Postmoderne litteratur er en litterær strømning, der for alvor begyndte at vinde frem i USA i 1960'erne med forfattere som Kurt Vonnegut, Thomas Pynchon og John Barth. Denne form for litteratur er ofte præget af fortællegreb som fragmentering, metafiktion, upålidelige fortællere og den tematiserer ofte både historiske og politiske emner. Nogle postmoderne romaner kan ikke siges at have et fortællemæssigt klimaks, hvilket fx ses i Vonneguts Slagtehus 5 eller Pynchons Katalognummer 49 udbydes. Postmodernister udfordrer ofte autoriteter, hvilket er blevet set som en afspejling af, at den postmoderne litteratur opstod i 1960'erne, hvor der var mange samfundskritiske røster fremme. En del af denne kritiske stillingtagen ses bl.a. i, at den postmoderne litteratur også er kritisk over for sig selv, hvilket ofte bliver signaleret gennem ironi og metafiktion.

Af forløberne for den postmoderne litteratur kan nævnes Laurence Sternes Tristram Shandy (1760-1767) eller Jack Kerouacs On the Road. Der bliver stadig skrevet værker, der i høj grad trækker på postmodernismen såsom Dave Eggers' Et hjertegribende værk af overvældende genialitet (2000) og David Foster Wallaces Infinite Jest (1996). Disse værker forsøger dog også at videreudvikle den postmoderne form. Denne videreudvikling har gjort, at denne nyere gruppe af forfattere er blevet kaldt for "postironikere".

Nogle gange bliver begrebet "postmodernisme" brugt til at diskutere mange forskellige ting lige fra arkitektur, til historieteori, til filosofi og film. Det har gjort, at begrebet er meget omstridt og bruges på mange forskellige måder, hvilket har fået flere folk til at pointere, at det kan være nyttigt at opdele fællesbetegnelsen postmodernisme i tre kategorier: (1) postmoderniteten, der forstås som en historisk periode fra midten fra 1960'erne til i dag, (2) den teoretiske postmodernisme, der omfatter de teorier, som er blevet udarbejdet af tænkere som Roland Barthes, Jacques Derrida og Michel Foucault m.fl. og så til sidst (3) den kulturelle postmodernisme, som omfatter film, litteratur, billedkunst m.v., der udviser postmoderne træk. Den postmoderne litteratur er i denne forstand en del af den kulturelle postmodernisme.

Den postmoderne litteraturs udvikling

Som det antydes af begrebets præfix "post", forholder den postmoderne litteratur sig til den modernistiske litteratur, der vandt frem i USA og Storbritannien i 1920'erne. De tidligste forløbere for postmodernismen er litteraturhistorisk set Lolita (1955) af Vladimir Nabokov og Ralph Ellisons Invisible Man (1952), men det er i 1960'erne, at postmodernismens første hovedværker bliver udgivet. Joseph Hellers Catch-22, Thomas Pynchons Katalognummer 49 udbydes (1966) og Kurt Vonneguts Slagtehus 5 (1969) er centrale i denne sammenhæng. Disse romaner havde alle stærke politiske elementer i sig, selvom det politiske måske er mere tydeligt hos Heller og Vonnegut end hos Pynchon.

Denne politiske tendens fortsætter ind i 1970'erne med værker som Vonneguts Breakfast of Champions (1973), Pynchons Gravity's Rainbow (1973) og The Public Burning (1977) af Robert Coover. Denne litteratur er dog blevet kritiseret for at være mere intellektuelt stimulerende end en god læseoplevelse. Således har en kritiker kommenteret, at "As the plot progresses, we come to notice that it's as good as it's going to get; and so for the first time in the history of literature we respond with a version of: 'It's terrific. But I wish it were over." Samlet set kan 1960'erne og 1970'erne siges at være den periode, hvor den postmoderne litteratur var den mest fremherskende form for eksperimentallitteratur i amerikansk litteraturhistorie. I 1980'erne kommer der nye ansigter på banen i den postmoderne litteratur. Don DeLillo, der allerede havde publiceret flere værker, slår for alvor sit navn fast med White Noise (1985) og Paul Auster publicerer tre kortere værker, der senere bliver kendt som By af glas (1985-86). Især i Danmark fremstår Auster som en central postmoderne forfatter, hvilket han ikke nødvendigvis altid gør i sit hjemland USA.

Fra 1990'erne vinder den tredje bølge af postmoderne forfattere frem, der vendte sig mod den ironi, som, de mener, er alt for fremherskende i den første bølge af postmoderne forfattere, især John Barth og Thomas Pynchon. Pga. denne kritiske stillingtagen til ironiens rolle i litteraturen er denne gruppe af postmodernister blevet kaldt for postironikerne. Der er her tale om værker som David Foster Wallaces Infinite Jest (1996), Chuck Palahniuks Choke (2001) og Dave Eggers' Et hjertegribende værk af overvældende genialitet (2000). Disse værker indeholder både ironiske og oprigtige, patosbetonede passager.

Gennemgående træk og tematikker
De træk, der er listet op nedenfor, ses ofte i postmoderne værker, men bare fordi et værk udviser ét af disse træk, er det ikke nødvendigvis postmoderne. Der er også flere træk ved postmoderne litteratur, end bare dem der er nævnt herunder.

Indeterminisme

Indeterminisme (eller ubestemmelighed) er et centralt kendepunkt for postmoderne litteratur. Begrebet henviser til det, at mange romaner indeholder elementer, som læseren aldrig kan vide sig helt sikker på, hvordan man skal forstå. Postmoderne litteratur er således præget af en afgørende tvetydighed. Fx er det i Kurt Vonneguts roman Slagtehus 5 umuligt at afgøre, om hovedpersonen Billy Pilgrim rent faktisk kommer på tidsrejser, eller om disse tidsrejser skal forstås som Billys hallucinationer, der er forårsaget af hans psykiske krigstraumer fra Anden Verdenskrig.

SelvrefleksivitetSelfrefleksive passager i postmoderne litteratur findes når, at teksten henviser til sig selv som tekst og dermed bryder læserens forestilling om, at man får indblik i en historie om karakterer. Selvrefleksionen i metafiktion tjener først og fremmest "til at blotlægge konventionerne i traditionel realistisk fiktion". I John Barths klassiske postmoderne novelle "Lost in the Funhouse" (1968) brydes historiefortællingen således op med indskudte kommentarer om, hvordan litteratur bygger på forskellige konventioner. (Se evt. citat fra novelle i tekstboksen.) Pga. den fremherskende selvrefleksivitet kan postmoderne litteratur forstås som en slags spejlkabinet; en litteraturhistoriker har dog påpeget, at fordi postmoderne litteratur både selfrefleksiv og etisk/politisk er det mere hensigtsmæssigt at se postmodernismen som "et etisk spejlkabinet."

En sammenkobling af realisme og metafiktion

Hvor realisme er en modus, der peger på verden udenfor litteraturen selv, er metafiktion en slags litteratur, der peger på sig selv; dvs. at metafiktion er fiktion, der handler om fiktion. Fx er Quentin Tarantinos film Pulp Fiction metafiktiv på den måde, at den i sidste ende er en film, der handler om film. Men denne form for metafiktion er ikke det overordnede billede af den postmoderne litteratur. Ifølge en dansk litteraturhistoriker er den postmoderne litteratur kendetegnet ved, at metafiktionen og realismen "står skulder ved skulder (selv om de ikke nødvendigvis går hånd i hånd…)." Således tematiserer postmoderne romaner gerne deres egen fiktionalitet, samtidig med at de skildrer emner som vold, hjemløshed, forbrugerisme, krig o.a. På denne måde er postmoderne litteratur en form for janushovedet litteratur i den forstand, at den kigger ind mod sig selv og ud mod den omkringliggende verden på en og samme tid.

Intertekstualitet

Intertekstualitet er et udtryk for det at en tekst (fx en roman) henviser til en anden tekst ved fx at bruge en bestemt vending, som er kendt fra en anden tekst. Fx er Arnold Schwarzenegger kendt for i filmen The Terminator fra 1984 at sige "I'll be back." Denne linje er blevet genbrugt i mange andre af Schwarzeneggers film, hvilket publikummet ofte vil opfatte og derved identificere den intertekstuelle reference. I Douglas Couplands roman Miss Wyoming bruges intertekstualitet på postmoderne vis til at skildre, hvordan mennesker i postmoderniteten lever med referencer til populærkulturelle fænomener. I Couplands debutroman Generation X (1991) omtales dette fænomen som "tele-parablizing". Ifølge en dansk litterat forbinder intertekstualitet "den tekstlige detalje med tekst- og mediehistoriens store linjer."

Ironi og sort humor

Postmoderne litteratur indeholder ofte ironiske kommentarer og nogle gange er der også en ironisk distance til såvel nogle af de problematikker, der bearbejdes som til nogle af de karakterer, en roman indeholder. Hermed bruges ironien også til at skabe "en kritisk problematisering af autoritet". Dette betyder ifølge i hvert fald én litteraturhistoriker, at den "postmodernistiske ironiker tager ikke stilling til fordel for den ene eller den anden side af sagen".

Ureducerbare fikspunkter

Selvom den postmoderne litteratur er præget af både indeterminisme, ironi og selvrefleksivitet, rummer den ofte nogle såkaldte "ureducerbare fikspunkter", "der træder stærkt og uimodsigeligt frem på en ellers usikker baggrund".  Sådanne steder i litteraturen, skaber således en patoseffekt, der i en vis forstand står i kontrast til den nogle gange distanceskabende ironi, der også ofte findes i den postmoderne litteratur.

Kritisk holdning til repræsentationer

Repræsentationer - eller fremstillinger - af forskellige forhold er noget, som postmoderne litteratur generelt har en vis skepsis overfor. Repræsentationskritik er således en hjørnesten i den postmoderne litteratur. I Kurt Vonneguts hovedværk, Slagtehus 5 fra 1969, er der fx en kritik af hvordan nogle af John Waynes film kan siges at romantisere soldaters oplevelser i krig og Vonneguts roman er eksplicit om ikke at ville lave sådan en romantisering, hvorfor romanen også får undertitlen "børnekorstoget".

Social indignation

Et vigtigt element i den postmoderne litteratur er dens sociale indignation. I Ralph Ellisons berømte roman Invisible Man fra 1952 har indignationen rod i, hvordan hovedpersonen oplever at være usynlig i forhold til det omkringliggende samfund. En litteraturhistoriker påpeger, den "ofte direkte sentimentale insisteren på menneskelighed" i selvrefleksive romaner som som Pynchons Katalognummer 69 udbydes, Coovers The Public Burning og DeLillos Underworld, hvor der er en indigneret kritik af social marginalisering blandt de tekstlige abstraktioner. Også Kurt Vonneguts Breakfast of Champions, Joseph Hellers Catch-22 og Chuck Palahniuks Fight Club indeholder alle en stærk social indignation. Samme kritiker kritiserer, at den litteraturvidenskabelige reception primært har bidt mærke i den postmoderne litteraturs "selvrefleksive og poetologiske overvejelser," "der i bund og grund ikke trækker noget fra værkernes sociale indignation, men som på grund af deres omfangsrige tilstedeværelse alligevel ofte tiltrækker sig størstedelen af kritikernes opmærksomhed."

Historiographisk metafiktionHistoriographisk metafiktion er en underkategori af postmoderne litteratur. Udtrykket, der blev opfundet af den canadiske litterat Linda Hutcheon i slutningen af 1980'erne, bruges til at beskrive fortællinger, som kombinerer metafiktion med historisk fiktion. Værker, der henregnes til denne kategori, er kendetegnet ved intertekstuelle referencer til andre kunstneriske, historiske og litterære tekster og ifølge Hutcheons centrale litteraturhistoriske værk A Poetics of Postmodernism (1988) defineres kategorien som "de kendte og populære romaner, som er både intenst selvrefleksive og alligevel paradoksalt nok også gør krav på historiske begivenheder og personligheder". Romaner der ofte indregnes i denne kategori er fx John Fowles' The Den franske løjtnants kvinde (1969), Kurt Vonneguts Slagtehus 5, Salman Rushdies Midnatsbørn (1981), A.S. Byatts Besættelse (1990), Tim O'Briens Det de bar (1990), Michael Ondaatjes Den engelske patient (1992) samt Thomas Pynchons Mason & Dixon (1997).

Ontologisk dominant

Ifølge litteraturforskeren Brian McHale, hvis idéer har været meget toneangivende i diskussionerne om postmoderne litteratur, er postmoderne litteratur kendetegnet ved en "ontologisk dominant." McHale henter begrebet om "dominanten" fra litteraturteoretikeren Roman Jakobsen og bruger denne tanke til at argumentere for, at hvor modernistisk litteratur generelt set var domineret af epistemologiske spørgsmål, så er postmoderne litteratur kendetegnet ved at betone ontologiske spørgsmål. McHale mener, at science fiction er for den postmoderne litteratur, hvad detektivhistorien var for den modernistiske litteratur, så forstået på den måde, at science fiction stiller spørgsmål tegn om "hvad er denne verden," så spørger detektivhistorien "hvordan kan vi erkende denne verden."

Eksempler på postmoderne litteratur

 Invisible Man (1952) af Ralph Ellison
 Nøgen frokost (1959) af William Burroughs
 Catch-22 (1961) af Joseph Heller
 V. (1963) af Thomas Pynchon
 Cat's Cradle (1963) af Kurt Vonnegut
 Katalognummer 49 udbydes (1966) af Thomas Pynchon
 Lost in the Funhouse (1968) af John Barth
 The Left Hand of Darkness (1969) af Ursula Le Guin
 Slagtehus 5 (1969) af Kurt Vonnegut
 Den franske løjtnants kvinde (1969) af John Fowles
 Breakfast of Champions (1973) af Kurt Vonnegut
 Gravity's Rainbow (1973) af Thomas Pynchon
 The Public Burning (1977) af Robert Coover
 New York Trilogien (1985–86) af Paul Auster
 White Noise (1985) af Don DeLillo
 Beloved (1987) af Toni Morrison
 Det de bar (1990) af Tim O'Brien
 American Psycho (1991) af Bret Easton Ellis
 Fight Club (1996) af Chuck Palahniuk
 Mason & Dixon (1997) af Thomas Pynchon
 Underworld (1997) af Don DeLillo
 Motherless Brooklyn (1999) af Jonathan Lethem
 Miss Wyoming (2000) af Douglas Coupland
 Hvide tænder (2000) af Zadie Smith
 Et hjertegribende værk af overvældende genialitet (2000) af Dave Eggers
 Everything Is Illuminated (2002) af Jonathan Safran Foer
 You Shall Know Our Velocity (2002) af Dave Eggers
 Naturlige mangler (2009) af Thomas Pynchon
 De døde (2018) af Christian Kracht

Anvendt sekundærlitteratur
 Andersen, Tore Rye (2007) Det etiske spejlkabinet.  Aalborg: Institut for Sprog og Kultur.
 Gemzøe, Anker (2013) "Intertekstualitet" in Medie- og kommunikationsleksikon. Frederiksberg: Samfundslitteratur.
 Gerhard Hoffmann (2005) From Modernism to Postmodernism. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
 Hutcheon, Linda (1988) A Poetics of Postmodernism. London: Routledge.
 Jensen, Mikkel (2011) "Miss(ed) Generation: Douglas Coupland's Miss Wyoming" in Culture Unbound Vol. 3, 455–474.  [3]
 Jensen, Mikkel (2016) "Janus-Headed Postmodernism: The Opening Lines of Slaughterhouse-Five" in The Explicator, 74:1, 8-11.[2]
 Johnson, Ronna (2000): "'You're Putting me on': Jack Kerouac and the Postmodern Emergence" in College Literature, 27:1, 22–38.
 Mayshark, Jesse Fox (2007) Post-Pop Cinema – The Search for Meaning in New American Film. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger.
 McHale, Brian (1987) Postmodernist Fiction. London: Routledge.
 Reiben, Robert (2009) Hicks, Tribes, and Dirty Realists: American Fiction after Postmodernism. Lexington, Kentucky: The University Press of Kentucky.

Noter

Litteratur
Stilperioder
Postmodernisme

Postmoderne litteratur


بحث جوجل  أو جوجل ، هو محرك بحث صممته شركة جوجل. وهو محرك البحث الأكثر استخدامًا على شبكة الويب العالمية عبر جميع الأنظمة الأساسية، مع حصة سوقية تبلغ 92.16٪ اعتبارًا من ديسمبر 2020، ويتعامل مع أكثر من 5.4 مليار عملية بحث يوميًا.

يعتمد ترتيب نتائج البحث التي تعرضها جوجل، جزئيًا على نظام ترتيب أولوية يسمى بيج رانك . يوفر بحث جوجل أيضًا العديد من الخيارات المختلفة للبحث المُخصص، باستخدام الرموز لتضمين أو استبعاد أو تحديد أو طلب سلوك بحث معين، ويقدم تجارب تفاعلية متخصصة، مثل حالة الرحلة الجوية وتتبع حزم الشحن، وتنبؤات الطقس، وتحويلات العملات والوحدة والوقت، تعريفات الكلمات وغيرها.

الغرض الرئيسي من بحث جوجل هو البحث عن نص في المستندات التي يمكن الوصول إليها بشكل عام والتي تقدمها خوادم الويب، على عكس البيانات الأخرى، مثل الصور أو البيانات الموجودة في قواعد البيانات. تم تطويره في الأصل في عام 1997 من قبل لاري بيدج وسيرجي برين. في يونيو 2011، قدمت جوجل خدمة «بحث جوجل الصوتي» للبحث عن الكلمات المنطوقة بدلاً من الكلمات المكتوبة. وفي مايو 2012، قدمت جوجل ميزة البحث الدلالي للرسم البياني المعرفي في الولايات المتحدة.

قد يشير تحليل تكرار مصطلحات البحث إلى اتجاهات اقتصادية واجتماعية وصحية. يمكن الاستعلام علنًا عن البيانات المتعلقة بتكرار استخدام مصطلحات البحث على جوجل عبر جوجل تريندز، وقد ثبت  الإنفلونزا ومستويات البطالة، وتوفر المعلومات بشكل أسرع من طرق الإبلاغ والاستطلاعات التقليدية. اعتبارًا من منتصف عام 2016، بدأ محرك بحث Google في الاعتماد على الشبكات العصبية العميقة.

من بين منافسي جوجل يأتي بايدو وسوسو في الصين، نافير وداوم في كوريا الجنوبية، ياندكس في روسيا، Seznam.cz في جمهورية التشيك، Qwant في فرنسا، ياهو في اليابان وتايوان والولايات المتحدة، بالإضافة إلى بينغ ودك دك جو. تقدم بعض محركات البحث الأصغر تسهيلات غير متوفرة مع جوجل، على سبيل المثال عدم تخزين أي معلومات خاصة أو معلومات تتبع.

داخل الولايات المتحدة، اعتبارًا من يوليو 2018، تعامل بينغ مع 24.2 بالمائة من جميع طلبات البحث. خلال نفس الفترة، كان لدى Oath (المعروفة سابقًا باسم Yahoo) حصة سوق البحث بنسبة 11.5 بالمائة. شركة جوجل الرائدة خدمت ما يقدر 63.2 بالمائة من جميع طلبات البحث الأساسية في الولايات المتحدة.

فهرسة البحث

جوجل هي أشهر محرك للبحث خلال الإنترنت وينتج البحث عشر نتائج في الصفحة الظاهرة.

علامة جوجل
رمز جوجل هو الرمز الذي يظهر كلمة «جوجل» بالالوان المبهجة.
و يتغير رمز جوجل أحيانا عند المناسبات والاعياد العالمية وأيضا يتغير أحيانا بوضع صورة شخص شهير قديما لتخليد ذكراه في يوم ميلاده.

«ضربة حظ»
ضربة حظ هي خاصية تميز «جوجل» وهي ان تكتب كلمات البحث ثم تضغط على «ضربة حظ»، فتأخذك مباشرة إلى أول نتيجة في الصفحة التي كانت ستظهر في البحث العادى؛ وفكرة هذه الخاصية هي الايمان بالحظ وعدم الحاجة إلى رؤية جميع النتائج. وتكلف هذه الخدمة جوجل كثيرا لانه تغيب الإعلانات التي تشكل المصدر المهم لمكاسب الإنترنت.

انظر أيضًا

 قائمة المواقع الأكثر زيارة
 قوقل الطبي
 قوقل

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

ألفابت
استحداثات متعلقة بالحواسيب في 1997
تأسيسات سنة 1997 في الولايات المتحدة
خدمات جوجل
عولمة
محركات بحث
مواقع ويب أسست في 1997
مواقع ويب أمريكية
مواقع ويب تعكس ويكيبيديا
مواقع ويب متعددة اللغات

بحث جوجل


O topetinho-branco (Lophornis adorabilis) é uma espécie de beija-flor dos "coquetes", tribo Lesbiini da subfamília Lesbiinae. É encontrado no Brasil, Costa Rica e no Panamá.

Taxonomia e sistemática
Ao mesmo tempo, a coquete de crista branca e a coquete de crista negra (Lophornis helenae) foram colocadas no gênero Paphosia. A coquete de crista branca é monotípica.

Descrição
A topetinho-branco tem cerca  comprimento e pesa cerca de . O macho adulto tem uma coroa frontal e traços de bronze acobreado, e a coroa tem uma crista branca ereta. A nuca e o dorso são verde-bronzeado; uma faixa branca separa o dorso da garupa de bronze arroxeado e das coberturas superiores da cauda. A cauda é castanho-avermelhada e as penas têm bordas de bronze. A garganta e as bochechas são verdes brilhantes e as últimas têm longos tufos finos. Uma faixa branca separa a garganta do peito canela-ruivo, barriga e abrigos infracaudais. Seu bico é vermelho com a ponta preta.

A fêmea adulta é geralmente mais opaca que o macho e não possui a crista e os tufos nas bochechas. Seu rosto e coroa são de bronze escuro e a garganta e o peito são brancos com manchas verde-bronzeadas. A cauda é castanho-avermelhada com uma faixa preta perto da ponta. Sua maxila é preta e a mandíbula vermelha com ponta escura.

Os machos imaturos se assemelham à fêmea adulta, mas com uma garganta fortemente manchada de verde. As fêmeas imaturas se assemelham aos adultos com uma faixa menos distinta na cauda.

Distribuição e habitat
A espécie é encontrado no lado do Pacífico do sul da Costa Rica e um pouco no interior da Cordilheira Central e na encosta do Pacífico no extremo oeste do Panamá. Habita o interior e bordas de matas úmidas e matas secundárias mais altas; também ocorre em paisagens mais abertas, como ao longo de cercas vivas. Em elevação, varia do nível do mar até mais de .

Comportamento

Movimento
A coquete de crista branca parece ser um tanto nômade, passando o tempo em áreas com muitas árvores floridas e depois desaparecendo.

Alimentando
A coquete-de-crista-branca alimenta-se de néctar, que é procurado principalmente na copa, mas também em níveis mais baixos nas bordas da floresta e nos jardins. Paira para se alimentar de néctar e de pequenos artrópodes que recolhe da folhagem.

Reprodução
A coquete de crista branca se reproduz no início da estação seca, entre dezembro e fevereiro. Os machos cortejam com um vôo em arco lado a lado, de frente para uma fêmea empoleirada ou pairando. As fêmeas constroem um ninho em forma de xícara com penugem de planta e teia de aranha coberta de líquen e suspensa em um galho. O local é frequentemente exposto e ninhos foram vistos com altura de  acima do solo. O tamanho da ninhada é de dois ovos; o emplumamento ocorre 21 a 22 dias após a eclosão.

Vocalização
A coquete de crista branca produz um "líquido suave ao se alimentar".

Estado de conservação
A IUCN avaliou o coquete de crista branca como sendo de menor preocupação. Sua população é estimada em pelo menos 20.000 indivíduos maduros, mas diminuindo. "[Desmatamento e redução do habitat é a principal preocupação para estas e muitas outras espécies".

Bibliografia

Aves descritas em 1870
Aves do Panamá
Aves da Costa Rica
Lophornis
Espécies pouco preocupantes

Topetinho-branco


Söylim Mi?, İbrahim Tatlıses'in 26 Kasım 1990'da Tatlıses Plak firmasından çıkardığı albümdür. Tatlıses, o dönem hem konserlerinde hem de bir reklam filminde kullanarak sloganlaştırdığı "Söylim mi?" sözünden ilham alarak bir şarkı bestelemiş ve bu söz albümüne de isim olmuştur. Albümde yer alan Söylim mi?, Gideceğim, Ne Güzel Gözlerin Var, Hesabım Var öne çıkan şarkılardır.

Şarkı listesi

Albüme konmayan yedek şarkılar

Künye
 Yapım: Tatlıses Plak
 Prodüktör: Mahmut Tatlı
 Yönetmen: Mustafa Özhan
 Stüdyo: İstanbul Ses Kayıt
 Tonmaisterler: Mehmet Günay, Murat Papaker
 Mix: Memo
 Fotoğraf: Ahmet Işık
 Baskı: Onur Ofset

Kaynakça

İbrahim Tatlıses albümleri
İdobay Müzik albümleri
1990 albümleri
Türk halk müziği albümleri
Arabesk albümleri
Türkçe albümler

Söylim mi?


Melospiza es un género de aves paseriformes perteneciente a la familia Passerellidae. El género, comúnmente referido como «gorriones cantores» o chingolos, contiene tres especies, nativas de América del Norte y América Central.

Especies
Se reconocen las siguientes especies:
Melospiza melodia.
Melospiza lincolnii.
Melospiza georgiana.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Géneros de aves
Taxones descritos por Spencer Fullerton Baird

Melospiza


Interlaken (; lit.: between lakes) is a Swiss town and municipality in the Interlaken-Oberhasli administrative district in the canton of Bern. It is an important and well-known tourist destination in the Bernese Oberland region of the Swiss Alps, and the main transport gateway to the mountains and lakes of that region.

The town is located on flat alluvial land called Bödeli between two lakes, Brienz to the east and Thun to the west, and alongside the river Aare, which flows between them. Transport routes to the east and west alongside the lakes are complemented by a route southwards into the near mountain resorts and high mountains, e.g. the famous high Alpine peaks of Eiger, Mönch, and Jungfrau, following upwards the Lütschine.

Interlaken is the central town of a Small Agglomeration with the same name of 23,300 inhabitants.

The official language of Interlaken is German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect, Bernese German.

History

Until 1891, Interlaken was known as Aarmühle. The convent of the Augustinian Canons was built around 1133 when it was mentioned as inter lacus Madon and lasted until 1528. The mill on the left bank of the Aare was first mentioned in 1365 as Amuli, while the town on the right bank was mentioned in 1239 as villa Inderlappen.

Early history
While some scattered Neolithic flint objects, early Bronze Age swords and Roman era coins have been found near Interlaken, there is no evidence for a settlement in the area before the Middle Ages. Interlaken Monastery was built around 1133 on imperial land on the left side of the Aare. The monastery controlled a bridge over the river and generated an income from tolls. A village grew up around the monastery, along with a mill (which gave the municipality its name until 1891). On the right bank of the river, Interlaken village developed. In 1279/80 the village of Unterseen developed near Interlaken village. Also near the village were the imperial castle of Weissenau and the market town of Widen. The castle and market town became the possessions of the monastery, but fell into disrepair in the Late Middle Ages.

Interlaken Monastery

The Interlaken Monastery was first mentioned in 1133 when Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor took it under his protection. By 1247, there were also women at the monastery. During the 13th century the monastery's influence spread throughout the neighboring area and into the Aare and Gürbe valleys. They eventually had authority over two dozen churches along with a number of villages and farms and became the largest religious landholder in the region.

During the 13th and the beginning of the 14th century, the monastery grew and prospered. However, in 1350 a period of crises and conflicts led to a decline in the number of monks and nuns and increasing debt. A document from 1310, indicates that there were 30 priests, 20 lay brothers, and 350 women at the monastery. In contrast, in 1472 there were only the provost, the prior, nine ordinary canons, seven novices and 27 nuns. At this time, the monastery also had problems with its tenants and neighbors. In 1348, the people of Grindelwald and Wilderswil joined a mutual defense league with Unterwalden. Bern responded with a military expedition to the Bernese Oberland, which ended in defeat for Unterwalden and its allies. In 1445 the Evil League () rose up in the Oberland near Interlaken and fought against Bernese military service and taxes following the Old Zürich War.

During the 14th century, the canons and nuns stopped following most of the monastic rules. In 1472 a violent dispute between the men and the women's convents resulted in two visitations by the Bishop of Lausanne who noted serious deficiencies. The provost was arrested and some of the canons were replaced by canons from other convents. Despite the reform measures the nun's convent was closed in 1484 and its property transferred to the newly founded monastery of St. Vincent in Bern.

During the Protestant Reformation, the monastery was secularized in 1528. The canons received a financial settlement and the properties were now managed by a Bernese bailiff. The tenants of the monastery who had expected the abolition of allowed interest responded by rioting, which was suppressed by Bern.

After the Reformation, Bern created the Interlaken bailiwick from the monastery lands. Part of the monastery building was used as the headquarters of the district administration, while the rest was used as an indigent hospital. In 1562-63 Bern converted the monastery church's choir into a granary and a wine cellar. In 1746-50 the west wing was demolished and Governor Samuel Tillier built the so-called New Castle. It has remained the center of administration for the Interlaken District since that time.

Aarmühle village

Aarmühle was named for the mill on the Aare which was built there in or before 1365. Starting in 1365, the monastery held weekly and yearly markets at Aarmühle. It had its own bäuert (agricultural cooperative) but was politically part of the municipality of Matten.

In the 16th century, the bäuert of Aarmühle and the surrounding bäuerten began quarreling over the use of common fields and woods. Attempts at arbitration in 1533, 1586, and 1618 were unsuccessful. Partly as a result of the quarreling, in 1633, Wilderswil separated from Matten and became an independent municipality. However, the dispute continued between Aarmühle and Matten, and in 1761, the governor of the Interlaken district attempted, unsuccessfully, to mediate. Finally, in 1810 the two villages divided their common property, though it took until 1838 for Aarmühle to become an independent political municipality.

Around the time of the separation, the number of tenant farmers (farmers that did not own the land that they worked) was very different in Aarmühle and Matten. In 1831, 37% of the population in Aarmühle were tenants, while only 12% were in Matten. This meant that the population of Matten was closely tied to the land and remained farmers, while in Aarmühle they began to support the growing tourism trade.

Aarmühle becomes Interlaken
On the right bank of the Aare, Unterseen became the only municipality and absorbed the village of Interlaken. In 1838, on the left bank, the villages became the two municipalities of Matten and Aarmühle. However, Aarmühle used the name Interlaken for its post office and train station, leading to that name becoming more well known. Officially the name changed to Interlaken in 1891.

Rise of tourism

Interlaken's reputation as international resort started around 1800 due to the landscapes of Franz Niklaus König and other Swiss landscape artists. The success of the Unspunnenfest, a festival of Swiss culture, in 1805 and 1808 brought many tourists to Interlaken. Starting in 1820, they came for mountain air and spa treatment and the large Kursaal opened in 1859 to provide an elegant spa. The many hotels combined with good transportation links made it easy for these early tourists to visit. In 1835 a steam ship route opened along Lake Thun from Thun, followed in 1839 by another along Lake Brienz from Brienz.

In 1872, the Bödelibahn railway opened from Därligen, on Lake Thun, to Interlaken. Two years later it was extended to Bönigen, on Lake Brienz. Initially, this line was unconnected to the rest of the Swiss railway system and served as a link between the steamships on both lakes. However, in 1893, the Lake Thun railway line opened alongside Lake Thun providing a direct rail connection to Thun, with onward connections to Bern and beyond. In 1888, the Brünig railway opened between Alpnachstad, on Lake Lucerne, and Brienz, on Lake Brienz, thus providing a through steamer and rail connection from Interlaken to Lucerne. By 1916, the Brünig railway had reached Interlaken from Brienz, and, together with an earlier extension at its eastern end, provided a direct rail route to Lucerne. In 1890, the Berner Oberland railway connected Interlaken to the tourist destinations of Lauterbrunnen and Grindelwald.

With the opening up of transport links, hotels developed along the route to the Jungfrau. In 1860–75 and 1890–1914 several luxury hotels were built with views of the Jungfrau and surrounding mountains. The current Kursaal was built in 1898-99 and remodeled in 1909–10.

Despite the emphasis on tourism, a parquet factory operated from 1850 until 1935 and a wool weaving factory opened in 1921. In the late 20th century a woolen thread and a metal products factory opened in Interlaken. Since 1988, Interlaken has been connected to the A8 motorway.

Modern Interlaken
The tourism industry's frantic growth abruptly ended in 1914 when World War I started, though it resumed somewhat after the war. World War II brought another dramatic slowdown. Interlaken started to recover from the effects of the war in 1955 as Interlaken re-branded itself as a convention and conference center. Today, the two nuclei villages (Aarmühle and the village around the Bailiff's Castle) have been joined by new construction between them. The municipalities of Matten and Unterseen are also connected by new construction to Interlaken and share a common infrastructure. A referendum to merge the three political municipalities into one was voted down in 1914 and again in 1927.

Geography

Topography

Interlaken is located at  above sea level, between Lake Brienz to the east and Lake Thun to the west on the alluvial land called Bödeli. The town takes its name from its geographical position between the lakes (in Latin inter lacus). The Aare flows through the town from one to the other lake, whilst the Lütschine flows from the mountains from the south into Lake Brienz however not running through the municipality of Interlaken.

The municipality of Interlaken has an area of . Of this area,  or 24.4% is used for agricultural purposes, while  or 22.6% is forested. Of the rest of the land,  or 47.2% is settled (buildings or roads),  or 7.0% is either rivers or lakes and  or 0.2% is unproductive land.

Of the built-up area, industrial buildings made up 5.3% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 21.4% and transportation infrastructure made up 16.0%. while parks, green belts, and sports fields made up 4.0%. Out of the forested land, 20.9% of the total land area is heavily forested and 1.6% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 6.5% is used for growing crops and 16.3% is pastures, while 1.6% is used for orchards or vine crops. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.

Climate
Interlaken has a rather mild warm summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) when 0 °C (32.0 °F) isotherm is used. However, if  −3 °C (26.6 °F) isotherm is used, then the climate is temperate oceanic (Köppen climate classification Cfb). The climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round.

Politics

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Argent a Semi Ibex rampant couped Sable langued Gules.

Government
The Municipal Council (Gemeinderat) constitutes the executive government of the municipality of interlaken and operates as a collegiate authority. It is composed of seven councillors (), each responsible for a portfolio (Ressort). The councillor of the executive portfolio acts as an executive president (Gemeindepräsident). In the mandate period (Legislatur) 2021 – 2024 the Municipal Council is presided by Gemeindepräsident Philippe Ritschard. Departmental tasks, coordination measures and implementation of laws decreed by the Grand Municipal Council are carried by the Municipal Council. The regular election of the Municipal Council by any inhabitant valid to vote is held every four years. Any Swiss resident of Interlaken allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the Municipal Council. The delegates are selected by means of a system of Proporz. The president is elected as such as well by public election by means of a system of Mayorz while the heads of the other portfolios are assigned by the collegiate.

, Interlaken's Municipal Council is made up of three members of the FDP (The Liberals) of whom one is also the mayor, and two members each of the SP (Social Democratic Party) and SVP (Swiss People's Party). The last regular election (Landsgemeinde) was held on 27 September and 1 November 2020. The voter turnout was 67%/49.4%.

Parliament

The Grand Municipal Council (Grosser Gemeinderat, GGR) holds legislative power. It is made up of 31 members, with elections held every four years. The Grand Municipal Council decrees regulations and by-laws that are executed by the Municipal Council and the administration. The delegates are selected by means of a system of Proporz.

The sessions of the Grand Municipal Council are public. Any resident of Interlaken allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the Grand Municipal Council. The parliament holds its meetings six to eight times per year in the Kunsthaus (art museum) at Amman-Hofer-Platz.

The last regular election of the Grand Municipal Council was held on 27 September 2020 for the mandate period () from 2021 to 2024. The voter turnout was 67%. Currently, the Grand Municipal Council consists of 7 members of The Liberals (FDP/PLR), 7 Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC), 6 Social Democratic Party (SP/PS), 5 new members of the Green Liberal Party, 2 Green Party (GPS/PES), 2 Evangelical People's Party (EVP/PEV), and one member each of the EDU and the Jupa.

National elections

National Council
In the 2019 Swiss federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the SVP which received 26.1% (-4.6) of the votes. The next five most popular parties were the SP (19.9%, +1.3), the FDP (12.3%, +0.9), the Green Party (10.6%, +2.7), GLP (9.8%, +5.6), and the BDP (7.9%, -6.5). In the federal election, a total of 1463 voters were cast, and the voter turnout was 42.1%.

In the 2015 Swiss federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the SVP which received 30.7% of the votes. The next five most popular parties were the SP (18.6%), the BDP (14.3%), the FDP (11.4%), the Green Party (7.9%), and EVP (6.1%). In the federal election, a total of 1610 voters were cast, and the voter turnout was 45.5%.

International relations

Twin towns – sister cities
Interlaken is twinned with:

 Ōtsu, Japan
 Scottsdale, United States
 Třeboň, Czech Republic
 Huangshan, China
 Zeuthen, Germany

Demographics

Population

Interlaken has a population () of . , 26.4% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of 5.3%. Migration accounted for 8.2%, while births and deaths accounted for -1.9%.

Most of the population () speaks German (4,271 or 83.4%) as their first language, Portuguese is the second most common (198 or 3.9%) and Italian is the third (145 or 2.8%). There are 64 people who speak French and 11 people who speak Romansh.

, the population was 47.5% male and 52.5% female. The population was made up of 1,830 Swiss men (33.7% of the population) and 751 (13.8%) non-Swiss men. There were 2,164 Swiss women (39.9%) and 684 (12.6%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 988 or about 19.3% were born in Interlaken and lived there in 2000. There were 1,923 or 37.6% who were born in the same canton, while 805 or 15.7% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 1,185 or 23.1% were born outside of Switzerland.

, children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 19.3% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 63.1% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 17.6%. In the same year, there were 2,158 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 2,288 married individuals, 367 widows or widowers and 306 individuals who are divorced.

, there were 2,418 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.0 persons per household. There were 1,041 households that consist of only one person and 74 households with five or more people. A total of 2,292 apartments (83.5% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 329 apartments (12.0%) were seasonally occupied and 125 apartments (4.6%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 4.6 new units per 1000 residents.

 the average price to rent an average apartment in Interlaken was 1013.98 Swiss francs (CHF) per month (US$810, £460, €650 approx. exchange rate from 2003). The average rate for a one-room apartment was 642.58 CHF (US$510, £290, €410), a two-room apartment was about 741.20 CHF (US$590, £330, €470), a three-room apartment was about 945.28 CHF (US$760, £430, €600) and a six or more room apartment cost an average of 1648.96 CHF (US$1320, £740, €1060). The average apartment price in Interlaken was 90.9% of the national average of 1116 CHF. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.1%.

The historical population is given in the following chart:

Economy

Interlaken is classed as a tourist community. The municipality is the center of the agglomeration of Interlaken. , there were a total of 6,939 people employed in the municipality. Of these, 12 people worked in 5 businesses in the primary economic sector.  The secondary sector employed 804 workers in 100 separate businesses.  Finally, the tertiary sector provided 6,123 jobs in 724 businesses. In 2019 a total of 4.2% of the population received social assistance.

In 2011 the unemployment rate in the municipality was 3.4%.

In 2015 local hotels had a total of 710,116 overnight stays, of which 82.2% were international visitors. In 2017 there were about 27 hotels in the municipality, with 1,599 rooms.

 the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 4,903. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 4, all of which were in agriculture. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 745 of which 281 or (37.7%) were in manufacturing and 397 (53.3%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 4,154. In the tertiary sector; 1,145 or 27.6% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 276 or 6.6% were in the movement and storage of goods, 1,170 or 28.2% were in a hotel or restaurant, 57 or 1.4% were in the information industry, 168 or 4.0% were the insurance or financial industry, 308 or 7.4% were technical professionals or scientists, 119 or 2.9% were in education and 360 or 8.7% were in health care.

, there were 4,253 workers who commuted into the municipality and 1,117 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 3.8 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. Of the working population, 12.5% used public transportation to get to work, and 28.5% used a private car.

Religion

From the , 1,139 or 22.3% were Roman Catholic, while 2,873 or 56.1% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 83 members of an Orthodox church (or about 1.62% of the population), there were 4 individuals (or about 0.08% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 374 individuals (or about 7.31% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church.

There were 3 individuals (or about 0.06% of the population) who were Jewish, and 170 (or about 3.32% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 29 individuals who were Buddhist, 43 individuals who were Hindu and 9 individuals who belonged to another church. 342 (or about 6.68% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 235 individuals (or about 4.59% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education

In Interlaken about 2,181 or (42.6%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 562 or (11.0%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 562 who completed tertiary schooling, 62.3% were Swiss men, 21.4% were Swiss women, 8.4% were non-Swiss men and 8.0% were non-Swiss women.

Economy

Tourism

The town is principally a base from which to explore the surrounding areas. Among the main attractions are the mountains of the Jungfrau region, including the Jungfrau, (), the Mönch () and the Eiger (). Whilst the peaks of these mountains are accessible only to mountaineers, a sequence of connecting mountain railways gives access to the Jungfraujoch, a saddle () between the Jungfrau and the Mönch, but correctly translated as a yoke (), which is the highest point in Europe reachable by train.

Closer to Interlaken, the Harderkulm (), just to the north of the town, and the Schynige Platte (), just to the south, are also accessible by railway and provide extensive views of the higher mountains. Lake Thun and Lake Brienz are both close to the town, and the Aare flows east to west through the town. Boat trips operate on both lakes, serving various lakeside towns. One of these, Brienz, is the starting point for one of Switzerland's last remaining steam operated mountain railway, the Brienz Rothorn Railway.

Jungfrau Park, an amusement park, is situated just to the south of Interlaken. It was originally opened as a Mystery Park, a paranormal-based theme park owned by the author Erich von Däniken, but was closed in 2006 after three years because of financial difficulties. It re-opened in its current guise in 2009.

Interlaken has a large selection of hotels of various grades, many of which are located along the Höheweg, a street that links the town's two railway stations and offers views of the mountains. Other hotels are clustered around one or other of the two stations, or located across the river in the neighboring municipality of Unterseen.

Interlaken is also a destination for backpackers. It has numerous backpacker-friendly hotels and companies providing guided services in skydiving, canyoning, hang gliding, paragliding, and skiing.

Education
The canton of Bern school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend additional schooling or they may enter an apprenticeship.

During the 2009-10 school year, there were a total of 667 students attending classes in Interlaken. There were 4 kindergarten classes with a total of 72 students in the municipality. Of the kindergarten students, 36.1% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 47.2% have a different mother language than the classroom language. The municipality had 15 primary classes and 275 students. Of the primary students, 33.8% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 43.1% have a different mother language than the classroom language. During the same year, there were 16 lower secondary classes with a total of 301 students. There were 17.6% who were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 18.3% have a different mother language than the classroom language. , there were 450 students in Interlaken who came from another municipality, while 78 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

Interlaken is home to the Bödeli-Bibliothek library. The library has () 22,043 books or other media, and loaned out 114,730 items in the same year. It was open a total of 292 days with an average of 21 hours per week during that year.

Transportation

Interlaken has two railway stations, Interlaken Ost and Interlaken West, which are both served by the BLS AG's Thunersee line that provides direct services to Spiez, Thun, Bern and beyond, with onward connections at Bern to the rest of Switzerland. Through international services are provided by TGV to Paris and ICE to Frankfurt and Berlin.

Besides being the terminal of the Thunersee line, Interlaken Ost is also the terminus of the Zentralbahn's Brünig line to Brienz, Meiringen and Luzern, with onward connections to north-eastern Switzerland. The Berner Oberland railway also operates from Ost station, providing the first stage of several mountain railway routes into the Jungfrau region and, most notably, to Europe's highest station at the Jungfraujoch.

Boat services across Lake Brienz to Brienz and across Lake Thun to Spiez and Thun are operated by the BLS AG. The boats on Lake Thun operate from a quay adjacent to the West station, connected to Lake Thun by the Interlaken ship canal. The boats on Lake Brienz operate from a quay on the Aare by the Ost station. The remainder of the Aare between the two lakes is controlled by several weirs and is not navigable.

Interlaken is connected by the A8 motorway to Thun and Lucerne, with onward connections by other Swiss motorways to the rest of Switzerland. Local roads also follow both banks of the lakes to east and west and follow the valley of the Lütschine south into the Jungfrau region. However there is no direct road connection across the mountains of that region into the canton of Valais to the south, with the nearest such connections being the Grimsel Pass to the east, or using the vehicle transport service through the Lötschberg rail tunnel to the west.

In the more immediate area, two funicular railways, the Harderbahn and the Heimwehfluhbahn, provide service to nearby vantage points. Local and regional bus services are provided by PostBus Switzerland, whilst Verkehrsbetriebe STI operates a regional bus service to Thun.

Culture

Events

 The Jungfrau Marathon is held in Interlaken each September.
 The Unspunnenfest is a festival held in Interlaken and the neighbouring communities of Matten and Wilderswil approximately every twelve years. The festival highlights traditional Swiss culture and features competitions of Steinstossen (stone put), Schwingen (wrestling) and yodelling. The last Unspunnenfest was held in 2017. The next celebration is scheduled for the year 2029.
 During summer, there is the Greenfield Festival on the outskirts of Interlaken.
 On 15 July 2007, the Red Bull Air Race World Series was held on the airport situated near Interlaken.
 From 27 August 1968 to 1 September 1968, World Constitutional Convention was held at Theatre Hall of the Kursaal in Interlaken.

Heritage sites of national significance
The former Monastery Building, the Hotel Royal-St. Georges, the Hotel Victoria-Jungfrau and the Kursaal are listed as Swiss heritage site of national significance. The entire urbanized village of Interlaken is part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.

Notable people

 Marie Fillunger (1850–1930 in Interlaken), an Austrian singer, lived in Interlaken from 1919
 Georgia Engelhard (1906–1985 in Interlaken), an American mountaineer, painter and photographer; lived in Interlaken
 Hans Schaffner (1908 in Interlaken–2004), politician and former Federal Councillor
 Dölf Reist (1921–2000), photographer and alpinist
 Adrian Frutiger (1928–2015), typographer, served his apprenticeship in Interlaken
 Elisabeth Glauser (born 1943 in Interlaken), a Swiss operatic mezzo-soprano and an academic teacher of voice
 Polo Hofer (1945 in Interlaken – 2017), rock musician
 Sport
 Walter Balmer (1948–2010 in Interlaken), a Swiss international footballer
 Suzanne Müller (born 1963 in Interlaken), a Swiss rhythmic gymnast, competed in the 1984 Summer Olympics
 Sandra Dombrowski (born 1967 in Interlaken), a Swiss ice hockey player and referee
 Nelson Ferreira (born 1982 in Interlaken), a Swiss and Portuguese footballer
 Marcel Marti (born 1983 in Interlaken), a Swiss ski mountaineer
 Sven Michel (born 1988), a Swiss curler from Interlaken
 Kilian Moser (born 1988), racing cyclist
 Sascha Stulz (born 1988 in Interlaken), a Swiss professional football goalkeeper
 Lucas Tramèr (born 1989 in Interlaken), a Swiss rower, gold medallist at the 2016 Summer Olympics

Notes and references

Notes

References

External links

Interlaken Tourism Organisation

Cultural property of national significance in the canton of Bern
Municipalities of the canton of Bern
Populated places on the Aare
Resorts in Switzerland

Interlaken


Robert Edward Sheldon, Baron Sheldon PC (born Isaac Ezra Shamash; 13 September 1923 – 2 February 2020) was a British Labour Party politician and life peer who served as Member of Parliament (MP) for Ashton under Lyne from 1964 to 2001.

Early life and career
Isaac Ezra Shamash was born in Manchester to a family of Jewish immigrants from Iraq. His parents were Meir, a textile exporter, and Betty Shamash. He changed his name by deed poll in 1943.

Sheldon was educated at Burnley Grammar School, trained in engineering at Burnley and Stockport technical colleges, and awarded an external degree from the University of London. He joined the Labour Party in 1945 and later served as a Manchester City Councillor. Sheldon worked as director of his family textile firm.

Political career
Sheldon first stood for Parliament in Manchester Withington at the 1959 general election and was elected as MP for Ashton under Lyne at the 1964 general election a post he held until 2001.

He was one of the four directors of the Left Wing Coffee House from 1959-1963 in Manchester as well as Joel Barnett, and Edmund Dell, in addition to the chief funder, Harold Lever.

Sheldon caused difficulty for the first Wilson government in his support for devaluation of the pound, which the Prime Minister and Chancellor strongly opposed. When Chancellor James Callaghan refused to answer his question on the issue in Parliament, there was a run on the pound.

He was also staunchly pro-EU, supporting Britain's entry into the European Common Market and later advocating for membership of the European Monetary Union. Sheldon was known for his association with fellow MPs Joel Barnett and Edmund Dell, the three of whom met in Manchester during their youth.

He briefly served as Civil Service Minister after Labour returned to power in 1974 but was appointed as a Treasury Minister later in the same year. Sheldon was promoted to Financial Secretary to the Treasury from 1975 to 1979 and was made a Privy Counsellor in 1977.

He served as Shadow Chief Secretary to the Treasury from 1981 until 1983, when he became Chair of the Public Accounts Committee (PAC). In his final term in the House of Commons, Sheldon stepped down from the PAC to chair both the Liaison Committee and Standards and Privileges Committee.

He stood down from the Commons at the 2001 general election, and was created a life peer as Baron Sheldon, of Ashton-under-Lyne in the County of Greater Manchester, on 22 June 2001. Sheldon retired from the House of Lords on 18 May 2015.

Personal life
Sheldon married his first cousin Eileen Shamash in 1945, with whom he had a son and daughter. Eileen died in 1969 and he married again to Mary Shield in 1971. His daughter, Gillian Sargeant, later became a Labour Councillor on Barnet London Borough Council.

In 2000, he collapsed on the street of a heart attack and was resuscitated by a passer-by, who happened to be former Olympic swimmer Duncan Goodhew. He eventually died of a heart attack on 2 February 2020.

References

External links
 Profile at Parliament of the United Kingdom

 Catalogue of the Sheldon papers held at LSE Archives

1923 births
2020 deaths
People educated at Burnley Grammar School
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Labour Party (UK) life peers
Councillors in Manchester
Alumni of the University of London
UK MPs 1964–1966
UK MPs 1966–1970
UK MPs 1970–1974
UK MPs 1974
UK MPs 1974–1979
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
Jewish British politicians
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Ashton-under-Lyne
Life peers created by Elizabeth II

Peers retired under the House of Lords Reform Act 2014

Robert Sheldon, Baron Sheldon


Mamanwa é uma língua Filipina falada pelo por cerca de 5 mil (1990) npessoas do povo Lumad Mamanwa, nas províncias Agusan do Norte e Surigao do Norte em Mindanau, Filipinas.

Mamanwa é uma língua gramaticalmente conservadora, mantendo uma distinção dêitica de três vias em seus artigos que em outros lugares só é preservada em algumas das línguas batânicas.

Antes da chegada dos falantes de Mamanwa no centro da ilha Samar, havia um grupo anterior de Negritos nessa ilha. Conforme , o Samar Agta pode ter mudado para Warai ou para a língua Samarenyo, ou possivelmente até para Mamanwa.

Além disso, Francisco Combes, um frade espanhol, havia observado a presença de Negritos na Península de Zamboanga "na faixa de  Misamis Oriental" em 1645, embora nenhum dado linguístico tenha sido coletado.

Escrita
A forma do alfabeto latino usado pela língua não tem as letras C, J, V, X. Usa-se Ng.

Amostra de texto
Insay-ong na babazi ya boog, daw intabangan na idò. Daked ka bobong kaw-a na babazi. Ya isa nagasay-ong ka bozag. Napatay di ya boog kay in-osi na idò. Mabeg-at ya boog. Pagdateng ka lagkaw ihawen kaay panganen niran.

Português

A mulher está carregando o porco selvagem pela alça de cabeça, e o cachorro está ajudando. A mulher o pegou na montanha. A outra (mulher) está carregando camote. O porco selvagem está morto porque o cão o encurralou e o matou. O porco selvagem é pesado. Quando chegarem em casa vão assar porque vão comer.

Notas

Bibliografia

Ligações externas
Mamanwa Omniglot.com
Mamanwa em Ethnologue
Mamanwa em SIL

Mamanwa
 Mamanwa
Mamanwa

Língua mamanwa


Die Thailändische Badmintonmeisterschaft 2010 fand vom 19. bis zum 24. Oktober 2010 in Nakhon Ratchasima statt.

Medaillengewinner

Weblinks
 http://www.tournamentsoftware.com/sport/tournament.aspx?id=DB08A852-612A-4D8C-96D3-024B1B1990C2

2010
Badminton 2010
Badmintonwettbewerb in Nakhon Ratchasima


Matiša Rajčić (Metković, 26. svibnja 1940. - Zagreb, 2. ožujka 1996.), akademski glazbenik, solist i orguljaš.

Životopis
Diplomirao je solo pjevanje u klasi Lava Vrbanića, a diplomirao je na i na klaviru i orguljama. U vrijeme župnikovanja fra Vjeke Vrčića u Metkoviću bio je članom župnog zbora sv. Ilije. Nastupao je na mnogim festivalima, a 1972. pobijedio je na Festivalu Slavonija '72. Prigodom posjeta Hrvatskoj pape Ivana Pavla II. otpjevato je pjesmu "Molitva". Snimio je par pjesama za Jugoton ("Trsek moj", "Čuk sedi", ...), a sudjelovao je u snimanju nosača zvuka Hrvatska liturgijska glazba 20. stoljeća koji je 1995. bio nominiran za nagradu Porin. Pjevao je u ansamblu sakralne glazbe Collegium pro musica sacra, u Akademskom zboru Palma u Zagrebu, te u zboru HRT-a i HNK-u. Postumno mu je dodijeljeno odlikovanje Reda Danice Hrvatske s likom Marka Marulića za umjetnost.

Izvori

Životopisi, Metković
Životopisi, Zagreb
Hrvatski glazbenici
Nositelji Reda Danice Hrvatske

Matiša Rajčić


Miriam Waddington (née Dworkin; 23 December 1917 – 3 March 2004) was a Canadian poet, short story writer and translator. She was part of a Montreal literary circle that included F. R. Scott, Irving Layton and Louis Dudek.

Biography
Miriam Waddington was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, she studied English at the University of Toronto (B.A. 1939) and social work at the University of Pennsylvania (M.A.). She worked for many years as a social worker in Montreal, Quebec. She later relocated to the then Toronto suburb of North York, where she worked for North York Family Services. In 1964, she joined the English department at York University. She retired in 1983.

She died in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada on 3 March 2004 after suffering a stroke in late February. After her death, much of her own works and personal library were donated by her sons to the archives of Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, British Columbia. The donation was a significant and appreciated endowment. Her archival fonds is held at Library and Archives Canada in Ottawa.

Honours
Miriam Waddington was awarded Borestone Mountain Awards for best poetry in 1963, 1966, and 1974. She received the J.J. Segal Award in 1972. She was the Canada Council Exchange Poet to Wales in 1980, and served as writer-in-residence at the Windsor Public Library and at the University of Ottawa.

Waddington received honorary doctorates from Lakehead University in 1975 and York University in 1985.

Her poem "Jacques Cartier in Toronto" is featured on the back of the Canadian $100 bill released in 2004.

Bibliography

Poetry
Green World. Montreal: First Statement, 1945.
The Second Silence. Toronto: Ryerson, 1955.
The Season's Lovers. Toronto: Ryerson, 1958.
Four Poems. n.p.: n.p., 196-?
The Glass Trumpet. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1966.
Flying with Milton. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Unicorn Press, 1969.
Say Yes. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1969.
Dream Telescope. London: Anvil Press Poetry, 1972.
Driving Home: Poems New and Selected. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1972.
The Price of Gold. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1976.
Mister Never. Winnipeg: Turnstone Press, 1978.
The Visitants. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1981.
Collected Poems. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1986.
The Last Landscape. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1992.
Canada: Romancing the Land - 1996
Advice to the Young

Fiction
Summer at Lonely Beach and Other Stories. Oakville, ON: Mosaic Press, 1982.

Non-fiction
A.M. Klein. Toronto: Copp Clark Publishing, 1970.
Folklore in the Poetry of A.M. Klein. St. John's, NF: Memorial University, 1981.
Apartment Seven: Essays New and Selected. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Edited
Waddington, Miriam, ed. The Collected Poems of A.M. Klein. Toronto: Mc-Graw-Hill Ryerson, 1974.
Waddington, Miriam, ed. John Sutherland: Essays, Controversies and Poems. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1972.

Except where noted, bibliographical information courtesy Brock University.

References

External links
 100 Canadian Poets
 The Bank of Canada - $100 Note, Background Information
 Miriam Waddington's life achievements, awards, selected publications and books in print
 Works at Open Library
 Waddington at The Canadian Encyclopedia
 Archives of Miriam Waddington (Miriam Waddington fonds, R4777) ate held at Library and Archives Canada

1917 births
2004 deaths
20th-century Canadian poets
Jewish Canadian writers
Canadian women short story writers
Canadian women poets
Writers from Winnipeg
University of Pennsylvania School of Social Policy and Practice alumni
University of Toronto alumni
York University alumni
20th-century Canadian women writers
20th-century Canadian short story writers

Miriam Waddington


Reacțiile organice sunt acele reacții chimice în care sunt implicați compușii organici. Principalele tipuri de reacții care sunt studiate în chimia organică sunt reacțiile de adiție, eliminare, substituție, periciclice, de transpoziție și de oxido-reducere organică. În sinteza organică, reacțiile organice sunt folosite pentru obținerea de noi molecule organice, acestea având un deosebit de important rol în obținerea de compuși folositori precum medicamente, materiale plastice, polimeri, etc.

Tipuri

După mecanism

În chimia organică, numărul de reacții chimice care pot avea loc este extrem de mare, astfel că mecanismele de reacție posibile sunt aproape nelimitate. Totuși, în general există câteva modele generale care ajută la încadrarea anumitor reacții în anumite clase. De asemenea, datorită complexității, multe reacții pot fi încadrate în mai multe clase (adiție-eliminare, eliminare-adiție, etc).

Vezi și
 Metabolism
 Sinteză organică

Referințe

Chimie organică

Reacție organică


John Calvin Maxwell (n. 20 februarie 1947, Garden City, Michigan, Statele Unite ale Americii) este un autor american, orator și pastor care a scris multe cărți în domeniul leadership-ului. Printre cărțile publicate se numără Cele 21 de Legi Supreme ale Liderului și Cele 21 de Calități ale Liderului.

Cărțile sale s-au vândut în milioane de exemplare, iar unele dintre ele au fost incluse pe lista New York Times Best Seller.

Viața personală
Maxwell s-a născut în Garden City, Michigan în 1947. Fiind creștin evanghelist, și-a urmat tatăl în ministeriat. A studiat la Ohio Christian University și a obținut licența în 1969, apoi Master of Divinity de la Azusa Pacific University și un Doctorat în ministeriat de la Fuller Theological Seminary. În prezent, locuiește în Florida de Sud cu soția sa, Margaret.

Carieră
Din 1970, Maxwell a condus biserici din Indiana, Ohio, California și Florida. După ce a slujit ca pastor senior vreme de 14 ani,  a plecat de la Skyline Church în 1995 pentru a se dedica pe deplin vorbitului în public și scrisului. În 2004 s-a întors în ministeriatul congregațional la Christ Fellowship din Palm Beach Gardens, Florida, unde în prezent predă în calitate de pastor.

Maxwell este un expert în leadership, vorbitor în public și autor de cărți. Este fondatorul INJOY, Maximum Impact, The John Maxwell Team, ISS (INJOY Stewardship Solutions) și EQUIP. EQUIP este o organizație internațională de dezvoltare a leadership-ului care are ca scop ajutarea liderilor, implicând lideri din peste 80 de țări. Misiunea sa este "să vadă liderii creștini cum își îndeplinesc eficient Marea Misiune (din engleză: the Great Commission) în fiecare națiune". The John Maxwell Team este o organizație internațională de dezvoltare a leadership-ului care formează și certifică coach-i, trainer-i, profesori și vorbitori în public. A fost fondată în 2011 de către John C. Maxwell și Paul Martinelli. În prezent, reunește peste 11 000 de membri din peste 140 de țări, dintre care 600 de membri numai în România. După Statele Unite ale Americii, România este singura țară din lume care are propriul program de certificare The John Maxwell Team, înființat în 2012, sub conducerea lui Sorin Popa.

Maxwell vorbește anual în companii din Fortune 500, lideri ai guvernelor internaționale și organizații diverse precum Academia Militară a Statelor Unite de la West Point și Liga Națională de Fotbal. A fost declarat autor best-seller de către New York Times, Wall Street Journal și Business Week și a fost unul dintre cei 25 de autori de cărți selectați de Amazon.com în a zecea aniversare Hall of Fame. Trei dintre cărțile sale: Cele 21 de Legi Supreme ale Liderului, Dezvoltă Liderul din Tine și Cele 21 de Calități ale Liderului, s-au vândut fiecare în peste un milion de copii.

Maxwell face parte din consiliul de administrație de la Indiana Wesleyan University și are o clădire care îi poartă numele: Centrul Maxwell pentru Afaceri și Leadership.

În iulie 2013, organizația lui Maxwell a format 24 000 de lideri în Guatemala. Randy Stroman și alți membri John Maxwell Team a făcut parte din sesiunile de training care au durat trei zile.

În 2014, Maxwell a fost declarat expertul numărul 1 din lume în domeniul leadership-ului și managementului de către Inc. Magazine.

În 2015, și-a îndeplinit obiectivul de a forma lideri din toată țările de pe glob, recunoscute de ONU.

În 2016, după succesul din 2013 în Guatemala, John Maxwell a mers în Paraguay împreună cu 250 de membri John Maxwell Team voluntari, printre care s-au numărat și români, pentru a forma peste 15 000 de lideri timp de o săptămână prin metoda "mesei rotunde".

Apariții în România
 23 martie 2011 - Palatul Parlamentului, București. Conferința seminar "How to be a R.E.A.L. Sucess.
 12 noiembrie 2013 - Cristal Palace Ballrooms, București.
 17 octombrie 2016 - Teatrul Național București.

Bibliografie selectivă
Vezi și Cărți scrise de John C. Maxwell pentru o listă completă.
 Cele 15 Legi Supreme ale Dezvoltării Personale, Amaltea, 2013
 Cele 5 Niveluri ale Leadership-ului, Amaltea, 2012
 Toți comunicăm, dar puțini stabilim și relații, Amaltea, 2013
 Leadership de Aur, Amaltea, 2010
 Lider la 360 de Grade, Amaltea, 2009
 Câștigă cu Oamenii, Amaltea, 2004
 Începe să Gândești, Amaltea, -
 Harta Succesului, Amaltea, 2006
 Cele 17 Legi ale Muncii în Echipă, Amaltea, 2008
 Cele 21 de Legi Supreme ale Liderului, Amaltea, 2002
 Dezvoltă Liderii din Jurul Tău, Amaltea, 2002
 Dezvoltă Liderul din Tine, Amaltea, 2003
 Dă Sens Vieții, Amaltea, 2016
 John C. Maxwell, "Minutul cu Maxwell". Website. The John Maxwell Team România. Accesat la 30 septembrie 2016.

Referințe

Nașteri în 1947
Nașteri pe 20 februarie
Scriitori de non-ficțiune americani
Scriitori creștini
Oratori motivaționali
Americani în viață

John C. Maxwell


L'accord sur la facilitation des échanges (AFE) est un accord de l'Organisation mondiale du commerce qui vise la facilitation des procédures douanières. L'accord entre en application le 22 février 2017. Il est actuellement ratifié par 142 pays.

Histoire
Le mandat de négociations a démarré en novembre 2001 lors de la conférence de Doha, quand les négociations ont réellement démarré en octobre 2004, pour se terminer en décembre 2013 à la conférence de Bali. En 2014, l'Inde s'oppose à l'accord, en mettant son veto au projet, pour pouvoir négocer dans d'autres secteurs notamment sur la question agricole. Il est entrée en vigueur le 22 février 2017, avec une ratification de 112 pays à ce moment-là.

Références

Accord de l'Organisation mondiale du commerce

Accord sur la facilitation des échanges


Takahiro Takagi (født 1. juli 1982) er en japansk tidligere professionel fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder JEF United Ichihara, Thespa Kusatsu, Omiya Ardija, Consadole Sapporo, Albirex Niigata, FC Gifu og SC Sagamihara.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Takahiro Takagi


Alma Park est un village de Nouvelle-Galles du Sud dans le comté de Grand Hume, à  au nord de Pleasant Hills.

Histoire

Zone de peuplement dispersé, Alma Park est constitué de fermes et de propriétés privées. La seule indication évidente de l'emplacement d'Alma Park est une ancienne église luthérienne qui existe toujours sur la route Alma Park-Pleasant Hills.

Le village a été constitué dans les années 1880 par des colons wendes allemands. Il portait alors le nom de Wallendool.

Un bureau de poste y ouvre le  juillet 1875. Il a été fermé en 1910.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Localité en Nouvelle-Galles du Sud

Alma Park


Skobelevskaya  es una stanitsa del raión de Gulkévichi del krai de Krasnodar, en el sur de Rusia. Está situado a orillas del río Zelenchuk Vtorói, 29 km al suroeste de Gulkévichi y 114 km al este de Krasnodar, la capital del krai. Tenía 1 216 habitantes en 2010.

Es cabeza del municipio Skobelevskoye, al que pertenece asimismo Borísov, Zhuravliov, Partizán, Rodnikov, Serguéyevski y Sporni.

Historia

La localidad fue fundada en 1879 con el nombre de posiólok Zelenchukski. En 1908 recibió el nombre su nombre actual, siendo transformado en stanitsa en 1946.

Enlaces externos y referencias

 Este artículo contiene datos geográficos extraídos de Google Earth y el mapa de Rusia de Yandex.ru, accesible desde este enlace.
 Este artículo es en parte una traducción de su correspondiente en la edición en ruso de Wikipedia, Скобелевская.
 Mapa topográfico en maps.vlasenko.net
 Основные административно-территориальные преобразования на Кубани (1793—1985 гг.) / Autores: A. S. Azarenkova, I. Y. Bondar, N. S. Vertyshova. Krasnodar: Краснодарское кн. изд-во, 1986. — 394 p.

Localidades del raión de Gulkévichi del krai de Krasnodar
Localidades establecidas en 1879

Skobelevskaya


A domain name registrar is a company that manages the reservation of Internet domain names. A domain name registrar must be accredited by a generic top-level domain (gTLD) registry or a country code top-level domain (ccTLD) registry. A registrar operates in accordance with the guidelines of the designated domain name registries.

History
Until 1999, Network Solutions Inc. (NSI) operated the registries for the com, net, and org top-level domains (TLDs). In addition to the function of domain name registry operator, it was also the sole registrar for these domains. However, several companies had developed independent registrar services. In 1996 one such company, Ivan Pope's company, NetNames, developed  the concept of a standalone commercial domain name registration service which would sell domain registration and other associated services to the public, effectively establishing the retail arm of an industry with the registries being the wholesalers. NSI assimilated this model, which ultimately led to the separation of registry and registrar functions.

In 1997, PGMedia filed an antitrust suit against NSI citing the DNS root zone as an essential facility, and the US National Science Foundation (NSF) was joined as a defendant in this action. Ultimately, NSI was granted immunity from antitrust litigation, but the litigation created enough pressure to restructure the domain name market.

In October 1998, following pressure from the growing domain name registration business and other interested parties, NSI's agreement with the United States Department of Commerce was amended. This amendment required the creation of a shared registration system that supported multiple registrars. This system officially commenced service on November 30, 1999 under the supervision of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), although there had been several testbed registrars using the system since March 11, 1999. Since then, over 900 registrars have entered the market for domain name registration services.

Of the registrars who initially entered the market, many have continued to grow and outpace rivals. GoDaddy is the largest registrar. Other widely used registrars include Enom, Tucows, and Webcentral. Registrars who initially led the market but later were surpassed by rivals include Network Solutions and Dotster.

Each ICANN-accredited registrar must pay a fixed fee of US$4,000 plus a variable fee. The sum of variable registrar fees is intended to total US$3.8 million. The competition created by the shared registration system enables end users to choose from many registrars offering a range of related services at varying prices.

Designated registrar
Domain registration information is maintained by the domain name registries, which contract with domain registrars to provide registration services to the public. An end user selects a registrar to provide the registration service, and that registrar becomes the designated registrar for the domain chosen by the user.

Only the designated registrar may modify or delete information about domain names in a central registry database. It is not unusual for an end user to switch registrars, invoking a domain transfer process between the registrars involved, that is governed by specific domain name transfer policies.

When a registrar registers a .com domain name for an end-user, it must pay a maximum annual fee of US$9.59 and for .net the maximum price for one year is set at $.9.92  to VeriSign, the registry operator for com, and a US$0.18 annual administration fee to ICANN.

Many registrars also offer registration through reseller affiliates. An end-user either registers directly with a registrar, or indirectly through one or more layers of resellers. As of 2023, the retail cost generally ranges from a low of about $9.70 per year to about $35 per year for a simple com domain registration, although registrars often discount the price for a registration when ordered with other products such as web hosting services. The price for other gTLD registrations or renewals can vary.

The maximum period of registration for a gTLD domain name is  10 years. Some registrars offer longer periods of up to 100 years, but such offers involve the registrar renewing the registration for their customer every 10 years by themselves. If the registrar is de-accredited or goes out of business the domain name will be transferred to another accredited registrar. The full 100 year registration on such a transferred domain may not apply due to ICANN having a maximum of ten years for a registration.

DNS hosting

Registration of a domain name establishes a set of name server records in the DNS servers of the parent domain, indicating the IP addresses of DNS servers that are authoritative for the domain. This provides a reference for direct queries of domain data.

Registration of a domain does not automatically imply the provision of DNS services for the registered domain. Most registrars do offer DNS hosting as an optional free service for domains registered through them.  If DNS services are not offered, or the end-user opts out, the end-user is responsible for procuring or self-hosting DNS services. Registrars require the specification of usually at least two name servers.

DNSSEC support
The Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC) is a suite of Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) specifications for securing certain kinds of information provided by the Domain Name System. This involves a registrar processing public key data and creating DS records for addition into the parent zone. All new GTLD registries and registrars must support DNSSEC.

Domain name transfer
A domain name transfer is the process of changing the designated registrar of a domain name. ICANN has defined a Policy on Transfer of Registrations between Registrars. The usual process of a domain name transfer is:
 The end user verifies that the whois admin contact info is correct, particularly the email address; obtains the authentication code (EPP or UDAI transfer code) from the old registrar, and removes any domain lock that has been placed on the registration.  If the whois information had been out of date and is now updated, the end-user should wait 12–24 hours before proceeding further, to allow time for the updated data to propagate.
 The end user contacts the new registrar with the wish to transfer the domain name to their service, and supplies the authentication code.
 The gaining Registrar must obtain express authorization from either the Registered Name Holder or the Administrative Contact. A transfer may only proceed if confirmation of the transfer is received by the gaining Registrar from one of these contacts. The authorization must be made via a valid Standardized Form of Authorization, which may be sent e.g. by e-mail to the e-mail addresses listed in the WHOIS. The Registered Name Holder or the Administrative Contact must confirm the transfer. The new registrar starts electronically the transfer of the domain with the help of the authentication code (auth code).
 The old registrar will contact the end user to confirm the authenticity of this request.  The end user may have to take further action with the old registrar, such as returning to the online management tools, to re-iterate their desire to proceed, in order to expedite the transfer.
 The old registrar will release authority to the new registrar.
 The new registrar will notify the end user of transfer completion.  The new registrar may have automatically copied over the domain server information, and everything on the website will continue to work as before.  Otherwise, the domain server information will need to be updated with the new registrar.

After this process, the new registrar is the domain name's designated registrar. The process may take about five days.  In some cases, the old registrar may intentionally delay the transfer as long as allowable.  After transfer, the domain cannot be transferred again for 60 days, except back to the previous registrar.

It is unwise to attempt to transfer a domain immediately before it expires. In some cases, a transfer can take up to 14 days, meaning that the transfer may not complete before the registration expires. This could result in loss of the domain name registration and failure of the transfer.  To avoid this, end users should either transfer well before the expiration date, or renew the registration before attempting the transfer.

If a domain registration expires, irrespective of the reason, it can be difficult, expensive, or impossible for the original owner to get it back.  After the expiration date, the domain status often passes through several management phases, often for a period of months; usually it does not simply become generally available.

Transfer scams

The introduction of a shared registry system opened up the previous domain registration monopoly to new entities known as registrars, which were qualified by ICANN to do business. Many registrars had to compete with each other, and although some companies offered value added services or used viral marketing, others, such as VeriSign and the Domain Registry of America attempted to trick customers to switch from their current registrar using a practice known as domain slamming.

Many of these transfer scams involve a notice sent in the mail, fax, or e-mail. Some scammers contact end-users by telephone (because the contact information is available through WHOIS) to obtain more information. These notices would include information publicly available from the WHOIS database to add to the look of authenticity. The text would include legalese to confuse the end user into thinking that it is an official binding notice. Scam registrars go after domain names that are expiring soon or have recently expired. Domain name expiry dates are readily available via WHOIS.

Drop catcher

A drop catcher is a domain name registrar that offers the service of attempting to quickly register a given domain name for a customer if that name becomes available—that is, to "catch" a "dropped" name—when the domain name's registration expires and is then deleted, either because the registrant abandons the domain or because the registrant did not renew the registration prior to deletion.

Registrar rankings
Several organizations post market-share-ranked lists of domain name registrars and numbers of domains registered at each. The published lists differ in which top-level domains (TLDs) they use; in the frequency of updates; and in whether their basic data is absolute numbers provided by registries, or daily changes derived from Zone files.

The lists appear to all use at most 16 publicly available generic TLDs (gTLDs) that existed as of December 2009, plus .us. A February 2010 ICANN zone file access concept paper explains that most country code TLD (ccTLD) registries stopped providing zone files in 2003, citing abuse.

Published rankings and reports include:

 Monthly (but with approximately a three-month delay), ICANN posts registry reports created by the registries of all gTLDs. These reports list absolute numbers of domains registered with each ICANN-accredited registrar.
 Yearly (but covering only the period from 2002 to 2007), DomainTools.com, operated by Name Intelligence, Inc., published registrar statistics. Totals  included .com, .net, .org, .info, .biz and .us. It cited "daily changes" (presumably from daily zone files) as the basis for its yearly aggregates.

ICANN registrar accreditation

ICANN registrar accreditation is a process established by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) to ensure that gTLD domain registrars meet specific standards and requirements in providing gTLD domain registration services. The country code ccTLDs typically have their own registrar accreditation processes.

To become an ICANN-accredited domain registrar, companies must undergo a comprehensive and rigorous application process.

The application fee for ICANN Accreditation as of April 12, 2021, is $3,500 which is non-refundable. In addition, registrars are required to provide documentation confirming that they possess access to a minimum working capital of $70,000 at the time of application.

See also
Drop registrar
Private sub-domain registry

References

External links
 List of ICANN accredited registrars

Domain Name System

Domain name registrar


Joseph Henry (17 Aralık 1797 - 13 Mayıs 1878), Smithsonian Enstitüsü'nün ilk yazmanı olarak görev yapan Amerikalı bilim insanı. Smithsonian Enstitüsü'nün öncüsü olan Ulusal Bilimi Geliştirme Enstitüsü'nün yazmanıydı. Yaşamı boyunca çok saygı gördü. Elektromıknatıslar yaparken, Henry kendi kendine indüktansın elektromanyetik olayını keşfetti. Ayrıca Michael Faraday'dan bağımsız olarak karşılıklı indüktansı keşfetti, ancak keşfi yapan ve sonuçlarını yayınlayan ilk kişi Faraday oldu. Henry, elektromıknatısı kullanışlı bir aygıta dönüştürdü. Elektrikli kapı zili (özellikle bir elektrik kablosuyla uzaktan çalınabilen bir zil, 1831) ve elektrik rölesi (1835) için bir öncü icat etti. Elektromanyetik röle üzerindeki çalışması, Samuel FB Morse ve Sir Charles Wheatstone tarafından ayrı ayrı geliştirilen kullanışlı elektrikli telgrafın temelini oluşturdu. Onun onuruna SI indüktans birimine henri adı verilir (simge: H).

Ayrıca bakınız
 Elektromanyetizma
 Henri (birim)
 Çoklu bobin mıknatısı
 Amerikan Felsefe Topluluğu

Kaynakça

Konuyla ilgili yayınlar

 Ames, Joseph Sweetman (Ed.), İndüklenen elektrik akımlarının keşfi, Cilt. 1. Anılar, Joseph Henry tarafından. New York, Cincinnati [vb. ] Amerikan kitap şirketi [c1900] LCCN 00005889
 Coulson, Thomas, Joseph Henry: Hayatı ve Çalışması, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1950
 Dorman, Kathleen W. ve Sarah J. Shoenfeld (derlemeler. ), Joseph Henry'nin Kağıtları. Cilt 12: Kümülatif Dizin, Bilim Tarihi Yayınları, 2008
 Henry, Joseph, Joseph Henry'nin Bilimsel Yazıları. Cilt 1 ve 2, Smithsonian Enstitüsü, 1886
 Moyer, Albert E., Joseph Henry: The Rise of an American Scientist , Washington, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997. ISBN 1-56098-776-6
 Reingold, Nathan ve diğerleri, (eds. ), Joseph Henry'nin Kağıtları. Cilt 1-5, Washington, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1972-1988
 Rothenberg, Marc ve diğerleri, (eds. ), Joseph Henry'nin Kağıtları. Cilt 6-8, Washington, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992-1998 ve Cilt 9-11, Science History Publications, 2002-2007

Dış bağlantılar

 Pennsylvania Üniversitesi Kütüphanelerinde  Joseph Henry koleksiyonuna yardım bulma
 Joseph Henry Belgeleri Projesi
 Joseph Henry Koleksiyonuna Yardım Bulma
 Biyografik ayrıntılar  — Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (1967), 58(1), s. 1-10.
 Henry heykeli için ithaf töreni (1883)
 Yayınlanmış fizik makaleleri  — Manyetizmadan Elektrik Akımlarının ve Kıvılcımlarının Üretimi ve Elektro-Dinamik İndüksiyon Üzerine (öz)
 Joseph Henry Koleksiyonu, Smithsonian Enstitüsü
 Ulusal Bilimler Akademisi Biyografik Anı

New York (eyalet) doğumlu bilim insanları
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Antika Derneği üyeleri
Hall of Fame for Great Americans üyeleri
İskoç asıllı Amerikalılar
Elektrikçi bilim insanları
Amerikalı fizikçiler
1878 yılında ölenler
1797 doğumlular
Kaynaksız anlatımlar içeren maddeler

Joseph Henry


Hassa Florent Koné (Mina, 17 de fevereiro de 1969) é um clérigo maliano e bispo católico romano de San.
Hassa Florent Koné frequentou o seminário dos rapazes no Togo de 1983 a 1986 e depois o seminário de Pio XII, em Bamako, onde obteve sua qualificação para ingressar na universidade no Ginásio Prosper Kamara. De 1989 a 1996 estudou filosofia e teologia no seminário de Bamako e recebeu o sacramento da ordenação para a Diocese de San em 8 de setembro de 1996.

De 1996 a 2005 trabalhou na pastoral. De 1997 a 2005 foi também Oficial de Liturgia da diocese e responsável pelas Pontifícias Obras Missionárias e Ação Católica. A partir de 2000 foi também diretor do coro diocesano e secretário da Comissão Nacional de Liturgia. De 2005 a 2011 estudou na Universidade Beneditina de Sant'Anselmo em Roma, onde obteve seu doutorado em ciências litúrgicas. De 2008 a 2011 também completou a formação no Pontifício Instituto de Música Sacra. Desde 2011 é professor de estudos litúrgicos no seminário de Bamako, que também dirigiu como Regens de 2017 até sua nomeação como bispo. A partir de 2014 foi Professor de Comunicação Tradicional na Université Catholique de l'Afrique de l'Ouest em Bamako e Tesoureiro Geral da Associação dos Padres do Mali. A partir de 2015 foi novamente Secretário da Comissão Nacional de Liturgia.

Em 7 de outubro de 2021, o Papa Francisco o nomeou Bispo de San. O arcebispo de Bamako, Jean Cardeal Zerbo, o consagrou em 8 de janeiro do ano seguinte no estádio municipal de San. Os co-consagradores foram o Bispo de Mopti, Jean-Baptiste Tiama, e o Bispo de Kayes, Jonas Dembélé.

Ver também

Bispos católicos do Mali

Hassa Florent Koné


Hakan Özmert (* 3. Juni 1985 in Nantes) ist ein türkischer Fußballspieler, der zuletzt für Istanbul Başakşehir spielte.

Karriere

Verein
Hakan Özmert kam in der französischen Stadt Nantes zur Welt und startete hier mit sechs Jahren mit dem Vereinsfußball in der Jugend von FC Nantes. 1998 siedelte die Familie wieder in die Türkei zurück und Özmert spielte hier in der Jugend von Akyazıspor.

Im Frühjahr 2003 wurde er bei Sakaryaspor Profifußballer, spielte aber zweieinhalb Spielzeiten überwiegend für die Reservemannschaft und kam während dieser Zeit auf lediglich sieben Ligaeinsätze. 2003/04 befand er sich in dem Kader der Mannschaft die die Meisterschaft der TFF 1. Lig gewann und in die Süper Lig aufstieg.

Die zweite Hälfte der Spielzeit verbrachte er als Leihgabe beim Zweitligisten Karşıyaka SK.

2005/06 kehrte er zu Sakaryaspor zurück, das mittlerweile wieder abgestiegen war und in der TFF 1. Lig spielte. Hier gehörte er nun in den Kreis der regelmäßig zum Einsatz kommenden Spieler. Zum Saisonende gelang ihm mit seiner Mannschaft der Aufstieg zur Süper Lig. 2006/07 kam er auch in der Süper Lig für Sakaryaspor regelmäßig zum Einsatz.

Zur Spielzeit 2007/08 wechselte er zum Zweitligisten Antalyaspor. Hier wurde er auf Anhieb Stammspieler und schaffte mit seinem Team den sofortigen Aufstieg in die Süper Lig. Er spielte dann zwei Spielzeiten auch in der Süper Lig für Antalyaspor, kam aber nur gelegentlich zum Einsatz.

2010/11 wechselte er innerhalb der Liga zum Aufsteiger Kardemir Karabükspor und wurde auf Anhieb Stammspieler.

Zur neuen Saison wechselte er erneut, diesmal wieder innerhalb der Liga zum Aufsteiger Orduspor und wurde auf Anhieb Stammspieler.

Bereits zum Saisonende löste er nach gegenseitigem Einvernehmen mit Orduspor seinen Vertrag auf und wechselte kurze Zeit später zusammen mit seinem Teamkollegen Yalçın Ayhan zum Aufsteiger Kasımpaşa Istanbul. Bereits zur Winterpause verließ er diesen Verein nachdem zuvor sein Vertrag nach gegenseitigem Einvernehmen aufgelöst wurde.

Bereits nach einer halben Saison verließ er Kasımpaşa und kehrte zu seinem alten Verein Kardemir Karabükspor zurück. Nachdem er mit diesem Verein im Sommer 2015 den Klassenerhalt verfehlt hatte, wechselte Özmert zum Erstligisten Sivasspor. Im Frühjahr 2016 zog er innerhalb der Liga zu Istanbul Başakşehir weiter.

Nationalmannschaft
Özmert fing früh an für die türkischen Jugendnationalmannschaften zu spielen. Er durchlief ab der U-16 die U-18 und U-19-Jugendmannschaften.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Fußballspieler (Antalyaspor)
Fußballspieler (Istanbul Başakşehir FK)
Fußballspieler (Kardemir Karabükspor)
Fußballspieler (Kasımpaşa Istanbul)
Fußballspieler (Karşıyaka SK)
Fußballspieler (Orduspor)
Fußballspieler (Sakaryaspor)
Fußballspieler (Sivasspor)
Geboren 1985
Türke
Mann

Hakan Özmert


Aykut Barka (16 Aralık 1951 - 1 Şubat 2002), Türk jeolog.

Aykut Barka İstanbul'un Fatih semtinde ikiz kardeşi Günkut Barka'dan 15 dakika önce dünyaya geldi. 1967-1970 yılları arasında Vefa Lisesi'nde okudu. 1970-1975 yılları arasında İstanbul Üniversitesi Jeoloji Mühendisliği bölümünde lisans ve master derecelerini aldı. 1977-1981 yılları arasında Bristol Üniversitesi'nde Kuzey Anadolu Fay Hattı üzerine doktora çalışmasını tamamladı. Başta TÜBİTAK ve M.I.T. (ABD) olmak üzere Fransa, Birleşik Krallık ve Japonya'da bulunan birçok saygın araştırma kurumlarında görev yaptı.

Barka, Kuzey Anadolu Fay Hattı ve Türkiye'nin diğer önemli tektonik bilinmezleri hakkında her biri birbirinden önemli çok sayıda yayın yapmış ve bunları bilim çevrelerince önemli bulunan uluslararası dergilerde yayınlanmıştır. Yayınları arasında 1997 yılında, Amerikan USGS kurumundan dünyaca ünlü jeolog Ross Stein ile yaptığı ve 17 Ağustos 1999 İzmit depremi için 2 yıl öncesinden olasılık belirttiği çalışma en çok ses getirenlerden biri olmuştur.

Hayatının son günlerine kadar 1997 yılında göreve başladığı İTÜ Avrasya Yer Bilimleri Ensitüsü'nde çalışmış olan Barka, arkasında onlarca değerli makale ve yetişmiş yerbilimci bıraktı. Beynindeki damar tıkanıklığı nedeniyle Marmara Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Hastanesi'nde 6 Ocak 2002'de tedaviye alınan Prof. Dr. Aykut Barka, 1 Şubat 2002'de öldü. Mezarı İstanbul Zincirlikuyu mezarlığı'ndadır.

1998 yılında kurulmasına öncülük ettiği bağımsız Aktif Tektonik Araştırma Grubu (ATAG ) halen çalışmalarını sürdürmektedir.

Marmara Depremi'nin yıldönümünde 2002 yılında İstanbul'da Beşiktaş Belediyesi tarafından açılışı yapılan parka adı verildi. [3]

Türkiye Denizcilik İşletmeleri, 2002 yılında Sedef Adası adlı Boğaziçi vapuruna "Prof. Dr. Aykut Barka" adını vermiştir. [4]

2007 yılında Haliç Tersanesi'nde bakıma alınarak yenilenen vapur Kadıköy-Karaköy hattında seferlerine devam etmektedir. [5]

Kaynakça

1951 doğumlular
Fatih doğumlular
Türk jeologlar
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi öğretim üyeleri
Vefa Lisesinde öğrenim görenler
İstanbul Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesinde öğrenim görenler
Zincirlikuyu Mezarlığı'na defnedilenler
İstanbul'da ölenler
2002 yılında ölenler

Aykut Barka


Les Barbares (título original en francés; en español, Los bárbaros) es una tragedia lírica en tres actos y un prólogo de Camille Saint-Saëns sobre un libreto de Victorien Sardou y Pierre-Barthélemy Gheusi. Se estrenó en París el 23 de octubre de 1901 en la Académie nationale de Musique.

La ópera narra la invasión de los bárbaros del territorio bajo el Imperio Romano. La trama se centra en la evolución de la relación entre Floria, la vestal principal, y Marcomir, el líder de los bárbaros.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Óperas de 1901
Óperas de Camille Saint-Saëns
Óperas en francés
Óperas estrenadas en París

Les Barbares


Ceridwen Fraser (née en 1979) est une bio-géographe australienne, professeure agrégée de recherche au Département des sciences marines de l'Université d'Otago en Nouvelle-Zélande. Elle concentre ses études sur l'écologie, l'évolution, le changement climatique et leur importance pour l'hémisphère sud, en particulier à des latitudes plus élevées comme l'Antarctique.

Jeunesse et carrière
À l'école primaire, Fraser avait un enseignant qui était biologiste marin et qui collectait des organismes de l'océan et les exposait dans un réservoir dans la salle de classe. Fraser était souvent distraite et étonnée par ces petits animaux, et à l'âge de 11 ans, Fraser savait qu'elle voulait devenir biologiste marine. Cependant, de nombreux adultes dans sa vie l'ont informée que ce serait un choix de carrière risqué, et donc son premier diplôme de premier cycle était dans les études de  du matériel culturel, plus précisément la conservation du papier, à l'université de Canberra. Après avoir obtenu ce diplôme, Fraser a obtenu son deuxième diplôme de premier cycle en sciences marines à l'université Macquarie, après avoir été transférée de l'université James-Cook (parce qu'elle ne pouvait pas supporter le climat de Townsville). Après avoir obtenu son diplôme de l'Université Macquarie, Fraser a passé un an à étudier l'écologie des vers polychètes au Musée australien aux côtés de Pat Hutchings. Elle a obtenu son doctorat du département de zoologie de l'université d'Otago.

Fraser est devenue chargée de cours à l'université nationale australienne en 2012, où elle a travaillé et mené principalement ses recherches jusqu'en 2019. La même année, elle a reçu et profité de l'occasion pour déplacer son groupe de laboratoire et poursuivre ses recherches à l'Université d'Otago, où elle continue d'enseigner.

Recherches
La recherche de Fraser s'est étendue à plusieurs parties différentes du monde. Après avoir obtenu son doctorat, Fraser a travaillé à deux endroits différents en tant que boursière postdoctorale. La première de ces occupations était à l'Université d'Otago avec le Centre Allan Wilson d', et la seconde était située à l'Université libre de Bruxelles, en Belgique, avec le groupe de contrôle biologique et d'écologie spatiale de cette université. Avec ses diplômes de premier cycle et de doctorat, Fraser a concentré ses recherches sur la compréhension des modèles de biodiversité mondiale par le biais de la biologie moléculaire et des sciences de la Terre. Elle utilise ce domaine de recherche spécifique principalement aux hautes latitudes de l'hémisphère sud, et elle a exprimé un grand intérêt pour le continent de l'Antarctique non seulement en raison des découvertes scientifiques que l'on peut y faire, mais aussi des découvertes que l'on peut faire sur eux-mêmes.

Dans l'un des articles de recherche les plus cités de Fraser, elle et un groupe de scientifiques entreprennent de déduire en fin de compte dans quelle mesure les calottes glaciaires de l'hémisphère sud se sont étendues pendant le dernier maximum glaciaire (, LGM) en examinant plusieurs types de bio-organismes, en particulier le varech du sud. En examinant les séquences d'ADN, Fraser et les autres ont découvert que la recolonisation des eaux de l'hémisphère sud par cette faune s'est produite plus récemment qu'on ne le pensait auparavant et qu'elle est observée à des latitudes plus basses qu'on ne le pensait à l'origine. Les scientifiques ont utilisé ces résultats pour conclure que les calottes glaciaires du LGM ont atteint des latitudes plus basses que ce que la communauté scientifique pensait auparavant. En d'autres termes, la quantité de glace a diminué encore plus depuis le LGM qu'on ne le pensait, indiquant un effet que le changement climatique a eu sur les niveaux de glace dans l'hémisphère sud. Plusieurs des articles les plus cités de Fraser traitent de sujets similaires, chacun apportant une contribution importante à la communauté scientifique.

Prix et distinctions
Ceridwen Fraser a reçu plusieurs prix individuels qui sont décernés à de jeunes scientifiques ou à des scientifiques « en début de carrière ». Ces prix et reconnaissances comprennent :

 2014 : ARC Discovery Début de carrière Carrière de recherche
 2016 : Prix Scientifique de l'année ACT
 2018 : Médaille Fenner de l'Académie des sciences australienne
 2018 : Rutherford Discovery Fellowship.
 2019 : prix MacArthur & Wilson

Publications
Une petite liste de certains des travaux les plus cités de Fraser est ci-dessous :

Références

Liens externes

Écologiste australien
Universitaire australien
Professeur à l'université d'Otago
Étudiant de l'université Macquarie
Naissance en 1979
Personnalité féminine australienne

Ceridwen Fraser