مِحْلَقة أو مِحْلَق أو شفرة حلاقة (بالإنجليزية: Razor) أو آلة الحلاقة آو الموسى أو الموس وهي أداة ذات نصل تستخدم بشكل أساسي في إزالة شعر الجسم من خلال عملية الحلاقة. تشمل أنواع شفرات الحلاقة شفرات الحلاقة المستقيمة وشفرات الحلاقة الآمنة وشفرات الحلاقة التي تستخدم لمرة واحدة وشفرات الحلاقة الكهربائية.

في حين أن آلة الحلاقة موجودة قبل العصر البرونزي (يرجع تاريخ أقدم أداة شبيهة بآلة الحلاقة إلى 18000 قبل الميلاد )، فإن أكثر أنواع آلات الحلاقة شيوعًا في الاستخدام الحالي هي آلة الحلاقة الآمنة وشفرة الحلاقة الكهربائية، على الرغم من أنواع أخرى الأنواع لا تزال قيد الاستخدام.

تستخدم شفرة الحلاقة اليدوية أو الكهربائية لحلاقة وقص شعر الرأس.
ولحلاقة شعر الوجه تستخدم ماكينة بسيطة تطورت كثيرا بعد أن كان يستخدم الموس (أشبه بالسكين) لهذا الغرض، ومن أشهر آلات حلاقة الوجه تلك المطورة والمنتجة من قبل شركة جيليت الأمريكية، وهناك شركات أخرى مثل شركة براون وشركة ولكنسون وغيرها.

لقد طورت هذه الآلة من الآلات التي تستخدم الشفرات ذات الحدين على الجانبين والتي تستخدم لمرة واحدة إلى آلات ذات شفرة واحدة مدمجة في إطار وممسك، ويوجد الآن في الأسواق آلات بشفرتين أو ثلاث شفرات مدمجة.

كذلك هناك آلات للحلاقة يدوية أو آلية أو كهربائية أو تدار بالبطارية الصغيرة أو التي تشحن بالكهرباء، وكل شخص يختار ما يناسبه، فأنه يستهلك 700 مليون آلة حلاقة سنويا قيمتها أكثر من 110 مليون دولار في منطقة الشرق الأوسط وحدها مع ما يوجد بالمنطقة من ملتحين.

من ملحقات عدة الحلاقة:
 صابونة الحلاقة أو معجون حلاقة.
 فرشاة الحلاقة.
 أصبع الشب.
 كلونيا.
 مرآة.

عن شفرات الحلاقة
ظهرت أول أشكال شفرات الحلاقة في فرنسا عام 1762 وكانت عبارة عن قطعة طويلة من النحاس أو الحديد، ذات شفرة حادة على أحد جوانبها، يتم شحذها بتمريرها عدة مرات على قطعة جلد مشدودة على الحائط. وفي العام 1895 جرح مروج المبيعات الأمريكي كنغ كامب جيليت ذقنه وهو يستخدم تلك الأداة مما داعاه للتفكير باستخدام شيء يستخدم للحلاقة لمرة واحدة، فخطرت له فكرة ابتكار شفرة من الفولاذ ذات حد قاطع تثبت على قطعة حديد.

استطاع المكانيكي وليام نيكرسون تطبيق فكرة جيليت، فشرع جيليت على الفور في تأسيس أول شركة أمريكية لصناعة أدوات الحلاقة الآمنة في العام 1901 إلا أنه لم يبدأ الإنتاج الفعلي إلا عام 1903.

التاريخ

عرفت ماكينات الحلاقة من العديد من ثقافات العصر البرونزي. كانت مصنوعة من البرونز أو حجر السج وكانت بشكل عام بيضاوية الشكل، مع تانغ صغير بارز من أحد الأطراف القصيرة.

استعملت أشكال مختلفة من آلات الحلاقة على مر التاريخ، والتي تختلف في المظهر ولكنها مماثلة في الاستخدام لأمواس الحلاقة الحديثة المستقيمة. في عصور ما قبل التاريخ، تم شحذ قذائف البطلينوس وأسنان القرش والصوان واستخدامها للحلاقة. عثر على رسومات لهذه الشفرات في كهوف ما قبل التاريخ. لا تزال بعض القبائل تستخدم شفرات مصنوعة من الصوان حتى يومنا هذا. كشفت الحفريات في مصر عن شفرات حلاقة من الذهب الخالص والنحاس في مقابر تعود إلى الألفية الرابعة قبل الميلاد. استعملت وصنعت آلات الحلاقة في كرمة خلال العصر البرونزي. العديد من آلات الحلاقة بالإضافة إلى أدوات النظافة الشخصية الأخرى من مدافن العصر البرونزي في شمال أوروبا ويعتقد أنها تنتمي إلى أفراد مرموقين. ذكرت المؤرخة الرومانية ليفي أن آلة الحلاقة أدخلت إلى روما القديمة في القرن السادس قبل الميلاد. للملك الأسطوري لوسيوس تاركوينيوس بريسكوس. كان Priscus سابقًا لعصره لأن آلات الحلاقة لم تستخدم بشكل عام إلا بعد قرن من الزمان.

صنعت أول آلة حلاقة مستقيمة حديثة كاملة بمقابض مزخرفة وشفرات أرضية مجوفة في شيفيلد، في إنجلترا، مركز صناعة أدوات المائدة، في القرنين الثامن عشر والتاسع عشر. أنتج بنيامين هانتسمان أول درجة فولاذية صلبة فائقة، من خلال عملية بوتقة خاصة، مناسبة للاستخدام كمادة نصل في عام 1740، على الرغم من رفضها لأول مرة في إنجلترا. تم تبني عملية هانتسمان من قبل الفرنسيين في وقت لاحق؛ وإن كان ذلك على مضض في البداية

بسبب المشاعر القومية. كان المصنعون الإنجليز أكثر ترددًا من الفرنسيين في تبني العملية وفعلوا ذلك فقط بعد أن شهدوا نجاحها في فرنسا. يعتبر فولاذ شيفيلد، وهو فولاذ مصقول للغاية، والمعروف أيضًا باسم فولاذ شيفيلد الفضي ويشتهر بطبقة نهائية شديدة اللمعان، من الصلب عالي الجودة ولا يزال يستخدم حتى يومنا هذا في فرنسا من قبل شركات مصنعة مثل تيير إيسارد.

في القرنين الثامن عشر والتاسع عشر، كان للأثرياء خدم ليحلقوا شعرهم أو يمكنهم التردد على صالونات الحلاقة. لم تكن الحلاقة اليومية ممارسة شائعة في القرن التاسع عشر، لذلك لم يحلق بعض الناس مطلقًا. إن عادة الحلاقة اليومية بين الرجال الأمريكيين هي ابتكار من القرن العشرين بدأ بعد الحرب العالمية الأولى. طُلب من الرجال الحلاقة يوميًا حتى تتناسب أقنعة الغاز الخاصة بهم بشكل صحيح، وأصبح هذا أسهل بكثير مع ظهور آلات الحلاقة الآمنة، والتي كانت قضية عادية خلال الحرب. في القرن ال19، cutlers في شيفيلد، إنجلترا وسولينجين، أنتجت ألمانيا مجموعة متنوعة من شفرات الحلاقة.

كانت آلات الحلاقة المستقيمة هي الشكل الأكثر شيوعًا للحلاقة قبل القرن العشرين وظلت شائعة في العديد من البلدان حتى عقد الخمسينيات. درب الحلاقين بشكل خاص لمنح العملاء حلاقة شاملة وسريعة، وكانت مجموعة من آلات الحلاقة المستقيمة الجاهزة للاستخدام مشهدًا شائعًا في معظم صالونات الحلاقة. لا يزال الحلاقون يمتلكونها، لكنهم يستخدمونها كثيرًا.

في النهاية سقطت أمواس الحلاقة المستقيمة. صنع أول منافس لهم بواسطة King C. Gillette : آلة حلاقة أمان ذات حدين مع شفرات قابلة للاستبدال. كانت فكرة جيليت هي استخدام مفهوم «زعيم الخسارة»، حيث تم بيع ماكينات الحلاقة بخسارة، لكن الشفرات البديلة حصلت على هامش مرتفع ووفرت مبيعات مستمرة. لقد حققوا نجاحًا هائلاً بسبب الحملات الإعلانية والشعارات التي تشوه فاعلية ماكينة الحلاقة المستقيمة وتشكك في سلامتها.

لم تتطلب شفرات الحلاقة الجديدة هذه أي وصاية جادة. كان من الصعب للغاية شحذ الشفرات، وكان من المفترض التخلص منها بعد استخدام واحد، والصدأ بسرعة إذا لم يتم التخلص منها. كما أنها تتطلب استثمارًا أوليًا أصغر، على الرغم من أنها تكلف أكثر بمرور الوقت. على الرغم من مزاياها على المدى الطويل، فقدت ماكينة الحلاقة المستقيمة حصة كبيرة في السوق. وبما أن الحلاقة أصبحت أقل ترويعًا وبدأ الرجال في حلق أنفسهم أكثر، انخفض الطلب على الحلاقين الذين يقدمون حلاقة مستقيمة.

في عام 1960، أصبحت الشفرات المصنوعة من الفولاذ المقاوم للصدأ والتي يمكن استخدامها أكثر من مرة متاحة، مما قلل من تكلفة الحلاقة الآمنة. صنعت أول هذه الشفرات من قبل شركة ويلكنسون، صانع السيوف الاحتفالية الشهير، في شيفيلد. وسرعان ما كانت جيليت وشيك ومصنعون آخرون يصنعون شفرات من الفولاذ المقاوم للصدأ.

تبع ذلك خراطيش متعددة الشفرات وشفرات حلاقة تستخدم لمرة واحدة. لكل نوع من أنواع الشفرات القابلة للاستبدال، يوجد بشكل عام ماكينة حلاقة يمكن التخلص منها.

في عقد الثلاثينيات من القرن الماضي، أصبحت آلات الحلاقة الكهربائية متاحة. يمكن أن تنافس هذه تكلفة آلة الحلاقة المستقيمة الجيدة، على الرغم من أن مجموعة الحلاقة الكاملة يمكن أن تتجاوز تكلفة حتى آلة الحلاقة الكهربائية باهظة الثمن.

شفرات مستقيمة

كانت آلات الحلاقة المستقيمة ذات الشفرات الفولاذية المفتوحة، والمعروفة أيضًا باسم قص الحلق، أكثر آلات الحلاقة شيوعًا قبل القرن العشرين.

تتكون آلات الحلاقة المستقيمة من شفرة مشحونة على حافة واحدة. يمكن أن تكون الشفرة مصنوعة من الفولاذ المقاوم للصدأ، وهو أبطأ في الشحذ والقوس، ولكن من الأسهل صيانتها لأنها لا تلطخ بسهولة، أو من الفولاذ الكربوني العالي، الذي يشحذ ويمشط بسرعة ويحافظ على حافته جيدًا، ولكنه يصدأ والبقع بسهولة إذا لم يتم تنظيفها وتجفيفها على الفور. في الوقت الحاضر، يصعب العثور على شفرات الحلاقة المصنوعة من الفولاذ المقاوم للصدأ أكثر من الفولاذ الكربوني، لكن كلاهما لا يزال قيد الإنتاج.

تدور الشفرة على دبوس من خلال تماسها بين قطعتين واقيتين تسمى المقاييس: عند طيها في الميزان، تكون الشفرة محمية من التلف ويكون المستخدم محميًا. موازين المقابض مصنوعة من مواد مختلفة، بما في ذلك عرق اللؤلؤ والسليلويد والعظام والبلاستيك والخشب. بمجرد صنع العاج، تم إيقاف هذا، على الرغم من استخدام العاج الأحفوري في بعض الأحيان.

شفرة حلاقة مستقيمة يمكن التخلص منها
تتشابه هذه الشفرات في الاستخدام والمظهر مع ماكينات الحلاقة المستقيمة، ولكنها تستخدم شفرات يمكن التخلص منها، سواء كانت ذات حواف مزدوجة قياسية مقطوعة إلى نصفين أو حافة واحدة مصنوعة خصيصًا. يتم استخدام هذه الحلاقة بنفس طريقة شفرات الحلاقة المستقيمة ولكنها لا تتطلب تمشيط وشحذ.

ماكينات حلاقة آمنة

كانت الخطوة الأولى نحو ماكينة حلاقة أكثر أمانًا للاستخدام هي ماكينة الحلاقة الواقية - وتسمى أيضًا ماكينة الحلاقة المستقيمة - والتي أضافت واقيًا إلى ماكينة الحلاقة المستقيمة العادية. من المرجح أن تكون أول ماكينة حلاقة من هذا النوع قد اخترعها صانع السكاكين الفرنسي جان جاك بيريه حوالي عام 1762.  وكان الاختراع مستوحى من طائرة النجار وكان في الأساس ماكينة حلاقة مستقيمة بشفرتها محاطة بغطاء خشبي.  كانت أسنان أدوات الحلاقة الأولى تشبه المشط ولا يمكن ربطها إلا بجانب واحد من ماكينة الحلاقة؛ كان الواقي القابل للانعكاس أحد التحسينات الأولى التي تم إجراؤها لحماية ماكينات الحلاقة.

تم العثور على وصف مبكر لماكينة الحلاقة الآمنة المشابهة في الشكل لتلك المستخدمة اليوم في طلب براءة اختراع ويليام صموئيل هينسون لعام 1847 لواقي الأسنان المشط. يمكن تثبيت هذا الواقي على ماكينة حلاقة مستقيمة أو ماكينة حلاقة «شفرة القطع التي تكون بزاوية قائمة مع المقبض، وتشبه إلى حد ما شكل مجرفة عادية».

حوالي عام 1875، تم تسويق تصميم جديد بشفرة أصغر موضوعة أعلى المقبض من قبل Kampfe Brothers على أنه «أفضل طريقة حلاقة متاحة في السوق لن تقطع المستخدم، مثل شفرات الحلاقة المستقيمة المصنوعة من الفولاذ.»

شفرات حلاقة قابلة للإزالة

تم استخدام مصطلح ماكينة الحلاقة الآمنة لأول مرة في عام 1880  ووصف ماكينة حلاقة أساسية بمقبض متصل بالرأس حيث يمكن وضع شفرة قابلة للإزالة. ثم تمت حماية الحافة بمشط منقوش على الرأس لحماية الجلد. في ماكينات الحلاقة الأكثر حداثة، يتم الآن استبدال المشط بشريط أمان. هناك نوعان من ماكينات الحلاقة الآمنة، ذات الحواف المفردة وذات الحدين. ماكينة الحلاقة ذات الحافة الواحدة هي في الأساس  قطعة طويلة من ماكينة حلاقة مستقيمة. ماكينة الحلاقة الآمنة ذات الحدين هي ماكينة حلاقة بقضيب مائل يمكن استخدامها على كلا الجانبين، بحافتين مفتوحتين. إن الشفرة الموجودة على ماكينة الحلاقة ذات الحدين منحنية قليلاً للسماح بحلاقة أكثر سلاسة ونظافة.

في عام 1901، قدم المخترع الأمريكي كينج كامب جيليت، بمساعدة ويليام نيكرسون، براءة اختراع لنوع جديد من ماكينات الحلاقة الآمنة ذات الشفرات التي يمكن التخلص منها والتي تم تسجيل براءة اختراعها في عام 1904. كان أحد الأسباب هو أن الحلاقة بشفرة آمنة يجب أن تكون أكثر أمانًا وملاءمة من الحلاقة بشفرة حلاقة كلاسيكية مستقيمة بشفرة حادة. يمكن إعادة استخدام القبضة السميكة لماكينات الحلاقة الآمنة. أدركت جيليت أنه يمكن تحقيق ربح من خلال بيع ماكينة حلاقة غير مكلفة ذات شفرات يمكن التخلص منها. وقد أطلق على هذا اسم نموذج أعمال ماكينات الحلاقة والشفرات، وأصبح ممارسة شائعة جدًا لمجموعة متنوعة من المنتجات.

العديد من العلامات التجارية الأخرى من شفرات الحلاقة تأتي وتختفي. استند جزء كبير من المنافسة إلى تصميم شفرات تناسب نمطًا واحدًا فقط من ماكينات الحلاقة حتى يتم توحيد شكل الشفرة من خلال تضمين قناة مركزية متعددة الأوجه للشفرة والتي من شأنها استيعاب التصاميم المختلفة لأنظمة تأمين الشفرات؛ على سبيل المثال، ثلاثة دبابيس، قضيب معدني رفيع، إلخ. حتى يومنا هذا، لا تزال أشكال التثبيت المختلفة هذه قائمة في تنوعها في ماكينات الحلاقة DE، وكلها تقبل نفس تصميم الشفرة العام.

شفرات الحلاقة خرطوشة

تم تطوير ماكينات الحلاقة ذات الخرطوشة في الستينيات من القرن الماضي، وهي الآن أكثر أشكال الحلاقة شيوعًا في البلدان المتقدمة، وذلك من خلال استغلال نفس نموذج الأعمال الخاص بشفرات الحلاقة والشفرات التي كانت رائدة في أوائل القرن العشرين. على الرغم من تصميمه ليكون له شكل أكثر راحة في كل من المقبض والرأس (بما في ذلك الرأس المحوري الذي يحافظ على الشفرات بزاوية محددة مسبقًا من خلال حركة الحلاقة)، فإن المفهوم مشابه جدًا لمفهوم ماكينة الحلاقة المزدوجة الحافة . ومع ذلك، تتم هنا إزالة مجموعة الرأس بالكامل (المعروفة باسم الخرطوشة) والتخلص منها، وليس فقط الشفرة. أيضًا، من الشائع أن تحتوي رؤوس الخراطيش هذه على شفرات حلاقة متعددة مثبتة فيها، عادةً بين شفرتين وخمس شفرات.

شفرات حلاقة آمنة للاستخدام مرة واحدة
تتشابه شفرات الحلاقة الآمنة التي يمكن التخلص منها إلى حد كبير في التصميم مع شفرات الحلاقة ذات الخرطوشة، المصنوعة من مواد رخيصة الثمن (عادةً من البولي كربونات المصبوب بالحقن)، ومع ذلك فمن المفترض أن يتم التخلص منها بالكامل بعد الاستخدام مع عدم إمكانية شحذ الشفرة أو استبدالها. اخترع المخترع والمترفي الأمريكي بول وينشل جهازًا واحدًا في عام 1963.

فترة الحياة
يمكن إطالة عمر ماكينة الحلاقة الآمنة عن طريق تجفيف الشفرات بعد الاستخدام.

ماكينات حلاقة كهربائية
ماكينة الحلاقة الكهربائية (المعروفة أيضًا باسم ماكينة الحلاقة الكهربائية الجافة) لها شفرة دوارة أو متذبذبة. عادة لا تتطلب ماكينة الحلاقة الكهربائية استخدام كريم الحلاقة أو الصابون أو الماء. قد يكون مدعوم من قبل الحلاقة الصغيرة العاصمة المحرك، الذي هو إما مدعوم من البطاريات أو أنابيب الكهرباء. يتم تشغيل العديد من البطاريات الحديثة باستخدام بطاريات قابلة لإعادة الشحن. بدلاً من ذلك، يمكن استخدام مذبذب كهربائي ميكانيكي مدفوع بواسطة ملف لولبي يعمل بالتيار المتردد. بعض ماكينات الحلاقة الميكانيكية المبكرة جدًا لم يكن بها محرك كهربائي وكان لابد من تشغيلها يدويًا، على سبيل المثال عن طريق سحب سلك لقيادة دولاب الموازنة.

اخترع جون إف أورورك أول ماكينة حلاقة كهربائية في عام 1898. بدأ الإنتاج الصناعي لماكينات الحلاقة الكهربائية عام 1937 بواسطة شركة ريمنجتون راند الأمريكية بناءً على براءة اختراع جاكوب شيك من عام 1928. منذ عام 1939، أنتجت شركة Philips الهولندية ماكينات حلاقة كهربائية. أحد الاختلافات الرئيسية بين ماكينات الحلاقة الكهربائية هو تقنية الحلاقة التي تستخدمها. عادة ما تستخدم آلات الحلاقة الكهربائية عدة شفرات دوارة دائرية أو تقنية كتلة القص والرقائق الأفقية لآلة الحلاقة.

شفرات حلاقة أخرى

تستخدم شفرات الحلاقة السميكة والصلبة ذات الحواف المفردة مثل سكاكين المنفعة في العديد من المهام المحمولة باليد. تشمل التطبيقات أعمال النجارة التفصيلية مثل الصنفرة والكشط (في حامل متخصص)، وقطع الورق للرسم الفني، وأعمال السباكة والتشطيب مثل الحشو والتنظيف، وإزالة الطلاء من الأسطح المسطحة مثل ألواح الزجاج. على عكس شفرات الحلاقة، عادة ما تكون الشفرات الصناعية المستخدمة في هذه الأدوات مصنوعة من الفولاذ غير القابل للصدأ مثل الفولاذ الكربوني، ولها حافة أكثر صرامة وباهتة.

العرجاء عبارة عن ماكينة حلاقة تستخدم في إنتاج الخبز لكسر سطح رغيف غير مكتمل.

انظر أيضًا
 إزالة الشعر.
 إزالة الشعر بالليزر.

مراجع

أدوات شخصية
أدوات قطع
استحداثات 1880
اختراعات أمريكية
إزالة الشعر
حلاقة
نظافة شخصية

شفرة حلاقة


Erin Mielzynski nació el 25 de mayo de 1990 en Brampton (Canadá), es una esquiadora que tiene 1 victoria en la Copa del Mundo de Esquí Alpino (con un total de 2 podiums).

Resultados

Juegos Olímpicos de Invierno
 2010 en Vancouver, Canadá
 Eslalon: 20.ª

Campeonatos Mundiales
 2011 en Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Alemania
 Eslalon: 16.ª
 2013 en Schladming, Austria
 Eslalon: 17.ª
 2015 en Vail/Beaver Creek, Estados Unidos
 Eslalon: 6.ª

Copa del Mundo

Clasificación General Copa del Mundo
 2009-2010: 131.ª
 2010-2011: 97.ª
 2011-2012: 42.ª
 2012-2013: 40.ª
 2013-2014: 70.ª
 2014-2015: 42.ª

Victorias en la Copa del Mundo (1)

Eslalon (1)

Enlaces externos
 Perfil de Erin Mielzynski en la página oficial de la FIS (en inglés)

Esquiadores alpinos de Canadá
Esquiadores alpinos de Canadá en los Juegos Olímpicos de Vancouver 2010
Esquiadores alpinos de Canadá en los Juegos Olímpicos de Sochi 2014
Esquiadores alpinos de Canadá en los Juegos Olímpicos de Pyeongchang 2018

Erin Mielzynski


Marius Toma (n. 15 mai 1986 în Mihăilești, Giurgiu) este un fotbalist român care joacă pe postul de portar.

Pe 29 martie 2006 a primit Medalia "Meritul Sportiv" clasa a II-a cu o baretă din partea președintelui României de atunci, Traian Băsescu, pentru că a făcut parte din lotul echipei FC Steaua București care obținuse până la acea dată calificarea în sferturile Cupei UEFA 2005-2006.

Cariera
A jucat pentru Steaua II București, Concordia Chiajna, Farul, Râmicu Vâlcea.

Referințe

Legături externe
 Marius Toma la Romaniansoccer.ro

Nașteri în 1986
Portari
Oameni în viață
Fotbaliști români
Fotbaliști ai FC Steaua București
Decorați cu Medalia "Meritul Sportiv"

Marius Toma


Muški odbojkaški klub Marsonia (MOK Marsonia), osnovan je 30. lipnja 2009. kao škola odbojke, u sustavu natjecanja HOS-a je od 29. svibnja 2015. Klub osvaja 2. ligu u sezoni 2018./2019. te tako ulazi u najviši rang odbojke - prvu ligu (Superliga).

Svoje domaće utakmice Marsonia igra u dvorani Vijuš.

Natjecanja

Izvori
 Službena stranica kluba
 Superliga

Marsonia
Šport u Slavonskom Brodu

MOK Marsonia Slavonski Brod


Lige fra hjertet er et studiealbum af den danske dansktopsangerinde Birthe Kjær. Det udkom den 13. november 2015 på Ariola og Sony Music. Albummet er produceret af Søren Bundgaard, mens vokalen er produceret af Ivan Pedersen. Lige fra hjertet er indspillet i Nashville, USA.

Spor

Kilder

Album fra 2015
Album fra Danmark

Lige fra hjertet


අඹේවෙල එයිට්කන් ස්පෙන්ස් සුළං විදුලි බල උද්‍යානය ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ අඹේවෙල ඉදිකල කුඩා සුළං විදුලි බල උද්‍යානයකි. බල උද්‍යානයේ හිමිකාරීත්වය සහ මෙහෙයවීම් කටයුතු, එයිට්කින් ස්පෙන්ස්හී අනු කොටසක් වන එයිස් වින්ඩ් පවර් (Ace Wind Power) විසින් සිදු කරනු ලැබේ. වර්ථමානයේ බල උද්‍යානය සතු ටර්බයින (වා රෝද) දොළහක් ක්‍රියාත්මකව පවතින අතර, එක් එක් ටර්බයිනයෙන් කිලෝවොට් 250 ක විදුලි ප්‍රමාණයක් ජනනය කරයි. බලාගාරයේ සමස්ථ විද්‍යුත් ජනන ධාරිතාවය මෙගාවොට් 3 කි.

මේවාද බලන්න

 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ බලාගාර ලැයිස්තුව

ආශ්‍රිත

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ සුළං විදුලි බල උද්‍යාන


Nicole Carroll (Longview, 20 de outubro de 1967) é uma jornalista americana. Ela é a editora-chefe do USA Today nos Estados Unidos.

Biografia
Carroll nasceu em 1967 em Longview, no Texas. Ela cresceu em Canyon, Texas. Carroll se formou na Escola Walter Cronkite de Jornalismo e Comunicação de Massa da Universidade Estadual do Arizona em 1991, e obteve seu mestrado na Universidade de Georgetown em 1996.

Em 2008, Carroll ingressou na Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication Alumni Hall of Fame.

Carreira
Carroll começou sua carreira trabalhando para El Paso Times e East Valley Tribune. Ela trabalhou para a The Arizona Republic de 1999 a 2018, primeiro como editora, e como vice-presidente de notícias e editora de 2015 a 2018. Na República, Carroll liderou o projeto que ganhou o Prêmio Pulitzer 2018 de Reportagem Explicativa. Suas equipes da República foram duas vezes nomeadas finalistas do Pulitzer (2012, 2014) no Breaking News.

Carroll foi premiada com o prêmio Benjamin C. Bradlee Editora do Ano da National Press Foundation em 2017.

Em 2018, Carroll tornou-se membro do conselho do Prêmio Pulitzer. O Conselho Pulitzer de 19 membros compreende principalmente jornalistas ou executivos de notícias de meios de comunicação nos Estados Unidos, bem como cinco acadêmicos ou pessoas nas artes.

Carroll sucedeu Joanne Lipman como editora-chefe do USA Today em fevereiro de 2018.

Controvérsia sobre Blackface
Carroll foi editora-chefe do anuário de 1989 da Universidade Estadual do Arizona. No anuário havia uma fotografia de duas pessoas de rosto preto vestidas como celebridades em uma festa de Halloween. Carroll foi mencionada no layout de página para as fotografias. Carroll se desculpou por seu papel na publicação da foto, descrevendo-se chocada ao saber "meu papel na publicação de uma foto racista e prejudicial no meu anuário da faculdade".

Vida pessoal
Carroll tem três filhos com o marido Bradley Hartman.

Mulheres jornalistas dos Estados Unidos
Alunos da Universidade de Georgetown
Nascidos em 1960
Pessoas vivas
!Mais Teoria da História na Wiki (Wikiconcurso de edição)

Nicole Carroll


pour l'Andalousie (, UPxA ou UPporA) est une coalition politique espagnole de gauche et andalouse. Elle est créée en  en remplacement d'Adelante Andalucía et les partis qui la composent s'intègrent en  à une alliance plus large, Pour l'Andalousie.

Historique

Antécédents
Après que la secrétaire générale de Podemos Andalousie, Teresa Rodríguez, a annoncé son intention de quitter son parti pour fonder un nouveau mouvement nationaliste, des tensions naissent au sein de la coalition Adelante Andalucía au cours de l'été  entre Rodríguez d'un côté et son ancienne formation et la Gauche unie de l'autre. En , l'ex-cheffe de file et sept autres députés sont expulsés du groupe parlementaire.

Fondation
Le , les responsables de Podemos Andalousie et de la Gauche unie annoncent la fin du projet Adelante Andalucía et présentent le nouveau nom de leur coalition : Unidas Podemos pour l'Andalousie. La porte-parole parlementaire  présente quatre mois plus tard une demande au bureau du Parlement d'Andalousie pour renommer le groupe parlementaire en cohérence avec cette nouvelle dénomination et avec la création par Teresa Rodríguez du parti Adelante Andalucía. Cette demande est acceptée au début du mois de .

Coalition
Face à la division à la gauche du Parti socialiste dans la perspective des élections du 19 juin 2022 au Parlement d'Andalousie, Unidas Podemos, Más País, l', Verdes Equo et Alianza Verde s'entendent à la fin du mois d' pour constituer une seule alliance, qui prend le nom de . En raison d'un désaccord entre IU et Podemos sur le choix du candidat à la présidence de la Junte d'Andalousie, les négociations aboutissent seulement le , à moins d'une heure de la clôture du délai d'enregistrement des coalitions électorales, et désignent Inmaculada Nieto en qualité de cheffe de file ; les documents de Podemos et Alianza Verde arrivent d'ailleurs hors délai à la commission électorale.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Élections au Parlement d'Andalousie de 2018
 Unidas Podemos ; Adelante Andalucía ; Pour l'Andalousie

Ancienne coalition de partis en Espagne
Coalition ou parti politique lié à Podemos
Coalition de partis en Andalousie

Unidas Podemos pour l'Andalousie


La iglesia de San José de Espita es una iglesia católica ubicada en la villa de Espita, en Yucatán, México.

Historia
La iglesia fue construida a principios del  como una parroquia dedicada a San José; a diferencia de otras construcciones religiosas yucatecas, la iglesia de Espita compartía un centro ceremonial de los antiguos pobladores.

La iglesia se incendió el 3 de mayo de 1738 y fue reconstruida años más tarde. La torre sur fue terminada en 1750, con Simón de los Santos Segura como párroco.

En 1875 fue construido el atrio, mismo que, al igual que el enverjado, fue retirado en 1911 por órdenes del comandante militar Gordiano OrtIz, y que fue repuesto años más tarde.

La bóveda de la iglesia se derrumbó a las 22:45 del 22 de octubre de 1905, sin causar heridos; las obras de reconstrucción comenzaron el 22 de febrero de 1908 bajo el cargo del presbítero José Piñán y Fuente.

Durante 1915, bajo el gobierno estatal de Salvador Alvarado, la iglesia fue convertida en cuartel militar, por lo que se suspendieron los actos religiosos. La imagen del Niño Dios —santo patrón del pueblo junto con San José— fue tomada por los habitantes de la villa para que Esta fuera escondida entre las casa de los mismos y la gente pudiera acudir a él para rezarle.

En 2004 y más tarde, en 2007, fueron realizadas labores de mantenimiento para retirar vegetación y basura, impermeabilizar y reponer el acabado de la azotea. A la fecha el edificio es parte del Patrimonio Cultural Arquitectónico de Yucatán.

Arquitectura
La iglesia es de estilo franciscano.

El inmueble consta de una nave central y de dos torres, norte y sur. La iglesia está rodeada por un atrio, mismo que sirve de espacio para el acceso al edificio.

Las dos torres son tres campanarios escalonados con la cumbre redondeada por un domo, las cornisas de la torre tenían pequeños pináculos ornamentales de los cuales solo quedan los restos. Al igual que en la iglesia de Peto, el porche y la ventana coral están enmarcados por un gran arco empotrado ornamentado con relieves florales y establecido sobre grandes pilastras. Por encima de la entrada principal se encuentra el tallado en relieve de un ángel, coronado por un parapeto de piedra tallada. A los lados de la puerta se encuentran leones y estrellas labrados bajo relieve en estuco, igualmente varios nichos con arcos de herradura dan un toque decorativo.

Además de la estructura central, la iglesia tiene una pequeña capilla al sureste de la construcción, misma que contiene una cruz de madera en el interior de alrededor de un metro de alto.

Galería

Véase también

 Anexo:Monumentos de Yucatán
 Espita

Referencias

Bibliografía

Iglesias del estado de Yucatán
Espita
Espita
Iglesias de México del siglo XVIII

Iglesia de San José de Espita


El Tatio is a geothermal field with many geysers located in the Andes Mountains of northern Chile at  above mean sea level. It is the third-largest geyser field in the world and the largest in the Southern Hemisphere. Various meanings have been proposed for the name "El Tatio", including "oven" or "grandfather". The geothermal field has many geysers, hot springs, and associated sinter deposits. These hot springs eventually form the Rio Salado, a major tributary of the Rio Loa, and are a major source of arsenic pollution in the river. The vents are sites of populations of extremophile microorganisms such as hyperthermophiles, and El Tatio has been studied as an analogue for the early Earth and possible past life on Mars.

El Tatio lies at the western foot of a series of stratovolcanoes, which runs along the border between Chile and Bolivia. This series of volcanoes is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of several volcanic belts in the Andes, and of the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex (APVC). This is a system of large calderas and associated ignimbrites, which have been the sources of supereruptions between 10 and 1 million years ago. Some of these calderas may be the source of heat for the El Tatio geothermal system. There are no recorded eruptions of the Tatio volcanoes in the historical period.

The field is a major tourism destination in northern Chile. It was prospected over the last century for geothermal power production, but development efforts were discontinued after a major incident in 2009 in which a geothermal well blew out, creating a steam column. The blowout caused a political controversy about geothermal power development in Chile.

Name and research history
The term "tatio" comes from the Kunza language and means 'to appear', 'oven', but it has also been translated as 'grandfather' or 'burnt'. The geyser field is also known as the Copacoya geysers; Copacoya is the name of a mountain in the area.

The earliest mentions of geysers in the region are from the late 19th century, and they were already well known by 1952. The first geothermal prospecting of the field occurred in the 1920s and the field was mentioned in academic literature in 1943. More systematic research took place in 1967–1982; most research on this geothermal field was done in the context of geothermal prospecting.

Geography and geomorphology
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  "features": [
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      "type": "Feature",
      "properties": {"title": "Geyser El Tatio",
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}El Tatio lies in the Antofagasta Province of northern Chile close to the border between Chile and Bolivia. The field is located  north of the town San Pedro de Atacama and  east of the town of Calama; Chile Route B-245 connects El Tatio to San Pedro de Atacama. Towns close to El Tatio are Toconce to the north, Caspana to the west and Machuca to the south. A workers' camp for a sulfur mine at Volcan Tatio was reported to exist in 1959. The old Inca trail from San Pedro de Atacama to Siloli crossed the geyser field; the Inca also operated a mountain sanctuary on Volcan Tatio. There are several unpaved roads and all parts of the field are easily accessible by foot.

El Tatio is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, a segment of the Andes between 14° and 28° southern latitude where the Andes are volcanically active. This volcanism manifests itself with about 10 silicic caldera complexes of the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex and more than 50 recently active volcanoes; Lascar volcano erupted in 1993 and produced a tall eruption column.

East of the field, andesitic stratovolcanoes reach elevations of about . From north to south, the andesitic stratovolcanoes include the  or  high Cerro Deslinde which is the highest in the area, the  high Cerro El Volcan, the  high Cordillera del Tatio and the  high Volcan Tatio, which collectively form the El Tatio volcanic group. The Sierra de Tucle lies to the southwest of the field.

Mountains southwest of El Tatio include the  high Alto Ojo del Cablor range, while  high Cerro Copacoya is situated northwest of the geothermal field. Volcanism with dacitic composition, older than the easterly stratovolcanoes, has occurred west of El Tatio; this volcanism was known as the "liparitic formation" and it covers large areas in the region.

Firn and snow fields were reported in the middle 20th century on the El Tatio volcanic group, at elevations of . The region is too dry to support glaciers today, but in the past higher moisture allowed their formation on mountains of this part of the Andes. Glacially eroded mountains and moraines testify to their existence in the form of large valley glaciers. A large moraine complex, including both terminal structures and well-developed lateral moraines, can be found north of the geyser field and reflects the past existence of a  long glacier, the longest valley glacier in the region. Two more moraine systems extend westward both northeast and southeast of El Tatio, and the terrain surrounding the geyser field is covered by sands that are interpreted as glacial outwash sands. Surface exposure dating indicates that some moraines were emplaced at or before the Last Glacial Maximum and others in a time period 35,000 to 40,000 years before present. Smaller moraines at higher altitude may date to the Antarctic Cold Reversal or the Younger Dryas climate periods; moraines related to the Lake Tauca stage are either absent or restricted to high elevation sites.

Drainage in the area is generally from east to west down the Occidental Cordillera, often in form of steeply incised valleys. The Rio Salado drains most of the hot spring water and has its headwaters in the field where it is joined by the Rio Tucle and the Vicuna stream. Temperature measurements of the water flowing to the Rio Salado have yielded values of , while the discharge of the Rio Salado amounts to . The Rio Salado eventually joins the Rio Loa, a major source of freshwater for the region; thus, El Tatio plays an important role in the regional water supply. In the early 20th century there were several hydraulic engineering projects at El Tatio, aiming either to use its waters or to mitigate its impact on downstream water quality.

Geothermal field
El Tatio is well known as a geothermal field in Chile, and is the largest geyser field in the Southern Hemisphere with about 8% of all geysers in the world. Only the fields at Yellowstone in the United States and Dolina Geizerov, are larger. They also have taller geysers than at El Tatio, where geyser fountains are on average only  high. Together with Sol de Mañana, which is just east of El Tatio in Bolivia, it is also the highest-altitude geyser field in the world.

The geothermal field covers an area of  at elevations of , and is characterized by fumaroles, hot springs, steam vents and steaming soil. Stronger geothermal activity is located within three discrete areas covering a total of  surface, and includes boiling water fountains, hot springs, geysers, mudpots, mud volcanoes and sinter terraces; further, chimneys of extinct geysers have been noted. One of these three areas lies within a valley, the second on a flat surface and the third along the banks of the Rio Salado. The first area offers a notable contrast between the snow-covered Andes, the coloured hills that surround the field and the white deposits left by the geothermal activity. Most geysers of El Tatio are found here and are particularly noticeable in cold weather. A similar landscape exists at the third (lower) area, with the presence of the Rio Salado river adding an additional element to the landscape. The second area is located between a creek and a hill and includes an artificial  pool for tourists. Its vents often have higher discharges than others in the field.

About 110 documented geothermal manifestations have been documented at El Tatio, but the total has been estimated at 400. The field once numbered 67 geysers and more than three hundred hot springs. Many vents are linked to fractures that run northwest–southeast or southwest–northeast across the field. Some geyser fountains in the past reached heights greater than ; usually, however, they do not exceed  and their activity sometimes varies over time. A few geysers have received names, such as Boiling Geyser, El Cobreloa, El Cobresal, El Jefe, Terrace Geyser, Tower Geyser and Vega Rinconada. Minor eruptions of the geysers occur approximately every dozen minutes and major eruptions every few hours on average, and major eruptions take place after the conduit was "prepared" by multiple smaller ones. The terrain surrounding a geyser tilts as it recharges and discharges. An additional geothermal system lies southeast of and at elevations above El Tatio and is characterized by steam-heated ponds fed by precipitation water, and solfataric activity has been reported on the stratovolcanoes farther east.

Deposition of sinter from the waters of the geothermal field has given rise to spectacular landforms, including, but not limited to mounds, terraced pools, geyser cones and the dams that form their rims. Small-scale features include cones, crusts, mollusc-shaped formations, waterfall-like surfaces and very small terraces. These sinter deposits cover an area of about  and include both active and inactive deposits, both of which were emplaced on glacial sediments. High contents of silica give the waters a blueish colour, organic compounds such as carotenoids conversely often colour the sinter with orange-brown, and greenish hues are owing to iron-oxidizing bacteria.

Individual vent types and deposits found at El Tatio include:
 Hot springs form pools with water temperatures of , which are often gently moving and surging and in the case of the warmer springs actively bubbling. These pools often contain ball-like rocks called oncoids and are surrounded by sinter rims, which have spicule-like textures. These sinter rims often form dam-like structures around deeper vents which are filled with water. Spherical grains develop in the hot springs as a consequence of hydrodynamic processes, and include biogenic material; during the growth of the sinter they often end up embedded in the material.
 Water draining from the springs deposits sinter, which can form fairly thick deposits and large aprons when sheet flow occurs, known as "discharge deposits"; sometimes terraces are developed instead. As in springs, oncoids and spicules are observed in channels. Much of the water evaporates and its temperature drops from  to less than  away from the springs; the low air temperatures cause it to freeze occasionally, resulting in frost weathering.
 Geysers and also water fountains discharge from up to  high cones with gently sloping surfaces, which sometimes support splash mounds. The cones are made out of geyserite. Other geysers and fountains instead discharge from within rim-bounded pools, and some geysers are in the bed of the Rio Salado river. The activity of geysers is not stable over time; changes in water supply or in the properties of the conduit that supplies them can cause changes in their eruptive activity. Such changes can be triggered by rainfall events or earthquakes and at El Tatio geyser behaviour changes have been linked to the 2014 Iquique earthquake and a 2013 precipitation event. The water of geysers is  hot.
 Mud pools are often bubbling, with the hot mud fountaining. They are mainly found at the edges of the geothermal field and often produce highly acidic water; it converts rocks to clays. Simmering pools of water have been recorded at El Tatio as well.

Geology
Subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate is responsible for the formation of the Andes. Volcanism does not occur along the entire length of the Andes; there are three volcanic zones called the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone and the Southern Volcanic Zone, all separated by areas with no Holocene-age volcanism.

El Tatio and a number of other geothermal fields such as Sol de Mañana are part of the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex. The region was dominated by andesitic volcanism producing lava flows until the late Miocene, then large-scale ignimbrite activity took place between 10 and 1 million years ago. This ignimbrite volcanism is part of the APVC proper and produced about  of ignimbrites, covering a surface area of . The APVC activity continued into the Holocene with the emission of voluminous lava domes and lava flows, and Tatio was one of the last volcanic centres in the APVC to erupt; the present-day uplift of the Uturunku volcano in Bolivia may signal ongoing activity of the APVC. The APVC is underpinned by a large magma chamber with the shape of a sill, the Altiplano-Puna Magma Body; a number of volcanoes and geothermal systems including El Tatio are geographically associated with the Altiplano-Puna Magma Body.

The Laguna Colorada caldera lies east of El Tatio. The terrain at El Tatio is formed by Jurassic–Cretaceous sediments of marine and volcanic origin, Tertiary–Holocene volcanic formations that were emplaced in various episodes, and recent sediments formed by glaciers, alluvium, colluvium and material formed by the geothermal field, such as sinter. Volcanic formations fill the Tatio graben, including the Miocene Rio Salado ignimbrite and related volcanics which reach thicknesses of  in some places, the Sifon ignimbrite, the Pliocene Puripicar ignimbrite and the Pleistocene Tatio ignimbrite; the Puripicar ignimbrite crops out farther west. Active volcanoes in the area include Putana and Tocorpuri.

Hydrothermal alteration of country rock at El Tatio has yielded large deposits of alteration minerals such as illite, nobleite, smectite, teruggite and ulexite. The summit parts of several volcanoes of the El Tatio volcanic group have been bleached and discoloured by hydrothermal activity.

Hydrology
Most of the water that is discharged by the hot springs appears to originate as precipitation, which enters the ground east and southeast of El Tatio. The source of heat of the complex appears to be the Laguna Colorada caldera, the El Tatio volcanic group, the Cerro Guacha and Pastos Grandes calderas or the Altiplano-Puna Magma Body. The movement of the water in the ground is controlled by the permeability of the volcanic material and the Serrania de Tucle–Loma Lucero tectonic block west of El Tatio that acts as an obstacle. As it moves through the ground, it acquires heat and minerals and loses steam through evaporation. Unlike geothermal fields in wetter parts of the world, given the dry climate of the area, local precipitation has little influence on the hot springs hydrology at El Tatio. Neither magmatic water nor water from local precipitation are mixed into this water. The time the water takes to traverse the whole path from precipitation to the springs is considered to be either 15 years or more than 60, and three-quarters of the heat is transported by steam.

The water travels through a number of aquifers that correspond to permeable rock formations, such as the Salado and Puripicar ignimbrites, the Tucle dacites as well as through faults and fractures in the rock. It steeply ascends under El Tatio and appears to be confined between northeast-trending fault systems such as the "Tatio fault". Three separate geothermal reservoirs have been identified, which underlie the Cerros del Tatio and extend to the La Torta volcano; they are connected by, and partly formed in cavities formed by faults. The Puripicar ignimbrite appears to be the main hydrothermal reservoir, with temperatures reaching . The total heat output of El Tatio is about . The hydrothermal system beneath El Tatio appears to extend to the neighbouring La Torta system.

Depending on the season, the hot springs yield  of water at temperatures reaching the local boiling point. The water is rich in minerals, especially sodium chloride and silica. Other compounds and elements in order of increasing concentration are antimony, rubidium, strontium, bromine, magnesium, caesium, lithium, arsenic, sulfate, boron, potassium and calcium. Inorganic carbon (carbonate) occurs at a low concentration.

Some of these minerals are toxic, especially arsenic which pollutes a number of waters in the region. Arsenic concentrations in waters at El Tatio can reach  – among the highest concentrations found in hot springs of the whole world – and  in sediments. Producing about , El Tatio is a principal source of arsenic in the Rio Loa system, and arsenic pollution in the region has been linked to health issues in the population.

Composition of these hot springs is not uniform in El Tatio, with chloride content decreasing from the northern springs over the southwestern ones to the eastern springs, where sulfate is more frequent. This sulfate enrichment appears to be driven by the steam-driven evaporation of the hot spring water, with the sulfate forming when hydrogen sulfide is oxidized by atmospheric oxygen. The decreasing chloride content on the other hand appears to be due to drainage coming from the east diluting the southern and western and especially eastern spring systems.

Fumaroles
Steam vents are particularly noticeable in the morning hours when the steam columns emanating from them are visible, and temperatures of  have been found. Carbon dioxide is the most important fumarole gas, followed by hydrogen sulfide. The amount of water relative to these two gases is variable, probably due to condensation of water in the ground.

Additional components include argon, helium, hydrogen, methane, neon, nitrogen and oxygen. Characteristically for fumarole gases on convergent plate boundaries, much of this nitrogen is non-atmospheric. However, atmospheric air is also involved in generating the chemistry of the El Tatio fumarole gases.

Composition of spring deposits
Opal is the most important component of sinter associated with hot springs; halite, sylvite and realgar are less common. This dominance of opal is because usually conditions favour its precipitation from water but not of other minerals, and it occurs both in subaqueous environments and on surfaces that are only occasionally wetted. During the precipitation, the opal forms tiny spheres which can aggregate as well as glassy deposits.

Halite and other evaporites are more commonly encountered on the sinter surfaces outside of the hot springs, and while opal dominates these environments too, sassolite and teruggite are found in addition to the aforementioned four minerals in the discharge deposits.
Cahnite has also been identified in sinter deposits. Volcanic minerals such as plagioclase and quartz are found within cavities of the sinter. Sandstone formed by debris flows and redeposited volcanic material is found embedded in sinter at some localities. Finally, antimony, arsenic and calcium form sulfidic deposits in some springs.

Various facies have been identified in drill cores through the sinter, including arborescent, columnar, fenestral palisade, laminated (both inclined and planar), particulate, spicular and tufted structures. These structures contain varying amounts of microfossils and formed at diverse temperatures and locations of individual sinter mounds. Microorganisms and material like pollen is found integrated within the sinter deposits. The rate at which sinter is deposited has been estimated at .

Climate and biology
The climate is dry with about  precipitation per year. Most of it falls between December and March, a precipitation pattern mediated by the South American monsoon and by the South Pacific High which is responsible for the dry climate. The whole Central Andes were wetter in the past, resulting in the formation of lakes such as Lake Tauca in the Altiplano. This, and a colder climate, resulted in the development of glaciers at El Tatio, which have left moraines.

The region is additionally rather windy with mean windspeeds of , which influence the hot springs by enhancing evaporation and imparting a directional growth to certain finger-like sinter deposits. The evaporation rates per month reach  and they facilitate the deposition of sinters. There is a diurnal cycle in wind and atmospheric humidity, with no wind and high humidity during the night and wind with low humidity during the day. The atmospheric pressure at this elevation drops to about 0.58 atmospheres, lowering the boiling point of water to about .

Apart from precipitation, the area is characterized by extreme temperature variations between day and night which can reach  and induce freeze-thaw cycles. The Chilean Dirección General del Agua operates a weather station at El Tatio; according to data from this station air temperatures average  and precipitation . El Tatio further features high ultraviolet (UV) insolation, which can reach  UV-A and  UV-B. The low atmospheric pressure and high UV irradiation has led scientists to treat El Tatio as an analogue for environments on Mars.

The dry grassland vegetation of the region is classified as Central Andean dry puna and lies above the treeline. About 90 plant species have been identified at El Tatio and surroundings, such as the endemic Adesmia atacamensis, Calceolaria stellariifolia, Junellia tridactyla and Opuntia conoidea. Tussock grasses like Anatherostipa, Festuca and Stipa occur at  elevation, while rosette and cushion plants reach elevations of ; these include Azorella, Chaetanthera, Mulinum, Senecio, Lenzia, Pycnophyllum and Valeriana. Bushland species include Lenzia chamaepitys, Senecio puchii and Perezia atacamensis, while Arenaria rivularis, Oxychloe andina and Zameioscirpus atacamensis grow in wetlands. Riparian vegetation occurs along the Rio Salado. Among the animals in the region are chinchillas and viscachas and llamas, mainly the vicuña.

Spring biology
The geothermal field El Tatio is populated by various plants, microbes and animals. The vents are an extreme environment, given the presence of arsenic, the large amount of UV radiation that El Tatio receives and its high elevation.

Hot springs have characteristic microbial communities associated with them that leave characteristic fossil traces in the spring deposits; environmental conditions on the early Earth resembled these of hot springs with potentially high UV radiation exposure, as the ozone layer did not yet exist and life probably developed within such conditions. In addition, microbial metabolism of arsenic influences its toxicity and the effects of arsenic pollution.

Microorganisms
Biofilms and microbial mats are omnipresent at El Tatio, including Arthrospira, Calothrix, Fischerella, Leptolyngbya, Lyngbya and Phormidium cyanobacteria, which form mats within the hot springs covering the solid surfaces, including oncoids and the sinter. In other places, the aforementioned three genera form stromatolithic structures or floating rafts of bubbly mats. The mats have tufted, layered and conical textures and their colours include orange and olive green; they give the channels and pools their colour. Additional cyanobacteria genera reported from El Tatio are Chroococcidiopsis, Chlorogloeocystis, Chroogloeopsis, Fischerella, Synechococcus and Thermosynechococcus. Non-cyanobacteria bacteria have also been found in the mats and sinter; they include heterotrophic bacteria such as Isosphaera pallida.

There is a thermal gradation of microorganisms, with the hottest waters supporting Chloroflexus green bacteria and hyperthermophiles, cyanobacteria at less than  water temperature and diatoms at even lower temperatures. Microbial mats have been found at other hot springs in the world such as Yellowstone and Steamboat Springs, both in the United States, and New Zealand, but they are thinner at El Tatio.

These mats often have their organic material replaced with opal and thus end up forming much of the sinter, which has thus characteristic biogenic textures, such as filaments and laminae. Such biogenic textures have been observed on sinter deposits around the world and are usually microbial in origin, at El Tatio they sometimes feature still living bacteria which can get entombed and preserved within the sinter deposits. In the case of El Tatio, these biogenic textures are particularly well preserved in the sinter deposited by water flowing away from springs. Chloroflexus is a thermophilic filamentous green bacterium found in hot waters at Yellowstone; filamentous structures within geyser cones at El Tatio may have been formed by this bacterium. In splash cones Synechococcus-like microbes are instead responsible for the structures, which resemble those of hot springs. Sinter absorbs much of UV radiation, protecting microorganisms that dwell within the sinter against this harmful radiation although it also absorbs light required for photosynthesis.

Diatoms are also found in El Tatio waters, including Synedra species, which are often found attached to filamentous substrates, and algae are found in the waters. Among bacteria identified in the somewhat colder flowing waters are Bacteroidota and Pseudomonadota, with Thermus species in the hot waters. Various archaeans have been cultured from El Tatio waters, with hot springs producing Thermoproteota (formerly crenarchaea), desulfurococcales, and methanobacteriales. One species, Methanogenium tatii, has been discovered at El Tatio, and is a methanogen recovered from a warm pool. The species name is derived from the geothermal field and other methanogens may be active in El Tatio.

Macroorganisms
In the upper geyser basin, vegetation has been observed to grow within thermal areas, like a thermal marsh. A wetland, known as Vega Rinconada, with hydrothermal vents lies west of the upper geyser basin. Animal species found at El Tatio include the snail Heleobia and frog Rhinella spinulosa. The larvae of this frog at El Tatio live in water with approximately constant temperatures of  and show atypical development patterns compared to frogs of the same species that developed in places with more variable water temperatures. Liolaemus lizard species have been recovered from the geyser area.

Analogies to Mars

The hydrothermal activity at El Tatio has been used as analogues for processes that took place on early Mars. Some microstructures found in the Columbia Hills at the Home Plate landform are similar to these biogenic structures at El Tatio, but do not necessarily imply that the microstructures on Mars are biogenic.

Geological history
During the Pliocene–Quaternary the Cordillera Occidental was subject to extensional tectonics. A related fault system was active; it is linked to Sol de Mañana in Bolivia and controls the position of several vents in El Tatio. The intersection between northwest–southeast trending, north-northwest-south-southeast-trending lineaments at El Tatio has been correlated with the occurrence of geothermal activity. The tectonics of the El Tatio area were originally interpreted as reflecting the existence of a graben before a compressive tectonic regime was identified.

A series of ignimbrites was emplaced. The first was the 10.5–9.3 million year old Rio Salado ignimbrite, which forms a  thick layer; this might imply that the source of this ignimbrite was close to El Tatio. The Rio Salado ignimbrite elsewhere crops out as two flow units, with varying colours, and close to El Tatio it is crystalline and densely welded. It was followed by the 8.3 million year old voluminous Sifon ignimbrite, which reaches a thickness of about  in the area. The Pliocene Puripicar ignimbrite reaches a similar thickness, and it was later downwarped by faulting.

This strong ignimbrite volcanism is associated with activity of the Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex, which has produced large volume dacite ignimbrites and sizable calderas, starting from the middle Miocene. Among these, Cerro Guacha, La Pacana, Pastos Grandes and Vilama produced supereruptions.

The Tatio ignimbrite was emplaced 710,000 ± 10,000 years ago, while the Tucle volcanics are dated to 800,000 ± 100,000 years ago. The ignimbrite reaches a volume of  and crops out over a surface area of . The Tatio ignimbrite contains rhyolitic pumice and crystals, while the Tucle volcanics are andesitic and include both lava and tuffs. The El Tatio ignimbrite ponded in the El Tatio area and may have originated at the Tocorpuri rhyolite dome, which is less than one million years old, in a vent now buried beneath the El Tatio volcanic group, or at the Laguna Colorada caldera.

The El Tatio volcanic group has likewise been dated to be less than one million years old, and its lavas overlie the older formations. Volcan Tatio erupted mafic lavas probably during the Holocene; later this volcano was reinterpreted to be of Pleistocene age. Petrological data suggest that over time the erupted lavas of the El Tatio volcanic group have become more mafic, with older products being andesitic and later ones basaltic-andesitic.

There is no recorded historical volcanism in the El Tatio area and volcanism has not directly affected it for about 27,000 years. Based on the rates of sinter precipitation and the thickness of the sinter deposits, it has been estimated that the sinters at El Tatio started to form between 4,000 and 1,500 years ago; these age estimates were not based on direct dating of the deposits, however, and older sinter deposits extend past the present-day geothermal field. Later, radiocarbon dating of the sinter deposits found that their deposition began after the end of the last ice age, an observation endorsed by the presence of glacial deposits beneath the sinter and radiocarbon dating evidence that sinter deposition began after glaciers retreated. Research published in 2020 suggests that the geothermal activity commenced in the southern part of the field about 27,000–20,000 years ago and spread northwards, reaching the western part of the field less than 4,900 years ago. Secular variations in the deposition rate have been found, with an increase noted in the last 2,000 years.

Geothermal exploitation

Geothermal energy comes from the internal heat of the Earth, where the heat flow is sufficiently high that it can be used for heating and for the generation of electrical power. In Chile, various legal and economic hurdles have so far prevented substantial development of geothermal energy.

The earliest references to geothermal power at El Tatio go back to the beginning of the 20th century, when a private society "Comunidad de El Tatio" was founded by Italians in Antofagasta and employed Italian engineers from Larderello, which in 1921 and 1922 probed the field. Technical and economic problems prevented this first effort from further progress. Feasibility studies in northern Chile identified El Tatio as a potential site for geothermal power generation, with large-scale prospecting taking place in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1973 and 1974, wells were drilled and it was estimated that if the geothermal resources were fully exploited, about  of electric power could be produced. Also in 1974 a desalination facility was built at El Tatio and could still be seen there in 2003; a thermal desalination process was developed at El Tatio, which could be used both for creating fresh water and brine that could be reprocessed for valuable minerals. Drilling substantially altered the behaviour of the hot springs; already in November 1995, reports indicated that a number of geysers had disappeared or become hot springs and fumaroles.

El Tatio is remote and this along with economic difficulties eventually led to the abandonment of the efforts at power generation; a bidding process for exploration rights in 1978 to attract private companies to El Tatio was interrupted by government changes and until 2000 geothermal development programs were paralyzed.

More recently in the 2000s several companies expressed interest in restarting geothermal power projects at El Tatio. A dispute over gas supplies for Northern Chile from Argentina in 2005 helped push the project forward, and after an environmental impact review in 2007 the Chilean government in 2008 granted a concession to develop geothermal resources in the field, with the expected yield being about 100-40 megawatt. The first drilling permits were issued for the Quebrada de Zoquete area  away from the main field.

Controversy

On 8 September 2009, an older well in El Tatio that was being reused blew out, generating a  high steam fountain that was not plugged until 4 October. The operator of the geothermal project restricted access to the blow-out vent and stated through the technical manager of the El Tatio geothermal project that the blowout was neither a threat to the springs nor to tourists visiting El Tatio, and the Empresa Nacional de Geotermia company that operates it denied any responsibility for the incident.

The project had earlier been opposed by the local Atacameño population, owing to concerns about environmental damage and the religious importance of water in the region. Before the incident, an issue of the English-language newspaper The Economist had called attention to the adverse consequences of geothermal power extraction; the incident triggered a major controversy over geothermal power, with ramifications beyond Chile. The controversy gained widespread national and international attention and involved public demonstrations against the project, such as the march of two women to the capital Santiago to defend the geothermal field. The environmental authorities of Antofagasta subsequently suspended the El Tatio geothermal project, and the Geotérmica del Norte company responsible for the project received strong criticism and was targeted by legal action. Both the Ministers of Mining and Energy cautioned against stigmatizing geothermal energy, however, and some local authorities disagreed with the rejection. The director of the National Geology and Mining Service (SERNAGEOMIN) stated that the company had no plans to handle such a situation. The Geotérmica del Norte company was fined 100  (a Chilean unit of account for fines and sanctions) for violating mitigation plans, a fine upheld in 2011 by the Court of Appeals in Santiago. Legal cases related to the Tatio field went as far as the Inter-American Court of Human Rights.

Industry-community disputes have occurred before in northern Chile, typically tied to conflicts about the use of water, which was in large part privatized during the Pinochet era; during the Tatio controversy, power generation and relations between the Chilean government and native communities also gained prominence among the disputed issues. An important factor in the Tatio controversy is the role of the tourism industry, which viewed the geothermal project as a threat; this kind of industry-industry conflict was unusual. Geothermal projects in New Zealand and the United States have resulted in the extinction of geysers. While the incident ultimately did not result in lasting changes to the El Tatio geysers, the widespread media attention did create adverse publicity and social opposition against geothermal energy in Chile.

Tourism
El Tatio is a tourism destination, with substantial numbers of travelers both from Chile and other countries. This tourism is an important economic resource for the region, and the site is administered by the local Atacameño population as part of a wider trend of cooperations between native communities and heritage sites in the region. About 100,000 tourists visit El Tatio every year. In 2009, there were more than 400 daily visitors of the geysers, about 90 percent of all tourism of San Pedro de Atacama from where El Tatio can be reached. Aside from viewing the geysers, bathing in the hot water, watching the natural scenery and visiting surrounding Atacameño villages with their adobe buildings are other activities possible at El Tatio. Environmental impacts such as pollution and vandalism of geothermal landforms have been documented.

El Tatio displays some typical hazards of geothermal areas. Exposure to the hot gases and water can result in burn injuries, and both sudden eruptions of geysers and fountains and fragile ground above vents and above boiling water, concealed beneath thin covers of solid ground, increase the risk to unwary travelers. The site lies at high altitude, frequently leading to altitude sickness, and the cold dry climate creates further danger. The Chilean government recommends that tourists take warm clothing, sunscreen and mineral water.

The indigenous communities of Toconce and Caspana administer the geysers. In 2002, El Tatio was declared part of a "zone of touristic interest"; a classification which implies that local institutions ought to develop an action plan to induce the development of tourism. In 2009, José Antonio Gómez Urrutia, then-senator of Chile for the Antofagasta region proposed that El Tatio be declared a natural sanctuary (a type of protected area); the corresponding parliamentary motion was approved in the same year. In 2010, the El Tatio area was declared to be a protected area, with a surface area of . It was not clear at that time what the exact status would be, with the regional Secretary of Agriculture proposing that it should become a national park. In 2022, the International Union of Geological Sciences listed it among its 100 heritage sites.

See also
 List of hot springs
 Linzor, a volcano farther north
 Cerro del León, another volcano farther north
 Apacheta-Aguilucho volcanic complex

Notes

References

Sources

External links

 Google Maps location
 El Tatio Geyser Field
 Geyser Observation and Study Association
 World Geyser Fields
 Page denouncing damage done by prospecting (in Spanish)
 Virtual Tour on 360° of El Tatio Chilexplora.com
 Technical details of one proposed geothermal power project
 On the 2009 incident and implications

Tatio
Atacama Desert
Geography of Antofagasta Region
Landforms of Antofagasta Region
Tourist attractions in Antofagasta Region
First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites

El Tatio


Gennemgang - iagttagelse fra en bil med radio er en dansk kortfilm, der er instrueret af Henrik Ruben Genz.

Handling

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark


La Ferrera, islote Malaspina o Malaspina es uno de los islotes del archipiélago de las Islas Columbretes (Mar Mediterráneo, España). También recibe este nombre el conjunto formado por esta isla y los islotes que la rodean, y los principales son: Espinosa, Bauza, Valdés y Navarrete.

Está protegido mediante las figuras de parque natural y Zona de especial protección para las aves (ZEPA).

Se encuentra a 0,8 millas al oeste-suroeste de Columbrete Grande, la más grande del archipiélago, y su nombre probablemente se debe a su color similar al óxido de hierro.

Al sur de la Ferrera están los dos conjuntos de islotes de la Horadada y el Bergantín.

Referencias

Islas Columbretes

La Ferrera


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අතීතයේදීද විදේශීයරටවලින් කෙරුණු ආක්‍රමණමෙන්ම
රට අභ්‍යන්තරයේ රජවරු අතර කෙරුණු ආක්‍රමණද හිඟනොවිණි.මෙවන් පසුබිමක්තුළ"සාමගිවිසුම්"අපට අද ඊයේ
සිට ඇසුණු වදනක් පමණක්ම නොවන බව සිතන්නට පමණක්නොව ප්‍රත්‍යක්‍ෂකොට දැනගැනීමට අවශ්‍ය සාධකද
අපගේඉතිහාසය අපටඋරුමකර දී තිබේ.

මෙහිදී "සෙල් ලිපි" වෙනත් බොහෝ කරුණුකාරණා හෙළිකරදීමට සමත්  වන්නාක් මෙන්ම ඉහත කී සාධකයද
සනාථ කරන්නට අවශ්‍යයෙන්ම හේතුප්‍රත්‍යවේ.
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රාජකීය සාම කතිකාවත
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12වන ශතවර්ශයේ දී දෙවන ගජබාහු සහ පළමුවන පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජවරුන් විසින් ලියවා පිහිටුවනලද
සංගමු විහාර සෙල් ලිපිය පැරණි අභිලේඛන අතර වැදගත් තැනක් හිමිකරගත්තකි.එයට හේතුව මෙය වංශාගත
කරුණක්ද සනාථකරවණු ලබන රාජකීය සාම කතිකාවතක් වන හෙයිනි.

කුරුණැගල දිස්ත්‍රික්කයේ ගොකරැල්ල ගමින් සැතපුම් දෙකක් ඊසාන දෙසට ගියවිට හමුවන
උඩබුලත්ගම ප්‍රදේශයේ සංගමු විහාර සෙල් ලිපිය පිහිටා තිබේ.

මෙය දිගින් අඩි 4ක් හා පළලින් අඩි 3ක් හා අඟල්භාගයකින් ද යුක්ත වේ.කොටවා ඇති
අකුරක්අඟල්2ක්පමණ උසය.

සංගමුව විහාර ලිපියේ බ්‍රාහ්මීය අක්ෂරයෙන් දක්වා තිබෙන අදහස සිංහල පෙළට නැගූවිට ඉස්මතු
වනුයේ පහත දැක්වෙන ආකාරයේ අදහසක් වේ.

"ස්වස්ති ශ්‍රී මහා සම්මත පරම්පරාවෙන් නොපිරිහී පැවති ආ සත්‍යධන වූ ගජබාහු පරාක්‍රමබාහු දෙසුරුබඩු
වම්හ.අප කළ සන්ධානයට ජීවිතාන්තදක්වා විග්‍රහයක් නොකරම්හ.ඔවුනොවුන් අයාමයෙහි පළමුව
කෙනෙකුන්ගෙ.......පසුවූවන් අත්පත්වන්න..........එක්කෙනෙකුන්......වැ...මෙ....රාජ්‍ය වී
ලුප්තවන නියායෙන් ........අප දෙදෙනා කෙරෙන් එක් කෙනෙකුන් හට සතුරු වූ රජ දරු කෙනෙක් ඇත්නම්
දෙදෙනාටම සතුරහ.මෙයට විරුද්ධයක් කළොමො නම් තුණුරුවන් ආඥා මැකූවම්හ.නරකයෙන් මුක්ත නොවුවම්හ".

ඉහත දක්වා ඇති සිංහල පෙළ බ්‍රාහ්මීය අක්‍ෂර එලෙසින්ම සිංහලයට නැගූවකි සංගමු විහාර ලිපිය
ස්භාවික උපද්‍රවයනට ලක්වීමෙන් එහි ඇතැම් අක්‍ෂර මැකීගොස් ඇති අතර ඇතැම් කොටස් කියවා ගැනීමද
අසීරු වෙයි.මේ බව මහාචාර්ය සෙනරත් පරණවිතාන මහතාගේ"එපිග්‍රැපියා සෙයිලනිකා-Epigraphia
Zeylanica"යනග්‍රන්ථයේ දැක්වෙන ඡායා අනුපිටපතින්ද පැහැදිළි වෙයි.

ඉහත සිංහල පෙළින් නැගූ අදහස සංක්‍ෂිප්ත කොට මෙසේ ලිවිය හැකිය."යහපතක් වේවා,ශ්‍රීමත් මහා
සම්මත රාජ පරම්පරාවෙන් නොසිඳී පැමිණ සත්‍යයම ධනය කොට ඇති අපි ගජබාහු පරාක්‍රමබාහු ඥාති
සොහොයුරෝ(දෙමස්සිනෝ)වෙමු.අප කළ මේ පොරොන්දුවට අනුව අප දෙදෙනාගෙන් පළමුව මැරුණකුගේ
රාජ්‍යය නොමැරී ජීවත්වන්නාටඅයිතිවේ.එක්කෙනෙක් මේ රාජ්‍යය වැනසෙන අයුරින්(කටයුතු නොකළ
යුතුය).......අප දෙදෙනාගෙන් එක්කෙනෙකුට සතුරුවූරජකෙනෙක් ඇත්නම් ඔවුහු අප දෙදෙනාටම
සතුරුය.මෙය(ගිවිසුමට)විරෝධයක් (විරුද්ධයමක් )අප කළොත් තුණුරුවන්ගේ ආඥාව කඩකළෝ
(ඉක්මවූවෝ)වෙමු.අපායෙන්ද නොමිදුණෝ වෙමු"

මේ සෙල්ලිපිය අවසානයේදී සංස්කෘත ශ්ලෝකයක්ද සඳහන්කර තිබේ.එහි දළඅදහසමෙසේය.
"අනුන්ගේ යහපතම ධනය කොටඇති අප දෙදෙනගේ මේ ලියවිල්ල සඳහිරු පවත්නාතුරු ලොව ආරක්‍ෂාකෙර්වා".

ඉහත පරිදි සංගමුව විහාර සෙල් ලිපියෙන් දැක්වෙනුයේදෙමස්සිනාවරුන් වූ ගජබාහු සහ පැරකුම්බා යන
රජවරුන් විසින් ගැටුම් සහගත යුධමය අවස්ථාවක් මඟහරවා ඇතිකරගනුලැබූ සමඟි සමාධාන ගිවිසුමක් හෙවත්  "සාම ගිවිසුමකි".</font>
සාම ගිවිසුමට හේතු වූ වියවුල
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මහා වංශයේද සංගමු විහාර ලිපියෙන් දැක්වෙන වියවුල එහි70වන පරිච්ඡේදය මඟින් සවිස්තරව දක්වා
තිබේ.

"කීර්ති ශ්‍රී මේඝ රජුගෙන් පසු දක්‍ෂිණ දේශයේ බලය අත්පත් කරගත් පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජු ලක්දිවම
යටත්කරගැනීමේ අරමුණින් තම මස්සිනා වූ ගජබාහු රජුගේ යටතේ පැවති පොළොන්නරුව ලබා ගැනීමේ
අරමුණින් සටන් කළේය.මේ සටනින් ජයගත් පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජු ඉතා පහසුවෙන් පොළොන්නරුව තමන් යටතට
පත්කරගන්නා ලදී.

රජුගේ සේනාව ගජබා රජු අල්ලා මාළිඟයෙහිම සිරකොට තැබීය.එමෙන්ම මේ සේනාවෝ සිය
ජයග්‍රණයෙන් උදම් වී පොලොන්නරු නගරය කොල්ලකන්නට වීය.මේනිසා පොළොන්නරුවේ වැසියෝ ඉතාම
පීඩාවට පත්විය.මේනිසා ඔවුන් ඇමතිවරුන් සමඟ කතිකාකොටගෙන තමනට සිදුවූ විපත දන්වා තම රට වන
පොළොන්නරුව බේරාගැනීමට උදව්වන ලෙස රුහුණේ රජකළා වූ මාණාභරණ රජුගෙන් ඉල්ලා සිටීය.

මෙතෙක්කල් පොළොන්නරුව දෙස ඇස ගසාගෙන සිටි මානාභරණ රජුට මෙය අඟනා අවස්ථාවක්
විය.මේ අවස්ථාවෙන් ප්‍රයෝජන ගැනීමට සිතූ ඔහු පොළොන්නරුව බේරාදීමේ මුවාවෙන් යුද කර පොළොන්නරුව
අත්පත්කර ගත්තේය.එසේකොට අවසානයේ ගජබා රජු දඟගෙයි දම්මවා මරන්නට සැරසුණි.

මෙයින් භියටපත්වූ ගජබා රජු පැරකුම්බා රජුට පණිවුඩයක් යවමින් "පින්වත හැර මට අන් ආරක්ෂාවක්
නැත.දුක්ඟින්නෙන් තැවෙන මා ඔබ වහන්සේගේ කරුණා ජලය ඉස සනසනු මැනවි."යනුවෙන් ඉල්ලා
සිටියේය.පැරකුම්බා රජුද හෙතෙමේ මා නිසා දුක් වින්දේය.ඔහු දුකින් මුදාගැනීම මගේයුතුකමය"යයි සිතා
මාණාභරණ රජු සමඟ බිහිසුණු සටනක් කොට ඔහුව පන්නා හැරීය.ඉන්පසුව ගජබා රජුව නිදහස් කිරීමට සැරසෙද්දී
ඔහුගේ මිත්‍රද්‍රෝහී සෙනෙවියෝ පැරකුම්රජු කෝපකරවා රජු මරන්නට සිතා පැරකුම් රජුගේ භටයන්ට පහර
දුනි.එයින් කෝපයට පත් පැරකුම්බා රජු යළිත් ගජබාහු රජුව අල්ලාගැනීමට සේනාව මෙහෙය වීය.

මෙසේ ඇතුළතින් හා පිටතින් පොළොන්නරුවට පහර දෙන්නට වූ කලගජබා රජු ත්‍රෛයිනිකායික
භික්‍ෂූණ්වහන්සේලා වෙත ගොස් පිහිට ඉල්ලා සිටියේය.මහා සංගයාද ගිරිතලේ සිටි පැරකුම්බා රජු හමුවී බණ
දේශනා කරන ලදී.එහිදී ගජබා රජු මහලු බවත්,සොහොයුරෙකු හෝ පුතෙකු නොනැති බවත් එහෙයින්
මැරෙනතුරු ඔහුට රජකම් කිරීමට  ඉඩදිය යුතු ඉවත් කියා සමඟි සන්ධානයක් (සාම ගිවිසුමක්)ඇති කළහ."

සංගමුව විහාර සෙල්ලිපිය පිහිටුවන ලද්දේ මේ ගිවිසුම මුල්කරගනිමිනි.පසුකාළීනව ගජබා රජුද
මැදිරිගිරි විහාරයේ වූ ගලක "රජ රට මා විසින් පැරකුම්බා රජුට දෙන ලද්දේය"යනුවෙන් ගිවිසුම අනුදක්නා තවත්
ලිපියක් කොටවන ලදී.
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ඉපැරණි සාම ගිවිසුමේ වැදගත්කම
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මේ ලිපිය ඉපැරණි සාම ගිවිසුමක් පමණක් නොව සිංහල රජුන් පිළිබඳව මහා වංශයේ වන තොරතුරුද
සනාථකරවන්නකි.එයනම් සිංහලයේ ප්‍රාදේශීය රජුන් අතර පැවති අභ්‍යන්තරික යුද ගැටුම් ආදිය බෞද්ධාගම හා
මහා සංඝයාගේ අනුදැනීම පිට සමථයකටපත්කොට සාමය උදාකරලීමට  සිංහල රජවරුන් ක්‍රියාකළ බවය.මේ ලිපිය
පිළිබඳව ඇතිවන තවත් ගැටලු සහගත කාරණාවක් කෙරේ පිළිතුරු සැපයීමේදීද මේබව සනාථ වෙයි.එම
ගැටලුවනම් මේ රජුන් දෙදෙන මේ ගිවිසුම් ලිපිය තම රාජ්‍යයන්හි නොපිහිටුවා සංගමුව හා මැදිරිගිරිය යන
විහාරයන්හි පිහිටවූයේ ඇයිද? යන්නයි.මහාචාර්ය පරණවිතාන මහතා මෙයට දෙන පිළිතුර වනුයේ "සාම ගිවිසුම
ඇතිකරන්නට මුල්වූයේ මහා සංඝරත්නය නිසා සංගමුව හා මැදිරිගිරිය විහාරයන්හි ප්‍රධාන හිමිවරුන් ඉදිරිපිට මේ
සෙල්ලිපි කොටවා එහිම පිහිටුවීම ගිවිසුමේ ස්ථීරත්වයට හා හිතවත්කමට වඩා යෝග්‍යයැයි සිතුවා විය
හැකිය"යන්නයි.අනෙක් අතට බලනකලද තත්කාලීන රජවරුන්  මහ ජනයා ගැවසෙන විහාරාමවල මේ ගිවිසුම්
ස්ථාපිත කරවා ප්‍රසිද්ධ කිරීමෙන්   මහා සංඝසා හා බෞද්ධාගම කෙරෙහි වූ භක්තිය ප්‍රදර්ශනය කොට යුද ගැටුම්
නිසා අප්‍රසාදයෙන් පසු වූ මහජනතාවගේ ප්‍රසාදය යළි ලබාගත්බවද සිතිය හැකිය.මෙසේ මේ සංගමුව විහාර ලිපිය
කිහිපාකාරයකින්ම අතීතයේ තොරතුරු අප වෙත ගෙන එන සන්දේශකයෙකු වී තිබේ.ඒ සියලු කරුණු කාරණා යටපත් කරලමින් මෙහි වැදගත්කම වඩ ඩාත් ඉස්මතු වනුයේ,බෙහෙවින්ම
විහාරාරාම පූජාදියට සීමිතව පවත්නා සෙල්ලිපි අතර රාජකීය සමඟි සන්ධානයක් ස්වදේශීයව සඳහන් වූ සෙල්
ලිපියක් ලෙස ඇත්තේ මේ සංගමුව විහාර සෙල් ලිපිය පමණක් වනහෙයිනි."මේ නිසා මේ සංගමුව විහාර සෙල් ලිපිය"සාම ගිවිසුම්"අතර "ඉපැරණි සාම ගිවිසුමක්"ලෙස අපගේ අතීත
උරුමයන් තුළ බබළමින් අනාගතයේද පවතිනු ඇත".''

මූලාශ්‍ර
"දිවයින බදාදා අතිරේකය",දිවයින,
2002,ඔක්තෝබර් 02වන බදාදා,
ලේක්හවුස්,කොළඹ 10.

විශේෂ සටහන
<font="1">
ශ්‍රී ලංකාව හා බැඳුනු සාම ගිවිසුම්හි ඉතිහාසය දෙස බලනවිට, 12වන ශතවර්ශයේ ලියූ සෙල් ලිපියක්, "ඉපැරණි රාජකීය සමඟි සන්ධානයක්  පිළිබඳ හෙවත් දැනට සොයාගෙන තිබෙන ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ඉපැරණිම සාම ගිවිසුම" පිළිබඳ තොරතුරු හෙළිකර දීමට සමත්වී තිබෙන අයුරු ඉහත කරුණු මඟින් පැහැදිළිකරදෙයි.

ඔබට ලෝකයේ සාම ගිවිසුම් සහ සාමය සම්බන්ධ තොරතුරුද ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ සාම ගිවිසුම් සහ සාමය සම්බන්ධ තොරතුරුද පිළිබඳ වැඩිදුර අධ්‍යනයක් කිරීමට අවශ්‍යනම් කරුණාකර පහත දැක්වෙන වෙනත් පිටු සහ අඩවියෙන් පිටත  පිටු වෙත යොමුවෙන්න.
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මේ පිටුත් බලන්න

ඉන්දු - ශ්‍රී ලංකා ගිවිසුම

එක්සත් ජාතින්ගේ මෙහෙවර

අඩවියෙන් බැහැර පිටු
සාමය පිළිබඳ ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ නිල වෙබ් අඩවිය

එක්සත්ජාතීන්ගේ සංවිධානයේ නිල වෙබ් අඩවිය

සාම ගිවිසුම්

සාම ගිවිසුම්


Glenea apicepurpurata é uma espécie de escaravelho da família Cerambycidae. Foi descrita por Karl-Ernst Hüdepohl em 1990.

Referências

Borneo catalog 2005

apicepurpurata
Coleópteros descritos em 1990

Glenea apicepurpurata


Halkapınar ayrıca şu anlamlara gelebilir:

Yerleşim yerleri
 Halkapınar, Konya ili ilçesi
 Halkapınar, Karesi - Balıkesir ili Karesi ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Halkapınar, Çınar - Diyarbakır ili Çınar ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Halkapınar, Konak - İzmir ili Konak ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Halkapınar, Tire - İzmir ili Tire ilçesine bağlı mahalle

Ulaşım
 Halkapınar Aktarma Merkezi - İZBAN, TCDD, İzmir metrosu, Konak tramvayının istasyonlarını ve ESHOT'un otobüs terminalini içeren aktarma merkezi

Halkapınar (anlam ayrımı)


Björn Pétursson (1555 – 1596) foi o único assassino em série conhecido na história da Islândia. Ele foi apelidado de Axlar-Björn, com "Axlar" simplesmente sendo o genitivo de Öxl, seu local de residência.

Vida pregressa

Axlar-Björn era o caçula de três filhos de um casal de agricultores islandês. Ele viveu em Öxl, a oeste de Búðir, em Snæfellsnes.

Assassinatos

Quando tinha 15 anos, Axlar-Björn começou a ajudar na fazenda de um vizinho rico chamado Ormur em troca de casa e comida. Ormur morreu alguns anos depois de causas naturais e deixou suas propriedades para seu filho, Guðmundur. Guðmundur tornou-se amigo de Axlar-Björn durante seu emprego e presenteou-o com uma fazenda chamada Öxl na região de Breidavik de Snæfellsnes. Axlar-Björn residiu lá com sua esposa, Þórdís Ólafsdóttir.

Muitas lendas foram escritas sobre Björn e sua malícia. Estas, no entanto, foram registrados de 250 a 300 anos após o momento de sua execução. Sua história está entrelaçada com lendas e repleta de motivos folclóricos. Os relatos divergem sobre os motivos, modus operandi, número de vítimas e eventos que levaram à prisão de Axlar-Björn. As alegações mais comuns são de que ele matou entre nove e dezoito pessoas. As vítimas eram viajantes e lavradores que vinham a Öxl em busca de trabalho; algumas versões dizem que ele golpeava as pessoas com um machado e outras que as afogava. As suspeitas locais sobre Axlar-Björn cresceram à medida que as pessoas desapareciam na área enquanto seus cavalos e outros bens aumentavam, mas ele estava seguro por causa da proteção dada a ele por Guðmundur.

Prisão e execução

Axlar-Björn foi preso e confessou nove assassinatos. As autoridades porém encontraram mais corpos quando revistaram sua fazenda. Questionado sobre eles, Axlar-Björn afirmou que encontrou os restos mortais enterrados em suas terras e decidiu enterrá-los em outro local sem notificar as autoridades ou levá-los a um cemitério. As autoridades não acreditaram nessa explicação. Um ting sentenciou Axlar-Björn à morte por enforcamento seguido de quebra na roda. Após sua morte, seu corpo foi desmembrado e cada parte colocada em uma estaca. Þórdís, que estava grávida à época, foi forçada a assistir à execução.

Desdobramentos familiares

Þórdís foi acusada de ajudar o marido nos assassinatos e até mesmo de cometer alguns deles. Ela também foi condenada à morte, mas sua execução não foi realizada. O filho que ela carregava, Sveinn "Skotti" Björnsson, acabou por tornar-se um andarilho e criminoso. Ele foi enforcado por estupro em 1648. O próprio filho de Sveinn, Gísli "Hrokur" Sveinsson, também foi um criminoso e também foi executado.

Referências modernas

O escritor Úlfar Þormóðsson contou sobre Axlar-Björn em um romance histórico, Þrjár sólir svartar ("Três sóis negros", Reykjavík: Höfundur. 1988).

Magnús Þór Jónsson o incluiu em seu livro Björn og Sveinn: eða Makleg málagjöld ("Björn e Sveinn: ou justiça feita", Reykjavík: Mál og menning. 1994).

Em 2012, o grupo de teatro islandês Vesturport encenou a peça Axlar-Björn que é baseada nas lendas sobre Björn e sua esposa.

Outras fontes

 Alda Sigmundsdottir (2019) Icelandic Folk Legends: Tales of apparitions, outlaws and things unseen (Little Books Publishing)

Ligações externas

Axlar-Björn, the only Icelandic serial killer, terrorized travellers on Snaefellsness peninsula. Iceland Magazine, 2 de abril de 2017 (em inglês).
Hver var Axlar-Björn? (em islandês)
Hverrar ættar var Axlar-Björn og hver var kona hans? (em islandês)

Nascidos em 1555
Mortos em 1596
Assassinos em série da Islândia
Criminosos da Islândia
Pessoas executadas por assassinato
Pessoas executadas por enforcamento
Pessoas executadas na roda

Axlar-Björn


Adrasto puede referirse a:

Adrasto, rey de Argos;
Adrasto (hijo de Mérope), un hijo de Mérope, rey de Percote, y hermano de Anfio;
Adrasto, padre de Eurídice, esposa del rey troyano Ilo;
Adrasto, hijo de Polinices y Argía, hija del rey argivo Adrasto. Era el jefe de los micenos durante la Guerra de Troya;
Adrasto y su hijo Hipónoo se arrojaron al fuego en obediencia a un oráculo de Apolo.

Adrasto (mitología)


Deniz dibi temas haritası, 1:100.000'den 1:1.000.000'a kadar ölçekli, batimetriyi (bathymetry), dip özelliklerini, enkaz gemi bilgilerini ve sahil ve kıyı suları için deniz dibi temas bilgilerini gösteren haritadır.

Denizaltılarda ve denizaltılara karşı savaş harekâtlarında kullanılmak üzere tasarlanmıştır.

Haritalar

Deniz dibi temas haritası


Gripin, Eczacı Necip Akar tarafından geliştirilen Türk yapımı ilk ağrı kesici ve ateş düşürücü ilacın ticari adıdır. Etkin maddesi parasetamoldür. Üretimine 1931 yılında başlanmıştır ve günümüzde Gripin İlaç A.Ş. tarafından üretilmektedir.

Gripin, ilk üretilen Türk yapımı ilaçlardan biri olması ve tanıtımının iyi yapılması sebebiyle halk tarafından oldukça benimsenmiş, özellikle sıtmanın kol gezdiği yıllarda Kininli Gripin tek ilaç olarak kullanılmış ve Türkiye'nin en ücra köşelerinde halk tarafından aranır olmuştur.

Reklamlar

Dış bağlantılar

İlaç markaları
Türk markaları

Gripin


Muránska Dlhá Lúka este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Revúca din regiunea Banská Bystrica, pe malul râului . Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 904 locuitori. Se învecinează cu Revúca, Muránska Zdychava, Muráň și Muránska Lehota.

Istoric
Localitatea Muránska Dlhá Lúka este atestată documentar din 1357.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Muránska Dlhá Lúka


Der Verlag 99 ist ein im Jahr 1999 von der Kirchenkantorin, Berufsmusikerin und Komponistin Gabriele Weißbach in Meißen (Sachsen) gegründeter Verlag für Noten, CDs und Kirchenmusik.

Werke
Der Verlag 99 vertreibt neben CDs der Singer-Songwriterin Julie Danstonoreille und Noten von Michael Schütz und Stefan Gehrt auch Eigenkompositionen und selbstgeschriebene Musicals der Verlagsinhaberin Gabriele Weißbach.

Musicals von Gabriele Weißbach
Gabriele Weißbach schreibt und komponiert vorwiegend christliche Musicals für Erwachsenen- und Kinderchöre. Zu den erfolgreichsten Musicals zählen die Werke

 "Irren ist menschlich - oder - der verlorene Sohn"
 "... einfach so wie wir sind"
 "Lichtblicke"
 "Es begab sich aber"
 "Jetzt wird alles anders"

Weblinks
 Internetseite und Webshop des Kirchenmusikverlages Verlag 99

Einzelnachweise

99
99
99
Unternehmen (Meißen)
Gegründet 1999
Medienunternehmen (Landkreis Meißen)

Verlag 99


Concursul Muzical Eurovision Junior 2016 a fost cea de-a 14-a ediție a Concursului Muzical Eurovision Junior, care a avut loc la Centrul de Conferințe Mediteraneean, în Valletta, Malta. Aceasta a fost a doua oară când Malta a găzduit concursul muzical Eurovision Junior, prima dată fiind în 2014.

Șaptesprezece țări au participat la concurs.

Muntenegru și Slovenia s-au retras din competiție după două concursuri, iar San Marino se retrage după trei concursuri, în timp ce Cipru se întoarce după o pauză de un an, Israelul se întoarce după o pauză de 3 ani și Polonia se întoarce la concurs, după un record de 11 ani de pauză.

Mariam Mamadașvili (Georgia) a câștigat concursul. Aceasta este a treia oară când Georgia câștigă Concursul Muzical Eurovision Junior, ceea ce face ca Georgia să fie prima țară câștigă competiția de 3 ori.

Locația
Pe 13 aprilie 2016 a fost confirmat că Malta va găzdui concursul, a doua oară când face acest lucru, după ce a găzduit concursul și în 2014.

Concursul Muzical Eurovision Junior a avut loc în capitala Valletta, din Malta.

Rezultatele obținute

Vezi și
 Concursul Muzical Eurovision Junior
 Concursul Muzical Eurovision
 Concursul Muzical Eurovision 2014
 Concursul Muzical Eurovision 2015
 Uniunea Europeană de Radio și Televiziune (EBU)

Legături externe
 Website Oficial Eurovision Junior

Concursul muzical Eurovision Junior
2016 în muzică


An Haworthia marumiana in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Antonius Josephus Adrianus Uitewaal. An Haworthia marumiana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Haworthia, ngan familia nga Xanthorrhoeaceae.

Subspecies

Ini nga species ginbahin ha masunod nga subspecies:

 H. m. archeri
 H. m. batesiana
 H. m. dimorpha
 H. m. marumiana
 H. m. viridis

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Haworthia

Haworthia marumiana


O tumoare cerebrală sau neoplasm intracranian apare atunci când celule anormale se formează în creier. Există două tipuri principale de tumori: malignă sau canceroasă și benignă.  Tumorile canceroase pot fi împărțite în tumori principale, ce apar direct pe creier și acelea care s-au răspândit din altă parte, cunoscute ca și tumori- metastaze cerebrale. Acest articol se axează, în principal, pe tumorile ce apar pe creier.  Toate tipurile de tumori cerebrale produc simptome ce variază în funcție de partea implicată a creierului. Acestea pot include dureri de cap, convulsii, tulburări de vedere, stări de vomă și schimbări mentale. Durerea de cap este, în mod clasic, mai puternică dimineața și dispare după vomitare. Mai multe probleme specifice pot include dificultăți la mers, în timpul vorbirii sau senzoriale. Pe măsură ce boala progresează, se pot întâlni cazuri de pierdere a cunoștinței.

Cauze și diagnostic
Cauza celor mai multe dintre aceste cazuri este necunoscută. Factorii de risc ce ar putea fi implicați ocazional, includ un număr de sindromuri genetice precum neurofibromatoza, dar și expunerea la substanța chimică clorură de vinil, virusul Epstein-Barr și radiații ionizante. Deși există semne de îngrijorare privind utilizarea telefonului mobil, dovezile nu sunt clare. Cele mai uzuale tipuri de tumori primare, la adulți, sunt: meningiomul și astrocitomul, precum glioblastomul. La copii, tipul cel mai întâlnit este meduloblastomul. Diagnosticul este dat în general prin examinare medicală, împreună cu o tomografie computerizată sau imagistică prin rezonanță magnetică. După diagnosticare, boala este, în general, confirmată prin biopsie. Plecând de la constatarea tumorilor, acestea sunt împărțite în diferite grade de severitate.

Tratament și prognostic
Tratamentul poate include o combinație de intervenții chirurgicale, terapie prin radiere și chimioterapie. Medicamentația anticonvulsivă este necesară pentru persoanele ce au convulsii. Dexametazona și furosemidul pot fi administrate pentru a reduce umflăturile din jurul tumorii. Unele tumori cresc suficient de lent încât este necesară doar monitorizarea acestora. Sunt studiate tratamente ce folosesc sistemul imunitar al persoanei. Rezultatul variază considerabil, în funcție de tipul tumorii și de cât de mult s-a răspândit în momentul diagnosticării. Glioblastoamele au, în general, rezultate slabe, în timp ce meningioamele au rezultate bune. Media de cinci ani rată de supraviețuire pentru cancerul cerebral este de 33% in Statele Unite ale Americii.

Epidemiologie
Tumorile cerebrale secundare sau metastatice sunt mai comune decât tumorile cerebrale primare, iar jumătate din metastaze au ca sursă cancerul pulmonar. Tumorile cerebrale primare apar la aproximativ  250.000 de oameni pe an la nivel global, ceea ce înseamnă mai puțin de 2% decât alte tipuri de cancer. La copiii sub 15 ani, tumorile cerebrale sunt pe locul doi, după leucemia acută limfoblastică, ca și cauză a cancerului. În Australia costurile economice medii ale unui caz de cancer cerebral sunt de 1.9 milioane de dolari, mai ridicate decât ale oricărui alt tip de cancer.

Referințe

Boli ale sistemului nervos
Cancer

Tumoare cerebrală


La cárcel infinita es una obra de teatro en tres actos de Joaquín Calvo Sotelo, estrenada en el Teatro Español, de Madrid el 3 de febrero de 1945.

Argumento
Obra de marcado carácter anticomunista, se escenifican las dificultades que tienen los personajes principales en su lucha por la supervivencia en un país soviético: María Gontcharova, Alexandra, Ana Voronzova, Alexis, Gregory y Fedor.

Representaciones destacadas
 Teatro (Estreno, 1945)
 Dirección: Cayetano Luca de Tena.
 Decorados: Sigfrido Burmann.
 Intérpretes: Mercedes Prendes, Alfonso Muñoz, Micaela Pinaqui, José María Seoane, Carlos Martínez de Tejada, Julia Delgado Caro, Pilar Sala.

 Cine (Perseguidos, 1951).
 Dirección: José Luis Gamboa.
 Intérpretes: María Pardo, Francisco Rabal, Silvia Morgan, Asunción Balaguer.

Referencias
 Se estrenó con gran éxito el drama de Joaquín Calvo Sotelo "La cárcel infinita". Diario ABC, de 3 de febrero de 1945

Obras de teatro de Joaquín Calvo Sotelo
Obras de teatro de 1945

La cárcel infinita


An Rhynchospora albescens in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Miquel, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Georg Kükenthal. An Rhynchospora albescens in nahilalakip ha genus nga Rhynchospora, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Rhynchospora

Rhynchospora albescens


Uğur Işık, (d. 1964) müzisyen.

Uğur Işık, 7 yaşında, mandolin çalmayı öğrenerek müzik eğitimine başladı. Ardından Beşiktaş Musiki Cemiyeti'nde udla tanıştı. 17 yaşında, ud ve çello eğitimi gördüğü İstanbul Türk Musikisi Devlet Konservatuvarı'na girdi. Birkaç yıl sonra da, pek çok önde gelen Türk sanatçısı gibi TRT'ye, çello sanatçısı olarak katıldı. Konservatuvarda bir süre öğretmenlik yaptıktan sonra Osmanlı ve Anadolu halk müziği geleneğini araştırıp, inceleyerek, çelloya uyarladı. Türk müziğinin zirvesi kabul ettiği Mevlevi müziğini derinlemesine inceledi.

Kaynakça

 Froots Dergisi, Ağustos - Eylül 2005 sayısı, Yazan: Chris Williams, Türkçeye çeviren: Bülent Gözkân

1964 doğumlular
Türk çellistler
Yaşayan insanlar

Uğur Işık


Israel Cohen (Kahn) () a fost un scriitor, eseist, critic literar, traducător și editor israelian născut în Galiția; membru al Comitetului pentru Limba Ebraică și președinte al Asociației Scriitorilor Evrei din Israel. A fost distins cu premiul Brenner (1962) și cu premiul Bialik pentru literatură (1974). A publicat sub pseudonimele "Alșik", "Y. Ben-Itzhak", "Y. C. Ma'ayan", "Koren" și "Magi.

Biografie
Cohen s-a născut în localitatea Ulașkivți din regiunea Tarnopol din estul Galiției, în Imperiul Austro-Ungar, în cea de-a doua zi de Șavuot a anului 1905, ca fiu al lui Ițac și Ghitel, fiica lui Mordechai Perlmutter. Tatăl său era măcelar ritual (șoihet), învățător și un apropiat al rabinului hasidic de la Husiatin.

Cohen a studiat la un heder, la o Beit Midraș și într-o școală primară și a absolvit cu onoruri o școală normală din orașul Liov. În timpul Primului Război Mondial orașul a fost distrus, iar el și familia lui au călătorit mult, ajungând într-un sat din Cehia până când bunicul său s-a întors în Galiția în 1918. După ce tatăl său a fost numit măcelar și șoihet la Buceaci, Cohen a început să studieze Tora într-o Beit Midraș și a făcut parte din organizațiile Hashomer Hatzair, Hitachadut și Hehalutz.

La începutul anului 1924 Cohen a fost ales în conducerea organizației Hechalutz din Liov și, împreună cu Dov Ștuk (mai târziu Sadan), a publicat un ziar evreiesc numit Ziarul nostru. Deoarece nu a reușit să obțină un pașaport pentru a emigra în Palestina, a fost nevoit să treacă ilegal granița Poloniei și odată ajuns la Viena a fost ales membru al conducerii centrului Hechalutz din Austria.

Cohen a emigrat în Eretz Israel în 29 octombrie 1925; s-a stabilit mai întâi la Binyamina și apoi s-a mutat la Petah Tikva, făcând parte din grupul "Triunghiul". Atunci când grupul s-a dizolvat, după doi ani, el a rătăcit prin țară și a lucrat în principal în lucrări de amenajare a teritoriului și în construcții. A fost membru al organizației Hapoel Hatzair și după fuziunea ei cu Ahdut Ha'avoda a devenit membru al Partidului Muncitorilor din Palestina.

În 1930 a fost trimis de organizația Histadrut cu activități în Galiția, Letonia, Austria și România, și a luat parte la Congresul muncitorilor evrei din Berlin. La sfârșitul misiunii sale a devenit membru al grupului Hulda. În 1933 s-a căsătorit cu Zivia, fiica colegului său, Yerachmiel Mordechai Gordon, și a fost ales secretar al Comisiei Culturale a Consiliului Muncitorilor din Rehovot. Din 1934 l-a ajutat pe Yitzhak Lupban să editeze ziarul săptămânal al organizației Mapai Ha-Po'el Hatza'ir, iar în 1948 a fost numit redactor-șef și a deținut acest post până în anul 1970.

Cohen a obținut premiul Brenner în 1962 și apoi, în 1974, a câștigat premiul Bialik pentru cartea Jacob Steinberg: omul și opera. În 1982 el a primit titlul de cetățean de onoare al orașului Tel Aviv.

Cohen a murit în 1986. I-au supraviețuit două fiice: cercetătoarele literare Nurit Govrin și Hagit Halperin.

Lucrări
 הערכות ובבואות (The Book Distributor, Tel Aviv, 1938)
 יצחק אדוארד זלקינסון: חייו ומפעלו הספרותי (Mesila, Tel Aviv, 1942)
 סנסנה: ראָמאן פון ארץ-ישראל'דיקן לעבן (Unterwegs, Frankfurt, 1948) – roman despre viața în Israel, în limba idiș
 דמות אל דמות (Dvir, Tel Aviv, 1949) – eseuri despre literatură și autorii ebraici
 זה לעומת זה: אוצר פתגמים מקבילים אנגליים, גרמניים ועבריים, בצירוף מפתח עברי ומפתח גרמני (Dvir, Tel Aviv, 1954)
 פתחים: מסות (Association of Hebrew Writers, Dvir, Tel Aviv, 1954)
 גשרים: אישים ובעיות בתנועת העבודה (Eynain, Tel Aviv, 1955)
 אישים מן המקרא (Notebooks for Literature, Tel Aviv, 1958)
 ניבון אנגלי-עברי: מילון לניבים ולצירופי-לשון אנגליים והקבלותיהם בעברית (împreună cu Adam Richter, Dvir, Tel Aviv, 1959)
 ספר פתגמים מקבילים: אנגליים, גרמניים ועבריים (Seferot Notebooks, Tel Aviv, 1961)
 כתבים (4 volume, Vad, Tel Aviv, 1962)
 מתתיהו שוהם: חייו ויצירתו (Books for Literature, Tel Aviv, 1965)
 אספקלריות (Makor, Ramat Gan, 1968)
 יעקב שטיינברג: האיש ויצירתו (Dvir, Tel Aviv, 1972)
 סגל חבורה: אנשי חזון ומעשה בתנועת העבודה (Am Oved - Culture and Education, Tel Aviv, 1972)
 פרקי אהרן מגד (Akad, Tel Aviv, 1976)
 כתבים (7 volume, Akad, Tel Aviv, 1976–1977)
 פנים אל פנים (Hahadyo, Tel Aviv, 1979)
 בחביון הספרות העברית: הספרות העברית לאור משנתו של ק.ג. יונג (Akad, Tel Aviv, 1981)
 פסקי טעם: מסות על ספרות וסופרים (Akad, Tel Aviv, 1982)
 מעל במות: דברים שבעל-פה – בכתב (Akad, Tel Aviv, 1982)
 חילופי-מכתבים בין ישראל כהן ובין ש"י עגנון ודוד בן-גוריון (editat de Nurit Govrin, Akad, Tel Aviv, 1985)
 עיונים ותגובות (editat de Nurit Govrin, Akad, Tel Aviv, 1986)

Traduceri
 Haim Arlosoroff, לשאלת הארגון המשותף (Comitetul Central al "Hapoel Ha'Tsa'ir", Tel Aviv, 1927)
 Max Nordau, פרדוקסים (împreună cu Dov Sadan, Mitzpe, Ierusalim, 1930)
 Paul Federn și Heinrich Meng (ed.), פסיכואנליזה לעם (The Central Shura Cooperative, Varșovia, 1932)
 Ferdinand Lassalle, יומן נעורים (cu participarea Institutului Bialik, Masada – Lagbolam, Tel Aviv, 1946)
 Gustav Landauer, קריאה לסוציאליזם: המהפכה (Am Oved, Tel Aviv, 1951)
 William Macmahon Ball, לאומיות וקומוניזם במזרח אסיה (Eynain, Tel Aviv, 1954)
 George Douglas Howard Cole, תולדות המחשבה הסוציאליסטית (Eynain, Tel Aviv, 1956)
 מבחר מסות אנגליות: מפרנסיס בייקון עד אלדוס האקסלי (selecție de eseuri, Kibbutz Ha'Uchad, Tel Aviv, 1982)
 Francis Bacon, אטלנטיס החדשה (Kibbutz Ha'Uchad, Tel Aviv, 1986)

Note

Legături externe
 ישראל כהן, באתר תנועת העבודה
 כתביו של ישראל כהן, באתר פרויקט בן-יהודה
 , "לשפל כזה לא הגיע עד עכשיו שום עיתון", מוסף הספרות של "הארץ", 07.03.2016, מאת: נורית גוברין וחגית הלפרין, במלאת 30 שנה למותו של ישראל כהן

Nașteri în 1905
Decese în 1986
Traducători israelieni
Scriitori israelieni

Israel Cohen (scriitor)


Kaime şu anlamlara gelebilir:

 Kaime (belge)
 Kaime (para)
 Kaime-i mutebere

Kaime


كوكب إفريقية هي دورية جزائرية باللغة العربية أسسها محمود كحول في الجزائر عام 1907م. تمّ تبديل اسمها إلى الكوكب الجزائري و انحلّت عام 1914م.

مصادر

 (it) Patrizia Manduchi, « Per una storia della stampa in Algeria: da "L'Estafette d'Alger" (1830) ai giornali della Reppublica Algerina Popolare e Democratica (1989) », Oriente Moderno, no 7/12, 1990

صحف باللغة العربية

كوكب إفريقية


Artur Jędrzejczyk (født 4. november 1987 i Dębica, Polen) er en polsk fodboldspiller, der spiller som forsvar i Legia Warszawa.

Titler

 Ekstraklasa: 3
 2012/13, 2015/16, 2016/17 med Legia Warszawa

 Polsk Pokalturnering: 4
 2010/11, 2011/12, 2012/13, 2015/16 med Legia Warszawa

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

 Artur Jędrzejczyk på 90minut.pl

Fodboldspillere fra Polen
Deltagere ved det europæiske mesterskab i fodbold 2016
Deltagere ved verdensmesterskabet i fodbold 2018
Deltagere ved verdensmesterskabet i fodbold 2022
Fodboldspillere fra Legia Warszawa
Fodboldspillere fra Korona Kielce

Artur Jędrzejczyk