Emina Jahović (, Sırpça: Емина Јаховић; d. 15 Ocak 1982, Novi Pazar), Sırbistan-Türkiye vatandaşı Boşnak pop müzik şarkıcısı ve oyuncu. Türk Fabrika ve Makedon Kara Tekstil markaları için katalog modelliği yaptı.

Basketbol oyuncusu Mirsad Türkcan'ın kız kardeşi, şarkıcı Mustafa Sandal'ın eski eşidir. Ülkesinde Emina Jahović, Türkiye'de ise Emina Sandal ve Emina Türkcan olarak tanınır fakat "Türkcan" soyadını resmî olarak hiçbir zaman almamıştır. Bu soyad, sadece ağabeyinin -Türkiye Millî Basketbol Takımı'na girmeden önce- Türk vatandaşlığına geçtikten sonra aldığı soyadıdır. Bir kez Bosna-Hersek ve bir kez de Sırbistan için Eurovision Şarkı Yarışması elemelerine katılan Emina Jahović, İstanbul'da yaşamaktadır. Ülkesinin ve diğer Balkan ülkelerinin müzik dünyasında halk tarafından ve otoritelerce yaygın olarak Дива ve Принцеза (Diva/Müziğin Prensesi) lakapları ile anılmaktadır.

Hayatı
Üç çocuklu bir ailenin en küçük çocuğu olarak Yugoslavya Sosyalist Federal Cumhuriyeti'nin günümüz Sırbistan sınırları içerisinde kalan şehri Novi Pazar'da dünyaya gelmiştir. Ağabeyi Mirsad Türkcan; birçok önemli Amerikalı, Rus, Fransız, İtalyan ve Türk basketbol takımlarında oynamış, Türk vatandaşı olarak NBA'de forma giymiş ilk basketbolcu unvanına sahip başarılı bir basketbolcudur. Üvey kız kardeşi Anastasia S. Jahovic ve Esma Musovic, ablası Sabina psikolog, annesi Seniya Hanım çocuk hekimi, babası Nusret Bey ise kardiyologdur.

On bir yaşındayken babasını kaybetmiştir. Bunun yerine ülkesinde, başkent Belgrad'da BK Üniversitesinde (Univerzitet Braća Karić) yapımcılık, işletme bölümlerinden mezun oldu. Yedi yaşında müzik hayatı başladı. Emina Sandal, ülkesinin en iyi müzik okullarına gitti. Bunlardan bir tanesi, adını ünlü Sırp müzik dehasından alan, Stevan Stojanović Mokranjac Müzik Okulu idi. Bu ünlü okula yedi yaşında klasik gitar eğitimi ile başladı ve okul korosuna alındı, müzik yeteneği henüz o yaşta tüm öğretmenleri tarafından fark edildi.

13 Ocak 2008 tarihinde Mustafa Sandal ile evlenen şarkıcının bu evlilikten iki oğlu oldu. Jahović, Goran Bregović bestesi olan Ti Kvariigro (Ти квариигро) ile 2010 Eurovision Şarkı Yarışması için Sırbistan adına halk ve jüri tarafından seçilen üç adaydan birisi olmuştur.

Türkiye'ye yerleştikten sonra aldığı çok sayıda dizi teklifini kabul etmemesine rağmen, son olarak 2010 yılının Eylül ayında Show TV'de yayınlanmaya başlayan ve ardından Fox TV'de devam eden, Tolgahan Sayışman ile başrolde olduğu Lale Devri isimli dizideki Lale karakterini 2011 yılının Ocak ayına kadar canlandırdı. Türkçe'yi aldığı dersler sonucunda çok güzel ve akıcı bir şekilde öğrenmiş ancak aksan ve diksiyon yönüyle tam olarak bir Türk gibi konuşamadığından dolayı dizide kendisine dublaj yapılmıştır. Lale Devri dizisi için çok yoğun çalıştıktan sonra, 2011 yılının Ocak ayında diziden ayrılan Emina Sandal'ın yerine başrol oyuncusu olarak Serenay Sarıkaya geçmiştir ve yine başrol kadrosuna Selen Soyder eklenmiştir.

Kariyeri
2000 yılında Karadağ'da "Zlatna stava" (Altın Yol) isimli gençlik festivalini "Samo ti, moja muziko" (Sadece sen, müziğim) şarkısıyla kazandı. 2002 yılında "U, la-la." isimli şarkı ile Bosna-Hersek'i Eurovision Şarkı Yarışması'nda temsil etmek için aday gösterildi. Çıkış albümü ile aynı adlı "Tačka" (Nokta) şarkısı, ünlü Boşnak şarkıcı ve bestekâr Dino Merlin tarafından bestelendi. "Osmi dan" (Sekizinci Gün), "Kad si sa njom" (Onunla beraber iken) ve "Odbojka" (Voleybol) da o dönem içerisinde Emina'nın geniş bir hayran kitlesine ulaşmasını sağlayan şarkılar arasındaydı. Bunun ardından 2003 yılında Saraybosna'da "Oskar popularnosti" adlı ülkenin en prestijli ödül töreninde "Altın Star, Yılın Yıldızı" ödülünü elde etti. Aynı yıl içerisinde (2005) o dönemki adıyla Budvanski Festival ya da Festival Budva olarak bilinen, yeni adı ile Pjesma Mediterana (Akdeniz'in Şarkısı) isimli Budva'da düzenlenen müzik yarışmasında "Nije više tvoja stvar" (O Artık Senin Değil!) adlı şarkıyla yarıştı ve en iyi şarkı sözü yazarı & bestecisi ödülünü aldı. 2008 yılının yaz aylarında da Emina; prodüksiyonu ve kaydı tamamen Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin New York şehrinde Bojan Dugić aracılığıyla yapılan "Exhale" (Nefes Ver!) isimli İngilizce albümünü çıkardı. Aynı yıl içerisinde Sırbistan'da genç kitle tarafından oldukça sevilen başarılı şarkıcı Saša Kovačević ile düet yaptığı "Još ti se nadam" (Hâlâ Umudum Var) isimli teklisini (single) çıkardı. 2009 yılında Emina, Bulgaristan'ın en ünlü ulusal kanallarından Balkanika TV'nin düzenlemiş olduğu Balkan Müzik Ödülleri'nde Bosna-Hersek adına Balkanların En İyi Şarkısı ödülünü "Med" (Bal) adlı Dino Merlin ile yaptığı düet ile kazandı, aynı yarışmada Türkiye adına Balkanların En İyi Şarkısı ödülünü alan isim ise "Fast Life" (Hızlı Yaşam) adlı şarkısı ile Hadise idi. Bunların yanı sıra 2010 yılında Eurovision Şarkı Yarışması'nda Sırbistan'ı temsil etmek için ikinci kez aday gösterilen Emina'nın Sırp rakipleri arasında Milan Stanković ve Oliver Katić vardı. Balkan müzik dünyasında "Müziğin Prensesi" olarak bilinen Emina, Sırp müziğinin kraliçesi lakaplı Nataša Bekvalac ile birlikte 8 Mart 2011 tarihli Dünya Kadınlar Günü'nde "Gospodine" (Ev Kadınları) adlı kadınlara ithaf ettikleri şarkıyı çıkarmışlardır. 2014 Eurovision Şarkı Yarışması'nda Karadağ'ı temsil eden Moj Svijet adlı şarkıyı Sergej Ćetković ile beraber yazmıştır. Şarkı Karadağ'ın Eurovision tarihinde finale yükselen ilk ve tek şarkısıdır.

Diskografi

Albümler
 Tačka, 2002
 Osmi Dan, 2002, City Records
 Radije ranije, 2005, City Records
 Exhale, 2008, CDM Multimedia Records
 Pile moje, 2009
 Vila, 2009

Tekliler
 Tačka, 2002
 Osmi Dan (Sekizinci 2002)
 U, la-la (Bosna-Hersek Eurovision Şarkısı) (2002)
 Uzalud se budim, 2003
 Tvoja grešk, 2005
 Radije, ranije, 2005
 Da l' ona zna, 2006
 Nije vise tvoja stvar, 2006
 Pola ostrog noza, 2006
 Cool Žena, 2007
 Exhale, 2008
 Još ti se nadam, (Saša Kovačević ile düet), 2008
 Pile moje, 2009
 Med, (Dino Merlin ile düet), 2009
 Ti kvariigro, (Sırbistan Eurovision Şarkısı), 2010
 Gospodine, (Nataša Bekvalac ile düet), 2011
 Kimse Yok Mu?, 2012
 Yakışmaz

Liste Başarıları

Filmografi

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

1982 doğumlular
Sırp kadın şarkıcılar
Sırp pop şarkıcıları
Sırp kadın modeller
Sırbistan Boşnakları
Türkiye'deki Sırp göçmenler
Klasik pop müzisyenleri
Yaşayan insanlar
21. yüzyıl kadın şarkıcıları

Emina Jahović


Petunieae, tribus pomoćnica (Solanaceae) od 8 biljnih rodova. Tipični rod je Petunia sa 18 vrsta i suptropske i tropske Južne Amerike.

Rodovi
 Fabiana Ruiz & Pav. (16 spp.)
 Calibrachoa Cerv. (29 spp.)
 Petunia Juss. (18 spp.)
 Brunfelsia L. (50 spp.)
 Leptoglossis Benth. (6 spp.)
 Nierembergia Ruiz & Pav. (21 spp.)
 Hunzikeria D´Arcy (3 spp.)
 Plowmania Hunz. & Subils (1 sp.)

Izvori

Krumpirovke

Petunieae


Arcadie Dugan-Opaiț (n. 18 iunie 1878, Cireș-Opăițeni, Storojineț – d. 26 mai 1951, Gura Humorului) a fost un patriot român, profesor,  membru activ, "emeritat" și "onorar", al Societății Academice Românești "Junimea"  din Cernăuți, președinte al Comisiei literare a "Junimii", vicepreședinte al acestei societăți.

Biografie

Născut la 18 iunie 1878, în comuna Cireș-Opăițeni, județul Storojineț, Bucovina, Imperiul Austro-Ungar, fiind fiul cel mare al lui Ionică și al Elenei Dugan născută Vască din Pătrăuții de Sus. Primele clase le-a urmat în satul natal și, ca urmare a străduințelor mamei sale, și-a finalizat cursurile școlii primare la Storojineț. Urmează cursurile Gimnaziului cel Mare din Rădăuți. Susține examenul de bacalaureat în 1898, apoi se înscrie la Universitatea din Cernăuți, dar nu la filologie clasică, unde dovedea reale abilități, ci, la sfatul profesorului dr. Ion Gheorghe Sbiera, la limba germană. Trece cu brio examenele cu profesori nativi și ajunge să predea încă din anul IV de studenție ca profesor suplinitor la Gimnaziul cel Mare din Cernăuți devenit ulterior Liceul "Aron Pumnul".  Satisface stagiul militar între 1902-1903 la Regimentul 4 Infanterie Cernăuți, este apoi numit profesor suplinitor la Gimnaziul Greco-Ortodox din Suceava între 1902-1908, unde se titularizează în 1908 ca profesor de limba germană și gimnastică, această ultimă disciplină la propunerea directorului Ștefan de Repta . Ca student, și mai apoi, în Suceava, are grijă de fratele său, Ilie Dugan-Opaiț, dovedindu-se un profesor exemplar, sever, corect, nepărtinitor. Parcursul sucevean al profesorului Arcadie Dugan-Opaiț se termină dramatic, decedându-i socrul – Ioan Ferlievici - apoi soția, Olga Bărbuță și la numai două săptămâni, Despina, fiica sa. În 1912 se mută la Cernăuți, recăsătorindu-se abia aproape de pensionare, în 1936.

Activitatea la Junimea

Arcadie Dugan-Opaiț se înscrie în Junimea încă de la debutul studenției, desfășurând, începând cu anul 1912, o amplă activitate în cadrul acestei asociații academice, fiind prezent în toate momentele importante ale perioadei interbelice a existenței acesteia: sărbătorirea semicentenarului Junimii, înființarea Căminului Studențesc al Junimii, reuniunile administrative și ale diverselor comisii, așa cum arată documentele din arhive. Contribuie împreună cu fratele său, Ilie Dugan-Opaiț, la apariția revistei umoristice "Hacu", a cărei existență se întinde până în 1938.
După mutarea la Cernăuți, urmare a evenimentelor tragice care i-au marcat parcursul sucevean, Arcadie Dugan se dedică unei intense activități în Junimea. Deși nu mai era membru activ în societate, el își alcătuiește un amplu plan de lucru pentru pregătirea sărbătoririi semicentenarului. Astfel alcătuiește "Memorandumul membrului emeritat Arcadie Dugan", referitor la reformele ce aveau să se realizeze în cadrul societății studențești. Îi vine ideea de a scrie o cronică a Junimii, alcătuind "Șematismul cu membrii societății". Declanșarea Primului Război Mondial face ca activitatea Junimii să înceteze. Sediul societății este închis. O parte a membrilor Junimii trec în România, în frunte cu Traian Popovici, o altă parte sunt înrolați în armata austriacă. Steagul societății este depus la Academia Română, de către G. Galin. În 1918, sediul Junimii este devastat și ars, moment în care se distrug și dispar mai multe bunuri, cărți, periodice, obiecte de mobilier din patrimoniul societății academice.

Arcadie Dugan-Opaiț participă ca sublocotenent de rezervă în armata austriacă, face întregul război pe frontul rusesc, apoi pe cel italian, revenind acasă cu trei decorații din șapte lupte la care a participat. "Făclier român neobosit, om de mare omenie și izvor de sfat și îndemn, cât și toiag de sprijin material pentru studențimea română bucovineană, adunată sub steagul Junimii", cum  l-a numit nepotul său, Nicolae Popescu, Arcadie Dugan-Opaiț convoacă, la 2 mai 1919, o adunare generală extraordinară, reluând astfel activitatea societății cu o activitate în special de factură cultural-națională. În 1922, se adoptă un nou statut și profesorul Arcadie Dugan-Opaiț reintră în rândul membrilor "emeritați". În 1925, profesorul Dugan termină "Șematismul" și începe lucrul la "Raportul anual mare pe perioada 1908/9-1925/6, lucrare tipărită în 1000 de exemplare, apreciatǎ în epocă drept o lucrare de istorie a societății.

Odată Bucovina revenită la Patria mamă, Arcadie Dugan-Opaiț primește din partea Regelui Ferdinand I Ordinul "Coroana României" în grad de Cavaler, prin decretul regal 955/ 9 martie 1923 pentru meritul de a fi fost mare român și neobosit îndrumător cultural pentru mai bine de jumătate de veac în Cernăuții de baștină. Prin activitatea sa necurmată ca profesor, dar mai ales ca "Vulpan" al Societății Academice Junimea, Arcadie Dugan – "om a cărui viață este un cult de românism" (Ilie Dugan-Opaiț – Glasul Bucovinei, 1936, p. 3) - și frații săi, Ilie și Valerian (alt mare român, folclorist de frunte și întemeietor din speze proprii al Arcășiilor din majoritatea satelor bucovinene – societăți culturale ("pui" ai Junimii) de promovare în rândul populației sătești a spiritului românesc și a rezistenței în fața slavizării și a deznaționalizării) luptă activ și cu izbânzi la readucerea "acasă" a unui teritoriu "răptuit" din trupul țării – al acelei "țări" fără de care istoria României nu ar putea fi niciodată scrisă.

Activitatea Junimii sub imperiul spiritual al profesorului Arcadie Dugan-Opaiț se axează în principal pe afirmarea identitar-națională a românilor bucovineni, prin cabinete de lectură, prin spectacole de teatru și operă, apărarea tricolorului și a valorilor naționale românești, prin susținerea presei naționale în Bucovina, prin răspândirea literaturii și a cunoștințelor de istorie națională în provincie, sprijinirea tinerilor.
Cu ocazia sărbătoririi semicentenarului Arboroasei (28 februarie 1926) și a semicentenarului Junimii (25-27 octombrie 1928), sunt expuse, în cadrul expoziției Junimii, cele patru volume ale Albumului Mare,  Albumul Profucșilor, Cartea Jertfelor. (cf. Rodica Șcraba) Arcadie Dugan-Opaiț este numit membru "onorar", ca recunoaștere a meritelor sale de îndrumător spiritual al Junimii, postură în care, în 1930, încă pregătea aspiranți pentru susținerea examenului regulamentar pentru primirea în societate.

Perioada interbelică schimbă radical condițiile de manifestare a studenților de la Universitatea din Cernăuți. Pe fondul intensificării extremismului naționalist, profesorul Arcadie Dugan nu face nici o concesie în acest domeniu activității studenților junimeni. Cercetătoarea Rodica Șcraba (1994) opinează că acesta ar fi motivul criticilor aspre aduse profesorului Arcadie Dugan în 1928 și chiar și motivul pentru care este pensionat, în 1938, cu doi ani mai devreme de la catedra sa de la Liceul "Aron Pumnul" din Cernăuți. "Noile generații de studenți nu mai erau ceea ce fuseseră înaintașii lor, pe care îi unea, în condițiile națiunii lor pe nedrept subjugată, un liant puternic: patriotismul fierbinte, lupta acerbă cu cotropitorul, disciplina, etica înaltă, munca pe tărâm cultural la sate și multe altele." (Vasile Schipor, 2009)

Note

Nașteri în 1878
Decese în 1951
Profesori români

Arcadie Dugan-Opaiț


Britanya Adaları'nın terminolojisi, Büyük Britanya, İrlanda ve dolayındaki adalardaki farklı (ve bazen örtüşen) coğrafi ve siyasi bölgeleri tarif etmek için kullanılan terimler sık sık karışıklığa yol açar. Kısaca, başlıca terimler şöyledir:

Coğrafî terimler
 Britanya adaları, Büyük Britanya, İrlanda ve başka küçük adalardan oluşan bir takım adadır.
 Büyük Britanya, bu takım adanın en büyük adasıdır.
 İrlanda, takım adanın ikinci büyük adasıdır.

Siyasî terimler
 Büyük Britanya ve Kuzey İrlanda Birleşik Krallığı, bağımsız bir devlettir.  Büyük Britanya adası, yakınındaki küçük adalar (Man Adası ve Kanal Adası hariç) ve İrlanda adasının kuzey-doğu kısmını kapsar.  Genelde Birleşik Krallık, BK, veya Britanya olarak kısaltılır.
 İrlanda veya İrlanda Cumhuriyeti, İrlanda adasının çoğunu kaplayan bir bağımsız devlettir.
 İngiltere, İskoçya, Galler ve Kuzey İrlanda, Büyük Britanya ve Kuzey İrlanda Birleşik Krallığı'nı oluşturan üye ülkelerdir.
 Büyük Britanya - Resmen BK devleti Büyük Britanya ve Birleşik Krallık kavramlarını ayrı tutmakla beraber bu terimler yaygın olarak birbirleri yerine kullanılırlar.
 İngiltere ve Galler aynı hukukî yapıya sahiptirler
 Britanya Adaları, Birleşik Krallık, Manş Adaları ve Man Adasından oluşur.

Bu terimler hem benzer sözcüklerden oluştuklarından dolayı, hem de çoğu zaman yaklaşık anlamlı olarak ve dikkatsizce kullanılmalarından dolayı karışıklığa yol açarlar.

Harita üzerinde gösterim

Notlar

Dış bağlantılar
 "The British Isles and all that..."
 "The Great British Venn Diagram"

Terminoloji
Birleşik Krallık coğrafyası
Coğrafya terminolojisi

Britanya Adaları'nın terminolojisi


Glen Johnson puede hacer referencia a:
  Glen Johnson (futbolista): jugador profesional de fútbol.
  Glen Johnson (boxeador): boxeador profesional excampeón del mundo.

Glen Johnson


Asylbarn - Jamila, Gid jeg kunne flyve er en kortfilm instrueret af Jannik Hastrup, der har skrevet manuskript sammen med Trine Breum.

Handling
Jamila er født på et dansk asylcenter for 8 år siden. Hendes forældre kom fra Irak for 10 år siden. Jamila har haft mange venner og veninder. De fleste er dog kun på centret i kort tid. Lige nu er Cecilie hendes bedste veninde. De flirter med drengene og lærer at danse mavedans i klubben. Men Cecilie og hendes familie har fået afslag på asyl og skal forlade centret og dermed Jamila. Hvem bliver Jamilas næste veninde?

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2013
Kortfilm fra Danmark

Asylbarn - Jamila, Gid jeg kunne flyve


Rise Of Artificial (R.O.A.) este o formație românească de muzică electronică. Formația a fost creată în 2010 de Bogdan Popoiag (UNU') și Cezar Stănciulescu (Junkyard) în București.

Trupa a început prin lansarea primei lor melodii, "Ne place", pe 10 noiembrie 2010. După trei luni de difuzare la radio, trupa a câștigat recunoaștere națională, după ce single-ul a devenit piesa cea mai difuzată de pe radiourile HitStation din România.

Melodia a atins peste cinci milioane de vizualizări YouTube în mai puțin de șase luni.

Discografie

 2010 - Ne place (EP)
 2011 - Artificial (LP)
 2011 - Sonata în la minor (single)
 2012 - D-aia (single)
 2013 - Hands up!! (EP)
 2013 - System of sound (LP)
 2014 - Se aude muzica (single)
 2015 - Cine visa (single)
 2017 - Flow de vara (single)
 2019 - Norul (single)
2020 - Da (single)

Vezi și

 Bogdan Popoiag
 UNU'
 Șuie Paparude

Note

Legături externe

 ROA Music - site oficial
ROA pe Spotify
ROA pe Facebook
ROA pe Tumbrl
ROA pe BrowseBiography

Formații românești de muzică electronică

ROA (Rise Of Artificial)


The Oldowan (or Mode I) was a widespread stone tool archaeological industry (style) in prehistory.  These early tools were simple, usually made with one or a few flakes chipped off with another stone.  Oldowan tools were used during the Lower Paleolithic period, 2.9 million years ago up until at least 1.7 million years ago (Ma), by ancient Hominins (early humans) across much of Africa. This technological industry was followed by the more sophisticated Acheulean industry (two sites associated with Homo erectus at Gona in the Afar Region of Ethiopia dating from 1.5 and 1.26 million years ago have both Oldowan and Acheulean tools).

The term Oldowan is taken from the site of Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, where the first Oldowan stone tools were discovered by the archaeologist Louis Leakey in the 1930s. However, some contemporary archaeologists and palaeoanthropologists prefer to use the term Mode 1 tools to designate pebble tool industries (including Oldowan), with Mode 2 designating bifacially worked tools (including Acheulean handaxes), Mode 3 designating prepared-core tools, and so forth.

Classification of Oldowan tools is still somewhat contentious. Mary Leakey was the first to create a system to classify Oldowan assemblages, and built her system based on prescribed use. The system included choppers, scrapers, and pounders. However, more recent classifications of Oldowan assemblages have been made that focus primarily on manufacture due to the problematic nature of assuming use from stone artefacts. An example is Isaac et al.'s tri-modal categories of "Flaked Pieces" (cores/choppers), "Detached Pieces" (flakes and fragments), "Pounded Pieces" (cobbles utilized as hammerstones, etc.) and "Unmodified Pieces" (manuports, stones transported to sites). Oldowan tools are sometimes called "pebble tools", so named because the blanks chosen for their production already resemble, in pebble form, the final product.

It is not known for sure which hominin species created and used Oldowan tools. Its emergence is often associated with the species Australopithecus garhi and its flourishing with early species of Homo such as H. habilis and H. ergaster. Early Homo erectus appears to inherit Oldowan technology and refines it into the Acheulean industry beginning 1.7 million years ago.

Dates and ranges

The oldest known Oldowan tools have been found at Nyayanga on the Homa Peninsula in Kenya and are dated to ~2.9 Ma. The Oldowan tools were associated with Paranthropus teeth and two butchered hippo skeletons. Early Oldowan tools are also known from Gona in Ethiopia (near the Awash River), and are dated to about 2.6 Ma.

The use of tools by apes including chimpanzees and orangutans can be used to argue in favour of tool-use as an ancestral feature of the hominin family. Tools made from bone, wood, or other organic materials were therefore in all probability used before the Oldowan. Oldowan stone tools are simply the oldest recognisable tools which have been preserved in the archaeological record.

There is a flourishing of Oldowan tools in eastern Africa, spreading to southern Africa, between 2.4 and 1.7 Ma. At 1.7 Ma., the first Acheulean tools appear even as Oldowan assemblages continue to be produced. Both technologies are occasionally found in the same areas, dating to the same time periods. This realisation required a rethinking of old cultural sequences in which the more "advanced" Acheulean was supposed to have succeeded the Oldowan. The different traditions may have been used by different species of hominins living in the same area, or multiple techniques may have been used by an individual species in response to different circumstances.

Sometime before 1.8 Ma Homo erectus had spread outside of Africa, reaching as far east as Java by 1.8 Ma and in Northern China by 1.66 Ma. In these newly colonised areas, no Acheulean assemblages have been found. In China, only "Mode 1" Oldowan assemblages were produced, while in Indonesia stone tools from this age are unknown.

By 1.8 Ma early Homo was present in Europe, as shown by the discovery of fossil remains and Oldowan tools in Dmanisi, Georgia. Remains of their activities have also been excavated in Spain at sites in the Guadix-Baza basin and near Atapuerca. Most early European sites yield "Mode 1" or Oldowan assemblages. The earliest Acheulean sites in Europe only appear around 0.5 Ma. In addition, the Acheulean tradition does not seem to spread to Eastern Asia. It is unclear from the archaeological record when the production of Oldowan technologies ended. Other tool-making traditions seem to have supplanted Oldowan technologies by 0.25 Ma.

The discovery of stone tools that predate the Oldowan, dated to as early as 3.3 Ma, at the Lomekwi site in Kenya, was announced in 2015.

This age pre-dates the current estimates for the age of the genus Homo by half a million years, and would fall into the pre-human period,
associated with the direct australopithecine ancestors of genus Homo. It is not clear whether the tools of such a "Lomekwian industry" bear any relation to the Oldowan industry.

Tools

Manufacture

There are articles that address how some Oldowan tools may have been found as stones with naturally occurring shapes that dictate their ideal use, or formed as such. To form the general shape of an Oldowan tool, a roughly spherical hammerstone is struck on the edge, or striking platform, of a suitable core rock to produce a conchoidal fracture with sharp edges useful for various purposes. The process is often called lithic reduction. The chip removed by the blow is the flake. Some of these flakes can be used as tools, provided the aforementioned conditions for the initial stone are met before modification. Below the point of impact on the core is a characteristic bulb with fine fissures on the fracture surface. The flake evidences ripple marks.

The materials of the tools were for the most part quartz, quartzite, basalt, or obsidian, and later flint and chert. Any rock that can hold an edge will do. The main source of these rocks is river cobbles, which provide both hammer stones and striking platforms. The earliest tools were simply split cobbles. It is not always clear which is the flake. Later tool-makers clearly identified and reworked flakes. Complaints that artifacts could not be distinguished from naturally fractured stone have helped spark careful studies of Oldowan techniques. These techniques have now been duplicated many times by archaeologists and other knappers, making misidentification of archaeological finds less likely.

Use of bone tools by hominins also producing Oldowan tools is known from Swartkrans, where a bone shaft with a polished point was discovered in Member (layer) I, dated 1.8–1.5 Ma. The Osteodontokeratic industry, the "bone-tooth-horn" industry hypothesized by Raymond Dart, is less certain.

Shapes and uses

Mary Leakey classified the Oldowan tools as Heavy Duty, Light Duty, Utilized Pieces and Debitage, or waste. Heavy-duty tools are mainly cores. A chopper has an edge on one side. It is unifacial if the edge was created by flaking on one face of the core, or bifacial if on two. Discoid tools are roughly circular with a peripheral edge. Polyhedral tools are edged in the shape of a polyhedron. In addition there are spheroidal hammer stones.

Light-duty tools are mainly flakes. There are scrapers, awls (with points for boring) and burins (with points for engraving). Some of these functions belong also to heavy-duty tools. For example, there are heavy-duty scrapers.

Utilized pieces are tools that began with one purpose in mind but were utilized opportunistically. Because of their use and variation, opportunities lead to the frequent modification of tools for either labor or forms of signaling has been proposed as a cause for the different shapes of similar tools.

Oldowan tools were probably used for many purposes, which have been discovered from observation of modern apes and hunter-gatherers. Nuts and bones are cracked by hitting them with hammer stones on a stone used as an anvil. Battered and pitted stones testify to this possible use.

Heavy-duty tools could be used as axes for woodworking. Both choppers and large flakes were probably used for this purpose. Once a branch was separated, it could be scraped clean with a scraper, or hollowed with pointed tools. Such uses are attested by characteristic microscopic alterations of edges used to scrape wood. Oldowan tools could also have been used for preparing hides. Hides must be cut by slicing, piercing and scraping them clean of residues. Flakes are most suitable for this purpose.

Lawrence Keeley, following in the footsteps of Sergei Semenov, conducted microscopic studies (with a high-powered optical microscope) on the edges of tools manufactured de novo and used for the originally speculative purposes described above. He found that the marks were characteristic of the use and matched marks on prehistoric tools. Studies of the cut marks on bones using an electron microscope produce a similar result.

Abbevillian
Abbevillian is a currently obsolescent name for a tool tradition that is increasingly coming to be called Oldowan. The label Abbevillian prevailed until the Leakey family discovered older (yet similar) artifacts at Olduvai Gorge and promoted the African origin of man. Oldowan soon replaced Abbevillian in describing African and Asian lithics. The term Abbevillian is still used but is now restricted to Europe. The label, however, continues to lose popularity as a scientific designation.

In the late 20th century, discovery of the discrepancies in date caused a crisis of definition. Because Abbevillian did not necessarily precede Acheulean and both traditions had flakes and bifaces, it became difficult to differentiate the two. It was in this spirit that many artifacts formerly considered Abbevillian were labeled Acheulean. In consideration of the difficulty, some preferred to name both phases Acheulean. When the topic of Abbevillian came up, it was simply put down as a phase of Acheulean. Whatever was from Africa was Oldowan, and whatever from Europe, Acheulean.

The solution to the definition problem is to define the types in terms of complexity. Simply struck tools are Oldowan. Retouched, or reworked tools are Acheulean. Retouching is a second working of the artifact. The manufacturer first creates an Oldowan tool. Then he reworks or retouches the edges by removing very small chips so as to straighten and sharpen the edge. Typically but not necessarily the reworking is accomplished by pressure flaking.

Tool users

While the exact hominid is up for debate, it is believed that some of the first Oldowan makers did fall within the Homo line. However, fossil evidence showed evolutionary features for human precision grip capabilities in Australopithecines. This leads to current anthropological thinking in which Oldowan tools were made by late Australopithecus and early Homo. Homo habilis was named "skillful" because it was considered the earliest tool-using human ancestor.
Indeed, the genus Homo was in origin intended to separate tool-using species from their tool-less predecessors, hence the name of Australopithecus garhi, garhi meaning "surprise", a tool-using Australopithecine discovered in 1996 and described as the "missing link" between the genera Australopithecus and Homo. There is also evidence that some species of Paranthropus utilized stone tools.

There is presently no evidence to show that Oldowan tools were the sole creation of members of the Homo line or that the ability to produce them was a special characteristic of only our ancestors. Research on tool use by modern wild chimpanzees in West Africa shows there is an operational sequence when chimpanzees use lithic implements to crack nuts. In the course of nut cracking, sometimes they will create unintentional flakes. Although the morphology of the chimpanzees' hammer is different from the Oldowan hammer, chimpanzees' ability to use stone tools indicates that the earliest lithic industries were probably not produced by only one kind of hominin species.

Findings from fossil evidence and experimental replication of stone-tool users and manufacturers suggest the presence of physical characteristics of hand morphology for precise stone tool making. The makers of Oldowan tools were mainly right-handed. "Handedness" (lateralization) had thus already evolved, though it is not clear how related to modern lateralization it was, since other animals show handedness as well.

In the mid-1970s, Glynn Isaac touched off a debate by proposing that human ancestors of this period had a "place of origin" and that they foraged outward from this home base, returning with high-quality food to share and to be processed. Over the course of the last 30 years, a variety of competing theories about how foraging occurred have been proposed, each one implying certain kinds of social strategy. The available evidence from the distribution of tools and remains is not enough to decide which theories are the most probable. However, three main groups of theories predominate.
 Glynn Isaac's model became the Central Forage Point, as he responded to critics that accused him of attributing too much "modern" behavior to early hominins with relatively free-form searches outward.
 A second group of models took modern chimpanzee behavior as a starting point, having the hominids use relatively fixed routes of foraging, and leaving tools where it was best to do so on a constant track.
 A third group of theories had relatively loose bands scouring the range, taking care to move carcasses from dangerous death sites and leaving tools more or less at random.

Each group of models implies different grouping and social strategies, from the relative altruism of central base models to the relatively disjointed search models. (See also central foraging theory and Lewis Binford)

Hominins probably lived in social groups that had contact with others. This conclusion is supported by the large number of bones at many sites, too large to be the work of one individual, and all of the scatter patterns implying many different individuals. Since modern primates in Africa have fluid boundaries between groups, as individuals enter, become the focus of bands, and others leave, it is also probable that the tools we find are the result of many overlapping groups working the same territories, and perhaps competing over them. Because of the huge expanse of time and the multiplicity of species associated with possible Oldowan tools, it is difficult to be more precise than this, since it is almost certain that different social groupings were used at different times and in different places.

There is also the question of what mix of hunting, gathering and scavenging the tool users employed. Early models focused on the tool users as hunters. The animals butchered by the tools include waterbuck, hartebeest, springbok, pig and zebra. However, the disposition of the bones allows some question about hominin methods of obtaining meat. That they were omnivores is unquestioned, as the digging implement and the probable use of hammer stones to smash nuts indicate. Lewis Binford first noticed that the bones at Olduvai contained a disproportionately high incidence of extremities, which are low in food substance. He concluded other predators had taken the best meat, and the hominins had only scavenged. The counter view is that while hunting many large animals would be beyond the reach of an individual human, groups could bring down larger game, as pack hunting animals are capable of doing. Moreover, since many animals both hunt and scavenge, it is possible that hominins hunted smaller animals, but were not above driving carnivores from larger kills, as they probably were driven from kills themselves from time to time.

Sites and archaeologists

A complete catalog of Oldowan sites would be too extensive for listing here. Some of the better-known sites include the following:

Africa

Ethiopia

Afar Triangle

Sites in the Gona river system in the Hadar region of the Afar triangle, excavated by Helene Roche, J. W. Harris and Sileshi Semaw, yielded some of the oldest known Oldowan assemblages, dating to about 2.6 million years ago.  Raw material analysis done by Semaw showed that some assemblages in this region are biased towards a certain material (e.g.: 70% of the artifacts at sites EG10 and EG12 were composed of trachyte) indicating a selectivity in the quality of stone used.  Recent excavations have yielded tools in association with cut-marked bones, indicating that Oldowan were used in meat-processing or -acquiring activities.

Omo River basin

The second oldest known Oldowan tool site comes from the Shungura formation of the Omo River basin. This formation documents the sediments of the Plio-Pleistocene and provides a record of the hominins that lived there. Lithic assemblages have been classified as Oldowan in members E and F in the lower Omo basin. Although there have been lithic assemblages found in multiple sites in these areas, only the Omo sites 57 and 123 in member F are accepted as hominin lithic remains. The assemblages at Omo sites 71 and 84 in member E do not show evidence of hominin modification and are therefore classified as natural assemblages.

The tools are never found in direct association with the hominins, but archaeologists believe that they would be the strongest candidates for tool manufacture. There are no hominins in those layers, but the same layers elsewhere in the Omo valley contain Paranthropus and early Homo fossils. Paranthropus occurs in the preceding layers. In the last layer at 1.4 million years ago is only Homo erectus.

Egypt

Along the Nile River, within the 100-foot terrace, evidence of Chellean or Oldowan cultures has been found.

Algeria

In November 2018 Science published a report of Oldowan artefacts in a secure dating context of 1.9 to 2.4 Ma from Ain Boucherit (Ain Hanech) in Setif.

Kenya

Homa Peninsula

Kanjera South, part of the Kanjera site complex, and Nyayanga are located on the Homa Peninsula. Kanjera South is estimated to around 2 Ma. while Nyayanga is estimated to 2.9 Ma. One of the significant excavations, in the area, is Leakey's expedition in 1932-35. In 1995, Oldowan and Plio-Pleistocene faunal remains surfaced from the site. and in 2015 excavations led to the discovery of the earliest Oldowan stone tool technology in association with Paranthropus fossils and butchered hippo remains from Nyayanga.

East Turkana

The numerous Koobi Fora sites on the east side of Lake Turkana are now part of Sibiloi National Park. Sites were initially excavated by Richard Leakey, Meave Leakey, Jack Harris, Glynn Isaac and others. Currently the artifacts found are classified as Oldowan or KBS Oldowan dated from 1.9–1.7 Ma, Karari (or "advanced Oldowan") dated to 1.6–1.4 Ma, and some early Acheulean at the end of the Karari. Over 200 hominins have been found, including Australopithecus and Homo.

West Turkana
In the Nachukui site in West Turkana, around 500 stone tools were found at a site named Naiyena Engol 2, or NY2. The assemblage at NY2 dates back to 1.8-1.7 Ma, around the peak of the Oldowan period. At the site, freehand flaking was observed to be the most common type of technique for making these tools. A common theme among sites in West Turkana is the high percentage of small flake tools gathered in the assemblages. However, NY2 seems to lack many of these tools, indicating a low productivity rate of flakes.

Kilombe

Acheulian stone tools have been known about at Kilombe Main site in the central rift of Kenya since the 1970s with excavations by Prof John Gowlett for his PhD. More recently, Oldowan technology has also been discovered in Kilombe Caldera in an unusual high altitude setting. The stone tools are associated with fossils and have been dated to 1.8 Ma, with Acheulian stone tools occurring in overlying levels.

Tanzania

Olduvai Gorge

The Oldowan industry is named after discoveries made in the Olduvai Gorge of Tanzania in east Africa by the Leakey family, primarily Mary Leakey, but also her husband Louis and their son, Richard. Mary Leakey organized a typology of Early Pleistocene stone tools, which developed Oldowan tools into three chronological variants, A, B and C. Developed Oldowan B is of particular interest due to changes in morphology that appear to have been driven mostly by the short term availability of a chert resource from 1.65 to 1.53 Ma. The flaking properties of this new resource resulted in considerably more core reduction and a higher prevalence of flake retouch. Similar tools had already been found in various locations in Europe and Asia for some time, where they were called Chellean and Abbevillian.

The oldest tool sites are in the East African Rift system, on the sediments of ancient streams and lakes. This is consistent with what we surmise of the evolution of man.

South Africa

Abbé Breuil was the first recognized archaeologist to go on record to assert the existence of Oldowan tools.  While his description was for "Chello-Abbevillean" tools, and post-dated Leakey's finds at Olduvai Gorge by at least ten years, his descriptions nonetheless represented the scholarly acceptance of this technology as legitimate.  These findings were cited as being from the location of the Vaal River, at Vereeniging, and Breuil noted the distinct absence of a significant number of cores, suggesting a "portable culture".  At the time, this was considered very significant, as portability supported the conclusion that the Oldowan tool-makers were capable of planning for future needs, by creating the tools in a location which was distant from their use.

Swartkrans

The Swartkrans site is a cave filled with layered fossil-bearing limestone deposits. Oldowan is found in Member 1 Lower Bank at 2.2-1.8 Ma in association with Paranthropus robustus and a single fossil attributed to Homo . The Member I assemblage also includes a shaft of pointed bone polished at the pointed end. Member I contained a high percentage of primate remains compared to other animal remains, which did not fit the hypothesis that H. habilis or P. robustus lived in the cave. C. K. Brain conducted a more detailed study and discovered the cave had been the abode of leopards, who preyed on the hominins.

Sterkfontein

Another site of limestone caves is Sterkfontein, found in South Africa. This site contains a large number of not only Oldowan tools, but also early Acheulean technology.

Drimolen

The cave site of Drimolen has yielded 6 stone tools attributed to the Oldowan as well as 65 bone tools, along with specimens of Paranthropus robustus and Homo erectus

Europe

Georgia

In 1999 and 2002, two Homo erectus skulls (H. georgicus) were discovered at Dmanisi in southern Georgia. The archaeological layer in which the human remains, hundreds of Oldowan stone tools, and numerous animal bones were unearthed is dated approximately 1.83-1.6 Ma. The site yields the earliest unequivocal evidence for presence of early humans outside the African continent.

Bulgaria

At Kozarnika, in the ground layers, dated to 1.6-1.4 Ma, archaeologists have discovered a human molar tooth, lower palaeolithic assemblages that belong to a core-and-flake non-Acheulian industry and incised bones that may be the earliest example of human symbolic behaviour.

Russia
 and Muhkay-2 (North Caucasus, Daghestan) are the extraordinary sites in relation to date and the culture. Geological and geomorphological data, palynological studies and paleomagnetic testing unequivocally point to Early Pleistocene (Eopleistocene), indicating the age of the sites as being within the range of 1.8 – 1.2 Ma.

Spain

Oldowan tools have been found at the following sites: Fuente Nueva 3, Barranco del Leon, Sima del Elefante, Atapuerca TD 6.

France

Oldowan tools have been found at: Lézignan-la-Cèbe, 1.5 Ma; Abbeville, 1–0.5 Ma; Vallonnet cave, French Riviera; Soleihac, open-air site in Massif Central.  Oldowan tools have also been found at Tautavel in the foothills of the Pyrenees. These were discovered by Henry de Lumbley alongside human remains (cranium). The tools are of limestone and quartz.

Elsewhere

Oldowan tools have been found in Italy at the Monte Poggiolo open air site dated to approximately 850 ka, making them the oldest evidence of human habitation in Italy.  In Germany tools have been found in river gravels at Kärlich dating from 300 ka.  In the Czech Republic tools have been found in ancient lake deposits at Przeletice and a cave site at Stranska Skala, dated no later than 500 ka.  In Hungary tools have been found at a spring site at Vértesszőlős dating from 500 ka.

Asia

China
At the Xihoudu site in China, 32 stone tools were found, including choppers, scrapers, and 3-edged tools. These tools were dated back to 1.8 Ma. This site also included cultural artifacts, such as animal fossils, burnt bones, and cut antlers. The presence of numerous fish and beaver fossils near the stone tools indicate the existence of a body of water at the site.

Pakistan
In Pakistan, Oldowan tools have been found at Riwat during a 1980s excavation. Many of the stones found at this site were considered waste products of stone tool production, as they were small flakes chipped off of larger stones. In total, 1,479 tools and flakes were discovered at this site.

Syria
An excavated site at El Kowm (Aïn al Fil, (:de:Aïn al Fil)), Syria revealed a plethora of Oldowan tools. In a 2m2 test pit excavated in 2008, 790 artifacts were found, with many pebble tools, cores, flakes, manuports, and flake debris. Although many of these tools show little sign of modification, several of the pebble tools are distinctly-shaped bifacial and trifacial choppers. Dated between 2.0-1.8 Ma, these stone tools are some of the earliest Near East finds.

Because of their location in the Syrian desert, these tools have raised questions about the path of early hominin dispersal. The predominant theory that early hominins traveled along the Mediterranean, through what is now Israel, into Europe has been challenged, as the presence of these Oldowan tools indicate that an alternate route may have been taken.

Iran
In Iran, 80 tools of different assemblages have been discovered at 7 sites in the Kashafrud Basin. Although many of the artifacts found here, dated at 1.8 Ma, were pre-Acheulean, some are of the Oldowan tradition, resembling East African Oldowan finds.  Containing cores, choppers, flake, chunks, and hammer stones made predominately of quartz, this site displayed the ability of early toolmakers to work skillfully with fragile stones.

Israel
The site at Bizat Ruhama (near kibbutz Ruhama) has shown evidence that the complexity of the stone tool-making process was more complex than researchers previously thought, leading to a new perspective on the capabilities of invention and adaptability of Oldowan hominin populations.

Another key find at the Bizat Ruhama site was that of the secondary flakes. The discovery of these secondary flakes have led researchers to believe that this was an intentional response to a raw material constraint.

According to the micro-morphological studies at the Bizat Ruhama site, the archaeological assemblages represent one or several occupations of the site in a relatively short time frame.

Notes

Sources
 Braidwood, Robert J., Prehistoric Men, many editions.

 Edey, Maitland A., The Missing Link, Time-Life Books, 1972.
 Schick, Kathy D.; Toth, Nicholas, Making Silent Stones Speak''', Simon & Schuster, 1993,

 Isaac, Glynn and Harris, JWK The Scatter between the Patches 1975

External links
 Oldowan Pebble Tools of Europe
 Oldowan Pebble Tools of Africa
 Oldowan Flake Tool

 Early Palaeolithic
 Stone Age Reference Collection
 Microwear polishes on early stone tools from Koobi Fora, Kenya, article in Nature 293, 464–465 (8 October 1981). The summary and the references are displayed at no charge at the Nature site.
 Geoarchaeology of the earliest paleolithic sites (Oldowan) in the north Caucasus and the East Europe
 , T. Wynn and W.C. McGrew, Man'' 24:383–398; 1989.

Lower Paleolithic
Paleolithic cultures of Africa
Pliocene
Industries (archaeology)
Archaeology of Eastern Africa
Archaeology of Southern Africa

Oldowan


Kriket Klub Sir William Hoste je kriket klub s Visa.

Povijest
Postoje zapisi koji govore da se na otoku Visu još 1809. g. igrao kriket. Kriket klub je osnovao Sir William Hoste, zvan Mladi Nelson, koji se proslavio dobivši posljednju bitku jedrenjaka u povijesti i to protiv nadmoćnije Napoleonove flote. Vis je tada bio njegovo uporište s kojeg je pustošio francusko brodovlje po Jadranu i potopio ili zarobio preko 200 brodova. Klub je osnovao da bi njegovi vojnici mogli lakše provoditi vrijeme. Zapisi kažu da se igralo na poluotoku Prirovo.

Klub je ponovno osnovan 2002. Prikupljenim donacijama uređen je teren u Pliskom polju koji je završen u 2009. i klub počinje s radom.

Klub se natječe u Prvoj hrvatskoj ligi, zajedno sa splitskim i zagrebačkim kriket klubovima.

Svake godine u mjesecu svibnju, viški kriketaši domaćini su Internacionalnog turnira Sixies ( ekipa sa 6 igrača), a godišnje na gostovanje dolazi desetak ekipa, pretežno iz Velike Britanije.

Vanjske poveznice

 Službena web-stranica

Izvori

Kriket u Hrvatskoj
Sir William Hoste

Kriket klub Sir William Hoste


La Pièce pour flûte et piano, , est une œuvre de la compositrice Mel Bonis.

Composition
Mel Bonis compose sa Pièce pour flûte et piano sous la mention . L'œuvre est publiée à titre posthume aux éditions Kossac en 2000.

Analyse
L'œuvre est une pièce de caractère, considérée par le critique musical Jean-Pierre Robert comme .

Réception

Discographie

 Compositrices à l'aube du , par Juliette Hurel (flûte) et Hélène Couvert (piano), Alpha 573, 2020.

Références

Sources

Liens externes

Œuvre pour flûte
Œuvre pour piano

Pièce pour flûte et piano


Félix Bour, né le  à Bar-le-Duc, est un athlète français.

Carrière
Le , Félix Bour remporte la Course Marseille-Cassis après avoir été vice-champion de France de cross-country deux mois auparavant.

Il est médaillé d'or par équipes aux Championnats d'Europe de cross-country 2021 à Dublin, où il se classe  en individuel.

Le , il est vice-champion de France du derrière Hugo Hay.

Le  à Houilles, il est champion de France sur l'épreuve du  devant Valentin Gondouin. Avec un temps de , il devient le cinquième meilleur performeur français de tous les temps.

Records

Notes et références

Liens externes

Athlète français
Coureur de cross-country
Champion d'Europe de cross-country
Naissance en mars 1994
Naissance à Bar-le-Duc

Félix Bour


Fără morală este un film românesc din 1964 regizat de Liviu Ghigorț.

Prezentare

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 1964 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 1964

Fără morală


Adenothamnus, monotipski biljni rod iz sjeverozapadnog Meksika smješten u porodicu glavočika, i podtribus Madiinae. Jedina vrsta je Adenothamnus validus, endem s poluotoka Baja California.

Trajnica je žutih cvjetova i naizmjeničnih listova.

Izvori

Madieae
Flora Baja Californie
Endemska flora Meksika

Adenothamnus


Olukpınar, İscehisar - Afyonkarahisar ili İscehisar ilçesine bağlı köy
 Olukpınar, Polatlı - Ankara ili Polatlı ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Olukpınar, Bingöl - Bingöl ili merkez ilçesine bağlı köy
 Olukpınar, Kemah - Erzincan ili Kemah ilçesine bağlı köy
 Olukpınar, Ermenek - Karaman ili Ermenek ilçesine bağlı köy
 Olukpınar, Ilgın - Konya ili Ilgın ilçesine bağlı mahalle

Olukpınar


Poráč este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Spišská Nová Ves din regiunea Košice. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 954 de locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Poráč este atestată documentar din 1277.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Poráč


The Flavian dynasty ruled the Roman Empire between AD 69 and 96, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian (69–79), and his two sons Titus (79–81) and Domitian (81–96). The Flavians rose to power during the civil war of 69, known as the Year of the Four Emperors. After Galba and Otho died in quick succession, Vitellius became emperor in mid 69. His claim to the throne was quickly challenged by legions stationed in the Eastern provinces, who declared their commander Vespasian emperor in his place. The Second Battle of Bedriacum tilted the balance decisively in favour of the Flavian forces, who entered Rome on 20 December. The following day, the Roman Senate officially declared Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire, thus commencing the Flavian dynasty. Although the dynasty proved to be short-lived, several significant historic, economic and military events took place during their reign.

The reign of Titus was struck by multiple natural disasters, the most severe of which was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79. The surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were completely buried under ash and lava. One year later, Rome was struck by fire and a plague. On the military front, the Flavian dynasty witnessed the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus in 70, following the failed Jewish rebellion of 66. Substantial conquests were made in Great Britain under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola between 77 and 83, while Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against King Decebalus in the war against the Dacians. In addition, the Empire strengthened its border defenses by expanding the fortifications along the Limes Germanicus.

The Flavians also initiated economic and cultural reforms. Under Vespasian, new taxes were devised to restore the Empire's finances, while Domitian revalued the Roman coinage by increasing its silver content. A massive building programme was enacted by Titus, to celebrate the ascent of the Flavian dynasty, leaving multiple enduring landmarks in the city of Rome, the most spectacular of which was the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum.

Flavian rule came to an end on 18 September 96, when Domitian was assassinated. He was succeeded by the longtime Flavian supporter and advisor Marcus Cocceius Nerva, who founded the long-lived Nerva–Antonine dynasty.

The Flavian dynasty was unique among the four dynasties of the Principate Era, in that it was only one man and his two sons, without any extended or adopted family.

History

Establishment

Family history

Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early part of the 1st century AD. One such family were the Flavians, or gens Flavia, which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian's grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's Civil War. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upward mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I. Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia (modern Switzerland). By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the more prestigious patrician gens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to the senatorial rank.

Around 38 AD, Vespasian married Domitilla the Elder, the daughter of an equestrian from Ferentium. They had two sons, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (born in 39) and Titus Flavius Domitianus (born in 51), and a daughter, Domitilla (born in 45). Domitilla the Elder died before Vespasian became emperor. Thereafter his mistress Caenis was his wife in all but name until she died in 74. The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, aedile and praetor, and culminated with a consulship in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43. Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing, even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula (37–41) and Nero (54–68). Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories were later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius (41–54) and his son Britannicus. By all appearances, imperial favour for the Flavians was high throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving as proconsul of the Africa province in 63, and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of Greece in 66.

From  to 59, Titus was a military tribune in Germania, and later served in Britannia. His first wife, Arrecina Tertulla, died two years after their marriage, in 65. Titus then took a new wife of a more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla. However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to Emperor Nero. Her uncle Barea Soranus and his daughter Servilia were among those who were killed after the failed Pisonian conspiracy of 65. Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy. He never remarried. Titus appears to have had multiple daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla. The only one known to have survived to adulthood was Julia Flavia, perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia. During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of quaestor.

In 66, the Jews of the Judaea Province revolted against the Roman Empire. Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, was forced to retreat from Jerusalem and defeated at the battle of Beth-Horon. The pro-Roman king Agrippa II and his sister Berenice fled the city to Galilee where they later gave themselves up to the Romans. Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, and dispatched him to the region at once with the fifth and tenth legions. He was later joined by Titus at Ptolemais, bringing with him the fifteenth legion. With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans quickly swept across Galilee, and by 68 marched on Jerusalem.

Rise to power

On 9 June 68, amidst the growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide, and with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire—Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian—successively vied for the imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem. Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis (modern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor. Before reaching Italy, however, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of Lusitania (modern Portugal). At the same time, Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt, and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.

Otho and Vitellius realised the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt, which controlled the grain supply to Rome. His brother, Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire city garrison of Rome. Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high, but as long as Galba and Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action. When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum, however, the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69. Vespasian accepted, and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, the governor of Syria, against Vitellius. A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself traveled to Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion.

In Rome, meanwhile, Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius, as a safeguard against future Flavian aggression. Support for the old emperor was waning, however, as more legions throughout the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. On 24 October 69 the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian clashed at the Second Battle of Bedriacum, which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius. In despair, he attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II, but the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard—the imperial bodyguard—considered such a resignation disgraceful, and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty. On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord, but at the last minute retraced his steps to the imperial palace. In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian Emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill. During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome, but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol, and in the resulting skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed. Domitian himself managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis, and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters. By the afternoon of 20 December, Vitellius was dead, his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared from the enemy, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by the title of Caesar, and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house. The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire.

Although the war had officially ended, a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70, who headed an interim government with Domitian as the representative of the Flavian family in the Senate. Upon receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death at Alexandria, the new Emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome, along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason. In early 70, Vespasian was still in Egypt, however, continuing to consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing. By the end of 70, he finally returned to Rome, and was properly installed as Emperor.

The Flavian dynasty

Vespasian (69–79)

Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was Emperor. Vespasian spent his first year as a ruler in Egypt, during which the administration of the empire was given to Mucianus, aided by Vespasian's son Domitian. Modern historians believe that Vespasian remained there in order to consolidate support from the Egyptians. In mid-70, Vespasian first came to Rome and immediately embarked on a widespread propaganda campaign to consolidate his power and promote the new dynasty. His reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, such as the institution of the tax on urinals, and the numerous military campaigns fought during the 70s. The most significant of these was the First Jewish-Roman War, which ended in the destruction of the city of Jerusalem by Titus. In addition, Vespasian faced several uprisings in Egypt, Gaul and Germania, and reportedly survived several conspiracies against him. Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war, adding a temple to peace and beginning construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum. Vespasian died of natural causes on 23 June 79, and was immediately succeeded by his eldest son Titus. The ancient historians that lived through the period such as Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him.

Titus (79–81)

Despite initial concerns over his character, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on 23 June 79, and was considered a good emperor by Suetonius and other contemporary historians. In this role he is best known for his public building program in Rome, and completing the construction of the Colosseum in 80, but also for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, the Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79,  and the fire of Rome of 80. Titus continued his father's efforts to promote the Flavian dynasty. He revived practice of the imperial cult, deified his father, and laid foundations for what would later become the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, which was finished by Domitian. After barely two years in office, Titus unexpectedly died of a fever on 13 September 81, and was deified by the Roman Senate.

Domitian (81–96)

Domitian was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard the day after Titus' death, commencing a reign which lasted more than fifteen years—longer than any man who had governed Rome since Tiberius. Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the Roman coinage, expanded the border defenses of the Empire, and initiated a massive building programme to restore the damaged city of Rome. In Britain, Gnaeus Julius Agricola expanded the Roman Empire as far as modern day Scotland, but in Dacia, Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory in the war against the Dacians. On 18 September 96, Domitian was assassinated by court officials, and with him the Flavian dynasty came to an end. The same day, he was succeeded by his friend and advisor Nerva, who founded the long-lasting Nervan-Antonian dynasty. Domitian's memory was condemned to oblivion by the Roman Senate, with which he had a notoriously difficult relationship throughout his reign. Senatorial authors such as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories after his death, propagating the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Modern history has rejected these views, instead characterising Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat, whose cultural, economic and political programme provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian's.

Administration

Government
Since the fall of the Republic, the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus, known as the Principate. The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic. Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor's status as a de facto monarch. The civil war of 69 had made it abundantly clear that real power in the Empire lay with control over the army. By the time Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in Rome, any hope of restoring the Republic had long dissipated.

The Flavian approach to government was one of both implicit and explicit exclusion. When Vespasian returned to Rome in mid-70, he immediately embarked on a series of efforts to consolidate his power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts to the military and dismissed or punished those soldiers loyal to Vitellius. He also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and adding his allies. Executive control was largely distributed among members of his family. Non-Flavians were virtually excluded from important public offices, even those who had been among Vespasian's earliest supporters during the civil war. Mucianus slowly disappears from the historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77. That it was Vespasian's intention to found a long-lasting dynasty to govern the Roman Empire was most evident in the powers he conferred upon his eldest son Titus. Titus shared tribunician power with his father, received seven consulships, the censorship, and perhaps most remarkably, was given command of the Praetorian Guard. Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred during his brief reign from 79 until 81.

Domitian's approach to government was less subtle than his father and brother. Once Emperor, he quickly dispensed with the Republican facade and transformed his government more or less formally into the divine monarchy he believed it to be. By moving the centre of power to the imperial court, Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration: edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced. Nevertheless, Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion. Whereas his father and brother had virtually excluded non-Flavians from public office, Domitian rarely favoured his own family members in the distribution of strategic posts, admitting a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship, and assigning men of the equestrian order to run the imperial bureaucracy.

Financial reforms
One of Vespasian's first acts as Emperor was to enforce a tax reform to restore the Empire's depleted treasury. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible, renewing old ones and instituting new ones. Mucianus and Vespasian increased the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. The Latin proverb "Pecunia non olet" ("Money does not smell") may have been created when he had introduced a urine tax on public toilets.

Upon his accession, Domitian revalued the Roman coinage to the standard of Augustus, increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12%. An imminent crisis in 85, however, forced a devaluation to the Neronian standard of 65, but this was still higher than the level which Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reign, and Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years. Coin types from this era display a highly consistent degree of quality, including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature, and exceptionally refined artwork on the reverse portraits.

Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1,200 million sestertii, of which over one-third would presumably have been spent on maintaining the Roman army. The other major area of expenditure encompassed the vast reconstruction programme carried out on the city of Rome itself.

Challenges

Military activity

The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 by Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judaea following the Jewish uprising of 66. The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus's soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honor of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish. 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar Giora and John of Giscala. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, and instead "disclaimed any such honor to himself, saying that it was not himself that had accomplished this exploit, but that he had merely lent his arms to God." Upon his return to Rome in 71, Titus was awarded a triumph. Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, he rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah and the Torah. Leaders of the resistance were executed in the Forum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter. The triumphal Arch of Titus, which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus.

The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia, or modern day Scotland, between 77 and 84. In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then. He fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries. He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland. The following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia. To aid the advance, an expansive legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil. In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the Caledonians,  two-thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Scottish marshes and Highlands, ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control.

The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were usually defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare. His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus, which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire. Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the Chatti, and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi, the Sarmatians, and the Dacians. Led by King Decebalus, the Dacians invaded the province of Moesia around 84 or 85, wreaking considerable havoc and killing the Moesian governor, Oppius Sabinus. Domitian immediately launched a counteroffensive, which resulted in the destruction of a legion during an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. Their commander, Cornelius Fuscus, was killed, and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard lost. In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under command of Tettius Julianus, and finally managed to defeat Decebalus late in 88, at the same site where Fuscus had previously been killed. An attack on Dacia's capital was abandoned, however, when a crisis arose on the German frontier, forcing Domitian to sign a peace treaty with Decebalus which was severely criticized by contemporary authors. For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom, but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses, and continued to defy Rome. It was not until the reign of Trajan, in 106, that a decisive victory against Decebalus was procured. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the gold and silver mines of Dacia.

Natural disasters

Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major disasters during his brief reign. On 24 August 79, barely two months after his accession, Mount Vesuvius erupted, resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities around the Bay of Naples. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under metres of stone and lava, killing thousands of citizens. Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort, while personally donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano. Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year. The city was lost for nearly 1700 years before its accidental rediscovery in 1748. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire, frozen at the moment it was buried. The Forum, the baths, many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the Villa of the Mysteries remain surprisingly well preserved. Today, it is one of the most popular tourist attractions of Italy and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. On-going excavations reveal new insights into Roman history and culture.

During Titus' second visit to the disaster area, a fire struck Rome which lasted for three days. Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the Great Fire of 64, crucially sparing the many districts of insulae, Cassius Dio records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's Pantheon, the Temple of Jupiter, the Diribitorium, parts of Pompey's Theatre and the Saepta Julia among others. Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions. According to Suetonius, a plague similarly struck during the fire. The nature of the disease, however, as well as the death toll, are unknown.

Conspiracies
Suetonius claims that Vespasian was continuously met with conspiracies against him. Only one conspiracy is known specifically. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus and Aulus Caecina Alienus attempted to incite the Praetorian Guard to mutiny against Vespasian, but the conspiracy was thwarted by Titus. According to the historian John Crook, however, the alleged conspiracy was in fact a calculated plot by the Flavian faction to remove members of the opposition tied to Mucianus, with the mutinous address found on Caecina's body a forgery by Titus. When faced with real conspiracies however, Vespasian and Titus treated their enemies with lenience. "I will not kill a dog that barks at me," were words expressing the temper of Vespasian, while Titus once demonstrated his generosity as Emperor by inviting men who were suspected of aspiring to the throne to dinner, rewarding them with gifts and allowing them to be seated next to him at the games.

Domitian appears to have met with several conspiracies during his reign, one of which led to his eventual assassination in 96. The first significant revolt arose on 1 January 89, when the governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, and his two legions at Mainz, Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax, rebelled against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Chatti. The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have been planned well in advance. The senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian's military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack, his recent retreat from Britain, and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus. At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. The governor of Germania Inferior, Lappius Maximus, moved to the region at once, assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia, Titus Flavius Norbanus. From Spain, Trajan was summoned, whilst Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard. By a stroke of luck, a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus' aid. Within twenty-four days the rebellion was crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. The mutinous legions were sent to the front in Illyricum, while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded.

Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian's reign, identifying a point of sharp increase around 93, or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89. At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed, including Domitia Longina's former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus and three of Domitian's own family members, Titus Flavius Sabinus IV, Titus Flavius Clemens and Marcus Arrecinus Clemens. Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85, however, lending little credit to Tacitus' notion of a "reign of terror" late in Domitian's reign. According to Suetonius, some were convicted for corruption or treason, others on trivial charges, which Domitian justified through his suspicion.

Flavian culture

Propaganda
Since the reign of Tiberius, the rulers of the Julio-Claudian dynasty had legitimized their power through adopted-line descent from Augustus and Julius Caesar. Vespasian could no longer claim such a relation, however. Therefore, a massive propaganda campaign was initiated to justify Flavian rule as having been predetermined through divine providence. At the same time, Flavian propaganda emphasised Vespasian's role as a bringer of peace following the crisis of 69. Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military victory or peace, while the word vindex was removed from coins as to not remind the public of rebellious Vindex. Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning previous emperors, and a Temple of Peace was constructed in the forum.

The Flavians also controlled public opinion through literature. Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, assuring biases against him were removed, while also giving financial rewards to contemporary writers. The ancient historians that lived through the period such as Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him.  Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron and savior, and Pliny dedicated his Natural History to Vespasian's son, Titus. Those that spoke against Vespasian were punished.  A number of Stoic philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and were expelled from Rome.  Helvidius Priscus, a pro-Republic philosopher, was executed for his teachings.

Titus and Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult, which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian. Significantly, Domitian's first act as Emperor was the deification of his brother Titus. Upon their deaths, his infant son, and niece Julia Flavia, were likewise enrolled among the gods. To foster the worship of the imperial family, Domitian erected a dynastic mausoleum on the site of Vespasian's former house on the Quirinal, and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother. To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family, he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Templum Fortuna Redux, and completed the Arch of Titus. In order to further justify the divine nature of Flavian rule, Domitian also emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter, most significantly through the restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill.

Construction

The Flavian dynasty is perhaps best known for its vast construction programme in the city of Rome, intended to restore the capital from the damage it had suffered during the Great Fire of 64, and the civil war of 69. Vespasian added the Temple of Peace and the Temple to the Deified Claudius.  In 75 a colossal statue of Apollo, begun under Nero as a statue of himself, was finished on Vespasian's orders, and he also dedicated a stage of the theater of Marcellus. Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, presently better known as the Colosseum (probably after the nearby statue), was begun in 70 under Vespasian and finally completed in 80 under Titus. In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the Jewish wars. Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero's Golden House, Titus also ordered the construction of a new public bath-house, which was to bear his name. Construction of this building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre.

The bulk of the Flavian construction projects were carried out during the reign of Domitian, who spent lavishly to restore and embellish the city of Rome. Much more than a renovation project, however, Domitian's building programme was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural renaissance. Around fifty structures were erected, restored or completed, a number second only to the amount erected under Augustus. Among the most important new structures were an Odeum, a Stadium, and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill, known as the Flavian Palace, which was designed by Domitian's master architect Rabirius. The most important building Domitian restored was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, which was said to have been covered with a gilded roof. Among those he completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, the Arch of Titus, and the Colosseum, to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area.

Entertainment

Both Titus and Domitian were fond of gladiatorial games, and realised its importance to appease the citizens of Rome. In the newly constructed Colosseum, the Flavians provided for spectacular entertainments. The Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, including gladiatorial combat, fights between wild animals (elephants and cranes), mock naval battles for which the theatre was flooded, horse races and chariot races. During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing, gold, or even slaves), which could then be traded for the designated item.

An estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donativa, or congiaria, throughout Domitian's reign. He also revived the practice of public banquets, which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86, he founded the Capitoline Games, a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays, chariot races, and competitions for oratory, music and acting. Domitian himself supported the travels of competitors from the whole empire and attributed the prizes. Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games, such as naval contests, night-time battles, and female and dwarf gladiator fights. Finally, he added two new factions, Gold and Purple, to chariot races, besides the regular White, Red, Green and Blue teams.

Legacy
The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been criticised, especially based on their more centralised style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalisation of the Senate, and a conclusive move away from princeps, or first citizen, and toward imperator, or emperor.

Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was emperor; his reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian was noted for his mildness and for loyalty to the people. For example, much money was spent on public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: a new forum, the Temple of Peace, the public baths and the Colosseum.

Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them written by his own contemporaries such as Suetonius Tranquillus, Cassius Dio, and Pliny the Elder, present a highly favourable view towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian. In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories,  in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple.  For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction.

Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death, his administration provided the foundation for the peaceful empire of the 2nd century, and the culmination of the Pax Romana. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but, in reality, their policies differed little from Domitian's. Much more than a gloomy coda to the 1st century, the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign which Theodor Mommsen described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian.

Flavian family tree

Dynastic timeline

See also
Flavian art

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

Primary sources
 Cassius Dio, Roman History
Book 64, English translation
Book 65, English translation
Book 66, English translation
Book 67, English translation
 Josephus, The War of the Jews, English translation
 Suetonius, On the Life of the Caesars
Life of Vespasian, Latin text with English translation
Life of Titus, Latin text with English translation
Life of Domitian, Latin text with English translation
 Tacitus
Agricola, English translation
Histories, English translation

Secondary material

Roman imperial dynasties
1st century in the Roman Empire
69 establishments
96 disestablishments
60s establishments in the Roman Empire
90s disestablishments in the Roman Empire
Articles which contain graphical timelines

Flavian dynasty


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Eksterne henvisninger

Ishockeyspillere fra Sverige
Ishockeyspillere fra Aalborg Pirates
Personer fra Ängelholm

Victor Panelin-Borg