The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, delay, pulse generation, and oscillator applications. Derivatives provide two (556) or four (558) timing circuits in one package. The design was first marketed in 1972 by Signetics and used bipolar junction transistors. Since then, numerous companies have made the original timers and later similar low-power CMOS timers. In 2017, it was said that over a billion 555 timers are produced annually by some estimates, and that the design was "probably the most popular integrated circuit ever made".

History

The timer IC was designed in 1971 by Hans Camenzind under contract to Signetics.  In 1968, he was hired by Signetics to develop a phase-locked loop (PLL) IC.  He designed an oscillator for PLLs such that the frequency did not depend on the power supply voltage or temperature.  Signetics subsequently laid off half of its employees due to the 1970 recession, and development on the PLL was thus frozen.  Camenzind proposed the development of a universal circuit based on the oscillator for PLLs and asked that he develop it alone, borrowing equipment from Signetics instead of having his pay cut in half. Camenzind's idea was originally rejected, since other engineers argued the product could be built from existing parts sold by the company; however, the marketing manager approved the idea.

The first design for the 555 was reviewed in the summer of 1971. After this design was tested and found to be without errors, Camenzind got the idea of using a direct resistance instead of a constant current source, finding that it worked satisfactorily. The design change decreased the required 9 external pins to 8, so the IC could be fit in an 8-pin package instead of a 14-pin package. This revised version passed a second design review, and the prototypes were completed in October 1971 as the NE555V (plastic DIP) and SE555T (metal TO-5).  The 9-pin version had already been released by another company founded by an engineer who had attended the first review and had retired from Signetics; that firm withdrew its version soon after the 555 was released. The 555 timer was manufactured by 12 companies in 1972, and it became a best-selling product.

The 555 found many applications beyond timers. Camenzind noted in 1997 that "nine out of 10 of its applications were in areas and ways I had never contemplated. For months I was inundated by phone calls from engineers who had new ideas for using the device."

Name
Several books report the name "555" timer IC derived from the three 5 kΩ resistors inside the chip. However, in a recorded interview with an online transistor museum curator, Hans Camenzind  said "It was just arbitrarily chosen. It was Art Fury (marketing manager) who thought the circuit was gonna sell big who picked the name '555' timer IC.."

Design
Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package incorporated the equivalent of 25 transistors, 2 diodes, and 15 resistors on a silicon chip packaged into an 8-pin dual in-line package (DIP-8). Variants available included the 556 (a DIP-14 combining two complete 555s on one chip), and 558 / 559 (both variants were a DIP-16 combining four reduced-functionality timers on one chip).

The NE555 parts were commercial temperature range, 0 °C to +70 °C, and the SE555 part number designated the military temperature range, −55 °C to +125 °C. These chips were available in both high-reliability metal can (T package) and inexpensive epoxy plastic (V package) form factors. Thus, the full part numbers were NE555V, NE555T, SE555V, and SE555T.

Low-power CMOS versions of the 555 are now available, such as the Intersil ICM7555 and Texas Instruments LMC555, TLC555, TLC551.

Internal schematic
The internal block diagram and schematic of the 555 timer are highlighted with the same color across all three drawings to clarify how the chip is implemented:
 : Between the positive supply voltage VCC and the ground GND is a voltage divider consisting of three identical resistors (5kΩ for bipolar timers, 100kΩ or higher for CMOS) to create reference voltages for the analog comparators. CONTROL is connected between the upper two resistors, allowing an external voltage to control the reference voltages:
 When CONTROL is not driven, this divider creates an upper reference voltage of  VCC and a lower reference voltage of  VCC.
 When CONTROL is driven, the upper reference voltage will instead be VCONTROL and the lower reference voltage will be  VCONTROL.
 : The comparator's negative input is connected to voltage divider's upper reference voltage, and the comparator's positive input is connected to THRESHOLD.
 : The comparator's positive input is connected to voltage divider's lower reference, and the comparator's negative input is connected to TRIGGER.
 : A set-reset latch stores the state of the timer and is controlled by the two comparators. RESET overrides the other two inputs, thus the latch (and therefore the entire timer) can be reset at any time.
 : The output of the latch is followed by an output stage with pushpull output drivers that can supply up to 200mA for bipolar timers, lower for CMOS timers.
 : Also, the output of the latch controls a transistor acting as an electronic switch that connects DISCHARGE to ground (convenient for discharging a timing capacitor) or leaves it disconnected.

Pinout
The pinout of the 8-pin 555 timer and 14-pin 556 dual timer are shown in the following table.  Since the 556 is conceptually two 555 timers that share power pins, the pin numbers for each half are split across two columns.

In the following table, longer pin designations are used, because manufacturers never standardized the abbreviated pin names across all datasheets.

Modes
The 555 IC has the following operating modes:
 Astable (free-running) mode – The 555 operates as an electronic oscillator. Applications include:
 Light emitting diode and lamp flashers, pulse generation, pulse-width modulation (PWM), logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse-position modulation, etc.
 Analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) from an analog value represented by a resistance or capacitance into a digital pulse length.
 e.g., selecting a thermistor as timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor with the period of the output pulse determined by the temperature. A microprocessor can then convert the pulse period to temperature, linearize it, and even provide calibration.
 Monostable (one-shot) mode – The 555 operates as a "one-shot" pulse generator. Applications include:
 timers, missing pulse detection, bounce-free switches, touch switches, frequency dividers, triggered measurement of resistance or capacitance, PWM, etc.
 Bistable (latch) mode – The 555 operates as a set-reset latch. Applications include:
 switch debouncing.
 Schmitt trigger (inverter) mode – the 555 operates as a Schmitt trigger inverter gate. Application:
 Converts a noisy input into a clean digital output.

Astable

In the astable configuration, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of rectangular pulses having a specific period.

The astable configuration is implemented using two resistors,  and  and one capacitor . The threshold and trigger pins are both connected to the capacitor; thus they have the same voltage.

Its repeated operating cycle (starting with the capacitor uncharged) is:

 Since the capacitor's voltage will be below  VCC, the trigger pin causes the 555's internal latch to change state, causing OUT to go high and the internal discharge transistor to cut-off.
 Since the discharge pin is no longer short-circuited to ground, the capacitor starts charging via current from Vcc through the resistors  and .
 Once the capacitor charge reaches  Vcc, the threshold pin causes the 555's internal latch to change state, causing OUT to go low and the internal discharge transistor to go into saturation (maximal-conductivity) mode.
 This discharge transistor provides a discharge path, so the capacitor starts discharging through .
 Once the capacitor's voltage drops below  VCC, the cycle repeats from step 1.

During the first pulse, the capacitor charges from 0 V to  VCC, however, in later pulses, it only charges from  VCC to  VCC. Consequently, the first pulse has a longer high time interval compared to later pulses. Moreover, the capacitor charges through both resistors but only discharges through , thus the output high interval is longer than the low interval. This is shown in the following equations:

The output high time interval of each pulse is given by:

The output low time interval of each pulse is given by:

Hence, the frequency  of the pulse is given by:

and the duty cycle  is given by:

where  is the time in seconds,  is the resistance in ohms,  is the capacitance in farads, and  is the natural logarithm of 2.

Resistor  requirements:
 The maximum power rating of  must be greater than , per Ohm's law.
 Particularly with bipolar 555 types, low values of  must be avoided so that the output stays saturated near zero volts during discharge, as assumed by the above equation. Otherwise, the output low time will be greater than calculated above.

Shorter duty cycle
To create an output high time shorter than the low time (i.e., a duty cycle less than 50%) a fast diode (i.e. 1N4148 signal diode) can be placed in parallel with R2, with the cathode on the capacitor side. This bypasses R2 during the high part of the cycle, so that the high interval depends only on R1 and C, with an adjustment based on the voltage drop across the diode. The low time is unaffected by the diode and so remains  But the diode's forward voltage drop Vdiode slows charging on the capacitor, so the high time is longer than the often-cited  to become:

where Vdiode is when the diode's "on" current is  of VCC/R1 (which depends on the type of diode and can be found in datasheets or measured). When Vdiode is small relative to Vcc, this charging is faster and approaches  but is slower the closer Vdiode is to Vcc:

As an extreme example, when VCC = 5 V, and Vdiode = 0.7 V, high time is 1.00 R1C, which is 45% longer than the "expected" 0.693 R1C. At the other extreme, when Vcc = 15 V, and Vdiode = 0.3 V, the high time is 0.725 R1C, which is closer to the expected 0.693 R1C. The equation approaches 0.693 R1C as Vdiode approaches 0 V.

Voltage-controlled pulse-width modulation
In the previous example schematics, the control pin was not used, thus it should connected to ground through a 10 nF decoupling capacitor to shunt electrical noise. However if a time-varying voltage source was applied to the control pin, then the pulse widths would be dependent on the control voltage.

Monostable

Monostable mode produces an output pulse when the trigger signals drops below  VCC. An RC circuit sets the output pulse's duration as the time  in seconds it takes to charge C to  VCC:

where  is the resistance in ohms,  is the capacitance in farads,  is the natural log of 3 constant. The output pulse duration can be lengthened or shortened as desired by adjusting the values of R and C. Subsequent triggering before the end of this timing interval won't affect the output pulse.

After the timing interval completes, the capacitor is almost instantly discharged through the Discharge pin, to then allow for subsequent triggering.

Example Values

The table of common values (right) are solutions to that timing equation.

Scaling R and C by opposite powers of 10 will provide the same timing. For instance, ~1ms results from either:
 1nF and 910kΩ,
 10nF and 91kΩ (values from table), or
 100nF and 9.1kΩ.

For each row in the example table (right), two additional timing values can easily be created by adding a second resistor in parallel or series. In parallel, the new timing is half the table time. In series, the new timing is double the table time.
 5ms ≅ 100nF and 45.5kΩ (two 91kΩ resistors in parallel)
 10ms ≅ 100nF and 91kΩ (values from table)
 20ms ≅ 100nF and 182kΩ (two 91kΩ resistors in series)

Bistable SR latch

A 555 timer can act as an active-low SR latch (though without an inverted  output) by connecting a  input signal to the  pin and connecting a  input signal to the  pin. Thus, pulling  momentarily low acts as a "set" and transitions the output to the high state (VCC). Conversely, pulling  momentarily low acts as a "reset" and transitions the Out pin to the low state (GND).

No timing capacitors are required in a bistable configuration. The threshold input is grounded because it is unused. The trigger and reset inputs may be held high via pull-up resistors if they are normally Hi-Z and only enabled by connecting to ground.  The discharge pin isn't needed in this configuration, though it can be optionally used as an open-collector output.

Bistable Schmitt trigger

A 555 timer can be used to create a Schmitt trigger inverter gate, which converts a noisy input into a clean digital output.

An input signal is AC-coupled through a low value series capacitor, then biased by identical high-resistance resistors  and , which causes the signal to be centered at half Vcc.  This centered signal is connected to both the trigger and threshold input pins of the timer.  The input signal must be strong enough to excite the trigger levels of the comparators to exceed  VCC and  VCC in order to cause them to change state.  The discharge pin isn't needed in this configuration, though it can be optionally used as an open-collector output.

Packages

In 1972, Signetics originally released the 555 timer in DIP-8 and TO5-8 metal can packages, and the 556 timer was released in a DIP-14 package.

In 2006, the dual 556 timer was available in through-hole packages as DIP-14 (2.54 mm pitch), and surface-mount packages as SO-14 (1.27 mm pitch) and SSOP-14 (0.65 mm pitch).

In 2012, the 555 was available in through-hole packages as DIP-8 (2.54 mm pitch), and surface-mount packages as SO-8 (1.27 mm pitch), SSOP-8 / TSSOP-8 / VSSOP-8 (0.65 mm pitch), BGA (0.5 mm pitch).

The MIC1555 is a CMOS 555-type timer with three fewer pins available in SOT23-5 (0.95 mm pitch) surface-mount package.

Specifications

These specifications apply to the original bipolar NE555. Other 555 timers can have different specifications depending on the grade (industrial, military, medical, etc.).

Derivatives
Numerous companies have manufactured one or more variants of the 555, 556, 558 timers over the past decades, under many different part numbers.  The following is a partial list:

 Table notes
 All information in the above table was pulled from references in the datasheet column, except where denoted below.
 For the "Total timers" column, a "*" denotes parts that are missing 555 timer features.
 For the "Iq" column, a 5-volt supply was chosen as a common voltage to make it easier to compare. The value for Signetics NE558 is an estimate because NE558 datasheets don't state Iq at 5 V. The value listed in this table was estimated by comparing the 5 V to 15 V ratio of other bipolar datasheets, then derating the 15 V parameter for the NE558 part, which is denoted by the "*".
 For the "Frequency max." column, a "*" denotes values that may not be the actual maximum frequency limit of the part. The MIC1555 datasheet discusses limitations from 1 to 5 MHz. Though most bipolar timers don't state the maximum frequency in their datasheets, they all have a maximum frequency limitation of hundreds of kHz across their full temperature range.  Section 8.1 of the Texas Instruments NE555 datasheet states a value of 100 kHz, and their website shows a value of 100 kHz in timer comparison tables. Signetics App Note 170 states that most devices will oscillate up to 1 MHz; however, when considering temperature stability, it should be limited to about 500 kHz. The application note from HFO mentions that at higher supply voltages the maximum power dissipation of the circuit might limit the operating frequency, as the supply current increases with frequency.
 For the "Manufacturer" column, the following associates historical 555 timer manufacturers to current company names.
 Fairchild Semiconductor was sold to ON Semiconductor in 2016.  ON Semiconductor was founded in 1999 as a spinoff of Motorola Semiconductor Components Group.  The MC1455 started as a Motorola product.
 Intersil was sold to Renesas Electronics in 2017.  The ICM7555 and ICM7556 started as Intersil products.
 Micrel was sold to Microchip Technology in 2015.  The MIC1555 started as a Micrel product.
 National Semiconductor was sold to Texas Instruments in 2011.  The LM555 and LM556 started as a National Semiconductor products.
 Signetics was sold to Philips Semiconductor in 1975, later to NXP Semiconductors in 2006.
 Zetex Semiconductors was sold to Diodes Incorporated in 2008.  The ZSCT1555 started as a Zetex product.

556 dual timer

The dual version is called 556. It features two complete 555 timers in a 14-pin package; only the two power-supply pins are shared between the two timers. In 2020, the bipolar version was available as the NE556, and the CMOS versions were available as the Intersil ICM7556 and Texas Instruments TLC556 and TLC552. See derivatives table in this article.

558 quad timer

The quad version is called 558 and has four reduced-functionality timers in a 16-pin package designed primarily for monostable multivibrator applications. By 2014, many versions of 16-pin NE558 have become obsolete.

Partial list of differences between 558 and 555 chips:
 One VCC and one GND, similar to 556 chip.
 Four "Reset" are tied together internally to one external pin (558).
 Four "Control Voltage" are tied together internally to one external pin (558).
 Four "Triggers" are falling-edge sensitive (558), instead of level sensitive (555).
 Two resistors in the voltage divider (558), instead of three resistors (555).
 One comparator (558), instead of two comparators (555).
 Four "Output" are open-collector (O.C.) type (558), instead of push–pull (P.P.) type (555).

See also

 RC circuit
 Counter (digital)
 Operational amplifier
 List of LM-series integrated circuits
 List of linear integrated circuits
 4000-series integrated circuits, List of 4000-series integrated circuits
 7400-series integrated circuits, List of 7400-series integrated circuits
 Push–pull output, Open-collector/drain output, Three-state output

Notes

References

Further reading
Books
 555 Timer Applications Sourcebook With Experiments; 2nd Ed; Howard Berlin; BPB Publications; 218 pages; 2008; . (1st Ed in 1978)
 Timer/Generator Circuits Manual; 1st Ed; R.M. Marston; Newnes; 276 pages; 1990; .
 Engineer's Mini-Notebook – 555 Timer IC Circuits; 3rd Ed; Forrest Mims III; Radio Shack; 33 pages; 1989; ASIN B000MN54A6. (1st Ed in 1984)
 IC Timer Cookbook; 2nd Ed; Walt Jung; Sams Publishing; 384 pages; 1983; . (1st Ed in 1977)
 110 IC Timer Projects; Jules Gilder; Hayden; 115 pages; 1979; .
 IC 555 Projects; E.A. Parr; Bernard Babani Publishing; 144 pages; 1978; .

 Books with timer chapters
 Lessons in Electric Circuits - Volume VI - Experiments; Tony Kuphaldt; Open Book Project; 423 pages; 2010. (Chapter 6 and 8)
 Designing Analog Chips; Hans Camenzind (inventor of 555 timer); Virtual Bookworm; 244 pages; 2005; . (Chapter 11)
 Timer, Op Amp, and Optoelectronic Circuits and Projects; Forrest Mims III; Master Publishing; 128 pages; 2004; . (Chapter 1)
 Linear LSI Data and Applications Manual; Signetics; 1250 pages; 1985. (Appnotes AN170/171 and Datasheets NE555/6/8)
 Analog Applications Manual; Signetics; 418 pages; 1979. (Chapter 6)
 TTL Cookbook; Don Lancaster; Sams Publishing; 412 pages; 1974; . (Chapter 4, pages 171-188)

 Datasheets
 See links in "Derivatives" table and "References" section in this article.

External links

 Using the 555 Timer IC in Special or Unusual Circuits - Nuts & Volts magazine
 555 Timer Tutorial - Tony van Roon
 Common Mistakes When Using a 555 Timer
 Teardown of a bipolar RCA LM555CH chip
 Teardown of a CMOS TI LMC555 chip

1972 introductions
Electronic oscillators
Linear integrated circuits

555 timer IC


Pierre Pescheur ou Le Pescheur (1590-1637) fut un facteur d'orgues qui travailla surtout à Paris.

Biographie

Pierre Pescheur était le fils du facteur d'orgues Nicolas Pescheur (? - 1616), qui apprit la facture d'orgue probablement avec Jan Langhedul (père de Matthieu Langhedul) et Crespin Carlier. C'est lui qui forma son fils Pierre, qui se perfectionna ensuite auprès de Valéran de Héman.

Pierre Pescheur construisit :
 l'orgue de tribune de la cathédrale Notre-Dame d'Amiens, remplacé au XIXe siècle par un orgue Cavaillé-Coll ;
 les orgues de l'église Notre-Dame-des-Vertus d'Aubervilliers, en 1630-1635 et
 les orgues de l'église Saint-Étienne-du-Mont de Paris, en 1636.

Il a également travaillé sur les instruments suivants :
 l'orgue de l'église Saint-Leu-Saint-Gilles de Paris et
 l'orgue de l'église Saint-Gervais-Saint-Protais de Paris.

Avec Valéran de Héman, il fonda l'école parisienne classique de facture d'orgue. Son élève le plus éminent fut Pierre Desenclos. Il fit partie de la première génération de facteurs d'orgues parisiens.

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Articles connexes

 Orgue
 Facteur d'orgue
 Orgue de tribune de la cathédrale Notre-Dame d'Amiens

Pescheur
Facteur d'orgues de la cathédrale Notre-Dame d'Amiens

Pierre Pescheur


LIrlande est l'un des quarante pays participants du Concours Eurovision de la chanson 2022, qui se déroule à Turin en Italie. Le pays est représenté par la chanteuse Brooke Scullion  et sa chanson That's Rich, sélectionnées via l'émission Eurosong 2022. Le pays se classe  avec  en demi-finale, ne parvenant pas à se qualifier pour la finale.

Sélection

Le diffuseur irlandais RTÉ annonce sa participation à l'Eurovision 2022 le . Le , le diffuseur confirme le retour du format de sélection Eurosong, pour la première fois depuis 2015 et ouvre la période de dépôt des candidatures jusqu'au . Au terme de cette période,  ont été reçues par le diffuseur. Six des candidats sont sélectionnés pour la finale télévisée, leurs noms étant révélés le .

La finale télévisée a lieu le . Le gagnant est désigné par un vote mêlant un jury du studio, un jury international et le télévote irlandais, chacun comptant pour un tiers du total. Chaque partie attribue 12, 10, 8, 6, 4 et 2 points aux chansons.

La soirée se conclut sur la victoire de Brooke avec sa chanson That's Rich qui représenteront donc l'Irlande à l'Eurovision 2022.

À l'Eurovision
L'Irlande participe à la deuxième demi-finale, le . Y recevant , le pays se classe  et ne parvient pas à se qualifier en finale.

Notes et références

Irlande au Concours Eurovision de la chanson
Irlande
Concours Eurovision de la chanson

Irlande au Concours Eurovision de la chanson 2022


Die Evolutionary Archaeology [] (auch Darwinian Archaeology, Selective Archaeology) ist eine theoretische Strömung der Archäologie, welche die Entwicklung vergangener menschlicher Gesellschaften mit Erkenntnissen der Evolutionstheorie erklärt. Sie ist eng mit der Soziobiologie und anderen darwinistischen Forschungszweigen verwandt.

Evolutionary Archaeology ist seit den 1990er Jahren ein vielfältig angewandter Begriff im wissenschaftlichen Diskurs. Es existiert jedoch keine einheitliche Definition seiner Bedeutung. Ursprünglich der prähistorischen Forschung entstammend, kann die Theorie der Evolutionary Archaeology auf alle Teilgebiete der Archäologie angewandt werden.

Überblick

Die Evolutionary Archaeology will, über große Zeitspannen und vielfältige Naturräume hinweg, menschliches Verhalten in ein System einordnen. Sie sucht nach wiederkehrenden Mustern der Entwicklung, denen sie Gesetzmäßigkeiten zuordnen kann. Dabei bedient sie sich der Methoden des Darwinismus. Sie kritisiert eine seit den 1980er Jahren voranschreitende dekonstruktivistische Relativierung archäologischer Erkenntnisse und sieht sich damit in direkter Konkurrenz zur Postprozessualen bzw. Interpretativen Archäologie. Die Evolutionary Archaeology argumentiert, dass menschliche Gesellschaften das Produkt kultureller Evolution sind und diese wiederum mit universell gültigen Gesetzen erklärbar ist. Anders als die postprozessuale Archäologie, sieht sie historische Entwicklungen nicht als das Ergebnis sich bewusst entscheidender Individuen, sondern als die Folge unbewusst ablaufender Adaptionsmechanismen. Bei archäologischen Untersuchungen sollen demnach nicht der einzelne Mensch, sondern große Strukturen im Vordergrund stehen. Der britische Evolutionsarchäologe Stephen Shennan schreibt dazu:

Theoretische Diskussionen in der deutschsprachigen Archäologie
Um die internationalen anthropologischen Theorieströmungen seit dem Zweiten Weltkrieg in einem deutschsprachigen Kontext nachvollziehen zu können, müssen die landesabhängigen, methodischen Unterschiede zwischen den Wissenskulturen verstanden werden.
Wie viele theoretische Bewegungen in der Archäologie ist auch die Evolutionary Archaeology anglo-amerikanischer Herkunft.
In Mitteleuropa ist häufig eine gewisse Verzögerung bei der Übernahme von aus dem Ausland stammenden Diskussionen zu beobachten. Manche Archäologen sprechen in diesem Zusammenhang von einer "Theoriefeindlichkeit", die in der deutschsprachigen Fachwelt vorherrschen würde.

Beispiele
Der deutsche Professor für Ur- und Frühgeschichte Ulrich Veit vergleicht die mitteleuropäischen Archäologen und ihre englischsprachigen Kollegen in einem Beispiel mit Entdeckungsreisenden. An den Küsten eines unbekannten Kontinents gelandet, würde der Deutsche erst versuchen, wirklichkeitsgetreu den genauen Küstenverlauf zu kartieren, sich aber bei Spekulationen über Größe und Form des gesamten Kontinents zurückhalten. Statt die neue Landmasse hypothetisch aufzuzeichnen, ließe er die unerforschten Teile der Karte lieber weiß. Nur wenn sich eine Deckungsgleichheit mit den Aufzeichnungen seiner Kollegen ergebe, würde er der Verbindung verschiedener Kartierungen zu einem "großen Ganzen" zustimmen. Sein anglo-amerikanischer Kollege würde sich dagegen wenig für die Topographie im Kleinen interessieren, aber bald versuchen die Form des ganzen Kontinents zu erkennen. Er würde die wenigen Anhaltspunkte die ihm bekannt sind verbinden und in Kauf nehmen, dass die daraus resultierende kartographische Darstellung mit dem wirklichen Aussehen der Landmasse nicht viel gemeinsam hat. Für ihn stünde die Möglichkeit im Vordergrund, den neuen Kontinent in die Systeme der bekannten Welt einzuverleiben und daran neue Weltmodelle zu erproben. Diese Charakterisierung der Unterschiede zwischen deutschen und englischsprachigen Prähistorikern lässt sich ebenfalls auf die etwas internationaleren Kategorien, "traditionelle" und "moderne" Archäologen anwenden.

Forschungsgeschichte
Der Begriff Evolutionary Archaeology tauchte erstmals Ende der 1960er Jahre in Beiträgen von David Leonard Clarke und Robert Dunnell auf. Vor allem Dunnell erklärte in Aufsätzen 1978 die Grundsätze der darwinistischen Archäologie. Die eigentlichen Ursprünge der Evolutionsarchäologie finden sich aber, wie es bereits im Namen ersichtlich ist, in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts, als die Evolutionstheorie zunehmend Befürworter gewann. Charles Darwin trug mit seinen Werken On the Origin of Species (Die Entstehung der Arten) und The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (Die Abstammung des Menschen und die geschlechtliche Zuchtwahl) entscheidend zur Entstehung der später als Darwinismus bezeichneten Bewegungen in vielen Bereichen der modernen Wissenschaft bei.

In der Archäologie wiederum standen umfassende theoretische Erklärungsmodelle bis zur Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts noch nicht im Vordergrund. In der Zeit bis in die 1960er Jahre, die innerhalb der Archäologie als die "klassifikatorisch-historische" Periode bezeichnet wird, wurde vielmehr Wert auf die Datierung einzelner Fundorte und die Schaffung regionaler chronologischer Systeme gelegt. In den 1940er Jahren begannen Archäologen das Konzept der Cultural Ecology des Ethnologen Julian Steward anzuwenden. Man folgte der These, dass Kulturen nicht nur einfach untereinander, sondern auch mit der Umwelt interagieren. Es wurden vermehrt ökologische, umweltbezogene Erklärungen für geschichtliche Veränderungen verwendet. Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg kam es zu einer rasanten Entwicklung naturwissenschaftlicher "Hilfsdisziplinen", wie etwa der Radiokohlenstoffdatierung. Diese Entwicklungen zur Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts bahnten schließlich den Weg für eine große Umwälzung innerhalb der archäologischen Methodik. Lewis Binfords Aufsatz Archaeology as Anthropology aus dem Jahr 1962 stellte den Anfang dieser New Archaeology genannten Veränderung dar. Sie wurde zunächst vor allem im englischen Sprachraum diskutiert. Ihre Anhänger setzten sich kritisch mit denen, in ihren Augen zu stark historisch, linear erscheinenden Arbeiten ihrer Vorgänger auseinander und forderten eine "Verwissenschaftlichung" der Archäologie. Diese neue, auch als Prozessuale Archäologen bezeichnete Generation, suchte mehr nach Erklärungen, als nach Beschreibungen vergangener Kulturen. Eine Kultur sollte als ein System analysiert werden. Es wurden Verallgemeinerungen vorgenommen, die es jedem erlauben sollten – ähnlich wie in den Naturwissenschaften – bei beliebiger Wiederholung des Versuchs die gleichen Gesetzmäßigkeiten zu erkennen. Die Tendenz zur Modellbildung, sowie der schon durch Bindford betonte Faktor der Umwelteinflüsse, weisen auf eine gewisse Verwandtschaft der New Archaeology zur Evolutionsarchäologie hin. Im Jahr 1976 erschien The Selfish Gene von Richard Dawkins. Seine Theorie der Meme verschafften den lange "unattraktiv" erschienenen darwinistischen Strömungen wieder Auftrieb.

Ab den 1980er Jahren bildete sich eine neue theoretische Strömung aus der kritischen Haltung gegenüber der prozessualen New Archaeology. Der durch den britischen Archäologen Ian Hodder geprägte Begriff der Postprozessualen Archäologie stellte nun eine Überschrift für viele postmoderne Fachdisziplinen wie etwa die Marxistischer Archäologie oder die Gender Archaeology. Die Postprozessuale Archäologie vertritt die These, dass die archäologische Wissenschaft das Produkt gegenwärtiger sozialer Prozesse ist. Aktuelle politische, ökonomische und kulturelle Interessen bilden dieser Theorie nach die Basis des modernen Verständnisses von vergangenem Verhalten. Die Postprozessuale Archäologie sieht die Vergangenheit nicht mehr als eine mit "unbestechlichen" (Natur)Wissenschaften zu entschlüsselnde Wahrheit, sondern als eine leicht formbare Masse, die durch von außen herangetragene Interpretationen gebildet wird. Sie steht damit diametral der Evolutionary Archaeology gegenüber, die ihren Thesen feste Gesetzmäßigkeiten zugrunde legt und den Menschen nicht als auslösenden Agens für gesellschaftliche Entwicklungen betrachtet.

Die Evolutionary Archaeology bildete sich in den 1990er und 2000er Jahren als eine der führenden Theorieströmungen heraus. Sie wirkte in diesen Zeitraum vereinheitlichend auf ihre anfangs noch ungebunden agierenden Kritiker. Die den verschiedenen Strömungen der Postprozessualen Archäologie angehörenden Gegner vereinten sich zunehmend unter dem Begriff der Interpretative Archaeology. Während die 1980er Jahre noch von intensiven Theoriediskussionen geprägt waren, zeigte sich in der ersten Dekade des 21. Jahrhunderts eine starke Separation der verschiedenen theoretischen Strömungen. Obwohl sich die zwei Schulen, die interpretativen und die darwinistischen Archäologen mit ihren Modellen als Konkurrenten verstehen, kam es nur begrenzt zu einem Dialog.

Beispiele
Anhand des im prähistorischen Nordamerika zu beobachtenden, flächendeckenden Wechsels von Faustkeilen zu Abschlagklingen lassen sich die Unterschiede zwischen der schon seit den 1960er Jahren verbreiteten prozessualen Archäologie und der relativ jungen darwinistischen Herangehensweise skizzieren.
 William Parry und Robert Kelly demonstrierten in ihrem 1989 erschienenen Artikel "Expedient Core Technology and Sedentism" wie die prozessuale Archäologie diesen Technologiewechsels erklärt. Die Struktur ihrer Argumentation kann dabei als typisch für diese, die zweite Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts teils dominierende prozessuale Methodik gelten. Dabei werden folgende Schritte unternommen:
 Empirische Untersuchungen beweisen, dass überall in Nordamerika ein Technologiewechsel stattfand.
 Ethnologische Beobachtungen von Kulturen, welche gegenwärtig noch die Abschlagtechnik zur Produktion von Klingen praktizieren, werden benutzt, um Verhaltensmuster der prähistorischen Produzenten nachzuvollziehen. Es wird festgestellt, dass beim Abschlagen nicht zwischen "guten Klingen" und Abfall unterschieden wird. Scheinbar wird auch kein Wert darauf gelegt, durch die Produktionsmethode die Form der entstehenden Abschläge zu kontrollieren. Abschlagklingen sind einfacher anzufertigen, aber wegen der benötigten Gesteinsmenge ist es aufwendiger das Ausgangsmaterial zu beschaffen. Das genaue Gegenteil gilt für Faustkeile.
 Es wird nach einer Verbindung des prähistorischen Technologiewechsels mit sich verändernden Umweltbedingungen wie etwa dem Klima gesucht. Da aber keine direkten Korrelationen erkannt werden, bleibt nur die Suche nach einem gleichzeitig stattgefundenen Wechsel der Lebensweise. Es wird festgestellt, dass mit dem Auftauchen der Abschlagklingen auch die Sesshaftigkeit der Produzenten einsetzte.
 Diese Beobachtungen lassen die Vermutung zu, dass die leichter herzustellenden Abschlagklingen im Vergleich zu den aufwendigeren, doppelseitig behauenen Faustkeilen eine nützlichere Alternative bei Sesshaftigkeit bildeten. Bei stärkerer Mobilität während der nicht sesshaften Phase brachten dagegen die in geringerer Zahl benötigten und daher weniger abbauintensiven Faustkeile Vorteile. Die neue, sesshafte Lebensweise gilt in dieser prozessualen Untersuchung also als die schlussendliche Ursache für den Technologiewechsel.

 Die darwinistische oder selektive Archäologie wendet bei der gleichen Fundsituation eine grundlegend andere Methodik an. Sie geht davon aus, dass evolutionäre Erklärungen für menschliche Entwicklungen per Definition von dem Verhalten der untersuchten Menschen unabhängig sind und sich daher auf Umweltfaktoren beziehen. Menschliche Anpassungsvorgänge seien nur die Folge einer ursprünglichen, ökologischen Ursache. Entsprechend kann die evolutionäre Archäologie nicht ein bestimmtes Verhalten (Änderung der Herstellungstechnik von Faustkeilen zu Abschlagklingen) abschließend mit einem anderen Verhalten (zunehmende Sesshaftigkeit) erklären. Sie geht bei der Suche nach den Ursachen stattdessen auf folgende Weise vor:
 Der Wechsel zu einer neuen Technologie wird, der Begrifflichkeit der ursprünglich biologisch gedachten Evolutionstheorie folgend, als reproduktiver Erfolg gedeutet. Dieser reproduktive Erfolg kann somit entweder das Produkt von Stochastischen Prozessen, Selektion oder Sortierung sein.
 Ein Stochastischer Prozess, also ein rein zufälliger Vorgang, wird ausgeschlossen, da der Technologiewechsel in vielen verschiedenen Regionen Nordamerikas die gleiche Entwicklungsrichtung aufweist (von Faustkeilen zu Abschlagklingen).
 Selektion erscheint möglich, da die einheitliche Entwicklungsrichtung auf einen Anpassungsvorteil der neuen Technologie hindeutet. Anpassung erfolgt durch selektiven Druck. Dieser Selektionsdruck hat wiederum eine übergeordnete Ursache. Da die Evolutionsarchäologie menschliches Verhalten nicht als schlussendlichen Verursacher akzeptiert, kann auch Parrys und Kellys Sesshaftigkeitsthese nicht als abschließende Erklärung dienen. Stattdessen kommt eine unbekannte Umweltveränderung in Frage.
 Umweltfaktoren müssen aber nicht direkt für den Technologiewechsel verantwortlich sein. Die Einführung der Abschlagklingen kann die Folge einer anderen Anpassung an eine ursprüngliche Ursache sein. Dieser Prozess wird als Sortierung bezeichnet. Es ist in der darwinistischen Theorie somit denkbar, dass die neue Herstellungstechnik der Steinwerkzeuge oberflächlich scheinbar durch menschliches Verhalten verursacht wurde. Dabei kommt beispielsweise der gleichzeitig mit den zunehmenden Abschlagklingen erstmals zu beobachtende Maisanbau als oberflächlicher Verursacher in Frage.
 Die evolutionary Archaeology sieht folglich verschiedene mögliche Erklärungen für den Technologiewechsel. Beispielsweise könnte die Abschlagtechnik durch eine verringerte Mobilität favorisiert worden sein. Die verringerte Mobilität wäre wiederum das Produkt eines externen, den sesshaften Maisanbau favorisierenden Selektionsdrucks. In jeder Variante ist aber immer die direkte (Selektion) oder indirekte (Sortierung) Anpassung an nichtmenschliche Umweltfaktoren der eigentliche Verursacher.

Kritik
Die Evolutionary Archaeology wird vor allem von Anhängern der interpretativen Theorieströmungen kritisiert. Diese argumentieren, dass der Mensch ein Kulturwesen ist, dessen individuelle Entscheidungen sich nicht mit naturwissenschaftlichen Gesetzen erklären lassen. Die wichtigsten Kritikpunkte lauten dabei:

 Idealisierung der Aussagekraft des archäologischen Befundes: Kritiker werfen den Evolutionsarchäologen vor, dass sie jede (zeitliche) Veränderung der Häufigkeit von Fundtypen als ein Zeichen von evolutionären Vorgängen identifizieren. Dabei sehen sie in Veränderungen, die eine Entwicklungsrichtung aufweisen einen Beweis für Selektionsmechanismen und in richtungslosen Schwankungen der Fundfrequenz ein Beispiel für evolutionären Drift. Sie ignorieren dabei jedoch, dass der strikte Aufbau der Evolutionstheorie auf einen vollständigen, lückenlosen Befund angewiesen ist. Diesen Anspruch kann die Archäologie aber schon aus rein quantitativen Gründen niemals erfüllen.

 Überschätzung der eigenen "Wissenschaftlichkeit": Obwohl innerhalb der darwinistischen Archäologie darüber diskutiert wird, ob die Evolutionstheorie mehr im Sinne einer Metapher als einer Gesetzmäßigkeit angewandt werden sollte, kommuniziert sie nach außen eine Überlegenheit durch ihre angeblich strikte Verwendung von "Naturgesetzen". Dieser von Kollegen als arrogant empfundene exklusivistische Wahrheitsanspruch verhindert einen stärkeren Austausch zwischen den Theorieströmungen.

 Ignoranz menschlicher Irrationalität: Da die darwinistische Archäologie alles menschliche Entscheidungsverhalten als Adaptionsmechanismus betrachtet, verkennt sie die Existenz von irrationalem Verhalten. Der Mensch als denkendes Individuum trifft auch evolutionstechnisch nicht erklärbare, kontraproduktive Entscheidungen, die nicht in das Schema von Selektion und Anpassung passen.

 Illusion der Neutralität: Anhänger der postprozessualen Archäologen werfen der Evolutionary Archaeology vor, dass sie glaubt, vergangenes Verhalten mit der Zuhilfenahme von naturwissenschaftlichen Methoden neutral untersuchen zu können. Laut Jacques Derrida ist aber jede exotische Kultur durch den Blick des Betrachters geformt, welcher dabei die ihm bekannten Kategorien auf das Unbekannte anwendet.

Literatur
 James Boone, Eric Smith: Is It Evolution Yet? A Critique of Evolutionary Archaeology. In: Current Anthropology. Nr. 39, S. 141–174. Chicago 1998.
 Ethan Cochrane, Andrew Gardnervo (Hrsg.): Evolutionary and Interpretive Archaeologies: A Dialogue. Walnut Creek 2011, ISBN 978-1-59874-660-0.
 Manfred Eggert, Ulrich Veit (Hrsg.): Theorien in der Archäologie: Zur englischsprachigen Diskussion. Münster 1998, ISBN 3-89325-594-X.
 J. Johnson, C. Morrow (Hrsg.): The Organization of Core Technology. 1987.
 Tim Kerig, Stephen Shennan: Zur kulturellen Evolution Europas im Neolithikum – Begriffsbestimmung und Aufgabenstellung. In R.Gleser, V.Becker (Hrsg.): Mitteleuropa im 5. Jahrtausend vor Christus Münster 2012, S. 105–114.
 Herbert Maschner (Hrsg.): Darwinian Archaeologies. In: Michael Jochim (Hrsg.): Interdisciplinary Contributions To Archaeology. New York 1996, ISBN 0-306-45328-2.
 Colin Renfrew, Paul Bahn: Basiswissen Archäologie: Theorien, Methoden, Praxis. Übersetzung, Helmut Schareika. London 2009, ISBN 978-3-8053-3948-3.
 Stephen Shennan: Genes, Memes and Human History: Darwinian Archaeology and Cultural Evolution. London 2002, ISBN 0-500-05118-6.
 Alan Simmons: The neolithic revolution in the Near East: transforming the human landscape. Tucson 2007.

Weiterführende Literatur
 Mathew Johnson: Archaeological Theory: An Introduction. Oxford 1999, ISBN 0-631-20296-X.
 R. Lee Lyman, Michael O'Brien: The Goals of Evolutionary Archaeology. In: Current Anthropology. Nr. 39, S. 615–652. Chicago 1998.

Weblinks
 Felix Riede:  (eine kurze und eine ausführliche Beschreibung zur Evolutionary Archaeology auf englisch) (abgerufen am 15. April 2012).
 Lewis Bindford:  (abgerufen am 16. April 2012). In: American Antiquity. Nr. 28. 1962, S. 217–225.

Einzelnachweise

Archäologische Schule oder Strömung
Spezialarchäologien/Hilfswissenschaften

Evolutionary Archaeology


An Setaria rosengurttii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Elisa G. Nicora. An Setaria rosengurttii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Setaria, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Setaria

Setaria rosengurttii


An Scindapsus latifolius in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Mitsuru Hotta. An Scindapsus latifolius in nahilalakip ha genus nga Scindapsus, ngan familia nga Araceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Scindapsus

Scindapsus latifolius


Clubfoot is a congenital or acquired defect where one or both feet are rotated inward and downward. Congenital clubfoot is the most common congenital malformation of the foot with an incidence of 1 per 1000 births.  In approximately 50% of cases, clubfoot affects both feet, but it can present unilaterally causing one leg or foot to be shorter than the other. Most of the time, it is not associated with other problems. Without appropriate treatment, the foot deformity will persist and lead to pain and impaired ability to walk, which can have a dramatic impact on the quality of life.

The exact cause is usually not identified. Both genetic and environmental factors are believed to be involved. There are two main types of congenital clubfoot: idiopathic (80% of cases) and secondary clubfoot (20% of cases). The idiopathic congenital clubfoot is a multifactorial condition that includes environmental, vascular, positional, and genetic factors. There appears to be hereditary component for this birth defect given that the risk of developing congenital clubfoot is 25% when a first-degree relative is affected. In addition, if one identical twin is affected, there is a 33% chance the other one will be as well. The underlying mechanism involves disruption of the muscles or connective tissue of the lower leg, leading to joint contracture. Other abnormalities are associated 20% of the time, with the most common being distal arthrogryposis and myelomeningocele. The diagnosis may be made at birth by physical examination or before birth during an ultrasound exam.

The most common initial treatment is the Ponseti method, which is divided into two phases: 1) correcting of foot position and 2) casting at repeated weekly intervals. If the clubfoot deformity does not improve by the end of the casting phase, an Achilles tendon tenotomy can be performed. The procedure consists of a small posterior skin incision through which the tendon cut is made. In order to maintain the correct position of the foot, it is necessary to wear an orthopedic brace until 5 years of age.

Initially, the brace is worn nearly continuously and then just at night. In about 20% of cases, further surgery is required. Treatment can be carried out by a range of healthcare providers and can generally be achieved in the developing world with few resources.

Congenital clubfoot occurs in 1 to 4 of every 1,000 live births, making it one of the most common birth defects affecting the legs. About 80% of cases occur in developing countries where there is limited access to care. Clubfoot is more common in firstborn children and males. It is more common among Māori people, and less common among Chinese people.

Epidemiology

Birth prevalence of clubfoot varies between 0.51 and 2.03/1,000 live births in low and middle-income countries (LMICs).

Clubfoot disproportionally affects those in LMICs. About 80% of those with clubfoot, or approximately 100,000 children per year as of 2018, are born in LMICs.

History
Pharaohs Siptah and Tutankhamun had clubfeet, and the condition appears in Egyptian paintings. Indian texts () and Hippocrates () describe treatment. In 1823, Delpech presented a new procedure to treat the condition. The new method, known as tenotomy, involved the cutting of the Achilles tendon. The surgical procedure had complications such as infections.

Signs and symptoms
In clubfoot, feet are rotated inward and downward. The affected foot and leg may be smaller than the other, while in about half of cases, clubfoot affects both feet. Most of the time clubfoot is not associated with other problems.

Clubfoot can be diagnosed by ultrasound of the fetus in more than 60% of cases. The earliest week of gestation in which the condition is diagnosed with a high degree of confidence was the 12th and the latest was the 32nd. Not all patients were diagnosed at an early stage. In 29% of fetuses the first ultrasound examination failed to detect the deformity which subsequently became obvious at a later examination. Clubfoot was diagnosed between 12 and 23 weeks of gestation in 86% of children and between 24 and 32 weeks of gestation in the remaining 14%.

Without treatment the foot remains deformed and people walk on the sides or tops of their feet, which can cause calluses, foot infections, trouble fitting into shoes, pain, difficulty walking, and disability.

Causes
Hypotheses about the precise cause of clubfoot vary. However, research has found that genetics, environmental factors or a combination of both are associated with this condition.  Evidence suggests that the etiology of clubfoot is most likely multifactorial. A meta-analysis and systematic review found that the most clinically relevant risk factors for clubfoot were family history, paternal and maternal smoking, maternal obesity, gestational diabetes, amniocentesis, and the use of selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Many findings agree that "it is likely there is more than one different cause and at least in some cases the phenotype may occur as a result of a threshold effect of different factors acting together." The most commonly associated conditions are distal arthrogryposis or myelomeningocele. The factors contributing to the development of clubfoot can be categorized as extrinsic and intrinsic factors.

Extrinsic factors

Factors that can influence the positioning of the fetal foot in utero include oligohydramnios, breech presentation, Müllerian anomalies, multiple gestation, amniotic band sequence, or amniocentesis at <15 weeks of gestation. In cases that impede normal growth and position for longstanding period of times, clubfoot can be accompanied with other deformations and may be associated with developmental hip dysplasia. The theory of fetal growth arrest was proposed by Von Volkmann in 1863, and has been verified by other authors since. According to this theory, intrinsic errors or environmental insults during gestation prevents the correction of an equinovarus to pronated foot. Other researchers hypothesize that clubfoot may derive from external insults during gestation. For example, a research study found an alarming high incidence of club foot and limb contractures associated with iatrogenic amniotic leakage caused by early amniocentesis between the 11th and 12th week of gestation.

Intrinsic factors

 Chromosomal abnormalities found in 30% and 2% of complex clubfoot and isolated clubfoot respectively. These include trisomy 18, 13, 21, sex chromosome abnormalities, micro-deletions and duplications.
 Genetic Syndromes: Larsen, Gordon, Pierre-Robin, Meckel–Gruber, Roberts, Smith–Lemli–Opitz, TARP (Talipes equinovarus, Atrial septal defect, Robin sequence, Persistence of left superior vena cava).
 Skeletal Dysplasias: Ellis van Creveld syndrome, diastrophic dysplasia, chondrodysplasia punctata, camptomelic dysplasia, atelosteogenesis, and mesomelic dysplasia.
 Neuromuscular and Neurologic abnormalities: arthrogryposis multiplex congenita, myotonic dystrophy, spinal muscular atrophy,  neural tube defects, holoprosencephaly, and hydranencephaly.

Genetics
Clubfoot can be diagnosed prenatally as early as 13 weeks of gestation via ultrasound. According to the Society of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, a diagnostic testing for genetic causes is recommended when clubfoot is diagnosed prenatally. If prenatal screening is suspicious for aneuploidy, karyotype analysis or chromosomal microarray (CMA) may be performed. However, if patients decline diagnostic testing, Cell-Free DNA is another screening option to identify high-risk pregnancies for aneuploidy and it is not diagnostic.  The incidence of chromosomal abnormalities in fetuses with prenatal diagnosis of clubfoot is relatively low.  Overall, fetal ultrasound should be performed with a prenatal diagnosis of clubfoot in order to classify the condition as either complex or isolated because of the significant differences in rates of chromosomal abnormalities and outcomes between these two groups.

If one identical twin is affected, there is a 33% chance the other one will be as well.

Mutations in genes involved in muscle development are risk factors for clubfoot, specifically those encoding the muscle contractile complex (MYH3, TPM2, TNNT3, TNNI2 and MYH8). These can cause congenital contractures, including clubfoot, in distal arthrogryposis (DA) syndromes. Clubfoot can also be present in people with genetic conditions such as Loeys–Dietz syndrome and Ehlers–Danlos syndrome.

Genetic mapping and the development of models of the disease have improved understanding of developmental processes. Its inheritance pattern is explained as a heterogenous disorder using a polygenic threshold model. The PITX1-TBX4 transcriptional pathway has become key to the study of clubfoot. PITX1 and TBX4 are uniquely expressed in the hind limb.

Diagnosis
Clubfoot is diagnosed through physical examination. Typically, babies are examined from head-to-toe shortly after they are born. There are four components of the clubfoot deformity:

Factors used to assess severity include the stiffness of the deformity (how much it can be corrected by manually manipulating the foot), the presence of skin creases at the arch and heel, and poor muscle consistency.

Sometimes, it is possible to detect clubfoot before birth using ultrasound. Prenatal diagnosis by ultrasound can allow parents to learn more about this condition and plan ahead for treatment after their baby is born.

More testing and imaging is typically not needed, unless there is concern for other associated conditions.

Treatment

Treatment is usually with some combination of the Ponseti method and French method. The Ponseti method involves a combination of casting, Achilles tendon release, and bracing. There are many commercial braces as well as an open-source hardware brace that can be made for about US$11 with a 3D printer. The Ponseti method is widely used and highly effective under the age of two. The French method involves realignment, taping, and long-term home exercises and night splinting. It is also effective but outcomes vary and rely on heavy involvement of caregivers. Generally, the Ponseti method is preferred. Another technique, the Kite method, does not appear to be as effective. In about 20% of cases, additional surgery is required after initial treatment.

Ponseti method

The Ponseti method corrects clubfoot over the course of several stages.
 Serial casting: First, the foot is manually manipulated into an improved position and held in place with a long leg cast which extends from the toes up to the thigh. After a week this cast is removed, the foot is re-manipulated, and placed into a new cast. This process repeats and the foot is gradually reshaped over the course of 4-6 serial casts, although some feet may require additional casts.
 The goal of the initial cast is to align the forefoot with the hindfoot. Ponseti describes the forefoot as pronated in relation to the hindfoot, so supinating the forefoot and elevating the first metatarsal improves this alignment.
 Subsequent casts are applied after stretching the foot with a focus on abducting the forefoot with lateral pressure at the talus, to bring the navicular laterally and improve the alignment of the talonavicular joint. In contrast to the Kite method of casting, it is important to avoid constraining the calcaneocuboid joint. With each additional cast, the abduction is increased and this moves the hindfoot from varus into valgus. It is important to leave the ankle in equinus until the forefoot and hindfoot are corrected.
 The final stage of casting is to correct the equinus. After fully abducting the forefoot with spontaneous correction of the hindfoot, an attempt is made to bring the ankle up and into dorsiflexion.  The foot must have the ability to dorsiflex to at least 10 degrees past 0 (neutral, or L position), although 15 degrees or more is better and preferred.  If the foot can not dorsiflex enough, the brace will not work/be tolerated.  If it is determined the foot can not dorsiflex at least 10 degrees, the Achilles Tenotomy surgical procedure is performed.
 Achilles tendon release: At the end of the serial casting, most children have corrected cavus, adductus and varus deformities, but continue to have equinus deformity. To correct this, a procedure called an Achilles tendon release (commonly called Achilles tenotomy) is performed. Before the procedure, many centers place the child under sedation or monitored anesthesia care, although Ponseti recommended using local anesthetic alone. Next, the area around the heel is cleansed and numbed, and a small scalpel is used to cut the Achilles tendon. The incision is small so there is minimal bleeding and no need for stitches. The skin is covered with a small dressing, and the foot is placed into a final long leg cast in a fully corrected position. This cast is typically left in place for three weeks. During this time, the Achilles tendon will regrow in a lengthened position.
 Bracing: After successful correction is achieved through serial casting and Achilles tenotomy, the foot must be kept in a brace to prevent it from returning to the deformed position over the first few years of a child's life. The brace is made up of two shoes or boots that are connected to each other by a bar that is bent under the shoes at 10–15 degrees, or curved to create 10–15 degrees dorsiflexion. This device is also called a foot abduction brace (FAB) or more generally boots and bar (BnB). At first, the brace is worn full-time (23 hours per day) on both feet, regardless of whether the clubfoot affects one or two feet. After 3 months of 23/7 wear, the brace is worn less frequently by gradually reducing hours a couple at a time, every couple months so that hours are down to 12–14 per day at or around a year old.  From this point on until at least 4–5 years, or even longer (6–9 years if needed), the brace is worn mostly while sleeping at night and during naps (12–14 hours per day).  Bracing is essential in preventing recurrence of the deformity and is a major determinant of a child's long-term outcome.

The Ponseti method is highly effective with short-term success rates of 90%. However, anywhere from 14% to 41% of children experience a recurrence of the deformity, with as many as 56% requiring an additional surgery beyond the 10 year mark. The most common reason for this is inadequate adherence to bracing, such as not wearing the brace properly, not keeping it on for the recommended length of time, or not using it every day. Children who do not follow proper bracing protocol have up to seven times higher recurrence rates than those who follow bracing protocol, as the muscles around the foot can pull it back into the abnormal position. Low parental education level and failure to understand the importance of bracing is a major contributor to non-adherence. Relapses are managed by repeating the casting process. Relapsed feet may also require additional, more extensive surgeries and have a reduced chance of achieving subsequent correction. Furthermore, research has revealed the possibility of overcorrection after use of the Ponseti method.

Another reason for recurrence is a congenital muscle imbalance between the muscles that invert the ankle (tibialis posterior and tibialis anterior muscles) and the muscles that evert the ankle (peroneal muscles). This imbalance is present in approximately 20% of infants successfully treated with the Ponseti casting method, and makes them more prone to recurrence. This relapse is usually treated with Ponseti casting and can be done multiple times before resorting to surgery.  If after all non-surgical casting and bracing options have been exhausted, and when the child is over four years of age (many doctors prefer to wait until after seven years old), this can be addressed with a surgery to transfer the tibialis anterior tendon from its medial attachment (on the navicula) to a more lateral position (on the lateral cuneiform). The surgery requires general anesthesia and subsequent casting while the tendon heals, but it is a relatively minor surgery that re-balances the muscles of the foot without disturbing any joints.

French method
The French method is a conservative, non-operative method of clubfoot treatment that involves daily physical therapy for the first two months followed by thrice-weekly physical therapy for the next four months and continued home exercises following the conclusion of formal physical therapy. During each physical therapy session the feet are manipulated, stretched, then taped to maintain any gains made to the feet's range of motion. Exercises may focus on strengthening the peroneal muscles, which is thought to contribute to long-term correction. After the two month mark, the frequency of physical therapy sessions can be weaned down to three times a week instead of daily, until the child reaches six months. After the conclusion of the physical therapy program, caregivers must continue performing exercises at home and splinting at night in order to maintain long-term correction.

Compared to the Ponseti method which uses rigid casts and braces, the French method uses tape which allows for some motion in the feet. Despite its goal to avoid surgery, the success rate varies and surgery may still be necessary. The Ponseti method is generally preferred over the French method.

Surgery

If non-operative treatments are unsuccessful or achieve incomplete correction of the deformity, surgery is sometimes needed. Surgery was more common prior to the widespread acceptance of the Ponseti method. The extent of surgery depends on the severity of the deformity. Usually, surgery is done at 9 to 12 months of age and the goal is to correct all the components of the clubfoot deformity at the time of surgery.

For feet with the typical components of deformity (cavus, forefoot adductus, hindfoot varus, and ankle equinus), the typical procedure is a Posteromedial Release (PMR) surgery. This is done through an incision across the medial side of the foot and ankle, that extends posteriorly, and sometimes around to the lateral side of the foot. In this procedure, it is typically necessary to release (cut) or lengthen the plantar fascia, several tendons, and joint capsules/ligaments. Typically, the important structures are exposed and then sequentially released until the foot can be brought to an appropriate plantigrade position. Specifically, it is important to bring the ankle to neutral, the heel into neutral, the midfoot aligned with the hindfoot (navicula aligned with the talus, and the cuboid aligned with the calcaneus). Once these joints can be aligned, thin wires are usually placed across these joints to hold them in the corrected position. These wires are temporary and left out through the skin for removal after 3–4 weeks. Once the joints are aligned, tendons (typically the Achilles, posterior tibialis, and flexor halluces longus) are repaired at an appropriate length. The incision (or incisions) are closed with dissolvable sutures. The foot is then casted in the corrected position for 6–8 weeks. It is common to do a cast change with anesthesia after 3–4 weeks, so that pins can be removed and a mold can be made to fabricate a custom AFO brace. The new cast is left in place until the AFO is available. When the cast is removed, the AFO is worn to prevent the foot from returning to the old position.

For feet with partial correction of deformity with non-operative treatment, surgery may be less extensive and may involve only the posterior part of the foot and ankle. This might be called a posterior release. This is done through a smaller incision and may involve releasing only the posterior capsule of the ankle and subtalar joints, along with lengthening the Achilles tendon.

Surgery leaves residual scar tissue and typically there is more stiffness and weakness than with nonsurgical treatment. As the foot grows, there is potential for asymmetric growth that can result in recurrence of foot deformity that can affect the forefoot, midfoot, or hindfoot. Many patients do fine, but some require orthotics or additional surgeries. Long-term studies of adults with post-surgical clubfeet, especially those needing multiple surgeries, show that they may not fare as well in the long term. Some people may require additional surgeries as they age, though there is some dispute as to the effectiveness of such surgeries, in light of the prevalence of scar tissue present from earlier surgeries.

Developing world
Despite effective treatments, children in LMICs face many barriers such as limited access to equipment (specifically casting materials and abduction braces), shortages of healthcare professionals, and low education levels and socioeconomic status amongst caregivers and families. These factors make it difficult to detect and diagnose children with clubfoot, connect them to care, and train their caregivers to follow the proper treatment and return for follow-up visits. It is estimated that only 15% of those diagnosed with clubfoot receive treatment.

In an effort to reduce the burden of clubfoot in LMICs, there have been initiatives to improve early diagnosis, organize high-volume Ponseti casting centers, utilize mid-level practitioners and non-physician health workers, engage families in care, and provide local follow-up in the person's community.

Cultural references

 Hippolyte Tautain, the stableman at the Lion D'Or public house in the 1856 novel Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert, has clubfoot. Charles Bovary tries to correct it, but the procedure is unsuccessful, and Tautain must have an amputation.
 Philip Carey, the main character of the 1915 novel Of Human Bondage by W. Somerset Maugham, has clubfoot. It is a central theme of the work.
 Velma, a character in the 1941 film High Sierra, has clubfoot. It is successfully treated with surgery.
 Gimpy, a coworker of the main character in the 1959 science fiction short story "Flowers for Algernon" by Daniel Keyes, has clubfoot.
 Kashiwagi, a character in the 1956 novel The Temple of the Golden Pavilion by Yukio Mishima, has clubfoot. It parallels the main character, Mizoguchi, who has a stutter.
 Johnson, a character in the 1965 short story "The Lame Shall Enter First" by Flannery O'Connor, has clubfoot. It is a major symbol in the story.
 The main character of the 1974 science fiction novel The Bladerunner by Alan E. Nourse has clubfoot.
 The main character of the 1985 novel Perfume: The Story of a Murderer by Patrick Süskind, has clubfoot. It causes a limp.
 Senji, a character in the 1987 to 1991 fantasy book series The Mallorean by David Eddings, has clubfoot.
 Kwai Geuk-Chat, a character in the 1993 film Once Upon a Time in China III, which is part of the 1991 to 1997 Once Upon a Time in China series, has clubfoot. He is nicknamed "Clubfoot Seven Chiu-Tsat" – "Clubfoot" because of his foot, and "Seven Chiu-Tsat" because he is the seventh member of the character Chiu Tin-bak's apprentices, disciples, and henchmen.
 Mordred, King of Dumonia, a character in the 1995 to 1997 historical fantasy book series The Warlord Chronicles by Bernard Cornwell, has clubfoot. It is often used as a symbol for his weakness as a ruler.
 Charlie Wilcox, the main character of the 2000 children's book of the same name by Sharon McKay, has clubfoot.
 Vulcan the blacksmith, a character in the 2001 novel The Secrets of Vesuvius, which is part of the 2001 to 2009 historical fiction series The Roman Mysteries by Caroline Lawrence, has clubfoot.
 Ada, the main character of the 2016 children's book The War That Saved My Life by Kimberly Brubaker Bradley, has clubfoot. Her mother emotionally and physically abuses her because of it.
 Larys Strong, called "the Clubfoot", first appears in George R. R. Martin's 2013 fantasy novella The Princess and the Queen, part of A Song of Ice and Fire. He is the secretive and sly master of whisperers for King Viserys I Targaryen and his successor Aegon II Targaryen. Larys's character was later expanded on in the novel Fire & Blood (2018) and its television adaptation House of the Dragon (2022).

References

External links

Congenital disorders of musculoskeletal system
Arthropathies
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate

Clubfoot


يا سلطان المدينة (ب: Le Sultan de la Médina، ب: The Sultan of the Medina) شريط سينمائي تونسي من إخراج المنصف ذويب عام 1992.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

انظر أيضا
  فيلم يا سلطان المدينة على موقع africine.org.
 فيلم يا سلطان المدينة على موقع السينما.
  فيلم يا سلطان المدينة على موقع سينيتيليفيلم.

أفلام تونسية
أفلام مصورة في تونس

يا سلطان المدينة (فيلم)


An Guzmania compacta in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Carl Christian Mez. An Guzmania compacta in nahilalakip ha genus nga Guzmania, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Guzmania

Guzmania compacta


Ciga () es uno de los 15 lugares que conforman el Valle de Baztan, situado a unos 50 kilómetros de Pamplona, en Navarra (España). En 2018 tenía 188 habitantes. Limita con los pueblos de Almandoz, Aniz y Berroeta que junto a ellos procede a ser el cuartel Basaburua de los cuatro que hay en Baztán. Se encuentra en el denominado Mirador de Baztan, ya que desde él se pueden contemplar unas buenas vista del valle. Su principal edificio es la iglesia parroquial de San Lorenzo, construida entre 1593 y 1603. Otros de los edificios destacables en este pueblo son:
 El palacio de Egozcue
 la casa Indartea
 La casa Iturrigaraia

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Sitio web de Ziga

Localidades de Baztán

Ciga (Navarra)


Robert Stanley Barton (* 13. Februar 1925 in New Britain, Connecticut; † 28. Januar 2009 in Portland, Oregon) war ein US-amerikanischer Informatiker und Computer-Architekt.

Barton studierte Mathematik an der Iowa State University mit dem Bachelor-Abschluss 1948 und dem Master-Abschluss 1949. Seine ersten Erfahrungen mit Computern sammelte er 1951 im Applied Science Department von IBM. Ab 1954 arbeitete er als Programmierer für Shell, unter anderem auch auf Computern der Burroughs Corporation. Ab Ende der 1950er Jahre arbeitete er für Burroughs in Pasadena, zunächst an einem Compiler für eine ALGOL-58-Version (BALGOL genannt) auf der Burroughs 220. Ab 1960 war er selbständiger Berater zum Beispiel für Beckman Instruments (Datenverarbeitung in Zusammenhang mit Satellitensystemen), Lockheed und vor allem für Burroughs, wo er einer der Hauptarchitekten für die B5000 war (ab 1961). 1963 arbeitete er für die Control Data Corporation in Australien. Ab 1965 war er an der University of Utah, wo er 1968 bis 1973 Professor für Elektrotechnik war. Gleichzeitig war er Berater unter anderem bei General Electric und Burroughs, wo er an der Architektur der B6700 und B1700 arbeitete. An der Universität Utah beeinflusste er Studenten wie Alan Kay, James H. Clark (Mitgründer von Netscape), John Warnock, Ed Catmull, Alan Ashton (Word-Perfect-Mitgründer), Duane Call (Mitgründer von Computer System Architects) sowie die Computergrafik-Pioniere Henri Gouraud und Bùi Tường Phong. Nach seiner Zeit an der Universität Utah arbeitete er in der Forschungsabteilung von Burroughs in La Jolla.

Bei Burroughs realisierte er Computer mit Befehlen basierend auf dem Stapelspeicher-Konzept, zuerst in der B5000, die damit schon im Befehlssatz für die Ausführung einer höheren Programmiersprache (Algol) optimiert wurde. Diese Ideen entstanden aus seinem Studium der umgekehrten polnischen Notation von Jan Łukasiewicz noch in seiner Zeit bei Shell.

Mit Alan L. Davis entwickelte er 1972 bis 1976 den ersten Computer mit Datenfluss-Architektur, die DDM-1 (eine Kooperation der Universität Utah und von Burroughs).

1977 erhielt er den W. Wallace McDowell Award. 1974 war er Keynote Speaker auf dem ACM National Meeting in San Diego. 1979 erhielt er den Eckert Mauchly Award.

Schriften
 Functional Design of Computers, Communications of the ACM, Band 4, Heft 9, 1961, S. 405
  A New Approach to the Functional Design of a Digital Computer, Proceedings of the Western Joint Computer Conference, Mai 1961, S. 393–396.
 A Critical Review of the State of Programming Art, AFIPS Joint Computer Conferences, Mai 1963, S. 169–177.
 Ideas for Computer Systems Organization: A Personal Survey, Software Engineering, Band 1, 1970, S. 7–16

Weblinks
 Biographie  auf Seiten des McDowell Award(englisch)
 Nachruf an der Universität Utah (englisch)

Informatiker
Hochschullehrer (Salt Lake City)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1925
Gestorben 2009
Mann

Robert S. Barton


Black Emanuelle (Italienisch Emanuelle nera) ist eine fiktive Person und eine italienische Sexploitation-Filmreihe, die sich an den französischen Film Emmanuelle von Just Jaeckin anlehnt. Sie handelt von den erotischen, bizarren und gelegentlich gewalttätigen Abenteuern der Emanuelle.

Charakter
Die italienischen Filmemacher erschufen einen völlig neuen Charakter der Emanuelle – eine starke, unabhängige und vergnügungssüchtige Frau, die ihren eigenen Lebensstil lebt. Dabei ist die Hedonistin sexuellen Abenteuern mit Männern und Frauen nicht abgeneigt. Sie arbeitet als investigative Photojournalistin, welche frei in der Welt herumreisen kann, um neue Storys zu finden. Gespielt wurde sie meistens von der niederländisch-indonesischen Schauspielerin Laura Gemser.

Die Filme

Black-Emanuelle-Filme
Nach dem weltweiten Erfolg des ersten Black-Emanuelle-Films wurde schnell ein zweiter gedreht. Allerdings wurde Albertini als Regisseur von Joe D'Amato abgelöst, der bereits seinen inoffiziellen Eingang in dieses Genre mit dem Film Foltergarten der Sinnlichkeit (It. Emanuelle e Françoise le sorelline, 1975) hatte. Albertini drehte seine eigene Fortsetzung Emanuelle im Sexrausch (Italienisch Emanuelle nera No. 2, 1976) mit Shulamith Lasri (auch Sharon Lesley) in der Rolle der "Emanuelle Richmond", aber der Film floppte, und es kam zu keiner Fortsetzung.
Die D'Amato-Filme zeigen Szenen extremer Gewalt und Sittenlosigkeit (in einer umstrittenen Szene in Black Emanuelle – Stunden wilder Lust wird eine nackte Frau gezeigt, die Hand an ein Pferd legt), etwas was es in den "echten" Emmanuelle-Softcore-Filmen (mit zwei "m") nie gegeben hat. Ungeschnittene Versionen einiger Black-Emanuelle-Filme zeigen expliziten Geschlechtsverkehr des Charakters Emanuelle. Diese Szenen wurden jedoch durch ein Body-Double "gespielt" und später dazu geschnitten. Laura Gemser selbst spielte nie in solchen Szenen und wusste nichts von deren Existenz.

Laura Gemser spielt die "Black Emanuelle" in 6 Filmen.
 Black Emanuelle (Emanuelle nera auch Emanuelle in Africa, 1975, Regie: Bitto Albertini)
 Emanuelle im Sexrausch (Emanuelle nera No. 2, 1976, Regie: Bitto Albertini) mit Shulamith Lasri als Emanuelle Richmond
 Black Emanuelle 2. Teil (Emanuelle nera: Orient reportage auch Emanuelle in Bangkok /Black Emanuelle Goes East, 1976, Regie: D'Amato)
 Black Emanuelle – Stunden wilder Lust (Emanuelle in America, 1976, Regie: D'Amato)
 Emanuela – Alle Lüste dieser Welt (Emanuelle – Perché violenza alle donne? auch Emanuelle Around the World, 1977, Regie: D'Amato)
 Nackt unter Kannibalen (Emanuelle e gli ultimi cannibali, 1977, Regie: D'Amato)
 Sklavenmarkt der weißen Mädchen (La via della prostituzione auch Emanuelle and the White Slave Trade, 1978, Regie: D'Amato)

Andere Filme
Aufgrund des (markenrechtlich) ungeschützten Namens "Black Emanuelle", gab es eine Reihe von anderen Filmen mit Laura Gemser, die den Titel Emanuelle erhielten. Im Englischen wurde der Name des Charakters oft verändert und als Emanuelle synchronisiert. Das Ergebnis war eine lange und vielseitige Reihe von "Black Emanuelle"-Filmen, die wenig bis nichts mit dem Original gemein hatten. Einzig in den Filmen Laura – Eine Frau geht durch die Hölle und Laura II – Revolte im Frauenzuchthaus von Bruno Mattei spielte sie wieder die Reporterin Emanuelle (getarnt als Laura).

Andere Filme mit Laura Gemser, die den Titel Emanuelle tragen:
 Amore libero – Free Love (auch The Real Emanuelle, 1974) (als Janine)
 Emanuelle – Insel ohne Tabus (La Spiaggia del desiderio, 1976) (als Haydee) Erst 1980 veröffentlicht.
 Nackte Eva (Eva nera auch Emmanuelle Goes Japanese /Black Cobra Woman, 1976, Regie: D'Amato) (als Eva)
 Velluto nero (auch Black Emmanuelle, White Emmanuelle /Emanuelle in Egypt, 1976) (als Laura) Mit Annie Belle
 Die Nonne und das Biest (Suor Emanuelle, 1977) (als Schwester Emanuelle)
 Emmanuelle – Sinnlichkeit hat tausend Namen (Le notti porno nel mondo auch Mondo Erotico, 1977) (Dokumentation)
 Alle Perversionen dieser Welt (Emanuelle e le porno notti nel mondo n. 2 auch Sexy Night Report, 1978) (Dokumentation)
 Frau Doktor kann's nicht lassen (L'infermiera di campagna auch Emanuelle in the Country, 1978) (als Fatima/Frau Doktor)
 Die Nackte von Sados (I Mavri Emmanouella auch Emanuelle's Daughter, 1980) (als Emanuelle Brindisi)
 Die Todesgöttin des Liebescamps (auch Divine Emanuelle: Love Cult, 1981) (als "die Göttliche")
 Laura – Eine Frau geht durch die Hölle (Violenza in un carcere femminile auch Emmanuelle in Hell, 1982) (als Emanuelle)
 Die gnadenlosen Sieben (La Belva dalle calda pelle auch Emanuelle, Queen of the Desert, 1982) (als Emanuelle)
 Laura II – Revolte im Frauenzuchthaus (Emanuelle fuga dall'inferno auch Emanuelle Escapes From Hell, 1983) (als Emanuelle)
 Emanuelle's Perverse Outburst (Le Déchaînement pervers de Manuela, 1983) (als Manuela/Emanuelle) Kein Originalfilm, sondern ein Zusammenschnitt aus alten Joe-D'Amato-Filmen.
 Skandalöse Emanuelle – Die Lust am Zuschauen (Voglia di guardare, 1986, Regie: D'Amato) (als Josephine)

Angelehnte Filme
 Foltergarten der Sinnlichkeit (Emanuelle e Françoise (Le sorelline), 1975, Regie: Joe D'Amato) Thriller mit Rosemarie Lindt als Emanuelle
 Die Zuchtfarm der Sklaven (Emanuelle bianca e nera, 1976) Mit Malisa Longo als "White Emanuelle"
 Yellow Emanuelle (Il mondo dei sensi di Emy Wong auch Emanuelle – Die Sucht der Sinne, 1977, Regie: Bitto Albertini) Drama mit Chai Lee

Weitere Infos
 Da die Black-Emanuelle-Filme unautorisiert waren, wurde der Name aus rechtlichen Gründen mit nur einem "m" geschrieben.
 Gemsers Ehemann Gabriele Tinti spielte in vielen Black-Emanuelle-Filmen mit.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks
 Black Emanuelle auf mondo-esoterica.net

Erotikfilm
Filmreihe
Sexploitation

Black Emanuelle


The Douglas C-133 Cargomaster is an American large turboprop cargo aircraft built between 1956 and 1961 by the Douglas Aircraft Company for use with the United States Air Force. The C-133 was the USAF's only production turboprop-powered strategic airlifter, entering service shortly after the Lockheed C-130 Hercules, which is designated a tactical airlifter. It provided airlift services in a wide range of applications, being replaced by the C-5 Galaxy in the early 1970s.

Design and development
The C-133 was designed to meet the requirements for the USAF's Logistic Carrier Support System SS402L for a new strategic transport. The aircraft differed considerably from the C-74 Globemaster and C-124 Globemaster IIs that had preceded it. A high-mounted wing, external blister fairings on each side for the landing gear, and rear-loading and side-loading doors ensured that access to, and the volume of, the large cargo compartment were not compromised by these structures. The cargo compartment (90 ft/27 m in length and 12 ft/3.7 m high) was pressurized, heated, and ventilated.

The Cargomasters went directly into production as C-133A; no prototypes were built. The first Cargomaster flew on 23 April 1956. The first C-133As were delivered to the Military Air Transport Service (MATS) in August 1957 and began flying MATS air routes throughout the world. Two C-133s established transatlantic speed records for transport aircraft on their first flights to Europe. The fleet of 50 aircraft proved itself invaluable during the Vietnam War. The Cargomaster soldiered on until the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy entered service in the early 1970s. The C-133 was then retired and most airplanes were cut up within months of being delivered to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Tucson, Arizona, after their final flights in 1971.

Fifty aircraft (35 C-133A and 15 C-133B) were constructed and put into service with the USAF. A single C-133A and a C-133B were built and kept at Douglas Long Beach as "test articles". They had no construction numbers or USAF tail numbers.

The C-133 had large tail doors and side doors and a large, open cargo area. The C-133A carried many large and heavy loads, including Atlas and Titan ICBMs, although it was not designed specifically to transport ICBMs. It may, indeed, have been the reverse. The C-133 design was frozen by 1955 in order to build the airplanes that first flew in April 1956. The designs of both the Atlas and Titan were not firm until after 1955, when their contracts were signed. With the C-133B, the rear cargo doors were modified to open to the side (petal doors), making ICBM loading much easier. Air transporting the ballistic missiles such as the Atlas, Titan and Minuteman was much less expensive, safer and faster than road transport. Several hundred Minuteman and other ICBMs were airlifted to and from their operational bases by C-133s. The C-133 also transported Atlas, Saturn and Titan rockets to Cape Canaveral for use as launch boosters in the Gemini, Mercury and Apollo space programs. After the Apollo capsules splashed down, they were airlifted in C-133s from Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia, or Hickam AFB, Hawaii, to Ellington AFB, Texas, or to California.

Operational history

The C-133 was for many years the only USAF aircraft capable of hauling very large or very heavy cargo. Despite the Douglas C-124 Globemaster II's capabilities, there was much cargo that it could not carry because of its configuration with a cargo deck 13 ft (4 m) off the ground and its lower, though substantial, engine power. The C-133 continued in service after the formation of the USAFs Military Airlift Command on 1 January 1966.

By 1971, shortly before the introduction of the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, the Cargomaster was obsolete as well as being worn out, and all were withdrawn from service. The C-133 had a 10,000-hour airframe that was life-extended to 19,000 hours. Severe vibration caused critical stress corrosion of the airframes to the point that the aircraft were beyond economical operation. The Air Force managed to keep as many of the C-133 fleet in service as possible until the C-5 entered squadron service.

C-133s set a number of unofficial records, including records for military transport aircraft on trans-Atlantic and trans-Pacific routes. Among the longest were non-stop flights from Tachikawa Airfield, Japan, to Travis Air Force Base, California (17:20 hours on 22 May 1959, 5,150 mi/8,288 km, 297.2 mph/478.3 km/h), and Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii, to Dover Air Force Base, Delaware, in about 16 hours (4,850 mi/7,805 km 303.1 mph/487.8 km/h). The only FAI officially sanctioned record was in December 1958, when C-133A 62008 lifted a payload of 117,900 lb (53,480 kg) to an altitude of 10,000 ft (3,048 m) at Dover Air Force Base, Delaware.

Operators
Data from:C-133 units, C-133 Tail Numbers

United States Air Force
Military Air Transport Service/Military Airlift Command
1501st Air Transport Wing/60th Military Airlift Wing – Travis AFB, California
84th Air Transport Squadron/Military Airlift Squadron, 1957–71
1607th Air Transport Wing/436th Military Airlift Wing – Dover AFB, Delaware
1st  Air Transport Squadron/Military Airlift Squadron, 1957–71
39th Air Transport Squadron/Military Airlift Squadron, 1957–71

Accidents and incidents
Early in its life-cycle the airplane developed a reputation of crashing. Crew members referred to it as a "widowmaker". Some would not fly in the C-133, since the cause of the crashes was unknown.  Several issues were discovered after crash investigations. The first issue was with the auto-pitch controller on the propellers. A time delay was added to relieve stress on the nose casing. The second issue was that the stall characteristics gave little warning to the crew. The left wing was found to stall before the right wing. The fix was simple, a small strip of metal was attached to the right wing causing it to stall simultaneously with the left wing. As the aircraft neared the end of its 10,000-hour life-cycle the last C-133B crash occurred on 6 February 1970. It was determined the airframe split at the cargo door. The final fix was a band around the airframe to strengthen; the end of the C-133 was near. The C-5A Galaxy debuted in 1971 and marked the end of the C-133. Of 50 aircraft built, nine were lost in crashes and one was destroyed in a ground fire.

13 April 1958AF Serial No. 54-0146, 1607 ATW — Destroyed 13 April 1958, crashed  south of Dover AFB, Delaware in Ellendale, Delaware.

10 June 1961AF Serial No. 57-1614, 1501 ATW — Destroyed 10 June 1961, crashed into the Pacific Ocean off Japan

27 May 1962AF Serial No. 57-1611, 1607 ATW — Destroyed 27 May 1962, crashed into water near Shad Intersection (37° 43' N 73° W), east of Dover AFB, Delaware.

10 April 1963AF Serial No. 59-0523, 1501 ATW — Destroyed 10 April 1963, crashed while in traffic pattern, Travis AFB, California

13 July 1963AF Serial No. 56-2005, 1607 ATW — Destroyed 13 July 1963 during refuelling ground fire, Dover AFB, Delaware.

22 September 1963AF Serial No. 56-2002, 1607 ATW — Destroyed 22 September 1963, crashed into Atlantic Ocean near Shad Intersection (37° 43' N 73° W), southeast of Dover AFB, Delaware; aircraft apparently stalled near top of climb to cruising altitude.

7 November 1964AF Serial No. 56-2014, 1607 ATW — Destroyed 7 November 1964 in crash on takeoff at CFB Goose Bay, Labrador. Probable cause was a power stall on takeoff due to icing or possibly aerodynamic instability of the aircraft.

11 January 1965AF Serial No. 54-0140, 1607 ATW — Destroyed 11 January 1965, crashed into water after takeoff from Wake Island.

30 April 1967AF Serial No. 59-0534, 1501 ATW — Destroyed 30 April 1967, ditched off the east coast of Okinawa, Japan after propeller pitch became fixed, due to electrical problems in either propeller control or propeller power circuits.

6 February 1970AF Serial No. 59-0530, 60 MAW — Destroyed 6 February 1970, disintegrated in flight over southwestern Nebraska, due to catastrophic propagation of old  skin crack hidden under paint to a total length of ; large sections of skin peeled off and the aircraft came apart at .

Surviving aircraft

C-133A AF Ser. No. 56-2008Preserved at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton, Ohio. On 16 December 1958, this aircraft established a world record for propeller-driven aircraft by carrying a payload of  to an altitude of . It was flown to the museum on 17 March 1971.
C-133B AF Ser. No. 59-0527 In the collection of the Pima Air & Space Museum adjacent to Davis–Monthan Air Force Base in Tucson, Arizona.
C-133B AF Ser. No. 59-0536 Located at the Air Mobility Command Museum at Dover Air Force Base, Delaware. This aircraft had previously been at the Strategic Air Command Museum at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska for many years and was donated to the AMC Museum when the SAC Museum moved from its on base location in the late 1990s to its new location near Ashland, Nebraska.
C-133A AF Ser. No. 56-1999 N199AB, previously owned by Cargomaster Corporation, was never certificated by the Federal Aviation Administration for civilian operation, and could only be flown as a government aircraft, mostly for the State of Alaska. N199AB was based at ANC and was flown as a transport until 2004, carrying cargo, such as pipeline sections. It also flew frontend loader trash trucks and heavy equipment to the Alaskan bush, i.e., Point Hope, Point Lay, Wainright, Barrow, Deadhorse, Barter Island, and Anatovich Pass in April 2006. In August 2008, it flew its last flight to the Jimmy Doolittle Air & Space Museum at Travis Air Force Base, Fairfield, California, where it has been restored to USAF markings and maintained on static display.
 Not on display:Two C-133As have been in storage at Mojave Air and Space Port, California, since the 1970s. They are N201AR (ex-AF Ser. No. 56-2001) and N136AR (ex- AF Ser. No.54-0136). They are owned by Cargomaster Corporation, based at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, Alaska.

Specifications (C-133B)

See also

References

Further reading

External links

The Air Mobility Command Museum
Remembering "Remembering An Unsung Giant – The Douglas C-133 Cargomaster and Its People"
Final Flight, Boeing 377 blog
Douglas C-133 Cargomaster – Boeing Fact Sheet
"C-133 Cargomaster Specifications". The Aviation Zone (2005) Retrieved 28 August 2005.

Douglas C-133 Cargomaster
C-133 Cargomaster
Four-engined tractor aircraft
Four-engined turboprop aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1956
High-wing aircraft

Douglas C-133 Cargomaster


Za članak o meksičkom glumcu, pogledajte "José Luis Cordero (glumac)".
José Luis Cordero (San José, Kostarika, 31. siječnja 1987.) kostarikanski je nogometaš, koji trenutno igra za klub L.D. Alajuelense.

Biografija
José Luis Cordero je rođen kao José Luis Cordero Manzanares u gradu San Joséu, 31. siječnja 1987. Cordero je prezime njegova oca, dok je Manzanares prezime Joséove majke.

Cordero je prije igrao za klubove Ramonense, Brujas F.C., C.S. Herediano i Ratchaburi Mitr Phol F.C.

Izvori

Kostarikanski nogometaši

José Luis Cordero


Garnes Station (Garnes stasjon) er en jernbanestation på Vossebanen, der ligger i Bergen kommune i Norge. Den er endestation for Gamle Vossebanens veterantog til Midttun, der har deres værksted her.

Stationen åbnede da Vossebanen blev taget i brug 11. juli 1883. Oprindeligt hed den Garnæs, men den skiftede navn til Garnes i april 1894. 1. august 1964 omlagdes strækningen mellem Tunestveit og Bergen, hvor stationen ligger, hvorved persontrafikken forsvandt. Der var dog stadig godstrafik på den gamle strækning mellem Tunestveit og Seimsmark, senere Midttun, indtil marts 2001. I 1993 begyndte veterantogene fra Gamle Vossebanen at køre.

Den første stationsbygning blev opført i 1883 efter tegninger af Balthazar Lange men brændte i 1918. I 1919 opførtes en ny stationsbygning efter tegninger af Gerhard Fischer, præget af lokale stiltraditioner, især rokoko og den såkaldte bergenklassicisme. Stationen med stationsbygning, pakhus, remise og vognremise blev fredet som et nationalt kulturminde i 2002. Det omkringliggende område i form af det oprindelige stationsområde med stationshave, perroner, spor, ramper, drejeskive og tekniske installationer er også fredet.

Tilstedeværelsen af remiser skyldtes, at Garnes i sin tid var endestation for lokaltog fra Bergen. I 1904 blev der desuden anlagt en drejeskive, men den blev fjernet, da damplokomotiverne blev taget ud af drift på banen i 1950'erne. I 1987 anlagdes i stedet en ny drejeskive, der kom fra Randsfjord Station på Randsfjordbanen.

Litteratur

Eksterne henvisninger

 Kort over Gamle Vossebanen

Noter

Stationer på Vossebanen
Stationer på veteranbaner i Norge
Jernbanestationer i Bergen
Etableret i 1883

Garnes Station


El túnel del guante (España y Latinoamérica) es un episodio de la séptima temporada de Bob Esponja.

Sinopsis

Perlita y sus amigas están en el Mundo del Guante y de repente aparecen Bob Esponja y Patricio y entonces las amigas de Perlita empiezan a decir que su novio es Bob Esponja y eso le ofende a Perlita y entonces Perlita y sus amigas van a la atracción, el Túnel del Guante. Bob también va, mientras que Patricio se queda comiendo algodón de azúcar. Mientras tanto, en la atracción a Bob Esponja le toca ir con Perlita en el asiento y Perlita le dice a Bob Esponja que ni le mire, ni le hable ni le toque y Bob lo cumple y Perla se aburre dentro de la atracción y entonces le dice a Bob que le hable y entonces el no para de hablar y entonces Perlita se quiere bajar y Bob se lo impide y el asiento se tambalea haciendo que Bob caiga al techo de la atracción y que un corazón se caiga al agua y toque los engranajes haciendo que la atracción se pare. Mientras tanto fuera están dando la noticia de que se ha detenido la atracción y entonces Patricio se entera de que Bob Esponja está atrapado y como no puede entrar por la atracción, entra en el generador eléctrico de la atracción y allí coge un generador de energía que se parece a Bob Esponja, haciendo que la atracción se quede sin luz, en la atracción Bob le asusta a Perlita diciéndole los monstruos que hay en la oscuridad, mientras tanto, Patricio está jugando con el generador que se parece a Bob Esponja y gracias a Patricio hace que la atracción se mueva rápido y que en vez de personajes enamorados halla monstruos y que halla una cascada de agua, haciendo que la atracción estalle y que Bob y Perlita salgan.

Episodios de la séptima temporada de Bob Esponja
Episodios de televisión de 2011

Tunnel of Glove


Valley est une ville américaine située dans le Comté de Douglas, au Nebraska. Selon le recensement de 2010, sa population est de  habitants.

Liens externes

Ville dans le Nebraska
Comté de Douglas (Nebraska)

Valley (Nebraska)


هيرانوما كيتشيرو  (28 سبتمبر 1867 - 22 أغسطس 1952) كان سياسي ياباني شغل منصب رئيس الوزراء الياباني الخامس والثلاثين.

مراجع

انظر أيضا
 قانون حفظ السلام

أشخاص أدينوا من قبل المحكمة العسكرية الدولية للشرق الأقصى
أشخاص متهمون بارتكاب جرائم ضد الإنسانية
أشخاص من محافظة أوكاياما
سجناء حكم عليهم بالسجن المؤبد من قبل محاكم وهيئات قضائية دولية
خريجو جامعة طوكيو
رؤساء حكومات سجنوا لاحقا
رؤساء حكومات أدينوا بجرائم حرب
رؤساء وزراء اليابان
رؤساء وزراء اليابان القرن 20
سياسيون من محافظة أوكاياما
سياسيون يابانيون أدينوا بجرائم
شنتويون يابانيون
كازوكو
مسجونون يابانيون حكم عليهم سجن مؤبد
مواليد 1867
مواليد في تسوياما (أوكاياما)
وفيات 1952
وفيات في طوكيو
يابانيون أدينوا بجريمة العدوان الدولية
يابانيون في الحرب العالمية الثانية
يابانيون مدانون بجرائم حرب

هيرانوما كيتشيرو


Inelul Unicornului, cunoscut și sub numele de Curentul Unicornului, Supradensitatea Unicornului (în ) și Structura Stelară a Anticentrului Galactic (în engleză: Galactic Anticenter Stellar Structure), este un lung și complex filament de stele care înconjoară Calea Lactee.

Caracteristici fizice
Descoperit în 2002, Inelul Unicornului are circa  (a.l.) lungime și conține circa 100 de milioane de mase solare (). Înconjoară Centrul Galactic la o distanță de circa 16,5 ± 1,5 kpc (∼53 800 a.l.)

Observații

Inelul Unicornului a fost descoperit în 2002 prin observațiile făcute în programul Sloan Digital Sky Survey.

Origini
Diverse ipoteze încearcă să stabilească originea Inelului Unicornului. Potrivit acestor ipoteze, însăși forma structurii este pusă în cauză.

Una dintre ele afirmă că inelul ar fi un component al unui curent stelar izvorât din fuziunea unei galaxii cu Calea Lactee. O altă ipoteză pretinde că inelul nu este unul, ci mai degrabă un component al formei ondulate a discului galactic.

Vestigii ale unei fuziuni galactice

Brațele spirale și curenții stelari din Calea Lactee ar putea fi rezultatul unui impact cu o galaxie mai mică.

Inelul Unicornului ar putea fi rezultatul fuziunii Galaxiei Pitice din Câinele Mare sau a Galaxiei Pitice din Săgetătorul cu Galaxia Noastră (Calea Lactee). Astfel, în 2011, cercetători au publicat în revista Nature simulări informatice ale fuziunii dintre Calea Lactee și Galaxia Pitică din Săgetătorul, fuziuni care arată crearea de inele.

Galaxie ondulată

În 2006, un studiu utilizând datele 2MASS repune în cauză natura inelului. Aceste date nu permit să se confirme structura în formă de inel și nici să se lege acesta din urmă cu un curent stelar. Autorii afirmă că acest gen de supradensitate este frecvent în galaxiile cu discuri deformate și evazate. Alți membri ai comunității științifice au afirmat că structura Inelului Unicornului nu este mai mult decât o supradensitate produsă de evazarea  și deformarea Căii Lactee.

În 2015, un studiu făcut de Heidi Jo Newberg et al., după o nouă triere și o examinare a datelor oferite de Sloan Digital Sky Survey, sugera că Galaxia Noastră este în momentul de față cu 50% mai mare decât este admis în mod general. Forma galaxiei este și ea revăzută. Discul galactic ar fi mai degrabă ondulat decât plat. Astfel, ar fi cel puțin patru ondulații în discul Căii Lactee. După aceste noi dimensiuni, Inelul Unicornului traversează discul.

Un mod de a înțelege acest lucru este să-ți imaginezi că te afli pe ocean când valurile sunt foarte înalte, sau la capătul unui teren vălurit. Creșterea următoare a valurilor sau celelalte dealuri ar bloca vederea a ceea ce se află dincolo. În aceeași optică, creșterea următoare în structura galactică blochează vederea a ceea ce se află dincolo. Este, se pare, o parte importantă a discului galactic. Bazat pe distanța Inelului Unicornului, diametrul Căii Lactee ar crește astfel de la - până la -

Inelele galactice ar fi astfel ondulări care aparțin discului galactic, iar nu unor structuri independente de acesta din urmă.

Totuși, observațiile care provin de la Telescopul Anglo-Australian, publicate în 2007, sugerează că un disc deformat nu poate crea structura observată. Ea ar fi mai degrabă creată fie de o erupție a discului galactic, fie ar avea o origine extragalactică.

Note

Bibliografie

Legături externe
  Structura externă a warp galactic, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 2006
  The AAT/WFI Monitorizare a Inelului Unicornului și a Galaxiei Pitice din Câinele Mare, Conn, Blair C., et al., 2007, MNRAS, in press

Vezi și
 Interacțiune de galaxii
 Galaxia Pitică din Câinele Mare

Astrofizică
Grupul Local
Calea Lactee
Galaxii
Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2002
Curenți stelari

Inelul Unicornului


What's Your Rupture?, également stylisé WYR?, est un label indépendant américain établi à Brooklyn, dans l'État de New York, fondé en 2003 par Kevin Pedersen. Le label a publié les œuvres d'artistes tels que Parquet Courts et Iceage.

Développement du label
What's Your Rupture? est fondé en 2003 par Kevin Pedersen, qui reste seul aux commandes du label. Au départ, ses locaux sont situés à New York, au rez-de-chaussée d'un immeuble de la , qui abrite également DFA Records.

Le premier succès d'estime du label a lieu en 2005 avec l'album Nine Times That Same Song du groupe suédois d'indie pop Love Is All.

En février 2007, le label publie la compilation Imagine the Shapes qui regroupe les EP de 4 groupes : Love Is All, caUSE co-MOTION!, The Long Blondes et Comet Gain.

De 2012 à 2014, What's Your Rupture? publie les albums et singles de Parquet Courts, et développe alors des liens commerciaux avec le label britannique Rough Trade, notamment pour la distribution hors des États-Unis.

Catalogue
Liste non exhaustive des groupes ou artistes du catalogue de What's Your Rupture? :

BODEGA
caUSE co-MOTION!
Cold Cave
Comet Gain
Fucked Up
Iceage
Life Without Buildings
Love Is All
Parquet Courts
Royal Headache
The Long Blondes
Think About Life
 (...)

Annexes

Liens externes

  boutique en ligne

Notes et références

Label discographique indépendant ayant son siège aux États-Unis
Label de rock indépendant

What's Your Rupture?