The Freedom of Information Act (FOIA  ), , is the United States federal freedom of information law that requires the full or partial disclosure of previously unreleased or uncirculated information and documents controlled by the U.S. government, state, or other public authority upon request. The act defines agency records subject to disclosure, outlines mandatory disclosure procedures, and includes nine exemptions that define categories of information not subject to disclosure. The act was intended to make U.S. government agencies' functions more transparent so that the American public could more easily identify problems in government functioning and put pressure on Congress, agency officials, and the president to address them. The FOIA has been changed repeatedly by both the legislative and executive branches.

The FOIA is commonly known for being invoked by news organizations for reporting purposes, though such uses make up less than 10% of all requests—which are more frequently made by businesses, law firms, and individuals.

Background
As indicated by its long title, the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) was moved from its original home in Section 3 of the Administrative Procedure Act (APA). Section 3 of the APA, as enacted in 1946, gave agencies broad discretion concerning the publication of governmental records. Following concerns that the provision had become more of a withholding than a disclosure mechanism, Congress amended the section in 1966 as a standalone act to implement "a general philosophy of full agency disclosure." The amendment required agencies to publish their rules of procedure in the Federal Register, 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(1)(C), and to make available for public inspection and copying their opinions, statements of policy, interpretations, and staff manuals and instructions that are not already published in the Federal Register, § 552(a)(2). In addition, § 552(a)(3) requires every agency, "upon any request for records which ... reasonably describes such records" to make such records "promptly available to any person."  By § 552(a)(4)(B) if an agency improperly withholds any documents, the district court has jurisdiction to order their production. Unlike the review of other agency action that must be upheld if supported by substantial evidence and not arbitrary or capricious, FOIA expressly places the burden "on the agency to sustain its action," and directs the district courts to "determine the matter de novo."

With the ongoing stress on both constitutional and inherent rights of American citizens and the added assertion of government subservience to the individual, some, particularly representative John E. Moss, thought that it was necessary for government information to be available to the public. This push built on existing principles and protocols of government administration already in place.

Others, though—most notably President Lyndon B. Johnson—believed that certain types of unclassified government information should nonetheless remain secret. Notwithstanding the White House's opposition, Congress expanded Section 3 of the APA as a standalone measure in 1966 to further standardize the publication of government records, consistent with the belief that the people have the "right to know" about them. The Privacy Act of 1974 was passed as a countervailing measure to ensure the security of government documents increasingly kept on private citizens.

Scope
The act explicitly applies only to government agencies under the executive branch. These agencies are required by several mandates to comply with public solicitation of information. Along with making public and accessible all bureaucratic and technical procedures for applying for documents from that agency, agencies are also subject to penalties for hindering the process of a petition for information. According to the act, if "agency personnel acted arbitrarily or capriciously with respect to the withholding, the Special Counsel shall promptly initiate a proceeding to determine whether disciplinary action is warranted against the officer or employee who was primarily responsible for the withholding." In this way, there is recourse for one seeking information to go to a federal court if suspicion of illegal tampering or delayed sending of records exists. However, nine exemptions address issues of sensitivity and personal rights. They are (as listed in ):

(A) specifically authorized under criteria established by an Executive order to be kept secret in the interest of national defense or foreign policy and (B) are in fact properly classified pursuant to such Executive order;
 related solely to the internal personnel rules and practices of an agency;
 specifically exempted from disclosure by statute (other than section 552b of this title), provided that such statute (A) requires that the matters be withheld from the public in such a manner as to leave no discretion on the issue, or (B) establishes particular criteria for withholding or refers to particular types of matters to be withheld; FOIA Exemption 3 Statutes
 trade secrets and commercial or financial information obtained from a person and privileged or confidential;
 inter-agency or intra-agency memoranda or letters which would not be available by law to a party other than an agency in litigation with the agency;
 personnel and medical files and similar files the disclosure of which would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of personal privacy;
 records or information compiled for law enforcement purposes, but only to the extent that the production of such law enforcement records or information (A) could reasonably be expected to interfere with enforcement proceedings, (B) would deprive a person of a right to a fair trial or an impartial adjudication, (C) could reasonably be expected to constitute an unwarranted invasion of personal privacy, (D) could reasonably be expected to disclose the identity of a confidential source, including a State, local, or foreign agency or authority or any private institution which furnished information on a confidential basis, and, in the case of a record or information compiled by a criminal law enforcement authority in the course of a criminal investigation or by an agency conducting a lawful national security intelligence investigation, information furnished by a confidential source, (E) would disclose techniques and procedures for law enforcement investigations or prosecutions, or would disclose guidelines for law enforcement investigations or prosecutions if such disclosure could reasonably be expected to risk circumvention of the law, or (F) could reasonably be expected to endanger the life or physical safety of any individual;
 contained in or related to examination, operating, or condition reports prepared by, on behalf of, or for the use of an agency responsible for the regulation or supervision of financial institutions; or
 geological and geophysical information and data, including maps, concerning wells.

The Postal Reorganization Act of 1970 (at ) exempts the U.S. Postal Service from disclosure of "information of a commercial nature, including trade secrets, whether or not obtained from a person outside the Postal Service, which under good business practice would not be publicly disclosed".

A federal court has concisely described the vital role of the FOIA in democracy:

Legislative history
The law came about because of the determination of U.S. House of Representatives member John E. Moss of California, who was chairman of the House Government Information Subcommittee. It took Moss 12 years to get the FOIA through Congress. Much of the desire for government transparency stemmed from the Department of Defense and Congressional committees evaluation of the nation's classification system in the late 1950s. They determined that the misuse of government classification of documents was causing insiders to leak documents that were marked "confidential". The committee also determined that the lowest rung of the confidentiality ladder "confidential" should be removed. They deemed that "secret" and "top secret" covered National security adequately. The Moss Committee took it upon itself to reform confidentiality policy and implement punishments for the overuse of classification by officials and departments.

Initial enactment
The FOIA was initially introduced as the bill  in the 89th Congress. When the two-page bill was signed into law, it became , but had an effective date of one year after the date of enactment, or July 4, 1967. The law set up the structure of FOIA as we know it today.
President Lyndon B. Johnson, despite his misgivings, signed the FOIA into law.

That law was initially repealed. During the period between the enactment of the act and its effective date, Title 5 of the United States Code was enacted into positive law. For reasons now unclear but which may have had to do with the way the enactment of Title 5 changed how the law being amended was supposed to be cited, the original Freedom of Information Act was replaced. A new act in  (originally  in the 90th Congress), repealed the original and put in its place a substantively identical law. This statute was signed on June 5, 1967, and had the same effective date as the original statute: July 4, 1967.

Amendments and executive actions

Privacy Act Amendments of 1974
Following the Watergate scandal, President Gerald R. Ford wanted to sign FOIA-strengthening amendments in the Privacy Act of 1974, but White House Chief of Staff Donald Rumsfeld and deputy Dick Cheney were concerned about leaks. Assistant Attorney General for the Office of Legal Counsel Antonin Scalia advised the bill was unconstitutional and even telephoned the CIA asking them to lobby a particular White House staffer.  President Ford was persuaded to veto the bill on October 17, 1974, according to documents declassified in 2004.  However, on November 21, the lame-duck Congress overrode President Ford's veto, giving the United States the core Freedom of Information Act still in effect today, with judicial review of executive secrecy claims.

Scalia remained highly critical of the 1974 amendments, writing years later that "It is the Taj Mahal of the Doctrine of Unanticipated Consequences, the Sistine Chapel of Cost-Benefit Analysis Ignored." Scalia particularly disliked the availability of judicial review, decrying that if "an agency denies a freedom of information request, shazam!—the full force of the Third Branch of the government is summoned to the wronged party's assistance."

Those amendments to the FOIA regulate government control of documents that concern a citizen. They give one "(1) the right to see records about [one]self, subject to the Privacy Act's exemptions, (2) the right to amend that record if it is inaccurate, irrelevant, untimely, or incomplete, and (3) the right to sue the government for violations of the statute including permitting others to see [one's] records unless specifically permitted by the Act." In conjunction with the FOIA, the Privacy Act is used to further the rights of an individual gaining access to information held by the government. The Justice Department's Office of Information and Privacy and federal district courts are the two channels of appeal available to seekers of information.

1976 Government in the Sunshine Act amendments
In 1976, as part of the Government in the Sunshine Act, Exemption 3 of the FOIA was amended so that several exemptions were specified:
Information relating to national defense,
Related solely to internal personnel rules and practices,
Related to accusing a person of a crime,
Related to information where disclosure would constitute a breach of privacy,
Related to investigatory records where the information would harm the proceedings,
Related to information which would lead to financial speculation or endanger the stability of any financial institution, and
Related to the agency's participation in legal proceedings.

1982 Executive Order limiting the FOIA
Between 1982 and 1995, President Reagan's  allowed federal agencies to withhold enormous amounts of information under Exemption 1 (relating to national security information), claiming it would better protect the country and strengthen national security.

The outcry from the effect that the Reagan Order had on FOIA requests was a factor in leading President Clinton to dramatically alter the criteria in 1995.

1986 Omnibus Anti-Drug Abuse Act amendments to the FOIA
The FOIA amendments were a small part of the bipartisan Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986. Congress amended FOIA to address the fees charged by different categories of requesters and the scope of access to law enforcement and national security records. The amendments are not referenced in the congressional reports on the Act, so the floor statements provide an indication of Congressional intent.

1995–99 expansion
Between 1995 and 1999, President Clinton issued executive directives (and amendments to the directives) that allowed the release of previously classified national security documents more than 25 years old and of historical interest, as part of the FOIA. This release of information allowed many previously publicly unknown details about the Cold War and other historical events to be discussed openly.

Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments of 1996

The Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments of 1996 (E-FOIA) stated that all agencies are required by statute to make certain types of records, created by the agency on or after November 1, 1996, available electronically. Agencies must also provide electronic reading rooms for citizens to use to have access to records. Given the large volume of records and limited resources, the amendment also extended the agencies' required response time to FOIA requests. Formerly, the response time was ten days and the amendment extended it to twenty business days.

2001 Executive Order limiting the FOIA
Executive Order 13233, drafted by Alberto R. Gonzales and issued by President George W. Bush on November 1, 2001, restricted access to the records of former presidents.

This order was revoked on January 21, 2009, as part of President Barack Obama's . Public access to presidential records was restored to the original extent of five years (12 for some records) outlined in the Presidential Records Act.

Intelligence Authorization Act of 2002 amending the FOIA
In 2002, Congress passed the Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2003, . Within this omnibus legislation were amendments to the FOIA (pertaining mainly to intelligence agencies) entitled "Prohibition on Compliance with Requests for Information Submitted by Foreign Governments":

In effect, this new language precluded any covered U.S. intelligence agency from disclosing records in response to FOIA requests made by foreign governments or international governmental organizations. By its terms, it prohibits disclosure in response to requests made by such non-U.S. governmental entities either directly or through a "representative". This means that for any FOIA request that by its nature appears as if it might have been made by or on behalf of a non-U.S. governmental entity, a covered agency may inquire into the particular circumstances of the requester in order to properly implement this new FOIA provision.

The agencies affected by this amendment are those that are part of, or contain "an element of", the "intelligence community". As defined in the National Security Act of 1947 (as amended), they consist of the CIA, the National Security Agency, the Defense Intelligence Agency, the National Imagery and Mapping Agency, the National Reconnaissance Office (and certain other reconnaissance offices within the Department of Defense), the intelligence elements of the Army, the Navy, the Air Force, and the Marine Corps, the FBI, the Department of the Treasury, the Department of Energy, and the Coast Guard, the Department of Homeland Security, the Bureau of Intelligence and Research in the Department of State, and "such other elements of any other department or agency as may be designated by the President, or designated jointly by the Director of Central Intelligence and the head of the department or agency concerned, as an element of the intelligence community".

OPEN Government Act of 2007
President Bush signed the Openness Promotes Effectiveness in our National Government Act of 2007, , on December 31, 2007.  This law, also known as the "OPEN Government Act of 2007", amended the federal FOIA statute in several ways. According to a White House press release, it does so by:
establishing a definition of "a representative of the news media;"
directing that required attorney fees be paid from an agency's own appropriation rather than from the Judgment Fund;
prohibiting an agency from assessing certain fees if it fails to comply with FOIA deadlines; and
establishing an Office of Government Information Services (OGIS) in the National Archives and Records Administration to review agency compliance with FOIA.

Changes include the following:
 it recognizes electronic media specifically and defines "News Media" as "any person or entity that gathers information of potential interest to a segment of the public, uses its editorial skills to turn the raw materials into a distinct work, and distributes that work to an audience."
it extends the 20-day deadline by allowing for up to 10 days between the FOIA office of the agency and the component of the agency holding the records and specifically allows for clarification of requests by the FOIA office (Effective 12/31/2007).
it calls for each agency to designate a FOIA Public Liaison, "who shall assist in the resolution of any disputes" (Effective 12/31/2008).
 it requires agencies to assign tracking numbers to FOIA requests that take longer than 10 days, and to provide systems determining the status of a request.
 it codifies and defines annual reporting requirements for each agency's FOIA program.
 it specifically addresses data sources used to generate reports; "shall make the raw statistical data used in its reports available electronically ..."
 it redefines the definition of an agency "record" to include information held for an agency by a government contractor.
 it establishes an Office of Government Information Services (OGIS) which will offer mediation services to resolve disputes as non-exclusive alternative to litigation.
 it requires agencies to make recommendations personnel matters related to FOIA such as whether FOIA performance should be used as a merit factor.
 it requires agencies to specify the specific exemption for each deletion or redaction in disclosed documents.

2009 Executive Order permitting retroactive classification
On December 29, 2009, President Barack Obama issued Executive Order 13526, which allows the government to classify certain specific types of information relevant to national security after it has been requested. That is, a request for information that meets the criteria for availability under FOIA can still be denied if the government determines that the information should have been classified, and unavailable. It also sets a timeline for automatic declassification of old information that is not specifically identified as requiring continued secrecy.

2010 repeal of FOIA amendments in Wall Street reform act
The Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, signed into law in July 2010, included provisions in section 929I that shielded the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) from requests under the Freedom of Information Act.  The provisions were initially motivated out of concern that the FOIA would hinder SEC investigations that involved trade secrets of financial companies, including "watch lists" they gathered about other companies, trading records of investment managers, and "trading algorithms" used by investment firms.

In September 2010, the 111th Congress passed an act repealing those provisions.  The act was introduced in the Senate on August 5, 2010 as S.3717 and given the name "A bill to amend the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the Investment Company Act of 1940, and the Investment Advisers Act of 1940 to provide for certain disclosures under section 552 of title 5, United States Code, (commonly referred to as the Freedom of Information Act), and for other purposes."

Notable cases
A major issue in released documentation is government "redaction" of certain passages deemed applicable to the Exemption section of the FOIA. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) officers in charge of responding to FOIA requests "so heavily redacted the released records as to preclude needed research." This has also brought into question just how one can verify that they have been given complete records in response to a request.

J. Edgar Hoover

This trend of unwillingness to release records was especially evident in the process of making public the FBI files on J. Edgar Hoover. Of the 164 files and about eighteen thousand pages collected by the FBI, two-thirds were withheld from Athan G. Theoharis, most notably one entire folder entitled the "White House Security Survey". Despite finding out that the Truman Library had an accessible file which documented all the reports of this folder, the FBI and Office of Information and Privacy put forth "stony resistance" to the FOIA appeal process.

Department of Justice v. Landano murder trial
A murder trial decided in 1993, Department of Justice v. Landano, , involved what was alleged to be a felony murder committed during a group burglary by defendant Landano. Justice Sandra Day O'Connor wrote the unanimous opinion. "In an effort to support his claim in subsequent state court proceedings that the prosecution violated Brady v. Maryland, , by withholding material exculpatory evidence, he filed Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests with the FBI for information it had compiled in connection with the murder investigation."

In defense, the FBI put forth a claim that the redacted sections of the documents requested were withheld in accordance with FOIA regulations protecting the identity of informants who gave information regarding case details. However, O'Connor ruled that those who supplied information had no need to remain anonymous in the court setting. "To the extent that the Government's proof may compromise legitimate interests, the Government still can attempt to meet its burden with in camera affidavits." The court thus remanded the case to the Circuit Courts and rejected the FBI's claim of confidentiality as being a valid reason to withhold information.

"While most individual sources may expect confidentiality, the Government offers no explanation, other than administrative ease, why that expectation always should be presumed." Thus, when Theoharis and company were in the middle of fighting in court to obtain J. Edgar Hoover files, they may well have benefited from Landano and also Janet Reno's assertions of the government's need for "greater openness" and "discretionary releases" in 1993.

Iran–Contra affair e-mails
In the case of Scott Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, et al., the White House used the PROFS computer communications software. With encryption designed for secure messaging, PROFS notes concerning the Iran–Contra affair (arms-for-hostages) under the Reagan Administration were insulated. However, they were also backed up and transferred to paper memos. The National Security Council, on the eve of President George H. W. Bush's inauguration, planned to destroy these records. The National Security Archive, Armstrong's association for the preservation of government historical documents, obtained an injunction in Federal District Court against the head, John Fawcett, of the National Archives and Records Administration and the National Security Council's purging of PROFS records. A Temporary Restraining Order was approved by Senior U.S. District Court Judge Barrington D. Parker. Suit was filed at District Court under Judge Richey, who upheld the injunction of PROFS records.

Richey gave a further injunction to prevent a purging of the George H.W. Bush's administration's records as well. On counts of leaving the White House clean for the new Clinton Administration, the Bush group appealed but was denied its request. Finally, the Clinton Administration appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals, stating that the National Security Council was not truly an agency but a group of aides to the President and thus not subject to FOIA regulations. Under the Presidential Records Act, "FOIA requests for NSC [could] not be filed until five years after the president ha[d] left office ... or twelve years if the records [were] classified." The Clinton administration won, and the National Security Archive was not granted a writ of certiorari by the Supreme Court on these grounds. According to Scott Armstrong, taking into account labor and material costs, the three presidential administrations spent almost $9.3 million on contesting the National Security Archive FOIA requests for PROFS e-mail records.

Secret e-mail accounts and abusive fees
In 2013, the Associated Press uncovered several federal agencies where staff regularly used fictitious identities and secret or unlisted email accounts to conduct government business. The use of these email accounts stymied FOIA requests. In some cases, the government demanded exorbitant (greater than $1 million) fees for records that appeals showed should be available for minimal cost.

Processing time

The act contains a provision legally requiring agencies to respond to FOIA requests within 20 days, but for two main reasons, many agencies rarely meet this requirement. First, the task of screening requests for sensitive or classified information is often arduous and lengthy at agencies like the FBI and the CIA. Second, congressional funding for agency staff to handle FOIA requests is usually far less than the necessary amount to hire sufficient employees. As a result, parties who request information under FOIA often end up filing lawsuits in federal court seeking judicial orders forcing the agencies to comply with their FOIA requests.

The first major case of this type was the 1976 case Open America v. Watergate Special Prosecution Force, in which Open America had filed a FOIA request with the U.S. Attorney General and the FBI requesting copies of all their documents relating to the role of former FBI Director L. Patrick Gray in the Watergate scandal. The FBI had over 5,000 pending FOIA requests at the time, and did not respond within the statutory 20-day limit. Open America sued in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, and the court issued an order commanding the FBI to either immediately comply with or deny Open America's request. The government appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit, which found that FOIA requests could be categorized into "simple" and "difficult" requests, and that although Open America's request was "difficult", the FBI had been using "due diligence" in responding to it. The court held that because there was no pressing urgency to Open America's request, its lawsuit did not move it to the head of the queue, and it would have to wait its turn. This legal reasoning and holding has been adopted by all other American circuits, though courts continue to complain that FOIA request delays are too long. In the 1983 case McGehee v. CIA the District of Columbia Circuit Court of Appeals stated,

The Center for Effective Government analyzed 15 federal agencies which receive the most FOIA requests in-depth. The organization used a scale considering 3 factors: the clarity of agency rules regarding FOIA requests, quality or 'friendliness' of an agency's FOIA webpage, and the timely, complete manner of processing requests. With this metric, it concluded that federal agencies are struggling to implement public disclosure rules. In the latest analysis published in 2015 (using 2012 and 2013 data, the most recent years available) ten of the 15 did not earn satisfactory overall grades, scoring less than 70 out of a possible 100 points. Eight of the ten earned Ds, including the Department of Homeland Security (69 percent), Department of Transportation (68 percent), United States Department of the Treasury (Treasury) (68 percent), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (67 percent), the United States Department of Labor (63 percent), the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (64 percent), the United States Department of Defense (61 percent), the Securities and Exchange Commission (61 percent). The Department of Health and Human Services and the Department of State earned an F. The State Department's score (37 percent) was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance. Scores of five agencies, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, the Department of Health and Human Services, the SEC, the DOJ, and the EPA, even decreased marginally.

Implementation by government agencies
Starting in 2012, the Federal government job title Government Information Specialist was established for professionals focused on FOIA or privacy matters. Agencies sometimes track or process FOIA requests on websites or systems shared across organizations, such as FOIAonline and eFOIA.

See also
 Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy
 Federal Records Act
 Glomar response
 FOIA Exemption 3 Statutes
 Mosaic theory (US law)
 MuckRock

References

Attribution

Further reading

 (Mentions inadequacy of government response to FOIA requests, e.g. around 22 min. in)

External links

 FOIA.gov – U.S. Department of Justice FOIA complete reference
FOIA Legislative History - The National Security Archive at George Washington University
 Stanford Libraries FOIA archive – Preserved collection of sites that deal with Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests and documents. This includes government sites that receive and distribute FOIA documents (aka "FOIA reading rooms") as well as non-profit organizations and government watchdogs that request large numbers of FOIA documents on specific topics like national security and civil rights.
Freedom of Information Act Resources  – compiled by the Law Librarians' Society of Washington, D.C.
FOIA Wiki – wiki maintained by Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press with explanatory entries on various aspects of FOIA, including caselaw, agency information, and recent FOIA decisions

1966 in American law
Freedom of information legislation in the United States
Privacy law in the United States
United States federal government administration legislation

Freedom of Information Act (United States)


حرب أوسيتيا الجنوبية هي حرب بين جورجيا وروسيا وجمهوريّتي أوسيتيا الجنوبية وأبخازيا. وقعت أحداث الحرب في شهر أغسطس من عام 2008، بعد فترة من تدهور العلاقات بين روسيا وجورجيا، وهما إحدى الدول المؤسسة للاتحاد السوفيتي سابقًا. دار الصراع في منطقة مهمةٍ جدًا من الناحية الاستراتيجية ضمن منطقة جنوب القوقاز. تُعد هذه الحرب أول حرب أوروبية في القرن الحادي والعشرين.

أعلنت جمهورية جورجيا استقلالها في مطلع العام 1991، حينما كان الاتحاد السوفيتي يمرّ بفترة الانهيار. اندلعت حربٌ بين جورجيا والانفصاليين إبان تلك الفترة، وأدت تلك الحرب إلى خضوع أجزاءٍ من أوبلاست أوسيتيا الجنوبية ذاتي الحكم في أيدي روسيا بحكم الأمر الواقع، وهي التي دعمت الانفصاليين على الرغم من غياب الاعتراف العالمي. تمركزت لجنة المراقبة المشتركة عقب الحرب في المنطقة، وتألّفت هذه اللجنة من قوات روسية وجورجيّة وأخرى تابعة للانفصاليين. نشَأت في منطقة أبخازيا أزمةٌ مشابهة حين شنّ الانفصاليون الأبخازيّون حربًا بين عامي 1992 و1993. بدأ تدهور العلاقات الروسية الجورجية بعد انتخاب فلاديمير بوتين رئيسًا في روسيا عام 2000، وتغيُّر النظامِ السياسي في جورجيا عقب ثورة الزهور في عام 2003، فتحوّل الوضع إلى أزمة دبلوماسية بحلول شهر أبريل من عام 2008. إثر ذلك، وبدءًا من 1 أغسطس عام 2008، بدأ الانفصاليون في أوسيتيا الجنوبية قصف القرى الجورجية، ولم تلق تلك الأفعال سوى استجابة غير منتظمة من طرف قوات حفظ السلام الجورجية في المنطقة. خرقت هجمات المدفعية التي شنّها الانفصاليون الموالون لروسيا أحكام اتفاقية وقف إطلاق النار لعام 1992، والتي نصّت على عدم السماح باستخدام هذا النوع من الأسلحة في منطقة النزاع. أعلن الرئيس الجورجي ساكاشفيلي عن هدنة أحادية الجانب في مساء السابع من أغسطس عام 2008، لكنها قوبلت بموجة جديدة من هجمات انفصاليّي أوسيتيا الجنوبية على القرى الجورجية. دفعت هذه الهجمات الحكومة الجورجية إلى «استرجاع النظام دستوريًا»، وإرسال الجيش الجورجي إلى منطقة النزاع في أوسيتيا الجنوبية قبل منتصف ليلة السابع من أغسطس. استولى الجورجيون على معظم أجزاء مدينة تسخينفالي، التي كانت معقلًا للانفصاليين، في غضون ساعات.

أصرّت جورجيا على موقفها القائل إن الجنود الروسيين عبروا الحدود الروسية الجورجية بصورة غير شرعية، قاطعين قناة روكي وصولًا إلى منطقة النزاع بحلول السابع من أغسطس قبل بدء عملية الجيش الجورجي، وهو اتهامٌ تنكره روسيا. جاء في تقرير الاتحاد الأوروبي الشهير أنه «في موقف لا يسمح له» تأكيد ادعاءات الجانب الجورجي أو إثباتها، لكنه أكّد صحة التقارير التي جاءت في وسائل الإعلام الروسية، والتي تشير إلى وجود القوات والمعدات الروسية في الجانب الجنوبي من سلسلة القوقاز ضمن أوسيتيا الجنوبية، خارج تلك الخاضعة لبعثة حفظ السلام. اتهمت روسيا الجانب الجورجي بارتكاب ممارسات عدوانية ضدّ أوسيتيا الجنوبية، وشنّت غزوًا بريًا وجويًا وبحريًا شاملًا على جورجيا في 8 أغسطس، وهي العملية التي أطلقت عليها روسيا اسم «تنفيذ السلام». حاربت قوات روسيا وأوسيتيا الجنوبية القوات الجورجية في جنوب أوسيتيا والمناطق المجاورة لها لمدة أيام، وانتهت المعارك بانسحاب القوات الجورجية. فتحت روسيا وأبخازيا جبهة أخرى عبر الهجوم على وادي كودوري الخاضع لسيطرة جورجيا. فرضت القوات البحرية الروسية حصارًا على جزءٍ من الساحل الجورجي، وهاجمت القوات الروسية الجوية أهدافًا تقع خلف منطقة النزاع، أي في أجزاءٍ غير متنازعٍ عليها ضمن جورجيا. كانت تلك أول حربٍ تتزامن فيها العمليات العسكرية مع الحرب السيبرانية. انتهت الحرب بإبرام الرئيس الفرنسي، نيكولا ساركوزي، مفاوضات أدت إلى توقيع اتفاقية وقف إطلاق النار في 12 أغسطس.

احتلت القوات الروسية مدن زوغديدي وسيناكي وبوتي وغوري لفترةٍ مؤقتة، واحتفظت بتلك المناطق لما بعد الهدنة. دمّر سكان أوسيتيا الجنوبية معظم القرى الجورجية إثنيًا في البلاد، وكان لهم دورٌ في التطهير العرقي للجورجيين. اعترفت روسيا باستقلال أبخازيا وأوسيتيا الجنوبية عن جورجيا في 26 أغسطس، في حين قطعت الحكومة الجورجية العلاقات الدبلوماسية مع روسيا. أكملت روسيا سحب جنودها من المناطق الجورجية غير المتنازع عليها في 8 أكتوبر تقريبًا، ولم تتضرر علاقات روسيا مع المجتمع الدولي جراء الحرب. أدت الحرب إلى نزوح 192 ألف شخص. بقي 20,272 شخصًا، أغلبهم جورجيون، في حالة نزوح بعد انتهاء الحرب على الرغم من عودة أغلب النازحين إلى بلدهم، وتلك البيانات من عام 2014. أصدرت المحكمة الأوروبية لحقوق الإنسان في عام 2021 حكمها في القضية، وأكدت أن روسيا امتلكت حينها «السيطرة المباشرة» على مناطق الانفصاليين، وكانت مسؤولة عن انتهاكات خطيرة لحقوق الإنسان وقعت في تلك المناطق.

الخلفية التاريخية
تقع أوسيتيا الجنوبية وسط جورجيا من ناحية الشمال، وحدودها محاذية لجمهورية أوسيتيا الشمالية. غالبية الأوسيت في جمهورية الجنوب هم من المسيحيين. استولت روسيا على أوسيتيا كاملة عام 1878. قسمتها بعد الثورة البلشفية إلى كيانين، ألحق الشمالي بالاتحاد الروسي والجنوبي بجورجيا.

تحول جورجيا دون توحد أوسيتيا الجنوبية والشمالية. وقد بدأ التوتر في العلاقة بين أوسيتيا الجنوبية وجورجيا مع إتجاه الأخيرة إلى الاستقلال عن الاتحاد السوفيتي. ومع بداية التسعينيات أعلنت أوسيتيا الجنوبية نيتها إعلان المنطقة تابعه للنفوذ الروسي، وهو ما اعترض عليه البرلمان الجورجي، لتبدأ المواجهات بين الانفصاليين في أوسيتيا والشرطة الجورجية ما أسفر عن مقتل أكثر من عشرة.

ويقول الأوسيتيون إن استقلال جورجيا مارس عليهم ضغطاً حيث فرضت الأخيرة مع بداية سنة 1991 استعمال اللغة الجورجية على كل الإدارات الأوسيتية وهذا يشكل تحديا بالنسبة للزعماء الانفصاليين الذين يطالبون باستعمال اللغة الأوسيتية في منطقتهم.

وعرفت نهاية سنة 1991 توتراً شديداً في العلاقة بين الجانبين، حيث تعرض عدد من القرى في أوسيتيا الجنوبية إلى الإحراق والتدمير وسقوط عدد من القتلى، وبالمثل فقد رحلت عن أوسيتيا أعداد كبيرة من الجورجيين في إتجاه مناطق بعيدة.

وتوقفت أعمال العنف سنة 1992 وتوصل الجانبان إلى اتفاق سلام بينهما لكنه يبقى هشاً. ومع تجدد المواجهات منذ سنة 2004، وذلك بالرغم من قيام الرئيس الجورجي ميخائيل ساكاشفيلي سنة 2005 بعرض رؤية بلاده لحل الأزمة مع أوسيتيا في المحافل الدولية. وقد أعلنت أوسيتيا نيتها إجراء استفتاء لتقرير المصير سنة 2006 وهو ما رفضته جورجيا بشدة، واعتبرته روسيا من ناحية أخرى تعبيرا حراً لإرادة الاستقلال. وفي سعيها إلى دعم استقلالها عرفت أوسيتيا إتجاهاً إلى إقامة انتخابات رئاسية، حيث قاد اتحاد إنقاذ أوسيتيا الجنوبية الذي تأسس سنة 2006 انتخابات رئاسية في السنة نفسها جائت بالرئيس ديمتري ساناكويف.

الأحداث الرئيسية

الجمعة 8 أغسطس
 هجوم جورجي على أوسيتيا الجنوبية الجمهورية الانفصالية الموالية للروس نشأت معارك عنيفة بين القوات الأوسيتية والجورجية حول العاصمة تسخينفالي شارك فيها الطيران.
 عمليات قصف روسية على مدينة غوري الجورجية ومطار مارنيولي العسكري (شرق جورجيا).
 موسكو تندد بحالات «التطهير العرقي».
 نداءات دولية لوقف الأعمال العسكرية.
 اجتماع غير ناجح لمجلس الأمن الدولي حول الصراع.

السبت 9 أغسطس
 اندلاع معارك عنيفة في أوسيتيا الجنوبية وروسيا تقصف غوري ومرفأ بوتي الجورجي على البحر الأسود.
 جورجيا تعد نفسها في «حالة حرب» وتأمر بسحب جنودها البالغ عددهم 2000 جندي من العراق.
 هجوم قوات أبخازيا على ممرات كودوري الجزء الوحيد في المنطقة الانفصالية الجورجية الموالية لروسيا الخاضعة لسيطرة الجورجيين.
 رئيس الوزراء الروسي فلاديمير بوتين يبرر التدخل الروسي «بالسياسة الإجرامية» التي تنتهجها جورجيا.
 جورجيا تطلب «مساعدة دولية عاجلة».
 الاتحاد الأوروبي يحذر روسيا مؤكدا أن استمرار العمليات العسكرية «سيؤثر» على علاقاتهما.
 فرنسا تدعو لاجتماع وزراء خارجية الاتحاد الأوروبي الأربعاء وترسل وزير خارجيتها برنار كوشنير في مهمة وساطة للخروج من الأزمة.
 دول البلطيق الثلاث، ليتوانيا وأستونيا ولاتفيا مع بولندا تطالب الاتحاد الأوروبي والحلف الأطلسي بمعارضة «السياسة الإمبريالية» لروسيا.
 فشل اجتماع جديد لمجلس الأمن الدولي ودعوة الأمين العام للأمم المتحدة بان كي مون لإنهاء العمليات العسكرية.
 أذربيجان تعلق صادراتها النفطية عبر المرافئ الجورجية.
 الرئيس الجورجي ميخائيل ساكاشفيلي يقترح وقفا لإطلاق النار على روسيا التي تطالب بانسحاب القوات الجورجية من منطقة النزاع.

الأحد 10 أغسطس
 استمرار المعارك العنيفة في أوسيتيا الجنوبية وعمليات قصف روسية في ممرات كودوري على مرفأ بوتي وعلى مطار عسكري قرب تبليسي.
 موسكو تعلن إرسال 1000 جندي روسي إضافي وسفن حربية إلى جورجيا.
 السلطات الأوسيتية الجنوبية تعلن سقوط 1600 قتيل في تسخينفالي، والسفارة الروسية في تبليسي تقول «ما لا يقل عن 2000 مدني» قتل. وتبليسي تقدر الخسائر الجورجية بـ92 قتيلا.
 تسخينفالي تخضع لسيطرة الجيش الروسي، وجورجيا تسحب قواتها من أوسيتيا الجنوبية وتطالب بوساطة الولايات المتحدة.
 اتفاق بين روسيا وجورجيا على إقامة ممرات إنسانية لإجلاء الجرحى واللاجئين.
 البيت الأبيض يحذر روسيا من أن «تصعيدها غير المتكافئ والخطير» للنزاع في أوسيتيا الجنوبية سينعكس بشكل كبير على علاقاتهما.
 مرسوم صادر عن الرئيس الأبخازي سيرغي باغابش يعلن أبخازيا في «حالة حرب» على جزء من أراضيها الأحد لمدة عشرة أيام.
 دميتري ميدفيديف يندد بما وصفه «إبادة» في أوسيتيا الجنوبية.
 مقتل صحافيين في جنوب أوسيتيا يعملان في وسيلتي إعلام روسيتين، وإصابة صحافيين أميركيين يعملان مع صحيفة «ذي ميسنجر» الجورجية.
 ساكاشفيلي يدعو الحلف الأطلسي والأمم المتحدة والولايات المتحدة لمساعدة بلاده. وتبليسي تدعو روسيا إلى الشروع في مفاوضات وتأمر قواتها بوقف إطلاق النار. في المقابل موسكو تؤكد أن القوات الجورجية تابعت إطلاق النار.
 أبخازيا تقول إن جورجيا حشدت 4000 جندي على امتداد حدودهما.
 قصف جوي على مطار عسكري في جورجيا وسلطات جورجيا تتهم موسكو بقصف مطار تبليسي الدولي وروسيا تنفي.
 موسكو تؤكد أن «لا نية لديها باجتياح جورجيا».
 اتصال مباشر بين وزيري خارجية روسيا وجورجيا.
 تبليسي تسحب 1000 جندي من العراق على أن تستكمل سحب كامل جنودها لاحقا.
 واشنطن تتهم موسكو بالسعي لإسقاط النظام الجورجي وشن جزء_من «ترهيب» في جورجيا. وموسكو ترفض هذه الاتهامات وساكاشفيلي يقول إن وجود جورجيا مهدد.
 موسكو تنفي الاتهامات الأميركية حول نيتها الإطاحة بالرئيس الجورجي.
 وزارة الدفاع الروسية تعلن إغراق سفينة حربية جورجية قاذفة للصواريخ كانت تحاول مهاجمة سفن حربية روسية.
 اللجنة الدولية للصليب الأحمر تعلن نزوح حوالي 40 ألف شخص عن ديارهم جراء النزاع.
 رئاسة الأركان الروسية تعلن أن جورجيا تسحب قواتها من تسخينفالي عاصمة جنوب أوسيتيا التي بسطت قوات حفظ السلام الروسية سيطرتها على «القسم الأكبر منها».
 وزير الخارجية الفرنسي برنار كوشنير يصل تبليسي ويدعو لإيجاد وسائل من أجل وقف إطلاق نار فوري في النزاع القائم بين جورجيا وروسيا ويقدم خطة سلام من ثلاث نقاط يدعمها الاتحاد الأوروبي: احترام وحدة وسيادة أراضي جورجيا ووقف فوري للعمليات العدائية والعودة إلى الوضع الذي كان سائدا على الأرض قبل أندلاع المعارك.

ملاحظات

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 أوسيتيا الجنوبية.. الحرب مجددا - الجزيرة.نت.
 Ukrainian Mercenaries against South Ossetia
 The Destiny of Croatian Serbs Awaited Ossetians

أبخازيا في 2008
أوسيتيا الجنوبية في 2008
جورجيا في 2008
روسيا في 2008
أحداث أغسطس 2008
الصراع الجورجي الأبخازي
العلاقات الأبخازية الروسية
العلاقات الأوسيتية الروسية
العلاقات الجورجية الروسية
النزاع الجورجي الأوسيتي
حروب جورجيا
حروب روسيا
صراعات ما بعد الاتحاد السوفيتي
غزو جورجيا
غزوات روسيا
فلاديمير بوتين
قوات أوسيتيا الجنوبية المسلحة
نزاعات في 2008

حرب أوسيتيا الجنوبية 2008


Giovanni Battista Cacherano, conte di Bricherasio (* 14. November 1706 in Bricherasio; † 6. September 1782 ebenda) war ein General und Vizekönig des Königreiches Sardinien-Piemont.

Leben
Graf Giovanni Battista Cacherano di Bricherasio stammte aus einer alten piemontesischen Adelsfamilie, die zahlreiche hohe Offiziere hervorbrachte. Drei seiner Brüder schlugen ebenfalls eine Offizierslaufbahn in der piemontesischen Armee ein.

Im April 1734 hob er auf eigene Kosten das Infanterieregiment La Regina aus, das zum damaligen Zeitpunkt noch aus Waldensern bestand (heute 9. Infanterieregiment Bari). Mit diesem Regiment nahm er in Italien am Polnischen Thronfolgekrieg teil. Während des Österreichischen Erbfolgekrieges war er 1742 an der Einnahme Modenas beteiligt, er kämpfte dann im Valle Varaita und bei Madonna dell'Olmo, wo er verwundet wurde. 1744 wurde Cacherano di Bricherasio zum Brigadier befördert, im folgenden Jahr zum Generalmajor und im Juni 1747 zum Generalleutnant. Als solcher befehligte er Verbände, die das Susatal mit den Festungen von Fenestrelle und Exilles gegen ein Vordringen der französischen und spanischen Armeen schützen sollte. Hier kam es am 19. Juli 1747 zur Assiettaschlacht, die sein größter militärischer Erfolg blieb. 1751 wurde er zum Vizekönig und Generalkapitän von Sardinien ernannt, 1755 zum Gouverneur von Tortona, 1758 zum Gouverneur von Alessandria und 1763 schließlich zum Gouverneur der Zitadelle von Turin. 1763 erhielt er den Annunziaten-Orden. Die Beförderung zum General der Infanterie und zum Großmeister der Artillerie erfolgte 1771. Die letzten Jahre seines Lebens verbrachte er auf seinen Landgütern in Bricherasio, wo er 1782 verstarb.

Weblinks
 Eintrag im Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani auf treccani.it

Militärperson (Piemont)
Vizekönig
Person im Österreichischen Erbfolgekrieg
General der Frühen Neuzeit
Ritter des Annunziaten-Ordens
Träger des Ordens der hl. Mauritius und Lazarus (Großkreuz)
Geboren 1706
Gestorben 1782
Mann


Nolina greenei es una especie de planta con rizoma de la familia de las asparagáceas. Es originaria de  Norteamérica.

Descripción
Es una planta casi sin tallo, cespitosa, en rosetas verticales, con caudices subterráneos, ramificados. La hoja con forma de alambre, dura o un poco laxa, cóncavo-convexa, de 45-90 (-110) cm x (4 -) 5-8 mm, no glaucas, márgenes de forma remota con dientes cartilaginosos. Es escapo de  0.5-2 dm. Las inflorescencias paniculadas, con brácteas persistentes. Las flores con pétalos blancos, a veces con venas púrpura, de 2.2-3.3 mm. El fruto en cápsulas hialinas, de pared delgada. Semillas de color bronce con tinte rojo, redonda.

Distribución y hábitat
La floración se produce a finales de la primavera, en lugares rocosos, laderas de piedra caliza, en los flujos volcánicos, entre enebros, pino piñonero y bosques de encino y en los pastizales adyacentes; a una altitud de 1200 - 1900 metros en Colorado, Nuevo México y Oklahoma.

Taxonomía
Nolina greenei fue descrita por S.Watson ex Wooton & Standl. y publicado en Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 50(200): 418–419, en el año 1911.
Etimología
Nolina: nombre genérico otorgado en honor del botánico francés  Abbé P. C. Nolin, coautor del trabajo publicado 1755 Essai sur l'agricultura moderne.

greenei: epíteto otorgado en honor del botánico

Referencias

Enlaces externos

greenei
Flora de México
Flora de Estados Unidos
Plantas descritas en 1911
Plantas descritas por S.Watson
Plantas descritas por Wooton
Plantas descritas por Standley

Nolina greenei


An Trichocentrum andreanum in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Célestin Alfred Cogniaux, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Rolando Jiménez Machorro och Germán Carnevali. An Trichocentrum andreanum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Trichocentrum, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Trichocentrum

Trichocentrum andreanum


(1677) Tycho Brahe er en lille hovedserie-asteroide og har tidligere haft de midlertidige betegnelser 1940 RO og A916 UA. Tycho Brahe blev opdaget af den finske astronom og optiker Yrjö Väisälä i 1940. Asteroiden er af Eunomia-familien, dvs. en S-type asteroide og stenasteroide i midten af asteroidebæltet. Väisälä har derudover opdaget 127 andre asteroider.

Asteroiden har en diameter på ca. 12 km. Den kredser om Solen i en afstand af 2,3–2,8 AE en gang hver 4. år (1,472 dage). Dens bane har en excentricitet på 0.11, og den hælder 15° med hensyn til ekliptika.

Asteroiden er opkaldt efter den danske astronom Tycho Brahe (1546–1601).

Eksterne links
 1677 Tycho Brahe

Kilder

Asteroidebælte asteroider
1677

(1677) Tycho Brahe


Özne ya da fâil, bir cümlede yüklem ile bildirilen işi, eylemi ya da oluşu yerine getiren veya yüklem vasıtasıyla hakkında bilgi verilen öğe. Özne yükleme sorulan "kim" ve "ne" soruları ile tespit edilir.

 Öğrenciler yerlerine oturdular. (Kim oturdu?)
 Kitap yere düştü. (Ne düştü?)
 Manzara ne kadar da güzel. (Ne güzel?)

Eğer özne; sıfat tamlaması, isim tamlaması gibi bir sözcük grubu ise "özne öbeği" olarak adlandırılır. Aşağıdaki cümlelerde özne öbekleri kalın yazılmıştır:

 Öğleye doğru muayene odasının önü doldu. -Peyami Safa (Ne doldu?)
 Güzel sanatların en çok millî olanı şiirdir. - Mehmet Çınarlı (Ne şiirdir?)
 Köşklerin camlarına çarparak, çamların tepelerinden aşarak kızgın bir kartal mehâbetiyle dağların sırtlarından uçan bu sesten ürken bir küme güvercin, karşıki çamlıktan havalandı. -Ahmet Hikmet Müftüoğlu (Ne havalandı?)

Bazen -özellikle sanatsal amaçlarla- özne öbeği arasına başka öğeler girebilir:
 Bir kadının suya değiyor ayakları. - Orhan Veli ("bir kadının ayakları" özne öbeği)

Gerçek özne

Cümledeki işi, eylemi veya oluşu bizzat gerçekleştiren öğedir. Görünür durumda (açık özne) veya gizli durumda (gizli özne) olabilir:

 Kaymakam, ödül alan öğrencileri tek tek tebrik etti. (açık ve gerçek özne)
 Bugünkü gazeteler, liderler zirvesine geniş yer ayırdı. (açık ve gerçek özne)
 Bulmaca çözmeyi çok severim. ("ben" gizli ve gerçek özne)

Gerçek özneli fiil cümlelerinde (yüklemi fiil olan cümlelerde) fiil çatısı etkendir:

 Çocuklar havuzda oynuyor. ("oynuyor" etken fiil)

İsim cümleleri (yüklemi isim olan cümleler) her zaman gerçek öznelidir:

 İncir ağacı evimizin arka bahçesinde. (açık ve gerçek özne)
 Of, çok sıcak! ("hava" gizli ve gerçek özne)
 Bugün çok erkencisiniz. ("siz" gizli ve gerçek özne)

Gizli özne

Türkçede bazen ifade zenginliğini artırmak ya da pratik amaçlarla özne belirtilmez. Öznenin varlığı yüklemin kişisinden anlaşılır. Yazılı veya sözlü olarak cümlede bulunmayan ancak varlığı yükleme sorulan "ne" ve "kim" sorularıyla tespit edilen özneye gizli özne denir. Gizli özne, dilbilgisel amaçlarla yazılı olarak belirtilmek istendiğinde genellikle parantez içinde yazılır.

 Yemeğini çabuk bitir. (Kim bitirsin?)
 (Sen) Yemeğini çabuk bitir.
 Yarın okula gidemeyeceğim. (Kim gidemeyecek?)
 (Ben) Yarın okula gidemeyeceğim.
 Üniversiteye başladı. (Kim başladı?)
 (O, Zehra, kardeşim vs.) Üniversiteye başladı.

Öznenin kimliği, yüklemdeki şahıs çekim eklerinde gizlidir:

 (O) Kitapları buraya getirsin. (3. tekil şahıs)
 (Ben) Sizinle gelemeyeceğim. (1. tekil şahıs)

Bazı zaman ve kip yapılarında yüklemin -belirli şahıslar için- şahıs eki almadığı unutulmamalıdır:

 (Sen) Gel. (2. tekil şahıs, emir kipi)
 (O) Yarın yola çıkacak. (3. tekil şahıs, gelecek zaman)

Gizli özne kullanımına Türkçede sıklıkla rastlanır ve bu durum -başka bir gerekçe olmadıkça- anlatım bozukluğu değildir.

Sözde özne

Yüklemi edilgen çatılı bir fiil olan cümlelerde, eylemden etkilenen öğeye sözde özne denir. Bu tür öznesi olan cümlelerde eylemin kim tarafından yapıldığı belirtilmez. Aşağıdaki örneklerde sözde özneler kalın yazılmıştır:

 Okulumuzun koridorları mavi renge boyandı. (Ne boyandı?)
 Yatak odasının camı kırılmış. (Ne kırılmış?)

Etken bir fiil edilgen hâle getirilirken fiil sonuna -n, -in, -il eklerinden biri getirilir:

ÖNEMLİ: Yüklemi dönüşlü bir fiil olan cümlelerde "gerçek özne" bulunur:

 Ailem başarılarımla övünüyor. (açık ve gerçek özne)
 Bugün çok yorulduk. ("biz" gizli ve gerçek özne)
 Sizi gördüğüme çok sevindim. ("ben" gizli ve gerçek özne)

Örtülü özne

Sözde özneli cümlelerde bazen, eylemin "kim" tarafından gerçekleştirildiği, dolaylı olarak belirtilir. Eylemi gerçekleştiren fakat cümlenin öznesi olmayan bu sözcüğe veya sözcük grubuna örtülü özne denir. Aşağıdaki örneklerde örtülü öznelerin altı çizilmiştir:

 Başarılı öğrenciler bakanlığımızca ödüllendirilecek.
 Yarışmacıların eserleri jüri heyeti tarafından incelendi.

ÖNEMLİ: Örtülü özne, cümlenin öğeleri bulunurken, "özne" olarak değerlendirilmez. Bu tür cümlelerde özne, "sözde özne" olan sözcük grubudur. Örtülü özne ise çoğunlukla zarf tümleci kategorisindedir.

 Ağaçlardaki meyveler  rençperler tarafından  toplandı.
   _
         özne               zarf tümleci       yüklem

Öznenin aldığı ekler

Özne hâl eki (-i, -e, -de, -den)  almaz ancak iyelik eki veya çoğul eki alabilir:

 Kitabım ıslanmış. (-ım iyelik eki)
 Bugün dersler saat 12'de bitiyor. (-ler çoğul eki)

İsim veya sıfat tamlaması halinde olabilir:

 Kapının kolu kırılmış. (isim tamlaması)
 Mutfaktan güzel kokular geliyordu. (sıfat tamlaması)

Birden fazla varlık aynı anda özne olabilir:

 Polisler, itfaiyeciler ve sağlık görevlileri kaza mahalline akın ettiler.

Tekillik-çoğulluk

Öznesi şahıs olmayan cümlelerde özne çoğul olsa dahi genellikle yüklem tekil olur:
 Gözlerim yaşardı.
 Uzun yıllar geçti.
 Bu elmalar olgunlaşmış.

Öznesi şahıs olan cümlelerde yüklem tekil veya çoğul olabilir:
 Öğrenciler bahçeye çıktılar.
 Askerler içtima alanında toplandı.

Öznesi çoğul olan cümlelerde özneden etkilenen nesne -tek bir varlık olsa dahi- çoğul yazılır:

 Çocuklar, kaza geçiren öğretmenleri Murat Bey'i ziyarete gitti.
 Sepetteki enikler annelerini emiyordu.

Cümlenin ögeleri

Özne


La McLaren MCL36 est la monoplace de Formule 1 engagée par l'écurie McLaren Racing dans le cadre de la saison 2022 du championnat du monde de Formule 1. Elle est pilotée par l'Australien Daniel Ricciardo, présent chez McLaren pour la deuxième année consécutive, et le Britannique Lando Norris, présent chez McLaren pour la quatrième année consécutive.

Résultats en championnat du monde de Formule 1

Notes et références

Liens externes

MCL36
Formule 1 en 2022

McLaren MCL36


Glomus iranicum var. tenuihypharum é um fungo formador de micorrizas arbusculares (HMA) e, como tal, contribui para a melhoria das condições físico-químicas do solo e para estimular o crescimento e a produtividade da maioria das plantas. Esta espécie, isolada de um solo alcalino de pH 9.5, com forte presença de sais de Mg, Ca e Mn., consegue uma adequada simbiose com a maior parte das plantas agrícolas, mesmo nas condições de manuseamento da agricultura intensiva. Produz abundante micélio extramatrical que pode explorar um grande volume de solo, reproduz-se a partir de esporas geradas no exterior da raiz, o que facilita melhor transporte de nutrientes dentro das raízes em direção à planta e tolera elevadas concentrações de sais nutricionais no solo, o que garante uma adequada tolerância aos protocolos de fertilização da agricultura intensiva.

Pelas suas características biológicas, Symborg, a empresa descobridora desta espécie, conseguiu uma patentesobre a mesma que protege pela primeira vez uma espécie de HMA.

Foram levados a cabo estudos científicos, publicados em revistas especializadas, sobre os efeitos desta espécie em diversos tipos de cultivos. No caso específico da uva de mesa, conseguiram-se incrementos continuados entre 12 e 45%, por mais de três anos, na produção total das variedades Red Globe, Crimson, Napoleón, Thomson seedless, etc., com incrementos sustentados na qualidade da fruta, onde se constataram incrementos na longitude e no peso dos cachos, assim como maior uniformidade de cor e graus Brix da fruta colhida.

Nos cultivos hortícolas, promove incrementos significativos da atividade fisiológica (melhor estado hídrico e intercâmbio gasoso) e na produtividade (10-15%) das plantas tratadas, cultivadas tanto em estufa como em campo aberto. Um estudo do sistema radicular do melão realizado pela Universidade Politécnica de Cartagena, em Espanha, evidenciou que a aplicação desta espécie incrementa não apenas a superfície de exploração radicular a partir da estimulação de radículas finas, mas também induz uma alteração da arquitetura radicular, favorecendo uma maior absorção de nutrientes, assim como aumentos significativos dos seus potenciais produtivos.

Em pimentos de estufa, os estudos evidenciam não apenas um maior incremento produtivo (1 kg por m²), mas também um controlo importante da expressão hormonal endógena das plantas, incrementando no início do cultivo a expressão de auxina (ácido indolacético) para uma maior produção de raízes e colonização micorrízica, uma maior expressão de giberelinas e citoquininas a favor de um maior desenvolvimento foliar e produtivo a partir dos 50 dias de cultivo e uma diminuição significativa do ácido abscísico a favor de umas plantas mais juvenis no final do ciclo.

Na produção de cereais e grãos, como é o caso do milho e da soja, a colonização com esta espécie permite incrementos dos rendimentos produtivos superiores a 10%.

2. http://www.elmundo.es/economia/2015/04/15/552d53fdca4741c6768b4578.html

Glomerales

Glomus iranicum var. tenuihypharum


Stanisław Wawrzyniec Staszic (n. 6 noiembrie 1755, Piła - d. 20 ianuarie 1826, Varșovia) a fost o figură de frunte a Iluminismului polonez, un preot catolic, filozof, geolog, scriitor politic, poet, publicist, traducător și om de stat. Din 1809 a activat fiind Ministru de stat al Ducatului Varșoviei, din 1810 - Consilier al Ducatului Varșoviei, iar mai târziu din 1824 - ministru de stat al Congresului Poloniei.

Pe vremea "Marelui Sejm" Staszic a susținut linia reformelor și Constituția de la 3 mai 1791.
Din 1800, a fost membru al Societății Prietenii Științei (Towarzystwo przyjaciół Nauk) din Varșovia, iar din 1808 - președintele acesteia.

Este patronul Academiei de Știință și Tehnologie AGH din Cracovia.

A încetat din viață în 20 ianuarie 1826, la Varșovia, unde a poruncit împărțirea proprietății sale la săraci.

Primele publicații
 Uwagi na życiem Jana Zamoyskiego kanclerza i hetmana wielkiego koronnego. Do dzisiejszego stanu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej przystosowane. 1787
 Przestrogi dla Polski z teraźniejszych politycznych Europy związków i z praw natury wypadające. 1790
 O ziemiorództwie gór dawnej Sarmacji a później Polski. 1805
 O statystyce Polski. Krótki rzut wiadomości potrzebnych tym, którzy ten kraj chcą oswobodzić i tym którzy w nim chcą rządzić. 1809
 O ziemiorództwie Karpatów i innych gór i równin Polski. 1815
 Myśli o politycznej równowadze Europy (Gânduri despre echilibrul politic al Europei). 1815
 Ród ludzki. Poema dydaktyczne. (Rasa umană. Poemă didactică) 1820
 Dzieła Stanisława Staszica. W opracowaniu autora. T. I - IX. 1816-1820

Referințe

Legături externe
  Stanisław Staszic
  Stanisław Staszic

Nașteri_pe_6_noiembrie
Nașteri_în_1755
Traducători_polonezi
Geografi_polonezi
Geologi_polonezi
Decese_pe_20_ianuarie
Decese_în_1826

Stanisław Staszic


යටකමිසයක් යනුවෙන් හැඳින්වෙන්නේ කමිසයට යටින් අඳිනු ලබන යට ඇඳුම් ප්‍රභේදයකි. මෙමගින් කමිසය දේහයේ දහඩිය සහ ගන්ධයෙන් ආරක්ෂා කරනු ලබයි. මීට අමතරව එය පුද්ගලයකුට අඳින්නට සිදුවන රළු හෝ අපහසු වස්ත්‍රවලින් (අනුගම්‍ය වැඩ නිලඇඳුම වැනි) සිරුර ආරක්ෂා කිරීම ද සිදුකරනු ලබයි. මෙයට අත් තිබීමට හෝ නොතිබීමට හැක. මෙම වදන බොහෝවිට භාවිතා වන්නේ පිරිමින් විසින් අඳිනු ලබන සිරුරේ ඉහළ පෙදෙස වැසෙන වස්ත්‍රයටයි. මෙම ඇඳුම සතුව සාමාන්‍යයෙන් පහළ රවුම් කරක් දක්නට ලැබේ. එය ක්‍රීඩා කටයුතුවල දී භාවිතා කළ හැක.

මෙමගින් කමිසයේ පාරදෘශ්‍ය ස්වාභාවය අඩු කෙරේ. ශීත මාසවල දී මෙය උණුසුම ලබා ගැනීමට අමතර ස්තරයක් ලෙස ද පැළඳිය හැක.

ඉතිහාසය
යූනියන් සූට් නැමැති ඇඳුම ඉහළ සහ පහළ දේහය ලෙස කොටස් දෙකකට වෙන්වීමත් සමග, 20වන සියවසේ මුල්කාලයේ බටහිර රටවල කර්මාන්තශාලාවල නිෂ්පාදිත යටකමිස සුලබ විය.

යටකමිස ප්‍රභේද
 A-ෂර්ටය
 T-ෂර්ටය
 නොපෙනෙන යටකමිස

ආශ්‍රේයයන්

ඇඳුම්වල ඉතිහාසය (බටහිර විලාසිතා)
යට ඇඳුම්

යටකමිසය


Masih ad-Dajjal (, "den falske messias") er en ond skikkelse inden for islam, som vil komme tæt på dommedag. Han vil sprede død, kaos og ødelæggelse. Dajjal kan ikke komme ind i byerne Medina og Mekka, fordi to engle står og spærrer indgangen.

Dajjal vil påstå at han er Gud, men det er han ikke. Han vil lokke mennesket til helvede, og det siges at han vil vise porten til hhv. Jannah (paradis), og Jahanam (helvede), men hvad man vælger, bliver det modsatte. Allah vil give ham evner til at gøre overnaturlige ting for at sætte mennesker på prøve og se, hvem der ved bedst. Dajjal er ond, og han vil vildlede mennesker og gøre dem ondt.

Ifølge Hadith kan Dajjal kun se ud af det ene øje. Mellem hans øjne vil bogstaverne "Kaaf", "Fa" og "Raa" stå. Det betyder kafir, som betyder ikke-muslim. Dette vil alle muslimer kunne læse. Selv analfabeterne vil kunne læse det, og det betyder at enhver muslim vil kunne genkende ham. Dajjal betyder løgner.

Dajjal kan bl.a. vække døde til live, skabe guld og mad. Dette lader Allah ham gøre, fordi det er en prøve.
Allah vil retlede mennesker.

Inden Dommens Dag vil der komme 30 små dajjal, som alle vil påstå at de er profeter af Allah.

Dajjal siges også at have mange jødiske følgere fra Isfahan i Iran.

Eksterne kilder
 Hvem er Dajjal? på haya.dk

Islamisk eskatologi

Dajjal


El batará leonado (Frederickena fulva), es una especie de ave paseriforme, perteneciente al género Frederickena de la familia Thamnophilidae. Habita en la Amazonía occidental. En el pasado se consideró una subespecie de Frederickena unduliger.

Distribución y hábitat
Se distribuye por el sureste de Colombia (este de Cauca, oeste de Caquetá, oeste de Putumayo), este de Ecuador y este de Perú (al norte de los ríos Marañón y Amazonas), posiblemente extendiéndose hacia el este dentro de Brasil (Amazonas al norte del río Solimões).

Su hábitat natural es el denso sotobosque de selvas tropicales húmedas de tierras bajas.

Descripción

Miden entre 22 y 24 cm de largo. El plumaje de las hembras tiene un patrón escamado de color ocre anaranjado y pardo, mientras que los machos son de color negro con finas bordes blanquecinos marcando el aspecto escamado. Ambos sexos tienen un penacho eréctil en la cabeza.

Sistemática

Descripción original
La especie F. fulva fue descrita por primera vez por el ornitólogo estadounidense John Todd Zimmer en 1944 bajo el nombre científico Frederickena unduligera fulva.

Taxonomía
La presente especie era tratada anteriormente como conespecífica con Frederickena unduliger, pero los trabajos de Isler et al 2009 indicaron que debía ser considerada como especie separada, sobre la base de las diferencias vocales; la separación fue aprobada en la Propuesta N° 431 al South American Classification Committee (SACC).

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Sonidos y mapa de distribución de Frederickena fulva en xeno-canto.

fulva
Aves del Amazonas
Aves de América del Sur
Animales descritos en 1944
Taxones descritos por John Todd Zimmer

Frederickena fulva


Djinga, maleni biljni rod iz porodice Podostemaceae, dio reda malpigijolike. Postoje dvije vrste, obje kamerunski endemi.

Vrste
 Djinga cheekii Ghogue, Huber & Rutish.
 Djinga felicis C.Cusset

Izvori

Podostemaceae

Djinga


İhtiyoloji ya da balık bilimi, zoolojinin balıklarla ilgilenen alt dalıdır. Kemikli balıklar (Osteichthyes), köpek balığı gibi kıkırdaklı balıklar (Chondrichthyes) ve çenesiz balıklar (Agnatha) ilgi alanıdır.

Tüm diğer omurgalı türlerinin sayısı kadar balık türü bulunduğu ve balıklar çok uzun zamandır evrimleştiği için, balık sınıflandırması ve biliminde hâlen bilinmeyenle karşı karşıya kalınmaktadır. Balık biyolojisi ve davranışları hâlen tam olarak çözülmüş değildir.

Dış bağlantılar
 Balık veri tabanı (İngilizce)

İhtiyoloji


L' (en occitan : avenguda Albèrt Bedouce) est une voie de Toulouse, chef-lieu de la région Occitanie, dans le Midi de la France.

Situation et accès

Description
L'avenue Albert-Bedouce est une voie publique. Elle traverse le quartier de Sauzelong-Rangueil, dans le secteur 5 - Sud-Est.

Voies rencontrées
L'avenue Albert-Bedouce rencontre les voies suivantes, dans l'ordre des numéros croissants (« g » indique que la rue se situe à gauche, « d » à droite) :

 Rue Delmas (g)
 Avenue des Écoles-Jules-Julien (d)
 Avenue de Rangueil
 Avenue des Avions (d)
 Rue des Pastourelles (d)
 Avenue du Lauragais
 Rue Vanini
 Rue Virgile
 Rue Léon-Bonnat
 Rue Alain-René-Lesage (g)
 Rue Jeanne-Marvig (d)
 Rue Paul-Bourget (g)
 Rue Paul-Éluard (d)
 Rue du Midi (g)
 Boulevard de la Marne

Transports
La station Saouzelong, sur la ligne de métro , sur la place qui se forme au carrefour de l'avenue Albert-Bedouce et de la rue Virgile. Entre l'avenue de Rangueil et la rue Léon-Bonnat, l'avenue Albert-Bedouce est de plus parcourue par la ligne de bus . Enfin, la ligne de bus  passe à proximité immédiate, sur le boulevard de la Méditerranée.

Il existe également plusieurs stations de vélos en libre-service VélôToulouse le long de l'avenue Albert-Bedouce ou à proximité : les stations  (21 avenue des Écoles-Jules-Julien),  (35 avenue de Rangueil),  (115 avenue Albert-Bedouce)  et  (face 79 avenue Albert-Bedouce).

Odonymie

L'avenue porte le nom d'Albert Bedouce (1869-1947), homme politique socialiste toulousain. Partisan de Jean Jaurès, athée et anticlérical, Albert Bedouce est une figure du socialisme municipal de la première moitié du  – il est conseiller municipal de Toulouse de 1896 à 1906, de 1912 à 1919 et de 1925 à 1939, et brièvement maire de la ville en 1906. Il est également député de la Haute-Garonne de 1906 à 1919, puis de 1924 à 1940, et conseiller général de la Haute-Garonne de 1925 à 1942. Entre 1936 et 1937, il est ministre des Travaux publics du Front populaire dans le premier gouvernement Léon Blum.

Albert Bedouce est, par ailleurs, à l'origine de la création du développement du quartier de Sauzelong-Rangueil et de la création, entre 1925 et 1928, du lotissement de Rangueil, entre l'avenue de Rangueil, la rue Léon-Bonnat et l'avenue d'Italie. L'avenue de Miègesolles en formait la voie principale : c'est en 1953, lors de travaux de prolongement jusqu'au boulevard de la Marne et au canal du Midi, qu'elle prit le nom d'Albert Bedouce.

Histoire

Patrimoine et lieux d'intérêt
  28 : maison (deuxième moitié du ).
  64-70 et 67-73 : lotissement (deuxième moitié du ).
  70 bis-94 et 77-115 : cité Rangueil. La cité Rangueil est construite entre 1956 et 1960 pour le compte de la Société toulousaine de coordination et de gestion immobilière (SOTOCOGI).
  92 : école élémentaire Saouzelong.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie
 Pierre Salies, Dictionnaire des rues de Toulouse, 2 vol., éd. Milan, Toulouse, 1989 .

Article connexe
 Liste des voies de Toulouse

Liens externes
 « Notice  », Au nom de la voie, sur le site Urban-Hist, Archives municipales de Toulouse, 20 septembre 2021 (consulté le ).
 Inventaire préliminaire de la ville de Toulouse, sur le site Urban-Hist, Archives municipales de Toulouse (consulté le ).
 Inventaire général du patrimoine culturel d'Occitanie, sur le site Ressources patrimoines - La médiathèque culturelle de la Région Occitanie (consulté le ).

Albert Bedouce
Albert Bedouce

Avenue Albert-Bedouce


Henri-Jacques de Croes (Amberes, 19 de septiembre de 1705 - Bruselas, 16 de agosto de 1786) fue un violinista, director y compositor belga de música barroca. Gran parte de su vida trabajó en Bruselas, desde 1729 al servicio de Anselme-François, perteneciente a la Casa de Thurn und Taxis, y a partir de 1744 como director y primer violín de la capilla musical de Carlos Alejandro de Lorena, gobernador general de los Países Bajos austriacos y cuñado de María Teresa I de Austria. Este conjunto musical estaba formado por 13 instrumentistas y 6 cantantes.

Fue padre de Henri-Joseph de Croes (Bruselas, 16 de agosto de 1758 - 6 de enero de 1842) también violinista y compositor, cuya única obra conocida es un conjunto de dúos para violín.

Obras
Su obra está influenciada por la música francesa e italiana, en una época en que el estilo barroco se encontraba en transición hacia la música galante. Escribió música de cámara, sonatas, sinfonías, conciertos, 15 misas, un Réquiem y 34 motetes entre otras obras.

Referencias

Compositores del Barroco de Bélgica
Compositores de Bélgica del siglo XVIII
Nacidos en Amberes

Henri-Jacques de Croes


Philip Khokhar (født 16. juni 1979 i København) er en dansk-pakistansk journalist.

Philip Khokhar er fra sommeren 2023 DR's USA-korrespondent i Washington DC. Fra 2022 til 2023 var han Mellemøsten- og Sydasien-korrespondent. Fra september 2014 til juni 2022 har han været DR's Asien-korrespondent bosiddende i Beijing og Shanghai. Før var han korrespondent for DR i Afghanistan fra 2013-14, hvor han boede i Kabul.

Philip Khokhar er født og opvokset i København. Hans far er oprindelig fra Pakistan, mens hans mor er fra Danmark.

Philip Khokhar er uddannet fra Danmarks Medie- og Journalisthøjskole i Aarhus i 2004. Han har siden arbejdet i DR, først som indlandsreporter og redaktør på TV-Avisen, og siden 2008 på udlandsredaktionen i DR Nyheder.

Philip Khokhar dækkede blandt andet bombningen af den danske ambassade i Islamabad i juni 2008 og terrorangrebene i Mumbai november 2008. Senere dækkede han jordskælvet i Nepal 2015.

Som den første danske journalist rapporterede han direkte fra den nordkoreanske hovedstad Pyongyang i oktober 2015.

I Kina dækkede han især urolighederne i Hongkong, ligesom han var den eneste danske journalist i Kina da corona-epidemien begyndte i Wuhan, og Kina som det første land i verden blev lukket.

I 2018 udgav Philip Khokhar bogen Tilbage til Kabul.. Bogen skildrer flere historier fra hans 10 år med rapporteringer fra Afghanistan, og giver nye perspektiver og indblik i landets kaotiske tilstande. I 2022 udgav han bogen Rød Nat - otte år i Kina

Referencer

Journalister fra Danmark
Personer fra København

Philip Khokhar


In the animal rights movement, cruelty-free is a label for products or activities that do not harm or kill animals anywhere in the world. Products tested on animals or made from animals are not considered cruelty-free, since these tests are often painful and cause the suffering and death of millions of animals every year.

History

The term cruelty-free was first used in this way by Lady Dowding who persuaded manufacturers of fake furs to use the label Beauty Without Cruelty and went on to found the charity Beauty Without Cruelty in 1959. The term was popularised in the US in the 1970s by Marcia Pearson who founded the group Fashion With Compassion. Then, in 1998, the United Kingdom started a trend by banning all testing on animals. Many other countries followed their lead soon after.

Campaigns
In 1957 Charles Hume and W. M. S. Russell introduced the concept of the three R's in their book Principles of Humane Experimental Technique. These techniques to reduce animals used in tests and their suffering include: replacement (eliminate an animal test altogether), reduction (fewer animals used in test by using statistical analysis) and refinement (making tests less painful).

In 1991 the European Center for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) was established "to promote the scientific and regulatory acceptance of alternative methods which are important to the biosciences and which reduce, refine or replace the use of laboratory animals." Once the ECVAM's Scientific Advisory Committee approves a test it must be used under the Animal Protection Act, which does not allow the use of animals when an alternative exists.

In 2012, British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection joined forces with New England Anti-Vivisection Society and the European Coalition to End Animal Experiments to create an international organization to campaign against animal testing. BUAV supporter Ricky Gervais announced the campaign—now considered a deciding factor in the European decision to ban animal testing for personal-care products. Although companies can still use animal testing in countries outside Europe, such as China, which requires animal testing on all imported cosmetics - Note that China now has new legislation in place under CSAR which details methods to enter the Chinese cosmetic market without the need for animal testing. The Leaping Bunny applies to a company's global market, and does not certify product that use animal testing anywhere in the world.

Tests

Animals such as rabbits, rats, mice, and guinea pigs are sometimes forced to eat or inhale substances, or have a cosmetic ingredient rubbed onto their shaved skin, eyes or ears every day for 28 or 90 days to see if they have an allergic reaction. Then they are killed and cut open to examine the effects the ingredient has on internal organs. These tests are also done with pregnant animals who, after much suffering, are killed along with the fetus. In more prolonged carcinogen tests, rats are force-fed a cosmetic ingredient over two years, monitored for cancer, and then killed.

Primates, dogs, such as the Beagle, and cats are used for invasive experimentation as well. Many laboratories use these species to test drugs, chemicals, and diseases, whether old or new.

Alternatives
As technology developed, outdated animal testing is being replaced with quicker, cheaper and more accurate methods. Critics point out that humane alternatives can be slow to implement, costly, and test only one compound at a time. Alternatives have shown positive results. For example, reconstructed human epidermis—which uses human skin donated from cosmetic surgery to replace the rabbit Draize skin test—is more relevant to human reactions. Other methods replace the Draize eye test by using in vitro (test-tube) human tissue. Computer-based systems allow for isolation of a select tissue or organ to conduct tests in an extremely controlled environment. These tests not only reduce animal testing, but are more precise and accurate at protecting humans from toxic substances. Another cruelty-free option is using ingredients that have already been established as safe, such as the 20,000 ingredients in the European Union database.

Products
Companies now offer a wide range of cruelty-free products such as cosmetics, personal-care products, household cleaners, clothing, shoes, condoms (which are sometimes processed with casein), and candles (which usually use paraffin or beeswax). Organizations such as PETA, Choose Cruelty Free, Coalition for Consumer Information on Cosmetics, British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection, and its offshoot organization Cruelty Free International have released lists of cruelty-free products and cruel products to boycott. Since the 1990s the Leaping Bunny has been the only international third-party cruelty-free certification program.

It is important to distinguish between cruelty free and vegan products because while it is common for people to use these two terms interchangeably, there are several key differences. Products that are vegan may not necessarily be cruelty free and vice versa. The cruelty free label only guarantees that the final product and ingredients are not tested on animals, but the product can still contain animal derived ingredients. Similarly, the vegan label only guarantees that the product does not contain animal ingredients but may still  have been tested on animals.

Events
National Cruelty-Free Week is an event in the United Kingdom every year arranged by the BUAV. The 2006 event was from 17 to 23 July. Other, similar, events include: National Vegetarian Week, UK Vegan Week and World Vegan Day, which takes place each year on November 1.

Criticisms
While some manufacturers have begun to label their products as "not tested on animals", "we do not conduct animal testing", "never tested on animals", "against animal testing" or "cruelty-free", these labels are confusing and potentially misleading, since there is no clear legal definition as to what they mean.

See also
 Animal liberationist
 Animal rights
 Animal welfare
 Ethical consumerism
 Veganism

References

Further reading

External links
 Cruelty Free International
 World Development Movement
 PETA Cruelty Free List
 Go Cruelty Free
 Choose Cruelty Free

Animal rights movement
Anti-vivisection movement
Alternatives to animal testing
Cruelty to animals

Cruelty-free


Neodym(III)-iodid (NdI3) ist ein Salz des Seltenerd-Metalls Neodym mit Iodwasserstoff. Es bildet grüne orthorhombische Kristalle, die hygroskopisch sind.

Einzelnachweise

Neodymverbindung
Iodid

Neodym(III)-iodid


Osjak (litavac, lat. Cirsium), veliki biljni rod jednogodišnjeg i dvogodišnjeg raslinja i trajnica iz porodice glavočika. Pripada tribusu Cardueae, i čini dio podtribusa Carduinae.

Osjacima su karakteristični bodljikavi listovi i guste cvjetne glavice ljubičaste boje. Latinski naziv roda dolazi po grčkoj riječi kirsos (=proširene vene), iz razloga što su se neke vrste koristile kao lijek protiv te bolesti.

U Hrvatskoj ima blizu 20 vrsta osjaka među kojima su najpoznatiji obični ili kopljasti, poljski, zeljasti, sivi, vunenasti, sitnoglavi, prizemni osjak i još neki.

Rodu pripada preko 460 vrsta

Vrste

 Cirsium acantholepis Petr.
 Cirsium acaule (L.) Scop.
 Cirsium acrolepis (Petr.) G.B.Ownbey
 Cirsium adjaricum Sommier & Levier
 Cirsium aduncum Fisch. & C.A.Mey. ex DC.
 Cirsium affine Tausch
 Cirsium aggregatum Ledeb.
 Cirsium aidzuense Nakai ex Kitam.
 Cirsium aitchisonii Boiss.
 Cirsium akimontanum Kadota
 Cirsium akimotoi Kadota & Mas.Saito
 Cirsium alatum (S.Gmel.) Bobrov
 Cirsium alberti Regel & Schmalh.
 Cirsium albidum Velen.
 Cirsium albowianum Sommier & Levier
 Cirsium alpestre Naegeli
 Cirsium alpicola Nakai
 Cirsium alpis-lunae Brilli-Catt. & L.Gubellini
 Cirsium alsophilum (Pollini) Soldano
 Cirsium altissimum (L.) Spreng.
 Cirsium amani Post
 Cirsium ambiguum All.
 Cirsium amplexifolium (Nakai) Kitam.
 Cirsium anartiolepis Petr.
 Cirsium andersonii Petr.
 Cirsium andrewsii Jeps.
 Cirsium aomorense Nakai
 Cirsium apoense Nakai
 Cirsium appendiculatum Griseb.
 Cirsium arachnoideum M.Bieb.
 Cirsium argillosum Petrov ex Kharadze
 Cirsium argyracanthum DC.
 Cirsium arisanense Kitam.
 Cirsium aristatum DC.
 Cirsium arizonicum (A.Gray) Petr.
 Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.
 Cirsium × aschersonii Celak.
 Cirsium ashinokuraense Kadota
 Cirsium ashiuense Shun.Yokoy. & T.Shimizu
 Cirsium austrohidakaense Kadota
 Cirsium aytachii H.Duman & R.R.Mill
 Cirsium babanum Koidz.
 Cirsium badakhschanicum Kharadze
 Cirsium balikesirense Yildiz, Arabaci & Dirmenci
 Cirsium balkharicum Kharadze
 Cirsium barnebyi S.L.Welsh & Neese
 Cirsium baytopae P.H.Davis & Parris
 Cirsium bertolonii Spreng.
 Cirsium bicentenariale Rzed.
 Cirsium bipontinum F.W.Schultz
 Cirsium bitchuense Nakai
 Cirsium boluense P.H.Davis & Parris
 Cirsium boninense Koidz.
 Cirsium borealinipponense Kitam.
 Cirsium bornmuelleri Sint. ex Bornm.
 Cirsium botryodes Petr.
 Cirsium boujarti Sch.Bip.
 Cirsium × boulayi E.G.Camus
 Cirsium bourgaeanum Willk.
 Cirsium bozkirense H.Duman, Dirmenci & Tugay
 Cirsium brachycephalum Juratzka
 Cirsium bracteiferum C.Shih
 Cirsium bracteosum DC.
 Cirsium breunium Goller & Huter
 Cirsium brevicaule A.Gray
 Cirsium brevifolium Nutt.
 Cirsium brevipapposum Tschern.
 Cirsium brevistylum Cronquist
 Cirsium buchwaldii O.Hoffm.
 Cirsium buergeri Miq.
 Cirsium bulgaricum DC.
 Cirsium buschianum Kharadze
 Cirsium byzantinum Steud.
 Cirsium candelabrum Griseb.
 Cirsium canescens Nutt.
 Cirsium canum (L.) All.
 Cirsium caput-medusae Sommier & Levier
 Cirsium carniolicum Scop.
 Cirsium carolinianum (Walter) Fernald & B.G.Schub.
 Cirsium cassium P.H.Davis & Parris
 Cirsium caucasicum (Adams) Petr.
 Cirsium cephalotes Boiss.
 Cirsium cernuum Lag.
 Cirsium charkeviczii Barkalov
 Cirsium chikabumiense Kadota
 Cirsium chikushiense Koidz.
 Cirsium chinense Gardner & Champ.
 Cirsium chlorocomos Sommier & Levier
 Cirsium chlorolepis Petr.
 Cirsium chokaiense Kitam.
 Cirsium chrysacanthum (Ball) Jahand.
 Cirsium chrysolepis C.Shih
 Cirsium ciliatiforme Petr.
 Cirsium ciliatum (Murray) Moench
 Cirsium cilicicum P.H.Davis & Parris
 Cirsium ciliolatum (L.F.Hend.) J.T.Howell
 Cirsium clavatum (M.E.Jones) Petr.
 Cirsium coahuilense Ownbey & Pinkava
 Cirsium confertissimum Nakai
 Cirsium congestissimum Kitam.
 Cirsium × connexum Kitam.
 Cirsium consociatum S.F.Blake
 Cirsium conspicuum Sch.Bip.
 Cirsium crassicaule Jeps.
 Cirsium creticum (Lam.) d'Urv.
 Cirsium cymosum (Greene) J.T.Howell
 Cirsium czerkessicum Kharadze
 Cirsium daghestanicum Kharadze
 Cirsium davisianum Kit Tan & Sorger
 Cirsium dealbatum M.Bieb.
 Cirsium decussatum Janka
 Cirsium dender Friis
 Cirsium dipsacolepis Matsum.
 Cirsium dirmilense R.M.Burton
 Cirsium discolor (Muhl. ex Willd.) Spreng.
 Cirsium dissectum (L.) Hill
 Cirsium domonii Kadota
 Cirsium douglasii DC.
 Cirsium drummondii Torr. & A.Gray
 Cirsium ducellieri Maire
 Cirsium durangense (Greenm.) G.B.Ownbey
 Cirsium dyris Jahand. & Maire
 Cirsium eatonii B.L.Rob.
 Cirsium echinatum (Desf.) DC.
 Cirsium echinus (M.Bieb.) Hand.-Mazz.
 Cirsium edule Nutt.
 Cirsium ehrenbergii Sch.Bip.
 Cirsium ekimianum Yildiz & Dirmenci
 Cirsium elbrusense Sommier & Levier
 Cirsium eliasianum Kit Tan & Sorger
 Cirsium ellenbergii Bornm.
 Cirsium elodes M.Bieb.
 Cirsium engelmannii Rydb.
 Cirsium englerianum O.Hoffm.
 Cirsium epiroticum Petr.
 Cirsium eriophoroides Petr.
 Cirsium eriophorum (L.) Scop.
 Cirsium erisithales Scop.
 Cirsium erucagineum DC.
 Cirsium erythrolepis K.Koch
 Cirsium × erzincanicum Yildiz, Dirmenci & Arabaci
 Cirsium esculentum (Siev.) C.A.Mey.
 Cirsium euxinum Kharadze
 Cirsium excelsius Petr.
 Cirsium falconeri (Hook.f.) Petr.
 Cirsium fangii Petr.
 Cirsium fanjingshanense C.Shih
 Cirsium fargesii (Franch.) Diels
 Cirsium faucium Petr.
 Cirsium fauriei Nakai
 Cirsium ferox (L.) DC.
 Cirsium ferum Kitam.
 Cirsium filipendulum Lange
 Cirsium flavisquamatum Kitam.
 Cirsium flodmanii Arthur
 Cirsium foliosum DC.
 Cirsium fominii Petr.
 Cirsium fontinale Jeps.
 Cirsium freyerianum W.D.J.Koch
 Cirsium funagataense Kadota
 Cirsium furiens Griseb. & Schenk
 Cirsium furusei Kitam.
 Cirsium fuscotrichum C.C.Chang
 Cirsium gaditanum Talavera & Valdés
 Cirsium gadukense Petr.
 Cirsium gagnidzei Kharadze
 Cirsium ganjuense Kitam.
 Cirsium gerhardtii Sch.Bip.
 Cirsium giraudiasii Sennen & Pau
 Cirsium glaberrimum (Petr.) Petr.
 Cirsium glabrifolium O.Fedtsch. & B.Fedtsch.
 Cirsium glabrum DC.
 Cirsium grahamii A.Gray
 Cirsium grandirosuliferum Kadota
 Cirsium gratiosum Kitam.
 Cirsium grayanum Nakai
 Cirsium grecescui Rouy
 Cirsium greimleri Bureš
 Cirsium griffithii Boiss.
 Cirsium grossheimii Petr.
 Cirsium gyojanum Kitam.
 Cirsium hachijoense Nakai
 Cirsium hachimantaiense Kadota
 Cirsium hagurosanense Kadota
 Cirsium hakkaricum P.H.Davis & Parris
 Cirsium handaniae Yildiz, Dirmenci & Arabaci
 Cirsium handelii Petr.
 Cirsium happoense Kadota
 Cirsium hasunumae Kadota
 Cirsium haussknechtii Boiss.
 Cirsium heiianum Koidz.
 Cirsium heldreichii Halácsy
 Cirsium helenioides (L.) Hill
 Cirsium henryi (Franch.) Diels
 Cirsium heterophyllum (L.) Hill
 Cirsium heterotrichum Pančić
 Cirsium hida-paludosum Kadota & Nagase
 Cirsium hidakamontanum Kadota
 Cirsium homolepis Nakai
 Cirsium hookerianum Nutt.
 Cirsium horiianum Kadota
 Cirsium horridulum Michx.
 Cirsium hybridum W.D.J.Koch
 Cirsium hydrophilum Jeps.
 Cirsium hygrophilum Boiss.
 Cirsium hypoleucum DC.
 Cirsium hypopsilum Boiss. & Heldr.
 Cirsium × iburiense Kitam.
 Cirsium imbricatum Petr.
 Cirsium imereticum Boiss.
 Cirsium inamoenum (Greene) D.J.Keil
 Cirsium interpositum Petr.
 Cirsium inundatum Makino
 Cirsium iranicum Petr.
 Cirsium ishizuchiense (Kitam.) Kadota
 Cirsium isophyllum (Petr.) Grossh.
 Cirsium × ispolatovii Iljin ex Tzvelev
 Cirsium italicum DC.
 Cirsium ito-kojianum Kadota
 Cirsium japonicum DC.
 Cirsium joannae S.L.Welsh, N.D.Atwood & L.C.Higgins
 Cirsium jorullense Spreng.
 Cirsium kagamontanum Nakai
 Cirsium kamtschaticum Ledeb. ex DC.
 Cirsium karduchorum Petr.
 Cirsium kasaianum Kadota
 Cirsium katoanum Kadota
 Cirsium × kelkitensis Yildiz, Arabaci & Dirmenci
 Cirsium kenji-horieanum Kadota
 Cirsium kirbense Pomel
 Cirsium kirishimense Kadota & Mas.Saito
 Cirsium kisoense (T.Yamaz. & K.Asano) Kadota
 Cirsium komarovii Schischk.
 Cirsium × kornhuberi Heimerl
 Cirsium kosmelii (Adams) Fisch. ex Hohen.
 Cirsium × kozlovskyi Petr.
 Cirsium kujuense Kadota
 Cirsium lacaitae Petr.
 Cirsium laniflorum (M.Bieb.) Fisch.
 Cirsium lappoides Sch.Bip.
 Cirsium latifolium Lowe
 Cirsium lecontei Torr. & A.Gray
 Cirsium leducii H.Lév.
 Cirsium leo Nakai & Kitag.
 Cirsium leucocephalum Spreng.
 Cirsium leucopsis DC.
 Cirsium libanoticum DC.
 Cirsium lidjiangense Petr. & Hand.-Mazz.
 Cirsium ligulare Boiss.
 Cirsium lineare Sch.Bip.
 Cirsium × linkianum M.Loehr
 Cirsium lobelii Ten.
 Cirsium lojkae Sommier & Levier
 Cirsium lomatolepis Petr.
 Cirsium longepedunculatum Kitam.
 Cirsium longistylum R.J.Moore & Frankton
 Cirsium lucens Kitam.
 Cirsium luzoniense Merr.
 Cirsium maackii Maxim.
 Cirsium macrobotrys Boiss.
 Cirsium macrocephalum C.A.Mey.
 Cirsium magofukui Kitam.
 Cirsium mairei Halácsy
 Cirsium maritimum Makino
 Cirsium maroccanum Petr.
 Cirsium maruyamanum Kitam.
 Cirsium masami-saitoanum Kadota
 Cirsium matsumurae Nakai
 Cirsium × mazanderanicum Petr.
 Cirsium mexicanum DC.
 Cirsium microspicatum Nakai
 Cirsium mirabile Kitam.
 Cirsium misawaense Nakai ex Kitam.
 Cirsium mohavense (Greene) Petr.
 Cirsium monocephalum H.Lév.
 Cirsium monspessulanum (L.) Hill.
 Cirsium morinifolium Boiss. & Heldr.
 Cirsium morisianum Rchb.f.
 Cirsium muliense C.Shih
 Cirsium muticum Michx.
 Cirsium myokoense Kadota
 Cirsium nagatoense Kadota
 Cirsium nagisoense Kadota
 Cirsium nambuense Nakai
 Cirsium nasuense Kadota
 Cirsium neomexicanum A.Gray
 Cirsium nerimaniae Yildiz, Dirmenci & Arabaci
 Cirsium × nevadense Willk.
 Cirsium × nezaketiae Yildiz, Dirmenci & Arabaci
 Cirsium nigriceps Standl. & Steyerm.
 Cirsium nippoense Kadota
 Cirsium nipponicum Makino
 Cirsium nishiokae Kitam.
 Cirsium nivale Sch.Bip.
 Cirsium norikurense Nakai
 Cirsium × norrisii C.Bicknell
 Cirsium nuttallii DC.
 Cirsium oblongifolium K.Koch
 Cirsium obvallatum M.Bieb.
 Cirsium occidentale (Nutt.) Jeps.
 Cirsium occidentalinipponense Kadota
 Cirsium ochrocentrum A.Gray
 Cirsium odontolepis Boiss. ex DC.
 Cirsium ohminense Kadota
 Cirsium × okamotoi Kitam.
 Cirsium oleraceum (L.) Scop.
 Cirsium oligophyllum Matsum.
 Cirsium opacum (Kitam.) Kadota
 Cirsium orizabense Klatt
 Cirsium osseticum Petr.
 Cirsium otayae Kitam.
 Cirsium ownbeyi S.L.Welsh
 Cirsium palustre (L.) Scop.
 Cirsium pannonicum (L.f.) Link
 Cirsium parryi Petr.
 Cirsium pascuarense Spreng.
 Cirsium patens Kitam.
 Cirsium pectinellum A.Gray
 Cirsium pendulum Fisch. ex DC.
 Cirsium periacanthaceum C.Shih
 Cirsium perplexans Petr.
 Cirsium × perplexissimum Kitam.
 Cirsium peshmenianum Yildiz, Arabaci & Dirmenci
 Cirsium × petrakii Kozl. & Woronow ex Grossh.
 Cirsium phulchokiense Kitam.
 Cirsium phyllocephalum Boiss. & C.I.Blanche
 Cirsium × pilosum Kitam.
 Cirsium pinetorum Greenm.
 Cirsium pitcheri Torr. & A.Gray
 Cirsium poluninii P.H.Davis & Parris
 Cirsium praeteriens J.F.Macbr.
 Cirsium × prativagum Petr.
 Cirsium pringlei Petr.
 Cirsium pseudobracteosum P.H.Davis & Parris
 Cirsium pseudocreticum (P.H.Davis & Parris) Yildiz, Dirmenci & Arabaci
 Cirsium pseudopersonata Boiss. & Balansa
 Cirsium pseudosuffultum Kadota
 Cirsium × pskemense Lazkov
 Cirsium pubigerum (Desf.) DC.
 Cirsium pugnax Sommier & Levier
 Cirsium pulcherrimum (Rydb.) K.Schum.
 Cirsium pumilum Spreng.
 Cirsium purpuratum Matsum.
 Cirsium pyramidale Bornm.
 Cirsium pyrenaicum (Jacq.) All.
 Cirsium quercetorum (A.Gray) Jeps.
 Cirsium racemiforme Ling & C.Shih
 Cirsium radians Benth.
 Cirsium rassulovii B.A.Sharipova
 Cirsium reglense Sch.Bip. ex Klatt
 Cirsium × reichardtii Jurotzka
 Cirsium × reichenbachianum M.Loehr
 Cirsium remotifolium DC.
 Cirsium repandum Michx.
 Cirsium rhabdotolepis Petr.
 Cirsium rhaphilepis Petr.
 Cirsium rhinoceros Nakai
 Cirsium rhizocephalum C.A.Mey.
 Cirsium rhothophilum S.F.Blake
 Cirsium richterianum Gillot
 Cirsium × rigens Wallr.
 Cirsium rigidum DC.
 Cirsium rivulare (Jacq.) All.
 Cirsium roseolum Gorl.
 Cirsium rosulatum Talavera & Valdés
 Cirsium rydbergii Petr.
 Cirsium × sabaudum M.Loehr
 Cirsium sairamense O.Fedtsch. & B.Fedtsch.
 Cirsium scabrum (Poir.) Bonnet & Barratte
 Cirsium scariosum Nutt.
 Cirsium schantarense Trautv. & C.A.Mey.
 Cirsium schelkovnikovii Petr.
 Cirsium schimperi (Vatke) C.Jeffrey
 Cirsium semenowi Regel
 Cirsium semzinanicum Firat
 Cirsium senjoense Kitam.
 Cirsium serratuloides (L.) Hill
 Cirsium serrulatum (M.Bieb.) Fisch.
 Cirsium setidens (Dunn) Nakai
 Cirsium shansiense Petr.
 Cirsium shidokimontanum Kadota
 Cirsium shihianum Greuter
 Cirsium shimae Kadota
 Cirsium shinanense Shimizu
 Cirsium sidi-guinii Pau & Font Quer
 Cirsium sieboldii Miq.
 Cirsium sieversii (Fisch. & C.A.Mey.) Petr.
 Cirsium silesiacum Sch.Bip. ex Nyman
 Cirsium simplex C.A.Mey.
 Cirsium sintenisii Freyn
 Cirsium sipyleum O.Schwarz
 Cirsium sivasicum Yildiz, Arabaci & Dirmenci
 Cirsium skutchii S.F.Blake
 Cirsium sommieri Petr.
 Cirsium sorocephalum Fisch. & C.A.Mey.
 Cirsium sosnowskyi Kharadze
 Cirsium souliei (Franch.) Mattf. ex Rehder & Kobuski
 Cirsium spathulatum (Moretti) Gaudin
 Cirsium spectabile DC.
 Cirsium spicatum Matsum.
 Cirsium spinosissimum (L.) Scop.
 Cirsium spinosum Kitam.
 Cirsium spinuliferum (Kitam.) Kadota
 Cirsium steirolepis Petr.
 Cirsium stojanovii Kuzmanov
 Cirsium straminispinum C.Jeffrey
 Cirsium strigosum M.Bieb.
 Cirsium subalpinum Gaudin
 Cirsium subcoriaceum Sch.Bip.
 Cirsium subinerme Fisch. & C.A.Mey.
 Cirsium subulariforme C.Shih
 Cirsium subuliforme G.B.Ownbey
 Cirsium succinctum Ledeb.
 Cirsium × sudae E.Michálk. & Bureš
 Cirsium suffultum Matsum.
 Cirsium × sugimotoi Kitam.
 Cirsium × suspiciosum Beck
 Cirsium suzukaense Kitam.
 Cirsium suzukii Kitam.
 Cirsium svaneticum Sommier & Levier
 Cirsium swaticum Petr.
 Cirsium sychnosanthum Petr.
 Cirsium takahashii Kadota
 Cirsium tamastoloniferum Kadota
 Cirsium tanegashimense Kitam. ex Kadota
 Cirsium tashiroi Kitam.
 Cirsium tatakaense Y.H.Tseng, Y.H.Tseng, Chih Y.Chang & C.Y.Chang
 Cirsium tenoreanum Petr.
 Cirsium tenue Kitam.
 Cirsium tenuipedunculatum Kadota
 Cirsium tenuisquamatum Kitam.
 Cirsium teshioense Kadota
 Cirsium texanum Buckley
 Cirsium tianmushanicum C.Shih
 Cirsium togaense Kadota
 Cirsium tolucanum Petr.
 Cirsium toyoshimae Koidz.
 Cirsium trachylepis Boiss.
 Cirsium trachylomum S.F.Blake
 Cirsium tracyi Petr.
 Cirsium × trifurcum Petr.
 Cirsium tuberosum (L.) All.
 Cirsium turkestanicum Petr.
 Cirsium turneri Warnock
 Cirsium tymphaeum Hausskn.
 Cirsium uetsuense Kitam.
 Cirsium ugoense Nakai
 Cirsium ukranicum Besser ex DC.
 Cirsium uliginosum (M.Bieb.) Fisch.
 Cirsium umezawanum Kadota
 Cirsium undulatum Spreng.
 Cirsium unzenense Kadota & Mas.Saito
 Cirsium uzenense Kadota
 Cirsium valentinum Porta
 Cirsium vallis-demonii Lojac.
 Cirsium velatum (S.Watson) Petr.
 Cirsium vernonioides C.Shih
 Cirsium verutum (D.Don) Spreng.
 Cirsium vinaceum Wooton & Standl.
 Cirsium virginianum Michx.
 Cirsium viridifolium (Hand.-Mazz.) C.Shih
 Cirsium × vivantii L.Villar, Segarra, J.López, Pérez-Coll. & Catalán
 Cirsium vlassovianum Fisch. ex DC.
 Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten.
 Cirsium wakasugianum Kadota
 Cirsium waldsteinii Rouy
 Cirsium wallichii DC.
 Cirsium × wankelii Reichardt
 Cirsium welwitschii Coss.
 Cirsium wettsteinii Petr.
 Cirsium wheeleri Petr.
 Cirsium × wiedermannii Khek
 Cirsium wimmeri Celak.
 Cirsium × winkleri Font Quer
 Cirsium × winklerianum Celak.
 Cirsium × woodwardii (H.C.Watson) Nyman
 Cirsium × woronowii Petr.
 Cirsium wrightii A.Gray
 Cirsium × xenogenum Petr.
 Cirsium yakusimense Masam.
 Cirsium yamauchii Kadota
 Cirsium yatsu-alpicola Kadota & Y.Amano
 Cirsium yezoalpinum H.Koidz. ex Kadota & S.Umezawa
 Cirsium yezoense Makino
 Cirsium yildizianum Arabaci & Dirmenci
 Cirsium yoshidae Kadota
 Cirsium yuki-uenoanum Kadota
 Cirsium yuzawae Kadota
 Cirsium zamoranense Rzed.
 Cirsium zarkosii Kit Tan, Vold & V.Christodoulou
 Cirsium zawoense Kadota

Sinonimi
 Breea Less.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Carduinae

Osjak


A eleição presidencial de 2018 no Brasil foi realizada em dois turnos. O primeiro aconteceu em 7 de outubro de 2018, e o segundo em 28 de outubro de 2018. No Ceará, Ciro Gomes, Ex-Governador do estado, foi o mais votado no 1º turno pela 3º vez, o mesmo ganhou em 92 municípios, o mesmo número de municípios de seu adversário na corrida pelo 1º lugar no estado, Fernando Haddad, este que ficou apenas em 3º na capital Fortaleza, Jair Bolsonaro foi o mais votado em nenhum município em ambos os turnos e foi o estado de pior desempenho de Geraldo Alckmin.

Resultado para presidente no 1º Turno:

Eleição presidencial no Brasil em 2018
2018 no Ceará

Eleição presidencial do Brasil em 2018 no Ceará


السواني إحدى بلديات دائرة باب العسة بولاية تلمسان الجزائرية.

التسمية القديمة
أطلق اسم لعشاش على هذه المنطقة أثناء فترة الإستعمار الفرنسي

المصادر

سواني

السواني


Marius Laurits Theodor Jensen Thuesen (født 23. januar 1878 i Holbæk, død 12. juli 1941 i København) var en dansk gymnast, som deltog i de olympiske mellemlege 1906 og de olympiske lege 1908.

Ved mellemlegene vandt han sammen med 17 andre danske deltagere sølvmedalje i holdgymnastik, I konkurrencen deltog seks hold, og vindere blev Norge med 19,00 point, mens danskerne fik 18,00 og et italiensk hold fra Pistoja/Firenze vandt bronze med 16,71 point.

Marius Thuesen deltog ligeledes i holdgymnastik ved de olympiske lege to år senere. Her opnåede Danmark en fjerdeplads blandt otte hold, mens Sverige, Norge og Finland fordelte medaljerne blandt sig.

Referencer

Gymnaster fra Danmark
Deltagere for Danmark ved de olympiske mellemlege 1906
Deltagere for Danmark ved sommer-OL 1908
Olympiske sølvmedaljevindere fra Danmark

Marius Thuesen


In hockey, the slot is the area on the hockey rink directly in front of the goaltender between the faceoff circles and extending to the top of the face off circles.  It is sometimes referred to as the "scoring area".

The "high" slot extends from the highest points of the faceoff circles to the hash marks. Similarly, the "low" slot extends from the crease to the hash marks.

Ice hockey terminology

Slot (ice hockey)


Aškenaška sinagoga u Tuzli, sinagoga Židova Aškenaza.

Mlađeg je nastanka od sefardske. U vrijeme austro-ugarskog zaposjedanja u Tuzli je živjela mala skupina Sefarda. Nadolazećih godina Aškenazi su nagrnuli u Tuzlu i njihov je broj sve više rastao. Već 1885. Aškenazi su osnovali svoju općinu. Fodine 1901. su počeli graditi sinagogu u današnjoj Klosterskoj ulici na broju 12 koju su dovršili 1904. godine. Bila je sagrađena do Klostera s jedne i Turalibegove džamije s druge strane. Tuzlaci su ju nazivali Templ, od njemačke riječi Tempel za hram. Godine 1942. nacisti su ju zapalili i poslije srušili. Dio čestice je nacionaliziran. Na njenom je mjestu poslije sagrađen ekspres restoran i zatim Narodna kuhinja "Imaret".

Izvori

Sinagoge u Bosni i Hercegovini
Vjerski objekti u Tuzli

Aškenaška sinagoga u Tuzli


Davide Martello (n. 1 noiembrie 1981, Lörrach, Germania) este un pianist german de origine italiană. Este cunoscut pentru activitatea sa de muzicant ambulant care a cântat, pe un pian de construcție proprie, în zone de conflicte din diferite țări.

A cântat în Istanbul, cu ocazia protestelor din Turcia din 2013. În anul următor a concertat în Ucraina, în cadrul protestelor Euromaidan. La Paris a concertat în ianuarie 2015, în urma atentatului împotriva revistei Charlie Hebdo, apoi din nou după atentatele teroriste din noiembrie 2015. La 8 septembrie 2018 a cântat în Piața Victoriei din București, unde au avut loc protestele anticorupție din România din 2017–2018.

Note

Nașteri în 1981
Pianiști germani
Germani de origine italiană
Oameni în viață

Davide Martello


Dreaming Butterflies (සිහින සොයන සමනල්ලු) යනු 2017 ශ්රී ලාංකීය සිංහල පවුල් නාට්ය චිත්රපටය වන රොහාන් පෙරේරා විසින් සුනිල් ටී ප්රනාන්දු විසින් නිෂ්පාදනය කරන ලද සුනිල් ටී ෆිල්ම්ස් සඳහාය. ඩිල්හානි ඒකනායක හා සාම්ය ලියනගේ නළු නිළියන් රැසකින් සමන්විත වේ. [2] නවරත්න ගමගේ විසින් රචනා කරන සංගීතය. මෙම චිත්රපටය 2017 අගෝස්තු 11 වන දින [3] [4] එළිදැක්වීය. වැල්ලවත්ත සවෝයි ප්රිමියර් සිනමා ශාලාවේ සුප්රසිද්ධ ප්රදර්ශනය සැමරීය. සිංහල සිනමාවේ 1284 වන ශ්රී ලාංකික චිත්රපටය වේ.

කථා සාරාංශය
මෙම කතාව ගෙතෙනුයේ ශෙනල් නම් පොහොසත් ළමයෙකු වටාය.මෙම ශෙනල් හට පිළිකාවක් හටගන්නා අතර එම ළමයාගේ රුධිරය හා ගැලපෙන රුදිරයක් සොයන ශෙනල්ගේ දෙමාපියන් හට ඇත පිටිසර ගමක වෙසෙන තාරක පිළිබද දැනගත් තොරතුරු අනුව එම ලමයව හද ගැනීම සදහා තාරක ලමයව කොලබට රැගෙන එයි.පසුව ශෙනල් සමග කාලය ගතකරන තාරකට තමන්ගේ අස්ථි අට මිදුළු ශේනල්ට දීමට සිදුවේ පසුව මෙම කතාවේ අවසානයේදී ශෙනල් මියයන අතර ශේනල්ගේ මව විසින් තාරකාව හද වඩා ගනියි. ළමා කතා අතුරින් විශිෂ්ට ගනයේ කතාවක් වන මෙය ඔබ නරබියම යුතු චිත්‍ර පටයකි....

චරිත
 දිල්හානි ඒකනායක(අම්මා)
  සෞම්‍ය ලියනගේ(ගුරුතුමිය)
 නෙතාලි නායක්කාර
 හේමසිරි ලියනගේ
 ලුසින් බුලත්සිංහල
 ජයනි සේනානායක
 උමාලි තිලකරත්න (ගුරුතුමිය)

ළමා චරිත
 විනත් තෙසත් (තාරක)
 අංජන දිල්සර (ශෙනල්)
 සුපුන් කවිෂ්කා
 ලසිත අරවින්ද
යොහාන් හර්ෂණ
 තරුපති නදුන්

ගීත ඇල්බමය

References

අමතර තොරතුරු සදහා පිවිසෙන්න
 හීන හොයන සමනල්ලු මගේ අන්තිම බලාපොරොත්තුවයි
 හීන හොයන්න ගිය සමනල්ලු එන්න ළඟයි
 ළමයි කොහොමටත් දඟයි ඒක තේරුණාම ප්‍රශ්න නැහැ
 "මාතෘ සෙනෙහසක උත්කෘෂ්ටය පිළිගැන්වීමකි"
 නපුරුකමට ගමද නගරයද අදාළ නැහැ
 Heena Hoyana Samanallu Watch Full Movie
Sri Lankan films
2017 films
Sinhala-language films

සිංහලයට පරිවර්තනය-Daham Raddella (දහම් රද්දැල්ල)

හීන හොයන සමනල්ලු\