.

Two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss pusher plane on a platform on  anchored in San Francisco Bay using the first tailhook system, designed and built by circus performer and aviator Hugh Robinson. Ely told a reporter: "It was easy enough. I think the trick could be successfully turned nine times out of ten." On 9 May 1912, Commander Charles Samson became the first man to take off from a ship which was underway when he flew his Short S.27 off , which was steaming at .

Because the take-off speed of early aircraft was so low, it was possible for an aircraft to make a very short take off when the launching ship was steaming into the wind. Later, removable "flying-off platforms" appeared on the gun turrets of battleships and battlecruisers starting with , allowing aircraft to be flown off for scouting purposes, although there was no chance of recovery.

On 2 August 1917, while performing trials, Squadron Commander Edwin Harris Dunning landed a Sopwith Pup successfully on board the flying-off platform of , becoming the first person to land an aircraft on a moving ship. However, on his third attempt, a tire burst as he attempted to land, causing the aircraft to go over the side, killing him; thus Dunning also has the dubious distinction of being the first person to die in an aircraft carrier landing accident.

The landing arrangements on Furious were highly unsatisfactory. In order to land, aircraft had to maneuver around the superstructure. Furious was therefore returned to dockyard hands to have a  deck added aft for landing, on top of a new hangar. The central superstructure remained, however, and turbulence caused by it badly affected the landing deck.

Full length

The first aircraft carrier that began to show the configuration of the modern vessel was the converted liner , which had a large flat wooden deck added over the entire length of the hull, giving a combined landing and take-off deck unobstructed by superstructure turbulence. Because of her unobstructed flight deck, Argus had no fixed conning tower and no funnel. Rather, exhaust gases were trunked down the side of the ship and ejected under the fantail of the flight deck (which, despite arrangements to disperse the gases, gave an unwelcome "lift" to aircraft immediately prior to landing).

The lack of a command position and funnel was unsatisfactory, and Argus was used to experiment with various ideas to remedy the solution. A photograph in 1917 shows her with a canvas mock-up of a starboard "island" superstructure and funnel. This was placed on the starboard side because the rotary engines of some early aircraft created torque which pulled the nose left, meaning an aircraft naturally yawed to port on take-off; therefore, it was desirable that they turned away from the fixed superstructure. This became the typical aircraft carrier arrangement and was used in the next British carriers,  and .

After World War I, battlecruisers that otherwise would have been discarded under the Washington Naval Treaty—such as the British  and , the American  and , and the Japanese Akagi and battleship Kaga—were converted to carriers along the above lines. Being large and fast they were perfectly suited to this role; the heavy armoring and scantlings and low speed of the converted battleship Eagle served to be something of a handicap in practice.

Because the military effectiveness of aircraft carriers was then unknown, early ships were typically equipped with cruiser-calibre guns to aid in their defense if surprised by enemy warships. These guns were generally removed in World War II and replaced with anti-aircraft guns, as carrier doctrine developed the "task force" (later called "battle group") model, where the carrier's defense against surface ships would be a combination of escorting warships and its own aircraft.

In ships of this configuration, the hangar deck was the strength deck and an integral part of the hull, and the hangar and light steel flight deck were considered to be part of the superstructure. Such ships were still being built into the late 1940s, classic examples being the U.S. Navy's  and  carriers. However, in 1936, the Royal Navy began construction of the .

In these ships, the flight deck was the strength deck, an integral part of the hull, and was heavily armored to protect the ship and her air complement. The flight deck as the strength deck was adopted for later construction. This was necessitated by the ever-increasing size of the ships, from the 13,000 ton  in 1922 to over 100,000 tons in the latest  and  carriers.

Armored

When aircraft carriers supplanted battleships as the primary fleet capital ship, there were two schools of thought on the question of armor protection being included into the flight deck. The United States Navy (USN) initially favored unarmored flight decks because they maximized aircraft carrier hangar and flight deck size, which in turn maximized aircraft capacity in the hangar, and on the flight deck, in the form of a permanent "deck park" for a large proportion of the aircraft carried.

In 1936 the Royal Navy developed the armored flight deck aircraft carrier which also enclosed the hangar sides and ends with armor. The addition of armor to the flight deck offered aircraft below some protection against aerial bombs while the armored hangar sides and ends helped to minimize damage and casualties from explosions or fires within or outside the hangar. The addition of armor to the hangar forced a reduction in top-weight, so the hangar height was reduced, and this restricted the types of aircraft that these ships could carry, although the Royal Navy's armored carriers did carry spare aircraft in the hangar overheads.

The armor also reduced the length of the flight deck, reducing the maximum aircraft capacity of the armored flight deck aircraft carrier. Additionally, Royal Navy aircraft carriers did not use a permanent deck park until approximately 1943; before then the aircraft capacity of RN aircraft carriers was limited to their hangar capacity.

The 23,000-ton British  had a hangar capacity for 36 Swordfish-sized aircraft and a single  hangar, but carried up to 57 aircraft with a permanent deck park, while the 23,400-ton  featured increased hangar capacity with a  upper hangar and the addition of a  lower hangar, forward of the after elevator, which had a total capacity of 52 Swordfish-sized aircraft or a mix of 48 late-war aircraft in the hangar plus 24 aircraft in a permanent deck park, but carried up to 81 aircraft with a deck park.

The 27,500-ton USN  had a  hangar that was designed to handle a mix of 72 prewar USN aircraft. but carried up to 104 late-war aircraft using both the hangar and a permanent deck park.  The experience of World War II caused the USN to change their design policy in favor of armored flight decks on much larger ships: "The main armor carried on  is the heavy armored flight deck. This was to prove a significant factor in the catastrophic fire and explosions that occurred on Enterprises flight deck in 1969. The US Navy learned its lesson the hard way during World War II when all its carriers had only armored hangar decks.  All attack carriers built since the  have had armored flight decks."

Landing

Landing arrangements were originally primitive, with aircraft simply being "caught" by a team of deck-hands who would run out from the wings of the flight deck and grab a part of the aircraft to slow it down. This dangerous procedure was only possible with early aircraft of low weight and landing speed. Arrangements of nets served to catch the aircraft should the latter fail, although this was likely to cause structural damage. A non-skid deck surface is important to prevent aircraft from sliding on a wet deck as the ship rolls.

Landing larger and faster aircraft on a flight deck was made possible through the use of arresting cables installed on the flight deck and a tailhook installed on the aircraft. Early carriers had a very large number of arrestor cables or "wires". Current U.S. Navy carriers have three or four steel cables stretched across the deck at  intervals which bring a plane, traveling at , to a complete stop in about .

The cables are set to stop each aircraft at the same place on the deck, regardless of the size or weight of the plane. During World War II, large net barriers would be erected across the flight deck so aircraft could be parked on the forward part of the deck and recovered on the after part. This allowed increased complements but resulted in a lengthened launch and recovery cycle as aircraft were shuffled around the carrier to allow take-off or landing operations.

A barricade is an emergency system used if a normal arrestment cannot be made. Barricade webbing engages the wings of the landing aircraft, and momentum is transferred to the arresting engine.

Cold War innovations

Angled

The angled flight deck was invented by Royal Navy Captain (later Rear Admiral) Dennis Cambell, as an outgrowth of design study initially begun in the winter of 1944–1945. A committee of senior Royal Navy officers decided that the future of naval aviation was in jets, whose higher speeds required that the carriers be modified to "fit" their needs.

With this type of deck – also called a "skewed deck", "canted deck", "waist angle deck", or the "angle" – the aft part of the deck is widened, and a separate runway is positioned at an angle from the centreline.

The angled flight deck was designed with the higher landing speeds of jet aircraft in mind, which would have required the entire length of a centreline flight deck to stop. The design also allowed for concurrent launch and recovery operations, and allowed aircraft failing to connect with the arrestor cables to abort the landing, accelerate, and relaunch (bolter) without risk to other parked or launching aircraft.

The redesign allowed for several other design and operational modifications, including the mounting of a larger island (improving both ship-handling and flight control), drastically simplified aircraft recovery and deck movement (aircraft now launched from the bow and landed on the angled flight deck, leaving a large open area amidships for arming and fueling), and damage control. Because of its utility in flight operations, the angled deck is now a defining feature of STOBAR and CATOBAR equipped aircraft carriers.

The angled flight deck was first tested in 1952 on  by painting angled deck markings onto the centerline of the flight deck for touch-and-go landings. This was also tested on  the same year.

Despite the new markings, in both cases the arresting gear and barriers were still aligned with the centerline of the original deck. From September to December 1952,  had a rudimentary sponson installed for true angled-deck tests, allowing for full arrested landings, which proved during trials to be superior. In 1953, Antietam trained with both U.S. and British naval units, proving the worth of the angled-deck concept.  was modified with an overhanging angled flight deck in 1954.

The U.S. Navy installed the decks as part of the SCB-125 upgrade for the  and SCB-110/110A for the . In February 1955,  became the first carrier to be constructed and launched with an angled deck, rather than having one retrofitted. This was followed in the same year by the lead ships of the British Majestic class () and the American  ().

Ski-jump

A ski-jump converts part of the aircraft's forward motion to upward motion through the use of a curved ramp located at the end of the flight deck. As a result, the aircraft starts out its flight with a positive rate-of-climb. This allows heavier aircraft to take off even though the lift generated is smaller. Gravity causes the upward velocity to decline, but the aircraft continues to accelerate after leaving the flight deck. By the time the upward velocity has decayed to zero, the aircraft is going fast enough to attain stable flight.

Ski-jumps can be used to enable conventional aircraft to takeoff on STOBAR aircraft carriers. They can also enable heavier payloads for STOVL aircraft.

Flexible
An idea tested, but never put into service, was the flexible or inflated, air-cushioned, "rubber deck". In the early jet age it was recognised that eliminating the landing gear for carrier borne aircraft would improve the flight performance and range, since the space taken by the landing gear could be used to hold additional fuel tanks. This led to the concept of a deck that would absorb the energy of landing.

With the introduction of jet aircraft the risk of damaging propellers was no longer an issue, though take off would require some sort of launching cradle. Tests were carried out with a de Havilland Sea Vampire flown by test pilot Eric "Winkle" Brown onto a flexible deck fitted to .

The deck consisted of a rubberised sheet fully supported on multiple layers of pressurised fire hose.  Supermarine designed its Type 508 for rubber deck landings. The flexible deck idea was found to be technically feasible but was abandoned, as the weight of carrier aircraft increased and there were always doubts about the ability of an average pilot to land in this way. The Type 508 was subsequently developed into a conventional carrier aircraft, the Supermarine Scimitar.

The US Navy evaluated a shore-based flexible deck made by Firestone Tire and Rubber Co. using two modified Grumman F9F-7 Cougars. Three US pilots had participated in the British flexible deck trials at Farnborough and the US Navy, despite liaison with the British, partially redid the Farnborough trials, with 23 landings at Patuxent River, before cancelling the project in March 1956 for similar reasons.

Alternatives
During the Cold War era, multiple unorthodox alternatives to the conventional flight deck were proposed and, in some cases, experimented with.

The Shipborne Containerised Air-defence System (SCADS)  was a proposed modular kit to convert a RO-RO or container ship into aviation vessels, with one scheme allowing a container ship to be converted to a STOVL aircraft carrier in two days during an emergency and quick removal after use for storage. A prefabricated flight deck and ski jump would allow six Sea Harriers and two helicopters to be operated, with shipping containers providing hangarage for the aircraft and housing their support systems and personnel as well as defensive systems and missiles. Several variants of the SCADS concept were devised for different missions roles; one implementation was tailored towards helicopter operations for example. It was effectively a modern equivalent to the Second World War-era merchant aircraft carrier.

The Skyhook system was developed by British Aerospace, involving the use of a crane with a top mating mechanism hung over the sea to catch and release VTOL aircraft, such as the Harrier jump jet. The system could be installed on ships of various configurations and sizes, even those as small as frigates, enabling virtually any Royal Navy ship to deploy a handful of Harriers. It was intended for the Skyhook to enable not only the launch and recovery of such aircraft, but to enable rapid rearming and refuelling operations to be performed. The system was marketed to various foreign customers into the 1990s, such as to enable Japan's fleet of helicopter destroyers to operate Harriers by installing the Skyhook on board. Perhaps the most elaborate implementation proposed was the application of the Skyhook to large submarines, such as the Russian , to produce a submarine aircraft carrier.

The Saunders-Roe SR.A/1 was a prototype jet-propelled flying boat fighter, developed during the 1940s with the intention of eliminating the monopoly held by aircraft carriers on launching jet fighters. Described as being the first water-based aircraft to harness jet propulsion in the world, the SR.A/1 attracted interest from both British and American officials, with data on the project being transferred. However, officials concluded that the concept had been rendered obsolete in comparison to increasingly capable land-based fighters, together with the inability to resolve engine difficulties, compelling a termination of work. During June 1951, the SR.A/1 prototype (TG263) flew for the last time.

During the early 1950s, Saunders-Roe worked on a new fighter design, designated Project P.121, that featured skis  aircraft publication Flight referred to it as the "Saunders-Roe Hydroski"  with the aim of bringing its performance closer to that of land-based aircraft. By adopting hydroskis and dispensing with the hull approach of the SR.A/1, no concessions to hydrodynamic requirements were imposed upon the fuselage. On 29 January 1955, the company decided not to proceed with the construction of a prototype, the proposal having not attracted any official support.

The Convair F2Y Sea Dart was a supersonic seaplane jet fighter that had skis rather than wheels. In the late 1940s, the United States Navy feared that supersonic aircraft would stall at low speeds required for a carrier arresting gear, and therefore would not be able to land on a conventional aircraft carrier. The Sea Dart would land on (smooth) water; then be lowered and raised from the sea via crane. The Navy also considered combining the Sea Dart with the unorthodox approach of a submarine aircraft carrier that could carry up to three such aircraft inside purpose-built pressure chambers. They would have been raised by a portside elevator aft of the sail and either take off on their own from a smooth sea or be catapult launched from the aft in a higher sea. During the test flight phase, the hydro-skis generated violent vibrations during takeoff and landing, while a fatal crash caused by structural failure also marred the programme; the Navy opted to cancel all production aircraft.

The United States Navy held considerable interest in the submarine aircraft carrier concept during the late 1940s. A study performed in 1946 envisioned very large submarines, ranging from  to  in length, to carry two XA2J Super Savage bombers for the strategic nuclear strike mission, or alternatively four F2H Banshee fighters. Another proposal would have involved the conversion of redundant Second World War-era fleet submarines to enable carriage and launch of a seaplane model of the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk attack aircraft, which would have been equipped with hydro-skis for takeoff similar to those of the Sea Dart.

Tasks
On US Navy aircraft carrier flight deck tasks are indicated by different jersey colors:

See also
 Aircraft catapult
 Helicopter deck
 Modern United States Navy carrier air operations

References

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Aircraft carriers
Naval aviation technology

Flight deck


Esta é uma lista de prêmios e indicações recebidos por Gears of War, um jogo eletrônico de tiro em terceira pessoa desenvolvido pela Epic Games e publicado pela Microsoft Game Studios. A história principal do jogo, que pode ser jogada em modo individual ou cooperativo, se concentra em um esquadrão de tropas que auxiliam na conclusão de uma tentativa desesperada e de última hora de acabar com uma guerra contra um inimigo subterrâneo genocida, o Locust, e salvar os habitantes humanos restantes de seu planeta Sera. O modo multijogador do jogo permite que até oito jogadores controlem personagens de uma das duas facções em uma variedade de modos de jogo online. O conceito inicial do jogo começou entre 2000 e 2001 como Unreal Warfare, até ser anunciado como uma franquia inédita da Epic em parceria com a Microsoft na Game Developers Conference (GDC) 2005.

Lançado em 7 de novembro de 2006 exclusivamente para Xbox 360, Gears of War foi considerado um dos melhores jogos de todos os tempos e recebeu "aclamação universal" dos críticos, de acordo com o agregador de resenhas Metacritic; foi o jogo de Xbox 360 com a maior pontuação no Metacritic em 2006, e o segundo com a maior pontuação no geral naquele ano, atrás de The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess em versões para GameCube e Wii. O jogo foi um grande sucesso comercial e moldou grande parte da indústria a partir de seu lançamento, vendendo 1 milhão de cópias duas semanas após seu lançamento. Em 7 de novembro de 2008, o jogo vendeu 5,88 milhões de cópias em todo o mundo, se tornando o título mais popular do Xbox Live até o lançamento de Halo 3.

Gears of War recebeu prêmios e indicações de forma ampla em uma grande variedade de categorias de inúmeras premiações, com elogios indo principalmente para seus visuais conceituais, design, performances, modo multijogador e som. Durante o 10º Interactive Achievement Awards realizado pela Academia de Artes e Ciências Interativas (AIAS), o jogo foi indicado em dez categorias e venceu em oito: "Jogo do Ano", "Jogo de Ação-aventura do Ano", "Jogo de Console do Ano", "Excelência em Animação", "Excelência em Direção de Arte", "Excelência em Performance de Personagem Masculino" para John DiMaggio como Marcus Fenix, "Excelência em Jogabilidade Online" e "Excelência em Engenharia Visual". O jogo venceu todas as seis categorias em que concorreu no G-Phoria Awards 2007: "Jogo do Ano", "Melhor Novo Personagem" para John DiMaggio como Marcus Fenix, "Melhores Gráficos", "Melhor Multiplayer", "Melhor Jogo de Ação" e "Melhor Ator de Voz" para Mighty Rasta como Augustus Cole. O jogo também ganhou os prêmios de "Jogo do Ano", "Melhores Artes Visuais" e "Melhor Tecnologia" no Game Developers Choice Awards 2007, além de ter ganho o "Jogo do Ano Definitivo" no Golden Joystick Awards. A Epic Games ganhou a categoria de "Estúdio do Ano" no e Gears of War concorreu na categoria de Jogo do Ano" durante o Spike Video Game Awards 2006.

Além das premiações, Gears of War também recebeu honrarias de publicações de jogos eletrônicos. A Game Informer o nomeou um dos 50 Melhores Jogos de 2006.  Na GameSpots Best and Worst of 2006, o jogo recebeu os prêmios de "Jogo do Ano", "Melhor Jogo de Tiro" e "Melhor Jogo de Xbox 360". No IGNs Best of 2006, o jogo recebeu os prêmios de "Melhor Jogo de Ação para Xbox 360", "Melhor Tecnologia Gráfica no Xbox 360", "Jogo do Ano no Xbox 360", e a Epic Games recebeu o prêmio de "Melhor Desenvolvedora no Xbox 360" nos Prêmios de Xbox 360, enquanto nos Prêmios Gerais, o jogo recebeu os prêmios de "Melhor Jogo de Ação" e "Melhor Tecnologia Gráfica". A OXM premiou o jogo com as categorias de "Jogo do Ano para Xbox 360" e os Berserkers receberam prêmio de "Inimigo do Ano".

Prêmios e indicações de premiações

Honrarias de publicações

Ligações externas
Gears of War no Xbox.com
Gears of War no Internet Movie Database

Gears of War
Gears of War

Lista de prêmios e indicações recebidos por Gears of War


Opel har flere betydninger:
 Opel − en tysk bilfabrikant
 Opel (familie) − en tysk familie
 Opel (efternavn) − et tysk efternavn
 Opel (bjerg) − et 650 meter højt bjerg i Soonwald, Rheinland-Pfalz, Tyskland
 Opel (album) – et album af Syd Barrett
 OPEL Networks – en tidligere australsk telekommunikationsudbyder

Opel (flertydig)


Fuat Başar Sabuncu (9 Eylül 1943, İstanbul - 17 Haziran 2015, İstanbul), Türk oyun ve senaryo yazarı, tiyatro ve sinema yönetmeni, çevirmen, sahne tasarımcısı, oyuncu.

1960'lı yıllardan itibaren Türkiye'deki toplumsal sorunları dile getiren tiyatro yapıtları üretti. 1960'lı yıllarda absürt tiyatro, 1980'lerde müzikal eserler verdi.  Türk tiyatrosunun en önemli müzikli oyun örneklerinden biri olarak kabul edilen Kaldırım Serçesi eserleri arasındadır. Şener Şen'in oynadığı Çıplak Vatandaş, Zengin Mutfağı çevirdiği önemli filmlerdendir.

Hayatı
1943 yılında İstanbul'da doğdu. İlk ve orta öğreniminin tamamladıktan sonra yatılı olarak Saint Joseph Lisesi'ni okudu. İlk amatör tiyatro oyunculuğu deneyimlerini lisede yaşadı.  Liseden mezun olduktan sonra eğitimine bir süre Ankara Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi, ardından İstanbul Üniversitesi Fransız Dili ve Edebiyatı bölümünde devam etti.  Ekonomik nedenlerle yüksek öğrenimini yarıda bıraktı.

Asıl çalışmak istediği alan alan oyun yazarlığı ve  yönetmenliğine odaklandı. 19 yaşında üniversitede öğrenci iken yazdığı ilk oyunu Kargalar, 1962'de Devlet Tiyatrosu'nda Haldun Marlalı yönetiminde tek perdelik bir eser olarak sahnelendi. Oyun aynı yıl, Değişim dergisi tarafından basıldı. İkinci oyunu Şerefiye ise 1969 yılında "Yılın En İyi Yerli Oyunu" seçildi; İngilizce ve Fransızca'ya çevirtilerek on dört ülkenin katıldığı Eurotheatre yarışmasında şeref mansiyonu kazandı. 1969 yılında yazdığı  üç perdelik Çark adlı eseri Ankara Devlet Tiyatrosu'nda, iki perdelik Zemberek, Dostlar Tiyatrosu'nda sahnelendi.

Sabuncu, 1964-1969 yılları arasında TRT Ankara Radyosu tiyatro bölümünde görev aldı; aralarında İlyada, Don Kişot, Goriot Baba gibi başyapıtların da bulunduğu 18 yapıtı radyo için oyunlaştırdı; ve seslendirme kadrosunda yer aldı. Yüzden fazla radyo oyun dizisini yönetti.

Aynı dönemde yıl Meydan Sahnesi'nde çalışmaya başladı. Arena Tiyatrosu ve Dormen Tiyatrosu'nda sahnelenen oyunlarda da roller aldı. Geçimini sağlamak için radyo oyunları yazdı; Racine, Marivaux, Brecht, Genet, Kovaçeviç  dahil pek çok yazarın oyunlarını Türkçeleştirdi. Meydan Sahnesi'nde oyunculuk yaparken tanıştığı Sevgi Yenen ile 1965'te evlendi. Evlilikleri 1971'de boşanma ile sonlandı.

12 Mart Muhtırası'ndan sonra, bir süre yurt dışında yaşadı. Fransa'da iki yıl tiyatro araştırmalarının ardından, Türkiye'ye dönüşünde, Muhsin Ertuğrul'un çağrısı üzerine, 1974'te yönetmen olarak İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları'na katıldı. Kurumda yerinden yönetim anlayışının uygulanmasına öncülük etti. Üsküdar ve Fatih sahnelerinin sanat yönetmenliği görevlerini üstlendi. Uzun yıllar sonra yeniden bir Nâzım Hikmet oyununun Şehir Tiyatrosu'nda sahneledi. 1975 yılında Şehir Tiyatroları oyuncusu Sevil Candan ile evlendi.

Mutemet Ali Rıza Bey'in Yaşanmış Hayat Hikâyesi (1972) en bilinen eserlerinden birisi oldu. Sabuncu, yazıldığı zaman Ankara Devlet Tiyatrosu'nda sahnelenen ve Almanca'ya çevrilen bu oyunu, 1974'te İstanbul Şehir Tiyatrolarında kendi yönetiminde sahneledi. 1975'te Brecht'in Puntila Ağa ile Uşağı Matti oyununu İşçi Babası' Ömer Ağa ile Küçükhanımın Şoförü Recep adıyla yeniden kaleme aldı. Epik tiyatronun Türkiye'de tanınıp yer edinmesine katkı sağladı.

12 Eylül 1980 darbesi''nden sonra 1402 sayılı yasa uyarınca Şehir Tiyatrosu'ndaki görevine son verildi. Bir süre Almanya'ya yaşadı. 1977 yılında yazmış olduğu İşgal adlı oyununu Berlin'de, Schaubühne Tiyatrosu'nda sahneledi.

1982-1983 yıllarında  Gülriz Sururi-Engin Cezzar Tiyatrosu'nda,  Kaldırım Serçesi oyununu, Şan Tiyatrosu'nda Brecht düzenlemesi Şvayk Hitler'e Karşı ve Prosper Mérimée uyarlaması Kan ve Gül (Karmen) müzikli oyunlarını sahneledi.  12 Eylül darbesine karşı 1300 aydının imzaladığı 15 Mayıs 1984 tarihli "Aydınlar Dilekçesi" kapsamında, askeri mahkemede yargılandı.

Sonraki yıllarda sinema çalışmalarına ağırlık verdi. İlk beş senaryosu başka yönetmenlerce perdeye taşındı. 1985'ten başlayarak, kendi senaryolarından, altı film gerçekleştirdi. Çok sayıda uluslararası şenlikte Türkiye sinemasını temsil etti. 1988'de Londra'da British Film Institute; 1991'de Paris'te Fransız Sinematek'i; 1992'de Montpellier Festivali tarafından, adına tüm filmlerinin gösterildiği saygı haftaları düzenlendi.

1988'de, uzun bir yasal savaşımın ardından, Şehir Tiyatroları'na döndü. Yeniden Şehir Tiyatroları'nda göreve başladıktan sonra bu kurumda ve Devlet Tiyatroları ile özel tiyatrolarda otuzu aşkın tiyatro yapıtının yönetmenliğini üstlendi.

1996 yılından itibaren kendi özgün metinlerini yazmaya ara verdi; dünya edebiyatının çeşitli yazarlarının öykülerini birleştirip yeniden yazım tekniğiyle oyunlar kaleme aldı.Racine, Marivaux, Brecht, Genet, Kovačević'in kimi oyunlarını Türkçeye çevirdi.

İstanbul Şehir Tiyatrosu'nun İstanbul Belediyesi karşısındaki "sanatsal bağımsızlığı" konusunda, yönetimle ilkesel anlaşmazlık nedeniyle, 2004'te emeklilik yaşını beklemeden, kurumdan ayrıldı.

Tiyatro ve sinema alanlarındaki çalışmaları - tiyatro yazarlığı, tiyatro yönetmenliği, senaryo yazarlığı, film yönetmenliği  çevirmenlik, sahne tasarımı olmak üzere - 6 farklı dalda -3'ü uluslararası- (Londra 1969, Bastia 1989, Ohrid 1997) çok sayıda ödülle değerlendirildi.

17 Haziran 2015 tarihinde ödlü. Cenazesi, Edirnekapı Mezarlığı'na defnedildi.

Sahnelenmiş tiyatro oyunları
 Kargalar - Devlet Tiyatrosu (1962)
 Şerefiye - Devlet Tiyatrosu (1966-68) / Nürnberg (1984) / Amsterdam (1988)
 Çark - Devlet Tiyatrosu (1969) / Serezli-Aşkıner Tiyatrosu (1969)
 Zemberek - Dostlar Tiyatrosu (1971) / Ankara Deneme Sahnesi (1972)
 Mutemet Ali Rıza Beyin Yaşanmış Hayat Hikayesi - Devlet Tiyatrosu (1972) / İstanbul Ş.T. (1974)
 İşçi Babası Ömer Ağa İle Küçükhanımın Şoförü Recep (Brecht'E "Nazîre") - Oyuncular Birliği (1975)
 Memurlar - İti Yayını (1974) / Ankara Deneme Sahnesi (1974)
 İşgal - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatrosu (1977) / Berlin Schaubühne (1981)
 Kaldırım Serçesi - Gülriz Sururi-Engin Cezzar Tiyatrosu (1982)
  Kan ve Gül (Prosper Mériméé/Carmen'den uyarlama) Şan Tiyatrosu (1983)
 Sayın Muhbir Vatandaşlar - Yeditepe Oyuncuları (1989)
 Bir Ata Krallığım (Shakespeare'den Kurgulama) - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatrosu (1997)
 Herkes Aynı Bahçede (Çehov "Çeşitleme") - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatrosu (2001)
 Lades Ya Da Aile Ocağı - Müjdat Gezen Tiyatrosu (2010)

Yönettiği tiyatro oyunlarından bazıları

 Çark (B.S.) - Serezli/Aşkıner Tiyatrosu (1970)
 Nafile Dünya (Oktay Arayıcı) - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatrosu (1974)
 İşçi Babası Ömer Ağa ile Küçükhanımın Şoförü Recep (B.Brecht/B.S.) - Oyuncular Birliği (1975)
 Ferhat ile Şirin (Nazım Hikmet) - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları (1976)
 Kardeş Payı (Orhan Kemal) - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları (1977)
 Zengin Mutfağı (Vasıf Öngören) - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları (1977)
 Murtaza (Orhan Kemal) - İzmir Devlet Tiyatrosu (1978)
 Hitler Faşizmi'nden Hayat'ı Hakikiye Sahneleri (B. Brecht) - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları (1979)
 Bahar Noktası (W. Shakespeare) - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları (1980)
 İşgal (B.S.) - Shaubühne/Berlin (1981)
 Kaldırım Serçesi ( B. Sabuncu) - Sururi/Cezzar Tiyatrosu (1982)
 Şvayk Hitler'e Karşı (B. Brecht) - Şan Tiyatrosu (1984)
  Kan ve Gül (Prosper Mérimée/Carmen'den uyarlama) Şan Tiyatrosu (1985)
 Bay Hiç / Sonsuzluk Kitabevi (Sabahattin Kudret Aksal) - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları (1990)
 Fırtına (W. Shakespeare) - İstanbul Devlet Tiyatrosu (1991)
 Hüzünlü Bir Komedi (Şefik Onatoğlu) - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları (1992)
 Sular Aydınlanıyordu (Nezihe Meriç) - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları (1993)
 Palto (Nikolay Gogol) - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları (1994)
 Kanlı Düğün (Federico García Lorca) - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları (1995)
 Bir Ata Krallığım (Shakespeare/Sabuncu) - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları (1997)
 Balkon (Jean Genet) - Tiyatro Stüdyosu (1998)
 Romeo ile Juliet (W.Shakespeare) - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları (1999)
 Herkes Aynı Bahçede (Çehov/Sabuncu) - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları (2001)
 Beyazıt (Jean Racine) - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları (2007)

Yönettiği sinema filmleri
 Çıplak Vatandaş - 1985
 Asılacak Kadın - 1986
 Kupa Kızı - 1986 (Bunuel'in Belle de Jour filmine "nazîre")
 Kaçamak - 1987
 Zengin Mutfağı - 1988
 Yolcu - 1994

Senaryosunu yazdığı sinema filmleri

 Şöhret Budalası - 1975 (Yön: Bilge Olgaç)
 Adak - 1979 (Yön: Atıf Yılmaz)
 Talihli Amele - 1980 (Yön: Atıf Yılmaz)
 Şalvar Davası - 1983 (Aristofanes'den esinlenme / Yön: Kartal Tibet)
 Namuslu - 1984 (Yön: Ertem Eğilmez)
 Çıplak Vatandaş - 1985
 Asılacak Kadın - 1986 (Pınar Kür'ün romanından)
 Kupa Kızı - 1986 (Joseph Kessel'in "Belle de Jour" romanından)
 Kaçamak - 1987
 Zengin Mutfağı - 1988 (Vasıf Öngören'in oyunundan)
 Kaldırım Serçesi - 1989 (TRT/TV)
 Yolcu - 1994 (Nazım Hikmet'in oyunundan)

Sahnelenmiş çevirileri

 Arturo Ui'nin Yükselişi (B.Brecht / Sevgi Sabuncu ile birlikte) AST - 1965
 Balkon (Jean Genet) Tiyatro Stüdyosu - 1998, Ayrıntı Yayınları - 2006
 Köleler Adası - Tartışma (Pierre de Marivaux) Mitos/Boyut - 2005, Devlet Tiyatrosu - 2005
 Profesyonel (Dušan Kovačević / Bilge Emin ile birlikte) Mitos/Boyut - 2004, Devlet Tiyatrosu - 2010
 Bayazıt (Jean Racine) - Mitos/Boyut 2006 - İstanbul Şehir Tiyatrosu - 2007

Sahne tasarımları

 Puntila Ağa ile Uşağı Matti (Dormen Tiyatrosu - 1966)
 Çark (Serezli-Aşkıner T./ Max Meinecke ile) - 1970)
 Kardeş Payı ( İ. Şehir Tiyatrosu - 1977)
 Bayazıt (İ. Şehir Tiyatrosu - 2007 - "Afife Jale" sahne tasarımı ödülü)

Kazandığı ödüllerden bazıları
 Sanat Sevenler Derneği "Övgüye Değer Oyun Yazarı" - Ankara 1968 (Şerefiye / tek bölüm)
 Sanat Sevenler Derneği "Yılın En Başarılı Oyun Yazarı" - Ankara 1969 (Şerefiye / iki bölüm) -Teneke/Yaşar Kemal ile ortaklaşa-
 EBU uluslararası "EUROTHEATRE" ödülü, onur ödülü - Londra 1969 (Şerefiye)
 İlhan İskender Armağanı "Yılın En İyi Oyun Yazarı" ödülü - İstanbul 1970 (Şerefiye)
 TRT Oyun Yazarlığı Ödülü - Ankara 1971 (Zemberek)
 Ulvi Uraz Yönetmenlik Ödülü - İstanbul 1978 (İşgal ve Zengin Mutfağı)
 SİYAD En İyi Senaryo Ödülü - İstanbul 1980 (Adak)
 SİYAD En İyi Senaryo ödülü - İstanbul 1983 (Namuslu)
 SİYAD Yılın En Başarılı Yönetmeni - İstanbul 1987 (Asılacak Kadın)
 Bastia Akdeniz Filmleri Ödülü "Gümüş Palmiye" / En iyi yönetmen - Bastia 1989 (Zengin Mutfağı)
 Altın Koza, En İyi Senaryo Ödülü - Adana 1994 (Yolcu)
 Kültür Bakanlığı Yönetmen Başarı Ödülü - Ankara 1994 (Yolcu)
 1. Afife Tiyatro Ödülleri, Yılın En Başarılı Yönetmeni - İstanbul 1997 (Bir Ata Krallığım) / "Yılın En Başarılı Prodüksiyonu"
 TEB (Tiyatro Eleştirmenleri Birliği) Ödülü - İstanbul 1997 (Bütün tiyatro yapıtları)
 Zihni Küçümen Emek Ödülü (Topluluk ödülü) - İstanbul 1997
 Ankara Sanat Kurumu çeviri ödülü - Ankara 1997 (Bir Ata Krallığım)
 Ohrid Festivali Büyük Ödülü (Topluluk ödülü) - Ohrid 1997 (Bir Ata Krallığım)
 2. Afife Tiyatro Ödülleri, Yılın En Başarılı Yönetmeni - İstanbul 1998 (Balkon) / "Yılın En Başarılı Prodüksiyonu"
 Selim Naşit Ödülleri, En İyi yönetmen ödülü - İstanbul 2002 (Herkes Aynı Bahçede)
 Ankara Sanat Kurumu, Çeviri ödülü - Ankara 2005 (Köleler Adası)
 12. Afife Tiyatro Ödülleri, "En Başarılı Sahne Tasarımcısı" - İstanbul 2008 (Bayazıt) /  "Yılın En Başarılı Prodüksiyonu"
 Antalya Altın Portakal "gecikmiş ödüller"den (En başarılı senaryo: "Adak") - Antalya 1980/2011
 İstanbul kültür Sanat Vakfı 2012 "Tiyatro Onur Ödülü"
 Yeşilçam Sinema Akademisi "Sinema Ömür Boyu Başarı" ödülü

Kaynakça

1943 doğumlular
2015 yılında ölenler
Edirnekapı Şehitliği'ne defnedilenler
Türk çevirmenler
Türk yönetmenler
Türk tiyatro yönetmenleri
Türk senaristler
Saint Joseph Fransız Lisesinde öğrenim görenler
Resim aranan kişiler
İstanbul Şehir Tiyatroları sanatçıları
Fransızcadan Türkçeye çeviri yapanlar
İstanbul doğumlu çevirmenler

Başar Sabuncu


Pršljenasta metvica (razmaklozuba metvica, lat. Mentha × verticillata), vrsta metvice, hibridna trajnica iz porodice usnača ili medićevki. raširena je po gotovo čitavoj Europi, a uvezena je i u neke države SAD–a, Connecticut, Illinois, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Zapadna Virginia, Wisconsin

Izvori

Metvica

Pršljenasta metvica


هذه قائمة بالأفلام المصرية لعام 2008 مرتبة أبجديا

2008

أفلام مصرية إنتاج 2008
0

قائمة الأفلام المصرية سنة 2008


The current form of the national flag of the Slovak Republic () was adopted by Slovakia's Constitution, which came into force on 3 September 1992. The flag, like many other flags of Slavic nations, uses Pan-Slavic colors (red, white, and blue). Pictured in the centre of the flag is Slovakia's national coat of arms.

History
Slovakia's flag in its current form (but with another coat of arms on it or without any arms) can be dated back to the revolutionary year 1848. It was also used semi-officially in Czechoslovakia before World War II, by the Slovak Republic during World War II.

In 1990, the interior ministry tasked Ladislav Čisárik, a painter and heraldic artist, and Ladislav Vrtel, an expert in heraldry, with creating a new coat of arms and national flag. Čisárik and Vrtel based their designs for a modern coat of arms and flag on an existing 14th century coat of arms. However, Čisárik and Vrtel chose to enlarge the double cross three times to emphasize it as a national symbol. In addition to the national coat of arms and the national flag, the duo also designed a new presidential standard, which incorporates the double cross as well.

The new flag was finally adopted (initially without Čisárik's and Vrtel's coat of arms) on 1 March 1990 as the flag of the Slovak Republic within Czechoslovakia. The coat of arms was added on 3 September 1992 and a special law describing the details of the flag followed in February 1993, after Slovakia became an independent country.

Design

Since the Slovak flag without the coat of arms is similar to the current flag of the Russian Federation (only the hues of red and blue differing), and is also similar to the modern flag of Slovenia, the Constitution of Slovakia added the national coat of arms to it in September 1992.

It is one of 28 national flags that contain overtly Christian symbols.

Photo gallery

Presidential standard

Historical flags

See also

Coat of arms of Slovakia
Pan-Slavic colors

References

External links

 Slovakia Flag
 Zákon NR SR o štátnych symboloch Slovenskej republiky a ich používaní

Flags of Slovakia
Flags with crosses
Flags introduced in 1992
Flag
National flags

Flag of Slovakia


An Dimorphorchis rossii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Jack Archie Fowlie. An Dimorphorchis rossii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Dimorphorchis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Dimorphorchis

Dimorphorchis rossii


StarCraft: Ghost este un joc video anulat care a fost dezvoltat în genurile științifico-fantastic militar stealth-action de către Blizzard Entertainment și Nihilistic Software. Parte a seriei Blizzard StarCraft, jocul a fost anunțat la 20 septembrie 2002 și a fost dezvoltat de Nihilistic Software pentru consolele video Nintendo GameCube, Xbox și PlayStation 2.

Spre deosebire de jocurile anterioare RTS, Ghost a fost plănuit ca un third-person shooter și avea intenția de a oferi jucătorilor o imagine mai strânsă și mai personală a universului StarCraft.

Jocul intenționa să prezinte personajul Nova, un spion psihic terran, la  patru ani de la încheierea acțiunii din StarCraft: Brood War și dezvăluia un proiect militar secret realizat de către superiorii lui Nova în Dominioul imperial Terran.

În noiembrie 2006, după amânarea jocului, un roman denumit StarCraft Ghost: Nova a fost publicat pe baza personajului principal.

Referințe și note

Legături externe
Warcraft Adventures: Lord of the Clans, another cancelled Blizzard project

Vezi și
vaporware

Jocuri video anulate
Star Craft
Jocuri video științifico-fantastice
Jocuri de acțiune
Jocuri pentru Windows
Jocuri pentru PlayStation 2

StarCraft: Ghost


Ayn Rand (Sankt Peterburg, 2. veljače 1905. – New York, 6. ožujka 1982.), pravim imenom Alisa Rozenbaum, američka romanopiskinja, esejistica, i dramatičarka rusko-židovskog podrijetla te istaknuta objektivistička filozofkinja. Isticala je razum kao jedino sredstvo stjecanja znanja odbacujući religiju i altruizam te zagovarajući razumski (racionalni) i etički egoizam. Unatoč boljševičkim korijenima, odbacivala je kolektivizam, etatizam i anarhizam smatrajući individualizam jedinim načinom samoostvarenja. Stajalištima o uspjehu kao ishodu pojedinačnih (individualnih) sposobnosti i rada te o pogodnostima kapitalizma i sebičnosti za razvoj nadarenosti (talenta) suprotstavila se tradicionalnoj židovsko-kršćanskoj etici, izazvala feministkinje, ali i stekla nove poklonike krajem 20. stoljeća, posebice među američkim neokonzervatistima. U umjetnosti zagovara romantičarski realizam, a u filozofiji redom snažno kritizira sve filozofe osim Aristotela, Tome Akvinskog i klasičnih liberala.

Rođena je kao najstarija od triju kćeri u buržujskoj obitelji ruskih Židova u Sankt Peterburgu, gdje studira pedagogiju, filozofiju i povijest pod snažnim utjecajem Platona i Aristotela. Kako je govorila francuski i njemački, proučavala je Hugovo, Schillerovo i Rostandovo književno stvaralaštvo te Nietzcheovu filozofiju. Krajem 1925. odlazi u Sjedinjene Države u kojima ostvaruje kratku suradnju i sa znamenitim Cecilom B. DeMilleom prije odlaska u Hollywood.

Godine 1936. objavljuje svoj prvi, vrstom autobiografski, roman Mi, živi, radnjom smješten u Sovjetski savez, koji tematizira odnos vlasti (države) i pojedinca. Prošireno i dopunjeno izdanje romana iz 1959. prodano je u tri milijuna primjeraka. Prema romantičarsko-filozofskom romanu Izvorište, koji je pisala sedam godina, snimljen je istoimeni crno-bijeli film s Garyem Cooperom i Patriciom Neal u glavnim ulogama. U romanu Atlant je slegnuo ramenima razradila je svoju objektivističku filozofiju te se taj roman smatra njezinim remek-djeloom. Prema vlastitim riječima, u romanu zagovara važnost uma i razuma kao jamca čovjekova intelektualna opstanka u budućnosti, koja poprima sve više distopijskih i totalitarnih obilježja.

Kao gostujući predavač izlagala je na Yaleu, Princetonu, Harvardu, Columbiji i MIT-u. U javnosti poznata po protivljenju Vijetnamskom ratu i novačenju mladih, bila je pristaša Republikanske stranke ne djelujući značajnije u američkom javno-političkom životu. Netom prije smrti, preboljela je rak pluća i razvod braka, nakon što se njezin suprug potajno oženio. Umrla je od zatajenja srca u New Yorku, gdje je i pokopana.

Izvori
 Rand, Ayn LZMK hrvatska enciklopedija
 Ayn Rand Encyclopædia Britannica
 Ayn Alissa Rand  Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
 Popis djela i radova Open Library

Američki književnici
Romanopisci
Esejisti
Američki filozofi

Ayn Rand


Rhamnetin ist eine sekundärer Pflanzenstoff aus der Untergruppe der Flavonole innerhalb der Stoffgruppe der Flavonoide. Rhamnetin ist ein Stellungsisomer zu Isorhamnetin und leitet sich wie dieses durch einfache O-Methylierung einer Hydroxygruppe von Quercetin ab.

Vorkommen

Rhamnetin kommt natürlich in Indischem Patschuli und als Hauptfarbstoff in Kreuzdornbeeren (lateinisch Rhamnus, daher der Name) sowie einigen anderen Pflanzen vor. Es entsteht bei der Hydrolyse von Xanthorhamnin. Es wurde in den 1880er Jahren von Liebermann, Hörmann und Josef Herzig zuerst untersucht.

Gewinnung und Darstellung
Künstlich kann Rhamnetin auf enzymatischem Wege durch O-Methyltransferase-7 erzeugt werden.

Eigenschaften
Rhamnetin ist ein hellgelbes geruchloses Pulver. Es ist ein Monomethylether von Quercetin.

Verwendung
Rhamnetin wird in der Papierveredelung als Bestandteil der Entwicklerschicht in druckempfindlichen Kopierpapieren verwendet.

Einzelnachweise

Flavonol
Methoxyphenol
Brenzcatechin
Enol
Sekundärer Pflanzenstoff
Natürliches Polyphenol

Rhamnetin


In mathematics, a Lucas chain is a restricted type of addition chain, named for the French mathematician Édouard Lucas. It is a sequence

a0, a1, a2, a3, ...

that satisfies

a0=1,

and
for each k > 0: ak = ai + aj, and either ai = aj or  |ai − aj| = am, for some i, j, m < k.

The sequence of powers of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ...) and the Fibonacci sequence (with a slight adjustment of the starting point 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, ...) are simple examples of Lucas chains.

Lucas chains were introduced by Peter Montgomery in 1983.  If L(n) is the length of the shortest Lucas chain for n, then Kutz has shown that most n do not have L < (1-ε) logφ n, where φ is the Golden ratio.

References

Integer sequences
Addition chains

Lucas chain


Società Italiana Merz e Stinchi war ein italienischer Hersteller von Automobilen.

Unternehmensgeschichte
Das Unternehmen wurde 1908 als Tochtergesellschaft der Maschinenbaugesellschaft Merz & Stinchi zur Produktion von Automobilen gegründet. Die Verwaltung war am Corso Oporto 13 in Turin. Der Markenname lautete SIMS. 1909 endete die Produktion.

Fahrzeuge
Das einzige Modell war der 10/12 HP. Der Vierzylindermotor mit zwei seitlich liegenden Nockenwellen verfügte über 1767 cm³ Hubraum. Die Kraftübertragung erfolgte mittels einer Kette. Das Getriebe verfügte über drei Gänge. Die bauartbedingte Höchstgeschwindigkeit war mit 80 km/h für den viersitzigen Personenwagen bzw. 90 km/h für den zweisitzigen Rennwagen angegeben. Der Preis betrug 4500 Lire für das Fahrgestell und 5000 Lire komplett für den Viersitzer.

Literatur

 George Nick Georgano: The Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile, Volume 3 P–Z. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Chicago 2001, ISBN 1-57958-293-1 (englisch)
 Autorenkollektiv: Enzyklopädie des Automobils. Marken · Modelle · Technik. Weltbild Verlag, Augsburg, 1989

Ehemaliger Pkw-Hersteller (Italien)
Ehemaliges Unternehmen (Turin)

Società Italiana Merz e Stinchi


(littéralement : « Je suis qui je suis ») est une expression latine souvent traduite par « Je Suis Celui qui Est ».

Dans l'épisode du Buisson ardent (Ex 3:14), Moïse demande à Dieu de lui révéler son Nom. Celui-ci répond : אֶהְיֶה אֲשֶׁר אֶהְיֶה, Ehyeh Asher ehyeh. Ce nom est une conjugaison antique du verbe hébreu être.

Bibliographie
 Cornelia J. de Vogel, Revue des sciences religieuses « Ego sum qui sum » et sa signification pour une philosophie chrétienne », 1961, p. 337-355 (Ego sum qui sum)

Notes et références

Mot ou expression de la Bible

Ego sum qui sum


Rumelihisarı (también conocido como castillo de Rumelia y castillo Roumeli Hissar) o castillo Boğazkesen (que significa «castillo del Estrecho» o literalmente «castillo cortador de gargantas») es una fortaleza medieval ubicada en Estambul, Turquía, en una serie de colinas en la orilla europea del Bósforo. La fortaleza también presta su nombre al vecindario inmediato a su alrededor en el distrito de Sarıyer de la ciudad.

Concebido y construido entre 1451 y 1452 por orden del sultán otomano Mehmed II, el complejo fue encargado en preparación para un asedio otomano planeado en la entonces ciudad bizantina de Constantinopla, con el objetivo de cortar el socorro marítimo, militar y logístico que potencialmente podría acudir en ayuda de los bizantinos a través del Estrecho del Bósforo, de ahí el nombre alternativo de la fortaleza, «Boğazkesen», es decir, «castillo estrecho». Su estructura hermana mayor, Anadoluhisarı («fortaleza de Anatolia»), se encuentra en las orillas opuestas del Bósforo, y las dos fortalezas trabajaron en conjunto durante el asedio final para acelerar todo el tráfico naval a lo largo del Bósforo, ayudando así a los otomanos a lograr su objetivo de hacer de la ciudad de Constantinopla (más tarde rebautizada como Estambul) su nueva capital imperial en 1453.

Después de la conquista otomana de la ciudad, Rumelihisarı sirvió como puesto de control aduanero y prisión ocasional, especialmente para las embajadas de los estados que estaban en guerra con el imperio. Después de sufrir grandes daños en el Gran terremoto de 1509, la estructura fue reparada y se utilizó de forma continua hasta finales del .

Hoy en día, la fortaleza es un museo popular abierto al público y, además actúa como un lugar al aire libre para conciertos de temporada, festivales de arte y eventos especiales.

Historia

La necesidad de una fortaleza estratégica en el Bósforo era bien conocida por los otomanos, quienes habían comenzado a fines del  a albergar intenciones de capturar la ciudad de Constantinopla como una nueva capital para su entonces naciente imperio. En un intento otomano anterior de conquistar la ciudad, el sultán Murad II había encontrado dificultades debido al bloqueo del Bósforo por parte de la flota bizantina. Habiendo aprendido la importancia de la estrategia marítima de este intento anterior, el sultán Mehmed II, hijo de Murad II, comenzó a planificar una nueva ofensiva inmediatamente después de su ascenso al trono en 1451.

En respuesta a la coronación del joven y ambicioso sultán, el emperador bizantino Constantino XI Paleólogo, que comprendía las intenciones de Mehmed II sobre Constantinopla y desconfiaba de la amenaza que suponía la creciente influencia otomana en la región, esperaba asegurar una solución diplomática que protegería la ciudad, mientras evitaba el largo declive de los bizantinos.

Mehmed II rechazó la oferta de paz ofrecida y procedió con sus planes de asedio encargando la construcción de una gran fortaleza que se utilizaría para controlar todo el tráfico marítimo a lo largo del Bósforo, y trabajaría junto con la antigua Anadoluhisarı (fortaleza de Anatolia) en el estrecho. para evitar que cualquier posible ayuda marítima llegara a Constantinopla durante el asedio final otomano de la ciudad en 1453, particularmente de las colonias genovesas a lo largo del Mar Negro, como Caffa, Sinope y Amasra.

El sitio para la nueva fortaleza se decidió rápidamente como el punto más estrecho del Bósforo, donde el estrecho tiene apenas 660 metros (2,170 pies) de ancho. Este alto sitio en la cima de una colina en las orillas europeas del estrecho no solo facilitaba el control de la vía fluvial, sino que también tenía la ventaja de estar situado directamente al otro lado de Anadoluhisarı en las orillas asiáticas del Bósforo; una mayor fortaleza otomana construida entre 1393 y 1394 por el sultán Bayezid I. Históricamente, había habido una fortificación romana en la cima de la colina donde se iba a construir Rumelihisarı, que luego había sido utilizada como prisión por los bizantinos y genoveses. Más tarde se construyó allí un monasterio.

La construcción comenzó el 15 de abril de 1452. Antes de la construcción, Mehmed II colocó el primer ladrillo y firmó supersticiosamente sus iniciales y las del Profeta Mahoma en este con sangre de cabra. Cada una de las tres torres principales recibió el nombre del visir real que supervisó su respectiva construcción; Çandarlı Halil Pasha, quien construyó la gran torre junto a la puerta; Zağanos Pasha, quien construyó la torre sur; y Sarıca Pasha, quien construyó la torre norte. El propio sultán inspeccionó personalmente las actividades en el sitio.

Arquitectura

La fortificación de Rumelihisarı tiene una pequeña torre, tres torres principales y trece pequeñas atalayas colocadas en las paredes que conectan las torres principales. Una torre de vigilancia tiene la forma de un prisma cuadrangular, seis torres de vigilancia tienen forma de prismas con múltiples esquinas y otras seis son cilíndricas.

La torre principal en el norte, Torre Sarıca Pasha, es de forma cilíndrica, con un diámetro de 23,30 m (76,4 pies), paredes de 7 m (23 pies) de espesor y un total de 9 pisos que alcanzan una altura de 28 m. (92 pies). Hoy en día, esta torre también se conoce como Torre Fatih («Conquistador») en honor al cognomen del sultán Mehmed II. La gran torre en el paseo marítimo en el medio de la fortaleza, Torre Halil Pasha, es de un prisma dodecágono y, también tiene 9 pisos. Tiene 22 m (72 pies) de altura con 23,30 m (76,4 pies) de diámetro y paredes que miden 6,50 m (21,3 pies) de espesor. La torre principal en el sur, Torre Zağanos Pasha, tiene solo 8 pisos. Esta torre cilíndrica tiene 21 m (69 pies) de altura y 26,70 m (87,6 pies) de diámetro con paredes de 5,70 m (18,7 pies) de espesor. El espacio interior de cada torre se dividió con pisos de madera, cada uno equipado con un horno. Los tejados cónicos de madera cubiertos de plomo coronaban originalmente las torres, aunque hoy en día ya no se conservan.

Los muros cortina exteriores de la fortaleza tienen 250 m (820 pies) de largo de norte a sur, y varían entre 50 y 125 m (164 y 410 pies) de largo de este a oeste. El área total del complejo es de 31,250 m 2 (336,372 pies cuadrados).

La fortaleza tenía tres puertas principales junto a las torres principales, una puerta lateral y dos puertas secretas para el arsenal y las bodegas de alimentos junto a la torre sur. Había casas de madera para los soldados y una pequeña mezquita, dotada por el sultán en el momento de la construcción. Solo queda el eje del minarete de la mezquita original, mientras que la pequeña mezquita agregada a mediados del  no ha sobrevivido. El agua se suministraba a la fortaleza desde una gran cisterna debajo de la mezquita y se distribuyó a través de tres fuentes de pared, de las cuales solamente queda una. Dos placas inscripticas se encuentran adheridas a las paredes.

La fortaleza se llamó inicialmente «Boğazkesen», que literalmente significa «cortador del Estrecho», en referencia al Estrecho del Bósforo. El nombre tiene un significado secundario y más macabro; ya que boğaz no solo significa estrecho sino también «garganta» en turco.

Más tarde fue rebautizado como Rumelihisarı, que significa «fortaleza de Rumelia», es decir, la Europa bizantina o la península balcánica.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Archnet
 Rumelihisarı
  Kentim Istanbul
 Restoration

Fortalezas

Museos de Estambul

Yacimientos arqueológicos de Turquía
Monumentos de Estambul
Arquitectura de Turquía del siglo XV
Arquitectura de 1452
Castillos construidos en el siglo XV

Rumelihisarı


Jaroslav Heyrovský (født 20. december, 1890 i Prag, Kongeriget Bøhmen, død 27. marts 1967 i Prag, Tjekkoslovakiet) var en tjekkisk kemiker og opfinder. Heyrovský var opfinderen af den polarografiske metode, og bagmanden bag den elektroanalytiske metode. Han modtog nobelprisen i kemi i 1959. Hans primære arbejdsområde var polarografi.

Liv og karriere

Jaroslav Heyrovský blev født i Prag den 20. december 1890, som det femte barn af Leopold Heyrovský, professor i romerret på Karlsuniversitetet, og hans kone Clara, født Hanl von Kirchtreu. Han gik i skole indtil 1909, hvorefter han begyndte at studere kemi, fysik og matematik på Karlsuniversitetet i Prag. Fra 1900 til 1914 fortsatte han sine studier på University College London, under professorerne Sir William Ramsay, W. C. McC. Lewis og F. G. Donnan, hvor han tog sin bachelorgrad 1913. Han blev særligt interesseret i at arbejde sammen med professor Donnan om elektrokemi.

Under første verdenskrig arbejdede Heyrovský på et militærhospital som kemiker og radiolog, hvilket gjorde ht han kunne fortsætte sine studier og tage en Ph.d. i Prag i 1918 og en doktorgrad i London i 1921.

Heyrovský startede sin universitetskarriere som assistent for professor B. Brauner på Institut for Analytisk Kemi på Karluniversitet i prag, og han blev udnævnt til lektor i 1922, og i 1926 blev han universitetets første professor i fysisk kemi.

Heyrovskýs opfindelse af den polarografiske metode dateres til 1922, og han koncentrerede hele sin videre karriere på udviklingen af denne nye gren inden for elektrokemi. Han startede en skole for tjekkiske polarografer på universitet og han var selv i front inden for forskning på området. I 1950 blev Heyrovský udnævnt som direktør for det nystartede Polarografisk Institut, der var blevet inkorporeret i Československá akademie věd (Tjekkoslovakisk Akademi for Naturvidenskab) siden 1952.

Privatliv
I 1926 giftede professor Heyrovský sig med Marie (Mary) Koranová. Parret fik to børn, en datter ved navn Judith, og en søn ved navn Michael.

Jaroslav Heyrovský døde den 27. marts 1967. Han blev begravet på Vyšehrad kirkegård i Prag.

Priser og hædersbevisninger

Mange universiteter og andre uddannelsesinstitutioner har hædret Heyrovský. Han blev valgt som Fellow of University College, London i 1927, og modtog et æresdoktorat på Technische Universität Dresden i Tyskland i 1955, Warszawa Universitet i Polen i 1956, Aix-Marseille Université i Frankrig i 1959 og Sorbonne (Paris Universitet) i 1960.

Han blev æresmedlem af American Academy of Arts and Sciences i 1933; i Ungarns Academy of Sciences i 1955; Indiens Academy of Sciences, Bangalore, i 1955; Polens Academy of Sciences, Warsawa, i 1962. I 1955 blev han valgt som Corresponding Member of the German Academy of Sciences i Berlin; medlem af Tysklands Academy of Natural Scientists, Leopoldina (Halle-Saale) i 1956; medlem af Videnskabernes Selskab i København i 1962; Vice-præsident for International Union of Physics fra 1951 to 1957; Præsident og første æresmedlem af Polarographic Society i London; æresmedlem af Polarographic Society of Japan; æresmedlem af Chemical Societies i Tjekkoslovakiet, Østrig, Polen, England og Indien. I 1965 blev Heyrovský Foreign Member af Royal Society (ForMemRS).

I Tjekkoslovakiet modtog han State Prize af første grad i 1951, og i 1955 Order of the Czechoslovak Republic.

Heyrovský underviste i polarografi i USA i 1933, i Sovjetunionen i 1934, England i 1946, Sverige i 1947, Kina i 1958 og i Forenede Arabiske Republik (Egypten) i 1960 og 1961.

Månekrateret Heyrovský er opkaldt efter ham.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

 Biografi  (på engelsk)
 The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1959

Kemikere fra Tjekkoslovakiet
Nobelprismodtagere i kemi
Nobelprismodtagere fra Tjekkoslovakiet

Jaroslav Heyrovský


This article lists lists of radio programs in different countries:

List of Canadian radio programs
List of Estonian radio programs
List of UK radio programmes
List of U.S. radio programs

Lists of radio programs


La Obertura de la gran Pascua rusa, Op. 36 (Svetliy prazdnik, también conocida como Obertura para el festival de la Pascua rusa''') es una obertura concierto compuesta por el compositor ruso Nikolái Rimski-Kórsakov entre agosto de 1887 y abril de 1888, dedicada a la memoria de Modest Músorgski y Aleksandr Borodín, dos miembros del grupo de Los Cinco. Se subtitula «Obertura sobre temas litúrgicos». Es la última de tres piezas excepcionalmente brillantes para orquesta, precedida por el Capricho español y Scheherezade. El estreno tuvo lugar en San Petersburgo a finales de diciembre de 1888.

 Instrumentación

La obertura está orquestada para una orquesta romántica compuesta de 3 flautas (1 doblando el flautín), 2 oboes, 2 clarinetes en do, 2 fagotes, 4 trompas en fa, 2 trompetas en si bemol, 3 trombones, tuba, 3 timbales en la, re y sol, percusión (glockenspiel, triángulo, platillos, caja orquestal, gong), arpa y cuerda.

 Antecedentes
Las melodías de esta obertura están tomadas mayormente de la liturgia de la Iglesia ortodoxa rusa, sobre la base de una antigua colección de cantos llamados Obikhod''. Rimski-Kórsakov incluye varias citas bíblicas en la partitura para guiar al oyente así como su intención, incluyendo el salmo 68 y  el Marcos 16.

En esta obertura, el compositor, como dice en su autobiografía, está dispuesto a reproducir "la legendaria y el «aspecto legendario y pagano de la fiesta, y la transición de la solemnidad y el misterio de la noche de la Pasión del sábado a las desenfrenadas celebraciones pagano-religiosas de la mañana del domingo de Pascua». Rimski-Kórsakov siempre tuvo un gran interés en los temas  litúrgicos y su música, aunque se consideraba a sí mismo no creyente o ateo (véase el artículo principal Nikolái Rimski-Kórsakov y las notas al pie).

Estructura
El inicio está escrito en tiempo de 5/2 (léase cinco por dos) y es una de las obras más famosas a 5 para orquesta. La sección final de la pieza presenta un compás de 2/1, con un uso en ocasiones del 3/1, y es una de las pocas obras orquestales en usar tanto una como otra indicaciones de compás.

Referencias

Composiciones de Nikolái Rimski-Kórsakov
Oberturas
Composiciones de 1888

Obertura de la gran Pascua rusa


සුදර්ශන් සෙනෙවිරත්න මහතා () පේරාදෙණිය විශ්වවිද්‍යාලයේ පුරාවිද්‍යා අධ්‍යයන අංශයේ මහාචාර්ය වරයෙකි.

මූලාශ්‍ර

සුදර්ශන් සෙනෙවිරත්න


La Triarquía de Negroponte fue un estado cruzado establecido en la isla de Eubea (en italiano: Negroponte) después de la partición del Imperio bizantino por la Cuarta Cruzada. El tratado de 1204, que proyectó la división del Imperio bizantino entre Venecia y los cruzados, asignó la isla de Eubea a los venecianos, pero lo abandonaron a los conquistadores francos. Fue conquistada por Bonifacio de Montferrato y dado en feudo a Jacques II d'Avesnes. Sin embargo, con la prematura muerte de este último, Bonifacio dividió el territorio en tres baronías. Estos fueron gobernados por Ravano dalle Carceri, Peccoraro de' Peccorari (ambos de Verona) y Giberto dalle Carceri (de Mantua), que habían participado en la captura de la isla y fueron conocidos en adelante como los «Terzieri» [triarcas] de Eubea. Ravano dalle Carceri unificó las tres unidades después del regreso de Peccoraro a Italia y a la muerte de Giberto en 1209. Estuvo de acuerdo en 1209 para convertirse en vasallo de Venecia, que nombró a un bailío para gobernar las colonias venecianas en la isla. Después que Ravano murió en 1216, el bailío veneciano aumentó su autoridad sobre la isla dividiéndola entre los seis pretendientes rivales, conocidos desde entonces como los «exarcas», a condición de que a la muerte de cualquiera de los seis sus derechos serían atribuidos a los gobernantes restantes en lugar de transferirlos a sus herederos. En 1236, el emperador Balduino II transfirió la soberanía de Eubea a Godofredo II, príncipe de Acaya, aunque Venecia continuó ejerciendo prácticamente el control.

A la muerte de Marino dalle Carceri en 1246, Guillermo II, príncipe de Acaya atacó Eubea, marcando el inicio de una larga guerra civil entre los distintos gobernantes de la isla. Los catalanes conquistaron la isla de Eubea en 1317, pero, bajo los términos de un acuerdo tripartito entre Venecia, Sicilia y los catalanes en 1319, el gobierno de los triarcas (los exarcas se habían reducido una vez más a tres por el proceso de la herencia descrita anteriormente) fue mantenido a pesar de que Venecia extendió su influencia en la isla. El último de los triarcas, Niccolò III dalle Carceri que murió en 1383 y Giorgio II Ghisi, legaron sus posesiones a la República de Venecia. En lugar de tomar el control directo, los venecianos arrendaron la isla a tres hermanos de la familia Giustiniani con un alquiler muy bajo, pero teniendo en cuenta la necesidad de evitar el costo de mantener y respetar las sensibilidades de la nobleza local. Los señoríos en la isla de Eubea fueron tres de los doce grandes feudos del Principado de Acaya, establecidos fuera del Peloponeso, nombrados en una carta fechada en 1301. En 1470 la isla fue finalmente conquistada por el Imperio otomano.

Establecimiento

Según la división del territorio bizantino (el Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae), Eubea fue concedida a Bonifacio de Montferrato, rey de Tesalónica. Bonifacio a su vez cedió la isla como feudo al noble flamenco Jacques II d'Avesnes, que fortificó Calcis. Sin embargo, después de su muerte a mediados de 1205, la isla fue cedida a tres barones de Verona: Ravano dalle Carceri, Gilberto dalle Carceri y Pecoraro da Mercanuovo. Ellos dividieron la isla en tres triarquías (terzieri, "terceros"): el norte, con base en Óreo (en italiano: terzero del Río), el sur, gobernado desde Caristo (en italiano: terzero di Caristo), y la parte central, gobernado desde Calcis (en italiano: terzero della Clissura). La ciudad de Calcis o Negroponte (città de 'Lombardi, "la ciudad de los lombardos"), sin embargo no estaba bajo el control de éste, pero sirvió como capital global de la isla y la residencia común de los gobernantes lombardos y de sus familias. Para 1209, sin embargo, Ravano se había establecido como el único señor de Eubea, llamándose así mismo asdominus insulae Nigropontis.

Habiéndose aliado en una fracasada rebelión lombarda contra el emperador latino, Enrique de Flandes, Ravano estaba ansioso por encontrar un poderoso protector. Así, en marzo de 1209, firmó una alianza con Venecia, donde reconocía la soberanía veneciana y entregó a los venecianos privilegios comerciales significativos. En mayo, sin embargo, en un acto de equilibrio político, Ravano también reconoció su vasallaje al Imperio latino.

Disputas de sucesión

Sin embargo, después de la muerte de Ravano en 1216, sus herederos no estuvieron de acuerdo sobre la sucesión, lo que permitió al bailío veneciano intervenir como mediador. Él dividió las tres baronías en dos, creando así seis Exarcados (sestieri). La triarquía norte de Oreos se dividió entre los sobrinos de Ravano, Marino I y Rizzardo; la triarquía sur de Caristo se dividió entre su viuda, Isabel, y su hija, Berta; y la triarquía central se dividió entre los herederos de Gilberto, Guillermo I y Alberto. Las disposiciones también se hicieron de que en caso de que alguien de entre los sestieri muriera, su heredero sería otro sestiere de la respectiva triarquía, y no de sus hijos. De hecho, la mayoría de los sestieri fueron sucedidos por sus hermanos, hijos o sobrinos, manteniendo las baronías dentro del estrecho círculo de las familias de origen lombardos.

En 1255 sin embargo, la muerte de Carintana dalle Carceri, exarca de Oreos y esposa de Guillermo II de Villehardouin, señor nominal de Negroponte, dio lugar a la llamada "Guerra de Sucesión eubeota", que involucró a Acaya y Venecia. Guillermo reclamó para sí la herencia de su mujer, mientras que los barones lombardos no estaban dispuestos a concedérsela. El 14 de junio de 1256, Guillermo de Verona y Narzotto dalle Carceri, los otros dos triarcas, repudiaron su lealtad a Guillermo y se comprometieron con Venecia. Guillermo respondió mediante la captura de Calcis, que los venecianos volvieron a tomar a principios de 1258. La guerra terminó en la batalla de Karydi en mayo/junio de 1258, donde Guillermo derrotó al duque de Atenas, Guido I de la Roche, que se había aliado con los triarcas rebeldes. Finalmente, en agosto de 1259, el dux Reniero Zeno negoció una paz, seguido de un tratado en 1262, que reconoció la soberanía de Guillermo en la isla, pero no su posesión de la triarquía de Oreos.

Interludio bizantino

Para entonces, sin embargo, el Imperio de Nicea se había establecido como la primera potencia en el área del antiguo Imperio bizantino, reconquistando varios territorios de los latinos. Sus éxitos culminaron en la reconquista de Constantinopla en 1261 y el restablecimiento del Imperio bizantino, cuyo enérgico gobernante, Miguel VIII Paleólogo, trató de reconquistar los principados latinos que quedan en el sur de Grecia. Con este fin, aceptó los servicios de Licario, un renegado italiano, que tenía su base cerca de Caristo. Bajo el mando de Licario, las tropas bizantinas pronto conquistaron la mayor parte de Eubea, a excepción de Calcis. Después de la partida de Licario en algún momento después 1280 sin embargo, con la ayuda veneciana, la isla volvió gradualmente al control de los latinos. Para 1296, Bonifacio de Verona había expulsado por completo a los bizantinos de Eubea.

Historia posterior

En 1317 sin embargo, Caristo cayó ante el catalán Alfonso Fadrique, vicario general del Ducado de Atenas e hijo ilegítimo de Federico II de Sicilia. En 1319, se firmó un tratado de paz entre Venecia y Alfonso, el cual conservó Caristo, que los venecianos adquirieron en 1365, cuando los últimos triarcas, Nicolás III dalle Carceri y Jorge III Ghisi, murieron en 1383 y 1390 respectivamente, dejando su territorios a Venecia, que estableció así su predominio absoluto sobre la isla. Sin embargo, se mantuvo el sistema Triárquico, con las familias venecianas nombradas para los puestos de terzieri, mientras que el podestà veneciano residía en Calcis. El dominio de Venecia se prolongó hasta 1470, cuando, durante la Guerra otomano-veneciana de 1463 a 1479, el sultán Mehmed II hizo campaña contra Calcis. Con la caída de la ciudad el 12 de julio, toda la isla quedó bajo el control otomano. La caída de la ciudad es el tema de la ópera de Gioachino Rossini Maometto secondo.

Gobernantes de Negroponte

Nota: La secuencia de los gobernantes durante el , así como las relaciones familiares entre ellos, no son muy claras, ya que la información sobre la historia interna de Eubea es escasa o inexistente, especialmente para el período de 1216-1255. De acuerdo con las reglas de sucesión establecido en la división de la isla en tercios y sextos en 1216, a la muerte de un exarca, este era sucedido en su dominio por su compañero exarca dentro de su tercio, y no por los antiguos herederos. El siguiente esquema para el  se basa en la reconstrucción de John B. Bury.

 Jacques II d'Avesnes (1204–1205)

Triarcas de Calcis
 Giberto de Verona (1205-1208)
 Ravano dalle Carceri (1209-1216)
 Felicia dalle Carceri (1216-1262)
 Grapella dalle Carceri (1262-1264)
 Gaetano dalle Carceri (1279-1296) y Grapozzo dalle Carceri (1279-1315?)
 María I dalle Carceri (1279-1323) y Alberto Pallavicini (?-1311), después con Andrea Cornaro (1312-1323)
 Beatrice Pallavicini (1315-1328) y Juan de Maisy (1315-1317)
 Ocupación catalana (1317-1319)
 Pietro dalle Carceri (1319-1340)
 Giovanni dalle Carceri (1340-1359)
 Niccolò III dalle Carceri (1359-1383)
 Dominio veneciano:
 María II Sanudo (1383-?) y Gaspare Sommarippa (1383-?)
 Crusino I Sommarippa  (1430-1462)
 Domenico Sommarippa (1462-1466)
 Giovanni Sommarippa (1466-1468)
 Crusino II Sommarippa (1468-1470)

Triarcas de Caristo
 Ravano dalle Carceri (1204-1216)
 Isabella dalle Carceri (1216-1220) y Berta dalle Carceri (1216-1240)
 Guido dalle Carceri (1240-1250)
 Felicia dalle Carceri (1250-1276) y Otón de Cicon (1250-1276)
 Reconquista bizantina (1276-1296)
 Inés de Cicon (1296-1317) y Bonifacio de Verona (1296-1317)
 Ocupación catalana:
 Marulla de Verona (1317-1338) y Alfonso Fadrique (1317-1338)
 Bonifacio Fadrique (1338-1365)
 Dominio veneciano:
 Niccolò II Zorzi (1410-1436)
 Niccolò III Zorzi (1436-1440)
 Jacopo Zorzi (1440-1447)
 Antonio I Zorzi (1447-1470)

Triarcas de Óreo
 Percoraro de' Percorari da Mercannuovo (1205-1209)
 Ravano dalle Carceri (1209-1216)
 Marino I dalle Carceri (1216-1255) y Rizzardo dalle Carceri (1216-1220)
 Carintana dalle Carceri (1220-1255)
 Guglielmo I da Verona (1255-1268) y Narzotto dalle Carceri (1255-1264)
 Marino II dalle Carceri (1264-1278)
 Guglielmo II da Verona (1268-1275)
 Giberto II de Verona (1275-1278)
 Alicia dalle Carceri (1278-1296) y Giorgio I Ghisi (1279-1315)
 Bartolomeo II Ghisi (1315-1341)
 Giorgio II Ghisi (1341-1352)
 Dominio veneciano:
 Bartolomeo III Ghisi (1358-1384)
 Giorgio III Ghisi (1384-1390)
 Familia Giustiniani (1390-1470)

Referencias

Fuentes

Estados desaparecidos de los Balcanes
Estados satélite
Estados y territorios fundados en 1204
Estados y territorios desaparecidos en 1470

Estados cruzados

Triarquía de Negroponte


Basil Filevich, auch Wasyl Felivich (* 13. Januar 1918 in Stryj, Ukraine; † 20. April 2006 in Saskatoon, Kanada) war Bischof von Saskatoon für die Griechisch-Katholische Kirche der Ukrainer in Kanada.

Leben
Basil Filevich war eines der neun Kinder von Omelian und Anna Filevich. Seine Priesterausbildung vollendete er im Priesterseminar St. Joseph in Edmonton. Er wurde am 17. April 1942 von Erzbischof Basil Ladyka OSBM (Erzeparchie Winnipeg) zum Priester geweiht. Nach seiner Priesterweihe sammelte er seine ersten Erfahrungen von 1942 bis 1943 als Pastor in Dauphin, es schlossen sich dann bis 1951 Aufgaben in Kitchener und St. Catharines an. 1951 wurde er zum Verwaltungsleiter der Eparchie Toronto ernannt und war bis 1978 Kirchenrektor der St. Josephat Cathedral in Toronto. 1959 ernannte ihn Papst Johannes XXIII. zum  Prälaten, es folgte 1962 die Ernennung zum Generalvikar der Eparchie Toronto. 1969–1972 war er Pastor der St. Joseph Gemeinde in East Oakville. 1972 erhob ihn Großerzbischof Kardinal Jossyf Slipyj in den Rang eines Erzpriesters. Von 1978 bis 1983 bekleidete er das Pastorenamt in Thunder Bay. Am 5. Dezember 1983 wurde er von Papst Johannes Paul II. zum Nachfolger von Andrew Roborecki als Bischof von Saskatoon ernannt. Die Bischofsweihe vollzog der Erzbischof von Winnipeg Maxim Hermaniuk CSsR und die Mitkonsekratoren Bischof Isidore Borecky (Toronto) und Bischof Neil Nicholas Savaryn OSBM (Edmonton) am 27. Februar 1984. Nach seinem altersbedingten Rücktritt am 6. November 1995 war er bis zu seinem Tod am 20. April 2006 Altbischof von Saskatoon.

Priesterweihen und Konsekrationen
Bischof Filevich weihte die späteren Bischöfe Bryan Joseph Bayda CSsR und Kenneth Nowakowski zu Priestern. Als Mitkonsekrator assistierte er bei den Bischöfen Roman Danylak (Titularbischof von Nyssa und Apostolischer Administrator von Toronto) und seinem Nachfolger im Amt Cornelius John Pasichny OSBM.

Weblinks
 Apostolische Nachfolge – Ernennungen 1983
 Apostolische Nachfolge – Ernennungen 1995
 Apostolische Nachfolge – Nekrolog 2006
 Apostolische Nachfolge – Nordamerika

 Eintrag auf gcatholic.org (englisch)
 OBITUARY: Bishop Basil Filevich, 88, retired eparch of Saskatoon (Nachruf) (englisch)

 Sheptytsky Institute: In Loving Memory (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Römisch-katholischer Bischof (20. Jahrhundert)
Römisch-katholischer Bischof (21. Jahrhundert)
Ukrainisch griechisch-katholischer Bischof
Ukrainer
Geboren 1918
Gestorben 2006
Mann

Basil Filevich


The quadratic sieve algorithm (QS) is an integer factorization algorithm and, in practice, the second-fastest method known (after the general number field sieve). It is still the fastest for integers under 100 decimal digits or so, and is considerably simpler than the number field sieve. It is a general-purpose factorization algorithm, meaning that its running time depends solely on the size of the integer to be factored, and not on special structure or properties. It was invented by Carl Pomerance in 1981 as an improvement to Schroeppel's linear sieve.

Basic aim
The algorithm attempts to set up a congruence of squares modulo n (the integer to be factorized), which often leads to a factorization of n. The algorithm works in two phases: the data collection phase, where it collects information that may lead to a congruence of squares; and the data processing phase, where it puts all the data it has collected into a matrix and solves it to obtain a congruence of squares. The data collection phase can be easily parallelized to many processors, but the data processing phase requires large amounts of memory, and is difficult to parallelize efficiently over many nodes or if the processing nodes do not each have enough memory to store the whole matrix. The block Wiedemann algorithm can be used in the case of a few systems each capable of holding the matrix.

The naive approach to finding a congruence of squares is to pick a random number, square it, divide by n and hope the least non-negative remainder is a perfect square. For example, . This approach finds a congruence of squares only rarely for large n, but when it does find one, more often than not, the congruence is nontrivial and the factorization is complete. This is roughly the basis of Fermat's factorization method.

The quadratic sieve is a modification of Dixon's factorization method.

The general running time required for the quadratic sieve (to factor an integer n) is

in the  L-notation.

The constant e is the base of the natural logarithm.

The approach

To factorize the integer n, Fermat's method entails a search for a single number a, , such that the remainder of a2 divided by n is a square. But these a are hard to find. The quadratic sieve consists of computing the remainder of a2/n for several a, then finding a subset of these whose product is a square. This will yield a congruence of squares.

For example, consider attempting to factor the number 1649. We have: . None of the integers  is a square, but the product  is a square. We also had

since .
The observation that  thus gives a congruence of squares

Hence  for some integer . We can then factor

using the Euclidean algorithm to calculate the greatest common divisor.

So the problem has now been reduced to: given a set of integers, find a subset whose product is a square. By the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, any positive integer can be written uniquely as a product of prime powers. We do this in a vector format; for example, the prime-power factorization of 504 is 23325071, it is therefore represented by the exponent vector (3,2,0,1). Multiplying two integers then corresponds to adding their exponent vectors. A number is a square when its exponent vector is even in every coordinate. For example, the vectors (3,2,0,1) + (1,0,0,1) = (4,2,0,2), so (504)(14) is a square. Searching for a square requires knowledge only of the parity of the numbers in the vectors, so it is sufficient to compute these vectors mod 2: (1,0,0,1) + (1,0,0,1) = (0,0,0,0).
So given a set of (0,1)-vectors, we need to find a subset which adds to the zero vector mod 2.

This is a linear algebra problem since the ring  can be regarded as the Galois field of order 2, that is we can divide by all non-zero numbers (there is only one, namely 1) when calculating modulo 2.
It is a theorem of linear algebra that with more vectors than each vector has entries, a linear dependency always exists. It can be found by Gaussian elimination.
However, simply squaring many random numbers mod n produces a very large number of different prime factors, and so very long vectors and a very large matrix. The trick is to look specifically  for numbers a such that a2 mod n has only small prime factors (they are smooth numbers). They are harder to find, but using only smooth numbers keeps the vectors and matrices smaller and more tractable. The quadratic sieve searches for smooth numbers using a technique called sieving, discussed later, from which the algorithm takes its name.

The algorithm

To summarize, the basic quadratic sieve algorithm has these main steps:

 Choose a smoothness bound B. The number π(B), denoting the number of prime numbers less than B, will control both the length of the vectors and the number of vectors needed.
 Use sieving to locate π(B) + 1 numbers ai such that bi = (ai2 mod n) is B-smooth.
Factor the bi and generate exponent vectors mod 2 for each one.
 Use linear algebra to find a subset of these vectors which add to the zero vector. Multiply the corresponding ai together and give the result mod n the name a; similarly, multiply the bi together which yields a B-smooth square  b2.
We are now left with the equality a2 = b2 mod n from which we get two square roots of  (a2 mod n), one by taking the square root in the integers of b2 namely b, and the other the a computed in step 4.
 We now have the desired identity: . Compute the GCD of n with the difference (or sum) of a and b. This produces a factor, although it may be a trivial factor (n or 1). If the factor is trivial, try again with a different linear dependency or different a.

The remainder of this article explains details and extensions of this basic algorithm.

The algorithm's pseudo code

 algorithm Quadratic sieve is
     Choose smoothness bound
     let

     for  do
         Choose

          (where )
         while (check-p_t-smooth(b_i) = false) do
             Let
             Find
             let
             let
             if  and  then
                return gcd(x - y, n) , gcd(x + y, n)
             else :
                 return to main loop.

How QS optimizes finding congruences
The quadratic sieve attempts to find pairs of integers x and y(x) (where y(x) is a function of x) satisfying a much weaker condition than x2 ≡ y2 (mod n). It selects a set of primes called the factor base, and attempts to find x such that the least absolute remainder of y(x) = x2 mod n factorizes completely over the factor base. Such y values are said to be smooth with respect to the factor base.

The factorization of a value of y(x) that splits over the factor base, together with the value of x, is known as a relation. The quadratic sieve speeds up the process of finding relations by taking x close to the square root of n. This ensures that y(x) will be smaller, and thus have a greater chance of being smooth.

This implies that y is on the order of 2x[]. However, it also implies that y grows linearly with x times the square root of n.

Another way to increase the chance of smoothness is by simply increasing the size of the factor base.  However, it is necessary to find at least one smooth relation more than the number of primes in the factor base, to ensure the existence of a linear dependency.

Partial relations and cycles
Even if for some relation y(x) is not smooth, it may be possible to merge two of these partial relations to form a full one, if the two ys are products of the same prime(s) outside the factor base. [Note that this is equivalent to extending the factor base.] For example, if the factor base is {2, 3, 5, 7} and n = 91, there are partial relations:

Multiply these together:

and multiply both sides by (11−1)2 modulo 91. 11−1 modulo 91 is 58, so:

producing a full relation. Such a full relation (obtained by combining partial relations) is called a cycle. Sometimes, forming a cycle from two partial relations leads directly to a congruence of squares, but rarely.

Checking smoothness by sieving
There are several ways to check for smoothness of the ys. The most obvious is by trial division, although this increases the running time for the data collection phase. Another method that has some acceptance is the elliptic curve method (ECM). In practice, a process called sieving is typically used. If f(x) is the polynomial  we have

Thus solving f(x) ≡ 0 (mod p) for x generates a whole sequence of numbers y for which y=f(x), all of which are divisible by p. This is finding a square root modulo a prime, for which there exist efficient algorithms, such as the Shanks–Tonelli algorithm. (This is where the quadratic sieve gets its name: y is a quadratic polynomial in x, and the sieving process works like the Sieve of Eratosthenes.)

The sieve starts by setting every entry in a large array A[] of bytes to zero. For each p, solve the quadratic equation mod p to get two roots α and β, and then add an approximation to log(p) to every entry for which y(x) = 0 mod p ... that is, A[kp + α] and A[kp + β].  It is also necessary to solve the quadratic equation modulo small powers of p in order to recognise numbers divisible by small powers of a factor-base prime.

At the end of the factor base, any A[] containing a value above a threshold of roughly log(x2−n) will correspond to a value of y(x) which splits over the factor base.  The information about exactly which primes divide y(x) has been lost, but it has only small factors, and there are many good algorithms for factoring a number known to have only small factors, such as trial division by small primes, SQUFOF, Pollard rho, and ECM, which are usually used in some combination.

There are many y(x) values that work, so the factorization process at the end doesn't have to be entirely reliable; often the processes misbehave on say 5% of inputs, requiring a small amount of extra sieving.

Example of basic sieve

This example will demonstrate standard quadratic sieve without logarithm optimizations or prime powers. Let the number to be factored N = 15347, therefore the ceiling of the square root of N is 124. Since N is small, the basic polynomial is enough: y(x) = (x + 124)2 − 15347.

Data collection

Since N is small, only 4 primes are necessary.  The first 4 primes p for which 15347 has a square root mod p are 2, 17, 23, and 29 (in other words, 15347 is a quadratic residue modulo each of these primes). These primes will be the basis for sieving.

Now we construct our sieve  of  and begin the sieving process for each prime in the basis, choosing to sieve the first 0 ≤ X < 100 of Y(X):

The next step is to perform the sieve. For each p in our factor base  solve the equation

to find the entries in the array V which are divisible by p.

For  solve  to get the solution .

Thus, starting at X=1 and incrementing by 2, each entry will be divisible by 2.  Dividing each of those entries by 2 yields

Similarly for the remaining primes p in  the equation is solved.  Note that for every p > 2, there will be 2 resulting linear equations due to there being 2 modular square roots.

Each equation  results in  being divisible by p at x=a and each pth value beyond that.  Dividing V by p at a, a+p, a+2p, a+3p, etc., for each prime in the basis finds the smooth numbers which are products of unique primes (first powers).

Any entry of V that equals 1 corresponds to a smooth number.  Since , , and  equal one, this corresponds to:

Matrix processing

Since smooth numbers Y have been found with the property , the remainder of the algorithm follows equivalently to any other variation of Dixon's factorization method.

Writing the exponents of the product of a subset of the equations

as a matrix  yields:

A solution to the equation is given by the left null space, simply

Thus the product of all 3 equations yields a square (mod N).

and

So the algorithm found

Testing the result yields GCD(3070860 - 22678, 15347) = 103, a nontrivial factor of 15347, the other being 149.

This demonstration should also serve to show that the quadratic sieve is only appropriate when n is large. For a number as small as 15347, this algorithm is overkill. Trial division or Pollard rho could have found a factor with much less computation.

Multiple polynomials
In practice, many different polynomials are used for y, since only one polynomial will not typically provide enough (x, y) pairs that are smooth over the factor base. The polynomials used must have a special form, since they need to be squares modulo n. The polynomials must all have a similar form to the original y(x) = x2 − n:

Assuming  is a multiple of A, so that  the polynomial y(x) can be written as . If A is a square, then only the factor  has to be considered.

This approach (called MPQS, Multiple Polynomial Quadratic Sieve) is ideally suited for parallelization, since each processor involved in the factorization can be given n, the factor base and a collection of polynomials, and it will have no need to communicate with the central processor until it is finished with its polynomials.

Large primes

One large prime
If, after dividing by all the factors less than A, the remaining part of the number (the cofactor) is less than A2, then this cofactor must be prime. In effect, it can be added to the factor base, by sorting the list of relations into order by cofactor.  If y(a) = 7*11*23*137 and y(b) = 3*5*7*137, then y(a)y(b) = 3*5*11*23 * 72 * 1372. This works by reducing the threshold of entries in the sieving array above which a full factorization is performed.

More large primes
Reducing the threshold even further, and using an effective process for factoring y(x) values into products of even relatively large primes - ECM is superb for this - can find relations with most of their factors in the factor base, but with two or even three larger primes. Cycle finding then allows combining a set of relations sharing several primes into a single relation.

Parameters from realistic example

To illustrate typical parameter choices for a realistic example on a real implementation including the multiple polynomial and large prime optimizations, the tool msieve was run on a 267-bit semiprime, producing the following parameters:

 Trial factoring cutoff: 27 bits
 Sieve interval (per polynomial): 393216 (12 blocks of size 32768)
 Smoothness bound: 1300967 (50294 primes)
 Number of factors for polynomial A coefficients: 10 (see Multiple polynomials above)
 Large prime bound: 128795733 (26 bits) (see Large primes above)
 Smooth values found: 25952 by sieving directly, 24462 by combining numbers with large primes
 Final matrix size: 50294 × 50414, reduced by filtering to 35750 × 35862
 Nontrivial dependencies found: 15
 Total time (on a 1.6 GHz UltraSPARC III): 35 min 39 seconds
 Maximum memory used: 8 MB

Factoring records
Until the discovery of the number field sieve (NFS), QS was the asymptotically fastest known general-purpose factoring algorithm. Now, Lenstra elliptic curve factorization has the same asymptotic running time as QS (in the case where n has exactly two prime factors of equal size), but in practice, QS is faster since it uses single-precision operations instead of the multi-precision operations used by the elliptic curve method.

On April 2, 1994, the factorization of RSA-129 was completed using QS. It was a 129-digit number, the product of two large primes, one of 64 digits and the other of 65 digits. The factor base for this factorization contained 524339 primes. The data collection phase took 5000 MIPS-years, done in distributed fashion over the Internet. The data collected totaled 2GB. The data processing phase took 45 hours on Bellcore's (now Telcordia Technologies) MasPar (massively parallel) supercomputer. This was the largest published factorization by a general-purpose algorithm, until NFS was used to factor RSA-130, completed April 10, 1996. All RSA numbers factored since then have been factored using NFS.

The current QS factorization record is the 140 digit (463 bit) RSA-140, which was factored by Patrick Konsor in June 2020 using approximately 6,000 core hours over 6 days.

Implementations
 PPMPQS and PPSIQS
 mpqs
 SIMPQS  is a fast implementation of the self-initialising multiple polynomial quadratic sieve written by William Hart. It provides support for the large prime variant and uses Jason Papadopoulos' block Lanczos code for the linear algebra stage. SIMPQS is accessible as the qsieve command in the SageMath computer algebra package or can be downloaded in source form. SIMPQS is optimized for use on Athlon and Opteron machines, but will operate on most common 32- and 64-bit architectures. It is written entirely in C.
 a factoring applet by Dario Alpern, that uses the quadratic sieve if certain conditions are met.
 The PARI/GP computer algebra package includes an implementation of the self-initialising multiple polynomial quadratic sieve implementing the large prime variant. It was adapted by Thomas Papanikolaou and Xavier Roblot from a sieve written for the LiDIA project. The self initialisation scheme is based on an idea from the thesis of Thomas Sosnowski.
 A variant of the quadratic sieve is available in the MAGMA computer algebra package. It is based on an implementation of Arjen Lenstra from 1995, used in his "factoring by email" program.
 msieve, an implementation of the multiple polynomial quadratic sieve with support for single and double large primes, written by Jason Papadopoulos. Source code and a Windows binary are available.
 YAFU, written by Ben Buhrow, is probably the fastest available implementation of the quadratic sieve.  For example, RSA-100 was factored in less than 15 minutes on 4 cores of a 2.5 GHz Xeon 6248 CPU. All of the critical subroutines make use of AVX2 or AVX-512 SIMD instructions for AMD or Intel processors.  It uses Jason Papadopoulos' block Lanczos code. Source code and binaries for Windows and Linux are available.
 Ariel, a simple Java implementation of the quadratic sieve for didactic purposes.
 The java-math-library contains probably the fastest quadratic sieve written in Java (the successor of PSIQS 4.0).
 Java QS, an open source Java project containing basic implementation of QS. Released at February 4, 2016 by Ilya Gazman
 C Quadratic Sieve, a factorizer written entirely in C containing implementation of self-initialising Quadratic Sieve. The project is inspired by a  William Hart's FLINT factorizer. The source released in 2022 by Michel Leonard does not rely on external library, it is capable of factoring 240-bit numbers in a minute and 300-bit numbers in 2 hours.
 The RcppBigIntAlgos package by Joseph Wood, provides an efficient implementation of the multiple polynomial quadratic sieve for the R programming language. It is written in C++ and is capable of comfortably factoring 100 digit semiprimes. For example, a 300-bit semiprime (91 digits) was factored in 1 hour and the RSA-100 was factored in under 10 hours on a MacBook Air with an Apple M2 processor.

See also

 Lenstra elliptic curve factorization
 primality test

References

  Section 6.1: The quadratic sieve factorization method, pp. 227–244.

Other external links
 Reference paper "The Quadratic Sieve Factoring Algorithm" by Eric Landquist

Integer factorization algorithms

Quadratic sieve


An Masdevallia manoloi in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Carlyle August Luer ngan M.Arias. An Masdevallia manoloi in nahilalakip ha genus nga Masdevallia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Peru. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Masdevallia

Masdevallia manoloi


Die Liste der denkmalgeschützten Objekte in Ľuboreč enthält die zwei nach slowakischen Denkmalschutzvorschriften geschützten Objekte in der Gemeinde Ľuboreč im Okres Lučenec.

Denkmäler

Legende

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

!
Luborec