Evonýmia, en , également connu sous son nom médiéval de Tráchones (), et sous son nom familier moderne Áno Kalamáki (), est une agglomération historique d'Athènes et actuellement un quartier résidentiel au sein de la municipalité d'Álimos dans la banlieue sud d'Athènes, en Grèce.

La zone est une partie intérieure de la plaine athénienne du sud, située entre les contreforts du massif de l'Hymette et la zone côtière sud d'Athènes sur le golfe Saronique. Le terrain est caractérisé par des collines calcaires et des cours d'eau qui s'écoulent de l'Hymette vers la côte. Située à  au sud du centre d'Athènes, Evonýmia s'est développée et intégrée à l'étalement urbain de la capitale grecque.

La région présente certains des premiers établissements urbains d'Europe, avec des sites archéologiques montrant un développement continu depuis le néolithique et l'âge du bronze. Les principales découvertes archéologiques comprennent des fortifications de l'époque helladique précoce, des ateliers et une nécropole de l'époque mycénienne, un amphithéâtre de l'époque classique et des temples paléochrétiens et byzantins. Certains des spécimens les plus anciens et les mieux conservés de la poterie géométrique athénienne ont été attribués à l'atelier de Tráchones et figurent dans les collections des musées, notamment deux cratères exposés au Metropolitan Museum of Art.

À son apogée, aux , la zone était le centre du dème d'Evonýmos, l'une des communautés les plus peuplées de l'Athènes antique. Evonýmos possédait sa propre acropole, son théâtre, ses installations industrielles et ses fêtes religieuses. Plusieurs Evonymiens ont joué un rôle majeur dans la politique et la vie civique athéniennes, notamment lors du procès de Socrate et des expéditions de la guerre du Péloponnèse.

Étymologie
Le nom d'Evonýmia est documenté dans lEthniques (en ), la nomenclature de l'écrivain byzantin Étienne de Byzance, datant du , considérée comme le premier ouvrage faisant autorité sur les toponymes méditerranéens. Dans cet ouvrage, Étienne de Byzance attribue le nom à  de la mythologie grecque, fils de Gaïa et d'Ouranos ou de . Le nom lui-même dérive des mots racines grecs eû () bon, bien, et onoma () nom. D'autres interprétations de l'origine du nom sont qu'il s'agit d'une référence directe au fait que la région est  ou , ou qu'il provient du Fusain d'Europe (Euonymus europaeus). Le nom médiéval Trachones provient du mot trachoni () signifiant roche, dérivé de l'adjectif grec ancien trachys () signifiant grossier. Le nom familier moderne Áno Kalamáki (Haut Kalamáki) est apparu en 1968 lorsque Evonýmia  est liée administrativement à l'agglomération côtière de Kalamáki à l'ouest, créant ainsi la municipalité contemporaine d'Álimos.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Liens externes

Géographie de l'Attique

Evonýmia


Alembey, şu anlamlara gelebilir:
 Alembey, Elbistan - Kahramanmaraş ili Elbistan ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Alembey, Altınordu - Ordu ili Altınordu ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Alembey, Sarıkaya - Yozgat ili Sarıkaya ilçesine bağlı köy

Alembey


Harvey Washington Banks (Atlantic City, 7 de fevereiro de 1923 – 1979) foi um astrônomo, pesquisador e professor universitário norte-americano.

Banks foi o primeiro afro-americano a obter um doutorado em astronomia, pela Universidade Georgetown, em 1961. Sua pesquisa focava em determinação de órbitas, mecânica celeste, espectroscopia de alta dispersão e determinantes geodésicas.

Biografia
Banks nasceu na cidade de Atlantic City, em Nova Jérsei, em 1923, mas se criou em Whashington D.C.. Era filho de Nettie Lee Jackson e Harvey Banks, Sr.. Banks cursou o ensino médio na Dunbar High School e ingressou na Universidade Howard onde se graduou em física, em 1946. Em 1948, obteve o mestrado, também pela Howard, em física.

Convidado a lecionar na Howard, Banks ficou até 1952, quando começou a trabalhar para a iniciativa privada como engenheiro eletrônico para a National Electronics, Inc.. Dois anos depois, retornou às salas de aulas, para as escolas públicas de Washington D.C., onde ficou mais dois anos, até retornar para a universidade como pesquisador assistente em astronomia no Observatório do Georgetown College, enquanto tentava o doutorado pela Universidade Georgetown. Em 1961, tornou-se o primeiro afro-americano a obter um doutorado em astronomia. Sua tese tratava das propriedades da luz vindas de fontes distantes.

Continuou como convidado em Georgetown um ano após a defesa do doutorado, para então se tornar pesquisador associado e professor assistente de 1963 a 1967. Neste período, ele foi professor na American University e na Universidade Estadual do Delaware, que o nomeou, em 1967, professor de astronomia e matemática.

Em 1969, ele retornaria para sua alma mater, a Universidade Howard, como professor associado de astrnomia. Dois anos depois, a universidade o nomearia professor de física, cargo que manteve até sua morte.

Além do estudo da espectroscopia, Banls também trabalhava com medições geodésicas. Também trabalhava com mecânica celete e orbital. Em 1970, ele supervisionou a construção de um observatório nos arredores de Washington D.C., como membro do Projeto Beltsville.

Morte
Banks morreu em 1979. Casado com Ernestine Boykin, ele deixou quatro filhos, Harvey III, Deborah, Dwann e Darryle.

Naturais de Atlantic City
Astrónomos dos Estados Unidos
Cientistas dos Estados Unidos do século XX

Harvey Washington Banks


La loi Grenelle II a créé en 2010 un , l'Établissement public du marais poitevin (EPMP) (organisme à vocation de maîtrise d'ouvrage mais non compétent pour la gestion des risques liés aux inondations). Son siège est situé à Luçon, en Sud-Vendée-Littoral.
 Il coordonne et facilite la mise en œuvre de certains schémas concernant le marais ;
 Il étudie et suit la ressource en eau, les milieux aquatiques et les usages de l'eau (hors distribution d'eau potable) ;
 Il contribue au suivi de la gestion opérationnelle des niveaux d'eau du marais et à sa coordination avec l'appui d'une commission consultative (aux membres désignés par arrêté ministériel, comprenant des représentants des collectivités territoriales, de leurs groupements et des organismes gestionnaires des niveaux d'eau) ;
 Il agit en tant qu'organisme unique (mentionné au 6° du II de l'article L. 211-3 du code de l'environnement). Les prélèvements sont répartis soit par irriguant, soit en application de conventions de délégation avec des organismes publics locaux, par secteur géographique. Cette répartition est arrêtée sur proposition d'une commission (membres du conseil d'administration de l'établissement et représentants des organismes professionnels agricoles et des syndicats agricoles désignés, en application d'un arrêté du ministre de l'agriculture) ;
 Il apporte une information aux usagers de l'eau ;
 Il cherche à atteindre le bon état quantitatif des masses d'eau (via les ouvrages nécessaires pour la mobilisation de ressources de substitution et la mise en œuvre de mesures complémentaires significatives permettant une économie d'eau en application des schémas d'aménagement et de gestion des eaux mentionnés à l'article L. 212-3 ou des objectifs mentionnés au IV de l'article L. 212-1).
 Il doit , et pour cela assume des fonctions d'autorité administrative ; il peut - à certaines conditions hors du périmètre d'intervention du Conservatoire de l'espace littoral et des rivages lacustres contribuer à toutes opérations foncières pour la sauvegarde des zones humides et la protection des sites (mentionnés à l'article L. 414-2). Il peut aussi demander la création de servitudes à son profit, et proposer à l'autorité administrative les , et . Il peut présenter à l'État et aux autres collectivités publiques toute suggestion en rapport avec ses missions et se voir confier la mise en œuvre de tout ou partie des plans d'actions qu'ils décident de lancer.
 Il est piloté par un bureau exécutif qui prépare le travail et les décisions du conseil d'administration composé de représentants de l'État (dont le président du CA, nommé par décret), et de ses établissements publics intéressés ; de représentants des collectivités territoriales et de leurs groupements ; de représentants des usagers de l'eau, des établissements publics ayant compétence sur les ouvrages hydrauliques du marais, des associations concernées, des chambres d'agriculture et des organisations professionnelles ; de personnalités qualifiées et d'un représentant du personnel de l'établissement (voix consultative).

Références

Poitevin
Poitevin
Poitevin
Établissement public à caractère administratif en France

Établissement public du marais poitevin


Mýrfeti (fræðiheiti: Xanthorhoe designata) er fiðrildi af fetaætt.  Hann finnst í fjallendi Evrasíu. Á Íslandi er hún á láglendi, aðellega sunnan til.

Tilvísanir

Tenglar
Flame carpet at UKMoths
Fauna Europaea
Lepiforum e.V.

Fetaætt
Skordýr á Íslandi

Mýrfeti


La Coupe de Gibraltar 2021-2022 est la  de la Rock Cup (appelée Gibtelecom Rock Cup pour des raisons de parrainage).

Format
Prenant place entre les mois de février et de mai 2022, la compétition se décompose en quatre phases allant du premier tour jusqu'à la finale. L'intégralité des matchs sont joués au Victoria Stadium de Gibraltar.

Les participants au tournoi sont les douze équipes évoluant au sein de l'unique division du championnat gibraltarien pour la saison 2021-2022 auxquelles s'ajoute le FC Hound Dogs, qui évolue au sein de la , réservée aux équipes de jeunes.

Le vainqueur de la compétition obtient une place pour le tour préliminaire de la Ligue Europa Conférence 2022-2023. Cependant, si le vainqueur vient à se qualifier pour la Ligue des champions ou à la Ligue Europa Conférence par le biais le championnat, cette place qualificative est réattribuée au troisième de cette dernière compétition. Le vainqueur de la coupe obtient également une place pour la Supercoupe disputée face au champion de première division, celle-ci étant réattribuée au deuxième du championnat si le champion remporte également la coupe.

Résultats

Premier tour
Huit des douze clubs engagés prennent part au premier tour, les Bruno's Magpies passent directement en quarts de finale en remportant le GFA Trophy Challenge, lors de la saison dernière. Après le tirage au sort, trois équipes restantes passent directement en quarts de finale, le Europa Point, Lions Gibraltar et Mons Calpe

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Quarts de finale

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Demi-finales

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Finale

Références

Liens externes
  Résultats complets et classement sur le site RSSSF

Gibraltar
2021-2022
2021 à Gibraltar
2022 à Gibraltar

Coupe de Gibraltar de football 2021-2022


Kerstin Wohlbord (født den 11. januar 1984 i Friedrichshafen) er en tysk håndboldspiller som spiller for Thüringer HC og det tyske landshold. Hun startede på det tyske landshold i 2011.

Internationale resultater

 Bundesliga:
 Vinder: 2007, 2008, 2011
 German Cup:
 Vinder: 2011

Kilder

Håndboldspillere fra Tyskland

Kerstin Wohlbold


Anita Hegerland () este o cântăreață norvegiană cunoscută pentru cariera ei muzicală din copilărie în Scandinavia, Germania, Elveția, Austria, Țările de Jos, Belgia și Luxemburg și pentru colaborarea cu Mike Oldfield.

Este cântăreața cu cele mai bine vândute single-uri solo din Norvegia, cu vânzări de peste 7 milioane de albume și single-uri. Cântecele ei au fost folosite pe aproape 23 de milioane de albume în întreaga lume.

Aceasta a avut cel mai mare succes muzical în Germania, detronând alți artiști norvegieni precum Lene Nystrøm (Aqua), Marit Larsen, Madcon și A-ha.

Note

Nașteri în 1961
Cântăreți norvegieni
Nașteri pe 3 martie
Norvegieni în viață
Cântărețe din secolul al XX-lea
Cântărețe din secolul al XXI-lea

Anita Hegerland


Somalijska policija javna je policijska služba somalijskog Ministarstva unutarnjih poslova koja obavlja zakonom propisane policijske poslove. Posebni je ogranak Somalijskih oružanih snaga sa zadaćom očuvanja javnog reda i mira, suzbijanje svakoga oblika kriminala i protuzakonitih djelovanja. Posebne jedinice obučene su i za protuterorističko djelovanje.

Utemeljena je 1960., na temeljima Somalijskih redarstvenih snaga, koje su djelovale u suradnji s britanskim ili talijanskim kolonijalnim snagama. Čelna osoba policije je ravnatelj policije, predsjedatelj ravnateljstva i državne policijske uprave, kojeg imenuje ministar unutarnjih poslova ili predsjednik vlade. U djelokrug policije potpadaju i vatrogasne službe, prometna policija, ženske jedinice, službe hitne pomoći i postrojbe posebne namjene (specijalna policija).

Pozivni broj za policijske službe u Somaliji glasi 888.

Vanjske poveznice
 Službene stranice

Somalija
Policija

Somalijska policija


In combinatorial mathematics, the Steiner tree problem, or minimum Steiner tree problem, named after Jakob Steiner, is an umbrella term for a class of problems in combinatorial optimization. While Steiner tree problems may be formulated in a number of settings, they all require an optimal interconnect for a given set of objects and a predefined objective function.  One well-known variant, which is often used synonymously with the term Steiner tree problem, is the Steiner tree problem in graphs. Given an undirected graph with non-negative edge weights and a subset of vertices, usually referred to as terminals, the Steiner tree problem in graphs requires a tree of minimum weight that contains all terminals (but may include additional vertices) and minimizes the total weight of its edges. Further well-known variants are the Euclidean Steiner tree problem and the rectilinear minimum Steiner tree problem.

The Steiner tree problem in graphs can be seen as a generalization of two other famous combinatorial optimization problems: the (non-negative) shortest path problem and the minimum spanning tree problem. If a Steiner tree problem in graphs contains exactly two terminals, it reduces to finding the shortest path. If, on the other hand, all vertices are terminals, the Steiner tree problem in graphs is equivalent to the minimum spanning tree. However, while both the non-negative shortest path and the minimum spanning tree problem are solvable in polynomial time, no such solution is known for the Steiner tree problem. Its decision variant, asking whether a given input has a tree of weight less than some given threshold, is NP-complete, which implies that the optimization variant, asking for the minimum-weight tree in a given graph, is NP-hard. In fact, the decision variant was among Karp's original 21 NP-complete problems. The Steiner tree problem in graphs has applications in circuit layout or network design. However, practical applications usually require variations, giving rise to a multitude of Steiner tree problem variants.

Most versions of the Steiner tree problem are NP-hard, but some restricted cases can be solved in polynomial time. Despite the pessimistic worst-case complexity, several Steiner tree problem variants, including the Steiner tree problem in graphs and the rectilinear Steiner tree problem, can be solved efficiently in practice, even for large-scale real-world problems.

Euclidean Steiner tree

The original problem was stated in the form that has become known as the Euclidean Steiner tree problem or geometric Steiner tree problem: Given N points in the plane, the goal is to connect them by lines of minimum total length in such a way that any two points may be interconnected by line segments either directly or via other points and line segments. It may be shown that the connecting line segments do not intersect each other except at the endpoints and form a tree, hence the name of the problem.

The problem for N = 3 has long been considered, and quickly extended to the problem of finding a star network with a single hub connecting to all of the N given points, of minimum total length.
However, although the full Steiner tree problem was formulated in a letter by Gauss, its first serious treatment was in a 1934 paper written in Czech by Vojtěch Jarník and . This paper was long overlooked, but it already contains "virtually all general properties of Steiner trees" later attributed to other researchers, including the generalization of the problem from the plane to higher dimensions.

For the Euclidean Steiner problem, points added to the graph (Steiner points) must have a degree of three, and the three edges incident to such a point must form three 120 degree angles (see Fermat point). It follows that the maximum number of Steiner points that a Steiner tree can have is N − 2, where N is the initial number of given points.

For N = 3 there are two possible cases: if the triangle formed by the given points has all angles which are less than 120 degrees, the solution is given by a Steiner point located at the Fermat point; otherwise the solution is given by the two sides of the triangle which meet on the angle with 120 or more degrees.

For general N, the Euclidean Steiner tree problem is NP-hard, and hence it is not known whether an optimal solution can be found by using a polynomial-time algorithm. However, there is a polynomial-time approximation scheme (PTAS) for Euclidean Steiner trees, i.e., a near-optimal solution can be found in polynomial time. It is not known whether the Euclidean Steiner tree problem is NP-complete, since membership to the complexity class NP is not known.

Rectilinear Steiner tree

The rectilinear Steiner tree problem is a variant of the geometric Steiner tree problem in the plane, in which the Euclidean distance is replaced with the rectilinear distance. The problem arises in the physical design of electronic design automation. In VLSI circuits, wire routing is carried out by wires that are often constrained by design rules to run only in vertical and horizontal directions, so the rectilinear Steiner tree problem can be used to model the routing of nets with more than two terminals.

Steiner tree in graphs and variants
Steiner trees have been extensively studied in the context of weighted graphs. The prototype is, arguably, the Steiner tree problem in graphs. Let G = (V, E) be an undirected graph with non-negative edge weights c and let S ⊆ V be a subset of vertices, called terminals. A Steiner tree is a tree in G that spans S. There are two versions of the problem: in the optimization problem associated with Steiner trees, the task is to find a minimum-weight Steiner tree; in the decision problem the edge weights are integers and the task is to determine whether a Steiner tree exists whose total weight does not exceed a predefined natural number k. The decision problem is one of Karp's 21 NP-complete problems; hence the optimization problem is NP-hard. Steiner tree problems in graphs are applied to various problems in research and industry, including multicast routing and bioinformatics.

A special case of this problem is when G is a complete graph, each vertex v ∈ V corresponds to a point in a metric space, and the edge weights w(e) for each e ∈ E correspond to distances in the space. Put otherwise, the edge weights satisfy the triangle inequality. This variant is known as the metric Steiner tree problem. Given an instance of the (non-metric) Steiner tree problem, we can transform it in polynomial time into an equivalent instance of the metric Steiner tree problem; the transformation preserves the approximation factor.

While the Euclidean version admits a PTAS, it is known that the metric Steiner tree problem is APX-complete, i.e., unless P = NP, it is impossible to achieve approximation ratios that are arbitrarily close to 1 in polynomial time. There is a polynomial-time algorithm that approximates the minimum Steiner tree to within a factor of ;
however, approximating within a factor  is NP-hard. For the restricted case of Steiner Tree problem with distances 1 and 2, a 1.25-approximation algorithm is known. Karpinski and Alexander Zelikovsky constructed PTAS for the dense instances of Steiner Tree problems.

In a special case of the graph problem, the Steiner tree problem for quasi-bipartite graphs, S is required to include at least one endpoint of every edge in G.

The Steiner tree problem has also been investigated in higher dimensions and on various surfaces. Algorithms to find the Steiner minimal tree have been found on the sphere, torus, projective plane, wide and narrow cones, and others.

Other generalizations of the Steiner tree problem are the k-edge-connected Steiner network problem and the k''-vertex-connected Steiner network problem, where the goal is to find a k-edge-connected graph or a k-vertex-connected graph rather than any connected graph. A further well-studied generalization is the survivable network design problem (SNDP) where the task is to connect each vertex pair with a given number (possibly 0) of edge- or vertex-disjoint paths.

The Steiner problem has also been stated in the general setting of metric spaces and for possibly infinitely many points.

Approximating the Steiner tree

The general graph Steiner tree problem can be approximated by computing the minimum spanning tree of the subgraph of the metric closure of the graph induced by the terminal vertices, as first published in 1981 by Kou et al. The metric closure of a graph G is the complete graph in which each edge is weighted by the shortest path distance between the nodes in G. This algorithm produces a tree whose weight is within a 2 − 2/t factor of the weight of the optimal Steiner tree where t is the number of leaves in the optimal Steiner tree; this can be proven by considering a traveling salesperson tour on the optimal Steiner tree. This approximate solution is computable in O(|S| |V|²) polynomial time by first solving the all-pairs shortest paths problem to compute the metric closure, then by solving the minimum spanning tree problem.

Another popular algorithm to approximate the Steiner tree in graphs was published by Takahashi and Matsuyama in 1980. Their solution incrementally builds up the Steiner tree by starting from an arbitrary vertex, and repeatedly adding the shortest path from the tree to the nearest vertex in S that has not yet been added. This algorithm also has O(|S| |V|²) running time, and produces a tree whose weight is within 2 − 2/|S| of optimal.

In 1986, Wu et al. improved dramatically on the running time by avoiding precomputation of the all-pairs shortest paths. Instead, they take a similar approach to Kruskal's algorithm for computing a minimum spanning tree, by starting from a forest of |S| disjoint trees, and "growing" them simultaneously using a breadth-first search resembling Dijkstra's algorithm but starting from multiple initial vertices. When the search encounters a vertex that does not belong to the current tree, the two trees are merged into one. This process is repeated until only one tree remains. By using a Heap (data structure) to implement the priority queue and a disjoint-set data structure to track to which tree each visited vertex belongs, this algorithm achieves O(|E| log |V|) running time, although it does not improve on the 2 − 2/t cost ratio from Kou et al.

A series of papers provided approximation algorithms for the minimum Steiner tree problem with approximation ratios that improved upon the 2 − 2/t'' ratio. This sequence culminated with Robins and Zelikovsky's algorithm in 2000 which improved the ratio to 1.55 by iteratively improving upon the minimum cost terminal spanning tree. More recently, however, Byrka et al. proved an  approximation using a linear programming relaxation and a technique called iterative, randomized rounding.

Parameterized complexity of Steiner tree

The general graph Steiner tree problem is known to be fixed-parameter tractable, with the number of terminals as a parameter, by the Dreyfus-Wagner algorithm. The running time of the Dreyfus-Wagner algorithm is , where  is the number of vertices of the graph and  is the set of terminals. Faster algorithms exist, running in  time for any  or, in the case of small weights,  time, where  is the maximum weight of any edge. A disadvantage of the aforementioned algorithms is that they use exponential space; there exist polynomial-space algorithms running in  time and  time.

It is known that the general graph Steiner tree problem does not have a parameterized algorithm running in  time for any , where  is the number of edges of the optimal Steiner tree, unless the Set cover problem has an algorithm running in  time for some , where  and  are the number of elements and the number of sets, respectively, of the instance of the set cover problem. Furthermore, it is known that the problem does not admit a polynomial kernel unless , even parameterized by the number of edges of the optimal Steiner tree and if all edge weights are 1.

Parameterized approximation of Steiner tree
While the graph Steiner tree problem does not admit a polynomial kernel unless  parameterized by the number of terminals, it does admit a polynomial-sized approximate kernelization scheme (PSAKS): for any  it is possible to compute a polynomial-sized kernel, which looses only a  factor in the solution quality.

When parameterizing the graph Steiner tree problem by the number  of non-terminals (Steiner vertices) in the optimum solution, the problem is W[1]-hard (in contrast to the parameterization by the number of terminals, as mentioned above). At the same time the problem is APX-complete and thus does not admit a PTAS, unless P = NP. However, a parameterized approximation scheme exists, which for any  computes a -approximation in  time. Also a PSAKS exists for this parameterization.

Steiner ratio

The Steiner ratio is the supremum of the ratio of the total length of the minimum spanning tree to the minimum Steiner tree for a set of points in the Euclidean plane.

In the Euclidean Steiner tree problem, the Steiner ratio is conjectured to be , the ratio that is achieved by three points in an equilateral triangle with a spanning tree that uses two sides of the triangle and a Steiner tree that connects the points through the centroid of the triangle. Despite earlier claims of a proof, the conjecture is still open. The best widely accepted upper bound for the problem is 1.2134, by .

For the rectilinear Steiner tree problem, the Steiner ratio is exactly , the ratio that is achieved by four points in a square with a spanning tree that uses three sides of the square and a Steiner tree that connects the points through the center of the square. More precisely, for  distance the square should be tilted at  with respect to the coordinate axes, while for  distance the square should be axis-aligned.

See also
Opaque forest problem
Travelling salesman problem

Notes

References

 , pp. 208–209, problems ND12 and ND13.

External links

GeoSteiner (Software for solving Euclidean and rectilinear Steiner tree problems; source available, free for non-commercial use)
SCIP-Jack (Software for solving the Steiner tree problem in graphs and 14 variants, e.g., prize-collecting Steiner tree problem; free for non-commercial use)
Fortran subroutine for finding the Steiner vertex of a triangle (i.e., Fermat point), its distances from the triangle vertices, and the relative vertex weights.
Phylomurka (Solver for small-scale Steiner tree problems in graphs)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PI6rAOWu-Og (Movie: solving the Steiner tree problem with water and soap)

M. Hauptmann, M. Karpinski (2013): A Compendium on Steiner Tree Problems

NP-complete problems
Trees (graph theory)
Computational problems in graph theory
Geometric algorithms
Geometric graphs

Steiner tree problem


Die Channar Mine ist ein Eisenerzbergwerk in der Pilbara-Region von Western Australia, das 17 Kilometer südöstlich von Paraburdoo liegt.

Das Bergwerk wird von der Rio Tinto Iron Ore, einer Tochter der Rio Tinto Group betrieben, die die Mehrheitsanteile daran hält. Die Channar Mine ist eine von 13 Minen in der Pilbara, die dieser Bergwerkkonzerns betreibt. 2009 produzierten die Minen von Rio Tinto in der Pilbara 202 Millionen Tonnes Eisenerz, mehr als 15 Prozent als im Jahr zuvor. Die Minen von Rio Tinto produzierten 2009 mehr als 13 Prozent der 1,59 Millionen Tonnen der Eisenerz-Weltproduktion.

Die Hamersley Range, wo sich das Bergwerk befindet, enthält 80 Prozent aller bekannten Eisenerzvorkommen in Australien und ist eines der weltgrößten Vorkommen.

Betrieb der Mine

Rio Tinto produziert seit 1966 Eisenerz in der Pilbara-Region. Die Channar Mine begann ihren Betrieb im Tagebau im Januar 1990. In gemeinsamer Produktion von Paraburdoo Mine, Eastern Range Mine und Channar Mine stellt Rio Tinto 20 Million Tonnes Eisenerz her. Das Eisenerz der Bergwerke Channar und Paraburdoo wird nach Paraburdoo transportiert, bevor es mit Transportbändern auf Eisenbahnen verladen wird. Das Erz der Bergwerke wird anschließend durch die Hamersley & Robe River Railway an die Küste transportiert, wo es auf Schiffe verladen wird. Erz von Channar, wie auch der Brockman Mine, Mount, Paraburdoo Mine, Eastern Range Mine, Marandoo Mine and Yandicoogina Minea wird als Pellets und als Feinererzprodukt mit der Eisenbahn nach Dampier auf der Schiene transportiert. Vor einer Verladung werden die Eisenerzprodukte gemischt und gesiebt. Die maximale Größe der Pellets beträgt 31,5 mm und die des Feinerzes 6,3 mm.

Die Bergwerke beschäftigen Einheimische aus Paraburdoo. 2009 zählten die Bergwerke von Paraburdoo, Channar und Eastern Range 1.081 Beschäftigte, während es 2008 noch 1.324 waren.

Das Bergwerk wurde zeitweise im späten Jahre 2008 geschlossen, als sich der chinesische Geschäftspartner Sinosteel weigerte zu den gesunkenen Eisenpreisen während der Finanzkrise zu verkaufen, denn die Herstellkosten für brasilianisches Eisenerz waren um 11 Prozent niederer. In Übereinstimmung nach Feststellungen der Bank Credit Suisse kostete Eisenerz aus Channar 11 % mehr als das identische Produkt aus Brasilien.

Das Bergwerk, dessen Anlage für eine Herstellung von 10 Millionen Tonnen je Jahr in 1998 ausgelegt ist, soll weitere Jahre betrieben zu werden, um 200 Millionen Tonnen Eisenerz für die chinesische Stahlindustrie herzustellen. Die Channar Mine war das erste Unternehmen, an dem sich ein chinesischer Konzern außerhalb von China beteiligte. und war Chinas größtes Übersee-Investments in dieser Zeit. 2010 gab Rio Tinto und Sinosteel Pläne bekannt, dass sie planen, die Produktion um weitere 50 Millionen Tonnen Eisenerz zu erweitern werden.

Rio Tinto hält 60 Prozent der Anteile des Bergwerks und das chinesische Unternehmen Sinosteel Corporation 40 Prozent. Rio Tinto hält die Anteile der Mine durch Hamersley Iron Pty Ltd, einer 100-prozentigen Tochter von Rio Tinto, der sechs weitere Eisenerzbergwerk in der Pilbara und Anteile an zwei weiteren Bergwerken gehören, einschließlich Channar.

Weblinks
 Rio Tinto Iron Ore website
 MINEDEX website Database of the Department of Mines and Petroleum

Einzelnachweise

Eisenerzbergwerk in Australien
Geographie (Western Australia)
Rio Tinto Group
Bergwerk in Australien und Ozeanien

Channar Mine


The Cariban languages are a family of languages indigenous to northeastern South America. They are widespread across northernmost South America, from the mouth of the Amazon River to the Colombian Andes, and they are also spoken in small pockets of central Brazil. The languages of the Cariban family are relatively closely related. There are about three dozen, but most are spoken only by a few hundred people. Macushi is the only language among them with numerous speakers, estimated at 30,000. The Cariban family is well known among linguists partly because one language in the family—Hixkaryana—has a default word order of object–verb–subject. Prior to their discovery of this, linguists believed that this order did not exist in any spoken natural language.

In the 16th century, Cariban peoples expanded into the Lesser Antilles. There they killed or displaced, and also mixed with the Arawak peoples who already inhabited the islands. The resulting language—Kalhíphona or Island Carib—was Carib in name but largely Arawak in substance. The Carib male conquerors took Arawak women as wives, and the latter passed on their own language on to the children. For a time, Arawak was spoken by women and children and Carib by adult men, but as each generation of Carib-Arawak boys reached adulthood, they acquired less Carib until only basic vocabulary and a few grammatical elements were left. That form of Island Carib became extinct in the Lesser Antilles in the 1920s, but it survives as Garífuna, or "Black Carib," in Central America. The gender distinction has dwindled to only a handful of words. Dominica is the only island in the eastern Caribbean to retain some of its pre-Columbian population, descendants of the Carib Indians, about 3,000 of whom live on the island's east coast.

Genetic relations
The Cariban languages share irregular morphology with the Jê and Tupian families. Ribeiro connects them all in a Je–Tupi–Carib family. Meira, Gildea, & Hoff (2010) note that likely morphemes in proto-Tupian and proto-Cariban are good candidates for being cognates, but that work so far is insufficient to make definitive statements.

Language contact
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Guato, Kawapana, Nambikwara, Taruma, Warao, Arawak, Bororo, Jeoromitxi, Karaja, Rikbaktsa, and Tupi language families due to contact.

Extensive lexical similarities between Cariban and various Macro-Jê languages suggest that Cariban languages had originated in the Lower Amazon region (rather than in the Guiana Highlands). There they were in contact with early forms of Macro-Jê languages, which were likely spoken in an area between the Parecis Plateau and upper Araguaia River.

Family division
The Cariban languages are closely related. In many cases where one of the languages is more distinct, this is due to influence from neighboring languages rather than an indication that it is not closely related. According to Kaufman (2007), "Except for Opon, Yukpa, Pimenteira and Palmela (and possibly Panare), the Cariban languages are not very diverse phonologically and lexically (though more so than Romance, for example)."

Previous classifications
Good data has been collected around ca. 2000 on most Cariban languages; classifications prior to that time (including Kaufman 2007, which relies on the earlier work) are unreliable.

Several such classifications have been published; the one shown here, by Derbyshire (1999) divides Cariban into seven branches. A traditional geographic classification into northern and southern branches is cross referenced with (N) or (S) after each language.

Galibi [Kaliña] (N)
Guiana Carib (Taranoan):
Trio: Tiriyó–Akuriyó (†), Salumá (N), Carijona–Hianákoto (S)
Kashuyana: Sikiana (N), Kaxuiâna [Warikyana] (†) (S)
Waiwai: Hixkaryána (S), Waiwai (N)
Kaufman breaks this up into its constituent branches
North Amazonian Carib:
Yawaperi: Atruahí [Atrowari, Waimiri] (N)
Pemong: Macushi–Pemon [Arekuna], Akawaio–Patamona (= Kapong, Ingariko) (N)
Paravilyana: Pawishiana (†)
Kaufman breaks this up into its constituent branches, adding Purukotó (†) to Pemong; Boanarí (†) to Atruahí; Paravilyana (†) and Sapará (†) to Pawishiana
Central Carib:
Wayana–Apalaí (N)
Maquiritari [Dekwana] (S)
Mapoyo–Yabarana–Pémono (N)
Kaufman adds Chaima [Kumaná]; Arakajú (†) (to Wayana); Yao (†) and Tiverikoto (†); Wajumará (†) (to Makiritare)
Tamanaku is close to Mapoyo
South Amazonian Carib:
Bakairi: Bakairí, Kuikúro [Kalapálo, Amonap], Matipuhy [Nahukwa] (†) (S)
Arara: Txikão [Ikpeng, Chikaon], Arára [Pará] (N)
To Arara Kaufman adds extinct Juma (†), Apiaká-Apingi (†), Yarumá (†)
Yukpa:
Japrería (N)
Yukpa (N)
Coyaima (N) (†)
Panare (N)
Opon [Opón-Karare] (†)
Unclassified: Pimenteira (†), Palmela (†).

The extinct Patagón de Perico language of northern Peru also appears to have been a Cariban language, perhaps close to Carijona. Yao is so poorly attested that Gildea believes it may never be classified.

Meira (2006)
Preliminary internal classification of the Cariban languages according to Sérgio Meira (2006):

Cariban
Guianan branch
Karinya (Galibi); Wayana; Apalaí (?); Palmella † (?)
Taranoan group
Karihona
Tiriyó; Akuriyó
Parukotoan group
Katxuyana
Waiwai; Hixkaryana
Venezolano branch
Coastal group
Tamanaku †
Chayma †
Cumanagoto †
Pemongan group
Pemong (Arekuna, etc.)
Kapong (Akawaio, etc.)
Makuxi
Panare
Ye'kwana (?)
Mapoyo (?); Yawarana (?)
Waimirian branch
Waimiri-Atroari (?)
Yukpano branch
Yukpa (Motilón)
Hapreria (Japreria)
Southern (or Pekodian) branch
Bakairi
Xinguan group (or Kampot dialect cluster)
Arára
Ikpeng
Apiaká do Tocantins
Parirí
Yarumá
Kuikuroan branch
Kuikuro (Kalapalo, etc.)
Pimenteira † (?)

Gildea (2012)
As of Gildea (2012), there had not yet been time to fully reclassify the Cariban languages based on the new data. The list here is therefore tentative, though an improvement over the one above; the most secure branches are listed first, and only two of the extinct languages are addressed.

Parukotoan
Katxúyana (Shikuyana, (†) Warikyana)
Waiwai: Waiwai (Wabui, Tunayana), Hixkaryana
Pekodian
Bakairí
Arara: Arara (Parirí), Ikpéng (Txikão)
Venezuelan Carib
Pemóng–Panare
Pemóng: Kapóng (Akawaio, Patamuna, Ingarikó), Makushi, Pemón (Taurepang, Kamarakóto, Arekuna)
Panare
Mapoyo–Tamanaku
(†) Kumaná (Chaima, Cumanagota, Tamanaku)
Mapoyo-Yawarana (Mapoyo, Wanai, Yawarana, Pémono)
Nahukwa: Kuikúro, Kalapalo
Guianan Carib
Kari'nja (Carib, Kalinya, Cariña, Galibi)
Makiritare (De'kwana, Maiongong, Ye'kwana)
Taranoan
Tiriyo: Akuriyo, Tiriyo, Trio
Karihona
Wayana
Unclassified:
Apalaí
Waimirí Atroarí
Yukpa: Yukpa, Japréria

Meira et al. (2015)
Meira, Birchall & Chousou-Polydouri (2015) give the following phylogenetic tree of Cariban, based on a computational phylogenetic analysis of 100-item Swadesh lists.
Cariban
Opon-Carare
Yukpa
Nuclear Cariban
Sapara
Pekodian
Bakairi
Arara, Ikpeng
Kuhikugu
Pemongan
Pemon
Taurepang
Makushi
Patamuna; Akawaio, Arekuna
Wayumaran
Wayumara
Purukoto
Parukotoan
Katxuyana
Hixkaryana, Waiwai
Kumanan
Chayma
Cumanagoto
Tamanaku
Mapoyan
Yawarana
Pemono, Mapoyo
Panare
Dekwana
Guianan
Wayana, Apalai
Taranoan
Karihona
Tiriyo, Akuriyo
Karina
Waimiri

Meira, Birchall & Chousou-Polydouri (2015) conclude that the Proto-Cariban homeland was located north of the Amazon River, and that there is no evidence for a northward migration from the south, as previously proposed by Rodrigues (1985). Rather there were two southern migrations (Pekodian and Nahukwa into the Upper Xingu).

Jolkesky (2016)
Internal classification by Jolkesky (2016):

(† = extinct)

Karib
Karib, Western †
Karare †
Opon †
Karib, Central
Apalai
Hianakoto
Guake †
Hianakoto-Umawa †
Karihona
Kariña
Palmella †
Tarano
Akurio
Tiriyo
Wayana
Karib, Southern
Kuikuro
Kalapalo
Kuikuro
Matipu
Nahukwa
Pekodi
Arara-Ikpeng
Arara
Ikpeng
Bakairi
Pimenteira †
Karib, Northern
Parukoto
Kashuyana
Parukoto, Nuclear
Hishkaryana
Sikiana
Waiwai
Purukoto
Kapong: Akawayo; Patamona
Makushi
Pemon: Arekuna; Ingariko; Kamarakoto; Taurepang
Purukoto
Venezuela
De'kwana-Wayumara
De'kwana
Wayumara
Eñepa
Kumana
Chayma
Kumanagoto †
Mapoyo-Yabarana
Mapoyo
Pemono
Yabarana
Tamanaku †
Yao †
Tiverikoto †
Yao †
Yawaperi-Paravilhana
Sapara-Paravilhana
Paravilhana
Sapara
Yawaperi
Bonari †
Waimiri-Atroari
Yukpa-Japreria
Japreria
Yukpa

Varieties
Below is a full list of Cariban language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.

Western languages: Caraib / Calinago / Karib – language spoken by the insular and continental Caraibes, with many dialects:
Dialect of the insular Caraibes, once spoken on the Lesser Antilles Islands, now by only a few old individuals in a reserve on the island of Dominica.
Dialect of Pomeroon / Caribisi / Acarabisi – spoken on the Macarani River and Pomeroon River, Guyana.
Tabare / Cariña – dialect spoken by the inhabitants of the villages of El Guasey, Cachipo, Cachama, and San Joaquín de Parire (Mapicure) in the state of Anzoátegui and in the village of Tapaquire in the state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
Caribe – extinct dialect once spoken by the descendants of Caraibes and by the mixed population on the plains of Barcelona, states of Monagas and Anzoátegui, Venezuela.
Carif / Moreno – dialect combined with Arawakan, spoken by the Negro Indian mixed population of British Honduras, in Guatemala on the Gulf of Honduras, and on Roatan Island in Honduras, Central America.
Cariniaco – extinct dialect once spoken at the mouth of the Caura River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
Mayé – extinct dialect once spoken on the Casipore River, Amapá territory, Brazil. (Unattested.)
Paracoto – extinct dialect once spoken at the mouth of the Araguari River, Amapá and at the mouth of the Mana River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
Carane – once spoken at the old mission of São Paulo d'Oiapoque, Amapá territory. (Unattested.)
Norac / Norag – once spoken on the Approuague River, French Guiana, later on the Anotarí River; now extinct. (Unattested.)
Itutan – once spoken on the lower course of the Casipore River and in the Serra Lombard, Amapá. (Unattested.)
Curucuane – once spoken on the lower course of the Casipore River, south of the Itutan tribe. (Unattested.)
Aricarí – once spoken near the Curucuane tribe on the lower course of the Calçoene River. (Unattested.)
Sapai – once spoken on the Mana River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
Piriou – once spoken in French Guiana on the middle course of the Oyapoque River. (Unattested.)
Mersiou – once spoken on the Aratye River, Inini River, and Aua River, French Guiana, now probably extinct. (Unattested.)
Acoqua – once spoken at the sources of the Approuague River, and on the Camopi River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
Wai – spoken on the Tamouri River, French Guiana; now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
Taira – spoken in the same colony as the Wai tribe on the Iracoubo River. (Unattested.)
Acuria – originally spoken on the Nickerie River and Coppename River, Suriname; now on the Berbice River, Guyana. (Unattested.)
Chacoi – spoken by a few mixed individuals between the Berbice River and Essequibo River, Guyana. (Unattested.)
Parabaiana – once spoken on the middle course of the Marouini River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
Caicuchiana – once spoken in French Guiana, south of the Parabaiana tribe. (Unattested.)

Eastern languages
Waiana / Oayana – spoken on the Palumeu River and Lawa River, Suriname, and on the Jarí River and Paru River, state of Pará, Brazil; once also between the Maroni River and Marouini River, French Guiana.
Amicuan – extinct language once spoken at the sources of the Marouini River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
Upurui – once spoken on the upper course of the Jarí River, now by a few individuals at the sources of the Parú de Leste River, state of Pará, Brazil.
Apalai / Aparai – spoken on the middle course of the Parú de Leste River and between this river and the upper course of the Maicuru River, Pará.
Carapeuara – extinct language once spoken in the state of Pará south of the Apama tribe on the Maicuru River. (Unattested.)
Palanc – extinct language once spoken in French Guiana on the middle course of the Apima River and Yaroupi River and on the Unani River. (Unattested.)
Rucuyene – extinct language once spoken in the same colony on the Lawa River.
Noyene – once spoken on the Cuc River, state of Pará. (Unattested.)
Yapacoye – once spoken on the left bank of the Itany River, French Guiana. (Unattested.)
Aracajú / Uaraguazú – extinct language mixed with many Tupi elements, once spoken on the Gurupamba River and Parú de Leste River, Pará.

Trio group
Trio / Diáu / Tirió – spoken on the Tapanahoni River, Corentijn River, and Palumeu River, Suriname, and between the sources of the Parú de Leste River and Parú de Oeste River, state of Pará.
Urucuyana / Waiano – spoken on the left bank of the Parú de Leste River, Pará.
Wama – spoken by a tribe at the sources of the Oelemari River, Suriname.
Tliometesen / Oyaricule – spoken by a few individuals between the Litani River and Tapanahoni River, Suriname.
Ocomayana / Kumayena / Comayana – spoken at the sources of the Coeroeni River, Suriname, and at the sources of the Oronoque River in Guyana.
Pianocoto – once spoken at the sources of the Trombetas River and the Jamunda River, now at the mouth of the Marapi River in the Parú de Oeste River, Pará.
Aramihoto – spoken by a small tribe in Suriname on the upper course of the Coeroeni River. (Unattested.)
Prohyana – spoken in the same colony in the Eilerts de Haan Gebergte. (Unattested.)
Maipuridjana – spoken in Suriname on the Sipaliwini River. (Unattested.)
Rangú – spoken at the sources of the Parú de Oeste River, Pará.
Acuriyo – spoken at the sources of the Tapanahoni River, Suriname. (Unattested.)
Aramisho – spoken on the upper course of the Parú de Leste River, Pará. (Unattested.)
Aramayana – spoken by the southern neighbors of the Aramisho tribe. (Unattested.)
Aramagoto – spoken between the upper courses of the Parú de Leste River and the Parú de Oeste River, Pará. (Unattested.)
Pianoi – spoken at the sources and on the upper course of the Citaré River, Pará. (Unattested.)

Chiquena group
Chiquena / Shikiana – spoken on the Apiniwau River, Guyana, and at the sources of the Panemá River, Pará. (Farabee 1924, pp. 195–196.)
Zurumata – once spoken in a village of the same name on the upper course of the Trombetas River, Pará, now probably extinct. (Unattested.)
Ingarüne – spoken at the sources of the Panemá River and its tributaries. (Unattested.)
Salumá / Charúma – spoken between the upper courses of the Trombetas River, Uanabé River, and Tunúru River, Pará.
Prehnoma – spoken by a small tribe west of the Pianocoto tribe. (Unattested.)
Caicusiana – spoken on the Tunúru River south of the Salumá tribe. (Unattested.)
Tunayana – spoken between the middle courses of the Panemá River and Tunúru River. (Unattested.)
Sereu – spoken east of the sources of the Cachorro River. (Unattested.)
Cahuyana – spoken on the middle course of the Trombetas River. (Unattested.)
Marachó – spoken by an unknown tribe on the middle course of the Cuminá River. (Unattested.)
Pauxi / Pawiyana – spoken on the right bank of the middle course of the Erepecurú River (Cuminá River); now perhaps extinct.
Waríkyana – extinct language once spoken on the lower course of the Trombetas River. (Unattested.)
Uayeué – spoken on the Mapuera River and its tributary Urubú de Silves River.
Cachuena / Kaxiuâna / Casiana / Cachoarí – spoken by a few families at the mouth of the Cachorro River.
Mutuan – once spoken on the lower course of the Nhamundá River.
Cariguano – once spoken on the Panemá River. (Unattested.)
Conduri – extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the Nhamundá River. (Unattested.)
Paraugoaru – extinct language once spoken on the Capó River, a tributary of the Trombetas River. (Unattested.)

Waiwai group
Waiwai / Woaywai – spoken at the sources of the Essequibo River, Guyana and at the sources of the Mapuera River, state of Pará, Brazil.
Faranakaru – spoken at the sources of the Mapuera River south of the Waiwai tribe. (Unattested.)
Faranauaru – spoken on the left bank of the Mapuera River. (Unattested.)
Parucoto / Katawian – spoken on the middle course of the Mapuera River and between the sources of the Acarí River and Cachorrinho River. (Farabee 1924, pp. 192–193.)
Chiriwiyana – spoken at the sources of the Acarí River. (Unattested.)
Ororicó – spoken on the upper course of the Cachorrinho River. (Unattested.)
Cotonúru – spoken between the Cachorro River and Cachorrinho River. (Unattested.)
Totocumu / Catuena – spoken between the sources of the Acarí River and Ipitinga River. (Unattested.)
Chawiyana – spoken on the right bank of the upper course of the Nhamundá River, Amazonas. (Unattested.)
Uaiboí / Babui / Wabou – spoken on the middle course of the Nhamundá River.
Hishcariana / Ishkariyána / Tucano – spoken on the middle course of the Nhamundá River.
Xauwiyana – spoken by the neighbors of the Hishcariana tribe. (Unattested.)
Uasaí – spoken by an unknown tribe on the Urubu River and Jatapu River, Amazonas. (Unattested.)
Apoto / Apanto – extinct language once spoken south of the Uaiboi tribe on the Nhamundá River. (Unattested.)
Orocoto – once spoken between the Urubu River and Jatapu River. (Unattested.)
Taguari – extinct language once spoken between the Mapuera River and Ipitinga River. (Unattested.)
Pariquí – once spoken between the mouths of the Uatumã River and Negro River. (Unattested.)
Tapicari – spoken on the Mucajaí River. (Unattested.)
Bonari / Boanari – once spoken on the Uatumã River, Amazonas; now perhaps extinct.

Yauapery group
Yauapery / Atroahi – spoken on the middle course of the Yauapery River, state of Amazonas.
Uaimiri / Wahmirí – spoken at the sources of the Curiuaú River, state of Amazonas.
Crixaná / Quirixana – spoken between the middle course of the Yauapery River and the Curiuaú River, now probably extinct.

Pauishana group
Pauishana – spoken between the Catrimani River and Branco River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil.

Macusi group
Macusi / Makushí – spoken on the Rupununi River, Guyana, and at the sources of the Tacutu River and on the middle course of the Branco River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil.
Monoicó – spoken on the Cotingo River, Brazil. (Unattested.)
Keseruma – spoken on the Tacutu River. (A. Meyer 1951.)
Asepáng – spoken to the south of the Keseruma tribe. (Unattested.)
Eliáng – spoken to the south of the Asepáng tribe. (Unattested.)
Pezacó – spoken to the south of the Eliáng tribe. (Unattested.)
Quenoloco – spoken at the sources of the Cotingo River. (Unattested.)
Teweia – spoken on the Cotingo River. (Unattested.)
Purucotó / Progoto – spoken on the Uraricapará River, territory of Rio Branco.
Wayumara / Azumara / Guimara – spoken between the Mucajaí River and Uraricoera River and in a part of Maracá Island.
Paraviyana / Paravilhana – extinct language once spoken between the Tacutu River and Caratirimani River, Rio Branco.
Zapara / Sapará – spoken in the middle and eastern parts of Maracá Island.

Pemón group
Taurepän / Taulipáng / Ipuricoto / Pemón – spoken between the Uraricuena River and Mount Roraima to the Caroní River, in the border zone of Brazil and Venezuela.
Arecuná – spoken at the sources of the Caroní River and Paragua River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
Ingaricó – spoken to the north of Mount Roraima, border region of Brazil and Venezuela.
Patamona – spoken on the Potaro River and Ireng River, Guyana. (F. Lutz 1912 passim, only a few words.)
Camaracoto – spoken in the state of Bolívar, Venezuela, on the Paragua River and Caroní River.
Arinagoto – once spoken on the Paragua River, state of Bolívar, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
Paraparucota – once spoken between the Caura River and Cuchivero River, state of Bolívar; now extinct. (Unattested.)
Quiriquiripa – extinct language once spoken on the left bank of the Caura River. (Unattested.)
Aguaricoto – extinct language once spoken on the lower course of the Caura River, the same region. (Unattested.)
Serecong / Sarrakong – once spoken in the same region at the sources of the Mahú River. (Unattested.)
Chiricum – once spoken by the western neighbors of the Taurepán tribe in the Rio Branco territory. (Unattested.)
Achirigoto – once spoken on the left bank of the Caura River, middle course, in the state of Bolívar. (Unattested.)
Paudacoto – once spoken in the state of Bolívar at the sources of the Aro River. (Unattested.)
Cachirigoto – once spoken in the state of Bolívar south of the Camaracotó tribe. (Unattested.)
Barinagoto – once spoken at the mouth of the Caroní River, Bolívar state, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Arebato – once spoken in the village of Cuchara on the Caura River in the state of Bolívar, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
Armacoto – once spoken in the same region between the Paragua River and Merevari River. (Unattested.)
Mauitsi – once spoken at the sources of the Paragua River in the same region. (Unattested.)
Uaica / Waica – spoken by a few families on the Yuruari River and Cuyuni River, state of Bolívar.
Acawai / Capong – spoken in Guyana on the Moruca River, Cuyuni River, Acarabisi River, and Pomeroon River.

Maquiritaré group
Decuána / Deukwana / Maquiritaré – spoken on the Caura River, Ventuari River, Merevari River, and Auari River, state of Bolívar and Amazonas territory, Venezuela, and between the Cotingo River and Majari River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil.
Yecuaná / Mayongcong – spoken on the Caura River southwest of the Arecuna tribe, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
Ihuruána – spoken at the sources of the Ventuari River, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela.
Cunuaná / Kunuhana – spoken in the same territory at the sources of the Cunucunuma River. (only four words.)
Morononi – extinct language once spoken in the same territory on the Ventuari River. (Unattested.)
Puipuitene – extinct language once spoken on the same river in the same territory by the neighbors of the Decuaná tribe. (Unattested.)
Acariana – once spoken by the neighbors of the Morononi tribe on the Orinoco River. (Unattested.)
Ocomesiane – once spoken in the same region on the Padamo River. (Unattested.)
Areviriana – once spoken by the eastern neighbors of the Ihuruána tribe. (Unattested.)
Jure – once spoken on the left bank of the middle course of the Ventuari River. (Unattested.)
Pishauco / Pshavaco – once spoken on the Serra Tepequem, Rio Branco territory. (Unattested.)
Mejepure – once spoken on the left ban1e of the lower course of the Ventuari River. (Unattested.)
Aberiana – once spoken by the neighbors of the Acariana tribe on the upper course of the Orinoco River. (Unattested.)

Mapoyo group
Mapoyo / Nepoyo – spoken by a small tribe between the Parguaza River and Suapure River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
Carinuaca – extinct language once spoken in the area between the Ihuruána and Yauarána tribes, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Curasicana / Kurushikiána / Orechicano – once spoken at the sources of the Biehita River, now by only a few individuals. (Unattested.)
Wökiare / Uaiquire – unknown language spoken in the same region on the Paru River. (Unattested.)
Yauarána / Yabarána – language spoken in the same territory on the Manapiare River.
Quaqua – once spoken by the northern neighbors of the Mapoyo tribe. (Unattested.)
Guaquiri – once spoken by the northern neighbors of the Curasicana tribe. (Unattested.)
Pareca – spoken in the region west of the Cuchivero River, now probably extinct. (Unattested.)
Taparito – extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the Caura River. (Unattested.)
Cadupinapo – once spoken by the southern neighbors of the Achirigoto tribe. (Unattested.)
Tabajari – now probably extinct, once spoken on the left bank of the Erebato River, state of Bolívar. (Unattested.)

Panare group
Panáre – language of a small tribe, spoken at the sources of the Cuchivero River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
Abira – once spoken at the sources of the Manapiare River. (Unattested.)
Eye – once spoken by the southwestern neighbors of the Panáre tribe at the sources of the Cuchivero River. (Unattested.)

Tamanaco group
Tamanaco – extinct language once spoken along the Orinoco River from the mouth of the Caroni River to the mouth of the Cuchivero River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela.
Chayma / Guarapiche / Sayma – extinct language once spoken on the Guarapiche River, state of Anzoátegui, Venezuela.
Cumanagota – extinct language once spoken on the Cabo Codera and near Cumaná, state of Sucre, Venezuela.
Tivericoto – once spoken on the coast of the state of Monagas, Venezuela
Palenque – once spoken between the Unare River and Tamanaco River, Guárico state.
Caraca – once spoken around the modern capital of Caracas, Venezuela. (A. Espinosa (Vazquez de Espinosa) 1948, pp. 36–37, only a few words.)
Ciparigoto – extinct language once spoken on the Yaracuy River and Aroa River, state of Yaracuy. (Unattested.)
Teque – once spoken in the Guaire valley, state of Miranda. (Unattested.)
Tacarigua – once spoken around Lake Valencia, Miranda. (Unattested.)
Toromaina – once spoken on the San Pedro River, federal district of Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Arbaco – once spoken around the modern city of Victoria, state of Aragua. (Unattested.)
Meregoto – once spoken on the western shore of Lake Valencia in the state of Aragua. (Unattested.)
Quiriquire – extinct language once spoken on the Tuy River and Misoa River, state of Miranda. (Oramas 1918a, only a few patronyms.)
Chapacuare – once spoken in the Pascua valley, state of Guárico. (Unattested.)
Tarma – once spoken near the modern city of Maracay, state of Aragua. (Unattested.)
Mariche – once spoken in the Baruta valley, state of Miranda. (Unattested.)
Guayqueri – extinct language once spoken on the Paoviejo River, state of Cojedes. (Gumilla 1745, pt. 2, pp. 67–68, only one phrase.)
Tomuza – once spoken between the Chico River and Piritú River, states of Miranda and Anzoátegui. (Unattested.)
Haerena / Guarena – once spoken between the Guarenas River and Guatire River, state of Anzoátegui. (Unattested.)
Piritú – once spoken around the modern city of Puerto Píritu, state of Anzoátegui. (Unattested.)
Tagare – once spoken on the coast of the Gulf of Cariaco, state of Sucre. (Unattested.)
Pariagoto / Guayuno – extinct language once spoken on the Paria Peninsula in the state of Sucre.
Chamaygua – once spoken in the state of Sucre by the neighbors of the Cumanagota tribe. (Unattested.)

Yao group
Yao / Anacaioury – language once spoken by two tribes: one on the western part of the island of Trinidad; the other in French Guiana on the Ivaricopo River and Cau River.

Shebayi group
Shebayi / Supaye – extinct language once spoken in the Guianas; exact location is unknown.

Motilon group
Yupe / Motilon – spoken by many tribes in the Sierra de Perijá, state of Zulia, Venezuela, and in the department of Magdalena, Colombia. Dialects:
Chague / Apon – spoken on the Apon River, Zulia.
Iroca – spoken on the Casacará River, Magdalena.
Macoa – spoken on the Yasa River and Negro River, Zulia.
Manastara – spoken on the Becerril River, Zulia.
Maraca – spoken by a tribe at the source of the Machigue River and on the Maraca River, Magdalena.
Parirí – spoken to the south of the Apon River.
Shapáru / Chaparro – spoken by the western neighbors of the Parirí tribe, Zulia.
Uasamo – spoken in the same area by the northern neighbors of the Shapáru tribe. (Unattested.)
Susa – spoken in the central part of the Sierra de Perijá, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
Manaure – spoken on the left bank of the lower course of the La Paz River, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
Tucushmo – spoken by the northern neighbors of the Iroca tribe, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
Socorpa – spoken in the same area by the northern neighbors of the Maracá tribe. (Unattested.)
Curumaní – spoken south of the Tucui River, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
Socomba – spoken between the sources of the Maracá River and Tucui River, formerly also on the Buenavista River, Magdalena. (Unattested.)
Tucuco – spoken at the sources of the Tucuco River, Zulia. (Unattested.)
Shiquimu – spoken by the southwestern neighbors of the Shaparu tribe, Zulia. (Unattested.)
Irapa – spoken by the eastern neighbors of the Shiguimu tribe. (Unattested.)
Pshicacuo – spoken by the western neighbors of the Tucuco tribe. (Unattested.)
Mishorca – spoken at the sources of the Tucuco River by the neighbors of the Pariri tribe. (Unattested.)
Yapreria / Sabril – spoken at the sources of the Palmar River, Zulia. (Anonymous Madrid h.)
Coyaima / Tupe – extinct language once spoken on the César River, Magdalena. (Castro Trespalacios 1946, only a few patronyms.)
Burede – once spoken at the sources of the Socuy River, Zulia. (Unattested.)
Pemeno – once spoken at the mouth of the Escalante River, Zulia. (Unattested.)
Bubure / Bobure – once spoken in the state of Zulia around the modern cities of Bobures and Gibraltar. (Unattested.)
Quenagua – extinct language once spoken in Espiritu Santo Valley in the state of Zulia. (Unattested.)
Umaquena – once spoken on the Umaquena River, Zulia. (Unattested.)
Sunesua – once spoken by the southern neighbors of the Quenaga tribe in the Espiritu Santo Valley, Zulia. (Unattested.)
Lobatera – once spoken around the modern city of Lobatera, state of Táchira. (Unattested.)
Táchira – once spoken on the Táchira River, state of Táchira. (Unattested.)
Tapano – once spoken in the state of Mérida between Lake Onia and Lake Motilon. (Unattested.)
Miyuse – once spoken in the state of Mérida on the Mucujepe River and Tucani River. (Unattested.)

Pijao group
Pijao / Pinao – once spoken on the Luisa River, Otaima River, Tuamo River, Tetuán River, Aipe River, and Magdalena River, now in the villages of Ortega, Coyaima, and Natagaima, department of Tolima, Colombia.
Pantagora / Palenque – once spoken between the Guarinó River and San Bartolomé River, department of Calcias, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Colima – extinct language once spoken on the right bank of the Magdalena River and on the Negro River and Pacho River, Cundinamarca department.
Muzo – once spoken at the sources of the Carare River and in the Paima Valley, department of Cundinamarca. (only a few words.)
Nauta – once spoken by the northern neighbors of the Muzo tribe. (Unattested.)
Panche – extinct language once spoken on the Gualí River, Mariquita River, Guarinó River, Coello River, Villeta River, Seco River, Magdalena River, and Fusagasuga River, Cundinamarca.
Agatá – once spoken in the department of Cundinamarca on the Magdalena River, east of the Chibcha tribe. (Unattested.)
Amani – spoken by the western neighbors of the Pantagora tribe in the department of Caldas. (Unattested.)
Neiva – once spoken around the modern city of Neiva in the department of Huila. (Unattested.)
Manipo – once spoken at the mouth of the La Plata River in the same area. (Unattested.)
Ajie – unknown language of an extinct tribe that once lived in the territory of Meta at the sources of the Tagua River and Losada River. (Unattested.)

Opone group
Opone – extinct language once spoken on the Opone River, department of Santander, Colombia.
Carare – spoken by a few individuals on the Carare River in the department of Santander.
Yariguí – once spoken on the Sogamoso River and in Barranca Bermeja in the same department. (Unattested.)
Hacaritama – once spoken around present-day Hacaritama city in the department of Santander.
Xiriguana – extinct language of a tribe once living in the department of Santander in the Cordillera de Lebaja. (Unattested.)
Carate – once spoken around the modern city of Ocaña, department of Norte de Santander. (Unattested.)
Corbago – once spoken in the department of Magdalena in the Sierra de Mene. (Unattested.)
Guane – once spoken in the department of Santander at the sources of the Tarare River. (Gumilla 1745, pt. 2, p. 40, only two words.)
Chinato – extinct language once spoken on the upper course of the Zulia River, department of Norte de Santander, around the modern city of Cúcuta. (Unattested.)
Zorca – once spoken in the same department in the San Cristóbal Valley (Unattested.)
Cariquena – once spoken on the Cariquena River in the state of Táchira, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Capacho – once spoken around the village of Capacho in the state of Táchira, Venezuela. (Unattested.)

Carijona group
Guaque / Huaque / Murcielaga – extinct language once spoken on the Inganos River, Caquetá territory, Colombia.
Carijona / Kalihóna – language now spoken by a few individuals on the middle course of the Caquetá River, territory of Caquetá.
Umáua / Hiánocoto / Máua – language spoken at the sources of the Apoporis River in the territory of Caquetá.
Saha / Tsahatsaha – spoken in the territory of Caquetá between the Cuemani River and Yarí River. (Unattested.)
Riama – spoken between the Yari River, Apoporis River, and Vaupés River, territories of Caquetá and Vaupés. (Unattested.)
Mahotoyana – spoken in the territory of Vaupés on the Macaya River. (Unattested.)
Ajajú – unknown language spoken on the Ajaju River, Amazonas territory. (Unattested.)

Patagon group
Patagon – extinct language once spoken in the villages of Paca, Olipanche, and Bagua and around the modern city of Jaén, department of Cajamarca, Peru. (only a few words.)

Arara group
Arára / Ajujure / Cabanaé / Opinadkóm – extinct language once spoken on the right bank of the Pacajá Grande River and on the upper course of the Anapu River, Pará, Brazil.
Apingi / Apeiaca / Apiacá de Tocantins – language spoken between the Tocantins River and Jacunda River, state of Pará. Now spoken by only a few individuals.
Parirí – once spoken at the sources of the Pacajá River, Jacundá River, and Arataú River, Pará, now perhaps extinct.
Timirem / Antimilene – language of an unknown tribe that live in the virgin forests on the Agua de Saúde River, Pará. (Unattested.)
Yuma – extinct language once spoken on the Jacaré River and Ituxi River, territory of Rondônia. (Unattested.)

Palmela group
Palmela – extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the São Simão River in the Guaporé River, Rondônia.

Pimenteira group
Pimenteira – Portuguese name of an extinct language the original name of which is unknown, spoken once at the sources of the Sant' Anna River and on Lake Pimenteira and between the Piauí River and Gurgueia River, state of Piauí, Brazil.

Xingú group
Yaruma / Aruma – spoken at the sources of the Paranaíba River, state of Mato Grosso, now perhaps extinct.
Bacairí / Bacaery – originally spoken between the Batoví River and Curisevú River, later on the Paranatinga River, now by only a few families on the Posto Simões Lopes, Mato Grosso.
Nahukwá / Naucuá / Anáukwá – language spoken between the Curisevú River and Culuene River, with many dialects:
Yanumakapü / Nahukwá proper – northern dialect.
Etagl – spoken in the village of Etagl.
Kuikutl / Guicurú / Cuicuro – spoken on the Culuene River in the village of Cuicuro.
Kalapalo / Apalaquiri – spoken in the village of the same name on the Culuene River.
Matipú / Matipuhy – spoken in the village of the same name on the right bank of the Curisevú River.
Yamarikuná – spoken on the Curisevú River.
Suva / Tsúva – spoken by a few people on the right bank of the Curisevú River. (Unattested.)
Naravute / Naravóto – spoken on the Curisevú River.
Aipats – spoken on the Curisevú River; now probably extinct. (Unattested.)
Auwáwiti – spoken by a few people on the Curisevú River. (Unattested.)

Vocabulary
Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Cariban (Karaib) languages.

Proto-language

Proto-Cariban phonology according to Gildea (2012):

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Proto-Cariban consonants
| p || t ||  || k
|-
| m || n ||  ||
|-
| w || r || j ||
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Proto-Cariban vowels
| i || ɨ || u
|-
| e || ô || o
|-
|  || a ||
|}

Proto-Cariban reconstructions by Gildea (2007, 2012):

See also
List of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin
Arawak peoples
Arawakan languages
Carib language
Taíno language
Garifuna language

Further reading
Anselmo, L.; Gutiérrez Salazar, M. (1981). Diccionario Pemón. Caracas: Ediciones CORPOVEN.
Camargo, E. (2002). Léxico bilingüe aparai – português / português – aparai. (Languages of the World: Dictionaries, 28.). München: Lincom Europa.
Courtz, H. (2008). A Carib Grammar and Dictionary. Toronto: Magoria Books.
Gildea, S. Payne, D. (2007). Is Greenberg's "Macro-Carib" viable? Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi Ciências Humanas, 2:19–72.
Girard, V. (1971a). Proto-Carib phonology. Berkeley: University of California at Berkeley. (Doctoral dissertation).
Mattei-Müller, M. (1994). Diccionario ilustrado Panare-Español con índice español-panare. Caracas: Comisión Nacional Quinto Centenario.
Pet. W. J. A. (1987). Lokono Dian: the Arawak Language of Suriname: A Sketch of its Grammatical Structure and Lexicon. Ithaca: Cornell University. (Doctoral dissertation).
Puig, M. M. P. (1944). Diccionario de la Lengua Caribe Cuna. Panamá: La Estrella de Panamá.
Vitorino, M. M. (1991). Dicionário bilíngüe Wai-Wai/Português, Português/Wai-Wai. Boa Vista: Missão Evangélica da Amazônia.

References

External links

Etnolinguistica.Org: online resources on native South American languages
Ka'lina (Carib) Vocabulary List (from the World Loanword Database)

Language families
Indigenous languages of the South American Northeast
Languages of Venezuela

Cariban languages


السلمنية هي إحدى القرى المحتلة والمدمرة التابعة لمحافظة القنيطرة في هضبة الجولان بجنوب غرب سوريا.

بنيت القرية قرابة عام 1875، غالبية سكانها من الشركس من قبائل البجدوغ والشابسوغ. تقع بجوار تل صغير على بعد بضعة كيلومترات من عاصمة المحافظة، وتقع بالقرب منها قرية المدارية ناحية الشمال. فيها برك مياه عذبة. اتسمت بيوتها بالنتظيم وكانت مسقوفة بالقرميد الأحمر.

احتلت من قبل إسرائيل عام 1967 وما زالت.

قرى الجولان المحتلة
قرى الجولان المدمرة
قرى محافظة القنيطرة

السلمنية


Nytårsaften er en dansk kortfilm fra 1999 instrueret af Louise Friedberg.

Handling
Mika og Torsten er på vej mod deres sidste nytårsaften sammen. De er ikke længere kærester, men Torsten kan ikke tage sig sammen til at flytte og Mika håber endnu. Nytårsaften er et moderne melodrama om blind kærlighed og skæbnens ironi.

Medvirkende

 Mads Wille
 Mette K. Madsen
 Susanne Juhasz
 Kasper Gaardsøe

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark
Filmskolefilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1999

Nytårsaften (film fra 1999)


Isaac Oceja Oceja (Escalante, Cantabria, 29 de mayo de 1915 – Baracaldo, Vizcaya, País Vasco, 27 de septiembre de 2000) fue un futbolista internacional y entrenador español. Se desempeñaba en posición de defensa.

Trayectoria
Llegó a Durango (Vizcaya) con apenas cinco años, ya que su madre fue contratada para trabajar en un restaurante de la localidad vizcaína. Con 14 años, empezó a formar parte del equipo de su barrio, El Dragón. Con 15 años fichó por la Cultural Durango. Entre 1931 y 1933 jugó para la SD Lemona y el CD Basconia.En 1933 se incorporó al Athletic Club, donde permaneció hasta 1948, con un breve paso por el Barakaldo durante la Guerra Civil. En la temporada 1939-40 fue uno de los pocos jugadores que permanecía en el club desde antes de la guerra (junto a Gorostiza, Elices, Gárate, Zabala y Urra). En 1940 estuvo cerca de firmar un gran contrato con el FC Barcelona, pero la directiva no le dejó marchar.

En el Athletic Club disputó un total de 239 partidos antes de marcharse al Real Zaragoza, que se encontraba en Tercera División. Con el equipo maño, haciendo las funciones de jugador-entrenador, logró el ascenso a Segunda División en 1949.

Posteriormente, dirigió a la Cultural Durango entre 1954 y 1960 y, después de una temporada, entre 1961 y 1965.

Selección nacional
Fue internacional con la Selección de fútbol de España en cuatro ocasiones, debutando el 12 de enero de 1941 contra Portugal, partido celebrado en Lisboa, que finalizó con empate a dos goles. Su último encuentro como internacional lo disputó en Sevilla, el 15 de marzo de 1942, contra Francia en el que los españoles vencieron por 4-0.

Entrenador
En el año 1949 obtuvo el título de entrenador. El Real Zaragoza fue el primer club al que dirigió actuando como jugador-entrenador en la temporada 1949/50.

Clubes

Palmarés

Campeonatos nacionales

Campeonatos regionales

Referencias

Enlaces externos
Ficha de Oceja en la web del Athletic

Futbolistas de Cantabria
Futbolistas de Vizcaya
Entrenadores de fútbol de Cantabria
Entrenadores de fútbol del País Vasco
Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol de España en los años 1940
Futbolistas de la Sociedad Cultural Deportiva Durango
Futbolistas del Club Deportivo Basconia
Futbolistas del Athletic Club en los años 1930
Futbolistas del Athletic Club en los años 1940
Futbolistas del Barakaldo Club de Fútbol
Futbolistas del Real Zaragoza en los años 1940
Nacidos en Escalante
Cántabros del siglo XX

Isaac Oceja


تاريخ المدينة المنورة، عُرِفت المدينة المنورة قبل ظهور الإسلام باسم يثرب وتأسست قبل الهجرة النبوية بأكثر من 1500 عاماً. وقد ورد اسم يثرب في القرآن الكريم، وورد في الحديث الصحيح أن النبي محمد سماها المدينة وطيبة وطابة، ونهى عن استخدام اسمها القديم. وهي أول عاصمة في تاريخ الإسلام، ويحرم دخول المدينة المنورة لغير المسلمين، قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم: (اللهم إني أحرم ما بين لابتيها مثل ما حرم إبراهيم مكة، اللهم بارك في مدهم وصاعهم) رواه الإمام أحمد.

التاريخ
كانت تسمى المدينة المنورة «يثرب» قبل هجرة النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم حيث ورد هذا الاسم في قول الله عز وجل على لسان بعض المنافقين: (وإذ قالت طائفة منهم يا أهل يثرب لا مقام لكم فارجعوا) الأحزاب 13، وقد غيّر رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم اسمها من يثرب إلى المدينة ونهى عن استخدام اسمها القديم فقال: «من قال للمدينة (يثرب) فليستغفر الله» (مسند الإمام أحمد 4/285)، وتجمع معظم المصادر العربية على أن يثرب اسم لرجل من أحفاد نوح، وأن هذا الرجل أسس هذه البلدة فسميت باسمه، وبالرغم من اختلاف الروايات فإن النتيجة التي تنتهي إليها هي: استيطان العماليق في يثرب في وقت لا نستطيع أن نحدده تحديداً دقيقاً كما يمكن الخلوص من هذه الروايات إلى أن تأسيس يثرب كان على يد مجموعة بشرية مهاجرة، تبحث عن موطن يوفر لها الطعام والأمان. ويرجح أن يثرب كانت موجودة قبل أكثر من (1500) سنة من هجرة رسول الله إليها. حيث أشارت نصوص تاريخية آشورية عائدة إلى القرن السادس قبل الميلاد إلى المدينة المنورة باسم «لاثريبو»، ووجدت كذلك كلمة يثرب في كتابات الإغريق التاريخية، وفي كتابات مملكة معين.

المدينة المنورة قبل الإسلام
شهدت يثرب ولفترة طويلة حروب ومعارك بين قبيلتي الأوس والخزرج بدأت بحرب سمير وانتهت بموقعة الفجار الثانية. عرفت يثرب عدداً من العقائد والديانات قبل الإسلام منها الوثنية واليهودية والحنيفية، وفي الجانب السياسي لتلك الفترة يرجح المؤرخون أن يثرب كانت في معظم عصورها القديمة مجتمعاً مستقلاً بنفسه أو شبه مستقل، وكانت في عهود قليلة تابعة لمملكة في الجنوب أو الشمال أو منطقة نفوذ لسلطة بعيدة عنها تدفع لها مبلغ من المال سنوياً، أما الجانب الاقتصادي في مجتمع يثرب القديم فكان عماده الأول الزراعة بسبب طبيعة الموقع وملاءمته لمؤسس المدينة، وقد أدى توافد المستوطنين إلى يثرب بعد العماليق إلى الاهتمام بتوسيع الرقعة الزراعية وتبادل الخبرات وتنويع المحاصيل وازديادها ومن أهمها التمر والحبوب كالشعير والذرة والقمح، وقد أنشأت الحركة التجارية النشطة في يثرب أسواقاً عدة، منها أولا ً سوق الجرف، والثانية على طرف وادي بطحان، والثالثة بالعصبة، والرابعة في غرب المدينة بين قباء وبطحان.

عرفت يثرب عدداً من الصناعات منها الصناعات المعدنية (المساحي - الفؤوس - رؤوس الرماح والسيوف والقدور أو الصحون)، وكذلك صناعات الحلي والصياغة والصناعات الخشبية كالكراسي والمناضد وأبواب البيوت والنوافذ والمحاريث الهوارج والأسرة والصناديق بالإضافة إلى تربية الماشية. ولا تختلف الحياة الاجتماعية في يثرب في عصورها الأولى عن الحياة الاجتماعية في أي مجتمع فطري، فنظام القبيلة ينتج مجموعة من الأعراف تحكم العلاقة بين الأفراد وتقسم السكان إلى طبقات متفاوتة هي طبقة الأحرار من أبناء القبيلة نفسها ثم طبقة الموالي، وهم أفراد أو بطون عشائر لا تمت إلى القبيلة بصلة ثم العبيد وهم الذين يمتلكهم الأحرار بالشراء أو بالأسر من الغزوات أو بالهبات أو بالإرث.

المدينة المنورة في العهد النبوي
كانت يثرب على موعد مهم بعد البيعة الكبرى التي تمت بين رسول الله وبين المسلمين اليثربيّين في شعاب الجبال بين مكة المكرمة ومنى في أشهر الحج، ومنذ ذلك التاريخ بدأت يثرب رحلة جديدة من عمرها، مرحلة استقبال المهاجرين إليها من مسلمي مكة تمهيداً لاستقبال رسول الله، وفي أواخر شهر صفر خرج رسول الله يصحبه أبو بكر الصديق ودليل لهما، ووصل رُكب رسول الله إلى قباء في الثاني عشر من ربيع الأول بعد أن اشتدّت الظهيرة، ومكث رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم في قباء من ظهر الاثنين 12 ربيع الأول إلى صباح الجمعة 16 ربيع الأول، وخلال إقامته أسس المسجد الذي مازال حتى الآن يعرف بمسجد قباء، وفي صباح الجمعة خرج رسول الله ومعه طائفة من المسلمين متوجهاً إلى قلب يثرب، وغير بعيد عن قباء حل وقت صلاة الجمعة فنزل رسول الله في دار سالم بن عوف من حرب في بطن وادي رانوناء ومعه من حضر من المسلمين وأسس في ذلك الموقع مسجداً سمي فيما بعد مسجد الجمعة، كان الموقع الذي بركت فيه الناقة أرضاً خالية فيها بقايا نخل وقبور قديمة، يجفف فيها التمر بعد حصاده، ورغب رسول الله أن يقيم فيها المسجد فسأل عن أصحابها، فأخبر أنها لغلامين يتيمين من بني النجار يربيهما معاذ بن عفراء الخزرجي، وسارع معاذ إلى التبرع بها، ولكن رسول الله أبى إلا أن تشتري من الغلامين شراء فكان ذلك، وأمر بتسوية الأرض وتنظيفها، وخط لهم رسول الله فيها المسجد الذي أصبح اسمه «المسجد النبوي» وانتدب المسلمين للعمل في بنائه، وشارك فيه بنفسه فكان ينقل الحجارة واللبن على بطنه، وانتهى من العمل في المسجد في وقت قصير، ومنذ قدومه بدأت سلسلة من التغييرات في يثرب وفي حياة سكانها، ومن ذلك إلغاء الاسم القديم للمدينة (يثرب) وإطلاق تسميات جديدة لها (طيبة، وطابة، والمدينة) بالإضافة إلى تغيير القيم والمفاهيم والبناء الجديد لشخصية الفرد والمجتمع، وقد اهتم الرسول خلال الأشهر الأولى من استقراره في المدينة بالبناء العقدي للمجتمع الجديد، فكانت له مجالس يومية مع المسلمين في المسجد يحدثهم ويعلمهم ويقوي الإيمان فيهم ويستقبل أعداداً جديدة من سكان المدينة الذين لم يسلموا بعد فيسمعون منه وينطقون الشهادة بين يديه، فيكثر عدد المسلمين ويقل عدد المشركين، وشهدت المدينة في شهر صفر من العام الثاني للهجرة نشاطاً عسكرياً جديداً، فقد قرر رسول الله أن يتصدى لقريش ويعاقبها على ما فعلته بالمسلمين في مكة ويظهر هيبة المجتمع الإسلامي الجديد، فوجّه السرايا لقطع الطريق عن تجارة قريش معلنة تحول المدينة إلى مركز حركة عسكرية تتجه خارج حدودها، وتظهر قوة المجتمع الإسلامي الجديد وتهدد تجارة قريش، وفي السنة العاشرة من الهجرة توفي رسول الله وانتهت بوفاته أهم مرحلة في تاريخ المدينة المنورة وأعظمها على الإطلاق، رحلة بناء المجتمع الإسلامي الأول والدولة الإسلامية الأولى.

المدينة المنورة في العهد الراشد
بعد وفاة رسول الله تمت مبايعة أبو بكر الصديق في الاجتماع الذي عقد بسقيفة بني ساعدة، وكان من أهم إنجازاته محاربته المرتدين في الحروب التي سميت «حروب الردة» وكان ذلك في السنة الأولى من الخلافة، أما في السنة الثانية فقد مضت والمدينة بين مد وجزر في السكان، تمتلئ شوارعها ومسجدها ويمتلئ معسكر الجهاد في الحرب ثم مايلبث أن يخلو برحيلهم إلى مواطن الجهاد، ولم تمضي أشهر قليلة من السنة الثالثة عشرة للهجرة حتى كانت المدينة عاصمة لمنطقة تشمل الجزيرة العربية كلها والأردن وطرفاً من فلسطين وجنوب بلاد الشام وشرق العراق، وكان أهلها إما مسلمين وإما معاهدين يدفعون الجزية، وقد شهدت خلافة عمر تزايد حركة الفتوح التي بدأت في عهد أبو بكر وتنظيم الخدمة البريدية، ونعمت المدينة بحالة من الأمن والأمان وتوحيد صلوات التراويح في رمضان، وبدأ ديوان العطاء حيث جعل للناس أرزاق ثابتة توزع عليهم كل سنة، كما أمر عمر باتخاذ كتاتيب في كل حي يفد إليه الصبيان يتعلمون فيه كتاب الله ومبادئ القراءة والكتابة وجعل للمعلم المتفرغ أجراً على عمله، كما شهد المسجد النبوي أول توسعة له في عهد عمر بن الخطاب، وجاء الفرج بعد عام الرمادة، كما تم إجلاء غير المسلمين، حتى طعن وهو يستعد ليؤدي بالناس صلاة الفجر وفاضت روحه إلى بارئها بعد ثلاثة أيام من إصابته، ورحل عمر مع رحيل السنة الثالثة والعشرين للهجرة ودفن في أول محرم عام أربعة وعشرين للهجرة، وفقدت المدينة بل فقد المسلمون كافة قائداً عظيماً وحاكماً لم يعرف التاريخ له مثيلاً، وتمت مبايعة عثمان بن عفان ليصبح ثالث الخلفاء الراشدين، بدأت معالم التنفيذ في عهد الخليفة الجديد فقد زاد عطاء الناس كما كان عليه في عهد عمر وكان الجهاد مستمراً خارج المدينة، ففتح للمسلمين مدناً في أرض الروم وأرمينيا وصولاً إلى كابل، وفي أفريقيا حيث يمضي عبد الله بن أبي السرح في شمالها وفي قبرص واصطرخ وطبرستان وكدمان وسجستان، وكان عثمان يهتم بأمور الأسواق ويتفقدها بين الحين والحين، واتخذ شرطة يراقبون أحوال المدينة ويطوفون في شوارعها وأسواقها ومزارعها، ولكنهم كانوا قليلي العدد وأشبه بمراقبي البلديات، وفي السنة الثلاثين للهجرة أمر عثمان بكتابة مصحف بجميع السور والآيات كلها ويضبطها في رواية واحدة، وكان لعثمان ولمن عمل معه في هذا العمل المبارك فضل حماية المسلمين من التشتت في كتابهم الأكبر كتاب الله، وتم كذلك في العام (29) من الهجرة توسعة وتجديد المسجد النبوي، ثم جاءت الفتنة التي بثها عبد الله بن سبأ، واغتِيل عثمان ودفن في أرض مجاورة للبقيع أدخلت بعد ذلك إلى المقبرة. بدأت خلافة علي في ظروف صعبة أعقبت الفتنة، لذلك جعل همه الأول توفير الأمن في المدينة ذاتها وحماية أهلها من الأعراب والسبئيّين، ومع منتصف رجب عام 36 بدأت مرحلة جديدة من حياة المدينة المنورة، مرحلة خرجت منها الخلافة، وما كانت تحمله من مسؤوليات ومشكلات، ومنذ نهاية العهد الراشدي حتى بداية العهد السعودي شهدت المدينة المنورة الكثير من الغارات التي كانت تشنها القبائل سواء على الطرق المؤدية إليها أو على المدينة المنورة ذاتها، مما أدى إلى بناء سور حولها لحمايتها. ففي عام 545هـ تم بناء سور محكم حول المدينة مكان السور القديم المتهالك، وقد حفظ السور المدينة من شرور المغيرين عليها فيما بعد، وفي عام 557هـ حج نور الدين زنكي، وزار المدينة فاستغاث به بعض الساكنين خارج السور وأخبروه بما يلحقهم من أذى شديد، فأمر ببناء سور جديد يشمل جميع بيوت المدينة داخل السور القديم وخارجه، فتم الأمر على وجه السرعة، وتم بناؤه عام 558هـ، وعندما تولى السلطان سليمان الخلافة في زمن العهد العثماني أمر عندما شكا إليه بعض أهل المدينة، مايجدونه من العربان المفسدين في أطراف المدينة، بإنشاء سور حجري عالي وقوي يحيط بالمدينة من جهاتها، وفي محرم عام 939هـ بدأ العمل مع وصول العمال واستغرق البناء سبع سنوات ونصف وكان بناء حصيناً مرتفع الجدران وله أبواب كبيرة محكمة وأبراج يتحصن فيها المدافعون وجهّزت الأبراج بالمدافع الحديثة آنذاك، وبنيت قلعة عند باب الشامي متممة للسور من جهته الغربية الشمالية وتقع على تلة مرتفعة شيدت فيها أبراج للمراقبة وبني بداخلها مساكن للجيش وبيت لقائد الحامية وعمل لها باب إلى داخل المدينة وآخر خارجها، وعين حامية عسكرية للمدينة.

المدينة المنورة في العصر الحديث
تقع منطقة المدينة المنورة في غرب المملكة العربية السعودية مُشَكّلة إحدى المناطق الرئيسة في غرب المملكة، ويحدّها من الشمال منطقتي حائل وتبوك، ومن الجنوب منطقة مكة المكرمة، ومن الشرق منطقة القصيم، ومن الغرب منطقتي تبوك والبحر الأحمر، انظر شكل رقم (1)، وتمتد المنطقة بين درجات الطول 30 36 و 15 42 شرقاً، ودرجات العرض 30 22 و 30 27 شمالاً، وهي بذلك تأخذ شكلاً شريطياً طولياً يظهر أقصى امتداد له من الشمال الغربي إلى الجنوب الشرقي (بطول نحو 610 كم)، ومن الشرق إلى الغرب (بطول نحو 444 كم). وتبلغ المساحة الإجمالية للمنطقة 149678 كم2 تمثل 6.8% من مساحة المملكة العربية السعودية.

انظر أيضًا
 المدينة المنورة

مصادر ومراجع

العصر النبوي
تاريخ الحجاز

تاريخ المدينة المنورة


Jonathan Hales (født 10. maj, 1937) er en britisk dramatiker og manuskriptforfatter. Han er kendt for sit arbejde for Lucasfilm, inklusive The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles- tv-serien og Star Wars Episode II: Klonernes angreb.

Karriere
Hales har arbejdet intenst i film og tv. Han begyndte sin manuskriptkarriere i 1970, med den britiske serie Manhunt.
Hales har også skrevet episoder til den amerikanske tv serie ''Dallas'

Eksterne henvisninger

 Star Wars Episode II, Official Production Notes
 "Jonathan Hales joins Episode II Development", fra Starwars.com

Manuskriptforfattere fra Storbritannien

Jonathan Hales


Pietro Consagra (Mazara del Vallo, Sicilija, 4. listopada 1920. – Milano, 16. srpnja 2005.) talijanski kipar i pisac.

Životopis
Studirao u Palermu, od 1944. djeluje u Rimu; suosnivač je grupe Forma (1947.) i Continuità (1961.) U početku oblikuje ekspresionističke skulpture, potom metalne obojene apstraktne skulpture tzv. transparentno željezo (apstraktne kompozicije u kovini) u ciklusu "Razgovor" i "Frontalni grad"'' (1968.)

Autobiografiju pod nazivom Vita Mia ili "Moj život" napisao je" 1980. Objavio je i zbirku poezije 1985. pod nazivom Ci Penso Amo. Napisao je također knjigu o urbanizmu.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Talijanski kipari
Talijanski književnici

Pietro Consagra


Moby Dick (2010: Moby Dick o Moby Dick: 2010) es una película independiente de Estados Unidos que está basada en la novela homónima de Herman Melville.

Fue lanzada al mercado el 23 de noviembre de 2010 y directamente en vídeo, al igual que en los Países Bajos y Suecia (el 31 de mayo y el 26 de octubre de 2011, respectivamente).

Al film se le cambiaron algunas tramas del argumento y el resultado apenas tiene relación con la película de 1956 dirigida por John Huston y protagonizada por Gregory Peck.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Películas de submarinos
Películas ambientadas en 1969
Películas ambientadas en 2010

Moby Dick (película de 2010)


Studenter-Nellike (Dianthus barbatus) er en art af nellikeslægten, som er hjemmehørende i det sydlige Europa fra Pyrenæerne øst til Karpaterne og Balkan, med en række udspredninger i det nordøstlige Kina, Korea og sydøstlige Rusland.

Beskrivelse
Studenter-nelliken er, som andre nelliker, en staude og vokser til en højde af 30-75 cm. Blomsterne sidder i en tæt klynge af op til 30 på toppen af stilkene, med grønne til blågrønne tilspidsede blade, som er 4-10 cm lange og 1-2 cm brede. Hver blomst er 2-3 cm i diameter med fem savtakkede kronblade. Vilde studenter-nelliker producerer røde blomster med en hvid midte, men sorter og hybrider i andre farver spænder fra hvid, pink, rød og lilla, til brogede mønstre.

Studenter-nelliker tiltrækker bier, fugle og sommerfugle. De trives i leret, let basisk jord med sol til delvis skygge. Formering er ved frø eller afklippede stiklinger.

Planten blev introduceret til det nordlige Europa i det 16. århundrede, og senere til Nordamerika og andre steder, og er blevet naturaliseret i disse områder.

Der er to varianter:
 Dianthus barbatus var. barbatus. Sydeuropa. Bredere blade, op til 2 cm bred.
 Dianthus barbatus var. asiaticus. Nordøstlige Asien. Tyndere blade, ikke over 1 cm bred.

Galleri

Referencer

Haveplanter
Røde blomster
Nellike

Studenter-nellike


Agrilus ukerewensis é uma espécie de inseto do género Agrilus, família Buprestidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Obenberger, 1941.

Referências

ukerewensis

Agrilus ukerewensis


Maria Bakalova (bugarski: Мария Бакалова; Burgas, 4. lipnja 1996.) – bugarska je glumica. Međunarodno je priznanje stekla za ulogu Tutar Sagdijeve u filmu "Borat 2", za koji je osvojila Nagradu filmskih kritičara za najbolju sporednu glumicu i zaradila nominacije na dodjeli Oscara, BAFTA filmskim nagradama, nagradama Zlatni globus i nagradama Ceha filmskih glumaca. Bakalova je prva Bugarka nominirana za ove nagrade.

Maria Bakalova rođena je u Burgasu. Počela je ići na tečajeve pjevanja i sviranja flaute oko šeste godine. Diplomirala je dramu na Nacionalnoj akademiji za kazališnu i filmsku umjetnost Krastjo Sarafov u Sofiji 2019.

Imala je ulogu Tutar Sagdijeve u filmu "Borat 2", u kojem je glumila kćer izmišljenog kazahstanskog izvjestitelja Borata Sagdijeva. Bugarski glumac Julian Kostov pomogao joj je, da dobije ulogu u ovom filmu. Kritičari su pohvalili Bakalovu, a Matt Fowler iz IGN-a izjavio je kako je "fantastično otkriće filma Maria Bakalova, koja je u svakom trenutku ranopravna na ekranu Sachi Baroni Cohenu." Filmski kritičar Los Angeles Timesa Justin Chang opisao je nastup Bakalove kao "sjajan", hvaleći njezin prikaz lika kao energičan i dirljiv. Za svoj nastup 24-godišnja Maria Bakalova dobila je nekoliko nagrada, uključujući nominacije za Oscara, BAFTA-u, Nagradu Ceha glumaca i Nagradu Zlatni globus, sve za najbolju glumicu u sporednoj ulozi. Ona je prva bugarska glumica nominirana za ove nagrade.

U studenom 2020. objavljeno je da je Bakalova potpisala ugovor s Agencijom za kreativne umjetnike.

Izvori

Bugarski umjetnici
Filmski glumci
Televizijski glumci

Maria Bakalova


An Stipa ventanicola in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Cabrera ngan Maria Amelia Torres. An Stipa ventanicola in nahilalakip ha genus nga Stipa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Stipa

Stipa ventanicola


Kumite (, literally "grappling hands") is one of the three main sections of karate training, along with kata and kihon. Kumite is the part of karate in which a person trains against an adversary.

Kumite can be used to develop a particular technique or a skill (e.g. effectively judging and adjusting one's distance from one's opponent) or it can be done in competition.

Types
Since the word "kumite" refers to forms of sparring, it covers a vast range of activities. In traditional Shotokan karate, the first type of kumite for beginners is gohon kumite. The defender steps back each time, blocking the attacks and performing a counterattack after the last block. This activity looks nothing like the jiyu kumite (or "free sparring") practiced by more advanced practitioners.

Types:
 Ippon kumite - one step sparring, typically used for self-defense drills
 Sanbon kumite - three-step sparring, typically used to develop speed, strength, and technique
 Gohon kumite - five-step sparring, pre-arranged attack and counter exercises
 Kiso kumite - structured sparring drawn from a kata
 Jiyu kumite - free sparring
 Jiyu ippon kumite - one step semi-free sparring
Iri Kumi - free sparring in Okinawan dialect, used in Gōjū-Ryū
Jiyu Kobo - old version of Jiyu Kumite in Uechi-Ryū used by Uechi Kanbun's Wakayama dojo

Delivering strikes
Many schools feel it is important that karateka "pull their punches". Karate training is designed to give its practitioners the ability to deliver devastating power through techniques like punches and kicks. Often the aim of training is that each single strike should be enough to subdue the opponent. However, this clearly would make it difficult to train due to the possibility of injury. Many beginners, while sparring, will be instructed to develop control and accuracy first, then speed and power later. In doing this, it may seem like the student is pulling his punches, when actually, he is developing technique first. For injury purposes, certain targets are discouraged, like strikes to the knee and face contact for low ranks. Many schools prohibit strikes to the groin, while others allow it completely. Some schools might limit contact to light contact all around, while others may employ power usage at higher grades.

All types of sparring allow the martial artist to develop both control and experience in delivering powerful strikes against an opponent. In full contact karate, punches are often "pulled" to some slight extent in training, to minimize the occurrence of injuries that would interrupt practice. However, some karate schools use protective gear in free sparring, so that strikes can be delivered closer to their full power. Most karate clubs and most styles of karate combine some controlled full-contact sparring and some sparring with protective gear (from gloves to feet pads and up to full head and even chest guards such as in taekwondo).

However, a few more traditional clubs that never use protective gear for sparring (except groin and mouth guards that protect against accidental injuries) argue that a karateka will not be able to make their most powerful strike when sparring in the dojo (against a friend whom they no doubt do not want to injure) even if this opponent is wearing protective clothing. Therefore, the karateka will still be using some level of control, as is obviously necessary, and cannot truly capture the spirit of one lethal strike whilst sparring. Except for a life or death self-defense situation, the spirit and power of the single lethal strike can only be achieved when a karateka does not have to avoid injuring their training partner. The traditionalists therefore argue that there is no benefit to sparring with more forceful strikes.

However, in Kyokushin Karate no padding is used and fighters don't "pull their punches" as fights are finished by knockdown.

Competition

In some forms of competition kumite, punching ("tsuki") and kicking ("keri") techniques are allowed at the head ("jodan") and abdomen ("chudan"). In some tournaments, face contact is allowed, sometimes limited to senior practitioners. One example of a scoring system is that the first competitor to take eight points in three minutes wins the bout.

Kumite is an essential part of karate training, and free sparring is often experienced as exciting, because both opponents have to react and adapt to each other very quickly.

In tournaments kumite often takes place inside of a 'ringed' area similar to that of a boxing ring. If a karateka steps out of the ring, they are given a warning. If they step out of the ring two times, the other person gains a point. Many international tournaments use a "point sparring" form of kumite that requires control ('pulling punches') and therefore warnings can be dealt for excessive force on techniques to the head, or sensitive areas. Full contact is permitted to the torso area of the body only. Some tournament rules allow for light contact to the head, whereas other rules do not allow this.

Kumite also includes a series of guidelines that, if followed correctly, result in a clean and safe fight. These are some of those guidelines:

A karateka must remain in some form of proper fighting stance and in the "kamae-te" position (hands up, ready to fight position)
A karateka must be aware of all obstacles around him/her
A karateka must never deliberately endanger themselves by turning their back to their opponent
A practiced and well trained karateka must concentrate on stance and footwork

For the last point about stance and footwork: it is often taught that a karateka who wishes to be fast and agile while competing in kumite should always be 'pulsing'. Pulsing is where the karateka remains almost bouncing on the balls of their feet to maintain minimal frictional contact with the ground, allowing them to move quickly.

Another aspect of kumite which is often seen in international tournaments, as well as many local competitions is what is referred to as clashing. Clashing is where both opponents throw techniques against each other at the same time, often resulting in both getting hit with the techniques. This creates a problem for referees as they are unable to make out which technique was quick, on target and recoiled - all the things that constitute a clean technique that is scored. Because of clashing, most modern day karateka are taught to practice kumite in a 'one for one' situation where one attacks, then the other attacks and so on. However, due to the speed of these techniques, and the speed of the footwork of each karateka, to the casual observer it may appear that they are still clashing when in fact they are not. When opponents are considered to be clashing, the head referee should declare "aiuchi" which means "simultaneous hit".  When a winner is decided, the referee will announce "~ no kachi" which means "~'s win".

The tournament rules of full contact or "knockdown" styles of karate often don't award any points for controlled techniques delivered to the opponent. In fact, they usually don't award points for full-force techniques delivered to the opponent either. Instead, points are only awarded for knocking, sweeping, or throwing your opponent to the floor. Kyokushinkai and its "offshoot" karate organizations are the styles usually known to promote knockdown tournament rules.  They believe this type of tournament competition is closer to "real life" personal combat, although still in a tournament setting with rules.

There are three criticisms to date. First, is the quickness versus skill argument.  The tournament fighter learns how to shoot in quickly but deliver an unimpressive strike that gains him or her a point.  Also, the question of discoloration of face due to contact, which can allow for disqualification.  It is often difficult to gauge the true intensity of the attack, so this could cause questioning.  Last, it is seen as sport and sport alone.  Traditionalists may dismiss it as "useless", but modern dojos often band with other dojos to form organizations that utilize a tournament circuit as a way to promote their dojos.

Points
Most high school karate associations use the following point scheme:

 1 point: punching to chest and stomach.
 2 points: back slap kick.
 3 points: face slap kick.

International competition under the World Karate Federation also includes the following point scoring:

 2 points: punching or kicking the adversary's back.
 3 points: for a sweep/takedown with a follow-up technique such as a stomp or a punch. (Any sweep/takedown that is not followed up with a technique may be ruled to be a dangerous technique that can result in a warning against the instigator of that sweep/takedown.)

See also

Karate Combat
Karate at the Summer Olympics
Karate World Championships
100-man kumite
Bloodsport

References

Karate
Japanese martial arts

Kumite


Snorri Sturluson (1178 - 23 Eylül 1241), İzlandalı tarihçi, şair ve politikacıydı. İzlanda parlamentosu, Althing'de iki kez (1215–18 ve 1222–31) kanun konuşmacısı olmuştur. Prose Edda (ya da Genç Edda)'nın yazarıydı ve bu eserde Nors mitolojisi ile ilgili Gylfaginning (Gylfi ile dalga geçilmesi), şiir dili ile ilgili Skaldskaparmal ve mısra çeşitlerini anlatan Hattatal bulunuyordu. Ayrıca Heimskringla isimli Norveç krallarını İskandinav tarihi doğrultusunda anlatan kitabın da yazarıydı. Metotları ve stili doğrultusunda birçok kez Egill'in Sagası'nın da yazarı olduğu düşünülmüştür.

Çocukluğunu norveç kraliyet ailesi uzantısı ve izlanda'da önemli bir kültür merkezi görevi gören Odde adlı çiftlikte iyi bir eğitim alarak geçirdi. Sonra zengin bir aileye damat oldu ve zamanla izlanda'nın kendi çiftliği Reykholt'da oturan en bilge ve en güçlü kişilerinden biri oldu. 1217-18 yIllarında norveç'in geleneksel kraliyet merkezi Tønsberg'e bir ziyaret gerçekleştirdi. O sıralar kral Inge II Bårsson (1185 - 1217) yeni ölmüş, yeni kral olmaya çok talip vardı. Ev sahibi ve ölen kralın üvey kardeşi Skule (1189 - 1240) ile iyi anlaştılar. Döndüğünde galiba Skule'nin de teşviki doğrultusunda, Edda'yı, Norveç'i hristiyanlaştIran kral Aziz Olav destanını (Olav II, 995-1030) ve Olav Trygvason destanını  (Olav I, 995–999) yazarak başlayıp sonunda Halvdan Svarte (810 - 860) den kendi doğumundan 2 yıl önceki (1177) Re savaşına kadar ki tüm Norveç krallarının destanlarını yazdı.

1223 Bergen kurultayında Håkon IV Håkonsson tek kral seçilince, hem 1239da başkaldıran batı kralı Skule yenilip öldürüldü, hem de onu destekleyen Snorri Sturluson ölmüş kızının kocası Gissur Þorvaldsson gönderilip öldürtüldü (1241).

Ünü eserleri 300 yıl sonra danimarkaca'ya, 500 yıl sonra da norveççeye çevrilip basılınca yayıldı. Norveç'in bağımsız ve kendinden emin bir ulus olarak ortaya çıkışının da bu eserin güncel dilde bol resimli bir kısa halinin bol basılıp yaygın okunması sayesinde olduğu düşünülüyor.

1178 doğumlular
İzlanda doğumlular
1241 yılında ölenler
İzlandalı şairler
İzlandalı siyasetçiler

Snorri Sturluson