The State University of Campinas (), commonly called Unicamp, is a public research university in the state of São Paulo, Brazil.

Established in 1962, Unicamp was designed from scratch as an integrated research center unlike other top Brazilian universities, usually created by the consolidation of previously existing schools and institutes. Its research focus reflects on almost half of its students being graduate students, the largest proportion across all large universities in Brazil, and also in the large number of graduate programs it offers: 153 compared to 70 undergraduate programs. It also offers several non-degree granting open-enrollment courses to around 8,000 students through its extension school.

Its main campus occupies  located in the district of Barão Geraldo, a suburban area  from the downtown center of Campinas, built shortly after the creation of the university. It also has satellite campuses in Limeira, Piracicaba and Paulínia, and manages two technical high schools located in Campinas and Limeira. Funding is provided almost entirely by the state government and, like other Brazilian public universities, no tuition fees or administrative fees are charged for undergraduate and graduate programs.

Unicamp is responsible for around 15% of Brazilian research, a disproportionately high number when compared to much larger and older institutions in the country such as the University of São Paulo. It also produces more patents than any other research organization in Brazil, being second only to the state-owned oil company, Petrobras.

History

1960s: Foundation

In the early 1960s the Government of the State of São Paulo planned to open a new research center in the interior of the state to promote development and industrialization in the region, and commissioned Zeferino Vaz, founder of the University of São Paulo's School of Medicine in Ribeirão Preto, to organize it. In parallel, a medical school was being planned in Campinas, a demand from the local population that dated from the early 1940s. The School of Medicine of Campinas was created by law in 1959, but actual implementation never took place.

The new university was created by law on December 28, 1962, but effective functioning begun in 1966. Before that, only the School of Medicine functioned. In April 1963 the first vestibular, the general admissions exam, was conducted, with 1,592 candidates competing for 50 spots in the medicine program. The first lecture in the newly created University of Campinas took place on May 20 of the same year. By 1965, the organizing commission for the new university started looking for a location for a new campus.
A large area comprising   was donated by the Almeida Prado family, located in a valley in the district of Barão Geraldo in the city of Campinas, near the intersections of multiple highways. Until then, Barão Geraldo was a small village surrounded by farmland, in particular sugar cane plantations. The new development brought dramatic change to the district, resulting in entire new neighborhoods being zoned, planned and built, usually by the same Almeida Prado family.

Work on the new campus began on October 5, 1966, and the first building completed was the Institute of Biology, followed by administrative buildings. In the same year, Zeferino Vaz was nominated the rector. In parallel to the new campus, new units were opened in other cities, absorbing local schools. The Dental School of Piracicaba was absorbed in 1967, and in 1969 the Engineering School of Limeira.

1970–1990: Growth and crisis
Over the following two decades, the new university expanded rapidly. The campus quickly grew to 19 institutes and schools, and after Zeferino Vaz died in 1981 was named after him. With the campus construction completed, the School of Medical Sciences (formerly the School of Medicine of Campinas) was moved into the new campus, and its teaching hospital, Hospital de Clínicas, became the largest public hospital in the region.

Expansion on the campus continued rapidly, with new buildings, institutes and expansions being added nearly every year. However, by the late 1970s, the university faced a crisis. During its rapid expansion, it relied on draft bylaws, mostly borrowed from the University of São Paulo, and lacked formal internal regulations with the aging Zeferino Vaz, while no longer the rector, acting as a moderating force between parties with conflicting interests, in particular the leftist academic community and the State's government, appointed by the conservative military regime ruling the country.

After Zeferino's death in 1981, a conflict took place between the university's General Coordinator, appointed and backed by the government, and the Directive Council, composed of directors of different institutes. The rector introduced new rules reducing the power of the General Coordinator. As retaliation, the State's government removed 6 members of the Directive Council, replacing them with people from the state's Education Council, loyal to the governor, Paulo Maluf.Tensions between the academic community and the government-appointed counselors increased, with the future Minister of Education, Paulo Renato Costa Souza, then president of the Faculty Association, classifying the episode as a "white intervention". Following the dismissal of several institute heads and members of the administration, the administrative workers went on strike, with the support of students and faculty. With activities in the university frozen by the strike, the governor declared a formal intervention in the university in October 1981.

Despite the police-backed intervention, the university continued on strike. The appointed institute heads failed to break the stalemate between internal and external forces, and by early 1982, discussions began on a new list of candidates to the rectorship. Eventually, José Aristodemo Pinotti, a former dean of the School of Medical Sciences generally considered a moderate, was selected by the academic community and accepted by the governor. In the following week, on April 19, 1982, the intervention was lifted, and academic activities resumed normally.

After the crisis, Unicamp saw a period of renewal and restructuring. In 1983 the bylaws were rewritten, ensuring the autonomy of the academic community, and the new management structure for the campus was implemented. In 1986 the newly created University Council replaces the previous Directive Council as the supreme body of the university. The last years of the 1980s saw a reformulation of the admissions exam, expansion of the laboratories and the completion of the first units of the student housing.

1990 onwards

With a new administrative structure capable of supporting continuous growth and with its autonomy secured, Unicamp went through a period of consolidation in the 1990s. There was an increase in night programs, created to provide an alternative for low-income students who had to work during the day, and to increase utilization of classrooms and the existing infrastructure, reaching one third of total available places.

The period also saw an expansion of the technology industry in the region, centered around Unicamp, with Motorola, IBM, Solectron, Lucent Technologies and many others set up research labs and production centers in the region driven by the large number of highly qualified students graduating every year, culminating in the opening of the Institute of Computing in 1996.

In the 2000s Unicamp consolidated itself as one of the leading research and education centers in Latin America but also brought new challenges: just as with other public universities in Brazil, the high payroll costs (over 90% of the total budget) constrain investment and expansion. This is further aggravated by the economic depression that Brazil has been facing since 2014, the largest in the country's history.

Campus

Main campus

The flagship campus of the University of Campinas is located in the district of Barão Geraldo,  from the center of Campinas. It currently occupies an area of  situated in a valley surrounded by gentle rolling hills and is bounded on the west by the urban area of Barão Geraldo, on the south and east by farmland and to the north by a lake and a new industrial park built in the 2000s.

Design
The campus has a unique design, with the main library, student service buildings and restaurant in a central circular plaza, and most of the academic buildings located in blocks emanating from the center in a radial fashion. The different areas of study are grouped in larger sections, but neighboring other areas with which they share similarities: the philosophy buildings mark the frontier between human sciences, mathematics and economics, while the School of Food Engineering is bordered by the chemical engineering and biology buildings. The architect responsible for the overall design of the campus was João Carlos Bross.

Streets are named after significant contributors to each field, including Elis Regina and Carlos Gomes Streets, a Brazilian singer and a composer, respectively, Alan Turing Avenue and others.

History
The area occupied by the campus was part of the much larger Rio das Pedras farm, owned by the prominent Almeida Prado family. In order to establish a new campus, Zeferino Vaz was looking for a large, flat area in the outskirts of the city, where he would have the freedom to design the campus and its surroundings from scratch. Interested in developing the area of the farm around Barão Geraldo, the family donated an initial area of  to the university. The remainder of the farmland was eventually zoned and developed into multiple neighborhoods, but the main historical farmhouse and its surroundings remain, now a protected heritage site and a natural reserve.

With the land secured, the campus was designed in a way to ensure the maximum collaboration between the different sciences, with buildings laid along radial streets emanating from a central circular plaza, which also hosted administrative buildings. The layout of the campus would eventually be used on the design of the university's logo, created by Max Schiefer, which is essentially a simplified map of the core circle of the campus. This design is similar to the University of California, Irvine campus, build around the same time.

Construction started in 1966, with General Castello Branco, the first president of Brazil's military regime, laying the cornerstone of the Institute of Biology, which was inaugurated in 1968, and classes started in the new campus on the following year. In 1971 the area of the campus was expanded by , more than doubling its size, to accommodate the move of the School of Medical Sciences, until then located across several buildings in Campinas, to the new campus. This expansion saw the construction of a massive public hospital, the Hospital das Clínicas (HC), which began serving the public in 1979.

While initial construction was considered complete by 1978, the campus has grown through continuous addition of new buildings and institutes. In 2014, after years of negotiation, the university decided to buy the Argentina Farm, located on the east side of the campus, increasing the total area by 60% to . This purchase will allow for expansion of the medical sciences and athletics areas, as well as new laboratories.

Medical center

Unicamp's main campus houses the School of Medical Sciences' teaching hospital, the Hospital das Clinicas. Construction started in 1975 and the hospital opened its first clinics and patient facilities in 1979, but was only fully operational in 1985, when the School of Medical Sciences was transferred from Campinas' maternity to the new campus.

The hospital has almost 1,000 beds, and serves half a million people every year through Brazil's unified public health system, SUS, performing on average 40 surgeries and 13 births every day. In the 2000s, the hospital was changed from a primary and secondary care to a specialized tertiary care center, receiving complex cases from other hospitals and clinics in the region, but around 60% of patients in the hospital are still cases that could be handled by local health centers.

The hospital directly employs 3,100 people, and also serves as a practice center for the university's faculty and a training and residency center for the students of medicine, nursery and speech therapy.

Synchrotron lab
While not part of Unicamp, the National Synchrotron Light Laboratory (LNLS) is a research institution focused on physics, structural biology and nanotechnology that maintains close ties with the university and is operated as part of the National Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM). The laboratory was designed in 1983 and began operating in 1997, located next to the main campus. The LNLS has Latin America's only particle accelerator, a synchrotron, used as a synchrotron light source designed and built in Brazil for various physical, chemical, geological, and biological studies.

Limeira

Unicamp's presence in Limeira, a city about  from Campinas, dates from the late 1960s, when the young university absorbed the Engineering School of Limeira, which became the School of Civil Engineering. The UNICAMP began offering technology courses in 1974 with the creation of a Sanitary Technology course. The course was designed to be taught during the day with the finish at least two years, in old installations of Faculty of Civil Engineering (FEC) in the city of Limeira. Later, in 1976 was created the course of Construction Technology, with specification in Building or Construction Methods of Soil. While this school was eventually transferred to the Campinas campus in 1989, new programs were launched by the university in Limeira, creating CESET, the School of Technology of Limeira, which still exists and is located near the center of the city, focused on technical higher education.

In 2008 Unicamp decided to establish a new campus in Limeira, and in 2008 the School of Applied Sciences was created, offering programs such as public administration, business management, nutrition and industrial engineering. The total undergraduate class size for the new campus is 480 students per year.

Piracicaba
In 1967 Unicamp absorbed the School of Odontology of Piracicaba, founded in 1955 and located  northwest of the main campus in Campinas. With over 1,000 students, the school was initially located in a historic building near the center of the city, and in the 1970s a new campus was built, occupying an area of  in what was then the outskirts of the city, and a short distance from USP's ESALQ.

Paulínia
In the neighboring city of Paulínia, the university operates a multidisciplinary research center focused on biosciences, acquired in 1986 from Monsanto and integrated into the university as CPQBA. As part of the acquisition, Unicamp gained access and continued research into subjects previously explored at the center, specially agricultural sciences. Research is usually funded by external parties, such as companies and other universities.

COTUCA and COTIL
In addition to the higher education programs, Unicamp is also responsible for running and funding two technical high schools, the Technical High School of Campinas (COTUCA) and the Technical High School of Limeira (COTIL). Cotuca was located for 50 years in a historical building near the center of the city built in 1918 which also housed Unicamp for a brief period before the current campus was built. In 2014 it was transferred to the main campus as the old building went through renovations. Both schools are amongst the best public high schools in the country, and are highly competitive, with admissions done through a selection exam open to middle-school students.

Organization and administration
Similarly to other Brazilian institutions, Unicamp is composed of several semi-autonomous teaching units, designated as schools and institutes. Each unit is headed by a director from the faculty, equivalent to a dean, elected by the faculty and student representatives.

The university's administration is structured in a way similar to other public universities in Brazil. The supreme decision body is the University Council (CONSU), composed of all deans, plus several representatives from the academic community, students, administrative staff and the external community. The council meets roughly 4 to 5 times per year, ruling on high level administrative decisions such as approving the budget and has the final word in internal administrative processes. Routine administration is left to the rector, similar to a university chancellor in English-speaking countries, and the rectorate.

Rectors

The rector is chosen by the governor of the State of São Paulo from a list of 3 candidates elected by the university's community, including students and administrative staff. Traditionally, the governor always selects the candidate with the largest number of votes, but it retains the power to choose a different one should it decide to do so. The rector serves for a term of 4 years before a new election is held, and can not be reelected in the following term. Zeferino Vaz was the first rector and held the position for 12 years until his mandatory retirement.
 Zeferino Vaz (1966–1978)
 Plínio Alves de Moraes (1978–1982)
 José Aristodemo Pinotti (1982–1986)
 Paulo Renato Costa Souza (1986–1990)
 Carlos Vogt (1990–1994)
 José Martins Filho (1994–1998)
 Hermano Tavares (1998–2002)
 Carlos Henrique de Brito Cruz (2002–2005)
 José Tadeu Jorge (2005–2009)
 Fernando Ferreira Costa (2009–2013)
 José Tadeu Jorge (2013–2017)
 Marcelo Knobel (2017–2021)
 Antonio José de Almeida Meirelles, Tom Zé, (2021–present)

Schools and Institutes

Unicamp is composed of a total of 24 units, 10 of which are institutes and 14 are schools. The university is also home to 22 interdisciplinary centers which conduct research and outreach on topics ranging from dance (such as LUME) to computing and education (such as NIED).

 School of Medical Sciences
 School of Applied Sciences
 School of Odontology of Piracicaba
 School of Education
 School of Physical Education
 School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
 School of Chemical Engineering
 School of Food Engineering
 School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
 School of Nursing
 School of Mechanical Engineering
 School of Agricultural Engineering
 School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urbanism
 School of Technology of Limeira
 Institute of Chemistry
 Institute of Physics Gleb Wataghin
 Institute of Biology
 Institute of Computing
 Institute of Mathematics, Statistics and Scientific Computing
 Institute of Economics
 Institute of Philosophy and Human Sciences
 Institute of Language Studies
 Institute of Arts
 Institute of Geosciences
Unicamp is also responsible for two technical high schools, the Technical High School of Campinas (COTUCA) and the Technical High School of Limeira (COTIL).

Funding & financial information

Like other public universities in Brazil, Unicamp is almost entirely funded by the government, in this particular case of the State of São Paulo. Funding is provided mainly from sales taxes, but a small percentage of total budget is obtained from donations, paid extension programs and corporate sponsors.

The total budget proposed for 2016 is of R$2.3 billion, a decrease by almost 7% in real terms when compare to 2015. Fixed costs (payroll, interest and debt service) will account for 92.2% of the government funding. And additional 4% is spent on student assistance and 2% on utilities.

A problem faced by Unicamp, and other public universities in Brazil, is the high dependency on economic conditions, that directly impact tax earnings, while most of the expenses, payroll specially, are indexed to inflation. While not as critical as in similar universities (at the University of São Paulo payroll accounted for over 106% of the total funding available in 2014), Unicamp currently faces a funding crisis, with total funding expected to decrease in real terms while payroll, which takes around 85% of total university funding, is expected to increase in line with inflation. This situation is aggravated by the long-running trend of raising staff salaries above inflation as a response to the annual strikes led by the workers' union, STU.

Academics
At Unicamp, academic studies are usually divided into four main areas: exact sciences (which includes formal and physical sciences), human sciences (roughly equivalent to social science, including Arts), biological sciences (roughly equivalent to life sciences) and technologies (including engineering and technical studies). This division reflects on how the university are structured how the campuses was designed.

Undergraduate programs

Unicamp offers 70 different degree-granting undergraduate programs, covering nearly all different areas of science. Completing an undergraduate program grants either a bachelor's degree or a licentiate degree, although some programs offer both degrees. In line with the Brazilian educational system, no graduate education is required to practice any profession, including law and medicine, so undergraduate programs vary in length to provide all the necessary training. Most programs at Unicamp last a total of 4 years, with engineering programs typically lasting 5 years and medicine lasting 6 years.

The academic year is aligned with the calendar year, with classes usually starting in late February, and ending in early December, the beginning of summer in Brazil. The year is divided into two semester terms, and all courses are a semester long. While there is a suggested curriculum for each program, students are free to choose any classes to attend during a specific semester, and class attribution is done in the basis of grade average, with higher-graded students having priority when choosing classes.

Students are admitted to a single program and are expected to take all the classes required to complete that program in the number of semesters prescribed, although they can take 50% longer before facing administrative measures. While each program is usually managed by a single school or institute (exceptions apply, such as Computer Engineering, co-managed by the Institute of Computing and the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering), classes are usually ministered across different institutes or schools.

Program class sizes usually range between 30 and 60 students per year for each program, but some programs can have over 100 students per year, and are named by the year of admission: the class of 2015 is composed of all students entering in the year of 2015, regardless of the program length or expected graduation. There is no campus-wide graduation ceremony, with each school or institute conducting its own.

Graduate programs
Unicamp offers 153 postgraduate programs, with about half of those being masters, serving almost 16 thousand students, one third of which come from outside the State of São Paulo, and around 5% are international students. Just as with undergraduate studies, students pay no tuition fees. While the programs are coordinated by the rectorship, the individual institutions have a lot of freedom on defining the focus, length and admission process of each program.

Extension programs and community outreach

Unicamp offers over one thousand extension programs to the community, with different levels of minimum requirements (high school degree, undergraduate degree, etc.) and across all areas of study, focusing mainly on specialization courses and community outreach. The programs are mainly coordinated by the Pro-Rectorate for Extension and Outreach (Pró-Reitoria de Extensão e Assuntos Comunitários, PREAC). PREAC aims to promote actions of extension and culture through integration with society, disseminating and acquiring knowledge through the academic community.

Specialization programs are either offered by Unicamp's extension school, Extecamp, or directly by the schools and institutes. In the past 25 years, over 100,000 students have been reached and in 2014, Unicamp joined Coursera and currently eight online courses are being offered, two of them are between the most popular Coursera courses in Brazil. Outreach actions take a variety of forms, including events, publications, technological, educational, cultural and social products and services. The Department for Cultural Development hosts several events, usually open for the surrounding community. Events are also held at the Casa do Lago Cultural Space and at the Cultural Center for Social Inclusion and Integration.

Every year, Unicamp also hosts an open doors event (Unicamp de Portas Abertas, UPA), in which the main campus is visited by over 50 thousand high school students from across the country. The event provides presentations and discussions on the role of the university in the society, as well as career presentations and tours, with the students visiting several areas of the university and gaining a better understanding of the different areas of study.

Faculty
Unicamp employs close to 1,800 professors, nearly all with at least a doctoral degree. The faculty career is structured in three major tiers:
 Doctor Professor (Professor Doutor, equivalent to assistant professor): candidates must have a doctoral or equivalent degree
 Associate Professor (Professor Associado): candidates must have a Livre Docente title, similar to the German Habilitation
 Tenured Professor (Professor Titular) – MS-6 (top rank, only MS-6 professors are allowed to hold positions such as Dean of a Faculty/School or Rector of the university)
Hiring is done through a civil service examination, including a written test, a teaching examination, academic history analysis and other additional criteria. The same process is required for professors changing tiers: an associate professor pursuing a tenure position must go through the same examination process compete with other external candidates for the position. The two initial tiers also include sub levels, and professors are promoted between them for merit. Monthly starting salary for a full-time assistant professorship is around R$ 10 thousand, and for a tenured position around R$15 thousand. Uniquely among public universities in Brazil, Unicamp has a career focused on full-time research. Currently there are approximately 100 full-time researchers at the university.

Library system
The university's library system (Sistema de Bibliotecas da Unicamp; SBU) comprises a large central library named in honor of César Lattes, and 27 other satellite libraries, located in the individual institutions, housing over 1 million volumes, in addition to hundreds of thousands of ebooks and academic journals. The system was officially created in 1983, aggregating the several independent libraries that operated across the university. The large central library was inaugurated six years later, in 1989.

The library system is automated and its collections may be accessed and searched on the Internet. Its Digital Library section supports a database with more than 25,000 dissertations presented in the university, as well access to the largest electronic libraries of academic journals in the world. It also includes several historical libraries and media archives focused on specific authors and topics, such as the Edgard Leuenroth Archive and collections honoring César Lattes, Sérgio Buarque de Holanda, Monteiro Lobato and others.

Admissions

Undergraduate programs

Similarly to other Brazilian public universities, admissions to undergraduate programs are through a comprehensive general examination, called vestibular. While other Brazilian public universities, specially federally managed ones, which use the National High School Exam (ENEM, in Portuguese Exame Nacional do Ensino Médio) as an entrance exam, Unicamp has its own national entrance exam applied yearly by its Vestibular Commission (COMVEST, in Portuguese Comissão Permanente para os Vestibulares) in two rounds. Generally, the first round happens in November and is a test composed of 90 multiple-choice general knowledge questions. Students applying to programs that require specific skills (such as music, architecture, dance, and others) must take a specific knowledge test even before the first phase.

Selection in the admissions process is program-specific. Applicants that score a minimum standardized grade in the first round are selected to participate in the second round, which takes place over three days in January, where they must answer 48 short-answer written questions, plus write two long-form essays, on themes selected by the evaluation board.

The Unicamp national exam is very competitive and is considered one of the most difficult in Brazil. In 2015 there were 77,145 applications for only 3,320 possible places, with 23 candidates competing for each position in an undergraduate program, an average acceptance rate of 4.3%. The exam covers all topics taught in the Brazilian high school system, including Portuguese, mathematics, Brazilian and world history, geography, biology, physics, chemistry, sociology, philosophy, arts and English. Despite that, questions in the exams are generally interdisciplinary.

The most competitive undergraduate programs are Medicine with a 0.5% acceptance rate, Architecture and Urbanism with 0.6%, and Communication with 2%. Such high competitivity leads many students to take preparatory courses during or after the last regular high school year called cursinhos in Portuguese, generally privately offered or managed by some association or organization. Many private cursinhos have special classes focused on highly competitive programs like medicine, making them very expensive. It is common to find students admitted in Medicine, Engineering and other programs after several years of preparatory courses.

While the selection process is need-blind and race-blind, most of the best high schools and preparatory schools in Brazil are private and very expensive, and represent a majority of admissions in Brazilian public universities, leading to increased inequality in the country. To remedy this, Unicamp introduced in 2004 the Social Inclusion and Affirmative Action Program (PAAIS, in Portuguese Programa de Ação Afirmativa e Inclusão Social) that allows high schoolers coming from public schools to receive a bonus score in their overall vestibular score. While not focused on racial and ethnical factors, over the years, the PAAIS initiative has increased the number of admission of minorities from public high school, especially black and native-Brazilians, historically the most economical and social fragile groups in Brazil. With this program, around 30% of admissions come from public schools, and the participation of minorities increased from 10% to around 30%.

Graduate programs
Unlike undergrad admissions, there is no single admission process for graduate students. Each institution inside Unicamp has its own set of procedures, which usually include an admissions exam which can be specific for Unicamp or a standard exam applied across the country (such as ANPEC (in Portuguese) for economics, and PosComp (in Portuguese) for computer science. Besides the exam, the process usually includes an academic history analysis, interviews and in many cases requires a submission of a research project to be undertaken during the graduate studies.

Student life

Housing
Similarly to other Brazilian universities, Unicamp offers no large-scale in-campus housing, and most students live either near the campus or in Campinas. A student tradition in Brazil, inherited from the Portuguese universities, is the república, a fraternity-style private housing where multiple students rent large houses or apartments and live together. Dues to the suburban campus and the large number of students coming from other cities, repúblicas play a key role in the student life, serving as centers for social life, parties and also study and work areas. While some repúlicas have existed for decades, sometimes moving from one house to another, most are formed by students in the same or similar classes, and last for a few years.

Besides repúblicas, studio apartments are very common around the university. While more expensive than the shared houses, they afford more privacy and have more flexible contracts, are well as being furnished.

University housing
Unicamp provides a limited amount of free housing to low income students in the Student Residence compound. Built in 1992, it is located near the center of Barão Geraldo, about four kilometers from Unicamp, and is served by a university shuttle that takes student to the campus and back free of charge. The compound has 226 houses of , with a capacity of four students per house, and 27 studios of , for couples with children, a total of 904 vacancies in houses and 54 adults in the studios. Assignment criterion is means-based, with lower income students receiving priority.

The Student Residence supports several cultural projects developed by voluntary and worker students and open to the participation of internal and external community. It encourages interdisciplinary training and integration between the resident students and the external community. The diversity of races and cultures, brought by colleagues from other states and countries is an advantage for the residents who live in the house, facilitating full citizenship, through the exercise of their rights and duties within the community.

University restaurants
There are multiple restaurants operated and subsidized by the university serving only the academic community. Commonly called bandejão ("large tray" in Portuguese) due to the metal trays used to serve the students, the restaurants provide up to three meals per day, the breakfast costing R$2 for students and lunch and dinner costing R$3, a price that has only been updated once in over a decade, despite the strong inflation. The main bandejão is located near the center of the circular campus, receiving students from all different areas of the university and acting as the informal social heart of the university where events, parties and political campaigns are announced to the students.

The restaurants at the university are staffed with nutritionists and food engineers, often students at the university, offering balanced menu that meets the nutritional needs of the university population, serving over 10 thousand meals per day at the main campus. The menu usually consists of rice and beans, a traditional staple food in Brazil, a type of meat (chicken, beef, sausage, pork, etc.), textured soy protein for vegetarians, salad, juice, and dessert.

There are three such restaurants in the main campus, with two additional restaurants located in the Limeira and Piracicaba campuses. In all of them access is restricted to those who have a university-issued smart card ID, which is also used to pay for the food. In addition to the subsidized restaurants, there are several smaller, privately ran restaurants across the campus and many more located in Barão Geraldo, often just a short walk away from the campus.

Athletics
There are no university-sponsored athletic programs at Unicamp, and sporting competitions, either internal or played with other schools, are entirely organized by the students. The Liga das Atléticas da Unicamp, a university-wide league of the different athletic associations, is responsible for organizing internal sporting events, such as the Unicamp Olympics.

In addition to internal competitions, there are multiple external competitions between several universities focused on different areas of study: in the Intermed medical students from different universities compete against each other, and in the Engenharíadas, engineering students gather to play sports. The games are usually held in the city of one of the participating universities over a long weekend, with students being housed in public schools, farms and hotels.

The university has a sports center with courts for basketball, volleyball, a full size regulation football field, an athletics field with running tracks, a competition swimming pool, a covered gymnasium for indoor spectator sports, attached to a convention center.

In popular culture

Varginha incident
Unicamp is generally regarded by the Brazilian population as Brazil's Area 51, with the government running a secret underground area purportedly called Pavilion 18, located under the Institute of Chemistry. In 1996 there were reports of an extraterrestrial sighting in the city of Varginha, commonly called the Varginha Incident, followed by additional reports of military intervention in the region and that the extraterrestrial would have been taken to the secret Pavilion 18 area at Unicamp.

See also

 Brazil University Rankings
 List of state universities in Brazil
 São Paulo State University (UNESP)
 Technological Institute of Aeronautics (ITA)
 Universidade Federal do ABC (UFABC)
 University of São Paulo (USP)
 Universities and Higher Education in Brazil

References

External links

 Unicamp's home page

São Paulo

Educational institutions established in 1966
1966 establishments in Brazil

State University of Campinas


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ගැලරිය

උපකරණ

අඬුව


Kocapınar, Samsun ilinin Havza ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe
Mahalle, Gürcistan göçmeni Gürcüler tarafından kurulmuştur. Mahallenin eski adı Hilyas (Hıllaz veya Hillaz) olup, daha sonraki yıllarda köy içerisinde bulunan ve suyu bol olan pınardan esinlenerek Kocapınar denmiştir.

Coğrafya
Samsun iline 89 km, Havza ilçesine 15 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Dış bağlantılar
 Kocapınar Köyü Web Sitesi

Havza'nın mahalleleri

Kocapınar, Havza


The Fourth International Posadist is a Trotskyist international organisation. It was founded in 1962 by J. Posadas, who had been the leader of the Latin America Bureau of the Fourth International in the 1950s, and of the Fourth International's section in Argentina. Between their split from the International Secretariat of the Fourth International in 1962 and Posadas' death in 1981, Posadists developed a strain of communism that included several fringe ideas, which brought them into conflict with more mainstream left-wing groups.

Posadism attempts to introduce elements of ufology into Marxist thought. Arguing that only communism can allow the development of interplanetary travel, they concluded that visiting aliens from other planets must live in highly advanced communist societies and are bound to help Earth-based communists with bringing about the world revolution.

History

Origins
When the Fourth International (FI) split in 1953, Posadas and his followers sided with Michel Pablo and the International Secretariat of the Fourth International (ISFI). The Posadists began quarrelling with the majority of the ISFI in 1959 over the question of nuclear war with Posadas being a proponent as, he claimed, it would destroy capitalism and clear the way for socialism. The Posadists finally split with the ISFI in 1962 to form the Fourth International (Posadist). The group initially had a following in several countries, particularly among railway workers in Cuba, tin workers in Bolivia and farm workers in Brazil.

There was a significant Posadist group in Cuba. Posadist guerrillas fought alongside Castro and Che Guevara in the 1959 revolution. When the Posadists split from the Fourth International in 1962, they took the Cuban section with them, meaning no other Trotskyist group was represented in Cuba in the 1960s.

The Posadist group was accused by Soviet-friendly forces in Cuba of arguing that the Cuban government should forcibly expel the American military base at Guantanamo Bay and of trying to organize workers in the town of Guantánamo to march on the nearby military base. That was taken as a justification by the government for imposing a ban on them, Castro denouncing their influence as "pestilential" at the Tricontinental Conference held in January 1966. Cuban Posadists went on to claim that Castro had Guevara killed when, it turned out, he was actually in Bolivia fighting with the guerrilla movement there. Conversely, after Guevara was executed by Bolivian authorities, Posadas claimed in 1967 that Che Guevara was not actually dead but was being kept in prison by Castro's government. By 1968, a Posadist movement began to develop in Europe; however, the ufology elements of the movement caused it to fail to garner much traction.

Decline and resurgence
In the late 1960s, the Posadists became increasingly interested in UFOs, claiming they were evidence of socialism on other planets. The organization soon began to wane in influence and membership, aided by an increasingly paranoid Posadas who expelled many of its members by 1975.

Posadas' death in 1981 meant the virtual dissolution of the organization, with only a few isolated groups continuing to operate to the present day. In the United Kingdom, the Revolutionary Workers' Party (Trotskyist) was founded in 1963 by Posadist members of the Revolutionary Socialist League and despite several schisms and a dwindling membership, it continued to publish its newspaper Red Flag until 2000.

In recent years (as of 2018), interests in the Posadists, particularly in regard to their views in ufology, has increased. Several satirical and non-satirical "neo-Posadist" groups emerged on social media, making Posadas "one of the most recognizable names in the history of Trotskyism".

Theories

Posadist society
Posadists advocate for a society akin to those proposed by general Marxist theory. A proletarian revolution will destroy the bourgeois state, replaced in turn by a socialist state.

Nuclear first strike
At the height of the Cold War, Posadas thought that nuclear war was inevitable. He asserted that the nuclear-armed socialist states should launch a preemptive nuclear attack that would destroy the nuclear capabilities of capitalist countries. Additionally, he believed that a nuclear catastrophe between the United States and USSR would spark the world revolution.

Posadas vocally opposed the Partial Test Ban Treaty signed in 1963 by the United States, the USSR, and the United Kingdom, believing that a nuclear war between the US and the USSR was inevitable and desirable, and would create the conditions for socialism, with the "workers' states" winning and resetting society.

Scientific progress
Posadas was highly interested in the way scientific advancement could improve human lives when used for the common good, rather than for profit. In an essay written entitled "Childbearing in space, the confidence of humanity, and Socialism" (1978), he espoused his vision of a Utopian future under the guidance of science:

Posadas was also a supporter of space exploration by the former USSR and the People's Republic of China. He praised an alleged plan by the USSR to have a woman give birth in space, considering such endeavors the mark of an advanced society, that is on a path of eliminating primal needs such as survival, security and comfort:

These views are in line with the more mainstream positions of Russian cosmism and transhumanism.

Ufology

Posadas was the author of a number of works with an unconventional slant and towards the end of his life he tried to create a synthesis of Trotskyism and Ufology. His most prominent thesis from this perspective was the 1968 pamphlet Flying saucers, the process of matter and energy, science, the revolutionary and working-class struggle and the socialist future of mankind which exposed many of the ideas associated today with Posadism. Here, Posadas claims that while there is no proof of intelligent life elsewhere in the universe, the science of the time makes their existence likely. Furthermore, he claims that any extraterrestrials visiting earth in flying saucers must come from a socially and scientifically advanced civilisation to master inter-planetary travel, and that such a civilisation could have only come about in a post-capitalist world.

Believing visiting aliens to be naturally non-violent and only here to observe, Posadas argues that humans must call on them to intervene in solving the Earth's problems, namely "to suppress poverty, hunger, unemployment and war, to give everyone the means to live in dignity and to lay the bases for human fraternity". The means to achieving this end remained within the mainstream Trotskyist and included ending capitalism as well as the bureaucracy of the workers' states and establishing a socialist society.

Despite Posadas himself never publishing anything on the subject after 1968, ufology nonetheless became an important part of Posadism. After his death in 1981, some Posadists continued to explore the subject, notably Dante Minazzoli, Paul Schulz, and Werner Grundmann. Others, however, have distanced themselves from the more unconventional notions and have claimed that Posadas' interest in extraterrestrial life was a marginal point that was blown out of proportions.

Member parties
The Fourth International Posadist claims the following parties as members. It is unknown how many of these organisations still exist or how many members they have. However it is unlikely there are more than a hundred members of the Posadist movement throughout the world. The organization currently lists contacts in Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay, however only Uruguay has a functioning party.

 Uruguay – Revolutionary Workers Party (Partido Obrero Revolucionario)

Defunct
 Argentina – Revolutionary Workers' Party Posadist (Partido Obrero Revolucionario – Posadista)
 Belgium – Revolutionary Worker's Party – Trotskyist (Parti Ouvrier Révolutionnaire – Trotskiste)
 Bolivia – Revolutionary Workers' Party Trotskyist–Posadist (Partido Obrero Revolucionario (Trotskista Posadista))
 Brazil – Brazilian Section of the Trotskyist–Posadist IVth International (Seção Brasileira da IV Internacional Trotskista–Posadista)
 Britain – Revolutionary Workers' Party (Trotskyist)
 Chile – Revolutionary Workers' Party (Posadist) (Partido Obrero Revolucionario (Posadista))
 Colombia – Posadist Trotskyist Workers Party (Partido Obrero Trotskista Posadista)
 Cuba – Revolutionary Workers' Party (Trotskyist) – (Partido Obrero Revolucionario (Trotskista))
 France – Revolutionary Communist Party (Trotskyist) – (Parti Communiste Révolutionnaire (Trotskyiste))
 Germany – Posadist Communist Party (Posadistische Kommunistische Partei)
 Greece – Revolutionary Communist Party–Posadists (Epanastatiko Kommounistiko Komma-Posadistes)
 Italy – Revolutionary Communist Party (Trotskyist–Posadist) – (Partito Comunista Rivoluzionario (Trotzkista–Posadista))
 Mexico – Revolutionary Workers' Party (Trotskyist) – (Partido Obrero Revolucionario (Trotskista))
 Peru – Revolutionary Workers' Party (Partido Obrero Revolucionario (Trotskista))
 Spain – Revolutionary Worker's Party (Trotskyist–Posadist) – (Partido Obrero Revolucionario (Trotskista–Posadista))
 United States – Revolutionary Workers Party (Trotskyist–Posadist)

See also
 Andromeda, novel by Ivan Yefremov
 List of Trotskyist internationals
 International Committee of the Fourth International
 Nazi UFOs
 Joaquín Trincado Mateo
 UFO conspiracy theory

Notes

References

External links

 webpage of the International (in English, French and Spanish
 Flying saucers, the process of matter and energy, science, the revolutionary and working-class struggle and the socialist future of mankind (1968)
 Trotskyites in Space! at Fortean Times

Types of socialism
Trotskyism
Ufology

Fourth International Posadist


Fermiyum, atom numarası 100, kütle numarası 257 olan elementtir. Aynştaynyumla aynı zamanda bulunan, izotopu 1953'te yapay olarak elde edilmiş olan elementin kısaltması Fm'dir. Bu elemente fizikçi Fermi'nin isimi verilmiştir.

Aktinitler
Enrico Fermi
Yapay elementler
7. periyot elementleri
Elementler

Fermiyum


Alcantarilla, İspanya 'nın Murcia Özerk Bölgesinde şehir.Şehrin Belediye Başkanı Lázaro Mellado Sánchez 'dir.2006 nüfusu 39.000 kişidir.Murcia 'dan sadece 7 km uzaklıktadır.Şehir Segura vadisi içinde verimli topraklar üzerinde kurulmuştur.

İspanya'daki şehirler
Murcia

Alcantarilla


Ana Boilă (n. 12 decembrie 1896, Târnăveni – d. 11 noiembrie  1972, Cluj) a fost un deputat în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, organismul legislativ reprezentativ al "tuturor românilor din Transilvania, Banat și Țara Ungurească", cel care a adoptat hotărârea privind Unirea Transilvaniei cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918.

Biografie
Născută în localitatea Târnăveni în anul 1896,  Ana Boilă a urmat studiile la Gimnaziul săsesc din Mediaș. În timpul vieții sale a fost casnică și membră a Reuniunii femeilor române din comitatul Târnava Mică. În anul 1921 se căsătorește cu doctorul Liviu Pop și se stabilește la Cluj. A decedat la Cluj în 11 noiembrie 1972.

Activitatea politică
A fost aleasă ca delegată titulară a Reuniunii femeilor române din comitatul Târnava Mică, județul Mureș, la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia de la 1 decembrie 1918.

Note

Bibliografie
 Ioan I. Șerban, Dorin Giurgiu, Ionela Mircea, Nicolae Josan, Dicționarul personalităților Unirii. Trimișii românilor transilvăneni la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, Muzeul Național al Unirii, Alba Iulia, 2003, ISBN 973-8141-90-7
 Gelu Neamțu, Mircea Vaida-Voevod, 1 decembrie 1918. Mărturii ale participanților, vol. I-II, Editura Academiei Române, București, 2005, ISBN 973-27-1258-9 (vol. I); ISBN 973-27-1264-3 (vol. II)

Lectură suplimentară
 Daniela Comșa, Eugenia Glodariu, Maria M. Jude, Clujenii și Marea Unire, Muzeul Național Transilvania, Cluj-Napoca, 1998
 Florea Marin, Medicii și Marea Unire, Editura Tipomur, Târgu Mureș, 1993
 Silviu Borș, Alexiu Tatu, Bogdan Andriescu, (coord.), Participanți din localități sibiene la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, Editura Armanis, Sibiu, 2015

Vezi și
 Lista delegaților la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Legături externe
  Membrii de drept ai Marii Adunării Naționale de la Alba-Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, lista publicată în "Gazeta Oficială", Sibiu, nr. 1, 1/14 decembrie 1918

Nașteri în 1896
Decese în 1972
Delegați la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Ana Boilă


La Fortaleza (lit., "The Fortress" ) is the official residence of the governor of Puerto Rico and has been since the 16th century. It was built between 1533 and 1540 to defend the harbor of San Juan, in Puerto Rico. The structure is also known as Palacio de Santa Catalina (Saint Catherine's Palace). It is the oldest executive mansion in continuous use in the New World. It was listed by UNESCO in 1983 as part of the World Heritage Site "La Fortaleza and San Juan National Historic Site".

During the 1640 reconstruction, the chapel of Santa Catalina, which originally stood outside the walls, was integrated into the structure's walls, resulting in the alternate name Santa Catalina's Castle.

The structure

La Fortaleza was the first defensive fortification built for the city of San Juan and the first of a series of military structures built to protect the city, which included the Fort San Felipe del Morro and the Fort San Cristóbal. The construction was authorized by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor as a defense against attacks from Island Caribs and the European powers of the time.

Initially, the structure consisted of four walls enclosing an interior patio with a circular tower known as the Homage Tower. From the top of the tower, following military tradition, the governor would take fidelity oaths at critical moments to the King and Queen of Spain. Later, a second tower named the Austral Tower was constructed.

The complex currently consists of a few attached buildings with formal living quarters on the second floor and private quarters on the third. It overlooks the high city walls that front the bay, and within the north perimeter of the house are sheltered gardens and a swimming pool.

History

Starting in 1529, Governor La Gama petitioned the emperor on the need to build defensive fortifications "because the island's defenseless condition caused the people to emigrate."  Construction started in 1533, using stone, and concluded by 1540.  Yet the fort had no guns, and Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés commented, "if it had been constructed by blind men could not have been located in a worse location."  Yet the structure has served as the governor's residence since 1544.

Since the 16th century, La Fortaleza has acted as the residence of the Governor of Puerto Rico, making it the oldest executive mansion in continuous use in the Americas. The mansion was remodeled in 1846 by the Spanish authorities to adapt its military origin to its new purely administrative function.

La Fortaleza has been captured twice by invaders:

 1598, George Clifford, Earl of Cumberland, attacked San Juan.
 In 1625, General Boudewijn Hendricksz (Balduino Enrico) of the Netherlands invaded the city and established himself at La Fortaleza. During the Dutch retreat, the fortress and the city were set ablaze.
 1898, the U.S. Navy invaded and occupied Puerto Rico, establishing a provisional government.

In 1834, Colonel George Dawson Flinter described the fortress of Santa Catalina as having a chapel, stables, cistern, and an east wing with spacious apartments.

According to tradition, in 1898, just before the United States invaded Puerto Rico during the Spanish–American War, the last Spanish governor of the island, Ricardo De Ortega, struck a longcase clock in La Fortaleza with his sword, stopping the clock and marking the time at which Spain lost control over Puerto Rico.

On October 30, 1950, there was an attempt by a few nationalists to enter La Fortaleza in what is known as the San Juan Nationalist revolt, intending to attack then-governor Luis Muñoz Marín. The 5-minute shootout resulted in four Nationalists dead: Domingo Hiraldo Resto, Carlos Hiraldo Resto, Manuel Torres Medina, and Raímundo Díaz Pacheco. Three of the guards of the building, among them Lorenzo Ramos, were seriously injured.

On October 9, 1960, La Fortaleza was designated a United States National Historic Landmark. Teodoro Vidal, a cultural affairs official official under Luis Muñoz Marín, organized renovation work on the building around this time.

In 1983, La Fortaleza, along with the San Juan National Historic Site, was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

In literature
In 2011, Puerto Rican author Giannina Braschi wrote the dramatic novel United States of Banana, featuring climactic scenes of revolution at La Fortaleza.

Gallery

See also
 List of United States National Historic Landmarks in United States commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states
 National Register of Historic Places listings in metropolitan San Juan, Puerto Rico
List of the oldest buildings in Puerto Rico

References

Further reading
 Government of Puerto Rico. Executive Mansion: Santa Catalina's Palace. San Juan, Puerto Rico.
 World Heritage Committee. Report of 7th Session, Florence 1983. Paris:  UNESCO's Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. January 1984.

External links

 Government of Puerto Rico - Executive Mansion: Santa Catalina's Palace
 UNESCO - World Heritage Center: La Fortaleza Historic Site Information
 Visiting information

Official residences in Puerto Rico
La Fortaleza and San Juan National Historic Site in Puerto Rico
Historic house museums in Puerto Rico
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Puerto Rico
Government buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Puerto Rico
National Register of Historic Places in San Juan, Puerto Rico
National Historic Landmarks in Puerto Rico
Houses completed in 1540
Historic American Buildings Survey in Puerto Rico
Forts in Puerto Rico
1540 establishments in New Spain
1540s establishments in the Spanish West Indies
16th-century establishments in Puerto Rico
Governors' mansions in insular areas of the United States

La Fortaleza


An Epiblastus masarangicus in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Friedrich Fritz Wilhelm Ludwig Kraenzlin, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Schltr.. An Epiblastus masarangicus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Epiblastus, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Sulawesi. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Epiblastus

Epiblastus masarangicus


A , literally translating into "small or short tachi (sword)", is one of the traditionally made Japanese swords (nihontō) used by the samurai class of feudal Japan. Kodachi are from the early Kamakura period (1185–1333) and are in the shape of a tachi. Kodachi are mounted in tachi style, but with a length of less than . They are often confused with wakizashi, due to their length and handling techniques. However, their construction is what sets the two apart, as kodachi are a set length while wakizashi are forged to complement the wielder's height or the length of their katana. As a result, the kodachi was too short to be called a sword properly but was also too long to be considered a dagger, thus it is widely considered a primary short sword, unlike the tantō or the wakizashi which would act as a secondary weapon that was used alongside a longer bladed sword.

The exact use of the kodachi is unknown; it may have been a companion sword to normal sized tachi or it may have been a sword for an adolescent. Kodachi appear to have been produced only in a certain time period by specific schools of swordmakers.

See also
 List of daggers
 Types of swords
 Tsurugi

References

External weapons

Japanese sword types
Kamakura period

Kodachi


Mullutu-Suurlaht je jezero u Estoniji, smješteno u okrugu Saare na južnom dijelu otoka Saaremaa. Nalazi se dva kilometra zapadno od Kuressaarea.

S površinom od 14,4 km2 je četvrto najveće estonsko jezero. Maksimalna dubina je 2,1 m, a prosječno je duboko tek oko jednog metra. Voda u jezeru je bočata. Iz jezera otiče rijeka Nasva duga oko tri kilometra. Nasvom višak vode iz jezera završava u Riškom zaljevu, dok tijekom sušnog razdoblja, pogotovo pri južnom vjetru, koritom Nasve u jezero dotiče slana, morska voda.

Zahvaljujući povezanosti s morem jezero je bogato ribljim vrstama (smuđ, štuka, crvenperka, linjak, gymnocephalus cernua, jegulja i druge). Uz jezero se gnijezde brojne ptičje vrste.

Izvori

Jezera u Estoniji

Mullutu-Suurlaht


L'amphithéâtre de Rodez est un amphithéâtre romain construit à la fin du  ou au début du  dans la ville de , aujourd'hui Rodez dans le département français de l'Aveyron.

Au , les rares vestiges connus de cet amphithéâtre de  et construit la fin du  ou au début du  sont tous enfouis.

Localisation

L'amphithéâtre est construit au fond d'un vallon et sa , au nord, à l'est et au sud, s'appuie sur les pentes naturelles. Il se trouve au nord-ouest de la ville antique, en-dehors de la zone la plus densément urbanisée, mais il semble desservi par l'un des .

Dans la ville contemporaine, l'amphithéâtre est presque totalement circonscrit dans l'îlot composé par les rues de l'Amphithéâtre et de Séguret-Saincric à l'ouest et à l'est et les rues Raynal et Pasteur au nord et au sud.

Histoire
L'amphithéâtre est probablement construit vers la fin du  ou au début du , lors de la phase d'urbanisation de la ville.

Lors de la construction de l'enceinte du Bas-Empire romain l'amphithéâtre n'est pas inclus dans le périmètre remparé. De même, l'enceinte médiévale laisse le monument ruiné à l'extérieur de la ville.

Des fouilles très partielles ont lieu en 1852. Le secteur de Rodez où se trouve l'amphithéâtre est alors appelé « Pré de la Conque », toponyme montrant bien que la forme de l'amphithéâtre a subsisté dans le paysage mais, le site n'étant alors pas urbanisé, le plan qui est dressé ne peut pas être précisément situé par manque de repères.

Des travaux réalisés en 1995-1997 dans le quartier désormais construit permettent de retrouver quelques vestiges de l'amphithéâtre et de le localiser précisément dans le schéma urbain moderne. En 2020, un chantier d'archéologie préventive dans la partie sud-ouest de l'amphithéâtre révèle de nouveaux vestiges.

Description

L'amphithéâtre est construit sur le fond d'un vallon sur trois points cardinaux, ouest excepté. La  épouse donc le relief naturel sur plus des trois quarts de son développement, ce qui permet de s'affranchir d'imposants maçonneries sur toute cette partie. Seul le secteur occidental, où un vomitoire d'accès à l'arène est identifié, dispose de murs annulaires partiels destinés à asseoir les gradins.

Le monument de plan elliptique, possède un grand axe mesurant  et un petit axe de , l'arène mesure  : il peut ainsi accueillir au moins . Un système d'escaliers extérieurs, plaqués contre la façade occidentale, permet d'accéder au sommet de la . Des vestiges de gradins et de murs sont constitués de grès.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie

 .

Articles connexes
 Liste d'amphithéâtres romains

Liens externes

Rodez
Rodez

Amphithéâtre de Rodez


Evenimente

Orientul Apropiat
 Saul, regele Israelului, a murit, împreună cu fiul său, Ionatan, după ce a pierdut lupta împotriva filistenilor de pe muntele Ghelboa.
 David a cucerit Ierusalimul și, după tradiția iudaică, a fost uns noul rege al Israelului.
 A fost fondată dinastia Bazi (dinastia VI) în Babilon.

1004 î.Hr.

1004 î.Hr.


Veysel Cihan (d. 4 Şubat 1976; Avanos, Nevşehir), Türk eski futbolcudur. 1. Lig ekiplerinden Boluspor'da forma giymiştir. Oynadığı tüm ekiplerde mümkünse memleketi Nevşehir'in plaka kodu olan 50 numaralı formayı giymektedir. Denizlisporda iken lakabı Maradona Veysel ve Antalyaspor'da Reis idi.

Kulüp kariyeri
Futbola, Avanos'ta başladı. 1994-1998 yılları arasında Nevşehirspor, 1998-2002 yılları arasında Denizlispor, 2002-2004 yılları arasında da Gençlerbirliği formasını giydi. Kariyerinin ilk ciddi çıkışını Denizlispor'da yapan Veysel, Gençlerbirliği'nde sergilediği oyunla da futbolseverlerin beğenisini kazandı. 2004-05 sezonu başında Beşiktaş'a transfer oldu.

2005-06 sezonu ortasında Beşiktaş'tan Gaziantepspor'a transfer oldu. Daha sonra 2006/2007 sezonundan 2008-2009 sezonuna kadar Konyaspor formasını giymiştir.

2009-10 sezonundan Antalyaspor'a transfer oldu. Son olarak 2010-11 sezonunun bitimine kadar Antalyaspor'da forma giymiştir ve sözleşme bitimi takımsız kalmıştır. 2011-12 sezonunun transfer dönemini son haftasında 1. Lig ekiplerinden Boluspor'la anlaşarak buraya transfer oldu.

Millî takım kariyeri
4 kez millî takımlara çağrılan Veysel Cihan, 4 kez Türkiye A2 millî takım formasını giymiştir.

İstatistikleri

Kulüp takım istatistikleri

Millî takım istatistikleri

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 *

1976 doğumlular
Avanos doğumlular
Türk erkek futbolcular
Resim aranan futbolcular
Boluspor futbolcuları
Denizlispor futbolcuları
Beşiktaş JK futbolcuları
Gençlerbirliği SK futbolcuları
Konyaspor futbolcuları
Antalyaspor futbolcuları
Nevşehirspor futbolcuları
Süper Lig futbolcuları
Yaşayan insanlar
1. Lig futbolcuları
Türkiye A2 millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
Forvet futbolcular

Veysel Cihan


Kamil Wiktor Stoch (Zakopane, Poljska, 25. svibnja 1987.) je poljski skakač u skijaškim skokovima.

Kamil Stoch je počeo nastupati u sezoni 2003./'04. u Svjetskom kupu. U sezoni 2010./'11. pobijedio je tri puta. Prvi put na domaću utakmicu u Zakopanima, drugi put u njemačkom Klingenthalu i treći put na slovenskoj Planici. Na kraju je završio deseti u ukupnom poretku Svjetskoga kupu.

Godine 2013., osvojio je naslov svjetskog prvaka u pojedinačnoj konkurenciji na velikoj skakaonici u Val di Fiemmeu i broncu u ekipnom natjecanju, a na maloj skakakonici nije osvojio medalju, jer mu drugi skok nije uspio, zlatnu medalju osvojio je Norvežanin Anders Bardal. U sezoni 2012./'13. završio je na 3. mjestu u ukupnom poretku Svjetskog kupa s dvije pobjede, Svjetsko prvenstvo je osvojio austrijski skakač Gregor Schlierenzauer.

Godine 2014., na Olimpijskim igrama u Sočiju postao je dvostruki olimpijski prvak na oba pojedinačna natjecanja i postao prvi Poljak, koji je osvojio zlatnu medalju na Olimpijskim igrama u skijaškim skokovima.

U sezoni 2013./'14. osvojio je veliki kristalni globus za pobjedu u ukupnom poretku Svjetskog kupa sa šest pobjeda i pet postolja i postao drugi Poljak, poslije Adama Małysza, kojemu je to uspjelo.

Na Svjetskom prvenstvu u Falunu 2015. osvojio je brončanu medalju u momčadskoj konkurenciji, a ponovio je isto u Lahtiju 2017.

Pobijedio je na sve četiri novogodišnje skakaonice 2018. godine i postao ukupni pobjednik.

Poljski skijaši skakači
Olimpijski pobjednici u skijaškim skokovima

Kamil Stoch


Mike MacKenzie oder Mike McKenzie ist der Name folgender Personen:

* Mike MacKenzie (Politiker) (* 1958), schottischer Politiker
 Mike McKenzie (* 1976), US-amerikanischer American-Football-Spieler
 Mike McKenzie (Eishockeyspieler) (* 1986), kanadischer Eishockeyspieler

Mike MacKenzie


Maria Elaine Rodrigues Espíndola (Porto Alegre, 23 de março de 1947) é uma artista, professora, mestra griot e uma liderança no movimento negro e quilombola de Porto Alegre.

Biografia
Filha de José Francisco Rodrigues, funcionário da Cervejaria Brahma, e Maria Eulália dos Santos, empregada doméstica e musa da Escola de Samba da Praiana, passou a infância em São Sebastião do Caí junto da avó materna Maria Alaíde dos Santos e de familiares que viviam no Quilombo do Macaco Branco. Pensou em entrar para a vida religiosa, mas acabou decidindo se tornar professora de braile. Cursou magistério em Montenegro, lecionou em escolas de Pareci Novo e Capela de Santana, e iniciou o curso de Direito e Letras na Unisinos. Casada com Cláudio Espíndola, tem os filhos Cláudio, Daniela e Cristiane.

Nos anos 1970 participou da fundação da Mocambo — Associação de Remanescentes de Quilombo Amigos e Moradores do Bairro Cidade Baixa e Arredores, que ainda não tinha este nome, então liderada por seus tios João Florêncio e Romilda Rodrigues. Nos anos 1990 foi reconhecida como mestra griot pelo Mestre Lua (José Alves Bitencourt), durante os trabalhos de criação do Centro de Referência Afro-Brasileiro. Atua em atividades de ensino, pesquisa e extensão universitária, promovendo encontros sobre africanidades, história e cultura afro-gaúcha. No Projeto Territórios Negros: Patrimônios Afro-Brasileiros em Porto Alegre, desenvolvido pela UFRGS, ministrou o curso Encontro de Saberes. Atuou em conselhos comunitários de saúde da Prefeitura; em 2016 foi nomeada membro da Comissão Organizadora da Semana da Consciência Negra, uma parceria entre a Assembleia Legislativa e o Movimento Negro, que concede o Troféu Deputado Carlos Santos, que destaca cidadãos que contribuíram na luta antirracismo; em 2018 foi nomeada membro titular da Comissão Especial de Concursos da Defensoria Pública do Estado; em 2019 foi nomeada membro titular do Conselho Estadual de Participação e Desenvolvimento da Comunidade Negra, e em 2022 era membro suplente do Conselho Municipal de Cultura como representante da Região Centro do Orçamento Participativo.  Ainda em 2022 foi nomeada prefeita da Praça Doutor Pedro Borba, num projeto da Prefeitura que reúne lideranças comunitárias para colaborar no cuidado de logradouros públicos.

Descendente de Lanceiros Negros, também tem ligações com o tradicionalismo gauchesco, e em 2010 se tornou a primeira patrona negra de um piquete do Acampamento Farroupilha, repetindo o patronato por dez anos sucessivos. É artista plástica e participou da criação do monumento O Tambor, primeira obra pública realizada pelo movimento negro organizado na Capital, instalado na praça Brigadeiro Sampaio e integrado ao Museu de Percurso do Negro em Porto Alegre.

É a líder do Quilombo da Mocambo, um dos onze quilombos urbanos de Porto Alegre, e há muitos anos preside a Associação Mocambo, que até 2015 funcionou na sua casa. Sob sua liderança a Mocambo tem desenvolvido intensa atividade cultural e política; em torno de 2000 passou a centralizar a luta pelo reconhecimento da comunidade como quilombo e pela regularização fundiária, em 2012 foi declarada Patrimônio Cultural pela Prefeitura de Porto Alegre, e em 2020 a Mocambo obteve da Assembleia o reconhecimento do quilombo como Área de Relevante Interesse Cultural do Rio Grande do Sul.

Reconhecimento
Em 2010 a Câmara de Vereadores a reconheceu como primeira mulher griot da cidade, durante a Semana da Consciência Negra. Em 2018 recebeu da Assembleia Legislativa o Troféu Deputado Carlos Santos, pela sua luta antirracismo, na qualidade de líder quilombola. Em 2022 recebeu da UFRGS o título de Mestra de Notório Saber, equivalente à titulação acadêmica de Doutorado.

Para professora de história Edília Viegas, a sua trajetória "é singular no sentido de confluir distintas formas de construir conhecimentos, individuais e coletivos, em prol das lutas sociais por emancipação das pessoas negras", reunindo em si uma formação acadêmica e uma tradicional, que "andam lado a lado e se encontram no fortalecimento de uma trajetória de resistência aos percalços sociais do apagamento cultural de espaços comunitários como o Quilombo da Mocambo. [...] Tais saberes compõem as possibilidades de compreensão completa da história de Porto Alegre e são fundamentais para o ensino de história comprometido com a luta antirracista".

Segundo Duan Porto Barcelos, a Mocambo tem uma "história de pioneirismo e resistência", atuando em temas como carnaval, moradia, patrimônio cultural, saúde, Movimento Tradicionalista Gaúcho, Museu de Percurso do Negro, cotas raciais, acrescentando que o foco de sua pesquisa foi "o reconhecimento da Mocambo e de sua liderança, na qualidade de educadoras, com saberes próprios e de fundamental valor para o conhecimento histórico de Porto Alegre. [...] Os resultados parciais apontam para a originalidade dessa liderança feminina, que mescla griotagem e memória, dentro de uma historicidade própria. Igualmente indicam a potência das práticas distintas da Mocambo, em defesa da população negra da cidade".

Lembrando de sua atuação no curso Encontro de Saberes da UFRGS e seu papel como griot, guardiã das memórias e tradições, a jornalista e pesquisadora Luana Silva da Cruz disse:

"A mestra Elaine disse Olá e eu chorei. Ela explicou que gostava de começar com Olá, pois este simples cumprimento retomava todo o caminho percorrido por todos os seus antepassados até chegar àquele momento. Ela é da quinta geração de mulheres pós-abolição. Contou, com a voz calma de quem aprendeu a narrar a vida, um pouco da sua história. Não poderia ser de outra forma, como ela mesma defende, pois a oralidade é o modo como são preservadas as memórias de seu povo. Mestra Elaine trouxe o passado, mas também trouxe o presente. Ela carrega no olhar todos os tempos da história, inclusive a esperança no futuro. Aos acadêmicos de ouvidos atentos, sugeria que contribuíssem também escrevendo, pois a cultura oral não é devidamente reconhecida nas universidades. Falou da sua vida, da sua família e, semanas depois, também caminhou com a turma pelo Museu do Percurso do Negro no centro de Porto Alegre. Do Tambor ao Painel Afrobrasileiro, os passos ganharam outro significado, sentido e cor. [...]

"Acredito que essa vivência serviu para ajudar a compreender como pode se dar essa responsabilidade. Os caminhos que posso indicar e os questionamentos que posso produzir, a fim de que a universidade perceba, um dia, a educação como um encontro de saberes, de todos os saberes".

Artistas do Rio Grande do Sul
Ativistas antirracismo
Ativistas do movimento negro do Brasil
Professores do Rio Grande do Sul
Quilombolas
Naturais de Porto Alegre
Nascidos em 1947
Mulheres do Rio Grande do Sul

Maria Elaine Rodrigues Espíndola


Hermann Behrens (* 20. Dezember 1915 in Leer, Ostfriesland; † 15. August 2006 in Wedel) war ein deutscher Prähistoriker und zwischen 1959 und 1980 Direktor des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte in Halle (Saale).

Leben
Hermann Behrens wurde am 20. Dezember 1915 im ostfriesischen Leer als Sohn eines Gymnasiallehrers geboren. Er besuchte dort zwischen 1922 und 1926 die Grundschule sowie von 1926 bis 1935 das Gymnasium in Leer und Aurich. Gegen Ende seiner Schulzeit entschloss er sich zu einem Studium der Vorgeschichte, das er 1935 in Halle (Saale) begann. Dort belegte er neben vorgeschichtlichen Vorlesungen auch Veranstaltungen in Germanistik, Indogermanistik, Volkskunde, Anthropologie und Geologie. Am Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte (damals "Landesanstalt für Volkheitskunde") erhielt er darüber hinaus eine praktische Ausbildung in Museumsarbeit und in der Bodendenkmalpflege. 1937 konnte Behrens auch an einer universitären Exkursion in die Tschechoslowakei, nach Österreich, Jugoslawien und Italien teilnehmen.

Da sein Vater aufgrund seiner politischen Gesinnung im gleichen Jahr aus dem Lehreramt entlassen wurde, konnte Behrens sein Studium allerdings zunächst nicht fortsetzen. Noch 1937 wurde er zum Militärdienst einberufen. Am 20. April 1945 geriet er bei Thale in amerikanische Kriegsgefangenschaft, aus der er am 24. Oktober 1945 in Munster wieder entlassen wurde. Noch im gleichen Jahr setzte er sein Studium an der Universität Hamburg fort. Dort besuchte er Vorlesungen in Vorgeschichte, Volkskunde, Mittlerer Geschichte, Völkerkunde und Archäologie. 1946 wechselte er nach Göttingen, wo er 1948 zum Thema "Die nordgermanischen Menschendarstellungen des 1. Jahrtausends n. Chr." promovierte.

Bis 1949 war Behrens zunächst als Bodendenkmalpfleger im Kreis Stade und als ehrenamtlicher wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter am Stader Heimatmuseum tätig. In Stade hatte Behrens 1947 auch seine Frau Charlotte kennengelernt, die er 1950 heiratete. Ebenfalls 1950 trat er dann als Nachfolger von Gerhard Mildenberger eine Stelle als wissenschaftlicher Assistent am Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte in Halle an. 1952 wurde er dort zunächst zum kommissarischen Kustos und kurz darauf zum Kustos und stellvertretenden Direktor ernannt. 1958 wurde der bisherige Direktor des Landesmuseums Martin Jahn emeritiert. Gleichzeitig wurde die bis dahin geltende Personalunion zwischen dem Posten des Museumsdirektors und dem Lehrstuhl für Vor- und Frühgeschichte an der Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg aufgehoben. Zum Jahresbeginn 1959 übernahm Behrens die Leitung des Museums, während der Lehrstuhl für Vor- und Frühgeschichte mit Friedrich Schlette besetzt wurde.

1962 habilitierte sich Behrens zum Thema "Studien zur Wesensdeutung und historischen Problematik der neolithisch-frühmetallzeitlichen Tierskelettfunde im Raume der Alten Welt". Von 1953 bis in die Mitte der 1970er Jahre hielt er an der Martin-Luther-Universität Vorlesungen und Seminare. Unter seiner Leitung fanden außerdem zwei langjährige Forschungsgrabungen statt: Zum einen zwischen 1962 und 1981 an einer jungneolithischen befestigten Siedlung in der Dölauer Heide in Halle sowie zwischen 1967 und 1986 an der Schalkenburg bei Quenstedt.

1980 wurde Behrens pensioniert. Im folgenden Jahr übersiedelte er mit seiner Frau nach Wedel bei Hamburg. Erst 1994 wurde er vom Minister für Wissenschaft und Forschung des Landes Sachsen-Anhalt zum außerplanmäßigen Professor ernannt. Am 15. August 2006 starb Behrens an den Folgen eines Schlaganfalls.

Wissenschaftliches Wirken
Behrens war seit 1952 Mitglied der Sektion für Vor- und Frühgeschichte der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin und damit beteiligt an der Ausarbeitung der "Verordnung zum Schutze und zur Erhaltung der ur- und frühgeschichtlichen Bodenaltertümer", welche 1954 in Kraft trat und eine moderne und umfassende rechtliche Grundlage zum Schutz der Bodendenkmale auf dem Gebiet der DDR darstellte. Auf dieser Grundlage baute Behrens in den Bezirken Halle und Magdeburg ein Kreispflegersystem auf, dank dessen Arbeit zahlreiche meist obertägige Bodendenkmale unter Schutz gestellt werden konnten. Auch wurden Kreisinventare ur- und frühgeschichtlicher Funde angelegt, was allerdings nicht flächendeckend gelang. Jährlich stattfindende Bezirkskonferenzen dienten zur Information über die Tätigkeiten der Kreispfleger und ehrenamtlichen Bodendenkmalpfleger.

In seinen Arbeiten beschäftigte Behrens sich hauptsächlich mit theoretischen Forschungen zum Neolithikum. Er stand damit in der Tradition zahlreicher Forscherkollegen, wie etwa Paul Grimm oder Nils Niklasson, die bereits vor dem Zweiten Weltkrieg in Halle gewirkt hatten, und konnte den Ruf Halles als ein Zentrum der Neolithikumforschung in Mitteleuropa festigen. Hierzu trugen auch zahlreiche Konferenzen bei, die Behrens organisierte, allen voran fünf zwischen 1971 und 1980 abgehaltene "Neolith-Kolloquien".

Nach seiner Pensionierung widmete sich Behrens verstärkt theoretischen Fragen zur Ur- und Frühgeschichtsforschung, so setzte er sich vor allem mit ideologischen Aspekten der Archäologie in der DDR auseinander, kritisierte aber auch die in den 1990er Jahren einsetzende Verdrängung der in Ostdeutschland üblichen Nomenklatur und Terminologie.

Behrens war Mitglied in zahlreichen wissenschaftlichen Organisationen, so zum Beispiel von 1952 bis 1969 der Sektion für Vor- und Frühgeschichte der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Berlin, von 1955 bis 1980 dem Wissenschaftlichen Beirat für Bodendenkmalpflege beim Ministerium für Hoch- und Fachschulwesen der DDR, von 1956 bis 1970 dem Redaktionsbeirat der Zeitschrift "Ausgrabungen und Funde", von 1965 bis 1969 dem Nationalkomitee für Ur- und Frühgeschichte der DDR und von 1971 bis 1980 dem Problemrat bzw. Wissenschaftlichen Rat für Alte Geschichte und Archäologie. 1979 wurde er ordentliches Mitglied des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts und 1985 Ehrenmitglied des Niedersächsischen Landesvereins für Urgeschichte.

Behrens war zwischen 1951 und 1958 Herausgeber der Schriftenreihe "Vorgeschichtliche Museumsarbeit und Bodendenkmalpflege" und in seiner Funktion als Direktor des Landesmuseums zwischen 1959 und 1980 Herausgeber der "Jahresschrift für Mitteldeutsche Vorgeschichte" und der "Veröffentlichungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte in Halle".

Schriften
 Die nordgermanischen Menschendarstellungen des 1. Jahrtausends n. Chr. (1948, ungedruckt)
 Aus der gesamtwissenschaftlichen Forschungsarbeit des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle/Saale (1952/53)
 Archäologische Kostbarkeiten im Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle/Saale (1958)
 Ur- und frühgeschichtliche Goldfunde im Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle/Saale (1962)
 Steinzeit-Bronzezeit. Die Funde aus dem großen Grabhügel »Spitzes Hoch« bei Latdorf, Kreis Bernburg. Inventaria archaeologica 12 (1963)
 Große Grabhügel, Groß-Steingräber und große Steine im unteren Saalegebiet (1963)
 Die Funde aus dem großen Grabhügel »Pohlsberg« bei Latdorf, Kr. Bernburg. Inventaria archaeologica 13 (1964)
 Die neolithisch-frühmetallzeitlichen Tierskelettfunde der Alten Welt. Studien zu ihrer Wesensdeutung und historischen Problematik. Veröffentlichungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle 19 (1964)
 Jungsteinzeitfunde aus dem mitteldeutschen Raum (1965)
 Die Jungsteinzeit im Mittelelbe-Saale-Gebiet (1973)
 Siedlungen und Gräber der Trichterbecherkultur und Schnurkeramik bei Halle (Saale). Veröffentlichungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle 34 (1980), mit Erhard Schröter
 Die Ur- und Frühgeschichtswissenschaft in der DDR von 1945 bis 1980. Miterlebte und mitverantwortete Forschungsgeschichte (1984)
 Urgeschichte – Ethologie – Ideologie. Ausgewählte Beiträge aus vierzigjähriger Schaffenszeit. 1950-1990 (1993)
 Grundfragen der deutschen Urgeschichtswissenschaft. Wo stehen die Archäologen am Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts? Alteuropäische Forschungen N. F. 3 (1999)

Literatur
 Dieter Kaufmann: Das Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte in den Jahren nach 1945. In: Jahresschrift für Mitteldeutsche Vorgeschichte. Band 67, 1984, S. 116–168 (Online).
 Dieter Kaufmann: Die Direktoren des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte Halle (Saale). In: Jahresschrift für Mitteldeutsche Vorgeschichte. Band 67, 1984, S. 37–71 (Online).
 Dieter Kaufmann: Hermann Behrens (1915–2006). In: Archäologisches Nachrichtenblatt. Band 12, 2007, S. 101–102.
 Dieter Kaufmann: Hermann Behrens zum 65. Geburtstag. In: Ethnographisch-Archäologische Zeitschrift. Band 21, 1980, S. 711–713.
 Dieter Kaufmann: Hermann Behrens zum 90. Geburtstag. In: Jahresschrift für Mitteldeutsche Vorgeschichte. Band 89, 2005, S. 9–13 (Online).
 Dieter Kaufmann: Zum Gedenken an Hermann Behrens (1915–2006). In: Jahresschrift für Mitteldeutsche Vorgeschichte. Band 91, 2007, S. 465–491.

Weblinks

Prähistoriker
Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte (Halle (Saale))
Mitglied des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts
Museumsleiter
DDR-Bürger
Hochschullehrer (Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg)
Deutscher
Geboren 1915
Gestorben 2006
Mann

Hermann Behrens (Prähistoriker)


Ketenciler, İzmit - Kocaeli ili İzmit ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Ketenciler, Ereğli - Zonguldak ili Karadeniz Ereğli ilçesine bağlı köy

Ketenciler


Kratkorepci su grupa dekapodnih rakova (Decapoda) iz infrareda Brachyura. Nazivaju se kratkorepi rakovi (prijevod latinskog naziva), zbog toga što je zadnji dio tijela kratak i podvijen ispod prednjeg (glavogrudnog) dijela tijela (abdomena) (grč. βραχύς = kratak, οὐρά / οura = rep).

Veličina im se kreće od vrlo malih, čije su ljušture promjera samo 6 mm, do Japanske goleme rakovice, koja ima ljušturu promjera do 40 cm i raspon kliješta do 3,8 m. Većina vrsta kratkorepih rakova ima ljušture, ali ima i izuzetaka kao što je rak samac koji nema ljušturu, već se nastanjuje u školjci morskoga puža ili nekog drugoga mekušca.

Pravi kratkorepci imaju 5 para nogu, iako nisu sve vidljive kod nekih vrsta. Prednji par nogu ima razvijena kliješta s kojima love plijen. Mnoge vrste kratkorepaca koriste zadnji par nogu kao vesla za plivanje. Rep im je obično vrlo mali i podvučen pod tijelo. Na zemlji, kratkorepi rakovi hodaju postrance.

Glavogrudni dio tijela (lat. cephalotorax) kod kratkorepaca ima ovalni oblik, na leđima ispupčen, prekriven brojnim kvržicama. Naprijed je uži i ima dva kraća šiljka. Uz rubove također ima niz kraćih trnastih izraštaja. Ima oči na kratkim drškama, koje može, kao i antene uvući u udubljenja na glavogrudnom dijelu tijela. Ima četiri para dugih nogu, koje završavaju bodljama i služe za hodanje, a jedan prednji par pretvoren je u tanka kliješta. Glavogrudni dio tijela dug je oko 20 cm, ima blijedu žućkastu boju i često na njemu odozgo rastu alge ili spužve, pa se može dobro sakriti u svojoj okolini.

Većina kratkorepaca živi u moru, a svi se vraćaju u more za vrijeme razmnožavanja. Neki kratkorepci provode čitav život u slatkoj vodi, a neki se vraćaju iz slatke vode u more radi razmnožavanja. Ženka pod repom nosi oplođena jaja iz kojih se preobražajem razvijaju odrasle životinje.

Jako se razlikuju po prehrani. Neki su biljojedi, neki mesojedi, a neki jedu sve, čak i otpatke.

Izvori

Deseteronošci

Kratkorepci


est un genre éteint de plante, âgé de 385 millions d'années (Givetien, Dévonien moyen), et appartenant aux cladoxylopsides, proches parents des fougères et des prêles modernes. Il est considéré comme la plus ancienne plante arborescente, et l'un des constituants des plus anciennes forêts. Ses restes fossiles ont été trouvés en Europe, en Amérique du Nord et en Amérique du Sud.

Description
L'apparence générale de Wattieza devait rappeler celle d'un palmier ou une fougère arborescente moderne, atteignant une hauteur estimé à 8 mètres de haut.

Wattieza avait des frondes, semblables à celles des fougères, plutôt que des feuilles, et qui étaient situées dans la couronne en position verticale, et insérées en hélice sur le tronc. Wattieza perdait probablement ses frondes en grandissant, laissant le tissu superficiel de la tige marqué de cicatrices près de la couronne, formant un tissu de soutien, semblable à celui que possèdent les Arecaceae d'aujourd'hui.

Le tronc, ainsi formé, était mince, avec des rainures longitudinales caractéristiques qui atteignaient la zone près de la couronne, où les cicatrices des frondes apparaissaient. Le système racinaire était similaire à celui des Progymnospermes avec une insertion caractéristique dans la tige. Ainsi, dans la zone souterraine du tronc, il a adopté une morphologie conique inversée et de nombreuses petites racines en ont émergé qui ont pénétré perpendiculairement dans le sol et qui ont dû permettre à la grande plante de rester en position verticale.

Wattieza se reproduisait avec des spores, et comme les Monilophyta actuel, il possédait des frondes stériles et sexuées.

Découverte de fossiles

En 1870, à Gilboa, dans le comté de Schoharie, New York, des centaines de fossiles de souches d'arbres du Dévonien moyen ont été découverts lors d'une réparation de route endommagée par les inondations. Ce bosquet fossilisé , connue sous le nom de "souches de Gilboa, ont été décrits sous le nom  de Eospermatopteris, bien que la plante complète soit restée inconnue.

Le paléobotaniste belge François Stockmans a décrit Wattieza givetiana en 1968 à partir de frondes fossiles collectées dans des strates du Dévonien moyen dans la région du Brabant, en Belgique.

Ce n'est qu'en 2005 que la morphologie complète a pu être complétée en trouvant la correspondance in vivo entre ces restes. Ainsi, en 2007, les chercheurs William E. Stein, Frank Mannolini, Linda VanAller Hernick, Ed Landing et Christopher M. Berry, ont rapporté avoir découvert, dans le comté de Schoharie (New York), de nouveaux spécimens fossiles spectaculaires montrant clairement des souches d'Eospermatopteris, identiques à celles de Gilboa, non loin de touffes de frondes de Wattieza.

Une seconde espèce de Wattieza, Wattieza casasii, fût décrite par le géologue et paléobotaniste anglais Chris Berry en 2000 à partir de branches fossiles collectées dans des strates du Dévonien moyen - des mudstones verts et des schistes près de la base de la formation de Campo Chico - dans la Sierra de Perijá, au Venezuela. Le matériel fossile de Wattieza casasii se trouve actuellement au National Museum and Gallery de Cardiff, au Pays de Galles. L'étymologie de l'espèce Wattieza casasii a été attribuée en l'honneur de Jhonny E. Casas, l'un des découvreurs du matériel original.

Publication
 Stein, W. E., F. Mannolini, L. V. Hernick, E. Landling, and C. M. Berry. 2007. "Giant cladoxylopsid trees resolve the enigma of the Earth's earliest forest stumps at Gilboa", Nature (19 April 2007) 446:904-907.

Liens externes

Notes et références

Plante du Dévonien
Taxon fossile décrit en 1968

Wattieza


Cocoye foi uma milícia que operou durante a primeira e segunda guerra civil da República do Congo e que lutou por Pascal Lissouba.

História

Formação
A milícia Cocoye foi formada em 1993. Pascal Lissouba desconfiava fortemente das forças armadas do país e acreditava que não conseguiria apoio das mesmas. Assim, agiu para formar suas próprias forças com as quais poderia contar para apoiá-lo. Ele convocou militares e apoiadores dos departamentos de Niari, Lékoumou e Bouenza para formar a milícia e adquiriu mercenários de Israel, Sérvia e Zaire para treiná-la.

Primeira guerra civil
Durante a primeira guerra civil, a milícia Cocoye alinhou-se a Lissouba e seus membros lutaram contra as milícias aliadas Ninja e Cobra. Em Brazzaville, os Cocoye controlavam o centro da cidade, o conflito acabou matando 2.000 pessoas e terminou no acordo de paz, sem que nenhum dos lados obtivesse a vitória.

Segunda guerra civil
Em junho de 1997, Lissouba temia um golpe de Estado e enviou os Cocoyes para prender o líder dos Cobras, Denis Sassou Nguesso, e desarmar a milícia, iniciando a segunda guerra civil. Seu antigo inimigo, os Ninjas, aliou-se a eles contra os Cobras. Durante a segunda guerra civil, os Cocoye desempenharam um papel importante, capturando a represa de Moukoukoulou e cortando energia em grande parte do sul.

Cocoye
História da República do Congo

Milícia Cocoye


John McNulty est un nom pouvant désigner:

 (1895-1959), journaliste et auteur américain
 (né en 1968), entraineur américain de football américain
 (c. 1860), capitaine et pionnier américain
 (né en 1949), artiste irlandais
 (fl. c. 1918), militaire américain
 (1879-1943), évêque catholique anglais
 (1917-2004), homme militaire américain
, agent de liaison américain au Pentagone
 (1934-2020), professeur américain de droit
 (1898-?), prélat catholique américain
 (1832-1912), militaire confédéré américain
 (1891/96-1984), homme d'affaires américain du Maryland
 (1881/83-1947), homme politique américain du Minnesota

Voir aussi

McNulty, Joseph

John McNulty


An Trichotosia vestita in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Nathaniel Wallich ngan John Lindley, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Friedrich Fritz Wilhelm Ludwig Kraenzlin. An Trichotosia vestita in nahilalakip ha genus nga Trichotosia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Trichotosia

Trichotosia vestita


Savalou-attakè est l'un des quatorze arrondissements de la commune de Savalou dans le département des Collines au centre du Bénin.

Géographie
L'arrondissement de Savalou-attakè est situé au centre du Bénin et compte 6 villages. Il s'agit de :
 Azokangoudo
 Kovedji
 Honnoukon
 Sokpa
 Logbo
 N'gbehan.

Histoire

Démographie
Selon le recensement de la population de  conduit par l'Institut national de la statistique et de l'analyse économique (INSAE), Savalou-attakè compte 10347 habitants  .

Références

Arrondissement au Bénin
Collines

Savalou-attakè


La  est l'une des cinq circonscriptions législatives que compte la préfecture de Fukushima au Japon. Cette circonscription comptait  électeurs en date du .

Description géographique

La première circonscription de la préfecture de Fukushima regroupe les villes de Fukushima, Sōma, Minamisōma et Date ainsi que les districts de Date et Sōma.

Députés

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Chambre des représentants du Japon

Circonscription législative au Japon

Première circonscription de la préfecture de Fukushima


Anton Hermann Stilke () a fost un pictor german.

Viața
Stilke a studiat la Academia de Arte Frumoase din Berlin și a plecat in 1821 la München pentru a studia la Academia de Arte Frumoase, cu maestrul profesor Peter von Cornelius. A studiat apoi la Academia de Arte Frumoase din Düsseldorf și a pictat împreună cu Karl Stürmer fresca neterminată Judecata de apoi în Assisensaal din Koblenz. Mai târziu, el a împodobit arcadele Hofgarten din München cu mai multe fresce.

În 1827 Stilke a efectuat o călătorie de studii prin nordul Italiei și a ajuns în anul următor la Roma. În 1833 s-a întors la Academia din Düsseldorf, unde a predat ca profesor în perioada 1839-1843. Stilke a lucrat din 1842 până în 1846 în sala cavalerilor din castelul Stolzenfels, din apropiere de Koblenz, pe malul Rinului. El s-a stabilit în 1850 la Berlin și a murit acolo, la vârsta de 57 ani, pe 22 septembrie 1860.

Eleva și, de la începutul anilor 1830, soția sa, Hermine Stilke (1804-1869), născută Peipers, era o talentată ilustratoare și acuarelistă. Fiul lui, Georg Stilke, a fost librar și editor de cărți.

Lucrări
Picturi în ulei
 Cruciații (1834),
 Sf. Gheorghe cu îngerii,
 Pelerini în deșert (Galeria națională din Berlin),
 Fecioara din Orléans,
 Ultimii creștini din Siria (1841, Muzeul din Königsberg),
 Jefuirea fiiilor lui Edward (Galeria națională din Berlin).

Fresce și picturi murale
 A participat la executarea frescelor lui Peter von Cornelius din Gliptoteca și Alte Pinakothek din München
 În perioada 1843-1847 a realizat picturile murale din mica sală a cavalerilor a Castelului Stolzenfels din Koblenz la comanda regelui prusac Frederic Wilhelm al IV-lea.
 În jurul anului 1850 a executat picturile murale din sălile aflate în partea de sud a Neues Museum din Berlin (Recunoașterea Creștinismului de către Constantin (Împăratul Constantin ca promotor al Creștinismului), Widukind înaintea lui Carol cel Mare, Teodosie cel Mare, Femeie cu colivie)
 Picturile murale din teatrul din Dessau
 Medalionul mural Răpirea Europei în salonul de ceai al Castelului Regal din Berlin (camera proiectată de Karl Friedrich Schinkel)

Ilustrații
 În: Robert Reinick: Lieder eines Malers mit Randzeichnungen seiner Freunde. 1836–1852.
 Lieder eines Malers mit Randzeichnungen seiner Freunde. Schulgen-Bettendorff, Düsseldorf 1838. (farbige Mappen-Ausgabe. Digitalisierte Ausgabe der Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Düsseldorf)
 Lieder eines Malers mit Randzeichnungen seiner Freunde. Schulgen-Bettendorff, Düsseldorf 1838. (Digitalisierte Ausgabe der Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Düsseldorf)
 Lieder eines Malers mit Randzeichnungen seiner Freunde. Buddeus, Düsseldorf zw. 1839 und 1846. (Digitalisierte Ausgabe der Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Düsseldorf)
 Lieder eines Malers mit Randzeichnungen seiner Freunde. Vogel, Leipzig ca. 1852. (Digitalisierte Ausgabe der Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Düsseldorf)
 În: Die Nibelungen. In Prosa übersetzt, eingeleitet und erläutert von Johannes Scherr. Wigand, Leipzig 1860. (Digitalisierte Ausgabe der Universitäts- und Landesbibliothek Düsseldorf)

Note

Bibliografie

Nașteri în 1803
Decese în 1860
Pictori germani

Hermann Stilke


න්‍යෂ්ටික ප්‍රතික්‍රියාකාරකයක් යනු න්‍යෂ්ටික දාම ප්‍රතික්‍රියාවක් ආරම්භ කර පාලනයක් යටතේ පවත්වාගෙන යා හැකි උපාංගයකි.

න්‍යෂ්ටික ප්‍රතික්‍රියාකාරක

න්‍යෂ්ටික ප්‍රතික්‍රියාකාරක


سوخوي سو-7 (روسي: Сухой Cу-7) (لقب تعريف الناتو: فيتر-إيه Fitter-A) هي طائرة مقاتلة-قاذفة نفاثة من تصميم مكتب سوخوي في الاتحاد السوفييتى السابق. خدمت السوخوي-7 في القوات الجوية السوفيتية، كما صدرت للعديد من دول الكتلة الشرقية ودول الشرق الأوسط.

التطوير
في 14 مايو 1953، تم إعادة افتتاح مكتب سوخوي لتصميم الطائرات، بحلول صيف هذا العام بدأ المكتب العمل على طائرة تكتيكية ذات أجنحة منكسرة للحصول على السيطرة الجوية فوق أرض المعركة. كان من المقرر أن يستخدم النموذج الأولي من هذه الطائرة والذي سمي إس-1 (S-1) المحرك النفاث الجديد ليولكا إيه.إل-7 (Lyulka AL-7) وأصبحت هذه الطائرة أول طائرة سوفيتية تستخدم ذنب متحرك بالكامل للطائرة كما كانت أول طائرة سوفيتية تستخدم مخروط متحرك في مدخل الهواء للتحكم في الهواء الداخل إلى المحرك في السرعات الفوق-صوتية. كما كانت زاوية انكسار الأجنحة كبيرة وتصل إلى 60° كما ضمت مقعدا قذفيا من تصميم مكتب سوخوي.

طارت «الإس-1» لأول مرة في 7 سبتمبر 1955 وكان بها الطيار كوشيتكوف. زودت الطائرة بنسخة من المحرك إيه.إل-7 مزودة غرفة احتراق مساعدة، بعد 11 رحلة استطاعت الطائرة ان تحطم الرقم القياسي السوفييتي في السرعة، حيث بلغت سرعتها 2170 كم/ساعة (ماخ 2.04) في إبريل 1956. كان مخططا في البداية أن تحمل النسخة الأولية ثلاث رشاشات 37 مم من طراز «نودلمان» و32 صاروخ غير موجه 57 مم. تم إجراء بعد التعديلات والتحسينات في ديناميكا الهواء النموذج الأوليّ الثاني. كانت اختيارات الطائرة معقدة وصعبة وقد تحطم النموذج «إس-1» وقتل فيه الطيار «سولوكوف» في 23 نوفمبر 1956 نتيجة لعدم كفاءة المحرك.

دخلت السوخوي-7 الخدمة في عام 1959 وشهدت استخداما بسيطا.

في 31 يوليو 1958، تم تكليف سوخوي بتطوير نسخة هجوم أرضي من السوخوي-7، فكانت النتيجة السوخوي-22 والتي حملت نفس الملامح العامة للطائرة «إس-2» وضمت فقط بعد التعديلات في جسم الطائرة لتستطيع الطيران بسرعات عالية في الارتفاعات المنخفضة. طارت لأول مرة في شهر مارس من عام 1959 ودخلت الخدمة في 1961 تحت اسم سو-B7.

تم بناء 1847 وحدة من السو-7 وطرازاتها المختلفة، تم تصدير 691 منها.

المواصفات

الصفات العامة

 الطاقم: 1.
 الطول: 16,8 متر.
 المسافة بين الجناحين: 9.31 متر.
 الارتفاع: 4.99 متر.
 مساحة الأجنحة: 34 متر².
 الوزن فارغة: ,330 كغم.
 الوزن محملة: 13,570 كغم.
 أقصى وزن: 15,210 كغم.
 المحرك: محرك نفاث واحد من نوع ليولكا إيه.إل-7 (Lyulka AL-7) مزود بغرفة احتراق إضافية يعطي قوة دفع 94.1 كيلو نيوتن.
 خزان الوقود: 3,220 كغم.

الأداء
 السرعة القصوى: ماخ 0.94 (1,150 كم/ساعة) عند مستوى سطح البحر، ماخ 2.02 (2,150 كم/ساعة) عند الارتفاعات العالية.
 المدى: 1.650 كم.
 أقصى ارتفاع: 17,600 متر.
 معدل الصعود: 160 متر/ثانية.
 الحمل على الأجنحة: 434.8 كغم/متر².
 النسبة دفع-وزن: 0.71

التسليح

 رشاشين 30 مم من نوع نودلمان-ريختر إن.أر-30 بماسورة واحدة، يحمل كل منهما 80 طلقة.
 حوالي 2000 كغم من الأسلحة جو-جو وجو-أرض يمكن تركيبهم على ست نقاط تحت الأجنحة. وبشكل عام حملت الطائرة خزانين وقود تحت كل جناح سعة كل منهما 600 لتر وتشكيل من القنابل وزنها 250 أو 500 كغم بالإضافة إلى صواريخ غير موجهة 57 مم. كما أنه من الممكن ان تحمل قنبلة نووية سعة 5 كيلوطن.

انظر أيضا
 سو-17.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 - سو-7 من موقع جلوبال سيكيوريتي.
 سو-7 من موسوعة مقاتل من الصحراء

طائرات سوخوي
طائرات مقاتلة سوفيتية 1950–1959
طائرات نفاثة بمحرك واحد
طائرات هجومية سوفيتية 1960–1969
طائرات ذات أجنحة وسطية

سوخوي سو-7