Legea lui Pascal sau principiul transmiterii presiunii de fluid (de asemenea, principiul lui Pascal) este un principiu în mecanica fluidelor, care afirmă că o modificare a presiunii care apare oriunde într-un fluid incompresibil aflat în incintă închisă este transmis de-a lungul fluidului astfel că aceeași schimbare are loc peste tot în incintă. Legea a fost stabilită de matematicianul francez Blaise Pascal în 1653 și publicată în 1663.

Definiție

Legea lui Pascal este definită ca:

Acest principiu este formulat matematic astfel:

 este presiunea hidrostatică (dată în pascali în SI) sau diferența de presiune în două puncte dintr-o coloană de fluid, datorită greutății fluidului.

 (ro) este densitatea fluidului (în kilograme pe metru cub în sistemul internațional de unități/SI)

 este accelerația datorată gravitației (utilizând în mod normal accelerația la nivelul mării datorită gravitației Pământului, în metri pe secundă la pătrat)

Explicația intuitivă a acestei formule este că schimbarea presiunii între două cote se datorează greutății fluidului dintre cote. Alternativ, rezultatul poate fi interpretat ca o schimbare de presiune cauzată de schimbarea energiei potențiale pe unitate de volum a lichidului datorită existenței câmpului gravitațional. Variația cu înălțimea însă nu depinde de alte presiuni suplimentare. Prin urmare, legea lui Pascal poate fi interpretată ca spunând că orice modificare în presiunea aplicată într-un punct dat al fluidului este transmisă nediminuată în întregul fluid.

Formula este un caz specific al ecuațiilor Navier-Stokes fără termeni de inerție și viscozitate.

Aplicații ale legii lui Pascal

 Principiul de bază al cricului hidraulic și al presei hidraulice.
 Amplificarea forței în sistemul de frânare al majorității autovehiculelor.
 Folosit în fântâni arteziene, turnuri de apă și diguri.

 Scafandrii trebuie să înțeleagă acest principiu. La o adâncime de 10 metri sub apă, presiunea este de două ori mai mare decât presiunea atmosferică la nivelul mării (de aproximativ 100 kilopascali) și crește cu aproximativ 100 kPa pentru fiecare creștere de 10 m în adâncime.
 De regulă legea lui Pascal se aplică spațiului limitat (flux static), dar, datorită procesului de curgere continuă, principiul lui Pascal poate fi aplicat mecanismului de extracție prin injecție de gaz comprimat (care poate fi reprezentat ca un tub U cu pistoane la ambele capete).

Butoiul lui Pascal

Butoiul lui Pascal este numele unui experiment de hidrostatică, realizat de Pascal în 1646. În experiment, s-ar fi introdus un tub lung vertical într-un butoi umplut cu apă. Când apa a fost turnată în tubul vertical, creșterea presiunii hidrostatice a făcut ca butoiul să explodeze.

Experimentul nu este menționat nicăieri în lucrările conservate ale lui Pascal și poate fi apocrif, atribuit lui de către autori francezi din secolul al XIX-lea, unde experimentul era cunoscut sub numele de crève-tonneau (cu aproximație: "spărgător de butoaie"); cu toate acestea, experimentul rămâne asociat cu Pascal în multe manuale de fizică elementară.

Note

Mecanica fluidelor

Legea lui Pascal


An Askidiosperma in uska genus han Liliopsida. An Askidiosperma in nahilalakip ha familia nga Restionaceae.

An kladograma hini sumala ha Catalogue of Life:

Mga kasarigan

Askidiosperma

Askidiosperma


Allan Wilson (* 5. August 1954 in Glasgow) ist ein schottischer Politiker und Mitglied der Labour Party.

Leben
McNulty besuchte die Glengarnock Primary School und die Spier's School in Beith. Er war dann für die Gewerkschaften NUPE und UNISON tätig. McNulty war Mitglied der Fußballmannschaft des Schottischen Parlaments und ist Vorsitzender des Fußballvereins von Kilbirnie. Im Jugendfußballbereich von Ayrshire fungierte er bei verschiedenen Mannschaften als Trainer. Wilson ist verheiratet, Vater zweier Söhne und lebt in Kilbirnie.

Politischer Werdegang
Zwischen 1992 und 1999 war Wilson Mitglied der Exekutive der Scottish Labour Party und von 1986 bis 1996 Wahlkampfleiter des Unterhausabgeordneten Brian Wilson. Bei den ersten Schottischen Parlamentswahlen im Jahre 1999 trat Wilson erstmals zu Wahlen auf nationaler Ebene an. Er bewarb sich um das Direktmandat des Wahlkreises Cunninghame North und konnte das Direktmandat mit deutlichem Vorsprung vor dem SNP-Kandidaten Kay Ullrich erringen. Im Parlament bekleidete Wilson in dieser Legislaturperiode verschiedene Positionen. So war er von November 2000 bis März 2001 stellvertretender Staatssekretär für Kultur und Sport, anschließend bis November 2001 für Kultur, Kunst und Sport und schließlich für Bildung und Entwicklung ländlicher Regionen. Bei den Parlamentswahlen 2003 verteidigte er sein Mandat. Seine Position als stellvertretender Staatssekretär für Bildung und Entwicklung ländlicher Regionen behielt Wilson zunächst und wurde dann im Oktober 2004 zum stellvertretenden Staatssekretär für Unternehmen und lebenslanges Lernen ernannt. Bei den Schottischen Parlamentswahlen 2007 verlor er sein Mandat an den SNP-Kandidaten Kenneth Gibson und schied aus dem Schottischen Parlament aus. Gibson gewann hierbei mit einem Vorsprung von nur 48 Stimmen und damit dem knappsten Vorsprung in allen Wahlkreisen bei diesen Wahlen. Auf Grund des knappen Ergebnisses behielt sich die Labour Party zunächst vor das Ergebnis anzufechten, verzichtete dann jedoch darauf. Bei den Schottischen Parlamentswahlen 2011 kandidierte Wilson abermals für Cunninghame North, unterlag Gibson diesmal jedoch deutlich.

Weblinks
 Informationen auf den Seiten des Schottischen Parlaments

Einzelnachweise

Abgeordneter im Schottischen Parlament
Mitglied der Scottish Labour Party
Politiker (20. Jahrhundert)
Politiker (21. Jahrhundert)
Geboren 1954
Schotte
Brite
Mann
Politiker (North Ayrshire)

Allan Wilson (Politiker)


Die HSG Konstanz (Handballspielgemeinschaft Konstanz) ist die unter eigenem Namen antretende und 1923 gegründete Handballabteilung des Sportvereins TV Konstanz.

Bis zum 30. Juni 2015 war sie eine 1980 gegründete Spielgemeinschaft der Handballabteilungen der beiden Konstanzer Vereine TV und HC DJK Konstanz.

Die erste Herrenmannschaft der HSG spielt seit Mitte der 1990er Jahre konstant mindestens in der dritthöchsten Spielklasse des deutschen Handballs, Anfang des 21. Jahrhunderts spielte sie drei Spielzeiten hintereinander in der damaligen Südstaffel der 2. Bundesliga. Die Jahre danach gehörte sie zu den Spitzenvereinen der Südstaffel der 3. Liga. Nach dem Gewinn der Süddeutschen Meisterschaft 2015/16 und 2018/19 und dem Erfolg in den Aufstiegsspielen 2021/22 stieg sie erneut in die nun eingleisige 2. Bundesliga auf.

2021 übergab Otto Eblen das Amt des Präsidenten nach 30 Jahren an seine Tochter Franziska Schmidlin. Für sein über 50-jähriges ehrenamtliches Wirken in der Jugendarbeit, als Trainer und im Management bei der HSG Konstanz wurde er zuvor mit der Ehrennadel des Landes Baden-Württemberg für "langjährige Verdienste im Ehrenamt" von Baden-Württembergs Ministerpräsident Winfried Kretschmann ausgezeichnet.

Erste Herrenmannschaft
Die erste Herrenmannschaft der HSG wurde nach dem Zusammenschluss der beiden Vereine zunächst schnell erfolgreich: In der Saison 1982/83 gelang der Aufstieg aus der Verbandsliga in die Südbadische Oberliga, in der Folgesaison der Aufstieg in die damals dritthöchste Spielklasse, die Handball-Regionalliga. Nach mehrfachem Abstieg und Wiederaufstieg gelang es seit der Saison 1994/95, die HSG in der dritthöchsten Spielklasse fest zu etablieren.

In der Saison 2000/01 gelang mit dem Aufstieg in die 2. Bundesliga der bis dahin größte Erfolg der Vereinsgeschichte, nachdem die HSG Konstanz ein Jahr zuvor trotz Regionalliga-Meisterschaft noch in den Aufstiegsspielen zur zweiten Liga gescheitert war. Dort konnte sich die HSG drei Spielzeiten lang halten; seit der Saison 2004/05 spielte Konstanz wieder in der dritthöchsten Spielklasse, der Regionalliga bzw. der neuen 3. Liga Süd (seit 2010). In der Saison 2015/16 wurde die HSG Meister der 3. Liga Süd und konnte sich somit zur Saison 2016/17 zum zweiten Mal den Aufstieg in die nun eingleisige 2. Bundesliga sichern. Dort gelang mit 35:41 Punkten und Platz 14 der Klassenerhalt.

Trainer war von Anfang 2004 bis 2021 A-Lizenzinhaber Daniel Eblen, der damit dienstältester Trainer im deutschen Profihandball war. 2021 übernahm der ehemalige Bundesligaprofi und EHF-Mastercoach Jörg Lützelberger, Daniel Eblen blieb der HSG nach seiner 18. Saison als Cheftrainer jedoch weiter in zweiter Reihe erhalten.

In der Saison 2017/18 belegte die Mannschaft den 19. Platz in der 2. Handball-Bundesliga und stieg damit in die 3. Liga ab.

In der Spielzeit 2018/19 wurde die HSG Meister der 3. Liga Süd und gewann damit die Süddeutsche Meisterschaft. In der anschließenden Aufstiegsrelegation konnte sie sich in der zweiten Runde gegen den HC Empor Rostock (31:31 und 33:29) durchsetzen und sich den direkten Wiederaufstieg in die 2. Bundesliga sichern, in der ihr im darauffolgenden Spieljahr in der abgebrochenen Saison mit Platz 16 der Klassenerhalt gelang. Die Saison 2020/21 schloss Konstanz auf dem 17. Platz ab und trat wegen nur eines fehlenden Punktes zum Klassenerhalt den Gang in die 3. Liga an. Am Ende der Spielzeit 2021/22 stieg der Verein nach einer erfolgreichen Aufstiegsrunde und zwei Finalspielen gegen den Wilhelmshavener HV wieder in die 2. Bundesliga auf.

Spielstätte: Schänzle-Sporthalle Konstanz
Spielstätte der ersten Herrenmannschaft ist die insgesamt 1900 Zuschauer (davon 1417 Sitzplätze) fassende und direkt am Seerhein liegende Schänzle-Sporthalle in Konstanz. Die im Stadtteil Paradies gebaute Dreifelderhalle ist damit die größte Sporthalle der Stadt Konstanz und verfügt über eine Outdoor-Leichtathletikanlage mit zwei Rasenspielfeldern, eine Beachanlage sowie eine zusätzliche, abgetrennte Halle für Basketball und Volleyball. Ein öffentliches Restaurant bietet auf der großzügigen Terrasse einen direkten Blick auf den Seerhein.

Im Jahr 2005 und 2007 trug die deutsche Handballnationalmannschaft des DHB hier ein Testspiel gegen die Schweiz in jeweils ausverkaufter Halle aus.

Über die letzten Jahre stieg der Zuschauerschnitt der HSG Konstanz in der Schänzle-Sporthalle stetig an, in der Saison 2015/16 besuchten durchschnittlich mehr als 1000 Fans die Heimspiele. Dies war wie in den Jahren davor Bestwert in der 3. Liga Süd. In der 2. Bundesliga konnte ein Jahr später der Zuschauerschnitt weiter deutlich auf nunmehr 1300 Fans pro Heimspiel gesteigert werden. Insgesamt 24250 Zuschauer bei den Heimspielen der HSG bedeuteten den besten Wert eines Aufsteigers und ligaweit Rang elf in der Saison 2016/17.

Die Schänzle-Sporthalle ist wegen der lautstarken Fans auch unter dem Spitznamen "Schänzle-Hölle" bekannt.

Kooperationen
Zur Förderung des Spitzensports bestehen Kooperationen mit der Universität Konstanz und der Fachhochschule Konstanz (HTWG). So können Stipendien an talentierte, leistungswillige Handballer vergeben werden. Bis auf wenige Ausnahmen studieren alle Spieler an den beiden Konstanzer Hochschulen.

Talentförderung und Jugendarbeit
Die HSG Konstanz hat sich die Förderung junger Talente zur Aufgabe gemacht. Bereits viermal, 2018, 2020, 2021 und 2023 wurde sie von der Handball-Bundesliga (HBL) mit dem Gütesiegel Jugendzertifikat für exzellente Nachwuchsförderung ausgezeichnet und gehört damit zu den Top-Nachwuchsausbildern Deutschlands. Ausdruck der intensiven Talentförderung ist auch die zweite Mannschaft. In der Saison 2018/19 wäre als jüngstem Team der Liga beinahe der Durchmarsch in die 3. Liga gelungen. Ein Jahr später war es dann soweit und es gelang der Aufstieg in die dritthöchste Spielklasse, die nur aufgrund des Abstiegs der ersten Mannschaft aus der 2. Bundesliga wieder verlassen werden musste.

Die HSG zeichnet sich überdies durch eine sehr erfolgreiche Jugendarbeit aus, insbesondere im männlichen Bereich. Die Mannschaften spielen durchgängig in den höchsten Spielklassen und haben eine Vielzahl an Erfolgen vorzuweisen. Dazu gehören südbadische und süddeutsche Meisterschaften. Auch auf nationaler Ebene gelangen Erfolge, etwa die deutsche Vizemeisterschaft 1998 mit der männlichen B-Jugend und die inoffizielle deutsche Meisterschaft in der E-Jugend. Die männliche A-Jugend qualifizierte sich 2011/12 für die erste Saison der Jugend-Bundesliga des DHB und zählt damit zu den Gründungsmitgliedern der Eliteklasse des deutschen Jugend-Handballs. Mit insgesamt zwölf Teilnahmen, davon zuletzt seit der Saison 2013/14 elf in Folge, gehört die HSG Konstanz zu den erfolgreichsten Vereinen Süddeutschlands in der Jugend-Bundesliga.

In ihrer Ballschule "Handball-Sport-Garten" betreut die HSG wöchentlich rund 350 Kinder. Das innovative Projekt für Kinder von drei bis sechs Jahren wurde vom Deutschen Handballbund mit dem Vereinsförderpreis 2018 ausgezeichnet und wird vom Freundeskreis des Deutschen Handballs (FDDH e. V.) unterstützt. Darüber hinaus engagiert sich der Club mit einer Miniballdisco, einem Musik-Sport-Garten und Cheerleading-Angeboten für Mädchen.

Mannschaft

Kader der Saison 2023/24

Trainerteam

Transfers zur Saison 2023/24

Bekannte ehemalige und aktuelle Spieler
 Sebastian Faißt
 Matthias Rauh
 Michael Binder
 Alexander Mierzwa
 Marc Hafner
 Sebastian Seitner

Weblinks
 Website der HSG Konstanz

Einzelnachweise

Handballverein aus Baden-Württemberg
HSG Konstanz
HSG

HSG Konstanz


South Kivu (; ) is one of 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Its capital is Bukavu.

Situated within the Great Rift Valley, South Kivu is bordered by Lake Kivu, Burundi, and Tanzania to the east; Maniema Province to the west; North Kivu Province to the north; and Tanganyika Province to the south. Covering an extensive area of approximately 65,070 square kilometers (25,120 square miles), it is administratively divided into numerous territories and boasts a population of roughly 5,772,000.

The province's topography is an amalgamation of geographical features, comprising mountains, dense forests, cascading waterfalls, and fertile plains. The Rwenzori Mountains, which form part of the Albertine Rift, are located on the province's eastern edge, serving as a vital source of freshwater and sustaining a plethora of flora and fauna. The area boasts an array of wildlife species, including mountain gorillas, chimpanzees, African Forest Elephants, lions, giraffes, and vervet monkeys. Additionally, the region hosts African buffalos, baboons, African clawed frogs, dwarf crocodiles, savannah monitors, Common duikers, and Common agamas. Notably, it serves as a crucial habitat for endangered eastern lowland gorillas. Parenthetically, the region's national parks and nature reserves, such as Kahuzi-Biéga National Park and Itombwe Nature Reserve, have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

South Kivu is a melting pot of various ethnic groups, including the Shi, Fuliiru, Bembe, Vira, Lega, Nyindu, Holoholo, Bwari, Hunde, Nyanga, Amba, Swaga, Shu, and Mbuti. The region is also home to a small fraction of Hutu and Tutsi agro-pastoralists who were transplanted by Belgian colonial authorities in the mid-20th century.

Since First Congo War, the region has been plagued by armed conflicts and civil unrest. During the First and Second Congo Wars, it became a battleground for the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL), the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), and the Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD). The presence of multiple armed groups in the area has led to insecurity, instability, and humanitarian crises. The conflict has resulted in the displacement of civilians, human rights abuses, and atrocities against the local population. Additionally, the region's rich natural resources, such as minerals and timber, have been a driving factor for some of the conflicts.

History
South Kivu Province was created from Sud-Kivu District in 1989, when the existing Kivu Province was divided into three parts (South Kivu, North Kivu and Maniema).

Conflict and insecurity

First Congo War

For three decades, the region has been plagued by armed conflicts and violence. Various armed groups and militias have operated in the area, leading to displacement, human rights abuses, and the disruption of essential services.

At the outset of the First Congo War, South Kivu played a key role as a battleground for the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL), led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila. Its plateaus and hills served as strategic strongholds for the advancing AFDL forces, who aimed to pursue Hutu refugees, particularly the ex-FAR/Interahamwe, while simultaneously seeking to overthrow Mobutu's government. This response was prompted by the mistreatment of Tutsi civilians under Mobutu's regime, which subjected them to arbitrary arrests and detentions conducted by Zairian police and soldiers.

The AFDL's pursuit of Hutu refugees led to widespread violence and atrocities. The AFDL forces, resorting to indiscriminate killings, mass executions, and acts of torture, initiated the First Congo War with a massacre in the Lemera groupement (grouping) of South Kivu, on October 6, 1996. The massacre claimed the lives of several dozen individuals. In a hospital massacre, 37 individuals, including two medical personnel, were killed. On October 20, 1996, the AFDL forces killed an unknown number of refugees and Zairian civilians in Rubenga, a village in South Kivu. Another attack occurred on October 21, 1996, in Lubarika village, where an unknown number of Rwandan and Burundian refugees, along with Zairian civilians, were killed by the AFDL forces. Local people were coerced into burying the bodies in four large mass graves. In Kamanyola, on October 20, 1996, the AFDL forces killed an unknown number of refugees and Zairian civilians, disposing of their bodies in pit latrines. The AFDL persisted in launching attacks on South Kivu's refugee camps, rivers, airports, and densely populated villages. They carried out civilian executions and acts of terrorism against Zairian civilians in various locations, including Nyantende, Bukavu, Lwakabiri, Kashusha, Ulindi River, Kigulube, Ivela, Balika, Kavumu Airport, Lulingu, and Keisha. In May 1997, the AFDL gained control over significant parts of the country and captured the capital, Kinshasa. Mobutu fled the country and Laurent-Désiré Kabila assumed leadership, renaming the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Second Congo War

From late 1997 onwards, the relationship between President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, Rwanda and the Tutsi soldiers present in the AFDL deteriorated. Laurent-Désiré Kabila's government faced multiple accusations of marginalizing Tutsi political factions, excluding them from his administration, and displaying preferential treatment toward his Katanga clan. In July 1998, driven by fears of a coup d'état, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila relieved Rwandan General James Kabarebe of his position as Chief of Staff of the AFDL, while also issuing an order for the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) soldiers to withdraw from Congolese territory. In response, on 2nd August 1998, a faction of Tutsi soldiers mutinied and, with the assistance of the AFDL, the Banyamulenge militias, the Ugandan army (Ugandan People's Defence Force; UPDF), and the Burundi army (Forces Armées Burundaises; FAB), launched a rebellion aimed at overthrowing President Laurent-Désiré Kabila. Within a few weeks, this coalition formed the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD) and gained control over major urban centers in North and South Kivu, Orientale Province, North Katanga, and even managed to penetrate into the Équateur Province. The war resulted in wide-scale displacement, famine, and a staggering loss of lives. Numerous rebel groups and militias emerged, further intensifying the violence and leading to pervasive human rights violations, including large-scale massacres and incidents of sexual violence.

On August 6, 1998, factions of the ANC/RPA/FAB perpetrated a massacre, claiming the lives of numerous civilians in Uvira, in South Kivu. As civilians sought shelter or attempted to flee the combat zone, they fell victim to the FAC in confrontations, resulting in hundreds of fatalities. Moreover, on the same day, members of the ANC, the armed wing of the RCD rebel, killed 13 people, including the chief of the Kiringye area, in the village of Lwiburule in South Kivu. Another massacre unfolded as elements of the ANC/RPA claimed the lives of 15 individuals in the vicinity of Kivovo, Kigongo, and Kalungwe, all situated in South Kivu. The victims suffered from dagger wounds or were shot near the primary port in Kalundu and at the facilities of SEP Congo. On August 24, 1998, RCD forces and Rwandan soldiers unleashed a massacre in Kasika and neighboring villages in South Kivu, resulting in the deaths of more than 1,000 people, as reported by the United Nations Mapping Report. The majority of the recovered bodies, predominantly women and children, were discovered on the 60-kilometer journey from Kilungutwe village to Kasika. Prior to their murders, the women were subjected to rape followed by brutal disembowelment using daggers. From December 30, 1998, to January 2, 1999, RCD forces committed another massacre, claiming the lives of over 800 civilians, primarily belonging to the Babembe community, in the small village of Makobola in South Kivu. Many victims endured machete attacks or were shot at close range, while others met their demise through burning or drowning in nearby rivers. Infants and young children were callously thrown into deep pit latrines, left to perish, while adults who dared to disobey orders and attempted to escape were met with bullets. On May 14, 2000, members of the ANC conducted a massacre resulting in 300 deaths in the village of Katogota in South Kivu.

The war officially ended in 2003 with the signing of the Sun City Agreement, which aimed to establish a transitional government and promote peace and stability in the DRC. However, sporadic violence and conflicts in the region persisted even after the official end of the war.

War and human rights
The Banyamulenge, who actively aligned themselves with the AFDL and RCD factions throughout the duration of the Second Congo War, have been subject to widespread disdain among many Congolese due to their alleged involvement in a range of nefarious activities. These accusations include launching assaults on refugee camps and densely populated villages, engaging in civilian executions, and orchestrating acts of terrorism targeting Zairian civilians across various regions of South and North Kivu. Consequently, a considerable number of Congolese view the Banyamulenge as unwelcome intruders encroaching upon their native territories, thereby intensifying the deep-rooted animosity directed towards them.

The UN estimates that in 2005, approximately 45,000 women were raped in South Kivu. It forms various armed groups, including the Rwandan-backed armed groups, Banyamulenge armed groups, Raia Mutomboki, Mai-Mai militias, ADF (Allied Democratic Forces) and FDLR. There have been numerous accounts and allegations of sexual violence perpetrated by members of the Congolese army (Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo; FARDC) in eastern Congo. The 10th Military Region of the newly established Congolese military, led by General Pacifique Masunzu, whose undisciplined former factional soldiers are responsible for human rights violations due to a continuing culture of impunity for military personnel, compounded by challenging living conditions, inadequate remuneration, and insufficient training.
Masunzu is Munyamulenge (South Kivu Banyamulenge Tutsi) who broke with the Rwandan-backed Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) back in 2003. He was formerly commander of the 122nd Brigade in the Minembwe area, who in 2005 rebelled against the authorities in defence of the Congolese Banyamulenge, against harassment and physical abuse. Also previously former second in command of 4th Military Region in Kasai-Occidental. Africa Confidential said in 2011 that he 'clearly remains implacably opposed to the Rwandan government.' His deputy Colonel Baudouin Nakabaka is a former Mai-Mai fighter with close links to the FDLR.In July 2007, United Nations human rights expert Yakin Erturk called the situation in South Kivu the worst she has ever seen in four years as the global body's special investigator for violence against women. Sexual violence throughout Congo is "rampant," she said, blaming rebel groups, the armed forces and national police. Her statement included that "Frequently women are shot or stabbed in their genital organs, after they are raped. Women, who survived months of enslavement, told me that their tormentors had forced them to eat excrement or the human flesh of murdered relatives."

In June 2014, around 35 people were killed in an attack in the South Kivu village of Mutarule. The attack was apparently part of dispute over cattle.

On 7 August 2015 the 2015 South Kivu earthquake, a magnitude 5.8 earthquake, struck  north-northeast of Kabare at a depth of . One policeman was killed.

On July 16, 2020, the Ngumino and Twiganeho militias of the Banyamulenge community perpetrated the Kipupu massacre, which claimed the lives of 220 people in South Kivu village of Kipupu, as reported by provincial lawmakers.

Approximate correspondence between historical and current province

Geography

South Kivu borders the provinces of North Kivu to the north, Maniema to the west, and Tanganyika to the south. To the east, it shares borders with Rwanda, Burundi and Tanzania, forming part of the African Great Lakes region. The province is predominantly mountainous, with the western side of the Albertine Rift Valley running through its territory. This creates a series of peaks and valleys, including the Mitumba Mountains and the Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, which is home to endangered mountain gorillas. South Kivu also boasts several notable lakes, including Lake Kivu and Lake Tanganyika. In addition to its mountains and lakes, the province also features a network of rivers and dense tropical rainforests. The major rivers in the province include the Ruzizi, which forms part of the border with Burundi, and the Ulindi River, which flows into Lake Tanganyika. The rainforests of South Kivu are part of the Congo Basin, one of the world's largest tropical rainforest systems. These forests are teeming with biodiversity, housing a wide variety of plant and animal species. They provide habitat for endangered wildlife, including chimpanzees, forest elephants, and various species of primates. The region is also rich in natural resources, including minerals like gold, coltan, tin, and tungsten.

Hydrology
South Kivu Province is characterized by numerous rivers, lakes, and waterways that crisscross through its landscapes. The region lies in the center of the African Great Lakes, encompassed by Lake Kivu towards the west and sharing its border with the Virunga National Park on the east. The Ruzizi River, one of the longest rivers in the world, flows along the province's eastern edge. Meanwhile, its tributaries—the Sange, Kavinvira, Kavimvira, Luvimvi, Luvungi, Luvubu, Luberizi, Runingu, Mulongwe, Kiliba, Kalimabenge, and Lugulu Rivers—run through the verdant terrains, nurturing the surrounding ecosystems and supporting farming activities.

The province is home to several lakes, including Lake Tanganyika which serve as critical sources of freshwater and habitats for diverse aquatic species.

While the province is rich in natural resources, it is also fraught with challenges and dangers. The area is susceptible to periodic floods, particularly during the rainy season, which cause disruptions to both the community and infrastructure. Over the last few years, parts of the province have been ravaged by flooding. In March 2020–23, torrential rains and the overflow of nearby tributaries inundated homes, including the Sange and Uvira, located in Uvira Territory. These regions experienced severe flooding, resulting in a sudden surge of water that overwhelmed the local infrastructure and communities. The force of the floodwaters led to the collapse of many houses, leaving families homeless and vulnerable. The aftermath of the flooding also led to the displacement of people who sought refuge in temporary shelters or with relatives in safer areas.

Similarly, other areas in South Kivu Province also faced the wrath of floods, including Nyambasha, Bushushu, Rambira, and Nyamukubi in Kalehe Territory. These communities, situated in low-lying areas near rivers and water bodies, are particularly susceptible to the destructive impact of flooding. Heavy rains and rising water levels overwhelm local infrastructure and defenses, causing homes to collapse and forcing residents to flee for safety.

Geology

The province houses many volcanoes, including Mount Kahuzi, Mount Muhi and Mount Kabobo. These volcanoes are part of the larger Virunga Mountains, which stretches from Uganda through Rwanda and into the DRC. The province also includes parts of the Albertine Rift, a branch of the larger East African Rift System. This rift valley is characterized by tectonic forces that led to the stretching and thinning of the Earth's crust, resulting in the formation of deep valleys and steep escarpments. The rift valley is associated with the presence of lakes, including Lake Kivu and Lake Tanganyika, which are major features of the landscape in South Kivu Province. In addition to volcanic and rift valley formations, the province also contains sedimentary basins. These basins, such as the Lake Kivu Basin, are areas where layers of sediment have accumulated over time. They are important for their mineral resources, including deposits of diamonds, gold, copper, cobalt, tin, tantalum and lithium.

Administrative divisions
Administratively, the South Kivu Province is divided into territories, chiefdoms or sectors, groupements, and villages.

Territories

Territories serve as the extensive arms of state administration, functioning as representatives of the central government. Appointed by the Ministry of the Interior, territorial officials are included in the state's budgetary provisions. While they directly report to the Ministry of the Interior, they are also accountable to the governor, who acts as the representative of both the President in the province and the Ministry of the Interior. The primary role of territorial administrators is to represent the state at the local level and oversee chiefdoms (collectivités).

South Kivu Province is divided into eight territories:
 Fizi (15,788 km²), capital Fizi town;
 Idjwi (281 km²), this is an island in Lake Kivu;
 Kabare (1,960 km²),
 Kalehe (5,126 km²),
 Mwenga (11,172 km²),
 Shabunda (25,116 km²),
 Uvira (3,148 km²), capital Uvira town;
 Walungu (1,800 km²),

Cities
In the legal view, the province has three major cities of importance: Baraka (Fizi Territory), Bukavu (Provincial Capital) and Uvira (Uvira Territory). The northern city of Minova grew exponentially from 1994 through 2012 with a steady influx of refugees as a result of the disruption of the Rwandan genocide and the First and Second Congo wars, and continued fighting in the area.

The city of Bukavu has experienced an exponential urban growth since colonial times. Sadiki et al. (2010) report about 620,000 inhabitants for 2008. The population growth rate increased incredibly in 2002 due to the entry of massive population from Goma after the Nyiragongo eruption of 17 January 2002.

Chiefdoms and sectors

Traditional authority is vested in chieftaincies, also known as collectivities (collectivités) or sectors. The selection of the powerholder within a chiefdom or sector is determined by ethnic traditions and later recognized or formalized by the state, following traditional rules. The leader of a chiefdom carries the honored title of Mwami. The chiefdom is further subdivided into Groupements (groupings), which extend the reach of traditional authority to regrouped villages. The village chiefs are responsible for overseeing the administration and governance within their respective areas.

Some of the notable chiefdoms and sectors in South Kivu Province:

Groupements and villages

Health districts
South Kivu is divided into 34 health zones (zones de santé). These are grouped into five health districts (districts de santé). These districts do not match the geography of the territories.

References

Further reading
"Rape Epidemic Raises Trauma of Congo War." By Jeffrey Gettleman. October 7, 2007. New York Times
Retracing Che Guevara's Congo Footsteps by BBC News, November 25, 2004

External links

Provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

South Kivu


Albidella acanthocarpa, vrsta močvarne jednosupnice iz porodice žabočunovki. Australski je endem iz Sjevernog teritorija i Queenslanda. Helofit.

Sinonimi
 Alisma acanthocarpum F.Muell.
 Caldesia acanthocarpa (F.Muell.) Buchenau
 Caldesia oligococca var. acanthocarpa (F.Muell.) Hartog

Izvori

Albidella

Albidella acanthocarpa


Botolan ist eine philippinische Stadtgemeinde in der Provinz Zambales.

Baranggays

Botolan ist politisch in 31 Baranggays unterteilt.

Ort auf den Philippinen
Zambales

Botolan


Olaylar
 1 Ocak - Yunanistan Avrupa Ekonomik Topluluğu üyeliğine kabul edildi.
 5 Ocak - Atatürk'ün doğumunun 100. yılı nedeniyle ilan edilen 'Atatürk Yılı' törenlerle başladı.
 4 Mart - Paris Büyükelçiliği Çalışma Ataşesi Reşat Moralı ve Din Görevlisi Tecelli Arı, ASALA tarafından öldürüldü.
 1 Nisan - Yaz saati uygulaması ilk kez Sovyetler Birliği'nde de hayata geçirildi.
 13 Mayıs - Mehmet Ali Ağca Papa II. Jean Paul'e karşı suikast girişiminde bulundu.
 20 Ocak - İran, 52 Amerikalıyı rehin aldıktan 444 gün sonra serbest bıraktı. Aynı gün Ronald Reagan ABD'de başkanlık görevine resmen başladı.
 24 Mayıs - THY'nin Haliç adlı yolcu uçağı Bulgaristan'ın Burgaz şehrine kaçırıldı. Mürettebat ve yolcular tarafından, hava korsanları etkisiz hale getirildi.
 1 Ağustos - MTV yayına girdi
 22 Eylül - Trakya'da planlı olarak yapılan 'Sonbahar Tatbikatı' esnasında, F-5 jet uçağı karargâh üzerine düştü. 40 asker öldü, 72 asker yaralandı.
 16 Ekim - Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi, Adalet Partisi, Milli Selamet Partisi, Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi, Cumhuriyetçi Güven Partisi, Türkiye İşçi Partisi  ve Türkiye Birlik Partisi kapatıldı.
 21 Ekim - Türkiye'nin en büyük barajı olan 'Atatürk Barajı' faaliyete geçti.
 23 Ekim - 160 üyeli Danışma Meclisi çalışmalarına başladı. Danışma Meclisi Başkanlığı'na, Konya Temsilcisi ve eski Başbakan Sadi Irmak seçildi.
 2 Kasım - 5000 TLlik banknotlar tedavüle çıktı.
 14 Aralık - İsrail, Golan Tepeleri'ni kendi topraklarına kattı.
 30 Aralık - Galatasaray Eğitim Vakfı kuruldu.

Tarihi bilinmeyenler

 Kaliforniya'da ilk AIDS vakaları başladı.

Doğumlar

Ocak

 15 Ocak - Pamela Tola, Finlandiyalı oyuncu
 19 Ocak - Asier del Horno, Basklı futbolcu
 22 Ocak - Ben Moody, Amerikalı müzisyen.
 31 Ocak :
 Selçuk Şahin, Türk futbolcu
 Justin Timberlake, Amerikalı pop şarkıcısı ve aktörü

Şubat
 1 Şubat - Gustaf Norén, Mando Diao'nun gitaristi
 2 Şubat - Emre Aydın, Türk rock sanatçısı
 9 Şubat - The Rev, Amerikalı müzisyen, rock sanatçısı
 11 Şubat - Aritz Aduriz, Baskonya asıllı İspanyol futbolcu
 16 Şubat - Michelle Tucker, Amerikalı pornografik film oyuncusu
 27 Şubat - Josh Groban, Amerikalı lirik bariton

Mart
 10 Mart - Samuel Eto'o, Kamerunlu futbolcu
 17 Mart - Servet Çetin, Türk futbolcu
 19 Mart - Kolo Touré, Fildişi Sahilli futbolcu
 23 Mart :
 Mesut Süre - Türk Radyo programcısı ve stand up sanatçısı
 Aysun Kayacı, Türk model ve oyuncu

Nisan
 14 Nisan - Willy William, Fransız müzisyen.
 10 Nisan - Başak Daşman, Türk oyuncu
 17 Nisan
 Michael Mifsud, Maltalı millî futbolcu
 Nicky Jam, Amerikalı şarkıcı
 Umut Kurt, Türk oyuncu
 19 Nisan - Hayden Christensen, Amerikalı oyuncu
 25 Nisan - Felipe Massa, Brezilyalı Formula 1 pilotu
 30 Nisan - Rasim Ozan Kütahyalı, Türk köşe yazarı

Mayıs
 8 Mayıs
 Andrea Barzagli, İtalyan futbolcu
 Erdem Yener, Türk rock şarkıcı, dizi oyuncusu
 Stephen Amell, Kanadalı oyuncu
 12 Mayıs - Rami Malek, Amerikalı oyuncu
 13 Mayıs - Boncuk Yılmaz, İstanbul Kraliyet Tiyatrosu oyuncusu.
 16 Mayıs
 Sergei Novitski, Rus buz patenci
 Ali Özen, Türk taekwondocu
 Jim Sturgess, İngiliz oyuncu
 18 Mayıs - Eduardo Luís Abonizio Souza, Brezilyalı futbolcu
 20 Mayıs - Iker Casillas, İspanyol futbolcu
 27 Mayıs - Özgür Çevik, Türk oyuncu

Haziran
 3 Haziran - Ersin Karabulut, Türk karikatürist
 5 Haziran - Serhat Akın, Türk futbolcu
 9 Haziran - Natalie Portman, İsrailli oyuncu
 12 Haziran - Adriana Lima, Brezilyalı Supermodel
 15 Haziran - Alou Diarra, Fransız futbolcu
 28 Haziran - Mara Santangelo, İtalyan tenisçi

Temmuz
 4 Temmuz - Froso Papaharalambus, Yunan şarkıcı
 7 Temmuz - Synyster Gates, Avenged Sevenfold grubunun gitaristi
 9 Temmuz - Özgür Peştimalci, Türk davulcu
 14 Temmuz - Önder Turacı, Türk futbolcu
 16 Temmuz - Maher Zain, İsveçli Müslüman müzisyen

 19 Temmuz - Aleksandr Kotikov, II. Dünya Savaşı sonrası 1956-1950 yılları arasında Berlin'den sorumlu askeri yetkili olan Sovyet tümgeneral (ö. 1902)
 20 Temmuz - Hanna Yablonskaya, Ukraynalı oyun yazarı ve şair (ö. 2011)
 24 Temmuz - Summer Glau, Amerikalı oyuncu
 29 Temmuz - Fernando Alonso, İspanyol Formula 1 pilotu
 31 Temmuz - Matt Shadows, Avenged Sevenfold grubunun vokalisti

Ağustos
 2 Ağustos - Vlad Miriţă, Rumen şarkıcı
 8 Ağustos - Roger Federer, İsviçreli tenisçi
 Simge Sağın, Türk şarkıcı, söz yazarı ve besteci.
 25 Ağustos - Rachel Bilson, Amerikalı aktris

Eylül
 1 Eylül - Alper Çağlar, Türk yönetmen
 2 Eylül - Ferhat Çerçi, Türk-Alman futbolcu
 4 Eylül - Beyoncé, Amerikalı şarkıcı ve oyuncu
 7 Eylül
Gökhan Zan, Türk futbolcu
Kyohei Yamagata, Japon eski futbolcu
 8 Eylül
Kate Abdo, İngiliz spor yayıncısı
Koji Nakao, Japon eski futbolcu
Daiki Takamatsu, Japon eski futbolcu
Nozomu Kanaguchi, Japon eski futbolcu
Dan Fredinburg, Amerikalı mühendis  (ö. 2015)
Tsuyoshi Yoshitake, Japon eski futbolcu
Teruyuki Moniwa, Japon milli futbolcu
Morten Gamst Pedersen, Norveçli futbolcu
 9 Eylül - Lyn, Güney Koreli R&B şarkıcısı
 13 Eylül - August Night, Amerikalı pornografik aktris ve model
 15 Eylül - Dave Mantel, Hollandalı oyuncu, film yapımcısı ve manken (ö. 2018)
 22 Eylül
 Barış Atay, Türk sinema ve dizi oyuncusu
 Emre Canpolat, Türk oyuncu
 Sedat Ağçay, Türk futbolcu
 26 Eylül - Serena Williams, Amerikalı tenisçi
 28 Eylül - Gül Gölge, Türk TV sunucusu, manken oyuncu

Ekim
 1 Ekim - Júlio Baptista, Brezilyalı futbolcu
 3 Ekim :
 Andreas Isaksson, İsveçli kaleci
 Zlatan Ibrahimović, İsveçli futbolcu
 5 Ekim - Alper Ulusoy, Süper Lig hakemi.
 9 Ekim - Gaël Givet, Fransız futbolcu
 12 Ekim - Engin Akyürek, Türk dizi ve sinema filmi oyuncusu
 15 Ekim - Elena Dementieva, Rus tenisçi
 19 Ekim - Heikki Kovalainen, Fin Formula 1 pilotu
 24 Ekim - Kemal Aslan, Türk futbolcu
 26 Ekim - Christina Milian, Amerikalı R&B pop şarkıcısı
 27 Ekim - Volkan Demirel, Türk futbolcu
 28 Ekim - Milan Baroš, Çek futbolcu
 30 Ekim - Tan Taşçı, Türk şarkıcı, söz yazarı, besteci
 31 Ekim - Frank Iero, Amerikalı gitarist

Kasım
 7 Kasım - Gitte Aaen, Danimarkalı hentbolcu
 8 Kasım
 Mithat Can Özer, Türk şarkı sözü yazarı ve oyuncu
 Joe Cole, İngiliz futbolcu
 9 Kasım- Gökçe Bahadır, Türk oyuncu
 11 Kasım- Sarp Apak, Türk oyuncu
 14 Kasım
 Vanessa Bayer, Amerikalı oyuncu ve komedyen
 Russell Tovey, İngiliz oyuncu
 20 Kasım - İbrahim Toraman, Türk futbolcu
 24 Kasım - Gizem Girişmen, Türk okçu.
 25 Kasım - Xabi Alonso, İspanyol futbolcu
 26 Kasım - Natasha Bedingfield, İngiliz şarkıcı

Aralık
 2 Aralık - Britney Spears, Amerikalı pop müzik şarkıcısı, dansçı, söz yazarı ve sinema oyuncusu
7 Aralık - Tuba Ünsal, manken, oyuncu
 8 Aralık - Azra Akın, Türk manken-model ve oyuncu
 11 Aralık - Zacky Vengeance, Amerikalı rock müzisyeni
 13 Aralık - Amy Lynn Lee, Evanescence grubunun Amerikalı vokalist ve besteci
 15 Aralık - Najoua Belyzel, Fransız şarkıcı
 17 Aralık - Tolgahan Sayışman, Türk oyuncu
 21 Aralık - Cristian Zaccardo, İtalyan futbolcu
 28 Aralık - Sienna Miller, Amerikalı oyuncu

Doğduğu gün ve ay bilinmeyenler
 Serhat Büker, Türk basketbolcu
 Zeynep Koltuk, Türk TV oyuncusu ve sunucu
 Erdem Sezer, Türk Millî Yüzücü, 2009 Dünya Dördüncüsü
 Ece Üner, haber spikeri
 Églantine Rembauville, Fransız oyuncu

Ölümler
 2 Ocak - Eflatun Cem Güney, Türk folklor araştırmacısı ve masalcı (d. 1896)
 28 Ocak - Özdemir Asaf, Türk şair
 1 Şubat - Prof. Dr. Ayşe Saffet Alpar, Türkiye'nin ilk kadın rektörü
 6 Şubat - Frederika, Yunanistan Kraliçesi
 9 Şubat - Bill Haley, 1950'lerin vazgeçilmez rock'n roll sanatçısı
 15 Mart - Yaşar Nabi Nayır, Türk şair, yazar ve yayıncı (d. 25 Aralık 1908)
 11 Mayıs - Bob Marley, Jamaikalı reggae sanatçısı
 1 Temmuz - Marcel Breuer, Amerikalı mimar ve tasarımcı (d. 1902)

 12 Ağustos - Aleš Bebler, Sloven, Yugoslav hukukçu, diplomat (d. 1907)
 6 Ekim - Enver Sedat,  Mısır'ın 3. Cumhurbaşkanı  (d. 1918)
 Kasım - Jane Hamilton Hall, Amerikalı fizikçi (d. 1915)
 10 Kasım - Abel Gance, Fransız yönetmen, oyuncu, yazar
 19 Kasım - Enver Gökçe, Türk şair
 6 Eylül - Christy Brown, İrlandalı yazar ve ressam

Öldüğü gün ve ay bilinmeyenler
 Sabih Arca - Türk futbolcu (d. 1901)

1981


Manastir David Garedža (gruz,: დავითგარეჯის სამონასტრო კომპლექსი) je kameni gruzijski pravoslavni  samostanski kompleks smješten u regiji Kahetiji u istočnoj Gruziji, na polu-pustinjskim padinama planine Garedža na rubu visoravni Iori, nekih 60–70 km jugoistočno od glavni grada Gruzije, Tbilisija. Kompleks uključuje stotine ćelija, crkava, kapela, refektorija i stambenih prostorija izdubljenih u stijeni.

Dio kompleksa Davida Garedže (manastir Bertubani) nalazi se na azerbajdžansko-gruzijskoj granici i postao je predmet graničnog spora između dviju zemalja. Područje je također dom zaštićenih životinjskih vrsta i svjedočanstvo o nekim od najstarijih ljudskih prebivališta u regiji.

Povijest
Kompleks je u 6. stoljeću osnovao David (sv. David Garedželi), jedan od trinaest asirskih redovnika koji su istovremeno stigli u zemlju. Njegovi su učenici Dodo i Luciane proširili izvornu lavru i osnovali dva druga samostana poznata kao "Dodova Rka" (doslovno "Dodov rog") i Natlismcemeli ("Krstitelj"). Daljnji razvoj samostan je doživio pod vodstvom gruzijskog sveca Hilariona iz 9. stoljeća. Manastir su posebno patronizirali gruzijske kraljevske i plemićke obitelji. Gruzijski kralj Dmitar I. iz 12. stoljeća, autor poznate gruzijske himne Ti si vinograd, čak je izabrao Davida Garedžu za mjesto zatočenja nakon što je abdicirao s prijestolja.

Unatoč surovoj okolini, samostan je dugi niz stoljeća ostao važno središte vjerskih i kulturnih aktivnosti. U određenim razdobljima samostani su posjedovali velika poljoprivredna zemljišta i mnoga sela. Renesansa freskopisa kronološki se poklapa s općim razvojem života u samostanima Davida Garedže. Visoka umjetnička vještina freski manastira učinila ih je neizostavnim dijelom svjetske baštine. Od kraja 11. do početka 13. stoljeća, gospodarski i kulturni razvoj Davida Garedže dosegao je vrhunac, odražavajući opći prosperitet srednjovjekovne Kraljevine Gruzije. Izgrađeni su novi samostani: Udabno, Bertubani i Čičhituri, a stari su prošireni i reorganizirani.

Propašću gruzijske monarhije, uslijedilo je dugo razdoblje propadanja, te razaranja od strane mongolske vojske (1265.), ali su ga gruzijski kraljevi kasnije obnovili. Preživjelo je napad Safavida 1615. godine, kada su redovnici masakrirani i uništeni jedinstveni rukopisi i važna djela gruzijske umjetnosti. Manastir je ponovo oživio pod Onopreom Mačutadzeom, koji je 1690. godine imenovan glavnim igumanom.

Nakon nasilnog boljševičkog preuzimanja Gruzije 1921. godine, samostan je zatvoren i ostao nenaseljen. U godinama sovjetsko-afganistanskog rata teritorij samostana korišten je kao poligon za sovjetsku vojsku koja je nanijela štetu jedinstvenom freskama u manastiru. Godine 1987. skupina gruzijskih studenata predvođena mladim književnikom Datom Turašvilijem pokrenula je niz prosvjeda. Iako su se dužnosnici sovjetskog ministarstva obrane pristali izmjestiti vojsku iz manastira, vojne vježbe nastavljene su u listopadu 1988. godine, što je dovelo do općeg bijesa javnosti. Nakon što je 10 000 Gruzijaca demonstriralo na ulicama Tbilisija i grupa učenika pokrenula štrajk glađu u manastiru, vojna baza konačno je uklonjena.

Nakon obnove neovisnosti Gruzije 1991. godine, oživio je samostanski život u Davidu Garedži. No, 1996. godine, gruzijsko ministarstvo obrane nastavilo je vojne vježbe na tom području, što je dovelo do ponovnih prosvjeda javnosti. U svibnju 1997. godine, stotine aktivista gruzijskih nevladinih organizacija postavile su svoje šatore usred vojnog dometa i blokirale vojne manevre. Vojni dužnosnici konačno su se priklonili pritisku javnosti i vježbe su zabranjene.

Samostan je i danas aktivan i služi kao popularno turističko i hodočasničko odredište.

Granični spor između Gruzije i Azerbajdžana
Budući da se kompleks djelomično nalazi na teritoriju Azerbajdžana, postao je predmet graničnog spora između Gruzije i Azerbejdžana. Razgovori po ovom pitanju vode se od 1991. godine. Gruzijski redovnici iz manastira stajališta su da je "spor rezultat sovjetske namjere da potkopa odnose između kršćanskih Gruzijaca i muslimanskih Azera. " Giorgi Mandžgaladze, zamjenik gruzijskog ministra vanjskih poslova izjavio je da bi Gruzija bila voljna razmijeniti drugi teritorij za ostatak Davida Garedže zbog njezinog povijesnog i kulturnog značaja za Gruzijce. Baku ne odobrava tu zamjenu zemljišta zbog strateške vojne važnosti Davida Garedže. Azerbajdžanski dužnosnici potvrdili su da je njihova zemlja "otvorena za provedbu zajedničkih projekata s Gruzijom za obnovu kompleksa". Međutim, službene sugestije da bi kompleks mogao biti "zajednička turistička zona" izazvale su ogorčenje gruzijske javnosti. Katolikos-patrijarh cijele Gruzije Ilija II. rekao je da je "samostan bio sveto svetište koje bi trebalo u potpunosti ležati na gruzijskom tlu". Između azerbajdžanskih i gruzijskih vlasti (u Tbilisiju, a zatim u Bakuu) obavljen je niz novih krugova razgovora o razgraničenju.

Galerija

Izvori

Samostani Gruzijske pravoslavne Crkve

Manastir David Garedža


Gymnochroma este un gen de insecte lepidoptere din familia Arctiidae.

Cladograma conform Catalogue of Life:

Referințe

Gymnochroma

Gymnochroma


Fishes of the World de Joseph S. Nelson (1937 - 2011) é uma referência padrão para sistemática de peixes . Agora em sua quinta edição (2016), o trabalho é uma visão abrangente da diversidade e classificação das mais de 30.000 espécies de peixes conhecidas pela ciência.

O livro começa com uma visão geral da ictiologia, embora não seja independente. Após uma breve seção sobre Chordata e táxons não-peixes, o trabalho lista todas as famílias de peixes conhecidas de forma sistemática. Cada família recebe pelo menos um parágrafo e geralmente um desenho de contorno corporal; famílias grandes têm subfamílias e tribos descritas também. Gêneros e espécies notáveis são mencionados, enquanto o livro geralmente não trata da diversidade em nível de espécie. As complexidades dos táxons superiores são descritas sucintamente, com muitas referências para pontos difíceis. O livro não envolve ilustrações coloridas.

A quarta edição foi a primeira a incorporar o amplo uso da análise de DNA, revisando muitas classificações anteriores.

A primeira edição apareceu em 1976, a segunda em 1984, a terceira em 1994 ( John Wiley & Sons ,), o quarto em março de 2006 (), e o quinto em abril de 2016 ().

Referências

Ligações externas

 Peixes do Mundo (4ª edição) Homepage
 Fishes of the World (5ª edição) Homepage (inclui classificação atualizada)

Literatura científica
Livros de 1976
Livros de 1984
Livros de 1994
Livros de 2006
Livros de 2016

Fishes of the World


Sursis pour l'orchestre (Playing for Time) est un téléfilm américain réalisé par Daniel Mann et diffusé en 1980.

Synopsis

Fiche technique
 Titre original :
 Titre français : Sursis pour l'orchestre
 Réalisation : Daniel Mann, assisté de Joseph Sargent
 Scénario : Arthur Miller, d'après l'autobiographie de Fania Fénelon
 Musique : Brad Fiedel ; Norman Gold (arrangements)
 Direction artistique : Robert Gundlach
 Décors : Gary Jones
 Costumes : Ruth Morley
 Photographie : Arthur Ornitz
 Son : David Moshlak, Jack Higgins
 Montage : Ralph Rosenblum (supervision), Jay Freund ; Ron Kalish (son)
 Production : Bernard Sofronski, Linda Yellen ; Louise Ramsay (associée) : John Quill (co-production)
 Société de production : Szygzy Productions
 Société de distribution : CBS
 Pays de production :
 Langue originale : anglais, allemand, français
 Format : couleur — 35 mm — 1,33:1 — son mono
 Genre : drame historique
 Durée : 150 minutes (2h30)
 Dates de première diffusion :
 États-Unis :
 France :

Distribution

 Vanessa Redgrave : Fania Fénelon
 Jane Alexander : Alma Rosé
 Maud Adams : Mala Zimetbaum
 Lee Jay Nelson : Edward Galinski
 Christine Baranski : Olga
 Robin Bartlett : Etalina
 Marisa Berenson : Elzvieta
 Verna Bloom : Paulette
 Donna Haley : Katrina
 Lenore Harris : Charlotte
 Mady Kaplan : Varya
 Will Lee : Shmuel
 Anna Thomson : Michou
 Shirley Knight : SS-Lagerführerin Maria Mandl
 Viveca Lindfors : Frau Schmidt
 Max Wright : le docteur Josef Mengele
 Melanie Mayron : Marianne
 Marcell Rosenblatt : Giselle

Notes et références

Bibliographie

Liens externes

Film sur la Shoah
Téléfilm de CBS

Sursis pour l'orchestre


Die Elaeomyxa sind eine Gattung der Myxogastria. Elaeomyxa ist die einzige Gattung der Familie der Elaeomyxidae und umfasst nur vier Arten.

Merkmale

Die sitzenden bis gestielten Sporokarpe sind kalkfrei. In ihren Stielen sowie gelegentlich auch in anderen Teilen des Fruchtkörpers (Columella, Capillitium) finden sich Wachse oder Öle in Tröpfchengestalt. Das zarte Peridium ist von irisierender Färbung, das Capillitium besteht aus dunklen, verzweigten bis vernetzten Fäden.

Systematik

Gattung und Familie wurden 1942 von Robert Hagelstein erstbeschrieben (die Familie allerdings als Nomen nudum, gültig publiziert wurde sie erst 1982 durch Marie L. Farr und Harold Willard Keller). Typusart ist die 1935 von Yoshikadzu Emoto als Diachea miyazakiensis erstbeschriebene Elaeomyxa miyazakiensis. Bis zum Nachweis der subhypothallischen Entwicklung der Fruchtkörper 1980 wurde die Gattung meist zu den Stemonitida gestellt.

Bereits bei der Erstbeschreibung stellte Hagelstein auch die zuvor von Giulielma Lister als Diacheopsis cerifera bzw. als Diachea cerifera beschriebene Art als Elaeomyxa cerifera zur Gattung. Erst 2008 änderte sich der Gattungsumfang, als zwei bisher zur Gattung Lamproderma gestellte Arten (Lamproderma reticulosporum und Lamproderma australiensis) in Elaeomyxa eingegliedert wurden.

Arten sind:

 Elaeomyxa miyazakiensis
 Elaeomyxa cerifera
 Elaeomyxa reticulospora
 Elaeomyxa australiensis

Nachweise

Myxogastrien
Myxogastria

Elaeomyxa


Songthela xiujian est une espèce d'araignées mésothèles de la famille des Heptathelidae.

Distribution
Cette espèce est endémique du Hunan en Chine. Elle se rencontre à Huaihua.

Description
Le mâle holotype mesure  et la femelle , les mâles mesurent de  à  et les femelles de  à .

Systématique et taxinomie
Cette espèce a été décrite par Li, Chen, Liu, Li et Xu en 2022.

Étymologie
Son nom d'espèce lui a été donné en référence au lieu de sa découverte, Xiujian.

Publication originale
 Li, Chen, Liu, Li & Xu, 2022 : « An integrative approach reveals high species diversity in the primitively segmented spider genus Songthela (Mesothelae, Liphistiidae) from Hunan, China. » Invertebrate Systematics, , , .

Liens externes

Notes et références

Heptathelidae
Espèce d'araignées (nom scientifique)
Faune endémique du Hunan

Songthela xiujian


This List of National Fish Hatcheries in the United States includes the 70 National Fish Hatcheries, seven Fish Technology Centers and nine Fish Health Centers that are administered as components of the National Fish Hatchery System by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

References
 National Fish Hatcheries - U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

Fish Hatcheries, List


Alfonso, fyrste af Asturien RE, (Alfonso Pío Cristino Eduardo Francisco Guillermo Carlos Enrique Eugenio Fernando Antonio Venancio de Borbón y Battenberg; født 10. maj 1907, død 6. september 1938) var titulær fyrste af Asturien, senere med høflighedstitlen greve af Covadonga. I 1907–1931 var han Spaniens kronprins. De to næste år var han kronprins i eksil. I 1933–1938 havde han ikke arveret til den spanske trone.

Forældre
Alfonso af Asturien var den ældste søn af kong Alfons 13. af Spanien og den britisk fødte dronning Victoria Eugenie af Battenberg. Han var barnebarn af Alfons 12. af Spanien, Maria Christina af Østrig, Henrik Moritz af Battenberg og Beatrice af Storbritannien. Han var oldesøn (datterdattersøn) af Victoria af Storbritannien.

Ægteskaber
Alfonso giftede sig to gange. Begge gange med cubansk fødte kvinder, og begge ægteskaber endte med skilsmisse. Han var gift med Edelmira Ignacia Adriana Sampedro-Ocejo y Robato (1906–1994) i 1933–1937 og med Marta Esther Rocafort y Altuzarra (1913–1993) i 1937–januar 1938.

Begge Alfonsos ægteskaber var barnløse.

Afkald på arveretten
Da ingen af hustruerne var af fyrsteligt blod, måtte Alfonso give afkald på sine titler og arveretten til den spanske trone. Til gengæld anlagde han høflighedstitlen greve af Covadonga, og hans første hustru blev grevinde af Covadonga. Selv Edelmira ikke var prinsesse, så blev hun alligevel opfattet som en del af den kongelige familie. Hun arvede fx nogle af enkedronning Victoria Eugenie af Battenbergs smykker.

Det var egentlig Alfonsos næstældste broder (Jaime, hertug af Segovia og Anjou), der skulle indsættes som tronfølger, men da Jaime var døv, forbigik eksil-kongen (Alfons 13. af Spanien) ham. I stedet blev den yngste broder (Juan af Barcelona) indsat som eksil-tronfølger.

Den spanske diktator Francisco Franco ville ikke acceptere den liberale Juan af Barcelona som tronfølger. I stedet forhandlede Franco med en række andre prinser, og det endte med, at Juan af Barcelonas ældste søn blev tronfølger i 1971 og konge i 1975. Den senere konge (prins Juan Carlos) var kommet til Spanien i 1948, da han var 10 år gammel, og han var blevet opdraget i Francos ånd.

Alfonso blev dermed farbror til Juan Carlos af Spanien (konge i 1975–2014).
.

Bløder
Som andre af dronning Victoria af Storbritanniens efterkommere var Alfonso bløder. Han mødte sin første hustru, da han blev behandlet for hæmofili på et sanatorium i Lausanne i Schweiz.

I 1938 kom Alfonso alvorligt til skade i en bilulykke i Florida, USA. Kun 31 år gammel døde han af sine blødninger.

Referencer

Huset Bourbon
Kongelige fra Spanien
Fyrster af Asturien

Alfonso, fyrste af Asturien (1907–1938)


Geralt din Rivia () este un personaj fictiv și protagonistul seriei povestirilor și romanelor scriitorului polonez Andrzej Sapkowski, precum și ale jocurilor video The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt, The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings și The Witcher. Ca și toti witcherii, Geralt este un vânător de monștri care posedă abilități supranaturale dobândite în urma unei tehnici de inițiere specifice numite Procesului Ierburilor (The Trial of Grasses). În urma durerosului proces, Geralt obține toleranță crescută la poțiunile magice numite mutageni, prin care obține abilitățiile sale specifice.

Geralt este expert în folosirea spadei, arcului, precum și în modalități de ucidere a monștrilor. Geralt este unul dintre puținii witcheri ce au fost supuși mai multor procese de mutație, obținănd astfel forță, viteză și rezistență fizică superioară omului de rând. În schimb, aceste mutații i-au deteminat depigmentarea părului, infertilitatea și încetinirea procesului de îmbătrânire.

Originea personajului
Geralt este fiul vrăjitoarei Visenna și probabil al războinicului Korin. La scurt timp de la naștere, Geralt a fost dus de mama sa la cetatea Kaer Morhen, baza de pregătire a războinicilor witcher. Aici Geralt primește antrenamentul specific pentru a deveni witcher, un războinic plătit să ucidă monștri.

După ce supraviețuiește proceselor de mutație, Geralt primește medalionul de witcher, în formă de cap de lup, simbolul Școlii Lupului (The School of the Wolf), și își începe noua viață, alături de un cal numit Roach (Plotka în poloneză).

În ciuda numelui, Geralt nu este originar din Rivia (în ciuda faptului că a învățat să imite accentul rivian). Tinerii candidați erau sfătuiți de către Maestrul Vesemir să-și aleagă un pseudonim, pentru a câștiga încrederea potențialilor clienți. Numele ales inițial de acesta este Geralt Roger Eric du Haute-Bellegarde, care însă a fost considerat prea pretențios și caraghios de către Vesemir.

Ghidându-se după Codul Witcherilor, Geralt îi cere la un moment dat prințesei Pavetta și prințului Duny, copilul nenăscut, invocând legea surprizelor, conform căreia clienții îi datorează witcher-ului ceva ce nu posedă la momentul încheierii contractului, dacă nu au o modalitate de a-l plăti pe acesta. Copilul se dovedește a fi fată, Cirilla (Ciri sau Ziri în dialectul Elder). Deoarece fetele nu puteau deveni witcher, Geralt refuză să o primească pe Ciri, dar destinul le va intersecta drumurile, o dată cu moartea bunicii sale, regina Calanthe, și o va crește pe aceasta ca și când ar fi fiica sa.

Personalitate
În jocurile video cu același titlu, modul de acționare al lui Geralt este definit în mare parte de opțiunile și alegerile jucătorului, dar acesta nu poate modifica personalitatea witcher-ului.

Geralt are un mod de acționare singuratic, fiind adesea distant și cinic în relația cu celelalte personaje, însă este loial aliaților săi, oferindu-le acestora sfaturi înțelepte și pline de umor.

El posedă o bogată experiență de viață și de luptă dobăndită de-a lungul vieții sale de aproape o sută de ani. În funcție de alegerea jucătorului, Geralt este dispus să riște viitorul statului Temeria, pentru a o salva pe Triss Merigold, una dintre opțiunile romantice pe care jucătorul le poate alege. De asemenea, la un moment dat, el își oferă viața lui Scoia'tael, pentru a-și salva prietenul, bardul Dandelion.

Datorită înfățișării sale, a fost supranumit Gwynbleidd (Lupul Alb). În romane, personalitatea sa este descrisă ca fiind mult mai umană, Geralt având deseori mustrări de conștiință legate de acțiunile sale.

Abilități
Datorită antrenamentelor intensive din Kaer Morhen, Geralt este expert în mânuirea armelor, în special a săbiilor și arbaletei.

în urma mutațiilor suferite, Geralt are forță, viteză și rezistență fizică sporite, precum și abilitatea de a-și dilata pupilele astfel încât să vadă pe timp de noapte.

În acțiunile sale el se folosește de două săbii, dintre care una din argint folosită la uciderea monștrilor, precum și de diverse uleiuri, bombe artizanale, decocturi și poțiuni magice, precum și de alchimie.

Fiind un witcher, Geralt a învățat folosirea unor vrăji specifice, numite semne:
 Aard - o explozie dirijată a energiei telechinetice care zguduie adversarii, lăsându-i vulnerabili unui atac ulterior
 Igni - o explozie pirotehnică care poate provoca incendii sau combustie umană spontană
 Yrden - o capcană magică care atunci când este încălcată de inamic îi provoacă acestuia atacuri pshiotronice
 Quen - formează un scut energetic în jurul witcher-ului, minimizând atacurile suferite
 Axii - un val energetic care permite manipularea psihologică a voinței celor din jur, modificând percepția extrasenzorială a victimei

Relații cu alte personaje

Deși solitar prin natura ocupației, Geralt interacționază cu o serie de personaje pe parcursul misiunilor sale.

În The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt este înfățișat luptând alături de alți witcheri precum Maestrul Vesemir, Lambert sau Eskel.

În misiunile sale, Geralt colaborează cu alte personaje precum: Yennefer, Triss Merigold, Zoltan Chivay, bardul Dandelion, Sigismund Dijkstra, Vernon Roche, Crach an Craite, Avallac'h, Elihal, etc.

În seria de jocuri video, în funcție de alegerile jucătorului, Geralt poate dezvolta relații sentimentale cu două personaje principale: Triss Merigold și Yennefer din Vengerberg, precum și cu alte personaje secundare precum Shani sau Keira Metz.

Geralt întâlnește mai mulți adversari printre care Morvran Voorhis și Emhyr var Emreis, vrăjitoarea Philippa Eilhart, precum și elfii Nithral, Imlerith, Caranthir sau Eredin.

Renumele
Prietenia cu bardul Dandelion i-a atras în mod indirect o anumită faimă prin intermediul poemelor și cântecelor despre vitejia acestuia, scrise de către prietenul său poet. Faima lui Geralt se datorează însă și unor evenimente mai puțin fericite.

Unul dintre supranumele sale este acela de Măcelarul din Blaviken și provine dintr-un eveniment din trecutul său, când a ucis o bandă de bandiți pe teritoriul Redaniei.

Totodată, datorită îndelungatei sale activități de witcher, a devenit cunoscut atât clasei aristocratice din Nilfgaard, Redania, Oxenfurt sau Insulele Skellige, cât și țărănimii și clasei urbane.

Referințe

Vezi și
 Andrzej Sapkowski
 The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt
 The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings

Legături externe
 http://www.giantbomb.com/geralt-of-rivia/3005-2039/
 http://witcher.gamepedia.com/Geralt_of_Rivia
 http://witcher.wikia.com/wiki/Geralt_of_Rivia#Biography
http://www.giantbomb.com/geralt-of-rivia/3005-2039/

Personaje fictive introduse în 1993
Personaje literare

Geralt din Rivia


Malësi e Madhe (), Arnavutluk'un Malisya bölgesinde ve İşkodra ilinde bulunan bir belediyedir.

Belediye ülkenin kuzeydoğusunda yer almaktadır. Yüzölçümü 951.01 km² olan belediyenin nüfusu 2011 yılı itibarı ile 30,823'tür. Belediyenin merkezi Koplik şehridir.

Kaynakça

Arnavutluk'un belediyeleri

Malësi e Madhe


පියොර් ඩ ෆෙර්ම ගේ විතර්කය ඔහුගේ එරින්මැටිකා ග්ර න්ථයේ පිටපතක මායිමේ ලියා ඇති අතර එය කල්පනාකාරි සැලසුම්කරණය විස්මිත සහ ශූන්‍ය ගණිතමය ගැටලු සාධනය කර ඇත.

එරිමැටිකා දියෝවැන්ටඩිය ග්‍රන්ථයේ 1621 මුද්‍රණයේ ගැටලු 11.8 සදහන් ව ඇත. ප්‍රසිද්ධ මායිම් වු දකුණු පස මායිස ඔහුගේ අවසාන ප්‍රවේශය සමාන කිරිමට ඉඩ ප්‍රමාණවත් නැත.

ෆෙර්ම ගේ අන්තිම ප්‍රවේශය සංඛ්‍යා වාදයේ එන එක් වගන්තියකි.
දෙවන බලයට වඩා බලයක් යුත් එක සමාන බල දෙකකින් යුත් සම්බන්ධතාවයකට වෙන් කිරිමට කළ නොහැකිය.

n යන 2 ට වැඩි නිඛිලයක් නම් an+bn=Cn   සමීකරණය  a,b,c ශුන්‍ය  නොවන නිඛිල සදහා විසදුම් නොමැත. 1937 හී දි පියෙරි ඩි පර්මිඩ් ප්‍රසිද්ධ එරික්මැටිකා බදු ඩිනෙපැන්ටිස් පරිවර්තනය කිරිම ක්ලේස් ග්රාඩස්ර් බාර්චර් අතින් සිදුවිය. මායිම් ඉතා සුළු වුවත් පරිවර්තනය ක්‍රියාව සමුදායක් ලෙස සිදු විය. බිරිමිටිගේ අන්තිම ප්‍රවේශය කැපිපෙනන ලෙස වෙනත් අතර එය සමාන ගැටලු අවස්ථාවේදි අනන්තය ලෙස බොහෝ නිඛිල විසදුම් ඇති අතර ඒවා විධගෝරියන් ග්‍රීක ලෙස හදුන්වයි. (එය පයිතගරස් ප්‍රවේශය ආසන්න ලෙස සම්බන්ධ අතර එය‍ට සුලික ඔප්පු කිරිමේ රාශියක් ඇත) මෙකි ගැටලු ප්‍රකාශයනය පාසල් සිසුන්ට අවබෝධ වන නමුත් එය ඔවුගේ බලපොරාත්තු සුන් කිරිමට හේතු වේ. ගණිතමය ඉතිහාසයේ ඇති අනිකුත් ගැටලු වලට අනුව මෙමගින් වැරදි ඔප්පු කිරිමේ මාර්ග ඇති විය. 1995 ඇන්ඩා විල්සු විසින් අවසාන ඔප්පු කිරිම ප්‍රසිද්ධ කරන තෙක් අවු 357 කාලය තුළ නිවැරදි ඔප්පු කිරිමක් සිදු නොවේ. අන්තිම ප්‍රවේශය යන වචන භාවිතා කිරිමට සිදු වේ. අන්තිම ප්‍රවේශය යන වචනය භාවිතා කිරිමට හේතුව අනිකුත් ප්‍රවේශගයන් සහ ප්‍රතිඵල පර්ම්ට් විසින් ගණනය කළ අතර එය සාධන හෝ සාධනය නොකිරිම ඔහු විසින් හෝ අනිකුත් ගණිතඥයින් අතින් සියවස් දෙකක කාලය තුළදි සිදු විය. දැනට ප්‍රවේගය සාධනය කර ඇතත් පර්විමගේ අවසාන ප්‍රවේශය තත්ත්වය විතර්කය ලෙස සැලකේ.

ගණිතය ඉතිහාසය ෆෙර්මගේ අවසන් ප්‍රමේයය වඩා ප්‍රසිද්ධ ගැටලු විසදන ලදී. මෙය සියලු ගණිතඥයින් පුරුදු වු අතර එම ඔප්පු කිරිම මගින් පිළිගත්  සංස්කෘතිමය තත්ත්වය ලබා ගැනීමට හැකි විය. මාධ්‍ය අනුග්රගහය පදිවියේ ලැබිව කියා පර්විගයේ අන්තිම ප්‍රවේශය ලැබිම නිසා ලෝපුර පුවත්පත් සහ විවිධ ජනප්‍රිය පොත්පත් වල අන්තර ගත වේ.

සටහන්

|Fermat's Last Theorem
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{|

ගණිතමය ප්‍රමේයයන්
ගණිතය

ෆෙර්මගේ අවසාන ප්‍රමේයය


A combined cycle power plant is an assembly of heat engines that work in tandem from the same source of heat, converting it into mechanical energy. On land, when used to make electricity the most common type is called a combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plant. The same principle is also used for marine propulsion, where it is called a combined gas and steam (COGAS) plant. Combining two or more thermodynamic cycles improves overall efficiency, which reduces fuel costs.

The principle is that after completing its cycle in the first engine, the working fluid (the exhaust) is still hot enough that a second subsequent heat engine can extract energy from the heat in the exhaust. Usually the heat passes through a heat exchanger so that the two engines can use different working fluids.

By generating power from multiple streams of work, the overall efficiency can be increased by 50–60%. That is, from an overall efficiency of the system of say 34% for a simple cycle, to as much as 64% net for the turbine alone in specified conditions for a combined cycle.
This is more than 84% of the theoretical efficiency of a Carnot cycle. Heat engines can only use part of the energy from their fuel, so in a non-combined cycle heat engine, the remaining heat (i.e., hot exhaust gas) from combustion is wasted.

Historical cycles
Historically successful combined cycles have used mercury vapour turbines, magnetohydrodynamic generators and molten carbonate fuel cells, with steam plants for the low temperature "bottoming" cycle. Very low temperature bottoming cycles have been too costly due to the very large sizes of equipment needed to handle the large mass flows and small temperature differences. However, in cold climates it is common to sell hot power plant water for hot water and space heating. Vacuum-insulated piping can let this utility reach as far as 90 km. The approach is called "combined heat and power" (CHP).

In stationary and marine power plants, a widely used combined cycle has a large gas turbine (operating by the Brayton cycle). The turbine's hot exhaust powers a steam power plant (operating by the Rankine cycle). This is a combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plant. These achieve a best-of-class real (see below) thermal efficiency of around 64% in base-load operation. In contrast, a single cycle steam power plant is limited to efficiencies from 35 to 42%. Many new power plants utilize CCGTs. Stationary CCGTs  burn natural gas or synthesis gas from coal. Ships burn fuel oil.

Multiple stage turbine or steam cycles can also be used, but CCGT plants have advantages for both electricity generation and marine power. The gas turbine cycle can often start very quickly, which gives immediate power. This avoids the need for separate expensive peaker plants, or lets a ship maneuver. Over time the secondary steam cycle will warm up, improving fuel efficiency and providing further power.

In November 2013, the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE assessed the levelised cost of energy for newly built power plants in the German electricity sector. They gave costs of between 78 and 100 €/MWh for CCGT plants powered by natural gas. In addition the capital costs of combined cycle power is relatively low, at around $1000/kW, making it one of the cheapest types of generation to install.

Basic combined cycle

The thermodynamic cycle of the basic combined cycle consists of two power plant cycles. One is the Joule or Brayton cycle which is a gas turbine cycle and the other is the  Rankine cycle which is a steam turbine cycle. The cycle 1-2-3-4-1 which is the gas turbine power plant cycle is the topping cycle. It depicts the heat and work transfer process taking place in the high temperature region.

The cycle a-b-c-d-e-f-a which is the Rankine steam cycle takes place at a lower temperature and is known as the bottoming cycle. Transfer of heat energy from high temperature exhaust gas to water and steam takes place in a waste heat recovery boiler in the bottoming cycle. During the constant pressure process 4-1 the exhaust gases from the gas turbine reject heat. The feed water, wet and super heated steam absorb some of this heat in the process a-b, b-c and c-d.

Steam generators

The steam power plant takes its input heat from the high temperature exhaust gases from a gas turbine power plant. The steam thus generated can be used to drive a steam turbine. The Waste Heat Recovery Boiler (WHRB) has 3 sections: Economiser, evaporator and superheater.

Cheng cycle

The Cheng cycle is a simplified form of combined cycle where the steam turbine is eliminated by injecting steam directly into the combustion turbine. This has been used since the mid 1970s and allows recovery of waste heat with less total complexity, but at the loss of the additional power and redundancy of a true combined cycle system. It has no additional steam turbine or generator, and therefore it cannot use it as a backup or supplementary power. It is named after American professor D. Y. Cheng who patented the design in 1976.

Design principles

The efficiency of a heat engine, the fraction of input heat energy that can be converted to useful work, is limited by the temperature difference between the heat entering the engine and the exhaust heat leaving the engine.

In a thermal power station, water is the working medium. High pressure steam requires strong, bulky components. High temperatures require expensive alloys made from nickel or cobalt, rather than inexpensive steel. These alloys limit practical steam temperatures to 655 °C while the lower temperature of a steam plant is fixed by the temperature of the cooling water. With these limits, a steam plant has a fixed upper efficiency of 35–42%.

An open circuit gas turbine cycle has a compressor, a combustor and a turbine. For gas turbines the amount of metal that must withstand the high temperatures and pressures is small, and lower quantities of expensive materials can be used. In this type of cycle, the input temperature to the turbine (the firing temperature), is relatively high (900 to 1,400 °C). The output temperature of the flue gas is also high (450 to 650 °C). This is therefore high enough to provide heat for a second cycle which uses steam as the working fluid (a Rankine cycle).

In a combined cycle power plant, the heat of the gas turbine's exhaust is used to generate steam by passing it through a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) with a live steam temperature between 420 and 580 °C. The condenser of the Rankine cycle is usually cooled by water from a lake, river, sea or cooling towers. This temperature can be as low as 15 °C.

Typical size
Plant size is important in the cost of the plant. The larger plant sizes benefit from economies of scale (lower initial cost per kilowatt) and improved efficiency.

For large-scale power generation, a typical set would be a 270 MW primary gas turbine coupled to a 130 MW secondary steam turbine, giving a total output of 400 MW. A typical power station might consist of between 1 and 6 such sets.

Gas turbines for large-scale power generation are manufactured by at least four separate groups – General Electric, Siemens, Mitsubishi-Hitachi, and Ansaldo Energia. These groups are also developing, testing and/or marketing gas turbine sizes in excess of 300 MW (for 60 Hz applications) and 400 MW (for 50 Hz applications). Combined cycle units are made up of one or more such gas turbines, each with a waste heat steam generator arranged to supply steam to a single or multiple steam turbines, thus forming a combined cycle block or unit. Combined cycle block sizes offered by three major manufacturers (Alstom, General Electric and Siemens) can range anywhere from 50 MW to well over 1300 MW with costs approaching $670/kW.

Unfired boiler

The heat recovery boiler is item 5 in the COGAS figure shown above. Hot gas turbine exhaust enters the super heater, then passes through the evaporator and finally through the economiser section as it flows out from the boiler. Feed water comes in through the economizer and then exits after having attained saturation temperature in the water or steam circuit. Finally it flows through the evaporator and super heater. If the temperature of the gases entering the heat recovery boiler is higher, then the temperature of the exiting gases is also high.

Dual pressure boiler

In order to remove the maximum amount of heat from the gasses exiting the high temperature cycle, a dual pressure boiler is often employed.  It has two water/steam drums. The low-pressure drum is connected to the low-pressure economizer or evaporator. The low-pressure steam is generated in the low temperature zone of the turbine exhaust gasses. The low-pressure steam is supplied to the low-temperature turbine. A super heater can be provided in the low-pressure circuit.

Some part of the feed water from the low-pressure zone is transferred to the high-pressure economizer by a booster pump. This economizer heats up the water to its saturation temperature. This saturated water goes through the high-temperature zone of the boiler and is supplied to the high-pressure turbine.

Supplementary firing
The HRSG can be designed to burn supplementary fuel after the gas turbine.  Supplementary burners are also called duct burners. Duct burning is possible because the turbine exhaust gas (flue gas) still contains some oxygen. Temperature limits at the gas turbine inlet force the turbine to use excess air, above the optimal stoichiometric ratio to burn the fuel. Often in gas turbine designs part of the compressed air flow bypasses the burner in order to cool the turbine blades. The turbine exhaust is already hot, so a regenerative air preheater is not required as in a conventional steam plant. However, a fresh air fan blowing directly into the duct permits a duct-burning steam plant to operate even when the gas turbine cannot.

Without supplementary firing, the thermal efficiency of a combined cycle power plant is higher. But more flexible plant operations make a marine CCGT safer by permitting a ship to operate with equipment failures. A flexible stationary plant can make more money. Duct burning raises the flue temperature, which increases the quantity or temperature of the steam (e.g. to 84 bar, 525 degree Celsius). This improves the efficiency of the steam cycle. Supplementary firing lets the plant respond to fluctuations of electrical load, because duct burners can have very good efficiency with partial loads. It can enable higher steam production to compensate for the failure of another unit. Also, coal can be burned in the steam generator as an economical supplementary fuel.

Supplementary firing can raise exhaust temperatures from 600 °C (GT exhaust) to 800 or even 1000 °C. Supplemental firing does not raise the efficiency of most combined cycles. For single boilers it can raise the efficiency if fired to 700–750 °C; for multiple boilers however, the flexibility of the plant should be the major attraction.

"Maximum supplementary firing" is the condition when the maximum fuel is fired with the oxygen available in the gas turbine exhaust.

Fuel for combined cycle power plants

Combined cycle plants are usually powered by natural gas, although fuel oil, synthesis gas or other fuels can be used. The supplementary fuel may be natural gas, fuel oil, or coal. Biofuels can also be used. Integrated solar combined cycle power stations combine the energy harvested from solar radiation with another fuel to cut fuel costs and environmental impact (See: ISCC section). Many next generation nuclear power plants can use the higher temperature range of a Brayton top cycle, as well as the increase in thermal efficiency offered by a Rankine bottoming cycle.

Where the extension of a gas pipeline is impractical or cannot be economically justified, electricity needs in remote areas can be met with small-scale combined cycle plants using renewable fuels. Instead of natural gas, these gasify and burn agricultural and forestry waste, which is often readily available in rural areas.

Managing low-grade fuels in turbines
Gas turbines burn mainly natural gas and light oil. Crude oil, residual, and some distillates contain corrosive components and as such require fuel treatment equipment. In addition, ash deposits from these fuels result in gas turbine deratings of up to 15%. They may still be economically attractive fuels however, particularly in combined-cycle plants.

Sodium and potassium are removed from residual, crude and heavy distillates by a water washing procedure. A simpler and less expensive purification system will do the same job for light crude and light distillates. A magnesium additive system may also be needed to reduce the corrosive effects if vanadium is present. Fuels requiring such treatment must have a separate fuel-treatment plant and a system of accurate fuel monitoring to assure reliable, low-maintenance operation of gas turbines.

Configuration
Combined-cycle systems can have single-shaft or multi-shaft configurations. Also, there are several configurations of steam systems.

The most fuel-efficient power generation cycles use an unfired heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) with modular pre-engineered components. These unfired steam cycles are also the lowest in initial cost, and they are often part of a single shaft system that is installed as a unit.

Supplementary-fired and multishaft combined-cycle systems are usually selected for specific fuels, applications or situations. For example, cogeneration combined-cycle systems sometimes need more heat, or higher temperatures, and electricity is a lower priority. Multishaft systems with supplementary firing can provide a wider range of temperatures or heat to electric power. Systems burning low quality fuels such as brown coal or peat might use relatively expensive closed-cycle helium turbines as the topping cycle to avoid even more expensive fuel processing and gasification that would be needed by a conventional gas turbine.

A typical single-shaft system has one gas turbine, one steam turbine, one generator and one heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). The gas turbine and steam turbine are both coupled in tandem to a single electrical generator on a single shaft. This arrangement is simpler to operate, smaller, with a lower startup cost.

Single-shaft arrangements can have less flexibility and reliability than multi-shaft systems. With some expense, there are ways to add operational flexibility: Most often, the operator desires to operate the gas turbine as a peaking plant. In these plants, the steam turbine's shaft can be disconnected with a synchro-self-shifting (SSS) clutch, for start up or for simple cycle operation of the gas turbine. Another less common set of options enable more heat or standalone operation of the steam turbine to increase reliability: Duct burning, perhaps with a fresh air blower in the duct and a clutch on the gas turbine side of the shaft.

A multi-shaft system usually has only one steam system for up to three gas turbines. Having only one large steam turbine and heat sink has economies of scale and can have lower cost operations and maintenance. A larger steam turbine can also use higher pressures, for a more efficient steam cycle. However, a multi-shaft system is about 5% higher in initial cost.

The overall plant size and the associated number of gas turbines required can also determine which type of plant is more economical. A collection of single shaft combined cycle power plants can be more costly to operate and maintain, because there are more pieces of equipment. However, it can save interest costs by letting a business add plant capacity as it is needed.

Multiple-pressure reheat steam cycles are applied to combined-cycle systems with gas turbines with exhaust gas temperatures near 600 °C. Single- and multiple-pressure non-reheat steam cycles are applied to combined-cycle systems with gas turbines that have exhaust gas temperatures of 540 °C or less. Selection of the steam cycle for a specific application is determined by an economic evaluation that considers a plant's installed cost, fuel cost and quality, duty cycle, and the costs of interest, business risks, and operations and maintenance.

Efficiency

By combining both gas and steam cycles, high input temperatures and low output temperatures can be achieved.
The efficiency of the cycles add, because they are powered by the same fuel source.
So, a combined cycle plant has a thermodynamic cycle that operates between the gas-turbine's high firing temperature and the waste heat temperature from the condensers of the steam cycle.
This large range means that the Carnot efficiency of the cycle is high.
The actual efficiency, while lower than the Carnot efficiency, is still higher than that of either plant on its own.

The electric efficiency of a combined cycle power station, if calculated as electric energy produced as a percentage of the lower heating value of the fuel consumed, can be over 60% when operating new, i.e. unaged, and at continuous output which are ideal conditions.
As with single cycle thermal units, combined cycle units may also deliver low temperature heat energy for industrial processes, district heating and other uses. This is called cogeneration and such power plants are often referred to as a combined heat and power (CHP) plant.

In general, combined cycle efficiencies in service are over 50% on a lower heating value and Gross Output basis.
Most combined cycle units, especially the larger units, have peak, steady-state efficiencies on the LHV basis of 55 to 59%.

Fuel heating value

Heat engine efficiency can be based on the fuel Higher Heating Value (HHV), including latent heat of vaporisation  that would be recuperated in condensing boilers, or the Lower Heating Value (LHV), excluding it.
The HHV of methane is , compared to a  LHV: a % increase.

Boosting efficiency

Efficiency of the turbine is increased when combustion can run hotter, so the working fluid expands more. Therefore efficiency is limited by whether the first stage of turbine blades can survive higher temperatures. Cooling and materials research are continuing. A common technique, adopted from aircraft, is to pressurise hot-stage turbine blades with coolant. This is also bled-off in proprietary ways to improve the aerodynamic efficiencies of the turbine blades. Different vendors have experimented with different coolants. Air is common but steam is increasingly used. Some vendors might now utilize single-crystal turbine blades in the hot section, a technique already common in military aircraft engines.

The efficiency of CCGT and GT can also be boosted by pre-cooling combustion air. This increases its density, also increasing the expansion ratio of the turbine. This is practised in hot climates and also has the effect of increasing power output. This is achieved by evaporative cooling of water using a moist matrix placed in the turbine's inlet, or by using Ice storage air conditioning. The latter has the advantage of greater improvements due to the lower temperatures available. Furthermore, ice storage can be used as a means of load control or load shifting since ice can be made during periods of low power demand and, potentially in the future the anticipated high availability of other resources such as renewables during certain periods.

Combustion technology is a proprietary but very active area of research, because fuels, gasification and carburation all affect fuel efficiency. A typical focus is to combine aerodynamic and chemical computer simulations to find combustor designs that assure complete fuel burn up, yet minimize both pollution and dilution of the hot exhaust gases. Some combustors inject other materials, such air or steam, to reduce pollution by reducing the formation of nitrates and ozone.

Another active area of research is the steam generator for the Rankine cycle. Typical plants already use a two-stage steam turbine, reheating the steam between the two stages. When the heat-exchangers' thermal conductivity can be improved, efficiency improves. As in nuclear reactors, tubes might be made thinner (e.g. from stronger or more corrosion-resistant steel). Another approach might use silicon carbide sandwiches, which do not corrode.

There is also some development of modified Rankine cycles. Two promising areas are ammonia/water mixtures, and turbines that utilize supercritical carbon dioxide.

Modern CCGT plants also need software that is precisely tuned to every choice of fuel, equipment, temperature, humidity and pressure. When a plant is improved, the software becomes a moving target. CCGT software is also expensive to test, because actual time is limited on the multimillion-dollar prototypes of new CCGT plants. Testing usually simulates unusual fuels and conditions, but validates the simulations with selected data points measured on actual equipment.

Competition

There is active competition to reach higher efficiencies.
Research aimed at  turbine inlet temperature has led to even more efficient combined cycles.

Nearly 60% LHV efficiency (54% HHV efficiency) was reached in the Baglan Bay power station, using a GE H-technology gas turbine with a NEM 3 pressure reheat boiler, using steam from the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) to cool the turbine blades.

In May 2011 Siemens AG announced they had achieved a 60.75% efficiency with a 578 megawatt SGT5-8000H gas turbine at the Irsching Power Station.

The Chubu Electric's Nishi-ku, Nagoya power plant 405 MW 7HA is expected to have 62% gross combined cycle efficiency.

On April 28, 2016, the plant run by Électricité de France in Bouchain was certified by Guinness World Records as the worlds most efficient combined cycle power plant at 62.22%. It uses a General Electric 9HA, that claimed 41.5% simple cycle efficiency and 61.4% in combined cycle mode, with a gas turbine output of 397 MW to 470 MW and a combined output of 592 MW to 701 MW. Its firing temperature is between , its overall pressure ratio is 21.8 to 1.

In December 2016, Mitsubishi claimed a LHV efficiency of greater than 63% for some members of its J Series turbines.

In December 2017, GE claimed 64% in its latest 826 MW HA plant, up from 63.7%. They said this was due to advances in additive manufacturing and combustion. Their press release said that they planned to achieve 65% by the early 2020s.

Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC)

An integrated gasification combined cycle, or IGCC, is a power plant using synthesis gas (syngas). Syngas can be produced from a number of sources, including coal and biomass. The system uses gas and steam turbines, the steam turbine operating from the heat left over from the gas turbine. This process can raise electricity generation efficiency to around 50%.

Integrated solar combined cycle (ISCC)
An Integrated Solar Combined Cycle (ISCC) is a hybrid technology in which a solar thermal field is integrated within a combined cycle plant. In ISCC plants, solar energy is used as an auxiliary heat supply, supporting the steam cycle, which results in increased generation capacity or a reduction of fossil fuel use.

Thermodynamic benefits are that daily steam turbine startup losses are eliminated.

Major factors limiting the load output of a combined cycle power plant are the allowed pressure and temperature transients of the steam turbine and the heat recovery steam generator waiting times to establish required steam chemistry conditions and warm-up times for the balance of plant and the main piping system. Those limitations also influence the fast start-up capability of the gas turbine by requiring waiting times. And waiting gas turbines consume gas. The solar component, if the plant is started after sunshine, or before, if there is heat storage, allows the preheat of the steam to the required conditions. That is, the plant is started faster and with less consumption of gas before achieving operating conditions. Economic benefits are that the solar components costs are 25% to 75% those of a Solar Energy Generating Systems plant of the same collector surface.

The first such system to come online was the Archimede combined cycle power plant, Italy in 2010, followed by Martin Next Generation Solar Energy Center in Florida, and in 2011 by the Kuraymat ISCC Power Plant in Egypt, Yazd power plant in Iran, Hassi R'mel in Algeria, Ain Beni Mathar in Morocco. In Australia CS Energy's Kogan Creek and Macquarie Generation's Liddell Power Station started construction of a solar Fresnel boost section (44 MW and 9 MW), but the projects never became active.

Bottoming cycles
In most successful combined cycles, the bottoming cycle for power is a conventional steam Rankine cycle.

It is already common in cold climates (such as Finland) to drive community heating systems from a steam power plant's condenser heat. Such cogeneration systems can yield theoretical efficiencies above 95%.

Bottoming cycles producing electricity from the steam condenser's heat exhaust are theoretically possible, but conventional turbines are uneconomically large. The small temperature differences between condensing steam and outside air or water require very large movements of mass to drive the turbines.

Although not reduced to practice, a vortex of air can concentrate the mass flows for a bottoming cycle. Theoretical studies of the Vortex engine show that if built at scale it is an economical bottoming cycle for a large steam Rankine cycle power plant.

See also
 Allam power cycle
 Cheng cycle
 Combined gas and steam
 Combined cycle hydrogen power plant
 Combined cycle powered railway locomotive
 Cost of electricity by source
 Heat recovery steam generator
 Hydrogen-cooled turbo generator
 Integrated gasification combined cycle
 Compound steam engine

References

Further reading

Steam & Gas Turbines And Power Plant Engineering ISBN C039000000001, R Yadav., Sanjay., Rajay, Central Publishing House, Allahabad
Applied Thermodynamics , R Yadav., Sanjay., Rajay, Central Publishing House, Allahabad.

External links

Thermodynamic cycles
Mechanical engineering
Power station technology
Energy conversion
Articles containing video clips

Combined cycle power plant


Compoziție Suprematistă: Alb pe Alb  (cunoscută și sub forma prescurtată de Alb pe Alb) este o compoziție abstractă din 1918, o pictură de tipul ulei pe pânză, realizată de Kazimir Malevici.

Pictura este una dintre cele mai cunoscute exemple ale mișcării artistice ruse de avangardă a suprematismului, al cărei teoretician și inițiator a fost Malevici însuși. Tabloul a fost pictat în anul următor Revoluției ruse din octombrie 1917.

Istoric
O parte a seriei de lucrări "alb pe alb" ale lui Malevici, care a fost începută în 1916, lucrarea prezintă un pătrat alb, ocupând centrul imaginii, la rândul său de formă pătrată, în care se găsește un alt pătrat, înscris în cel inițial, mai mic, ușor răsucit spre dreapta, de o nuanță de alb, ușor mai caldă.

Lucrarea, similar cu lucrarea anterioară Pătratul negru, este un pătrat cu laturi de 79.54 cm pe 79.54 cm.  Malevici se dispensează cu ușurință de cele mai multe caracteristici ale artei reprezentative, fără niciun sens al culorii, adâncimii sau volumului, lăsând ca subiect o simplă formă geometrică regulată, nesimetrică, având limite imprecis definite.

Deși lucrarea de artă este lipsită de detalii, tușele viguroase ale pensulei sunt evidente în această pictură, artistul încercând și reușind să sugereze că pătratul înscris și înclinat tinde a se rostogoli în afara cadrului imaginii. Malevici intenționase să sugereze un anume sentiment al suspendării și alunecării, cu culoarea pătratului circumscris sugerând infinitul și cu culoarea și poziția pătratului înscris sugerând mișcarea.

Expunere și achiziționare
Unul din criticii lui Malevici, adept al mișcării sincrone, dar "rivale" a constructivismului, afirma în batjocură despre pictura Alb pe Alb a lui Malevici că fusese singura pictură bună din expoziția grupului UNOVIS (de care Malevici "aparținea"), folosind următoarel cuvinte: "un canvas alb, absolut pur, un canvas alb cu o foarte bună culoare de bază. Ceva poate fi [pictat] pe [acest canvas]."
Malevici a luat cu el lucrarea Alb pe Alb la Berlin în 1927, unde a fost expusă la Große Berliner Austellung. Înaintea de întoarcerea sa la Leningrad, mai târziu în același an, Malevici a lăsat lucrarea sa în grija arhitectului, celebru atunci, Hugo Häring. Acesta a predat-o în 1930 lui Alexander Dorner, directorul muzeului Provinzialmuseum din Hanovra, care a plasat lucrarea în conservare la venirea la putere a Partidului Nazist, în 1933.

Kazimir Malevici nu a cerut niciodată ca lucrarea să-i fie returnată. Murind în 1935, fără a lăsa niciun fel de intrucțiuni masei sale testamentare despre cum să se procedeze cu lucrarea sa Alb pe ALb, a creat un vid neclar de proprietate. Oricum, lucrarea a fost expusă la Museum of Modern Art din New York City, în 1935 și apoi adăugată colecției muzeului în 1963, după achiziționarea sa. Achiziția a fost confirmată de masa testamentară a lui Kazimir Malevici în 1999, menționând că achiziția a fost făcută prin intermediul unei donații din partea domnului John Hay Whitney.

A se vedea și
 Cerc Negru (1915)
 Pătrat Negru (1915)
 Pătrat Roșu (1915)

Referințe

Legături externe
 Suprematist Composition: White on White (1918), Alexandra Sokolova
 Sapo.pt - Descriere a picturii
 Research Gate

Picturi din 1918
Artă abstractă
Artă rusă
Minimalism
Picturi moderne
Picturi aflate la Museum of Modern Art (New York)
Picturi realizate de Kazimir Malevici

Alb pe alb (pictură)


Oslobođenje Drežnikgrada, dvodnevna vojna operacija koju su poduzele postrojbe habsburške vojske protiv turskih snaga koje su bile smještene u utvrdi Stari grad Drežnik, a kojom je ista vraćena u sastav Hrvatskoga Kraljevstva. Operacija, kojom je zapovijedao pukovnik Daniel Peharnik pl. Hotković, započela je 10. veljače, a završila 12. veljače 1788. godine.

Povijesna pozadina
Stari grad Drežnik pao je u turske ruke 1592. godine i bio je, uz Bihać, jedan od posljednjih hrvatskih gradova ili  utvrda koje su muslimanski osvajači s istoka okupirali, jer je nakon toga njihovo napredovanje bilo zaustavljeno. Osim jednog kratkog razdoblja koncem 17. stoljeća, kad je bio oslobođen, Drežnik je dugo vremena, sve do pred kraj 18. stoljeća, bio važno granično osmansko uporište.

Početkom 1788. godine kralj i car Josip II. Habsburški objavio je turskom sultanu rat, pridruživši se ruskoj carici Katarini II., koja je prethodne godine napravila isto. Tako je izbio 6. Habsburško-turski rat (1788. - 1791.) na čijem je početku velika postrojba habsburške vojske, koja je bila u sastavu Hrvatskoga armijskog korpusa (njem. Kroatisches Armeekorps), na čelu koje je bio Daniel Peharnik pl. Hotković, pukovnik 3. (Ogulinske) graničarske pukovnije, prešla ondašnju hrvatsko-tursku granicu i 10. veljače 1788. počela opsjedati drežničku utvrdu.

Opsada

Stari vojni izvori navode da je pukovnik Peharnik pl. Hotković došao pred tursko uporište "s osam pješačkih satnija, serežanima (graničarima) i četirima haubicama, od kojih su dvije bile od tri, jedna od šest i jedna od sedam funti". Pukovnik je odmah po dolasku poslao svoga sina da se približi utvrdi i od zapovjednika zatraži predaju, ali su Turci odgovorili puščanom paljbom pri čemu je taj mladi vojnik stradao. Nakon toga pukovnik je naredio topovsku paljbu po Drežnikgradu, a uskoro je prekinut i dovod pitke vode u utvrdu.

Opsada je uz stalnu topovsku vatru trajala dva dana, a onda se osmanska posada odlučila predati i položiti oružje. Vojska Peharnika pl. Hotkovića ušla je u utvrdu i zarobila njezine osmanske branitelje. O podrobnostima opsade nema puno dostupnih izvora podataka. Neki izvori govore da je tada zarobljeno 178 Turaka, a da su pukovniku Peharniku pri zauzeću utvrde najviše su pomogli njegovi kapetani Tomljenović i Mamula.

Nakon oslobođenja
Utvrda je po oslobođenju od Turaka služila za vojne potrebe. Nedaleko istoimeno naselje je obnovljeno i u njega su se naselili stanovnici s područja Otočke i Ogulinske pukovnije. Turci se nisu pomirili s gubitkom važnog graničnog uporišta pa su ga ubrzo pokušali ponovno zauzeti, ali bez uspjeha. Dana 4. kolovoza 1791. sklopljen je Svištovski mir kojim je završen Habsburško-turski rat pa se situacija na tom dijelu pograničnog područja smirila. Iste je godine Peharnik-Hotković, u međuvremenu postavši general-bojnik, dobio plemićki naslov baruna.

Vojna uprava Drežnikgrada postojala je do 1866., a tada je utvrda prodana u privatne ruke. Uskoro je novi vlasnik započeo njezino rušenje, a kamen koji ju je prije tvorio bio je prodavan kao građevni materijal za kuće koje su se u to vrijeme gradile u okolici. S vremenom su od utvrde ostale samo ruševine. Unatrag nekoliko zadnjih godina prišlo se njezinoj obnovi, pa su rekonstruirani visoka okrugla branič-kula i dio zidina.

Vidi još

 Dodatak:Popis bitaka 1401.-1800.
 Hrvatska pod Habsburzima
 Hrvatske zemlje pod osmanskom vlašću
 Bosna pod Turcima
 Oslobođenje Cetingrada

Izvori

Drežnikgrad
Drežnikgrad
Hrvatske zemlje pod osmanskom vlašću
Drežnikgrad
Drežnikgrad
Kordun

Oslobođenje Drežnikgrada


روتيسلاف فوياسيتش  ، من مواليد 23 فبراير 1949 ، لاعب كرة قدم تشيكوسلوفاكي سابق.

لعب مع منتخب تشيكوسلوفاكيا لكرة القدم.

مسيرته الكروية
لعب روتيسلاف فوياسيتش خلال مسيرته الاحترافية مع نادِ واحدٍ في ستة عشر موسمًا وسجل خلالها 10 أهداف ضمن 117 مباراة. حيث فاز في موسمين بالكأس وفي ثلاثة مواسم بالدوري.

خاض روتيسلاف فوياسيتش مسيرته مع نادي بانيك أوسترافا في موسم 1970–71 ليلعب معه ستة عشر موسمًا، مشاركًا في 117 مباراة سجل خلالها 10 أهداف.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية تشيكيون
مدافعو كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
لاعبو بانيك أوسترافا
لاعبو بطولة أمم أوروبا 1980
لاعبو كأس العالم 1982
فوياسيتش
لاعبو كرة قدم تشيكيون
لاعبو منتخب تشيكوسلوفاكيا لكرة القدم
مدربو بانيك أوسترافا
مدربو كرة قدم تشيكيون
مواليد 1949
أشخاص من مقاطعة برشيروف
رياضيون من إقليم أولوموتس
لاعبو كرة قدم من إقليم أولوموتس

روتيسلاف فوياسيتش


Gâsca cu degetele despicate (Anseranas semipalmata) este o gâscă răspândită în sudul insulei Noua Guinee și în nordul Australiei, fiind aproape lipsită de palmatură între degete, datorită vieții terestre la care s-a adaptat. Penajul este alb, cu capul, gâtul și aripile negre. Masculi au o lungime de 75-90 cm, o greutate de 1,8-3,2 kg și o anvergură a aripii de 130-180 cm; femelă are 70-80 cm în lungime, cântărește 1,4-2,8  kg și o anvergură a aripii de 125-165 cm.

Note

Anseranatidae

Gâscă cu degetele despicate