Sekans, isim, Fransızca séquence
 Belirli bir süre içinde arka arkaya giden şeyler, dizi, sekans (dizi)
 Sinemada, bir bütün meydana getiren planlar dizisi, sekans (sinema)
 Müzikte, bir melodi veya ritim motifinin gamın değişik derecelerinde tekrarı, sekans (müzik)

Sekans


Hrvatska agencija za medije i kulturu CroS je hrvatska udruga iz Vojvodine. Osnovana je 2014. godine. Sjedište je u Preradovićevoj 13, Subotica. Udrugom predsjedava Siniša Jurić, a zamjenik predsjednika je Josip Stantić.

Izvori

Vojvođanski Hrvati
Subotica


Indicated airspeed (IAS) is the airspeed of an aircraft as measured by its pitot-static system and displayed by the airspeed indicator (ASI). This is the pilots' primary airspeed reference.

This value is not corrected for installation error, instrument error, or the actual encountered air density, being instead calibrated to always reflect the adiabatic compressible flow of the International Standard Atmosphere at sea level.

It uses the difference between total pressure and static pressure, provided by the system, to either mechanically or electronically measure dynamic pressure. The dynamic pressure includes terms for both density and airspeed. Since the airspeed indicator cannot know the density, it is by design calibrated to assume the sea level standard atmospheric density when calculating airspeed. Since the actual density will vary considerably from this assumed value as the aircraft changes altitude, IAS varies considerably from true airspeed (TAS), the relative velocity between the aircraft and the surrounding air mass. Calibrated airspeed (CAS) is the IAS corrected for instrument and position error.

An aircraft's indicated airspeed in knots is typically abbreviated KIAS for "Knots-Indicated Air Speed" (vs. KCAS for calibrated airspeed and KTAS for true airspeed).

The IAS is an important value for the pilot because it is the indicated speeds which are specified in the aircraft flight manual for such important performance values as the stall speed. These speeds, in true airspeed terms, vary considerably depending upon density altitude. However, at typical civilian operating speeds, the aircraft's aerodynamic structure responds to dynamic pressure alone, and the aircraft will perform the same when at the same dynamic pressure. Since it is this same dynamic pressure that drives the airspeed indicator, an aircraft will always, for example, stall at the published indicated airspeed (for the current configuration) regardless of density, altitude or true airspeed.

Furthermore, the IAS is specified in some regulations, and by air traffic control when directing pilots, since the airspeed indicator displays that speed (by definition) and it is the pilot's primary airspeed reference when operating below transonic or supersonic speeds.

Calculation

Indicated airspeed measured by pitot-tube can be approximately expressed by the following equation delivered from Bernoulli's equation.

NOTE: The above equation applies only to conditions that can be treated as incompressible. Liquids are treated as incompressible under almost all conditions. Gases under certain conditions can be approximated as incompressible. See Compressibility.

The compression effects can be corrected by use of Poisson constant. This compensation corresponds to equivalent airspeed (EAS).

where:
  is indicated airspeed in m/s,
  is stagnation or total pressure in pascals,
  is static pressure in pascals,
  is standard atmosphere fluid density in  at sea level, and
  is the specific heat capacity ratio (≈1.401 for air).

IAS vs CAS

The IAS is not the actual speed through the air even when the aircraft is at sea level under International Standard Atmosphere conditions (15 °C, 1013 hPa, 0% humidity). The IAS needs to be corrected for known instrument and position errors to show true airspeed under those specific atmospheric conditions, and this is the CAS (Calibrated Airspeed). Despite this the pilot's primary airspeed reference, the ASI, shows IAS (by definition). The relationship between CAS and IAS is known and documented for each aircraft type and model.

IAS and V speeds

The aircraft's pilot manual usually gives critical V speeds as IAS, those speeds indicated by the airspeed indicator. This is because the aircraft behaves similarly at the same IAS no matter what the TAS is: E.g. A pilot landing at a hot and high airfield will use the same IAS to fly the aircraft at the correct approach and landing speeds as he would when landing at a cold sea level airfield even though the TAS must differ considerably between the two landings.

Whereas IAS can be reliably used for monitoring critical speeds well below the speed of sound this is not so at higher speeds. An example: Because (1) the compressibility of air changes considerably approaching the speed of sound, and (2) the speed of sound varies considerably with temperature and therefore altitude; the maximum speed at which an aircraft structure is safe, the never exceed speed (abbreviated VNE), is specified at several differing altitudes in faster aircraft's operating manuals, as shown in the sample table below.

Ref: Pilot's Notes for Tempest V Sabre IIA Engine  - Air Ministry A.P.2458C-PN

IAS and navigation

For navigation, it is necessary to convert IAS to TAS and/or ground speed (GS) using the following method:
 correct IAS to calibrated airspeed (CAS) using an aircraft-specific correction table;
 correct CAS to true airspeed (TAS) by using Outside Air Temperature (OAT), Pressure-altitude and CAS on an E6B flight computer or equivalent functionality on most GPSs;
 convert TAS to ground speed (GS) by allowing for the effect of wind.

With the advent of Doppler radar navigation and, more recently, GPS receivers, with other advanced navigation equipment that allows pilots to read ground speed directly, the TAS calculation in-flight is becoming unnecessary for the purposes of navigation estimations.

TAS is the primary method to determine aircraft's cruise performance in manufacturer's specs, speed comparisons and pilot reports.

Other airspeeds
From IAS, the following speeds can also be calculated:
 convert CAS to equivalent airspeed (EAS) by allowing for compressibility effects (not necessary at slow speed or low altitude);  EAS is used by aircraft engineers and some very high-altitude flying aircraft such as the U-2 and the SR-71;
 convert EAS to true airspeed (TAS) by allowing for differences in density altitude.

On large jet aircraft the IAS is by far the most important speed indicator.  Most aircraft speed limitations are based on IAS, as IAS closely reflects dynamic pressure. TAS is usually displayed as well, but purely for advisory information and generally not in a prominent location.

Modern jet airliners also include ground speed (GS) and Machmeter. Ground speed shows the actual speed that the aircraft uses compared to the ground. This is usually connected to a GPS or similar system. Ground speed is just a pilot aid to estimate if the flight is on time, behind or ahead of schedule. It is not used for takeoff and landing purposes, since the imperative speed for a flying aircraft always is the speed against the wind.

The Machmeter is, on subsonic aircraft, a warning indicator. Subsonic aircraft must not fly faster than a specific percentage of the speed of sound. Usually passenger airliners do not fly faster than around 85% of speed of sound, or Mach 0.85. Supersonic aircraft, like the Concorde and military fighters, use the Machmeter as the main speed instrument with the exception of take-offs and landings.

Some aircraft also have a taxi speed indicator for use on the ground. Since the IAS often starts at around  (on jet airliners), pilots may need extra help while taxiing the aircraft on the ground. Its range is around .

See also

 Acronyms and abbreviations in avionics
 ICAO recommendations on use of the International System of Units
 Air speed
 Calibrated airspeed
 Equivalent airspeed
 Flight instruments
 Global Positioning System
 True airspeed

References

Bibliography
 Gracey, William (1980), "Measurement of Aircraft Speed and Altitude"  (11 MB), NASA Reference Publication 1046.

Airspeed

Indicated airspeed


William Forsythe (born December 30, 1949) is an American dancer and choreographer formerly resident in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, and now based in Vermont. He is known for his work with the Ballet Frankfurt (1984–2004) and The Forsythe Company (2005–2015). Recognized for the integration of ballet and visual arts, which displayed both abstraction and forceful theatricality, his vision of choreography as an organizational practice has inspired him to produce numerous installations, films, and web-based knowledge creation, incorporating the spoken word and experimental music.

Early life
William Forsythe was born in New York in 1949, but only started dancing seriously in his later teenage years in college. He followed his grandfather musically as he was a violin prodigy. Forsythe played bassoon, violin, flute, and sang in choruses. He also choreographed for his high school's musicals. He began his training in Florida and later continued to dance with Joffrey Ballet. It was while attending college at Jacksonville University, that Forsythe began his formal training as a dancer with Nolan Dingman and Christa Long.

Life and career
William Forsythe began studying at the Joffrey Ballet School in New York in 1969 and began his professional career as an apprentice with the Joffrey Ballet in 1971. From 1971 to 1973 danced with Joffrey Ballet II, often appearing in the parent company's productions. After this, he followed his then wife, Eileen Brady, joining the Stuttgart Ballet in 1973. Encouraged by the director, Marcia Haydée, Forsythe began choreographing works for the company and in 1976 he choreographed his first piece, Urlicht. He became the Stuttgart's resident choreographer in 1976 and that same year created his first piece for the company, Dream of Galilei. During the next seven years he created original works for the Stuttgart Ensemble, and for ballet companies in Munich, The Hague, London, Basel, Berlin, Frankfurt am Main, Paris, New York, and San Francisco. In 1979, Forsythe choreographed and created his first full-length ballet called Orpheus. Forsythe left Stuttgart Ballet in 1980 to choreograph for other companies such as Munich State Opera Ballet, Nederlands Dans Theater, the Frankfurt Ballet, and the Paris Opera Ballet. In 1984 he was appointed director of the government-sponsored Ballet Frankfurt. Forsythe choreographed what is now looked at as his most famous ballet known worldwide. The ballet was titled In the Middle, Somewhat Elevated and was commissioned by Rudolf Nureyev starring Sylvie Guillem. In 2002, however, the Frankfurt government began to withdraw its support in order to cut costs and to favor a more conventional dance company. The public protested, but Forsythe decided to move on, and in 2004 the Frankfurt Ballet gave its last performance. After the closure of Ballet Frankfurt in 2004, he founded the Forsythe Company (2005) with the support of the states of Saxony and Hesse, the cities of Dresden and Frankfurt am Main, and private sponsors and which he directed until 2015.

The Forsythe Company, based in Dresden and Frankfurt am Main, was about half the size of the Frankfurt Ballet, but nearly all of its dancers were from that company. Forsythe continued to present his vision to a wide audience. With bases in Frankfurt and Dresden and supported by both state and private funding, the Forsythe Company made its debut in 2005 with the premiere of Forsythe's Three Atmospheric Studies. A major retrospective of Forsythe's work was presented at the Pinakothek der Moderne in Munich in 2006, and in subsequent years, his company toured across Europe, appearing in Paris, Zürich, and London. In 2009 London held a monthlong "Focus on Forsythe" celebration that included events across the city, a traveling multimedia installation, and the performance of Nowhere and Everywhere at the Same Time, an elaborate installation piece at the Tate Modern, in which dancers weaved through hundreds of suspended pendulums.  Forsythe's works developed during this time were performed exclusively by The Forsythe Company, while his earlier pieces are prominently featured in the repertoire of virtually every major ballet company in the world, including Mariinsky Ballet, New York City Ballet, San Francisco Ballet, National Ballet of Canada, Dresden Semperoper Ballet, England's Royal Ballet, and the Paris Opera Ballet.

Throughout his career, Forsythe has experimented with a freer approach to choreography in which the dancers are allowed to make choices about order and timing comparable to those made by musicians playing a cadenza. As a training tool for dancers, he developed a CD-ROM entitled Improvisation Technologies (1995), which in turn resulted in the piece Self Meant to Govern, the first part of the evening-length work, Eidos: Telos (1995) which used monitors to provide dancers with verbal cues that spurred movement responses.

Forsythe has produced and collaborated on numerous installation works, including White Bouncy Castle (1997, in collaboration with Dana Caspersen and Joel Ryan), City of Abstracts (2000), Nowhere and Everywhere at the Same Time No. 2 (2013) and Black Flags (2014). Installation works by Forsythe have been shown at the Whitney Biennial (New York, 1997), Louvre Museum (2006), Tate Modern (London, 2009), ), MoMA (New York 2010), Venice Biennale (2005, 2009, 2012, 2014), Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (2020) and other locations. Forsythe has been commissioned to produce architectural and performance installations by architect-artist Daniel Libeskind, ARTANGEL (London), Creative Time (New York), and the City of Paris. Forsythe is known to teach at universities and cultural institutions as a guest artist. He became one of the Dance Mentors for the Rolex Mentor and Protege Arts Initiative in 2002. Forsythe was also given honorary degrees such as his Doctorate from The Juilliard School in New York City and was given the title Honorary Fellow at the Laban Centre for Movement and Dance in London.

Awards received by Forsythe and his ensembles include the New York Dance and Performance "Bessie" Award (1988, 1998, 2004, 2007) and London's Laurence Olivier Award (1992, 1999, 2009). Forsythe has been conveyed the title of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (1999) by the government of France and has received the Hessian Cultural Prize (1995), the German Distinguished Service Cross (1997), the Wexner Prize (2002), the Golden Lion of the Venice Biennale (2010), Samuel H Scripps / American Dance Festival Award for Lifetime Achievement (2012), the Grand Prix de la SACD (2016) and the German theatre prize DER FAUST Lifetime Achievement Award (2020).

Between 2015 and 2021, Forsythe was professor at the University of Southern California's newly created Glorya Kaufman School of Dance and artistic advisor at the university's Choreographic Institute. Moreover, in 2015 The Forsythe Company changed its name to Dresden Frankfurt Dance Company and continued under the directorship of choreographer Jacopo Godani.

Style
Forsythe believes that classical ballet is a language with rules to follow. However, although he is trained with these rules, he is much more interested in bending and eventually breaking these guidelines. His style is based on classical ballet, using traditional positions, but developing them to the extreme. Many of his pieces are danced on pointe, but he has used all kind of footwear, including work-boots, socks, and slippers, in order to explore different choreographic results. Forsythe's choreographic style is both postmodern and deconstructivist. Similar to the style of other postmodernists, Forsythe plays with the unexpected, moments of improvisation, and he emphasizes process within the creation of his works. The extreme positions involved in his ballets require a great deal of flexibility, and, in fact, most of his dancers possess that skill.

Forsythe's early work in Stuttgart was created mostly for commission, and all of these early works were neoclassical. However, even in these early years, Forsythe states that he was criticized for creating work that was too modern. As his career progressed Forsythe shifted the focus to the methods of his working, which included space and dynamics. Forsythe's choreographic style often includes political themes. He believes that the rehearsal space is inherently political because each individual lives their politics through their everyday behaviors. In an interview Forsythe said, "I wasn't about to go into politics, but I could perform a political experiment locally." The movement style itself drew inspiration from the work of George Balanchine. Forsythe was drawn to the musicality, speed, and lightness of Balanchine's work. Forsythe's emphasis on space is evident in his big, long, and exaggerated movements. Very fast footwork, and shaped hands—often with the lines broken at the wrists—are at the base of his vocabulary. The arms are intended to lead many of the movements within this technique, unlike the more classical teachings of moving the arms and legs simultaneously.

Weight change plays a major part in his work, which is especially evident in his partner-work. The dancers stretch and pull each other far from their center-lines, with the idea being that each will pull the other so far from center that a counterbalance is created between them. This element of counterbalance contrasts with more classical partnering techniques that mainly focus on keeping the ballerina upright and helping her to maintain her balance.

While Forsythe deconstructs the classical technique of ballet, he additionally challenges social norms and the representation of these norms within art. For example, in his work Behind the China Dogs, Albert Evans dances with lean and fluid movements—qualities typically viewed as feminine—as Helene Alexopaulos moves fiercely, and with muscular movements—qualities typically viewed as "masculine". In all of his work, the dancers are prompted to extend their limbs past their kinespheres, stretching the arms and legs away from the torso.

From a structural point of view, he likes to play with the expectations of the audience. In the second act of Artifact (1984), for example, he raises and lowers the curtains in the middle of the dance, in order to change drastically the environment on stage, and willingly lights the dancers.

Most of Forsythe's pieces use electronic scores composed by Thom Willems. Forsythe and Willems both believe that music and dance are independent from each other, and that, even though they coincide in dynamics and length, neither of the two is there to illustrate the other. Their main concern is the inner structure of their works, so they leave the emotional interpretation to the audience or the listener.

Selected works

1976 Urlicht
1983 Gänge
1983 France/Dance
1984 Artifact
1985 Steptext
1986 Isabelle's Dance
1986 Die Befragung des Robert Scott
1987 In the Middle, Somewhat Elevated
1988 Impressing the Czar
1990 Limb's Theorem
1991 The Second Detail
1991 Loss of Small Detail
1992 ALIE/N A(C)TION
1995 Self Meant to Govern
1995 Eidos:Telos
1996 The Vertiginous Thrill of Exactitude
1997 Hypothetical Streams 2
1998 Workwithinwork
1999 Endless House
2000 One Flat Thing, reproduced
2000 Kammer/Kammer
2001 Woolf Phrase
2002 Double/Single
2003 Decreation
2005 Three Atmospheric Studies
2005 You Made Me a Monster
2005 Human Writes
2005 Nowhere and Everywhere
2006 Heterotopia
2007 The Defenders
2008/2010 Yes We Can't
2008 I Don't Believe in Outer Space
2009 The Returns
2011 Sider
2016 Blake Works I
2018  "Playlist (Track 1,2)"
2018  "A Quiet Evening of Dance"
2019  "Playlist (EP)"
2020  "The Barre Project (Blake Works II)"

Dance and visual arts
William Forsythe is also known for his work in combining the choreographic and visual arts. He has produced and collaborated on numerous installation works, which he refers to as Choreographic Objects,  including White Bouncy Castle (1997, in collaboration with Dana Caspersen and Joel Ryan), City of Abstracts (2000), Scattered Crowd (2002), The Fact of Matter (2009), Nowhere and Everywhere at the Same Time No. 2 (2013), Black Flags (2014) and Underall (2017). Installation works by Forsythe have been shown at the Whitney Biennial (New York, 1997), Louvre Museum (2006), Pinakothek der Moderne in Munich (2006), 21_21 Design Sight in Tokyo (2007), Wexner Center for the Arts, Columbus (2009), Tate Modern (London, 2009), ), MoMA (New York 2010), Venice Biennale (2005, 2009, 2012, 2014), 20th Biennale of Sydney (2016), Museum Folkwang (2019), Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (2020) and Kunsthaus Zürich (2021) and other locations. Forsythe has been commissioned to produce architectural and performance installations by architect-artist Daniel Libeskind, ARTANGEL (London), Creative Time (New York), and the City of Paris.

Forsythe collaborated with different educators and media specialists in order to create new ways to document dance. His first online program was a computer application titled Improvisation Technologies: A Tool for the Analytical Dance Eye, which he created in 1994. This application was used by professional companies, dance conservatories, universities, postgraduate architecture programs, and secondary schools throughout the world, and it was the inspiration for his later application Synchronous Objects. Synchronous Objects was launched in 2009, and "One Flat Thing" was reproduced on a digital online score  developed by Ohio State University. The process was revealed, and people began to discover that the choreographic scores and the principles of choreography itself could be applied to other fields. After the success of Synchronous Objects came Forsythe's Motion Bank. Motion Bank is a research platform with a focus on creating and researching online digital scores in collaboration with guest choreographers.

Awards
"Bessie" Award (1988, 1998, 2004, 2007)
Laurence Olivier Award (1992, 1999)
Government of France – Commandeur des Arts et Lettres (1999)
Service Cross – Germany (1997)
Wexner Prize (2002)
Deutscher Tanzpreis (2004)
Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement – Venice (2010)

See also
 List of dancers

References

External links
The Forsythe Company

1949 births
Living people
Jacksonville University alumni
Contemporary dance choreographers
Bessie Award winners
Members of the Academy of Arts, Berlin

William Forsythe (choreographer)


Mechanical love er en dokumentarfilm fra 2008 instrueret af Phie Ambo efter manuskript af Phie Ambo.

Handling
En af verdens førende forskere, japaneren Hiroshi Ishiguro, har i flere år arbejdet med robotudvikling. Han har med stor succes skabt verdens første androide, en 99,9% vellignende kopi af sig selv. Den er klar til at træde i hans sted og udfylde hans plads som ekspert, underviser, familiefar og ægtemand. I MECHANICAL LOVE følger filmen med ind i laboratoriet, da han første gang introducerer sin familie for sin androide. Et andet sted i Japan har forskere anført af professor Takanori Shibata udviklet babysælen Paro. Den lille pelsklædte robot som i dag er et udbredt elektronisk kæledyr og tegner til at blive en vigtig japansk eksportvare har også sneget sig ind i den sociale sektor i bl.a. Europa. Her har vi for længst ladet robotterne overtage det tunge og slidsomme arbejde i industrien. Men hvor går vores grænser og hvor meget skal vi være i stand til at forstå os på robotter for også at kunne acceptere og elske dem? Er der noget der hindrer os i at lade robotterne overtage de tomme pladser i plejesektoren? Hvis en robot kan erstatte den store mangel på ledige hænder og give vores gamle borgere følelsen af tryghed og kærlighed, hvorfor lader vi så ikke robotterne overtage?

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2008

Mechanical love


Jörgen Strand (born 15 March 1963) is a politician of Åland. He was elected as member of the Lagting in 1999 and served until 2011. During this period he served on the Culture, Finance, Business, and Grand Committees. He also was the Depute Premier or Minister of Industry and Trade, and the Minister of Finance. He was re-elected to parliament in 2019.

Strand was the Chairman of the Åland Conservatives 2003–2007.

See also
Government of Åland

References

External links
Picture of Jörgen Strand

1963 births
Living people
Members of the Parliament of Åland

Jörgen Strand


was a town located in Shimomashiki District, Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan.

In 2003, the town had an estimated population of 7,409 and a population density of . The total area was .

On November 1, 2004, Tomochi, along with the town of Chūō (also inShimomashiki District), was merged to create the town of Misato and no longer exists as an independent municipality.

External links
 Official website of Misato

Dissolved municipalities of Kumamoto Prefecture

Tomochi, Kumamoto


Cette page regroupe les résultats détaillés de l'élection présidentielle française de 2022, dans les communes de Polynésie française. Le premier tour a lieu le samedi 09 avril 2022 et le second tour le samedi 23 avril 2022.

Le ministère de l'Intérieur publie des totalisations durant la nuit qui suit le scrutin, avant les éventuelles corrections du Conseil constitutionnel le jeudi suivant le scrutin.

Premier tour
Les candidats sont placés en fonction du tirage au sort du Conseil constitutionnel du .

Polynesie française

Second tour

En Polynésie française

Par commune de Polynésie française

Références

Élection présidentielle française de 2022
Présidentielle française, 2022

Élection présidentielle française de 2022 en Polynésie française


NGC 6651 je spiralna galaktika u zviježđu Zmaju.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

  Hartmut Frommert: Revidirani Novi opći katalog
  Izvangalaktička baza podataka NASA-e i IPAC-a
  Astronomska baza podataka SIMBAD
   VizieR
 DSS-ova slika NGC 6651
  Auke Slotegraaf: NGC 6651 Deep Sky Observer's Companion
  NGC 6651  DSO-tražilica
  Courtney Seligman: Objekti Novog općeg kataloga: NGC 6650 - 6699

6651

NGC 6651


22338 Janemojo este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
22338 Janemojo este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Observatorul Palomar de Carolyn S. Shoemaker și David H. Levy. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,90 ua, o excentricitate de 0,29 și o înclinație de 14,7° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 22001-23000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1992
Centura de asteroizi

22338 Janemojo


An Schoenus maschalinus in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Johann Jakob Roemer ngan Schult.. An Schoenus maschalinus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Schoenus, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Schoenus

Schoenus maschalinus


Besir Demiri (n. 1 august 1994) este un fotbalist albanez care joacă pentru Mariupol pe posturile de mijlocaș defensiv și fundaș stânga. În 2018 a fost convocat la echipa națională de fotbal a Albaniei, jucând în trecut și pentru echipa națională a Macedoniei.

Cariera pe echipe
Demiri a început să joace fotbal la grupele de tineret al lui FK Shkupi, iar în 2013 a ajuns la prima echipe care juca în al doilea eșalon al fotbalului macedonean  După doi ani la Shkupi, în ianuarie 2015 s-a transferat la FK Shkendija pentru a juca în Prima Ligă a Macedoniei. În decembrie 2016 sa transferat la Vardar. În februarie 2018 s-a transferat la clubul din Prima Ligă Ucraineană FC Mariupol.

Cariera la națională
Demiri și-a făcut debutul pentru echipa națională a Macedoniei U21 în 2014 pentru care a jucat constant în următorii 2 ani. La 27 iunie 2016, după ce a marcat un gol în meciul de calificare la Euro U21 împotriva Ucrainei U21, Demiri a fost convocat la echipa mare a Macedoniei. Doar 2 zile mai târziu, el și-a făcut debutul pentru echipa națională în victoria scor 3-1 împotriva Azerbaijanului, în care a fost înlocuit cu Bojan Najdenov în minutul 83. La 2 septembrie 2018, a fost chemat la echipa națională de fotbal a Albaniei pentru meciurile din Liga Națiunilor UEFA 2018-2019.

Referințe

Legături externe

Fotbaliști internaționali macedoneni
Fotbaliști macedoneni
Mijlocași
Oameni în viață
Nașteri în 1994

Besir Demiri


A Relação Nacional de Plantas Medicinais de Interesse ao SUS (RENISUS) é uma lista constituída de 71 espécies vegetais com potencial de gerar produtos úteis para o Sistema de Saúde Único.

Conta com parceria de grupos colaboradores constituídos por pesquisadores, pós-graduandos e graduandos, com conhecimento na área de plantas medicinais, de Instituições de Ensino das diversas regiões do país.

O RENISUS surgiu em 2009 apresentando plantas medicinais com potencial para gerar produtos de interesse ao SUS.
A principal finalidade da lista é orientar pesquisas que auxiliem na elaboração de embasamento científico de fitoterápicos disponíveis para uso da população, com segurança e eficácia para o tratamento de determinada doença.

Algumas plantas presentes no RENISUS também se encontram no RENAME (Relação Nacional de Medicamentos Essenciais) , que contempla os medicamentos e insumos disponibilizados no SUS, além de determinados medicamentos de uso hospitalar e outros insumos para saúde.

Os fitoterápicos ofertados pelo RENAME são:

Fonte da tabela: RELAÇÃO NACIONAL DE MEDICAMENTOS ESSENCIAIS ESSENCIAIS 2022 - MINISTÉRIO DA SAÚDE

Lista de espécies do RENISUS nativas do Brasil
Anacardium occidentale - caju

Ananas comosus - abacaxi

Apuleia ferrea = Caesalpinia ferrea - pau-ferro brasileiro

Arrabidaea chica - crajiru

Baccharis trimera - carqueja

Bauhinia spp. (B. affinis, B. fortificata, B. variegata) - pata-de-vaca

Bidens pilosa - picão preto

Carapa guianensis - andiroba

Casearia sylvestris - guaçatonga

Copaifera sp. - copaíba

Cordra sp. (C. curassavica, C. verbenacea) - erva-baleeira

Costus sp. (C. scaber, C. spicatus) - cana-de-macaco

Croton sp. (C. cajucara, C. zehntneri)

Dalbergia subcymosa - verônica

Eleutherine plicata - marupazinho

Erythrina mulungu - murungu

Eugenia uniflora ou Myrtus brasiliana - pitanga

Justicia pectoralis - melhoral

Lippia sidoides - alecrim-pimenta

Maytenus sp. (M. aquifolium, M. ilicifolia) - espinheira-santa

Mikania sp. (M. glomerata, M. laevigata) - guaco

Orbignya speciosa - babaçu

Passiflora sp. (P. alata, P. edulis) - maracujá

Polygonum punctatum - erva-do-bicho

Schinus terebinthifolius = Schinus aroeira - aroeira-vermelha

Solanum paniculatum - jurubeba

Solidago microglossa - arnica do Brasil

Stryphnodendron adstringens = Stryphnodendron barbatiman - barbatimão-verdadeiro

Tabebuia avellanedae = Handroanthus impetiginosus - ipê-roxo

Uncaria tomentosa - unha-de-gato

Vernonia sp. (V. ruficoma, V. polyanthes) - assa-peixe

Potencial fitoterápico de algumas plantas nativas

Anacardium occidentale – caju
As diversas partes do caju apresentam atividades interessantes para o homem. A casca, flores e folhas apresentam atividade antimicrobiana. O pseudofruto contém vitamina C, antocianinas e polifenóis e apresenta atividade antioxidante.

Ananas comosus – abacaxi
No abacaxi o que chama atenção é a proteína chamada bromelina, que é capaz de prevenir a formação de edema e diminuição de edema já existente, prevenir a agregação plaquetária, atua como agente antiinflamatório, apresenta aumento da atividade imune contra células tumorais em estudos in vitro, auxilia na digestão, entre diversos outros benefícios.

Apulea ferreia = Caesalpinia ferreia - pau-ferro brasileiro
O extrato do fruto do pau-ferro é utilizado como cicatrizante, além de apresentar atividades antimicrobianas, anti-inflamatórias, analgésicas e antioxidante. As folhas possuem efeito hipoglicêmico, sendo descritas como potencial fitoterápico a ser usado no tratamento da diabetes mellitus.

Baccharis trimera – carqueja
Possui potencial antimicrobiano e propriedades digestivas, como analgésico e anti-inflamatório.

Maytenus sp. (M. aquifolium, M. ilicifolia) - espinheira-santa
Possui grande potencial para tratar problemas de gastrite e úlcera gástrica por ter efeito antiácido, antidispéptico e protetor da mucosa gástrica.

Mikania sp. (M. glomerata, M. laevigata) – guaco
Utilizada por décadas no tratamento de doenças respiratórias como asma, bronquite e tosse por apresentar ação broncodilatadora e expectorante. Alguns estudos têm comprovado atividade antimicrobiana, antialérgica, anti-inflamatória, antidiarreica e antifúngica.

Solanum paniculatum – jurubeba
Estudos demonstram atividade antioxidante, diurético, antiherpético e hepatoprotetor, antidiarreica e anti-inflamatória. O extrato de folhas inibe a replicação do vírus do herpes humano tipo 1. Na medicina popular a jurubeba é usada por propriedades colagoga, colerética, emenagoga, cicatrizante, antianemica e por sua ação geral contra distúrbios gástricos e hepáticos.

Solidago microglossa - arnica do Brasil
As propriedades medicinais da arnica em sua maioria estão relacionadas a processos inflamatórios. Trabalhos reportaram efeito anti-inflamatório com o extrato aquoso de folhas da arnica. Outros efeitos terapêuticos reportados foram os efeitos hipoglicêmicos e hipolipemiantes do extrato hidroalcoólico das partes aéreas e atividade estimulante gastrointestinal e cicatrizante.

Vernonia sp. (V. ruficoma, V. polyanthes) - assa-peixe
Utilizada na etnomedicina para o tratamento de várias doenças, como bronquite, pneumonia, tosse persistente, febre, malária, reumatismo, pedras nos rins, distúrbios gástricos, hematomas e luxações.

Referências

Plantas medicinais

Renisus


A state school or public school is a primary or secondary school that educates all students without charge. Such schools are funded in whole or in part by taxation.

State-funded schools exist in virtually every country of the world,  though there are significant variations in their structure and educational programmes. Government funded education generally encompasses primary and secondary education (4 years old to 18 years old).

By region and country

Africa

South Africa

In South Africa, a state school or government school refers to a school that is state-controlled. These are officially called public schools according to the South African Schools Act of 1996, but it is a term that is not used colloquially. The Act recognised two categories of schools: public and independent. Independent schools include all private schools and schools that are privately governed. Independent schools with low tuition fees are state-aided and receive a subsidy on a sliding-scale. Traditional private schools that charge high fees receive no state subsidy.

State schools are all state-owned, including section 21 schools (formerly referred to as "model C" or semi-private schools) that have a governing body and a degree of budget autonomy, as these are still fully owned and accountable to the state.

Americas

Canada

Per the Canadian constitution, public-school education in Canada is a provincial responsibility and, as such, there are many variations among the provinces. Junior kindergarten (or equivalent) exists as an official program in only Ontario and Quebec while kindergarten (or equivalent) is available in every province, but provincial funding and the level of hours provided varies widely. Starting at grade one, at about age six, there is universal Crown-funded access up to grade twelve (or equivalent). Schools are generally divided into elementary schools (kindergarten to Grade 8) and high schools (Grades 9 to 12). However, in many areas, middle schools are also provided and in some schools, particularly in rural areas, the elementary and middle levels can be combined into one school. In 2003, Grade 13 (also known as the Ontario Academic Credit or "OAC" year) was eliminated in Ontario; it had previously been required only for students who intended to go on to university. Children are required to attend school until the age of sixteen in most provinces, while students in Ontario and New Brunswick must attend schools until the age of 18.

Some Canadian provinces offer segregated-by-religious-choice, but nonetheless Crown-funded and Crown-regulated, religiously based education. In Ontario, for example, Roman Catholic schools are known as "Catholic school" or "Separate school", not "Public school", although these are, by definition, no less "public" than their secular counterparts.

Latin America

In some countries, such as Brazil and Mexico, the term public schools ( in Spanish,  in Portuguese) is used for educational institutions owned by the federal, state, or city governments which do not charge tuition. Such schools exist in all levels of education, from the very beginning through post-secondary studies. Mexico has nine years of free and compulsory primary and secondary education.

Panama has 11 years of compulsory education, from pre-kindergarten to 9th grade, with children first entering at four or five years old and parents are required by law to give financial support to their children until they are 25 years old if they are studying.

Education in Argentina is a responsibility shared by the national government, the provinces and federal district and private institutions, though basic guidelines have historically been set by the Ministry of Education. Closely associated in Argentina with President Domingo Sarmiento's assertion that "the sovereign should be educated" (sovereign referring to the people), education has been extended nearly universally and its maintenance remains central to political and cultural debate. Even though education at all levels, including universities, has always been free, there is a large number of private schools and universities.

United States

In the United States, the term state school is colloquial for state university, a college, or a university in a state university system. Instead, the term public school is used for elementary, middle, and high schools funded or run by a governmental entity. Private school generally refers to primary, secondary and tertiary educational institutions that are not government-owned; in practice the term is generally used to refer to non-sectarian schools.

Elementary, middle, and high schools that are operated by a religious organisation are commonly called parochial schools (though, in practice, the term is generally used to refer only to schools operated by the Catholic Church or some other mainline denomination; the term Christian school is generally used to refer to schools operated by Evangelical, Pentecostal/Charismatic, or Fundamentalist Christian churches).

The role of the federal government in education is limited and indirect. Direct control of education is a power reserved to the states under the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution because the Constitution does not explicitly or implicitly give the federal government authority to regulate education. However, any public or private school that accepts educational funding from the federal government, including participation in collegiate federal financial aid programs (such as Pell Grants and Stafford Loans), by accepting the funds or participating in a particular federal program, subjects itself to federal jurisdiction to the extent of that participation.

The United States Department of Education supervises the role of the federal government in education. Direct regulation of public, private and parochial schools is done by state and territorial governments; schools in Washington, D.C., are regulated by the District Government. Broad regulation of public schools is typically accomplished through a state education agency and a state department of education. There is usually a state superintendent of schools, who is appointed or elected to co-ordinate the state department of education, the state board of education, and the state legislature itself. Statewide education policies are disseminated to school "districts" or their equivalents. They are associated with counties, or with groups of counties, but their boundaries are not necessarily coterminous with county boundaries.  The intermediate school districts encompass many local school districts.  The local school districts operate with their own local boards, which oversee operations of the individual schools within their jurisdiction.

In most states, the county or regional "intermediate" school districts merely implement state education policy and provide the channels through which a local district communicates with a state board of education, state superintendent, and department of education. They do not establish county or regional policies of their own.

Local school districts are administered by local school boards, which operate public elementary and high schools within their boundaries. Public schools are often funded by local taxpayers, and most school boards are elected. However, some states have adopted new funding models that are not dependent upon the local economy.

Public schools are provided mainly by local governments. Curricula, funding, teaching, and other policies are set through locally elected school boards by jurisdiction over school districts. The school districts are special-purpose districts authorised by provisions of state law. Generally, state governments set minimum standards relating to almost all activities of elementary and high schools, as well as funding and authorisation to enact local school taxes to support the schools, primarily through real property taxes. The federal government funds aid to states and school districts that meet minimum federal standards. School accreditation decisions are made by voluntary regional associations. The first free public school in America was the Syms-Eaton Academy (1634) in Hampton, Virginia, and the first tax-supported public school in America was in Dedham, Massachusetts, founded by Rev. Ralph Wheelock. In the United States, 88% of students attend public schools, compared with 9% who attend parochial schools, 1% who attend private independent schools, and 2% who are homeschooled.

Public school is normally split up into three stages: elementary school (kindergarten to 5th or 6th grade), middle ("intermediate" or junior high school) from 5th, 6th, or 7th grade to 8th or 9th grade, and high school (9th or 10th to 12th grade).

The middle school format is increasingly common in which the elementary school contains kindergarten or 1st grade to 5th or 6th grade and the middle School contains 6th or 7th and 8th grade. In addition, some elementary schools are splitting into two levels, sometimes in separate buildings: elementary school (usually K–2) and intermediate (3–5). Some middle schools are different.

The K-8 format is also an emerging popular concept in which students may attend only two schools for all of their K–12 education. Many charter schools feature the K-8 format in which all elementary grades are housed in one section of the school, and the traditional junior high school students are housed in another section of the school. Some very small school districts, primarily in rural areas, still maintain a K–12 system in which all students are housed in a single school.  A few 7–12 schools also exist.

In the United States, institutions of higher education that are operated and subsidised by the states are also referred to as "public." However, unlike public high schools, public universities charge tuition, but fees are usually much lower than those charged by private universities, particularly for students who meet in-state residency criteria. Community colleges, state colleges, and state universities are examples of public institutions of higher education. In particular, many state universities are regarded as among the best institutions of higher education in the US but usually are surpassed in ranking by certain private universities and colleges, such as those of the Ivy League, which are often very expensive and extremely selective in the students they accept. In several states, the administrations of public universities are elected via the general electoral ballot.

Asia

Bangladesh

Public or Government-funded schools are found throughout Bangladesh. These schools mostly teach students from Year 1 to 10, with examination for students in year 10. All public schools follow the National Board Curriculum. Many children, especially girls, drop out of school after completing the 5th Year in remote areas. In larger cities such as Dhaka and Chittagong, however, this is fairly uncommon. Many good public schools conduct an entrance exam, although most public schools in the villages and small towns usually do not. Public schools are often the only option for parents and children in rural areas, but there are large numbers of private schools in Dhaka and Chittagong. Many Bangladeshi private schools teach their students in English and follow curricula from overseas, but in public schools lessons are taught in Bengali.

China

In China, state schools are funded and administered by the education sector within the government. Although some, especially high schools, have started to charge a fair portion of parents of students an additional tuition fee, due to the increased places offered by the schools in recent years. Top state schools are often very selective, however. Students who miss their entrance requirement may still gain places if they meet a relatively lower requirement and their parents are willing to pay for the additional fees. Some parents appreciate the idea as they may send their children to good schools even though they may not be academically qualified, while others believe that it is not fair for someone who has a background of poverty.

The public spending on schools in China has been uneven due to insufficient investment in education. This condition is in favor of urban schools and it is promoted by past policies such as the mandate for rural public schools to have a higher student-to-teacher ratio. The inequality of resources is exacerbated by the way public schools in urban areas enjoy more support since local governments have more developed economies. Aside from the disparity between urban and rural public schools, there was also the dichotomized system adopted since 1978, which divided schools into two groups: key schools () and non-key schools (). Key schools receive more funding due to the goal of developing first-class education in a limited number of schools in a short period of time. The key school system was canceled by the 2006 amendment to the Compulsory Education Law, along with the introduction of reforms that address education inequality.

Hong Kong

In Hong Kong the term government schools is used for free schools funded by the government.

There are also subsidised schools (which are the majority in Hong Kong and many of which are run by religious organisations), "Direct Subsidy Scheme" schools, private schools and international schools in Hong Kong. Some schools are international schools, which are not subsidised by the government.

India

During British rule, a number of state higher education establishments were set up (such as Universities in Chennai, Kolkata, and Mumbai), but little was done by the British in terms of primary and secondary schooling. Other indigenous forms of education are being revived in various ways across India. According to current estimates, 80% of all Indian schools are government schools making the government the major provider of education. However, because of the poor quality of public education, 27% of Indian children are privately educated.
According to some research, private schools often provide superior educational results at a fraction of the unit cost of government schools. The teacher to student ratio is usually much lower in private schools than in the government ones, creating more competitive students.
Education in India is provided by the public sector as well as the private sector, with control and funding coming from three levels: federal, state, and local. The Nalanda University was the oldest university-system of education in the world. Western education became ingrained into Indian society with the establishment of the British Raj.

Indonesia

Education in Indonesia is overseen by two government ministries: the Ministry of Education and Culture for all education matters up to the tertiary education, and the Ministry of Religious Affairs for Islamic school matters up to the tertiary education.

Education may be obtained from state schools, private schools, or through homeschooling. There is a 12-year compulsory education program from the government.

The Indonesian educational system is divided into three stages:
 primary education ();
 secondary education ();
 tertiary education ()

Japan

Most students attend public schools through the lower secondary level, but private education is popular at the upper secondary and university levels.

South Korea

(Contents from Wikipedia Korea)
The first public education system on record was put in place during the Koryo Dynasty. The national school system was put in place under Hak-Je () enacted by King Seong Jong, which was modelled after the public education systems of the Song and Tang Dynasties in China. Hak-Je involved operating national universities, called Gukjagam in the capital and called HyangAk in other regions. In King SeongJong Year 6, 987 A.D., a pair of a medical doctor and a scholarly doctor were appointed to administer academic systems and curriculums at Hyang-Ak: scholarly education included subjects of geography, history, math, law, and others. In King SeongJong Year 11, 992 A.D., the first known national public schools called Ju-Hak () were opened in each Ju and Gun, states and counties, to improve nationwide academic performances.

Joseon Dynasty ()

Joseon changed the name of the university to Seonggyungwan ().

Dae-Han-Je-Guk ()

Im-Si-Jeong-Bu ()

Dae-Han-Min-Guk (, a.k.a. South Korea)

After the ceasefire agreement for the civil war was declared, north and south states of Korea established their own education system.

In South Korea, education in public schools (1–12) is compulsory with the exception of kindergarten. All aspects of public education are the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, which executes administration of schools, allocation of funding, certification of teachers and schools, and curriculum development with standardised textbooks across the country.

In the year 2000, South Korea spent 4.2% of its GDP in education. As of the 2007 UN Education Index, South Korea is ranked 8th in the world.

Malaysia

Education in Malaysia is overseen by two government ministries: the Ministry of Education for matters up to the secondary level, and the Ministry of Higher Education for tertiary education. Although education is the responsibility of the federal government, each state has an Education Department to help co-ordinate educational matters in their respective states. The main legislation governing education is the Education Act of 1996.

Education may be obtained from government-sponsored schools, private schools, or through homeschooling. By law, primary education is compulsory. As in other Asian countries such as Singapore and China, standardised tests are a common feature.

Philippines

Philippines has had a public education system since 1863 and is the oldest in Asia. It was created during the Spanish colonization of the islands and mandated the establishment of a school for boys and a school for girls in every municipality. The modern public schools in the Philippines are run by the Department of Education. Some public schools collect miscellaneous school fees to fund school extra-curricular activities or to improve school equipment and services.

Sri Lanka

Most of the schools in Sri Lanka are maintained by the government as a part of the free education. With the establishment of the provincial council system in the 1980s the central government handed control of most schools to local governments. However the old schools which had been around since the colonial times were retained by the central government, thus creating three types of government schools: National Schools, Provincial Schools, and Piriven.

National Schools come under the direct control of the Ministry of Education therefore have direct funding from the ministry. Provincial Schools consists of the vast majority of schools in Sri Lanka which are funded and controlled by the local governments. Piriven are monastic college (similar to a seminary) for the education of Buddhist priests. These have been the centres of secondary and higher education in ancient times for lay people as well. Today these are funded and maintained by the Ministry of Education.

Thailand

Sukavich Rangsitpol laid out his plans for educational reform in Thailand. The goal of education reform is to realize the potential of Thai people to develop themselves for the better quality of life and to develop the nation for peaceful co-existence in the world community. According to UNESCO the reform results in, The government provides free 12 years of education for all children. Eighth Thailand's National Social and Economic Development Plan was also written to support the implementation of an education reform program. This program was later added to the 1997 Constitution of Thailand and gave access to all citizens.

Europe

Denmark

The Danish School system is supported today by tax-based governmental and municipal funding from day care through primary and secondary education to higher education and there are no tuition fees for regular students in public schools and universities.

The Danish public primary schools, covering the entire period of compulsory education, are called folkeskoler (literally 'people's schools' or 'public schools'). The  consists of a pre-school class (mandatory since 2009), the 9-year obligatory course and a voluntary 11th year. It thus caters for pupils aged 6 to 17.

It is also possible for parents to send their children to various kinds of private schools. These schools also receive government funding, although they are not public. In addition to this funding, these schools may charge a fee from the parents.

France

The French educational system is highly centralised, organised, and ramified. It is divided into three stages:
 primary education ();
 secondary education ();
 tertiary or college education ()

Schooling in France is mandatory as of age three. Primary ecucation takes place in kindergarten () for children from 3 to 6 and () from 6 to 11. For public schools, both schools building and administrative staff are managed by the borough's () while professors are () civil servants. Some children even start earlier at age two in  or  class, which is essentially a daycare facility.

French secondary education is divided into two schools:
 the  for the first four years directly following primary school;
 the  for the next three years.

The completion of secondary studies leads to the .

The baccalauréat (also known as ) is the end-of- diploma students sit for in order to enter university, a Classe préparatoire aux grandes écoles, or professional life. The term  refers to the diploma and the examinations themselves. It is comparable to British A-Levels, American SATs, the Irish Leaving Certificate and German Abitur.

Most students sit for the  which is divided into three streams of study, called . The  (S) is concerned with mathematics and natural sciences, the  (ES) with economics and social sciences, and the  (L) focuses on French and foreign languages and philosophy.

The Grandes écoles of France are higher education establishments outside the mainstream framework of the public universities. They are generally focused on a single subject area, such as engineering, have a moderate size, and are often quite (sometimes extremely) selective in their admission of students. They are widely regarded as prestigious, and traditionally have produced most of France's scientists and executives.

Germany

Education in Germany is provided to a large extent by the government, with control coming from state level, (Länder) and funding coming from two levels: federal and state. Curricula, funding, teaching, and other policies are set through the respective state's ministry of education. Decisions about the acknowledgment of private schools (the German equivalent to accreditation in the US) are also made by these ministries. However, public schools are automatically recognised, since these schools are supervised directly by the ministry of education bureaucracy.

Although the first kindergarten in the world was opened in 1840 by Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel in the German town of Bad Blankenburg, and the term kindergarten is even a loanword from the German language, they are not part of the German school system. Article 7 Paragraph 6 of the German constitution (the Grundgesetz) abolished pre-school as part of the German school system. However, virtually all German kindergartens are public. They are either directly run by municipal governments, or contracted out, most often, to the two largest Christian churches in Germany. These municipal kindergartens are financed by taxes and progressive income-based customer fees, but are not considered part of the public school system.

A German public school does not charge tuition fees. The first stage of the German public school system is the  (primary school – 1st to 4th grade or, in Berlin and Brandenburg, 1st to 6th grade) After  (at 10 or 12 years of age), there are four secondary schooling options:
 Hauptschule (the least academic, much like a modernised Volksschule) until 9th or, in Berlin and North Rhine-Westphalia, until 10th grade. The students attending those types of school may be awarded the Hauptschulabschluss (school-leaving certificate) or in some cases also the Mittlere Reife
 Realschule (formerly ) until 10th grade, usually awards the Mittlere Reife
 Gymnasium (high school) until 12th grade or 13th grade, with Abitur as exit exam, qualifying for admission to university.
 Gesamtschule (comprehensive school) with all the options of the three "tracks" above.

A  largely corresponds to an American high school. However, it offers the same school leaving certificates as the other three types of German secondary schools: the  (school leaving certificate of a  after 9th grade or in Berlin and North Rhine-Westphalia after 10th grade), the , also called Mittlere Reife, (school-leaving certificate of a  after 10th grade) and , also called , after 13th or seldom after 12th grade. Students who graduate from  or  continue their schooling at a vocational school until they have full job qualifications.
This type of German school, the , is generally an upper-secondary public vocational school, controlled by the German federal government. It is part of Germany's dual education system. Students who graduate from a vocational school and students who graduate with good GPA from a  can continue their schooling at another type of German public secondary school, the , a vocational high school. The school leaving exam of this type of school, the , enables the graduate to start studying at a  (polytechnic), and in Hesse also at a university within the state. The  from a  or  enables the graduate to start studying at a polytechnic or at a university in all states of Germany.

A number of schools for mature students exists. Schools such as the Abendrealschule serve students that are headed for the Mittlere Reife. Schools such as the Aufbaugymnasium or the Abendgymnasium prepare students for college and finish with the Abitur. These schools are usually free of charge.

In Germany, most institutions of higher education are subsidised by German states and are therefore also referred to as  (public universities) In most German states, admission to public universities is still cheap, about two hundred Euro per semester. In 2005, many states introduced additional fees of 500 Euro per semester to achieve a better teaching-quality; however, all of these states except Lower Saxony, which will follow in 2014–2015 have abolished tuition fees as of autumn 2013. Additional fees for guest or graduate students are charged by many universities.

Ireland

In the Republic of Ireland, post-primary education comprises secondary, community and comprehensive schools, as well as community colleges (formerly vocational schools). Most secondary schools are publicly funded, and regulated by the state, but privately owned and managed. Community colleges are state-established and administered by Education and Training Boards (ETBs), while community and comprehensive schools are managed by Boards of Management of differing compositions.

Privately owned and managed secondary schools receive a direct grant from the state, and are subdivided into fee-paying and non fee-paying schools. The vast majority of these schools are operated by religious organisations, primarily the Catholic Church and the Church of Ireland. The charging of fees is a decision of the individual school. The Irish constitution requires the state to "endeavour to supplement and give reasonable aid to private and corporate educational initiative, and, when the public good requires it, provide other educational facilities or institutions with due regard, however, for the rights of parents, especially in the matter of religious and moral formation." In practice, most people are educated by Catholic institutions as there are few alternatives in much of the country. Non fee-paying secondary schools are usually considered to be public or state schools, while private school and fee-paying schools are considered synonymous. This is colloquial and not technically accurate.

All schools which are provided for by the state, including privately run and fee-paying secondary schools, teach the national curriculum. All students are expected to take the standardised Junior Certificate examination after three years. An optional non-academic Transition Year is provided by most but not all secondary schools immediately following the Junior Certificate. Students subsequently take one of three leaving-certificate programmes: the traditional Leaving Certificate, the Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme (LCVP) or the Leaving Certificate Applied (LCA). The vast majority of secondary school students take the traditional Leaving Certificate. Both the traditional Leaving Certificate and the Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme can lead to third-level education, with LCVP more focused on practical skills.

Italy

In Italy a state school system or education system has existed since 1859, two years before Italian unification).
Italy has a long history of universities: founded in 1088, the University of Bologna is the oldest university in the world and 5 out of 10 of the oldest universities are currently based in Italy.

The Italian school system is divided into three grades:
 Primary education (non-compulsory nursery school and elementary school)
 Secondary education (first grade (11–14) and second grade (14–19))
 Higher education (university (19+))

In Italy there are three different types of schools and upper education:
  – public/state-owned school: completely free of charge for the entire compulsory school (until the age of 16). After that, for the last two years of high school, students have to pay a tax of €15.13/year. Public university is free of charge for lower income students and increases based on income. Each university chooses the maximum amount of tuition and how to cluster it based on the student's income.
  – privately-owned school that has signed an agreement with the MIUR and that are included in the (Italian) National Education System. The government provides a specific grant for each student. Students usually have to pay a high fee for each year at the school.  schools are considered part of the educational system and students of those schools receive the same type of diploma and can access the same support (local school government) as the state-owned schools.
  – privately-owned school not included in the National Education System. They do not receive government funds and students have to pass the final exams in a public or  school in order to get a diploma.

Differently from other countries, in the Italian educational system, public schools statistically give students a better preparation compared to  and private schools.

The Netherlands

Public, special (religious), and general-special (neutral) schools are government-financed, receiving equal financial support from the government if certain criteria are met. Although they are officially free of charge, these schools may ask for a parental contribution. Private schools rely on their own funds, but they are highly uncommon in the Netherlands.

Romania

All schools up to high school are publicly funded in Romania and regulated by the Ministry of National Education. Higher education like universities may be state sponsored under certain conditions (family income and school performance). Although there are private schools in Romania, they are not a popular choice since the quality of education is on par with the public schools.

Russia

Education in Russia is provided predominantly by the state and is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Science. Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. Russia's expenditure on education has grown from 2.7% of the GDP in 2005 to 3.8% in 2013, but remains below the OECD average of 5.2%.

Spain

Sweden

Swedish state schools are funded by tax money. This goes for both primary schools (Swedish: ), and secondary school (Swedish: ) and universities. When studying at a university, however, students might have to pay for accommodation and literature. There are private schools as well which also receive funding from the government, but they may charge a fee from the parents.

Compulsory education starts at six years of age, starting in  (pre-school). The Swedish primary school is split into three parts;  – 'the low stage', which covers grades 1 to 3. Students learn the basics of the three core subjects – in Swedish called  – Swedish, English and mathematics. It also includes some natural science. , 'the middle stage', which covers grades 4 to 6, introduces the children to more detailed subjects. Woodwork and needlework, social and domestic science, and even a second, foreign language in grade 6, a  (B-language). The languages available are usually French, Spanish or German depending on the school. , 'the high stage', is the last stage of compulsory education, between grades 7 and 9. This is when studies get more in-depth and are taken to an international level.

Swedish children take national exams at grades 3, 6 and 9. Children at grade 3 take these exams in two of the three main subjects: Swedish and mathematics. In grade 6 the exams extend to the third main subject, English, and in grade 9 the exams also extend to one of the subjects in natural sciences, and one of the four subjects in  (geography, history, religious studies, and civics). They first receive grades in grade 6. The grading system is letter-based, ranging from A–F, where F is the lowest grade and A is the highest. F means "not approved", while all other ratings above F mean "approved". There are only objectives for E, C and A; D means the person has met most (but not all) objectives for C, while B means the person has met most objectives for A. When applying to  (senior high schools) or universities, a  ('meritous point value') is calculated. E is worth 10 points, D 12.5 points, C 15 points, and so on. Children that are not approved in Swedish, English or mathematics will have to study at a special high school program called the introductory program. Once they are approved, they may apply to an ordinary high school program. Swedes study at high school for three years, between the ages of 16 and 18.

United Kingdom

England

There are a number of categories of English state-funded schools including academy schools, community schools, faith schools, foundation schools, free schools, grammar schools, studio schools, university technical colleges, state boarding schools and City Technology Colleges.

About one third of English state-funded schools are faith schools; i.e. affiliated with religious groups, most often from the Church of England (approximately 2/3 of faith schools), or the Roman Catholic Church (around 3/10). There are also schools affiliated to other Christian churches; in 2011, there were 42 Jewish, 12 Muslim, 3 Sikh and 1 Hindu faith schools. These faith schools include sub-categories such as faith-academy schools, voluntary aided schools, and voluntary controlled schools: most voluntary controlled schools are faith schools.

All of these are funded through national and local taxation. All state-funded schools in England are required to follow the National Curriculum, which is made up of twelve subjects. Every state school must offer a curriculum which is balanced and broadly based and which promotes the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development of pupils at the school and of society, and prepares pupils at the school for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of later life.For each of the statutory curriculum subjects, the Secretary of State for Education is required to set out a Programme of Study which outlines the content and matters which must be taught in those subjects at the relevant Key Stages.  Teachers should set high expectations for every pupil. They should plan stretching work for pupils whose attainment is significantly above the expected standard. Teachers should use appropriate assessment to set targets which are deliberately ambitious. A high number of state-funded secondary schools are specialist schools, receiving extra funding to develop one or more subjects in which the school specialises, such as Cirencester Deer Park School which currently has 5 specialisms. State schools may request payment from parents for extracurricular activities such as swimming lessons and field trips, provided these charges are voluntary.Comprehensive schools typically describe secondary schools for pupils aged approximately 11–18, that do not select its intake on the basis of academic achievement or aptitude, in contrast to a selective school system where admission is restricted on the basis of selection criteria, usually academic performance. The term is commonly used in relation to England and Wales, where comprehensive schools were introduced as state schools on an experimental basis in the 1940s and became more widespread from 1965. About 90% of English secondary school pupils attend a comprehensive state school. Comprehensive schools provide an entitlement curriculum to all children, without selection whether due to financial considerations or attainment. A consequence of that is a wider ranging curriculum, including practical subjects such as design and technology and vocational learning.

Technical and vocational education in state schools are introduced during the secondary school years and goes on into Further Education (FE) and Higher Education (HE). Further education incorporates vocational oriented education as well as a combination of general secondary education. Students can also go on to a further education college or sixth form college to prepare themselves for a wide range of apprenticeships and study, including Business and Technology Education Council (BTEC) and National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs).

Major provider of vocational qualifications in England include the City and Guilds of London Institute and Edexcel. Higher National Certificates and Higher National Diplomas typically require 1 and 2 years of full-time study and credit from either HNE or Diplomas can be transferred toward an undergraduate degree. Along with the HNC and HND, students who are interested in other vocational qualifications may pursue a foundation degree, which is a qualification that trains people to be highly skilled technicians. The National Apprenticeship Service also offers vocational education where people at ages of 16 and older enter apprenticeships in order to learn a skilled trade. There are over 60 different certifications can be obtained through an apprenticeship, which typically lasts from  to 3 years. Trades apprentices receive paid wages during training and spend one day at school and the rest in the workplace to hone their skills.

Maths free schools like Exeter Mathematics School are for 16 to 19 year pupils who have a great aptitude for maths. As set out in the government's Industrial Strategy, maths schools help to encourage highly skilled graduates in sectors that depend on science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) skills. The aim of maths schools is to prepare the most mathematically able pupils to succeed in mathematics-related disciplines at highly selective maths universities and pursue mathematically intensive careers. Maths schools can also be centres of excellence in raising attainment, supporting and influencing the teaching of mathematics in their surrounding area, and are central to their associated universities' widening participation commitments.

Grammar schools may be run by the local authority, a foundation body or an academy trust. They select their pupils based on academic ability.  The original purpose of medieval grammar schools was the teaching of Latin. Over time the curriculum was broadened, first to include Ancient Greek, and later English and other European languages, natural sciences, mathematics, history, geography, art and other subjects. In some localities children can enter a prestigious grammar school if they pass the eleven plus exam; there are also a number of isolated fully selective grammar schools and a few dozen partially selective schools. The oldest state school in England is Beverley Grammar School, which was founded in 700 AD.

Scotland

The Church of Scotland was established in 1560, during the Protestant Reformation period as the official state religion in Scotland, and in the following year it set out to provide a school in every parish controlled by the local kirk-session, with education to be provided free to the poor, and the expectation that church pressure would ensure that all children took part. In the year of 1633 the Parliament of Scotland introduced local taxation to fund this provision. Schooling was not free, but the tax support kept fees low, and the church and charity funded poorer students. This had considerable success, but by the late 18th century the physical extent of some parishes and population growth in others led to an increasing role for "adventure schools" funded from fees and for schools funded by religious charities, initially Protestant and later Roman Catholic.

In 1872, education for all children aged 5 to 13 was made compulsory with "public schools" (in the Scots meaning of schools for the general public) under local school boards. The leaving age was raised to 14 in 1883, and the Leaving Certificate Examination was introduced in 1888 to set national standards for secondary education. School fees were ended in 1890. The Scottish Education Department ran the system centrally, with local authorities running the schools with considerable autonomy. In 1999, following devolution from the Parliament of the United Kingdom to the new Scottish Parliament, central organisation of education was taken over by departments of the Scottish Executive, with running the schools coming under unitary authority districts.

In Scotland, the term public school, in official use since 1872, traditionally means "a state-controlled school run by the local burgh or county education authority, generally non-fee-paying and supported by contributions from local and national taxation". Largely due to the earlier introduction of state-administered universal education in Scotland and opposed to the rest of the United Kingdom, the term became associated with state schools. The designation was incorporated into the name of many of these older publicly run institutions.

Children in Scottish state schools (or public schools) typically start primary school, or attend a junior school, aged between four and a half and five and a half depending on when the child's birthday falls. Children born between March and August would start school at the age of five years and those born between September and February start school at age four-and-a-half. Pupils remain at primary school for seven years completing Primary One to Seven.

Then aged eleven or twelve, pupils start secondary school for a compulsory period of four years, with a final two years thereafter being optional. Pupils take National 4 & 5 examinations at the age of fifteen/sixteen, sometimes earlier, most often for up to eight subjects. These include compulsory exams in English, mathematics, a foreign language, a science subject and a social subject. It is now a requirement of the Scottish Government that all pupils have two hours of physical education a week. Each school may arrange these compulsory requirements in different combinations. The minimum school leaving age is generally sixteen, after completion of Standard Grade examinations. Pupils who continue their school education after the age of sixteen, may choose to study for Access, Intermediate or Higher Grade and Advanced Higher exams.

The Curriculum for Excellence was introduced to secondary schools in session 2012/2013. The assessment of pupils' attainment will change, with 'National' qualifications replacing most Standard Grade and Intermediate Grade qualifications.

Oceania

Australia

Government schools (also known as public or state schools) are free to attend for Australian citizens and permanent residents, whereas private schools charge attendance fees. They can be divided into two categories: open and selective schools. The open schools accept all students from their government-defined catchment areas, whereas selective schools admit students based on some specific criteria, e.g. academic merit. As of 2022, Australia has one of the most privatised education systems in the world with more than 30 per cent of primary students and over 40 per cent of secondary students attending private schools, while the OECD average is around 18 per cent

Regardless of whether a school is part of the Government or private systems, they are required to adhere to the same curriculum frameworks of their state or territory. The curriculum framework however provides for some flexibility in the syllabus, so that subjects such as religious education can be taught. Most school students wear uniforms.

The name for a government-funded primary school varies by state and territory. In New South Wales, the name "public school" is used. In Queensland, the name "state school" is used. In every other state and territory, the name "primary school" is used.

New Zealand

Both state and state-integrated schools are government-funded. The latter are former private schools which are now "integrated" into the state system under the Private Schools Conditional Integration Act 1975 "on a basis which will preserve and safeguard the special character of the education provided by them". According to an OECD report, about 86% of all school-aged children attend state schools and 10% attend state integrated schools.

The government provides education as a right—it is freely available up to the end of the calendar year following a student's 19th birthday. Primary and secondary education is compulsory for students between the ages of 6 and 16, although in practice most children enrol at school on their 5th birthday. Most students start at age 5 and remain in school for the full 13 years. While there is overlap in some schools, primary education ends at Year 8 and secondary education at Year 13. In some areas Years 7 and 8 are considered part of intermediate school—a separate school which acts as a bridge between primary and secondary education—leaving primary school to end at Year 6.

See also

 Compulsory education#By country
 Education Index
 Free education
 Public university

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

 Heller, Frank: Lessons from Maine: Education Vouchers for Students since 1873, Cato Institute, Sep. 10, 2001.
 Thattai, Deeptha: A History of Public Education in the United States.
 Michael Pons, NEA: School Vouchers: The Emerging Track Record
 Steve Suitts, Southern Education Foundation. "Crisis of a New Majority: Low-Income Students in the South's Public Schools" Southern Spaces. April 16, 2008.
 Li Yi. 2005. The Structure and Evolution of Chinese Social Stratification. University Press of America.

Public education
School systems

State school


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La Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias forma parte del conjunto de facultades de la Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez en las ciudades de Santiago y Viña del Mar, en Chile.

Historia

La junta directiva de la Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez decide crear el año 1989 la Escuela de Ingeniería Industrial y la carrera de Ingeniería Civil Industrial. En marzo de 1990 ingresan los primeros 55 estudiantes en la sede de Viña del Mar, quienes realizaron la carrera en un plan de estudios de seis años, cuando la Escuela cuenta con dos profesores de jornada completa, el Director y el Jefe de Docencia.

En 1996 se crea en Viña del Mar la Facultad de Ciencias y Tecnología que acoge a la Escuela de Ingeniería y a la carrera de Ingeniería Civil Industrial. Tres años más tarde, se crea una sede en Santiago e ingresan los primeros 55 estudiantes.

A partir del año 2001, la universidad inicia un cambio en la estructura y desarrollo de la docencia de los programas de pregrado. De este modo, los estudiantes que buscan ser Ingenieros Civiles Industriales, ingresan a la Licenciatura en Ciencias, donde la malla curricular contempla un plan de artes liberales.

El 2004 se crea el Centro de Investigación en Innovación y Emprendimiento, CIE, el cual es un espacio de vinculación entre las empresas y la Universidad.

En 2005 se realiza un cambio en la metodología de enseñanza de la Ingeniería Civil, orientado a enfatizar el vínculo entre el aprendizaje y la aplicación. Este proceso implicó la inclusión de diez talleres, uno en cada semestre, los que junto a los Talleres de Titulación que se rinden en el último año, constituyeron la columna vertebral de la carrera.

Al año siguiente, se crea el Centro de Investigación en Informática y Telecomunicaciones.

En 2007, el nombre de la Facultad cambia a Ingeniería y Ciencias para reflejar el compromiso con la Ingeniería, entendida como etapa final y que incluye la idea de operación de sistemas.

En 2008 se introducen las carreras de Ingeniería Civil en Bioingeniería, Ingeniería Civil en Energía y Medioambiente e Ingeniería Civil] en Informática y Telecomunicaciones.

En 2009 se reduce a cinco años en el plan de estudios para optar al Título de Ingeniero Civil siendo la primera universidad en Chile en hacerlo.

En 2010 se crean las carreras de Ingeniería Civil en Obras Civiles e Ingeniería Civil en Minería.

Postgrados
Se imparten 2 programas de doctorado, en Sistemas Complejos y en Management Science, y ocho programas de magísteres especializados:

 Magíster en Ciencias de la Ingeniería en Tecnologías de la Información y Telecomunicaciones
 Magíster en Ciencias de la Ingeniería en Energía y Medio Ambiente
 Magíster en Ciencias de la Ingeniería en Ingeniería Industrial
 Magíster en Ciencias de la Ingeniería en Bioingeniería
 Magíster en Gestión y Emprendimiento Tecnológico
 Magíster en Ingeniería Financiera
 Magíster en Management Science
 Magíster en Innovación y Emprendimiento

Centros de Investigación

En 2011 se crea la oficina de Investigación Aplicada, que brinda apoyo a los distintos Centros de Investigación en la gestión de los proyectos de I+D.

 Centro de Innovación y Negocios en Bioingeniería,
 Centro de Innovación en Energía,
 Centro de Informática y Telecomunicaciones,
 Centro de Logística
 Centro de Modelamiento y Sistemas Complejos
 Centro de Centro de innovación en Minería

Carreras
Se imparten 6 carreras en esta Facultad las cuales son:

 Ingeniería Civil Industrial.
 Ingeniería Civil en Obras Civiles.
 Ingeniería Civil en Minería.
 Ingeniería Civil en Informática y Telecomunicaciones.
 Ingeniería Civil en Energía y MedioAmbiente.
 Ingeniería Civil en Bioingeniería.

Enlaces externos
 Sitio oficial de la UAI
 Sitio oficial de la Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias

Facultades y escuelas de ingeniería de Chile
Ingenieria y Ciencias

Facultad de Ingeniería y Ciencias (Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez)


Svätá Mária este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Trebišov din regiunea Košice. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 567 de locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Svätá Mária este atestată documentar din 1261.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Svätá Mária


Munca forțată este un termen generic sau colectiv pentru acele relații de muncă, în special în istoria modernă timpurie sau modernă, în care oamenii sunt angajați împotriva voinței lor, sub amenințarea sărăciei, detenției, actelor de violență (inclusiv moartea), constrângerilor sau altor forme de greutăți pentru ei sau membrii familiilor lor.

Munca forțată include toate formele de sclavie și activitățile conexe (de exemplu, muncă pentru stingerea datoriilor, iobăgie, corvoadă și lagăre de muncă). Multe dintre aceste forme de muncă sunt acoperite de termenul de muncă forțată, care este definit de Organizația Internațională a Muncii (OIM) ca fiind toate serviciile involuntare sau impuse sub amenințarea unei sancțiuni.

Situația actuală
Organizația Internațională a Muncii (OIM) estimează că cel puțin 12,3 milioane de persoane sunt victime ale muncii forțate în întreaga lume; dintre acestea, 9,8 milioane sunt exploatate de către agenții privați și mai mult de 2,4 milioane sunt traficate. Alte 2,5 milioane de persoane sunt obligate să lucreze de către stat sau de către grupurile militare rebele. Din perspectiva dreptului internațional, țările care permit munca forțată încalcă standardele internaționale de muncă, stabilite prin Convenția pentru abolirea muncii forțate (C105), una dintre convențiile fundamentale ale OIM.

Forme

Sclavie
Forma arhetipală și cea mai cunoscută de muncă forțată este sclavia, în care lucrătorii individuali sunt deținuți din punct de vedere legal pe tot timpul vieții lor și pot fi cumpărați, vânduți sau schimbați de către proprietari, în timp ce niciodată sau rareori nu obțin niciun beneficiu personal de pe urma muncii lor. Sclavia a fost obișnuită în multe societăți antice, inclusiv Egiptul antic, Babilon, Persia, Grecia antică, Roma, Palestina antică, China antică, statele arabe, precum și în mai multe societăți din Africa și cele două Americi. Vânzarea ca sclavi era o soartă comună pentru populațiile cucerite în războaie. Poate cel mai important exemplu de sclavie a fost înrobirea mai multor milioane de oameni de culoare din Africa, precum și transportarea lor forțată în America, în Asia sau, în număr mult mai mic, în Europa, unde statutul lor de sclavi a fost de obicei moștenit de urmașii lor.

Potrivit lui Kevin Bales, în Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy  (1999), se estimează că există acum aproximativ 27 de milioane de sclavi în întreaga lume.

Practicarea unor servicii de interes public

Serviciile comunitare
În Elveția, în general, și în Austria și Germania, în cazuri rare, cetățenii trebuie să participe la serviciul obligatoriu de prevenire și de stingere a incendiilor. În unele landuri germane, în teorie, este posibil ca autoritățile de stat să-i oblige pe cetățeni să presteze servicii publice, numite Hand- und Spanndienste.

Muncă silnică
În Codul Penal românesc din 1864, în articolul 10 se regăsesc următoarele prevederi:

Munca silnică se va face, sau în minele Statului, sau în stabilimentele penitenciare. .... Acei condamnați la asemenea pedeapsă vor fi supuși la un regim aspru. Ei vor fi puși în fiare. Acei cari lucreză la mine, noaptea se vor scoate afară și se vor închide în temniță, având și fiare de picioare. .... Osânda la munca silnică pe viață sau pe timp mărginit nu se va putea pronunța în contra acelora cari, la pronunțarea sentinței definitive, vor fi împlinit al 60-lea an, și în locul acestei pedepse se vor osândi la recluziune pe acelaș timp pe care ar fi trebuit a se osândi la munca silnică.

Lagăre de muncă

Un alt exemplu semnificativ istoric de muncă forțată a fost acela practicat de deținuții politici, de locuitorii țărilor cucerite sau ocupate, de membrii unor minorități persecutate și de prizonierii de război, mai ales în cursul secolului al XX-lea. Cele mai cunoscute exemple în acest sens sunt sistemul lagărelor de concentrare organizat de Germania Nazistă și alianți ei, Ungaria, România, care au arestat cetățenii evrei și i-au trimis la muncă forțată în timpul celui de-al Doilea Război Mondial, lagărele de tip Gulag organizate în Uniunea Sovietică și munca forțată impusă de către forțele militare ale Imperiului Japonez, mai ales în timpul Războiului din Pacific (precum cel de la Calea Ferată din Burma). Aproximativ 4.000.000 de prizonierii de război germani au fost obligați să presteze "muncă de despăgubire" de către Aliați timp de mai mulți ani după capitularea Germaniei; acest lucru a fost permis de prevederile celei de-a Treia Convenții de la Geneva cu condiția ca muncitorii să aibă parte de un tratament adecvat. Sistemul chinez Laogai ("reforma muncii") și taberele Kwalliso din Coreea de Nord sunt exemple actuale de practicare a muncii forțate.

Aproximativ 12 milioane de muncitori forțați, dintre care majoritatea erau cetățeni polonezi și sovietici (Ost-Arbeiter), au fost angajați în economia de război germană în interiorul Germaniei Naziste. Mai mult de 2000 de companii germane au profitat de muncitori sclavi în timpul erei Naziste, inclusiv Daimler, Deutsche Bank, Siemens, Volkswagen, Hoechst, Dresdner Bank, Krupp, Allianz, BASF, Bayer, BMW și Degussa.

Khmerii Roșii au încercat să transforme Cambodgia într-o societate fără clase prin depopularea orașelor și forțarea populației urbane ("Oameni noi") să lucreze în comunități agricole. Toată populația a fost forțată să devină fermieri în lagărele de muncă.

Note

Bibliografie
 Allen, Theodore W. (1994). The Invention of the White Race: Racial Oppression and Social Control. New York: Verso Books.  (cloth) --  (paper)
 Allen, Theodore W. (1997). The Invention of the White Race: The Origin of Racial Oppression in Anglo-America, 1997. New York: Verso Books.  (cloth) --  (paper)
 Bales, Kevin. (1999). Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy. Berkeley: University of California Press.
 Brass, Tom, Marcel Van Der Linden, and Jan Lucassen. (1993). Free and Unfree Labour. Amsterdam: International Institute for Social History.
 Brass, Tom. (1999). Towards a Comparative Political Economy of Unfree Labour: Case Studies and Debates. London: Frank Cass Publishers.  (cloth) --  (paper)
 Brass, Tom and Marcel Van Der Linden. (1997). Free and Unfree Labour: The Debate Continues. New York: Peter Lang.  (cloth)
 Brass, Tom. (2011). Labour Regime Change in the Twenty-First Century: Unfreedom, Capitalism and Primitive Accumulation. Leiden: Brill. .
 Brass, Tom. (2017) Labour Markets, Identities, Controversies: Reviews and Essays, 1982-2016. Leiden: Brill. .
 Blackburn. (1997). The Making of New World Slavery From the Baroque to the Modern, 1492–1800, London: Verso Books.  (paper)
 Blackburn, Robin. (1988). The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776–1848. London: Verso Books.  (cloth) --  (paper)
 Hilton, George W. (1960). The Truck System, including a History of the British Truck Acts, 1465-1960. Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons Ltd. [reprinted by Greenwood Press, London, 1975. ]
 Lewis, James Bryant. (2003). Frontier Contact Between Choson Korea and Tokugawa Japan. London: Routledge.
 Guijarro Morales, A.  El Síndrome de la Abuela Esclava. Pandemia del Siglo XXI (The Enslaved Grandmother Syndrome: a 21st-century Pandemic). Grupo Editorial Universitario. Granada, oct 2001. .
 Ruhs, Florian: Foreign Workers in the Second World War.The Ordeal of Slovenians in Germany. , in: aventinus nova Nr. 32 [29.05.2011]
 ILO Minimum Estimate of Forced Labour in the World. (2005)
 The Cost of Coercion ILO 2009
 International Labour Office. (2005). A global alliance against forced labour
 Operational Indicators of Trafficking in Human Beings 2009 ILO/SAP-FL
 Lists of indicators of Trafficking in Human Beings 2009 ILO/SAP-FL
 Eradication of forced labour—General Survey concerning the Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29), and the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105) — ILO 2007
 Forced Labour: Definition, Indicators and Measurement 2004 — ILO
 Stopping Forced Labour 2001 — ILO

Legături externe
 UN.GIFT  — Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking
 Eliminating Forced Labor — Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor
 Slavery in the 21st century—BBC
 Sex trade's reliance on forced labour—BBC
 China's Forced Labour Camps—Laogai Research Foundation
 The ILO Special Action Programme to combat Forced Labour (SAP-FL)
 Alleging Captive Labor, Foreign Students Walk Out of Work-Study Program at Hershey Plant Democracy Now!, 1 septembrie 2011.
 Migrant Workers as Non-Citizens: The Case against Citizenship as a Social Policy Concept, by Donna Baines and Nandita Sharma. Studies in Political Economy 69. Autumn 2002, p. 75.
 Seafood from Slaves  - Associated Press investigation of the international Pacific fishing fleet, 2015-2016, winner of the 2016 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service

Muncă forțată

Muncă forțată


«Los Lagos» puede referirse a:

Toponimia

en Argentina
 Departamento Los Lagos.

en Chile
 Los Lagos (Chile), comuna;
 Región de Los Lagos, región;
 Los Lagos (estación), estación de ferrocarriles;
 Universidad de Los Lagos.

  en España
 Los Lagos (C.P. 03749), en Denia, Alicante.
 Los Lagos (C.P. 33717), en el concejo de Villayón, Asturias.

  en Inglaterra
 Distrito de los Lagos'''.

Los Lagos


Shaúnaka es un nombre aplicado a varios religiosos y académicos de la India antigua.

Etimología

 śaúnaka, en el sistema AITS (alfabeto internacional para la transliteración del sánscrito).
 शौनक, en escritura devanagari del sánscrito.
 Pronunciación: /shaúnaka/ o /shónaka/ (en pronunciación bengalí).
 Etimología: proviene de shúnaka, 'perro'.

Varios Shaúnaka

Personaje mitológico

Shaúnaka rishi es un personaje tardío en la mitología hinduista. No se lo menciona en el Rig-veda (el texto más antiguo de la India, de mediados del II milenio a. C.).
Las leyendas acerca de Shaúnaka aparecen por primera vez en el libro 13 del texto épico-religioso Majábharata (del siglo III a. C.).
En el capítulo 30 del Anusasana Parva del Majábharata, declara que Shaúnaka era hijo de un sabio Shúnaka, cuyo antepasado (en 11 generaciones) había sido el sabio Gritsa-Madá:

Según el Anu-kramaniká, el Asualaiana-srauta-sutra, el Asualaiana-grijia-sutra, el Sankhaiana-grijia-sutra y el Jari-vamsa), Shaúnaka fue maestro del sabio Katiaiana y, especialmente, de Asualaiana.

En algunas leyendas, a veces se lo identifica con su antepasado Gritsa-Madá, un rishi védico.

En cambio según el Visnú-purana (comienzos del primer milenio), Grtsa-Madá era hijo de Shuna Jotra, del clan de Anguiras, pero por voluntad de Indra (el dios principal) fue transferido al clan Brigu como hijo del sabio Shaúnaka.

En cambio en el Bhágavata-purana (del siglo X) dice que Gritsa-Madá fue abuelo de Shaúnaka:

Shaúnaka enseñó el Rigveda-prātiśākhya durante un satra-iagñá (un sacrificio colectivo de fuego a gran escala de 12 días de duración), celebrado en el bosque Naimisha, de acuerdo con Visnú-Mitra de la localidad de Champa, el comentarista del comentario de Uvata al Rig-veda-prati-sakhia.

Según el Visnú-purana, Shaúnaka el inventor del sistema de los cuatro ásramas (las cuatro etapas de la vida humana: estudiante, padre de familia, ermitaño y mendigo).

Shaúnaka tuvo un papel destacado en el texto épico mitológico Majábharata. Todo el texto habría sido narrado a Shaúnaka por un narrador profesional llamado Ugrasrava Sauti durante un cónclave de sabios encabezados por Shaúnaka en un bosque llamado Naimisha.

Escuela de recitación

La Shaúnaka shakha es una escuela de recitación del Átharva-veda (de fines del II milenio a. C.).

Gramático sánscrito

Shaúnaka famoso gramático sánscrito, autor de cinco Anukramani (índices) del Rig-veda (el texto más antiguo de la India, de mediados del II milenio a. C.), del Rig-veda-prati-shakia, del Brijad-devatá y del Charana-viuja.
Se dice que Shaúnaka unió la Bashkala Shakha y la Shakala Shakha (las dos escuelas de recitación del Rig-veda).

Notas

Religiosos hinduistas
Religiosos de India
Personajes del Mahábharata
Títulos y ocupaciones en el hinduismo
Santos hinduistas

Shaunaka