The AFL–NFL merger was the merger of the two major professional American football leagues in the United States at the time: the National Football League (NFL) and the American Football League (AFL). It paved the way for the combined league, which retained the "National Football League" name and logo, to become the most popular sports league in the United States. The merger was announced on the evening of June 8, 1966. Under the merger agreement, the leagues maintained separate regular-season schedules for the next four seasons—from 1966 through 1969—and then officially merged before the 1970 season to form one league with two conferences.

Background

Early rivals

Following its inception in 1920, the NFL fended off several rival leagues. Before 1960, its most important rival was the All-America Football Conference (AAFC), which began play in 1946. The AAFC differed from the NFL in several ways. Despite relatively strong backing at the league's inception, it ultimately proved an unsustainable venture. The AAFC's most serious weakness resulted from its refusal to implement an initial draft; this caused a massive lack of competitive balance, and resulted in the league's strongest team (the Cleveland Browns) dominating the league and becoming perennial champions.

Due to the AAFC's poor financial situation, the league disbanded after the 1949 season. Three AAFC teams—the Cleveland Browns, the San Francisco 49ers, and the original version of the Baltimore Colts—were absorbed into the NFL in 1950. The league was briefly known as the National-American Football League during the offseason, but reverted to the traditional name of "National Football League" by the time the 1950 season began. The Browns went on to shock NFL loyalists by dominating the older league and winning the championship in their first NFL season, thus proving themselves to be among the best professional football teams of that time.

The 1950s

After the NFL absorbed the AAFC, it had no other rival US leagues throughout the 1950s. The only other professional gridiron football leagues then in operation were in Canada (the leagues that would merge to form the present day Canadian Football League in 1958). The Interprovincial Rugby Football Union (forerunner of the CFL's East Division) received some attention from US football fans after it secured a broadcasting contract with NBC (the AFL's future television partner).

During the 1950s the Eastern Canadian season started at around the same time as the NFL's; Canadian teams at this time typically played two games per week so as to finish the season before the harsh Canadian winter set in. This arrangement allowed for NFL teams to travel north of the border for preseason contests with the CFL's Eastern clubs. NFL teams won most of these contests, often by large scorelines. The other major Canadian league, the Western Interprovincial Football Union (forerunner of the CFL's West Division) was mostly ignored by the NFL, partly because its teams were regarded as inferior to those in Eastern Canada, but mainly because rail travel to Western Canada was infeasible for a preseason game (air travel remained uncommon). As a result, the Western Conference was already moving toward an earlier start to its season.

All of the professional leagues, including the NFL, derived most of their revenue from ticket sales. Although the NFL dominated the game financially, their advantage was modest by modern standards. The Canadian league enforced strict limits on the number of American players on their rosters, while the popularity of ice hockey in Canada limited the number of talented Canadian athletes that chose to play football. Therefore, NFL teams could retain their dominance on the field without needing to substantially outspend the Canadian teams. In the absence of a players' labor union (the National Football League Players Association was founded in 1956 but was initially ineffective) or a competing US league, there was little pressure to pay players high salaries. NFL team owners spent as little as possible on players, to maximize their profit.

Emergence of the AFL
In 1959, Lamar Hunt, son of Texas oil magnate H. L. Hunt, attempted to either gain ownership of the Chicago Cardinals with Bud Adams and move them to Dallas, or own an NFL expansion franchise in Dallas. In 1959, the NFL had only two teams that were south of Washington, D.C. and west of Chicago: the San Francisco 49ers and the Los Angeles Rams, both in California. The league, however, was not interested in expansion at the time. Rebuffed in his attempts to gain at least part-ownership in an NFL team, Hunt conceived the idea of a rival professional football league, the American Football League. In September 1959, Hunt was approached by the NFL about an expansion team in Dallas, but by then Hunt was only interested in the AFL.

The new league had six franchises by August 1959 and eight by the time of its first opening day in 1960: Boston (Patriots), Buffalo (Bills), New York City (Titans), Houston (Oilers), Denver (Broncos), Dallas (Texans), Oakland (Raiders), and Los Angeles (Chargers). While the Los Angeles, New York, Oakland, and Dallas teams shared media markets with NFL teams (the Rams, Giants, 49ers, and the expansion Dallas Cowboys, respectively), the other four teams (Boston, Buffalo, Denver, and Houston) widened the nation's exposure to professional football by serving markets that had no NFL team. In the following years, this additional exposure was widened via the relocation of two of the original eight franchises (the Chargers to San Diego in 1961 and the Texans to Kansas City in 1963), and the addition of two expansion franchises (the Miami Dolphins and Cincinnati Bengals).

From small colleges and predominantly black colleges (a source mainly ignored by the NFL), the AFL signed stars such as Elbert Dubenion (Bluffton), Lionel Taylor (New Mexico Highlands), Tom Sestak (McNeese State), Charlie Tolar and Charlie Hennigan (Northwestern State of Louisiana), Abner Haynes (North Texas State), and a host of others. From major colleges, it signed talented players like LSU's Heisman Trophy winner Billy Cannon, Arkansas's Lance Alworth, Notre Dame's Daryle Lamonica, Kansas' John Hadl, Alabama's Joe Namath, and many more. The AFL also signed players the NFL had given up on: so-called "NFL rejects" who turned out to be superstars that the NFL had mis-evaluated. These included Jack Kemp, Babe Parilli, George Blanda, Ron McDole, Art Powell, John Tracey, Don Maynard, and Len Dawson. In 1960, the AFL's first year, its teams signed half of the NFL's first-round draft choices.

The AFL introduced many policies and rules to professional football which the NFL later adopted, including:
 A 14-game regular season schedule, which the NFL adopted in 1961 (increased from 12 games), exactly one year after the AFL's inaugural season. The CFL's Eastern and Western Conferences had already been playing 14 and 16 game schedules, respectively, for several years. The AAFC in the 1940s also played a 14-game schedule.
 Players' last names on the jersey back (adopted by the NFL in 1970).
 A flashier, exciting style of play, as opposed to conservative-style NFL game plans.
 Assisted by a slightly narrower and longer ball, the Spalding J5V, which was easier to throw than the NFL ball, "The Duke" from Wilson. The NFL would continue to use its traditional Wilson game ball after the merger.
 The introduction of the two-point conversion to pro football, conforming to the college rule adopted in the 1958 NCAA University Division football season.
 This AFL rule was dropped after its last season in 1969. It was later adopted by the NFL in 1994.
 Official time on the scoreboard clock, as opposed to it being kept by on-field officials.
 This AFL rule was also dropped after the league's final season in 1969. The NFL continued to use a starting pistol to signal the end of quarters and games after the completion of the merger, later adopting it in 1994.
 One network television broadcast package for league games, first with ABC from 1960 through 1964, then with NBC.
 The sharing of gate and television revenues by home and visiting teams.

Competition between the two leagues
At first, the NFL ignored the AFL and its eight teams, assuming the AFL would consist of players who could not earn a contract in the NFL, and that fans of professional football would not waste their time watching them when they could watch the NFL. The NFL also had the media advantage: for example, in the 1960s, Sports Illustrateds lead football writer was Tex Maule, who previously worked with NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle when Rozelle was the general manager of the L.A. Rams and Maule was the team's public relations director; Maule "was certainly an NFL loyalist", and several sports reporters took his deprecatory columns about the AFL as fact. Another example was Dallas Cowboys general manager Tex Schramm, a close friend of Rozelle (Schramm hired Rozelle as Rams' GM), who was influential in NFL coverage by its national TV partner, CBS, including the network's employment of former NFL players as game announcers and the absence of AFL scores and reports on the network.

Nevertheless, the AFL enjoyed one critical advantage over its established rival, which was that its owners on average were wealthier than their NFL counterparts. With a few notable exceptions such as the notorious Harry Wismer in New York, Hunt had successfully recruited owners who not only had deep pockets, but more importantly, unlike earlier leagues, most AFL owners had the patience and willingness to absorb the inevitable financial losses of the fledgling league's early years. Therefore, in spite of the bad press, and unlike the NFL's previous rivals, the AFL was able to survive and grow, and began to prosper in the mid-1960s after the relocation of the Chargers and Texans to non-NFL markets, the sale and rebranding of the New York Titans (to the Jets), and the Jets' signing of University of Alabama quarterback Joe Namath to an unprecedented $427,000 contract. The league's financial survival was further buoyed by NBC's $36 million, five-year contract to televise AFL games beginning in 1965.

As the rivalry between the leagues intensified, both leagues entered into a massive bidding war over the top college prospects, paying huge amounts of money to unproven rookies in order to outbid each other for the best players coming out of college. The bidding wars escalated in the mid-1960s, with the respective drafts held on the same day in the late fall. Because of the intense competition, teams often drafted players that they thought had a good chance of signing, instead of selecting the best available players. For example, 1965 Heisman Trophy winner Mike Garrett, a running back from USC in Los Angeles, was expected to sign with an NFL team, so he was not taken in the 1966 AFL draft until the 20th (final) round by the Kansas City Chiefs. In the 1966 NFL Draft, he was taken by the Los Angeles Rams with the 18th overall selection. Garrett surprisingly shunned the NFL and signed with Kansas City; he helped lead them to the AFL title as a rookie. The previous year, the Chiefs used their first round pick on Gale Sayers, who signed with the NFL's Chicago Bears.

By contrast, many NFL owners had comparatively little wealth outside the value of their respective franchises. The NFL consistently outdrew the AFL at the gate, especially in the AFL's first few seasons, thus ensuring that the older league's franchises remained considerably more lucrative enterprises compared to their AFL rivals. Nevertheless, NFL owners knew they did not have unlimited resources to wage a protracted bidding war with the AFL. Moreover, owners in both leagues feared that the reserve clause written into the standard players' contracts of both leagues would not survive a legal challenge. These fears proved well-founded, since after the merger, the upstart World Hockey Association (which unlike the AFL chose to challenge the reserve clause enforced by its established rival) ultimately prevailed in court.

National Football League teams had long adhered to the practice of drafting for and retaining the NFL rights to players who signed with the CFL and other leagues. This policy ensured, for example, that if a Canadian Football League player developed into a star, only one particular NFL team would have the right to sign him. This ensured that NFL teams did not become embroiled in costly bidding wars for top free agents. Once the American Football League commenced operations, NFL teams extended this policy to cover AFL players as well, and the AFL promptly reciprocated the arrangement. This arrangement soon evolved into a gentlemen's agreement between the two U.S. leagues — once a player signed with a team, be it from the AFL or NFL, teams in both leagues were expected to honor each other's player contracts in their entirety (including the respective reserve clauses) and not sign players who were under contract with teams in the rival league.

This unwritten agreement was broken in May 1966, when the NFL's New York Giants signed Pete Gogolak, the first professional soccer-style placekicker, who had played out his option in 1965 with the AFL's Buffalo Bills. The NFL's breach of trust resulted in retaliation by the AFL: Oakland Raiders co-owner Al Davis took over as AFL Commissioner in April 1966, and he stepped up the bidding war after the Gogolak transfer, signing notable NFL players, including John Brodie Mike Ditka, and Roman Gabriel to contracts with AFL teams, but after the merger agreement in June, they wound up staying in the older league. Both leagues spent a combined $7 million signing their 1966 draft picks.

The merger agreement

Contrary to common belief, it was not the AFL, but the NFL that initiated discussions for a merger between the two leagues, as it was fearful that Davis' "take no prisoners" tactics would seriously diminish the older league's profitability and/or drastically reduce its talent base. Tex Schramm, the general manager of the NFL's Dallas Cowboys since 1960, secretly contacted AFL owners, led by Lamar Hunt of Kansas City, and asked if they were interested in a merger. The talks were conducted without the knowledge of Davis, the new AFL commissioner. On the evening of June 8, 1966, the collaborators announced a merger agreement in New York. Under the agreement:
 The two leagues would combine to form an expanded league with 24 teams, to be increased to 26 teams by 1969, and to 28 by 1970, or soon thereafter. The expansion commitment was included largely to mollify Congressional opposition (especially from locales which still lacked professional football) which the owners knew would follow any proposed merger. In any case, the Atlanta Falcons and the Miami Dolphins were already established and set to start play for the 1966 season, before the merger was announced in June. This left both leagues with an odd number of teams, thus even before the merger agreement it was seen as inevitable each league would add at least one more franchise to balance their schedules. The teams added under the terms of the agreement were the New Orleans Saints in 1967, the Cincinnati Bengals in 1968, and the Seattle Seahawks and Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 1976 (the Seahawks and Buccaneers were added after the completion of the merger).
 All existing franchises would be retained, and none of them would be moved outside of their metropolitan areas. The agreement also stipulated that no new franchises were to be placed by either league within the media markets of the other. Among other things, this particular clause of the agreement effectively ended the city of Milwaukee's pursuit of an expansion AFL team following an unsuccessful effort to lure the Green Bay Packers to Milwaukee full-time and provided an additional assurance to Congress that the promised expansion teams would be placed in markets without professional football.
 AFL "indemnities" would be paid to NFL teams which shared markets with AFL teams. Specifically, the New York Giants would receive payments from the New York Jets, and the San Francisco 49ers would get money from the Oakland Raiders. The shared-markets issue was part of earlier, informal merger talks (held as early as 1964), negotiations which broke down when the NFL insisted on the Jets and Raiders being relocated (to Memphis and Portland, respectively).
 Both leagues would hold a "Common Draft" of college players, effectively ending the bidding war between the two leagues over the top college prospects. (The first such draft occurred in mid-March 1967.)
 The leagues would maintain separate regular season schedules through 1969 (though some preseason games during that time featured AFL-vs-NFL matchups).  The leagues also agreed to play an annual AFL-NFL World Championship Game, matching the championship teams of each league, beginning in January 1967; the game that would eventually become known as the Super Bowl.
 The two leagues would officially merge in  to form one league with two conferences. The merged league would be known as the National Football League. The history and records of the AFL would be incorporated into the older league. While the AFL name and logo were to be officially retired, the AFC's pre-2009 logos were largely based on the old AFL logo.
 The AFL would abolish the office of AFL Commissioner immediately and recognize the NFL Commissioner as the overall chief executive of professional football. This arrangement, which was in keeping with a provision of the NFL's Constitution dating from 1941 (when the title of Commissioner was introduced in football) that sought to invest the NFL's chief executive with a similar level of authority to that exercised by the Commissioner of Baseball, formally ended the AFL's six-year run as an independent league. However, the AFL was permitted to retain rule differences such as the two point conversion for the remainder of its existence - one of the reasons the full merger was delayed until after the 1969 season was that this coincided with the expiration of the AFL's contract with Spalding.
 NFL Films would start recording game footage for the AFL starting in 1968 under a newly established "AFL Films" division, which was simply the regular NFL Films crew wearing separate jackets to appease AFL loyalists.

Following the agreement, American Football League owners created the office of AFL President with a mandate to administer the league's day-to-day business in a semi-autonomous manner, much like the way the constituent leagues of Major League Baseball operated at the time. The owners had hoped Davis would continue to serve in that role, but Davis (already furious with the owners of both leagues for negotiating a merger without consulting him) flatly refused to consider serving as a subordinate to Pete Rozelle. After Davis resigned as AFL Commissioner on July 25, 1966, Milt Woodard (who was assistant commissioner under the original commissioner Joe Foss and Davis) was appointed to serve as President of the AFL.

Although Pete Rozelle had not initiated the merger negotiations, he quickly endorsed the agreement and remained in his post as NFL Commissioner. Although he was not formally invested with any new title(s), Rozelle was often referred to as the football commissioner or commissioner of football in the media during the four years following the merger agreement. The pre-existing office of NFL President continued effectively unchanged following the agreement. Then occupied by Cleveland Browns owner Art Modell, the NFL presidency was (both before and after the merger agreement) essentially an honorary title that operated in a manner similar to the way in which the league presidencies of MLB operate in the 21st century.

Implementation of the merger depended on the passage of a law by the 89th U.S. Congress, exempting the merged league from antitrust law sanctions. When NFL Commissioner Rozelle and other professional football executives appeared before the Congress' Subcommittee on Antitrust, chaired by New York Representative Emanuel Celler, three points were repeatedly made:
 Rozelle promised that if the merger was allowed, no existing professional football franchise of either league would be moved from any city as a result.
 The combined league would eventually expand to 28 teams as stipulated in the merger agreement.
 Stadiums seating less than 50,000 were declared to be inadequate for professional football's needs, thus compelling teams in stadiums with capacities under that number to expand their current stadiums (most notably the expansion of the Denver Broncos' Mile High Stadium in 1968) or move to newer, larger homes—most notably the Chicago Bears' move from Wrigley Field to Soldier Field in 1971, and the opening of new stadiums for the New England Patriots (Schaefer Stadium in 1971), Kansas City Chiefs (Arrowhead Stadium in 1972), and Buffalo Bills (Rich Stadium in 1973). (The Minnesota Vikings stayed at Metropolitan Stadium, the only sub-50,000 capacity stadium after the merger, until the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome opened in 1982.) It was this stadium issue that prevented Seattle and Tampa Bay from receiving their expansion teams until 1976; both cities were recruiting the Bills and Patriots to relocate to their cities (in defiance of Rozelle's promise) should they not be able to build a compliant stadium in their home market, and only after those stadiums were built and relocation of existing teams ruled out that the league could issue expansion teams to Seattle and Tampa Bay. Since the 1970s, the league has only played occasionally in sub-50,000 seat stadiums. Exceptions include the 1998 NFL season when the Tennessee Oilers played one season at 40,550 seat Vanderbilt Stadium and also from 2017 through 2019 when the Chargers returned to Los Angeles and temporarily moved into the 27,000 seat Dignity Health Sports Park (known as StubHub Center before 2019) until SoFi Stadium opened in 2020.

In October, Congress passed the new law to permit the merger to proceed. The terms of the merger called for the NFL and AFL to add one team each prior to the 1970 season. Louisiana Representative Hale Boggs and Senator Russell Long were instrumental in passage of the new law, and in return, Rozelle approved creation of the expansion New Orleans Saints franchise less than one month after the bill was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson.

The tenth and final AFL franchise was awarded to former Cleveland Browns owner and coach Paul Brown downstate in Cincinnati. Brown had been seeking a way back into the NFL after being forced out of the Browns organization by Modell. Brown had not been a supporter of the AFL prior to the merger announcement, but quickly realized the AFL was probably his only viable path back into NFL after the older league awarded its sixteenth franchise to New Orleans. Also, Cincinnati was not going to have a 50,000-seat stadium ready (Riverfront Stadium) until 1970. Brown paid $10 million for his franchise (400 times the 1960 franchise fee of $25,000), famously stating "I didn't pay ten million dollars to be in the AFL."

As 1970 approached, three NFL teams (the Baltimore Colts, Cleveland Browns, and Pittsburgh Steelers), agreed to join the ten AFL teams (the Cincinnati Bengals and Miami Dolphins had joined the original Boston Patriots, Buffalo Bills, Denver Broncos, Houston Oilers, Kansas City Chiefs, New York Jets, Oakland Raiders, and San Diego Chargers) to form the American Football Conference (AFC). The other thirteen NFL teams (Atlanta Falcons, Chicago Bears, Dallas Cowboys, Detroit Lions, Green Bay Packers, Los Angeles Rams, Minnesota Vikings, New Orleans Saints, New York Giants, Philadelphia Eagles, St. Louis Cardinals, San Francisco 49ers and Washington Redskins) became part of the National Football Conference (NFC).

Since 1970, the Super Bowl has featured the champions of the AFC and NFC. Both are determined each season by the league's playoff tournament. With the creation of the new conferences of equal size, it was deemed necessary that they each be aligned into three divisions of four or five teams each. Prior to 1970, both leagues experimented with new playoff formats in place of the traditional format where the division champions faced each other in a single championship game, and where one-game playoffs were played to settle ties for the division crown. With the addition of a sixteenth team in 1967 the NFL expanded to four divisions, and also replaced the possibility of tiebreaker games with an elaborate set of performance-based tiebreakers to determine division champions. The AFL waited until its last season to eliminate the possibility of tiebreaker games when it granted the division runners up playoff berths and implemented the NFL tiebreaking formula.

Both playoff formats proved controversial. The 1967 Baltimore Colts tied the Los Angeles Rams for the best record in the NFL at 11-1-2, but because they lost the tiebreaker to the Rams they missed the playoffs altogether as opposed to playing a tiebreaker game as would have occurred in the previous season. In the AFL's final year, the 1969 Houston Oilers claimed a playoff berth despite a mediocre 6-6-2 record - no .500 team had ever qualified for the playoffs in a professional American football league before. To minimize the chance of any recurrence of such controversies, the 1970 playoff format combined elements of both leagues' formats. Four teams would qualify for the postseason from each conference (same as in 1969), thus only the "Best Second Place Team" (as it was originally called) would reach the postseason. Fans and media quickly dubbed this team the "wild card" and the NFL soon made that name official. The playoff format has changed several times since 1970 particularly as additional wild card teams and divisions have been added, but it has always been identical in each conference.

Although the AFC teams quickly decided on a divisional alignment along mostly geographic lines, the 13 NFC owners had trouble deciding which teams would play in which divisions. Many NFC teams were attempting to avoid placement in a division with the Cowboys and/or the Vikings, and were trying to angle their way into the same division as the Saints, the weakest team in professional football at the time. The 49ers and Rams, both in California, were guaranteed to be in the same division as the only NFC teams west of the Rocky Mountains.  One early proposal would have put the two California teams together with the three Northeast teams—the New York Giants, Philadelphia Eagles and Washington Redskins—reminiscent of the Western Conference's Coastal Division which had put L.A. and S.F. together with Baltimore and Atlanta from 1967 to 1969.  The final five proposals were as follows:

PLAN 1:  East:  NYG, PHI, WAS, ATL, MIN;  Central:  CHI, GB, DET, NO; West:  LA, SF, DAL, STL.

PLAN 2:  East:  NYG, PHI, WAS, MIN; Central:  ATL, DAL, NO, STL; West:  LA, SF, CHI, GB, DET.

PLAN 3:  East:  NYG, PHI, WAS, DAL, STL: Central: CHI, GB, DET, MIN; West: LA, SF, ATL, NO.

PLAN 4:  East:  NYG, PHI, WAS, STL, MIN; Central: CHI, GB, DET, ATL; West: LA, SF, DAL, NO.

PLAN 5:  East:  NYG, PHI, WAS, DET, MIN; Central:  CHI, GB, DAL, STL; West: LA, SF, ATL, NO.

These five combinations were written up on slips of paper, sealed into envelopes and put into a fish bowl (other sources say a flower vase), and the official NFC alignment—Plan 3—was pulled out by Rozelle's secretary, Thelma Elkjer. Of the five plans considered, the one that was put into effect was the only one which had Minnesota remaining in the Central Division and Dallas playing in the Eastern Division.  This preserved the Vikings' place with geographical rivals Chicago, Detroit, and Green Bay, and the Cowboys' rivalries with the Redskins, Eagles and Giants.  It also was the only one of the final five proposals in which there were no warm weather cities in the Central Division.  More controversially, the new alignment put both of the two newest NFC franchises, the Saints and Falcons from the Deep South, with the 49ers and Rams. The Falcons had already been playing the California teams in the NFL Coastal Division, but the Saints were in the NFL Capitol Division (with Dallas, Washington, Philadelphia) of the Eastern Conference and now faced two trips to the West Coast per season. The Rams were expected to dominate the West, but the 49ers won the division in its first three seasons before the Rams won the next seven titles (the Falcons did not win the division until 1980, and the Saints not until 1991).

Meanwhile, all three of the major television networks signed contracts to televise games, thus ensuring the combined league's stability. CBS agreed to broadcast all games where an NFC team was on the road, NBC agreed to broadcast all games where an AFC team was on the road, and ABC agreed to broadcast Monday Night Football, making the NFL the first league to have a regular series of national telecasts in prime time.

Aftermath
Many observers believe that the NFL got the better end of the bargain, as Oakland Raiders owner Al Davis and New York Jets owner Sonny Werblin resisted the indemnity payments.

Long-time sports writer Jerry Magee of the San Diego Union-Tribune wrote: "Al Davis taking over as commissioner was the strongest thing the AFL ever did. He thought the AFL–NFL merger was a detriment to the AFL." However, other observers consider those scenarios far-fetched: the NFL had a richer television contract at the time of the merger, in large part because of market exclusivity in such leading population centers as Los Angeles, Chicago, Detroit, Philadelphia, Washington, Baltimore, Atlanta and the Dallas–Fort Worth area, which were rapidly increasing in population and would emerge as media strongholds in the 1970s.

On the other hand, the AFL had teams in cities that were not among the nation's leading media markets, such as Miami (the only major professional sports franchise in Florida until the addition of the Buccaneers in 1976), Buffalo, and Denver (all of which at the time had no other major league teams), and Kansas City (which at the time had only a failing baseball team that was ultimately relocated). Other than the shared New York and Bay Area markets, the AFL's largest market was Houston, where the Oilers had little following outside southeast Texas due to the Cowboys' emergence. Most American Football League fans wanted to see an annual interleague championship with the NFL, but many neither expected nor favored a full merger and were thus left disappointed because they wanted their league to continue. Those feelings were reinforced when American Football League teams won the final two AFL–NFL World Championship games after the 1968 and 1969 seasons.

Nevertheless, despite the AFL triumphs in Super Bowls III and IV, the old-guard NFL was still widely expected to dominate the merged league over the course of an entire season. In 1970, these predictions were proven to be more or less correct: out of 60 regular season games pitting old-line NFL teams versus former AFL teams, former AFL teams went 19–39 (two games, Buffalo at Baltimore in week 9 and St. Louis at Kansas City in week 10, ended in ties). Only Oakland managed to post a winning record against old-line NFL opposition, going 3–2 (defeating Washington, Pittsburgh and Cleveland; losing to Detroit and San Francisco) before losing to the Colts in the AFC championship. Nevertheless, out of the three NFL teams to join the AFC, only the Colts managed to secure a playoff berth.  The Browns and Steelers both missed out due to a stunning second-half performance by the Cincinnati Bengals, who overcame a 1–6 start and their two old-guard division rivals to secure the first-ever NFL playoff berth for a third year expansion team. Ultimately however, it was the Colts who were triumphant—they defeated both the Bengals and Raiders to become the first team to represent the AFC in a post-merger Super Bowl, where they defeated the Dallas Cowboys 16–13 to win Super Bowl V, the franchise's last NFL championship in Baltimore and last overall until 2006.

Even the undefeated Miami Dolphins were slight underdogs to the old-guard Washington Redskins in Super Bowl VII, but Miami won 14–7 to cap the only perfect championship season in NFL history. Not until Super Bowl VIII in 1974 was a former AFL team favored to win the Vince Lombardi Trophy, with the Dolphins trouncing the Minnesota Vikings 24–7 to repeat as champions; the Dolphins were also the first former AFL team to win a Super Bowl championship (and represent the AFC) after the merger. It took until Super Bowl XI in 1977 for an original AFL team to win a post-merger NFL championship, when the Oakland Raiders did so.

Each of the first 29 games on Monday Night Football featured at least one team from the old-guard NFL, with the first nationally televised prime time game between two former AFL teams being Oakland at Houston on October 9, 1972.

Eventually, the AFC teams caught and passed the NFC during the mid- to late-1970s.  But even then, NFL proponents claimed that the three NFL teams that joined the AFL to form the AFC were largely the reason. Altogether, these teams played in each of the first three AFC Championship Games, and in eight of the first ten games (out of which they won five).

However, while the Colts and Browns were respectable playoff contenders during this period, it was the Steelers who dominated the league, winning four Super Bowls in six years in 1974–1979. From the perspective of AFL proponents, this was not a continuation of "old NFL" dominance. Before the merger, the Steelers had been perennially close to or in last place in the NFL since their foundation in 1933, including a 1–13 record in 1969 (tied with the Chicago Bears for the worst record in the NFL), with only eight winning seasons and just one playoff appearance (in 1947, where they were shut out) in that time.

The $3 million relocation fee that the Steelers received for joining the AFC after the merger, along with a new stadium and winning a coin-flip tiebreaker against the Bears for the number-one pick in the 1970 NFL draft (which ended up being future Hall of Fame quarterback Terry Bradshaw) helped them rebuild into a team that could compete with the other "old NFL" teams.

The merger paved the way for a new era of prosperity for the NFL. While a number of rival major professional football leagues have commenced play since 1970 including the XFL, WFL, USFL and UFL, and while the CFL once experimented with U.S.-based teams, none of these ventures came close to being a serious challenge to the NFL. The aforementioned U.S. leagues folded outright after one, two, three and four seasons respectively, while the CFL reverted to being an all-Canadian league after three seasons.

While the Buccaneers joined the AFC in 1976, the Seahawks joined the NFC. The 1976 expansion teams switched conference before their second season in the league, becoming the first NFL teams to change conferences after the merger; the Seahawks returned to the NFC in 2002 upon the league's realignment that year.

Four more NFL teams that were not specified in the merger agreement would be established between 1995 and 2002:
 The Carolina Panthers and Jacksonville Jaguars were awarded franchises in 1993 and began play in the NFC and AFC respectively in 1995. Their establishment allowed the league to have divisions of equal size (six divisions of five teams each) for the first time since the merger.
 The Baltimore Ravens started play in 1996, as a result of the controversy stemming from Art Modell's attempt to relocate the Browns to Baltimore. Subsequent legal actions saw a unique compromise in which he was only allowed to take the players, coaches, and front office staff to Baltimore (even then, not all of them made the move), and the Browns' team colors, uniforms, and history would remain in Cleveland to be inherited by the resurrected Browns franchise. As a result, although it was effectively a continuation of the football organization that operated in Cleveland until 1995, Modell's Baltimore team is reckoned to be an expansion franchise that commenced play in 1996. Meanwhile, the club in Cleveland, although it was effectively a brand new football organization stocked by an expansion draft, is recognized to be a continuation of the franchise that commenced play in 1946 and joined the NFL in 1950. The agreement with the NFL was contingent on finding a new owner and the completion of a new stadium in Cleveland, as a result, the Browns were officially reckoned to have "suspended operations" for three years and the number of active NFL teams did not increase to 31 until the 1999 season. Prior to the Browns' reactivation, the NFL briefly considered re-aligning the AFC into four divisions of four teams each while leaving the NFC alignment unchanged. Due in large part to the difficulties an uneven number of divisions would have caused for scheduling inter-conference games, the proposed AFC re-alignment was shelved. As a result, the Browns were placed back in the AFC Central, which expanded to six teams as a result.
 The Houston Texans joined in 2002, after Houston was left without the NFL for five years following the Oilers' move to Nashville, Tennessee, where they eventually became the Tennessee Titans. The Texans' establishment made feasible the realignment of both conferences into four divisions of four teams each, which allows every team to play every other team at least twice over an 8-year span (once at home, once on the road). Houston was once again placed in the AFC. To make room for the Texans, the Seattle Seahawks agreed to return to the NFC.

In total, out of the first 47 AFC Championship Games, sixteen have featured two former AFL teams and 45 have featured at least one former AFL team—the only exceptions being the 1995 championship game between the Steelers and Colts, and the 2008 game between the Steelers and Ravens. Out of the first 46 post-merger Super Bowls, former AFL teams have won 12, lost 21 and did not qualify for the remaining 13. The latter 13 games have all involved one of the three "old guard" organizations that joined the AFC in 1970, with the Steelers playing in eight, the Colts in three (one representing Baltimore and two representing Indianapolis) and the Ravens in two.

Somewhat ironically, the two AFL teams that won Super Bowls prior to the merger (the Jets and Chiefs) were also the last two former AFL teams that had never played in a post-merger championship game. (The Chiefs broke that streak in 2020, when they appeared in Super Bowl LIV.) Four extant NFL teams have yet to reach the Super Bowl at all, including two pre-merger NFL franchises (the Browns and Lions) and two post-merger expansion teams (the Jaguars and Texans). The Houston Oilers never reached a post-merger championship game prior to relocating to Tennessee, thus making Houston the only AFL city that has yet to send a team to the Super Bowl.

In spite of Rozelle's promise that there would be no re-locations involving teams in existence at the time of the merger, by the end of his tenure as commissioner in 1989 three franchises had moved to a different market from where they were based in 1970 (although the league did take legal action in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent the first such move, that of the Raiders, from taking place).

As of 2021, six NFL franchises (the Raiders, Colts, Cardinals, Rams, Oilers/Titans and Chargers) have been involved in post-merger re-locations while an additional franchise (the Browns) temporarily suspended operations as an alternative to re-location. Of the six teams that have re-located since the merger, two (the Raiders and Rams) have returned to the cities they played in at the time of the merger, while the other teams only moved once. However, the Chargers, who had moved to San Diego in 1961 before the merger, returned to Los Angeles in 2017, making them the only team to go through a relocation as a member of both leagues. Also, the Raiders moved a third time, leaving Oakland once more, this time for Las Vegas in 2020.

Broken down by where they played in 1969 and 1970:
 Of the ten teams that competed in the AFL in 1969, seven have been continuously based in their 1969 market, one (the Raiders) returned to their original city after moving to a different city post-merger, one (the Oilers) no longer plays in their original city and one (the Chargers) has returned to its original AFL city after a relocation that took place before the merger. However, the Raiders moved a third time, leaving Oakland for Las Vegas in 2020.
 Of the thirteen teams that formed the NFC in 1970, eleven have been continuously based in their 1969 market, one (the Rams) again play in their pre-merger city after moving to a different city and one (the Cardinals) no longer plays in the city it was based in at the time of the merger.
 Of the three 1969 NFL teams that joined the AFC in 1970, one (the Steelers) has been continuously based in its 1969 market, one (the Browns) plays in its original city after having suspended operations since the merger and one (the Colts) no longer plays in its original city.

The Rams' return from St. Louis to Los Angeles ended an interval lasting 21 years in which there was no NFL team in Los Angeles—the longest such period involving any NFL city of the post-merger era—and resulted in St. Louis replacing Los Angeles as the only 1969 NFL city without a current NFL team. The NFL has not simultaneously fielded teams in all sixteen of its 1969 markets since the Colts relocated to Indianapolis after the 1983 season. It had fielded teams in all ten 1969 AFL cities from the 2002 season (when the Texans joined the league) until the conclusion of the 2016 season (when the Chargers returned to Los Angeles, leaving San Diego without an NFL team).

Neither Portland nor Memphis (the cities that were due to receive AFL franchises via relocation in the rejected 1964 merger proposal) have received an NFL franchise as of 2021. Memphis in particular has made repeated bids for an NFL team (including the Memphis Hound Dogs and the Memphis Grizzlies court case), but all have failed. Memphis would later serve as a temporary home to the Tennessee Oilers for the 1997 season following their departure from Houston. The agreement was originally slated to last for two seasons, but lackluster fan support in Memphis caused the arrangement to be cut short.

Proliferation of new stadiums
A league rule passed as a result of the merger required all NFL teams to use stadiums that seated over 50,000 spectators. At the time, several teams had stadiums that were not up to that standard (see above). Most either built a new stadium by 1971 or, in the case of Chicago, moved to an existing stadium in the metro area that met the requirement. The Buffalo Bills situation would prove to be a pattern for later teams; Buffalo interests were very slow to come to an agreement on a new stadium, and it was only after Bills owner Ralph Wilson began arranging for a move to Seattle (a tactic that would later be used by many other teams in their quests for new stadiums in their hometowns, later using cities such as Los Angeles and San Antonio) that Western New York finally agreed to build Rich Stadium, which opened in 1973.

The Super Bowl has been used as an incentive by the league to convince local governments, businesses, and voters to support the construction, seat licenses and taxes associated with new or renovated stadiums. Therefore, the league has and continues to award Super Bowls to cities that have built new football stadiums for their existing franchises, though all outdoor Super Bowls continued to be played in warmer climates, with the exception of Super Bowl XLVIII played in the new Meadowlands stadium.

Only eight Super Bowls since 1983 have been played in stadiums used by three of these expansion teams: five in Tampa (two at Tampa Stadium and three at Raymond James Stadium), one in Jacksonville and two in Houston.

In some cases, cities have been selected as provisional Super Bowl sites, with the construction or renovation of a suitable facility as a major requirement for hosting the actual game. In the past, New York City and San Francisco have each received provisional site awards. In both cities, the league moved the game to a different site when public funding initiatives failed. The most recent provisional site award went to Kansas City for a Super Bowl to be played in 2015 in Arrowhead Stadium, but Kansas City withdrew their request because the funding for the new roof failed in an April 2006 referendum.

The Kansas City Chiefs, Cleveland Browns, Cincinnati Bengals,  Denver Broncos, Houston Texans, Pittsburgh Steelers, Philadelphia Eagles, Chicago Bears, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Seattle Seahawks, Detroit Lions, Arizona Cardinals, Indianapolis Colts and Minnesota Vikings are all teams who have received a significant amount of public financing to either construct or upgrade the stadiums in which they currently play.

The state of Louisiana has been making cash payouts to the New Orleans Saints since 2001 in order to keep the team from moving. The state received over $185 million from the Federal Emergency Management Agency and other sources to repair and renovate the Superdome following damage from Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Louisiana then began a five-year, $320 million renovation project for the stadium in 2006; another $450 million renovation began in 2020 to upgrade the facility for Super Bowl LIX in February 2025.

In addition, St. Louis and Baltimore also publicly financed stadiums for the purpose of luring the former Los Angeles Rams and the first incarnation of the Cleveland Browns. The Rams returned to Los Angeles in 2016 following the 2015 season and moved into a new stadium in Inglewood, California in 2020 alongside the Chargers who also relocated to the city from San Diego in 2017. The Raiders would move from Oakland once more, this time to Las Vegas with a new stadium built there in 2020.

Similar moves in other sports
Entrepreneurs interested in other sports in North America would follow the AFL's example in competing with the established "major" leagues.
 Baseball: In 1959, the Continental League was proposed by William Shea as a third major league for baseball scheduled to begin play in the 1961 season. Unlike predecessor competitors such as the Players' League and the Federal League, it sought membership within organized baseball's existing organization and acceptance within Major League Baseball (as any attempt at outsider leagues could be quashed as per a 1922 Supreme Court case declaring MLB exempt from federal antitrust laws). The league disbanded in August 1960 without playing a single game, as the other two leagues acquiesced to many of the owners' demands by granting franchises within the two existing leagues. In order to stop the new league, each league allowed that they would be adding two new teams each, three of which ended up in the prospective CL cities of Minneapolis–St. Paul, Houston, and New York City. All proposed CL cities, except Buffalo, would later be granted MLB teams.
 Basketball: In 1967, the American Basketball Association was formed with the explicit intent of merging teams with the National Basketball Association. In 1976, four of the six remaining teams of the ABA—the Denver Nuggets, Indiana Pacers, New York Nets and San Antonio Spurs—were merged into the NBA. All the teams have remained in the same media markets since entering the NBA. In 1975 and 1976, the ABA proposed a championship game between the leagues at the end of the season much like the NFL-AFL championship, but the NBA turned each offer down. Today, except for Virginia, Kentucky, Pittsburgh, St. Louis and any temporary locations ABA teams played in (including teams that were regional teams), all former ABA cities now have NBA teams.
 Ice hockey: In 1972, the World Hockey Association formed to compete with the National Hockey League. The two entities merged in 1979, with four of the six remaining teams—the Edmonton Oilers, Hartford Whalers, Quebec Nordiques and the original Winnipeg Jets—joining the NHL. However, only one of these former WHA teams, the Oilers, is still in its original market. The Nordiques became the Colorado Avalanche in 1995, the Jets became the Phoenix Coyotes in 1996, and Whalers became the Carolina Hurricanes in 1997. The NHL eventually returned to Winnipeg in 2011 when the Atlanta Thrashers became the current incarnation of the Winnipeg Jets.

References

Sources
 NFL Record and Fact Book ()
 Total Football: The Official Encyclopedia of the National Football League ()

External links

 NFL History by Decade

1970 in American football
1970 establishments in the United States
American Football League
History of the National Football League
Sports-related mergers

AFL–NFL merger


Zem steht für:
 Zem (Fluss), Fluss in Kamerun

Zem ist der Familienname folgender Personen
 Roschdy Zem (* 1965), französischer Schauspieler, Regisseur und Drehbuchautor

ZeM steht als Abkürzung für:
 Brandenburgisches Zentrum für Medienwissenschaften

ZEM steht als Abkürzung für:
 Eastmain River Airport (IATA-Code), Flughafen in der Provinz Québec, Kanada

Abkürzung

Zem


Henning Petersen henviser til blandt andre:

 Henning Eiler Petersen (1877–1946) – dansk botaniker
 Henning Vikesdal Petersen (født 1989) – norsk fodboldspiller
 Henning Petersen (cykelrytter) (født 1939) – dansk cykelrytter

Henning Petersen


Nepovratni proces, neobrativi proces ili ireverzibilni proces je proces u kojem se prilikom prelaska energije iz jednog oblika u drugi dio energije gubi u okolinu i entropija fizikalnoga sustava raste. Primjerice, takvi su svi procesi povezani s trenjem, neelastičnim promjenama oblika tijela (plastičnost), električnim otporom i drugo. Svi realni, prirodni procesi su nepovratni.

Termodinamički ireverzibilni proces (nepovratni proces) zbiva se kada termodinamički sustav od početnoga do konačnoga stanja brzo prolazi kroz više neravnotežnih stanja i ne može se odvijati u suprotnom smjeru.

Izvori

Termodinamika

Nepovratni proces


Ioan Simion Caba (n. 1871, Chișineu-Criș – d. secolul al XX-lea) a fost un deputat în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, organismul legislativ reprezentativ al "tuturor românilor din Transilvania, Banat și Țara Ungurească", cel care a adoptat hotărârea privind Unirea Transilvaniei cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918.

Biografie
Simion Caba, între anii 1876/7-1881/2 a făcut cele șase clase ale școlii primare în comuna Chișineu-Criș; cele patru clase de gimnaziu a cursului inferior între anii 1882/3-1885/6 în Beuș iar în anii 1886/7-1889/1890 a urmat cele patru cursuri pedagogice de la Institutul pedagogic ortodox român din Arad.

După terminarea Institutului pedagogic din Arad la 30 iunie 1890 este numit învățător suplinitor la școala de băieți N. 1 din Curtici, județul Arad, profesând în această instituție din 15 mai 1890 până în 31 august 1891.La 10 noiembrie 1891 pe bază de concurs a fost ales învățător în comuna Curte, protopopiatul Făgetului, județul Caraș-Severin. Ulterior în data de 29 noiembrie 1891 îi este aprobată de către Consistorul diecezan alegerea ca învățător cu titlu definitiv și unde a funcționat 28 de ani din 1 ianuarie 1892 până la 31 august 1919.

În timpul Primului Razboi Mondial profesorul Caba a fost comandantul Gărzii Naționale Române din Curtea ( formată din foștii săi elevi din comună )  pe care a condus-o până la venirea fiului său Emil de pe câmpul de război. Fiul acestuia a preluat mai apoi comanda gărzii până când s-a reactivat in "Batalionul Horea" cu gradul de sublocotenent.

După război in ziua de 26 mai 1921 a primit în urma examenelor ținute în fața comisiei examinatoare diploma de profesor iar mai apoi la 11 septembrie 1928 prin decretul regal N'. 106542/928, înalta regență l-a numit maestru cu titlu definitiv în învățământul secundar al băieților de la liceul ,,Coriolan Brediceanu" din Lugoj unde a profesat până in 31 august 1934.

Pe lângă cariera de învățător, în timpul liber, a avut și alte ocupații de interes public:
 A înființat în comuna Curte un cor bărbătesc din 60/70 de bărbați.
 A înființat un cor din elevii și elevele școlii acestuia din Curte pe 2,3 si 4 voci între anii 1895-1919 ( elevi si eleve de la 6-15 ani ).
 A înființat o "Reuniune pentru asigurarea vacilor".
 În 1895 înființându-se în comună o banca de credit de Direcțiunea "Orsâgos Kozponti Hitelszovet Rezet" în lipsă de personal cunoscător de limba maghiară profesorul Caba a acceptat să fie vicepreședinte iar peste 3 ani președinte până în 1920 când banca este închisă.

În decursul celor 28 de ani cât a fost profesor în comuna Curte, Simion Caba a avut 23 de procese politice deoarece a scris la "Tribuna", "Foaia Poporului" din Sibiu și "Drapelul" din Lugoj, procese care l-au costat o suma importantă de bani pe lângă multele hărțuieli și șicane la care a fost supus.

Activitatea politică

Ca deputat în Adunarea Națională din 1 decembrie 1918 a reprezentat Reuniunea de muzică si cânt a plugarilor din Curtea . După Marea Unire și-a încheiat activitatea politică de până atunci și nu a mai activat nici în P.N.R.

Recunoașteri
Pentru munca în învățământ i s-a acordat medalia de aur "Răsplata muncii pentru învățământ cl.I" din partea M.S Regele și " Răsplata muncii" pentru 25 de ani de muncă neîntreruptă în serviciul statului .

Note

Bibliografie
 Ioan I. Șerban, Dorin Giurgiu, Ionela Mircea, Nicolae Josan, Dicționarul personalităților Unirii. Trimișii românilor transilvăneni la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, Muzeul Național al Unirii, Alba Iulia, 2003, ISBN 973-8141-90-7
 Gelu Neamțu, Mircea Vaida-Voevod, 1 decembrie 1918. Mărturii ale participanților, vol. I-II, Editura Academiei Române, București, 2005, ISBN 973-27-1258-9 (vol. I); ISBN 973-27-1264-3 (vol. II)

Lectură suplimentară
 Daniela Comșa, Eugenia Glodariu, Maria M. Jude, Clujenii și Marea Unire, Muzeul Național Transilvania, Cluj-Napoca, 1998
 Florea Marin, Medicii și Marea Unire, Editura Tipomur, Târgu Mureș, 1993
 Silviu Borș, Alexiu Tatu, Bogdan Andriescu, (coord.), Participanți din localități sibiene la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, Editura Armanis, Sibiu, 2015

Legături externe
  Membrii de drept ai Marii Adunării Naționale de la Alba-Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, lista publicată în "Gazeta Oficială", Sibiu, nr. 1, 1/14 decembrie 1918
  1 decembrie 1918, Marea Unire de la Alba Iulia. Mărturii, documente și semnificații

Vezi și
 Lista delegaților la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Nașteri în 1871
Decese în secolul al XX-lea
Delegați la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia
Educatori români
Învățători și profesori români
Transilvăneni

Ioan Simion Caba


انبوبة الداومة أو الأنبوبة الإعصارية  هي جهاز ميكانيكي يفصل الغازات المضغوطة إلى غاز بارد (قد تصل درجة حرارته إلى -50 درجة مئوية) وغاز ساخن (قد يصل إلى 200 درجة مئوية) بدون أي أجزاء متحركة.

يُحقن الغاز المضغوط بشكل مماسي في حجرة الدوامة ويتسارع حتى سرعة دوران عالية. لا يسمح إلا بخروج الطبقة الخارجية من الغاز المضغوط عند طرف الأنبوب بسبب الفوهة المخروطية في ذلك الطرف. تجبر بقية الغاز على العودة إلى دوامة داخلية ذات قطر مخفض تقع ضمن الدوامة الخارجية.

طريقة عملها
لشرح انفصال درجات الحرارة في الأنبوبة الإعصارية هناك طريقتان رئيسيتان:

الطريقة الأساسية: الفيزياء
هذه الطريقة مبنية على فيزياء المبدأ الأول وحدها ولا تقتصر على الأنابيب الإعصارية دون غيرها، بل تنطبق على الغاز المتحرك بشكل عام. تظهر أن انفصال درجة الحرارة في غاز متحرك ينتج فقط عن انحفاظ المحتوى الحراري (الإنتالبي) في إطار مرجعي متحرك.

يمكن تقدير العملية الحرارية في الأنبوبة الإعصارية بالطريقة التالية: 1) التمدد الأديباتي للغاز الداخل، الذي يبرد الغاز ويحول محتواه الحراري إلى طاقة حركية دورانية. تُحفظ الإنتالبية الكلية، التي هي مجموع المحتوى الحراري والطاقة الحركية. 2) يتحرك التدفق المحيطي للغاز باتجاه المخرج الساخن. هنا يحدث أثر الاسترجاع الحراري بين الجريان المحيطي الذي يدور بسرعة والجريان المحوري المعاكس والذي يدور ببطء. هنا تنتقل الحرارة من الجريان المحوري إلى الجريان المحيطي. 3) تتحول الطاقة الحركية للدوران إلى الحرارة عن طريق التبدد اللزج. ترتفع درجة حرارة الغاز. بما أن المحتوى الحراري الكلي ازداد أثناء عملية الاسترجاع الحراري، فدرجة الحرارة هذه أعلى من درجة حرارة الغاز الداخل. 4) يغادر بعض الغاز الساخن المخرج الساخن، حاملًا معه الحرارة الفائضة. 5) ينتقل باقي الغاز باتجاه المخرج البارد، تنتقل طاقته الحرارية إلى الجريان المحيطي أثناء مروره في طريق المخرج البارد. مع أن درجة الحرارة عند المحور وفي المحيط هي نفسها تقريبًا في كل مكان، فإن الدوران أبطأ عند المحور؛ لذا فالإنتالبية الكلية أقل أيضًا. 6) يغادر الغاز المبرَّد للجريان المحوري من المخرج البارد بإنتالبية كلية منخفضة.

الظاهرة الفيزيائية الرئيسية للأنبوبة الإعصارية هي انفصال درجة الحرارة بين نواة الدوامة الباردة ومحيط الدوامة الدافئ. «أثر الدوامة الإعصارية» مشروح بالكامل في علاقة أويلر للعمل، المعروفة أيضًا باسم معادلة أويلر العنفية، التي يمكن كتابتها بشكلها الشعاعي الأعم بالشكل التالي:

حيث  درجة الحرارة الكلية أو درجة حرارة التوقف للغاز الدائر عند الموضع القطري ، يرمز لسرعة الغاز المطلقة بالنسبة لإطار مرجعي ثابت بالرمز ؛ السرعة الزاوية للنظام هي  و هي السعة الحرارية للغاز بثبات الضغط. نشرت هذه المعادلة عام 2012؛ وهي تشرح المبدأ الأساسي لعمل الأنابيب الإعصارية. بدأ البحث عن هذا التفسير عام 1933 حين اكتُشفت الأنبوبة الإعصارية واستمر البحث لأكثر من ثمانين عامًا.

العلاقة السابقة صحيحة لمجرى عنفة أديباتية؛ وهي تظهر بوضوح أنه في حين يبرد الغاز المتحرك باتجاه المركز، فإن الغاز المحيطي في المجرى «يصبح أسرع». وبالتالي، التبريد الإعصاري يحدث بسبب الطرد الزاوي. كلما برد الغاز بوصوله إلى المركز، كلما ازداد مقدار الطاقة الدورانية التي يوصلها إلى الدوامة وبالتالي تدور الدوامة بشكل أسرع فأسرع. ينتج هذا التفسير مباشرةً عن قانون انحفاظ الطاقة. يتوسع الغاز المضغوط عند درجة حرارة الغرفة لاكتساب السرعة عبر فوهة؛ ثم يعبر الحاجز النابذي للدوران الذي تضيع خلاله الطاقة أيضًا. تصل الطاقة الضائعة إلى الأنبوبة، التي تسرع دورانها. في الأنبوبة الإعصارية، يقيد الجدار الأسطواني المحيط التدفق عند محيط الأنبوبة وبالتالي يجبر الطاقة على التحول من طاقة حركية إلى طاقة داخلية، ما ينتج هواءً ساخنًا عند المخرج الساخن.

بالتالي، فإن الأنبوبة الإعصارية موسع عنفي بدون جزء دوار. تتألف من عنفة جريان داخلي بدون دوار (الطرف البارد، والمركز) وضاغط نابذي بدون دوار (الطرف الساخن والمحيط). يتحول خرج العنفة من العمل إلى حرارة عن طريق الضاغط في الطرف الساخن.

كفائتها
كفائتها اقل من مكيف الهواء المستخدم في التطبيقات الصناعية، وتستخدم عادة في التطبيقات التي يكون فيها هواء مضغوط متاح ويتم استغلاله في عمليات تبريد غير مكلفة حيث يمكنها إخراج هواء ابرد من الداخل بحوالي 45 درجة سيلزية.

تطبيقات
نظرا لكفائتها المنخفضة فعادة يتم استخدمها في الصناعات التي تنتج هواءا مضغوطا فيتم ادخالها في خط الإنتاج للاستفادة منه.

مراجع

تقنيات التبريد
تقنيات الغازات
ديناميكا حرارية
مضخات حرارية

أنبوبة الدوامة


Europsko prvenstvo u nogometu 2024. obično nazivano UEFA Euro 2024. ili jednostavnije Euro 2024, bit će 17. izdanje UEFA europskog prvenstva, međunarodnog muškog nogometnog prvenstva Europe koje organizira UEFA svake četiri godine. Prvenstvo će biti održano u deset gradova u Njemačkoj. Naslov prvaka brani Italija.

Kandidati za domaćina
U ožujku 2017. godine, UEFA je objavila imena dviju zemalja koje su se natjecale za domaćinstvo prvenstva 2024. godine, a to su Njemačka i Turska. Glasovanje je bilo održano 27. rujna 2018. godine u Nyonu te je s 12 glasova domaćinstvo 2024. dobila Njemačka.

Izvršni odbor UEFA-e glasovao je domaćinu tajnim glasovanjem. Od dvadeset članova Izvršnog odbora, dva nisu bili u mogućnosti glasovati, a jedan je odsutan, ostavljajući ukupno sedamnaest članova koji su glasovali.

Izvori

 Skupni predlošci nogometnih natjecanja

Europsko prvenstvo u nogometu – Njemačka 2024.


Corrado Gini () a fost un statistician, demograf și sociolog italian care a avut mai multe contribuții statistice, dintre care coeficientul omonim, coeficientul lui Gini, o măsură a inegalității veniturilor într-o societate, este cel mai cunoscut. Gini a fost un susținător al organicismului și a aplicat-o națiunilor timpului său.

Cariera
Gini s-a născut pe 23 mai 1884, în Motta di Livenza, lângă Treviso, într-o familie de vechi latifundiari. A intrat la Facultatea de Drept din cadrul Universității din Bologna, unde, pe lângă drept, a studiat matematica, economia și biologia.

Activitatea științifică a lui Gini s-a desfășurat în două direcții: către științele sociale și către statistici. Interesele sale au variat mult dincolo de aspectele formale ale statisticilor, atingând legile care guvernează fenomenele biologice și sociale.

Prima sa publicație a fost Sexul din punct de vedere statistic (Il sesso dal punto di vista statistic - 1908). Această lucrare este o revizuire amănunțită a raportului sexului natal, analizând teoriile trecute și modul în care ipoteza nouă se potrivește cu datele statistice. În special, în lucrare se prezintă dovezi că tendința de a produce un sex sau altul  al copilului este, într-o oarecare măsură, ereditară.

În 1910, el a aderat la Catedra de Statistică din Universitatea din Cagliari și apoi la Universitatea din Padova, în 1913.

A fondat revista statistică Metron în 1920, conducând-o până la moarte, în care a acceptat numai articole cu aplicații practice.

A devenit profesor la Universitatea Sapienza din Roma în 1925. La această universitate a fondat un curs de predare privind sociologia, menținându-l până la pensionare. De asemenea, a înființat Școala de Statistică în 1928 și, în 1936, Facultatea de Științe Statistice, Demografice și Actuariene.

Sub fascism
În 1926, a fost numit președinte al Institutului Central de Statistică al Italiei, din Roma. Acesta fusese organizat, la timpul său, ca un singur centru pentru serviciile statistice italiene.

Pe de altă parte, deși Gini a fost un intim al lui Mussolini pe parcursul anilor 1920, culminând în 1927 cu publicarea unui tratat intitulat "Bazele științifice ale fascismului". , ulterior s-a distanțat de Il Duce, iar apoi a demisionat din cadrul institutului în 1932.

În 1929, Gini a fondat Comitetul Italian pentru Studiul Problemelor Populației (în original, Comitato italiano per lo studio dei problemi della popolazione), care, doi ani mai târziu, a organizat primul Congres al Populației de la Roma.

Gini și evreii
Fiind un eugenist, în afară de a fi demograf, a condus o expediție pentru a studia populațiile poloneze, printre care se numărau și karaiții. Gini a fost, în anii 1920, un susținător al fascismului, chiar dacă ulterior s-a distanțat de fascism și nazism, exprimându-și atunci speranța că Germania nazistă și Italia fascistă vor apărea victorioase în cel de-al doilea război mondial. Cu toate acestea, el nu a susținut nicio măsură de excludere a evreilor.

Funcții deținute
Momentele de vârf pe parcursul carierei sale includ:
 În 1933 - vicepreședinte al Institutului Sociologic Internațional
 În 1934 - președinte al societății italiene de genetică și eugenie
 În 1935 - președinte al Federației Internaționale a Societăților de Eugenie din țările cu limbă latină
 În 1937 - președinte al Societății Sociologice din Italia
 În 1941 - președinte al Societății Italiene de Statistică
 În 1957 - Medalia de aur pentru un serviciu remarcabil la dezvoltarea Școlii italianene de statistică.
 În 1962 - membru național al Accademia dei Lincei.

Mișcarea unionistă italiană
La 12 octombrie 1944, mult timp după distanțarea sa de fascism, Gini s-a alăturat activistului calabrian Santi Paladino și colegilor statisticianului Ugo Damiani pentru a întemeia Mișcarea Uniunii Italiene, pentru care emblema a fost reprezentată de celebrele Stele și Dungi ale steagului american, Steagul Italiei și o hartă a lumii. Potrivit celor trei bărbați, guvernul Statelor Unite ar trebui să anexeze toate națiunile libere și democratice din întreaga lume, transformându-se astfel într-un guvern mondial, și permițând Washington, DC să mențină Pământul în o condiție perpetuă a păcii. Partidul a existat până în 1948, dar nu a avut succes și scopurile sale nu au fost susținute de Statele Unite.

Organicismul și națiunile
Gini a fost un susținător al organizației, care promova organicismul și a văzut națiunile ca fiind organice în natură. Gini a împărtășit opinia deținută de Oswald Spengler că populațiile trec printr-un ciclu de naștere, creștere și decădere. Gini a susținut că națiunile la un nivel primitiv au o rată a natalității ridicate, dar, pe măsură ce evoluează, rata natalității scade în timp ce clasa muncitoare (clasa inferioară) evoluează. Rata natalității, în timp, se va epuiza în mod inevitabil, deoarece membrii ei mai puternici emigrează, mor în război sau intră în clasele superioare, fără nicio rezistență.

Gini a afirmat că națiunea va intra într-o etapă finală în care națiunea s-ar degenera, după cum se observă, prin scăderea natalității, scăderea producției culturale și lipsa de cucerire al imperialismului imperial. În acest moment, națiunea decadentă, cu o populație îmbătrânită, poate fi depășită de o națiune mai tânără și mai viguroasă. Se crede că teoriile organice ale națiunilor și teoria natalitatea lui Gini au influențat politicile din Fascismul italian.

Onoruri
Următoarele titluri de onoare au fost conferite lui Corrado Gini:
 în Economie de către Universitatea Catolică a Inimii Sacre din Milano (1932),
 în Sociologie de către Universitatea din Geneva (1934),
 în Științe de către Universitatea Harvard (1936),
 în Științe sociale de către Universitatea din Cordoba, Argentina (1963).

Bibliografie incompletă
 Il sesso dal punto di vista statistica: le leggi della produzione dei sessi (1908)
 Sulla misura della concentrazione e della variabilità dei caratteri (1914)
 Quelques considérations au sujet de la construction des nombres indices des prix et des questions analogues (1924)
 Memorie di metodologia statistica. Vol.1: Variabilità e Concentrazione (1955)
 Memorie di metodologia statistica. Vol.2: Transvariazione (1960)
 "The Scientific Basis of Fascism," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 42, No. 1 (Mar., 1927), pp. 99–115 (17 pages) at JSTOR

Referințe

Legături externe

 Biography Of Corrado Gini at the Metron, the statistics journal he founded.
 Paper on "Corrado Gini and Italian Statistics under Fascism" by Giovanni Favero June 2002
 A. Forcina and G. M. Giorgi "Early Gini's Contributions to Inequality Measurement and Statistical Inference." JEHPS mars 2005
 Another photograph

Nașteri în 1884
Nașteri pe 23 mai
Decese în 1965
Decese pe 13 martie
Absolvenți ai Universității din Bologna
Eugeniști italieni
Fasciști italieni
Fellows of the Econometric Society
Oameni din Motta di Livenza
Profesori ai Universității Sapienza din Roma
Profesori ai Universității din Cagliari
Sociologi italieni
Statisticieni italieni
Cadre didactice ale Universității din Padova
Profesori universitari italieni

Corrado Gini


Kazuki Ganaha (født 26. september 1980) er en japansk fodboldspiller.

Japans fodboldlandshold

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Eksterne henvisninger

Japan National Football Team Database

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Kazuki Ganaha


Euskadi is Basque language for the Basque Country, an autonomous community in northern Spain.

Euskadi or Euzkadi may also refer to:

 Euzkadi (newspaper), a Basque nationalist newspaper 1913–1939
 Euskadi (Continental cycling team), a former Spanish cycling team
 Euskadi–Murias, a former Spanish cycling team
 C.D. Euzkadi, a former Mexican football team

See also

 ETA (separatist group) (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna, 'Basque Homeland and Liberty')

Euskadi (disambiguation)


Galeria Calina este un spațiu de artă contemporană inaugurat în 26 februarie 2007, în vecinătatea Hotelului Timișoara și Operei Române, în centrul orașului Timișoara. Galeria Calina își propune să expună artiști contemporani din țară și străinătate, încurajând creația tinerilor. Expozițiile sunt completate cu cataloage, filme, flyere, cărți poștale despre artist și creația sa.

Susținători
 Alexandra Titu
 Ileana Pintilie
 Constantin Prut
 Pia Brînzeu
 Dan Hăulică
 Emil Moldovan
 Olivia Nițiș
 Robert Șerban
 Cristian-Robert Velescu
 Marcel Tolcea
 Ciprian Radovan
 Carol David
 Ruxandra Demetrescu
 Liviana Dan
 Diana Marincu
 Rose Marie Barrientos
 Facultatea de Arte și Design, Timișoara

Proiectul ARTISTHETEACHER
ARTISTHETEACHER este un proiect inițiat de Bogdan Rața, împreună cu Alina Cristescu, în parteneriat cu Facultatea de Arte și Design, Timișoara și conține conferințe, dezbateri performance, expoziții, prezentări și workshop-uri în perioada februarie – iulie 2017. . Pe lângă evenimentele proiectului reprezentanții galeriei invită zilnic pasionații de artă contemporană la discuții libere, dezbateri și selecții de cărți și albume de artă.

Scopul proiectului
Proiectul ARTISTHETEACHER este creat cu scopul de a semnala publicului propune cât de importantă este prezența artistului și a materiei în actul artistic și educațional, faptul că arta trebuie să aibă un rol educativ, dar și cât de mult poate să transmită artistul și materia cu care acesta lucrează. În plus, toate reprezentațiile din cadrul proiectului mai sus menționat, intenționează să creeze un dialog între public, cei care studiază arta și artist.

Invitați
 Mihai Zgondoiu
 Alexandra Pirici
 Anetta Mona Chișa
 Lia Perjovschi
 Lavinia German
 Anca Benera & Arnold Estefan
 Lea Rasovszky

Expoziții
Începând cu anul 2007 și până în prezent, în cadrul galeriei, au avut loc numeroase expoziții ale unor nume cunoscute printre artiștii de artă contemporană.

2007

 Silvia Radu .
 ArtTerapie
 Leon Vreme
 Ilie Boca
 Mihai Chiuaru
 Liliana Mercioiu
 Kocsis Rudolf
 Șerbana Drăgoescu
 Cristian Sida
 Ion Sălișteanu
 Jecza Peter

2008
 Ștefan Pelmuș
 Onisim Colta
 Corneliu Vasilescu
 Marilena Preda Sânc
 Alexandru Rădvan
 Grup 5
 Călin Beloescu
 Simion Moldovan
 Márta Jakobovits
 Simona Nuțiu Gradoux
 Felix Aftene
 Gheorghe Fikl
 Pavel Vereș

2009
 Giulia Delcea
 Nada Stojici
 Ugron Réka
 Ciprian Ciuclea
 Sorin Oncu
 Simona Dobrescu
 Sorin Scurtulescu
 Andrei Ciubotaru
 Magda și Bogdan Pelmuș
 Liviu Epuraș
 Andreea Foanene
 Mihai Zgondoiu
 Cristina Garabențanu

2010
 Cosmin Moldovan
 Cosmin Haiaș
 Romul Nuțiu
 Răzvan Boar
 Levente Benedek
 Jan Eugen
 Radu Buriac
 Cristian Buzneanu
 TAJÓ
 Stelian Acea
 Lihor Laza Vasile

2011

 Constantin Flondor
 Imre Zoltán
 Róbert Köteles
 Patricia Stanga Iusztin
 Diana Serghiuță
 Dana Constantin
 Teodor Moraru
 Carmen Acsinte
 George Ciora

2012

 Napoleon Tiron
 Doru Dumitrescu
 Mircea Stănescu
 Daniel Djamo
 Ciprian Radovan
 Aitch & Saddo
 Suzana Dan
 Diana Vidrașcu
 Adriana Ilin Tomici

2013

 Ciprian Homorodean
 Ștefan Petrică
 Radu Afrim
 Hanakam & Schuller
 Irina Broboană
 Cristian Raduță
 Mircea Popescu
 Vică Tilă – Adorian
 Barabancea & Borduz
 Ioana Iacob

2014

 Simona Homorodean & Jay Thorne
 Patricia Teodorescu
 Flavia Lupu
 Simona Nuțiu Gradoux
 Gili Mocanu
 Arantxa Etcheverria

2015

 Claudiu Cobilanschi
 Vlad Nancă
 Iulia Toma
 Valeriu Șchiau
 Marilena Preda Sânc
 Ștefan Radu Crețu
 Sebastian Moldovan

2016

 Iulian Bisericaru
 Sorin Oncu
 Cătălin Burcea
 Mimi Ciora
 Decebal Scriba
 Aurora Király
 APPARATUS 22 .

Referințe

Bibliografie
 Galeria Calina
 Ziarul Ziua de Vest, ediția online, 16.06.2017
 Evive - Artă și cultură Timisoara - Galeria Calina

Galerii de artă din România
Muzee din Timișoara

Galeria Calina


Hydnora est un genre de plantes à fleurs de la famille des Aristolochiaceae. Cette parasite de Fabaceae est originaire d'Afrique, de Madagascar, et de la péninsule Arabique.

Étymologie
Le nom du genre Hydnora dérive du Grec ancien  (« truffe »), en raison de la structure somatique de ce parasite racinaire.

Génomique
L'un des plus petits génomes de plastes parmi les plantes à fleurs a été trouvé dans le genre Hydnora. Par rapport au génome chloroplastique de ses parents photosynthétiques les plus proches, le plastome d'Hydnora visseri montre une réduction extrême à la fois de la taille (environ 27 kilo paires de bases) et du contenu en gènes (24 gènes semblent être fonctionnels).

Ethnobotanique

Hydnora abyssinica est vendue sur les marchés d'herbes d'Afrique australe au Mozambique et en Afrique du Sud. En Afrique du Sud, les Xhosa utiliseraient une fine pâte de rhizome d'Hydnora en poudre pour traiter l'acné et d'autres affections cutanées. En Ouganda, les Hydnora spp. seraient utilisés comme aliments (fruits) et médicaments (rhizomes) contre la diarrhée, l'hypertension et le diabète bien que ces affirmations n'aient pas été confirmées.

Taxonomie
Les espèces suivantes sont répertoriées dans le gendre Hydnora :

 Hydnora abyssinica A.Br. - Oman, Yémen, Arabie saoudite; S + C + SE + E Afrique Érythrée + Soudan à la Namibiee + KwaZulu-Natal
 Hydnora africana Thunb. - Angola, Namibie, Province du Cap
 Hydnora arabicaBolin & Musselman - Oman & Yémen
 Hydnora esculenta Jum. & H.Perrier - Madagascar
 Hydnora sinandevu Beentje & Q.Luke - Kenya, Tanzanie
 Hydnora triceps Drège & E.Mey. - Cap-Nord, Namibie
 Hydnora visseri Bolin, E.Maass, & Musselman - Cap-Nord, Namibie

Références

Aristolochiaceae
Genre de Dicotylédones (nom scientifique)
Plante parasite

Hydnora


Jobabo es un municipio y ciudad en la Provincia de Las Tunas de Cuba. Está localizada en la parte sureste de la provincia, 36 km al sur de Las Tunas, la capital provincial.

Jobabo es nombrada así de la palabra en taíno jobabol, que significa "un lugar donde crecen muchos árboles de jobo".

Demografía

En 2004 el municipio de Jobabo tenía una población de 49 403 habitantes, mientras que en 2009 tenía 47 580 habitantes, en 2010 tenía 47 350 habitantes, y en 2017, tenía 43.123 habitantes. Con un área total de 885.4 km², tiene una densidad de población de 53.5 habitantes/km².

Historia

A comienzos del , tiempo en que arribaron los españoles para colonizar, había asentamientos aborígenes en las orillas del río Jobabo, en un lugar conocido como Caobilla, en el cual se les obligó eventualmente a lavar oro. En el año 1533 se produjo ahí mismo la primera sublevación de esclavos en Cuba, que fue reprimida. Existieron otros establecimientos de personas ubicados en Zabalo y Virama.

Entre 1510 y 1607, Jobabo fue parte de la Villa de Bayamo. Entre 1607 y 1868 formó parte de la Gobernación de Santiago de Cuba. Entre 1868 y 1902, el territorio perteneció al Departamento Provincial Oriental y entre 1902 y 1974, en un periodo de la historia territorial de Cuba en el que se dividió el país en seis provincias, integró a la antigua provincia Oriente. Tras la reorganización del territorio de 1976, formó parte como municipio de la nueva provincia de Las Tunas.
  En Jobabo se encuentra el mayor reservorio de Cocodrilos Acutus en Latinoamérica

Véase también

 Municipios de Cuba
 Anexo:Ciudades de Cuba

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Sitio web del quehacer cultural jobabense
 Artículo sobre Jobabo en EcuRed

Municipios de la provincia de Las Tunas

Jobabo


Der Stotzheimer Bach ist ein kleiner Bach im Vorgebirge westlich von Köln. Noch um 1970 entsprang er nördlich von Kloster Burbach und mündete anfangs am nördlichen Ortsende von Efferen vor dem Flurstück  Schleifkotten, vor der dort früher stehenden Schleifkotten- oder Lowenmühle und später am südlichen Ortsende in Efferen in den Duffesbach.

Verlauf
Heute entspringt er dem Hürther Waldsee und durchquert den Ort Alstädten-Burbach, weshalb er in diesem Teil auch heute noch Bornbach oder Burbacher Bach genannt wird. Er mündet am Westrand von Stotzheim in den Kölner Randkanal. Der naturnahe Bachbereich des Burbach ist hier als Geschütztes Biotop eingestuft.

Früherer Verlauf
Es scheint erwiesen, dass auch dieser Bach ursprünglich nicht den Rhein erreichte, sondern vor Köln im Schotter versickerte. Es wird vermutet, dass dies im ehemaligen Feuchtgebiet Beller Maar westlich von Efferen geschah. Die Römer fassten auch diese Quelle und führten sie zum Vorläufer der Eifelwasserleitung als Burbacher Leitung zum Knotenpunkt an der Burg Hermülheim und von da weiter zur Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium. Nach dem Verfall der Leitung floss der Bach wieder in seinem Bett. Teils wurde er auch in künstlichen Rinnen gelenkt. So bekamen die Nonnen des Klosters Burbach 1236 von Graf Wilhelm von Jülich die Erlaubnis, den Bach durch sein Gebiet zu leiten, wohin der Konvent es für gut befinde. So verstärkte er dann den Duffesbach vor der Schleifkottenmühle in Efferen und kam so noch den Kölnern zugute (Zu den Mühlen am Bornbach und in Hürth → Mühlen im Raum Hürth).

Grünzug West
Der Bach ist als Landschaftsschutzgebiet einbezogen in einen der von der Regionale 2010 und der Maßnahme Regio grün beplanten fünf Grünzügen zu den Villeseen. Dieser führt zum Otto-Maigler-See. Der Abschnitt zwischen Stotzheim und dem Grüngürtel (ohne den Bach) wird durch den Feldweg Decksteiner Straße gebildet. Er wurde 2010 einseitig mit Stieleichen bepflanzt.

Einzelnachweise

Geographie (Hürth)

Stotzheimer Bach


El Partido Inhlava (Inhlava Party en inglés original e inicialmente Inhlava Forum) es un partido político de Suazilandia fundado en abril de 2006. Su líder es Mfomfo Nkhambule.

En febrero de 2008, el partido Inhlava junto con el Movimiento Popular Democrático Unido, el Congreso de Liberación Nacional Ngwane llamaron a un boicot contra las comicios de ese año debido a que "daría al Estado un brillo de falsa legitimidad".

Referencias

Partidos políticos de Suazilandia
Partidos políticos fundados en 2006

Partido Inhlava


Oklalı, Çatalca - İstanbul ili Çatalca ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Oklalı, Lüleburgaz - Kırklareli ili Lüleburgaz ilçesine bağlı köy

Oklalı


The 1945 World Series was the championship series in Major League Baseball for the 1945 season. The 42nd edition of the World Series, it matched the American League champion Detroit Tigers against the National League champion Chicago Cubs.  The Tigers won the Series in seven games, giving them their second championship and first since .

In the decisive Game 7, Paul Richards drove in four runs to lead the Tigers to a 9–3 victory to clinch the Series.

The World Series again used the 3–4 wartime setup for home field sites, instead of the normal 2–3–2. Although the major hostilities of World War II had ended, some of the rules were still in effect and many of the best MLB players were still in military service. Warren Brown, author of a history of the Cubs in 1946, commented on this by titling one chapter "World's Worst Series". He also cited a famous quote of his, referencing himself anonymously and in the third person. When asked who he liked in the Series, he answered, "I don't think either one of them can win it."

In a similar vein, Frank Graham jokingly called this Series "the fat men versus the tall men at the office picnic."

One player decidedly not fitting that description was the Tigers' slugger Hank Greenberg, who had been discharged from military service early. He hit the only two Tigers homers in the Series, and scored seven runs overall and also drove in seven.

The Curse of the Billy Goat originated in this Series before the start of Game 4. Having last won the Series in , the Cubs owned the dubious record of both the longest league pennant drought and the longest World Series drought in history, not winning (or appearing in) another World Series until .

The Series was a rematch of the 1935 World Series. In that year's Game 6, Stan Hack led off the top of the ninth inning with a triple, but was stranded.  The Cubs lost the game and the Series. Hack was still with the Cubs in 1945. According to Warren Brown's account, Hack was seen surveying the field before the first Series game. When asked what he was doing, Hack responded, "I just wanted to see if I was still standing there on third base."

Summary

Matchups

Game 1

The visiting Cubs began with a bang, scoring four times in the first. With two outs and runners on first and third, a passed ball by future Hall of Famer Hal Newhouser scored the game's first run. After an intentional walk, a two-run Bill Nicholson double and Mickey Livingston's RBI single made it 4–0 Cubs. In the third, after a leadoff double, Phil Cavarretta's single and Andy Pafko's double scored a run each. One out later, Livingston's second RBI single of the game knocked Newhouser out of the game. Cavarretta's two-out home run in the seventh off Jim Tobin made it 8–0. Pafko then singled, stole second, moved to third on a passed ball, and scored the game's last run on Nicholson's single. Hank Borowy pitched a complete-game shutout despite allowing 12 base runners as the Cubs took a 1–0 series lead.

Game 2

The Cubs struck first when Phil Cavarretta doubled with one out in the fourth and scored on Bill Nicholson's single. After 13 innings without a run, Detroit finally got going in a big way in the fifth. Hank Wyse got two outs, before allowing a single and walk. Doc Cramer's RBI single tied the game before Hank Greenberg's three-run home run put the Tigers up 4–1. Virgil Trucks allowed no other runs in a complete game as the Tigers tied the series at a game apiece.

Game 3

Claude Passeau pitched a complete game one-hitter. The only hit of the game came with two outs in the second inning off the bat of Rudy York. Other Series pitchers in the "low-hit Complete Game Club" are:

The Cubs scored two runs in the fourth off Stubby Overmire on RBI singles by Bill Nicholson and Roy Hughes after a leadoff double and one-out walk. They added another run in the seventh off Al Benton when Mickey Livingston hit a leadoff double, moved to third on a groundout and scored on Claude Passeau's sacrifice fly. They now led the series 2–1.

Game 4

The Series shifted to Wrigley Field and the so-called Curse of the Billy Goat began. Dizzy Trout went the distance for Detroit with a five-hitter. A four-run fourth against Cub starter Ray Prim gave Trout all the runs he needed. After a one-out walk and single, Hank Greenberg's RBI single and Roy Cullenbine's RBI double knocked starter Ray Prim out of the game. Paul Derringer intentionally walked Rudy York before Jimmy Outlaw's groundout and Paul Richards's single scored a run each. The Cubs scored their only run of the game in the sixth when Don Johnson hit a leadoff triple and scored on Peanuts Lowrey's groundout. The series was now tied 2–2.

Game 5

Back in form, Hal Newhouser went the distance for Detroit, striking out nine. The Tigers struck first in the top of the third on Doc Cramer's sacrifice fly with runners on first and third, but the Cubs tied the game in the bottom half when Hank Borowy doubled with two outs and scored on Stan Hack's single. In the sixth, Cramer hit a leadoff single and scored on Hank Greenberg's double. After a single, Rudy York's RBI single knocked starter Hank Borowy out of the game. Hy Vandenberg in relief intentionally walked Paul Richards with one out to load the bases before a walk to Newhouser and Skeeter Webb's groundout scored a run each. Next inning, Jimmy Outlaw's sacrifice fly with runners on first and third off Paul Derringer made it 6–1 Tigers. In the bottom of the inning, with runners on first and third with two outs, Bill Nicholson's fielder's choice and Mickey Livingston's ground-rule double scored a run each. In the ninth, after a hit-by-pitch and double, Roy Cullenbine's two-run double off Paul Erickson made it 8–3 Tigers. In the bottom half, Phil Cavarretta hit a leadoff double and scored on Nicholson's one out single before Newhouser retired the next two batters to end the game and put the Tigers one win away from the championship. The Cubs' World Series record at Wrigley Field now stood at 1–10.

Game 6

In Game 6, the Tigers struck first on a bases-loaded walk to Paul Richards by Claude Passeau in the second. In the fifth with the bases loaded off Virgil Trucks, Stan Hack's two-run single put the Cubs up 2–1. After another walk loaded the bases, Phil Cavarretta's two-run single knocked Trucks out of the game. Back-to-back leadoff doubles next inning by Mickey Livingston and Roy Hughes off Tommy Bridges made it 5–1 Cubs. In the top of the seventh with two on and two outs, RBI singles by Roy Cullenbine off Passeau and Rudy York off Hank Wyse cut the Cubs' lead to 5–3, but they got those runs back in the bottom half on a bases loaded walk to Livingston by Bridges followed by Roy Hughes's RBI single off Al Benton. In the top of the eighth, after a leadoff walk and double, an error on Joe Hoover's ground ball scored a run, then Eddie Mayo's RBI single scored another with Hoover going to third and Mayo being tagged out at second. Ray Prim relieved Wyse and allowed a sacrifice fly to Doc Cramer before Hank Greenberg's home run tied the game. In the 12th, after a one-out single by Frank Secory off Dizzy Trout, pinch-runner Bill Schuster came all the way around on Stan Hack's walk-off double to left, forcing a Game 7.

Besides being the last World Series game the Cubs won until Game 2 in 2016, this would also be the second—and last—World Series game that the Cubs would win before their hometown fans at Wrigley Field, until Game 5 in 2016. The only other Wrigley victory was Game 5 in 1935.

Game 7

The Cubs went with the overworked Borowy, who lasted just three batters, each of whom singled, the last of which scored a run. Paul Derringer replaced him, intentionally walked Roy Cullenbine with one out to load the bases, then one out later, walked Jimmy Outlaw before Paul Richards cleared the bases with a three-run double. The Cubs got a run in the bottom of the first on Phil Cavarretta's RBI single with two on off Hal Newhouser, but in the second, Derringer allowed a two-out single, then three consecutive walks to force in another run. The Cubs got another run in the fourth when Cavaretta singled and scored on Andy Pafko's triple. In the seventh, Cullenbine drew a leadoff walk off Paul Erickson and scored on Paul Richards's two-out double. Next inning, Skeeter Webb drew a leadoff walk off Claude Passeau and scored on Eddie Mayo's double. After moving to third on a groundout, he scored on Hank Greenberg's sacrifice fly. The Cubs scored just one more run in the bottom of the inning on Bill Richardson's RBI double with two on as Newhouser pitched a complete game to give the Tigers the championship.

The Tigers would not make another World Series appearance until winning it in , while the Cubs would not make the postseason again until 1984 and not appear in another World Series until winning it in .

Composite box
1945 World Series (4–3): Detroit Tigers (A.L.) over Chicago Cubs (N.L.)

Notes

See also
1945 Negro World Series

References

External links

 Detroit Tigers History

World Series
World Series
Detroit Tigers postseason
Chicago Cubs postseason
World Series
World Series
1940s in Chicago
1945 in Detroit
October 1945 sports events in the United States
Baseball competitions in Chicago
Baseball competitions in Detroit

1945 World Series


Kuglački klub "Trogir" (KK "Trogir"; K.K. "Trogir"; Trogir) je muški kuglački klub iz Trogira, Splitsko-dalmatinska županija. Republika Hrvatska.
U sezoni 2020./21. klub se natječe u "3. hrvatskoj kuglačkoj ligi – Jug", ligi čertvrtog stupnja hrvatske kuglačke lige za muškarce.

O klubu
KK "Trogir" je službeno registriran 1974. godine.
Po osamostaljenju Hrvatske, klub se pretežno natječe u ligama kuglačke regije "Jug". U sezoni 1999./2000. su se natjecali u "1. B lige – Jug".
Zbog neuvjetnosti kuglane u Trogiru, KK "Trogir" za natjecanja koristi kuglanu u Trilju.

Uspjesi
 2. HKL – Jug
 doprvak: 2018./19.

 3. HKL – Jug
 doprvak: 2010./11.

Ekipno

Pojedinačno (po disciplinama)

Pregled plasmana po sezonama

Poznati igrači

Unutarnje poveznice

Vanjske poveznice
 kuglanje.hr, Trogir
 kuglanje.hr, Kuglački klub Trogir – 810133
 sportilus.com, KUGLAČKI KLUB TROGIR

Izvori

 trogir.hr, Športski klubovi, pristupljeno 17. studenog 2020.
 jktrogir.hr, Proradila Zajednica športskih udruga Trogira, objavljeno 20. siječnja 2010., pristupljeno 17. studenog 2020.
 poslovna.hr, Kuglački klub Trogir
 fininfo.hr, K.K. "TROGIR"
 bisnode.hr, Kuglački klub "Trogir"
 mojatvrtka.net, Kuglački klub Trogir

Trogir
Šport u Trogiru

Kuglački klub Trogir


Euphorbia collina puede hacer referencia a:
 Euphorbia collina Brandegee, nom. illeg., sinónimo de Euphorbia arizonica.
 Euphorbia collina Phil., sinónimo de Euphorbia portulacoides subsp. collina.
 Euphorbia collina Willd. ex Ledeb., pro syn., sinónimo de Euphorbia nicaeensis subsp. nicaeensis.

Euphorbia collina


La Copa de la Liga de Primera División de 1986 fue la cuarta y última edición disputada de este torneo. Se jugó entre los meses de mayo y junio de 1986. La coincidencia con la Copa Mundial de Fútbol de 1986 jugada en México, no ayudó a aumentar el interés por el torneo, los internacionales, convocados para el mundial, no pudieron participar en él. Por primera vez la Copa de la Liga solo se jugó en la categoría de Primera División. Sería jugada por los dieciocho equipos de Primera División, el Real Oviedo como vencedor de la Copa de la Liga de Segunda la campaña anterior, el Sestao Sport Club y el Albacete Balompié como vencedores en Segunda B y la Unión Balompédica Conquense que se alzó con el trofeo en Tercera.

La última final enfrentaría al FC Barcelona y al Real Betis decantándose del lado blaugrana que ya se había proclamado campeón en la primera edición.

Primera ronda

Dieciocho equipos entraron en liza en esta primera eliminatoria quedando exentos el Real Madrid, el Atlético de Madrid y el Barcelona que se habían clasificado para jugar las finales de la Copa de la UEFA, la Recopa y la Copa de Europa, y el Sevilla cuyo campo sería designado para acoger esta última final. Los partidos de ida de esta primera ronda se jugaría el 1 de mayo de 1986, a excepción del encuentro entre la Real Sociedad y el Athletic que se disputó el 4 de mayo; mientras que la vuelta se jugaría el día 8 de mayo, a excepción del partido entre el Real Betis y el Osasuna que se adelantaría al 4 de mayo.

Segunda ronda

Trece equipos iniciaron esta ronda. El Betis, el Real Zaragoza y el Sporting de Gijón accedieron directamente a la siguiente fase, mientras que los diez restantes lucharon por su pase a cuartos. Las eliminatorias se jugarían los días 11 y 14 de mayo para los partidos de ida, y 18 y 21 de mayo para los de vuelta.

Fase final

Tras las dos primeras rondas los ocho equipos clasificados se enfrentaron en tres eliminatorias a ida y vuelta durante los últimos días de mayo y la primera quincena de junio de 1986.

Final

Ida

Vuelta

Tabla de participación

Primera
Temporada 1985-86 de fútbol en España

Copa de la Liga de Primera División 1986


USS Forrest Royal (DD-872) was a United States Navy  constructed following the end of World War II. The ship saw service in the Korean War and the Vietnam War before being sold to Turkey in 1971. The ship was renamed TCG Adatepe and remained in service until being scrapped in 1993.

Forrest Royal, named for Rear Admiral Forrest Beton Royal USN (1893–1945), was laid down by the Bethlehem Steel Corporation at Staten Island, New York on 8 June 1945. The ship was launched on 17 January 1946 by Miss Katherine K. Royal, the daughter of Admiral Royal and commissioned on 29 June 1946.

Forrest Royal operated with the 7th Fleet in support of United Nations Forces during the Korean War then alternated operations along the east coast and in the Caribbean with the 2nd Fleet with deployments to the Mediterranean with the 6th Fleet.

Service history

1946–1960

Forrest Royals operations in the period prior to the Korean War illustrated the varied capability of the modern destroyer, and the wide range of missions which such ships are assigned. She conducted special tests for the Bureau of Ships in the Caribbean, served as plane guard and escort for aircraft carriers, took part in the development of antisubmarine warfare and fired in shore bombardment exercises. Usually based at Pensacola, she visited many ports in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico.

On 26 September 1950, Forrest Royal sailed from Guantanamo Bay for duty in the Korean War, arriving at Sasebo 27 October. Her first assignment was as flagship for the minesweeping at Chinnampo, a port essential to supply operations for the 8th Army. The destroyer's other activities included shore bombardment, blockade, and escort all around the Korean coast, and extensive operations with carrier task forces conducting air strikes. She sailed for home 6 June 1951, returning to Norfolk 2 July.

Forrest Royal received four battle stars for Korean War service.

Forrest Royals next deployment, between 26 August 1952 and 29 January 1953, was for a combination of NATO exercises off the coast of Norway, visits to principal ports in northern Europe, 2 months with the U.S. 6th Fleet in the Mediterranean, and antisubmarine exercises with British ships off Northern Ireland. Through the next year and a half, the destroyer sailed out of Newport, Rhode Island, for exercises along the Atlantic coast and in the Caribbean, often serving with carriers out of Pensacola, Florida.

During a cruise around the world between 2 August 1954 and 14 March 1955, Forrest Royal sailed westward to serve with the U.S. 7th Fleet in Japanese and Philippine waters, thence onward to the Indian Ocean and the Suez Canal to join the 6th Fleet in the Mediterranean, returning across the Atlantic to Newport. She made her next visit to the Mediterranean between 14 September 1956 and 3 April 1957, and during the Suez Crisis, patrolled along the Egyptian and Levant coasts. Assigned to service in the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and Gulf of Suez, Forrest Royal made the long voyage around the African continent for this duty, since the Suez Canal was still blocked.

Forrest Royal took part in a midshipman cruise to South America in the summer of 1957 as well as the International Naval Review in Hampton Roads on 12 June 1957. NATO operations took her to European waters once more that fall, and on 11 July 1958, she sailed from Newport for Morehead City, North Carolina, where amphibious ships of her force embarked Marines for landing exercises at Puerto Rico. This task force cleared San Juan 1 August to land the marines at Beirut, Lebanon, 20 to 28 August, reinforcing the troops earlier landed in the Navy's immediate response to the outbreak of Middle Eastern trouble. Forrest Royal sailed on through the Suez Canal to bring her additional strength to the 7th Fleet as it intensified its activities in the Taiwan Straits in response to renewed Communist shelling of Quemoy and Matsu through September. Her homeward bound passage was by way of Cape Town, South Africa, and she returned to Newport 18 November.

A highlight of Forrest Royals operating schedule in 1959 was her participation in Operation Inland Seas, the movement of a major naval task force into the Great Lakes in connection with the ceremonial opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway. She joined in the naval review on Lake Saint-Louis 26 June taken by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain, and called at United States and Canadian ports to greet thousands of visitors. In March 1960, she sailed once more to the Mediterranean to serve with the 6th Fleet and added a brief tour with the Middle East Force prior to her return to the States in October. She operated out of Newport for the remainder of the year.

1961–1971
From 24 October to 21 November 1962, Forrest Royal was among the US naval vessels deployed during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

In May 1967 as part of Task Force 77, Forrest Royal took part in Operation Sea Dragon. Although air power was the cutting edge of Task Force 77, surface ships were essential to the interdiction campaign in North Vietnam and Laos. In Operation Sea Dragon, begun in October 1966, cruisers, destroyers, and for one month battleship  ranged the North Vietnamese littoral sinking Communist supply craft, shelling coastal batteries and radar sites, and complementing the aerial interdiction effort by bombarding the infiltration routes ashore. While at first restricted to coastal waters south of 17°31'N, by February 1967 the Sea Dragon force was authorized to operate as far north as the 20th parallel. This area was constricted in April 1968 when the bombing halt ended American combat activity north of the 19th parallel.

Steaming generally in pairs, the two to four American and Australian destroyers and one cruiser worked with carrier-based spotter planes, such as the A-l Skyraider and Grumman S-2 Tracker, to find, identify, and destroy infiltrating vessels and shore targets. Often, North Vietnamese coastal batteries fired back. Although several of the 19 ships that were hit required repairs at shipyards in Japan and the Philippines, no vessel was sunk during the two-year-long Sea Dragon operation. Damaged ships were quickly replaced on the gun line and the coastal deployment was maintained. Periodically, this group reinforced the Seventh Fleet cruisers and destroyers providing naval gunfire support to allied forces in South Vietnam. The naval surface group conducted the Sea Dragon effort until the end of October 1968, when American combat operations in North Vietnam ceased. She accompanied dd-763 on Indian Ocean cruise Nov 1969 returning in May 1970.

TCG Adatepe (D 353)

USS Forrest Royal was decommissioned on 27 March 1971, transferred to the Turkish Navy and renamed TCG Adatepe (D 353). She was stricken from the United States Naval Vessel Register on 1 February 1973. Adatepe was seriously damaged in error by Turkish aircraft on 22 July 1974, mistaking it for a Greek vessel during Turkish invasion of Cyprus on Cyprus. The ship was repaired and continued in service with the Turkish Navy until being scrapped in 1993.

References

External links

Gearing-class destroyers of the United States Navy
Ships built in Staten Island
1946 ships
Cold War destroyers of the United States
Korean War destroyers of the United States
Vietnam War destroyers of the United States
Ships transferred from the United States Navy to the Turkish Navy
Gearing-class destroyers of the Turkish Navy

USS Forrest Royal


A Copa da Polônia de Voleibol Masculino de 2021–22 foi 65.ª edição desta competição organizada pela Federação Polonesa de Voleibol (PZPS) e pela Liga Polonesa de Voleibol (PLS). Ao total, 32 equipes participaram desta edição. Esta foi a primeira edição da Copa da Polônia depois da reforma que permitiu a competição de todos os clubes da Plusliga, e não apenas de 6 como nas edições anteriores. As semifinais e a final foram disputadas nos dias 26 e 27 de fevereiro.

O ZAKSA Kędzierzyn-Koźle conquistou seu nono título da competição ao derrotar o Jastrzębski Węgiel na final única. O levantador polonês Marcin Janusz foi eleito o melhor jogador do torneio.

Regulamento
Apenas uma partida foi disputada por rodada.

Fase inicial
A fase introdutória consistiu em quatro rodadas. Apenas as equipes da II liga jogaram na fase de Play-In e de ligas provinciais. Para reduzir os custos ao máximo possível, os rivais foram selecionados com base na localização geográfica. O anfitrião do jogo foi o time que jogava na liga inferior ou se classifica na II Liga na temporada 2021/2022. 17 equipes participaram da fase preliminar.

Fase final
A fase final foi constituída em: décimas sextas de finais, oitavas de final, quartas de final, semifinais e final.

Fase inicial
 Primeira rodada

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 Segunda rodada

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 Terceira rodada

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 Quarta rodada

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Fase final
 Décimas sextas de final

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 Oitavas de final

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 Quartas de final

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 Semifinais

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 Final

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Premiação

Ligações externas

Copa da Polônia de Voleibol Masculino
2021 no voleibol
2022 no voleibol
Desporto na Polônia em 2021
Desporto na Polônia em 2022