Changwon () is the capital and largest city of Gyeongsangnam-do, South Korea (with a population of 1,025,702 ), and the 11th largest city of the country.

A port city, Changwon is bordered by Masan Bay to the south, and the cities of Busan and Gimhae to the east. The city of Miryang lies to the northeast, and Jinju to the west.

The region has been inhabited since the Bronze Age, and its urban areas have been renamed and re-organized many times throughout history. In 1974, with the creation of the Changwon National Industrial Complex, the three historically interdependent cities of Masan, Jinhae, and Changwon began to undergo significant economic development, growing into an important industrial centre. On 1 July 2010, the cities of Changwon, Jinhae, and Masan merged to form the current city of Changwon.

As Korea's first planned city, modeled after Canberra, Australia, Changwon uses accessible urban planning including many parks and separate residential and industrial areas. The city has also branded itself an "environmental capital" with the municipal government actively participating in climate change conferences and committing to the development of sustainable policies like the globally recognized bike-sharing program, Nubija.

History

Early history
Populated since the early Bronze Age, the area surrounding Masan Bay would have been a wide open region between the ocean and the hilly lands of the coastal plain. Today ruins can be found in the area dating from the Iron Age. Typical Iron Age landmarks include Bangyedong monuments, dolmens, holy mounds, lower molar sites, and dolmens from Bronze Age settlements.

In 209 AD, during the Three Kingdoms period, the area was named Gulja-gun, a province of the Silla kingdom. During the Unified Silla Period, this region was renamed to Uian-gun in 739 AD, during the reorganization of all Silla provinces, then in the Goryeo Period, to Uichang-hyeon.

The name Changwon was first used in 1408 during the Joseon period, when King Taejong established the city as Changwon-bu. In 1415, he renamed Changwon-bu to Changwon-dohobu. Later during the King Sunjo Period (1601), it became Changwondae-do hobu.

In 1895, the country was reorganized into 23 divisions by King Gojong, and Changwondae-do hobu was split into Changwon-gun and Ungcheon-gun. In 1908 Ungcheon-gun merged with nearby Jinhae-gun. During the Japanese colonial period, the city became known as Masan-bu, and Masan Port was opened. Eventually, Changwon was separated from Masan-bu.

Post-Korean War
In 1970, the Masan Free Export Zone was opened to encourage foreign business to move to the area. In 1974, Changwon was selected to be an industrial and residential centre, as well as the provincial capital. The Changwon Industrial Complex was built in the south of the city, while Changwon began urban planning modelling itself after Canberra, Australia.

The country's longest straight road was constructed in Changwon, with a length of , with the industrial park to the south and residential complexes constructed to the north. This road, Changwon Daero, is meant to serve as an airplane runway in a state of emergency as Changwon was designed to be South Korea's emergency backup capital city. Underground walkways are able to serve as bomb shelters and roads and buildings in the planned city are numbered for efficient use in evacuation.

In 1985, the Korean War Monument () in Changwon's Uichang gu was constructed. The  monument is "dedicated to the 1,142 soldiers from Gyeongsangnam province that died in the Korean War."

On 1 July 2010, the three neighboring cities of Masan, Changwon and Jinhae unified to create Unified Changwon City, with a population of 1.04 million.

Geography

Changwon is located on the southeastern coast of the Korean Peninsula, on the Nakdong River delta looking out onto Masan Bay. The city is surrounded by mountains, the highest of which are Mt. Bulmo (), Mt. Jeongbyeong (), and Mt. Jangbok ().

The city also comprises several small islands in Masan Bay and along the coast including Dot island, Sokuri island, and several uninhabited islands.

The city has four distinct seasons. The climate of Changwon is a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cwa) with very warm summers and cold winters. The average temperature ranged between  in January to  in August. The average annual precipitation is . Between 1980 and 1990 there was an annual average of around 116 sunny days a year (32% of the year), and between 1990 and 2000 an average of 135 (37%).

Cityscape

Administrative divisions
Changwon has 5 administrative districts (Gu) which are divided into 54 neighbourhoods (dong), 5 in Uichang-gu, 7 in Seongsan-gu, 12 in Masanhoewon-gu, 15 in Masanhappo-gu and 13 in Jinhae-gu.

Neighborhoods
The development of Changwon into an industrial city during the 1960s and 1970s has led to a city structure that is bisected by one main avenue called Changwon Daero, meaning Changwon big road. To the south are the factories, to the north are all of the residential areas. Changwon Daero also serves as emergency runway for military purposes.

The Financial district is located in the southern part of Jungang-dong and Sangnam-dong, while the government district located northern part of Youngho-dong and Shinwol-dong.

The Changdong Art Village has many murals and artwork on display throughout the streets. Originally Masan's old town, when businesses began to disperse, "ateliers, cafés, and galleries took over the vacant stores" transforming the area into a thriving art district.

The Sangnam neighborhood is the central part of greater Changwon. The main part of this neighborhood, the Sangnam Commercial District (상남상업지구), is the main nightlife area, with many bars, hotels, business bars, noraebangs, and restaurants. On every day of the month with a date that ends in 4 or 9 the market "Sangnam-sijang" is open and bustling for business. This is the largest farmer's market within the city, with vendors selling fresh seafood, vegetables, and other groceries as well as clothing and pottery. There is also a large-scale residential complex of high-rise apartments.

Jungan-dong, located just west of Sangnam, is the "old town" and extended central area of the city. There is more nightlife here than restaurants, and local English speaking expats often frequent the area for drinks and laughs, often living very nearby. This is the most likely place to meet one of the foreign English teachers, engineers and armed services residence of the area.

Economy
Changwon city owes its rapid growth since the 1970s primarily to the Changwon industrial Complex, a  hub of factories dominated by heavy industry which employs 82,000 and leads the chemical, industrial, and heavy machinery sectors of the Korean economy. In September 2010, the Changwon Industrial Complex exceeded 2,000 tenant companies. The tenants are 97.8% (1,957) small-to-medium—sized businesses, while large corporations make up 2.2%(44) including Samsung Techwin, GM Korea, LG Electronics, Hyundai Rotem, Doosan Heavy Industries & Construction, Doosan Infracore, Hyosung, Hyundai Wia and STX Corporation.

The defense industry of Changwon makes up a large part of its industrial output and the majority of South Korea's weapons manufacturing. 70% of South Korea's defense industry is based in Changwon. The city was chosen to host the military defense industry because of the city's natural basin shape and coastal access. Major defense companies like Hanwha Defense and Hyundai Rotem manufacturing the K9 Thunder and K2 Black Panther respectively are based out of Changwon.

As the provincial capital, Changwon is home to several government offices, and the Jinhae-gu district contains a large naval base housing various units of the Republic of Korea Navy.

Changwon's Gross Regional Domestic Product is 21.7 trillion won which is higher than that of Gwangju and Daejeon. It earned 29 billion dollars through exports in 2008, more than Busan, Gwangju, Daejeon or Daegu.

Education and health

Schools
Students in Changwon can attend one of the six main post-secondary institutions:
 Changwon National University
 Kyungnam University
 Masan University
 Korea Naval Academy
 Chang Shin College
 Changwon Polytechnic College
There are 46 high schools, 63 middle schools, 105 elementary schools and 193 kindergartens in Changwon, including two special-purpose high schools: Changwon Science High School and Changwon Mechanical Technical High School.

Healthcare
Although a growing divide between Changwon's vibrant, modern west side and its older east side, has been identified as a source of socioeconomic and health inequality among its citizens, Changwon's municipal government has responded with renewed commitment to ensuring the social determinants of health for all citizens. Changwon's Healthy City Initiative has undertaken several initiatives to promote better health including the implementation of a bike-sharing system, "the development of walking trails in apartment complex areas" accessible to 85% of its citizens, building a new publicly funded health centre in the east side, and the installation of defibrillators in public areas like shopping centres and apartment complexes, giving Changwon "tremendous potential as an international model" for cities wishing to encourage public health.

The Samsung Changwon's Hospital's Regional Emergency Medical Centre, the region's has been ranked as Gyeongsangnam-do's top emergency medical centre.

Culture and contemporary life

As a planned city, Changwon was built to include more natural space than many other cities in Korea including dozens of parks, gardens, trails, and plazas throughout the city. The city is also located on the coast, making it home to several beaches.

Some well known Changwon parks include Jinhae Dream Park, an ecological reserve; Junamjeosuji, a reservoir and bird sanctuary; House of Changwon, a hanok village and education centre; and Changwon Marine Park on Dotseom Island.

Changwon is also home to the Changwon Exhibition Convention Centre (CECO).

As the capital and largest city in Gyeongsannam-do, Changwon is a provincial centre for media production and home to television and radio broadcaster Changwon KBS that hosts the K-Pop World Festival each year and newspaper the Kyongnam Shinmun,

Festivals
Changwon is home to numerous festivals throughout the year, including:
 K-Pop World Festival: a yearly singing and dancing competition in which contestants from all over the world perform live cover versions of K-Pop songs.
 Jinhae Gunhangje Festival: a yearly 10-day event beginning on 1 April, which features cherry blossom viewing, fireworks, concerts, a parade and performances by international Military Bands & Honor Guard .
 Changwon Sculpture Biennale: honoring the late Moon Shin
 Changwon Food Culture Festival and National Indigenous Food Cooking Contest: the third Saturday of each October
 Warty Sea Squirt Festival: a seafood festival held in April to celebrate the local mindeodeok and featuring a fireworks show.
 Changwon National Folk Bullfighting Festival: a tournament held each October where entrants are determined by draw
 Changwon Namsan Sangbongje Festival: a gathering held the weekend after Chuseok when locals gather on a mountain to perform an ancient harvest ceremony and drink, sing, & dance with their neighbours "as a way to seek the Chuseok traditions of our ancestors".
 Jillyesanseong Fortress Royal Azalea Festival: a flower viewing event held at an historical fortress on Bieumsan Mountain during the blooming season of Royal Azaleas.
 Masan Gagopa Chrysanthemum Festival
 Gyeongnam Science Competition(2023.10.27.~2023.10.29.)
 Masan Chrysanthemum Festival(2023.10.28.~2023.11.06.)

Sports

Changwon hosts four professional sports teams: a basketball team, two association football clubs, and a baseball team. The city also hosted a Formula 3 race, the Korea Super Prix, from 1999 to 2003.

Foreign culture
Per capita, Changwon has one of the largest foreign populations in South Korea, largely due to the Masan Free Trade Zone, which was created to encourage foreign business to move to the area, the Korea Naval Base in Jinhae, which houses numerous American military professionals, and the prevalence of English academies known as hagwons throughout Korea which frequently employ teachers from a variety of English-speaking countries.

Changwonderful, a website created by two foreign residents of Changwon, was created in 2012 as a resource for those traveling and moving to the city from abroad, with a goal to "not only ease foreigner life in Changwon, but also strengthen ties between foreigners and the local community." The website encourages reader participation in content creation and provides information on local business, attractions, culture, and infrastructure.

The Changwoner, a podcast with over 50 episodes as of 2017 and hosted by three foreign residents of Changwon, represents another project by foreign residents of Changwon to promote the city and build a common culture between residents, visitors, and ex-pats living in Changwon. The Changwoner also has a social media presence on YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter.

Transportation

Bike sharing

Changwon, having been the first city in Korea to declare itself a cycling city, is now considered "one of the world's leading cities in terms of its public bicycle system". The Nubija bike sharing system was introduced in 2008 in an attempt to alleviate traffic and parking issues, encourage public health, and move away from car-dependent models of urban planning. The bike-share program also included infrastructural changes to the city, including 18 new bike lanes spanning , giving Changwon Korea's largest public bicycle rental system.

, Nubija had 4,704 bicycles available at 241 terminals throughout the Changwon area, which can be searched for using the Nubija app. Users access the bicycles using a small chip called a MyBi pass.

Nubija had over 68,823 registered users in 2012, and rented an average of 15,850 bicycles per day.

The name Nubija comes from the Korean words nubida, which means "to travel" and jajeongeo, which means "bicycle."

Buses
As a planned city, Changwon "utilizes a grid style infrastructure which makes transportation more efficient than other cities of comparable size". Changwon and the surrounding area are served by over 80 city bus and express bus routes. Express and Inter-city buses connect Changwon to other cities throughout Korea from six bus terminals throughout the city. See .

Rail
The city is on the Gyeongjeon Line (Gwangju-Samnangjin), which stretches along the southern coast and links the Jeolla and Gyeongsang regions feeding local traffic into adjacent major lines. , KTX trains began running from Changwon to Seoul; travel time is approximately three hours.

There are four Gyeongjeon line stations in the Changwon area:
 Masan Station
 Changwon Station
 Changwon Central (JungAng) Station
 Jinhae Station.

Ferries
Masan Ferry Terminal offers service to the city of Geoje to the southeast.

At Masan Dotseom Marine Park, a 10-minute ferry is available to Dotseom, a forested island in the centre of Masan Bay.

Airport
Gimhae International Airport (PUS) is the closest airport,  east of Changwon in the city of Gimhae.

In 2016, the airport was the 4th busiest in South Korea, with 14,900,815 passengers passing through.

Tourist Attraction

 Jinhae Dream Road (Course 2) – The Jinhae Dream Road in Changwon, South Gyeongsang used to be a forest trail, but then it turned into the Anmin Road, which is now used for hiking. It is made up of four sections, one of them being the Cheonjabong Haeoreum-gil (Course 2) which is a 10-kilometer (6.2-mile) trail that connects the Anmin rest area to the meeting plaza of Wigallim-gil. The road is surrounded by various kinds of trees, ranging from peach and bamboo to cherry trees. Starting from Mount Ung all the way to Cheonjabong Peak and Mount Jangbok, the glorious mountain ranges spread out like a folding screen. *Course: Anmin Road (Anmin rest area) – Pyeonbaek rest area – Dream Park Gallim-gil – Cheonjaam – Gallim-gil above the meeting plaza (6.2 miles, 4 hours 10 minutes. Level: Moderate)

Symbol and slogans
The municipal government of Changwon has also designated several official symbols:

Changwon's municipal flag depicts a tri-coloured pinwheel made of 'C' shaped wings. The white space between the wings forms the image of three people holding hands and spinning in unity, balance, and harmony. The three colours of the pinwheel are: blue, symbolizing the ocean, growth, and hope; orange, which represents the city, passion, and creation; and green for nature, life, and balance.

The official city mascot of Changwon is PIUMI, a childlike figure with a blooming flower on its head, representing the cities famous cherry blossoms.

The city's slogan, 빛나는 땅 창원, means "Bright Changwon."
 City flower: the cherry blossom
 City bird: the black-tailed gull
 City tree: the pine tree

Twin towns – sister cities
Changwon has several international sister cities around the world, as well as designated "Friendship Cities"

Notable people from Changwon
 Kim Jong Yang (Hangul: 김종양), South Korean-French police officer and the President of Interpol.
 Je Jong-geel (Hangul: 제종길), South Korean politician.
 Ahn Sang-soo (Hangul: 안상수), South Korean politician.
 Gang Dong-won,(Hangul: 강동원), South Korean actor; he was born in Busan but grew up in Changwon
 Noh Sa-yeon (Hangul: 노사연), South Korean singer, television personality, and radio DJ.
 Lee Hye-in (Hangul: 이혜인), South Korean actress.
 Song Do-yeong (Hangul: 송도영), South Korean voice actress.
 Lee Elijah (Hangul: 이엘리야), South Korean actress and model.
 Hwang Jung-min (Hangul: 황정민), South Korean actor and singer.
 Jinyoung (Real Name: Park Jin-young, Hangul: 박진영), singer-songwriter, rapper, dancer, MC, actor and K-pop, member of K-pop boygroup Got7 and the first sub-unit of the group, JJ Project.
 N (Real Name: Cha Hak-yeon, Hangul: 차학연), singer, dancer, model, actor, presenter, radio host, and K-pop idol, leader and member of K-pop boygroup VIXX.
 Lee Joon-gi (Hangul: 이준기), South Korean actor; he was born in Busan but grew up in Changwon
 SuA (Real Name: Kim Bora), main dancer and member of K-pop girl group Dreamcatcher
 Jeon Wonwoo (Hangul: 전원우), singer-songwriter, rapper, member of K-pop boygroup SEVENTEEN and the group's sub-unit, collectively known as the hip-hop team.
G.O (Real Name: Jung Byung-hee, Hangul:정병희), singer, actor, a member of South Korean boy band MBLAQ.
 Bessie (Real Name: Kim Susanna), singer, rapper, dancer and member of K-pop girl group Lapillus
 Kim Min-jeong (Hangul: 김민정), South korea Announcer
 Bibi (Hangul: 비비, 김형서), singer

See also
List of cities in South Korea
Sacred Heart Cathedral, Changwon

References

External links

 Changwon City Official Blog
 City government website

Cities in South Gyeongsang Province
Planned communities in South Korea
Port cities and towns in South Korea

Changwon


The XIT Ranch was a cattle ranch in the Texas Panhandle which operated from 1885 to 1912.  Comprising over 3,000,000 acres (12,000 km²) of land, it ran for 200 miles (300 km) along the border with New Mexico, varying in width from 20 to 30 miles (30 to 50 km).  The massive ranch stretched through ten counties in Texas and at its peak regularly handled 150,000 head of cattle. "XIT" Stands for "Ten In Texas" using the roman Numeral "X".

History
The XIT ranch was located in the western edge of the Texas Panhandle. This was anciently the territory of the Querecho Indians and Teyas. In 1879, the 16th Texas Legislature appropriated 3,000,000 acres (12,000 km²) of land to finance a new state capitol. In 1882, in a special legislative session, the 17th Texas Legislature struck a bargain with Charles B. and John V. Farwell of Chicago, Illinois, under which a syndicate led by the Farwells, with mostly British investors, agreed to build a new Texas State Capitol in Austin and to accept the 3,000,000 acres (12,000 km²) of Panhandle land as payment.  The ranch stretched across all or portions of the counties of Dallam, Hartley, Oldham, Deaf Smith, Parmer, Castro, Bailey, Lamb, Cochran, and Hockley. Total expense for the capitol building amounted to $3,744,630.60, of which the Syndicate Company paid $3,224,593.45.

Though Mathias Schnell won the contract for constructing the new building in January 1882, by May he had assigned all interest to Taylor, Babcock and Company.  This company was composed of Colonel Abner Taylor of Chicago, Colonel A.C. Babcock of Canton, and John V. and Charles B. Farwell of Chicago.  Taylor was assigned company representative in June.  Babcock inspected the capitol tract that same year, setting out from Tascosa on 23 March and arriving at the Yellow Houses on 27 April.  His inspection noted the 1880 J.T. Munson survey used to define the capitol lands, and the northwest boundary of the state was defined by John H. Clark's 1859 survey. Clark's line defining the 103rd meridian, approved by Congress in 1891, turned out to be about one half mile west of the true meridian.  The issue was not settled until John V. Farwell and President William Howard Taft were instrumental in passing a joint resolution in 1911 by Congress honoring the Clark line.  This action saved Texas a strip of land one half mile wide and 310 miles long.

Development
In order to raise the capital needed to fence the ranch, build houses and barns, provide water, and purchase the cattle, John V. Farwell formed the Capitol Freehold Land and Investment Company, Limited, in London.  The money was raised through the sale of debentures paying 5 percent interest.  Directors of the company included John V. and Charles B. Farwell, Walter Potter, Henry Seton-Karr, Sir William Ewart, Edward M. Denny, Baron Thurlow, and the Marquis of Tweeddale, while the Earl of Aberdeen and Quintin Hogg were trustees.  The company existed until 1909, when all bonds had been redeemed.

Company headquarters were located in the northern boundary of the ranch, at Buffalo Springs, with George Findlay directing business.  Colonel B.H. Campbell became general manager and Berry Nations range foreman.  The ranch started operations in 1885, purchasing cattle and moving them onto the ranch.  By 1887, the herd was maintained at between 125,000 and 150,000 head, or about  per head.  W.S. Mabry surveyed in the four-wire barbed wire fence line, and by 1886,  of fence were in place, including a  long west line and a  long east line. Cross fences were added by the late 1890s to make 94 pastures, bringing the total to  of fence.  A telephone line connected Tascosa to Alamocitos in 1888. Though the northern portion of the ranch had plenty of water near Buffalo Springs, the portion south of the Canadian River needed wells, which were also surveyed in by Mabry.  By 1900, the ranch had 335 windmills, producing water from an average depth of . Additionally, 100 earthen dams were constructed.

Trail driver Ab Blocker devised the XIT brand.  The branding iron was simply made with a five-inch-long (15 cm) straight bar, applied five times.  Yet, the XIT brand was not immune from "brand burning" by rustlers, which involved burning the original brand into another brand.  Cowboy legends also kept alive the myth that the brand means "Ten (in Roman numerals) In Texas."  Each calf was branded with XIT on its side, the last numeral of the year on its shoulder, and the number of the division on its jaw.

The ranch was initially divided into 7 division headquarters, located at (1) Buffalo Springs, (2) Middle Water, (3) Ojo Bravo, (4) Rito Blanco, (5) Escarbada, (6) Spring Lake, and (7) Yellow Houses, with (8) Bovina added later.  Each was equipped with residences, cellars, bunkhouses, store rooms, barns, corrals, and two-wagon freight outfit.  Large warehouses were maintained at Tascosa in 1887, after the introduction of the Fort Worth and Denver Railroad, and in Bovina, after it was connected to the J.J. Hagerman's Pecos Valley and Northeastern Railroad in 1898.  General headquarters were moved to Channing in 1890.  Each division wrote a monthly report and an annual report containing details about the cattle, range weather, and the men employed.  Buffalo Springs became the steer ranch, Middle Water the cull ranch, while Ojo Bravo, Escarbada, Spring Lake and Yellow Houses became breeding ranges.  The 10-12 cowboys working a division in the winter increased to 25-30 in the summer.

Campbell's management led to the ranch becoming a "stopping place and rendezvous for a large number of bad men and criminals," in the words of A.L. Matlock.  Matlock was picked by John V. Farwell to run the ranch in 1887.  Matlock chose A.G. Boyce as his general range manager. Though the original stock consisted of Texas Longhorn cattle, in 1889, work started to improve the herd by introducing Hereford cattle and polled Aberdeen Angus.  Registered herds were bought in 1892, and the Rito Blanco division bred the Angus, while the Escarbada, Spring Lake and Yellow Houses divisions bred the Herefords.

The Texas Trail was used for trail drives connecting Tascosa to Dodge City until 1885.  Afterwards, the Northern Trail connected Buffalo Springs to the XIT range on Cedar Creek, 60 miles north of Miles City, Montana.  That trail was used from 1886 until 1897.  Over a period of 3 months, some 10,000 to 12,500 steers were moved from the Yellow Houses 1,000 miles north to Cedar Creek.  There they would graze for two years before being shipped to Chicago.

Decline
The original plan of the Capitol Company was colonization, with ranching viewed as a temporary use of the land until farmers arrived.  In 1890, Matlock began using an immigration agency, and  were prepared as farming tracts. Cattle prices crashed in 1886 and 1887, and in the fall of 1888, the ranch was unable to sell its cattle and make a profit.  The ranch operated most years without showing any profit.  Cattle rustling and predators such as the Mexican wolf led to further losses.

In 1901, the ranch syndicate began selling off acreage to pay the bonds of the Capitol Freehold Land and Investment Company, Limited.  Large tracts were sold to cattlemen such as George W. Littlefield, who bought  of Yellow Houses in 1901.  In 1904, the ranch started using land and development companies for wholesale purchases, but in 1905,  were also divided up into 160 square-mile tracts.  In 1905, to prevent speculation, the syndicate established a land commissioner and a real estate trust in 1915.  This trust, Capitol Reservations Lands, operated until 1950.  Yet, Capitol Mineral Rights Company retained much of the mineral rights.

The family of Minnie Lou Bradley, who went on to establish the Bradley 3 Ranch in Childress County east of Amarillo, made large purchases of XIT land.  Other purchasers included Texas cattlemen William E. Halsell, and John M. Shelton. Lee Bivins bought  from XIT's Capitol Syndicate.  Located near Channing, Texas, the purchase included XIT headquarters. The last of the XIT cattle were sold on 1 Nov. 1912.

Recognizing that their earlier surveys exceeded the stipulated areas by 2–4 percent, the state of Texas sued the Syndicate in 1918, claiming the excess was .  As a consequence, the state recovered  in Dallam County, and  in Hartley County.

Legacy
In remembrance of the massive ranch, the City of Dalhart hosts the XIT Museum and the annual XIT Rodeo and Reunion held the first Thursday through Sunday of August. The celebration includes three days of junior and professional (PRCA) rodeo events, the world's largest free barbecue, three nights of live music, a mud bog competition, an antique tractor pull, and other activities.

Several businesses in the Dalhart area use "XIT" in their names and styles.

Gallery

See also
Ira Aten
Patrick H. Landergin

References

Further reading
 Cordia Sloan Duke and Joe B. Frantz;  6,000 Miles of Fence: Life on the XIT Ranch of Texas;  Austin: University of Texas Press; 1961.

External links
The XIT Museum
XIT Rodeo & Reunion
Photos of the XIT Ranch hosted by the Portal to Texas History

Companies based in Texas
Ranches in Texas
Dallam County, Texas
1885 establishments in Texas
American companies established in 1885
1912 disestablishments in Texas
American companies disestablished in 1912

XIT Ranch


El retrato de Felipe III el Bueno, duque de Borgoña del Museo de Bellas Artes de Dijon, Francia es una de las numerosas copias de taller de un prototipo perdido de Rogier van der Weyden.

El original del llamado Felipe el Bueno con chaperon o capuchón habría sido el primer retrato que del duque de Borgoña hiciera Rogier van der Weyden, datable a comienzos de los años 1440. Junto al ejemplar de Dijon, considerado el de mejor calidad, se conocen copias en el Museo del Louvre, el musée de l'Hospice Comtesse
de Lille, el Museo Groeninge de Brujas y otros.

La obra retrata a Felipe el Bueno, duque borgoñón que participó en las disputas de la corona de Francia junto al rey Enrique V de Inglaterra. En el cuadro se le representa con el collar de la Orden del Toisón de Oro al cuello, creada por él mismo en 1430.

Aunque Van der Weyden no ostentara el título de pintor de cámara del duque de Borgoña, lo retrató en al menos tres ocasiones. La primera de ellas, la que sirvió de prototipo al ejemplar de Dijon, de hacia 1440, sirvió también, sin la caperuza o chaperon, para la miniatura de las Chroniques de Hainaut, que es el único retrato de Felipe el Bueno de mano de Van der Weyden que se ha conservado, una vez que se han perdido también los originales del retrato pintado hacia 1450, con el cabello corto, del que una copia se conserva en el Palacio Real de Madrid, y el último, poco anterior a la muerte del pintor (1464), con el cabello largo.

Véase también
 Pintura flamenca (siglos XV y XVI)

Referencias

Retratos
Cuadros de los años 1450

Retrato de Felipe III de Borgoña


Scipione Chiaramonti (Cesena,  – Cesena, ) foi um astrônomo e filósofo italiano. Ele era um adversário de Tycho Brahe, Galileu Galilei e Johannes Kepler.

Obras

Astrónomos da Itália
Filósofos da Itália

Scipione Chiaramonti


Raghunathpur (en bengalí: রঘুনাথপুর ) es una ciudad de la India, en el distrito de Purulia, estado de Bengala Occidental.

Geografía
Se encuentra a una altitud de 172  a 254 km de la capital estatal, Calcuta, en la zona horaria UTC +5:30.

Demografía
Según estimación 2010 contaba con una población de 723 133 habitantes.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Bengala Occidental

Raghunathpur


Çayköy, Antalya ilinin Kaş ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Coğrafya
Antalya iline 231 km, Kaş ilçesine 40 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Kaş'ın mahalleleri

Çayköy, Kaş


Vasco Díaz Tanco (Fregenal de la Sierra,  - 1560) fue un soldado, sacerdote, poeta, teólogo, dramaturgo y actor de teatro, aunque es sobre todo conocido por su lado más literario.  El Catálogo de la Barrera señala que fue autor de tres tragedias, tres comedias, tres sátiras, veinticuatro autos y tres coloquios; además de algunas epístolas.

Trayectoria

Humanista de la ciudad de Fregenal de la Sierra y nacido en torno al , fue un autor de tres tragedias, tres comedias, tres sátiras, veinticuatro autos y tres coloquios, además de algunas epístolas.

En su juventud ejerció como militar y llegó a caer prisionero en África. Fue autor y actor dramático, poeta y escritor de diversas materias. También se dedicó a la astrología y a adivinar el porvenir. Fue historiador y clérigo de la Diócesis de Badajoz. Tampoco le fue ajena la labor de traductor.

De sus obras más conocidas destacan Jardín del alma cristiana, El Astrolabio natalicio o Cuando su rey en prisión.

Pasó los últimos años de su vida en Portugal y Galicia, lugar este último donde fijó su oficina de impresor.

Él mismo realiza un recorrido de todas las tierras en las que ha estado en su obra Jardín del alma cristiana, relacionando los nombres con los que era conocido en cada uno de estos lugares:

Homenajes

En homenaje a este personaje se creó en 2004 el Concurso Literario Vasco Díaz Tanco como una iniciativa para fomentar la creatividad literaria llegando con la presente a la edición número XI. El concurso literario Vasco Díaz Tanco se organiza desde la biblioteca municipal de Fregenal de la Sierra a través de la Delegación de Cultural del ayuntamiento de la ciudad.

También en Fregenal la antigua calle Huerto-Corujo, donde nació el frexnense, fue renombrada para denominarse Vasco Díaz Tanco.

Obras

 Jardín del alma cristiana
 El Astrolabio natalicio
 Cuando su rey en prisión
 Terno comediario autual de Vasco Diaz Tanco de Frexenal, impreso hacia 1530 en Zaragoza, en la imprenta de Pedro Hardouin.
 Terno farsario, impreso hacia 1530 en Zaragoza, en la imprenta de Pedro Hardouin.
 Terno dialogal, impreso hacia 1530 en Zaragoza, en la imprenta de Pedro Hardouin.
 Tragedia de Absalom
 Tragedia de Amón y Saúl
 Tragedia de Jonathan en el monte Gelboe
 Los seis aventureros de España, y cómo el uno va a las Indias, y el otro a Italia, y el otro a Flandes, y el otro está preso, y el otro anda en pleitos, y el otro en religión, y no hay más de estos seis

Referencias

 Joseph E. Gillet, Apuntes sobre la obra dramática de Vasco Díaz Tanco de Fregenal
 Revista Archivos, Bibliotecas y Museos 44, 1923.- pp. 352-356
 Alfredo Hermenegildo, La tragedia en el Renacimiento español

Enlaces externos

 Personajes Ilustres de Fregenal - Ayuntamiento de Fregenal de la Sierra
 Convocado el VII concurso literario 'Vasco Díaz Tanco' - hoyfregenal.es
 Boletín de la Real Academia Galega

Teólogos de España del siglo XVI
Dramaturgos de España del siglo XVI
Dramaturgos de Extremadura
Nacidos en Fregenal de la Sierra

Vasco Díaz Tanco


Ernesto Jorge Åberg (Ernst Georg Åberg) fue un destacado médico y botánico sueco considerado por sus biógrafos «un benefactor en los ámbitos más diversos» en Argentina, el introductor de la kinesiología no sólo en Argentina sino en toda Sudamérica.

La vida en Suecia
Ernesto Åberg nació en Estocolmo, Suecia, el 18 de agosto de 1823, tercer hijo del funcionario Martin Fredrik Aberg y de Brita Catharina Vingren (1796). Estudió medicina en la Universidad de Upsala obteniendo el doctorado en 1850 con una tesis sobre el envenenamiento crónico con arsénico. Ese mismo año casó con Evelina Maria Heap, quien falleció en 1852. Ella dio a luz a un hijo llamado Lawrence Heap Åberg (1851-1895) que se quedó en Suecia y se convirtió en un filósofo. Perfeccionó sus estudios en el Instituto Karolinska egresando con el título de Chirurgiae Magister, tras lo que se dedicó al ejercicio de su profesión en su ciudad natal. En 1855 publicó Statistics and Treatment or Typhus and Typhoid Fever from Twelve Years Experience gained at the Seraphim Hospital in Stockholm 1841-52, traducción del idioma sueco que efectuó del original de Magnus Huss.

La vida en la Argentina
Habiendo contraído tuberculosis, ese mismo año emigró en busca de mejores climas a la ciudad de Buenos Aires, capital de la República Argentina. Obtuvo la revalida de su título en la Facultad de Medicina (Universidad de Buenos Aires) en 1856 con una tesis sobre Causas naturales y tratamiento de la gota y rindiendo examen en latín, ya que aún no conocía bien el castellano. Hablaba en cambio el griego así como varias lenguas nórdicas.

En Buenos Aires continuó en el ejercicio de su profesión, fundó un instituto de terapia física y actuó como consultor en política sanitaria para el Gobierno Argentino en numerosas oportunidades.

El 11 de abril de 1867 casó con Dolores Cobo Lavalle (1844, † 1907), emparentando así con una de las familias más tradicionales del país. Tuvo numerosos hijos: Axel (1869, † 1954), Arturo (,† 1927), Hialmar (1879, † 1959), Ricardo, Augusto, Dolores, Ernestina e Iver Åberg Cobo.

Tuvo un destacado papel durante la epidemia de fiebre amarilla en Buenos Aires de 1871. En 1872 fue designado para integrar la Comisión de Aguas Corrientes, Cloacas y Adoquinado, la que sería responsable de planificar los mayores trabajos de saneamiento realizados en la ciudad de Buenos Aires. Durante su gestión se construyó la primera fábrica de cemento del país, se instaló una fábrica de ladrillas de máquina en San Isidro (Buenos Aires) y se inició en el país la industria de cerámica de construcción.

Durante ese período publicó artículos acerca de salubridad en los diarios El Nacional y La República. En este último mantuvo una polémica con Eduardo Wilde referente a las obras encaradas, en especial respecto de la fábrica de ladrillos.

El 31 de diciembre de 1874 dejó la Comisión y fue designado miembro de la Academia de Medicina ocupando la vacante del doctor Manuel Aráuz.

El 26 de agosto de 1875 pasó a integrar la Comisión del Concejo Municipal. Desde esa función promovió entre otras obras las de embellecimiento del Paseo de Marte, futura Plaza San Martín.

El 14 de mayo de 1877 renunció a la Comisión y al siguiente día a la Academia de Medicina para viajar a Suecia. Durante su estancia, en 1878 asistió como delegado del gobierno argentino al Segundo Congreso Penitenciario Internacional reunido en Estocolmo.

Tras pasar por Suiza, ca. 1884 regresó a Buenos Aires y fundó el Instituto Terapéutico de Gimasia Mecánica o "Instituto Kinesiterápico" con la colaboración del doctor José A. Ayerza.

El establecimiento, que seguía el procedimiento de la gimasia mecánica del sueco Gustav Zander, utilizó las primeras máquinas de gimnasia mecánica de aplicación terapéutica utilizadas en Sudamérica, 52 de los 76 aparatos de mecanoterapia inventados por Zander, y tuvo bastante éxito gracias principalmente al prestigio de su director.

En 1884 publicó Mecanoterapia de Zander acerca de la obra de Gustav Zander considerándose su obra la primera publicación referente a ejercicios terapéuticos (Mecanoterapia) en América del Sur. Su trabajo convirtió a la Argentina en uno de los países pioneros en la formación de fisioterapeutas (kinesiólogos). Además de los aparatos aplicaba la gimnasia de Pedro Ling, también sueco, basada en el principio de que «las mismas fuerzas que causan una deformación pueden corregirla».

Poco antes de su segundo viaje a Suecia en 1890 la Academia de Medicina le confirió el título de Académico Honorario. Cecilia Grierson, primera médica argentina, fue su alumna y amiga. Regresó a Buenos Aires después de pasar 9 años en su país natal.

Colaboró en la Revista Médico Quirúrgica y escribió otros trabajos: en 1886 Un caso de joroba escoliótica tratado por la gimnasia médica y en 1888 Causas, naturaleza y tratamiento de la escoliosis. Publicó también varios trabajos en idioma sueco sobre la escoliosis entre otros temas médicos de su especialidad.

Apasionado por la botánica y especialmente por el cultivo del eucalipto, llegó a tener más de 60 especies del mismo en su chacra de Ramos Mejía. En 1874 publicó el ensayo Irrigación y eucaliptos donde proponía la plantación de cientos de hectáreas con eucaliptos en los bañados de Flores (Buenos Aires) para ser irrigados con las aguas de una planta depuradora de líquidos cloacales que recogería los vertidos de la ciudad de Buenos Aires. Su obra incluye una detallada descripción de las especies de eucaliptus, recogiendo vastos conocimientos que en mucho debía a su amistad con el botánico alemán barón Ferdinand von Müeller, quien en 1878 le dedicó una especie: Eucalyptus abergiana (Corymbia abergiana) y en 1879 le dedicó su obra Eucaliptographie. Por su parte, la Société d'Acclimatation de París en 1874 le concedió por su monografía una medalla de plata. Donó parte de su colección al Museo de Historia Natural de Londres.

Falleció el 30 de mayo de 1906 en la ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina, y fue enterrado en el Cementerio de la Recoleta. Era «un hombre de rectitud serena y equilibrada, aunque tolerante».

Notas y referencias

Bibliografía
Magnus Huss, Statistics and Treatment or Typhus and Typhoid Fever from Twelve Years Experience gained at the Seraphim Hospital in Stockholm 1841-52, Londres, 1855
Ernesto Jorge Åberg, Instituto Terapéutico de Gimasia Mecánica. Resultados del Tratamiento obtenidos en el Instituto Terapéutico de Gimasia Mecánica en los cuatro primeros meses (mayo-septiembre), Buenos Aires, Imprenta de Pablo E. Coni, 1885.
Jorge Newton, Diccionario biográfico del campo argentino, Buenos Aires, 1972
Guillermo F. Marín, Cecilia Grierson. Mujer profana, Revista Argentina de Cancerología, Volumen XXXVI, N.º 1,  2008
Fabio Batalha Monteiro de Barros, A formação do fisioterapeuta na UFRJ e a profissionalização da fisioterapia, Instituto de Medicina Social, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Río de Janeiro, 2002
Norman Hall, Botanists of the eucalypts: short biographies of people who have named eucalypts, whose names have been given to species or who have collected type material, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research, 1978,  Cornell University, ISBN 0643002715, 9780643002715
Manual para Productores de Eucaliptos de la Mesopotamia Argentina, Secretaría de Agricultura, Ganadería y Pesca, Ministerio de Economía y Obras y Servicios Públicos, 1995
Vicente Osvaldo Cutolo, Nuevo diccionario biográfico argentino (1750-1930), Editorial Elche, 1968

Enlaces externos
Ernesto Aberg Vingren (Wingren o Wiengren)
Familia Aberg Cobo Wiengren de Lavalle
Åberg från Jönköping
Libris database record
Svenskt biografiskt handlexikon
Jstor Plant Science. Åberg, Ernst Georg (1823-1906)
Ricardo Aberg Cobo

Nacidos en Estocolmo
Fallecidos en Buenos Aires
Médicos de Suecia del siglo XIX
Botánicos de Suecia del siglo XIX
Botánicos de Argentina
Médicos de Argentina del siglo XIX
Alumnado de la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad de Buenos Aires
Emigrantes suecos hacia Argentina

Ernesto Jorge Åberg


Der Shapley-Superhaufen (SCl 124) stellt die größte bekannte Ansammlung von Sternensystemen (Galaxien) in einer Entfernung von bis zu 700 Millionen Lichtjahren dar. Er ist ein Massezentrum, welches dafür sorgt, dass die ihm angehörenden Sternsysteme durch gravitative Kräfte zusammengehalten werden, sodass in seinem Einflussbereich keine Zunahme der Entfernungen zwischen den Galaxien aufgrund der allgemeinen Expansion des Universums zu beobachten ist.

Der Shapley-Superhaufen erscheint als deutliche Konzentration von Sternsystemen im Sternbild Zentaur. Seine Entfernung von der Milchstraße beträgt ca. 650 Mio. Lichtjahre (Rotverschiebung: z=0,046).

Die Struktur des Shapley-Superhaufens wurde durch Somak Raychaudhury bei einer Durchmusterung des Sternenhimmels (wieder-)entdeckt. Raychaudhury untersuchte Fotoplatten mit Aufnahmen des südlichen Sternenhimmels mit einem automatisierten Durchmusterungssystem (APM) an der University of Cambridge. In seiner Abhandlung benannte er die gefundene Struktur nach dem Astronomen Harlow Shapley, der bei einer früheren Durchmusterung des Sternenhimmels diese Galaxien-Ansammlung zuerst gefunden hatte. Etwa zur gleichen Zeit hatten Astronomen um Roberto Scaramella diese Konzentration von Sternsystemen als bemerkenswerte Struktur im Kosmos identifiziert und sie Alpha concentration genannt.

Entdeckungsgeschichte
In den späten 1920er Jahren begann Harlow Shapley mit Kollegen am Observatorium der Harvard-Universität eine Suche nach Galaxien am Südhimmel, wobei sie Fotoplatten auswerteten, die mit dem 24-Zoll-Bruce-Teleskop in Bloemfontein, Südafrika, aufgenommen worden waren. 1932 meldete Shapley aufgrund der Auswertung die Identifizierung von mindestens 76.000 Galaxien heller als +18 mag in einem Drittel des Südhimmels. Einige dieser Daten wurden später als Teil der Harvard-Galaxien-Zählungen veröffentlicht, die durchgeführt wurden, um die Dichte und Verteilung von Sternensystemen im Weltraum zu bestimmen.

In dem Katalog verzeichnete Shapley die meisten Systeme der "Coma-Virgo-Wolke" (die heute als Überlagerungszone des Virgo-Superhaufens und des Coma-Superhaufens definiert ist), und er fand im Sternbild Zentaur eine weitere "Wolke", die er als überwältigende Konzentration von Galaxien beschrieb. Diese Konzentration beeindruckte ihn wegen ihrer gewaltigen Ausdehnung, der Zahl der Sternensysteme und der langgestreckten Form. Diese Charakterisierung deckt sich mit der heute als Kerngebiet des Shapley-Superhaufens bekannten Region des Kosmos. Shapley schätzte die Entfernung zu der Struktur auf das 14fache der Entfernung zum Virgo-Superhaufen, wobei er sich am durchschnittlichen scheinbaren Durchmesser der beobachteten Sternensysteme orientierte. Ausgehend von der aktuellen Entfernungsschätzung für den Virgo-Superhaufen ergibt das eine Entfernung von 231 Megaparsec (753 Mio. Lichtjahre).

Aktuelle Forschungen
Der Shapley-Superhaufen erstreckt sich in der Richtung des mutmaßlichen Bewegungsvektors, auf dem sich die Lokale Gruppe, zu der auch unsere Milchstraße gehört, durch den Kosmos bewegt. Das lässt vermuten, dass der Shapley-Superhaufen eine wesentliche Ursache der Bewegung der Lokalen Gruppe sein könnte, während vorher allein die Struktur des Großen Attraktors als mögliches Massezentrum dafür verantwortlich gemacht wurde. Diese neue Einschätzung hat eine intensive Beobachtung des Shapley-Superhaufens ausgelöst, wie zum Beispiel durch das Planck-Weltraumteleskop und durch das Röntgenobservatorium ROSAT.

Siehe auch
 Dunkler Fluss
 Hydra-Centaurus-Superhaufen
 Laniakea
 Norma-Galaxienhaufen

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks
 Dynamics and mass of the Shapley Supercluster
 An atlas of the Universe
 The Shapley Supercluster (englisch, PDF)
 Harvard College Observatory
 Shapley 8 (A3558) proof of being The Great Attractor

Supergalaxienhaufen

Shapley-Superhaufen


ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ තැපැල් කාර්යාල ලැයිස්තුව/බ යනු සිංහල අකාරාදියෙහි බ අක්ෂරයෙන් ඇරඹෙන නමක් සහිත ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ තැපැල් කාර්යාල ලැයිස්තුවයි.

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ තැපැල් කාර්යාල ලැයිස්තුව/බ


La Roncalesa fue una compañía de autobuses española fundada en el Valle del Roncal (Navarra).

Historia
Su historia se remonta al 24 de enero de 1883 cuando un grupo de roncaleses vio la necesidad de que la gente se trasladase desde el valle del Roncal hasta Lumbier. Al principio se tiraba de caballos. Décadas más tarde consiguieron tener la línea Pamplona - San Sebastián. No sólo llevaban pasajeros, sino también aprovechaban para repartir la prensa de la zona o llevar la leche de Betelu a Pamplona. En un principio el precios del trayecto era de 2 céntimos en primera clase y de 1 céntimo el resto de pasajeros.

Hubo una época que recogían los clientes del Hotel Ayestarán de Lecumberri, tan célebres como Orson Welles, Ernest Hemingway o Alcalá Zamora entre otros.

José Manuel Ayesa fue director general desde 1969 a 2010 y parientes de sus fundadores. La compañía llegó a tener 18 autobuses en propiedad y una compañía de 40 empleados.

En agosto de 2011 vendió su 33% de participación en el grupo Conda a la compañía asturiana ALSA y a Ágreda Automóvil S.A. de Zaragoza. Asimismo, ha cedido a Conda su también tercera parte de accionariado de La Tafallesa. La firma se mantiene como una sociedad patrimonial propietaria de inmuebles y de participaciones en diferentes negocios fuera del sector de los autobuses.

Referencias

La Roncalesa baja la persiana, en Diario vasco.com

Enlaces externos

Empresas de Navarra
Autobuses de España
Empresas fundadas en 1883
Empresas de transporte por carretera de España
Empresas desaparecidas de España

La Roncalesa


El término Vishniakí (en ucraniano y ) puede referirse a:

Vishniakí (Rusia), localidad del sur de Rusia.

Vishniakí (Borodianka, Kiev), localidad del raión de Borodianka del óblast de Kiev, en Ucrania.
Vishniakí (Fastiv, Kiev), localidad del raión de Fastiv del óblast de Kiev, en Ucrania.
Vyshniaky (Odesa), localidad del óblast de Odesa, en Ucrania.
Vishniakí (Kozelschyna, Poltava), localidad del raión de Kozelschyna del óblast de Poltava, en Ucrania.
Vishniakí (Jorol, Poltava), localidad del raión de Jorol del óblast de Poltava, en Ucrania.
Vishniakí (Zaporizhia), localidad del óblast de Zaporizhia, en Ucrania.

Vishniakí (desambiguación)


Şahin Çandır (1931, İzmir - 17 Mayıs 2019, İzmir), Türk şair.

Ortaöğrenimini İzmir'de yaptı. 1953'te başladığı bankacılık mesleğinden 1980'de emekli oldu. Varlık, Denemeç vb. dergilerde şiirler yayımladı. Atasözlerinden, halk deyişlerinden, tekerlemelerinden yararlanarak Türk müziğine nitelikli söz kazandırmak için çaba gösterdi. Şiirlerini Mutlu Dönence (1959), Ağaçlar Kasım Oldu (1982) kitaplarında topladı. En önemli şiirlerinden biri olan "Ah bu şarkıların gözü kör olsun", kürdili hicazkar makamda bestelenen bir sanat müziğidir. 17 Mayıs 2019'da İzmir'de hayatını kaybetti.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 https://www.biyografya.com/biyografi/1813

1931 doğumlular
İzmir doğumlular
20. yüzyıl Türk bestecileri
21. yüzyıl Türk bestecileri
2019 yılında ölenler
Türk söz yazarları
20. yüzyıl Türk şairleri
21. yüzyıl Türk şairleri
Doğançay Mezarlığı'na defnedilenler
İzmir'de ölenler

Şahin Çandır


Silviano Santiago (* 29. September 1936 in Formiga, Minas Gerais) ist ein brasilianischer Schriftsteller.

1975 gab er eine Prosa- und Lyrikanthologie Ariano Suassunas und die kommentierte Ausgabe von Iracema heraus. Im folgenden Jahr nahm er am X Festival de Inverno von Ouro Preto teil. 1981 kam sein kompositorisch und stilistisch herausragender Roman Em Liberdade heraus, der auf zwei Zeitebenen spielt.

1985 veröffentlichte er seine Übersetzungen der Gedichte von Jacques Prévert. Zehn Jahre danach übersetzte er Por Que Amo Barthes von Alain Robbe-Grillet. Durch den Kulturminister Brasiliens wurde er zum Mitglied der Jury des Nationalen Literaturpreises 1989 ernannt.

1994 half er Heloísa Buarque de Hollanda und ihrem Team, das Programa Avançado de Cultura Contemporânea (PACC) auf die Beine zu stellen. Im folgenden Jahr nahm er am II Encontro Internacional de Poetas an der Universidade de Coimbra teil.

1996 nahm er in Toronto an der Konferenz zum Projekt über die Literaturgeschichte Lateinamerikas teil. 2008 erschien Heranças ("Erbschaft"), eine fiktionale Aufarbeitung des 20. Jahrhunderts.

Santiago wurde bisher dreifach mit dem Prêmio Jabuti de Literatura ausgezeichnet. Die Academia Brasileira de Letras verlieh ihm 2013 für sein Gesamtwerk Brasiliens bedeutendsten Literaturpreis Prêmio Machado de Assis, und 2022 erhielt er den Prémio Camões, der als wichtigster Literaturpreis des portugiesischen Sprachraums gilt.

Literatur

 Verônica de Aragão: O narrador pós-moderno em Silviano Santiago. Editora Caetés, 2009.

Einzelnachweise

Autor
Literatur (Portugiesisch)
Brasilianische Literatur
Literatur (20. Jahrhundert)
Literatur (21. Jahrhundert)
Lyrik
Essay
Roman, Epik
Übersetzer aus dem Französischen
Herausgeber
Träger des Prêmio Jabuti
Träger des Prêmio Machado de Assis
Träger des Prémio Camões
Brasilianer
Geboren 1936
Mann

Silviano Santiago


An Greigia sylvicola in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Paul Carpenter Standley. An Greigia sylvicola in nahilalakip ha genus nga Greigia, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Greigia

Greigia sylvicola


Twilight is light produced by sunlight scattering in the upper atmosphere, when the Sun is below the horizon, which illuminates the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface. The word twilight can also refer to the periods of time when this illumination occurs.

The lower the Sun is beneath the horizon, the dimmer the twilight (other factors such as atmospheric conditions being equal). When the Sun reaches 18° below the horizon, the twilight's brightness is nearly zero, and evening twilight becomes nighttime. When the Sun again reaches 18° below the horizon, nighttime becomes morning twilight. Owing to its distinctive quality, primarily the absence of shadows and the appearance of objects silhouetted against the lit sky, twilight has long been popular with photographers and painters, who often refer to it as the blue hour, after the French expression l'heure bleue.

By analogy with evening twilight, the word twilight is also sometimes used metaphorically, to imply that something is losing strength and approaching its end. For example, very old people may be said to be "in the twilight of their lives". The collateral adjective for twilight is crepuscular, which may be used to describe the behavior of animals that are most active during this period.

Definitions by geometry
Twilight is defined according to the solar elevation angle θs, which is the position of the geometric center of the Sun relative to the horizon. There are three established and widely accepted subcategories of twilight: civil twilight (nearest the horizon), nautical twilight, and astronomical twilight (farthest from the horizon).

Civil twilight

Civil twilight is defined as when the geometric center of the Sun is between 6° below the horizon and the horizon itself.

Civil twilight is the period when enough natural light remains that artificial light in towns and cities is not needed. In the United States' military, the initialisms BMCT (begin morning civil twilight, i.e., civil dawn) and EECT (end evening civil twilight, i.e., civil dusk) are used to refer to the start of morning civil twilight and the end of evening civil twilight, respectively. Civil dawn is preceded by morning nautical twilight and civil dusk is followed by evening nautical twilight.

Under clear weather conditions, civil twilight approximates the limit at which solar illumination suffices for the human eye to clearly distinguish terrestrial objects. Enough illumination renders artificial sources unnecessary for most outdoor activities.  At civil dawn and at civil dusk sunlight clearly defines the horizon while the brightest stars and planets can appear.  As observed from the Earth (see apparent magnitude), sky-gazers know Venus, the brightest planet, as the "morning star" or "evening star" because they can see it during civil twilight.

Lawmakers have enshrined the concept of civil twilight. Such statutes typically use a fixed period after sunset or before sunrise (most commonly 20–30 minutes), rather than how many degrees the Sun is below the horizon. Examples include when drivers of automobiles must turn on their headlights (called lighting-up time in the UK), when hunting is restricted, or when the crime of burglary is to be treated as nighttime burglary, which carries stiffer penalties in some jurisdictions.

The period may affect when extra equipment, such as anti-collision lights, is required for aircraft to operate. In the US, civil twilight for aviation is defined in Part 1.1 of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) as the time listed in the American Air Almanac.

Nautical twilight
Nautical twilight is defined as when the geometric center of the Sun is between 12° and 6° below the horizon.

Before nautical dawn and after nautical dusk, sailors cannot navigate via the horizon at sea as they cannot clearly see the horizon. At nautical dawn and nautical dusk, the human eye finds it difficult, if not impossible, to discern traces of illumination near the sunset or sunrise point of the horizon (first light after nautical dawn but before civil dawn and nightfall after civil dusk but before nautical dusk).

 Sailors can take reliable star sightings of well-known stars, during the stage of nautical twilight when they can distinguish a visible horizon for reference (i.e. after astronomic dawn or before astronomic dusk).
Under good atmospheric conditions with the absence of other illumination, during nautical twilight, the human eye may distinguish general outlines of ground objects but cannot participate in detailed outdoor operations.

Nautical twilight has military considerations as well. The initialisms BMNT (begin morning nautical twilight, i.e. nautical dawn) and EENT (end evening nautical twilight, i.e. nautical dusk) are used and considered when planning military operations. A military unit may treat BMNT and EENT with heightened security, e.g. by "standing to", in which everyone assumes a defensive position.

Astronomical twilight

Astronomical twilight is defined as when the geometric center of the Sun is between 18° and 12° below the horizon. During astronomical twilight, the sky is dark enough to permit astronomical observation of point sources of light such as stars, except in regions with more intense skyglow due to light pollution, moonlight, auroras, and other sources of light. Some critical observations, such as of faint diffuse items such as nebulae and galaxies, may require observation beyond the limit of astronomical twilight. Theoretically, the faintest stars detectable by the naked eye (those of approximately the sixth magnitude) will become visible in the evening at astronomical dusk, and become invisible at astronomical dawn.

Times of occurrence

Between day and night
Observers within 48°33'43" of the Equator (within 50°03' of the Equator in May or November, within 57°09' of the Equator in April or October, within 48°50' of the Equator in January or July, within 53°46' of the Equator in February or August, as well as within 63°25' of the Equator in March or September) and within 72° of the Equator on the equinoxes can view twilight twice each day on every date of the year between astronomical dawn, nautical dawn, or civil dawn, and sunrise as well as between sunset and civil dusk, nautical dusk, or astronomical dusk. This also occurs for most observers at higher latitudes on many dates throughout the year, except those around the summer solstice. However, at latitudes closer than 8°35' (between 81°25' and 90°) to either Pole, the Sun cannot rise above the horizon nor sink more than 18° below it on the same day on any date, so this example of twilight cannot occur because the angular difference between solar noon and solar midnight is less than 17°10'.

Lasting from one day to the next

At latitudes greater than 48°33'43" North or South, on dates near the summer solstice, twilight can last from sunset to sunrise, since the Sun does not sink more than 18 degrees below the horizon, so complete darkness does not occur even at solar midnight. These latitudes include many densely populated regions of the Earth, including the entire United Kingdom and other countries in northern Europe and even parts of central Europe. This also occurs in the Southern Hemisphere, but occurs on December 21. This type of twilight also occurs between one day and the next at latitudes within the polar circles shortly before and shortly after the period of midnight sun. The summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere is on June 21st, while the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere is on December 21st.

 Civil twilight: between 60°33'43" and 65°43'43" north or south. In the northern hemisphere, this includes the center of Iceland, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Faroe Islands and Shetland Island. In the southern hemisphere this includes parts of the Southern Ocean and the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula. When civil twilight lasts all night, this is also referred as a white night.
 Nautical twilight: between 54°33'43" and 60°33'43" north or south. In the northern hemisphere this includes the center of Russia, Canada, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Denmark. In the southern hemisphere this includes the southernmost point of South America, and Ushuaia in Argentina. When nautical twilight lasts all night, this is also referred as a white night.
 Astronomical twilight: between 48°33'43" and 54°33'43" north or south. In the northern hemisphere, this includes the center of Isle of Man, United Kingdom, Belarus, Ireland, Netherlands, Poland, Germany, Belgium, Czech Republic, Bellingham, Washington, Orcas  Island, Washington, Vancouver, British Columbia, Luxembourg, Guernsey, Ukraine, Slovakia and Hungary. In the southern hemisphere this includes the center of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Bouvet Island, Heard Island, Falkland Islands. It also includes El Calafate and Río Gallegos in Argentina, and Puerto Natales in Chile. When astronomical twilight lasts all night, this does not constitute a white night.

Between one night and the next
In Arctic and Antarctic latitudes in wintertime, the polar night only rarely produces complete darkness for 24 hours each day. This can occur only at locations within 5.5 degrees of latitude of the Pole, and there only on dates close to the winter solstice. At all other latitudes and dates, the polar night includes a daily period of twilight, when the Sun is not far below the horizon. Around winter solstice, when the solar declination changes slowly, complete darkness lasts several weeks at the Pole itself, e.g., from May 11 to July 31 at Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station. North Pole has the experience of this from November 13 to January 29.

Solar noon at civil twilight during a polar night: between 67°23'43" and 72°33'43" north or south.

Solar noon at nautical twilight during a polar night: between 72°33'43" and 78°33'43" north or south.

Solar noon at astronomical twilight during a polar night: between 78°33'43" and 84°33'43" north or south.

Solar noon at night during a polar night: between 84°33'43" and 90° north or south.

Lasting for 24 hours
At latitudes greater than 81°25' North or South, as the Sun's angular elevation difference is less than 18 degrees, twilight can last for the entire 24 hours. This occurs for one day at latitudes near 8°35' from the Pole and extends up to several weeks the further toward the Pole one goes. This happens both near the North Pole and near the South Pole. The only permanent settlement to experience this condition is Alert, Nunavut, Canada, where it occurs from February 22–26, and again from October 15–19.

Duration

The duration of twilight depends on the latitude and the time of the year. The apparent travel of the Sun occurs at the rate of 15 degrees per hour (360° per day), but sunrise and sunset happen typically at oblique angles to the horizon and the actual duration of any twilight period will be a function of that angle, being longer for more oblique angles. This angle of the Sun's motion with respect to the horizon changes with latitude as well as the time of year (affecting the angle of the Earth's axis with respect to the Sun).

At Greenwich, England (51.5°N), the duration of civil twilight will vary from 33 minutes to 48 minutes, depending on the time of year. At the equator, civil twilight can last as little as 24 minutes. This is true because at low latitudes the Sun's apparent movement is perpendicular to the observer's horizon. But at the poles, civil twilight can be as long as 2–3 weeks. In the Arctic and Antarctic regions, twilight (if there is any) can last for several hours. There is no astronomical twilight at the poles near the winter solstice (for about 74 days at the North Pole and about 80 days at the South Pole). As one gets closer to the Arctic and Antarctic circles, the Sun's disk moves toward the observer's horizon at a lower angle. The observer's earthly location will pass through the various twilight zones less directly, taking more time.

Within the polar circles, twenty-four-hour daylight is encountered in summer, and in regions very close to the poles, twilight can last for weeks on the winter side of the equinoxes. Outside the polar circles, where the angular distance from the polar circle is less than the angle which defines twilight (see above), twilight can continue through local midnight near the summer solstice. The precise position of the polar circles, and the regions where twilight can continue through local midnight, varies slightly from year to year with Earth's axial tilt. The lowest latitudes at which the various twilights can continue through local midnight are approximately 60.561° (60°33′43″) for civil twilight, 54.561° (54°33′43″) for nautical twilight and 48.561° (48°33′43″) for astronomical twilight.

These are the largest cities of their respective countries where the various twilights can continue through local solar midnight:
 Civil twilight (or white night) from sunset to sunrise: Tampere, Oulu, Umeå, Trondheim, Tórshavn, Reykjavík, Nuuk, Whitehorse, Yellowknife, Anchorage, Fairbanks, Arkhangelsk, Yakutsk and Baltasound. In the Southern Hemisphere, the only minor permanent settlement to experience this is Villa Las Estrellas, on the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, politically part of Chile.
 Nautical twilight from civil dusk to civil dawn: Saint Petersburg, Moscow, Vitebsk, Vilnius, Riga, Tallinn, Wejherowo, Flensburg, Helsinki, Stockholm, Copenhagen, Oslo, Newcastle upon Tyne, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Belfast, Letterkenny, Petropavl, Nanortalik, Grande Prairie, Juneau, Ushuaia, and Puerto Williams.
 Astronomical twilight from nautical dusk to nautical dawn: Hulun Buir, Erdenet, Nur-Sultan, Samara, Kyiv, Minsk, Alytus, Warsaw, Košice, Paris, Dublin, Zwettl, Prague, Stanley (Falkland Islands), Berlin, Hamburg, Luxembourg City, Brussels, Amsterdam, London, Cardiff, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, Unalaska, Bellingham (largest in the continental USA), Rio Gallegos, and Punta Arenas.
 Major cities that near astronomical twilight from nautical dusk to nautical dawn: Khabarovsk (48°29'0"N), Dnipro (48°27'0"N), Victoria (48°25'42"N), Saguenay (48°25′0"N), Brest (48°23′26"N), Thunder Bay (48°22′56″N), Vienna (48°12′30″N), Bratislava (48°8′38″N), Munich (48°8'0"N), Seattle (47°36'35"N)

Although Helsinki, Oslo, Stockholm, Tallinn, and Saint Petersburg also enter into nautical twilight after sunset, they do have noticeably lighter skies at night during the summer solstice than other locations mentioned in their category above, because they do not go far into nautical twilight. A white night is a night with only civil twilight which lasts from sunset to sunrise.

At the winter solstice within the polar circle, twilight can extend through solar noon at latitudes below 72.561° (72°33′43″) for civil twilight, 78.561° (78°33′43″) for nautical twilight, and 84.561° (84°33′43″) for astronomical twilight.

On other planets
Twilight on Mars is longer than on Earth, lasting for up to two hours before sunrise or after sunset. Dust high in the atmosphere scatters light to the night side of the planet. Similar twilights are seen on Earth following major volcanic eruptions.

In religion

Christianity

In Christian practice, "vigil" observances often occur during twilight on the evening before major feast days or holidays. For example, the Easter Vigil is held in the hours of darkness between sunset on Holy Saturday and sunrise on Easter Day — most commonly in the evening of Holy Saturday or midnight — and is the first celebration of Easter, days traditionally being considered to begin at sunset.

Hinduism
Twilight is sacred in Hinduism. It is called गोधूळिवेळ gōdhūḷivēḷ in Sanskrit or गोधूलिवेला godhūlivelā in Hindi, గొధూళివేళ "godhoolivela" in Telugu, literally "cow dust time". Many rituals, including Sandhyavandanam and Puja, are performed at twilight hour. Eating of food is not advised during this time. Sometimes it is referred to as Asurasandhya vela. It is believed that Asuras are active during these hours. One of the avatars of Lord Vishnu, Narasimha, is closely associated with the twilight period. According to Hindu scriptures, a daemonic king, Hiranakashipa, performed penance and obtained a boon from Brahma that he could not be killed during day or night, neither by human nor animal, neither inside his house nor outside. Lord Vishnu appeared in a half-man half-lion form (neither human nor animal), ended the life of Hiranakashipa sitting on the doorstep (neither inside nor outside) during twilight (neither day nor night).

Islam
Twilight is important in Islam as it determines when certain universally obligatory prayers are to be recited. Morning twilight is when morning prayers (Fajr) are done, while evening twilight is the time for evening prayers (Isha prayer). Also during Ramadhan, the time for suhoor (morning meal before fasting) ends at morning twilight, while fasting ends after sunset. There is also an important discussion in Islamic jurisprudence between "true dawn" and "false dawn".

Judaism
In Judaism, twilight is considered neither day nor night; consequently it is treated as a safeguard against encroachment upon either. It can be considered a liminal time. For example, the twilight of Friday is reckoned as Sabbath eve, and that of Saturday as Sabbath day; and the same rule applies to festival days.

See also
 Belt of Venus
 Blue hour
 Diffuse sky radiation
 Earth's shadow, visible at twilight
 Gloom
 Green flash
 Polar night

References

Footnotes

Further reading

External links

 Twilight Calculator Compute twilight times.
 Twilight time calculator
 Formulae to calculate twilight duration (archived) by Herbert Glarner.
 The colors of twilight and sunset
 HM Nautical Almanac Office Websurf Compute twilight times.
 Geoscience Australia "Sunrise and sunset times" Compute twilight times.
 An Excel workbook with VBA functions for twilight (dawn and dusk), sunrise, solar noon, sunset, and solar position (azimuth and elevation) by Greg Pelletier, translated from NOAA's online calculator for sunrise/sunset
 Time and Date to find the current state of the sun in a specified place.

Earth phenomena
Night
Dawn
Parts of a day
Visibility

Twilight


Kamptoteka (lat. Camptotheca), rod listopadnog drveća iz porodice tupelovki. Postoje dvije vrste koje rastu na jugu Kine i Tibetu

Ljekovitost
Drveće ovog roda značajni su izvori kamptotecina u prirodi, vrlo obećavajuće kemijske tvari koja se koristi u liječenju raka (Li i dr., U tisku). Djelovanje kamptotecina prvi je put otkriveno 1957. (Wall i sur., 1966). Klinička ispitivanja kamptotecina u Sjedinjenim Državama, Kini, Japanu i Europi pokazala su uspjeh u liječenju vrsta karcinoma (Li i Adair, 1994). Neki lijekovi kamptotecina dobili su odobrenje za liječenje raka u više od 20 zemalja. Nedavno su od američke državne agencije za hranu i lijekove odobrena tri polusintetička lijeka iz kamptotecina (Hycamtin, Campto i 9-nitrocamptothecin) za liječenje karcinoma jajnika, kolorektalnog i raka gušterače.

Vrste
 Camptotheca acuminata Decne.
 Camptotheca lowreyana S.Y.Li

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Tupelovke

Kamptoteka


Matthias Kaiser, né le , est un entrepreneur et pilote automobile liechtensteinois qui participe à des épreuves d'endurance au volant de sport-prototypes dans différents championnats comme l'European Le Mans Series, l'Asian Le Mans Series et la Michelin Le Mans Cup.

Carrière

Palmarès

Résultats en European Le Mans Series

* Saison en cours.

Résultats en Asian Le Mans Series

Résultats en Michelin Le Mans Cup

Notes et références

Liens externes

  Matthias Kaiser sur driverdb.com
  Matthias Kaiser sur racingsportscars.com

Naissance en janvier 1991
Pilote automobile liechtensteinois
Pilote des European Le Mans Series
Pilote des Asian Le Mans Series
Pilote des Michelin Le Mans Cup

Matthias Kaiser (pilote automobile)


Paul Stupar (Pazin, 27. prosinca 1866. – Beč, 26. siječnja 1928.), hrvatski kontraadmiral u Austro-ugarskoj ratnoj mornarici. Uz Maksimiliana Njegovana, Marka Eugena Florija, Vida von Vončinu, Alojza Vjekoslava Bačića, Artura Catinellija Obradić-Bevilacqua i Marija Augusta Petra Ratkovića von Modruš jedan je od samo sedam Hrvata koji su u Austro-Ugarskoj monarhiji dosegli čin kontraadmirala.

Životopis
Rođen je u zimu 1866. u Pazinu u Istri. Njegov otac Jakov bio je kancelar na pazinskom dvoru.

Austrijsku akademiju u Rijeci upisao je 1882. i na njoj diplomirao 1886. godine.

Zapovijedao je, između ostalih, brodovima SMS Aspern, SMS Sankt Georg, SMS Babenberg i SMS Erzherzog Friedrich. Konačno, 1. svibnja 1918. promaknut je u čin kontraadmirala.

Sudjelovao je u blokadi Crne Gore tijekom Prvog balkanskog rata, a tijekom Prvog svjetskog rata bio je, između ostalog, zapovjednik vojnih skladišta u Šibeniku, u to vrijeme u činu kapetana bojnog broda.

Izvori

Hrvatska povijest (1790. – 1918.)
Austrougarski vojni zapovjednici u Prvom svjetskom ratu
Životopisi, Pazin
Hrvatski admirali u Austro-ugarskoj ratnoj mornarici

Paul Stupar


Diritromisin makrolid grubundan geniş spektrumlu bir antibiyotiktir.

Mekanizma
Diritromisin protein sentezine müdahale eder. Bakteri ribozomunun 50S alt ünitesine bağlanarak protein sentezini inhibe eder (engeller).

Diritromisin oral yolla (ağız yoluyla) alındıktan sonra hızla absorbe edilir (emilir), non-enzimatik yolla hidroliz olarak mikrobiyolojik aktif olan eritromisilamin'e dönüşür. Eritromisilamin proteinlere %15-30 oranında bağlanır ve vücutta çok geniş bir alana yayılır. Yayılımı sırasında çeşitli dokularda kandaki yoğunluğunun (konsantrasyonunun) çok üstünde bulunur.

Diritromisin (eritromisilamin) karaciğerde metabolize edilir. Alınan dozun büyük çoğunluğu fekal (dışkı) yolla, çok az bir kısmı ise idrarla elimine edilmektedir. Diritromisinin eliminasyon yarı ömrü 30-44 saattir. Postantibiyotik etkiye sahiptir.

Kullanımı

Diritromisin alt ve üst solunum yolları ile deri ve yumuşak doku enfeksiyonlarının tedavilerinde kullanılır.

Diritromisin birçok gram-pozitif aerob, gram-negatif aerob ile Mycoplasma pneumoniae ve Chlamydia pneumoniae gibi atipik bakterilere karşı etkilidir.

Diritromisin makrolid antibiyotiklere karşı duyarlı kişilerde kullanılmamalıdır. Ayrıca bebeklerde ve 12 yaşın altındaki çocuklarda da kullanılmamalıdır. Gebelerde sadece ciddi durumlarda kullanılmalıdır.

Diritromisin vücuttan öncelikle karaciğer yoluyla uzaklaştırıldığından, şiddetli karaciğer yetmezliği olan hastalarda dozajın azaltılması veya doz aralığının uzatılması gerekebilir.

Yan Etkileri
Genelde rastlanan yan etkiler: karın ağrısı, ishal, bulantı, kusma, dispepsi, gaz şikayetleri ve iştahsızlıktır. Bunların dışında deri döküntüleri, baş ağrısı, baş dönmesi ve uykusuzluk gibi yan etkilere de yol açabilir.

Makrolid antibiyotikler

Diritromisin


Sat milosrđa je katolički običaj, da se moli u 15:00 sati i časti Božje milosrđe. Temelji se na vizijama poljske redovnice sv. Faustine Kowalske (1905. – 1938., proglašena svetom 2000.)

U svom Dnevniku, poljska redovnica sv. Faustina Kowalska napisala je, da je Isus odredio 15:00 sati svaki dan, kao sat u kojem se Božje milosrđe najbolje prima i zamolio je da moli krunicu Božjeg milosrđa i časti sliku Božjeg milosrđa u taj sat. Dana, 10. listopada 1937. u svom Dnevniku (Bilježnica V, stavka 1320) sv. Faustina Kowalska je Isusu pripisala sljedeću izjavu: "Uvijek kada čuješ da otkucava tri sata, uroni u moje milosrđe, slavi ga i hvali. Zazivaj njegovu svemoć na cijeli svijet, a osobito na bijedne grješnike, jer je u tom času bilo širom otvoreno za svaku dušu." Isus prilično je jasno naznačio i način molitve uz ovaj oblik štovanja Božjega milosrđa: "U tom satu" – rekao je sv. Faustini – "obavi križni put ako ti to dopuštaju obveze; a ako ne možeš moliti križni put onda bar na kratko uđi u kapelicu i časti moje srce koje je puno milosrđa u Presvetom Sakramentu; a ako ne možeš otići ni u kapelicu, saberi se na molitvu ondje gdje jesi, pa bilo i samo na kratak trenutak." Isus je obećao, da se može u tom satu milosrđa isprosit sve za sebe i za druge jer u tom satu dolazi milost. Velečasni Różycki nabraja tri uvjeta da bi molitve upravljene u tom satu bile uslišane: molitva mora biti upućena Isusu, mora se moliti u tri sata popodne, molitva se mora pozivati na vrijednosti i zasluge Gospodinove muke.

Vrijeme od 15:00 sati odgovara satu u kojem je Isus umro na križu. Ovaj se sat naziva "satom Božjeg milosrđa" ili "satom velikog milosrđa".

U mnogim crkvama moli se krunica Božjeg milosrđa u 15:00 sati, posebno kao dio devetnice Božjem milosrđu ususret Svetkovine Božjega milosrđa, koja je na Bijelu nedjelju nakon Uskrsa.

Izvori

Božje milosrđe

Sat milosrđa


Elizabeth Trussell (1496 - avant juillet 1527, Great Bentley), comtesse d'Oxford, est une aristocrate anglaise.

Elle est l'épouse de John de Vere (15e comte d'Oxford), la mère du  comte et la grand-mère de Sir Francis et de Sir Horace Vere, les « Veres combattants ».

Famille et jeunesse
Elizabeth Trussell est née en 1496 . Son père est Edward Trussell (vers 1478 - 16 juin 1499), fils unique de Sir William Trussell et de Margaret Kene . Les Trussell sont une «très ancienne famille du Warwickshire»  . Sa mère est Margaret Donne, fille de Sir John Donne (1450-1503) et d'Elizabeth Hastings (c.1450 – 1508), la sœur de William Hastings,  baron Hastings . La mère de Sir John Donne, Joan Scudamore, est la petite-fille du rebelle gallois Owain Glyndŵr. Elizabeth a un frère, John Trussell, décédé en 1499, dont elle est l'héritière .

Après la mort de son père le 16 juin 1499 et le décès de son frère la même année , Elizabeth Trussell devient une pupille royale. Sa tutelle et son mariage sont d'abord achetés au roi Henri VII par George Grey  comte de Kent, qui la destine à Sir Henry Grey, son fils cadet. Cependant, après la mort du  comte, Richard Grey,  comte de Kent, son fils aîné et héritier, enlève Elizabeth Trussell, un crime pour lequel le roi lui inflige une lourde amende :Âgé d'au moins vingt-cinq ans lorsqu'il succéda à son père en 1503, le  comte gaspille la fortune de sa famille - peut-être, comme le dit Dugdale, était-il un joueur. Dans une série frappante d'aliénations, il donne ou vend la plupart des terres, principalement dans le Bedfordshire, dont il a hérité. Le comte s'est également rapidement endetté envers le roi : il n'a pas payé la livrée pour les terres de son père, et il a été condamné à une amende de 2500 marks pour avoir enlevé Elizabeth Trussell, dont le deuxième comte avait laissé la tutelle au demi-frère de Richard, Henry ; il n'a alors pas respecté les échéances prévues pour le paiement de l'amende .À la suite de ces événements, la tutelle et le mariage d'Elizabeth Trussell reviennent entre les mains du roi, qui les vend le 29 avril 1507 à John de Vere (13e comte d'Oxford), et à son cousin John de Vere, futur  comte, pour un paiement initial de , ainsi que 387 livres supplémentaires à payer chaque année, moins 20 livres par an pour l'entretien d'Elizabeth. La valeur annuelle des terres d'Elizabeth ont été estimée dans l'inquisition post mortem faite après la mort de son frère à 271 livres par an .

Mariage et descendance
Entre le 29 avril 1507 et le 4 juillet 1509, Elizabeth devient la deuxième épouse de John de Vere (15e comte d'Oxford) .

Le couple a quatre fils et trois filles :

 Elizabeth de Vere (née vers 1512), seconde épouse de Thomas Darcy (1er baron Darcy de Chiche) (décédé le 28 juin 1558), avec qui elle a trois fils, John Darcy,  baron Darcy de Chiche (décédé le 3 mars 1581), Aubrey (décédé en 1558-1568) et Robert (décédé vers 1568), et deux filles, Thomasine et Constance, épouse d'Edmund Pyrton (décédé vers 1609) .
 John de Vere (1516 - 3 août 1562),  comte d'Oxford, qui épouse d'abord Dorothy Neville (décédée vers le 6 janvier 1548) , deuxième fille de Ralph Neville (4e comte de Westmorland), avec qui il a une fille, Katherine de Vere, épouse d'Edward Windsor,  baron Windsor. Le comte se marie en secondes noces avec Margery Golding (décédée le 2 décembre 1568) , avec qui il a un fils, Édouard de Vere,  comte d'Oxford, et une fille, Mary de Vere.
 Frances de Vere (1517 - 30 juin 1577), qui épouse d'abord Henry Howard, comte de Surrey, et donne naissance à Jane Howard, Thomas Howard (4e duc de Norfolk), Margaret Howard, Henry Howard (1er comte de Northampton) et Katherine Howard. Frances de Vere se remarie avec Thomas Staynings.
 Aubrey de Vere (décédé en 1580), qui épouse d'abord Margaret Spring, la fille de John Spring de Lavenham, avec qui il a une fille, Jane, épouse d'Henry Hunt de Gosfield, et un fils, Hugh Vere, époux d'Eleanor Walsh, fille de William Walsh. Hugh Vere et Eleanor Walsh ont un fils, Robert de Vere (19e comte d'Oxford). Aubrey de Vere se remarie avec Bridget Gibbon, fille de Sir Anthony Gibbon de Lynn, Norfolk .
 Robert de Vere (1520-1598), qui épouse d'abord Barbara Berners, avec qui il a un fils, John Vere, et une fille, Mary Vere, puis Joan Hubberd, sœur d'Edward Hubberd.
 Anne de Vere, (1522-14 février 1572), qui épouse d'abord Edmund Sheffield,  baron Sheffield, petit-fils de Robert Sheffield, avec qui elle a un fils et trois filles. Edmund Sheffield est tué le 31 juillet 1549 lors de la répression de la rébellion de Kett. Anne de Vere se remarie avec John Brock, fils et héritier de John Brock et d'Agnès Wiseman .
 Geoffrey de Vere (1523-1572), épouse en 1556 Elizabeth Hardekyn (décédée en décembre 1615), fille de Richard Hardekyn, avec qui il a quatre fils, John Vere (1558-1624), Sir Francis Vere (1560-1609), Robert Vere (né en 1562) et Sir Horace Vere (1565-1635), et une fille, Frances Vere (née en 1567), qui épouse, en seconde épouse, l'aventurier colonial et auteur Sir Robert Harcourt ( 1574/5-1631) le 20 mars 1598 .

Elizabeth meurt avant juillet 1527 et est inhumée en l'église Saint-Nicolas de Castle Hedingham dans l'Essex, où son effigie apparaît sur la tombe en marbre noir érigée pour elle et son mari .

Références

Bibliographie

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Famille de Vere
Comtesse d'Oxford
Naissance en 1496
Comtesse anglaise du XVIe siècle

Elizabeth Trussell


Turgut Özatay (30 de diciembre de 1927 - 26 de junio de 2002) fue un actor turco de cine. Apareció en 225 películas entre 1952 y 1998. Protagonizó en The Broken Pots, la cual entró al Festival Internacional de Cine de Berlín número 11.

Filmografía selecta
 The Broken Pots (1960)

Referencias

Actores de cine de Turquía
Fallecidos por cáncer de pulmón en Turquía
Actores de Turquía
Nacidos en Esmirna

Turgut Özatay


جيليرمو بيلينجورست أنجولو  (1851 – 1915) كان سياسيا بيروفيا في أوائل القرن العشرين. تولى منصب عمدة ليما بين عامي 1909 و 1910. وعين رئيسا للجمهورية في سبتمبر 1912، وأنهي حكمه على يد انقلاب عسكري في فبراير 1914، وأرسل للمنفى ومات هناك في العام التالي. كان بيلنجهورست عمدة ذا شعبية في بيرو.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

بيروفيون من أصل ألماني
بيروفيون من أصل إنجليزي
رؤساء البيرو
سياسيون بيروفيون
عمدات ليما
قادة عزلوا من السلطة عن طريق انقلاب
مواليد 1851
مواليد في أريكا
نواب رؤساء بيرو
وفيات 1915
وفيات في إيكويكو
رؤساء مجلس شيوخ بيرو

بيلينجورست أنجولو


Os baekjeong () eram uma casta "intocável" na Coreia, originária de alguns grupos nômades minoritários de etnia disputada. No início do período Goryeo (918-1392), essas minorias foram em grande parte estabelecidas em comunidades fixas. No entanto, a invasão mongol deixou a Coreia em desordem e anomia e esses grupos se tornaram nômades. Os subgrupos dos baekjeong incluíam os chaein (才人, "animadores") e os hwachae (禾尺) ou suchae (水尺), que eram principalmente açougueiros. Os baekjeong ocupavam profissões específicas como açougue, curtimento, cestaria e execuções. Durante o período Goryeo, baekjeong era usado como um termo neutro para se referir às pessoas comuns. Desde a época da dinastia Joseon, tornou-se um título insultuoso usado para se referir à classe mais baixa da sociedade. Além disso, desde a dinastia Joseon, "baekjeong" também tem sido usado para denegrir uma pessoa. Na Coreia do Sul contemporânea, o termo é associado principalmente ao significado de açougueiro e até mesmo usado nos nomes dos restaurantes.

Origem

Segundo Jeong Yakyong, um dos mais ilustres estudiosos da metodologia das pesquisas históricas no reinado do rei Jeongjo (1777-1800) e do rei Sunjo (1801-1834), uma teoria sustenta que eles eram de origem "tártara". O termo "tártaro" parece ter sido um termo geral para todos os povos do norte, mongóis, manchus e assim por diante. Em seu livro, a origem dos baekjeong é atribuída a um grupo nômade do período Goryeo conhecido como yangsucheok () ou mujari (). Sendo um povo estrangeiro, os yangsuchuk dificilmente foram assimilados pela população em geral. Eles estavam envolvidos na fabricação e venda de cestos de salgueiro. Eles também eram proficientes no abate de animais e gostavam de caçar.

História

No período Goryeo
Da dinastia Goryeo (918-1392) até a época do Rei Sejong da Dinastia Joseon, baekjeong não era usado para se referir à classe mais baixa de pessoas. O termo sino-coreano baekjeong () originalmente significava "pessoas comuns", um significado que mantém em chinês e japonês. Com base nas informações do goryeosa, a principal história sobrevivente da Coreia de Goryeo, os estudiosos assumem que um baekjeong é "uma pessoa que não tem carga de deveres ()". O termo é um composto de baek (), que significa "branco/inocente/em branco", e jeong () "pessoa, homem". Como tal, baekjeong ou "homem em branco" conota um grupo de camponeses que não receberam terras porque não receberam certos deveres do estado.

No período Goryeo, os termos para o grupo que mais tarde seria conhecido como baekjeong eram yangsucheok (), sucheok (), hwacheok ou hwachae () e mujari (), provavelmente um composto de 물 ("água") e 자리 ("assento, lugar"). Eles descendem dos Jurchen ou Khitans que datam do início de Goryeo. Eles gostavam da vida em grupo entre si, então continuaram morando em residências temporárias enquanto se mudavam para várias áreas. Eles foram distribuídos em todo o país, mas estavam especialmente concentrados nas províncias de Pyeongan-do e Hwanghae-do. Não estavam inscritos no registro nacional.

No período Joseon

Nos primeiros dias da fundação da Dinastia Joseon, o rei Sejong consolidou os vários grupos de párias com agricultores comuns. Este grupo combinado chamado "baekjeong", o nome do grupo camponês geral no período Goryeo. O rei Sejong também os colocou no registro da família, deu-lhes terras para plantar, estabeleceu-os em comunidades fixas e tentou mantê-los sob controle estatal. No entanto, as políticas comuns do rei Sejong não conseguiram superar os preconceitos das pessoas comuns, que continuaram a discriminar os descendentes de párias. Mesmo os funcionários do governo não seguiram as instruções do rei.

Além disso, parece que os baekjeong não mudaram facilmente seu estilo de vida ou ocupação existente. Eles se estabeleceram em uma área, mas não tentaram cultivar, em vez disso se envolveram na produção e venda de produtos de vime, matando, cantando e dançando. Nesta situação, a integração dos baekjeong no campesinato comum não foi fácil e a prática de discriminação e repressão contra eles continuou. Em particular, o grupo dominante considerava a vida e os costumes dos açougueiros como desprezíveis, anti-sociais, não normativos e até potencialmente criminosos.

Fim da Dinastia Joseon

Perto do final da dinastia Joseon, uma organização de ajuda mútua para os baekjeong foi estabelecida, chamada Seungdongdoga (), com representantes de várias comunidades. A organização estava envolvida na ação, coordenando melhorias e atuando às vezes como representante oficial do baekjeong em questões legais. Em 1894, o sistema de castas coreano foi legalmente abolido pela reforma Gabo. No entanto, a discriminação social contra os baekjeong não chegou ao fim. O registro familiar de baekjeong ainda era separado e, sob "ocupação", seus nomes eram marcados pelo uso da palavra 屠漢 ("açougueiro") ou um ponto vermelho. No entanto, a reforma Gabo garantiu que baekjeong pudesse se tornar oficial, acadêmico ou artista se tivesse a habilidade. Embora ainda estivessem amplamente limitados às suas ocupações tradicionais, os regulamentos modificados em 1896 permitiram que os não-baekjeong se tornassem açougueiros licenciados, eventualmente levando a empresas de carne que expulsaram muitos de uma das poucas ocupações abertas a eles.

No entanto, enquanto as melhorias no status social dos baekjeong vinham lentamente, era diferente para os plebeus (os mais baixos dos yangmin ), que economicamente eram pouco diferentes dos escravos. O respeito pelos funcionários do governo caiu no século XVII quando eles fugiram dos invasores japoneses e manchus, deixando os civis à sua mercê. O governo também concedeu a muitos milicianos o status de classe yangban em troca de suas atividades voluntárias de milícia contra esses invasores. Com o tempo, com a ascensão do comércio, os comerciantes compraram histórias familiares falsificadas e também documentos oficiais de status. Eventualmente, cerca de três quartos da população eram yangban no nome.

Uso moderno

O termo "baekjeong" ainda é usado na sociedade coreana moderna. Isso é particularmente comum em ocupações que lidam com carne crua, que carregam um estigma social negativo. Apesar disso, "baekjeong" é amplamente usado em nomes de restaurantes coreanos, denotando estabelecimentos de churrasco onde a carne marinada crua é servida e cozida à mesa. Neste contexto, baekjeong é descritivo e não carrega nenhuma conotação negativa.

Empregos

Carrasco
Durante grande parte da dinastia Joseon, eles também foram forçados a servir como carrascos. Quando a comunidade baekjeong era chamada para fornecer um carrasco, o trabalho era atribuído a algum "membro infeliz", às vezes uma pessoa praticamente insana.

Açougueiro
Os baekjeong faziam trabalhos que nenhum coreano budista de respeito tocaria, incluindo qualquer coisa que trabalhasse com animais. Abate de animais, fabricação de couro - esses tipos de deveres impuros eram evitados por outros coreanos, e assim foram preenchidos de fato pelos baekjeong. Em outras palavras, o grupo foi designado para as tarefas mais humilhantes da sociedade coreana. Eles também foram considerados uma violação moral dos princípios budistas, o que levou os coreanos a ver o trabalho envolvendo carne como poluente e pecaminoso, mesmo que considerassem o consumo aceitável. No final da Dinastia Joseon, os baekjeong aceitaram os princípios do confucionismo e começaram a não abater animais durante três anos quando seus pais morriam.

Discriminação
O grupo sofreu severa discriminação social na sociedade coreana. Os baekjeong eram vistos como pessoas desprezíveis e poluídas que os outros temiam e evitavam conhecer. Os baekjeong não podiam morar em uma casa com telhado e não tinham permissão para usar roupas de seda ou sapatos de couro ou um gat (um chapéu de crina de cavalo coreano tradicional). Quando os baekjeong saíam de suas casas, eles tinham que usar um paeraengi ou chapéu de bambu. Um baekjeong tinha que se abaixar na frente de um yangin e era proibido de fumar ou beber na presença deles. Os baekjeong não podiam montar uma liteira ou cavalo quando se casavam e uma mulher casada não podia usar um bastão de cabelo. Os baekjeong também não podiam ter sobrenomes e era proibido o uso de certos caracteres em seus nomes pessoais, como 仁 ("benevolência"), 義 ("retidão"), 禮 ("ritos") ou 智 ("sabedoria"). A extensão em que eles eram vistos como pessoas impuras é bem ilustrada no fato de que seus corpos foram mantidos em cemitérios separados para não se misturar com os dos yangmin.

Influência da religião
Donghak e o cristianismo tiveram muita influência sobre os baekjeong. Esses sistemas de crenças expuseram os baekjeong - e os coreanos em geral - a conceitos de igualitarismo e igualdade social. Paralelamente e apoiando o surgimento dessas ideias foram as transições que ocorreram na sociedade coreana como um todo, particularmente no que diz respeito às classes sociais. A influência dessas religiões passou a ser vinculada ao movimento social.

Donghak
No final do século XIX, houve um impulso crescente em direção à dignidade humana e à liberalização. De particular importância foi o crescimento de certas religiões que apoiavam a mudança. Donghak, uma religião nacionalista coreana, desejava acabar com convenções injustas. Os camponeses Donghak haviam encenado uma revolta em 1894 em favor dos direitos humanos, especialmente para aqueles que estavam no nível mais baixo da escala social. Entre outras coisas, eles exigiram que os baekjeong não fossem mais forçados a usar chapéus discriminatórios e que as viúvas pudessem se casar novamente. Embora esta revolta não tenha sido bem sucedida, foi um importante impulso por trás da Reforma Gabo, e ajudou a abolir a estrutura de classes que impunha restrições legais a certos grupos. No entanto, os baekjeong se beneficiaram muito menos dessas mudanças do que outros grupos, como os escravos.

Cristianismo
A outra grande influência religiosa sobre os direitos humanos veio através do cristianismo. Alguns missionários converteram baekjeong ao cristianismo, afirmando que todos têm direitos iguais perante Deus. No entanto, nem todos eram iguais nas congregações cristãs e protestos eclodiram quando os missionários tentaram integrar o baekjeong nos cultos, com os não-baekjeong achando tais tentativas insensíveis às noções tradicionais de status social.

Movimentos sociais
A partir do final do século XIX e início do século XX, os baekjeong começaram a resistir à discriminação social aberta que existia contra eles. Em 1900, líderes de 16 condados pediram ao prefeito de Jinju que fosse permitido usar as mesmas roupas e chapéus que outras pessoas. Quando outros no norte se recusaram a usar o traje humilhante tradicionalmente esperado deles e foram presos, foi feito um esforço para libertá-los. O crescente industrialismo na Coreia começou a corroer o domínio baekjeong sobre certas ocupações, particularmente quando os japoneses começaram a controlar matadouros e explorá-los como empregados.

No entanto, como alguns baekjeong caíram em desespero financeiro, o afrouxamento da segregação levou outros a lucrar com as mudanças, dando-lhes a capacidade de financiar esforços para a mudança. Além dos recursos financeiros, a organização também foi fortalecida devido às conexões de longa data criadas por meio da segregação e redes sociais estreitas. Entre esses recursos humanos e financeiros, uma ênfase em modelos progressistas e sentimentos de privação social e discriminação, as condições estavam maduras para os baekjeong se mobilizarem para a mudança. Um dos primeiros desses movimentos foi em 1910, quando Chang Chip'il, mais tarde um membro influente do Hyeongpyeongsa, tentou sem sucesso estabelecer um sindicato para açougueiros. Em 1921, o Jipseong Johap foi estabelecido por empresários coreanos e japoneses, tentando fornecer assistência à pobreza para açougueiros. No entanto, esse esforço de melhoria das condições econômicas logo foi ofuscado por uma organização com objetivos mais amplos.

O Hyeongpyeongsa foi lançado em Jinju em 23 de abril de 1923 através da aliança de defensores da mudança, ricos ou educados baekjeong e não-baekjeong, defendendo "a abolição das classes e de denominações desdenhosas, a iluminação dos membros e a promoção da amizade mútua entre membros." Defendeu tanto os direitos civis individuais quanto a comunhão comunal, reconhecendo que o grupo deve manter sua identidade sob a pressão de mudanças como a urbanização e a industrialização que ameaçavam atomizar a comunidade. Assim, o Hyeongpyeongsa buscava tanto a igualdade de direitos humanos quanto o direito de assimilar o público em geral, mesmo enquanto trabalhava para forjar uma identidade comum. Em 1927, vários membros do Hyeongpyeongsa foram presos por seu envolvimento na criação de uma organização nacionalista clandestina. Sua ausência foi parcialmente responsável pela mudança da organização para a esquerda socialista no final da década de 1920. O poder dentro da organização mudou várias vezes, incluindo a mudança em 1925 da facção Chinju original que defendia a reforma educacional para um grupo de intelectuais de Seul mais interessados em reformas econômicas baseadas em ocupações tradicionais.

Na conferência nacional de 1931, eles provocaram polêmica dentro do movimento ao apresentar uma proposta de dissolução, sentindo que a organização havia abandonado seus objetivos originais e que agora lutavam em favor dos intelectuais burgueses que a dirigiam. Acreditavam que a dissolução serviria melhor aos seus interesses, uma vez que foi substituída por sindicatos. A proposta de dissolução falhou, mas não sem alienar ainda mais os membros mais conservadores do movimento, que já estavam financeiramente presos às condições econômicas mais amplas na Coreia. Ainda mais fatal para o movimento foi a prisão de vários jovens radicais, acusados de estabelecer uma organização comunista secreta, a "Vanguarda Jovem do Hyeongpyeongsa", que as autoridades disseram exigir a luta contra o feudalismo e a abolição da propriedade privada. O julgamento relacionado a esta acusação se arrastou por quatro anos, antes que os réus fossem considerados inocentes. Parece provável que a "organização" tenha sido uma construção das autoridades japonesas para garantir que a ala trabalhista da Hyeongpyeongsa não interferisse no acesso ao couro necessário para a invasão da China. Como resultado, o Hyeongpyeongsa mudou para a direita, abandonando os ideais progressistas e finalmente se desfazendo em 1935, alegando que os objetivos do movimento haviam sido alcançados com sucesso.

O poder crescente da ala radical dividiu o movimento, e grande parte do apoio econômico fornecido pelos baekjeong mais ricos foi puxado, particularmente sob a pressão da Grande Depressão, que impactou negativamente o comércio de carne e couro. Os jovens socialistas do Hyŏngp'yŏngsa forjaram conexões com outros movimentos, tentando ampliar o movimento e trabalhar para "a reconstituição da Coreia como um todo". Mais importante, eles se concentraram nas injustiças sociais e econômicas que afetam os baekjeong, na esperança de criar uma sociedade coreana igualitária. Seus esforços incluíam atacar a discriminação social por parte da classe alta, autoridades e "plebeus" e o uso de linguagem degradante contra crianças em escolas públicas.

Sistema de castas de Joseon

Referências

Bibliografia
 Osgood, Cornelius. 1951. The Koreans and Their Culture. New York: Ronald Press.
 Passin, Herbert. 1957. "The Paekchŏng of Korea: A Brief Social History" Monumenta Nipponica. 12 (3/4): 195–240.
 Kim, Joong-Seop. 1999. "In Search of Human Rights: The Paekchŏng Movement in Colonial Korea" Pp. 311–335 in Colonial Modernity in Korea, edited by Gi-Wook Shin and Michael Robinson. Cambridge; London: Harvard University Asia Center.
 Kim, Joong-Seop. 2003. The Korean Paekjŏng under Japanese rule: the quest for equality and human rights. London; New York: Routledge.
 , 2006. "". .
 金永大, 1988. ". .
 , 2003. "".

História da Coreia
Sistema de castas da Coreia

Baekjeong


محاكمة واد الناقة في موريتانيا هي محاكمة أنشأها الرئس السابق لموريتانيا معاوية ولد سيدي أحمد الطايع لضباطٍ، وجنودٍ من الجيش الموريتاني بعد انقلاب الثامن والتاسع من يونيو 2003، وقد استمرت هذه المحاكمة بضع أسابيع، وقد بُرئ بعض الضباط، والجنود. ومن بين الجنود المبرئين كان الرائد سيد محمد ولد حمادي المولود في مدينة تجكجة عام 1965.

سياسة موريتانيا
محاكم

محاكمة واد الناقة في موريتانيا